PETROLEUM" of
ITS DEVELOPMENT AND tTSES
BY
K. NELSON BOYD
• i
MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTION OF ( IVIf. ENGINEERS
or THE
( UNIVERSITY )
£iiJFORN\£
WHITTAKER AND CO.,
2, WHITE HART STREET, PATERNOSTER SQUARE, LONDON,
ANP 66, FOURTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.
1895.
[All rights resen-fJ]
RICHARD CLAY & SONS, LIMITED,
LONDON & BUNG A v.
PREFACE
THE enormous and increasing consumption of petroleum
of various qualities in this country has created a special
interest in this useful natural product, and the author has
met with frequent inquiries from users of oil outside the
trade as to its origin, manner of production, and mode of
preparation. The following pages have been written with
a view to giving some general information on the subject.
It has not been attempted to compile a text-book, but
simply to collect a few facts about petroleum which may
prove of interest to the reader.
Mr. A. H. Rowan, A.M.T.C.E., has kindly written a
special chapter on "Petroleum Engines," which will be
found useful and interesting.
R. N. B.
London. Febnuvru 1895.
160
CONTENTS
<'HAP. PAGE
I. INTRODUCTORY .... . 1
II. HISTORICAL ....... 4
III. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 11
IV. THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM, AND GEOLOGICAL
STRATA IN WHICH IT is FOUND . . .,19
V. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION . . . ... 23
VI. WINNING PETROLEUM L)(J
VII. STORAGE AND TRANSPORT 34
VIII. LIQUID FUEL 38
IX. THE FLASHING POINT AND LAMP ACCIDENTS . 50
X. PETROLEUM ENGINES. . . . . .58
XI. THE FUTURE OF PETROLEUM 76
viii CONTENTS
APPENDICES.
PAO-K
(A) TABLES — MOLESWOUTH AND UN WIN 80
(B) CIRCULAR OF LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL ON THE
CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF PETROLEUM
LAMPS
(C) CALORIFIC VALUE OF CRUDE OILS . , .
(D) IMPORT DUTIES ON CRUDE AND REFINED OILS IN-
DIFFERENT COUNTRIES . 84
PETROLEUM
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
SINCE the introduction of petroleum into this country
the consumption has continuously and enormously in-
creased. In 1859 the imports into the United Kingdom
amounted to 2,000,000, and in 1893 they had reached a
total of 155,126,667 gallons. The Board of Trade returns
do not specify the various kinds of oil which are included
in the above figures. As a matter of fact, very little crude
petroleum, if any, is imported into the United Kingdom.
By far the largest proportion consists of illuminating oil,
termed "petroleum oil" by the trade in Great Britain, and
" kerosene " in the United States. A certain quantity of
petroleum spirit or gasoline, and lubricating oils, and so-
called solar oil for the enrichment of gas, are included
in the above figures, leaving probably in round numbers
130,000,000 gallons of oil consumed for lighting and heat-
ing purposes, and also for the production of power in
the motors known as petroleum engines. To the quantity
of petroleum imported must be added the mineral oil
2 PETROLEUM
produced >n Sc&ilkttdi from the 2,000,000 tons of shale
raised and treated* whiphjwili .probably amount to 20,000,000
gallop of MiirsiriatiRg toL « , f
The large amount of petroleum oil now used for pur-
poses other than lighting may be roughly computed by
comparing the quantity imported ten years ago, when
the petroleum stove and motor were almost unknown, with
that recorded for 1893. We find that in 1883 the imports
of petroleum oil amounted to 50,000,000 gallons, and in
1893 to about 155,000,000 gallons. It is hardly necessary
to point out the numerous advantages to be derived from
a regular supply of this useful product. For illuminating
purposes, more especially in the smaller houses, it stands
without a rival ; and in recent years the oil-stove has come
into very general use, more particularly in households
where gas is not laid on. The petroleum-oil engine is
now applied to many purposes in place of the steam-
engine or the gas-engine. One great advantage possessed
by these motors lies in the fact that an oil-engine can be
applied in any situation where a cask or a ten-gallon jar
of oil can be delivered. The oil-engine may prove of
great advantage to the gold-mines in Western Australia,
where water is scarce, and is already in use at some
mines.
The transport and storage of such a large quantity of
inflammable oil are matters requiring the most careful
consideration, with a view to safety. At the wharves
and stores in London the stocks sometimes amount to
over 20,000,000 gallons, and at a single wharf as much
as 4,000,000 gallons have been stored at one time. As
INTRODUCTORY 3
the law stands at present, no regulations exist as to quan-
tities stored or the manner of effecting such storage
for petroleum having a flashing point 73° F. close test.
Yet it is obvious that certain precautions are necessary
to prevent accidents in handling enormous quantities of
inflammable liquid ; and in view of opinions expressed by
authorities in these matters, a Select Committee of the
House of Commons was appointed last session to inquire
into the subject of petroleum. This Committee has met
on several occasions, and collected some evidence before
adjourning until this session, when it will probably be
re- appointed.
Considering the large quantity of petroleum consumed
in the United Kingdom for various purposes, and its great
value as a source of light and heat to the millions who
have to study economy, it is presumed that a few pages
on such a subject may prove acceptable to the reading
public.
CHAPTER II
HISTORICAL
ALTHOUGH the general use of petroleum as an illumin-
ant, lubricant, heat and power producer, etc., dates from
a comparatively recent period, it has been known, and to
some extent used, from times of the greatest antiquity.
There are numerous references in the Bible to pitch and
slime, which must refer to some variety of bitumen, and as
mention is also made of liquid pitch and burning gas, it
is not unreasonable to conclude that the pitch of the
Bible may have been nothing else than petroleum exud-
ations dried by the heat of the sun. We are told,
among other allusions to the substance, • that Noah's ark
was pitched " within and without," and that in the con-
struction of the Tower of Babel " slime had they for
mortar," which in all probability was petroleum dried by
the heat of the sun. Asphalt or pitch was known to the
ancient Egyptians, who used it for embalming their dead,
and also for pavements, as the latter have been found
among Assyrian ruins. These very ancient records do
not directly allude to the application of liquid pitch,
although its use either for lighting or other purposes
may have been known to people in remote antiquity.
HISTORICAL 5
One of the very early applications of petroleum was
undoubtedly as a medicine, and it is mentioned as such
by Arabian writers as far back as 370 B.C. Without
tracing minutely the historical references to petroleum, I
may mention that Posidonius refers to the dark oil used
in lamps, and in the Talmud the burning of white naphtha
is forbidden on the Sabbath, on account of the danger of
fire. Pliny, in writing about naphtha and its uses, refers
to it as a lubricant, and Strabo records the presence of
asphaltum in the Dead Sea, anciently called " Asphaltites
Lacus." The first allusion to the existence of petroleum
in Europe is probably made by Herodotus, who minutely
describes the occurrence of petroleum springs in the island
of Zante. Different Latin authors frequently allude to
the petroleum of Sicily found near the present town of
Girgenti. The first records during the Christian era are
by Mossadi, who died A.D. 950, and Marco Polo, who
visited Baku in the latter part of the thirteenth century.
The burning petroleum jets of the peninsula of Apsheron
were undoubtedly the object of adoration by the degener-
ate followers of the religion of Zoroaster, and the remains
of the temples erected for the purpose of fire-worship may
be traced at the present time. These temples have been
proved to have a strong resemblance to those of the
Punjaub, admittedly constructed for the use of fire-
worshippers. It is singular to have to record that of all
the points mentioned by ancient writers as yielding
naphtha or petroleum, the great South Russian field is the
only one where it is raised in quantity at the present
time, excepting perhaps China and Burmah.
6 PETROLEUM
Apsheron has had many rulers. Originally it belonged
to Persia, then the Emperor Heraclius captured it A.D.
620 — 627, and destroyed the temples' of the fire-worship-
pers. Afterwards it fell into the hands of the Arabs.
It subsequently reverted to Persia, and in the middle
ages the raising of petroleum at Baku formed a monopoly
of the Persian monarch, who derived a considerable
income from persons who farmed the mines. It appears
to have been principally used for lighting purposes, as
Marco Polo says that people came from a great distance,
even from Bagdad, to purchase oil to burn. The working
of these mines seems to have been continuous, for in
1728, when Peter the Great conquered Baku, he found a
flourishing trade in existence, which had to be regulated.
The Persians recovered Baku after the death of Peter the
Great, and held it until 1806, when it was definitely
occupied by Kussia. The working of petroleum was then
declared a monopoly and leased, and in the year 1850
the income derived from this source amounted to 80,000
roubles (about £7000). The Government tax at that time
was 35 kopeks, say^. per pood of 36 Ibs., equal to about
6s. per barrel of 42 gallons. It is worthy of notice that
this development of the trade in Russia took place before
the discovery of kerosene or lamp-oil by distillation. The
crude oil was burnt in open earthenware lamps, and was
also used as fuel. The manner of raising the petroleum is
described as follows by Rossmasler in 1860 — " The naphtha
was raised by hand or horse-power, according to the depth
and yield of the well, in buckets made of goatskin, with
an iron ring fixed on the open end. It was then carried
HISTORICAL 7
by means of open channels to underground tanks with flat
roofs, and from these it was delivered to the purchasers,
who filled their so-called burdgugi, and loaded them on
camels or arbens, which are small wooden carts with
wheels six or seven feet in height. A burdgugi is made
of the entire skin of a goat or ox." The introduction
of boring in the Baku district dates from the year 1860.
The first attempts at distillation were made in Russia
in 1850, but with pitch, not oil ; it was not until 1860 that
the crude oil was distilled. The Russian trade increased
rapidly, more especially after the trade had been declared
free by ukase dated February 17, 1872.
Although Baku is the oil-field most largely developed
in Europe, it is not the only district where petroleum has
been known to exist for centuries.
In Bavaria it was known in 1430, and raised and sold
by monks under the name of "oil of St. Quirinius" for
medicinal purposes.
In Hanover it was known and used in the sixteenth
century. Agricola, writing in 1546, refers to liquid
bitumen in the neighbourhood of Brunswick. The
district of Oelheim, in Hanover, where oil has been known
to exist for many years, extends some forty miles in
length, the surface of which is covered with drift sand,
into which the oil at certain points filtrates, forming
pit-holes of oil, which has been used in the neighbour-
hood as a lubricator for cart-wheels, and also as a medi-
cine, Ir 1769 the oil was described by a professor of
that day, who stated that it contained 60 per cent, of
petroleum and some naphtha. Over twenty years ago the
8 PETROLEUM
Hanoverian Government caused bore-holes to be sunk in
the vicinity of Celle and Peine to depths of fifty to two
hundred feet, which proved the existence of oil in small
quantities. Several attempts have been made to develop
this district in recent times by boring down to greater
depths, but no large quantities of oil have been found.
There is, however, a small production at the present time.
In various other places in Germany petroleum has been
discovered, but the most important is Pechelbronn in
Elsass. It is recorded in 1498 that bitumen had been
raised in this place for years, and in 1625 a book was
written on the "earth balsam, petrolei, and soft amber"
of Pechelbronn, and according to this book the oil was
mostly used as medicine, but also as a lubricant and
illummant. This district has in recent years been
developed, and proved to be highly productive.
In France it is known to exist, and the deposit of
Gabian in Herault was noted in 1752.
In Italy it was known to the ancients at Girgenti,
and the oil in Lombardy, near Parma and Modena, was
described by Frangois Ariosto in 1660, and it is raised in
small quantities at the present time, in those districts.
In Galicia, Austria, the oil industry is of ancient stand-
ing, and as elsewhere oil was first used as medicine. It is
mentioned by an author writing in 1506 as " earth balsam,"
but it was also used as cart-wheel grease, and exported to
Russia for the purpose of rendering leather water-tight.
From this date on, there are numerous references to the
working of petroleum and earth wax or ozocerite in
Galicia, and the manufacture of candles is recorded in
HISTORICAL 9
Drohobycz in 1817. It is even stated that about that
time, at the above-named place, an attempt was made to
distil the crude and produce a refined illuminating oil.
Certain it is that the Burgomaster of Prague referred to
the new illuminant in 1817 for street lighting, and ordered
300 cwts., at a cost of thirty-four florins, to be delivered.
The oil, however, was delayed in transit, and consequently
the practical distillation of petroleum was postponed for
years in Galicia. It was not until 1853 or 1854 that a
Jew named Schreiner, while heating crude oil in 'order to
produce an improved lubricant, observed a white liquid
which had condensed on the cover of the vessel contain-
ing the oil, and took the substance to an apothecary in
Lemberg, who discovered its value for lighting purposes,
and at once constructed a still and began perhaps for the
first time to manufacture illuminating petroleum oil.
From that time on, the oil industry in Galicia developed,
but on a comparatively small scale, until the modern
improvements from the United States were introduced
some few years ago.
In North America the existence and value of petro-
leum had been known to the aborigines, who used
it for medicinal purposes, and gathered it by spreading
their blankets over streams in the vicinity of outcrops,
where the oil was seen floating on the surface of
the water. The first notice of petroleum in North
America is contained in a letter from a monk named
d'Allion, written in 1629. General Montcalm in 1755
mentions that the Seneca Indians were in the habit of
setting fire to the oil floating on the surface of the river
10 PETROLEUM
Alleghany during religious ceremonies. Towards the end
of the eighteenth century it was sold as Seneca oil for
the cure of rheumatism, at the rate of one dollar a gallon.
In those days the oil was collected either by spreading
thick woollen blankets on the streams carrying oil floating
on the surface of the water and then wringing them, or it
was skimmed with big spoons out of small shallow pits.
The production was self-evidently very small. It was in
boring for salt brine that the existence of larger quantities
of petroleum underground was discovered. In the year
1806 boring for brine was first introduced in West
Virginia, and this method of winning brine became
generally adopted. Many of these bore-holes yielded
petroleum as well as brine, so much so that it is recorded
that in 1856 from fifty to one hundred barrels of oil were
collected yearly. But the petroleum was looked on in
those days as an impurity and dreaded by the salters,
CHAPTER III
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
HAVING briefly glanced at the historical records con-
nected with petroleum, I shall now consider the discoveries
which have led to the present enormous production, and
the creation of the great industry connected with the
treatment of the crude oil. It is a curious fact that in
the main the uses to which petroleum is at present
applied are practically the same now as they were many
years ago; only formerly the oil was applied in primi-
tive appliances and rude fashion, whereas at present we
have the benefit of the numerous improvements and
inventions founded on experience and created by science.
The Persians used crude oil for lighting purposes
in open lamps as well as for fuel, the monks of the
middle ages applied it as a medicine, and the farmers of
Germany found it useful as a grease for their cart-wheels.
At the present day it is distilled and subdivided into
kerosene or burning oil, one of the most widely-distributed
illuminants, into heavy or lubricating oils, and lastly
into solid hydrocarburets, such as paraffin, which is used
for making candles and vaseline, and other pharma-
ceutical products used in medicines. Of course we now
have applications suited to modern inventions which
12 PETROLEUM
could not have been thought of in olden times, for
example, the petroleum-oil engine and the gas enrichment
process.
Science and practical invention are extending the useful
application of the products obtained by fractional distil-
lation of the crude oil, and from day to day new products
are discovered and extracted from the decomposed crude
oil, now that the quantity produced is so abundant. The
great hindrance to the introduction of petroleum for
practical application, for years after its great value was
known, was the limited amount raised. The first step
towards an increased production was the bore-hole sunk
in 1859 near Titusville, in the United States. Long
before that date, the value of petroleum oil as an illumin-
ant and lubricator had been ascertained in Europe and
the United States, but owing to the small quantity pro-
duced it had not entered the markets as an article of
commerce. As a matter of fact the shale and coal oils
were tthe precursors of petroleum*. The manufacture of
illuminating oil from coal or shale dates back to 1840,
when such oils were produced in France. Subsequently,
a large trade in shale oil was established in Scotland. In
Galicia the development of the petroleum-fields was
stimulated by a desire to replace the costly coal oil used
on the Northern Railway of Austria, and in the United
States shale oil was extensively used under the name of
rock oil or kerosene.
In 1853 the first attempt was made in the United
States to manufacture kerosene from petroleum ; and Mr.
G. Bissel founded the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 13
for that purpose, and proceeded to open out an oil property
near Titusville, by digging wells and trenches. The under-
taking was not successful, owing to the small quantity
of oil which was obtained from the shallow wells, and the
only result of the company's operations was an exhaustive
analysis and report by Professor B. Siliman, jun., on the oil.
Professor Siliman applied fractional distillation, and
used sulphuric acid for purification, a proceeding which
continues to be in use at refineries to this day. He
pointed out the valuable products to be obtained by dis-
tillation, and foreshadowed in this important report the
possibilities to be realized by a correct method of treating
petroleum. It was not, however, until some years later
that Mr. G. Bissel had the happy idea of tapping the sub-
terranean stores of crude oil by means of deep bore-holes,
and Mr. E. L. Drake, who had for some time given his
attention to the subject, was entrusted with the duty of
carrying out the scheme, and he put down a bore-hole
near Titusville which on August 28, 1859, struck oil at
a depth -of 169J feet, which gave about 25 barrels per
day. This date is an epoch in the history of the petro-
leum industry, which may indeed be considered to have
come into practical existence on that day. The tapping
of oil in the celebrated Drake well acted like an electric
spark on the spirit of American speculators, and they
made a frantic rush for the oil-fields which can only be
compared to the gold-craze of California. Well after
well was sunk, and soon flowing wells were struck, which
poured out oil at the rate of several thousand barrels per
day. This naturally increased the fever of speculation.
14 PETROLEUM
Every farm within miles of an oil-well was bought up,
and the stillness of the forests soon became broken by the
jingle of the machinery and the thud of the chisel from
the numerous rigs at work. Towns rose up into existence
apparently from the soil, not in years or months, but in
days — wherever oil was discovered, and disappeared as
rapidly from the surface on the subsidence of the flow. I
will cite Pithole City as an example of this ephemeral
existence : a town which in May 1865 contained ten
houses, when the celebrated well " United States " struck
oil, and in August of the same year, that is to say about
one hundred days later, it contained a population of 14,000
people, and was the centre of a daily production of 5000
barrels of oil. But the wells soon gave out, and within one
year the bustling population had migrated to better ground,
and left nothing but a few decaying wooden houses, which
were burnt to the ground by a fire, and all that remained
to mark the spot where the once busy town stood was a
heap of ashes. This is by no means a singular instance, as
hundreds of villages, towns, and cities were brought into
existence in haste by the magic-like power of the dollar-
flowing oil, and abandoned with equal alacrity when the
stream began to slacken. Not only towns sprang into
sudden life in formerly desolate spots, but whole districts
were covered with derricks, and the ground was perforated
by innumerable wells in an amazingly short space of
time, to be soon deserted and once more left to the
farmer or lumber-man. The intense speculation of the
day created an irrational development, and w?lls were
sunk all over immense tracts with little or no prospect of
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 15
success, but on the chance not so much of striking oil as
of striking an over-sanguine purchaser, and this was
termed " wild-catting." This sort of swindle was carried
on to such an extent by the army of so-called mystery
men, scouts, and others, that at a meeting of oilmen held
at Bradford on September 30, 1884, the following reso-
lution was passed — " Resolved, that the practice of barri-
cading and guarding derricks with bull-dogs and firearms
ought not to be tolerated in a civilized community."
This resolution gives an insight into the condition of the
oil districts in the early days of discovery.
Meanwhile, the development of the industry was pro-
gressing in the hands of more serious workers, and some
idea can be formed of its rapid growth by the returns of
oil raised. In the early years these were not accurate, as
a great deal of the oil was wasted owing to insufficient
tankage, and millions of barrels of oil may be estimated
to have been lost at the commencement of well-drilling.
Yet the figures speak eloquently to the rapidity of the
increase of production. In 1850, the year of the first
bore-hole or well, the production is returned at 2000
barrels; two years later, that is in 1861, it had increased
to 2,110,000, or one hundredfold ; in 1882 it was 30,460,000
barrels. Since then the production has further increased,
and in 1891 it amounted to 54,291,980, in 1892 the return
was 50,509,136, and in 1893 it fell to 48,4123666 barrels
of 42 American gallons.
This great development has necessitated : first, an
improved system of drilling ; secondly, a new mode of
transport; thirdly, the creation of extensive refineries.
16 PETROLEUM
In drilling, the development took place after the intro-
duction of machinery, the first engine being used at
Tidiante in 1860, and the first pipe-line laid in 1863.
There are many thousand miles of pipe-line of different
dimensions in the United States at present.
The use of nitro-glycerine was introduced and patented
by Colonel Roberts in 1866, the object being to explode a
charge of nitro-glycerine at the bottom of the wells, in
order to shatter the rock and thereby increase the flow of
oil. The charge at first varied from 2 to 8 quarts of nitro-
glycerine, but was afterwards increased up to 100 quarts.
This new invention brought into existence an illicit trade
for the manufacture of nitro-glycerine and the firing of
wells without paying the patent Royalty, and the men who
carried on this business were known as " moonlighters."
Coeval with the development of the petroleum industry
in the United States, the opening out of the oil-fields of
Galicia (Austria) took place. Although the apothecary at
Lemberg, as previously mentioned, had erected a still
and made kerosene, and had even lit up the hospital at
Lemberg with it in 1855, the trade remained stationary
owing to the very small production, which then was raised
out of shallow shafts one metre square, by drawing the
oil in buckets by hand. In Galicia, as in every oil-field,
development followed improved drilling. An abortive
attempt at drilling by engine-power in this field was
made in 1867 ; but the first practical introduction of
machinery was in 1882, and since then the production of
crude oil has enormously increased, as the following
figures show : in 1882 the production was 319,500 barrels ;
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 17
in 1888 it had risen to 2,400,000 barrels, and in 1893 to
about 3,000,000. In Galicia the industry is hampered
by want of transport, and nine-tenths of the oil is still
conveyed to the railway in barrels.
The oil-fields of the United States and of Galicia were
the first to become developed. These were succeeded by
the Baku field in Russia. This oil-field, although known
in times of remote antiquity and continuously worked for
centuries, has only recently been opened out to any extent.
In 1869 the first boring operations were undertaken ; in
1872 the raising and working of oil was declared free by
the Government, and from that date the development
has continued with amazing rapidity. In 1873 the pro-
duction was 450,000 barrels; in 1883 it had risen to 5|
million barrels, and in 1890 over 20,000,000 barrels. The
oil-fields of Southern Russia are the most productive of
any known, the wells are mostly flowing, and one of them
is recorded to have thrown up 112,000 tons of oil in the
first four weeks following the strike of the oil.
Although petroleum is known to exist in nearly every
part of the world, no great developments have as yet
taken place beyond those just recorded. The best ,field
which has been opened out to some extent and shows a
promising future is that of Pechelbronn in Elsass, Ger-
many. For many years solid bitumen has been extensively
worked in this neighbourhood, but very little oil. Only
within quite recent years have bore-holes been put down,
with the result that at present a flourishing industry has
been established.
In Canada the oil-field of Petrolia has been opened out
18 PETROLEUM
simultaneously with the American fields. But the pro-
duction has never risen to any great importance, and at
present the output is about 500,000 barrels.
In the far East petroleum has been worked for centuries,
but only of late years has the development attained
considerable proportions, notably in Japan, Java, Burmah,
and some parts of India. As far as Great Britain is con-
cerned, the supply of petroleum, including all the oils of
varying densities and uses, comes from the United States
and Russia only.
CHAPTER IV
THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM, AND GEOLOGICAL STRATA IN
WHICH IT IS FOUND
WITHOUT going into scientific details, it may be inter-
esting to record the principal hypotheses advanced to
explain the presence of bitumens of all kinds in the earth.
These may be divided into two classes, namely, the inorganic
and the organic, the former referring to chemical changes
in inorganic substances, and the latter to changes in organic
matter. These hypotheses are as follows.
Firstly, as to inorganic origin —
• 1. M. Berthelot's theory is founded on contact of
carbonated waters with alkali metals.
~2. M. Mendel ejef? depends on the contact of water with
highly-heated metallic iron and metallic carbides.
Secondly, as to organic origin —
1. Bischoff assumes a primary decomposition of vege-
table substances contained in sedimentary strata.
2. Newbery advocates a slow decomposition at low
temperatures of organic matter (mainly vegetable), such
as is contained in shales.
3. Hunt's theory of origin is through the decomposition
of organic matter accumulated in limestone.
4. Coquand refers to the primary decomposition of
20 PETROLEUM
organic matter in deep-lying strata, and accumulations
in newer strata at the time of deposition through the
action of springs.
5. Lartet's theory of origin is through the distillation
of organic matter in deep-lying strata accompanying meta-
morphism by pressure and the action of superheated water.
6. Peck ham believes that certain bitumens are of
animal origin and indigenous in the rocks, and others
of vegetable origin and the product of distillation under
the influence of heat generated by organic movement.
7. Orton modifies Hunt's hypothesis, and supposes the
origin to be through the primary decomposition of animal
and vegetable tissue contained in shales and limestone.
The recent researches have led geologists to reject the
inorganic theories and to admit the organic or animal
origin of bitumens, including petroleum and all hydro-
carbons, and to accept the views of Bischoff, namely,
that the various bitumens are produced by the natural
decomposition of organic tissue.
These different theories have been very clearly summar-
ized in the report of the United States Geological Survey,
1886-87, as follows—
1. Petroleum is derived from organic matter.
2. It is much more largely derived from vegetable than
from animal substances.
3. Petroleum of the Pennsylvania type is derived from
the organic matter of bituminous shales, and is of vegetable
origin.
4. Petroleum of the Canada and Lima type is derived
from limestone, and is of animal origin.
OF
( uNlVERSn
THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM 21
jr
5. Petroleum has been produced at normal earth
temperatures (in these fields), and is not a product of
destructive distillation of bituminous shales.
6. The stock of petroleum in the rocks is already
practically complete.
Scientific men in Europe ascribe nearly all the petro-
leum and bitumen deposits of the Continent, such as those
of Galicia, Germany, and Russia, to an animal origin, or
a mixture of animal and small proportion of vegetable
matter. The animal origin of petroleum is supported by
the fact that in most bitumens a certain percentage of
nitrogen is found to exist.
The fact that extensive deposits of animal fossiliferous
remains are found in many geological strata without the
presence of petroleum, must be explained by the suppo-
sition that the circumstances under which these animal
deposits were formed were not favourable to a decompo-
sition resulting in the production of petroleum. The
recent experiments of Dr. Engler confirm the theory of
the animal origin of some petroleums. He obtained what
may be described as petroleum, containing almost all the
hydrocarbons contained in the natural product, by dis-
tilling animal fats and oils at a moderate heat under
pressure, and these experiments go far to support the
theory of the origin of petroleum from the decomposition
of extinct animals. It may be pointed out that oil is
frequently found in strata devoid of any trace of past
animal life; but it is well known that petroleum flows
for long distances from the point of its production or
storage in the earth, and frequently comes up to the
22 PETROLEUM
surface at a great distance from the spot where it is
tapped underground by the drill.
Whatever may be the origin of petroleum, its existence
has been demonstrated in more or less quantities in nearly
every stratified formation of the earth. We find it in
the Post-Tertiary or Pleistocene formation in Hanover
and Canada, in the Tertiary in France, Italy, Java, New
Zealand, and California ; in Rou mania, Turkey, Galicia
(Austria), Russia, Venezuela, and various localities in
Asia. In the Secondary or Mesozoic it is found in Spain,
Italy, Galicia (Austria), some places in Germany, Portugal,
and Argentina. The Palaeozoic formation yields petroleum
in France, Germany, England, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and
Kansas. In the Devonian and Silurian in the United
States and Canada. The most important oil deposits are
found either in Tertiary strata, as in Russia and Galicia
(Austria), or in the Devonian, as in the United States and
Canada. This universal presence of petroleum points to
the great probability that it is not necessarily found in
the strata where it was originally formed. There are no
special geological features accompanying or indicating the
presence of oil. It announces its presence by coming out
of small fissures on the surface, either in the shape of
liquid or gaseous carburetted hydrogen. It has been
often assumed that there is some connection between
petroleum and rock-salt, because the water in petroleum -
fields is frequently saline. But there is no absolute proof
forthcoming that the presence of salt is essential to the
existence of petroleum.
CHAPTER V
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
PETROLEUM, as it comes out of the earth, consists of a
mixture of different hydrocarbons, varying in consistency
from marsh gas to solid paraffin wax, in density from
0'550 to 0*980, and in the relative proportions of hydrogen
to carbon from 1 to 3 up to 1 to 5J. There are two well-
defined series of hydrocarbons to be found in petroleum ;
first, the paraffin series, represented by the chemical
formula CnH.2n + 2, and the olefin series, having for
typical formula CnHji. By far the greater proportion
of the hydrocarbons in all petroleums belong to the
former series, and in some mineral oils the latter series
are entirely missing ; as a rule they are found in oils of
high density, such as the Russian. In addition to the
hydrocarbons, petroleum generally contains small propor-
tions of other substances, such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur,
and occasionally small quantities of mineral bodies such
as arsenic, lime, oxide of iron, alumina, and even gold
and silver.
The following table, showing the composition of some
24
PETROLEUM
crude oils, is taken from Professor Hans Hofer's book on
petroleum.
LOCALITY.
CARBON.
HYDROGEN.
OXYGEN.
DENSITY.
Galicia
85 '3
12'6
9-1
A. OR,*.
Elsass
86*1
19.7
1 -9
Parma
84'0
1 ^vi
1 'A
u oyz
Baku
83'3
n-fi
3.1
U VJTU
n-o^/i
Burmah ,,
83 -8
12'7
3.K
u yo4
/-\.Ql7K
Java
87'1
12'0
A.Q
U o/O
Canada
84'5
13*5
9-O
U yzo
n S7n
Pennsylvania
82'0
14'8
0.0
rv.tyorv
Do.
84*9
13-7
1 -4
O'ftftn
U ooU
According to Crew, the American oil is assumed to con-
tain, on the average, 84 per cent, of carbon and 14 per
cent, of hydrogen.
The treatment of natural petroleum in order to separ-
ate it into commercial products consists in distilling the
crude oil in retorts of suitable construction, and condens-
ing the products passing over at different temperatures.
Thus, roughly speaking, the products may be divided into
three groups: first, the volatile oils passing over at
temperatures up to 150° C. ; second, the illuminating oils
from 150° to 300° C.; and thirdly, the residuum. The
distillation is a destructive one, and the condensed oils are
not in the same molecular condition as the crude oils
coming out of the earth. The distillation is, however,
carried on fractionally, so that a large number of products
are obtained,
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 25
I. Distillates Mow 150° C.
Rhigolene, gasolene, naphtha, benzine, ligroine, etc.
II. Distillates from 150° to 300° G.
Various qualities of lamp-oil or kerosene.
III. Residuum, distillates over 300° G.
Various heavy oils, such as the Russian solar distillate,
and a series of lubricating oils ; then paraffin oils out of
which paraffin wax is made, and very dense, pitch-like
oils used as fuel. The distillation leaves a residue of
coke.
The proportions of the substances obtained from differ-
ent oils vary considerably. Peckham gives the following
results for Pennsylvanian oil —
Volatile oils 16'5
Kerosene 54O
Lubricating oils 17'5
Paraffin 2'0
Coke and loss . . . lO'O
lOO'O
According to Ludwig Nobel, the Baku oil contains —
Volatile oils 4-0
Kerosene 270
Lubricating oils 44'< >
Vaseline 1*0
Residuum or astatki 14*0
Loss ., . 10-0
100-0
26 PETROLEUM
Youngs' mineral oil, according to Mr. Boverton Redwood-
Volatile oils 6*0
Illuminating oils 38'0
Lubricating oils 14'5
Solid paraffin ll'O
Loss .. .. 30-5
100-0
It will be seen from these analyses that the volatile
oils are present in much larger quantities in the American
than in the Russian or Scotch shale oil.
The products obtained in the refining process of petro-
leum have every one a value, and the various distillates
are all applicable to different uses. The volatile oils for
surgical purposes, street naphtha lamps, oilcloth and var-
nish making ; the illuminating oils for burning in lamps
or stoves ; the heavy oils for lubricating and producing
paraffin wax, or for gas enrichment, and in Russia to a
great extent for fuel ; and lastly a residue of coke which is
burnt under the still. Nothing is lost, except the un-
avoidable waste in the process of manufacture. This
cannot be said of any other substance in or on the earth.
Our metals, for instance, are found in nature as ores,
generally oxides, and have to be extracted by some metal-
lurgical process ; thus the best iron ores yield only 50 per
cent, of metal, and even gold which is found as a metal
has to be separated from the sand of the alluvial deposit,
or the quartz of the reef in which it is contained.
The loss in the process of distillation is given at 10 per
cent, for American and Russian oil, whereas in the
distillation of shale oil as much as 30 per cent, is recorded.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 27
In the early days of the petroleum industry the most
valuable product was the illuminating oil, and the atten-
tion of the manufacturer was directed to the extraction
of the largest possible proportion of this product. With
a view to the attainment of this object the so-called
" cracking " process has been largely adopted. This con-
sists in arranging the dome of the still in such a manner
that the vapour of heavier oils rising from the heated
liquid condenses and falls back into the oil in the retort.
Here it meets with a higher temperature than necessary
for volatilization, and is decomposed, giving a larger yield
of illuminating oil, and a deposit of carbon. This process,
which has given such good results, is said to have been
discovered by mere accident. A still-man at a refinery
at Newark, New Jersey, left his still at a time when the
distillate indicated 43° gravity, with a tendency to increase,
intending to return in half-an-hour to cut off the remain-
ing portion of the outflow into the heavy oil-tank, but was
detained by sudden illness for four hours. When he
returned he found a small stream of light-coloured oil
passing over, with a gravity of 48°. This unexpected
and abnormal occurrence led to experiments being carried
out which showed that the upper part of the still had
become sufficiently cooled to condense the vapour, and
that the oil thus formed became decomposed or "cracked"
in contact with the hot fluid in the retort, with the result
of an increased production of kerosene, and in consequence
stills were constructed in such a way as to carry out this
reaction as a special process.
The great heat necessary to volatilize the heavier
28 PETROLEUM
hydrocarbons has an injurious effect on the colour and
odour of the distillate. With a view to reducing the
temperature efforts have been made to distil under
reduced pressure, that is, by applying a vacuum pump in
a manner similar to that adopted in the manufacture of
sugar. This process has not, however, been generally
successful. Recently a vacuum still has been patented
by Messrs. Wanklyn and Cooper in this country, in which
the vacuum is produced not by a pump, but by a vertical
pipe 40 feet in length, into which the distillate flows,
and which has for effect to enable the distillation to be
carried on in approximate vacuum. This still has not
yet been used on a large scale. I have given a cursory
outline of the general system of separating the various
hydrocarbons contained in crude petroleum. A descrip-
tion of the methods adopted to purify and bfeaclTTtte
various distillates would be beyond the scope of this
pamphlet.
CHAPTER VI
WINNING PETROLEUM
IN past times petroleum was collected at the outcrops,
where it flowed to the surface in small quantities, or, as in
America, collected by the aborigines by spreading their
blankets on the streams which carried small quantities of
the oil on the surface of the water. In Hanover pot-holes
were dug where the oil collected, and in Galicia shafts
were sunk and the oil raised to the surface in buckets
by hand. At the present day in some localities, as for
instance in Mexico, the same rude process is followed, and
pot-holes are dug near the natural outflow of the oil,
where it collects and is then recovered by the natives and
used either for burning in open lamps or for medicinal
purposes. The shafts were succeeded by bore-holes, put
down by hand to moderate depths, and the oil scooped up
by means of long tubes with a valve at one end. By the
application of the steam-engine to the boring apparatus
great depths were attained, the drilling was performed at
a much more rapid rate, and at less cost. The apparatus
used is similar in principle, though differing greatly in
detail, in different countries. These differences are dic-
tated by the necessities of the existing circumstances.
30 PETROLEUM
An apparatus which acts satisfactorily in strata nearly
horizontal and not very hard, would not be applicable
in a district where the strata is much contorted or
difficult to pierce. The main instrument used in all the
apparatus used for boring consists of a cutting-tool or
chisel, which has to be raised a certain height and is
allowed to fall on the bottom of the bore-hole, when by
the force of the blow thus occasioned it cuts into the
strata. The up-and-down movement is caused by a
mechanical arrangement on the surface connected with a
small steam-engine. This chisel or cutting-tool is con-
nected with the surface by means of iron rods, or wooden
poles, or a rope. In hand-drilling, iron rods were and
are to this day invariably used for all kinds of boring.
In the United States the iron rods were soon replaced by
the ropo, and in Canada by the wooden poles. On
the continent of Europe the iron rods are still gener-
ally used for all kinds of borings, including petroleum,
although the Canadian system has been successfully
introduced in Hanover and Elsass (Germany), and in
Galicia (Austria).
The arrangement of what the driller terms a " set
of tools " is somewhat different when iron rods are used,
or ropes and poles. In the former case the chisel
with its connecting pieces is lifted up by a contriv-
ance called a freefall tool, and allowed to drop a certain
height, usually from two to three feet, and the force
of the blow is equal to the weight of the tools — about
18 cwt. — multiplied by the distance of the fall. When
rope or wooden poles are used, the chisel is attached to
WINNING PETROLEUM 31
a sliding-piece termed "jars" by the drillers, which
has the effect of taking off the jar on the apparatus
caused by the blow of the tools on the bottom of the
bore-hole.
In the United States petroleum-well boring has been
brought to great perfection. Several thousand wells are
bored every year for oil, and to depths down to 3000
feet, at a comparatively small cost. The outlay for a
well 1500 feet deep is usually estimated at about £800,
including the engine and boiler and all labour. These
wells are bored with great rapidity unless the work
is impeded through accidental circumstances, and in the
usual course a well is finished within three months.
The American system has been introduced in the Baku
oil-field, but has not met with unqualified success.
Owing to the nature of the strata and the condition
of the oil, which is thick and mixed with sand, the oil
has to be raised by means of scoops, and in consequence
the wells have to be drilled with a diameter of eighteen
inches, for which the Fabian freefall system is preferable
to the American jars. The lining-pipes in the Russian
field, although made of sheet-iron, represent a serious item
in the cost, owing to the wide diameter.
The Canadian method of boring is substantially the
same as the American, with the difference that wooden
poles are used instead of the rope. These poles are
joined together by conical screws, which have to be
screwed and unscrewed in lowering or raising the tools,
which causes great loss of time. Nevertheless, in
Canada the drillers are able to complete one hundred
32 PETROLEUM
feet of boring in a day, which is a very satisfactory
result.
Either of these systems is preferable, in regard to time
occupied in boring, to the more antiquated method with
heavy iron rods, as these cannot be raised or lowered with
the rapidity with which a rope or the light Canadian
poles can be moved.
By whatever method the well is bored and the oil
strata attained, the next operation is to line the well, if
necessary. It is always usual to put in a certain length
of casing to keep out the surface water, but in many
districts, notably in America, it is not necessary to case
the entire well. This is a considerable saving in cost.
In most petroleum districts the nature of the ground
requires the well to be cased from top to bottom. This is
generally done with wrought-iron lap-welded tubing, with
screw joints. Sometimes, however, the casing is made of
sheet-iron, riveted, which is more economical but not
so durable.
As soon as • the well is completed, a small pump spe-
cially constructed for the purpose of raising a liquid con-
taining considerable quantities of gas is put in, unless the
oil flows. When the oil-bearing strata is first tapped, it
frequently happens that owing to the force of the con-
fined gas a regular outburst takes place, and millions
of gallons of oil are thrown up in the shape of a fountain.
However, in a short time this effect subsides, and event-
ually the pump has to be put in. When a well yields
large quantities of oil, that is, from fifty to several
hundred barrels a day, a separate engine is applied, but
WINNING PETROLEUM 33
when, as in most instances, only a few barrels are to be
raised, a central engine is erected, from which the wells
are pumped or " rocked," in the language of the Canadian
driller. The oil from the different wells is then con-
centrated by means of connecting pipes with a central
tank or tanks, from which it is conveyed to the
refinery.
X
CHAPTER VII
STORAGE AND TR AN SPOUT
THE rapid development of the means for storage and
transport of oil necessary to meet the large quantities
raised and bring it to market at a reasonable cost, is one
of the most interesting features connected with this re-
markable industry. At first the crude oil was put into
barrels and carted away from the mine to the nearest
railway-station, and this is still done at the present time
in some districts. Then the tank-car was introduced, by
which oil in bulk could be transported, each car holding
60 to 100 barrels. But at present, in all the great pro-
ducing districts the oil is forced for miles through pipe-
lines, and in the United States there are over 15,000 miles
of pipe-line laid down, connected with storage-tanks
holding some 40,000,000 barrels. The oil raised in Penn-
sylvania is collected at central tank-stations, and then
forced through six-inch pipes up to New York, where it is
refined. The pipe-line from Oban to New York is 312
miles in length, with twelve pumping- stations, giving an
average of 26 miles to each engine. In the United
States, the tanks in the producing districts are of wrought-
iron, circular, and hold up to 10,000 barrels of oil. These
STORAGE AND TRANSPORT 35
tanks are placed on brick supports about two feet from
the ground, which enables them to be easily examined
with a view to detecting leakage. The tanks in the
petroleum districts of Pennsylvania are usually placed in
sets of four to ten in fields as remote as possible from
habitations or other buildings, and they present a some-
what dismal and forbidding aspect. Each tank is pro-
vided with a suitable gauge, and the quantity it contains
is accurately measured every day. Very few accidents
have occurred, owing to the great precautions which are
observed. The writer was informed that in case a tank
became ignited through some mischance, the fire was ex-
tinguished by firing blank cartridges out of a cannon at
the flame, and this appears quite natural, as we know
that the vibration caused by snapping a cap on a gun is
sufficient to extinguish a lighted candle at a distance of
several feet. Petroleum reservoirs are frequently placed
underground, and sometimes constructed of brick or
timber, lined with clay. But experience gives the pre-
ference to the wrought-iron tank for the storage of large
quantities. Small reservoirs holding 500 to 1000 barrels
may be made of timber in shape something like large
barrels, well caulked and pitched inside. Some of the
iron storage- tanks erected for storing oil on the wharves
on the Thames hold nearly 1,000,000 gallons. I am
indebted to Mr. A. G. Tait, the Westminster representa-
tive of the Pearson and Knowles Coal and Iron Co.,
Limited, for details of three petroleum storage-tanks
erected for the Tank Storage and Carriage Company
at Purfleet. These are 89 ft, 3 in. in diameter, by 25 ft.
36 PETROLEUM
6 in. in height, and have a capacity of 997,000 gallons,
and are, I believe, the largest constructed in this country.
The oil is pumped out of the ship into the tanks at the
rate of 1000 barrels per hour. From the tanks it is
transferred to barrels or tank-carts for distribution. The
latter were introduced in 1889.
The transport by sea has of late years undergone a
great change. Previous to 1878 the American petroleum
was carried in barrels, but in that year the transport in
bulk was tried on the Atlantic in sailing-ships. Since
then the tank-steamers have been introduced, and in
1886 the first was constructed on the Tyne, carrying
3000 tons of liquid cargo. These ships contain seven to
nine compartments or tanks, each holding about 4000
barrels, and are separated from the engines and boilers
by a safety- well or empty space, sometimes filled with
water, and the total number of barrels thus carried varies
from 28,000 to 36,000, representing a weight of about
4000 to 5000 tons. Every precaution is taken to render
the transport safe in the way of expansion trunks,
ventilating-pipes, etc. These steamers are capable of
attaining a speed of eleven knots per hour, and, strange
to say, as a rule burn coal as fuel. There are at
present a great number of these steamers engaged in
the trade of transporting petroleum, and it is remark-
able that so few accidents have occurred in the service.
The accidents which have been recorded are minutely de-
scribed by Mr. Boverton Redwood, in his paper on " The
Transport of Petroleum in Bulk " read before the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers, and these have nearly all taken
STORAGE AND TRANSPORT 37
place in harbour. The explosions and fires on board tank-
steamers have been clearly ascertained in nine cases out of
ten to have been caused by carelessness or ignorance. It
must, however, be stated that the steamship Lux was lost
in the Doro Channel, Grecian Archipelago, through fire
during stormy weather, and Mr. Redwood attributes this
accident to " the escape of oil from the expansion trunk
of the cargo-tanks into the port-side bunker, and the
overflow of such escaping oil through the bunker into the
stokehole where, or in the bilges, it became ignited." The
steamship Lux carried a cargo of Russian refined petro-
leum; but most of the accidents which have occurred to
steamers carrying petroleum in bulk have been when the
cargo has consisted of crude oil. This is easily explained
by the presence of the light hydrocarbons and gas in the
crude which are eliminated from the refined oil by the
process of distillation. We have seen that the quantity
of petroleum of various qualities imported into this
country in the year 1893 was over 155,000,000 gallons,
nearly all of which would be carried by tank-steamers
representing a freight capacity of about 550,000 tons.
This large quantity of petroleum is distributed in this
country mostly in tank-cars to the larger towns, and re-
tailed in tank-carts. The obsolete barrel, however, is still
to be found in small towns and villages, and on the
hawkers' carts in the metropolis.
CHAPTER VIII
LIQUID FUEL
FROM the preceding cursory glance at the known
oil-fields of the world, it is evident that the quantity of
petroleum in different parts of the earth must be im-
mense, and if entirely converted into kerosene there
would be enough to light up the globe for centuries to
come. But mineral oil is destined to play another im-
portant part in the economy of the world, in becoming the
fuel of the future. It has been quite sufficiently experi-
mented with to demonstrate that it is practically perfectly
applicable and safe for all heating purposes. At present
the production is not sufficient to enable it to come into
competition with coal, but when we remember the im-
mense reserves known to exist, the time must come when
the further development of these important resources will
place an enormous quantity of liquid fuel on the markets
of the world. At present the total production is difficult
to estimate, owing to want of authentic records from
many countries; but it may be approximately taken at
about 100,000,000 barrels of crude oil. This produce is
at present refined, and it may be safely assumed that the
total production of kerosene is about 40,000,000 barrels.
The other products consist of light oils, lubricating
LIQUID FUEL 39
oils, and residue; the latter constitutes the liquid fuel.
It is, however, almost exclusively produced in Russia,
and amounts to over 3,000,000 tons, and assuming a ton
of residue to equal in calorific effect two tons of coal,
we have at present a production of liquid fuel equal to
6,000,000 or 7,000,000 tons of coal— a very insignificant
quantity as compared with the consumption of coal in
the world. In order to compete as a fuel, the pro-
duction of petroleum will have to be greatly increased,
and, as far as this country is concerned, this increased
production will have to come from fields lying on the
sea-coast, where it can be shipped in tank-steamers and
brought to the consumer at a reasonable cost.
The idea of applying liquid fuel in the place of coal is
by no means a recent one. Many years ago it was pro-
posed to use it in the Royal Navy, and Admiral Selwyn
made elaborate experiments, and strongly advocated its
advantages for ships of war. It may, however, be said to
have been practically applied first by Mr. Urquhart on the
locomotives in Southern Russia, and about the same time
on the steamers employed in the Caspian Sea for the
transport of petroleum from Baku to the Volga. The
principle on which the liquid fuel is burnt in locomotives
or steamships consists in breaking or pulverizing the liquid
fuel by means of a jet of steam, and all the different
inventions for the use of liquid fuel may be described as
modifications of this idea,
In a paper read by Mr. G. Stockfleth, at the Society of
Arts, on May 20, 1894, he thus describes the process as
adopted in Russia.
40 PETROLEUM
" Many injectors or pulverizators in Russia, called
fasunkas, have been constructed and patented, but it has
been found that the most primitively constructed pulver-
izators answer as well as the more complicated kinds.
The apparatus used under the stills consists simply of two
half-inch pipes, one leading the oil from a tank, the other
steam from a boiler. The ends of the pipes are flattened
by a blow of a hammer, and then tied together with a
piece of wire; the steam-jet catches the outflowing oil
and forms the spray. It is well to keep the oil a little
warm to facilitate its passage in the pipes through which
it descends by gravitation. This pulverizator gives entire
satisfaction ; the flame is powerful and bright, and not a
drop of oil is wasted when once the flow has been regu-
lated. No smoke or flame ascends the chimney — which,
by the way, can be very short — as the steam-jet itself
creates sufficient draught. A somewhat neater appearance
can be given to the injector when the oil-pipe is arranged
inside the steam-pipe, and provided with a cast-iron or
brass nozzle which can be shaped to give the flame any
desired form. As far back as 1880 I had occasion to make,
on behalf of Messrs. Nobel Brothers, in St. Petersburg,
some experiments with oil firing before a committee of the
Russian Admiralty. At that time astatki firing was a
novelty. The object was to demonstrate its practicability
for firing marine boilers. The pulverizator was of a some-
what complicated construction. The results were, how-
ever, satisfactory; the boiler used belonged to a steam
launch.
"Experiments have been made with compressed air
LIQUID FUEL 41
for spraying the oil, but the results have not materially
differed from those obtained with steam. Air must, of
course, in any case, have access to the flame, and openings
on the front of the flue must be provided for its admit-
tance. In most cases the hole in the furnace door through
which the nozzle of the pulverizator is introduced, is
sufficient for letting in the quantity necessary for the
combustion. The action of the steam is therefore solely
mechanical, and serves only for cutting up the oil into small
particles, which being surrounded by the necessary air for
their combustion, catch fire before they reach the bottom
of the flue. By using steam for spraying, no oil accu-
mulates in the flue when the flow is regulated, con-
sequently a complete combustion of the oil takes place.
If better results should be obtainable by using compressed
air for spraying, the reason would have to be looked for
in some chemical effect of the steam upon the oil which,
to some extent, could deprive the latter of its heat-creating
properties. There is, however, no probability for this
anticipation ; if the steam had this effect, it would already
have done its work in the still, where superheated steam
is admitted into the crude oil to facilitate the distillation
of the different crude oil products. Looking at the ques-
tion from the point of cost, it is not probable that the
compressed air can be produced cheaper than the necessary
quantity of steam taken direct from the boiler. It is, in
fact, but a very small quantity which is necessary for
doing this work, when the pulverizator is properly con-
structed; and no case has come to my knowledge in
Russia where the adoption of liquid fuel has augmented
42 PETROLEUM
the quantities of feed-water used in a perceptible degree.
The chief point in the construction of the pulverizator is
to avoid waste of steam, that is to say, to construct the
nozzle in such manner that every particle of steam takes
care of a corresponding particle of oil. This objeot will
best be secured when the openings for the steam, as well
as for the oil, are made long and narrow, and are placed
as close to one another as possible. All the different
Russian constructions are made in this way. The openings
are about 1 J inches long, and \ inch to ^ inch wide. As the
oil sometimes contains paraffin, which is likely to choke
this narrow opening, it is essential to have an arrange-
ment by which steam can be led through the oil-passage
to clean it out. The rest of the construction may be
varied to suit particular cases, and with a view to facilitate
and cheapen the manufacture.
" At the present time a great many ships on the Blaclx
Sea, and all steamers on the Caspian Sea, as well as all
locomotives in Southern Russia, burn astatki. The general
advantages obtained by using liquid fuel in any boiler,
whether stationary, locomotive, or marine, are the follow-
ing. It can be adapted to any construction of boiler
without material change in the existing arrangement for
firing with coal, in fact coal and oil can be used alter-
natively if so desired. The fire-bars have simply to be
taken out or covered with thin slabs and cinders, the
furnace door has to be provided with a hole for introducing
the nozzle of the pulverizator, and the steam-pipe and oil-
pipe have to be connected respectively with the boiler and
the oil-tank. The steam-generating power of astatki is
LIQUID FUEL 43
considerable ; one ton of oil is, in this respect, equal to
more than two tons of best steam coal, and is often claimed
to be equal even to three tons of coal; it depends, of
course, upon the quality of oil and coal used for the com-
parison. The fire can be extinguished instantaneously,
and is absolutely free from smoke or ashes. The frequent
opening of the furnace doors can be avoided, thus saving
heat and preventing leakage of tubes, due to currents of
cold air. Rapidity in raising steam, and complete control
over the fire, are secured, thus avoiding waste of steam by
the safety-valves, and the boiler pressure can be regulated
better than in the case of coal-firing. After mentioning
these general advantages a few words may be added about
the special advantages accruing to railways and steamships.
The valuable spaces at railway-stations, which have now
to be sacrificed for accommodating coal supply, could be
reduced by about two-thirds, as only half the tonnage
would have to be kept in stock, and this quantity can be
stored more economically in point of space than the same
quantity of coal. A considerable amount of labour
employed in storing coal and loading tenders can be
saved, and the oil can be taken in simultaneously with the
water supply, as quickly and in a like manner. The
avoidance of smoke and blowing safety-valves will greatly
add to the comfort of the passengers, a point for which
the railway companies are usually prepared to make
considerable sacrifices.
" The hard work of the stoker on an express train is
reduced, as far as firing goes, to simply giving the regu-
lating valve of the injector a turn from time to time, and
44 PETROLEUM
the absence of dirt and smoke makes the service less
disagreeable than with coal-firing.
"For steamships, the advantages of using liquid fuel are
of still greater importance. Much valuable space which
has now to be sacrificed for the coal-bunkers can be
saved ; the oil can be kept in ballast-tanks at the bottom
of the ship, an arrangement which greatly augments the
stability of the vessel, and the oil can gradually, as it is
consumed, be replaced by water. The size of the stoke-
hole can be reduced considerably, and the number of
stokers diminished in the proportion of one to four. In
stormy weather, and in case water should gain access to
the stokehole and put the fire out, it is considerably more
troublesome and takes more time to re-light a coal fire
than to re-start the oil fire, and the risk of accidents by
scalding is diminished. The danger of fire in the coal-
bunkers will not be replaced by any similar risk connected
with the use of oil."
With reference to the use of liquid fuel on locomotives,
it is interesting to refer to the results obtained by Mr.
James Holden, locomotive superintendent of the Great
Eastern Railway, by the process invented and adopted by
him. On the locomotives using liquid fuel there is an
absence of constant and laborious firing; the requisite
pressure of steam is easily obtained by an almost im-
perceptible movement of the injector valve, there is an
absence of smoke, and a great uniformity of pressure.
Mr. Goodwin, in his inaugural address as President of the
Society of Engineers in February 1894, gave a description
of these locomotives, and their working cost, and stated
LIQUID FUEL 45
that an express engine using 35*4 Ibs. of coal per mile,
consumed under similar circumstances 11 '8 Ibs. of coal
and 10-5 Ibs. of liquid fuel, or a total of 22'3 Ibs. of fuel ;
and assuming the liquid fuel to be equal in calorific effect
to double its weight of coal, that is, 1O5 x 2 = 21 Ibs. of
coal, the total consumption, namely, 32*8 Ibs., would be less
than the ordinary consumption of coal. The advantages
of this system are summed up as follows. First, with
an ordinary grate steam can be easily raised without
working the injector ; secondly, fuel can be interchanged
according to the state of the market; thirdly, with a
thin coal fire oil can be shut off at will without running
the risk of chilling the fire-box ; fourthly, when standing
the coal fire will maintain steam. For several years a
number of locomotive .engines on the Great Eastern
Railway have used liquid fuel, and one of these engines is
recorded to have travelled 47,000 miles without a single
failure or accident. The great difficulty in extending the
use of liquid fuel in England is the impossibility of
obtaining a sufficient supply at a low cost, otherwise it
would be very generally used, considering the great calorific
effect and the practical advantages of its application. The
primary advantage in using liquid fuel lies in its great
calorific value, which is due to its composition, namely,
a mixture of hydrocarbons of various densities.
In the United States the average composition of crude
oil is taken at 86 per cent, of carbon and 14 per cent, of
hydrogen, and the calorific value at 21,192 British heat-
units as compared with coal yielding 14,500 heat-units.
In practice it is found that petroleum refuse gives a
40 PETROLEUM
comparatively better result than its theoretical value. This
has been sometimes erroneously attributed to the action
of decomposing steam supplied by the jet to spray the
oil. But any effect of this kind is an impossibility, because
if the steam were decomposed into its constituent elements
an absorption of heat would take place, in order to liberate
the hydrogen equal to that produced by the re-combination
with oxygen, and no effective result, as far as a develop-
ment of heat, would be obtained. The great calorific effect
of liquid hydrocarbons must be attributed to other causes.
Experiments upon the calorific value of coal show that
the heating power of coal is greater than the theoretical
value of the constituent elements, and this must also be
so in the case of Irydrocarbons.
Be this as it may, the results obtained in practice show
.that in round figures one ton of liquid fuel properly burnt
for heating purposes will be equal to two tons of ordinary
coal. The experience gained up to the present time in
the use of liquid fuel establishes the following facts—
1. That it is a safe and economically manipulated
substance.
2. That its calorific value is much greater than coal, and
consequently it offers advantages of requiring less room
for storage.
3. That its cost at present delivered in England is forty
shillings per ton, equal to two tons of coal in practical
effect.
4. That the supply has to be obtained from foreign
countries, and that the price is unstable.
There is one great advantage in the use of liquid fuel in
LIQUID FUEL 47
locomotives which has not been sufficiently brought for-
ward, and that is the diminished weight to be carried, which
would enable the locomotive to travel many more miles
without stopping for a fresh supply of fuel. The intro-
duction of the water-troughs by Mr. Ramsbottom on the
London and North-Western Railway was attended with
most beneficial results, by enabling trains to run for long
distances without stopping to take in water, and a simi-
lar advantage would follow the adoption of liquid fuel
on railways.
Considering that liquid fuel if properly consumed in a
locomotive does not emit either smoke or noxious vapours,
it seems surprising that it has not been adopted on our
underground railways. There must be some reason for
this ; perhaps the frequent stoppages may be supposed to
interfere with the combustion, and yet one would think
that any mechanical difficulties could be overcome. It is
certain that if a smokeless fuel could be adopted in the
tunnels of the underground railways instead of the sul-
phurous coke at present used, it would be a great
comfort to the millions of passengers who travel by these
lines.
The heavier grades of petroleum distillates have recently
been applied to the enrichment of gas in this country.
The idea of using petroleum for the production or
enrichment of gas is not new. Attempts to enrich water-
gas date as far back as 1824, and a process for the manu-
facture of high standard gas direct from petroleum was
introduced in this country in 1846. There are several
systems by which petroleum is retorted, so that the oil is
48 PETROLEUM
subjected to a heat of about 1600° Fahr., and thus trans-
formed into gas, leaving liquid and solid residuals, one of
the best known being that of Pintsch, but this process is
generally applied to the preparation of gas for compression.:
The process of manufacturing what is termed carburetted
water-gas, which has been in use in the United States
for some time, was introduced into this country only three :
years ago, but since then has been rapidly developed.
The primary reason for the use of petroleum in the manu-
facture of gas lies in the high price of cannel coal, which is
generally used in order to bring the gas up to the legal
illuminating standard. The process of manufacturing car-
buretted water-gas consists in decomposing steam by
passing it through incandescent coke, thus producing
hydrogen and carbonic oxide, and forming what is denom-
inated " water-gas," which in burning produces great heat
but gives very little light. In order to bring it up to the
necessary illuminating power it is charged with a certain
quantity of carburetted hydrogen, in the shape of petroleum
which is gasified and rendered permanent in suitable
apparatus. The process adopted in this country is the
Howe process, by which less than four gallons of oil is
required per 1000 cubic feet of gas to bring it up to an
illuminating power equal to 20 candles. The kind of oil
generally used is that which is known as Russian solar
distillate, being a product passing out of the still after the
kerosene or illuminating oil has been extracted, and before
the lubricating oil is distilled over. But other grades of
oil from America and Scotland have also been successfully
applied. The total quantity of oil of different kinds at
LIQUID FUEL 49
present consumed in this country in the manufacture of
gas may be estimated at from 15 to 20 millions of gallons
a year.
It has been stated that the Fire Brigade Committee of
the London County Council propose to try the experi-
mental use of oil fuel in one of the fire-engines. The
idea seems to be that the use of liquid fuel would be
convenient more especially on the river fire appliances.
CHAPTER IX
THE FLASHING POINT AND LAMP ACCIDENTS
THE temperature at which petroleum oil for ordinary
use ought not to give off inflammable vapour is termed
the safe flashing point, and this degree of heat has been
for some years a matter of discussion, not to say contention.
Originally the limit of safety was fixed at 100° Fahr. open
test, that is to say, that any oil which heated up to that
temperature gave off inflammable vapour in the open air
was considered unsafe, the reason for this limit being that
very rarely in this climate the temperature of the atmo-
sphere in the shade reaches that degree, and this test was
fixed by the legislature.
The first Act of Parliament referring to petroleum was
passed in 1862, soon after the introduction of illuminating
oil from the United States. In this Act petroleum was
defined to include any product thereof which "gives off
an inflammable vapour at a temperature of less than
100° Fahr." But no special method of testing was pre-
scribed by which the degree of inflammability was to be
determined. The next Act, passed in 1868, contained a
detailed system of testing by which the degree of inflam-
mability was to be determined, and it was enacted to
FLASHING POINT AND LAMP ACCIDENTS 51
include certain other specified oils and products which
gave off an inflammable vapour under 100° Fahr. The
apparatus adopted for testing was as follows: — A few
ounces of the liquid to be tested were put in a small
metal cup, provided with a flat rim and raised edges a
quarter of an inch high, which was placed in a larger
vessel containing water, under which was a spirit-lamp.
A thermometer was placed in the oil, which became
gradually heated by the water-bath. A fine wire was
fixed to or resting on the edge, which was thus a quarter
of an inch above the rim, and a very small flame was then
passed along this wire, and the temperature carefully
noted at which an explosion of the vapours took place.
The apparatus was surrounded by a screen to prevent
currents of air interfering with the results. This ap-
paratus was not satisfactory, and so many discrepancies
occurred between tests made by different operators that it
was felt by the trade that some other method of testing
ought to be adopted. This led to the invention of the
close-test apparatus by Sir Frederick Abel, which was
introduced into the Petroleum Act of 1879. The flashing
point of 100° Fahr. with the old open test was taken as
the basis, but replaced by its equivalent, 73° Fahr., by
the new Abel close test. Previous to this Act, another
one, namely, in 1871, had been passed, and when intro-
duced as a bill contained a form of close test, but with a
flashing point of 85° Fahr. The petroleum trade desired
to have the flashing point fixed as low as possible, whereas
the paraffin trade and the Metropolitan Board of Works
were anxious to see it higher than the existing regulation.
52 PETROLEUM
The opposition to the 85° Fahr. flashing point was so great
that the clause was left out of the Act. Although several
attempts were made to rectify this omission by inserting
a test of 82 degrees, these were not successful, and at;
present the test remains at 73° Fahr. In a proposed
Bill in 1888 this test was not changed. The object of all
these Acts is to regulate the storing and conveyance of
inflammable liquids in order to insure public safety, and
stringent regulations have to be observed in the handling
of such liquids having what is considered a dangerous
flashing point — that is to say, giving off inflammable
vapour at a temperature which may be realized under
ordinary circumstances in this climate. Therefore the
petroleum or other inflammable liquids which come under
the Act are such as have a flashing point under 73° Fahr.,
which is considered the safe limit, and no regulation
whatever is provided under the present Act for what
is called high-test petroleum — namely, that which does
not flash at 73° in Abel's close test. In a bill which was
mooted and discussed in 1888, it was proposed to compel
the so-called " safe oil," namely that having a high flash-
ing point, to be stored on registered premises, except as to
retail traders, who were, however, limited to sixty gallons
of safe oil, three gallons of petroleum spirit, and ten
gallons of petroleum and spirit combined. This Bill was
founded on extended inquiries and conferences with the
trade, which had been suggested by the Select Com-
mittee of 1883, and it was introduced and read a first
time in the House of Commons on February 9, 189], but
never got any further. The effect of the Bill was not,
NG POINT AND LAMP ACCIDENTS 53
however, to alter the flashing point, but to introduce
some regulations for the storage of the safe oils in large
quantities.
That some excuse for legislation in this direction exists
must be admitted when we consider that the present
storage of safe petroleum at the wharfs must be about
600,000 barrels, equal to 20,000,000 gallons. The petro-
leum trade is opposed to legislation in this direction, except
as far as safety, as involving possibly a further outlay on
the present costly installations for the storage of petro-
leum at the wharves. Any alteration of the flashing
point as at present fixed would not generally be accept-
able, nor is any alteration necessary, for the accidents
caused by safe illuminating oil, other than those attribut-
able to negligence, are few among the list of such
occurrences.
Nevertheless, the subject of the safe storage and trans-
port. of an inflammable liquid like petroleum oil is one
which demands the attention of the legislature. Last
year a Select Committee of the House of Commons was
appointed to inquire into the matter, and held a few
sittings. The evidence which has been given so far tends
to show that the danger in burning mineral oil as an
illuminant lies more in the use of defective lamps than in
the flashing point of the oil. In 1893 there were 456
fires recorded in London as having occurred through lamp
accidents, and the great majority of these were caused by
the chance upsetting of the lamps; and in 1894 out of
seventy-three fires attended with loss of life, twenty-
seven were caused by mineral oil lamp accidents, involving
54 PETROLEUM
the loss of thirty-two lives. The faulty construction
of the lamps was pointed out by Mr. Spencer in his
evidence, and certainly the cheap foreign lamp as sold in
this country is constructed in a way almost to court
misfortune. Generally these cheap lamps are furnished
with a glass or porcelain reservoir, which breaks when
upset, and then the petroleum oil spreads and ignites at
the burning wick. Therefore it is suggested that the use
of fragile reservoirs ought to be disallowed. Again, in
the common lamps, as at present in use, the flame of the
wick is not in any way protected from the petroleum
vapour which may be in the reservoir above the level of
the oil. This case is almost similar to an open light in a
fiery coal-mine. In order to obviate the danger, safety
lamps have been invented to protect the open flame from
the vapour, not by a wire gauze, but by enclosing the
wick in a metal tube descending to the bottom of the
reservoir through the oil, thus shutting off communication
between the vapour and the flame of the wick. With
such improvements in the construction of lamps it is
anticipated that accidents caused by petroleum oil will be
seldom recorded. The subject of petroleum lamps was
fully considered by Mr. Boverton 'Redwood in his admir-
able Cantor lectures some years ago, and there is not
much to add to what he then said.
The last development in lamps is perhaps the burning
of petroleum vapour instead of the oil itself. A lamp has
been recently introduced in Germany, in which the oil is
allowed to drop from a small reservoir in the upper part
of the lamp into a vapourizing chamber heated by the
vmi VCKOI I Y
X. ~ or
FLASHING POINT AND LAMP ACCIDENTS 55
flame of the burning oil vapour. The initial heat to light
the lamp is produced by introducing at first a small
quantity of spirit. The light is very powerful, and it is
proposed to adopt these lamps for use in large structures,
such as railway-stations, and also for street lighting.
It must be pointed out that accidents caused by petro-
leum lamps are frequently erroneously attributed to
explosions of vapour in the reservoirs. Such explosions
do sometimes take place, although Professor Lambert
doubts their occurrence altogether. The following case of
a lamp explosion came within the writer's knowledge.
On a winter's evening three persons were sitting round a
table on which stood a common petroleum lamp, which
had been burning for about five hours, when it suddenly
exploded without being moved or touched. The frag-
ments of glass were blown in every direction, and the
burning wick dropped on the table, where it was promptly
extinguished. No oil appeared to have been spilt, and
the reservoir must have been empty, and under the circum-
stances would become filled with a mixture of air and
vapour sufficient to cause an explosion. It is needless
to point out that the lamp had been unintentionally placed
in a dangerous condition. Such explosions are, however,
rare. In general, lamp disasters are the result of acci-
dental upsetting of the lamp, and in such cases the
flashing point is not an important factor. That is to say,
a petroleum oil of high flashing point under such circum-
stances will ignite at the burning wick. The analysis of
the usual run of lamp accidents tends to show that the
most important requirements to prevent such occurrences
56 PETROLEUM
are, first, a lamp made of metal which will not easily
be broken, and secondly, some safety contrivance to pre-
vent contact of the vapour in the reservoir with the flame
of the wick.
This is clearly pointed out in the circular of the London
County Council on petroleum lamps, containing sug-
gestions "partly founded on recommendations made by
Sir Frederick Abel, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., and Mr. Boverton
Redwood, F.I.C., F.C.S., after investigating the causes of
lamp accidents." The circular states that the wick should
be enclosed in a thin sheet of metal tube open at the
bottom, which should reach almost to the bottom of the
reservoir. That the oil reservoirs should be made of
metal without any opening other than that into which the
upper part of the lamp is screwed, and that every lamp
should have a proper extinguishing apparatus. If these
suggestions were universally carried out lamp accidents
would be of rare occurrence. But, as Mr. Alfred Spencer
pointed out in his evidence before the Committee of the
House of Commons, the London County Council may
make suggestions, but has no power to enforce them.
It must be added that a great number of the accidents
attributed to petroleum are caused by misuse and careless-
ness. Among the former is the very reprehensible practice
of pouring petroleum oil on the coals in a grate when
lighting a fire, in order to make it burn up quicker. The
following is one out of numerous cases recorded in the
daily press —
" A girl, while kindling a fire at an early hour yesterday
morning, poured some paraffin oil on the fuel to make it
FLASHING POINT AND LAMP ACCIDENTS 57
burn. The flames shot out and caught her clothes, setting
them on fire. She ran screaming into the passage, and
her cries attracted her employer and some passers-by.
Before medical aid could arrive she died in great agony
from the effects of the burns."
Another frequent cause of accident arises from the use
of the small penny lamps. Not long ago a child three
years old was burnt to death through playing with one
of these lamps which had carelessly been left within its
reach.
It would be difficult to prevent such want of prudence
by Act of Parliament, and all that can be done is to warn
people of the danger they run in misusing petroleum in
this manner. Fatal accidents from these causes have been
so frequent that it cannot be out of place here to revert
pointedly to the danger of using petroleum oil in a way
and for purposes for which it is not applicable.
CHAPTER X
PETKOLEUM ENGINES
[Contributed by MR. ARTHUR EOWAN, A.M.I.C.E.]
THESE engines are the latest adaptation of means to
extract from petroleum the energy which lies latent in it.
As compared with gas-engines and steam-engines they
are still in process of development, but should the future
bear out their present promise of freedom from danger
and simplicity of action, it is not too much to expect that
they will be one of the most important, if not the most
important factor in the demand for petroleum, just as the
steam-engine is now the most important factor in the
demand for coal.
The gas-engine in its limited field has shown what a
demand for handy small-power engines exists ; and the
annual consumption of coal-gas has been increased by
many thousands of millions of cubic feet owing to their
invention.
But the field for the petroleum engine is unlimited.
It is an easy calculation that 100,000 engines of only
5 horse-power each would require an annual supply of
200,000,000 gallons of refined oil to keep them at full
work. When it is considered that it is quite possible that
PETROLEUM ENGINES 59
before twenty years have passed two or three hundred
thousand petroleum engines may be at work in Europe,
the power-user may well begin to inquire where is the oil
coming from. Mr. Boyd has already given the answer,
to which the reader can refer.
Before going further it will be necessary for the sake
of brevity and clearness to define in some way the name
" petroleum engine."
The word petroleum is used in England in the loosest
manner. The residues of petroleum refineries are con-
stantly referred to as crude petroleum, whereas crude
petroleum is really an almost unknown product in this
country. A good deal of confusion has also been caused
in the minds of many commercial power-users by constant
references in journals and books to petroleum as fuel.
The progress of petroleum by distillation from its raw or
crude state to the well-known commercial products which
are in daily use is roughly as follows —
1. Crude: Inflammable at very low temperatures; may
not be shipped or stored without special precautions ; is
not at present available for use in petroleum engines.
2. Volatile oils: Often sold as petroleum spirit or petro-
leum essence ; are dangerously inflammable ; much used
to carburet air for "so-called" petroleum engines. 3. Oils
for domestic use : Are known by different names, such as
kerosene, tea-rose, russolene, daylight, etc., etc. ; being
distilled and refined can be burnt inside the cylinders of
internal combustion engines without clogging. 4. Heavy
vise-id oils : Require a high temperature to gasify ; are
very little used as yet for petroleum engines. 5. Rcsidms.
60 PETROLEUM
Petroleum (4 and 5 in above classification) can be and
is used in favourable localities as a fuel to heat furnaces
and boilers, and to produce steam.
The use of petroleum in petroleum engines is an en-
tirely different proceeding, requiring another class of oil,
and is conducted on totally different principles.
In the following pages the words "petroleum engine"
will mean an engine driven by the explosion of refined
mineral oil, such as may be legally used in England for
domestic consumption in lamps, stoves, etc., that is to say,
with a flashing point of 73° Fahr. (close test), and of a
specific gravity between *80 and '85.
Other engines which use the lighter volatile products
of petroleum refineries (Class 2 above), such as benzine,
naphtha, and gasoline, I shall refer to as ''so-called"
oil-engines.
This is a very important distinction to power-users,
because the technical conditions and performances of these
" so-called " oil-engines are often held up for comparison
with the petroleum engine. They were the forerunners
of the present commercial petroleum engine. They are
often good and economical engines, and very useful in
their proper place, but their field must always be a very
limited one, because in every Civilized country severe legal
restrictions are in force con/cerning the storage and sale
of the fuel which they use/! With the improvement of
the petroleum engine theijf use may be expected to die
out, except in certain countries where oil-refining is
carried out on a large scale,, and the minor products must
be utilized in some form.
PETROLEUM ENGINES 61
These volatile oils are so well adapted for the manu-
facture of carburetted air, that, if the price of the oils is
sufficiently low, there will always be found power-users
to take the risk of their use. About 16 per cent, of
American crude mineral oil consists of these volatile oils,
which must be run off before the lamp oil is obtained, so
that a largely increased demand for lamp oil entails a
largely increased supply of the volatile oils.
It is quite outside the scope of this pamphlet to explain
the chemical and dynamical actions of the forces utilized
in the petroleum engine. Suffice it to say here that it is
an " internal explosion " engine. To explain this term I
may perhaps be permitted to take a cannon as a crude
analogy universally known. The cartridge chamber repre-
sents the engine cylinder, the cannon ball represents the
piston in the cylinder, while the explosive powder in the
cannon is represented by a mixture of oil and air in the
engine. A small quantity of oil, intimately mixed with a
certain quantity of air, forms an explosive, more or less
powerful according to the nature of the mixture, and this
explosive has great practical advantages over gunpowder
and other explosives, because both the constituents can be
handled or transported, or stored, without the smallest
risk, while one (air) costs nothing, and the other (oil)
costs very little. Also the power and rate of burning
can be accurately graduated by mixing the two sub-
stances in due proportions. For example, one part of oil
and four of air would give a quick, powerful explosion,
while one part of oil to forty of air would be feeble and
slow.
62 PETROLEUM
Although in petroleum engines every maker uses an
explosive charge of oil and air in the cylinder as the
motive force, yet the explosion is obtained by methods
varying widely not only in detail but also in principle.
Two great divisions in principle may be emphasized with-
out going into technicalities: (1) Where the oil is me-
chanically divided and intimately mixed with air before
explosion ; (2) where the oil constituents are chemically
dissociated, and are converted wholly or partly into true
gases before mixture with air and explosion.
But it is not sufficient merely to obtain an explosion as
in a cannon. In a petroleum engine explosions must
follow each other rapidly and regularly, while their force
and rapidity must be either automatically controlled, or
capable of mechanical adjustment according to the power
which the engine is called upon to exert at a given
moment.
Further, the power derived from the motion of the
piston in the cylinder has to be divided, the minor part
doing the interior work required by the engine itself,
such as compressing air, pumping oil, imparting heat
where required, overcoming friction of moving parts, etc. ;
while the major part is transmitted to the exterior useful
work, of whatever kind required.
This being the case, it is evident that the more the
interior work is diminished the greater is the amount of
force available for useful work. Therefore it is the aim
of every manufacturer and designer (1) to get the maxi-
mum energy possible on the piston, consistent with the
economy of fuel] and material ; (2) to govern the force
PETROLEUM ENGINES 63
produced ; (3) to reduce the interior work of the engine.
To effect these objects great variety of design is employed
by different makers.
The great majority of engines hitherto made have only
one cylinder, and work on the so-called "Otto" cycle,
which gives one explosion and impulse at every second
revolution of the crank. A good many are, however,
working with twin cylinders. These obtain an impulse
every revolution, while a few large marine engines between
75 and 105 horse-power are double-acting, that is to
say, they obtain two impulses to every revolution of the
crank.
In some engines the necessary quantities of air and
oil are injected or sucked into the cylinder together, then
compressed and fired. In some the air only is compressed,
and the oil charge in its chemically or mechanically sub-
divided state is injected just before ignition. Some
makers heat the air before admission to the cylinder, some
warm it, some admit it cold.
In some engines the oil is forced into the cylinders by
pressure varying in different engines from 8 Ibs. to 75 Ibs.
to the square inch ; in others it is merely sucked in by
the motion of the piston in the cylinder. Ignition of the
charge at the right moment is effected by widely varying
means. In some by an electric spark, in some by a red-
hot tube, in some by a naked flame, and in some by the
heat of the preceding explosion.
The reader who wishes to study the subject, and
appreciate the infinite ingenuity and care bestowed on
these details, will find various elaborate treatises published
64 PETROLEUM
on the subject within the last three years, and many special
articles on the same subject in the technical journals. So
far as the general public and the petroleum industry are
concerned, it is sufficient to know that several of these
designs have passed out of the experimental stage into
the commercial, and have worked smoothly and successfully
for years.
The mechanical difficulties being conquered, rapid
development both in size and efficiency must follow.
Each type of engine will find its most fitting market.
In out-of-the-way spots, economy of fuel will be sacri-
ficed to simplicity of construction ; where artisans and
workshops are plentiful, simplicity may well be sacrificed
to economy of fuel.
The prime cost is at present a stumbling-block in the
way of many small power-users, but with an increased
demand and more numerous orders, prices will fall.
It is a curious fact that the price of these engines
remains relatively high, although the supply apparently
far exceeds the demand. Over thirty large engineering
shops in Europe are engaged in the manufacture, while
the patents applied for in 1894, for " Improvements in
Oil-engines," may be numbered by hundreds.
This relation between supply and demand might be
explained in various ways. I shall content myself with
pointing out the causes which are actually creating
or may be expected to create a rapid increase in the
demand.
A glance at the catalogues of well-known manufacturers
will show at once many causes " claimed."
PETROLEUM ENGINES 65
No boiler.
No external -fire.
No sparks or lights of any kind.
No coal or coke required.
Absolutely free from danger.
No driver required.
Started in five minutes.
No water consumed.
Self-contained.
More efficient than any other engine.
More economical than any other engine.
All these claims and others may be grouped under the
three heads of relative safety, relative convenience, and
relative economy, as in comparison with gas- and steam-
engines ; and it will be of interest to follow out as briefly
as possible some of the reasons and facts on which these
claims are based. If they are well founded, then the
demand is insured, and with the demand will follow the
fall in price which the petroleum industry desires.
Relative safety. — There is no doubt that the petroleum
engine has advantages. A carefully-driven and well-
maintained steam-engine is safe, but the safety depends
on the driver. His absence or negligence may lead to
disastrous explosions.
This is a truism, but an extract from a very recent case,
recording the opinion of H.M. Inspector of Factories,
shows that it cannot be repeated too often.
" MAJOR VAUGHAN : Unfortunately, this employment
" of boys to look after engines is very common at these
" small factories. The Home Office is not able to interfere.
r
66 PETROLEUM
" JUDGE FRENCH : Is no certificate of competence
"required of an engineer in charge of an engine ? With
" an incompetent man or ignorant boy, the lives of all the
"workmen on the premises are endangered.
"MAJOR VAUGHAN: No, not under the Factory Act.
" I often call the attention of the employers to the fact that
" boys are engaged in such work.
"JUDGE FRENCH: What is the use of appealing to
" such employers ? You should impress the danger of the
" system on the Home Office. I hope you will report this
" to your Department. Under the Mines Act, a certificate
" of competency is required of engineers ; the Home Office
" might be induced to extend the system to Factories."
With coal-gas engines supplied from a main, when the
ignition is by naked flame, a certain amount of risk,
though it be small, must always be connected ; but a well-
designed petroleum engine has all the elements of safety.
If the attendant is negligent or absent, or the engine is
dirty, the worst that can occur is the stoppage of the]
engine and loss of time.
Fire Insurance Companies charge no extra premium
when petroleum engines are used in buildings, unless a
naked flame is used.
In " relative convenience," in working, petroleum engines
appear to have great advantages over steam-engines ; while
as regards erection, the absence of the boiler and other
appliances must be a distinct advantage, especially when
large engines are to be used.
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68 PETROLEUM
Steam-engines must be constantly fed with fuel and
water, arid the smaller they are, the more often they
require attention when at full work ; whereas a petroleum
engine at full work may be arranged to run for days, or
even weeks, with no more attention than is necessary to
lubricate the bearings, and in some cases the cylinders.
Again, a steam-engine requires a trained attendant,
whereas it is an undoubted fact that any servant of ordinary
intelligence can learn in a day or two to work a petroleum
engine, at all events up to a certain size, and not only to
start or stop it, but also to find out what is wrong, and
do the necessary cleaning or replacing of parts.
In both petroleum and steam-engines the fuel must be
stored and carried to the engine. Certainly petroleum is
handier and cleaner than coal, though its peculiar odour
is not liked by most people. In storage it has a decided
advantage, inasmuch as one ton of oil and one ton of coal
each require about 40 cubic feet of store room, but one
ton of oil will do three or four times the work of one ton
of coal.
Relative economy. — This is a most difficult point to
treat briefly, as so many factors have to be considered.
The main expense in a petroleum engine is the fuel itself.
At the present moment Russolene petroleum costs under
.V. per gallon ex quay English ports.
A gallon of Russolene weighs on an average 8J Ibs.,
therefore 1 cwt. equals say 13J gallons, which at M. per
gallon equals 3s. 4Jd. per cwt. Therefore 3s. 4Jrf. plus
cost of delivery is the basis on which each power-user can
base his calculations for comparison with other engines.
PETROLEUM ENGINES 69
I may here again point out that there is no waste in
handling this fuel, provided that the receptacles are well
made.
The price of the fuel is thus easily arrived at, but the
commercial power-user requires also a guide as to the
useful effect he will get from this expensive fuel. He will
naturally turn to the catalogues of manufacturers.
As a rule, however, engine-makers' catalogues are com-
piled more for the technical than the commercial public.
Some reckon by nominal horse-power, some by indicated
horse-power, some by brake horse-power, and some by
effective horse-power.
The term " nominal horse-power " is purely nominal, and
it is not easy to see why it should ever be used in connection
with oil-engines, unless to puzzle buyers.
The indicated horse-power is the sum of the interior and
exterior work (see page 62), which is the true measure
of the total energy exerted in the cylinder on the piston ;
while the brake or effective horse-power is, or should be,
the measure of the power available for transmission to any
given duty.
The ratio between the effective horse-power and the
indicated horse-power is called the mechanical efficiency of
the engine.
Again, every fuel gives out a certain amount of energy
or heat while burning. The amount of that heat or
energy which is eventually utilized on the piston of the
engine may be called the fuel efficiency.
A little reflection will show that the interior work of
any engine must depend not only upon the details of
70 PETROLEUM
construction and general design, but also upon the amount
of friction, which is a factor varying from day to day, and
dependent on circumstances, such as speed, lubrication,
cleanliness, etc., and which can only be gauged by actual
experiment at a given time. It is quite a common ex-
perience that small steam-engines which may give an
effective horse-power for 4 Ibs. of coal on a fair trial in the
maker's shop, will be found to require 8 Ibs. after twelve
months' work in ignorant or careless hands. The fuel
efficiency has decreased through deposits on the heating
surfaces, and the mechanical efficiency has decreased owing
to increased friction.
Petroleum engines are not so liable to this form of
deception, because they are self-stoking, and may be self-
lubricating, while any dirt or deposit stops the engine, and
thereby calls attention very forcibly to the faults of the
attendant.
Nevertheless, some attention must be given, and no
maker can guarantee a continued effect from a cwt. of oil
unless the engine is under his care, and he supplies the
oil, but the effect which the buyer may fairly expect from
an engine can be arrived at in another way ; that is, the
maker can guarantee the indicated horse-power when a
certain kind of oil is used, or in other words he can
guarantee the fuel-efficiency.
If the purchaser has some information on the con-
stituents and heating power of various oils, he can analyze
the oil he intends to use, and form his own judgment as
to whether a given engine will suit his wants.
Thus, if a power-user asks the question, " What effect
PETROLEUM ENGINES 71
i can I expect from a cwt. of Russolene oil in a petroleum
engine ? " he must make some such calculation as this to
obtain an answer.
One pound of Russolene oil will yield when exploded
say 19,000 heat-units. Of this say 60 per cent, will
escape through the cylinder, and say 25 per cent, through
the exhaust and chimney, leaving 15 per cent, as work
done in the cylinder on the piston, that is, 2850 (15 per
cent, of 19,000) heat-units have yielded up their energy
in moving the piston forward. Of these 2850, about one-
fifth may be assumed to be used in the interior work of
the engine, leaving 2280 heat-units available for exterior,
useful work.
It is hardly necessary now-a-days to point out that heat
and power are transposable terms.
One heat-unit is 772 foot-pounds.
One horse-power is 33,000 foot-pounds per minute.
Therefore one horse-power hour is 1,980,000 foot-pounds ;
therefore if one pound of oil yields (2850 X 772) 2,200,200
foot-pounds, one cwt. will yield (2,200,200 X 112)
246,400,000 foot-pounds, which divided by 1,980,000
gives 124 horse-power hours, and therefore one cwt. of
oil, value 3s. 4>^d. plus cost of delivery, should keep a
petroleum engine at useful work for 124 horse-power
hours.
I have made this calculation at length, because any
fuel may be treated in the same way, if its heat value
is known. Thus, one pound of Scotch shale lamp-oil is
estimated to contain 19,700 heat-units, while one pound
of average coal contains about 14,000 heat-units. To
72 PETROLEUM
present a comparison of the effect of the universal fuel:
coal, with the above figures —
Take one cwt. of coal, value say 9d., one pound of which
will yield, when burned, 14,000 heat-units. Coal cannot
be burned like oil in the engine cylinder ; its heat has to
pass from a furnace, through metal, to water, transform
the water to steam, and in that form it arrives in the
cylinder. In these transformations 13,300 heat-units will
probably disappear. The exact amount lost will depend
on the design of boiler and engine, but in the best
designs 12,500 will be lost.
Assuming, however, 700 heat-units to survive and be
converted into work in the cylinder by motion of the
piston, one-seventh will be required for the interior work
of the engine, and 600 remain for useful work from one
pound of coal, as against 2280 from one pound of Russo-
lene oil. By calculation as before, one cwt. of coal would
yield 30 horse-power hours.
The above calculations are only to be taken as examples
of average results deduced from experience. In a small
cheap steam boiler and engine not half the above result
might be obtained.
Some relative efficiencies of different heat-engines are
given by Sir Guildford Molesworth, the well-known
engineer (see Appendix A, Table I.).
This table is a very useful one in giving the relative
values of various heat-engines, viz. steam, and gas, and
hot-air, which all use coal as primary source of heat, and
it includes one engine which uses petroleum explosively.
In compiling this table such an authority as Sir G. Moles-
PETROLEUM ENGINES 73
worth may fairly be assumed to be correct in the relative
values, even though absolute values might be disputed.
It will be seen that with the exception of large steam-
engines which have all the best fuel and heat-saving
apparatus, the petroleum engine has a far greater fuel-
efficiency than any of the others.
It is highly probable that the fuel-efficiency will be
increased by further improvements, and should the fuel
cost decrease by even one-third, the petroleum engine
will take the highest rank in "relative economy " of fuel,
although the mechanical efficiency must always be less
than that of the steam-engine, as there is more internal
work to be done.
In the last competitive trials held by the Royal Agricul-
tural Society, the first prize was adjudged to a petroleum
engine the mechanical efficiency of which was 0'83. This
engine was selected as the best all-round engine for farm-
yard work, but there were others which showed a still
higher efficiency. One engine reached the very satisfactory
figure of 0'8S, and consumed only 0'73 Ib. of Russolene
oil per horse-power per hour. In the portable engine trials
the winning engine used only eighty gallons of water in
a three days' run of twenty-two hours.
The following table may be of assistance to power-
users.
bO
°
pii
i I
PETROLEUM ENGINES 73
No estimate of cost is shown in the preceding table,
because of the ever-varying prices of material in different
countries. Every power-user knows the prices in his own
district, and can fill up the estimates and make his own
comparisons. If he lives in a town where gas is sold at
a reasonable price, he will prefer a gas-engine ; if he lives
in a country where wood and water are easily obtained, he
will prefer a steam-engine ; but there are thousands of
places where there is no gas available, and where no
steam-engine is "even possible. There is the field for the
petroleum engine at present ; always provided that the
cost of petroleum is not excessive. And it cannot be too
much emphasized that in all parts of the world petroleum
might be a cheap and plentiful fuel if import dues were
abolished. Storage on a large scale at sea-ports is
absolutely necessary for a cheap and constant inland
supply, while cheap freights must be by tank steamer and
special appliances.
Unless foreign governments will put petroleum fuel, as
regards duty, on the same footing as coal fuel, capital will
not be forthcoming for those purposes. At present coal
is very properly admitted at low tariffs as being a necessity
of existence, while petroleum appears to be regarded as
a luxury to be highly taxed. If, however, petroleum is
found to be a cheaper and more effective fuel than coal,
it is hoped that these governments will re-consider the
tariffs, and admit petroleum free or at very low duties.
Then the future of the petroleum engine will begin.
CHAPTER XI
THE FUTURE OF PETROLEUM
IT would be very difficult at present to foretell the
future development of this valuable natural product. It
has already become the most generally useful illuminant
of the^day, and in this respect it will probably increase in
popularity. It fully realizes the demand for a cheap and
good light, and is independent of the costly installations
required for gas or electricity. When petroleum was first
obtained in large quantities, the only, or almost the only,
use it was put to was for the preparation of lighting oils.
The bye products, however, soon found a demand, and
lubricating oils, medical preparations, and paraffin wax
were manufactured. These were followed in Russia by
the application of the heavy residue remaining after the
lighter products had been distilled over to heating, and
this " liquid fuel " soon became greatly used on the South
Russian railways and Caspian Sea steamers. In the
United States a fresh field for some of the heavier dis-
tillates was found in the enrichment of gas. This appli-
cation has been recently introduced into Great Britain,
and has met with considerable success. In this direction
it may be anticipated that a much larger demand will
THE FUTURE OF PETROLEUM 77
follow on the first successful introduction. Perhaps the
most marked success in new adoptions of petroleum to
practical purposes is found in the motors generally known
as " petroleum engines," which but a very few years since
were looked on as toys by practical engineers, and which
have now become rivals to the steam-engine. These engines
are capable of being adopted for many varied purposes,
among others that of replacing the various methods of
transmission of power, because a petroleum engine can be
used in the most inaccessible places, where if necessary the
supply of oil can be conveyed through a pipe.
Another direction in which great advance has been
made of late is in the construction of stoves for domestic
and industrial use. Whatever novel applications may be
within the possible range of invention, the increase in the
consumption of petroleum will lie in the further develop-
ment of appliances for the production of light, heat, and
power in this country, provided we can obtain a sufficient
supply at a moderate cost. The reserves of petroleum
must not be considered as inexhaustible, but we have
sufficient evidence to prove that immense quantities of
crude oil are to be found in many parts of the world, and
with the present improved mode of transport, these supplies
can be, and no doubt will some day be made available and
brought to this market. The increased demand for
petroleum in this country is the more certain to take
place as it enters free of duty. In most other countries a
heavy duty is imposed on refined, and a light one on
crude oil. The result of this system is to protect the
trade of refining within the limits of the territory. There
78 PETROLEUM
is no reason why crude oil should not be imported into'
the United Kingdom, and the process of refining carried
out here as elsewhere. In fact it appears strange that
this has never been carried out.
The process, as already briefly described, consists in the
fractional distillation of the crude oil, by means of which
it is subdivided into a number of distillates, according to
the temperature at which they pass from the still, thus
producing a variety of oils varying in density, flashing
point, and colour, and known by a corresponding difference
in designation. The different grades or divisions are
arbitrarily adopted by manufacturers to suit the kind of
crude oil treated, and the special requirements of the
market to be supplied. Hence in countries where crude
oil is imported and locally refined, it is divided into such
products as suit the needs of the public. This is clearly
in favour of local treatment. The future development of
the petroleum trade in this country depends primarily on
a good supply at moderate cost, and it appears to me that
the best way to insure this is to import crude oil from
points where it exists, and which lie within easy transport
of this country. The sources from which it might be
derived would be, for example, the West India Islands and
the South American Atlantic coast. Petroleum is known
to exist in Mexico, Venezuela, and Argentina, but has
not yet been raised in any quantity in these countries,
nor would there be much inducement to do so if the
object was confined to supplying these countries with
kerosene. But if we take into consideration the broader
view of the question, namely, that of supplying Europe
THE FUTURE OF PETROLEUM 79
with crude oil, an immense market would at once be
available.
There are many other parts of the world besides those
just enumerated where petroleum has been proved to
exist, and which might eventually be brought to the home
market. Prominent among these we must place the
large fields of North-west Canada, which are waiting for
some means of communication with the sea-board; and
among recent developments, mention must also be made
of those which have taken place in the far East, in Java,
Sumatra, Borneo, etc., which promise good results. Pos-
sibly a future supply to this country might be obtained
from these far-off fields in spite of the great distance,
which can be overcome by means of the comparatively
cheap transport by tank-steamers.
The future of petroleum in this country depends in a
great measure on development in this direction. It is
needless to point out that our present supply is derived
from two sources only, namely, the United States and
Russia, and any alteration in the existing circumstances of
the trade would indubitably lead to a rise in the price,
which, although probably not affecting the use of the
illuminating oils, would greatly impede an extended
consumption of petroleum for industrial purposes.
APPENDIX A
TABLE I.
(SIR G. MOLESWORTH.)
Shows the percentage of theoretical heat or combustion
which is rendered into useful work by different motors.
Percent.
By small high-pressure engine without expansion ... 1*8
„ Ericson's hot-air engine T8
,, Lehman's hot-air engine ... ... ... ... 1*8
„ Lenoir's gas-engine 2*0
,, portable steam-engine ... ... ... ... 2*8
„ high-pressure steam-engine with expansion ... 3*0
„ hot-air engine (Leavitt's) ... ... ... ... 3'5
„ - „ (Belon's) 4-1
„ condensing engine with expansion 4*5
„ gas-engine (Otto & Lan gen) 5*0
„ petroleum engine ... ... ... ... ... 8*4
„ large steam-engine, best make 9*0
Flashing point of mineral oils which may be legally
used as lamp oils in various countries.
United Kingdom 73° Fahr. (close test).
"Russia 82° „
America... 100° „ (open test).
France ... ]<)0° „ (open test).
Germany 70° „ (close test).
Switzerland 95° „ (open test).
Austria 100° „ (open test).
India 110° „ (close test).
APPENDIX A 81
TABLE II.
(MOLESWORTH AND UNWIN.)
Shows relative heats of perfect combustion of one pound
of various fuels.
Average coal being TOO —
Wood is 0-58
Scotch shale oil (1st run) „ 0'80
Steam coal „ 1'15
Patent fuel briquettes ... „ 1'18
Anthracite coal „ 1'20
Kussolene lamp oil ... „ 1*35
Koyal Daylight lamp oil „ 1*40
Scottish shale lamp oil... „ 1'42
USEFUL MEMOKANDA.
1 Imperial gallon water weighs 10 Ibs.
1 Imperial gallon lamp oil, average weight, 8| Ibs.
1 American gallon lamp oil, average weight, 7 Ibs.
6 American gallons equal 5 Imperial gallons.
1 horse-power hour is equal to 1,980,000 foot-pounds.
1 horse-power hour equals 2570 heat-units.
1 kilogramme = 2*2 Ibs.
I hectolitre = 22 Imp. gallons.
1 pood (Russian) = 36 Ibs. = 3'6 Imp. gallons (water)
1 Oke (Egyptian) = 2'7 Ibs.
1 Cho (Japan) = 1*6 quarts.
1 Imp. gallon = 4*537 litres.
1 U.S. gallon = 3-80 litres.
1 U.S. barrel = 35 Imp. gallons = 42 U.S. gallons.
APPENDIX B
Bonbon (Itouutn Council.
PUBLIC CONTROL DEPARTMENT,
21, WHITEHALL PLACE, S.W.
J-uly 1893.
PETROLEUM LAMPS.
In view of the numerous fatal and other accidents caused by
Petroleum Lamps, the Council considers it desirable to make public
the following suggestions, which are partly founded on recommenda-
tions made by SIR FREDERICK ABEL, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., and MR.
BOVERTON REDWOOD, F.I.C., F.C.S., after investigating the causes
of lamp accidents.
Suggestions as to the Construction and Management of
Petroleum (or Paraffin) Lamps.
CONSTRUCTION OF LAMPS.
1.— The wick should be enclosed in a tube of thin sheet
metal, open at the bottom. This wick tube should reach
almost to the bottom of the reservoir containing the oil.
2. — The oil reservoir should be of metal, and not of
china, glass, or other fragile material.
3- — The upper part of the lamp which comprises the
burner, wick-tube, etc., should be constructed to securely
screw into the metal reservoir.
4. — The oil reservoir should have no feeding-place nor
opening other than the opening into which the upper part
of the lamp is screwed.
APPENDIX B 83
5. — Every lamp should have a broad and heavy base,
and a proper extinguishing apparatus.
WICKS.
6. — Wicks should be soft, and not tightly plaited, and
should quite fill the wick-holder without having to be
squeezed into it.
7. — Wicks should be dried at the fire before being put
into lamps, and should be soaked with oil before being
lit.
MANAGEMENT.
8. — The reservoir should be quite filled with oil every
time before using the lamp.
9. — The lamp should be kept thoroughly clean, all oil
should be carefully wiped off, and all charred wick and
dirt removed before lighting.
10. — When first lit, the wick should be partially turned
down, and then slowly raised.
11. — Lamps which have no extinguishing apparatus
should be put out as follows : — The wick should be turned
down until there is only a small flickering flame, and a
sharp puff of breath should be sent across the top of the
chimney, but not down it.
12. — Cans or bottles used for oil should be free from
water and dirt, and should be kept thoroughly closed.
ALFRED SPENCER,
Chief Officer.
NOTE. — These suggestions apply to ordinary Petroleum
or Paraffin lamps such as are generally used, and not to
Benzoline or Spirit lamps.
APPENDIX C
CALORIFIC VALUE OF CRUDE OIL ACCORDING TO DR.
GINTL.
West Virginia
Pennsylvania
Java
Baku
East Galicia...
West Galicia
Roumania . . ,
Methane
Ethylene
FRKNCH CALORTKS. BRITISH HEAT UNITS.
10,180
9,963
10,831
11,460
10,085
10,231
10,005
13,065
11,850
APPENDIX D
18,324
17,933
19,495
20,628
18,153
18,415
18,009
23,517
21,330
IMPORT DUTIES ON CRUDE AND REFINED PETROLEUM
IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.
(Given approximately in English money and cwts.)
(1 c.wt. = 14 gallons.)
Austria
France
Germany
Holland
Italy ...
Portugal
Spain
CRUDE.
2.s.
7s. 2
12*. 6<7.
5d. '
12*. 6(/.
REFINKD.
IQa.
12s. 6(/
APPENDIX D
85
BRITISH COLONIES.
Canada
Cape of Good Hope
India
Newfoundland ...
New South Wale*
New Zealand
South Australia
Queensland
Tasmania
Victoria
West Australia . .
Kerosene
. . . 3]k/. per gallon.
. . . free „
... Gd. „
Gd.
E.
UNIVERSITY
London Show Rooms and Stores,
11 QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, E.G.
Works : Bour»ton9 Dorset
ENGINES.
DYNAMOS.
MOTORS.
BOILERS. SAW BENCHES.
PUMPS. HOISTS.
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