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THE 

PHILOSOPHICAL  MAGAZINE 

COMPREHENDING 

'   THE  VARIOUS  BRANCHES  OF  SCIENCE^ 
THE  LIBERAL  AND  FINE  ARTS, 
AGRICULTURE,  MANUFACTURES, 

AND 

COMMERCE* 


BY  ALEXANDER  TILLOCH, 

MEMBER  OF  THE  LONDON  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY,  ETC.  ETC. 


**  Nee  aranearum  fane  textus  ideo  melior,  quia  ex  fe  fila  gignuht.     Ncc  nofter 
v\\\i>x  quia  ex  alicnis  libamus  ut  apes.'*     Just.  Lips.  Montt.  Polity  lib.  i.  cap,  i. 


<C-'f->  >}:• 


VOL.  IX. 


LONDON: 

PRIKTED  BV  DAVIS,  TAVLOR^  AND  WILKS,  CHANCERY- LAK«, 

For  Alexander   Tilloch  ;    and   fold   by   Meffrs.  RiCHAkasoK, 

Cornhill;  Cadell  and  Davies,  Strand;  Drbrett,  Piccadillyi 

Murray  and  Highley,  No.  32,  Fieet-ftreet ;  Symonds, 

Pater-nofter  Row;    Bell,    No.    14H,   Oxford-ftreet j 

Verkor  and  Hood,  Poultry;    Hakdin'g,  No.  36, 

St.  James's-ftreet  ;    Bell   and   Bradfote, 

Edinburgh;  Brash  and  Reiu,  Glafgow  ; 

i^nd  W-  rn.iiERT,   Dublin. 


CONTENTS 

OF   THE 

NINTH    VOLUME 


H ISTORY of  Aslroiwmy  for  the  Year  1800.  By  Jerome 
De  Lalande  -  -  .  -  3,  105 

A  brief  Jccount  of  the  Manufacture  of  Gilt  Buttons,  com- 
prising  some  Improvements  important  to  Manufacturers  15 

A  Treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine,  and  the  Method 
ofrnaking  Wines,     By  C.  Chaptal.    21,  122,  262,  326 

Description  of  an  improved  Family  Oven,  invented  by  Mr. 
S.  Holmes,  of  Castle-court,  in  the  Strand,  London      30 

Account  of  the  Under- ground  inclined  Plane  executed  at 
Wnlkden-Moor,  in  Lancashire,  by  His  Grace  the  Duke  of 
Bridgewater.  '  By  the  Rev.  Francis  H.  Egerton        31 

Dr,  Dickson's  Translation  fujiih  NotesJ  of  Carnot  on  the 
Infinitesimal  Calculus  -  -  39 

On  the  Ucility  of  Birds  in  destroying  Insects  and  other  Pro- 
ductions  hurtful  to  Mankind  -  -  56 

On  Decortication,  as  a  Means  for  freeing  Orchards  from 
Insects  -  -  -  -         63 

Account  of  C.  F.  Damberger's  Travels  through  the 
interior  Parts  of  yJfrica,fro7n  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to 
Morocco  -  -  -  64,  1 37 

An  Acanint  rf  ike  Life  and  IFritings  of  Lavoisier.  By 
Jerome  Lalande  -  -  -  7S 

Life  of  Abraham  Gothelf  Kastner,  Professor  of  Ma- 
thematics at  Got  tin  gen  -  -  97 

Translation  of  a  Memoir  on  a  new  Species  of  Siren,  By 
M.  De  Beauvois  -  -  -  1 1'S 

.On  the  Extraction  of  Opium  from  Garden  Lettuce  134 

Notice  respecting  the  Inscriptions  brought  from  Egypt  by  the 
Officers  of  the  French  Army.  Read  in  the  public  Sitting 
of  the  National  Institute  on  the  3th  of  January,  By 
C.  Ameilmon  -  -  -  141 

Researches  respecting  the  Latvs  of  Affinity,  By  C.  Ber- 
TiioLLET,  Member  of  the  National  Institute,  &c. 

146,  342 

On  Mr.  IVc-dgwood's  Pyrometer  -  -  153 

An  Attempt  to  prove  that  the  Matter  of  Heat,  like  other  Sub- 
stances, possesses  not  only  Volume  but  Gravity ;  being  a 
Second  Essay  on  Caloric.  By  Alexander  Tilloch. 
Read  bej'ore  the  Aske^ian  Society  November  1800  158 

Account  of  the  Manner  in  luhich  the  Tartars  and  Kalmuks 
make  their  Kumis,  or  fennented  Marcos  Milk  167 

Vol,  IX.  a  '     Singular 


ii  CONTENTS. 

Singular  Case  of  Dropsy  -  -  1 68 

Accottvt  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Or.oF  Toujjern 
Bkugmai^,  Professor  of  Chemistry  at  Upsal         -       193 

History  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing,  from  the  earliest  Jqcs.  By 
J.  N.  BiscHOFF  -  -  200,  302 

Letter  from  Dr,  Moves  /o  Dr.  Garthshore,  containing  an 
Account  of  some  interesting  Experiments  with  M.  Volta's 
Galvanic  Pile  -  -  -  217 

Account  of  Experiments  made  in  Germany  luith  Volta's 
Galvanic  Apparatus  -  -  221 

An  Account  of  the  Petroleum.  JVells  in  theBurmha  Dominions: 
extracted  from  the  Journal  of  a.  Foy  age  from.  Rang  hong  up 
the  River  Erai'Wuddey  to  Amarapdorah,  the  present  Capital 
of  the  Burmha  P2m.pire.  By  Captain  Hiram  Cox,  Resi- 
dent  at  Rang  hong  -  -  -  226 

Account  of  Mr.  Mushet's  neia  Method  of  making  Steel  of 
vario2is  Qualities  -  -  -  235 

Experiments  and  Observations  on  the  Vitality  and  Life  of 
Germs.  By  Victor  MiciUiLom^  M.  D.  of  Turi?!.     240 

Memoir  on  the  Quantity  of  Vital  Air  in  the  Aimosphere,  arid 
the  different  Methods  of  measuring  it.  By  M.  Anthony 
DE  Marti,  Member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  the  ylris 
and  Sciences  at  Barcelona  -  -  250 

observations  on  Mosaic,  and  the  most  celebrated  Works  of 
that  Kind  both  antient  and  modern  -  289 

On  the  Improvement  of  Time-Keepers.  By  David  Ritten- 
HousE,  LL.D,  President  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Society  -  -"  -  -  298 

Description  of  a  new  invented  Steam-  En <ji fie,  iiitended  to 
give  Motion  to  IVater- IV heels  in  Places  uhere  there  is  no 
Fall,  and  but  a  very  small  Stream  or  Spring.  By  John 
Nancarrow  >  .  -  300 

yj  Biographical  Sketch  of  Cou?it  Rumford.  -        315 

Account  of  Messrs.  Tvrsbui.l  and  Crook's  neiv  Method 
of  Bleaching  or  IVhitening  and  Cleansing  Cotton- Wool, 
Plax,  Hemp,  &jc.  and  Goods  manufactured  from  any  of 
these  Materials  -  -  -  318 

Experiments  cmd  Remarks  on  Galvanism.  A  Letter  from  a 
Correspondent  to  the  Editor  -  -  352 

On  the  Mamfacture  and  constituent  Parts  of  Gunpowder, 
Read  before  the  Askesian  Society  May  1^01.  By  Mr, 
R.  Coleman,  of  the  Royal  Mills,  Waltham  Abbey  \  a 
corresponding  Metuber  of  the  Society .  -  355 

Letter  from  M.  A.  Humboldt /o  C.  Delambre,  JWewZ'^r 
of  the  French  National  Institute  -  3b'5 

Account  of  New  Publications  -  91,  170,  2(iS 

Proceedings  of  Learned  Societies  85,  170;  ^80,  370 

Miscellaneous  Articles  -        ^      85,  170,  2ti5,  375 


/ 


THE 

PHILOSOPHICAL  MAGAZINE. 


I.    Hiftory  of  AJlronomy  for  the  Year  1800.     By  Jerome 
De  Lalande  *. 

L  HP  century  now  clofed  has  been  very  remarkable  in 
regard  to  aflronomy :  telefcopes,  indeed,  and  the  laws  of 
Kepler  and  of  attra6lion,  will  place  the  17th  century  at  the 
head  of  all  the  reft.  Nothing  had  been  before  done,  and  the 
iirft  century,  when  aftronomers  began  to  labour,  ought  to  be 
that  of  difcoveries.  But  the  i8th  century  has  furnifhed  us 
with  at  leaft  twelve  epochs  fo  important  that  it  will  bear  to 
be  compared  with  the  preceding.  A  new  capital  planet  and 
eight  fatellites  difcovered,  the  periodical  return  of  comets 
known  and  demonftrated,  and  68  new  comets  obfcrved  and 
determined ;  the  aberration  and  nutation  of  the  ftars ;  the 
tranfit  of  Venus,  and  the  true  diftance  of  the  fun  and  of  all 
the  planets ;  the  figure  of  the  earth  and  its  irregularities ; 
calculations  in  regard  tp  the  inequalities  produced  by  attrac- 
tion, and,  above  all,  in  regard  to  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  which 
have  furniflied  correal  tables  of  all  the  planets  and  their  fa- 
tellites 5  tables  of  the  moon,  the  moft  important  of  all,  car- 
ried to  the  precifion  of  a  quarter  of  a  minute ;  and,  in  the 
laft  place,  50,000  ftars  accurately  obferved  :  all  thcfe  far  fur- 
pafs  the  hopes  which  could  have  been  conceived  a  century 
ago  of  the  progrefs  of  aftronomy  fince  that  period.  To  thefe 
we  muft  add  the  improvement  of  aftronomical  inftruments  : 
fctSlors,  meridian  telefcopes,  whole  circles,  reflecting  circles^ 

'*  From  Magazin  Etvyrlopcdique^  No.  17,  an.  9. 

A  %  telefcopes 


No.  XXXIII.  February  1801, 


4  Htflory  of  AJlronomy  for  the  Year  1800. 

telefcopes  by  Short  and  Herfchel,  compenfation  balances, 
marine  time-keepers,  all  afTumed  in  the  laft  century  a  new 
face. 

The  conclufion  of  the  laft  century  was  remarkable  in 
many  refpefts.  Some  days  before  the  end  of  the  year  1799, 
C,  Mechain  difcovered  a  comet  in  Ophiuchus ;  it  was  ob- 
ferved  alfo  by  Meffier.  Mechain  and  Burckhardt  took  the 
earlieft  opportunity  of  calculating  the  elements  of  it. 

What  was  fo  tedious  and  difficult  fifty  years  ago,  is  at  pre- 
fent  the  work  of  a  few  hours.  This  comet  was  feen  only  fof 
a  few  days,  and  appeared  to  the  naked  eye  as  a  ftar  oA  the 
fifth  or  iixth  magnitude*  It  is  the  91ft,  the  orbits  of  which 
have  been  calculated. .  Its  orbit  has  been  calculated  alfo  in 
Germaiiy  by  M.  Olbers  and  M.  De  Wahl. 

The  prize  propofed  by  the  Inftitute  for  determining  the 
orbit  of  the  comet  of  1770,  has  produced  an  excellent  me- 
inpir  by  Burckhardt,  in  which  the  qucftion  has  been  refolved ; 
but,  to  reprefent  the  obfervations,  he  has  been  obliged,  like 
Mr.  Lcxel,  to  recur  to  an  orbit  of  five  years.  However  ex- 
traordinary that  refult  may  appear,  the  attraction  of  Jupiter 
feems  capable  of  explaining  that  derangement;  but  this  ar- 
ticle would  require  long  difcuflions. 

The  graridiabour  refpefting  the  ftars,  which  we  began  on 
the  5th  of  Auguft  1789,  has  been  continued  with  courage, 
and  fuccefsfully  terminated  by  Le  Fran^ais-Lalande.  He 
has  determined  the  places  of  50,000  ftars,  from  the  pole  to 
two  or  three  degrees  below  the  tropic  of  Capricorn ;  and  he 
has  already  begun,  with  Burckhardt,  to  review  the  zodiacal 
conftellations,  in  the  hopes  of  finding  fome  new  planets^ 
Madame  Le  Fran^ais,  who  has  already  reduced  10,000  ftars, 
has  beQ:un  the  reduction  of  the  whole  number  with  exem- 
plary  ardour.  Thcfe  50,000  ftars,  terminated  with  the  i8th 
century,  will,  in  my  opinion,  form  a  remarkable  epoch  in 
the  increafe  of  our  aftronomical  knowledge  during  that  period. 

M.  Bode,  of  Berlin,  has  publiflied  the  fourth  number  of 
his  large  and  beautiful  Celeftial  Atlas :  he  announces  that 
the  fifth  and  laft  will  appear  in  the  courfe  of  four  months, 
with  a  preface  and  index,  and  a  catalogue  of  17,000  (tars,  a 
great  part  of  which  were  furniflied  by  me.     This  atlas  coti- 

fift§ 


Hlftory  of  AJironovvy  for  the  Year  i8oO.  ^ 

i«/b  of  twenty  large  charts.  They  may  be  had  at  the  CoU 
lege  de  France,  at  Paris. 

The  conckifion  of  the  ceatury  has  been  diftinguiftied 
alfo  in  a  very  remarkable  manner  by  the  theory  of  the  moon. 
On  the  13th  of  Jyne  Laplace  announced  a  new  refult  of  the 
theory,  which  is  a  nutation  of  the  lunar  orbit,  refulting  from 
the  oblate  figure  of  the  earth.  According  to  this  inequality, 
we  may  fuppofe  that  the  lunar  orbit,  inftcad  of  moving  with 
a  conftant  inclination  to  the  ecliptic,  moves  in  a  plane  paffing 
through  the  equinoxes  between  the  equator  and  the  ecliptic, 
inclined  to  the  latter  at  an  angle  of  fix  or  feven  fcconds.  He 
has  found  ,$jfo  an  inequality  of  the  moon,  depending  on  the 
longitude  of  the  node,  which  is  fix  feconds.  Difputes  were 
Jong  maintained  refpe6ling  this  inequality,  which  the  Engl i{h 
totally  ncgleded,  and  which  did  not  feem  to  be  indicated  by 
theory. 

The  motion  of  the  moon  during  the  courfe  of  1002  years  was 
attended  with  a  difficulty  which  has  been  now  removed.  The 
obfervations  of  the  Arabs  in  the  tenth  century  were  of  great 
importance  in  this  refpe(9:.  We  were  acquainted  only  with 
three,  when  I  difcovered  among  the  manufcripts  of  my  old 
mailer,  Jofeph  Deliflc,  an  Arabic  copy  of  a  part  of  the  work 
of  Ibn  lunis,  which  contained  a  great  many;  but  the  ori- 
ginal was  at  Leyden ;  and  we  long  folicited  the  Batavian  go^ 
vernrnent  to  entrud  us  with  it.  At  length,  on  the  26th  of 
May  1799,  the  ambaflador  brought  to  the  Inftitute  this  va- 
luable manufcript,  written  in  a  fmall  chara(!-^er,  and  forming 
400  pages  in  quarto.  Cauffin  is  employed  in  giving  a  com- 
plete tranfiation  of  it;  and  we  hope,  that  not  only  the  tranf- 
lation,  but  alfo  the  Arabic  original,  as  far  as  it  relates  to  the 
obfervations,  will  be  printed  at  Paris.  Caufl[in  has  already 
tranflated  that  which  I  procured  him.  He  was  aflTifted  by 
Bouvard  in  regard  to  the  aftronomical  part  and  the  calcula- 
tions. The  refuks  of  the  obfervations  of  the  moon  have  been 
already  printed. 

The  Inilitute  had  propofed   as  the  fubje6l  of  a  piize,  the^ 

comparifon  of  a  great  number  of  obfervations  of  the  moon, 

ivith  the  tables  to  fix  the  epochs  of  the  longitude  of  ihc  moon^ 

8  of 


€  Hi/lory  ofAfironomy  for  the  Year  1800. 

©f  the  apogeum,  and  of  the  node.  The  two  papers  of  Burg 
and  Bouvard,  which  fliared  the  prize  of  the  Inftitute,  contain 
new  determinations  of  the  moon's  motion,  founded  on  fo 
great  a  number  of  obfervations,  that  there  is  reafon  to  think 
that  the  tables  thence  refultiiig  will  never  err  more  than  15 
or  20  feconds ;  that  is  to  fay,  one-half  or  one-third  lefs  than 
thofe  which  JVlafon  publiflicd  in  England.  Dr.  Malkelyne 
made  him  undertake  them  by  deteruiining  the  co-efficients 
of  24  equations  of  the  tables  of  Mayer  by  a  comparifon  with 
thofe  of  Bradley.  But  the  new  refearches  are  founded  on  a 
much  greater  number  of  obfervations. 

The  equations,  which  De  Laplace  found  by  theory,  have 
added  to  them  a  greater  degree  of  perfection,  and  nothing 
remains  but  the  latitude,  for  which  a  new  prize  ought  to  be 
propofed. 

Burg  has  calculated  3233  of  Malkelyne's  obfervations,  in 
order  to  determine  the  epoch  of  the  moon.  He  has  again 
determined  alio  the  24  equations  of  the  moon  as  Mafon  has 
done,  but  with  more  corre6lnefs.  Madame  Lavit  has  had  the 
courage  to  calculate  more  than  500  places  of  the  moon  for 
the  refearches  of  Bouvard  on  the  fame  fubje<Sl. 

Burckhardt,  one  of  our  ableft  and  moll  zealous  aftrono- 
mers,  has  calculated  tables  of  the  moon,  according  to  the 
new  refults  of  Burg,  for  the  ufe  of  the  aftronomers  who  have 
fet  out  on  a  diftant  expedition.  They  will  perhaps  find  ihem- 
felves  in  fituations  when  it  will  be  of  importance  for  them  to 
have  the  longitudes  calculated  more  exa6lly  than  they  are 
either  in  the  Englifli  Nautical  Almanack  or  the  French  Con- 
noiffance  des  Temps,  which,  beiides,  may  be  exhaufted  before 
th^/ir  return. 

The  French  Board  of  Longitude  has  propofed  a  prize  of 
60C0  francs  (250/.)  for  more  perleft  tables  of  the  moon, 
which  we  (hall  foon  obtain.  This  part,  therefore,  of  fo  much 
importance  to  aftronomy  and  navigation,  which  has  occupied 
aftronomers  for  more  than  100  years,  is  at  length  terminated 
m  the  completed  and  moft  fatisfadory  nivinner. 

De  Parceval,  an  able  geometer,  has  terminated  a  grand 
analytical  theory  of  the  moon,   in  which  he  has  given  exad 

formula; 


Htftory  of  AJlronomy  for  the  Year  1 800,  7 

formulae  for  a  greater  number  of  equations  than  are  in  the 
tables  above  mentioned.  He  propoies  publidiing  a  hiftory 
of  the  integral  calculus* 

De  Laplace  is  employed  alfo  on  the  theory  of  the  moon ; 
and  we  have  reafon  to  expe(Sl  from  him  new  and  valuable 
things.  He  has  given  a  memoir  on  the  fatellites  of  Saturn 
and  thofe  of  Herfchcl's  planet.  He  has  fhown  that  the  laft 
fatellite  of  Saturn  has  a  conftant  inclination,  and  he  deter- 
mines the  motion  of  its  nodes.  New  confiderations  in  regard 
to  thofe  of  Herfchel,  induce  him  to  think  that  ihis  planet 
may  maintain  in  the  fame  plane  its  firit  five  fatellites ;  but 
that  the  cafe,  in  all  probability,  is  not  the  fame  in  regard  to 
the  fixth. 

Vidal  continues  to  fend  us  rare  observations  on  Mercury, 
which  he  has  made  at  Mirepoix.  He  is  our  valuable  Her- 
mophilus,  who  fees  Mercury  every  day,  and  who  fees  him 
even  at  the  diftance  of  fome  minutes  from  the  fun.  This 
aftonifhing  obferver  has  already  fent  me  more  than  500  ob- 
fervations  of  Mercury.  He  has  done  more  in  this  refpeiSt 
than  all  the  other  atlronomers  in  the  world.  At  Mirepoix, 
perhaps,  it  is  not  known  that  fuch  a  man  exifts  in  thai 
fmall  town,  but  we  fliall  proclaim  it  to  the  univerfe  and  to 
pofterity. 

The  minifter  appointed  him  dire6lor  of  the  national  ob- 
fervatory  at  Thouloufe  on  the  21ft  of  April  laft,  and  a  better 
choice  could  not  have  been  made. 

-  Michel  Le  Fran9ai8-Lalande,  my  nephew,  finding  that' 
Mars  was  the  only  planet  the  tables  of  which  were  ftill 
liable  to  errors  of  one  or  two  minutes,  has  re-calculatcd  all 
the  obfervations  of  that  planet.  Burckhardt  has  re-calcu- 
lated the  perturbations  which  I  formerly  ^ave  in  the  memoirs 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  which  Schubert  and  Oriani 
afterwards  calculated ;  and  Le  Fran^ais  has  prefented  to  the 
Inftitute  new  tables  of  Mars  in  tenths  of  a  fccond,  and  which 
give  us  reafon  to  apprehend  no  more  than  a  few  feconds  of 
error.  They  are  now  printing  in  the  ConnoiJJance  dcs  Temps 
for  the  year  32  ;  and  the  oppofition  of  the  8th  of  November 
laft  has  confirmed  the  corre6lnefs  of  thefe  tables.  An  exact 
obfervation  of  the  13th,  gave  an  error  of  only  15  feconds  in 

lons.itude 


8  tl'ijlory  of  AJh^monty  for  the  Y^dt  1 80o. 

longifnde  and  6  in  latitude ;  and  the  obfervation  made  by 
■  Bouvard  with  the  new  inftrnments  of  the  obfervatory,  gav6 
the  lame  number  of  feconds ;  which  confirms,  in  a  fatisfac- 
tory  manner,  the  goodnefs  of  our  inftrumehts  and  the  exa£t- 
nefs  of  our  bbfervers. 

Tricfnccker  has  undertaken  a  iimilar  labour  at  Vienna, 
"and  Oriani  at  Milan.     The  differences  are  infenfible,  but 
none  of  the  three  knew  any  thing  of  what  was  doing  by  hi** 
fellow-labourers.  ^  - 

Wurm  has  alfo  calculated  the  perturbations  of  Mars  by 
the  method  of  Klugel,  inferted  in  the  memoirs  of  the  Society 
of  Gottingen.  Oriani,  Buvckhardt,  Schubert,  and  Wurm, 
do  not  always  agree,  but  the  differences  are  trifling. 

Bouvard  is  employed  in  calculating  the  perturbations  of 
all  the  planets,  as  they  affect  each  other,  by  the  formulae  of 
De  Laplace.  This  will  be  a  very  complete  work,  the  refult 
of  which  will  appear  in  the  fecond  volume  of  the  Mecanique 
Celefte, 

The  tranfit  of  Mercury  over  the  fun  has  afforded  me  an 
opportunity  of  verifying  the  place  of  the  aphelion  by  the 
method  which  I  gave  in  the  memoirs  of  the  Academy  for 
1786,  and  which  is  the  moft  conclufive.  By  my  refult  it' 
apjuars  that  there  is  no  reafon  for  making  any  change  in  the 
tables  of  Mercury,  which  I  publifhed  in  the  Connoijfance  des 
Temps,  The  fame  agreement  in  regard  to  Venus  may  be 
feen  in  the  Connoijpmce  des  Temps  for  the  year  ii,  p.  4564 

For  Jupiter  we  have  found  the  corre6lion  to  be  made  in 
rtie  tables  -|-  34'/  in  the  cppofuion  and  4-  30"  in  the  qua- 
drature. 

For  Saturn  the  correftion  in  the  oppofition  is  —  10'', 
nearly  as  the  preceding  year. 

For  Herfchers  planet  I  have  found  —  9'^ ;  and  Von  Zaeh,' 
by  employing  five  obfervations,  had  the  fame  refult. 

We  have  reafon  therefore  to  be  fatisfied  with  the  cor- 
re^lnefs  of  our  tables  for  all  the  planets. 

In  regard  to  the  tables  of  the  fun,  T  have  flill  found  8  or 
10^^  too  much  in  our  longitudes :  whether  this  arifes  from  a 
retardation  in  the  motiow  of  the  earth  for  15  or  20  years  paft^ 
or  from  fume  error  rcrpt<fting  the  mean  motion  in  the  con-f 

liru6lbr» 


H'tjlory  of  AJlronomy  for  the  Year  1800.  ^ 

Ilru(Slion  of  the  tables  of  Delambrc  and  Von  Zach.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  I  cledu6l  10''  from  the  fun's  place  in  cal- 
culations where  great  precifion  is  required. 

Delambre  does  not  admit  this  correction ;  he  fays,  that  in  the 
300  obfcrvations  of  Greenwich,  which  he  calculated  in  order 
to  conftruft  his  tables,  he  compared  the  fun  with  the  (lars 
which  palTed  in  the  day-time,  one  before  and  the  other  after 
the  fun;  and  he  adds,  that  unlefs  this  precaution  is  taken, 
we  cannot  aflert  that  10''^  are  to  be  deducted  from  his  tables. 

An  account  of  the  grand  labour  by  Delambre  refpe6ling 
a  degree  of  the  meridian  between  Dunkirk  and  Rodez,  has 
been  printed.  The  fouthern  part,  executed  by  Mechain, 
will  next  appear. 

Vidal  continues  to  fend  us  obfervatlons  of  the  liars  below 
the  tropic.  Bernier,  who  laboured  with  me  for  nine  months 
before  his  embarkation,  reduced  them  up  to  the  year  1800; 
and  they  will  foon  be  printed. 

Delambre  has  undertaken  to  obferve  with  a  whole  circle 
the  declinations  of  the  (lars  of  the  ift,  2d,  and  3d  magni- 
tude ;  which  will  add  a  new  degree  of  perfection  to  the  ca- 
talogue of  the  principal  liars  publiOicd  annually  in  the  Con- 
noijfance  dcs  Temps. 

The  defcription  of  the   aftrolabe  planifphere,    found  by 
Gail  in  Synelius,  has  induced  Delambre  to  give  a  long  me 
moir  on  the  hiltory  of  aftrolabes,  their  conitruClion,  their 
properties,  and  the  method  of  finding  new  refults  even  in  the 
nioft  hackneyed  part  of  adronomy. 

Burckhardt  has  found  a  formula  which  reprefcnts  the  de- 
clinations of  the  macnietic  needle  obfcrved  at  Paris  fince  the 

o 

year  1580.  It  appears  from  this  formula  that  the  period  of 
the  declination  of  the  magnetic  needle  is  at  Paris  860  years ; 
that  the  greateft  declination  weft  is  30'  4,  and  will  take  place 
in  the  year  1878  :  the  greateft  eaftern  declination  is  only  23°. 

The  printing  of  the  Hijtoirc  ceUfle  Fran^aife,  which  is  a 
colle6lion  of  all  our  obfcrvations,  is  ftill  continued.  My 
Bihliographic  Ajlronomtque  is  alfo  continued,  but  the  print- 
ing-oOice  of  the  republic  is  not  fufficient  for  all  the  under- 
takings which  have  already  been  begun  in  it.     Chaptal,  the 

Vor^  IX.  B  minifter 


f o  Hijhry  f)f  Ajlromviy  for  the.  Year  i  8qo. 

minirter  of  ihe  interior,  has  given  ipeeial  orders  for  finifliln^ 
this  volume. 

The  printing  of  tables  of  fines  to  thoufandtb  parts  of  the 
circle  has  been  finifhed.  The  late  Borda  caufed  them  to  be 
calciijated  inider  his  own  infpejS'ion.  The  printing'  vi^as 
prettyfar  advanced,  but  feveral  things  ftill  remained  to  be 
done.  Dclambre  put  the  lalt  hand  to  them,' and  verified 
the  calculation  in  feveral  parts :  he  corrected  the  proofs  and 
wrote  the  explanation. 

The  decimal  tables  have  been  calculated  to  a  much  greater 
extent  at  the  Bureau  du  Cddajire  by  the  care  of  Prony;  but 
the  difficulty  of^  printing  them  will  perhaps  greatly  retard  the 
advantage  we  expe6t  from  them.  If  we  can  get  all  the  agro- 
nomical tables  reduced  to  decimal  degrees,  that  is-  to  fay, 
calculated  for  the  hundredth  and  thoui'andth  parts  of  a  qua- 
drant, aftranomical  calculations  will  be  much  Amplified;  but 
a  long  time  may  clapfe  before  aftronomers  will  agree  in  re- 
gard to  this  reformation,  though  ufeful. 

I  have-publifhcd  an  edition  of  the  "ISIondes  de  Fontenelh^ 
with  notes  and  additions.  This  work,  fo  celebrated,  which 
is  ftill  generally  read,  flood  in  need  of  notes  for  correcting  its 
errors.  As  Bode  had  given  a  German  edition  of  it,  and 
Codrika  one  in  Greek,  I  thought  it  my  duty  to  give  a  new 
one  in  French. 

I  have  begun  a  fmall  portable  ftereotype  edition,  in  eight- 
eeris^'bf-th^  tables  of  logarithms,  publiilied  by  Lecaille  and 
niyfelf  in  1760,  and  fince  reprinted  four  or  five  times  with  a 
great  niany  faults.  This  will  be  the  moft  convenient  fmall- 
iized  edition,  and  the  moft  corrcft. 

Firmin  Didot  w^ill  infure  the  beauty  of  the  impreflBon  :  I 
have  added  explanations  for  the  ufe  of  thofe  aflronomers,  phi- 
lofophers,  geofrraphers,  furveyors,  who  mav  have  occafion  to 
employ  logarithms  ;  but  I  have  fuppreifed  all  ufelefs' formulae. 

For  a  century  pall  aftronomers  have  been  continually  dif- 
pnting  on  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  and  the  quantity  of  its 
diminution.  The  circles  with  which  obfervationg  may  be 
multiplied  at  plcafure,  prcfented  new  means  for  deciding  this 
queltion.  I  caufed  one  of  19  inches  radius,  the  greatefl 
'''^''*'-  hithcrtq 


Hljhry  ofAJironomy  fir  ih  Year  tSpo.  il 

hitherto  employed,  to  be  Gonftru<Sletl :  Franc^jais-Lalande  and 
Burckhardl  have  uCed  it  with  great  fticcefs  during  the  tw6  laft 
fuinmer  folftices. 

Mechain  and  Delambre  have  communicated  to  lis  their 
obfci-vations,  and  I  now  find  myrelf  in  poiTefiion  of  more 
than  7.00;  the  mean  refult  is,  that  5"  8  miift  be  added  to 
my  tables.  The  mean  ior  the  lird  of  January  1800,  is 
%f2l    58-. 

•  The  diminution  would  be  4!^^  for  a  century;  and  taking 
as^  the  term  of  comparifon  the  determinations  of  Bradteyj 
Mayer,  anc^Lacaille,  in  1750,  I  have  found  36'^  for  a  great 
many  other  comparifons,  particularly  the  obfcrvations  of 
Richer  at  Cayenne  in  1672,  the  oldeft  made  with  any  degree 
of  corredlnefs.  We  have  therefore  reduced  to  very  little  the 
uncertainty  of  this  element,  fo  neceiTury  in  regard  to  the  ftars. 
Due  la  Chapelle,  with  a  fextant  of  fix  feet,  which  had  been 
employed  by  Lacaille,  has  found  19"  lefs  than  that  celebrated 
aftronomer  did  in  1750^  being  a  diminution  of  38^^  per 
century. 

In  the  Ephemerides  of  Vienna  for  1800  and  1801,  Trief- 
necker  has  collected  all  the  calculations  of  eciipfes  obferved 
fince  1747,  in  order  to  deduce  from  them  the  longitudes  of 
the  cities  of  Europe  and  Americ^t,  and  alfo  the  errors  in  the 
tables.  Never  were  fo  many  eciipfes  calculated ;  and  that 
able  aftronomer  has  thus  rendered  a  new  and  very  important 
fervice  to  government. 

Goudinj  who  has  beftowed  great  labour  on  the  analytical 
calculation  of  eciipfes,  and  w  ho  has  publifhed  feveral  memoirs 
on  that  fiibje(ft,  has  by  his  analyfis  completely  determined  th6 
circumftances  of  the  eclipfe  of  1847,  ^^^^  "''^^^^  confiderable  of 
the  prefent  new  century.  Duvaucel,  to  whom  we  are  in- 
debted for  the  delineation  of  eciipfes  for  thirty  years  p:ift,  ha^ 
delineated  alfo  this  eclipfe  for  everv  country  on  the  globe  :  by 
his  diagram  it  appears  that  it  will  be  annular  in  England^ 
France,  Turkey,  and  even  Cochincnina. 

Duvaucel  has  delineated  alfo  the  eclipfe  of  the  nth  of  Fe- 
bruary 1804,  which  will  be  curious^  becaufe  it  will  be  total  and 
Annular  in  different  countries  according  to  the  altitude  of  the 
fun :  annular  at  fun-rifing  in  America,,  and  at  the  felling  in 

B  a,  Alia, 


IZ  Hifiory  of  AJlronomy  for  the  Year  i^oo. 

Alia,  from  nine  in  the  morning  till  one  o'clock ;  it  will  be 
total,  with  a  (hort  duration  in  the  (liadow,  to  the  fouthern 
part  of  Europe :  there  is  reafon  to  think  that  fome  voyages 
will  be  undertaken  on  this  occafion^  iincc  it  will  be  an  un- 
common opportunity  for  determining  the  difTercnces  of  the 
diameters  of  the  fun  and  moon,  the  irradiation  and  inflection. 
Thefc  diagrams  of  eclipfes  have  hitherto  appeared  in  the 
F.phemerides  of  Paris  and  in  thofe  of  Bologna;  but  thofe  in 
the  Ephemeridcs  of  Paris  terminated  with  j  800,  and  in  thofe 
of  Bologna,  which  go  as  far  as  1810,  there  is  only  one  diagram 
for  1804;  four  are  wanting,  viz.  of  1802,  1803^:1806,  and 
1807.  Duvaucel  purpofes  to  conftru6t  them,  and  particularly 
the  lad  two. 

Cagnoli,  an  aftronomer  of  Verona  and  profeflbr  at  Modena, 
has  been  left  iu  peace  during  the  invafion  of  the  Cifalpine 
republic  by  the  Aullrians;  and,  by  means  of  the  peniion 
afligned  to  him  by  Bonaparte,  he  has  publifhed  the  eighth 
volume  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Italian  Society,  in  which  he 
has  given  Ibme  memoirs  on  aftronomy. 

Bode,  in  the  Ephemerides  of  Berlin  fori  803,  has  publiflied 
a  great  many  memoirs,  obfervations,  and  calculations,  by  him- 
felf  and  by  Wurm,  Mechain,  Olbers,  Cafella,  Koch,  Koehler, 
Triefnecker,  Burg,  Schroeter,  Klugel,  Scyffert,  Hennert, 
Schubert,  Derfiiinger,  Hahn,  Kautfch,  Fritfch,  and  Schau- 
bach. 

In  the  Connoijfance  des  Tejnps  for  the  year  ii,  which  has 
juft  appeared,  there  are  a  multitude  of  obfervations  and  cal- 
culations by  Laplace,  Delambre,  Vidal,  Mellier,  Lachapelle, 
Sorlin,  Mougin,  Quenot,  Burckhardt,  Thulis,  Poitevin,  Ber- 
iiier,  and  myfelf,  and  a  catalogue  of  2300  new  ftars  by  Le 
Erangais-Lalande  and  Vidal. 

This  volume  confifis  of  more  than  500  pages,  agreeably  to 
the  decifion  of  the  Board  of  Longitude,  which  I  requelted 
feveral  years  ago,  and  yet  I  have  Hill  in  my  hands  materials 
which  I  was  not  able  to  emplov. 

-  I  Hiall  embrace  this  opportunity  to  inform  thofe  who  have 
the  Connoijfance  des  Temps  for  the  year  9,  vviUiout  the  addi- 
tions, that  they  have  been  publiflicd  feparatclv  under  the  title 
x>(  Melanges  d'yIjIro7i^mie,  and  that  with  thf.^  firlt  part  they 

form 


Hlftory  ofJJlronomy  for  the  Year  1800.  J^ 

Form  the  500  pages  as  above  announced.  It  was  apprehended 
that  the  ufe  of  the  old  calendar  and  the  old  meafures  found  ia 
this  work  would  thwart  the  projefts  of  government,  and  this 
facrifice  was  made  for  the  fake  of  peace.  But  the  amateurs  of 
this  colle6lion  of  the  Connoiffance  des  Temps  will  be  deceived 
if  they  have  the  volume  of  the  year  9  without  the  Melanges, 

In  thefe  Melanges,-  page  282,  I  announced  the  publication 
of  Malefpina's  Voyage  round  the  World;  but  it  has  not 
taken  place,  and  that  officer  is  ftill  in  priibn.  I  am,  how- 
ever, of  opinion,  that  in  the  maps  about  to  be  publilhed  ia 
Spain,  advantage  will  be  taken  of  his  obfervations. 

The  Memoirs  of  the  French  National  Inftitute,  vol.  ii.  for  the 
year  5,  were  publiflied  on  the  12th  of  November  1799.  They 
contain  calculations  of  two  comets  and  feveral  eclipfes  already 
obferved ;  the  theory  of  the  fecular  equation  of  the  moon  by 
Laplace,  the  difcovery  of  which  we  announced,  and  which 
may  be  found  alio  in  the  Mecan'ique  Celefte,  that  grand  and 
important  work,  of  which  we  have  already  fpoken,  and  of 
which  three  long  extracts  were  publiflied  by  Briot  in  the 
Magazine  Encyclopedique.  Burckhardt  has  given  a  German 
tranllation  of  it,  that  his  former  country  may  enjoy  the  va- 
luable difcoveries  of  Laplace. 

In  the  Philofophical  Tranfaftions  for  1799,  ^here  is  a  new 
method  for  finding  the  latitude  by  two  altitudes  of  the  fun, 
and  the  interval  of  time  elapfed,  by  Mr.  Lax,  profeflbr  of  aftrp- 
nomy  at  Cambridge.  Alfo,  a  fourth  catalogue  of  ftars,  com- 
pared with  each  other  in  order  to  eftimate  their  degree  of 
light,  by  Dr.  Herfchel. 

In  the  Tranfa6lions  for  1800,  there  is  an  interefting  me- 
moir, by  Dr.  Herfchel,  on  the  power  of  telefcopes  to  pene- 
trate into  fpace;  that  is  to  fay,  to  render  femfible  very  diftant 
and  very  faint  objefts,  which,  by  their  want  of  light,  would 
be  imperceptible  without  the  aid  of  inftrumenls ;  ufefiil  re- 
marks on  the  difference  between  that  force  of  liy;ht  and  that 
of  amplification  or  enlargement;  on  the  different  cafes  to 
which  either  is  applicable,  and  the  means  of  procuring  the 
neceffary  degree  of  light,  ilegivescaiculations  alfo  of  the  lofs 
gf  light  occafioned  by  mirrors  or  glaffes.  It  appears  to  him 
that  the  greatell  amphfication  cannot  exceed  that  produced 

bv 


Wtflory  ofAfirmttytny  for  ihi  Tear  iSCxy, 

by  «  Wicfcope  erf'  frotn  20  to  25  feet^  and  fivcb  a  ccltbrate^ 
optician  is  worthy  of  credit.  I'he  16th  nui«lx*f  of  the  Bihli* 
tithtque  Br'itanm^ue^  publiflied  at  Geneva,  corM^ini^  a  large 
extraei  feom  thid  paper.  In  the  Tranfa^^ions  of  1800', 
Dr.  iJorfcheT^ves  a  long  paper  on  the  infltience  of  the  dif* 
{tM'eut  ftxlar  nlys  and  thofe  of  fcerrdbhaj  bodies  tocomrtnmicafc 
Hghtaifwl  heat:  he  has  found  that  the  yellow  rays  ilkminate 
iw(>ft,  jind  that  the  red  communicate  the  greateft  degree  oi' 
beat.  Attfononiers  will  make  ufe  of  this  informaiion  whea 
tii€jy  dbfervc  the  fun.  This  paper  contains  a  fej'ietj  of  curious 
experiments  on  light. 

Mr.  Playfair^  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  Edinburgh  Tranf- 
a<Sl.ia>li^,  has  giv'cn  formulae  for  the  figure  of  the  earth. 

A  valuable  work  for  geometry,-  which  treats  of  the  calculu* 
of  derivations  publifhed  by  x^rbogaft,  one  of  our  grcatefi:  geo- 
tiietriciana,  deferves  a  place  iitt  our  hiftory  of  aftronomy.  'f  his 
Work,  in  pag-e  2)SS^  contains  an  application  of  the  calculus  of 
derivations  to  feries  which  proceed  according  to  the  fines  or 
cofines  of  the  multiples  of  the  fame  angle  :  his  methods  give 
more  facility  and  perfciSlion  to  ihe  manner  of  treating  them. 

I  have  received  the  Ephemerides.  of  Milan  for  the  year 
1800,  which  contain  the  perturbations  of  Mars,  calculated 
by  Oriani,  and  his  tables  of  Mars,  which  will  form  part  of 
the  Ephemerides  for  1801.  I  have  received  alfo  the  Epheme- 
rides from  Rome  by  Oddi,  who  occupies  the  obfervatory 
Gaetani,  and  the  Nautical  Almanack  for  1804.,  which  Sir 
Jofeph  Banks  tranfmitted  to  us  with  his  ufual  zeak 

Gudin  has  publiflied  a  poem  of  600  lines,  containing  d 
biftory  of  agronomy  and  an  account  of  the  prcfcrit  ftate  of 
that  fcience.  The  author  has  added  very  copious  and  in-« 
flru(^iive  note$.  This  poem  is  already  employed  as  an  agree- 
able fund  of  inftruftion  for  youth  under  the  care  of  a  well 
known  preceptor.  But,  after  fo  many  interefting  works,  the 
hi  dorian  is  obliged  to  annouace  one  more  voluminous,  called 
Pr'incipcs  7iaturels,  ou.  Notions  generaks-  et  particulieres  de 
Vlmmenjits  de  V  Efpace^  de  VUni'Ver  steles  Corps  cdrjlcs,  &c.  by 
Lejoyand,  five  volumes  qUarto,  in  which  the  author  pretends^ 
to  the  difgrace  of  our  country  and  of  the  prefent  age,  to 
deftrqy  the  fyflems  of  Newton  and  Defcartcs. 

8  During 


ManufaBure  of  GIU  'Buttons,  15 

J)«tirtg  t^e  (ipft  years  of  the  revolution  the  national  pb- 
fefvatory  Vy^0  negltJi^ed  :  as  foon  as  I  was  appointeid  director 
of  it  I  ffilich^  for  now  inllruments ;  iand  Mechain,  when  he 
returned  from  his  voyagef-^  employed  bimfelf  in  caufing  th« 
necelliity  i*€paration$  lo  be  made.  By  the  mont'h  of  July  the 
new  inftruments  were  €r€<fte<J,  but  it  was  not  till  the  22d  of 
Augud  that  Mechain  was  iable  to  begin  his  obfervations  of 
the  moon.  Bouvard  fupplies  iiis  place  with  that  zeal  by 
which  he  is  fo  much  diftingyifl>cd ;  and  We  (lialt  have  at 
Paris  a  ferics  of  obfervations  of  the  moon  that  may  equal 
thofe  made  at  the  obfet-vatary  of  Greenwieh. 

The  large  mural  tjuadrant  of  j\  feet,  which  BoHaparte 
procured  for  us,  as  I  mentioned  in  my  Hiftory  of  Allrbnomy 
for  the  year  7,  has  been  ere6led. 

Lenoir  has  added  to  the  centre  an  ingenious  machine, 
which  cafes  the  central  axis  from  the  weight  of  the  telefcope, 
and  varies  according  as  the  elevation  of  the  telefcope  is 
changed.  A  mural  of  five  feet,  made  in  England  by  SifToii 
in  1743,  and  which  I  had  at  Berlin  in  1751,  has  been  erected 
QB  the  northern  fide.  An  excellent  tranfit  inftrument  by 
Lenoir  has  been  placed  in  the  meridian,  and  fights  have  been 
fixed  up  north  and  fouth  at  great  diftances,  that  the  telefcope 
Brvay  be  al\vays  exa6lly  in  the  meridian :  there  is  reafon  to 
hope  that  we  fhall  have  a  column  in  the  plain,  with  alight 
to  be  kindled  in  the  evening,   which  will  ferve  during  the 

night. 

[To  be  continued,] 


J  I.  A  hrief  Account  of  the  Manufadure  of  Gilt  But  tons  ^ 
CQtnpr'ifing  Jom^  Improvements  important,  to  MunufaBurers. 
Cqmmimicated  hjy  Me£rs.  Cqllard  and  FftA^fiii,  of 
Bii'min^bam. 


'^ 


A 


S  the  .means  employed  in  the  manufafture  of  plain  gilt 
buttons  are  not  univcrQiIlv  known,  the  following  funimary, 
^yhilc  it  points  out  to  the  manufatlurer  many  confiderablfi 
advantages,  in  the  ufe  and  recovery  of  his  mercury,  will  alfo, 
it  is  hoped,  be  found  iutercfling'to  many  readers  of  the  Phi^ 
lofophical  Magazine. 

The 


l6  A  brief  Account  of  thg 

The  copppr,  properly  alloyed,  is  firft  taken  to  a  rolling 
ifnill,  and  reduced  between  iron  rollers  to  a  proper  thicknefs 
for  the  button.  The  fheets  of  copper  are  then  brought  to  the 
button  manuta(^1ory,  and  cut  into  circular  pieces  of  the  fize  of 
the  intended  button  by  means  of  a  fly-prefs.  In  this  ftate 
they  are  called  blanks,  and  refemble  halfpence  and  farthings 
Worn  fnioolh  bv  long  circulation. 

The  (lianks,  which  are  made  with  wonderful  facility  and 
expedition  by  means  of  a  very  curious  machine,  are  then  fe- 
cured  to  the  bottom  of  each  button  by  a  fmall  iron  crank, 
and  a  fmall  quantity  of  folder  and  refin  applied  to  each. 
Thus  they  are  placed  on  a  fheet  of  iron,  containing  about  a 
grofs,  and  introduced  into  a  very  hot  ftove,  where  they  remain 
till  the  workman  is  fatisfied  that  the  folder  has  melted,  and 
that  the  flianks  are  united  to  the  button ',  after  which  the 
edges  are  fmoothed  in  a  lathe. 

:  The  next  procefs  is  what  they  call  dipping-,  that  is,  a  quan- 
tity, confifting  of  a  few  dozens,  is  put  into  ah  earthen  vefTel 
full  of  fmall  holes  like  a  cullender,  and  thus  dipped  into  di- 
luted nitric  acid  to  clean  them  from  dirt  and  ruft.  They 
then,  according  to  the  beft  pradice,  go  into  the  hands  of  the 
burniflier,  who,  in  a  lathe,  burnidies  the  tops,  bottoms,  and 
edges,  with  a  hard  black  ftone,  got  from  Derbyfhire,  fecured 
in  a  handle  like  the  diamond  of  a  glazier  :  this  he  applies  to 
the  button  fixed  in  the  end  of  a  piece  of  wood,  turned  with 
great  velocity  by  means  of  a  treddle  with  which  he  works 
the  lathe.  This  is  called  rough  burnijhing^  and  is  a  modern 
improvement:  it  is  of  great  advantage,  for  it  clofes  the  pores 
of  the  metal  opened  by  the  acid,  fo  that  the  gold  afterwards 
to  be  applied  attaches  to  a  fmooth  furface,  which  otherwife 
mijrht  enter  into  imperceptible  cavities,  and  be  clofed  up  in 
the  body  of  the  button  by  the  final  burniiliing.  When  the 
buttons  come  from  the  burniflier  they  are  fit  for  gilding. 
This  is  a  very  curious  operation,  and  truly  chemical. 

The  firft  procefs  towards  gilding  is  what  they  call  quickingy 
which  is  eflc^ied  as  follows: — Any  given  quantity  of  buttons, 
perhaps  a  grofs,  is  put  into  an  earthen  vcflel  with  a  quantity 
pf  mercury  which  has  been  previouily  faturated  with  nitric 
acid  \  and  thus  the  buttons  and  mercury  are  ftirred  together 

with 


MailufdBure  of  GtU  Buttons,  tj 

Vith'si  brufli  till  the  mercury,  carried  by  tlie  affinity' of 'the 
Held  to  the  copper,  adheres  to  the  whole  furface  of  the  biit'tdri. 
I'he  buttons  are  then  taken  olU  and  put  into  what  is  called  al 
l>q/kef^  ihdngh  in  fsiSi  an  earthen  vefTel  full  of  fmall  holb, 
the  handle  of  which  the  o})erator  holds  in  his  hand,  and  jerlts" 
it  with  confiderable  force  down  towards  a  wooden  trough 
(a  receptaclie  for  the  qmckfilver)  till,  by  repeated  jerks;  all  the 
loofe  particles  of  mercury  are  difengagcd,  leaving  a  complete 
continuity  over  the  furface,  and  giving  them  the  appearance 
of  filver  btittbnSi 

Now  the  gold,  a  grain  of  which  will  fpread  over  many 
fuperficial  feet  of  copper,  is  thus  prepared  :  Any  given 
quantity  of  mercury  is  poured  into  an  iron  ladle,  the  infideof 
which  having  been  previoufly  guarded,— -ihsit  is,  rubbed  over 
with  dry  whiting  to  prevent  the  gold  from  adhering  to  the 
iron, — into  this  mercury  is  thrown  the  portion  of  pure  gold 
intended  to  cover  a  given  quantity  of  buttons.  The  gold  and 
mercury  are  h*eated  together  in  the  iron  ladle  till  the  work- 
man (whofe  praclicc  foon  enables  him  to  jndge)  perceives 
that  there  is  a  perfect  union  between  them;  w^ieii  he  empties 
his  ladle  into  a  veflel  containing  cold  w^ater. 

The  amalgam  being  cold,  is  put  into  a  piece  of  Ihammoy 
leather^  and  fqueezed  till  no  more  mercury  will  pafs  through. 
What  palTes  the  fliammoy  contains  not  the  fmalleft  portion  of 
gold  ;  what  remains  will  be  about  the  confittency  of  butter, 
fo  completely  united  that  every  particle  of  mercury  (liall  con- 
tain an  equal  portion  of  gold.  The  amalgam  (liould  be  then 
put  into  an  earthen  veflel,  and  a  fmall  quantity  of  nitric  acid 
added  thereto,  allowing  fufficient  time  for  the  acid  to  unite 
with  the  mercury.  But  the  buttons  and  amalgam  are  com- 
monly introduced  firfl:,  and  a  quantity  of  diluted  nitric  acid 
added  thereto,  fo  that,  for  want  of  a  complete  union  between 
the  mercury  and  acid  firft,  if  there  be  not  a  fuperabundancy 
of  acid,  there  may  not  be  fufficient  to  carry  all  the  amalgam 
to  the  furface  of  the  buttons. 

When  tlie  acid  has  had  fufficient  time  to  nrihrace  (as  work- 
men call  it)  the  mercury^  the  buttons  fhould  be  introduced, 
;and  be  ftirred  till  the  amalgam,  carried  bv  the  affinitv  of  the 

Vol.  IX.  C  '      acid 


t  S  A  brief  Account  of  the  ■  \ 

acid  tpv the  x:ppp€r,  and  the^  tendency  which'  the  gold  has  id 
extend  itfclf  to  the  mercury  with  which  the  buttons  have  been 
pi*evioufly:quicked,  completely  attaches  to  the  whole  furface. 
^uJjt  is  the  next  procefs  in  which  we  principally  wiOi  to  re- 
commend a  deviation  from  the  old  pradlticc,  by  which  ipoft 
of , the  mercury  will  be  recovered,  and  the  gilder's  h(;alth,  in 
a^reat  meafure,  preferved  from  the  dreadful  efTciSts  of  vola- 
tihled  mercury. 

The  old  praftice  is  as  follows  :  The  buttons  being  com- 
pletely covered  with  mercury  and  gold,  the  operator  proceeds 
to^hat  bufmefs  which  is  called  drytng-off,  which  is  performed 
thus  :  The  buttons,  to  the  quantity  of  a  few  dozens,  are  put 
into  an  iron  pan  fomewhat  like  a  large  frying-pan,  placed 
oyer  a  fire,  and  gently  fliook,  ,while  the,. operator  watches 
carefully  till  he  obferves  the  mercury  begin  to  flow;— upon 
the  lirll  fymptorn  of  which,  he  takes  the  pan  from  the  tire, 
anil  throws  the  buttons. into  a  large  cap,  called  a  gihling  cap^ 
hke  a  man's  hat  with  a  very  fmall-  brim,  but  much  larger 
in  the  crown,  made  of  eoarfe  wool , and  goats  hair.  In  this 
cap,  with  a  circular  hrufli,  the  buttons  are  ftirred,  to  fpread 
the  gold  and  mercury  while  in  a  degree  of  temperature  nearly 
fufficient  to^volatillfe  the  mercury.  The  buttons  are  again 
thrown  into  the  pan,  placed  over  the  fire,  and  lliaken,  while 
the  mercury  gently  volatilifes.  The  buttons  are  again  thrown 
into  the  cap,  and  llirred  with  the  brufli.  This  procefs  is 
continually  repeated,  till  all  the  mercury  is  volatilifed,  leav- 
ing the  gold  on  the  buttons,  which  appear  again  of  a  yellow 
colour. 

Thus  a  principal  partof  the  mercury  afcends  the  chimneys, 
is  depofited  on  the  tops  of  the  houfes  and  about  the  adjacent 
neighbourhood,  and  great  quantities  are  inhaled  and  abforbcd 
by  the  operator,,  keeping  him  nearly  in  a  (late  of  falivation 
till  difeafe  obliges  him  to  dcrid. 

Confiderable  quantities  of  mercury  thus  volatilifed  are  found 
united  and  collefted  in  fmall  pools  in  the  fpouts  and  gutters 
on  the  tops  of  the  buildings.  Thus  many  tons  of  mercury 
have  been  diflipated  about  the  town  and  neighbourhood  of 
Birminghatn,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  inhabitants,     Th^ 

poor 


MantifaSlure  of  Gilt  Butto?is.  19 

poor  fwcep  who  has  afcendcd  the  chimneys  has  been  fallvatj^dj 
tind  the  niantifkclurer  has  faliaincd  coniiderable  lofs.        '  '  ^' 

To  preferve  ji  prinrfpal  part  of  the  mercitrv'  thus  diffipat'c^uj 
and  to  prci'Crtt/in  a  great  meafiire,  the  terrible  effeAs  of  it 
on  the  conftitution  of  the  operator,  is  the  objet^\  of  thefe  re- 
inarks,  as  far  as  it  regards  mnn'afaiturers. 

By  means  of  an  apparatus  limilar  to  the  plan  delineated  in 
Plate  I.  fig.  3.  which  has  been  partially  and  fuccefsfully 
adopted  by  Mr.  Mark  Sanders,  an  eminent  button-maker  of 
Birmingham,  the  principal  part  of  the  mercury  may  he  re- 
covered, and  the  health  of  the  operator  greatly  preferved.    '■ 

A  hearth  of  the  ufual  height  is  to  be  ereft^d,  in  ube 
middle  of  which  a  capacity  for  the  fire  is  to  be  made;  but 
in(!ead  of  permitting  the  fnioke  toafcend  into  the  top  i\,  made 
of  fheet  or  cafl  iron,  through  which  the  mercury  is  vol'atilifed; 
a  flue  for  that  purpofe  fliould  be  conduced  backwards  to  the 
chimney  B.  An  iron  plate,  thick  enough  to  contain  heat 
fufficicnt  to  volatilife  the  mercury,  is  to  cover  the  fire-piace  at 
the  top  of  the  hearth  C.  There  muft  be  an  afli-h6le,'D, 
under  the  fire-place.  The  fquare  fpace  E,  feen  in  the  fire- 
place, is  the  flue,  which  fervcs  to  carry  the  fmokc  backunder 
the  hearth  into  the  chimney  B.  The  door  of  the  fire-place 
and  afh-pit  may  either  be  in  front,  as  reprefented  in  the  plate, 
or  at  the  end  of  the  hearth  at  F,  which  will  p^rh^pi^  I'efs  in- 
commode the  worlc-people.  It  would  be  of  crreit  advantage 
if  the  fpace  between  A  and  the  iron  plate  C  was  covered  up 
with  a  glafs  window  coming  down  fo  low  as  only  to  leave 
fnfiicient  room  for  moving-  the  pan  backwards  and  forwards 
with  facility.  If  the  fides  were  alfo  glafs  inftead  of  brick- 
work it  w^ould  be  Uill  better,  as  the  work-people  would  be 
able  to  have  a  full  view  of  their  work  without  being  expofed 
to  the  fumes  of  the  n;iercury,  which,  when  volatilifed  by  heat 
communicated  to  the  pan  by  the  heated  iroii  plate  over  the 
lire-place,  would  afcend  into  the  top  A,  appropriated  for  its 
reception,  and  defcend  into  the  tub  G,  covered  at  top  and 
filled  pretty  high  with  water.  By  this  means  the  hearth 
would,  in  faft,  become  a  diitilling  apparatus  for  condenfing 
and  recovering  the  volatilifed,  mercury.  In  the  tub  G  the 
principal  part  would  be  recovered ;  for,  of  what  may.Itill  pafs 

C  2,  0\\y 


2,0  Mamifannre  of  GiU  Buttons. 

on,  a  part  would  be  condenfcd  in  .tfccnding  the  tube  H,  and 
fall  back,  while  the  remainder  would  be  efleclually  caught  in 
tl^c  tub  or  cafk  [,  open  at  the  top  and  partly  filled  with  water. 
The  latter  tub  (hould  be  on  the  outlide  of  the  building,  and 
the  defccnding  branch  of  the  tube  H  fliould  go  down  into  it 
at  leaft  18  inches,  but  not  into  the  water.  The  chimney  or 
tJic  afli-pit  fhould  be  furni (lied  with  a  damper  to  regulate  the 
heat  of  the  fire. 

The  water  may  be  occafionally  drawn  out  of  the  tnabs  by  a 
fiphon,  and  the  mercury  clogged  with  heterogeneous  matter 
may  be  triturated  in  a  piece  of  flannel  till  it  paflcs  through, 
or  placed  in  a  pan  of  flieet  iron,  hke  a  dripping-pan,  in  afuf- 
flcicnt  degree  of  heat,  giving  it  a  tolerable  inclination,  fo  that 
the  mercury,  as  it  gets  warm,  may  run  down  and  unite  in 
the  lower  jxirt  of  the  pan.  But  the  mercury  will  be  moft 
efFe^lually  recovered  by  expofing  the  refiduum  left  in  the 
flannel  bag  to  diftillation  in.  a  retort  made  of  iron  or  of 
earthenware. 

When  the  mercury  is  volatilifcd  from  the  button?,  or,  as 
the  viorkmen  denominate  it,  when  the  buttons  are  dryed  off, 
they  are  finally  burniflied,  and  are  then  finiflied  and  fit  for 
carding. 

,  The  jea^er  unacquaintjsd  with  this  branch  of  manufacSlurc 
w^iljl  be^furprifed  to  learn  how  far  a  fmall  quantity  of  gold, 
incorporated  with  mercury,  will  fprcad  over  a  fmooth  furface 
of  copper.  Five  grains,  worth  one  fliilling  and  threepence, 
on  the  top  of  a  grofs,  that  is,  144  buttons,  each  of  one  ijfich 
diameter,  are  fuificient  to  excufe  the  manufafturer  from  the 
penalty  inflicled  by  an  aft  of  parliament;  yet  many,  upon 
an  aflay  are  found  to  be  deficient  of  this  fmall  quantity,  and 
the  maker  fined  and  the  buttons  forfeited  accordingly.  Many- 
Lund  red  grofles  have  been  tolerably  gilt  with  half  that  quan- 
tity;  fo  extremely  far  can  gold  be  fpread,  when  incorporated 
with  mercury,  over  the  furface  of  a  fmooth  piece  of  copper*, 

''■'  The  gent'cmcn  to  tvhom  we  are  indebted  for  this  cbmmunication 
have  fent  us  (pccimens  of  a  iic'vv  kind  of  verdigris,  of  their  mnniifHihire, 
fit  for  ail  the  purpofes  of  dyeing  j  and  a  beautiful  new  colbur'fdr.'pairitcrs, 
which  they  call  celijfial green.  They  both  prornife  to  be  ufefui  articles.— 
Epit.  ' 

III.  A 


[SI  1 

III.    A  TreatiJ'c   on   the   Cultivation   of  the   P"mc,   and  ibc 
Method  ofvvaBng  Wines,     Bji  C.  Chaptal  *. 

JL  HERE  are  few  natural  produ6lions  employed  by  man 
as  aliment,  which  he  has  not  altered  or  modified  by  prepara- 
tions which  remove  them  froi^i  their  priniitivc  ftate.  Coi-n, 
flefh,  and  fruits,  are  all  fubjoded  to  a  commoneement  of 
fermentation  before  they  are  ufed  as  nourifhmcnt ;  and  pe- 
culiar qualiti-es  are  .given  even  to  obje6ls  of  luxury,  caprice, 
or  whim,  fuch  as  tobacco  and  perfumes. 

But  it  is  in  the  fabrication  of  liquors  in  particulaj  that  man 
has  difplaycd  the  groateft  fagacity :  all  are  the  work  of  his 
own  creation,  water  and  milk  excepted.  Nature  never  fur- 
nifhes  fpirituous  liquors :  it  fiiffefi  the  grapes  to  rot  on  the 
flems,  while  art  converts  the  juice  into  an  agreeable,  tonic^ 
and  nourifhing  liquor  c^^lfcd  ivine. 

It  is  difficult  to  afcertain  the  precife  period  when  mankind 
began  to  make  wkie.  Thi^  valuable  ■difcovery  fl-ems  to  be 
l6(t  in  the  darknefs  of  antiquity,  and  the  origin  of  wine  hi; s 
its  fables,,  like  all  other  things  which  have  become  objects  of 
general  utility. 

We  are  told  by  Athenaeus  that  Oreftes,  the  fon  of  Denca- 
lion,  came  to  reign  at  Ethna,  where  he  planted  vines.  Ilillo- 
rians  agree  in  confidering  Noah  as  the  firft  who  made  wine 
in  IHyria,  Saturn  in  Crete,  Bacciiu&  in  India,  Ofiris  in 
Egypt,  and  king  Geryon  in  Spain.  A  poet,  who  afilgns 
every  thing  to  a  divine  fource^  is  inclined  to  believe  that  after 
the  deluge  God  granted  wine  to  -man  to  confole  him  in  his 
mifery,  and  he  expreffes  hirafelf  thus  refpe^ling  its  origin : 

Omnia  vaftatis  ergo  cum  cerneret  arvis 

Dcfolata  "De us,  -nobis  felicia  vini 

Dona  dcdir,  triiles  bominum  quo  munere  fovk 

Rcliquias ;  mundi  folatus  vite  ruinam.      Fafierii^Prad.  Ri'Jh 

Even  the  etymology  of  the  word  wine  has  given  rife  -to  dif- 
ferent opinions  among  authors ;  but  from  that  Ibng  feries  of 
fables  with  which  the  poets,  who  are  always  bad  hiftorians, 
hav^  obfcured  the  origin  of  wine,  we„may;tollecl  feme  va- 

*  From  Cotcrs  d'-^f  I  cultured^  ^r%itt\'^ti\.  X. 

luable 


22  On  the  CuUlvatio7i.of  the  Vine, 

liiabic  truths,  and  among  tbcfc  \vc  may  venture  to  claf's  the 
foliowinsr: 

Th6  c'Arlicft  authors  not  bnly  ^^tteft  that'-tncy  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  art  of  making  wine,  but  that  they  llacl 
fonie  vefy  corrct^^  ideas  in  regard  to  its  different  tjualities  and 
virtues,  and  the  vafi'piYs  Wc(y^  of  preparing  if.  "  The  heathen 
deities,  we  arc  told;  'delighted  fh'lie$:ar  and  MVibrofia. 

Diofcorides  fpeaks  of  the'  Cacuhum" dulcet  the  Surrentinnih 
nujhnim^  8cc.;  and  Phnydefcrib^efe  two  kinds' of  Alban^x-ine, 
the  one  mild,  and  the  other  fliairp  and  tairt.  '  The  eelebfated 
Faleruian  wine,  aceprdiiig  to  Athenceus,  was  alfo  of  two 
kinds.  The  antients  were  even  acquainted  with "briflcwiries, 
as"  appears  by  the  following  pairage  of  Virgil:' 


•  llle  impigcr  haufit 


Spumantem  pateram 

\Vheti  we  read  what  hiftorian^  liave  Idft  us.refpe6lingtbe 
origin  of  the  wines  poilcfled  by  the  aritient  Komari^^'it  feeiiis 
doubtful  whether  their  fuccciTors  have  added  any  thing  to 
their  knowledge  on  that  fubjecli  They  procured  their  beft 
wines  frotirGampania,  called  at  preTent  Terra  diljavori,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Naples.  The  Falcrnian  and'  Maffic  wine 
were  'the  produce  of  vine5'ards  planted-  on  the- hills  around 
Mondragony  at- the  foot  of  whichrung  th<i<3arigliano,  for- 
merly called  the  Iris.  The  wines  of  Atii-icla  and  Fondi  were 
made  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gaeta,  the  grapes  of  Suclla 
grew  he&r  the  fea,  &c.  But  nbtwithflahding  the  great  variety 
of  wine'ptoduced  by  the  foil  of  Italy,  luxury  foon  induced 
the  'Rohians  to  feek  for  that  of  Afia,  and  their  tables  were 
loaded  with  the  valuable  wines  of  Chio^.Lefbos,  Ephefiis, 
Cos,  and  Clazomcne. 

The  earlieft  hiflorians  who  have  furniflied  us  with  any 
pofitive  facts  refpe6ting  the  making  of  vvines,  leave  us  no 
reafon  to  doubt  that  the  Greeks  had  made  confiderablc  pro- 
grefs  in  the  art  of  preparing  and  pi^eferving  them.  They 
diftingiiiflred'  tymirito'^tv^^d  kinds,  />ro/o/>o«  and  deutcrion, 
according 'a.4  they  wef-e  produced  from  the  juice  which  flowed 
from- the  grapes  before  tlicy  were  trod  upon,  or  from  the  juice 
cxprcffed  by  tr^ajling  theip.  The  Romans  aftcy'xyards  denoted 
'  ■■  I  thefe 


and  the  Method  oj  mahirig  Wines,  2 J 

ihcfe  two  kliuis  pf  •vvii;e,'by  the  i^m^  vinum  pnmariutn  and 

wnurn  fecundjUtVh., 

Wlien  we  read  with,  attention  wiiat  Aridotle  and  Galea  . 
have  handed  cjown  to  us;  pn  the  preparation  and  virtuesjof . 
thjQ;pipft;q&k*brat?d;wine8. of  their  tiij>^,v>ve  can  jliardly  hel[yt 
believing  that  the  anticnts  poflefTed  the  art  of  thickening  and 
drying  certain  kinds,  of -wine  in  order  to  preferv-e  them  for  a 
long  time.     Ariftotle:,  tells,  us  iexpFefsly  that  the  wines  of 
Arcadia  became  fo  diy  in  the  leather  bags  in  which  they, 
were  keptj  that  it  was-neceflary  to  fcrape  them  off  and  dilute 
them  with  water  befofje^ they  could  be  fit  fi>r  drinking :  Ita  , 
exjlccatur  in  utr'ihus   lit  dcrafiivi  bibatur.      Pliny  fpeaks  ot 
wines  kept  for  a  hundrctl  years  which  had  become  as  thick 
as  honey,  and  which   could  not  be  drunk  till  diluted  with 
warm  water  and  ftrained  through  a  cloth.     This  was  called 
faccatio  ^hiorum.     ■  According,  to  Martial,  Cxcuban  wine, 
ought  to  be  iiltereci  in^hat  manner : 

lurbida  lollcito  tranfmittere  Oaecuba  facco. 

Galen  fpeaks  of  fome  wines  of  Afia,  which,  when  put  into 
large  bottles  fufpended  near  the  fire,  acquired  by  evaporation 
the  folidity  of. fait.     This  operation  was  Q2\\^A  fumarlum. 

It  was  certainly  vvine  of  this  nature  that  the  antients  pre- 
fcrved  in  the  upper  part  of  their  houfcs,  and  in  a  fouthern  ex- 
pofure  :  thefe  places  were  diftinguiflied  by  the  appellations  of 
horreum  vjinarmm,  apotheca  vinaria. 

But  all  thefe  fa6ls  can  relate  only  to  mild,  thick,  and  little 
fermented  wines,  or  to  juices  not  altered  and  concentrated. 
They  were  extracts  rather  than  liquors,  and  perhaps  they 
were  only  relinous  fubftances  fimilar  to  that  which  we  form 
at  prefcnt  by  the  iufpiifatibn  and  concentration  of  the  juice  of 
the  grape. 

The  antients  were  acquainted  alfo  with  light  wines,  which 
were  drunk  immediately:  quale  in  Italia  quod  Gauranum  vo- 
cant  et  Albanum^  et  quce  inSabinis  et  inTufcis  nafcuntur. 
They  confidcred  recent  wines  as  hot  in  the  firft  degree,  and 
the  oldeit  were  confidered  as  the  hotteft. 

Each  kind  of  wine  had  a  known  and  determinate  period 

before  which  it  could  not  be  employed  for  drinking.     Diof.' 

6  corides' 


24  ^^  i^^  Cuhi^alhrt  fif  ^he-  vine, 

coricic?  fixe?  I  his  period  a*  the^  feventl>  year,  as  a  mean  term* 
According  to  Galen  and  Athenaeus,  Falernlan  wine  was  never 
drmkj  in  general,  iintif  it  had  attam^rd  the  age  of  teti  years, 
and  ne^'er  after  the  Age  of  ttventv.  The  Alb^in  wines  requifed 
the  age  of  twenty  years,  the  Suri'entinc  twenty-five,  &c. " 
Macrabiiis  relates  that  Cicero,  being  at  fnpper  with  Dami- 
fi^pus,  was  treated  with  FaleViiian  wine  of  forty  years,  which 
Cicero  praifed  by  obfcrving  that  it  bor«  its  age  well :  betie^ 
inquk,  t^tatem  firt.  Pliny  fpeaks  of  wine  ferved  up  at  th^- 
table  cJf  Caligula  which  was  more  than  i6o  years  old.  Hofaee' 
celebrates  wine  of  a  hundred  leaves,  &c. 

I.  On  IV'me  conJuUred  in  regard  io  Qliniale^  Soil,  Expofure, 
Seafons,  Culture,  C^c. 

ift.  Climate. — All  chmates  are  not  proper  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  vine :  if  tins  plant  feems  to  vegetate  with  vigour 
jn  the  northern  climates,  it  is  certain  that  the  fruit  can  never 
there  acquire  a  fufficient  degree  of  maturity;  and  it  is  an  in- 
variable truth,  that  bcyofid  the  50th  degree  of  latitude  the 
juice  of  (he  grape  cannot  experieuce  that  fermentation  w'hich 
converts  it  into  ^qegreeabl^  beyerage. 

The  CAfe  with  the  vine  in  regard  to  climate  is  the  fame  as 
with  other  vegetable  produ(:l:ions.  We  find  towards  thef 
north  a  vigorous  vegetation,  plants  well  nourifhed,  ^nd  fuc- 
culent ;  while  the  fouth  exhibits  produftions  charged  with 
aroma,  reiin,  and  volatile  oil ;  here  every  thing  is  converted 
intofpirit,  thctxi  every  thing,  is  employed  to  produce  Jlrenglb, 
Thefe  chara6lers,  fo  ftriking  in  vegetation,  occur  in  the  phae- 
noDjena  of  animalifation ;  where  Jpirii  and  fenjihility  feem  to 
be  appendages  of  the  fouthern  climates,  while  Jlrength  feems 
to  be  the  attribute  of  the  inhabitant  of  the  north. 

Travellers  in  England  have,  obferved  that  fome  of  the  infipid 
vegetables  of  Greenland  acquire  tafte  and  fmell  in  the  gar- 
dens near  London.  Rcynier  found  that  the  melilot,  which 
has  a  ftrong  penetrating  fmell  in  warm  climates,  retained 
none  in  Holland.  Every  body  knows  that  the  highly  fubtile 
poifon  of  certain  plants  and  animals  is  fucceffively  blunted 
or  extingiiifiied  in  the  individuals  reared  in  climates  lying 
further  towards  .the  north. 

Sugar 


ah  J  the  Method  of  making  Vf^mes.  25 

%spLt  itfelf  feems  not  to  explnd  in  a  complete  manner 
Dut  in  wnrm  countries.  The  fngar-canes  cultivaied  in  out 
'gardens  furnirii  fcarcely  any  faccharinc  principle  ;  and 
Igrapes  are  four,  harfli^  or  infipid;  beyond  the  5Cth  degree  of 
latitiid<\ 

The  aroma,  or  perfume  of  the  grapes,  as  well  as  thefaccharine 
principle,  are  the"  production  then  of  a  bright  and  a  conftant 
fun.  The  /bnr  or  harfh  juice  produced  in  grapes  during  the 
firft  period  of  their  formation  cannot  be  properly  matured  in 
the  horthj.and  this  primitive  charafter  of  greennefs  (till  exifts 
when  the  firft  frofts  come  tt)  free?:e'ihe  organs  of  maturation.' 
Thus,  in  the  north,  the  grapes  rich  in  principles  of  piUre- 
IfacSiion  contain  fcarcely  any  element  of  fpirituous  fermenta- 
tion, and  the  expreffed  juice  df  the  fruit,  having  experienced 
the  pha;nomena  of  fermentation,  produces  a  four  liquor,  in 
which  there  exifts  only  that  proportion  of  alcohol  neceflary 
For  interrupting  the  movements  of  putrid  fermentation. 

The  vine,  therefore,  as  well  as  the  other  produ6lions  of 
nature,  has  climates  peculiar  to  itfelf:  it  is  between  the  40th 
and  50th  degrees  of  latitude  that  this  vegetable  produ6lion 
can  be  cultivated  with  any  degree  of  advantage.  It  is  alfo 
between  thefe  points  that  the  moft  celebrated  vineyards  are 
found!,  and  the  countries  richeft  in  vines  \  fuch  as  Spain, 
Portugal,  France,  Italy,  Auftria,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Hungary, 
Tranfylvania,  and  a  part  of  Greece. 

But  of  all  countries  none  perhaps  prefents  fo  happy  a  fitu^- 
tion  for  the  vine  as  Francej  iiorie  exhibits  fo  large  an  extent 
of  vineyards,  rior  expofures  more  varied  ;  and  no  country  has 
fuch  an  aftdniftiing  variety  of  temperature.  From  the  banc's 
of  the  Rhine  to  the  bottoili  of  the  Pyrenees' the  vine  is  almoft 
every  where  cultivated,  and  in  this  vaft  extent  the  moft  agree- 
able and  moft  fpirituous  wines  of  Europe  are  to  be  found. 

But  though  climate  ftamps  a  general  and  indelible  charac- 
ter dn  its  produftions,  there  are  certain  circumftances  which 
modify  and  limit  its  aftioilj  and  it  is  only  by  carefully  at- 
tending to  what  each  of  them  produces  that  we  can  be  able 
to  difcover  the  effect  of  climate  alone.  It  is  thus  that  we 
often  find  the  different  qualities  of  wine  united  under  the  fame 
Vol.  IX.  D  climate^ 


*^  On  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vhie, 

climate,  bccaufe  the  foil,  expofure,  and  cultivation,  madify 
and  mafk  the  immediate  aftion  of  that  grand  agent. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  fome  vine  plants  which  do 
not  leave  us  the  choice  of  cultivating  them  indifcriminately 
in  any  latitude  at  plcafure.  Soil,  climate,  expofure,  cultiva- 
tion, all  ought  to  be  appropriated  to  their  inflexible  nature; 
and  the  Icafl  violation  of  this  natural  charader  eflentially 
alters  the  produ61:.  Thus,  the  vines  of  Greece  tranfported 
to  Italy  no  longer  produced  the  fame  wine ;  and  thofe  of  Fa- 
lernum,  cultivated  at  the  bottom  of  Vefuvius,  have  changed 
their  nature.  It  is  confirmed  by  daily  experience  that  the 
plants  of  Burgundy  tranfported  to  the  fouth  no  longer  pro- 
duce wines  fo  agreeable  and  delicate. 

It  is  therefore  proved  that  the  charaiSlers  by  which  certain 
vines  are  diftinguiflied  cannot  be  reproduced  indifferent  fites; 
for  this  purpofe  the  conftant  influence  of  the  fame  caufes  is 
neceflary,  and,  as  it  is  impoffible  to  unite  them  all,  the  con- 
fequence  mull  be  changes  and  modifications. 

We  may  therefore  conclude  that  warm  climates,  by  favour- 
ing the  formation  of  the  faccharine  principle,  muft  produce 
wines  highly  fpirituous,  as  fugar  is  neceflary  to  their  forma- 
tion. But  the  fermentation  mafl.  be  condu6lcd  in  fuch  a 
manner  as  to  decompofe  all  the  fugar  of  the  graj^es,  othevwifc 
the  refult  v^'ill  be  whines  exceedingly  lufcious  and  fweef,  as  has 
been  obfcrved  in  fome  of  the  fouthern  countries,  and  in  all- 
cafes  where  the  faccharine  juice  of  the  grapes  is  too  much 
concentrated  to  experience  a  complete  decompofition. 

The  cold  climates  can  give  birth  only  to  weak  and  exceed* 
ingly  aqueous  wines,  which  have  fometimes  an  agreeable 
flavour;  the  grapes,  in  which  fcarcely  any  faccharine  prin- 
ciple cxifts,  cannot  contribute  towards  the  produ6lion  of 
alcohol,  which  forms  the  whole  llrength  of  vyines.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  as  the  heat  ariling  from  the  fermentation  of 
thefe  grapes  is  very  moderate,  the  aromatic  principle  is  pre- 
ferved  in  its  full  force,  and  contributes  to  render  thefe  liquors^ 
exceedingly  agreeable,  though  weak. 

2.  Soil. — The  vine  grows  every  where,  and,  if  we  could 

judge  of  the  quality  of  it  by  the  vigour  of  its  vegetation,  it  i^ 

^)  ,^  in 


and  the  Method  of  maling  Wines,  ti.*J 

\a  fat  moift  foil,  well  dunged,  that  it  ought  to  be  cultivated. 
But  we  are  taught  by  experience  that  the  goodnefs  of  wine  i^ 
never  proportioned  to  the  force  of  the  vine.  We  may  there- 
fore fiiy  that  nature,  dcfirous  to  allign  to  each  quality  of  foil 
a  peculiar  produftion,  has  referved  dry  light  foil  for  the  vine,' 
and  has  entrufted  the  cultivation  of  corn  to  fat  and  well  nur- 
tured lands : 

Hie  fcgctes,  illic  veniiint  fclicius  uvae. 

It  is  in  confequence  of  this  admirable  diftribution  that  agri- 
culture covers  with  its  varied  productions  the  furface  of  our 
globe;  and  nothing  is  neccilary  but  to  avoid  deranging  the 
natural  order,  and  to  apply  to  each  place  the  proper  cultiva- 
tion to  obtain  almoft  every  where  abundant  and  varied  crops: 

Nee  vero  terrs  ferre  oranes  omnia  poffunt : 
Nalcuntur  fttrilcs  faxolis  montibus  orni ; 
Littora  myrthetis  l«tiHima:  dcniquc  apertos 
Bacchus  amat  colles. 

Strong  argillaceous  earth  is  not  at  all  proper  for  the  culli^ 
Tation  of  the  vine;  for  not  only  are  the  roots  prevented  from 
extending  ihemfelves  in  ramifications,  as  is  the  cafe  in  fi\t 
and  conipaft  foil ;  but  the  facility  with  which  thefe  ftrata  are 
penetrated  by  water,  and  the  obftinacy  with  which  they  retain 
it,  maintain  a  permanent  ftate  of  humidity,  which  rots  the 
root,  and  gives  to  all  the  individuals  of  the  vine  fymptoms  of 
vveaknefs,  which  foon  end  in  their  deflruftion. 

There  are  fome  kinds  of  ftrong  earth  which  do  not  poflefs 
thofe  hurtful  qualities  that  belong  to  the  argillaceous  foil  above 
mentioned.  Here  the  vine  grows  and  vegetates  in  freedom  ; 
bat  this  ftrength  of  vegetation  ftill  effentially  hurts  the  good 
quality  of  the  grapes,  which  can  with  difficulty  acquire  ma- 
turity, and  gives  the  wine  neither  fpirit  nor  flavour.  Thefe 
kinds  of  foil,  however,  are  fometimes  fet  apart  for  the  vine, 
bccaufe  its  abundance  makes  up  for  its  quality,  and  becaufe 
it  is  often  more  advantageous  for  the  farmer  to  cultivate  the 
vine  than  to  fow  corn.  Befides,  thefe  weak  but  abundant 
wines  furniflj  a  beverage  fuited  to  labourers  of  every  clafs, 
and  are  attended  with  advantage  in  regard  to  diftillation,  as 
the  vines  require  little  culture. 

T>%  It 


%S  On  ths  Cultivation  of  the  V'tne, 

It  is  well  known  to  all  farmers  that  moift  foil  is  not  prop^, 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  viue.  If  the  foil,  continually  moiil- 
encd,  is  of  a  fat  nature,  the  plant  languifhes  in  it,  rots,  and 
dies  :  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  foil  be  open,  light,  and  calca- 
reous, the  vegetation  may  be  itrong  and  vigorous,  but  the 
wine  arifing  from  it  cannot  fail  to  be  aqueous,  weak,  and  de- 
ftitute  of  flavour. 

Calcareous  foil  in  general,  is  proper  for  the  vine :  being 
arid,  dry,  and  light,  it  affords  a  proper  fupport  to  the  plant; 
the  water  with  which  it  becomes  occafionally  impregnated^ 
circulates,  and  freely  penetrates  through  the  whole  ftraturn  i 
the  numerous  ramifications  of  the  roots  imbibe  it  at  every" 
pore;  and  in  all  thefe  points  of  view  calcareous  foil  is  very 
favourable  to  the  vine.  In  general,  wines  produced  in  calca- 
reous foil  are  fpiritous,  and  the  cultivation  is  fo  much  the. 
cafier,  as  the  foil  is  light  and  not  ftrongly  conne6led ;  be- 
fides,  it  is  to  be  obferved  that  thefe  dry  foils  appear  exclufively 
def^ined  for  the  vine  :  the  want  of  v/aler,  mould,  and  manure, 
oppofelhe  idea  off  every  other  cuhivation. 

But  there  are  fome  kinds  of  foil  ftill  more  fa;vourable  t?o  the 
vine,  thofe  which  ane  at  the  fame  time  light  and  pehblv:  the 
root  eafily  forces  itfelf  through  a  foil,  which,  by  a  niixtaive  of 
light  earth  and  pebbles,  is  rendered  exceedingly  permeable. 
The  ftraturn  of  ^^/^/x  which  cowers  the  furfaee  of  the  earth 
defends  it  from  the  ckying  ardour  of  the  fun  ;  and  whv-le  the 
flem  and  the  grapes  receive  the  benign  intluence  of  that  lu- 
minary, the  root,  properly  moiilened,  furnilhes  the  juice  lie- 
cefTary  for  the  labour  of  veoetation.  S')il  of  this  kind- is  called 
in  different  countries,  flony  foil,  fandy  foil,  &c. 

Vpleaiiie  earth  alfo  produces  delicious  wines.  I  have  had 
occafion  to  obferve  in  different  parts  of  the  fouth  of  France 
that  the  m.ofl  vigorous  vines  and  the  mofl  capital  wines  were 
produced  among  the  remains  of  volcanoes.  Thefe  virgin 
earths,  prepared  for  a  long  time  in  the  bofom  of  the  earth  by 
fubterranean  fires,  exhibit  an  intimate  mixture  (if  all  the 
earthy  principles ;  their  femi-vitrified  texture,  decompofed  by 
the  combined  a^lion  of  the  air  and  water,  furni flies  all  the 
elements  of  good  vegetation,  and  the  fire  with  which  thef^ 
earths  have  been  impregnated,  feeing  to  pfffe  in  fucc<;fl[i6n  into 

'    •    ,      aU 


md  the  Method  ofmuVtng  PFines.  S,^ 

^]\  the  plants  intrufted  to  theiii.  The  wines  of  Tokay  an(| 
the  belt  wines  of  Italy  are  th^  prodiidion  of  volcanic  foil; 
the  lall  bifhop  of  Agde  dug  up,  and  planted  with  yiucs  the 
old  volcano  of  the  mountain,  at  the  bottom  of  which  that 
antient  town  is  fituated,  and  thefe  plantations  form  at  pre* 
fcnt  one  of  the  richell  vineyards  in  that  canton. 

Tliere  are  points  on  the  variegated  furface  of  our  globe 
\vhere  the  granite  no  longer  prefents  that  hardnefs  and  un- 
alterability  which  in  general  form  the  chara<Sler  of  that 
primitive  rock  :  in  thefe  places  it  is  pulverulent,  and  pre- 
fents to  the  eye  nothing  but  dry  fand  of  greater  or  lefs  coarfe-» 
nefs :  it  is  among  thefe  remains  that  the  vine  is  cultivated 
in  feveral  parts  of  France  ;  and,  when  a  favourable  expofurc 
concurs  to  aflift  the  increafe,  the  wine  is  of  a  fuperior  qua- 
lity. The  famous  Hemaitage  wiue  Is  produced  amidd  fimi- 
lar  ruins.  From  thefe  principles  it  may  be  readily  judged, 
that  a  foil  Tike  that  of  France  muft  be  favourable  to  tlie 
formation  of  good  wine  ;  as  it  exhibits  that  lightnefs  of  foil 
which  permits  the  roots  to  extend  themfelves,  and  allows  the 
water  to  filter  through  it,  and  the  air  to  penetrate  'it:  that 
flinty  craft  which  moderates  and  checks  the  ardoiu*  of  the 
fun ;  that  valuable  mixture  of  earthy  elements,  the  compo- 
^tion  of  wJtiich  feems To  advantageous  to  every  kind  of  vcge-^ 
^fion. 

Thus,  the  farmer,  more  anxious  to  obtain  wine  of  a  goo4 
quality  than  an  abundant  vintage,  will  cftablifli  his  vineyard 
in  light  peb^hly  foil ;  and  he  will  not  make  choice  of  a  fat 
rich  foil  unlefs  he  intends  to  facrifice  quality  to  quantity*. 
[To  be  continued.] 

IV.  Dtfaif^ 

"*  Thoug^i  the  principles  here  eftablifhed  are  proved  almoft  by  generaj 
obfervatTon,  we  muft  nm,  however,  crncludc  that  tliere  are  no  exceptions. 
Creuze-Latouche  obfcrves  m  a  tr»erooir  read  in  the  AgricultHiial  SocittjT 
of  La  Seine,  that  the  valua|)ie  vin«s  df  Ai,  E.peimay.,  and  iiautvilkrs  far- 
la  Marne  have  the  fame  expofure,  and  grow  in  the  fame  foil  and  land  as 
Xhoie  in  rhe  neighbourhood.  The  fame  author  obferveS)  that  attempts 
have  been  made  to  conveit  corn  lands  into  vineyards  ^  but  it  is  pfObabte 
that  the  experiments  have  not  been  attended  with  fuccefs,  and  that,  con- 
ftquently,  there  are  caul'es  ef  diiFercncc  Wfridt  Cannot  be  difcOVtVfedbf 
jBc-e  infpeftion..  '     ^     "' 

Ti^^is  author  adds,  that  the  prhnitrve  tafth"  in  thfe  vinfiyaTds  of  the  firff 

rank 


J    3°    1 

TV.  Defcriptlon  of  an  improved  Family    Oven  Invenfcd  hy 
Mr,  S.  Holmes,  of  Cajlle- court  In  the  Strand^  London"^, 

X  HE  ovens  in  general  nfe  are  made  with  flues,  which 
deftroy  a  great  quantity  of  fire  in  its  paflage  through  them, 
and  much  trouble  is  required  to  keep  them  heated.  The  fire 
which  fhould  be  employed  in  roafting  meat,  is  in  a  great 
nieafurc  diflipated  in  the  flue  of  the  common  ovens,  if  ufed 
at  the  time  of  roafling,  or  the  common  oven  does  not  acquire 
fufficicnt  heat  to  anfvver  the  purpofe,  unlefs  much  coal  is 
confumed. 

^'  My  invention  confifts  of  a  caft-iron  oven,  with  a  folid 
piece  of  iron  projecting  from  its  fide  into  the  fire,  in  which 
this  piece  conftantly  remains,  and,  becoming  red  hot,  com- 
municates fufficicnt  heat  for  baking  to  the  whole  oven,  and 
even  affifts  the  fire  in  roafting. 

*^  My  oven  keeps  continually  at  a  baking-heat,  without 
cxpence  or  trouble,  as  the  common  fire  is  fufficicnt  for  the 
purpofe.  The  firft  oven,  which  I  made  for  experiment, 
was  fixed  in  my  own  houfe,  for  ufe,  eighteen  months  ago, 
and  may  be  viewed  at  any  tirhe  "the  Society  think  proper. 
Others  are  alfo  in  ufe  at  Mr.  Blackmore's,  in  Brompton; 
Mr.  Efdale's,  the  Banker,  in  Clapham ;  Mr.  Robinfori's,  at 
Kenfington  ;  Mr.  Roe's,  at  Batterfea ;  and  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Wife's,  at  Carlwood)  all  of  which  have  even  exceeded  my 
expectations,'* 

Mr.  Holmes's  letter  to  the  Society  of  Arts,  &c.  of  which 
the  above  is  an  cxtraCl,  is  accompanied  with  fcveral  certifi- 
cates from  different  gentlemen,  all  agreeing  in  dating  that 
thefe  ovens  anfwer  every  purpofe  for  which  they  are  intended. 
We  have  fccn  them  in  ufe,  and  think  them  preferable  to  any 
oven  made  of  iron  we  have  before  feen. 

rank  in  Champagne,  are  covered  with  an  artificial  ftratunr.  formed  by  a 
mixture  of  turf  and  rotten  dung,  common  earth  taken  from  the  fides  of 
the  hills,  and  fomerimcs  of  black  and  rotten  fand.  Thcfe  kinds  of  earth 
are  carried  to  the  vineyards  all  the  year  through,  except  in  vintage  time. 

*  From  the  TranfaBions  of  the  Society  for  the  EtieouraganeyU  of  ArtSy 
hlmufadureiy  and  Commerce ^  Vol.  XV III,  i8oq. 

''  In 


0^  the  Under-ground  inclined  Plane,  ^c.  ^t 

*^  In  order  to  afcertain  fully  how  the  oven  anfwered,  a 
committee,  appointed  by  the  Society  for  the  Encourage- 
ment of  Arts,  6rc.  ordered  two  ovens,  of  fimilar  forms  and 
dinienlions,  to  be  fixed  to  the  (ides  of  a  fire-grate  in  the 
model-room  of  the  Society,  one  of  which  ovens  only  difFered 
from  the  other  by  the  piece  of  call  iron  projefting  from  its 
fide  into  the  fire  :  both  ovens  were  heated  by  the  fame  fire, 
and  fixed  in  mortar  and  brick-work  in  a  fimilar  manner. 

'^  Two  loaves,  of  equal  fize  and  quality,  being  prepared  from 
the  fame  dough,  one  was  put  into  each  oven;  and  after  remain- 
ing therein  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  they  were  taken  out  at 
the  fame  time,  and  examined.  The  loaf  from  Mr.  Holmes's 
oven  was  in  every  refpe6l  well  baked,  but  the  other  was 
dough-baked  and  imperfe6l.  An  oven  upon  Mr.  Holmes's 
couftru6tion  has  been  fince  fitted  up  in  the  Regifter's  kit- 
chen, which  appears  to  anfwer  every  purpofe  that  could  be 
expelled  from  its  fize,  which  is  13^- i^^ches  wide  at  the  door, 
or  in  front,  and  15  inches  deep. 

^^  A  reference  10  Plate  I.  fig.  i  and  2,  will  explain  more 
fully  the  confl:ru(Stion  of  the  oven,  and  its  principle  of  a^iion. 

^'  Fig.  I.  A  perfpe8:ive  view  of  the  oven.  Fig.  2.  A  ho- 
rizontal fecStion  of  the  fame.  A  that  fide  of  the  oven  which 
is  placed  next  the  fire.  B  the  projeding  piece  of  iron  which, 
remains  ftationary  in  the  fire,  and  communicates  heat  to  the 
oven.     C  the  door  of  the  oven." 


V.  Account  of  the  Under- ground  inclined  Plane  executed  at 
IValkden-Moor,  in  Lajicafljire,  by  his  Grace  the  Duke  of 
Bridgewjter,     By  the  Rev,  Francis  H.  Egerton*.  : 


I 


BEG  leave  to  prefent  to  the  Society  an  account  of  the 
under-ground  inclined  plane  which  the  Duke  of  Bridge- 
water  has  lately  made  at  Walkden-Moor,  between  Worfley 

'*  From  'TranJaB'ions  oj  the  Soriety  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts y  Manu- 

fi.i5lurfs^  ami  Comma-',  e^  Vol.  XVI 1 1.    The  Society  voted  to  his  Grace  the 

gold  medal,  as  a  tcftmony  of  the  high  opinicn  entertained  by  the  Society 

^f  his  Grace's  execution  of  this  great  work,  and  his  wonderful  exertions 

in  inland  navis^ation. 

and 


^"X  Of  the  UnJer-ground  inclined  Flimk 

ami  Bolton,  in  I^ncafliire.  To  this  acconnt  I  have  fubjoihea 
two  plans,  with  a  table  of  reference  to  each. 

At  Worfley  thie  Duke  of  Bridgewater's  navigation  begins  j 
it  goes  weft  to  Ixigh,  and'  eall  to  Manchefter,  where  it  locks 
ti|>  into  the  Rochdale  canal..  In  its  way  to  Manchelkr,  it 
turns-  out,  in  a  wefterri  direction,  neai^  Longford  Bridgej  to 
Ifnect  t'he  Grand  Trunk  Canal  above  Prellon  Brook ;  arid 
from  thence  it  goes  north-weft  to  Runcorn,  where  it  locks 
liuwn  into  the  Merfey,  in  the  tide-way  to  Liverpool. 

To  this  navigation  above-ground,  which,  in  all  its  direc- 
tions, is  extended  through  a  length  of  forty*  miles,  upon  one 
Imel,  without  tutinel  or  lock,  except  the  Idcks  at  the  extre- 
mities. At  Woril'ey,  an  under-ground  navigation  is  joined'^ 
Tvhich  goes  to  the  different  mines  of  coal  under  Walkden- 
Moor ;  frdm  which  mines,  by  thefie  navigations  above- 
jcround  and  under-ground,  Manchefter  and  various  other 
places  are  fupplied  with  that  valuable  article. 

The  canals  of  this  under-ground  navigation  lift  upon  i\r6 
levels,  or  fiories. 

The  lower  is  upon  the  fame  level  with  the  open  navigation, 
which  it  joins  at  Worfley  ;  and  confifts,  in  the  different 
lines  which  it  purfues  to  the  different  feams  of  coal,  of  near 
tAvelve  miles  of  tunnelling* 

The  higher  is  thirty-five  yards  and  a  half  perpendiculat^ 
height  above  the  level  of  the  lower,  and  varies  from  thirty- 
eight  to  fixty-one  perpendicular  yards  below  the  furface  of 
the  earth,  and  confifts  of  near  fix  miles  of  tunnelling. 

The  tunnelling  of  each  level  is  ten  feet  four  inches  wide, 
and  eight  feet  fix  inches  deep  3  and  the  depth  of  water,  three 
feet  {'even  inches. 

Before  a  communication  was  made  by  an  inclined  plane^ 

*■  •  Forfy  miks  upon  on',  /cvfl.']  Adding  to  thefe  forty  miles,  nearly; 
nrel.'c  milcn  of  the  Duke  of  Bridgcwater's-  Under-ground  Navigable 
Caaul,  which  lie  upon  his  lower  main  level>  and  including^  eighteen  mrres 
of  the  Gr.md  Trunk  Canal  betwixt  the  lowcft  lock  between  Middlewich 
and  Prefton-brock,  there  are  feventy  miles  of  navigable  canal,  without  a 
lock,  upon  one  level,  eighty-rvi'o  feet  above  low- water  mark;  whereby  a 
communication  is  obtained  between  London,  Liverpool,  Briflol,  and  Hull. 
At  this  loweftlock  the  Grand  Trunk  Navigation  locks  down,  to  be  uponi 
a  level  with  the  Duke  of  Bridgewaier's. 

the 


executed  at  Walkdcn-MoQir,  35 

;thc  coals  were  difcharged  by  hand  from  the  boats  oil  the 

higher  level,  and  were  let  down  the  pits  in  tubs  by  an  engine 
and  a  break-wheel  into  thofe  upon  the  lower.  To  convey 
the  boats  themfelves  fVom  the  danals  of  the  higher  level  into 
that  of  the  lower_,  was  the  intent  of  making  this  under-ground 
inclined  plane.  By  the  help  of  this  machinery,  the  whole 
bufinefs  is  now  done  at  once,  without  difcharging  or  damag- 
ing the  coal,  and  at  one  fourth  of  the  expenfe  :  for  the 
boats  of  the  higher  level  are  bodily  let  down  the  inclined 
plane,  and  are  floated  from  the  foot  of  it  through  nearly  three 
miles,  in  a  ftraight  line,  of  the  lower  level  canal,  into  the 
open  navigation  at  Worfley  :  and,  whereas  they  were  before 
obliged  to  be  drawn  up  to  the  furface  of  the  earth  at  great 
inconvenience  and  expenfe,  to  be  repaired  at  a  work-iliop  on 
Walkden-Moor^  they  now  come  of  themfelves,  in  their 
courfc  of  bufiutffs,  to  be  repaired  at  the  great  dock-yard  at 
Worfley. 

The  place  where  the  inclined  plane  is  confl:ru6led,  is 
adapted  in  a  Angular 'way  for  the  purpofe.  There  is  a  bed  of 
white  rock,  or  grit,  eight  yards  twelve  inches  deep,  which 
dips  ^ne  in  four,  lying  exactly  in  the  dlre6lion  mofl:  con- 
vcnrfcnt  for  the  communication  between  the  two  levels; 
which  bed  of  rock  is  hollowed  into  a  tunnel,  driven  upon 
the  rife  of  the  metals,  by  blafl:ing  with  gun-powder,  and 
working  it  down  with  wedges  and  hammers.  In  this  tun- 
nel, formed  through  a  rock  reaching  from  the  lower  to  the 
higher  level^  the  inclined  plane  is  fixed ;  and,  by  its  being 
in  the  heart  of  a  rock,  the  whole  workmanfliip  can  be 
pinned,  fecured,  and  compacted  together  at  the  top,  bottom, 
and  fides,  mod  effe6lually  : — an  advantage  which  no  in- 
clined plane  above-ground  can  have,  and  which  renders 
this  a  lingular  production,  no  where  perhaps  to  be  imitated. 

The  run  of  the  inclined  plane  is  one  hundred  and  fifty-one 
yards,  befides  eighteen  yards,  the  length  of  the  locks,  at  the 
north  or  upper  end  :  and  the  fall  is  one  in  four,  correfpond-. 
-ing  with  the  dip  of  the  rock. 

Of  thefe  one  hundred  and  fifty-one  yards,-  about  ninety- 
four  yards  are  formed  into  a  double  waggon-way,  in  order  to 
let  two  boats,  namely,  the  empty  and  the  loaded  boat,  pafs 

Vol.  IX.  K  up 


34  Of  the  Under- ground  inclined  Flmie 

•up  and  down;  and  are  divided  by  a  brick  wall,  fu'pportirig 
the  roof,  in  which  arc  openings  for  a  perfon  to  efcape  out  of 
the  way  of  the  boats ;  which  double  waggon- way  joins  in 
one,  about  fifty- feven  yards  from  the  lower  level. 

The  whole  width  of  the  double  waggon-way  is  nineteen 
feet;  and  of  the  fingle  waggon- way,  after  the  jun6lion,  ten 
feet. 

Thefe  waggon-ways  are  fupplied  with  iron  rails,  or  gul- 
lies, laid  on  Heepcrs,  down  the  whole  run  ;  and  the  height  of 
the  roof,  above  the  iron  rails,  is  eight  feet. 

At  the  top  of  the  inclined  plane  there  is  a  double  lock,  or 
rather  two  locks,  fide  by  iide,  formed  in  the  heart  of  the 
fame  rock,  which  deliver  the  loaded  boats  from  the  higher 
level  down  the  inclined  plane,  and  receive  the  empty  boats 
from  the  lower.  The  length  of  that  part  of  the  tunnel  in 
which  thefe  are  formed,  is  eighteen  yards;  the  width  or 
diameter,  twenty  feet  fix  inches ;  and  the  height  of  the  roof, 
at  tlie  north  end  and  above  the  locks,  at  dd^  Plate  I.  fig.  4. 
twenty-one  feet,  to  admit  the  break- wheel. 

The  bottom,  or  fouth  end  of  the  inclined  plane,  is  fix  feet 
nine  inches  under  the  furface  of  the  water,  where  the  loaded 
boat  floats  oflf  the  carriage  upon  the  canal  of  the  lower 
level.. 

The  depth  of  the  lock?,  under  water,  at  the  north  end,  is 
four  feet  fix  inches ;  at  the  fouth  end  it  is  eight  feet. 

The  wall  between  the  h)cks  is  nine  inches  above  the  fur- 
face  of  the  level  water ;  its  breadth  is  three  feet. 

The  diameter  of  the  horizontal  main-lliaft,  upon  which 
.the  rope  works  to  let  the  loaded  boats  down,  and  to  draw  the 
empty  boats  up,  is  four  feet  eleven  inches,  and  its  circumfe- 
rence is  fifteen  feet  five  inches.  The  main-rope  is  two 
inches  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and  feven  inches  and  a  half 
in  circumference.  It  is  lapped  round  with  a  fmall  cord  of 
about  an  inch  in  circumference,  for  the  length  of  about  out 
.  hundred  and  five  yards,  to  prevent  its  wearing,  which  it  does 
chiefly  when  it  drags  upon  the  bottom,  when  at  work,  at  the 
place  where  the  waggon-w^ays  unite ;  and,  for  the  fame 
purpofe,  rollers  of  eight  inches  diameter  are  fixed  at  intervale 
liovvn  the-  run  of  the  inclined  plane.     Moreover,  a  hollow 

call- 


executed  at  Walkden-Moor .  35 

cafl-lron  roller  of  eight  inches  and  a  half  diameter  is  fixed 
acrofs  the  weft  lock,  parallel  to  the  upper  weft  lock-gate, 
and  near  the  north  end  of  the  lock,  bat  half  a  yard  higher 
than  the  gate,  in  order  to  hear  up  the  rope,  and  to  prevent 
it  from  fwagging. 

A  hold-faft  rope  is  faftened  to  the  main-rope,  to  ftay  each 
boat  upon  its  waggon,  as  they  go  up  or  down.  It  is  marked 
lik,  in  fig.  4,  Plate  I.  and  its  ufes  are  more  particularly  de- 
tailed in  the  table  of  reference,  at  k  k,  to  that  plate. 

Upon  this  horizontal  main-fliaft  is  a  break-wheel  above 
mentioned,  which  regulates  the  motion  of  the  loaded  boat 
going  down  the  inclined  plane. 

The  number  of  iron  teeth,  or  cogs,  in  the  fpur-wheel, 
which  is  faftened  to  the  fide  of  the  break-wheel,  is  three 
hundred  and  feventy-two;  and  the  little  nut- wheel.  No.  3, 
iig.  5.  which  fets  it  in  motion,  contains  eleven  teeth,  or  cogs. 
The  nut-wheel  is  fupportcd  by  two  uprights  from  the  pillar 
to  the  roof,  and  works  between'  them.  Two  winches  or 
handles.  No.  44,  %.  5,  on  its  axis,  put  the  main-ftiaft,  dd, 
fig.*  4.  or  No.  I,  fig.  4.  in  motion.  The  power  of  both 
lanited  enables  a  man,  who  ufes  a  force  equal  to  forty  pounds 
weight,  to  fet  forward  two  tons  upon  the  waggon-road  :  and 
this  force,  multiplied  at  the  winches  or  handles,  may  be 
vifed  to  fet  forward  th^  loaded  boat  out  of  one  lock,  and  to 
bring  the  empty  boat  into  the  other.  The  boats  being  thus 
put  in  motion,  the  little  nut-wheel  is  difengaged  from  the 
main-fliaft,  by  a  flide  drawing  the  little  nut  fideways,  fo  as 
to  difengage  the  teeth,  or  cogs,  from  the  cogs  of  the  fpur- 
wheel.  The  weight  of  four  tons  going  down  brings  up  about 
one. 

The  fpur-wheel,  however,  which  is  faftened  to  the  break- 
wheel,  No.  2,  fig.  5.  is  feldom  ufed,  as  it  is  occafionully  only 
put  in  motion  to  regulate  the  ftretch  of  the  ropes  when  new, 
and  to  draw  the  light  boat  into  the  lock,  when  at  any  time 
it  may  happen  to  be  over-weighted  with  materials,  fach  as 
mortar,  props,  flabs,  &c.  for  the  ufe  of  the  higher  level 
collieries,  and  will  not  move  of  itfelf,  upon  a  balance,  out  of 
{he  lower  level. 

The  length  of  the  carriage,  6r  cradle,  is  thirty  feet ;  its 
F.  J,  width 


^6  Of  the  Under-ground  inclined  Tlan6 

width  is  feven  feet  four  inches.  It  ttiov^s  upon  four  folic! 
caft-  iron  rollers,  which  run  upon  caft-iron  plates  ;  on  one 
iide  of  each  of  which  there  are  iron  crefts,  which  (land  two 
inches  higher  than  the  plates,  arid  prevent  the  carriage  from 
running  off  the  road. 

The  weight  of  neat  coal,  contained  in  the  loaded  boat,  is 
about  twelve  tons  :  the  boat  weighs  about  four  tons ;  and 
the  carriage,  or  cradle,  in  which  the  boat  is  placed,  when 
conveyed  down  the  inclined  plane,  is  about  five  tons : — in  all 
about  twenty-one  tons. 

At  this  inchned  plane,  thirty  loaded  boats  are  now  let 
down,  with  eafe,  in  about  eight  hours;  that  is  to  fay,  four 
boats  are  let  down  in  a  little  more  than  an  hour.  The  boats 
ufed  in  thcfe  collieries  are  of  different  fizcs  and  dimenfions ; 
fome  will  carry  feven,  forrie  eight  and  a  half,  fome  twelve 
tons. 

The  weight  of  neat  coal,  independently  of  the  weight  of  the 
carriage  and  boat's,  which  is  let  down  the  inclined  plane,  in 
twelve-ton  Ijoats,  in  eight  hours,  will  confequently  be  three 
hundred  and  fixty  tons.  The  weight  of  the  carriage,  fuppofe 
five  tons,  let  down  in  the  fame  time,  will  .be  one  hundred  and 
fifty  tons  ;  and  the  weight  of  the  boat,  fuppofe  four  tons,  thirty 
times  down,  in  eight  hours,  w^ill  be  one  hundred  and  twenty 
tons :— in  a]l  fix  hundred  ^ri4  thirty  tons  dovvn  in  eight 
hours. 

The  weight  of  the  carriage  thirty  times  up,  and  thirty 
boats  up,  in  eight  hours,  will  be 
Carriage,  at  5  tons,  30  times  up  =  150  tons 
Boat,         at  4  tons,  30  times  up  =  120  tons 

In  all       270  tons    up    in    eight 
hours. 
So  that  there  will  be  630  tons  down 
%*]0  tons  up 


In  all  900  tons  moved  at  the  inclined  plane, 
in  8  hours,  exolufive  of  an  indeter- 
minate quantity  of  materials  occa- 
fionally  brought  up  for  the  ufe  of 
tlie  higher  level  collieries. 


executed  at  Walkden-Moar,  yj 

'  The  various  feeders  which  are  loofenecl  by  opening  the 
€Ods  in  the  higher  level  colheries,  as  well  as  three  fufficlent 
refervoirs,  which  may  occafionally  be  reforted  to,  and  ufed 
in  a  dry  feafon,  keep  the  higher  level  always  to  its  height, 
and  aflford  a  coiiftant  fupply  of  water  to  fill  the  locks,  for  the 
purpofe  of  working  the  inclined  plane. 

This  inclined  plane  was  begun  in  September,  1795;  it  was 
finifhed,  and  in  ufe,  in  06lobcr,  1797. 

Of  this,  as  of  mod:  of  his  other  great  works,  the  Duke  of 
Bridgewater  was  himfelf  the  planner  and  contriver  : — to  pro- 
je6l  greatly,  and  to  execute  completely,  are  the  perfe(£i:ion  of 
genius. 

The  fingularity  of  the  place  in  which  it  is  conftrufted ; 
the  original  boldnefs  of  the  defign  ;  the  ingenuity  and  me- 
chanifm  difplayed  in  planning  and  executing  it ;  the  difpatch 
with  which  it  has  been  finiflied  ;  the  fimplicity,  beauty,  and 
harmony  of  its  parts,  tending  to  one  united  whole;  and, 
above  all,  the  perfeftion  to  which  it  is  proved  to  have  been 
brought,  now  that  it  is  practically  in  ufej  render  it  equally 
aftonifliing  with  any  other  of  the  ftupendous  works  which 
have  been  fo  ably  planned,  and  fo  fuccefsfully  executed,  by 
the  firft  projcdor  and  patriotic  father  of  Inland  Navigation. 
I  have  the  honour  to  be,  &:c. 

Francis  H.  Egerton, 

Brldgewater-H  ou  fe, 
March  5,    1800. 

References  to  the  Plate, 
a  to  Z',  (Fig.  4.)  t)ip  of  the  metals  and  waggon-road  on  the 
mider-^ground  inclined  plane.  From  Z*,  on  the  lower  level, 
to  the  mouth  of  the  tunnel,  is  three  miles.  A,  The  eaft 
lock.  B,  the  weft  lock.  C,  reprefents  a  fcAion  of  the 
lock:  the  dotted  line  iliows  the  horizontal  depth,  and  the 
black  line  under  it,  the  (lope  upon  which  the  waggon  wheels 
nm  to  receive  the  loaded  boat,  or  to  bring  the  empty  boat 
into  the  lock,  dd^  the  main-fliaft,  four  feet  eleven  inches, 
diameter,  upon  which  the  ropes  work  to  wind  the  boats  up 
and  down  ;  and  here  alfo  the  break-wheel  is  faftened  on,  to- 
gether with  a  fpur-vvhcel,  and  a  nut-wheel.  See  fig.  5,  No.  i. 
f^  a  paflage  betwixt  the  higher  level  and  the  locks,   ffy  % 

loadecj 


3  8  Of  the  Under 'ground  hic lined  Plant ,  ^e, 

loaded  boat  going  down,  and  an  empty  boat  going  up  the 
iinder-e;round  inclined  plane.  G,  a  brick  wall  from  the  fole 
to  the  top  of  the  inclined  plane,  in  order  to  give  additional 
fnpport  to  the  roof,  h  hh  h,  openings  through  the  brick, 
\vall  G,  into  which  n  perfon  may  ftep  out  of  the  way  of  the 
boats,  at  the  time  they  are  paffing  lip  and  down,  i/a  bell, 
which  IS  rung  by  the  rope  dotted  to  b,  upon  the  lower  level, 
;^t  the  bottom  of  the  undfer-ground  inclined  plane,  to  give 
notice  when  the  empty  boat  is  upon^  the  waggon,  or  cradle, 
and  when  the  men  below  are  ready,  that  the  loaded  boat  may 
be  let  down  by  the  men  above,  k  k,  Holdfaft-ropes  faftened 
to  the  main-ropes,  and  hooked  on  to  a  ring  at  the  fou-th  end 
of  each  boat,  as  it  goes  up  or  down,  in  order  to  ftay  the 
boats  upon  the  waggon  or  cradle,  that  they  may  not  fwag, 
or  (lip  otf.  Thcfe  holdfaft-ropes  are  fpliced  on  to  the  end  of 
the  main-ropes,  and  run  above  and  between  the  two  bridle- 
ropes  when  they  are  fattened  to  the  iron  uprights,  which  are 
upon  each  fide  of  the  waggons,  or  cradles;  andjheyruu 
over  the  north  end  of  the  boat,  to  be  hooked  on  to  the  fouth 
end.  //,  the  bridle-ropes  faltened  to  the  main-ropes  at  O, 
and  fecured  to  two  iron  uprights  upon  each  fide  of  the  wag- 
gon, or  cradle.  O  O,  the  places  where  the  main-ropes,  the 
bridle-ropes,  and  the  holdfaft-ropes,  are  fattened  all  together. 
No.  I.  An  open  fpace  driven  into  the  fide  of  the  lock  A,  to 
which  a  pit  is  funk  from  the  higher  level,  in  order  to  convey 
the  water  out  of  the  locks  down  to  the  lower  level,  and  alfo  to 
force  a  current  of  frefh  air  into  the  lower  level  collieries. 
No.  2.  A  paddle  to  let  the  water  out  pf  the  lock  A,  into  the 
pit  No.  I.  No  3,  A  paddle  to  let  the  water  out  of  the 
lock  B,  through  a  culvert,  rtprefented  by  dotted  lines,  under 
the  lock  A,  into  th-e  pit  No.  i.  No.  7,7.  Paddles  in  the 
lock-gates,  to  let  the  water  out  of  the  higher  level  into  the 
locks.  No  8,  8.  The  two  north  lock-gates,  one  to  each 
lock,  which  turn  upon  the  heqlsof  the  gates,  and  fwing  round 
when  they  are  opened  or  iliut.  No.  10,  10.  Two  ttops  or 
doughs,  one  to  each  lock,  which  ferve  as  lock-gates  to  the, 
fouth  end,  and  arc  raifed  and  let  down  by  a  windlafs.  S,  a 
iiop,  which  is  ufed  occafionally  when  the  lock-gates  want 
rtpairing,    T^  the  place  \yhere  the  boats  which  are  to  pafa 

to 


Carnotron  the  'Infinttejimal  Calculus,  ^ 

|o  or  from  the  lower  fingle  waggon-way  are  dlrcdled,   at 
pleafure,  into  either  part  of  the  double  waggon-way,  by  a, 
moveable  iron  fleeper  or  plate  at  that  point,  upon  which 
deeper  or  plate  the  wheels  of  the  boat-carriage  or  cradle  run. 
No.  I.  (fig.  5.)  main-fliaft  on  which  the  rope  laps.  ,2.  Break- 
;wheel,   on   one  fide  of  which  the  fpur-wheel  is  faftened, 
3.  Nut-wheel,  outofgecr,  but  which  Hides  into  the  fpur- 
wheel,  when  ufcd  to  draw  the  empty  boat  into  the  lock  oc- 
i^afionally,  and  which  is  fupportcd  by  two  uprights  from  tlie 
pillar  to  the  roof.     4,  4.  Winches  or  handles,  to  work  the 
nut  and  fpur-wheel.     5,  5.  The  main-ropes  faftened  to  the 
boats,    and   which   are   lapped   to   prevent   their   wearing. 
6.  The  fpur-wheel,  which  is  faftened  on  one  fide  of  the 
•break-wheel ;  and   on  which  break-wheel  is  a  ftrong  iron- 
jointed  timber  brace,  which,  according  to  the  preflure  given 
thereto  by  the  man  who  attends  it,  will  allow  the  loaded  boat 
to  defcend  quick  or  flow,  or  detain  it  in  its  paflage.    7,7.  Pad- 
.dles  in   the  lock-gates,    to  let  the  water  out  of  the  higher 
^level  into  the  lock.     8.  A  hollow  caft-iron  .roller,  to  pre- 
vent  the  main-ropes  from  fwagging.     9,  Shroud-wheel,  to 
prevent  the   ropes   going  over  the  end  of  the  main-{haft, 
flipping  off,  jerking,  or  breaking.     This  fi:ands  three  inches 
above  the  main-fhaft. 


■   V.    Dr,  Dickson's   Tranjlation   of  Carnot   on   the- 
Infinitejimal  Calculus, 

[Concluded  from  Vol.  VIII.  Page  352.] 
The  Prmc'iples  of  the  Differential  and  Integral  Calculi. 

49-  XF  to  the  fame  variable  quantity  be  fucceffively  attri-». 
buied  two  Values  whofe  difference  is  infinitelv  fmall,  that  dif- 
ference {viz.  that  of  the  fecond,  from  the  firft  of  the  two 
values)  is  called  the  Differential  of  the  firft  value. 

For  example,  let  AMN  (fig.  2.)  be  a  curve,  concerning 
which  any  queftion  whatever  is  to  be  refolved,  and  (uch  that 
the  ordinate  MP  is  one  of  the  quantities  affigned  in  that 
queftion.    I  fuppofe,  moreover,  that,  to  facilitate  the  folution, 

S  an 


Jp^  Carnot  on  the  Tfjcory  ef 

an  auxiliary  line  NQ  is  drawn  parallel  to,  and  at  an  arbitrary 
diftancc  from,  the  ordinate  MPy  to  which  it  {NQ)  may  con- 
tinually approach,  till  the  two  lines  coincide;  the  line  NO, 
or  NQ  —  MP  will  then  be  an  infinitely  fniall  quantity  (fee 
art.  19).  Now  as  NO  is  the  difference  of  the  two  values^ 
MP  and  NQ,  fucceflively  attributed  to  the  ordinate,  it  has 
been  agreed  to  diftinguifli  it  in  difcourfe  by  the  diminutive 
word,  the  differential,  of  the  variable  line  MP,  and  to  repre- 
fent  it  in  calculation  by  the  fame  variable  line,  with  the  cha- 
ra<fter  d  prefixed  *.  Jhus,  putting  y  for  the  ordinate  MPf 
dy  will  fignify  the  Differential  of  MP. 

But  to  fuppofe,  as  we  have  done,  that  NQ  continually  ap- 
proaches MP,  is  alfo  to  fuppofe  that  AQ  continually  ap- 
})roaches  to  AP  -,  for  the  firft  of  thefe  fuppolitions  neceflarily 
implies  the  fecond.  Putting,  therefore,  x  for  the  abfcifle  APy 
the  little  line  PQ  or  MO  will  be  the  differential  of  x,  and 
We  fliall  have  MO=^.v  in  the  fame  time  that  NO~dj>. 

If  we  farther  fuppofe  NQ  =y,  and  AQ  =  x\  we  Ihall  have 
j/  -  ^'4  dy,  and  x^  ~  x-\-dx\  fo  that  the  differentials  dy  and  dx^ 
are  nothing  clfe  than  the  increments  of  their  correfpondent 
Variables  y  and  .r,  or  the  quantities  by  which  they  are  in^ 
creafed  when  they  become  y  and  x^  f- 

50.  Now,  let  there  be  attributed  to  the  ordinate  a  new 
value  RSy  fuch  that  PQ  and  Q^  may  differ  infinitely  littles 

■  *  Here  one  i.s  almoft  tempted  to  aflc,Whetb.er  the  ingenious  author  con* 
fiders  the  Bhtifli  marhematidans  as  mere  Differentia' s?  For  they  have 
never  agreed  to  ufe  the  notation  he  mentions  ;  but,  inftead  o(  dx,  dx  dy^ 
&ic.  write,  with  Newton,  the  immortal  inventpr  of  fluxions,  a-,  xj  &c. 
The  d's  only  ferve  to  embarrafs  the  combixiations,  which  fhould  be  ex- 
prcKcdwith  the  utmoil  clearnefs.     W.  D.     . 

-{■  The  author,  after  partly  explaining  the  doftrine  of  prime  and  ulti- 
mate ratios,  fcems  to  decline  applying  that  doctrine^  when  he  calls  dx  and 
dy  mere  inerements.  It  may,  however,  be  obicrved  that,  had  he  con- 
fidercd  them  in  tlieir  extreme  ratios,  he  would  have  en£\rely  deviated  from 
the"  infinitefimal  or  differential  theory,  which  is  properly  his  fubjeft,"  into 
the  fluxionary.  But,  as  already  hinted,  his  mixed  Way  of  elucidating  his 
Tdo6lrine,  may  be  of  great  ufe,  if  his  readers  take  care  not  to  confound  the 
^differentials  (or  increments)  of  quantities  confidered  as  formed  by  an  ap- 
^ofition  of  parts,  with  the  fluxions,  which  are  accurately  in  the  prime 
ratio  of  the  nafcent,  or  the  ultimate  ratio  of  the  evanefcent,  increments  (or 
■dGcremeiirs^,  uf  qcaniitics,  ccnlldci-ed  as  gencraccd-by  m.otiori. — W.  D. 

fronv 


tke.  Xnji7iiteflmal  Calculus,  41 

From  each  other,  or  have  for  their  ultimate  ration  a  fatio  of 
>?quality.  This  being  fo,  it  nluft  necefl'arily  happen  (bccaui'e 
J^Q,  by  the  firfl;  hypothefis,  is  already  fiippofed  to  approach 
"continually  to  MP)  that  RS  will  alfo  continually  approach  to 
the  fame  line  MP ;  fo  that,  like  NQ,  it  will  ultimately  co- 
incide with  that  fame  line ;  otherwifc  it  is  evident  that  the 
ratio  of  QS  to  PQ,  which,  by  the  fuppofition,  ought  to  ap- 
proach continually  to  unity,  would  recede  from  it.  It  is 
inorcover  evident,  from  the  law  of  continuity,  that  the  fame 
will  be  the  "cafe  with  the  ratio  of  RZ  to  NO,  Agreeably, 
therefore,  tb  the  general  notion  of  differential  quantities, 
above  delivered,  QtS  ought  to  be  the  differential  of  AQ,  RZ 
that  of  A-Q,  QS—  jPQ,  or  NZ-^MO,  that  of  PQ,  and 
laftly,  RZ  —  KOy  that  plf  NO;,  and  all  for  the  fame  reafon 
that  NO',  or  NQ^MP,  is  the  differential  of  MP.  Accord- 
ing to  t|ie  received  manner,  then,  of  e.tprfefling  differentials 
in  calculation,  we  muil  have  QS^dx,  RZ^dj,  QS  —  PQ 
=  d{AfO),  RZ  -  NO  -r:  J(iYO).  But  we  kave  already 
found  MO  ^  dx,  ai?d  NO  =  dyi  therefore  QS'  -  PQ  =  ddx. 
^nfJ^^Z-^^Q  —  ddj',  that  is,  the  quantities  J<^.r  and  ddy,  (alfo 
written  d\v  and  dy)  will  b*i  the  differentials  of  the  differeii- 
tials  of.r  andj^',  called  alfo,  for  brcvitv,  Jccoyui  differences,  or 
differentiats  oj^  the  fecond  order ;  that  is,  ddx  is  the  differentia^ 
'of  the  fecond  order^  or  the  fecond  difference  of  x;  and  ddy 
that  of  J.'. 

N0W3  fince  QS  and  PQ  are  fuppofed  to  dlifcr  Infinitely 
little  from  each  other,  their  difference  ddx  Is  infinitely  fmall 
in  comparifon  with  each  of  them  (by  article  28).  Therefore 
dil^'ercntials  of  the  febond  order  are  infinitely  fmall  in  cbtn- 
pariTon  with  firit  differentials,  or  thofe  of  the  firft  order*; 

51.  In  the  fame  manner  may  bie  differentia  ted,  in  tticir  turn, 

■'•  If,  inftcad  of  drawing  the  new  auxiliary  line  RS  in  fucH  manner 
that  the  lines  ^  and  Pi^dilfer  infinitely  little  from  each  other,  it  be  drawn 
in  fuch  a  maiincr  that  ^^  may  be  predfcly  equal  to  P^,  thit  is,  fo  thit 
APy  ^^,  and  AS  may  be  in  aiithmcticul  pro^relfion,  wc  Ihail  have  dcix 
r=:o,  or  (ix  conftant.  Thus,  one  of  the  d.'flcrentials  may  be  fuppofed 
conftanti  But,  from  AP  /lil^  and  AS  being  in  arithmetical  progrelfion,  it 
will  not  follow  tljat  MP^  N^^^t\d  J?.t  are  lb  Jikevvile,  unlefs  AMN,  in- 
tkad  of  being  a  curve,  be  a  ftrai^ht  line.  Thus,  from  the  fuppofition 
that  ildx  =  o,  it  can  by  no  mean*  be  inferred  that  tiUv  =  e. 

'  Vol.  IX.  *         F  "  the 


4^  Carn'it  6nih  Tbeory  of 

the  dilTciTT^tialF  of  tbefccond  order,  and  hence  will  refult  \\\^ 
differentials  of  the  third  order;  from  the  differ entiatio7i  of  thefc 
lad  will  refult  thofe  of  the  fo^irth  order,  and  fo  on.  Thus 
eiddj,  or  d^y  will  he  the  third  difference  of  t  and  ddddy,  or 
dy,  the  differential  of  the  fourth  order,  he.  Now,  after 
what  has  been  faid  on  the  generation  of  diffferentials  of  the 
firff:  and  fccond  orders,  there  will  be  no  diflUculiy  in  compre- 
hending the  production  of  the  Superior  orders.  I  fliall  there- 
fore only  obferve,  that  it  confills  in  attributing,  for  each  new 
order,  a  new  auxiliary  value  to  each  of  the  variable  quantities, 
and  fuch,  that  not  only  each  of  ithefe  new  values  may  differ 
infinitely  little  from  that  which  precedes  it,  but  that  the  fame 
thing  niav  take  place  between  their  dilTerentials',  the  diflTeren- 
tials  of  their  differentials,  and  fo  forth. 

52.  To  differentiate  a  quantity  is  to  affiign  its  diflferential ; 
tliat  is,  W  X,  for  example,  be  anv  fun<Sli6n  whatever  of  ;v,  to 
ditlerentiateit,  is  to  aflign  thequanlity  by  which  that  fun6lion 
will  be  increafcd,  by  fuppoling  the  increment  of  x  to  be  dx\ 

To  integrate,  or  to  fu?n,  a  differential,  on  the  contrary,  is  to 
return  from  that  differential  to  the  quantity  which  produced 
it ;  and  this  laft  quantity  is  called  the  Integral  or  S/iw  of  the 
propofed  differential  *.  For  example,  x  is  the  integral  or  funi 
of  J.r,  and  to  integrate,  or  to  fum,  dx  is  nothing  more  than 
to  ailign  that  quantity,  ^,  which  is  its  fum  or  integral. 

We  have  feen  that,  in  calculation,  the  differential  of  a 
qiiantity  is  expreff^ed  by  that  fame  quantity,  with  the  cha- 
radler  d  prefixed.  Reciprocally  it  has  been  agreed  to  exprefs 
the  integral  or  funi  of  any  differential  by  the  fame  differen- 
tial, preceded  by  the  chara6tery;  that  is,  y'J.v,  for  example, 
lignifies  the  fum  o^  dx;  fo  that  we  have  evidently.r '=y<:/.r. 

53.  The  Calculi  called  Differential  and  Integral,  confti- 
tute  the  art  of  difcovering  any  ratios  and  relations  whatever, 
cxiffing  between  propofed  quantities,  by  the  help  of  their 
differentials.  The  name  Differential  Calculus  is  properly- 
applied  to  the  art  of  invelligating  the  ratios,  or  relations  of 
differential  quantities,  and  afterwards  to  eliminate  them  by 
the  ordinary  rules  of  Algebra ;  and  the  name  of  Integral 
Calculus  to  the  art  of  integrating  or  eliminating  thefe  fame 

*  Or  what  \Ke  call  the  Fluent  of  the  propofed  Ftr/xm* — W,  D. 

•  differential 


the  Infinitejiiruil  C(JlIcuIu5,  45 

idiflTerentlal  quantities  by  procefles  which  lliow  the  method  of 
returning  from  a  differential  to  its  integral. 

Mj;  prefent  objc6l  is  7iot  to  write  a  ireatije  on  thcfe  caUuViy 
hut  only  to  give  ihefundairiental  rules,  and  tojhoiu  that  theft 
rules  are  only  fo  ma?iy  applications  of  the  general  principles 
which  have  been  explained, 

54.  Let  it  firlt  be  propofed,  thcn^  to  fiffign  the  differential 
of  the  fum,  x  +  jv  4-  «  &c.  of  feveral  variable  quantities. 

By  the  hypothefis,  x  becomes  x  4-  dx^  y  becomes  y  -{■  dy 
&C.  Therefore  the  fum  propofed  becomes  a;  4-  dx  ^y  •{-  dy 
4-  2J  +  ^s?  8cc.  Confequently,  it  is  inereafed  by  dx  •{-  dy  + 
dz.  Sec;  and  thefc  iacrements  are  precifely  what  we  have 
called  differentials  *. 

55.  The  differential  of  fz  4- ^  4-  ^  3tc.  4-  .v  4- j/  4-  zhc» 
is  now  required;  a,hfC,  8cc.  being  conftant,  and  x^yyZf^c, 
variable^  <^uantities. 

By  the  hypothefis  a  remains  a,  h  remains  h,  Sec.  and  Jt 
becomes  !<'\-dx,  y  beconues  y  4-  dy  he.  Therefore  the  fum 
propofed  becoi>ies  a  4-  ^  +  ^  &c.  +  x  •\-  dx  &c.  Confe- 
quently  it  is  increafed  by  dx  -\-  dy  +  dz  &c,;  and  this  incre*. 
rucnt  is  the  differential  fought,  which  is  the  fiime  as  if  there 
iiad  been  no  conftant  quantities  in  the  propofed  fum. 

Required  the  differential  of  ^.v. 

By  the  hypothefis^  the  conftant  quantity  a  remains  un- 
changed, and  the  variable  quantity  x  becomes  x  +  dx;  there- 
fore ax  becomes  ax  +  adx ;  and  confequently  <m?  is  increafpd 
by  adx,  which  is  the  differential  fought. 

56.  Required  the  differential  of  xy. 

From  what  ha!s  been  faid,  it  appears  that  the  differential 
here  required  is  ydx  +  xdy  4-  dxdy,  that  is,  we  have 
d ,  xy  =  ydx  4-  xdy  4-  dxdyf. 

^     '        ^ But, 

*  -See  the  nole  at  the  end  of  article  49, 

t  As  the  ingenious  author  has  touched  no  farther  on  the 
practice  than  feemed  necellary  to  elucidate  his  theory,  I  (liall 
endeavour  to  fliow  (as  plainly  as  I  can  in  a  note)  how  to  find 
the  differentials,  or,  which  is  the  fame  thing  in  pradice,  the 
fluxions  of  products,  powers,  roots,  and  fractions. 

ifi.  To  find  the  fluxions  of  proiudts,  fuch  as  a;',  xyz,  Sec, 

/^xampU  I.   {x  +  x)  X  (  v  +»  =  .^V  4-  xy  4-  yx  +  ^y- 

F  ^  But, 


44  CartiGt  on  the  Theory  of 

Biit,  with  rcfpe^t  to  this  equation,  I  obfenc^  that  dx  and 
4y,  being  uifmitcly  fmall,  in  coinparifon  with  x  and  jy,  the 

hi\ 

But,  for  a  reafon  which  the  author  gives,  xy  (in  his  notatioii 
axJy)  may  be  rcje^Slea,  and  ib  the  fluxion  6t\i;y  is  ,\J  -\-  yx, 

kxample  2.  Thus  alfo,  the  fluxion  of 

■•  xyz  is  x-zy  4-  y'zx  -t-  .rnxi. 

Exdmple  3|.  In  Hke  manner,  the  fluxion  of 

vx\-^,  is  vy^  4-  vx7J(  +  v^2i'  -f-  ^«^'v..    ,.,i„ 
,,  2aly,  To  find  the  fluxions  of  pow^cxs,  as  ;k%,^V<^F-     -    . 

Example  I.  In  the  firft  example  2^bove,  we  Had  ^  -f-'  J'^ /of 
the  fluxion  of  xy.  Let  .v  --  )',  then  xy  —  .r",  ah(i  xy  H-  jf 
=  A\r  +  A'i  or  aA'i,  will  be  tne  fluxion  of  ,r*. 

Example  2.  In  the  fecond  example  above^  let  x  --  y  =  t 
then  ajis  will  become  x^,  and  a;^  +  vzf  -{•  y^x  willbcrome 
XXX  4-  .v.ii  -\-  Avvi-,  or  ajr  ,*•,  \vhich  will  be  the  fluxion  of  .v\ 

Example  ■^.  In  like  manner,  if^  in  the  ^d  example  abovCj^ 
v  rz  X  —  y  —  Zj  the  fluxion  of  v*  will  be  l^x^x,     , 

Tii'Jli  the  flux'ioli  of  x'^  being  clxx,  that  of  .r^  teiftg  ^v^.r, 
that  of  .f*  being  4t\v^  &:c.  we  conclade  that  the  fluxion  or 

any  power  qf^.v  \vhatever,  fay  x  ,  will  be  inx  x.  Here 
the  index  m  is  fiippofed  tq  be  integral  and  ^flirmative ;  btif 
the  fame  forniula,  'mutatts  viutand'is,  ierves  where  rn  is  frac- 
tional or  negative. 

3dly,  Before  we  proceed  to  powers  whofe  indices  are  ne- 
gative, it  will  be  iiecefl'ary  to  contemplate  very  attentively, 
iuch  fprics  as 

x^,_  x\  ~x',  x',  x-\  ---,    --r  ,   — 3->    -^3  ^:<^. 


.r-    ■      X-         X'         .V 


or,  .r4,  x\  x\   .v%   .i'\   X       ,  a;      y  x       ,  x       ,   &lc. 
i>rhere  the  law  of  continuation  of  the.  pqwprs  is  a  fuccell;ve 
diviiion  by  Xy  and  that  of  the  indices  a  Uicceilivc  fuDtraiSlibn 

of  I ;  fo  that  x"^  j  .v      ,  &c.  in  the  fecond  feries^  is  equiwi-. 

lent  to  — -,   -X5  <^G'  '^^  the  firfl;;  or,  in  other  woris,  thtj 

Jt  X 

—  r       —2 
i^ogative  indices  —  I,  — 2>  &:c.  of  a-     ",  *      ,    &^c.    con- 
fidered  as  multipliers,  are  equivalent  to  the  pofltive  iiidices 

I,  2,  &c.   of -^,  — 7",  &c.  co.nfideripg  .1%  .r%  &c.  as  di- 


VI  ^  r 


vifqrs.       lieace   thp   general   formula,   mx        x,   becomes 

-^anx  X,  OT  — — — ;  and  thus  the  fluxion 

©J 


ihe-  Infinitejirnat  Calculus,  45 

Uft  iitm dxc^\s\i\t\rm^mi{i\y  rriiall  m  cbmparifon  with  el^^^H 
of  the  others;  that  is,  that  the  qdotieiit  of  this  laft  term  b^ 
either  of  ihe  other  teriiis  is  aii  Infinitely  frnall  qukiitity.     r^* 

ther^fof4- 

bf — i  or  of  A'      y  IS— t.v      ^c-,  or  --5-; 

6f  -^,' dt  of  ir""  ^  is --  iS^      •"*  ie;  6r  — r-  i 

•^r    I  f    —3    •        .    --3-V*.   ci^3-^' 

of  — r-5  «r  of  .V      ,  IS  —  rv  ;r,  ot  -^-^  5 

of — ,  orofA'""^  is— 4Ar  i,  or -vr-:  and  fo  of  others  J 

f  4thly,  Before^  we  cari  find  the  fluxions  of  powers  witU 
^(^lional  indices,  commonly  cialled  roots,  we  mull  very  at-r 
teiitively  cqnfider  the  law  of  coritinaatibii  in  fuch  leries  as 

A'*,  A'^,  a:%  x^y  &c.  co'htihually  extt-aS:irig  the  fqnare  root, 

I 
A^,  A'%  x\  A'^,  &;c'.   ■  — - — r ^hc  cube  root, 

Ar'%  »v*,  x^,  A'%  &c, ^ —  the  biquad.  root, 

o  3  I  i 

x*^,  .v%  A'^',  .v-*",  &c. ; — - — — cube  root  pf  the  fquarc. 

Here  we  fee  tliat  it  is  not  more  than  certain  that  x'  is  the 

il:iuare  root  of  Ar%  or  x  the  fquare  root  of  v*,  tHclri  th^t  .i-^ 
is  the  fquare  root  of  .r.  And,  by  the  fame  law  that  Jt^  is  tlie 
cube  root  of  .v^,  and  x  the  cube  root  of  .v*,  we  may  afiirm^ 

that.v^  is  the  cube  rqot  of  .v,  &c.  Thus,  then,  we  may  fafely 

\^rite  X*  for  V.r,   .v'^for  ^x^  x-^  for  ^x\  See,  and  univerr 

m 

(ally,  Af  "  for  J/x^,  This  being  underdood,  it  will  be  evir 
^ent  that  the  general  formula,  itvc   "^  x,  by  writing  —  for;w, 

m  t»  —  n 

jnuft  becomij  —  « '^  ""   ;r,  or  —  x    "   x.     And  hence  the 

;.  •  n  ''        n 

fluxion 


of  ^x^  pr  ,v  %  i§  i-r*      i  =  |.v 


t  -1    '.i  _  1^    »^  ^  __ 


X 


I    « 


^  ^*,  (ir  #](  is'  ft*" '4  =  ^h  ==  ^  ; 


2.x' 

of 


40  Carmt  9n  the  Theory  tf 

therefore,  dxdy  be  neglected  in  the  preceding  equation,  Jt 
Nvill  then  become  d,xy—  xdy  -^ydx^wlxich  is  what  I  call  an 
iniperfetSl  equation.^  But,  fincc  imperfect  equations  (by  ar- 
ticles 31  and  34)  may  be  employed  like  rigorous  ones,  with- 
out inducing  any  error  into  the  refult,  it  is  evident  that  I  may 
life  this  lart  equation  inflead  of  the  firft;  and,  4s  it  is  more 
^mple,  I  (liall  by  its  help  abridge  my  calculation. 

I  fay,  then,  that  the  difterential  of  the  produ6l  of  two  va- 
riable quantities,  is  equal  to  the  produ(!^  of  the  firfl  variable 
quantity  into  the  differential  of  the  fecond,  phis  the  product 
of  the  fecond  variable  quantity  into  the  differential  of  the 
firft.  And  this  propofition  will  be  one  of  thofe  which  (ift 
article  35)  I  have  called  imperfcd  propo(?tions,  that  Is,  which 
;ire  capable  of  being  exprefTed  by  impcrfcvt  equations,  and 

of  ^^,  or  Af  ^  IS  \x^      X  =  \x      X  ==  — J  5 

4^^ 


of  V x^-.  or  A.'^,  is  \x 


tjs 


f-l.  ,      •^.  2^' 


X  = 


and  fo  in  fimilar  cafes.  .  - 

5thlv,  The  fluxion  of  a  fraction  maybe  fcund  by  confider^ 
ing  it  as  the  producSl  of  the  numerator  'and  denominator, 

giving  the  latter  a  negative  index,     Xhu^  —  is  equivalent  to 

y        X  X  \  and  as  the  fluxion  of  x-^  is  y^  +  xy^  fo-  the  fluxion 
X  .  —  I 

pf  -^ ,  or  of  its  equivalent  y        X  x  muft  be, 

■      '     isr  — ■  "~ 


(r  xi)+(-rix.v) 


The  fluxion  of  a  fraftlon,  — _,  may  alfo  be  found,  but  not 

y 

fo  elegantly,  by  aftually  dividing  ^  4-  x  by  y  -^ y. 

The  above  is  a  fpccimen  of  a  very  eafy,  and,  in  fome  mea-: 
fare,  new,  manner  of  treating  the  fundamental  proccifes  of 
tiuxions,  which  I  long  ago  mentioned  to  ISIr.  Tilloch,  and 
which,  with  fome  thoughts  on  prime  and  ultimate  ratios, 
J  intend  to  offer  him  for  publication,  when  I  have  time  to 
^raw  up  the  paper,  and  he  has  room  to  infert  it  in  the  Philo- 
fophical  Macrazine,— .W.  D. 

•  ^  which. 


the  hijlnitcfimal  Calcuhis,  ^*f 

winch,   like  them,  lead,  lieverthclefs,  to  rcfults  rigoroudy 
€xa6i  * . 

57.  By  proceeding' as  in  the  kftaniele,  we  (hall  find  the 
imperfed:  equation 

d  ,xyz  =  xydz  +  xzldy  +  yzdx» 

In  Hke  manner  we  (hall  find  the  imperfe«Sl  equation  d,x 

=  Tttx        dx  bcc. 
And,  by  the  fame  kind  of  procedure,  wc  difcover  the  im- 

perfect  equation  d,  —  = .- -. 

/  .  ^^ 

58.  Such  are  the  principal  rules  of  the  Differential  Calculus. 

Let  us  now  proceed  to  thofe  of  the  Integral  Calculus,  which 
is  the  Invcrfe  method  f. 

I.  Since 

*  If  from  the  imperfett  equation  d  ,xy  ==■  xdy\- ydx,  1  wifhed  to 
derive  a  rigorouUy  accurate  equation,  I  might  do  it  at  once,  by  re- 
ftoring  the  terni  dxdy,  which  it  wants.  But  I  might  alio  effe6l  it 
in  the  following  manner.     Dividing  the  preceding  equation  by  dy, 

for  example,  I  obtain  the  ij^w  iraperfe<ft  equation      ''  -  =  y  -— 

dy  dy 

4-  X  ',  and  as  (by  article  19)  an  auxiliary  quantity  differs  infinitely 
little  from  its  limit,  I  may  fubftitute  in   this  lalt   equation  Htn. 

(— ~)  inftead  of  ——-  itfelf,  and  Jim.  (  —  1   inftfead  of  ~   it* 
*fy  J  dy  '      \dy  J  dy 

ilelf.     Now,  it  thence  becomes  lim.  l-^~\~y  x  lim.l-~-\  -f  x. 

But  every  limit  is  (by  article  17)   an  alfigned  quantity  j  therefore, 

though  dx  and.  dy  are,  themfelves,  auxiliary  quantities,  lim,  f  •  ' '    j 

and  lim.  {-~-  )  are  affigned  quantities..    All  tbe  terms,  therefore,  of 

the  preceding  equation, /;/«.  (— p-)    ~  ^  X  lim.  (-7-)  +  x,  arc 
\  ay  *  ^  tly  I 

afligned  quantities ;  and  confequently  (by  article  34)  this  equation 

is  neceffarily  and  rigoroudy  exa«f^. 

t  The  author  touches  the  practice  of  the  Intei'/al  Calculus  as  (lightly 

AS  he  does  that  of  the  Diiferential »  but  t^e  furmcr  does  not  fo  dire<5try 

bear  on  his  fubje^l  as  the  latter;  and,  if  it  did,  I  could  not  expedl  to  bd 

indulged  with  fo^long  a  note  as  I  have  given  on  the  other;  and  which, 

aster  all,  is  but  a  flight  and  impcrfeft  general  outline.     For  particular  in- 

fow(ftions,  the  reader,  who  is  ac<juainted  with  the  nectlTiiry  pneco^f^iiaf 

mufl 


4?  Gzr^oif  on  (h  Tbupyy  of 

I.  Since  tiie  difTcrential  of  ,v  ij;  dx^  the  integral  Bf  Aic  will 
t)c  .v;  that  is,  we  fliall  have/^Av  =  .r.  But,  as  the  differen- 
|i|gkl  of  <j  +  jf  is  ^Ifo  <^r  (by  article  5.^)  it  follows  that  the  in- 
tegral rtf  r/r  is  at>  juflly  cxpreiVcd  by  ^  +  a-,  as  by  >i  alone; 
and  that,  in  general,  every  dift'erential  hath  as  many  various 
integrals  as  we  may  choofe  to  afli^n  to  it ;  but  that  aU  thefe 
integrals  only  diffei*  by  .i  eohftant  quaiitity.  It  fuffices,  there- 
fore, to  determine  one  of  them,  and  to  add  fome  conftant 
(|uantity  to  reprci'ent  all  the  reft  \  that  iS,  all  the  poflible  in- 
tegrals of  dx  will  be  rcprefcnted  by  .v  -f-  A^  the  quantity  A 
being  a  conftaiU  quantity,  takeii  at  pleafufe; 

t.  Becaufe  the  differential  of  a;  +^  +  2;  &c.  is  dx  +  dy  -^ 
dz  Sec.  the  integral  of  this  differential  will  be  ^  +  y  +  x;  &c. 
-hA. 

3.  The  differential  of  xy  being  xdj^  +j;dx  (by  article  ^6) 
as  well  as  that  of  xy  -)-  A*  the  integral  of  xdy  ^jdx.  will  be 

i\\    .  :  *"f    :~    V'    •   'o    •..'■•'■■^'  J '■   ■    i      -■■'■i        '^   '■■■■      ■    *' 

■teciprocaUy  x}'  +  ^J^ 

VtlV  ~~  Xu\' 

4.  In  like  manner^-  we  fliall  find  the  integral  of  — — ~^ 

to  be  — h  A\ 

-        y         . 

ry.  So  likewile  we  fliall  find  that  the  integral  of  w.r   "*    dx^ 

15    X       +  A,  &C; 

Such  are  the  principal  rules  of  the  Integral  Calculus.  We 
proceed  to  fltow,  by  fonie  particular  examples,  the  applica- 
tion of  tiiefe  rules,  and  of  thofe  of  the  Differential  Calculus  ; 
both  which  we, fliall  do  as  fuccin6lly  as  poffible. 

Application  of  thcfe  general  Vrinctples  to  fome  'Bx ample s^ 
59.  Ah  elliptic  curve  AlMB  (fig.  3.)  being  given  to  find 

TDtift  have  recoude  to  more  extenfivc  works,  fuch  as  the  Fluxion^ 
rf  SimpfoTi,  Emerfon  or  Maclaurin,  jlnd  above  all,  thofe  of  Ditton  or 
l-'HofpltTi],  as  tr^nilatCH^  ahtl  augirtciitccl  by  Stone  •  which  two  lart,  cfpe- 
tlally  Ditton's,  are  generally  confidcred  as  thfc  plaineft  works  on  the  fub- 
it^.  The  perfpiculty  of  Sihipron^s  excellent  tra^,  in  his  Scle£t  Mathe- 
matical ExercifcsV  has  been  already 'mentioned.  The  fame  excellent 
■qU;ility  pervades  the  fix  DilTcrtatibns  on  tKe  progrcfs  of  Geometry,  in- 
frrtcd  in  **  The  Mathematician/'  printed  iii  1751^  of  which  tke  three 
liH  arc' <!c)n fined  to  Fluxiuns.— W.  D. 

4  ihe 


fht  Infinitejlmal  Calcuhis,  49 

t^«  Tub  tangent  TP,  anfwering  to  M,  wliicli  reprefents  any 
given  point  whatever  of  that  curve. 

.  Let  AB  be  the  tranfverfe  axis  of  the  curve,  for  one  half  of 
which  put  a',  and  for  one  half  of  the  conjugate  put  /'^  and 
Jet  V  reprefent  the  abfcils  AP^  andj/  the  ordinate  PM.  We 
fliali  tlicn  have, 

M 

This  being  laid  down,  let  a  new  ordinate  NO  be  drawn  infi- 
nitely near  to  MP;  that  is,  let  this  auxiliary  line  NQ  be  at 
.firft  drawn  at  any  arbitrary  dillance  w^hatever  from  MP,  and 
let  the  former  then  be  fuppofed  to  approach  the  latter  conti- 
nually, fo  that  their  ultimate  ratio  may  be  a  ratio  of  equality. 
The  lines  MO  and  NO  will  then  be  the  refpcclive  differen- 
tials of  j;  and  y  (by  article  49).     Now  the  fimilar  triangles 

TPM  and  MZO,  give  ^-  =  --•  =  _.^-^, .     But  it 

is  evident,  that  the  more  NQ  approaches  to  MP,  the  more 

will  ;ZiV  diminifli  in  comparifon  with  NOy  and  that  their 

ultimate  ratio  will  be  o.     Therefore-  ZN  is  infinitely  fmall 

'    TP         MO 
compared  with  JVOj  and  confequently  -,,,7,  =  -vf/^    is  an 


MP  ' 

~    NO 

TP 

y 

dx 

imperfe6l equation  (by  article 31);  that  is, =  -■-  is  an 

imperfe^l  equation. 

Farther,  the  equation  of  the  propofed  curve  being^, 

U     ,  . 

yy   =   {%ax  —  XX), 

we  fhall  thcnre  have  this  other  imperfe<Sl  differential  equa- 
lion, 

hh 


J 


>ii 


xy  ~  {adx  —  xdx) , 


aa 
In  this  laft  equation,   then,  fubftituting  the  value  of  dy, 

namely,  - — -^ ,  found  by  the  fird,  and  reducing,  we  have 

the  required  fubtangent  TP  —  -, .-  X  -^^,, 

an  equation  free  from  infinitefimal  quantities,  and  which  is 
weceflarily  and  rigoroufly  accurate. 

*  For.  in  the  eriipfe,  u^  :  ^^  :  :  (2^  —  .v)  .  x  •  v^.— \V.  D. 

'    Vol.  IX.  *  G  6q.  Oiher- 


•^o  Carnoi  on  the  TJjcory  rf 

60.  Othcrwife  :  Let  us  confider  the  propofecl  cutvc  as  ll 
polygon  of  an  infinite  number  of  fides;  that  is,  inllead  of  the 
curve,  let  us  take  a  polygon  of  any  number  of  fides  whatever, 
and  let  us  then  fuppofe  that  number  of  fides  to  Increafe  con- 
tinually; fo  that  tlie  ultimate  relation  of  the  polygon  to  the 
curve  may  be  a  relation  of  identity*.  As  it  is  abfolutely 
impoflible  that  the  curve  can  be  accurately  confidered  as  a 
polygon,  the  equations  by  which  I  fliall  exprefs  the  condi- 
tions of  the  problem  depending  on  that  hypothefis  will  not 
he  exa(ft.  But,  fincc  the  polygon  is  fuppofed  to  approach  con- 
tinually to  the  curve,  ihe  errors,  which  may  exift  in  thefe 
equations, may  be  diminifhed  as  much  as  we  pledfc;  and  hence 
thefe  equations  will  be  what  I  call  imperfe6t  equations. 

Thus  the  triangles  T'MP  and  MNO  give  the  equation 
Tfp         MO 
ifp  ~  '\7T''   ^"^  fubrtituting  TP  for  T'P,  which  differs 

infinitely  little  from  it,  we  fhall  have  this  imperfe6l  equation 
TP  MO  TP  dx 

"Wp  ~  IvrT'  ^^  —  ~  "7^'    ^^^^  (dmc  with   that  before 

found,  and  which,  being  combined- with  the  equation  of  th^ 
curve,  will  give  the  fame  refult, 

61.  Again:  We  may  apply  to  this  problem  the  method 
of  indeterminates,  without  making  any  alteration  in  the  pro- 
cefs.     After  finding  the  two  imperfect  equations, 

— -  =   —j—y  and  Zj'ay  =  ['zad.v  —  zxax), 

I  add  mentally  the  quantity  <[>  to  one  of  the  fides  of  the  firfl: 
equation,  in  order  to  render  it  rigoroully  exa6l ;  and  I  intro- 
duce, in  like  manner,  into  the  fecond,  a  quantity  <C>',  which 
renders  it  equally  accurate.  The  quantities  thus  underilood, 
namely  $  and  ^',  are  therefore  infinitely  fmall  compared 
with  thofe  to  which  they  arc  mentally  added.  This  being- 
fettled,  I  compare  the  two  preceding  et]uations,  without 
having  any  regard  to  the  quantities^  and  <[>^     Bttt  as  the 

equation  refulting  from   this  equation,  namely,  TP  =  -rj- 

yy 
X    ■  ■■,  may  not  be  exaft,  I  again  add  mentally  a  quan- 

'^  I-#ok  back  to  the  fecond  note  on  article  42. — W.  D. 

'  '  tity 


tJjie  InJimUjimal  Calculus,  ^t 

lily  ^^f  which  may  render  itfo.  Tliis  quantity  A>"  can  only 
be  infinitely  fmallj  but  I  foon  find  that  it  is  abfolutely  no- 
thing; becaiife  the  othtT  terms  of  the  equation  are  free  from 
infinitely  fmall  quantities.  For, by  bringing  all  the  terms  of 
the  equation  to  one  fide, 

this  equation,  (tP X  ~^)  +  ^"  =  <^> 

can  have  no  place  in  the  Method  of  Deteraii nates,  unlcfs 
each  particular  term  be  equal  to  o;  conlb^uently  $''  =  o, 

and  TP  =  —  X  ~—,  as  before. 

aa        a  —  x' 

62.  It  appears,  in  general,  from  what  has  been  faid,  thai, 
if  we  put  P  for  the  fubtangcnt  of  any  curiae  whatever,  we 

ihall  have  the  impcrfc(3:  equation  P  —  y  —j-  ;    and  confe- 

quently,(by article 34)  the  equation  P  =  y  X  Ihn.  \-jAi  will 

be  rigoroufiy  accurate. 

If  we  put  Q  for  the  angle  included  between  the  tangent  of 
the  curve,  in  any  point  whatever,  and  the  correfponding  ordi- 
nate, w€  fliall  evidently  have 

P  y 

the  Tangent  of  Q-==. *,   and  xhit  Cotangent  ofQ  =  -jj-  ; 

hence  we  have  the  imperfe6t  equations, 

Tang,  Q  =  -^,  SiVid  CoLQ  =:  -^, 

<jr  the  rigoroufiy  accurate  equations. 

Tang,  Q  =  lim.  (-^)  and  Cot.  Q  =^  I'm.  (-^). 

63.  Probl£7n  IL  Required  the  value,  which  niufl  be  at- 
tributed to  Xj  in  order  that  it's  function  \^2ax  —  xx  may 
be  a  maximum^  that  is,  greater  than  if  any  other  valu© 
whatever  were  attributed  to  x» 


Make  ^%ax  —  xx  =  y,  that  \^  yy  —  2^.r— xv,  and  con- 
ilrudl  a  curve,  whofe  abfcifle  is  x^  and  its  ordinate  _;-;  and  the 
problem  will  then  he.  To  find  the  grcatell  ordinate  of  that 
pufve.     Now,  fince  from  the  point  M  the  ordinates  dccreafp 

*  The  i:adius  is  here  CQpfidercd  as  unity  ;  and  therefore, 
Tang,  ®^:  1  :  :  P  :  >/,  &c.— VV.  D. 

G  z  both 


^^Z  Carnoi  on  the  Theory  nj 

both  towards  A  and  towards  B,  it  is  evident  that  the  tangent 
to  the  curve  at  the  point  M^  ought  to  be  parallel  to  the 
line  AB.  Then  by  putting  (as  in  article  62)  Q  for  the  angle 
formed  by  the  tangent  and  the  ordinate,  we  ftiall  have,  at  the 

point  M,  Cot,  Q  =:Oy  or  Lim,  (~r-)  —  o.  I  .find,  there- 
fore, the  ditferential  of  the  equation  of  the  curve,  and  I  get 
the  imperfect  equation, 

,  ,  -  ^y  a  ~  X 

ydy  zzz  aax  —  xax\  or  — --  =   ; 

"^  "^  dx  y 

and  therefore  the  rigoroufly  accurate  equation  will  be 
li„.  (^)  =  Ulf '  or  Cot.  0  =  "-:^. 

But  we  ought  to  have  Cot.  Q  =  o ;  therefore  — —  =  o,  or, 

laftly,  a  :=!  Xy  which  was  to  be  found. 

64.  The  procefs,  therefore,  for  difcovcring  the  greatefl:  or- 
dinate of  any  curve  whatever,  is  to  find  the  differential  of  its 

equation,  and  thence  the  value  of /iw.  (-j-J  which  mud  be 

made  equal  to  nothing.  This  rule  is  commonly  enunciated 
by  faying  fimply,  Find  the  differential  of  jv,  and  make  dy 
=  o.  But  what  this  enunciation  gains  in  brevity,  it  lofes  in 
accuracy. 

6^.  Problem  ITT.  To  determine  the  abfciffe  and  ordinate, 
anfwering  to  the  point  of  inflection,  in  a  propofed  curve. 

Let  ABMN  (fig.  5.)  be  the  propofed  curve;  AP  the 
abfcifTe,  and  MP  the  ordinate  correfponding  to  M,  the  point 
of  inflection  fought,  and  let  MK^  a  tangent  at  that  point,  be 
drawn.  It  is  plain  that  the  angle  KMP  is  a  maximum,  tha^ 
is,  greater  than  the  angle  LNQ,  formed  by  any  other  tangent 
whatever  NL,  and  the  correfponding  ordinate  NQ.  The 
tangent,  therefore,  of  the  angle  KMP  is  alfo  a  maximum^, 
and  its  cotangent  a  minimum.  But  the  cotangent  (by  ar- 
ticle 62)  is,  in  general,  lim.(--r-'j:    and  confequcntly   (by 


lim\ — — -^iL_y  ^.0,  w: 


article  63)  we  have  lim.K — - — J  -  o,  wliich  wa&  to 

be  found. 

For 


tloeJnJlniteJimal  Calculus,  53 

.For  example,  let  the  equation  of  the  propofed  curve  be 

hy  =  ax^  —  ;r%  th^  diflferenlial  of  which  Avill  be  the 

imperfedl  equation,  h'^dy  =  laxdx  —  '3,x^dxy 

f  dy  .         2ax-^3x^- 
or  the  accurate  one,  u?n.  [~,;j  = ji 5 

theretore  j^ is  a  mimmuytiy 

or  Im.  \— ■ — —^\  =  o, 

^  ax  / 

and  hence  we  have,  2a  —  6x  —  c,  or  x  =  ^a*. 

66.  Frohiim  IV.    To   find  the  area  of  a  parabolic   feg^ 
iiient. 

Let  AMP  (lig.  6.)  be  that  fegment :  if  we  fuppofe  the 
abfcifle  AP  to  be  increafed  by  the  infinitely  fmall  quan- 
tity PQy  the  fegment  will  increafe,  in  the  fame  time,  by  the 
quantity  MiYPQ;  that  is,  PQ  being  fuppofed  the  differen-. 
tial  of  x^  MNPQ  will  be  the  differential  of  the  fegment  whofe 
iurface  is  required.  Converfely,  therefore,  that  fegment  is 
the  integral  of  MNPQ ;  that  is,  AMP  =  /{MNPQ) .  But, 
letting  fall  MO  perpendicular  to  NQ,  it  is  evident  that  the 
ultimate  ratio  of  the  fpace  MNO  to  the  fpace  MOPQ  is  o. 
The  former  fpace,  then,  is  infinitely  fmall,  compared  with 
the  latter;  ai^d  hence  we  have  the  imperfed  equation  MNPQ 
=  MOPQ.  Subftituting,  therefore,  the  fecond  of  thefe 
quantities  for  the  firfl;,  in  the  accur^ite  equation,  AMP  = 
J  (MNPQ),  we  (hall  have  the  imperfecl:  equation, 

AMP  :=r  /{MOPQ),  or  AMP  ■^-  fydx. 
But,  calling  thp  parameter  of  the  parabola  P,  the  equation  of 
that  ciirve  is 

yy  c=  Px\   whence  dx  —  —77- , 

an  impcrfefl  equation.  Subftituting,  then,  for  dx^  m  the 
iirfi:  imperfeft  equation  (AMP  =  fydx)  its  value  in  the 
fecond,  we  Ihall  have  this  ijew  imperfe(^  equation 

AMP  =  /^.     But  /"-^^  =  ^  (by  article  58); 

'*  In  this  {blution,  the  author,  or  rather  perhaps  the  printer,  had  by 
miftakc  put  minimum  for  maximum^  anJ  maxi?num  for  minimum  ;  but  1 
Jiave  made  tlie  ncft  ff^ry  alterations. — W.  D. 

and 


54  Carnol '  an,  the  Theory^  of 

and  therefore  A^TP  =   '^j-*,  an  equation,  which,  as  it  eon- 

ti^tins  none,  other  than  affigiieii  quantities,   cannot  but  be 
rigorouliy  accurate,     a.  e.  i. 

The  fame  method  by  analogous  rcafbnings,  may  be  ap- 
plied to  the  quadrature  of  all  other  curves,  and  it  is  eafy  to 
extend  it  to  their  rectification,  as  well  as  to  the  inveftigatiou 
of  folids. 

Conclujkn^ 

(68.)  Thefc  few  examples  may  fufficc  to  convey  fome 
idea  of  the  fpiritof  the  Infinitelinial  Analyfis.  In  vain  will 
its  oppofers  object:,  that  to  admit  errors,  as  we  do,  by  em- 
ploying imperfe61:  equations,  is  to  ruin  mathematical  cer- 
tainty. For  how  can  thefe  errors  be  dangerous,  when  we- 
are  pofleflied  of  infallible  methods  of  eliminating  them, 
and  of  marks  by  which  we  know  with  certainty  that  they 
have  difappeared  ?  Shall  we  renounce  the  immenfe  advan*' 
t^ges  which  this  calculus  affords,  for  fear  of  deviating,  for  an 
inflant,  from  the  rigorous  procedure  of  elementary  geometry?' 
Or,  fliall  we  prefer  a  thorny  foot-path  in  which  it  is  {o  dif- 
ficult to  avoid  being  bew^ildered,  to  the  plain  and  eafy  road  by 
which  this  analyiis  conduiSs  us  to  difcoveries  ?  Of  the  former 
defcription,  we  fhall  find  the  JNIethod  of  Limits  to  be,  if  we 
fhould  wifh  exclufively  to  employ  it.  For  they  who  wifli  to 
profcribe  the  notion  of  infinitefimal  quantities,  are  reduced 
to  the  neccffity  of  fupplying  their  place  by  common  Algebra, 
which  prefents  numberlefs  difficulties,  or  obliged  to  ufe  the 
words  irifinite  ^wA  infinitely  Jmall,  even  w^hile  they  arc  de- 
crying them,  and  treating  as  chimerical  the  very  things  of 
which  they  arc  the  fymbols.  We  ufe  thefe  terms,  fay  they, 
Di\ly  in  a  figurative  fenfe.     But  I  afk.  Whether  a  figurative 

*  Had  our  ingenious  author  proceeded  here  to  fubftitute  for  -P, 
its  value  (by^he  equation  of  the  parabola)  -—^  he  woi»Id  hare  h^i 

Of 

that  is,  the  parabolic  fegment  JMP,  and  confeqiiently  the  tvhofe 
parabola,  U  tijo  thinls  of  a  rc^angk  of  thefanif  bafe  a?id  dltitude. — 

And 


the  InJimfeJimat'Calctilus,       ^  55 

and  abft'rufe  (lyle  be  ttmt  which  comports  wkh  the  limplicity 
bf  the  mathematics^  and  ftill  more  with  that  rigorous  accu- 
racy with  which  the  oppugncrs  of  the  theory  of  miinities 
ought  to  fortify  thcmfcUxs  ?  Do  not  the  Method  of  Limits 
and  that  of  Infinitefimals  lead  to  the  fame  refuhs;  ojr  rathcf 
Are  they  riot  the  fame  method  differently  employed?  In  a 
word,  are  not  the  fame  ideas  to  be  reprefented  in  both,  and 
the  fame  relations  to  be  exprelTed  ?  Why,  then,  may  we  not 
reprcfent  thefc  Ideas,  and  exprefs  thofe  relations,  in  the  mofl 
tl^ar  and  fimplc  manner  ? 


^ff.'*  IM.  Buee,  an  inixenious  French  clei^yman,  in  a  letter 
from  Bath,  to  the  editor,  dated  the  8th  inllant,  wherein  he 
mentions  the  Philofophical  Magazine  with  deferved  conu 
niendation,  iliiows  that  the  author's  expreflion,  in  §  3^5, 

,     fTP        y    \     r  '^^^T         vMZ  -f  aRZ  -  xRZ    \ 

namely, — 1  + -f^ — -r— 7^ --~-  j  ^  g, 

becomes  correct  by  th^  infertion  of  a  parcntheiis,  i.K  vincu- 
lum \  that  is, 

iiS  equivalent,  as  it'  ought  to  be,  to 

.        TP  -f  .rT  2y  +  RZ 

the  equation = :rT- . 

^   i  y..  ia — 2x  —  MZ 

But  r  can. by  no  means  join  M.  Buee  in  thinking  the  onii (Hon 
of  the  parenthefis,  which  he  has  fupplied,  a  trifiing  circuni- 
l^ance,  or  that  .fuch  ornilhon  "  is  very  con.nnon  amontr  al- 
gebraifts."  On  the  rontrarv,  I  have  always  apprehended,  that 
without  fome  character  to  diftinguifh  compound  quanlitits 
from  (imple  ones,  many,  or  mo  ft,  algebraic  proceilijs  would 
be  unmanageable, and  their  rcfults  often  wholly  unintellioible. 
J  murt  add,  that  I  think  it  would  bt  difficult  to  point  owt  -h 
fingle  work  on  algebra,  or  fluxions,  to  which  the  author  and 
the  printer  have  done  jufUce,  and  in  which  xXxtvincula^  when 
neceliary,  or  even  proper,  have  been  very  commonly  omitted. 
In  this  very  inllaace,  M.  Buee  acknowlcdgt-s  that,  from  the 
want  of  a  parenthefis,  "  inltead  of —  {a  —  x)RZ,  which  it 
ought  to  be^  we  have  +  [a  — a;)/^Z;"  jn  other  w^ord3,that 
the  quality  of  this  material  part  of  the  expreffiou,  is  as  com- 
pletely changed  by  the  omiffion,  as  the  fenfe  of  a  chemift 
would  be  by  writing  lo-  above  the  zero  of  the  thermometer, 
inftead  of  10"  hclo-w  that  point.  In  fad,  we  lind  that,  in 
molt,  if  not  alb  books  oa  .algebra,  frum  thofe  of  old  Harriot 
6  ant! 


^  XltUit)'  of  Sirds  in  defiroyln^  tiift^i, 

and  Defcartes,  down  to  the  excellent  Compendious  Coitrfei 
of  the  Mathematics  very  lately  publiflied  by  E.  M.  G.  Le- 
moine  (d'Kiroies)  and  Dr.  Mutton,  that  the  vhuula  are  vQrf 
feldom^if  e\er,omilled,  where  they  ought  to  be  inferted;  an3 
that  they  arc  fomctimes  inferted  where,  with  but  little  danger 
of  miikike,  thev  might  have  been  omitted. 

In  the  original  (as  well  as  the  tranflation)  of  the  preced- 
ing little  work,  the  ingenious  author  has  not  omitted  a  fmglc 
vinculum  which  could  afl'e6l  the  fenfe  of  his  fnnpleft  cxpref- 
lions ;  and,  in  feveral  iuitances,  he  has  inferted  that  charac- 
ter where  it  might  have  been  fpared.  Plence  it  was  tiext  to 
impolfible  for  me  to  fufpe6l  that  he  (or  the  printer)  had  for* 
gotten  to  infert  it  in  the  inllance  in  queflion,  and  thus  had 
inadvertently  made  the  only  expreflion,  at  all  deferving  the 
name  of  complex,  a  folitary  exception  to  an  indifpeniible  rule, 
which  otherwife  had  been  univerjally  obferved,  throughout 
the  piece. — W.  D. 


y\.   On  the  VtUify   of  Birds  in  dejlrryhig  InfeBs  and  other 
Produdions  hurtful  to  Mankind. 

W  HEN  the  deftruftion  and  wafte  of  the  fruits  of  the 
earth,  occafioned  by  birds  and  infefts,  is  duly  confidered, 
we  ceafe  to  wonder  at  the  anxiety  of  agriculturifts  and  others 
in  feeking  out  means  for  the  deftru(Slion  fometimes  of  the  one 
and  fometimes  of  the  other,  according  as  particular  circum- 
fiances  have  made  the  havoc  of  either  more  or  lefs  obfervable 
on  their  fields.  Indeed,  on  a  hafty  view  of  the  fubjed  the 
only  matter  that  ilrikes  the  mind  with  furprife  is,  that  un- 
wearied and  unceafing  means  have  not  been  generally  fol- 
lowed to  extirpate  many  of  thofe  pefts  which  all  mankind 
feem  equally  to  have  an  intereft  in  deftroying;  for,  every 
thing  that  diminiflies  the  profits  of  the  farmer  adds  to  the 
price  of  the  neceflarics  of  life — and,  confequently,  adds  to 
the  quantum  of  labour  performed  by  every  individual. 

But,  in  waging  war  againft  the  feathered  tribe  there 
ought  to  be  fome  difcrimination,  and  the  fa6t  on  a  clofe  ex- 
amination of  the  fubjec^  will  tiirn  out  to  be,  that  we  ought  to 
form  an  alliance  with  fome  of  them,  as  far  as  protection  to- 
wards them  can  favour  that  end,  with  the  view  of  the  auxi- 
liary aid  they  may  afford  us  in  extirpating  the  hoftile  bands 

of 


ITtllity  of  Birds  In  de^roying  Infects,  57 

^f  worms,  infefts,  and  caterpillars,  which  often  deftroy  tho 
very  germs  of  vegetable  life. 

'  We  are  led  to  thefe  reflections  by  perufing  Profeflbr  Bar- 
ton's Fragments  of  the  Natural  Hiflory  of  Pennfylvania,  lately 
publifhed  at  Philadelphia.  The  utility  of  the  following  re- 
marks on  Infefs,  as  the  food  of  birds,  is  our  inducement  for 
laying  them  before  our  readers  ;  and  the  more  fo  as  feveral 
of  the  birds  are  natives  of  our  own  country,  and  a  careful 
obfervation  of  the  habits,  &c.  of  other  Britifli  birds  would 
in  a  Oiort  time  enable  the  natural  hiftorian  to  point  out  fuch 
of  them  as  ought  to  be  protected  even  by  law.  We  need 
hardly  obferve,  that  many  which  partly  live  on  feeds  ought 
neverthelefs  to  be  included  among  the  friends  of  mankind, 
on  account  of  the  greater  benefit'they  yield  by  alfo  deftroying 
many  infcfts,  grubs,  and  other  noxious  vermin. 

^^  It  may  in  the  firft  place  be  obferved,"  fays  Dr.  Barton, 
"that  infe6ls  appear  to  be  the  firft  food  of  almoft  all  the  birds 
of  our  country.  The  more  I  have  inquired,  the  more  I  have  been 
convinced,  that  almoft  all  birds  live,  in  fome  meafure,  upon  in- 
fe6ls.  Even  thofe  fpecies  which  confume  conliderable  quantities 
of  feeds,  berries,  and  fruit,  alfo  confume  large  quantities  of 
infeds :  and  there  are  reafons  to  believe,  that  others,  whofe 
principal  food  is  the  neftar  of  plants,  alfo  live  partly  upon 
thefe  infers.  Thus  Mr,  Brandis  found  the  veftiges  of  infe6ts 
in  the  ftomach  of  the  trochilus,  or  humming-bird,  one  of 
the  laft  birds  one  would  have  fufpe6led  of  feeding  on  animal 
food. 

"  The  greater  number  of  our  fmaller  birds,  of  the  order  of 
faffcrcs^  feem  to  demand  our  attention  and  protection. 
Some  of  them  feed  pretty  entirely  upon  infeds,  and  others 
upon  a  mixed  food — that  is,  infedts  and  the  vegetable  feeds, 
&c.  Many  of  them  contribute  much  to  our  pleafure  by  the 
melody  of  their  notes.  I  believe  the  injury  they  do  us  is  but 
fmall  compared  to  the  good  they  render  us.  I  lliall  mention, 
under  fix  different  heads,  a  few  of  the  ufeful  birds' of  this  and 
fome  other  orders. 

"  T.  Mvfcicapa  acadka  of  Gmelin  ?  This  is  the  lefTer 
crefted  fly-catcher  of  Pennant.  It  is  called,  in  Pennfylvania, 
the  leflfer  or  wood-pewe.  This  little  bird  builds  in  woods 
•  Vol.  IX.  H  and 


5^  Ut^ilUyof  Birds  In  dejlroymg  TnfeSis, 

iUid  in  forefts.  After  the  young  have  left  the  nefts,  the  pa^ 
rents  condiift  them  to  the  gardens  and  habitations  of  men. 
Here  the  whole  brood  dwells  in  trees  near  the  houfcs,  where 
they  are  fed  with  the  common  houfe-fly,  and  other  infeiSla 
that  are  caught  by  the  old  birds.  The  young  ones  are  fooa 
capable  of  obtaining  their  food  in  the  fame  way-  Thi* 
foecies  of  mufcicapa  vifits  us  in  the  fpring,  and  commonly 
continues  with  us  until  late  in  September,  when  it  retires 
ibutherly  to  winter. 

^^  II.  The  moiacilla  fialh,  or  blue-bird,  feeds  principally, 
if  not  entirely,  upon  infecSls,  both  fuch  as  are  flying  and  fuch 
$s  are  reptile.  It  is  faid  they  eat  currants, 
,  '^  III.  Mod  of  our  fpecies  of  picus,  or  wood-pecker,  ap-» 
^ar  ,to  me  to  be  very  ufeful  in  dcftroying  infedls,  particu- 
larly thofe  which  injure  our  foreft  and  orchard  trees.  It  is 
true,  thefe  birds  are  fometimes  injurious  to  us,  by  eating 
ibme  of  our  fmefl  fruits,  particularly  our  cherries,  and  there- 
fore pains  are  taken  to  expel  them  from  our  gardens.  But 
they  devour  vafl:  numbers  of  infe(9:s,  particularly  fome  of 
thofe  fpecies  which  prove  fo  deftru^tive  to  the  trunk  of  the 
trees,  fuch  as  the  coleopterous  infedls,  w^hich,  perhaps,  do  as 
much  mifchief  as  the  caterpillars. 

^*  IV.  As  a  devourer  of  pernicious  infers,  one  of  the  moft 
ufeful  birds  with  which  I  am  acquainted  is  the  houfe-rwren, 
or  certhia  fardiliaru  ?  This  litlle  bird  feems  peculiarly  fond 
of  the  fociety  of  man,  and  it  muft  be  confefled  that  it  is 
often  protefted  by  his  interefted  care.  From  obferving  tho 
ufefulnefs  of  this  bird  in  deftroying  infecSls,  it  has  long  been 
a  cuftoin,  in  many  parts  of  our  country,  to  fix  a  fmall  box 
at  the  end  of  a  long  pole,  in  gardens^  about  houfes,  &c.  as  a 
place  for  it  to  build  in.  In  thefe  boxes  they  build  and  hatch 
their  young.  When  the  young  arc  hatched,  the  parent  birds 
feed  them  with  a  variety  of  different  infedts,  particularly  fuch 
as  are  injurious  in  gardens.  One  of  my  friends  was  at  the 
trouble  to  obierve  the  number  of  times  a  pair  of  thefe  bird# 
came  from  their  box,  and  returned  with  infers  for  their 
young,  lie  found  that  they  did  this  from  forty  to  fixty  times 
in  an  hour ;  and,  in  one  particular  hour,  the  birds  carried 
fpQ^  to  their  young  feventy-one  times,     In  tl:^is  bufinefs  they 

wpre 


VtUity  of  Birds  in  ktfirbying  Infers,  ^^9 

'  ixrete  engaged  the  greater  part  of  the  day  ;  fay  twclrfe  hburs* 
Taking  the  medium,  therefore,  of  fifty  times  in  an  hoiir, 
it  appeared  that  a  fingle  pair  of  thefe  birds  took  from  the 
cabbage,  fallad,  beans,  peas,  and  other  vegetables  in  the 
garden,  at  lead  fix  hundred  infe^ls  in  the  courfe  of  one  day. 
This  calculation  proceeds  upon  the  fuppolition,  that  the  two 
birds  took  each  only  a  fingle  infe6l  each  time.  But  it  is 
highly  probable  they  often  took  feveral  at  a  time. 

'^  The  fpecies  of  certhia  of  which  I  am  fpeaking  getierally 
hatches  twice  during  the  courfe  of  the  fummer.  They  are 
very  numerous  about  Philadelphia,  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
United  States. 

"  The  fa6t  juft  related  is  well  calculated  to  flidw  the 
importance  of  attending  to  the  prefervatron  of  fome  of 
our  native  birds.  The  efculent  vegetables  of  d  whole 
garden  may,  perhaps,  be  preferved  from  the  depredations  of 
different  fpecies  of  infects  by  ten  or  fifteen  pair  of  thefe  fmall 
birds:  and,  independently  of  this  elTential  fervice,  they  are 
an  extremely  agreeable  companion  to  man  \  for  their  note  is 
pleafing.  A  gentleman,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Philadel- 
phia, thinks  he  has  already  reaped  much  advantage  from  the 
fervices  of  thefe  wrens,  i^bout  his  fruit  trees  he  has  placed 
a  number  of  boxes  for  their  nefts.  In  thefe  boxes  they  very 
readily  breed,  and  feed  themfelves  and  their  young  with  the 
infects  which  are  fo  deftru6live  to  the  various  kinds  of  fruit 
trees,  and  other  vegetables. 

'^^  V.  The  fervices  of  the  ibis.  In  devouring  the  reptiles  of 
Egypt,  are  well  known.  They  procured  to  this  bird  a  vene- 
ration and  regard  which  form  an  interefting  fa6l  in  its  hiftory, 
and  in  the  hiftory  of  human  fupcrftitions.  The  fl:orks  are, 
perhaps,  not  lefs  ufeful.  Pliny  tells  us,  that  thefe  birds  were 
fo  much  regarded  for  deftroying  ferpents,  that,  in  TheflTaly, 
in  his  age,  it  was  a  capital  crime  to  kill  them,  and  that  the 
punilhment  was  the  fame  as  that  for  murder.  Virgil  hints 
at  the  ufefulnefs  of  the  ftork  when  he  defcribes  it  as  *  lonffis 
Invifa  colubris.'  In  Holland,  even  in  our  times,  they  go 
wild,  protected  by  the  government,  from  a  fenfe  of  their  ufe- 
fulnefs in  the  way  I  have  mentioned. 

'^  In  Britain,  if  it  were  not  for  the  herons,  and  fome  other 
H  %  birda 


6o  Utility  of  Birds  in  Je/Iroj'itig  Infers, 

birds  of  this  tribe,  the  frogs,  and  toads,  and  other  reptiles^ 
would  increafe  to  fo  great  a  degree  as  to  prove  a  real  nuifance. 
North-America  abounds  with  birds  of  this  order ;  and  we 
even  have  fome  fpecies  of  ibis  very  nearly  alHed  to  the  ibis  of 
Egypt — fuch  as  the  tantalus  loculaior,  or  wood-pehcan,  the 
tantalus  ruber,  or  fcailet  ibis,  the  tantalus  fujhus,  or  brovi^n 
ibis,  and  the  ta?italus  albus,  or  white  ibis.  Mr.  Bartrani 
informs  us,  that  the  firft  of  thefe  birds  feeds  ^  on  ferpents, 
young  aUigators,  frogs,  and  other  reptiles.  It  is  commonly 
feen  near  the  banks  of  great  rivers,  in  vaft  marfties  or  mea- 
dows, efpecially  fuch  as  are  caufed  by  inundations,  and  alfo 
in  the  vaft  deferted  rice  plantations.'  This  bird,  both  with 
regard  to  his  general  afpeiSl:,  and  his  manners  and  habits, 
may  be  confidered  as  the  ibis  of  America.  In  the  midft  of 
all  their  fuperllitions,  I  do  not  find,  however,  that  the  na- 
tive Americans  have  ever  paid  any  particular  regard  to  this 
bird.  I  cannot  learn  that  any  of  thefe  fpecies  of  tantalus  have 
ever  been  feen  in  Pennfylvania. 

^'  VI.  Someof  the  birds  of  the  vultur-kind  are  extremely 
ufeful  to  man,  by  deftroying  immenfe  quantities  of  carrion, 
which  ferve  to  vitiate  the  air,  and,  perhaps,  in  fome  inftances, 
to  give  rife  to  malignant  epidemics.  The  vultur  aura,  or 
turkey-buzzard  of  our  country,  is  one  of  the  moft  ufeful  of 
thefe  birds.  In  Virginia  it  is  prote(9:ed  by  a  law  of  that 
State.  The  Abbe  Clavigero  fpeaks  of  the  ufefulnefs  of  the 
cezcaquauhtli,  or  king  of  the  zopilots,  the  vultur  papa  of  Lin- 
naeus. '  The  zopilot,"  fays  this  writer,  ^  is  a  moft  ufeful 
bird  to  that  country  (Mexico) ;  for  they  not  only  clear  the 
fields,  but  attend  the  crocodiles,  and  deftroy  the  eggs  which 
the  females  of  thofe  dreadful  amphibious  animals  leave  in 
the  fand,  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  fun.  The  de- 
fl:ru(Stion  of  fuch  a  bird  ought  to  be  prohibited  under  fevere 
penalties.* 

"  I  am  fenfible  that  thefe  few  fa£ls,  which  are  thrown 
together  without  any  regard  to  order,  can  be  of  little  ufe, 
except  in  as  far  as  they  may  turn  the  attention  of  other  per- 
fons,  who  poflefs  more  leifure  and  information  than  myielf^ 
to  the  fubjed,  which  is  at  once  curious  and  important.  It 
appears  to  me  to  be  a  fubje6l  peculiarly  interefting  to  my 
9  country  men^ 


JJtUity  of  Birds  In  de/lrojhig  I/ifeffs.  6l 

j,pomitrymen.  Perhaps  few  parts  of  the  world  are  inor€  in- 
.  fei^ed_;  with  noxious  iiifeds  than  the  United  States.  The 
greater  number  of  thefe  iufe6ls  are,  I  believe,  natives  of  the 
country,  though  our  partiality  to  the  foil  which  gave/ us  birlli 
^has  not  always  allowed  us  to  acknowledge  this  truth.  Th«3 
we  give  to  the  Eieflians  the  honour  of  introducing  among  u^ 
that  nioll  pernicious  infect,  the  Ileirian-fly,  which,  for  feve- 
ral  years,  has  committed,  an.d  dill  commits,  fuch  alarm- 
ing ravages  on  fome  of  our  moll  valuable  grains,  par- 
ticularly the  wheat  and.  the  rye.  But  this  infctSl  is,  un- 
doubtedly, a  native  of  America.  How  it  came  to  be,  for 
fo  long  a  time,  overlooked,  will  probably  be  mentioned  in 
a  memoir,  couGcrning  this  and  other  noxious  infe6ls,  whick 
I  hope,  to  publiili. 

*^  Many  of  the  pernicious  infe61:s  of  the  United  States 
.feern  to  be  increafing  inflead  of  dimuiifiiing.  Some  of  thefe 
infe<Ss,  which  originally  confined  their  ravages  to  the  native 
or  wild  vegetables,  have  fince  begun  their  depredations  upon 
*he  foreign  vegetables,  which  are  often  more  agreeable  to 
.their  palates.  Thus  the  .IrucJjus  pijz,  or  pea-fly,  is  a  native, 
and  feems  originally  to  have  fed,  in  a  great  meafure  u«iio- 
ticed,  upon  the  indigenous  vegetr^blcs  which  are  allied  to  the 
pea :  but  fince  the  introdu«5lion  of  this  lad;  among  us,  it  is 
the  principal,  if  not  the  only,  vegetable  which  fufTers  from 
the  ravages  of  this  infeft.  The  IJeiTian-fly  could  not  origi- 
nally have  inhabited  tlie  %^eat,  the  rye_,  and  other  fimilar 
gramina  of  this  kind,  for  thefe  vegetables  are  not  natives  of 
America.  It  is  now  more  formidable  to  us  than  would  bean 
army  of  twenty  thoufand  Heflians,  or  of  any  other  twenty 
tlioufand  hirelings,  fupplied  with  all  the  implements  of  war. 
The  caterpillar,  which  has  begun  its  ravages  upon  the  leaves 
of  the  Lombardy  poplar,  that  contributes  fo  much  to  beau- 
tify our  city,  is,  mofl  probably,  a  native  of  our  woods.  It 
prefers  this  fine  foreigner  to  the  lefs  palatable  leaves  upon 
which  it  has  been  formerly  accuftomed  to  feed.  Other  in- 
ftances  of  this  kind  might  be  mentioned.  They  (liow  how 
very  necefTary  it  is  to  watch  the  migrations  of  infects  from 
the  native  to  the  introduced  vegetables;  and  they  teach  us  a 
truth,  not,  I  think,  fufficiently  attended  toby  naturalifls,  that 

diffe  cnt 


^^  Vtilify  nf  Birds  In  dejtr^ying  Infe^l 

difTercnl  kinds  of  infe6ls  arc  much  lefs  confined  to  vegetaLle* 
of  the  fame  fpecies,  or  to  fpecies  of  the  fame  genus,  than  hag 
been  commonly  imagined.  It  is  certain,  that  the  fame  fpe- 
cies of  infeds,  in  America,  often  feeds  indifcriminately,  and 
in  fucceflion,  upon  plants  of  very  oppofite  genera,  and  even 
of  very  different  natural  orders* 

"  Hitherto  too  little  progrefs  has  been  made  among  us  in 
the  difcovery  of  remedies  for  the  great  rnifchiefs  occafioned 
by  infe6ls.  The  fubje6t  has  not  been  examined  with  fuffi- 
cient  attention.  It  has  given  place  to  difcuffions  and  in- 
quiries of  very  inferior  utility  ;  and,  I  fear,  it  will  not  claim 
all  that  induftrious  attention  which  itfo  well  merits,  until  the 
evil  fliall  have  fpread  ftill  further.  It  is  doubtlcfs  difHcuIt, 
but  it  is  by  no  means  impoffible,  to  prevent  the  ravages  of 
noxious  infe(Sls.  In  this  important  bufincfs  fomething  has 
already  been  done  in  our  country.  We  have  difcovered  a 
method  of  diminifliing  the  depredations  of  the  little  bug, 
called  cucumber-fly,  which  proves  fo  deftru6i:ive  to  the  cu- 
curbitaceous  vines,  particularly  thole  of  the  cucumber  and 
mufk-melon.  By  manuring  our  wheat  lands,  and  thereby 
increafing  the  llrength  and  vigour  of  the  wheat,  we  have 
teflened  the  evil  of  the  H(iffian-fly.  By  fufpending,  to  our 
young  apple,  and  other  trees,  pieces  of  tow  impregnated  with 
a  mixture  of  brimftone  and  train-oil,  we  have  learned  how 
to  frighten  away  the  periodical^  locufts  (cicada  Jeptemdecim 
of  Linnceus),  which  often  do  fo  mucif  injury  to  our  orchards. 
The  American  Philofophical  Society,  by  calling  the  atten- 
tion of  the  public  to  the  decay  of  our  peach-trees,  has 
brought  us  to  a  better  acquaintance  with  the  caufes  of  this 
decay,  and  with  the  means  of  preventing  it.  Infers  are,  no 
doubt,  one  of  thefc  caufes.  We  have  made  fome  progrefs 
in  preventing  the  mifchief  of  the  hmchus  fiji,  or  pca-flv, 
tvhich  proves  fo  deftru6live  to  one  of  the  finell  efculent  vege- 
tables. But  all  that  has  yet  been  done  is  very  little,  com- 
pared to  that  which  remains  to  be  done.  The  fhbjc(^  is  as 
ftcw  as  it  is  important. '^' 


VIL   On 


■       [    ^3    3 

VII.    Cn  Dfcoriicafion,   as  a  Means  for  freeing  Oi'chardt 
from  Infctis» 


I 


N  general,  to  flrip  off  the  bark  of  trees,  is  to  kill  them  ^ 
and  yet  it  appears,  by  feme  experiments  made  by  Dr.  Mit- 
chill,  of  New- York,  there  is  a  time  of  the  year  whea 
apple-trees  (pj'rus  malus)  may  be  peeled  from  their  roots  to 
their  boughs,  on  all  fides,  without  fuflaining  any  damage 
from  the  operation.  An  experiment  was  made  in  1799  upon 
an  apple-tree,  the  whole  body  of  which  was  decorticated,  and 
whofe  branches  neverthelefs  retained  all  their  leaves  and  fruit,. 
lix  two  months  after  an  entire  new  coat  of  bark  was  formed^ 
which  invefted  the  tree  on  every  fide.  -The  tree  was  as 
healthy  and  vigorous  as  ever.  The  leafon  for  doing  this  is 
when  the  days  are  at  the  longeft,  that  is,  towards  the  end  of 
June. 

A  tree  peeled  in  the  fummer  of  1798  outlived  the  fucceed- 
ing  winter,  which  was  a  very  fevere  one,  without  being  irt 
any  refpe<Sl  injured.  Another,  which  was  denuded  in 
June  1799,  produced  its  bark  completely  before  September, 
and  was  as  full  of  fruit  as  if  nothing  had  been  done  to  it. — 
''  There  is  no  doubt,'*  fays  Dr.  Mitchill,  "  that  an  orchard 
might  be  treated  in  this  manner  with  perfeft  fafety,  if  the 
operation  was  well-timed.  The  farmers  lay  that  it  will  make 
old  trees  young  again ;  but  I  own,  though  I  have  feveral  times 
been  witnefs  of  the  harmleflhefs  of  the  pradice,  it  looks  tQ 
me  ftill  like  a  very  violent  and  hazardous  remedy.  The  ex- 
periment, however,  demonftrates  a  moil  remarkable  powei" 
in  the  vegetable  ceconomy.  Whether  other  trees  may  be 
thus  decoiticali^  I  have  not  yet  learned." 

We  may  juft  obferve,  that  the  idea  entertained  by  the 
Amerjcaa  farmers  is  probably  in  fome  cafes  very  well 
founded;  for  as  trees  (apple-trees  at  Icaft)  have  the  power 
of  re-producing  their  bark,  it  mud  fometimes  happen  that 
miliions  of  iniccls  and  eggs  of  infe61:&  will  thus  be  inllantar 
neoufly  removed,  which  otherwife  would  continue  to  burro\y 
,  Jn  and  ^tQ(\  upon  the  tree.  This  circumftance  will  account 
for  the  trees  appearing  as  healthy  aftei  as  before  the  procefs, 

even 


64  Travels  through  the 

even  if  we  fuppofe  it  in  fome  meafure  injurious;  for,  as  the 
health  is  to  be  judged  of  comparatively,  it  is  plain  that  a  treie 
allowed  to  retain  its  bark,  may,  in  fuch  circumftances  as  we 
have  ftated,  be  lefs  healthy  than  one  that  has  been  ftripped. 

The  fa6l,  at  any  raie,  def^ves  the  feriouS  attention  of  all 
who  have  orchards.  We  Tiicntioncd  fome  time  ao;o*,  that 
an  infe^l  molt  injurious  to  apple-trees  hstd  made  its^ppe^t^-' 
ance  in  this  kingdom.  Would  it  not  be  worth  while  to  afcer- 
tain  how  far  trees  might  be  freed  from  them  by  decortication^ 
with  the  view  of  applying  the  remedy  generally  ?  We  need 
hardly  add,  that  in  every  cafe  of  the  kind  the  bark  fliould  bef 
carried  out  of  the  orchard  and  burnt,  to  prevent  the  mfe<Sls 
from  travelling  back  to  the  trees;  and  that  a  bandage  im- 
pregnated with  fome  foetid  fubftance  (liould  be  tied  round  the 
lower  part  of  each  tree  to  prevent  the  infeiSls  that  may  have 
fallen  during  the  procefs  from  again  afcending,  A.  T. 


VIIL  Accou7it  ofC  F.  Dam berger's  Travels  through  the. 

interior  Parts  of  Africa,  from  the   Cape  of  Goad  Hope  to 

Morocco, 

[Continued  from  p.  2 5 3. J 


O, 


N  the  17th  of  March  1788  our  traveller  took  his  de- 
parture frorh  Kahorathoj.and,  dire6ling  his  courfe  north-ea(?, 
in  a  few  days  after  crofled  a  fmall  mountain,  from  the  top  of 
which  he  had  a  view  of  a  beautiful  plain  beneath,  with  the 
town  of  Haouffa  lying  in  the  back-ground,  and  in  the  front 
of  the  landfcape  the  great  river  Niger.  Here  he  found  him- 
felf  all  at  once  tranfportcd  into  a  totally  different  country, 
which  prefcnted,  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  huts,  houfes, 
delightful  thickets,  enlivened  by  goats,  hoifes,  aiid  cameh 
feeding,  and  people  bufy  at  their  occupations  both  on  foot 
and  on  horfeback.  This  diftri6l,  our  traveller  afferts,  is  one 
cf  the  fineft,  if  not  the  fineft,  in  all  Africa.  From  the  moun- 
tain,it  was  a  good  hour's  walk  to  the  Niger,  where  he  intended 
tocrofs;  but  lix  of  the  Moors  in  the  ofiiathe  ■\  wanted  to  detain 
him,  and  to  fend  his  companions  back.     *'  Not  undcrftand- 

'^  Philofophical  Magazine-,  Vol.  III.  p.  S9  and  224. 
t  The  fcrry-hcQfe  fo  called. 

ini: 


hiterior  Farts  of  Africa.  6^ 

jng  their  language//  fays  our  traveller,  *^  I  could  not  anfvver 
their  interrogatories,  and .  therefore  flood  filent.  This  con- 
firmed them  in  the  opinion  that  I  was  aChriftian,  and  there- 
fore they  told  my  companions  (as  I  was  afterwards  informed) 
that  they  would  not  fuffer  me  to  enter  the  town.  My  at- 
tendants would  have  confented  to  my  being  font  back  with 
all  their  hearts,  had  they  not  been  afraid  of  loling  all  hopes 
of  the  gratuity  they  expected  to  receive  for  bringing  me ; 
accordingly  they  refufed  to  comply,  and  the  difpute  was  per- 
tinacioufly  carried  on  on  both  tides,  till  at  length  we  began 
to  capitulate.  Our  guides  were  difpatched  over  the  river  to 
the  little  town  of  Boofu,  while  I  remained  in  cuftody  of  the 
others.  Here  at  this  river  a  guard  is  conftantly  ftationed  to 
keep  a  look-out  concerning  fufpicious  perfons  who  apply  to 
be  ferried  over,  aiid  to  deliver  them  up  to  the  king.  Thefe 
people,  however,  frequently  go  beyond  their  duty,  by  occa- 
fionally  fcizing  a  man  and  felling  him  to  the  flave-dealers, 
or  fending  fuch  Chriflians  as  they  can  kidnap  to  the  Chriftian. 
merchants  on  the  coaft,  from  whom  they  obtain  a  confider- 
able  ranfom.  In  the  evening  of  the  next  day  our  meifenger 
returned  in  company  with  three  armed  Moors  on  horfeback. 
Thefe  were  to  ferve  as  our  efcort ;  and  accordingly  at  break 
of  day  attended  us  over  the  river,  for  which  the  fare  of  each 
perfon  was  fix  zimpos.  We  foon  came  to  Boofu,  a  fmall 
lively  town  of  about  two  hundred  houfes  and  a  hundred  huts 
fituated  half  a  day's  journey  from  Haouffa.  The  trading  ca- 
ravans that  go  from  Haoufla,  Feene,  Sille,  artd  Tambuko,  to 
Vangara,  and  into  the  kingdom  of  Mohopharo,  flop  here  to 
farnifli  themfelves  with  provifions  and  provender  for  the 
horfes,  which  are  here  much  cheaper  than  at  Haotifla.  Wc 
were  carried  to  the  akomoni,  or  judge,  who  firft  entertained 
us  with  victuals,  and  then  inquired,  by  means  of  an  in^r- 
i^ireter,  concerning  the  purport  of  my  journey.  Having  an- 
fwered  all  his  queltions,  he  began  to  negotiate  with  my  con- 
du6lors,  offering  them  fix  hundred  zimpos  for  my  perfon,  in 
the  diefign  of  felling  me  licreafter,  as  a  (lave,  at  a  much  hioher 
price.  But  his  ofier  was  reje6f  ed ;  my  cOndiidtors  referring 
to  the  order  of  the  klFig,  to  bring  all  wayfaring  foreioncrs  to 
liim.     We  ^^  put  under  convoy  of  fix  armed  men_,  to 

;•    Vol.,  !X,  '  I  b^ 


66  Travels  t}>rough  the 

be  condu(9:ed  to  the  king  iq  the  capital.  Though,  we  haci 
ftlll  three  German  miles  to, go,  yet  the  way  did  not  feem 
tedious  to  me,  as  we  were  always  meeting 'peeple,  and  my 
attention  was  (Iruck  by  a  diverfity  of  obje<Sls. 

"It  was  already  dark  when  we  came  to  Haoufla;  which, 
ftanding  on  a  mountain,'  may  tc  feen  at  a  great  diflance. 
Th'e  king  being  gone  to  reft,  we  were  obliged  to  remain  with 
fhe  guard  at  the  gate  ;  liut  we  were  treated  with  good  pro- 
yifidns,  and  particularly  fofnedelicaie  goat's  flefh  broiled. 
About  eight  o'clock  the  next  morning  I  was  admitted  into 
tne  court  of  the  palace^  and  conveyed  to  the  king,  tte  or- 
dered a  number  of  qucftions  to  be  put  to  me,  and  he  was 
particularly  intercfted  in  the  account  of  my  journey,  of  which 
he  was  eager,  to  knpvy  all  the  particulars.  In  order  to  con- 
vince him  that  T  was  no  fpy,  and  to  gratify  his  curiofity,  t 
drew  my  journal  from  under  my  waiftcoat,  and  related  from 
it  fiich  parts.as  I  ct,ofe,j|nd  efpecially  thofe  which  I  thought 
he  would  be  the  mod  entertained  in  hearing;  the  interpreter 
writing  (\o\vn  fcveral  of  thefe  accounts  on  a  piece  of  wood, 
which  he  handed  to  the  king.  When  he  had  read  them,  he 
ordered  meat  and  drink  to  be  fet  before  me  immediately,  then 
directed  me  to  be  taken  to  the  houfe  of  his  fervants,  and  to 
te  provided  with  a  cloak.  All  this  was  accordingly  done; 
and  I  was  obliged  to  lay  afide  my  (heep-fkin  pelice  and  waift- 
coat. The  cloak,  according  to  the  cuftom  of  the  country, 
was  made  vervjong,  and  confifted  of  reddifh- coloured  linen. 
The  number  of  the  royal  fervants,  including  myfelf,  amounted 
to  Hxtv-eight  perfons.  Our  fnnclions  were  to  attend  the 
king  twice  a  day  to  the  ten)}^Je,  and  once  to  the  place  where 
he  ifllied  his  decrees;  alfo,  whenever  he  went  to  vifit  any 
tllincr  out  of  the  town,  alternately  to  bear  him  on  a  litter. 
Kight  perfons  were  commonly  employed  in  the  lad  office,  fo 
that  the  turn  came  in  rotation  only  once  "in  feveral  weeks. 
When  I  had  been  here  a  fortnight,  it  pjeafed  the  king  to 
.make  an  excurfion  to  Boofu,  and  to  vifit  many  things  there; 
and,  it  being  my  turn,  I  was  ordered  to, prepare  for  the  jour- 
ney. On  receiving  this  notice  I  wa?  extremely  didrtfTed,  on 
-confidering  how  I  fhould  go  through  with  the  fervice,  as  it 
v\'a8  generally  performed    in.  a   U)n  of  harncf?.     At  firlt  I 

managed 


Interior  Parts  of  JJrlpa»  6j^ 

•nianaged  tolerably  well^  b^t,  as  it  \vas  never  tbe  pra^lice  to 
niake  a  halt^  I  was  fo  overcome  with  fatigue  that  I  fell  down. 
TheMoors,  my  comrades, attempted  to  raife  me  up;  but,belng 
ntterly  unable  to  concur  with  their  efforts  by  helping  niyfelf, 
they  took  their  trammels  from  the  litter,  and  were  going  t6 
be^t  me.  On  this,  I  fet  up  a  violent  fcream,  in  order  to 
attra(9:  the  king's  attention,  who,  immediately  giving  orders 
to  halt,  inquired  what  was  the  matter,  and  commanded  one 
of  the  Moors  who  attended  him  on  horfeback  to  difmdunt,'to 
give  me  his  horfe,  and  to  take  my  place  as  one  of  tbe  bearers. 
This  drew  upon  me  the  hatred  of  fome  of  the  attendants,  of 
yi^hipl^j,  hpivever,  they  let  nothing  appear,  from  reverence  to 
the  king,  particularly  as  they  perceived  that  he  behaved 
Jcindly  to  me.  After  a  ilay  of  fix  days,  the  king  returned  to 
the  capital,  previous  to  his  departiire  giving  orders  that  t 
fhould  not  acl  as  a  bearer,  but  ride.  I  did  as  he  had  com- 
manded, and,  at  our  arrival,  reftored  the  h9rfe  to  his  owner 
with  many  thanks.  No  employments  being  afligned  me, 
I  took  to  fome  of  my  own  accord  :  in  particular,  I  fomelimes 
vifited  a  man  who  carved  out  various  devices  on  wood,  and  he 
was  highly  pleafed  that  I  frequented  him,  in  the  hopes  of 
learning  feveral  things  of  me.  While  with  him,  I  made  a 
fquarc  frame  and  a  cupboard,  not  indeed  fo  well  as  a  European 
joiner;  but  then  I  had  not  the  neceflary  tools,  being  obliged 
to  make  ufe  of  a  (harp  knife  inftead  of  a  chifel,  arid  a  (lone 
was  the  only  fubftitute  I  had  for  a  fine  plane.  After  having 
viiited  this  man's  houfe  for  about  ten  days,  the  king  one 
day  fent  for  me,  and  forbade  me  to  go  for  the  future  into  the 
town:  the  fa61:  was,  that  attempts  had  been  made  to  bring 
me  into  fufpicion  with  him,  by  perfuading  him  that  I  enter- 
tained f'jmc  ill  defigns.  I  vindicated  myfelf  by  faying,  that 
I  had  done  no  harm;  that  I  had  only  gone  at  times  to  a 
workman  in  wood,  becaufe  I  was  alfo  one  myfelf.  This 
pleafed  him ;  and  he  told  me,  that,  fince  I  was  a  workman 
in  wood,  I  fliould  work  for  him.  On  my  promifing  him 
that  I  would  do  fo,  be  immediately  ordered  wood  to  be 
fetched,  and  likewife  gave  me  permiffion  to  go  every  day, 
for  two  hours,  and  look  about  the  town.  The  fird  thing  I 
made  for  the  kinir  was  a  cheil  of  eiiht  drawers,  and  next  a 

I  a  imall 


6B  Travels  through  the 

fmall  cabinet,  which  I  painted  red  and  yellow.  Both 
pieces  met  with  his  entire  approbation,  looking  at  them  very 
often,  moving  them  firil  to  one  place,  then  to  another;  now 
putting  one  thing  in  them,  and  then  fomething  elfe.  I  then 
made  him  three  pair  of  knife- handles,  and  ,as  many  for 
forks,  of  goat-bones,  adding  to  them  filver  rings,  on  which  I 
carved  feveralletters  of  his  name,  vi-z.  M.H.Y.  polifliing 
them  all  as  finely  as  I  pollibly  could.  At  this  he  teftified 
a  hearty  fatisfLiction,  and  promifed  to  reward  me  as  he  fliould 
fee  occafion.  One  holiday  I  took  the  opportunity  of  afking 
leave  to  go  out  of  town  to  look  about  me.  He  did  not  refufe 
my  rcqueil,  but  gave  me  a  paffport,  which  was  a  piece  of 
wood,  whereon  was  carved  the  royal  arms,  namely,  a  half 
tiger;  telling  me  that  I  might  be  abfent  till  fun-fct,  but  that 
then  I  muft  attend  him  to  the  temple.  Accordingly  I  paflTed  out 
tthrough  the  north  gate  to  the  village  Vahafua,  fituated  at  about 
an  hour's  walk  from  the  town.  On  my  approach  to  it,  three 
men  came  out  of  it,  riding  dire£lly  up  to  me.  Taking  me 
for  a  deferter,  they  told  me,  tliat  if  I  did  not  go  back  inmie- 
diately  to  town,  they  would  carry  nie  thither  bound.  Per- 
ceiving me  make  fome  hefitation,  they  leaped  from  their 
horfes,  and  ftruck  me  with  their  fabrcs.  On  this  I  produced 
jny  pafs ;  but  they  fnatched  it  from  me,  tied  my  hands  toge- 
ther, and,  hanging  me  between  two  horfcs,  hurried  me  into 
the  town  to  the  king.  The  king  exprefled  his  furprife  at  this 
proceeding,  as  he  had  given  me  a  pafs;  and  inquired  what 
was  become  of  it.  On  prefenting  it  to  him,  they  faid,  that 
they  had  taken  it  from  me  to  prevent  me  from  executing 
my  defigns.  At  the  fame  time  one  of  the  men  made  up  a 
llory  of  untruths,  pretending  that  I  was  going  to  attack 
them,  &:c.  During  all  this,  I  (poke  not  a  word,  liftening 
only  to  what  the  man  faid :  this  attracted  the  king's  notice, 
and,  turning  to  me,  he  afkcd,  whether  the  accufer  fpoke 
truth.  I  jaftified  myfelf  by  appealing  to  the  licence  granted 
nie  by  his  pafs;  reprefenting  to  him,  that,  as  I  was  not  tho- 
roughly vcrfed  in  the  language  of  the  country,  thefe  people 
might  have  mifunderftood  me,  and  erroneoufly  thought  that 
}  abufed  them.  The  king  was  very  patient  and  gentle  during 
t)i^  wbgle'converfatioH;  which  I  interpreted  as  proriiiiing  me 

lomc 


Interior  Paris  of  Afiica*  69 

t     •  •  »  , 

fome  comfort.  At  laft  he  commanded  itie  tti'Be^l^rirnctl  to 
prifonj  but  ordered  the  principal  accufer  to  rem ain/ that  Tie 
might  fee,  on  the  following  day,  how  I  fhould  be  puniilied. 
Being  now  utterly  inconfolable,  and  convinced  that  the  end' 
of  my  life  was  drawing  near,  I  had  not  flept  a  wink,  when, 
in  the  morning,  four  foldiers  came  to  me,  bidding  me  follow 
them.  As  I  went,  I  perceived  people  who  piticti  my'c6ri^3i-2 
tion ;  but  others,  ftanding  here  and  there,  who  feemed  to 
enjoy  my  diftrefs,  On  the  public  place  where  T  was  to  be 
puniftied,  thirty  foldiers  on  foot,  and  twenty  on  horfeback, 
were  drawn  up  in  a  circle,  in  the  middle  whereof  a  buBalo's 
Ikin  was  flretched,  and  near  it  Itood  fix  young  men," two  of 
the  ftronged  having  platted  thongs  in  their  hands.  T  was  all 
over  in  a  tremor,  on  the  point  of  fainting  every  moment, 
concludinp-  that  I  was  either  to  underoo  a  violent  death,  or 
certainly  to  be  cruelly  fcourged.  The  king,  with  his  offi- 
cers, now  arriving,  called  for  the  principal  accufer,  who 
fprung  into  the  circle  apparently  with  great  fatisfaftion. 
The  king  now  afkcd  me,  whither  T  had  purpofed  to  go? 
— I  anfwered  :  ^  To  Vahafua.' — '  Where  didit  thou  meet 
the  ftranger?'  faid  he  then  to  the  accufer;  who  replied: 
^  On  the  bye-road  behind  V^ahafua  *.'  On  which  the 
king  immediately  ordered  the  man  to  be  llripped,  then 
thrown  on  the  buffalo's  (kin_,  and  to  have  (ixty  ftrokes  on  the 
belly.  All  prcfent  were  aftonifhed  to  fee  the  puniilmient 
they  expetfted  was  to  be  given  to  me  infli<Sfed  on  the  accufer; 
y)ut  they  prefently  faw  how  the  matter  ftood,  on  hearing  the 
king  declare,  that  ^  Nobody  ihould  belye  a  ftranger,  or  do 
him  an  injury,  or  endeavour  to  draw  on  him  a  puniflimerit 
which  he  had  not  defcrved.'  The  delinquent,  after  receiving 
this  chaftifenient,  was  directly  fent  beyond  the  borders  of  the 
country,  while  I  was  put  in  his  poft,  and  received  his  horfe. 
The  king  then  related  to  me  how  it  happened,  that  he  had 
rcfolved  to  make  a  ftri61:  examination  into  the  real  ftate  of 
the  cafe  between  me  and  the  man  now  baniflied.  Having 
perceived,  he  faid,  that  it  was  the  very  pcrfon  who,  on  the 
journey  to  Boofu,   was  obliged  to  difmount  from  his  horfc, 

*"  Tliat  is    the    way   to  Fcene,    to  which  place  numbers  had  fecretly 
BiaJf  tl.eir  efc.ipc  from  this  territory. 

and 


70  Tfaveh  through  th& 

and  take  my  place  in  bearing  the  litter ;  and,  having  remarked 
at  that  time  that  he  looked  difpleafed  and  angry  at  me,  he 
had  therefore  come  to  this  conclufion,  that  the  accufation 
was  only  founded  .in  malice  and  revenge ;  adding,  that  his 
Jufpicions  were  fully  confirmed  by  the  confelTion  of  the  two 
companions  of  the  accufcrj  on  their  being  brought  to  a  flri6l 
examination. 

*<  I  now  ventured  to  petition  the  king  to  let  mc  depart ; 
but  this  he  refufed,  by  faying,  '  It  is  thy  dqty  to  do  as  I 
command  thee/ — The  matially  (under  officer)  of  the  Mo,or^ 
jiow  took  me  with  him,  delivering  to  me  my  horfe,  with  ^ 
bridle  of  rope,  and  half  a  goat's  fkin  for  a  faddle,  at  which 
I  was  much  furprifed  5  bccaufe  I  forefaw  that  I  fliould  not  be 
able  to  do  much  with  thefe  implements,  but  fliould  probably 
run  the  fame  rifks  as  I  had  done  before;  accordingly  I  re- 
fqlved  to  renew  my  requeft  to  the  king,  that  he  would  allovy 
nie  to  profecute  my  journey,  or  at  leaft  appoint  me  to  fome 
other  poft.  The  next  morning  I  was  ordered  to  appear  before 
him ;  when  he  dire6lly  afked  me  whether  I  could  ride,  &c. 
-to  which  I  anfvvered :  No.  *^  Then  thou  muft  learn,'  -faid 
he^  V^s  I  defign  thee  for  a  higher  ftation,  if  thou  wilt  reniain 
with  me.'  For  the  prefcnt  I  did  not  prefume  to  folicit  him 
again  for  my  difmiffion,  as  he  of  himfelf  had  once  more  fpoke 
of  my  remaining  here.  Had  I  refolutely  infifted  on  being 
difmiired,  I  fhould  have  run  the  hazard  of  being  font  as  a 
prefent  to  his  brother-in-law  Soomahaty  *,  where  I  fhould 
infallibly  pafs  my  days  in  mifery.  I  therefore  refigned  my- 
felf  to  fortune,  hoping  to  make  my  efcape  at  fome  fit  oppor- 
tunity, and  in  a  fhort  time  learnt  to  ride,  that  is,  to  fit  fo 
firm  on  my  horfe  as  to  be  able  to  charge  and  fire  my  gun. 
My  office  was  folely  tjo  be  about  the  king  when  he  chofe  to 
be  carried  abroad,  or  when  he  rode  out  on  his  great  ca,mel, 
which  was  led  by  four  men  ;  the  reft  of  my  time  I  employed 
hi  carving  toys,  or  in  flrolling  about  the  town  for  inforniatiou 

♦  King  of  Zamfara,  .. i,  ;  ...is  reprefented  as  a  very  cruel  man.  He 
\«.Ms  really  married  to  the  fiftcr  of  the  king  of  Haoulla,  keeping,  befidcs, 
four  hundred  concubines,  of  whom  he  fold  thofc  who  no  longer  pleated 
him,  to  the  flave-dealcrs,  and  in  their  places  picked  up  others  about  the 
couHiry. 


Inferior  Tarts  of  Afrka,  7 1 

<oncerninp;  tlie  neighbouring  nations.  At  two  feveral  times 
•aravans  from  the  wellern  Barbaiy  pafled  through  on  their 
way  to  VangAra.  With  either  of  thefe  I  would  gladly  havcJ 
ftole  away,  but  I  found  it  impoffiblc  to  cffeft  my  defign.  lit 
One  of  my  rambles  I  got  acquainted  with  the  richeft  mci'- 
chant  in  the  town,  named  Koobi.  This  man  carried  on  a 
confiderable  trade,  conftaritly  keeping  t\i^o  caravan-teams  of  a 
hundred  and  lixteeri  beafts  of  burden,  and  a  number  of  (laves 
on  the  road.  One  of  his  Haves,  an  ingenious  and  a6live  young 
man,  diverted  me  at  times  by  relating  a  variety  of  circum- 
i^ances  concerning  his  travels;  and,  among  other  things,  t 
«;ot  out  of  him  an  accurate  account  of  the  march-route  into 
I'he  greater  Barbary.-^NoW  came  on  the  rainy  feafon,  wh^ 
the  king  never  rode  out,  going  only  to  the  temple  and  pr6- 
mulgating  his  decrees  in  the  court  of  the  palace.  I  had  there- 
fore more  time  to  prepare  fecretly  for  my  flight,  by  exercifing 
myfelf  in  pronouncing  the  hard  words  in  the  language  of  thd 
country,  learning  of  the  afore- mentioned  flave  the  moll  or- 
liriary  expreflions  in  the  langiiage  of  the  neighbouring  na- 
tions, and  the  like.  One  day,  the  king,  fnowing  me  a  muf- 
quet  with  a  broken  ihoulderpiece,  afked  me  whether  the 
workman  in  wood  that  I  was  acquainted  with  was  capa- 
ble of  making  another.  I  faid  I  would  fhow  him  the  flock  ; 
and,  taking  it  with  me,  T  myfelf  made  a  new  flock,  which 
pleafcd  the  king  fo  well,  that  he  prefented  me  with  fifty 
zimpos. 

*'  At  the  end  of  the  rainy  feafon  I  putpofed  to  get  off  by 
flcalth  ;  but  my  defign  was  fruftrated  by  the  breaking  out  of 
a  war  between  my  king  and  the  king  of  Vangara.  We 
haflened  to  the  field  as  fafl  as  pofTible,  and  the  army  was  al- 
ready muflered  by  the  24th  of  July ;  and  though,  as  the 
rainy  feafon  was  not  entirely  over,  the  foldiers  were  obliged 
to  march,  for  half  the  day,  up  to  the  middle  in  water,  vet 
thev  were  fliil  alert  and  courap-eous.  The  kino;  of  Vangara 
perhaps  thought  it  impoflible  for  our  army  to  pufh  on  through 
the  valleys  overflowed  with  water,  in  order  to  come  at  his 
frontiers  ;  but  he  was  miftaken. — Our  king,  likewife,  made 
ufe  of  a  ftratagcm  to  prevent  the  king  of  Vangara  from  know- 
ing' when  his  army  was  to  begin  their  march.     On  the  22'^ 


}a  Travels  through  the  ■ 

of  Julvy  about  noon,  aii  officer  came  to  the  capital  from  the 
enemy,  attended  by  four  Moors,  bringing  with  him  the  de- 
claration of  \\-ar.  It  was  written  on  a  narrow  flip  of  white 
Icath  1  on  two  long  fticks.     On  delivering  it^  hefaid 

that  tlic  kmg  his  mailer  would  come  here  and  fetch  it  back. 
Our  king  put  on  a  very  friendly  countenance,,  gave  the  officer 
the  bed  entertainment  his  palace  afforded,  but  iflued  private 
orders  for  his  own  army  to  be  kept  in  readinefs  to  march  ; 
paying  to  the  officer,  that  when  the  valleys  and  plains  were 
free  from  water,  he  would  take  back  the  fticks  himfelf ;  that 
is,  would  begin  the  war. 

'  '^  On  the  25th,  before  fun-rife,  the  infantry  was  in  full 
march,  and  at  noon  was  followed  by  half  of  the  cavalry. 
The  enemy's  officer  purpofed  tofet  out  on  his  return  that  fame 
day;  but  the  king  entreated  him  to  remain,  promifing  to  ac- 
company him  on  the  follosving  day,  to  prevent  his  being 
attacked.  On  the  24th,  at  noon,  the  king  fet  out  with  his 
officers  and  the  one  belonging  to  the  enemy,  taking  me  alfo 
among  his  body-guard.  On  the  firft  day  we  arrived  at  Taa- 
hafa,  a  fmall  town  of  two  hundred  huts,  where  we  were 
joined  by  five  hundred  INIoors.  Faffing  the  Niger  on  the 
25lh,  we  were  in  extreme  danger  of  our  lives,  infomuch  that 
we  could  not  prevent  the  lofs  of  twenty  men  who  perifhed  in 
the  floods,  as  the  river  was  too  much  fwollen,  and  yet  the 
cavalry  who  could  not  be  carried  over,  were  forced  to  fwim 
acrofs  with  their  horfes.  We  now  reached  Maatoh,  a  vil- 
lage of  forty  huts,  in  the  valley  through  which  the  Niger 
flows, 

''  On  the  26th  and  27th,  we  marched  over  a  chain  of  moun- 
tains towards  the  eaft,  ad\  ancing  on  the  28th  at  noon  to  the 
Krahoto,  or  Gold-mountains.  Here,  making  halt,  we  fent 
the  hodile  officer  to  his  king,  commiffioning  him  to  tell  him, 
that  king  Maonaouffiiy  wa.^^  come  into  his  country  with  hig 
forces  to  vilit  him.  The  officer  had  ivvtnty  nrcn  to  efcort 
him  as.  far  as  Kahfuto,  a  fmall  town  in  \'angava.  As  fooii 
as  he  was  gone,  accounts  were  brought  that  the  infantry 
were  already  on  the;enen:iy's  ground,  wliere  they  waited  fof 
further  orders.  An  jSuropean  army'j,  that  ex'cepted  which 
iBonaparte  led  over  the  ptodigious  inouiitain.^  of  Switzerland, 

"^  won  Id 


tnterhr  PaHs  of  Africa*  {T^ 

Would  ni^ver  have  ventured  to  do  what  I  here  faw  performed 
by  nndifcipllned  troops.  We  had  before  us  the  two  enor- 
mous rido-es  of  mountains  which  we  had  aheadv  croffed  in 
one  of  their  turnings ;  but  which  in  this  place  were  far  fteeper 
and  more  inaccefliblc  than  in  the  former,  infomuch  that 
I  thought  it  abfohitely  impoffible  for  us  to  furmount  them  :' 
but  I  witnelfed  what  I  had  eonfidered  to  be  impradi- 
cable. 

*'  At  break  of  dav  the  king  iiTued  the  neceffary  orders  to 
his  officers;  whereupon,  in  half  an  hour  the  cavahy  that 
were  with  us  drew  up,  (lung  their  mufquets^  and  raifed  a 
horrid  fhout  that  re-echoed  from  the  mountains.  They 
cried  out :  Ofotbfiigo^  koato  aqulaty !  that  is,  '  Death  and 
*■  the  place  of  torment  (with  us  Hell)  (hall  not  deter  us  !'  and 
the  whole  troop  fprung  up  the  mountain ;  fo  that,  though 
pieces  of  the  rock  flew  off,  not  one  of  them  met  with  any 
accident.  The  royal  camp  was  now  broke  up,  and  it  was 
our  turn  to  clamber  up  the  fteep  declivity.  I  alighted  from 
my  horfc,  and  with  extreme  difficulty  attained  the  fummit. 
The  king  continued  fitting  on  his  camel,  fmoking  a  pipe  of 
tobacco  completely  undifmayed.  A  hew  obftacle  now  made 
its  appearance ;  for  below  ran  an  arm  of  the  Niger,  which 
we  muft  inevitably  crofs.  The  king  remained  on  the  camel, 
led  by  the  fwimming  (laves,  and  got  fafc  oixT.  I  followed 
on  horfeback,  and  likewife  happily  fucceeded ;  but  I  felt 
great  pain  in  my  feet,  as  the  ropes  here  ufed  for  (lirrups  had 
chafed  the  fkin  fo  forely,  that  the  blood  ran  down.  In  like 
rnanner  we  were  now  to  climb  the  fecond  mountain ;  and 
during  this  perilous  bufinefsthe  evening  came  on.  On  reaching 
the  bottom  of  the  other  fide  of  the  mountain  we  halted,  and 
pitched  our  camp  on  the  enemy's  ground.  At  the  dillance  of 
about  three  leagues  before  us  we  difcerhed  a  fire  with  fmoke 
rifingj  which  proceeded  from  the  infantry  that  had  marched 
on,  and  were  already  bufily  employed  in  plundering,  burn- 
ings and  ^deilroying.-  At  the  fight  of  this,  joy  fpread  through- 
out our  camp;  which  now  burft  forth  in  fhouting  and  fing- 
ing.  The  next  morning  powder  and  fniall  pebbles,  infl:ead 
of  balls,  were  diftribu  ted  to  all  the  people  of  the  camp;  as. 
well  to  the  fcrvanis,  (lave?,  and  priefts,  as  to  the  foldiers,  that 

VoL^  IX.  K  \ve 


74  Travels  through  the 

we  might  be  in  a  condition  to  refift  in  cafe  of  an  attack  5 
which,  however,  was  not  likely  to  be  expedled.  At  noon 
threefcore  and  two  prifoners  were  brought  in,  and  afterwards 
conveyed  further.  Thefe  people  were  indeed  deplorable  ob- 
jects, and  excited  great  pity  and  compaflion,  for  they  were 
niiferably  maimed  and  disfigured ;  fome  being  fliot,  others 
hacked  with  fabres,  and  others  wounded  by  fpears  :  beiides, 
thefe  wretches  were  entirely  naked  and  deftitute,  as  every 
thing  had  been  taken  from  them,  and  even  their  huts  burnt. 
Here  neither  camp-hofpital,  nor  inedicine-cheft,  nor  other 
iimilar  means  of  relief  were  to  be  had ;  no  ftyptics  to  apply 
to  the  wounded ;  but,  when  the  prifoners,  by  crying  and 
howling,  expreffed  the  extreme  violence  of  their  pains,  re- 
courfe  was  immediately  had  to  the  cautery,  by  burning  their 
wounds ;  and  even  this  was  done  by  efpccial  grace  of  the 
king.  Our  march  proceeded  very  flow  ;  for  this  day  we  came 
only  to  within  fomewhat  more  than  two  leagues  of  the  little 
town  Kahfuto,  where  w:e  again  encamped.  We  heard  a  firing 
the  whole  night  through;  officers  "likewife  were  frequently 
coming  with  reports  to  the  king,  though  I  learnt  nothing  of 
them.  At  day-break  a  hiuidred  of  our  army  were  brought 
in  wounded,  and  thirty  prifoners  taken  from  the  enemy.  We 
now  heard -that  the  main  body  of  our  army  was  before  Kah- 
futo, which  was  obftinately  defended  by  the  enemy.  Our 
ilaves  were  therefore  fent  otf  to  reinforce  it;  however,  they 
were  not  wanted,  as  they  had  fcarcely  been  gone  an  hour 
when  we  faw  the  flames  afcend  from  Kahfuto,  and  prefently 
after  received  intelligence  that  the  enemy  had  retreated,  having 
previoufly  fet  the  town  on  fire.  We  now  put  forward,  as 
the  main  army  was  gone  on;  having  a  bad  road  the  whole 
day  long,  through  thickets  and  over  fandy  flats,  but  fre- 
c|uently  meeting  with  burnt  villages.  We  encamped  on 
the  river  Kaiog,  on  the  other  ihore  of  which  the  main  army 
was  drawn  up.  This  river  runs  hither  from  the  north,  and 
flows  through  the  whole  territory  of  \^angara  fouthwards. 
We  were  here  in  adiffigreeable  fituation  ;  for,  the  plains  near 
the  river  being  flill  in  fcvcral  places  under  water,  we  were 
.forced  to  go  round  them,  wading  through  mud  and  dirt; 
therefore  could  by  no  means  kindle  a  fire,  and  much  Icfs  at- 
S  tempt 


Interior  Parts  of  Africa,  75* 

tempt  to  take  reft.     On  the  right  hand,  indeed,  we  had  a 
high  hill ;  but  we  could  not  turn  off  to  that,  as  we  were  en- 
deavouring to  come  into  nearer  co-operation  with  the  main 
army.     Such  of  us  as  had  horfes  kept  their  feats  the  whole 
night  long,  in  order,  at  leaft,  to  get  fome  reft.     At  break  of 
day  we  proceeded  over  the  river,   and  marched  for  the  capi- 
tal.    When  the  hoftile  army  was  within  fight,  it  was  ordered 
that  the  baggage, under  a  guard  of  forty  flaves  an,d  fifty  foldiers, 
fliould  remain  behind  with  me ;  when  the  king  took  upon 
him  the  command  of  the  army,  and  puflied  onward.   In  a  few 
hours  the  fight  began  with  great  cries  and  bellowing  on  both 
fides,  fo  that  even  we  ourfelves  were  frightened.     Our  army, 
which  had  not  refted  for  fome  days,  was  feveral  times  re- 
pulfed,  yet  conftantly  preflTed  forwards     Till  tovi^ards  even- 
ing the  event  of  the  battle  was  undecided,  now  one  army  and 
now  the  other  giving  way  :   liowever,  at  laft,  when  the  dark- 
nefs  came  on,  our  army  maintained  its  ground,  while  the 
enemy  retreated  into  the  town.     We  took  two  hundred  pri- 
foners,   and  a  number  of  trifling  articles  as  fpoil.     With  this 
a6lion  the  main  brunt  of  the  war  was  over,  as  in  the  whole 
hoftile  territory  throughout  there  was  no  other  fuch  plain 
where  the  two  armies  could  draw  up  in  front  of  each  other, 
but  thickets,  forefts,  narrow  valleys,  and  mountains,  in  alter- 
nate viciflitude.     I  remarked  that  both  armies  were  totally 
miacquainted  with  tactics,  and  that  with  them  every  thing 
depended  on  the  courage  and  temerity  of  the  men.     Though 
the  battle  lafted  feveral  hours,  yet  daring  all  that  time  our 
people  fired  fcarcely  twenty  times,  and  the  enemy  probably 
not  oftener.     In  order  to  load  their  pieces  the  army  every 
time  fell  back,  and  then  advanced  again :  there  was  likewife 
a  deficiency  of  powder.     We  refted  for   two  whole  days ; 
when,  no  melTenger  of  peace  coming  from  the  enemy,., we 
proceeded  forwards.  Now,  however,  we  experienced  a  failure 
of  provifions;  what  we  had  brought  with  us  being  all  con- 
fumed,  and  there  was  nothing  to  be  found  in  the  enemy's 
country.     The  king  then  made  proclamation,  that  it  would 
not  be  advifable  to  go  back  to  fetch  provifiops ;  but  that, 
whoever  was  dcfirous  to  eat,  muft  pufli  on  with  him  to  con- 
quer the  capital.     What  the  king  did,  that  the  army  was 

K  %  obliged 


yf  Traveh  through  'iht 

obligerl  to  do;  and  therefore  we  proceeded  onwavds.  We 
marched  that  whole  day,  and  even  half  the  night,  without 
finding  any  nourifhment  either  for  naen  or  horfes.  At  day- 
break we  were  ftill  above  a  league  from  the  town,  which  we 
could  already  diftinguifh.  Whichever  way  we  turned  our 
ey6s,  wt  faw  men  in  great  numbers,  both  of  our  own  and  of 
the  hoftile  army.  Our  troops  were  meditating  an  attack, 
when  they  were  anticipated  by  tiie  enemy;  who,  pouring  down 
the  mountain  which  runs  before  the  town^  fuddenly  ruflii^d 
i^pon  us,  and  the  fight  began  with  the  utmoft  fury.  Having 
to  contend  on  all  fides,  we  (liould  certainly  have  been  lofl, 
had  not  the  Moors  h^eroically  prefled  forwards  and  made 
thcmfeh^s  mafters  of  the  town.  Being  within  it,  they  im-  *" 
mediately  difpatched  a  deputy  to  the  king  with  tidiugs  of 
tlv^ir  fuccefs.  We  therefore  inftantiy  received  orders  to  pack 
lip  and  follow  the  king  into  the  town.  Thefe  we  joyfuHy 
obeyed,  in  hopes  of  getting  ^  plentiful  fupp'ly  of  food  for  both 
men  and  cattle;  but  we  found  ourfelves  deceived,  as  there 
was  not  the  ieaft  thing  left:  for  both  what  the  fug^itive  in- 
habitants ha-d  not  been  able  to  carry  off,  and  what  fuch  as 
f^aid  behind  had  ftill  poffefled,  was  all  confnmed  by  thofe  of 
our  army  vvho  had  forced  their  way  into  the  place,  and  had 
likewife  fet  fire  to  the  town  on  the  north  fide.  The  king's 
firii;  orders  were  to  fextins^uifh  the  flames;  after  wliich  he 
ton ful ted  with  his  officers  how  lye  were  now  to  proceed. 
I  had"my  quarters  in  what  was  lately  the  habitation  6f  an 
pfHter;  where,  though  I  found  convenient  lodging,  yet 'I 
could  find  no  fupply  for  my  ftomach.  To  thofe  who  had  got 
i:!othing  in  the  general  pillage,  a  fmalh  portion  of  meal  was 
indeed  -diftvibuted ;  but  this  was  no  more  than  fufficient  to 
appeafe  the  appetite  for  a  few  hours.  The  next  day  was  a  day 
of  reft  to  -the  Ufjiole  army,  except  to  the  king,  who  was  em- 
ployed |n  niaking  tjie  proper  regulations.  I  was  ordered  to 
Sittend  him  thrrtLt'gh  the  town,  to  fee  whether  any  provifions 
were  to  be  picked  up ;  vvp  met  with  nothing,  however,  but 
the  greattil  diftrefe  jn  ajl  parts.  Mothers  with  thcjr  children 
came  and  threw  themfdves  at  the  feet  of  the  king,  calling  tq 
him  ;'  \)ui  he  heafd  them  not :  telling  them,  that  if  they  did 
jiot  go  awav  and  d-efift  from  hindering  his  paflage,  they  fliould 
'  bo 


Literlcr  Taris  of  Africa,  *j^ 

be  killed,.  I  was  ^\K:^q^  tQ  the  hcar^  at  this,  and  quite, 
{liocked  at  my  king;  though  I  well  knew  that  in  war-time 
pity  is  here  mjiiirely  bi^ihcd  :  yet  at  other  times  I  have  fceu 
him  diipliiy  jnitanpes  of  pity  and  companion.  But  I  fooa 
altered  my  opinioi\j  fpr  that  very  evening  he  iflued  orders  :^o 
the  army  to  <|uit  the  town  the  following  morning;  without, 
however,  fetting  tire  tp  it,  as  w^s  the  ufual  pradlice,  or  car- 
rying away  wi^h  them  ^(le  derencelefs  inhabitants,  unlefs  they 
had  been  in  arms,  ,a^  priloners  of  war  or  Haves,  but  to  leave 
them  untjiliurbed  in  their -huts.  The  town  of  Vangara  is 
upwards  of  '^  league  in  length,  and  nearly  half  as  much  in 
breadth  ;  havjug  (ix  rows  of  houfes  or  huts,  and  three  main 
flreets,  runi)ing  in  a  line  from  north  to  fouth.  The  houfes 
^re  built  of  rough  ftones  and  mortar,  but  the  huts  of  rufhes 
and  mortar.  At  the  end  of  each  flreet  ftands  a  temple,  and 
the  centre  of  the  town  is  the  market-place,  where  a  crofs  ftreet 
runs  through  the  other  principal  ftreets.  ThC;  palace  is  con- 
ftrufted  of  ordinary  i}ones  and  mortar,  inclofcd  by  a  wall  fix 
feet  high,  but  in  various  places  fallen  to  decay,  altogether 
having  a  .mean  appearance.  The  town  is  furrounded  by  paU- 
fadoes,  which  are  in  fome  parts  defeftive  and  in  others  rotten. 
On  the  fouth  fide  of  the  town  runs  a  ditch  fix  feet  in  depth, 
where  the  cattle  are  watered,  and  from  whence,  in  cafes  of 
neceffity,  water  is  fetched  for  the  people. 

*'  At  break  of  day  we  quitted  the  town,  and  retreated  to 
our  former  camp  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  on  the  fron- 
tiers; the  cavalry  leading  the  van,  and  the  infantry  followinc:. 

^'  On  the  23d  an  officer  from  the  enemy  came  to  our  camp 
with  propofals  of  peace;  who  was  admitted  by  the  king  on 
condition  that  the  king  of  Vanfrara  (bould  come  and  treat 
with  him  in  perfon.  This  he  accordingly  did,  and  a  firm 
contrail  of  peace  and  friendfliip  was  concluded  on  the  fol- 
lowing teiTiis  :  I.  The  king  of  Vangara  (hall  fend  to  the  king 
of  Haoufa  every  year  twenty  flaves.  2.  The  king  of  Vangara 
fhall  furnifli  afliltance  to  the  king  of  Haoufila  whenever  he  is 
attacked  by  other  nations ;  in  return  for  which  he  fhall  re- 
ceive the  fpoils  taken  by  his  people  in  thofe  engagements. 
3.  The  cattle  which  the  fubje6ls  of  the  king  of  Vangara  have 
farried  off  from  the  kingdom  of  liaoufla  fliall  be  reftored. 

4.  The 


78  An  Account  of  the 

4.  The  two  kings  grant  a  freedom  of  trade  reciprocally  to  the 
people  of  both  nations. 

*^  Peace  being  thus  eftabliflied,  the  two  kings  behaved  very 
friendly  towards  each  other,  fmoked  tobacco  together,  con- 
verfing  on  indifferent  rubje6ls,  and  thought  no  more  of  the 
unfortunate  wretches  who  during  this  campaign  had  been 
taken  prifoners,  and,  of  courfe,  fent  into  flavery ;  they  re- 
maining in  the  power  of  thofe  by  whom  they  had  been  cap- 
tured. This  war  had  coft  on  either  fide  about  a  thoufand 
men,  feveral  villages  and  towns  being  laid  wafte,  and  fomc 
thoufands  of  inhabitants  deprived  of  their  habitations  and 
property.  On  the  20th  of  Auguft  the  treaty  was  ratified,  and 
•n  the  28th  we  returned  to  the  king  in  the  capital. 

[To  be  continued.] 


IX.     An  Account  of  the  Lfe  and  Writings  of  La  v  o  I  s  I  e  r  . 
jB>'  Jerome  Lalande. 

Xanthony  Laurence  Lavoisier  was  born  at  Pari* 
©n  the  26th  of  Auguft  1743,  and  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  a 
good  education,  on  which  his  father,  a  man  of  property,  be- 
Itowed  great  care.  In  the  year  1764,  the  French  government 
having  propofed  as  the  fubjecSl  of  a  prize  of  aooo  livres  the 
beft  method  of  lighting  the  fi;reets,  the  prize  was  divided 
among  three  artifts  who  had  made  experiments  on  the  fub- 
je6i ;  but  Lavoifier,  who  had  examined  it  as  a  philofopher 
and  man  of  letters,  was  rewarded  in  a  different  msfnner.  The 
paper  which  he  wrote  in  anfwer  to  this  queflion  was  publifiied 
at  the  expence  of  tlie  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  the  King 
caufed  a  gold  medal  to  be  prefented  to  him  by  the  prefident 
in  a  public  fitting  of  the  academy  held  on  the  9th  of  April 
1766.  This  paper,  wliich  contained  a  great  many  excellent 
mathematical  and  philofophical  obfervations,  announced  the 
author's  entrance  in  the  career  of  fcience  in  which  he  after- 
wards continued  to  dittinguifli  himfelf. 

On  the  1 8th  of  May  1768,  he  was  chofen  a  member  of  the 
academy,  in  the  room  of  Baron  ;   and  about  the  fame  period 
he  publifi:icd  feveral  treatifes  in  different  periodical  publica- 
tions. 


lAfe  and  Writings  of  Lavoijler,  79 

tions,  fuch  as  Obfervations  on  the  propofal  for  creeling  a 
ft^am  engine  to  fupply  the  city  of  Paris  with  water,  on  thun- 
der, on  the  northern  lights,  on  the  tranlition  of  water  into 
ice,  &c.  The  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  for  the  year  1770 
contain  Obfervations  by  him  on  the  nature  of  water,  and  on 
the  experiments  faid  to  prove  the  poffibility  of  its  convcrfioa 
into  earth.  Lavoifier,  however,  fliowed  that  the  earth  ob- 
tained by  the  diftillation  of  water  was  a  part  of  the  veflel 
which  had  been  attacked  during  the  operation  :  for,  having 
continued  the  diftillation  without  interruption  loi  days,  the 
total  weight  of  the  veflel  and  of  the  water  contained  in  it  re- 
mained unchanged,  but  the  pelican  had  loft  as  mucji  in 
weight  as  the  water  had  increafed. 

In  the  year  1774  Lavoifier  proved  that  the  increafed 
weight  of  metals  during  their  oxidation,  arofe  from  their  im- 
bibing the  air  contained  in  the  veffels  in  which  the  operation 
was  performed ;  by  which  means  a  queftion  that  had  long 
formed  a  fubjeft  of  difpute  among  philofophers  and  chemifts, 
and  had  occafioned  many  coftly  experiments,  was  finally  de- 
termined. This  formed  a  foundation  for  his  new  chemical 
theory,  which  he  firft  oppofed  to  the  phlogiftic  fyftem  before 
adopted  by  chemifts. 

In  the  fame  year  he  publiflicd  his  fmall  phyfico-chemical 
works.  Prieftley,  in  the  year  1772,  had  made  known  his 
experiments  on  carbonic  acid  gas ;  but  Lavoifier  traced  back 
its  origin  to  Paracelfus,  born  in  1493,  and  to  his  pupil  Van 
Helmont,  born  in  1588 ;  and  fhowed  that  even  Paliflev, 
Ray,  Boyle,  Hales,  Venel  and  Macbride  had  been  in  part 
acquainted  with  this  gas.  He  (bowed  alfo  that  Dr.  Black  of 
Edinburgh  had  called  the  attention  of  philofophers  to  this 
important  pan  of  chemiftry  fo  early  as  the  year  1756  *  ;  and 
therefore  he  afcribed  to  him  the  honour  of  this  new  difco- 
very,  which  in  the  courfe  of  twenty  years  had  given  occafion, 
to  fo  many  others  of -the  utmoft  importance  to  mankind. 

Lavoifier  proved  by  his  experiments,  that  an  elaftic  fluid, 
or  kind  of  gas,  was  united  in  a  fixed  form  with  calcareous 
earth  ;  he  proved  the  prefence  of  it  in  alkalies,  and  fliowed 

♦  Tn  EflUys  and  Obflirvati-nv  P:  yuc:,'  ?- '  I  •  —  Vd.  I[.  Edin- 
liurghi':56. 

that 


So  Ait  Account  tftU 

that  It  was  produced  during  the  reduction  ormefalllc  calce* 
and  of  the  phofphoric  acid.  He  ilot  oiily  apphed  to  che- 
miftry  the  difFererit  methods  of  experimental  philofophy,  and 
its  various  kinds  of  apparatus,  but  even  introduced  into  it  the 
fpirit  of  accuracy  and  calculation,  which  Jiad  tiever  before 
been  employed  in  that  way.  With  this  tttilb'fi  of  two 
branches  of  natural  knowledge^  Lavoifier's  principal  work 
forms  the  commencenk'nt  of  a  bright  period  in  the  biliofy  of 
their  ihiproN-ement.     . 

Prieftlcy  having  found  that,  during  the  union  of  nitrous  acid 
\\ith  an  earth,  oxygen  gas  was  generally  produced,  thence 
conckided  that  atmofpheric  air  was  a  mixture  of  nitrous  acid 
and  earth.  Lavoifier, on  the  contrary, fhowed  in  the  year  1^76, 
that'oxygcn  gas  was  a  component  part  of  nitrous  acid.  This 
obfervation  confirmed  the  truth  of  a  great  number  of  Experi- 
ments, and  gave  rife  to  a  variety  of  other  difeoveries. 

In  the  year  1778  he  was  able  to  prove  that  the  pureft  air, 
that  necellary  for  refpiration,  or  the  d'ephlogi^icated  air  of 
Prieftlcy,  was  the  caiife  of  acidity,  and  exifled  in  all  acids. 
To  this  part  of  the  atmofphere,  cohta'iiled  in  all  acids,  which 
converts  the  metals  into  metallic  ca'lces,  and  c?reates  oxygen 
gas  in  union  with  caloric,  he  gave  the  nmit  6i  bvjgen. 

In  Germany,  where  cherrtifti'y  has  b^eeh  ihiic\i  cultivated^ 
this  theory  wi\s  foon  adopted,  and  fii'ft  matlc  k}^fo^\*n  by  Gir- 
tanncr  at  Gattirtgen,  atid  Ilermbftadt  at  ferlin,  '{he  latter  of 
whom  tranflafed  Lavoi-frer's  Elementary'  Ti'ea^tifc  of  Ghemiftry 
into  German.  Soon  after  it  was  atiop'ted  alfo  by  Klaprotb, 
Mayer,  Lichfcnberg,  and  Gottling.  W<ffi:rumb,  Crdl,  and 
Gren,  hoi'iJ'eve'r,  ftill  endeavoured  to  defetid  the  old  phlogiftic 
fyftcm ;  but  the  majority  was  againft  them.  Bcirthollct  re- 
mained for'fomc  time  undecided  5  blit  his  o\vn  eXperimeitt^ 
fonn  inducied  him  to  embrace  this  theofy,-  which  conducted 
him  to  important  difeoveries. 

In  the  month  of  June  T783,  L'avorfier  cbtif^hl^ed' ari'  a"'p[Var- 
^atus  for  burninjx  hvdro'X'en  (ras  with  oxv^en  p':i3  iri-  clofe  - 
veilcls ;  aiid  the  refult  was  a  fluid,  or  rather  purcAvater,  t:he 
weight  of  which  corrtfponded  exa;^tl)'  Vv-ith  fhat  of  t'he  twc> 
^afcs  employed.  Having  learned  that  the  fani.e  experiment 
hcid  been  made  by  Cavendilli  and  Monge,  he  invented  an- 
other 


tj/e  ami  Writings  of  Lavbi/zer,  8t 

titircr  apparatus  for  decompofing  water,  with  which,-by  means 
of  iron  lubes,  he  feparated  the  hydrogen  from  the  oxygen. 
Lavoiiier  proved  alfo  that  atmofpheric  air  confifts  of  two 
kinds  of  gas,  one  of  which  is  fitj  and  the  Other  unfit,  for  refpi- 
ration;  that  the  firft  is  oxygen,  which  pofleflTes  the  property 
of  uniting  with  bodies,  and  thereby  becoming  fixed  ;  that 
this  fubftance  combines  with  metals  during  their  oxidation, 
and  with  combutlible  bodies  when  in  a  ftate  of  combuftion  ; 
and  that  in  the  firft  cafe  a  metallic  calx  is  produced,  and  in 
the  laft  an  acid,  which  is  of  a  different  nature  according  to 
the  kind  of  the  inflammable  body^  On  this  depends  the 
whole  theory  of  combuftion,  of  the  produ6lion  of  acids,  and 
the  divifion  of  natural  bodies  into  inflammable  and  non- 
inflammable.  On  this  depends  alfo  the  knowledge  of  that 
kind  of  gas  called  formerly  fixed  air,  but  now  carbonic  acid 
gas,  becaufe  it  is  produced  during  the  combuftion  of  char- 
coal, and  is  compounded  of  carbon  and  oxygen. 

Lavoifier,  therefore,  was  the  firft  who  difcovered  that  the 
different  kinds  of  gas  are  the  refult  of  the  folution  of  any  fub- 
ftance  by  caloric;  this  condu6led  him  to  the  conclufion  that 
the  caloric  and  the  matter  of  light,  difengaged  during  the 
combuftion  of  inflammable  fubftances,  does  not  arife  from 
them,  but  from  the  air  which  furrounds  them,  and  in  which 
the  combuftion  takes  place  In  this  feries  of  experiments 
may  be  claffed  that  made  by  Lavoifier  on  detonation,  which 
is  nothing  elfe  than  a  fudden  inflammation,  the  products  of 
which  are  difengaged  in  the  gafeous  form. 
,  In  the  year  1776,  Lavoifier  by  means  of  Turgot  Was  ap- 
pointed fuperintendant  of  the  powder  manufa^flory,'  in  order 
to  improve  that  art;  and  this  he  did  fo  effectually,  that  the 
powder  manufactured  under  his  infpeCtion  was  capable  of 
driving  a  mufli:et-ball  to  the  diftance  of  i^o  fathoms,  whereas 
that  made  before  was  capable  of  driving  it  only  to  the  di- 
ftance of  90  fathoms.^  In  the  war  of  1765,  the  Englifh 
bullets  rej^ched  our  veffels  from  a  diftance  at  which  ours 
could  not  reach  them  ;  but  in  the  war  of  1778  the  cafe  waf» 
reverfed.  In  the  year  1788  he  was  In  great  danger  of  lofing 
his  life  in  confequence  of  an  explofion  whiqh  took  placa 
during  fome  experiments  then  made  at  Eflbnc. 

Vol.  IX.  L  All 


^^  Afi  Acc^mit  of  tbt: 

■  All  thfefe  experiments  concluded  hiiti  to  a  complete  an nTv 
fis  of  nilroti's  aind,  an  acid  enly  to  be  decompofed,  but  diffi^uh 
to  be'e^tticatctt;  and  which,  hott'ever^  is  of  great  importance^ 
as  it"  ig  a  component  pan  of  feltpetre,  and  at  the  fame  time 
of  gunpowder. 

In  the  year  17^^,  Lavoifier  Endeavoured  to  bring  the  whale 
ftL'ries  of  his  e^iperimcnts  into  fyftematic  order,  and  thence  tc^ 
compofe  an  element<iry  vvork  on  chemillry.  Two  editions  of 
this  \vovk  x\>efe  fold  bff  \n  the  author's  hfetime,  and  he  had 
begun  lb  prepare  a  new  and  improved  one^  in  which  new 
hght  would  have  fjeen  thrown  on  the  whole  fcience  of 
chemiftry.  He  Iiite^nded  alfo  to  give  a  eolleclion  of  all  his 
Ellays  in  fix  voluni'es,  but  of  thefe  three  only  weVe  pubHfhed. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  determine  what  influence  Lavoifier's 
clifcoveries  have  had,  or  may  in  future  have,  on  the  practice 
of  the  arts;  but,  if  we  confider  the  entire  revolution  cffe6tied  in 
that  of  dyeing  by  the  new  chemiftry,  we  lliall  find  reafon  to 
entertain. the  bell  hopes  refpefting  the  reft.  Almoft  ail  the 
phajYiomcna  in  this  art  may  now  be  traced,  back  to  burning 
and  conibuftion,  tii  has  been  fufHciently  proved  by  Ber- 
tiiollet  in  his  important  work  on  dyeing.  This  art,  therefore, 
^hich  f()i-merly  depended  on  mere  pra<^c6,  is  now  founded 
upon  a  very  firnple  and  well-grounded  theory. 

The  art  of  mining,  of  affaying  and  fuling  metals,  of  pre- 
paring ftecl,  of  bleaching  linen  and  wax;  in  a  word,  almoft 
all  the  chemical  afts,  under  the  diredion-  of  the  new  theory 
ha'vc  been  rapidly  improved  and  brought  near  to  perfeftion. 

By  applying  thefe  difcoveri'es  to  the  phsenomena  of  breath- 
ing, Lavoifier  hasfhown  that  this  vital  funftion  is  areal  com- 
Buftion  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  by  which  carbonic  acid  and 
water  are  produced.  The  effect  of  this  conibuftion  is  animal 
heat,  the  degree  of  which  he  was  fo  fortunate  as  to  afcertain 
by  calculation,  Hii  experiments  on  this  fubjc6i:  condu<Sled 
iiiin  to  means  for  determining  (he  remarkable  relation  which 
exifts  between  accelerated  refpiration,  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  and  perfpiralion,  and  between  the  ditferent  powers, 
and  the  application  made  of  them  by  nature.  He  had  la- 
boured^'alfo  for  a  long  time  on  a  particular  vvork  on  the  fub- 
ic6t  of  di^cftion.' 

The 


lAfi  and  Writings  ofLct^oifte^  88 

The  laft,  and  perhaps  the  moft  important  of  Lavoificr's 
labours  related  to  animal  perfpiration,  ou  which  fubjeet  he 
read  a  paper  before  the  Academy  of  Scieocofi  oa  the  4th  c;£ 
May  1 791.  A  part  of  this  paper  may  be  fouud  in  tli^  Mcf 
moirs  of  the  Academy  for  the  year  1790- 

Lavoifier  firft  lays  it  down  as  an  eftabliflied  prmciple,  that 
the  animal  body  is  maintained  by  refpiration,  perfpiration:, 
and  digeftion.  He  then  examines  in  a  chemical  view  each 
of  thefe  effcci:s,  the  nature  of  the  perfpiration  of  the  fkin  and 
of  the  lungs,  diflinguiflies  the  effeds  from  each  other,  and, 
as  it  vvere>  interrogates  nature  refpeQ:ing  the  three  caufes  by 
which  they  are  produced.  He  invented  an  apparatus  by 
which  every  thing  that  relates  to  evaporation  externally,  and 
to  breathing  internally,  could  be  obferved.  In  conjunclion 
with  Seguin,  he  made  on  this  fubjecl  fame  exceedingly  dif* 
licult  and  laborious  experiments.,  by  which  he  found  that  a 
man  bv  perfpiration  lofcs  daily  3  pounds  13  ounces  ^  that  in 
the  caurfe  of  24  hours  he  confumes  33  ounces  of  oxygen  gas; 
that  in  the  fame  period  8  cubic  feet  of  carbonic  acid  g^as,  one 
third  of  which  confifts  of  carbon,  an-d  two  thirds  of  o?:ygcn, 
are  difengaged  from  the  lungs  ;  that  the  quantity  of  water 
produced  in  the  lungs  amounts  to  i  pound  7  ounees,,  of  whicjj 
3  ounces  are  hydrogen,  and  lo  oxygen,  and  that  only  6 
oimces  of  water  are  formed  by  the  perfpiration  of  the  lungs. 
For  thefe  experiments  he  had  provided  balances  which  did 
jiot  err  half  a  dram  in  125  pounds. 

By  thefe  accurate  and  diflicult  experiments  Lavoifier  had 
obtained  great  infight  into  the  CAufes  of  feveraj  difeafes,  as 
well  as  in  regard  to  the  means  of  affilHng  the  powers  of  na- 
ture in  curing  them,  and  on  that  account  had  refoived  to 
overturn  the  immenfe  cololfus  of  medical  prejiiidices  and 
errors  which  had  been  before  eftabli (lied.  None  of  his  un^ 
dertakings  was  of  more  importance  than  this,  and  it  is  much 
to  be  lamented  that  he  did  not  live  to  carry  it  in^Q  exeeutioji. 

Between  the  years  1778  and  1785,  he  improved  and  cul- 
tivated at  his  own  expenfe  240.  acres  of  land  in  la  Vendee, 
in  order  that  he  might  promote  agriculture  by  fckting  a  good 
example  before  the  farmers.;  and  his  mode  of  culture  was  at- 
tended with  fo  much  fuccefs,.  that  he  obtained  a  third  more 

JuZ  of 


^4  Xii/Jf  and  Writings  of  Lavoijief, 

of  crop  than  was  obtained  by  the  ufual  method.  In  Ihe 
courfe  of  nine  years  jiis  produce  was  doubled  ;  but  as  the 
(^apital  he  laid  out  did  not  produce  him  five  per  cent.,  he  was 
thence  induced  to  form  a  plan  for  lowering  the  intereft  of 
capitals,  and  extending  leafe*  to  the  period  of  i-j  years. 

The  committee  of  the  conlHtuent  aflembly  of  1791,  ap- 
pointed for  the  purpofe  of  fettling  the  taxes,  having  requefted 
Lavoifier  to  aflift  them  by  his  knowledge  in  accomplifliing 
the  object  which  they  had  in  view,  his  ideas  were  of  great 
aHiflance  to  them  in  the  formation  of  a  plan  by  which  the 
whole  fyftem  of  income  and  expenditure  was  gready  fmipli, 
ficd.  In  order  that  he  nitght  give  the  committee  the  necef- 
fary  informaiion  on  this  ii;hje6l,  he  communicated  to  them 
an  extrrK!"!  from  a  very  large  vi'ork  on  tiie  different  produc- 
tions of  the  countr) ,  and  their  confumption,  for  which  he 
had  been  long  employed  in  colledling  materials.  This  ex* 
tra6l  was  printed  by  the  National  Affcmbly,  under  the  title 
of  Kichejfes  territoriales  fie  la  Fratice,  and  is  undoubtedly  the 
beft  work  on  the  fubjcCt. 

In  the  year  1791  he  was  appointed  a  commiffioner  of  the 
national  treafury  ;  and,  without  abandoning  the  iludy  of  the 
faiences,  he  introduced  into  this  department  fuch  order  and 
regularity,  tliat  the  proportion  between  the  income  and  the 
^  e^xpenditure  in  all  the  branches  of  government  could  be  feen 
at  one  view  every  evening. 

In  the  great  and  important  undertaking  of  eftablifhing  in 
trance  a  new  fyftem  of  weights  and  meafures,  with  which 
the  academy  had  been  occupied  for  fome  time,  none  of  the 
members  was  more  a6live  or  more  ufeful  than  Lavoifier. 

In  order  that  he  might  diffufe  new  light  on  the  important 
but  not  fufficiently  illuftrated  doArine  of  the  expanfion  of 
metals  by  heat,  he  con{lru6led  an  apparatus  by  which  metal 
rods  immerfed  in  water  and  expofed  to  different  degrees  of 
heat,  put  in  motion  a  telefcope,  which  fliovvcd  on  a  diilant 
objeft  the  fmalleft  degree  of  expanfion. 

In  the  year  1793,  it  being  neceffary  to  have  a  bafis  mear 
fured  with  the  greateft  accuracy,  in  order  to  determine  the 
length  6f  an  arc  of  the  meridian,  he  ere6led  in  his  garden 
fods  of  platina  and  copper,  which  he  employed  as  metallic 

V    -  '  thermometers^ 


Itoyal  Society  of  London,  8j 

tliiermomcters,  and  on  which  each  degree  of  variation  in  the 
temperature  could  be  accurately  obferved.  On  this  occafioa 
he  afcertained  the  proportions  of  their  expanfion,  and  thefe  rods 
were  afterwards  employed  in  meafuring  a  bafe  between  Lieu- 
faint  and  JVlelun  ;  from  which  were  afterwards  deduced  the 
length  of  the  meridian  between  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona,  the 
circumference  of  the  earth,  and  the  ilandard  for  the  new 
French  mealiires. 

It  might  have  been  expccled  that  a  philofopher  poflcfled  of 
talents  fo  rare  and  unconnnon,  would  have  infpired  with 
refpe6l  for  his  chara«9:er  the  moft  favage  and  worthlefs  of 
mankind.  But  at  that  period  the  helm  of  the  French  go* 
vernment  was  in  the  hands  of  a  fet  of  monfters  to  whom  no- 
^ling  was  facred,  and  whofe  unbounded  ambition  facrificed 
every  thing  to  the  hope  of  flattering  the  deluded  populace-^ 
They  conceived  that  nothing  could  contribute  more  to  the 
accomplifhment  of  this  view,  than  to  offer  up  as  victims  at 
the  fhrine  of  popular  liccntioufnefs  all  the  farmers-general ; 
and  in  confequence  of  this  cruel  meafure,  twenty- eight  of 
them,  among  whom  was  Lavoificr,  were  put  to  death,  for 
crimes  real  or  pretended,  (^n  the  8th  of  May  1794,  by  the 
i)loody  revolutionary  tribunal. 

In  the  year  177 1,  Lavoifier  married  Mary  Anne  Pierette 
Paulze,  the  daughter  of  one  of  the  farmers-general,  a  lady 
of  agreeable  manners,  and  pofleffcd  of  confiderable  talents. 
She  engraved  the  copper-plates  for  his  lafl;  work. 

Lavoifier  was  of  large  ftature ;  complacency  and  penetra^ 
tion  were  difplayed  in  his  countenance;  his  behaviour  was 
mild,  civil,  and  polite;  and  his  activity  knew  no  bounds. 


X.  Proceedings  of  Learned  Societies,  Mifcellaneous  Articles^ 
and  new  Publications,     Feb,  1801. 

ROYAL   SOCIETY  OF  LONDON, 

M  AN.  29.  A  paper  on  a  moft  remarkable  lufus  of  a  flieep, 
J)y  Anthony  Carlifle,  Efq.  was  read.  Alfo  an  anatomical 
paper  Qn  a  Rhinoceros,  by  Mr.  Leigh  Thomas. 

On 


S5  Bqyai  Sockijf  ofLondoit^ 

On  th€  third  and  tenth  of  February  a  curious  paper  by 
I.  J.  Schroeter  on  tbe  accidental  changes  of  the  fixed  ne* 
bwlsB.  A  feries  of  continued  obfcrvations  have  convinced 
him,  that  the  irrcfohible  nebulae,  or  thofe  of  which  the 
di(lin(^  ftars  cannot  be  feen  by  the  higheft  powers  of  the 
telefcopes  apphed  to  them^  are  fubjed  to  the  fame  increafe 
9Xi6,  diminution  of  brightuefs  that  fome  of  the  fixed  ftars 
have  been  obfers^d  to  have:  he  fuppofcs  that  nebulie  of  this 
defcription  are  not  at  the  amazing  diHance  conjc<9:ujjed;  by 
fonve  attronoraers ;  but,  that  they  are  colle^lions  of  the 
luminous  fluid  enveloping  fome  of  the  fixed  ftars,  and  of  a, 
iimilar  nature  to  the  zodiacal  light  which  furrounds  our  fun. 
On  the  tenth,  a  mathematical  paper  by  Mr.  Woodhoufe  j 
but  from  the  nature  of.it,  being  compofed  of  tables,  the  in^ 
troduftion  only  could  be  read, 

On  the  fame  evening  alfo,  An  account  of  the  difcovery 
and  working  of  a  lode*  of  filver  in  Hurland  mine,  in  the^ 
paridi  of  Gwinear,  6  miles  from  St.  Michael's  Mount  in 
Cornwall.  This  is  a  moft  valuable  paper,  and  from  the  rank 
of  its  author  (John  Hawkins,  Efq.)  we  may  hope  that  the 
ftate  of  the  mines  in  Cornwall,  and  the  geology  of  that 
highly  interefting  county,  will  be  laid  before  the  curious. 
This  lode  is  one  of  thofe  which,  in  the  language  Oif  the 
miners  of  that  county,  are  termed  cirofs  lodes,  i.  e.  ruiming 
north  and  fouth,  it  interfecls  a  lode  of  copper  running  eaft  and 
weft.  The  filver  is  very  rich  ;  but,  however  produ6live  it 
may  turn  out,  it  cannot  be  worked  much  longer,  as  the  mine 
will  foon  be  nearly  200  fathom  deep,  and  there  are  no  me- 
chanical' contrivances  made  iife  of  there  that  can  raife  water 
from  a  greater  depth. 

On  the  19th  a  paper  was  read  on  arfeniats  of  copper,  by 
Count  de  Bournon. 

The  tu(k  of  an  elephant  was  exhibited,  in  which  a  fpear 
had  been  lodged,  difcovcrcd  only  by  fawing  the  tu(k  by  a 
manufadurer  :  the  ivory  encircling  it  o,  inches,  accomp^* 
nied  by  a  defcription  by  Charles  Combe,  Efq.f 

*  The  Cornifh  term  for  a  vein. 

f  A  few  years  ago  a  comb-maker  in  Cannon-ftrcer,  in  fawing  an  ele- 
phant's tooth,  met  with  a  hard  fabftaiice  which  he  fawcd  out.  It  prove^ 
to  be  a  bullet  made  of  very  pure  gold. — Edit. 

a  sociETr 


Parifian  Society  of  Natutal  Htflory. — PfAIomatic  Society,     %^ 

SOCIETY  OF    NATURAL    HISTORY  AT  PA^RIS. 

C.  Latreille  has  tltfcribed  a  new  genus  of  mfe^ls.  Thi* 
gt'mis,  to  which-he  lias  given  the  name  of  peiectTius,  froin  a 
Greek  vvofd,  the  application  of  which  is  Jittle  known,  be- 
longs to  the  order  of  the  bymetioptera  of  Linnaeus,  or  that  of 
the  piezates  of  Fabticius.  The  infe6l  which  forms  the  fub- 
je^  of  this  genus  has  been  hitherto  placed  iu  that  of  the 
ichneumons  of  Fabricius. 

PHILOMATIC    SOCIETY. 

C.  Bofe  has  defcribed  a  new  fpecies  of  pulex  {puhx  fafcia- 
tus).  This  genus  in  fyftematic  authors  contains  only  two 
Ijjeciefe:  one  known  in  every  country,  which  attacks  almoft 
all  the  ;mamniiferae,-and  diilinguifhed  by  the  name  oiirritans'y 
the  other  (the  nigud)  found  in  warm  countries,  which  in-; 
finuates  itfelf  into  the  fkin,  and  on  that  account  is  called 
penetrans,  C.  Bofe  has  for  a  long  time  obferved  a  third  fpe^ 
cies  which  lives  on  moles ;  but  he  neglected  to  defcribe  it, 
and  it  was  loft  in  his  colle6lion.  He  however  found  it 
again  not  long  ago  on  a  dormonfc  (myoxus  nitela  LiN.),  and 
hus  made  it  known. 

Its  colour  and  form  are  the  fame  as  thofe  of  the  common, 
kind,  but  it  differs  from  them  by  a  row  of  very  black  fliort  and 
thick  briftles  at  the  upper  part  of  the  fecond  ring.  He  there- 
fore propofes  to  chara<Slerife  it  by  adding  to  the  defcription  of 
the  pu lex  itfitans  the  following  words  :  vertice.  fafcid  nigr^^ 
becaufe  the  hairs  have  a  great  refemblance  to  a  band,  and  for 
this  reafon  he  calls  it  ^z//^.vy}7/rizj/«^,  ; 

CHEMICAL    NOTICES. 

M.  Lampai>ius  of  Freyberg  has  notLced,  that  if  crude, 
•r,  which  is  better,  purifial  acidulous  tartrite  of  pdtaih  be 
heated  till  no  more  fumes  or  flame  appear,  alid  water  be 
then  added  to  it,  ammonia  is  produced.  It  is  heft  obferted 
while  the  mafs  is  ftill  w^rm.  The  fame  tartrite  tnay  be 
employed  repeatedly,  and  will  ftill  yield  ammonia,  as  long  as 
any  carbonaceous  matter  remains,  by  merely  heating  it,  and 
then  wetting  it  with  a  few  drops  of  water.  .  Aciduloua  oxar. 

Ute 


8^8"  Chemical  Notices. 

late  of  potafli  treated  in  the  fame  manner  gives  a  fimilai' 
refult.  Charcoal  mechanically  joined  to  potafh  do^  not 
produce  the  effeft. 

C.  Haiiy  has  obferved  that  native  fulphur,  of  which  fome; 
kinds  are  very  tranfparent,  pofleflTcs  the  property  of  double 
refraction. 

C.  Cadet  having  mixed  the  materials  to  be  employed  in? 
producing  fulphuric  ether,  "jiz.  alcohol  and  fulphurrc  acid^ 
and  fet  them  by  in  a  cool  place  clofely  corked  up  in  a  bottle^ 
at  the  end  of  30  hours  found  the  bottom  of  the  vefTel  covered 
with  well-formed'cryftals  of  oxalic  acid. 
-\C.  Badollier,  apothecary  at  Chartres,  has  ailnouticec^  a 
TiCW  method  of  preparing  acetic  acid.  It  confifts  in  diilill-\ 
ins;,  in  a  retort  placed  in  a  fand  bath  with  a  receiver  adapted 
U)  \i,  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  fulphate  of  copper  and  ace-,, 
tate  of  Tead. 

To  examine  the  produfts,  C*  Badolller  made  ufe  of  a 
pneumatic  apparatus  :  during  the  operation  he  obtained  only- 
a  fmall  quantity  of  elaftic  fluid,  which  he  found  to  have  arifea 
from  the  dilated  air  contained  in  the  veflels.  This  air,  whei^ 
fubje<Sled  to  the  proper  re- agents,  exhibited  no  traces  of  car-, 
bonic  acid.  As  he  prefumed  that  his  acetic  acid  might 
contain  fulphuric  acid,  he  tried  it  by  means  of  a  folution  of 
muriate  of  barytes,  which  occalioned  no  precipitate. 

It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  diftillation  takes  place  very 
rapiddly  and  with  a  very  moderate  fire ;  that  the  acid  obtained 
by  this  method  has  no  empyreumatic  odour ;  that  it  is  in- 
ferior neither  in, quantity  nor  quality  to  that  obtained  by  the 
acctite  of  copper;  and  that  there  is  no  portion  of  the  acid 
decompofed,  which  communicates  to  the  other  a  difagree- 
able  odour,  as  is  the  cafe  when  the  old  prdcefs  is  ufed.  Be- 
fides  the  faving  in  time  and  fuel,  the  acid  prepared  by  this  nievv 
method  can  be  fold  for  one  fourth  of  that  prepared  by  diftill- 
ing  acetite  of  copper. 

We  confefs  that  we  cannot  fee  much  difference  between 
this  and  the  old  procefs  ;  for  it  has  been  long  known  that 
fulphate  of  copper  and  acetate  of  lead  mutually  decompofe 
each  other,  and  form  fulphate  of  lead  and  acetate  of  copper.  If 
heat  be  applied,  the  latter,  of  courfe,  will  part  with  its  acid.  . 

Pin- 


Philadelphia  Medical  Sodely.  69 

PHILADELPHIA    MEDICAL    SOCIETY. 

'  the  Philadelphia  Medical  Society,  defircus  of  increafing 
the  ftock  of  ufeful  medical  knowledge,  have  determined. to 
t)ffer  a  medal,  of  the  value  of  fixty  dollars,  for  the  bcft  dif- 
fertation  in  anfwer  to  the  following  queftibn  :—'"•'  What  are 
the  efefts  of  the  following  medicines  upon  the  human  body, 
efpecially  upon  the  pulfe  ;  viz,  hyofcyamus  niger  (black  hen-* 
bane),  datura  ftramonium  (thorn-apple),  conium  macula- 
turn  (hemlock),  camphor,  amber,  mufk,  digitalis  purpurea 
(fox-glove),  fcilla  maritima  (fea-fquill),  rhododendron  maxi- 
mum (an  indigenous  American  plant  called  mountain  laurel), 
and  the  principal  preparations  of  lead  V* 

Difliertations  on  this  fubjed,  competing  for  the  prize,  and 
written  either  in  the  Englifli,  French,  or  Latin  languages^ 
iiiuft  be  forwarded  (poll:  paid)  to  the  fecretary  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Medical  Society,  on  or  before  the  fir  ft  Saturday  in 
February  i8oa«  To  each  of  the  dilTertatious  a  motto  muft 
be  prefixed,  and  the  fame  motto  muft  be  put  upon  the  back 
of  a  fcalcd  letter  containing  the  name  of  the  author^  Ail 
the  diflertations,  excepting  that  to  which  the  prize  fliall  be 
adjudged,  will  be  returned  to  any  place  that  may  be  direcled, 
with  the  letters  which  accompanied  them  unopened.  Thus 
the  njtmes  of  unfucccfsful  candidates  Will  be  kn-jwn  only  to 
thofe  to  whom  they  may  thcmfclves  communicate  them. 

The  American  Medical  Repofitory,  Vol.  IV^.  contains  the 
following  remarks: — If  the  fixed  vegetable  alkali  is  an  ele- 
mentary materialj  it  might  be  expefted  to  fhow  itfelf  after 
the  decompolition  of  plants  by  putrefaction  as  well  as  by  in- 
cineration. Yet  the  American  forefts,  where  immenfe  quan- 
tities of  timber  are  rotting  down,  afford  no  evidence  of  this. 
On  the  contrary,  the  trunks  of  the  largeft  trees,  as  they  un- 
dergo gradual  decay  upon  the  ground,  give  no  fign  of  pot-afli. 
Trcquently  in  the  progrefs  of  decompofition,  the  annual  cir- 
cles are  fo  detached  from  each  other  as  to  be  eafily  peeled  off, 
and  the  cohefion  of  the  wood  fo  much  leffened,  that  the 
blade  of  a  knife  or  of  a  fword  can  be  thruft  in  toward  the 
medullary  part  of  their  w^hole  length.  Now  there  is  no  faline 
efflorefcence  on  this  rotten  timber  in  dry  weather,  nor  is  there 
^ny  alkaline  talle,  nor  any  pot-afli   to  be  obtained  by  mace- 

VoL.  IX,  M  rating 


0  Dlfcnjls  of  the  Eyes. 

rating  rt  hi  water,  nor  are  vegetable  blues  or  purples  In  tlic 
lead  rendered  green  by  dipping  in  fuch  water.  Indeed,  tba 
manufacturers  of  the  article,  which  is  one  of  the  great  fub- 
je6ls  of  export  from  New  York,  know  thai  in  clearing  the 
wildcrnefs,  the  trees,  in  order  to  alford  pot-aili,  mult  be 
burned  ;  if  they  are  fufiered  to  rot,  no  alkali  can  be  procured. 
On  the  contrary  the  rollcn  wood  contains  an  acid.  Did  pot- 
afh  pn^.-exiil  in  the  wood,  why  ihould  it  not  be  evolved  by 
putrefa6lion  ?  Thefe  conlideralions,  and  the  analogy  of  am- 
moniac, load  to  a  pcrfuafion,  that  this  alkali  and  foda  are 
compounds.  Whether,  as  fome  have  aflerted,  carbon  and 
azote  are  the  Ingredients,  or  whether  there  are  other  conili- 
lucnt  parts,  are  points  not  as  yet  fettled. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    EYES. 

Dr.  Mitchill  of  New- York  ftates  (Med.  Rep.  Vol.  IV.) 
a  cafe  of  a  girl  whofe  conftitution  had  been  confiderably  in- 
jured by  fiphylis,  being  afifccted^  in  addition  to  that  dileafe, 
with  an  ugly  and  fcabby  eruption  over  her  face  and  neck, 
and  with  an  enlargement  and  inflammation  of  the  lachrymal 
iac  of  the  right  eye.  Determining  to  defer  the  particular 
treatment  of  tlrc  jijlula  lachrymalis  until  the  general  and 
more  urgent  difeafe  of  her  conftitutipn  (liould  have  abated, 
he  prefcribed,  befides  other  things,  a  weak  folution  of  car- 
bonate of  foda  in  water  as  a  lotion  for  her  face.  This  had 
the  ufual  efietH  of  dii'pofing  the  eruptions  to  dry  away  and 
difappear  in  a  few  days ;  but  what  he  did  not  at  all  expect, 
the  fijlula  lachrymalis  difappeared  too,  under  the  continuance 
of  the  alkaline  wafli,  and  returned  no  more. 

Dr.  Guthrie  of  Pctcrlburgh  mentions  (Duncans*  Annals 
of  Med.  for  1799)  the  remarkable  efikacy  of  the  effluvia  of 
fpirlts  of  turpentine  in  the  cure  of  an  old  and  obftinate  cafe 
ii't Dphthalmiii,\\\\\<:\\  had  rcfifted  all  the  common  remedies.  It 
was  difcovered  by  accident.  Tiie  patient,  whofe  difeafe  had 
arifen  from  a  too  affiduous  emplo\  nient  of  his  eyes  on  mi- 
nute obje^ls,  in  the  purfuit  of  his  bufinefs,  aggravated  like- 
wife  by  the  painful  affiftance  of  glalTes,  firfl  obtained  relief  of 
the  inflammation  of  his  eyes  by  the  effluvia  of  this  fubftance^ 
alone ;  and  aftcr\^•a^ds  of  the  remaining  afll'6lion  of  the  eye- 
lids 


Mineralogy. — Ajitiquitlcs,  9 1 

lids  by  the  application  of  the  fpirit  itfelf.  The  pain  and  iii- 
liaiTimatioii  following  this  application  were  extremely  feverc, 
but  foon  terminated  in  his  complete  cure. 

Parhnfon's  Chemical  Pochet-hooh,  or  Mcmororula  Chevnca^ 
Second  Ediiion,  Symonds,  Murray  and  Highley,  Sec. 
We  announced  the  publication  of  the  firft  edition  of  this 
valuable  little  work  in  our  fixth  volume^  p.  364.  We  then 
ohferved,  that  Mr.  Parkinfon's  work  could  not  fail  to  be  ufe- 
ful  in  no  mean  degree,  thougl\jve,  feared  that  in  a  few  cafes 
he  had  admitted  facets  of  uncertain  authority,  and  theories 
not  fiifficiently  fupportcd.  In  the  prefent  edition,  which  we 
arc  happy  to  find  fo  foon  called  for  by  the  public,  the  author 
\ms  feparated  as  much  as  poffible  the  varying  opinions  which 
he  wKhed  to  enumerate,  from  the  other  part  of  the  work,  and 
has  inli'oduced  fuch  new  chemical  facts  as  have  been  efta- 
bliflied  fince  its  firft  publication. 

MINERALOGY. 

The  Chemical  Society  of  Philadelphia,  befides  a  variety 
of  other  minerals  from  different  parts  of  the  United  States, 
have  lately  received  a  fpecimen  of  the  golden  or  auriferous 
pyrites  from  Virginia,  from  ten  pennyweights  of  which  three 
grains  of  gold,  twenty-four  carats  fine,  have  been  extra6ted. 

A  quantity  of  manganefe  has  been  fent  to  the  Society 
from  the  county  of  Albemarle,  where  it  is  found  in  abun- 
dance. This  mineral  now  retails  in  Philadelphia  at  the  rate 
of  elevenpence  per  pound. 

A  variety  of  the  fulphate  of  baryles,  called  lapis  hepat^i- 
cus,  accurately  dcfcribed  by  Cronitedt  as  the  lieberfiein,  or 
iiverftone,  of  the  Germans  and  Swedes,  has  alfo  been  for- 
warded to  the  Society  from  the  fame  place.  This  mineral 
almoft  always  accompanies  the  beft  metallic  ores,  and  is  con- 
fidered  by  mineralogifts  as  a  happy  prefage  of  finding  them. 
According  to  the  celebrated  Becher,  it  is  a  certain  indication, 
tiut  pra'Jenlls  aut  juiuri  mctalil. 

ANTiaUITIKS. 

The  French  in  Egypt  have  not  been  idle  in  their  refearche^s 
;i>jLo  the  immenfe  treafurcs  of  antiquity  fo  long  concealed  in 

M  %  this 


93  American  Elk  domejllcnted, 

this  celebrated  country.  They  have  corre(5led  many  topo- 
graphical errors,  the  neceflary  confequencc  of  mere  admca*- 
furement,  by  aftronomical  obfervations ;  and  laid  the  foun-. 
ditions  for  a  corrc6l  geographical  map  of  the  country.  A 
complete  knowledge  of  the  monuments  of  antiquity  which 
now  remain  (moftly  in  Upper  Egypt)  has  been  obtained ; 
and  plans  of  the  fcite  of  many  celebrated  antient  cities  have 
been  taken.  Drav/ings  have  been  made  of  the  fculptures  on 
the  antient  monuments,  as  well  as  of  the  monuments  them- 
fclvcS:  In  the  fepulchral  excavations  of  Thebes  many  mum- 
mies in  high  prefervation  have  been  found  ;  and,  which  is 
of  much  greater  importance,  along  with  them  feveral  rolls  of 
papyrus,  which  enrich  the  pofleflbrs  with  fome  of  the  moft 
antient  manufcripts  in  the  w^crld.  On  the  bafe  of  a  periftile 
at  Efne  a  fculpture  of  the  zodiac  has  been  difcovered,  in  which 
the  folftice  is  indicated  in  Virgo ;  and  another  in  the  great 
temple  of  Dendara,  which  reprefents  the  fun  in  Leo :  his 
approach  to  Cancer  has  alfo  been  obferved.  Thefe  fliow  dt 
the  fame  time  the  antiquity  of  the  temples,  and  the  know- 
ledge which  the  Egyptians  polTefled  of  the  preceffion  of  the 
equinoxes. 

Two  vafes  containing  about  two  thoufand  Roman  gold 
coins  have  lately  been  difcovered  near  Beauvais  in  France. 
They  confift  chiefly  of  the  emperors  from  Galba  to  Geta  in- 
cluflve,  many  of  them  of  beautiful  workmanftup  and  in  high 
prefervation,  They  were  eagerly  feized  upon  by  the  perfons 
in  the  neighbourhood,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  fear  of 
lofing  them  keeps  fome  of  the  moft  valuable  of  them  con- 
cealed ;  efpecially  thofe  of  the  emprefles.  This  will,  how- 
ever, probably  for  a  long  time  be  a  fource  of  valuable  fpeci- 
mcns  for  cabinets  \  for  fooner  or  later  they  will  come  to 
light. 

THE   AMERICAN   ELK    DOMESTICATED. 

We  are  happv  to  find  that  a  fuccefsful  attempt  to  tame 
this  animal  has  been  made  by  Mr.  Chancellor  Livingfton, 
Prefident  of  the  New-York  Society  for  promoting  Agricul- 
ture, Arts  and  Manufactures .  It  may  not  perhaps  be  too 
much  to  hope,  that  at  no  very  diftant  period  the  old  world 
may  thus  receive  from  the  new  a  ufeful  domcftic  animal  in 
9  return 


Aynencan  Elk  dotiuiftkated.  93 

return  for  the  horfe — a  creature  for  which  America  is  in- 
indebted  to  Europe. 

"  No  attempts/'  fiiys  Mr.  Livingfron   (Part  III.  of  the 
Tranfa^tions  of  the  New- York  Society)^  '^  have  been  made 
to  render  thefe  noble  animals  ufeful.     Content  with  facri- 
flcing  them  to  our  hunger^  we  have  never  thought  of  draw- 
ing, from  their  activity  and  ftrcngth,  the  aids  which  they 
might  afford  us  by  their  labour.     The  elk  is  larger  than  the 
rein-deer,  and,  when  taken  young,  as  domeflic  as  the  ox,  as 
I  find  from  having  three  that  run  with  my  cattle,  and  appear 
as  much  attached  to  them  as  to  their  own  fpecies.     I  have 
lately  attcmptjed  to  break  two  of  them  to  the  harnefs,  and  am 
much  encouraged  by  my  firfl  eflay.     They  have  been  but 
twice  bitted,  and  appear  to  me  to  be  quite  as  docile  as  colts 
would  be  at  their  age.     They  apply  their  whole  itrength  to 
the  draught,  and  go  on  a  fteadypace.     Their  mouths  appear 
to  be  very  tender,  and  fome  care  is  neceflary  to  prevent  their 
being  injured  by  the  bit.     Mine  are  about  two  years  old,  and 
are  not  lefs  than  thirteen  hands  high  :  their  thighs  are  as 
mufcular  as  thofc  of  the  horfe.     In  their  native  woods  the 
males  grow  to  about  fifteeh  hands,  as  far  as  I  can  collect 
from  the  information  of  hunters.     It  is  probable,  however, 
that  in  a  fiate  of  domcfticity  they  would  grow  much  larger, 
as  all  graminivorous  animals  are  pinched  for  food  in  our  cli- 
mate during  the  winter.     Their  gaits  are  a  walk  and  a  trot : 
they  never  bound  like  the  flag.     If  upon  triaUt  is  found  that 
the  elk  can  be   rendered  ufeful  in  the  harnefs,  it  woidd  in 
many  views  be  an  acquifition  :  as  its  trot  is  very  rapid^  it  is 
probable  that,  in  light  carriages,  they  would  out-travel  the 
horfe.     The  rein-deer  affords  abundance  of  rich  milk.     It  is 
not  to  be  doubted  that  the  animal,  which  is  only  a  larger 
fpecies  of  rcin-dcer,  might  be  brought  to  furnifli  our  dairies. 
Jt  appears  to  me  to  be  lefs  delicate  in  its  food  than  a  hoHe. 
Mine  have  been  kept  fat  on  hay  alone,  though  they  were  very 
negligently  attended.     They  are  long  lived,  and  more  pro- 
ductive than  any  domeflic  beafl  of  burden,  generally  pro- 
ducing two  fawns  at  a  birth.     By  caflration  they  may  be 
prevented  from   getting  horns,  if,  as  I  fuppofe,  their  enor- 
mous fizc  fliould  be  confidcrd  as  inconvenient.     It  is  pro- 
bable. 


f  4         U'^ild  Go'fe  domcJltcaieLL — 'Negra  iunung  White. 

bablc,  too,  that  the  fuperahundant  nutriment  which  is  annu- 
ally expended  upon  the  horns,  would,  in  that  cafe,  add  to 
the  bulk  of  the  body. 

THE    WILD    GOOSE    DOMESTICATED. 

Attempts  have  frequently  been  made  on  Long-Ifland  to 
render  the  wild  goofe,  which  winters  in  the  bays  adjoining 
the  Atlantic  ocean,  a  tame  and  domcdicatcd  bird.  Indi- 
\iduals  of  this  fpecies  have  accordingly  been  catched  alive  by 
the  gunners  after  having  been  wing-broken  by  a  (liot,  and 
carried  home  free  from  any  other  injury.  When  thus  dif- 
abled  from  flying,,  they  become  gentle,  and  wdll  mate  wih 
common  gccfc.  They  even  breed  together ;  but  the  offspring 
is  a  mule,  incapable  of  further  propagation.  Mr.  Daniel 
Coles,  of  Oyfler-bay,  has  gone  a  ilep  beyond  others  in  this 
buiinefs.  He  has  a  wild-goofe  and  gander  in  a  domellicated 
ftatc,  whom  he  keeps  from  flying  away  by  taking  off  the  ex- 
treme bones  of  the  wings  at  the  joint.  The  goofe  has  laid 
eggs  and  hatclicd  a  brood  of  goflings.  For  fear  of  lofnigthe 
young  one?,  their  wings  have  been  treated  in  the  fame  man- 
ner; and  the  whole  family  now  compofes  (September,  1800) 
a  beautiful  flock  of  wild  geefe  in  a  domedicated  ftate.  They 
«Te  as  gentle  as  common  gcefc,  and  live  upon  the  food  ob- 
tained about  a  houfe  and  on  a  farm  quite  as  well.  Mr.  Coles 
even  found  that  the  goflings,  on  the  day  of  being  hatched, 
ate  Indian  meal  as  readily  as  chickens.  They  are  more  aftive 
and  handfome  than  the  tame-goofe,  and  tlicir  long  necks  are 
arched  more  like  thofe  of  fwans.  If  this  experiment  fliould 
be  continued  for  ft^veral  gcnerati.i)ns,  it  is  highly  probable  the 
temper  and  habits  of  the  breed  maybe  changed,  fo  that  the 
dcfcendants  of  thefe  wild-geefe  may  lofe  their  inclination  to 
fly  from  country  to  country,  and  attach  themfelves,  like  tur- 
);ey9,  ducks,  and  other  birds  whofe  progenitors  were  once 
\*j\\^y  to  the  fociety  and  protc6tion  of  man.  Should  Mr.  C, 
meet  with  no  difafters,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  wild- 
goofe  will  be  eventually  added  to  our  ftock  of  poultry. 

NEGRO    TURNING    WHITE. 

Tlie  change  of  colour  which  Harry  Mofs  has  within  a  few 
ye;iy^  tmdergpne,  from  bkick  to  white,  has  been  publiflicd  fo 

ofiea 


hocnfls.  ^J 

t>ften  that  few  curious  perfoiis  arc  ignorant  of  it.  In  the 
town  of  North-lieinjiflcad,  fonictliing  of  the  fame  kind  is 
now  to  be  feen.  A  young  negro,  named  Maurice,  aged  25 
years,  began,  about  feven  years  ago,  to  lole  his  native  colour. 
A  white  fpot  appeared  on  the  right  {\Ci,i:,  of  liis  belly,  whieh  13 
now  about  as  large  as  the  palms  of  two  hands.  Anotticr 
white  fpot  has  appeared  on  his  breaft,  and  feveral  snore  on 
his  arms  and  other  parts ;  and  the  (Itble  cloud  is  plainly  dif- 
appearlugon  his  ftioulder.  The  ikin  of  thefe  fair  ("pots  is  noi 
furpalfed  by  the  European  complexion.  His  general  health 
is  and  has  been  ffood :  and  he  has  fulfcred  no  fealdins:  ulcer- 
ation,  fcabbinefs,  or  other  local  difeafe.  llie  change  is  not 
the  dead  white  of  the  Albinos^  but  is  a  good  wholefome  car- 
nation hue.  Such  an  alteration  of  colour  as  this,  militates 
powerfidly  againft  the  opinion  adopie^l  by  ibme  modern  phi- 
lofopherg,  that  the  negroes  are  a  different  /J^^^zV^  of  the  human 
race  from  the  whites,  and  tends  llrongly  to  corroborate  tiie 
probability  of  the  derivation  of  all  the  varietus  of  mankiiid 
from  a  fingle  pair.  Fa6ls  of  this  kind  are  of  great  value  to 
the  zoologift.  How  additionally  fingular  would  it  be,  if  in- 
flances  of  the  fpontaneous  difappearance  of  this  fable  mark 
of  diftin^lion  between  (laves  and  their  mafters  were  to  be- 
come frequent !  They  would  then  be  no  Icfs  important  to 
the  moraliit  and  political  economilh 

LOCUSTS. 

The  followino;  obfervations  on  locufls,  made,  in  the  vear 
1715,  by  the  Rev.  Andrew  Sandel  *,  then  rc<?Lor  of  the 
Swedifh  church  in  Philadelphia,  are  left  on  the  records  of 
the  faid  church,  in  the  Swedifii  language  : — "  In  the  month 
of  May  a  peculiar  kind  of  grafshoppers  or  flies,  called  bv  the 
Englifli  locujh,  ilfued  from  the  earth.  They  came  up  every 
where,  even  on  the  hard  roails.  Thev  were  enabled  to  pierce 
the  earth  by  means  of  a  (hell  that  covered  the  whole  body, 
even  the  mouth  and  feet.  Having  iffued  from  the  earth,  they 
crept  out  of  their  fliells,  flew  about,  placed  themfelves  every 
where  on  the  trees,  and  made  a  peculiar  noife.     As  they 

'  *  This  is  the  man  whom  Llnnaeos  quotes  ( 1  Amcenitat.  Acackm.)  in  his 
Jbyporhefis  of  fever,  as  affirming  the  cc-ex'lt-.nce  ef  inttrrn'^ulng  fevsrs  and 
diy^Hinctoui  Juih  in  Pcnnlylvaniii. 

were 


$5  Bread  Frult.-^Bcalh. 

were  in  great  numbers  over  the  whole  country,  their  noifd 
was  fo  loud  that  the  people  could  hardly  hear  the  bells  in  the 
woods.  They  ripped  the  bark  of  the  trees,  and  put  worms 
therein.  Many  expe6ted  that  the  trees  would  be  dried  by 
this  ;  but  we  found,  next  year,  that  it  did  not  happen.  Swine 
and  fowls  fed  on  thefe  infe6ls.  The  Indiails  did  alfo  eat 
them,  efpecially  on  the  firft  arrival,  after  a  previous  flight 
roafting  :  from  this  it  is  probable  that  they  are  of  the  fame 
kind  with  thofe  eaten  by  John  the  Baptifi:.  They  were  of 
fhort  continuance^  dying  in  June." 

Ee?narks.  The  worms  mentioned  were,  no  doubt,  thofe 
white  worm-like  eggs-  which  the  prefent  locufts  deport  in 
the  bark.  All  the  other  circumftances  correfpond  with  thofe 
that  now  take  place. 

That  the  locufts  -vyere  i^ot  deftru6live,  appears  by  the  ac- 
count given  by  the  fame  author,  on  the  extraordinarv  fer- 
tility of  that  year^  in  wheat^  rye^  Indian  corn,  oats  and 
apples. 

That  year  was  alfo  remarkably  healthy  among  the  Swedes^ 
as  appears  from  the  fmall  number  of  deaths  on  the  funeral 
records,  which  included  a  drftrift  at  leall  fifteen  miles  north^ 
weft,  and  fouth  from  Pfiiladelphia.  . 

BREAD    FRUIT. 

A  fur2:eon  lately  arrived  at  Rotterdam  from  Surinam 
ftates,  that  in  that  colony  they  have  now  large  thriving 
plantations  of  the  bread-fruit  tree,  which  are  exceedingly 
produdlive  ;  tliat  the  bread  made  from  it  is  as  good  as  that 
from  wheat ;  and  tliat  for  this  purpofe  the  fruit  is  fliced^ 
dried  in  the  fan,  and  then  pounded,  and  this  flour  With 
w^ater  made  into  pade,  which  rifes  as  well  as  wheat  flour. 
Hopes  are  ei^tertaincd  that  this  valuable  tree  may  be  intro- 
duced into  Europe. 

DEATH. 

On  the  21  ft  of  January  laft,  fuddcnly,  Prdfeftbr  Abildgaardj 
Secretary  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Copenhagen. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  Velerinary  School  in  Denmark  : 
his  pupil,  Profcftbr  Viborg,  will  no  doubt  fuc(>eed  him  in  the 
veterinary  department. 


[    97    1 

XI.   Life  of  AbVx  All  AM   GoTiiELF  Kastner,  ProfeJ/or 
of  Mathemat'iQS  at  Qottingcn. 

j\.,  G.  KASTNER,  profcflbr-  of  mathematics  at  Gottin- 
gen,  was  born  at  Leipfic  on  the  37th  of  September  1719. 
His  father,  Abraham  Kiiftner,  maintained  himfclf  and  family 
by  giving  le^lures  on  different  fubjeils  relating  to  jurifpru- 
dence;  and  his  mother*s  brother,  Dr.  G.  R.  Pommer,  by 
lc6luring  on  the  pra6lical  parts  of  the  fame  fcience.  Both  of 
them,  however,  jiad  more  tafte  for  literary  purfuits  tlxan  for 
that  from  which  they  derived  their  fupport.  The  latter  un- 
derftood  the  French,  Englifli,  Italian,  and  Spanifli,  and  by 
thefe  means  young  Kadner  had  an  opportunity  of  learning 
thefe  languages.  Pommer  poflcfied  alfo  a  confiderable  col- 
leftion  of  books  in  thefe  languages,  and,  as  Kaftncr  had 
early  acquired  a  tafte  for  reading,  he  made  \\{q  of  it,  as 
well  as  of  his  father's  library,  as  far  as  his  talents  would 
admit.  As  it  is  impoffible  to  read  much,  even  in  hiftorical 
events,  whether  real  or  feigned,  without  meeting  with  allu- 
fions  to  the  mathematical  fciences ;  Robinfon  Crufoe  having 
fallen  into  -our  young  mathematician's  hands,  he  learned 
with  great  avidity  the  nautical  terms  which  occur  in  that 
popular  romance,  and  of  which  an  explanation  is  given  in 
the  German  trandation. 

In  the  year  1731,  he  attended  the  philofophical  let'^.ures  of 
the  celebrated  Winkler,  and  next  year  itudicd  mathematics 
under  G.  F.  Richter.  At  this  period  he  purchafed  at  auc- 
tions as  many  books  as  he  could,  and  he  received  many  as 
prefents  from  his  uncle.  In  regard  to  his  knowledge  of  ge- 
neral mathematics,  he  derived  great  benefit  from  the  workjj 
of  Wolfe  ;  and  he  acquired  a  good  notion  of  altronomy  from 
EraJ'nil  Fninc/Jci  Erojjhctcs  hujlhnus  dcr  Ohn-tind  Nieder- 
JFt;lt,  printed  at  Niirnberg  in  J676;  a  work  which  Kaltner 
cpnfidercd  as  a  compilation  formed  with  great  care  ant]  judg- 
ment. 

Vol.  IX.  N  In 

March  1801. 


9S  ISife.  of  Abraham  Goth  elf  Kajlner, 

In  the  year  1735  he  fludied  under  Haufen,  and  he  ufed 
to  thank  this  preceptor  for  having  recommended  to  him  the 
Greek  method  of  geometry,  which  is  fo  certain,  and  which 
Kadncr  afterwards  purfued  with  fo  much  credit  to  himfelf. 

At  this  period  there  was  very  httle  encouragement  at 
Leipfic  for  praftical  agronomy.  Haufen  foretimes  (howed 
the  moon  to  his  pupils  through  a  lelefcope,  and  young 
i>^artner  on:e  obferyed  in  his  company  an  ecUpfe  of  that 
planet;  but  they  had  no  tiiue-piece,  and  their  only  telefcope 
was  borrowed  from  Walzen,  a  native  of  Wirtemberg,  who 
refided  at  Leipiic  as  a  privrae  tutor,  and  who  was  afterwards 
geographer  royal  at  Drefden,  where  he  died.  Another  timci 
Haufei>  carried  Kalhier  along  with  hiin  to  the  tower  of 
SaiiU  Nicholas's  church  to  obferve  a  iranfit  of  Mercury  over 
the  fun,  and  for  deterpaining  the  time  they  had  a  plummet 
fufpcnded  by  a  thread;  but,  the  weather  being  cloudy,  they 
could  make  nq  obfervation.  In  the  year  1742  a  comet  ap- 
peared, and  Haufen  determined  its  orbit  in  the  fimpleft 
manner,  by  the  interfe6lion  of  two  arches  through  two  pair 
of  (lars.,  A  proje6lion  of  this  comet's  orbit  may  be  feen  in 
(jrottfched's  preface  to  Heyne's  Verfuch  e'lner  Betrachtung  liber, 
die  Cometen ;  Berlin,  J  743.  Young  Kiiftner  bping  defirous  of 
obferving,  along  with  fome  friends,  this  comet  through  a 
defcope,  applied  to  his  tutor,  who  gave  him  an  old  wooden 
tube^  and  a  convex;  glafs  to  be  ufed  as  an  eye-glafs,  by  hold- 
int^-  it  to  the  end  of  the  tube  with  the  hand.  What  obferva- 
tions  the  company  could  make  with  this  inftrument  it  would 
be  difficultUo  fay  in  profe;  but  Kaftner  himfelf  has  given  an 
account  of  them  in  an  ode  publiflied  in  the  firft  part  of  his 
Mifcellanics. 

From  what  has  been  faid  it  may  readily  be  conceived  what 
prcgrefs  ivaftner  was  able  to  make  in  practical  aftronomy. 
Being  left  entirely  to  his  own  afliduity,  he  procured  Doppel- 
jnayr's  chart  of  the  ftars  and  Bayer's  Uranometria;  and  often 
repaired  to  the  market-place  of  Leipfic,  and  other  convenient 
flations,  to  obferve  the  heavenly  bodies.  In  the  year  174!^ 
he  formed  an  acquaintance  with  I.  C.  Baumann,  who  by 
his  own  induf^ry  had  ftudied  mathematics  in  the  writings  of 
Wolfe,  and  who  wiilied  to  fee  himfelf  wliat  he  had  learned 

from 


Phfiijffbr  of  Matheiil'dtks  at  GotiiTtge'n^  §9 

from  thefc  and  other  books ;'  Bat  he  had  no  money  to  piir- 
thafe  inftruments  and  telcfcopes.  He  therefore  did  what  has 
been  fince  pra6lifed  by  Hcrfch'^1':  hfe'cpnftrufted  fome  him*, 
felf,  according  to  the  dlredions'  given  by  Hertel  and  Leut- 
hiann.  Baumann's  lifter,  \yhom  Kaftner  afterwards  mar- 
Iried,  recommended  herfelf  to  hl^  notice  by  her  attachment 
to  thcfe  purfuits. 

Having  obtaiiied  from  Baumann  a  tclefcope  the  obje^lH:- 
glafsof  \Vhifch  had  a  focus  of  fix  feet,  and  which  magnified 
33  times,  he  employed  it  for  obferving  the  cOmet  of  1744, 
much  better  than  the  one  he  had  borrowed  in  174a*  He 
haid'ii'o  tinle-keeper,  but  he  purchafed  at  a  fale  a  brafs  qua- 
drant of  half  a  Rhinland  foot  radius,  with  fixed  fights,  and 
divided  into  qu.irters  of  a  degree.  ■    .  . 

In  thfe  courfe  of  time  he  caufed  m()i'e  aiili' larger  telefcoped 
to  be  conftrufted,  which  he  employed  as  far  as  could  be  pof- 
fibly  done  where  hfe  had  no  mearis  to  determine  accurately 
the  time.  With  a  26  feet  telefcopc  of  this  kind,  he  faw  iit 
the  furi,  as  he  affures  us  himfelf,  white  lumhioiis  fpots^  fuch 
as  Mr.  Schroter  of  Lilienthal  obferved  afterv^^ards  With  the 
beft  telcfcopes.  With  the  f:inie  tekfcope  Baumann  obfervfed, 
a  dark  red  ring  round  Mercury  during  his  tranfit  over  the 
fun  btt  the  6th  of  May  1753.  On  the  9th  of  O^iober  1751, 
Kaftner  obferved  an  occultation  of  Jupiter;  and  on  the  nth 
of  February,  niext  year,  one  of  Venus  by  the  mnon  :  of  both 
thcfe  phaenomena,  arid  the  circumftances  attending  them,  he 
publifhed  an  account  in  the  eighth  volume  of  the  Hamburoh 
Magazine.  It  may  there  be  fcen  that  at  this  period  he  em* 
ployed  himfelf  in  obfervirtg  the  heavens  as  much  as  his  fitua- 
lion  would  admit. 

In  the  year  1737  he  had  bc^gtm  to  learn  algebra  with 
Heinfius.  Next  year,  Heinfius,  having  finiflied  his  courfe, 
made  a  tour  to  Peterfburgh^  and  on  his  return  in  1745 
Kaftner  requefted  leave  to  be  prefent  at  the  obfervatory  while 
lie  made  his  obfervations;  but  he  could  not  get  his  wifhes 
gratified.  In  this  point  Heinfius  was  exceedingly  referved, 
and  it  was  only  with  great  difficulty  that  baron  Kregel  could 
obtain  a  fimllar  favour.  In  other  rcfpe6ts  Kaftner  kept  up 
a  ver\^  frJendly  intercourfe  with  Heinfius. 

N  2  hx 


too  ti/t:  ofAhraham  Gothelf  Kflpicr'i 

In  the  year  1755,  A^hen  the  celebrated  Liebetkuhn,  H 
whom  optics  and  phyfioiogy  are  fo  much  indebted,  was  called 
ii:  as  a  phylician  to  vifit  an  old  ducheis  who  relided  at  Lcipficj 
he  paid  a  vifit  to  Kaftner,  and  prefented  him  with  two  obje6l- 
glafles,  one  of  27  feet  6  infches  focus,  and  the  other  of  11  feet, 
which  Kiidrier  kept  by  him  as  long  as  he  Uved. 

After  the  year  1746,  Kaftner  enjoyed  a  falary  of  xoo  rix- 
dollars  as  extraordinary  profeifor  :  what  was  further  heceflary 
for  maintaining  himfelf  and  f^miily,  he  procured  by  his  lec- 
tures ana  by  labouring  for  the  bookfcllers.  By  tranflating 
the  Swedifli  Tranfaftions,  contributing  towards  the  Ham- 
burgh Magazine,  publiflilng  an  edition  of  Smith's  OptlcSj 
and  tranflatlng  LulolP's  Knowledge  of  the  Terreftrial  Globe, 
he  had  a  further  opportunity  of  unproving  hmifelf  in  aftro- 
nomical  knowledge ;  but  he  was  not  able  to  employ  fo  much 
time  in  the  purfuit  of  this  fcience  as  he  wiHied  ;  and  he  wanted 
inrtrumeiits,  as  well  as  a  proper  place,  for  making  aftronomical 
obfervations. 

Kaftner  had  dopes  of' obtaining  the  firft  phiJofophical  chair 
that  (liould  become  vacant  at  Leipiic  ;  but,  as  he  could  not 
wait  till  Ileinfius  or  Winkler  fliould  make  room  for  him,  he 
left  that  city,  and  in  the  year  1756,  after  Segner's  departure 
from  Gottingen,  was  invited  thither  to  be  profeflbr  of  ma- 
thematics and  natural  philofophy. 

At  that  period  Gottingcn  afforded  many  excellent  oppor- 
tunities for  improvement  in  the  mathematical,  aftronomical., 
and  phyfical  fcienccs.  Tobias  Mayer  had  been  invited  thi- 
ther after  Penther's  death ;  and  Lowitz,  Wehner,  Miiller, 
Meifter,  Eberhard,  and  Ilollmann,  taught  every  branch  of 
the  mathematical  and  phyfical  fciehces.  Mayer,  in  particu- 
lar, (liowed  great  friendftiip  to  Kiiitnerj  but  he  gave  him  no 
opportunity  of  participating  in  his  labours  at  the  obfervatory. 

In  his  occupations  Kaftner  was  affifted  by  Baumann,  who 
h'ad  followed  him  to  Gottingen  as  optician  to  the  uuiverfity, 
and  who  was  of  great  ft-rvice  to  the  obfervatory  by  conftruft- 
ihg  for  it  inftruments  and  achromatic  tclefcopes;  but  the 
urifcitted  ftate  of  afiairs  during  the  ^iiw<t\\  years  war,  by  which 
iiuitingen  was  much  atVedcd,  was  not  favourable  to  aftro- 
inouiical  obfervationi;. 

A  gQO- 


Pmfejhr  bf  Mathematics  at  Crotihigen.  itt 

A  geographer  and  aftronomer  being  wanted  to  accompany 
the  travellers  fc<it  at  the  cxpenfe  of  the  Danifli  government 
to  the  Eaft,  in  confequcnce  of  a  propofition  made  by  MI- 
chatilis,  Mayer  reconmiendcd  one  of  his  fcholars  5  ijut  as  he 
refufed  the  offer,  Kallner  recommeiided  Niebuhr,  one  of  his 
piipilsj  who  was  deftlned  to  be  an  engineer.  Niebuhr  agreed 
to  the  propofiil,  but  was  under  the  neceffity  of  obtaining  in- 
flru6lion  in  two  brandies  of  knowledge  which  he  did  not 
before  confidcr  as  neceflary  to  his  views :  he  was  obliged  to 
learn  Arabic  with  Miehaelis,  and  to  make  ailronomical  ob- 
servations under  Mayer.  How  well  he  employed  his  know- 
ledge in  ihefe  refpcols  may  be  feen  by  the  account  of  his  tra- 
vels ;  and  ic  may  whh  jullice  be  faid^  that  the  fuccefsful  refult 
of  the  expedition  was  in  a  great  meafure  owing  to  Kallner. 

Kaftner  having  received  a  refcvipt  from  Hanover,  in  which 
it  was  ftated  tliat,  the  obfervatory  not  being  employed  for 
the  benefit  of  the  univerfity,  as  was  wifhed,  if  he  would  agree 
to  take  a  fliare  in  it  he  fhould  be  allowed  the  free  ufe  of  it 
along  with  Mayer;  he  returned  for  anfwer,  that  *^  as  Mayer's 
great  fervice  to  allronomy  was  well  known,  he  could  not  fee 
how  the  obfervatory  could  be  employed  to  better  advantage 
than  under  his  direetion."  When  Kallner  had  fent  off  this 
anfwer,  he  tranfmitted  a  copy  of  it^  along  with  the  refcriptj 
to  Mayer,  who  was  highly  fatisfied  with  his  condutl  on  the 
occafion.  Mayer  at  the  fame  *time  faid^  that  if  any  other 
perfon  had  been  fiiffercd  to  participate  with  him  in  the  cai'e 
of  the  obfervatory,  he  Ihould  have  refi^ned  his  office  altoo;e- 
thei'j  adding,  that  "  it  would  be  an  unfortunate  thing  for  a^ 
man  to  become  old  in  Gottingen."  Mayer,  indeed,  did  not 
live  to  become  old,  for  he  died  three  days  after  he  had  com- 
pleted his  39th  year.  Kiiltner  was  then  fccrctary  of  the 
Koyal  Society  of  Gcittingen,  and  on  the  13th  of  March  1762 
he  read  before  that  body  an  eulogy  on  Mayer,  which  he  after- 
wards publiflicd. 

After  Mayer's  death,  the  care  of  making  obfervations  was 
committed  to  Lowitz,  who  at  the  fame  time  received  an  in- 
ci"cafe  of  his  falary ;  and  Kallner  was  appointed  to  aflifl  him. 
Lowitz,  however,  would  not  accept  of  Kaftner  in  that  capa- 
city, and  the  latter  did  not  choofe  to  importune  liim.     In 

tha 


loi  Life  of  Ahrahain  (ihthetf  Kajlner, 

year  1753  Lowitz  niilde  known  his  refolution  ot  leaving 
Gottingen,  and  rcfigned  the  obfervatory  to  Kaftner,  with 
every  thing  it  contained.  Though  Kaftner  had  before  no- 
thing to  da  with  the  obfervatory^  he  gladly  aflfumed  this  new 
occupation ;  biit  it  was  an  exprefs  condition  on  entering  upon 
it,  that  he  fliould  require  no  increafe  of  his  falary  ;  a  facrifice 
which  he  readily  made,  efpecially  as  he  had  before  found  nd 
difficulty,  when  in  a  lefs  favourable  fituation  at  Leipfic,  to 
incur  confiderable  expenfe  in  order  to  gratify  his  tafte  for 
aftronomy.  The  confidence  repofed  in  him  on  this  occaiion 
he  employed  to  the  benefit  of  aftrdnomy  and  the  honour  of 
Gottingen,  by  caufing  the  manufcripts  left  by  Mayer,  and 
his  drawings  of  the  moon,  to  be  purchafed  for  the  ufe  of  the 
univerfity.  Thefe  he  preferved  at  the  univerfity  till  they 
were  delivered  into  the  hands  of  Lichtenberg for  publication; 
and  thofe  not  publifhed  were  after  his  death  depofited  in  the 
public  library. 

Kaftncr  had  neither  occaficfn,  time,  nor  inclination,  tof 
Acquire  the  fame  dexterity  as  Mayer :  he  obtained  the  ufe 
of  the  obfervatory  when  he  was  'iivo.  years  older  than  Mayer 
at  the  time  of  his  death,  and  only  as  an  addition  to  his  other 
numerous  occupations.  He  did  not  therefore  pretend  to 
great  readinefs  in  the  management  of  the  inftriiments,  which 
requires  long  and  uninterrupted  experience ;  but  it  may  be 
feen  by  his  works  that  he  underftood  every  thing  in  regard 
to  making  obfervations,  and  that  his  formef  practice  was  of 
great  ufe  to  him. 

The  firfl:  who^  under  Kaftner*s  dire£lion,  took  advantage 
of  the  perm iflion  given  to  ufe  the  obfervatory,  w&re  Kiigel^ 
Lichtenberg,  and  Ljungberg.  The  laft  was  much  inclined 
to  devote  himfelf  entirely  to  aftronomy :  by  Kaftner's  rc^ 
commendation  he  was  appointed  profeffor  of  the  mathema- 
tics at  Kiel,  and  is  now  a  counfellor^of  (late  to  his  Dani(h 
majefty  at  Copenl^agen. 

On  the  19th  of  June  1769,  \Vhen  the  tranfit  of  Venus  oVei 
the  fun  took  place,  KHftner,  in  company  with  Lichtenberg 
and  Ljungberg,  obfcrved  as  much  of  that  phoenomenon  as 
could  be  {n^w  at  Gottingen;  that  is,  the  ingrefs  of  the  planet 
into  the  fettintr  fun* 

Id 


Profijfor  of  Mathematics  at  Gb'ttingen,  103 

In  the  year  1771,  Lichtenberg,  in  confequence  of  a  pro- 
pofal  made  "by  Kaftner,  was  appointed  to  make  obfervatioiis 
for  determining  the  geographical  fituation  of  different  places 
ill  the  eledorate  of  Hanover.  He,  however,  wanted  a  qua- 
drant ;  and  as  Kampe,  who  had  undertaken  to  conftrucl  one, 
proceeded  (lowly  in  his  labour,  Kiiilner  applied  to  Demain- 
bray,  director  of  the  king's  private  obfervatory  at  Richmond, 
who  lent  him,  at  the  king's  defire,  a  quadrant  by  Siflbn, 
which  Lichtenberg  euiployed,  and  which  he  afterwards  gave 
to  the  obfervatory. 

The  obfervatory  ha^  now  obtained  an  pxccllent  inftrument 
for  correfponding  altitudes  of  the  fun ;  but  as  obfervations, 
on  account  of  the  nature  of  the  building,  could  be  taken 
in  the  morning  only  on  the  fouth-eaft  fide,  and  in  the  after- 
noon on  the  fouth-weft,  it  was  neceffary  to  remove  the  qua- 
drant each  time,  and  afterwards  to  adjuft  it.  This  labour 
was  undertaken  by  H.  Opperman;  I.  T.  Mayer,  fon  of  the 
aftronomer,  a  counlellor  of  ftate  to  his  Britifh  majelly,  and 
now  profeflbr  at  Gottingen  in  the  room  of  Lichtenberg  5  and 
Miiller,  captain  of  the  Elbe  frigate  at  Stade :  but,  on  a  re- 
prefentation  made  by  Kaftner,  a  building  was  coiiftructed  in 
the  year  1782,  under  the  diredliion  of  Opperman,  on  the 
fouth  fide  of  the  obfervatory,  where  Siffon's  quadrant  is  now 
ere6led^  and  when  ufed  it  needs  only  to  be  turned.  A  like 
building  has  been  conftrufted  on  the  north  fide,  for  corre^ 
fponding  altitudes  of  the  northern  ftars. 

Kaflncr  procured  from  Baumann  fcveral  achromatic  tele^ 
fcopes  and  a  heliometer;  and  the  obfervatory,  by  the  munifi- 
cence of  their  prcfent  majefties,  the  late  duke  of  York,  and 
the  care  of  the  Hanoverian  government,  w^as  enriched  with 
various  telefcopes,  among  which  was  one  of  Herfchel's  re- 
fleilors,  and  a  clock  by  Shelton  with  a  compenfation  pen- 
duluiii.  A  paper  of  Kaftner's  refpe6ling  the  variations  in 
the  going  of  this  clock  during  the  winter  of  1778,  may  be 
found  in  Langfdorff'g  Mechanical  and  Hy(Jrodynamical  Re- 
fearches,  publifhed  in  1788. 

In  the  year  1789,  Charles  Felix  SeyfTer  was  appointed 
niofeflbr  of  aiironoiny  at  pottingcn  j  and  as  the  practical 

part 


7C4  Life  (if  Abraham  Gothelf  Kajlner. 

^art  o(  tills  fciencc  was  committed  to  his  care,  he  was  placed 
under  Kadner  for  inftniftion.  Since  that  period  all  the  ob- 
fervations  at  the  obfervatory  have  been  made  by  Seyftcr. 

Notwithftanding  Kaftncr's  fervice  to  allronomy  and  geo- 
graphy, the  fervice  he  rendered  to  the  mathematical  fciences 
in  general  was  much  greater;  and  his  name  will  be  men- 
tioned by  pofterity  among  the  moft  eminent  profeflbrs.  He 
exerted  hinjfelf  with  the  moll  celebrated  geometers  of  Ger- 
many, Segner  and  Karften,  to  rellore  to  geometry  its  antient 
rights,  and  to  introduce  more  precifion  and  accuracy  of  de^ 
monftration  into  the  whole  of  mathematical  analy(is.  The 
doctrine  of  binomials  ;  that  of  the  higher  equations ;  the 
laws  of  the  equilibrium  of  two  forces  on  the  lever,  and  their 
compolition,  are  fomc  of  the  moft  important  points  in  the 
do^rine  of  mathematical  analyfis  and  mathematics,  which 
Kaftner  illuftrated  and  explained  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  excel 
all  his  predeceflbrs.  Germany  is  in  particular  indebted  to 
him  for  his  clafiical  works  on  every  part  of  the  pure  and  prac- 
tical mathematics.  They  unite  that  folidity  peculiar  to  the 
old  Grecian  geometry  with  great  brevity  and  clearnefs,  and 
a  fund  of  erudition,  by  which  Kaftner  has  greatly  contributed 
to  promote  the  ftudy  and  knowledge  of  the  mathematics. 
Kalhicr's  talents,  however,  were  not  confined  to  mathematics : 
his  poetical  and  humorous  works,  as  well  as  his  epigrams, 
are  a  proof  of  the  extent  of  his  genius;  efpeuially  as  thefe 
talents  feldom  fall  to  the  lot  of  a  mathematician.  How 
Kaftner  acquired  a  tafte  for  thefe  purfuits,  we  are  told  by 
himfelf  in  one  of  his  letters.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he 
refided  at  I.eipfic,  among  friends  who  were  neither  mathema- 
ticians nor  acquainted  with  the  fciences  :  he  then,  as  he  tells 
us  himfelf,  contracted  '^the  bad  habit  of  laughing  at  others;" 
but  he  ufed  always  to  fay,  Ha?ic  <veniam  clamus  petimufque 
I'kjflim,  Kliftner  died  at  Gottingen  on  the  20th  of  Juuq 
iSoo,  at  the  age  of  eighty-one. 

Befides  works  on  the  pure  and  pra(ftical  mathematics,  we 

arc  indebted  to  Kalincr  for  a   hiftory  of  the  mathematics 

from  the  revival  of  litycrature  to  the  end  of  the  i8th  century. 

Vol.  I.    Arithmetic,   Algebra,  the  Elements   of  Geometry, 

1^  Trigonomctrv;, 


Hiftory  ofAjironomy  for  the  Year  i8oo.  I65J 

Trlgdnometry,  aiid  Practical  Geonietrvj  lo  the  end  of  the 
16th  century;  Gottijigen  1796.  Vol.11.  Perfpedive  Geome- 
trical Analyfis,  and  ihe  higher  Geometry,  Mechanics,  Optics^ 
and  Aftronomy ;  firft  period  towards  the  end  of  the  i6th  cen- 
tury. Appendix  to  the  firft  volume,  ibid.  1797,  large  o6lavOi 


XIL  Hijlory  of  AJironomy  for  the  Year  i860.     By  JeromJE 
De  Lalande. 

[Concluded  from  Page  15.] 

V^.  CAROCkE  finiftied  in  the  month  of  May  a  tfelefcope 
of  23  feet,  conftru6ied  without  a  fmall  mirror,  in  the  fame 
manner  as  thofe  of  Lemaire  and  Herfchel ;  and  he  is  now 
employed  in  making  for  another  a  fpeclilum  of  platiha  7  \ 
inches  in  diahleter. 

C.  Treiriel  has  begun  a  new  ftand  for  the  telefcOpe  of 
2Z  feet,  much  firmer  and  more  coiivenient  than  thofe  before 
employed. 

A  terrace  has  been  begun  towards  the  fouth  on  a  level 
with  the  lower  hall  of  the  obfervatory,  foi:  placing  the  tele- 
fcope  upon  when  carried  out :  nothing  is  wanting  to  com- 
plete it  but  the  laft  cdurfe  of  the  materials. 

Brother  Noel,  a  BenedicStine,  fmlflied,  in  177^,  a  felefcope 
the  fpeculum  of  which  had  a,  focus  of  24  feet  4  inches,  and 
\vhich  was  22!  inches  in  diameter*.  He  pretended  that 
this  telefcope  magnified  430  times ;  but  Sir  George  Shuck- 
burgh  edimated  its  magnifying  power  only  at  200.  Noel 
valued  this  inftrument  at  8o,ood  francs^  biit  Louis  XV.  haa 
expended  upon  it  more  than  500,000. 

The  fmall  fpeculum  was  convex,  ih  imitation  of  Caffe- 
grain's,  and  had  five  feet  real  focus ;  which  made  the  length 
of  the  telefcope  lefs.  The  eye-glalTes  of  8  and  24  inched 
focu^  could  magnify  528  times ;  but  it  was  not  fufficiently 
good  to  bear  that  degree  of  power. 

He  miftrufled  aflronomers,  and  would  not  fuffer  me  to  view 
Jupiter  through  his  telefcope:  '^  If  you  find  it  a  good  one,''^ 
faid  he,  "  you  will  add  nothing  to  my  credit,  for  I  am  ai- 

■*  Connoijfuncts  des  tempi  1775,  p.  339. 

Vol.  IX.  O  lowed 


jo6  Ht/lorj  of  AJhoTiomy  for  the  Year  iSod* 

lowed  all  that  I  require;  and  if  you  find  it  a  bad  one,  you 
may  do  me  a  great  deal  of  hurt." 

Brother  Noel  was  a  tallow-chandler  of  Amiens,  who  had 
become  bankrupt;  but,  having  an  opportunity  of  making 
bimfelf  known  to  the  duke  de  Chaulnes,  at  his  feat  in  Pi- 
cardy,  he  impofed  on  him  by  his  loquacity,  and  the  duke 
introduced  him  at  court  to  exhibit  a  microfcopc  which  in 
all  probability  he  had  never  made.  He  got  a  lodging  at  the 
Abbayc;  he  aflbciated  himfelf  with  Navarre,  who  was  a  good 
optician ;  and  he  propofed  to  the  king  to  undertake  a  telefcope, 
only  1:2  feet  in  lengthy  which  fliould  have  a  magnifying  power 
double  to  the  great  telefcope  of  Herfchel.  He  was  afterward? 
allowed  to  refide  in  the  hotel  de  PafTy,  near  the  caftlc  of 
La  Muettc,  where  he  laboured  till  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  1781. 

Rochon,  who  fuccecdcd  him,  fent  for  Caroche,  who  had 
already  given  proofs  of  his  ability,  and  who,  having  re- 
poliflied  the  mirror,  rendered  this  telefcope  as  good  as  that 
of  Merfchel :  this  Mechain  and  myfelf  proved  in  1788. 

The  obfervatory  will  now  be  as  well  furnifhcd  with  inftru- 
nients  as  arly  in  Kurope. 

C.  Janvier,  a  celebrated  watch-maker,  has  prcfcnted  to 
the  Inditute  a  beautiful  clock,  in  which  he  has  reprefented, 
by  new  and  ingenious  means,  things  difficult  to  be  cxprefTcd 
in  machincry3  fuch  as  the  nodes  of  the  moon,  the  prcccfiioii 
of  the  equinoxes,  and  the  two  parts  of  the  equation  of  time. 
He  prefented  alfo,  not  long  ago,  another  new  machine,  which 
contains  new  inventions  for  eclipfes,  the  tides,  the  fatcllites, 
the  annual  parallaxes,  the  true  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies; 
and  where  thefe  complex  movements  do  no  injury  to  the 
moving  force  of  the  regulating  wheels. 

The  king  of  England  has  given  3000  guineas  to  Mr.  Schroe- 
tcr,  of  I/ilienthal,  for  his  inliruments,  which  in  future  will  be 
confidered  as  the  property  of  the  univerfity  of  Gottingen. 

The  duke  of  Gotha  has  procured  for  his  excellent  obferva- 
tory a  three-feet  circle  made  by  Troughton,  who  in  that  line 
vies  with  Ramfden  :  this  circle  coll:  10,000  francs.  He  has 
befpoke  a  large  fe6lor  for  making  oblervations  in'  the  zenith, 
and  a  telefcope  of  i6  feet  from  Mr,  Schr(£tcr.     He  has  car- 

riedl 


Hiflory  of  AJlrononiy  for  the  Year  1800.  107 

ricd  his  zeal  and  munificence  fo  far  as  to  caiife  to  be  con- 
llruAedj  for  Mr.  Wiirm^  atelcfcope  of  7  feet,  that  he  may  be 
enabled  to  gratify  his  tafte  and  to  cxercife  his  talents  for  aftro- 
noniy.  The  duke  of  Gotha  has  obtained  alfo  from  Paris  an 
equatorial  inftrument  by  Ramfden,  the  circles  of  which  are  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  which  is  accurate  to  30^''.  It  is  that 
Avhich  I  caufed  to  be  made  for  Bergeret,  and  which  was 
afterwards  purchafed  by  Patu  de  INIello,  who  had  a  fingular 
though  barren  tafte  for  pofTefling  fine  inftruments  and  good 
books.  Belides  others,  he  had  the  obfervations  of  Hevelius,  of 
which  only  ninety  copies  were  left,  the  reH:of  the  edition  having 
been  burnt  by  the  villainy  of  an  infamous  wretch  in  1679, 
This  volume  has  been  purchafed  by  C.  Labbey,  profeflbr  of 
mathematics  in  the  central  fchool  of  the  Pantheon,  with  all 
the  other  works  of  Ilevelius,  which  he  is  worthy  to  poflefs. 

Patu  de  Mello  had  two  equatorials,  excellent  achromatic 
telefcopcs,  and  beautiful  clocks ;  but  he  would  never  fuflcr 
any  one  to  ufe  them,  nor  even  to  fee  them.  In  this  rcfpe6l 
he  was  very  different  from  the  prefident  Du  Saron,  who  took 
a  pleafure  in  lending  his  moil  valuable  inftruments ;  and 
from  Bcrgeret,  who  lent  us  his  large  mural  quadrant  for  the 
Military  School,  where  it  ftill  remains. 

Troughton  has  already  made  fifty  circles  in  imitation  of 
ours,  with  fome  changes  and  ufeful  improvements.  He  did 
not  think  that  his  being  an  Engliihman  ought  to  prevent 
him  from  taking  advantage  of  an  invention  which  principally 
belongs  to  France. 

The  king  of  Pruflia  has  granted  20,000  francs  to  the  ob- 
fervatory  of  Berlin,  wdiere  M.  Bode  was  in  want  of  many 
important  articles.  A  meridian  telefcope  of  3  '  feet,  by  Dol- 
lond,  has  been  procured ;  and  a  new  hall  has  been  prepared 
above  that  where  I  erefted  the  mural  in  1751.  A  defcrip- 
tion  and  figure  of  this  obfervatory  may  be  feen  in  Bode's 
Ephemerides  for  1804. 

Adjutant-commandant  Abancourt  is  employed,  by  order 
©f  the  commander  in  chief,  in  conIlru6ling  a  map  of  Bavaria 
on  the  fame  fcale  as  the  large  map  of  France  ;  and  he  has 
fcnt  us  the  foundations  of  his  labour.    This  map  will  conned 

O  i  with 


jo8  Hi/Ioiy  of  A/Ironoiny  for  the  Year  i8oo. 

with  that  of  Swabia,  coiiftru6l;ed  on  the  fame  fcale  by 
MeflVs.  Bohnenberger  and  Amman. 

M.  Delecoq  is  conftru6ling  one  of  Weftphalia:  that  of 
the  Netherlands,  on  the  fame  fcale,  has  been  finifhed  :  thus 
the  example  of  the  French  has  become  fruitful,  and  even 
the  Engliih  are  preparing  to  follow  it. 

The  Academy  of  Stockholm  has  fent  M.  Svanberg  to 
Tornea  to  examine  the  ftatjons  where  the  French  academi- 
cians carried  on  their  operations  in  173,$,  for  meafuring  a 
degree  of  the  meridian.  As  this  degree  feems  to  be  too. 
large,  feme  errors  are  fuppofed  to  have  taken  place ;  and  a 
defign  is  in  agitation  for  re-mcafuring  it.  As  fenfible  irre- 
gularities have  been  founcl  in  the  degrees  of  the  meridian 
between  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona,  it  would  not  be  furprifmg. 
that  there  (liould  be  fome  at  the  66th  degree  of  latitude. 

The  king  of  Denmark  has  eftablifhed  a  board  of  longitude, 
of  which  profeflbr  Bugge  is  director,  with  two  afliltapts. 
This  eftabliiliment  was  chiefly  owing  to  M.  Lowenhorn. 
Ephemerides  for  1803  are  going  to  be  calculated,  which 
will  contain  the  diftance  of  the  moon  from  the  planets. 
M.  Wurbierg  gives  lectures  there  on  aftronomy ;  and  pupils 
are  now  inftrufting,  in  order  to  be  fent  to  Iceland  to  form  a 
piap  of  that  country. 

M.  Von  Zach,  who  every  year,  in  autumn,  makes  a  geo- 
graphical and  aftronomical  tour  through  Germany,  has  de- 
termined the  pofition  of  Brunfwick  to  be  53°  15 '  43'^  and 
32^37''  eaft  of  Paris. 

At  Zell,  in  the  duchy  of  Lunebourg,  M.  Von  Ende^,  coun- 
fellorof  the  fupreme  court  of  appeal  at  Hanover,  who  pof- 
feflTes  a  well  furnifhcd  obfcrvatory,  has  determined  its  pofi- 
tion to  he  520  37'  47''  and  3c/  5''. 

M.  Olbers,  at  Bremen^  has  determined  that  city  to  be 
33°  4' 37^' and  25' 4 8^^  He  is  more  and  more  confirmed 
Jn  opinion  that  the  place  of  the  moon  may  be  determined 
within  5  or  6"  by  a  fextant  of  9  inches  as  well  as  with  the 
beft:  infl.ruments.  Bremen,  which  is  a  large  free  hanfe-town_, 
has  enabled  M.  Olbers,  in  confequence  of  his  zeal,  to  form 
an  aflbciation  of  opulent  people  arid  merchants,  who  have 
*     '       •  '  eftablifiied 


Htjlory  of  AJlronomy  for  the  Year  1800.  lOf 

(eftabliflied  amuraeum,  a  cabinet  of  philofophical  inftruments, 
jand  an  obfervatory,  with  profeflbrs.  Dr.  Olbershas  been 
appointed  profclTor  of  adronomy. 

At  Lilicnthal^  M.  Von  Zach  was  aftonifhed  at  the  im- 
menfe  number  of  inftruments  in  the  poffeffion  of  M.  Schroe- 
ter.  One  of  his  telefcopes  is  27  feet  in  length  ;  but  he  has 
another  of  13  feet,  which  is  perbaps  the  bed  in  the  world  ; 
it  produces  effe6ls  that  have  aftonifhed  one  of  our  ableft  ob- 
fervers.  M.  Schrqster's  gardener,  who  is  a  man  of  great 
ingenuity,  cafts  fpecula,  and  polidies  them  with  wonderful 
flexterity.  His  telefcopes  of  7  fpet  will  bear  to  be  compared 
with  thofe  of  Herfchel.  He  has  cftablifncd  a  very  extraor- 
(Jinary  manufadtory,  where  aftronomers  may  be  fupplied  witli 
a  fpeculum  of  4  feet  focue,  and  a  fmall  plain  fpcculum,  at  the 
price  of  120  francs;  an4  9-  f[)cculum  of  15  feet  focus  for 
700  francs.  Xbis  is  not  the  tenth  part  of  what  was 
ufually  demanded  for  fuch  articles  at  London  and  at  Paris. 
M.  Schroeter  has  made  obfervations  of  Mercury,  the  rota- 
tion of  which  he  believes  to  be  24 h.  5^  On  this  fubjecl 
he  intends  publifliing  hermographic  fragments.  In  regard 
to  aftronomy,  he  has  a  privileged  iight;  he  can  di{lin2;ui{h 
Mercury  in  the  open  day  by  the  naked  eye ;  he  has  fcveral 
times  feen  in  his  telefcope  fmall  ftars  (liooting  along  like  a 
delicate  ftreak  of  very  faint  light,  which  lafted  2  or  3  ;  this 
proves  that  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  the  atmoiphere  ex- 
tend to  the  diftance  of  feveral  leagues :  meteors  or  globes  of 
fire,  which  excite  aftonifluiient  when  at  the  diftance  of  a  few- 
hundred  fathoms,  become  {liooting  liars  when  at  the  diftance 
of  a  league,  and  telcfcopic  ftars  at  three  or  four  leagues. 

Prince  Adolphus,  the  tenth  child  of  his  Britannic  majefty, 
aged  27,  who  is  very  ftudious  and  well  informed,  contributes 
towards  the  peculiar  protection  granted  by  his  father  to  aftro- 
nomy  in  the  electorate  of  Hanover;  he  paid  a  vi fit  at  the 
fame  time  as  M.  Von  Zach  to  the  obfervatory  of  Lilienthal, 
iVI.  Harding  has  been  appointed  alliftant  to  M.  Schroeter, 
with  a  falary  frgm  the  king. 

M.  Von  Zach  every  where  found  zeal  for  aftronomy,  and 
he  every  where  contributed  to  increafe  it :  details  on  this 
fubjeCt  may  be  feen  iri  the  excellent  journal  which  he  pub- 

lilhes 


no  HiJIory  of  Afironomy  for  the  Year  1800. 

lirties  every  month.  In  this  journal  portraits  of  thofc  able 
afh'ononicrs  Delambre,  Mechain,  Burg,  and  Duc-Lachapellc, 
have  been  given,  together  with  an  aecount  of  their  labours. 
Tbofe  of  Mechain  are  very  confiderable. 

M.  Bogdanich  undertook  alfo  a  fimilar  tour,  and  on  His 
return  brouglit  back  a  great  many  determinations. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  geography  of  diftant  countries  has 
been  confidcrably  enlarged  by  the  voyages  of  Vancouver  and 
Marchand  round  the  world  :  that  of  the  latter  has  been  pub- 
liflied  by  Fleurieu  in  four  volumes  quarto.  To  thefe  we  may 
add  Symes's  embaflTy  to  Ava,  Park's  travels  in  Africa ;  thole 
of  Brown,  who  was  as  far  as  Darfoor  in  the  interior  of  Ne- 
gritia ;  thofe  of  Horncman,  to  w^hom  general  Bonaparte  pro- 
cured the  means  of  penetrating  thither,  and  who  has  already 
fent  home  his  journal;  and  thofe  of  Dambergcr,  who  fpent 
feveral  years  in  Africa,  which  have  been  publiflied  at  Leipfic 
with  a  curious  map  of  Africa  by  M.  Goldbach :  they  are 
now  tranflating  into  French.  When  I  publifhed  my  Memoir 
on  Africa  in  1791,  nothing  was  known  of  that  immenfe 
cmmtry.  By  colle6ling  a  few  fafts  I  endeavoured  to  excite 
emulation  and  curiofity ;  and  my  wiflies  are  already  in  a 
great  mcafure  aceo-mpliflied. 

Vaillant  propofes  to  return  to  Africa,  where  he  has  already 
diflinguiflied  himfclf;  and  a  company  of  merchants  at  Mar- 
fcilles  have  announced  an  eftabliihmerit  on  the  eaftern  coaft 
of  that  country. 

Seventeen  charts  of  the  coafts  of  South  America  and  of 
thegulph  of  Mexico  have  been  publiflied  at  the  Repofitory  of 
theSpanifli  Marine  eftabliOied  in  1791.  Nautical  tables  have 
been  publiflied  by  Mendoza,  and  memoirs  refpefting  naviga- 
tion by  I.opez  Royo  and  Galiano.  .Jofeph  dc  Spinofa,  cap- 
tain in  the  royal  navy  and  dire6tor  of  the  repofitory,  has  done 
every  thing  to  render  himfclf  ufeful;  and  there  is  reafon  to 
hope  for  great  things  from  his  intelligence  and  zeal. 

We  have  received  alfo  an  account  of  the  voyage  undertaken 
to  the  ftraits  of  Magellan  in  1785  and  1786  by  Don  An- 
tonio de  Cordoba,  Don  Dioniiio  Alcala  Galiano,  and  Don 
Alexander  Belmonte,  with  a  great  many  charts  and  obferva- 
tioiis. 

9  M.  Rofll! 


Hijiory  of  JJironomy  for  the  Year  iSoo.  ill 

M,  RoiTel  is  employed  in  England  in  arranging  the  journal 
of  his  voyage  with  d'Entrecalteaux,  which  he  purpofes  to 
publifli.  M.  Lagrandiere,  another  officer  belonging  to  the 
fame  expedition,  has  alfo  a  journal ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
the  Britifh  government,  to  whom  it  was  communicated,  made 
ufe  of  it  for  the  chart  of  New  Holland  lately  publilhed. 

C,  Meignicn,  now  at  Madrid,  has  had  the  courage  to 
trandate  into  French  four  Spaniih  works  relating  to  naviga- 
tion, and  has  fent  the  manufcripts  to  the  Kepolitory  of  the 
Marine  at  Paris. 

I  (liall  fay  nothing  of  the  great  number  of  new  charts  and 
maps  which  have  appeared  in  England  and  Germany :  they 
have  been  announced  in  the  General  Journal  of  Foreign  Li- 
terature,  edited  by  M.  Loos,  and  publifhed  by  Treuttel  and 
Wurtz  at  Paris.  This  journal  is  an  imnienfe  repofitory  of 
books,  which  without  its  aid  would  be  unknown  to  us. 

The  General  Journal  of  French  Literature,  publiflied  by 
the  fame  bookfellers,  is  alfo  of  importance  on  account  of  the 
great  care  they  take  to  omit  nothing.  The  iirll  year  contains 
1680  articles. 

We  ought  to  mention  alfo  the  Literary  Notices,  or  fpirit 
of  the  foreign  journals,  printed  for  Koenig  at  Paris  and  at 
Strafburg,  which  contain  interefting  information  in  regard 
to  aftronomy. 

We  have  received  from  Humboldt  obfervations  made  in 
South  America,  to  which  he  has  been  conducted  by  the  love 
of  fcicnce.  His  knowledge  in  artronomy,  natural  philofophy 
and  natural  hiftory,  his  zeal  and  his  fortune,  all  equally  con- 
tribute to  render  his  travels  interefting. 

The  Memoirs  refpe^ling  the  Marine,  by  A.  Thevenard, 
vice-admiral,  publiflied  in  the  month  of  November  by  Lau- 
rens, in  four  volumes  o6lavo,  contain  various  articles  on 
geography,  and  one  in  particular  on  Cape  Circumcifion, 
which  gave  occafion  to  a  difcuffion  between  me  and  the  illuf- 
trious  author,  which  was  publiflied  in  the  Connoiffance  des 
Temps  for  1798. 

L  B.  Le  Chevalier  has  publiflied  a  defcription  of  the  Pro- 
pontis,  the  Fontus  Euxinus,  the  Bofphorus,  and  the  channel 

of 


113  ilijlory  of  AJlronojny  for  the  Year  1800. 

of  Conftantinople,  where  he  made  obfervations  when  with 
the  French  ambalTador  Choifoul-Goaffier. 

The  Enghfli  have  announced  that  a  veflel,  called  the  Lady 
Nelfon,  is  about  to  fet  out  on  a  voyage  round  the  world  for 
ihe  improvement  of  faience. 

Nouet  has  fent  us  a  table  of  the  pofitions  of  35  cities  irt 
Kgypt,  as  far  as  Syena,  which  he  finds  to  be  in  24^^  8  ,  though 
it  was  long  believed  to  lie  Under  the  tropic. 

We  learn  from  a  memoir  tranfmitted  by  C.  Coraboeuf, 
engineer  in  Egypt,  that  the  Egyptians,  on  two  zodiacs  found 
at  Henne  in  25^",  and  at  Dindiira  in  26^  north  latitude,  had 
indicated  the  folflice,  firft  placed  in  the  conftellatiori  of  Virgo^ 
then  in  Leo,  and  approaching  Cancer. 

C.  Grobert,  chief  of  the  brigade  of  artillery,  has  publidied 
ia  defcription  of  the  pyramids  of  Ghize  and  of  the  city  of 
Cairo:  it  contains  an  aftronomical  note  by  Burckhardt,  who^ 
having  feen  a  drawing,  made  by  Denori,  of  the  zodiac  of 
Dindara,  finds  that  the  foUtice  had  advanced  60^'  further  than 
the  place  where  it  now  is;  which  fuppofes  an  antiquity  of 
-4000  years.  By  ftudying  the  furrounding  figures,  this  pofi- 
tion  may  be  obtained  with  more  accuracy. 

C  Fournier  has  prefented  to  the  IniHtute  of  Egypt  a  me- 
iTioir  containing  further  details. 

The  zodiac  of  Henne  or  Efma  is  much  older;  the  fol(lic6 
there  is  in  the  conftellation  of  Virgo,  which  fuppofes  an  an- 
tiquity of  7000  years.  But  the  pofition  of  the  folflice  is  there 
indicated  in  a  more  vague  manner,  and  it  is  not  impoffible 
that  there  may  be  an  uncertainty  of  feme  hundred  years. 
This,  however,  ftill  appears  to  give  fomc  degree  of  probability 
to  the  hypolbcfis  of  Dupuis,  mentioned  in  the  fourth  volume 
of  my  Aftronomy,  who  afcribcs  our  zodiac  to  the  climate  of 
Egypt  when  the  fummer  folftice  was  in  the  conftellation  of 
Capricorn  14  or  15,000  years  before  our  asra  ;  and  w'ho  findi 
that  the  Indian  zodiac,  which  Bailly  caufed  to  be  eilgraved, 
goes  back  alfo  7000  years. 

The  zodiac  of  Henne  was  found  by  general  Dcfjaix,  Fou- 
iier,  and  Coftas,  after  the  departure  of  Denon.  But  Cora- 
boeuf  fays  in  his  letter  that  the  zodiac  indicalc^s  the  foKlice 

in 


Hlftory  of  AJlronomy  for  the  Year  i8o6-.  I13 

in  Virgo.  What  he  calls  a  fign  we  call  a  conftellatipn. 
General  Menou  announces  a  new  journey,  150  leagues  fur- 
ther. We  are  alTurcd  that  there  are  other  Egyptian  antiqui- 
ties ;  and  the  men  of  letters  who  go  thither  will  perhaps  dif- 
cover  a  zodiac  of  greater  antiquity  than  that  of  Henn6. 

C.  Coraboeuf,  when  he  fays  that  the  large  pyramid  of 
Memphis  declines  20  minutes  to  the  north-weft,  adds,  that 
Picard  found  18'  deviation  in  the  meridian  of  Tycho.  As  an 
aftronomer  I  ought  to  add,  that  Picard  was  miftaken  by 
taking  one  tower  of  EKincur  for  another,  as  M.  Auguftin 
has  fliown  in  the  twelfth  volume  of  the  old  Memoirs  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Copenhagen, 

The  voyage  undertaken  by  the  corvettes  le  Geographe  and 
le  Naturalijle,  captains  Baudin  and  Hamelin,  (liows  the  at- 
tention of  government  to  the  fciences.  The  plan  was  in  agi- 
tation for  feveral  years.  Captain  Baudin,  having  brought 
from  America,  four  years  ago,  a  large  colle6lion  of  plants 
and  inre6ts,  when  he  made  a  voyage  in  la  Belle  Angeliqua 
with  Le  Dru,  the  Parifian  naturalifts  were  exceedingly  de- 
firous  that  he  (hould  undertake  another,  on  a  larger  fcale, 
round  the  world,  or,  at  lead,  to  countries  little  known,  which 
might  be  more  important  and  more  produ6live. 

In  the  month  of  February  he  came  to  Paris  to  folicit  in 
favour  of  this  euterprife :  the  aftronomers  united  with  the  na- 
turalifts to  point  out  the  advantages  of  it,  and  they  even  pre- 
tended to  the  moft  important  part  of  the  expedition.  Geo- 
graphy has  fo  many  departments  which  demand  our  atten- 
tion, that  we  could  not  help  feizing  this  opportunity  of  fup* 
plying  fome  deficiencies  in  it;  and  the  French  people,  who 
are  determined  to  have  a  navy,  wifn  to  obtain  certain  data 
in  every  fea,  and  to  be  able  to  aftift  navigators  in  every  coun- 
try. This  is  a  great  and  an  immenfe  labour;  a  few  plants 
and  infers  more  is  the  leaft  important  part  of  the  voyage* 
Some  perfons  were  of  opinion  that  it  ought  to  be  deferred 
till  the  conclufion  of  a  peace;  but  the  fir  ft  conful,  who  fees 
no  difficulties  when  grand  objei^s  are  in  view,  was  delirous 
they  (hould  fet  out  as  foon  as  poffible.  At  ten  in  the  morn- 
ing, Oftober  the  19th,  our  navigators  left  Havre -de- Grace, 
di reeling  their  courfe  northwards,  and  at  ten  in  the  evening 

Vol.  IX.  P  hud 


ti4  Hljlory  of  Ajh'onomy  for  the  Year  iSoo* 

had  proceeded  from  30  to  35  leagues^  notwiihftanding  the 
delay  of  an  hour,  occafioned  by  a  vifit  from  the  Engli(h« 
There  is  every  reafon  to  tliink  that  they  got  clear  of  the 
channel  in  two  days.  M.  Belfin,  who  accompanied  them  till 
two  in  the  morning,  was  highly  pleafcd  with  their  unanimity, 
their  eagemefs,  and  joy.  Captain  Hamelin  is  loved  and 
efteemed  by  every  body ;  in  a  word,  the  whole  of  the  people 
on  board  le  Naturalijle  feemed  to  form  only  one  family. 

The  Board  of  Lono-ilude,  in  concert  with  the  commif- 
fioriers  of  the  Inflitute,  chofc  for  this  expedition  two  aftro- 
nomerSj  Frederic  de  BilTy^  born  at  London  May  lo,  1768, 
who  had  laboured  in  niv  obftrvatory  at  the  military  fchool 
from  1795  to  1798  5  and  P.  Francis  Bernicr,  born  atRochelle 
November  10,  1779,  who,  after  being  inflrucSled  at  Mon* 
tauban  under  Duc-Lachapellc,  laboured  for  eight  months 
with  great  fuccefs  in  my  obfervatoty  at  the  College  de  France, 
and  whb  has  exercifcd  himfelf  in  nautical  aftronomy  with 
great  affiduity*  He  will  foon  be  accuftomed  to  obferve  on 
board  (hip ;  his  «eal  and  intelligence  give  me  the  greateft 
hopes  refpe^ling  him;  and  I  have  already  feen  with  pleafure 
an  eulogy  on  him  in  the  Journal  de  Paris, 

This  young  adronomer  has  not  forgot  the  care  I  took  of 
him  :' r  learn  fo  by  reading  in  one  of  the  journals,  that, 
during  an  entertainment  given  by  the  officers  to  the  men  of 
fcience,  when  the  Republic  and  the  Navy  had  been  drunk, 
Bernier  faid,  with  a  tender  effufion  of  gratitude,  "  To  thofe 
who  have  guided  us  in  the  career  of  fcience/*  This  toaft, 
vvorlhy  of  his  fenfibility,  was  received  with  fatisfa6tion  by 
all  theguefts. 

r  had  propofod  another  aflronomcr,  C*  Louis  Ciccolini, 

born  at  Macerata  on  the  22d  of  November  1767,  a  knight 

of  Malta,  who  had  laboured  with  me  two  years,  atid  feveral 

of  whofe  calculations   I  publiflied  in  the   Connoiffunce  des 

T^mps  5  but  he  was  not  a  Frenchman,  and  this  reafon  feemed 

'.<  d<^cilive,  particularly  at  a  time  when  the  French  were  delirous 

^;0f  (liowing  their  zeal.     I   in  vain  attempted  to  dcllroy  this 

iSTpfejudice.     fn  a  word,  I  have  feen  with  pleafure  that  all  the 

..three  w^re  exceedingly  dcfirous  to  undertake  the  voyage,  not- 

withllanding  the  dangers  of  every  kind  with  which  it  muft 

be 


Illjfory  of  Agronomy  for  the  Year  i8od.  1 15 

be  attended.  General  Bougainville  had  the  courage  to  fend 
on  board  one  of  his  fons,  Hyacinth,  born  on  the  26th  of. 
December  1781,  who  is  beginning,  in  an  honourable  man- 
ner, to  tread  in  the  Heps  of  his  illuftrious  father.  We  ex- 
peded  that  Maingon  and  Quenot,  well  known  as  aftrono- 
mers,  would  have  had  a  (liare  in  the  expedition;  but  the 
former  was  prevented  by  indifpofition,  and  the  latter  would 
not  depart  without  him. 

The  naturalifts  fay,  that  the  flax  of  New  Zealand  will  bq 
fufficient  to  indemnify  the  (late  for  the  expenfe  of  this  expe- 
dition; and  the  aftronomers  will  find  themfelves  fufficlently 
rewarded  by  fonie  pofitions  to  the  fouth  of  New  Holland  and 
on  the  coafls  of  Africa.  But  a  voyage  of  two  or  three  years 
cannot  fall  to  furnifli  fcience  with  a  number  of  new  fa6ls. 

A  mod  fingular  meteorological  phoenomenon  is  the  hurri- 
cane of  the  9th  of  November,  which  ravaged  the  whole  coun- 
try from  Brittany  to  Holland,  and  from  Burgundy  to  Eng- 
land ;  it  deftroyed  a  great  number  of  veflels  in  the  Channel, 
but  our  navigators  had  got  out  of  it  long  before  that  time. 

The  lofs  I  fuftalned  in  C.  Bernier  has  been  repaired  by 
Michael  Chabrol,  born  at  Rrom  on  the  i8th  of  November 
1777.  I^^  ^^^  month  of  May  he  came  to  Paris  to  reinforce 
aftronomy,  which  had  need  of  his  afliftance.  He  has  al- 
ready calculated  a  great  many  eclipfes,  portions  of  ftars,  and 
the  longitudes,  latitudes,  and  angles  of  pofition,  of  600  of  the 
principal  Itars,  which  form  the  fundamental  catalogue  in- 
fcrted  in  the  Connoiffance  des  Temps^  and  which  Le  Fran^ois- 
Lalande  has  further  Improved  by  obferving  the  right  afcenfion 
and  declination  of  thofe  which  before  were  not  fully  known. 

Confidering  the  fcarcity  of  aftronomers,  we  ought  to  ap- 
plaud Lancelin,  profelFor  at  Breft,  who  propagates  nautical 
aftronomy  with  wonderful  zeal :  he  has  formed  pupils,  who 
will  be  of  the  utmoft  utility  to  us  when  our  marine  ftiall 
have  acquired  that  a<Sllvlty  which  the  French  government 
intends,  and  is  preparing,  to  give  it, 

C.  Henri  has  left  Peterfburgh  to  return  to  F/ance.  The 
decree  in  favour  of  the  French  emigrants  exiled  from  their 
country  will  procure  us  the  return  of  this  able  aftronomer. 

.Slop,  a  celebrated  aftronomer  of  Plfa,  has  been  arrefted  in 
P  2  ■    confequence* 


Il6  HiJIory  of  AJlrononiy  for  the  Year  1^00 » 

confcquence  of  the  troubles  in  Tufcany  ;  but  the  French  hav« 
entered  that  country,  and  there  is  reafon  to  believe  that  this 
altrononier  will  be  reftared  to  his  obfervatory. 

On  the  14th  of  July  the  fire-works  at  Dijon,  on  account 
of  the  feilival,  having  been  placed  on  the  top  of  the  obferva* 
tory,  occafioned  a  conflagration,  which  damaged  the  inftru- 
ments,  and  particularly  the  fpeculum  of  a  Herfchel's  tele- 
fcope ',  but  profeflbr  Jacotot  has  ftill  a  fufficiency  to  make 
ufeful  obfcrvations. 

Montucla,  who  died  on  the  19th  of  December  1799,  after 
having  publifhed  the  Hiftory  of  the  Mathematics  up  to  1700, 
in  two  volumes,  had  prepared  a  continuation  of  that  work, 
comprehending  the  i8th  century.  Three  hundred  pages  of 
the  third  volume  were  even  printed ;  but  the  remainder  of 
the  copy  was  not  finiflied,  and  efpecially  that  part  which  re- 
lates to  mechanics  and  aflronomy.  Defortia  has  taken  upon 
him  the  optical  part,  and  I  have  engaged  to  revife  the  aftro- 
nomical,  and  to  complete  and  publilh  the  whole.  I  thought 
this  care  due  to  one  of  my  oldeft  friends,  whom  I  forced,  as 
I  may  fay,  to  give  this  new  edition. 

C.  Montjoye  has  publifhed  an  eulogy  on  the  firll  preiidcnt 
Du  Saron,  who  was  an  able  aftronomer.  He  has  added  fomc 
interefting  details,  furnifhed  by  Meffier  and  myfelf,  and  with 
which  I  was  unacquainted  when  I  gave  his  eulogy  in  the 
Hiftory  of  Afironomy  for  1794,  a  year  of  crimes  and  mif- 
fortunes. 

On  the  20th  of  June  1800,  we  lofl  at  Gottingen  Abraham 
Kaftner,  who  was  , born  at  Leipfic  on  the  27th  of  Septem- 
ber 1719.  He  was  direilor  of  the  obfervatory  after  the  death 
of  Mayer  and  Liehtcnberg.  He  was  as  celebiated  as  a  ma- 
thematician as  a  man  of  letters,  and  publifhed  feveral  memoirs 
on  aftronomy,  both  in  German  and  Latin,  in  the  Tranfac- 
tions  of  the  Society  of  Gottingen.  Some  details  refpefting 
him  may  be  found  in  Von  Zach's  Journal  for  July*.  His 
life  has  been  printed  at  Leipfic  in  an  univerfity  oration  fpoken 
in  the  fiftieth  year  of  his  reception. 

On   the   28th   of  December  i8oo,   we  loft  alfo  James 

^-  Our  readers  will  find  them  in  the  beginning  of  this  number  of  the 
Philofoijliical  M<<gaziue. 

Anthony 


Hi/lory  nf  AJlronomy  for  the  Year  iSoo.  1 1 7 

Anthony  Jofeph  Coufin,  who  in  1787  pubnnied  an  excellent 
introduftion  to  phyfical  aflronomy,  containing  learned  and 
ufeful  calculations. 

John  /ilbert  Eiiler,  Ton  of  the  celebrated  Leonard  Euler, 
died  at  Peterfburgh  on  the  6th  of  September,  at  the  age 
of  65.  Several  memoirs  on  aftronomy^  written  by  him,  may 
be  found  among  the  prize  queftions  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, and  in  the  Tranfa6lions  of  the  Academy  of  Pcterf- 
burgh. 

On  the  .22d  of  April  we  loft  at  Thouloufe  Jerome  Hadan- 
court,  born  in  that  city  in  1748,  who  laboured  for  feveral 
years  with  Darquier,  as  may  be  feen  at  the  head  of  his  ob- 
fervations.  Four  years  ago  he  had  been  entrufted  with  the 
obfervatory  of  Thouloufe,  which  Garipuy  caufed  to  be  built 
in  1775  ;  but  he  could  not  make  ufeof  it  for  more  than  three 
years.  The  gout  and  other  maladies  conduced  him  to  the 
grave.  His  eulogy  may  he  found  in  the  Magazine  jEw^v- 
clopedtqiiey  6th  year,  .vol.  iv.  His  place  has  been  fupplied 
by  Vidal. 

Kcehler  died  at  Drefden.on  the  19th  of  September,  at  the 

Hanna  died  at  Pekin  :  he  is  the  laft,  I  believe,  of  the-Chi-r 
nefe  aftronomers.  The  general  of  St.  Lazarus,  defirous  to 
fill  up  this  department  of  the  miffionary  ellablifhment,  placed 
him  under  my  care  to  ftudy  aflronomy :  he  was  met  near 
Pekin  by  the  EngHfh>  as  may  be  feen  in  the  account  of  Lord 
Macartney's  emhaffy  to  China. 

Arnold,  the  celebrated  watch-maker,  died  at  London; 
but  his  fon  continues  to  make  time-pieces,  chronometers, 
and  regulators. 

We  have  loft  Mentelle,  the  engineer,  who  refided  at  Cay- 
enne fince  1:763,  when  the  duke  De  Choifeul  fent  thither 
10,000  fettlers;  he  was  brother  to  the  celebrated  geographer, 
and  we  had  received  from  him  laft  year  obfervations  on  the 
ilux  and  reflux  of  the  fea. 

Monneron  fen.  who  had  been  in  India,  and  who  brought 
with  him  fome  memoirs  on  the  aftronomy  of  the  Indians, 
died  at  Arinonay. 

Tho 


itS  On  a  new  specie's  of  Siren. 

The  abbot  of  Cremfimmfter,  Ercmbcrtus,  died  in  liis  y.bbcy 
on  tl>c.29tli  of  March.  The  fervicc  he  did  to  aftronomy  v^e 
have  mentioned  In  anotlicr  place.  It  was  to  him  that  Fixl- 
niullcr  dedicated  in  1776  his  work  entitled  Dccenniuvi  Ajiro- 
nomicum.  ProfeflTor  AV'olfgang  I;.evithner,  his  iucceflbr,  iliows 
the  fame  define  to  fupport  aftronomy  in  that  abbey  which 
Fixlmnller  rendered  celebrated. 

We  have  loft  at  Pctcrfburgh  M.  Soimonof,  fenator  and 
prcfident  of  the  council  of  commerce,  who  had  an  obferva- 
tory  and  a  great  many  inllrumcnts,  and  who  was  going  to 
eitabliih  another  at  his  country-feat  near  Mofcow.  He  pof^ 
fcflcd  knowledge  and  zeal,  ftill  very  rare  in  Ruflia. 

Such  have  been  the  iofles  fuftained  by  allronomy ;  but  it 
niav  be  feen  in  this  account  that  we  have  the  pleafure  of 
reckoning  among  our  fellow-labourers  fome  men  of  great 
merit,  and  of  having  juft  reafon  to  hope  for  further  fuccefs.  In 
a  word,  aftronomy,  as  we  may  fay,  is  now  complete,  (ince,  if 
we  except  coniets,  all  the  celeftial  bodies  have  been  fubie6led 
to  calculation ;  and  it  appears  at  prefent  that  we  have  little 
niore  to  deli  re.  But,  as  Seneca  fays,  there  will  always  be 
fomething  to  do  :  Et  pojl  7nille  facula  nan  dcerit  oqcojiq  al'i^ 
quid  adbuc  adjmendi. 


XIII.  Tranjiation  of  a  Memoir  on  a  new  Species  of  Sir  en » 
By  M.  Dk  Beauvois  *. 


A; 


.MPHIBIOUS  animals  properly  fo  called,  fo  dreadful 
and  hideous  to  tlie  vulgar,  but  fo  different  to  the  eyes  of  the 
naluralirt,  to  whom  all  the  productions  of  nature  are  equally 
interefting,  offer  us  an  infinite  fcope  for  difcovcry.  Natu- 
rajifts,  therefore,  not  ftopped  by  the  thoughtlefs  repugnance  of 
the  vulgar  to  animals  infinitely  lefs  dangerous  than  they  fup- 
pofc,  and  confiderably  more  ufeful  than  ignorance  (which  is 
continually  alking,  to  what  purpofe  are  all  thefe  things?)  can 
imagine;  naturalifts,  I  fay,  have  left  us  data  refpe<Sling  thefe 

•  Frojn  the  Jrufifail'i-ons  of  the  American  ^ilojophkal  Society  joi  1-99- 

beings. 


On  a  neiu  Spec'ies  of  Siren,  T19 

beings^  which,  with  time,  niuft  lead  us  to  a  more  correal 
knowledge  of)  and  a  more  intimate  acquaintance  with,  them. 
The  animal  to  be  treated  of  in  this  memoir  is  a  proof  of  what 
I  advance, 

fii  examining  Mr.  Pcale's  colleAion,  I  had  occafion  to 
remark  amongll  tlic  amphihiae  one  which  I  have  not  fecn 
defcribed  by  any  author.  It  appeared  to  me  entirely  new, 
and  the  more  interefting  as  tending  to  determine  our  ideas 
of  the  inguana,  which  has  by  fome  been  clafled  amongft  the 
amphiblie,  by  others  with  fiih ;  but  which  we  find  to  be  an 
intermediate  c^lafs  conne6Hng  thefe  tv/o. 

After  having  examined,  defcribed,  and  drawti  this  new 
animal,  Mr.  Peale  and  I  have  thought  proper  to  fpeak  of  it 
to  this  Society  before  the  publicatioil  of  hid  catalogue,  which 
will  foon  take  place. 

Linnieu.s,  the  celebrated  Linnneus,  whom  jealoufy  is  fome- 
tlmes  plcafed  to  criticife  generally  without  caufe;  Linnjeu-;, 
whofe  errors,  always  exaggerated  by  his  <detra6lors,  are  (let 
my  admiration  for  the  merits  of  this  great  man  excufe  the 
exprelhon)  for  the  greater  part  marked  with  a  ray  of  genius ; 
Linnaeus,  I  fay,  had  formed  a  feparate  order  of  the  inguana  (A) 
difcovered  in  Suutli  Carolina  by  Dr.  Garden,  fince  whofe 
death  other  natural i ft s,  amongil  whom  was  Compicr,  (B)  have 
made  fome  new  obfervations  refpe6ling  it.  It  was  regarded 
by  him,  Bonnaterre,  (B)  and  Gmelin,  the  laft  editor  of  the 
works  of  Linna'Ut^,  as  a  fifli.  The  latter  naturalilt  cpnfe- 
quently  fuppreifed  the  order  of  meantcs ;  and  the  Sireri.  Jar 
certina  is  now  found  placed  amongil  the  murrena  under  the 
*ianie  of  Mur^na  Siren.  Although  this  animal  has  much 
analogy  to  a  fifh,  being  furnilhed  with  gills,  Gmelin  has  ob- 
ferved  that,  in  the  formation  of  them,  the  inguana  and  mu- 
rx'na  are  diftinauifhable  by  the  numbers  of  rays.  He  there- 
fore fuppofes  it  {hould  be  placed  amongft  the  brarichi- 
ollegai,  whatever  relation  it  might  otheruife  have  with  the 
muraina. 

Such  is  the  laft  opinion  refpecling  the  inguana,  (C)  of 
which  we  will  give  a  defcription  in  order  that  we  may  com- 
pare it  with  that  of  the  new  animal  which  is  principally  the 
obje6l  of  this  memoir. 

DcJ'criftkn 


120  On  a  new  Specks  of  Siren', 

Defcription  of  the  Inguana,  called  Mud  Inguana  hy  the  Ame- 
ricans, Siren  laCertina  by  Linmcus,  and  MuiFsena  Siren  by 
Gvielin, 

Head  flat  at  top,  rounded  at  the  nofe,  eyes  fmall,  noftrils 
fmall  and  placed  near  the  end  of  the  fnout,  which  is  fome- 
times  marked  with  a  brown  fpot ;  colour  cheflnut :  (Plate  IV.) 
fig.  I.  ABCD. 

Mouth  furnifhed  with  a  row  of  fmall  teeth  :  fig.  3.  Auri- 
cular hole  nearly  in  the  form  of  afemicircle,  furnifhed  on  the 
exterior  with  three  fhort,  thick,  fringed  lobes,  adhering  to 
three  ferrated  rays  on  the  interior  with  opercular  fig.  i.  E. 

Only  two  fliort  fore-feet,  each  furniflied  with  four  toes, 
terminated  each  by  a  fmall  (harp  nail :  fig.  i.  F. 

Body  nearly  round,  fhrunk,  and  flreaked  on  the  fides, 
covered  with  fmall  fcales  thinly  fpread  and  faintly  feen: 
%.  I.  G. 

Tail  flat,  furnifhed  both  above  and  below  with  ^  fimple 
niembran'b,  without  either  points  or  prickles  :  fig.  1.  H. 

Drfcriptlon  of  a  neiu  Animal  found  in' a' Swamp  in  Jerfef 

liear  the  Delaware,  ?iot  very  diJJantfroni  the  Middle  Ferry 

oppofte  the  City  of  Philadelphia. 

Head  flat,  rounded  at.  its  extremity;  eyes  and  noftrils  as 
in  the  forriier,  except  that  the  latter  arc. rather  nearer  toge- 
ther: fig.  3.  ABCD. 

Mouth  large,  extending  farther  back  than  the  eyes,  fur- 
niflied with  a  row  of  fmall  teeth  as  in  the  former:  fig.  3.  E. 

Auricular  hole  large,  bordered  on  the  upper  part  by  three 
fliarp  fringed  lobes,,  adhering  at  one  end  to  three  ferrated  rays 
placed  in  the  interior,  and  of  which  they  are  a  continuation  : 

l)ndcr  the  head  two  opercula  united,  forming  but  one 
piece:  fig.  4.  Four  feet,  thofe  before  furniflied  .with  four 
toes,  thofe  behind,  with  five.  I  prefume  they  were  furnifhed 
with  nails;  .the  animal  being  preferved  in  fpirits  of  wine  has 
been  fomewhat  changed  in  its  parts:  fig.  3".  I. 

B.ody  fomewhat  flattened,  flreakcd  on  the  fideS,  flattefl: 
above   and  belmv,    which    gives  it  a  fquare   appearance : 

h-  3-  G. 

4  lail 


bit  d  niiV  Epetle^  of  Siren,  1 1 1 

Tail  fiat,  furniihed  on  the  top  with  a  fimple  membrane, 
which  commences  nearly  at  the  neck,  and  extends  itfelf 
under  the  tail  as  far  as  the  anus  :  fig.  3.  H.  ... 

^  Mr.  Peale  has  prcferved  the  latter  animal  alive  in  Watef 
f9r  nearly  thirty-fix  hours,  at  the  end  of  which  time  it  died. 
Heotferved  that  as  long  as  it  lived  it  continued  fwimming, 
making  ufe  of  its  feet  and  priricipally  of  its  tail;  that  the 
lobes  which  terminate  the  gills  were  cotitinually  floating 
and  in  motion ;  either  by  a  power  of  motion  belonging  to 
them,  or  perhaps  rather  the  effe6l  of  the  motion  which  the 
animal  caufed  with  its  feet  and  tailj  and  which  was  commu- 
nicated to  all  parts  of  the  body.  He  does  not  recolle6l  whe- 
ther the  opercula  opened  and  clofed  as  in  fifli;  but,  judging 
from  the  conformation  of  thofe  parts,  I  am  led  to  believiei' 
they  do  not. 

.  As  long  as  the  inguana  only  was  known,  incertitude  re- 
fpe6ling  its  nature  might  have  placed  it  rather  with  fiHi,  to 
W'liich,  it  is  true,  it  bears  an  affinity  by  an  efTential  cha- 
racter, gills,  tha,n  with  the  amphibioe,  to  which  it  fcems  to 
belong  by  all  the  other  parts  of  its  body.  But  nOw  a  new 
individual  of  the  fame  kind,  furniihed  with  four  feet  like 
lizards,  fecms  to  indicate  that  it  cannot  belong  to  fifli. 

On  this  difco very  three  very  iriipoftant  qiieftions  arife/   tr 
do  not  flatter  myfelf  I  fliall  be  able  to  refolve  them,  but  will 
endeavour  to  difcufs  them,  and  give  my  opinion. 

Are  thefe  animals  fifh  ?  Do  they  belong  to  the  amphibiae  ? 
Or  do  they  form  in  the  order  of  nature  a  nevi^  intermediate 
clafs  ?  ^ 

If  we  form  our  opinion  of  the  animals  we  have  been 
defcribing  merely  from  their  gills,  there  is  not  a  doubt  but 
that  we  muft  confider  them  as  fifli.  Mcflrs.  Vicq  D'Azir 
and  D'Aabenton  afcribe  the  following  chara6lers  to  fifh  : 
That  they  are  furnifhed  with  gills  which  give  admittance  to 
the  air;  that  they  have  not  lungs,  vifcera  which  are  Wantino- 
in^all  oviparous  animalsj  except  birds  and  the  amphibice. 
But  if  we  judge  from  the  entire  conformation  of  all  their 
parts,  can  we  call  thofe  animals  fifh  whofe  bodies,  head^  tails, 
and  feet,  are  fimilar  to  thoie  of  lizards  ?  Can  we  fay -with 
Gmelin,  that  the  feet  of  the  inguana  are  but  digitated  pec- 

VoL.  IX.  a  loral 


12^  On  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine, 

toral  fins  ?  And,  in  dcfcribing  the  new  animal  upon  th«  fame 
principles,  fliall  we  call  its  bind  feet  digitated  abdominal  fins? 
On  the  other  fide,  fhall  we  rank  animals,  whofe  gills  are  exr 
^dly  fimilar  to  thofe  of  fi(h,  with  lizards  ?  No.  I  think 
thai  both  thefe  opinions  would  be  equally  improper;  and  it 
appears  to  mc  more  natural  to  believe  that  thefc  animals  thus 
organifed,  appertaining  in  a  certain  degree  to  each,  fhould 
form  an  intermediate  and  well-marked  clafs  between  lizards 
and  fifh.  And  until  more  obfervations  be  made,  and  other 
difcoveries  of  new  individuals  fliall  enable  us  to  form  this 
cJafs,  T  think  it  would  be  befl:  to  revive  the  order  of  meantea 
ellablifhed  by  Linnaeus,  and  improperly  fuppreffed  by  other 
natural  ifts. 

It  remains  to  confider  whether  thefe  animals  are  of  the 
fame,  or  whether  they  form  between  themfelves  a  diftin6l 
genus.  It  is  certain  that  in  comparing  them  fenfible  differ- 
ences may  be  oljferved ;  but  thefe  differences  appear  only  fpe^ 
cific,  and  fliould  yield  to  the  common  character  of  having 
three  exterior  fringed  lobes  attached  to  three  ferrated  interior 
rays,  and  feet.  I  will  call  the  firft,  then,  with  Linnaeus^ 
Siren  lacertijia,  and  the  other  Siren  operculata. 


XIV.    A  Treatije   on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine,   and  th^ 
Method  of  making  Wines,     By  C.  Chaptal. 

[Continued  from  Page  29.] 

Exposure. — ^The  fame  climate,  the  fame  cultivation^ 
and  the  fame  foil,  often  furnifh  wines  of  very  different  quali- 
ties. We  may  daily  fee  fome  mountain,  the  fimunit  of  which 
is  entirely  covered  with  vines,  prefent  in  its  different  afpecSls 
aftoni filing  varieties  in  the  wines  they  produce.  Were  we  ta 
judge  of  places  by  comparing  the  nature  of  their  productions^ 
we  fhould  be  often  induced  to  believe  that  every  climate  and 
every  kind  of  foil  has  concurred  to  furnifli  produftior^s  which, 
in  facl,  are  only  the  natural  fruit  of  the  fame  lands  differ- 
ently expofed. 

This  difference   in  the  produ6ls,    arifing  from  expofure 
^Icne,  may  be  obfcrved  in  all  the  effe6ls  that  depend  on  ve- 

getatiori, 


dni  the  Method  of  making  W^nes,  1^3 

getatlon.  Wood  cut  down  in  a  part  of  a  foreft  looking  to-- 
wards  the  north,  is  far  lefs  combuflible  than  that  which 
grows  towards  the  fouth  :  odoriferous  and  favoury  plants  lofe 
their  perfume  and  favour  when  reared  in  fat  foil  expofed  to 
the  north.  Pliny  had  obferved  that  the  v\T)od  on  the  fouth 
fide  of  the  Appenines  was  of  a  better  quality  than  that  which 
grew  in  any  other  expofure  :  and  every  body  knows  what  the 
cfFe6ls  of  expofure  are  in  regard  to  pulfe  and  fruits. 

Thefe  phaenomcna,  which  are  perceptible  in  regard  tb  all 
vegetable  produftions,  are  particularly  fo  In  regard  to  grapes. 
A  vine  turned  towards  the  fouth  produces  fruit  very  different 
from  thofe  which  look  towards  the  north.  The  fur  face  of 
the  foil  planted  with  vines,  by  being  more  oriefs  inclined, 
though  with  the  fame  expofure,  prefents  alfo  modifications 
without  end.  The  fummit,  the  middlcj  and  the  bottom  of  a 
hill  give  produ61;ions  very  different.  The  fummit,  being 
uncovered,  continually  receives  the  impreffions  of  every 
change  and  of  every  movement  that  takes  place  in  the  at- 
mofphere;  the  winds  harafs  the  vine  in  evdry  direftion ;  a 
more  conftant  and  more  direct  itiipreflfion  is  made  on  it  by 
fogs;  the  temperature  is  more  variable  and  cold.  AH  thefe 
circumftances  united,  caufe  the  grapes  there  to  be  lefs  abun- 
dant ;  they  come  with  more  difficulty,  and  in  a  lefs  cbrripletd 
manner,  to  maturity ;  and  the  wine  arifmg  from  them  is  of 
an  inferior  quality  to  that  furniflied  by  the  fides  of  the  hill, 
which  by  their  pofition  are  flieltered  from  the  gredter  part  of 
the  fatal  effc6ls  of  thefe  caufes.  The  bottom  of  the  hill,  ort 
the  other  hand,  prefents  very  great  inconveniences :  the  con- 
ftant coolnefs  of  the  foil,  no  doubt,  gives  the  vines  great 
vigour;  but  the  grapes  are  never  fo  faccharine,  nor  have 
fuch  an  agreeable  flavour  as  thofe  which  grow  towards  the 
middle  region :  the  air  there  being  conftantly  charged  with 
moiflure,  and  the  foil  always  impregnated  with  water,  enlarge 
the  grapes,  and  force  the  vegetation,  to  the  detriment  of  tha 
quality. 

The  mofl  favourable  expofure  for  the  vine  is  between  the 
caft  and  the  fouth. 

Opportunus  ager  tepldos  qui  vergit  ad  seftus. 

Small  bills  rtfing  above  a  plain  interfedted  by  a  ftream  of 

Q  2,  pan^ 


124  On  the  Culilvation  of  the  Vine ^ 

pure  water,  give  the  befl  wine ;  but  thefe  hills  ought  not  t© 
]ie  too  clofp  to  each  other  i 

.-i ■'    ■  ■■  ■■  apertos 

Bacchus  amat  colles — «—— 

A  northern  expofure  has  at  all  limes  been  cojifidered  as 
the  moft  fatal :  the  cold  damp  winds  do  not/avour  the  ripen- 
ing of  the  grapes;  they  always  remain  harfh,  four,  and  defti- 
tute  of  faccharine  principle  5  anc}  the  wine  mull  participate  in 
thefe  bad  qualities. 

^  fouth  expofure  is  alfo  not  very  favourable:  the  earthy 
<}ried  by  the  heat  in  the  day-time,  prefents,  towards  evening, 
to  the  oblique  rays  of  the  fun  (become  almoft  parallel  to  the 
'|iorizonJ  but  an  arid  foil  deftitute  of  all  moifture ;  the  fun, 
which  by  its  pofition  penetrates  then  under  the  vine  and 
darts  its  rays  upon  the  grapes,  which  have  no  longer  any 
Jhelter,  dries  and  heats  them^  ripens  them  prematurely,  and 
checks  the  vegetation  before  the  period  of  fullnefs  and  ma- 
lurity  has  arrived. 

Nothing  is  more  proper  to  enable  qs  to  judge  of  the  effects 
of  expofure  than  to  obferve  what  takes  place  in  a  vineyard, 
the  ground  of  which  is  unequal,  and  interfperfed  here  an4 
there  with  a  few  trees  :  there  all  expofures  feem  to  be  united 
in  one  fpot;  all  the  efre6ts  thence  depending  prefent  them- 
(elves  to  the  obferver.  The  ftems  of  vine  iheltered  by  the 
trees  throw  out  long  flender  twigs,  which  bear  little  fruit, 
and  lead  to  flow  and  imperfeft  maturity.  The  higheft  por- 
tion of  the  vine  is  in  general  the  bareft ;  vegetation  there  is 
l^efs  vigorous;  but  the  grapes  are  of  a  better  quality  than  in 
low  fituafions.  The  bed  grapes  are  always  found  in  thofc 
places  moft  e^pofed  to  the  fouth  *. 

'^  The  general  jDrinciples,  in  regnrd  to  the  influence  of  expofure,  admit 
of  many  exceptions :  the  famous  vineyards  of  Epernai  and  Vcrlenai,  in  the 
mountain  pf  Rhcim§,  are  fully  expofcd  to  the  north,  in  a  latitude  fq  northeri\ 
for  vines,  th^t  it  i^  in  thofc  places  where  the  region  of  the  vine  fuddenly 
termin^te^  under  th^t  meridian. 

The  vineyards  of  Nuus  and  Beaune,  as  well  as  the  l>cft  of  Beaugenci 
and  Bloi$,  lie  tovvards  the  eaft ;  thofe  of  Loire  and  Cher  lie  indifcrimi- 
nately  towards  the  north  a«d  fouth;  the  excellent  hills  of  Staumur  face 
the  north;  anH  the  bcft  vines  of  Angers  arc  produced, from  vines  which, 
grow  in  all  fxporures.— 0/yZT'l'<2//o«i  dc  Creuze-Latoucbe  lues  a  la  Societe. 
d'  /^Fjiculiure  de  B-arii, 

i  v.-j  %/:-  ■  ^^  Seafcins^ 


and  ihe  Method  ofmgMng  JVines,  1 25 

4.  Scafons, — It  is  well  known  that  the  nature  of  the  vine 
varies  according  to  the  character  of  the  feafon ;  and  its  effciSU 
may  be  naturally  deduced  from  the  principles  we  have  efta- 
blifhed  in  fpeaking  of  the  influence  of  climate,  foil,  and  ex- 
pofure ;  fince  we  have  fliown  how  to  afcertain  what  effefts 
nioiftiire,  cold,  and  heat,  may  have  on  the  formation  and 
t^uality  of  the  grapes.  A  cold  and  rainy  feafon,  indeed,  in 
a  country  naturally  hot  an,d  dry,  will  prpduce  on  the  grapes 
the  fame  eife6l  as  a  northern  climate  :  this  (late  of  the  tem- 
perature, by  bringing  together  thefe  climates,  aflimilates  and 
identifies  alJ  the  produdions  of  them. 

The  vine  is  fond  of  warmth,  and  the  grapes  never  come 
to  perfe6liqn  but  in  dry  foil  expofed  to  the  rays  of  an  ardent 
fun.  When  a  rainy  ye^r  keeps  the  foil  in  a  (late  of  conti- 
nual humidity,  and  mjiintains  a  mpifl,  cold  temperature  in 
the  atmofpherc,  the  grapes  will  acquire  neither  flavour  nor 
faccharine  principles;  and  the  wine  they  produce  will  be  ne- 
cefTarily  abundant,  vyeak,  and  infipid.  Thefe  kinds  of  wine 
can  be  preferved  with  difficulty ;  the  fmall  quantity  of  af- 
cohol  which  they  contain  cannot  fecure  them  from  decom- 
pofition,  and  the  large  proportion  of  extra6live  matter  in 
thqm  deterrpines  movements  which  continually  tend  to 
change  their  nature.  Thefe  wines  turn  eily,  and  fometime^ 
four;  but  the  fmall  quantity  of  alcQ^iol  they  contain  prevents 
them  from  forming  good  vjnegar:  they  all  contain  a  greait 
deal  of  malic  acid,  as  we  {Iiall;  prvve  hereafter,  and  it  is 
this  acid  which  gives  them  their  peculiar  tafte;  an  acidity 
which  is  not  acetous,  and  which  forms,  a  more  prevaihng 
character  in  wines  in  proportion,  as  th^y  are  lefs  fpiritous. 

The  influence  of  the  feafons  on  the  vine  is  fo  well  knowa 
in  all  countries  where  vineyards  are  planted,  that,  long  before 
the  vintage,  the  nature  of  the  wine  mav  be  predi6led.  In 
general,  when  the  feafon  is  cold,  the  wine  is  harfli,  and  has 
a  bad  tafte;  when  rainy,  it  is  abundant,  weak,  and  not  at  all 
fpiritous:  it  is  therefore  deflined  for  diftillation,  at  leaft  in 
the  fouth  of  France,  becaufq  it  would,  be  difagreeable  to 
^rink,  and  difficult  to  be  preferved. 

The  rains  which  come  on  when  the  vintage  approachea 
^rp  ahvays  the  mpft  dangQtops :  the  grapes  then  have  neither 

time 


l?5  On  the  Cuhwation  of  the  Vinef 

time  nor  fufficieht  ftrength  to  mature  the  juice;  :^nd  tliey 
become  filled  with  a  very  liquid  fluid,  which  holds  in  folutiou 
too  fmaU  a  quantity  of  lYigar  for  the  produce  of  the  decern- 
polition  to  be  either  ftrong  or  fpiritous. 

The  rains  which  fall  when  the  grapes  are  Increafing  in 
fize,  are  exceedingly  favourable :  they  ^ffift  the  organifation 
of  the  vegetable,  furnifli  it  with  its  principal  nutrition,  and, 
if  continued  heat  facilitate  the  maturation,  the  quality  of  the 
grapes  muft  be  perfect. 

Winds  are  always  prejudicial  to  the  vine  :  they  dry  up  the 
branches,  the  grapes,  and  the  foil ;  and  they  produce,  parti- 
cularly in  itrong  foil,  a  hard  compact  cruft,  which  impedes 
the  free  paflage  of  the  air  and  water,  and  by  thefe  means 
maintains  around  the  roots  a  putrid  moifture  which  tends  to 
corrupt  them.  The  farmers,  therefore,  carefully  avoid  plant- 
ing vines  in  fituations' expofcd  to  wind:  they  prefer  calm 
lituations,  well  {heltered,  where  the^plants  may  be  expofed 
only  to  the  benign  influence  of  the  luminary  towards  which 
they  are  placed. 

Fogs  are  alfo  exceedingly  dangerous  to  the  vine :  they 
are  deftru<Slive  to  the  bloflbms,  and  do  eflential  hurt  to 
the  grapes.  Befldes  the  putrid  miiifmata,  which  they  too 
often  dcpofit  on  the  produ6lions  of  the  fields,  they  are  al- 
ways attended  with  the  inconvenience  of  moiftening  the  fur- 
faces,  and  of  forming  on  them  a  (Iratum  of  water,  more  fub- 
je6l  to  evaporation,  as  the  interior  of  the  plant  and  the  earth 
are  not  moiftened  in  the  fame  proportion ;  fo  that  the  rays 
of  the  fun,  falling  upon  this  light  ftratum  of  moifture,  caufc 
it  to  evaporate  in  an  inftant ;  and  the  fenfation  of  coolnefs, 
determined  by  the  ad;  of  evaporation,  is  fucceeded  by  a  heat 
the  more  prejudicial  as  the  tranfition  is  abrupt.  It  very  often 
happens  that  the  clouds  fufpended  in  the  atmofphere,  by 
concentrating  the  rays  of  the  fun,  dirc6l  them  towards  parts 
of  the  vines,  by  which  means  they  are  burnt.  In  the  fcorch- 
ing  climates  of  the  fouth  it  is  fometimes  obferved  that  the 
natural  heat  of  the  foil,  ftrengthened  by  the  reverberation 
from  certain  rocks,  pr  whitifti  kinds  of  foil,  dries  up  the 
grapes  ejcpofed  to  them. 

Though  heat  bt  nccclTary  for  ripening  the  grapes,  giving 

them 


€nd  the  Method  of  making  Wines.  Jzy 

them  a  faccharlne  tafte  and  a  good  flavour,  it  would  be  erro- 
neous to  believe  that  its  a6lion  alone  can  produce  every  efFe£l 
required.  It  can  be  confidered  only  as  a  mean  neceflary  for 
maturation,  which  fuppofes  that  the  earth  is  fufficiently  fur- 
nifhed  with  the  juices  that  ought  to  fupply  the  materials. 
Heat  is  neceflary ;  but  this  heat  muft  not  be  exercifed  on 
dried  earth,  for  in  that  cafe  it  burns  rather  than  vivifies.  The 
good  fl:ate  of  vines,  and  the  good  quality  of  the  grapes,  de- 
pend then  on  a  juft  proportion — a  perfe6l  equilibrium  be- 
tween the  water,  which  furniflies  the  aliment  to  the  plant, 
and  the  heat,  that  can  alone  facilitate  its  maturation. 

5,  Culture. — The  vine  grows  naturally  in  Florida,  Ame- 
rica, and  almoft  every  part  of  Peru,  In  the  fouth  of  France, 
even  almoft  all  the  hedges  abound  with  wild  vines ;  but  the 
grapes  they  bear  are  always  fmaller,  and,  though  they  come 
to  maturity,  they  never  acquire  the  exquifite  tafte  of  the 
grapes  that  are  cultivated.  The  vine  then  is  the  work  of 
nature,  but  art  changes  its  produ6tg  by  bringing  the  culture 
of  it  to  perfection.  The  difference  which  exifts  at  prefent 
between  the  cultivated  vine  and  that  which  grows  wild,  is 
the  fame  as  that  efi:abliflied  by  art  between  the  vegetables  of 
otir  gardens  and  thofe  of  the  fame  kind  which  grow  acci<- 
dentally  in  the  fields.  • 

The  culture  of  the  vine,  however,  has  its  rules  as  well  as 
its  boundaries.  The  foil  where  it  grows  requires  great  care ; 
it  mufl;  be  often  dug  up  ;  but  it  refufes  the  manure  neceflary 
for  other  plantations.  It  muft  here  be  remarked,  that  all 
thofe  caufes  which  powerfully  concur  to  give  activity  to  the 
vegetation  of  he  vine,  alter  the  quality  of  the  grapes;  and 
here,  as  in  other  delicate  cales,  the  culture  ought  to  be  di- 
redlcd  in  fuch  a  manner  that  the  plant  may  receive  only  poor 
nouriflmient  if  grapes  of  a  good  quality  are  required.  The 
celebrated  Olivier  de  Serres  fays  on  this  fubjeft,  that,  ^^  by  a 
public  decree,  dunging  is  forbidden  at  Gaillac  for  fear  of  lef- 
fening  the  reputation  of  the  white  wines,  with  which  the 
people  of  that  diftri6l  fupply  their  neighbours  of  Touloufe, 
Montauban,  Caftres,  and  other  places,  and  of  thus  depriv- 
ing them  of  the  great  profit  thence  arifing,  which  forms  the 
beft  part  of  their  revenue,*' 

9  •    ■  "    There 


XW  ,       On  the  CiiUWa^ontfthe  Pinc; 

THtre' are  fofne  individuals,  however,  who,  in  ordei*"to  hav«' 
amore  abbndant  crop,  dCing  their  vines  ;  but  they  thus  ia- 
crtficfe  the  quality  to  quantity. 

The  dung  niofl  favourable  to  the  vine  Is  ihat'orpigebnsor'' 
poilltry;  dung' foetid  or  tod  putrid  is' carcfuHy  reje^ed,  as  it 
hus  betn  proved  by  obfervation  that  the  vvi'ue  often  cohtraSs 
from  it  a  very  difagreeable  tafte. 

In  the  ifles  of  Khe  and  Oleron  the  vines  are  dunged  with' 
fe'a-wted  [fuc7is)\  but  the  wine  thfence  acquires  a  bad  quality, ' 
and  Tetains  the  peculiar  odour  of  that  plant.     Chafiferon  has 
obferved,  that  the  fame  plant  decompofed  into  mould  ma- 
nures the  vine' with  advantage,  and  increafes  the  quantity  of 
the  wine  without  hurting  the  quality.     Experience  has  alfo  * 
taught  him  that  thie  aflies  of  fea-weed  form  excellent  manure, 
for  the  vine.     This  able  agricultiirift  is  of  opinion  that  vege-  ' 
table  manure  is  not  attended  with"  the  fame  inconveniences 
as  animal  manure ;  but  he  thinks,  and  with'juftice,  that  the' 
former  cannot  be  ufed  with  advantage  except  when  employed 
in  thb  ftate  of  mould. 

The  method  of  cultivating 'vines  on.  poles  oi*  props  oiigfit 
to  be  commanded  by  the^clihiate.     This  method  belongs  to' 
cold  countries,  wherethe  vine'has  need'of't  he  whole  heat  of" 
the  fun,  naturally  weak.    By  railing  them,  therefore,  on  poles 
placed  perpendicular  to  the  ground^  the  earth,  being  unco- 
vered, receives  all  the  activity  of  the  rays,  and  the  whole  fur- 
face  of  the  plant  is  completety  expofcd  to' their  "a6lion.^    An- 
other advantage  of"  cultivating  on  props  is^  that  it  allows  the^ 
vines  to  be  placed  he^are'r  to  each  other",  and  "that  the  produce* 
is  multiplied  on  equal  furfiiccs.     But  in  warmer  climates  the 
earth  requires' -to  be'flielCered  fro'm  the  exceflive  heat  of  the 
fuifi  ',   the  grapes"  themfelves^  have  need  of  being  prote<^ed 
from  its  fcorchirig  rays,  and  to  accomplifh  this  view  the  vines 
arcf  fiifferedlo  creep  on  the  ground  5^  tliey  then  every  vfherc 
form"  a  covering  fufficlently  thick    and  clofe  to  defend  the 
earth,  and  a  great  part  of  the  grapes,  from  the  dire6l  action  ^ 
gf^the  fun.    But  when' the  iricreafe  of  tlic  grapes  has  attained  " 
to'its  maximum,  and  nothing  is  neceflary  but  to  bring  thcnl 
toHnaturity,  the  cultivators  collect' in  bundles  the  different' 
brandies  gf  the  vin»,  unccvcrihe.  grapes,  andBy  thefe  means 

facilitate 


and  the  Method  of  malmg  Ulnes,  1 29 

facilitate  th?  maturation.  In  this  cafe  they  really  produce  the 
fame  effe6l  as  is  produced  by  propping ;  but  recourfe  is  had 
to  this  method  only  when  the  grapes  are  too  abundant,  or 
when  the  vines  grow  in  fpil  tpo  fat  or  humid.  In  fonie 
countries  the  vines  are  Gripped  of  their  leaves,,  which  pro- 
duces nearly  the  fame  cffed;  in  others,  the  pedicle  of  the 
grapes  is  twilled  to  determine  the  maturity  by  checking  the 
vegetation.  The  antients,  accordhig  to  Pliny,  prepared  their 
fweet  wines  in  this  manner;  Ut  duie'ia pra'tereajicrejit^  af- 
fern)  ah  ant  uvn,s  diutiUs  in.  v'lte^  pediculo  in  tor  to. 

The  method  of  pruning  the  vines  has  alio  a  great  influence 
on  the  nature  of  the  wine.  'Jlie  greater  the  number  of 
branches  left  to  one  vine,  the  more  abundant  the  grapes, 
but  the  worfe  is  the  quality  of  the  wine. 

The  art  of  cultivating  the  vine,  and  the  method  of  planting 
it,  have  a  powerful  influence  on  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
the  wine.  To  fliow  the  eflecl  which  cultivation  has  on  the 
vine,  it  wllj  be  fuflicient  to  obfcrvew^hat  takes  place  in  regard 
to  vines  left  to  themfelves^  it  vvijl  be  found  that  the  foil,  foon 
covered  with  foreign  plants,  acquires  firmnefs,  and  is. after- 
wards but  imperfe6lly  acceilible  to  the  air  and  to  water.  The 
vine,  being  no  longer  pruned,  fends  forth  weak  flioots,  and 
produces  grapes  which  decreafe  in  fize  year  after  year,  and 
which  fcarcely  ever  come  to  maturity.  It  is  no  longer  that 
vigorous  plant  the  annual  vegetation  of  which  covered  the 
foil  to  a  great  difl:ance.  The  grapes  are  no  more  that  well- 
nouriflied  fruit  which  aflorded  found  and  faccharine  aliment ; 
the  vine  becomes  ftunted,  and  its  fruit,  of  a  bad  and  weak 
quality,  attefts  the  languid  and  ruinous  flate  of  the  foil.  By 
what  are  thefe  changes  produced  ?  By  the  want  of  cultiva- 
tion. 

We  may  therefore  coniider  the  good  (late  of  the  foil  as  the 
work  of  nature :  all  the  art  confifts  in  flirring  it,  turning  it 
up  fcveral  times,  and  at  favourable  periods.  By  thefe  means 
it  is  freed  from  all  noxious  plants,  and  it  is  better  pre- 
pared for  receiving  water,  and  for  tranfmitting  it  with  more 
eafe  to  the  plant;  the  air  alfo  can  penetrate  to  it  wiih  more 
eale,  and  thus  all  ihofe  conditions  aeceflary  for  proper  vcge- 

\oi,  IX.  K  tation 


Ijo  On  the  Cultivation  of  the  Fine, 

tation  are  united.  But  when,  on  account  of  fome  particular 
fpeculatidns,  it  is  neceflary  to  obtain  wine  in  greater  abun- 
dance^ and  when  the  quality  may.  be  facrificed  to  this  confi- 
deration,  the  vines  in  that  cafe  may  be  dunged,  more  (hoots 
may  be  allowed  to  the  ftems,  and  all  the  caufes  which  cau 
multiply  the  grapes  may  be  united. 

11.   Of  the  Time  mq/i  favourable  for  the  Vmtage,  and  the 
Proceffes  employed  during  that  Period, 

Olivier  de  Serres  obferves,  with  great  juftice,  that  if  the 
management  of  the  vine  requires  great  (kill  and  intelligence, 
it  is  at  the  period  of  the  vintage  that  thefe  things  are  necef- 
fary,  to  obtain  in  perfection  and  abundance  the  fruits  which 
Providence  thence  dil^ributes  to  us.  Every  body  allows  that 
the  moment  moft  favourable  for  the  vintage  is  that  when  the 
grapes  come  to  maturity ;  but  this  maturity  can  be  known 
only  by  the  union  of  the  following  (igns  : 

I  ft,  The  green  (talk  of  the  grapes  turns  brown. 

2d,  The  grapes  become  pendulous. 

3d,  The  (lones  of  the  grapes  lofe  their  hardnefs ;  the  pel- 
licle becomes  thin  and  tranfparent,  as  is  obferved  by  Olivier 
de  Serres. 

4th,  The  clufters  and  grapes  can  be  eafily  detached  from 
the  twigs.^ 

5th,  The  juice  of  the  grapes  is  favoury,  fweet,  thick,  and 
vifcld. 

6th,  The  ftones  of  the  grapes  are  free  from  any  glutinous 
fubftance,  according  to  the  obfervation  of  Olivier  de  Serres. 

The  fall  of  the  leaves  announces  rather  the  return  of  winter 
than  the  maturity  of  the  grapes;  this  (ign,  therefore,  is  con- 
(idered  as  very  uncertain,  as  well  as  putridity,  which  a  thou- 
fand  caufes  may  occafion,  none  of  them  fufficient  to  enable 
lis  to  deduce  from  them  a  proof  of  maturity.  When  the 
froft,  however,  makes  the  leaves  to  fall,  the  vintage  ought 
not  to  be  longer  deferred,  becaufe  the  grapes  are  then  fuf- 
ocptible  of  no  further  maturity.  Their  remaining  on  the 
vine  could  tend  only  to  promote  putrefaction. 

^*  in  I'/^c/y  the  grapes,  (till  green,''  fuys  Rosier,  ^^  were  fur- 

prifed 


and  the  Method  of  making  iVines,  J^X 

prlfed  by  the  froft  on  the  7th,  8th,  and  9th  of  06tober.  They 
gained  nothing  more  by  remaining  on  the  vines  till  the  end 
of  the  month ;  and  the  wine  was  acid  and  of  a  bad  colour. 

There  are  fome  qualities  in  wine  which  cannot  be  ob- 
tained but  by  futfering  the  grapes  to  dry  on  the  twigs.  Thus, 
at  Rivefaltes,  and  in  the  iflands  of  Candia  and  Cyprus,  the 
grapes  are  fuffered  to  remain  expofed  to  the  winds  before 
they  are  cut.  The  grapes  which  furnifh  tokay  are  dried ; 
and  the  fame  proccfs  is  employed  for  fome  of  the  fweet  wines 
of  Italy.  The  wines  of  Arbois,  and  of  Chateau-Chalons,  in 
Franche-Comte,  are  produced  from  grapes  which  are  not 
cut  till  towards  the  end  of  December ;  at  Condrieu,  where 
the  white  wine  is  celebrated,  the  grapes  are  not  cut  till  near 
the  middle  of  November.  In  Tourraine,  and  other  places,  a 
kind  of  wine  called  'u'm  dc  paille  is  made,  by  collcfting  the 
grapes  during  dry  weather,  and  when  the  fun  is  in  full  force ; 
they  are  fpread  out,  fo  as  not  to  touch  each  other,  on  hur- 
dles, which  are  expofed  to  the  fun,  and  then  (iiut  up  when  he 
is  fet;  the  grapes  which  rot  are  carefully  removed,  and  when 
the  whole  are  well  dried,  the  juice  is  exprefTed  and  made  to 
ferment. 

Olivier  de  Serrcs  fays,  it  has  been  proved  by  experience, 
that  the  bed  period  of  the  moon  for  colle6ling  grapes  in 
Older  that  they  may  keep,  is  her  decreafe  rather  than  her 
iucreafe.  He,  however,  allows,  that  when  the  grapes  are 
ripe  it  is  better  to  confult  the  weather  than  the  moon;  and 
in  this  we  perfeclly  agree  with  him. 

But  there  are  fome  climates  where  the  grapes  never  come 
to  maturity:  fuch  are  almoft  all  the  northern  parts  of  France; 
and  in  that  cafe  the  grapes  muft  be  collected  green,  that  they 
may  not  be  expofed  to  rot  on  the  twigs.  A  moift  and  rainy 
autumn  muft  increafe  the  bad  quality  of  the  juice.  All  the 
vineyards  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris  are  in  this  lituation  ; 
the  vintage  there  is,  of  courfe,euriier  than  in  the  fouth,  where 
the  grapes  never  ceafe  to  ripen  though  the  heat  of  the  fun 
continually  decreafes. 

When  the  neceHity  of  commencing  the  vintage  has  been 
afcertained,  a  great  many  precautions  mufl:  be  taken  before 
it  is  begun.     In  general,  the  vintagers  ought  not  to  venture 

Rij  to 


l;^i  On  the  Culiivacthn  of  the  Vinr^ 

16  labour  but  when  the  fail  and  the  grapes  arc  drv,  and  until 
the  weather  appears  fo  fettled  as  to  give  reafon  to  belieVe  that 
thfcir  ddCiipatittns  \v\\\  tibih^  int^i^^pted.  Olivier  de  Serres 
feeomniends,  hot  to  c(^Tle«5t  the  gfapes  till  the  fitn  has  dif- 
perfcd  rhe  dew  depofildd  on  them  by  the  coohiefs  of  i\\t 
nights :  this  precept,  though  generally  true,  cannot  be  trni- 
Vcrfully  npplicd  ;  for  in  Champagne  the  vintagers  colle«5l  the 
grapes  before  .funrife,  and  fufpend  their  labours  towards  nine 
in  the  riidhnng,  unlefs  the  fogs  ocekfidn  humidity  throughout  '• 
the  whole  day :  it  is  only  by  this  care  that  they  obtain  white 
and  brifK:  wines.  It  is  Well  known  In  Champagne^  that 
twenty-five  eafks  of  \vinea>e  obtaliicd  inifcad  of  twenty-four, 
when  the  vintagers  labour  during  the  continuance  of  the  dew  5 
and  twenty-fix  during  the  fog.  This  procefs  is  everywhere 
nfeful  when  wines  exceedingly  white  and  brifk  are  required. 
Except  in  the  above  cafes  the  grapes  ought  not  to  be  cut  until 
the  fun  has  difpcrfed  all  the  moifture  from  their  furface. 

But  fume  precautions  are  necciTary  to  afccrtain  the  period 
1i\o^  proper  for  the  vintage,  and  fome  niiiR  be  obfervcd  in 
fcgafd  to  the  mode  of  opcratibn.  An  intelligent  ngricul- 
turid  will  not  commit  the  care  of  cutting  the  grap&s  to  in- 
expert mercenaries :  as  this  part  of  the  labour  is  not  the  lead 
important,  we  fliall  here  give  a  few  obfetvations  on  it. 

tft,  A  fufficient  number  of  vintagers  ought  to  be  engaged 
that  the  vat  maybe  filled  in  one  day  :'  this  is  the  only  method 
of  obtaining  an  equal  fermentation. 

2d,  Women  on  the  fpot  ihoiild  be  preferred ;  and  none 
ought  to  be  employed  but  thofe  who  have  become  expert  in 
this  kind  of  labour. 

^<\,  The  labourers  aught  to  be  under  the  fupcrlfrtendance 
of  a  flrii9:  and  intelligent  overfcer. 

4th,  They  ought  to  be  prohii)ited  from  eating  the  grapes, 
both  to  prevent  crufts  of  bread  and  other  food  from  bcrng 
mixed  with  the  juice,  and  to  prcferve  for  the  prefs  the  ripell 
and  nioft  faicchaf ine  grapes . 

5th,  The  tails  of  tlie  grapes  ought  to  be  cut  very  fliort, 
and  the  operatron  ought  to  be  performed  whh  a  pair  of  good 
fcilVurs.  In  the  Pays  dc  f\i?id' the  grapes  are  detached  by 
means  of  the  nail,  in  Champagne  a  pruningi knife  is  eiVi- 

ployed ; 


nndtheMeBodofmaimgU^tncs,  133 

crft ployed  :  but  the  two  lall  methods  ai-e  attended  with  the 
inconvenicncy  of  fhakiiig  the  ftem.  '' 

6th,  No  grapes  ought  to  be  cut  but  thole  fouild  atld  H|)e ; 
lliofe  which  are  putyid  ought  to  be  rejeaod,  and  thofe  flirt 
2ri1?cn  murt  be  IfeTt  on  the  twijVvS. 

III  all  places  where  the  culiivat'o1"S  are  de (irons  to  obtain 
t^'ifles  of  a  good  qualitv,  the  grapes  are  col!e6l(^d  At  Wb  Oi* 
thii-ee  diflercnt  times.  In  getieral,  the  firft  v:it-full  of  juice 
Is  aUvavs  the  beft.  There  are  fome  couritries,  however, 
where  the  grapes  are  jllmoft  coire6led  without  diftin(!'tloti, 
hnd  at  one  time;  the  juice  is  e^^p'refled  without  picking,  but 
the  wines  are  very  inferior  to  what  they  might  be,  if  mor6 
care  were  employed  in  the  operations  of  the  vintage. 

When  the  grapes  are  to  be  picked,  the  following  rules  may 
be  obferved :  To  cut  only  thofe  clufters  which  are  beft  ex- 
pofed,  thofe  the  grapes  of  \^'hich  '^re  equally  large  and  co- 
loured;  to  rejeft  all  thofe  Which  have  betn  flieltercd,  and 
near  the  grourtd ;  and  to  prefer  thofe  which  h'ave  ripened  at 
the  bottom  of  the  vinea. 

In  the  vineyards  which  furnifh  the  difieretit  ki'ri'ds  of  Bour- 
deaux  wine,  the  grapes  at-e  carefully  picked';  but  the  method 
of  picking  the  red  grapes  differs  fro iri  that  employed  for  pick- 
ing the  white:  in  picking  the  white,  neither  the  putrid  nor 
the  green  grapes  are  collected;  irt  regard  to  the  white,  the 
putrid  and  the  ripeft  are  preferred,  and  the  picking  is  not 
begun  till  a  great  many  of  the  grapes  have  become  putrid. 
This  operation  is  fo  minute  in  cet-tain  dillriet's,  fuch  as 
Sainte-Croix,  Loulliac,  &:c.  that  the  vintag<2  there  conttnucn 
two  months.  In  jMedoc  the  operation  of  picking  is  performed 
twice  for  the  red  wines;  at  Lajrnon  it  is  perfornied  three  or 
four  times;  for  the  white  grapes  at  Sainte-Croix,  five  or 
fix ;  at  Langoiran  from  two  to  three ;  and  two  in  all  the 
Graves. 

In  fome  countries  a  vintage  compofed  of  grapes  pcrfetS^lv 
ripe  is  dreaded.  The  cultivators  apprehend  that  the  wine! 
will  be  too  fwect,  and  they  remedy  this  inconvenience  bv  a 
mixture  of  large  grapes  lefs  ripe.  In  general,  the  winr^is 
not  brifkand  pungent,  but  when  grapes  ate  employed  which 

have 


134  ExlraSiion  of  Qpium  from  Gar  Jen  Lettuce. 

have  not  acquired  perfed  maturity.    This  is  what  is  pra(^:ifed 
ill  Champagne  and  other  places. 

In  fome  countries  where  the  grapes  never  come  to  abfokite 
maturity,  and  coniequently  cannot  develop  that  portion  of 
faccharine  principle  ncceflary  for  the  formation  of  alcohol, 
the  cultivators  proceed  to  the  vintage  before  the  appearance 
of  the  hoar-frolls;  becaufe  the  grapes  Hill  poilefs  a  fliarp 
principle,  which  gives  a  peculiar  quality  to  the  wine.  It  is 
obferved  in  all  thole  places,  that  a  degree  more  towards  ma- 
turity produces  wines  of  very  inferior  quality. 

7.  When  the  grapes  are  cut  they  ought  to  be  put  into 
balkets ;  taking  care  not  to  employ  any  of  too  large  a  fizc, 
left  the  juice  (liould  be  loft  by  the  fuperincumbent  weight. 
As  it  is  very  difficult,  however,  to  tranfport  the  grapes  from 
the  vineyard  to  the  vat  without  altering  them  by  prelTure, 
and  confequently  without  exprefling  more  or  lefs  of  the  juice, 
balkets  ought  not  to  be  employed  but  to  receive  the  grapes 
as  they  are  cut;  and  when  full  they  ought  to  be  emptied  into 
boxes  or  fcuttles,  that  they  may  be  more  conveniently  con- 
veyed to  the  vat.  They  ought  to  be  carried  in  carts,  or  on 
the  backs  of  men,  or  of  mules  :  which  of  thefe  three  means 
arc  to  be -employed  muft  be  determined  by  local  circum- 
llanecs.  Carts  are,  no  doubt,1efs  expenfive,  though  attended 
with  this  inconvenience,  that  the  grapes  may  be  injured  by 
the  repeated  lliocks  they  experience:  the  motion  of  a  ho  rfe 
is  gentler,  as  well  as  more  regular.  Scuttles  are  employed 
in  all  countries  where  the  grapes  are  not  very  ripe,  and  where 
there  is  little  danger  of  their  being  injured  by  the  carriage. 
[To  be  continued.] 


XV.   On  the  llxtradion  of  Opium  from  Garden  Let  luce. 


UK  plant  which  has  hitherto  been  cultivated  for  the 
pr()du(!:tion  of  o[)ium  is  the  papaver  fomrnferu7u,  .or  white 
pop/>v,  in  the  clafs  of  polyandria,  and  order  monogynia,  of 
i.hiuiciis.  It  is  an  annual  plant,  from  the  heads  or  capfules 
of  which  thii  drug  is  obtained  in  Perfia,  Arabia,  and  other 

warm 


ExtraBlon  of  Opium  f rem  Garden '  Lettuce,  135 

warm  regions  of  Ada,  by  making  in  them  Kmgijadinal  in- 

cifions,  from  which  a  milky  juice  exudes,  which,  being  in- 

fpilTated,  forms  the  officinalopium. 

According  to  M.  Baume,  4  pounds  of  common  opium 

confiftof  ft.  §.    5» 

Infoluhle  matter  -  -  i     i     o     ' 

Extradive  matter  -  -  i   15     o 

Refm  -  -  -  o  12     O 

Volatile  concrete  oil        -        -  o    3     7 

Sali?ie  matter         .         -         -  001 


ft.  4    o    o 

It  has  been  long  known  that  lettuce  poflefles  narcotic  pro- 
perties ;  till  lately,  however,  none  had  extrafted  from  it  a 
fubftance  polfeffing  all  the  properties  of  opium. 

Dr.  Coxe,  of  Philadelphia,  has  proved  (American  Philofo- 
phical  Tranfadions,  vol.  iv.)  that  the  infpiffated  milky  juice 
of  the  laBuca  fativa^  or  common  cultivated  lettuce  of  Lin- 
naeus, is  real  opium,  and,  according  to  every  appearance,  of 
a  better  quality  than  the  eaflern ;  for  the  principal  virtues  of 
this  medicine  are  believed  to  relide  in  the  extradive  matter; 
and,  by  comparative  experiments,  it  was  found  that  jo  grains 
of  extra(Slive  matter  were  taken  up  by  two  ounces  oF  rain 
water  from  20  grains  of  lettuce  opium ;  while,  from  the  fame 
quantity  of  common  opium,  only  nine  grains  were  taken  up 
by  an  equal  quantity  of  the  fame  water. 

The  ten  grains  of  the  former  which  were  left  on  the  filter, 
being  afFufed  with  half  an  ounce  of  alcohol,  and  again  filtered 
on  the  tenth  day  after,  left  on  the  filter  feven  grains.  The 
quantity  of  rcfmous  matter,  then,  was  three  grains. 

The  II  grains  left  from  the  common  opium,  by  a  fimilar 
treatment,  were  found  alfo  to  contain  three  grains ;  the  por- 
tion infoluble  either  in  water  or  alcohol  being  eight  grain.s. 

The  refin,  being  afterwards  precipitated  from  the  alcohol 
by  the  addition  of  water,  that  of  the  lettuce  appeared  whiter 
than  the  other. 

By  trials  made  in  the  Pennfylvania  hofpital,  and  by. expe- 
riments made  by  Dr.  Coxe  upon  himfelf,  the  lettuce-opium 
was  found  to  poircfs  all  the  properties  of  the  common. 

The 


J.^6  ExirsBion^J  Opium  from  Garden  Lettuce. 

The  milky  juice  from  which  the  opium  is  prepared  exifts 
in  the  ftalk  and  in  the  leaves  of  the  plant.  It  is  not  indifcri^ 
minatcly  depofited  throughout,  hut  is  placed  in  appropriate 
veifels  running  longitudinally  in  the  woody  or  fibrous  part 
t>f  the  ftalk.  The  internal  or  medullary  part  of  the  plant  is 
foft,  and  perfe6llv  bland  to  tlie  talte;  abounding  in  a  tranf- 
parent  mucilaginous  juice,  which  has  not  the  fmallefl;  ana- 
logy to  the  milky  one  above  mentioned.  The  heft  time  for 
collecting  the  milky  j«ice  is  when  the  plants  are  beginning 
to  feed :  before  this  it  has  not  acquired  its  medical  proper^ 
ties,  and  at  a  later  period  the  produce  is  by  no  means  fa 
confiderable. 

It  is  procured  in  the  fame  manner  as  from  the  poppy,  viz, 
by  incifions;  with  this  difference,  that  in  the  poppy  they  are 
longitudinal,  but  in  the  lettuce  they  muft  be  circular.  A 
very  moderate  depth  fuffices.  It  exudes  freely  in  milky  drops, 
which  may  be  either  immediately  colledled,  or  fu&red  to  dry 
on  the  ftalk,  apd  then  fcraped  off  and  depofited  in  proper 
veffels. 

Some  attempts  were  made  to  obtain  it  by  prefTure,  but  th<? 
other  juices  of  the  pl^nt  feemed  to  alter  it  confiderablv. 

All  the  fpecies  of  lettuce  contain  opium  in  a  larger  or 
fmallcr  proportion.  The  common  lettuce,  as  has  before 
been  obferved,  produced  that  made  nfe  of  by  Dr.  Coxe ;  but 
the  i(7Siiica  Jj'IvcjMs  OT  viro/a  o(  hinna^us  contains  it  moll 
abundantly.  The  former,  however,  Ihould  perhaps  be  pre-, 
ferred  :  it  will  ferve  the  double  purpofe  of  cultivating  for  the 
table  as  well  as  for  the  druggift.  The  fale  of  the  fupernume- 
rary  plants  would  probably  more  than  repay  the  expenfe  at- 
tending the  Cultivation  of  thofe  inten<ied  ft>r  opium  :  indeed, 
a  nun>ber  of  plants  generally  run  to  feed  and  are  loft,  at  pre- 
f\:nt,  which  might,  and  we  hope  in  future  will,  be  made  to 
turn  to  good  account. 

It  is  a  curious  circumftance,  that  while  Dr.  Coxe  was 
en<r?»ged  on  this  interefting  buiinefs  in  America,  Mr.  Cart- 
wright  (to  whom  the  world  is  indebted  for  the  difcovcry  of 
the  efficacy  of  veaft  in  curing  putrid  fevers)  was  engaged  in 
ftmilar  experiments  in  England.  The  arrival  of  the  fourth 
volume  of  the  AuTerican  Tr4Hfa<ftious  in  this  country,  and 
4  ii'QXXx 


travels  through  the  Inkrkr  of  Africa.  lyj 

froni  which  we  have  extraftcd  the  preceding  remarks,  has^ 
however,  anticrpatcd  his  intention  of  tiiakihg  the  fad  public^ 
that  as  good  opium  may  be  obtained  from  lettuce  as  any  that 
ts  imported. 


aVI.  Account  ofC,  F.  Damberger's  Travels  through  ths 

interior  Parts  of  Africa,  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to 

Morocco, 

[Concluded  from  p.  7 8.  J 


T, 


HE  kingdom  of  HcioufTa  our  traveller  defcribes  as  the 
tnoft  beautiful  country  he  had  kQii  fince  his  departure  front 
the  Cape.  Ori  the  caft  it  is  bounded  by  the  kingdom  of 
Mophaty  (Zanfara),  on  the  north  by  Fomingo,  oii  the  weft 
by  Fecne,  and  the  fouth  by  the  kingdom  of  Bahara.  The 
river  Niger,  which  interfefts  a  part  of  thi3  country,  renders 
it  fruitful,  and  conduces  greatly  to  facilitate  its  commercial 
intercourfe  ;  for  a  great  many  frriall  vell'els  go  from  Tambuk- 
loo  to  Boofu,  where  the  goods  are  unloaded  and  conveyed  t(j 
the  more  diilant  fjarts  of  the  country  by  caravans.  The  land 
is  fruitful,  and  if  well  cultivated  would  be  exceedingly  pro- 
du<Slive.  It  abounds  with  animals  of  every  kind,  and  is  well 
fupplied  with  timber  and  various  forts  of  fruit :  in  the  moun-*^' 
tains  are  found  fait  and  faltpetre;  and  iii  the  forefts  hoiiey  anti 
wax.  The  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  wear  long  drelles 
of  coloured  cotton  cloth  faftened  round  theit  bodies,  and  in- 
ftead  of  (lioes  have  leather  thongs  tied  crofsvvife  over  their 
feet:  on  the  head  thev  generally  wear  a  piece  of  coloured 
cotton  or  v/oollcn  cloth.  The  city  of  Haouffa  is  one  of  the 
largert  in  Africa,  According  to  Damberger  k  i^  Haifa  day's 
journey  in  length  and  two  rriilcs  in  breadth. 

During  the  courfe  of  his  military  expeditiriri  bur  traveller 
endeavouted  to  fecure  the  friendfliip  of  fome  Moors,  arid  to 
obtain  from  them  information  ref[>€Aing  his  future  journey, 
as  he  had  refolved  to  efFecl  his  ef:-ape  the  firft  favourable  6p- 
pdrtuhity.  With  this  view,  and  to  make  himfelf  bettei"  ac- 
quainted wirh  the  route,  he  obtained  permiflion  from  t& 
king  to  repair  frequently  to  the  fuburbsand  neighbouring 
country  ;  but  on  thefe  occaiions  he  wa$  always  accompanied 

Vol,  IX,  S  by 


138  Travels  through  the 

by  a  Moor,  who  had  orders  from  the  king  to  Watch  his  md^' 
tions.  Finding  it  difficult,  therefore,  to  put  his  defign  in  exe- 
cution, he  refolved  to  purfue  another  plan :  he  went  no  more 
abroad,  but  remained  at  home,  pretending  to  be  fick.  The 
officer  who  had  the  care  of  the  Moors  having  inquired,  the 
fccond  day  after,  what  was  the  matter  with  him,  he  replied, 
that  he  apprehended  being  attacked  by  a  fever.  When  thi^ 
was  told  to  the  king,  his  majefty  eonfulted  one  of  the  priefts 
in  what  manner  Bamberger  could  be  cured;  and  the  prieft, 
ftiuch  to  our  traveller's  fatisfa6lion,  replied,  that  it  would  b(5 
necellary  for  him  to  bathe  feveral  times  a  day.  Inconse- 
quence of  this  prcfcription  he  was  ordered  by  the  king  to 
bathe  in  a  fmall  lake  before  the  city  under  the.  care  of  a 
Moor.  This  he  did  for  eight  days  vyithout  any  hope  of  being 
able  to  tfftS.  his  efcape;  but  on  the  ninth  day,  after  going 
out,  he  pretended  to  be  exceedingly  weak,  and  faid  he  had 
obtained  leave  on  that  account  to  remain  abroad  till  the  even-^ 
ing.  His  attendant,  believing  that  he  fpoke  the  truth,  in- 
formed him  that  he  would  in  the  mean  time  go  back  to  the 
fkav^i^/and  return  for  him  in  the  evening.  Scarcely,  how- 
ever, was  the  Moor  out  of  fight,  when  our  traveller  fet  off  as 
fail  as  he  could,  taking  the  road  to  the  capital  of  Feene,  at 
which  he  arrived  on  the  20til  of  September,  and  where  he 
Remained  feme  months. 

This  city  is  iituated  on  a  barren  eminence,  which  in  the 

rainy  feafon,  that  is  to  fay,  in  the  months  of  June  and  July, 

is  fo  entirely  furrounded  with  water  that  it  is  impoffible  to 

walk  from  it  the  diflance  of  half  a  mile.     Thofe  whofe  bufi- 

nefs  or  occupations  render  it  neceflkry  for  them  to  proceed 

further,  muft  employ  camels  or  horfes;  but  the  water  is  fo 

deep  that  they  are  often  in  danger  of  being  drowned.  The  city^ 

which  is  well  built  according  to  the  African  mode^  is  about  two 

milesin  circumference.  It  contains  four  principal  ftreets,  which 

crofs  each  other,  forming  at  the  place  of  their  interfe6lion 

a  market ;  where  there  are  expofed  for  fale,  not  Only  the  pro- 

duAions  of  Africa,  but  European  articles,  brought  thither  by 

^caravans,  fuch  as  looking-glaflcs,  buttons,  needles,  toys,  &c. 

.u'hich  are  fold  chiefly  for  money  or  bullion.     The  caitle  lies 

op,  the  weft,  and  is  furrounded  by  a  wall,  which  on  one  fide 


Interior  Paris  of  Jfr'ica,  i-^g 

b  GonneAed  with  the  walls  of  the  town.  Thefe  wajls  are  c<m-. 
ftrii(B;fed  of  common  ftonesand  flints;  but  the  houles,  which- 
are  fometimes  two  flories  high,  are  built,  for  the  molt  part, 
of  draw,  leaves,  timber,  and  clay.     The  town  is  divided  into 
two  parts;  one, confifting  of  houfes  called  Konho  horrobjatn- 
gala,  or  the  hill  of  the  free  town,  is  inhabited  by  the  nier^ 
chants,  priefts,  and  magiftrates  5  the  otljer  part,  called  Ilifiy^ 
daho  honko,  the  hill  of  the  black  land,  received  this  appel*- 
liition,  in  all  probability,  becaufe  the  huts  it  contains,  and 
which  arc  inhabited  chiefly  by  Arabs  and  indigent  Moors, 
fland  in  a  place  where  the  foil  is  a  kind  of  black  ejirth. 
Bcfides  eighty  public  temples  and  mofques,  there  are  here  a 
great  many  private  temples  in  the  houfes  of  the  principal  in- 
habitants.    Bamberger  found  here  what  he  had  not  feen  for 
a  long  time,  vio^.  four  public  wells  :  each  of  them  was  walled 
round  in  a  neat  manner  with  flints,  and  had  a  winding  flair 
that  condu6led  down  to  the  water.     They  were  not  liipplied 
with  water   from  fprings,  but  by  the  rain  which  fell  in  the 
rainy  feafon;  at  other  times  water  was  conduced  to  them' 
by  conduits  from  the  Niger.     They  were  under  the  infp(^c- 
tion  of  perfons  appointed  to  take  care  of  them,   and  who  had 
fcrvants  whofe  bufinefs  was  to  open  and  fliut  them ;  for  they 
were  always  kept  flnit  during  the  night.    According  to  Dam- 
berger,  the  people  here,  in  cafes  of  fire,  do  not  employ  water 
to  extinguifli  it,  but  in  its  flead  ufe  fand.     The  king  refides 
here  only  four  months  in  the  year;  the  remaining  part  of  it 
he  fpends  at  Sille,  or  in  fome  other  town,  and  fonietimcs  alfo 
in  camp.     The  Arabs  employ  themfelves  in  agriculture,  and 
though  the  ground  is  covered  with  fand  they  obtain  good 
crops;  for  the  land  is  fertilifed  partly  by  the  inundation  during 
the  rainy  feafon,  and  partly  by  manure. 

Our  traveller  left  this  place  on  the  7th  of  April,  and  arrived 
at  Nahga,  from  which  he  proceeded  up  the  Niger  in  a  boat, 
«and  on  the  nth  reached  Sille  or  Silla,  the  fecond  refidence 
of  the  kintr  of  Feene.  It  is  fltuated  clofe  to  the  Nicer,  and 
is  larger  than  Feene,  but  not  fo  well  built.  It  has  two  prin- 
cipal flreets  with  a  crofs  flreet,  and  confifts  of  houfes  and 
huts  fcattered  here  and  there  in  an  irregular  manner.  A 
f'anal  from   the  Niger  pafles  along  the  crofs  ftrcct  for  .the 

S  %  purpofe 


J40  Travelsi^hroUgh  ih^  Interior  of  Africa. 

purpofe  of  fupplying  the  town  with  water.  There  are  only 
about  a  hundred  Hone  houfes  in  the  town^  becaufe  the  ftones 
muft  be  brought  from  a  great  diftance;  but  the  number  of 
if:he  huts  is  confiderable.  Thev  are  built  of  the  trunks  of 
the  pahn  tree,  and  covered  with  pahii  leaves.  The  niofques 
and  temples,  which  amount  to  about  a  hundred,  are  con^ 
ltru(9;ed  of  palm  branches  interwoven  with  each  other,  and 
are  covered  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  huts. 

After  leaving  Sille,  our  traveller  fet  out  with  a  caravan, 
and  pafiing  Muta,  Saatata,  and  Sanoho,  or  the  Gold  Moun- 
tains, reached  the  confines  of  the  kingdom  of  Nytokka, 
Here  the  caravan  relied  a  day,  and  then  crofiing  the  Gatta 
Mahara,  or  Defert  of  Lions,  which  is  fix  days  journey  in 
length,  arrived  among  a  people  called  the  Seegmartons,  who 
refide  in  holes  and  caverns  of  the  moim-tains.  Thefe  people 
have  neither  king  nor  ruler,  but  live  in  a  ftate  of  unreftrained 
freedom,  and  forrn  excellent  foldiers,  who,  on  the  breaking 
out  of  a  war,  are  taken  into  pay  by  fome  of  the  neighbouring 
nations. 

Qn  the  24i\\  of  May  t]:)e  caravan  afcended  a  |arge  chairt 
of  mountains,  and,  continuing  their  journey  through  a  fandy 
defert,  arrived  on  the  ift  of  June  at  a  village  of  the  kingdom 
of  Watometh,  where  they  halted.  Oh  the  5th  of  June  they 
afcended  another  chain  of  mountains,  croiied  the  Sampi 
river  by  fwimming,  but  were  expofed  to  great  danger  on 
account  of  its  being  at  that  time  much  fwollen,  and,  pafling 
fome  fandy  plains,  reached  the  boundaries  of  the  kingdom  of 
Tamphata.  Here  they  were  attacked  by  a  horde  of  Arabs, 
and  loft  two  men  and  a  camel  \  but  they  efcaped  without 
further  lofy,  and  arrived  at  the  mountams  which  form  the 
boundaries  of  the  large  defert  of  Sahara. 

After  this  our  traveller  fell  fick  near  a  place  called  Euyfach, 
and,  being  jeft  behind  by  the  caravan,  yemaiuecl  in  the  next 
village,  urider  the  care  of  a  Jew,  until  he  recovered.  He  theri 
proceeded  on  horfebackj  accompanied  by  fome  Moors,  to 
Tegorarin,  where  tlie  Moors  fold  hiin  to  a  flave-merchant, 
for  whom  he  made  various  articles  of  furniture,  and  who 
carried  him,  along  with  four  young  female  (laves,  to  Omor 
iab,  and  refold  him  to  a  MofTelemi.     He,  however,  did  not 

lonor' 


Infcrlpiions  hr ought  from  Egypt,  ^c,  X4| 

Jopg  remain  with  his  new  inafter;  fqr  he  was  again  fold  to 
jsui  inhabitant  of  Mozzabeth,  who  in  foqr  pionths  fold  hiiu 
to  a  merchant  of  Morocco,  who  carried  him  to  that  city. 

After  living  for  fome  time  wjth  this  niafter,  who,  inftead 
pf  treating  him  as  a  flave,  behaved  to  hjm  with  great  kind- 
nefs,  he  was  redeemed  by  a  private  4gent  of  the  French  Re- 
public, aiKi,  taking  his  parage  on  bqard  a  Dutch  ihip  bouiu|- 
to  Holland,  arrived  in  theTexel  on  the  Qth  of  February  1797. 


I 


XVII,  Notice  refpe^itig  the  Infcriptions  brought  from  Egypt 
by  the  Oncers  of  the  French  Army,  Read  hi  the  public 
Sitting  of  the  National  Inflit^cte  on  the  ^th  of  January,  By 
C.  Am^ilhon, 

X  HE  valuable  monument  which  contains  thefe  infcrip- 
tions was  found  near  Rofetta  in  Egypt*.  P^xacl  impreffions 
of  them  were  taken  from  the  (lone  itfelf  by  a  particular  pro- 
pefs,  invented  by  Marcel  and  Galland,  the  former  director, 
;md  the  latter  eorreftpr,  of  the  national  printing-office  efta- 
blifhed  at  Cairo :  and  thefe  impreffions  were  tranfmittcd  to 
the  National  Inditute  at  Paris,  who  cntrufted  them  to  me 
that  I  mighf  firfl  examine  the  Greek  jnfcription.  The  firft 
of  thefe  infcriptions  is  in  the  hieroglyphical  orfacred  charac- 
ters; the  fecond  in  the  chara6iers  of  the  language  of  the 
country,  that  is  to  fay,  the  language  fpoken  at  that  period  by 
the  vulgar  in  Egypt;  and  the  third  in  the  Greek  charaders. 
The  laft  informs  us  that  they  all  contain  one  decree  cx- 
prefled  in  three  languages. 

It  was  no  doubt  to  fecure  to  this  monument  an  unalterable 
exiftence  that  the  authors  of  the  decree  declared  that  it  fliould 
be  engraven  on  one  of  thofe  ftones  dillinguiflied  by  their  hard- 
nefs ;  which  agrees  with  the  report  of  general  Dugua,  who 
certifies  that  the  Hone  is  a  granite.  This  wife  precaution  has 
not,  however,  been  attended  with  complete  fucccfs :  Time, 
which  devours  every  thing,  has  corroded  the  ftt)ne  in  feveral 
places,  fo  that  none  of  the  infcriptions  are  entire. 

The  infcripiion  in  hieroglyphical  characters,  the  knowledge 
■   Pee  the  Pliijofophiipal  Magazine,  Vol.  VI 11.  p.  04, 


t4'i  t)i fcnptiofis  brought  from'E^jpt 

of  wliich  is  the  mod  intercQihg,  is  mutilated  in  every  part  j 
and  what  remains  of  it  is  not  above  half  what  it  ought  to  be. 

The  infcription  in  the  vulgar  language  of  the  country, 
which  dcfervcs  alfo  to  engage  the  attention  of  learned  ori- 
eiUaliftSj  is  the  leaft  effaced. 

The  Greek  infcription  has  fuffered 'nmch  more  than  the 
preceding.  Of  the  fifty-four  lines  it  contains,  twenty-four 
have  been  more  or  lefs  altered  :  fome  of  them  have  loli:  above 
a  fourth  of  their  length,  which  disfigures  the  text  fo  as  to 
render  it  fometimcs  altogether  unintelligible. 

But,  however  defeftive  this  infcription  may  be,  we  will 
venture  to  aflfert  that  there  is  nothing  hazardous  in  what  we 
are  going  to  fay  refpefting  it. 

This  infcription  attefts  that  it  was  a  monument  ere6ied  in 
honour  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  the  fon  of  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pater  and  Ariinoe,,  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  was  the"  fifth  of  the 
fourteen  fovereigns  who  reigned  over  Egypt  after  the  death  of 
Alexander,  from  Ptolemy  the  fon  of  Lagus,  furnamed  Soter, 
or  the  faviour,  to  the  famous  Cleopatra.  This  monument 
was  cre6led  in  confequence  of  a  decree  iflucd  by  the  autho- 
rity of  the  priefts,  who  had  aflemblcd  at  Memphis  from  all 
the  diftriiSls  of  Egypt  to  celebrate  the  inauguration  of  the 
new  king,  the  fon  of  Ptolemy-Epiphanes,  The  name  of  the 
Ptolemy  who  is  the  object  of  the  infcription  is  fcarcely  ever 
repeated  in  \i  without  being  acconipanied  with  the  epithets 
fihvaj's-li'vijig  or  wi7nortal,  the  heh'ved  fon  of  the  god  Ptha 
or  Vulcan,  the  god  Ep'iphaues,  moji  gr.acious.  Pie  is  there 
compared  to  Vulcan,  the  great  Ilermes,  Orus  the  fon  of  Ifis 
and  Ofiris.  Plis  father,  his  grandfather,  and  the  other  Pto- 
lemys  his  anceftors  participate  with  him  in  the  honours  of 
this  pompous  preamble;  after  which  comes  the  firft  part  of 
the  decree. 

The  prieds  explain  there  the  motives  on  which  it  is 
founded.  Thefe  motives,  in  general,  are  the  piety  of  the 
prince  towards  the  gods  and  his  beneficence  towards  men. 
The  infcription  fays  that  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  had  given  to 
the  teniples,"  and  the  priefts  v;ho  ferved  in  them,  large  dona- 
tions in  money,  and  corn,  and  other  largefles  of  every  kind; 
that  by  the  force  of  his  arms  he  Ijad  reitorcd  tranquillity  to 


hy  fire  Officers  of  the  French  Army,  1 43* 

Kgypt ;  that  he  had  afterwards  endeavoured  to  repair  the 
evils  occafioned  by  war,  and  to  make  the  people  comfortable 
by  reniittini)-,  either  entirely  or  in  part,  the  taxes  that  were, 
due,  or  by  diminidiing  the  burthen,  of  thofe  which  had  been 
cftdbliflied  in  the  courie  of  his  reigiii  The  infcription  adds 
that  he  had  caufed  the  prifons  to  be  opened  to  thofe  detained 
in  them,  andhad  difchargcd  a  great  number  of  accufed  per-« 
fons  who  for  a  lonjr  time  had  been  waiting  for  their  fentence; 
that  he  had  ordered  that  all  the  rents  which  conftituted  the  do- 
mains of  the  temples,  and  all  thofe  which  under  the  reign  of 
his  father  Ptolemy  Philopater  had  been  raifed  annually,  either 
in  money  or  in  kind,  from  the  vineyards  and  gardens,  for  the 
behoof  of  the  gods,  (liould  continue  to  be  punctually  paid  as 
before ;  and  that  the  priefts  (liould  not  pay  more  for  their 
perfonal  taxes  than  what  they  had  been  aecuftbmed  to  pay 
from  the  beginnino;  of  his  fiither's  reio;n. 

too  D 

This  infcription  here  calls  to  j-emcmbrance  a  particular 
fa6t,  which  is  worthy  of  notice.  It  informs  us  that  there 
were  manufactories  of  linen  cloth  denoted  under  the  name 
<>S.hyJj)iSj  depending  on  the  templet,  and  that  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  this  merchandife  was  colledled  every  year  for  the  ufe 
of  the  navy  and  for  the  particular  fervice  of  the  prince;  that 
Ptolemy  Epiphancs  on  a  certain  occafion  remitted  a  part  of 
this  tax,  and  that  on  another  he  fufpended  the  levying  of  it. 
This  prince  alfo  eftabliihed,  in  favour  of  the  people  and  their 
religious  worfliip,  various  ordinances^  into  the  particulars  of 
which  we  cannot  ^nter  without  tranfgreffingthe  limits,allowed 
for  this  extra<Sti 

In  the  eighth  year  of  the  reign  of  Ptolemv  Epiphancs  there 
was  a  great  inundation  of  the  Nile.  This  prince  caufed  dykes 
to  be  conftrucled  to  confine  the  river  to  its  bed,  and  to  pre- 
vent it  from  overflowing  the  plains,  which  ii  was  accuftomcd 
to  do  almoin  every  year.  The  infcription  fpeaks  alfo  of  tlie  ficfro 
and  captiire  of  Lycopolis  (the  city  of  the  wolvei),  which  this 
prince  carried  by  alfault.  The  infcription  is  here  fupported 
by  hiftory,  from  which  we  learn  that  Lycopolis  aclually  re* 
volted  agalnd  Ptolemy  Epiphancs,  and  that  after  entering  it  as  a 
conqueror  he  treated  the  inhabiiants  with  great  fv.- verity.  But 
if  he  puniflied  with  the  utmoft  rigour  the  rebels  who  perfilled 

in 


144  infcriptlons  brought  from  Egypi 

in  their  revolt,  he  generoufly  pardoned  thofe  who  returned  to 
their  duty;  he  wivs  even  delirous  that  their  property  (houlci 
be  reftorfed  to  therh. 

The  ox  Apis  arid  the  ox  Mnevjs,  the  two  chief  deities  of 
the  rehgiorl  of  the  antient  Egyptians,  participated  alfo  ift 
thefe  acls  of  pioiis  hberality.  "  Carrying  his  forefight  fxir* 
ther  than  any  of  his  predeceffdrs,"  fays  ttle  infcription,  ''  he 
affigned  confidtrable  funds  for  defraying  the  expenfe, of  their 
funerals  arid  interment,  for  fupportiiig  their  worfliip  and 
rhflintaining  their  temple!?.  The  gods  therefore,**  continues 
the  infcription,  ^^  to  reward  thefe  noble  a6lions,  conferred  on 
him  health,  ftrength,  vi(Si:ory,  and  all  thofe  advantages  which 
cari  ren'der  a  fovereigii  happy." 

The  pricfts  then  proceed  to  the  decree.  This  fecond  part 
of  the  infcription  is  unfortunately  that  which  has  fuffered 
moft  from  the  injui'y  of  time.  It  may  however  be  clearly 
feen,  beyoiid  all  rrianrier  of  doubt,  that  it  is  there  faid  that 
all  the  temples  which  had  been  beforfe  confiru<Sled  in  honour 
of  Ptolemy  Epiphancs,  and  the  other  four  Ptolemys  his  pre- 
deceffors,  were  to  be  greatly  enlarged  and  embelliflied ;  that 
in  each  of  thcffe'  temples  a  ftatue  fhould  be  erc6ied  to  Ptolemy 
Epiphanes,  to  be  called  the  ftatue  of  Vtolenty  the  defender  of 
Egypt',  that  before  it  diould  be  placed  the  principal  divinity 
of  the  temple  prefenting  to  him  the  attributes  or  trophies  of 
Vi6lory  I  that  ttie  prieRs  fhould  perform  their  fervice  near 
thefe  images  three  times  a  day ;  and  that  there  fhould  be  de- 
pofited  in  the  fan6tuary  of  the  temples  a  fmall  ftatue  of  the 
new  god  iriclofed  in  a  fmall  temple  ov  (lirine;  that  the  fmall 
temple  a[nd  ftatuc  fhould  be  carried  like  thofe  of  the  other  gods 
daring  thofe  grand  folenmities,  when  it  was  ciiflomary  to 
take  them  from  the  temples  to  bear  them  in  p^ublic  procef- 
fion,  on  which  account  ihcfe  folcmnities  were  called  Exodiay 
or  ifTuing  from  the  temples; 

Notwithdanding  the  rum  of  this  part  of  the  infcription/ 
knd  the  diforganifation  of  thctfext,  which  increafes  as  we  ad- 
vance, we  can  difcover  that  it  contains  certain  details  re- 
fpc<9;ing  the  worfhip  of  the  new  deity.  Allufibn  is  made  in 
{^articular  to  a  grand  feftival,  which  was  to  commence  at  the 
heoinenia  of  the  month  Thouth^  and  to  continue  five  days, 
6  duting 


hy  the  Officefs  of  the  French  Army.  145 

during  which  the  priefts  were  to  appear  with  crowns  on  their 
heads. 

In  regard  to  the  date  of  this  curious  monument,  it  maybe 
fixed,  without  much  fear  of  being  miftaken,  at  the  year  i86 
before  the  Chriftian  aera.  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  indeed,  hav- 
ing died,  according  to  the  beft  chronologifts,  in  the  year  177 
before  the  common  aera,  it  follows,  that  the  inauguration  of 
his  fon,  which  took  place  nine  years  after,  riiuft  be  referred 
tt)  the  year  J  85.  But  the  infcription  and  inauguration  of 
Ptolemy  Philometor,  the  fon  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  are  of 
the  fame  epoch  as  the  infcription  attefts. 

We  fliall  not  here  attempt  to  fupply  what  is  wanting  in 
the  text  of  the  infcripiion.  This  attempt  would  be  ufelefs 
and  rafli ;  ufdefsy  becaufe  the  fecond  infcription,  which  is  in 
the  antient  language  of  the  country,  and  the  third,  viz,  the 
Greek  infcription,  muft  reciprocally  fupply  what  has  been 
loft;  rajb,  (ince  in  the  latter  cafe  it  might  happen  that  the 
reftitutions  made  in  the  Greek  infcription  by  that  which  pre- 
cedes it,  might  formally  contradi6l  the  fupplcmentary  addi- 
tions of  the  commentator. 

It  muft  however  be  acknowledged,  that  I  have  not  carried 
my  fcruples  fo  far  as  not  to  venture  to  finifti  a  word  begun, 
or  not  to  terminate  a  phrafe,  the  fenfe  of  which  might  be 
doubtful  when  the  words  preferved  neceftarily  fuggefted  thofe 
which  had  difappeared.  I  have  not  even  abftained  from 
making  fomc  conje6lures  refpecting  certain  parts  of  the  in- 
fcription where  the  text  was  fo  much  deftroyed  that  the  leaft 
trace  of  it  did  not  remain. 

This  firft  labour  on  the  Greek  infcription  of  Ptolemy  Epi- 
phanes may  be  of  fome  utility  to  thofe  who  are  to  exercife 
their  talents  on  the  fecond,  in  order  to  proceed  afterwards  to 
the  explanation  of  the  firft.  But  it  muft  be  confefted  that 
the  ftate  of  thefc  three  infcriptions,  and  that  in  particular  of 
the  hieroglyphical  characters,  gives  reafon  to  thinkthai  great 
ditficulties  niuft  be  overcome,  and  great  eftbrts  made,  to  ae- 
complifti  the  propofed  end. 


Vol.  IX.  T  XVIIL  Ec^ 


[    14^    ] 

XVIir.  Uefcarchesrefpeaitig  the  Laws  of  Affinity.  ^CBeR- 
TiiOLLKT,  Member  of  the  National  Infiitute,  &^c, 

Vy liEMfSrS  have  long  been  looking  for  Berthollct's  work 
on  this  rubjee%  which  has  at  laft  made  its  appearance,  and 
contains  much  new  and  ufeful  matter.  A  mere  analyfis  of 
the  work  would  be  of  little  ufe  to  our  readers;  we  fliall  there- 
fore prefcnt  extracts  of  fuch  parts  as  may  tend  to  make 
them  acquainted  with  tlie  nature  of  the  fa6ts  on  which  hef 
founds  his  theory,  and  which  deferve  the  attention  of  every 
cheniKL 

Berthollet  divides  his  memoir  into  fifteen  articles- 

I.  In  the  fir(i,  after  an  eulogy  on  Bergman,  he  dates  his 
intention  to  be^  "  to  prove  that  elective  affinities  do  not  a6t 
like  ablolute  forces,  by  which  one  fubllance  in  a  combina- 
tion would  be  difpkced  by  another ;  but  that,  in  all  the  com- 
poiitlons  and  decompofitions  w^iich  are  produced  by  ele6live 
affinity,  there  is  a  dirtribution  of  the  combined  fubllance 
among  thofe  which  exercife  contrary  affinities ;  and  the  pro- 
portions of  this  diftribution  arc  determined  not  only  by  the 
energy  of  the  affinity  of  thefe  fubflanees,  but  alfo  by  the 
quantity  with  which  they  a^l)  fo  that  quantity  can  make  up 
for  the  force  of  affinity,  in  order  to  produce  the  fame  degree 
of  faturation. 

*'  If  I  eftabliffi,"  adds  the  author^  "  that  the  quantity  of 
pt  fublbmce  can  make  up  for  the  force  of  its  affinity,  the  re- 
fult  will  be,  that  its  action  is  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
neceffiiry  to  produce  a  determinate  degree  of  ftituratiori.  I  give 
the  name  of  f/ufs  to  that  quantity  which  is  the  meafure  of  the 
capacity  of  the  faturation  of  the  different  fubitanccs.  In  com-, 
paring,  therefore,  the  affinities  of  fubilances,  I  Ihall  pay  at- 
tention to  the  ponderable  (juantitits,  which  in  this  comparifoii 
ought  to  be  equal ;  but  in  comparing  their  aftion,  which  is 
compofed  of  their  affinity  and  their  proportion,  it  is  their 
niafs  that  ought  to  be  confidered." 

The  author  then  announces,  that  in  the  following  difcuf- 
fions  he  will  chiefly  employ  ^'  acids  and  alkalies,  (compre- 
hending aifiong  the  latter  thofe  earths  whidi  have  the  fame 
4  a(B:ioii,) 


k 


On  the  Laws  of  Affinity.  147 

atSlian,)  becaufe  they  ad  with  a  force  fo  great  as  to  make 
the  influence  of  little  caufcs  dlfappear ;  becaiiie  they  often 
produce  comparable  degrees  of  faturation  ;  and  becaufe  they 
gite  refults  eafy  to  be  obferved/*  But  the  confequences 
which  Berthollet  draws  from  their  properties  he  applies  to 
all  combinations ;  and  feveral  examples  are  adduced  to  prove 
that  the  principle  which  he  eftablifties  extends  to  every  che- 
mical a6tion  of  bodies. 

After  having  proved,  by  direct  experiments,  that  the  che- 
mical adion  of  bodies,  the  forces  of  which  are  contrary,  de- 
pends not  only  on  their  affinity  but  alfo  on  their  quantity, 
the  author  announces,  that  he  means  to  felcjSl  obfervations 
refpe^ling  the  different  kinds  of  combinations,  which  will 
confirm  this  principle,  and  which  will  prove  its  extent. 
i^  I  (hall  then  examine,'*  fays  he,  "  the  circum fiances  by 
which  it  is  modified,  or  the  affeftions  of  bodies  which  favour 
or  leflen  their  chemical  a6lion,  and  which  occafion  a  variety 
of  proportions  in  the  combinations  they  can  form.  I  fhall 
apply  thefe  confiderations  to  complex  affinities  and  to  thofe 
of  compound  bodies ;  and,  in  the  lafl:  place,  I  fliall  endea- 
vour to  fix  the  bafis  on  which  the  general  and  particular  the* 
pries  of  chemical  phsenomena  depend. 

II.  Experiments  ivhich  prove  that  in  Eif^ive  Affinities  the 
.   Subftances  which  exercife  oppofite  Affinities  divide  them- 
felvcs  in  that  which  is  the  Suhjc^  of  the  Co?iibhiation, 

To  demonftrate  the  truth  of  this  principle,  C.  Berthollet 
defcribes  feveral  experipients,  of  which  we  flmll  mention  the 
following:  ^'  I  kept  ill  a  ilate  of  ebullition,''  fays  he,  "  in  a 
fmall  quantity  of  water,  an  equal  weight  of  potafli,  purified 
by  alcohol,  and  of  fulphat  of  barytes.  The  operation  was 
performed  in  a  retort,  and,  confequei>tly,  without  the  conta6l 
of  the  air  :  the  mixture  u-as  reduced  to  a  flate  of  drynefs,  and 
the  refiduum  being  treated  with  alcohol,  which  diflblved  the 
potafli,  and  after  that  with  water,  the  latter  effcfted  a  folu- 
tion  which  ftill  exhibited  alkaline  properties.  The  alkali  was 
faturatcd  with  acetous  acid,  after  which  there  was  formed, 
by  evaporation,  a  pretty  confiderable  quantity  of  fmall  cryf- 
%^\^,  which  had  all  the  chara6lers  of  fulphat  of  potafli ;  fo 

T  ^  tha^ 


'4^  Rt-fcarches  refpc6ting 

that  the  fulpbat  of  harytcs  was  in  part  d^ompofod^  and  th^^ 
Julpburic  acid  was  divided  between  the  two  baj'es, 

*'  The  other  experiments  were  made,  ift,  with  fulphat  of 
potafli  and  lime ;  3d,  oxalat  of  lime  and  potafti ;  ^d^  oxalai 
of  lime  and  nitric  acid:  4th,  phofphat  of  lime  and 'potaih: 
5th,  potafh  and  .carbonat  of  lime:  bth,  foda  aftd  fulphat .of 
potafh. 

"  In  all  thefe  experiments  Z/?*^  3^^,  which  pafs  to  fofm 
with  acids  the  ftrongeft  and  (ifmell  combinaticiis,  ar£  feen 
in  part  eliminated  by  a  hafe  to  ivhich ,  a  weaker  affinity  is 
afcribed,  fo  that  ibe  acid  is  divided  heni^een  two  hufes.  Acids 
ere  feen  alfo  eliminated  in  part  from  their  baje  by  others^  thfe 
affinity  of  which  is  confidered  as  inferio-r,  fo  that  the  bafe  is 
divided  between  two  acids  J*' 

The  author  obferves,  that  "  if  only  a  fmall  quantity  of  the 
decompofing  fubftance  be  employed,  the  eflFe6l  will  nat  be 
fenlible;"  and  concludes,  that  "  when  a  fubilance  a6ls  on 
a  combination,  that  which  is  the  fubje61  of  the  combination 
divides  itfelf  between  two  other  fubftances,  not  only  according 
to  the  refpeftive  energy  of  their  affinity,  but  alfo  according  to 
their  quantity." 

III.  Obfervations  which  confirm  the  Principle,  that  Chemical 
Adion  is  in  the  Ratio  of  the  Majs, 

The  author  makes  obfervations  on  the  different  kinds  of 
combinations  expofed  to  elective  affinity,  and  examines  whe- 
ther the  principle,  that  chemical  action  is  in  the  ratio  of  the 
mafs,  cannot  be  exactly  applied  to  explain  them. 

"  If  carbonat  of  potafl),"  fays  he,  '^^  be  treated  with  lime, 
the  whole  of  the  carbonic  acid  cannot  be  taken  from  the  pot- 
afli  even  by  performing  fucceffive  operations  with  more  lime; 
and,  if  the  liquid  be  evaporated,  the  refiduum  (lill  effervefces 
when  faturated  with  "acids — ^becaufe  the  potafh  which  re- 
mains prefeut  with  the  lime  oppofes  its  aiSlion ;  and  the 
more  carbonic  acid  the  lime  has  taken  up,  the  more  powerful 
tlie  potafh  becomes  to  defend  its  own  combination  with  the 
tciibonic  actd  ;"  or,  in  other  words,  to  reliddccompofition. 

<'  When  an  equilibrium  is  eliabliihed  between  the  adtiou 
lime  and  the  reliftance  Ajf -the potaffi,  if  the  liquor  be 

filtered 


thv  Laws  of  Affi\iih\  149 

filtered  and  evaporated,  the  alkaliiie  part,  which  is  fupcT-' 
abundant  to  the  conftitutioii  of  the  carbonat  of  pota{h,  that 
i-6  to  fay,  all  the  portion  not  defended  by  a  fufficiently  large 
mafs  of  carbonic  acid,  may  be  taken  away  by  a  weak  affinity. 
Alcohol  has  this  property :  by  its  means  a  feparation  may 
be  efTejfted;  the  carhonat  of  potajh  remains  in  folution  in  a 
little  water,  while  the  alcohol  of  the  fotajh  is  fupernatant.  The 
carbonat  of  potafli  which  is  feparated  might  be  treated  atfo 
with  lime,  arid  by  this  fecond  operation  be  reduced  to  a  quan- 
tity which  might  be  neglected." 

C.  Berthollet  quotes  alfo  other  experlmerfts  refpe6ling  che- 
mical a6lion  behig  in  the  ratio  of  the  mafs. 

"  If  a  carbonat  with  excefs  of  potafh  be  treated  with  al- 
cohol, a  part  only  of  its  excefs  of  potafli  is  taken  from  it. 

^^  The  other  neutral  falts  have  alfo  the  property  of  retain- 
ing a  part  of  the  potafh  when  the  latter  is  in  excefs. 

*^  It  is  known  alfo  that  the  phofphat  of  lime  cannot  be 
entirely  decompofed  by  the  fulphuric  acid,  though  the  latter 
is  ranked  as  having  a  ilronger  affinity  for  lime  than  the  phof- 
phoric  acid  ha«. 

^^  The  cafe  is  the  fame  when  fulphat  of  alumine  is  decom- 
pofed by  ammonia :  the  precipitate  always  contains  fulphuric 
acid. 

*'  If  magnefia  be  precipitated  from  its  fulphat  by  potaffi, 
the  magnefia  retains  alfo  fulphuric  acid ;  for,  when  the  mag- 
nefia is  urged  by  heat,  it  has  afterwards  a  pretty  flrong  favour 
of  fulphat. 

**  All  thefe  experiments  prove  that,  in  chemical  analyfis, 
chemills  fall  into  an  error  when  they  take  for  the  real  weight, 
cither  of  the  alumine  or  of  the  magnefia  which  may  be  found 
in  the  compound  fubftance,  that  of  the  precipitate  formed  by 
an  cle61ive  affinity. 

**  It  refults  from  the  preceding  obfervations,  and  many 
others  which  might  be  quoted,  that  in  elective  affinity  the 
fubjeiSt  of  the  combination  divides  itfelf  between  two  fub- 
flances,  which  a<^  on  it  in  the  ratio  of  the  forces  which  they 
may  oppofe  to  each  other. 

**  One  circumftance  which  merits  attention,  and  which 
particularly  proves  that  chemical  action  depends  as  much  ou 

the 


I^O  Keparchii  refpcSling 

the  quantities  as  on  the  affinities  of  the  fubftanccs,  is,  that  it 
is  fufiicient  to  var)'  the  quantities  to  obtain  oppofite  refults." 

•IV,  Of  the  Modificatiom  of  the  Chemical  ABion  which  aftfs 
frovi  the  hifoluhil'xty  of  Suhjlances, 

The  author  fucceflively  cxarjiined  the  aflfedions  of  bodies 
which  ipay  difj^uifg  or  alt^r  the  modifications  of  ihe  principle 
ellabliflied  in  the  preceding  articles.  He  proves,  by  a  number 
of  experiments,  jll.  The  riianner  in  which  an  infoluble  fub- 
fiance  a6ls  when  oppofed  to  a  combinatio^ :  ^d.  If  a  fub* 
fiance  has  any  folubility,  its  a6lion  is  compofed  of  that  of  the 
part  diflblved  and  of  that  which  retains  its  folidity  :  3d,  That 
if  an  infohible  combination  be  attacked  by  a  liquid  fubftance, 
the  inconveniences  of  infolubility  foon  difappear,  when  it  is 
fufficient  that  the  infoluble  fubftance  fhould  lofq  ^  part  of  its 
eonftltuent  principles  to  become  liquid. 

The  author  tfien  proceeds  to  the  examination  of  the  dif- 
ference of  the  fpecific  gravity  between  the  infoluble  and  li? 
quid  fuhftancp.  According  to  him,  it  has  an  influence  on 
their  refpe6live  a<Stion,  even  when  agitation  and  heat  are  em- 
ployed, becaufe  it  continually  tends  to  feparate  the  infoluble 
fubftance,  and  to  withdraw  it  from  the  force  oppofed  to  it : 
thus  there  is  a  difference  in  this  refpe^i  betweej>  the  fulphat 
of  barytes  and  alumine. 

In  ihe  laft  place,  if  infolubility  prevents  the  proportion^ 
which  ought  to  refult  from  the  oppofite  forces  from  being 
e(labli{l>ed,  it  occafions  flownefs  in  thofe  which  can  be  efta-r^ 
bliihed  ;  and  it  may  eafily  give  rife  to  deception  by  the  ap- 
pearances which  it  produces  at  the  commencement  of  an 
operation,  fuch  as  when  concentrated  fulphuric  acid  is  mixed 
with  a  folutiou  of  potafh,  or  any  other  fait  that  requires  a  large 
portion  of  water  to  diftblvcit:  the  acid  immediately  com- 
bines with  the  water,  and  the  fait,  which  lofes  its  liquidity, 
is  precipitated ;  but,  by  prolonging  the  operation  and  mul- 
tiplying the  oonta^,  the  fait  diflblves,  and  enters  \nto  com-., 
binatign  with  the  liquid. 

V.   Of  Cohejion  and  CrjJlalJifation, 
The  CQbefion  of  the  moleculae  of  a  body  is  owing  i.o  the 
reciprocal  af^ini^y  of  th^f?  moleculap  ;  it  is  a  foiqe  which  muii? 

■  be 


the  Lazvs  of  Affinity  *  151 

be  Surmounted  by  the  acSlion  of  the  fubftance  that  tends  to 
combine  with  thefe  parts,  or  to  decompofe  their  combination. 
It  is  well  known  that  argil,  the  parts  of  which,  by  deficca- 
tion,  have  acquired  a  ftrong  adhefion,  is  no  longer  attacked' 
by  an  acid  which  has  the  property  of  diflblving  it  when  it  is 
in  another  (late. 

It  is  this  reciprocal  affinity,  alfo,  of  the  faline  parts  that 
produces  cryftallifation,  and  the  latter  in  chemical  action  has 
elTe^ls  which  deferve  attention.  On  this  fubje6t  the  author 
prefents  fome  confiderations,  as  well  as  on  the  force  produced 
by  cryftallifation  in  a  faline  folution.  "  It  eftabliflies,*'  fays 
lie,  *^  a  boundary  to  the  degree  of  the  faturation  with  a  fait 
to  which  the  water  can  attain ;  fo  that,  if  it  does  not  diflblve 
a  larger  quantity,  it  is  not  becaufe  its  affinity  for  it  is  fatisfied, 
but  becaufe  it  has  no  longer  fufficient  power  to  overcome  the 
rcfiftance  of  the  cryftalliiiuion/'  From  thefe  and  other  con- 
fiderations Berthollet  concludes,  that  the  force  of  coheiion, 
which  had  been  confidered  only  as  an  obltacle  to  folution, 
determines  the  quantities  of  the  fubftances  which  can  be 
put  in  action  in  a  liquid,  and  thereby  modifies  the  conditions 
of  the  chemical  aAion  :  it  is  that  alfo  which  caufes  thofc  fc- 
parations  that  take  place  either  by  cryllallifation  or  precipita- 
tion, and  which  eftablidies  the  proportions  of  the  combina- 
tions which  are  formed  in  feparating  from  the  liquid  when 
the  property  of  being  infoluble  depends  on  thefe  proportions. 

VI.    Of  the  FJaJlic'ity  of  thofe   Suhjlances  iL'bijh  cxcrclfe  a 
Chemical  Afiion, 

When  afubftance  efcapes  in  the  form  of  gas,  in  proportion 
as  it  is  difengaged  from  an  intimate  combination,  the  whole 
portion  which  alFumes  the  elaftic  ftate  does  not  contribute  to 
the  refiftance  ;  fo  that  this  fubftance  no  longer  aiSts  according 
to  its  mafs  :  the  fubftance  oppofed  to  it  may  then  render  the 
dccompofition  complete,  and  it  will  be  fufficient  to  employ 
the  quantity  which  would  have  been  necelTary  to  form  imme-» 
diately  the  combination  into  which  it  ought  to  enter,  or,  at 
Jcaft,  a  fmall  excels  only  will  be  required.  **  This  is  what 
happens,**  favs  JkTthollet,  "  in  regard  to  carbonic  acid  when 
it  forms  a  carbonat,  ^nd  when  another  acid  is  oppofed  to  it  > 

the 


153  On  f^e  Za'icis  ofAffimty. 

ri^c  latter,  which  ac%  according  to  its  mafs,  eveii  if  it  fiiouli 
have  an  affinity  inferior  to  that  of  the  carbonic  acid,  may 
fucceHivcly  expel  it  from  the  combination  until  no  more  of  it 
n^mains,  provided  it  be  employed  in  a  quantity  fomewhat 
t'uperior  to  that  which  would  be  neceflary  to  form  its  com- 
bination immediately  with  the  bafe. 

It  refults  from  all  the  fac^s  exhibited  by  the  author,  that 
eladicity  produces  effects  analogous  to  thofe  of  the  force  of 
cohefion,  by  modifying,  In  a  contrary  manner,  the  effedls  of 
the  afFmity  proper  to  each  fubftance. 

VII.    Of  the  A^loH  of  CalortQ, 

Under  this  head  Berthollet  examines  the  a6lIon  of  caloric 
on  bodies,  and  the  phcenomena  it  produces  in  the  different 
combinations  or  decompofitions.  He  alfo  gives  a  great  many 
experiments  on  efflorefcence  and  on  folvents. 

What  the  author  underftands  by  efflorefcence  is  the  pro- 
perty which  a  fubftance  has  of  rlfmg  above  the  mafs,  and  of 
thereby  feparating  Itfelf  from  the  chemical  aftion. 

"  To  make  foda,"  fays  he,  *^  to  rife  by  efflorefcence  it 
muft  be  combine  J  with  carbonic  acid,  which  it  is  able  to  take 
up  from  the  atmofphere ;  but  the  action  of  carbonic  acid, 
tiirniOied  in  very  fmall  quantity,  and  in  an  elaftlc  ftate,  can- 
not add  fcnfibly  to  the  force  that  produces  the  feparation  of 
the  foda  from  the  combination  in  which  it  exifts;  itonly 
withdraws  the  eliminated  portion,  and  prevents  it  from  con- 
tinuing to  act  on  the  combination.'' 

In'  regard  to  the  employment  of  folvents,  the  author  efta- 
bliflics  as  a  principle,  that  the  objeft  is  to  overcome  the  refift- 
ancc  arifing  from  the  cohefion  of  the  parts  required  to  be  put 
in  a<^ion,  or  from  their  elafticity,  and  to  multiply  their  na- 
tural contact. 

Solvents  av5l  on  the  fubftanccs  they  diffolve,  by  their  af- 
finity and  by  their  quantity,  as  do  all  the  fubftances  which 
tend  to  combine,  and  every  thing  that  belongs  to  combina- 
ation  mult  be  applied  to  them  :  the  author,  for  an  example, 
f*ikes  water,  which  is  ofteneft  employed  as  a  folvent.  Ber- 
thollet then  examines  thofe  circumftances  in  which  this  aftioii 
tan  i'enfiblv  chan«ji;e  or  modifv  t^e  refults.     This  leads  him  to- 

prefent 


On  Mr,  JFadgwood* s  Vyrometer,  153 

prefent  a  feries  of  experiments,  according  to  which  he  efta- 
blifhes  his  theory  5  and  he  cdncludes  with  fome  obfervations 
on  caloric.  '^  It  a6ls,"  fays  the  author,  *'  on  bodies  not 
equally  dilatable,  in  a  manner  analogous  to  folvents,  by  com- 
bating the  force  of  cohefibn,  arid  thereby  putting  the  parts 
in  a  ftate  to  exercife  their  reciprocal  a6lion.  Its  action  con- 
curs with  that  of  the  folvents  to  oppofe  the  force  of  cohefioii ; 
and  hence  it  happens  that  the  fdlution  of  a  fait  by  water 
varies  according  to  the  degrefes  of  temperature.  When  ca- 
loric afts  on  bodies  unequally  dilatable,  it  produces  fepara- 
tions  and  new  combinations  indeperidently  of  the  affinity 
peculiar  to  thefe  fubftances,  in  the  fame  mahner  as  folvents 
when  ailing  on  bodies  unequally  foluble. 


XIX.    On  Mr,  Wedgwood's  'Pyrometer, 

^y  S  the  conllruftion  and  ufe  of  this  valuable  iriftrument, 
the  only  one  yet  invented  which  can  convey  to  the  mind  any 
accurate  ideas  refpefting  high  degrees  of  heat,  and  enable  us 
to  compare  them  with  each  other  and  with  lower  degrees,  is 
very  generallyv^knowu,  a  long  defcription  of  it  would  be  fu- 
perfluous.  We  fhall  therefore  briefly  obferve,  that  its  indi- 
cations-are obtained  from  the  property  which  all  clavs  pofTefs, 
of  (lirinking  or  being  diminifhed  in  bulk  by  expofure  to  heat ; 
that,  confcquently,  any  piece  fitted  into  a  tapering  gauge  (for 
infiance^  a  fedor  opened  a  little,)  will;  after  expofure  to  a 
fufficient  degree  of  heat,  pafs  further  into  the  gauge ;  and 
'that,  the  greater  the  degree  of  heat  it  has  expericiiced,  the 
greater  will  be  its  diminution  of  volume,  and  the  deeper  will 
it  go  into  the  gauge.  Different  divifions  marked  ort  the  fide 
\i{  the  gauge  will,  of  courfe,  give  the  comparative  degrees  of 
heat,  to  which  pieces  of  the  fame  clay,  fize,  and  form,  may 
have  been  expofed.  Mr.  Wedgwood's  gauge  confifts  of  two 
rulers  or  flat  pieces,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick  and  24  inches 
long,  fixed  upon  a  fmdoth  flat  plate,  5-ioths  of  an  inch  afun- 
dcr  at  one  end  and  3-ioihs  at  the  other,  fo  that  they  include 
between  them  a  long  converging  canal  or  groove;  and  tlie 
rule  which  forn]s  one  of  the  fides  of  this  groove  is  divided 
Vol.  IX.  TJ  into 


^^'i  On  Mr,  Wedgwood's  Pj'romeief\ 

into  inches  and  tenths,  'j'he  pyrometer  pieces  are  made  of 
a  particular,  kind  of  Cornifli  clay  by  means  of  moulds,  and 
are  pared  afterwards,  when  dry,  by  a  paring-gauge,  to  infure 
their  being  all  of  one  fize  as  to  length:  a  variation  in  the 
other  dimenfions  is  of  no  eonfeqaence,  as  it  is  by  the  length 
their  Ihrinkuge  is  to  be  afterwards  incafured. 

By  means  of  a  linjilar  gauge,  but  by  employing  the  expan- 
fion  of  a  piece  of  fdver  by  heat,  Mr.  Wedgwood  fucceede^ 
in  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  the  intermediate  degrees  of  heat 
between  that  of  boiling  mercury  and  the  zerq  of  his  own. 
fcale;  from  which  he  afcertained,  that  one  degree  of  his  was 
ecjual  to  130'^  of  Fahrenheit's  fcale,  and  that  the  zero  of  his 
correfpondcd  to  1077I  F.  Confequently,  to  accommodate 
the  refults  obtained  by  the  pyrometer  to  Fahrenheit's  fcale, 
ail  that  is  neceflary  is  to  multiply  the  pyrometric  degrees 
by  130,  and  to  the  produ£l  to  add  1077  ~. 

It  is  pretty  generally  believed  that  the  pyrometer  pieces 
which  have  of  late  been  prepared,  do  not  give  the  fame  re- 
lults  with  thofe  which  were  firil  made  by  Mr.  Wedgwood; 
a  circumftance  which  makes  it  extremely  delirable  that  the 
quantities  and  kinds  of  earth,  neceflary  to  form  fuch  rolls  aS 
will  always  give  correal  refults,  fliould  be  accurately  afcer«^ 
tained. 

From  Mr.  Wedgwood's  own  experiments,  it  appears  that 
the  clay  he  made  ufe  of  in  the  conftrudlion  of  his  firft  pieces 
coniifted  of  two  parts  of  pure  liliccous  earth  to  three  of 
argil  *. 

.C  Vauquclin>  who  has  analyfed  Mr.  Wedgwood's  pyro- 
meter pieces  t,  ftates,  that  they  contain  64*3  parts  of  pure 
filcx,  25  parts  of  argil,  6  of  lime,  o'2  oxyd  of  iron,  6'Z  of 
water..  'J'hefe  quantities,  confequently,  with  an  addition  of 
water  to  convert  the  whole  into  a  pafle,  fliould  ferve  for 
making  pyn^mtter  pieces  ec^ual  in  powers  to  thofe  of  Mr. 
Wedgwood. 

;  Whether  C.  Vauquelin  analyfed  new  or  old  pieces,  that 
he- obtained  refults  fo  ditlerent  from  thofe  of  Mr.  Wedgwood ; 
whether  he  be  aware  that  there  is  any  difference  between 

'■*  Phihfophical  TranfaSlioKS  I'lZi. 

.f  Sec  Po'ilofo^hlcal  Mogawie-y  \^\.  V.  p*.  49(5. 

them  •, 


On  Mr.  IVcdgWDod's  Pyrometer,  I  5,5 

them  ;  or  whether  there  be  really  any  diiference  except  what 
may  aril'e  from  the  force  applied  in  filling  the  moulds  in 
which  the  pieces  are  formed,  are  points  which  we  cannot 
determine. 

However  this  may  be,  C.  Gazeran,  proceeding  on  the  idea 
of  Vauquelin,  has  been  endeavouring,  and  with  fome  fuccefs, 
to  make  from  the  clays  found  in  France  (which  contain  from 
.30  to  40  per  cent,  of  argil)  pyrometric  rolls  applicable  to 
Wedgwood*s  fcale*.  He  finds  the  white  claySAvhich  con- 
tain the  largeft  proportion  of  alumine  to  ainfwer  beft.  That 
which  he  made  ufc  of  contained  in  100  parts'. 

Argil  .  -  -         3409 

Silex  -.  -  -         41*1 1 

Water  .  .         -         19*25 

Lime  -  -         -  2*30 

Oxydofiron  -         -  0*75 

Lofs  o*  55 

Of  this  clay  he  took  150  parts  by  weight,  which  he  pafled 

through  a  fine  fieve;  to  this  he  added  6^  parts  of  Fontaine- 

bleau  fand,  wafhed  and  well  triturated,    and   200  parts  of 

water.     This  mixture,  having  been  flirred  once  a  day  for 

three  weeks,  was  kneaded,  for  the  fpace  of  two  hours,  till  the 

pafte  was  perfectly  homogeneous.     It  was  now  allowed  to 

dry  in  the  air  till  it  had  loft  170  parts  out  of  the  200  of  water 

which  had  been  employed,  and  then  moulded  in  cylinders 

made  of  tinned  iron  and  of  a  proper  fize.     Tho.  pafte  was 

prefled  in  the  moulds  for  two  hours  with  the  weight  of  a 

kilogram  (two  pounds  three  ounces).     The  pieces  were  then 

dried  in  a  ftove  for  24  hours  in  a  heat  of  J22^  of  Fahrenheit, 

and  afterwards  adjufted  to  fit  zero  of  Wedgwood's  fcale. 

Two  of  thefe  agreeing  in  weight,  within  a  centigram,  with 
thofe  of  Wedgwood,  having  been  expofed  with  two  of  his  to 
a  ftrong  heat  in  a  clofe  crucible  for  an  hour  and  a  half, 
Gazeran's  indicated  the  temperature  by  one  of  his  pieces 
159°  and  by  the  other  i5o"^,  i,  e,  J59I  °.  Wedgwood's  gave 
150"  and  160,  I.  e.  159",  which  is  a  ftriking  coincidence. 

C.  Gazeran  obferves  that  Mr.  Wedgwood's  pyrometers 
have  frequently  varied  4°,  6"",  and  9°  from  each  other,   (we 

*  An  naif!:  dr  Chi  mi  e^   No.  io6. 

V  z  wifh 


45^  Ofi  Mf,  W<r4gzvood*s  Pjyremeier, 

vvifli  he  had  mentioned  whetl>er  all  were  taken  from  the 
lame  box,)  whereas  with  his  own,  he  fays.,  the  variations 
have  only  been  from  a  half  to  a  whole  degree,  and  they  exhi- 
bited no  figns  of  vitrification  when  cxpofed  to  a  heat  able  to 
fule  iron  and  deflroy  the  bed  Hcffian  crucibles. 

From  his  experiments  he  infers,  that,  if  a  clay  be  employed 
which  contains  34  per  cent,  of  argil,  s^nd  either  rock  cryftal, 
triturated  white  fand,  or  pure  filex  be  ^dded  to  it  tp  make  iip, 
the  proportion  before  noted,  pyrometer  pieces  may  at  any 
time  be  formed  equally  refractory  with  thofe  of  Mr.  Wedg- 
wood, and  whofe  power  of  cojitra6lion  will  be  exaxSlly  the 
fame  as  his. 

But  why  fliould  natural  clays  b?  made  ufe  of  at  all  for 
forming  pyrometers,  which  muft  fometimes  vary  in  the  pro- 
portions of  their  component  parts,  even  when  taken  from  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  fame  bed  ? 

If  there  be  any  difference  between  the  Englidi  pyrometers 
now  made  and  thofe  firll  prepared  by  Mr.  Wedgwood,  it 
inoft  probably  arifes  from  fome  fucb  caufe;  and  the  fame 
difference  may  be  expelled  to  be  found  in  beds  of  clay  ia 
France.  It  does  not  feeni  impoffible  that  chemifls  every  where 
might  agree  to  employ  the  fame  proportions  oi  pure  argil, 
iilex,  and  water,  in  the  formation  of  pyrometers.  Even  if  the 
argil  were  not  abfplutely  pure,  if  they  employed  argil  obtained 
alvvay?  by  the  fame  means  (as  from  alum  by  ammonia,  the 
alum  having  previoufly  undergone  feveral  folutions,  filtra- 
tions,  a.nd  cryftallifations  to  free  it  from  foreign  matters), 
they  would  be  fure  to  form  pyrometers  which  would  give 
limilar  refults.  Lime  and  iron  fhould  be  completely  excluded, 
as  ingredients  which  muft  render  the  pyrometers  lefs  refrac- 
tory. 

If,  in  making  pyrometers  by  fuch  means  as  we  have  pro- 
pofed,  fuch  proportions  could  be  fallen  uppn  as  would  agree 
in  the  refuks  with  Mr.  \V^edgwo.o.d*s  firfl-made  pyrometers, 
it  would  be  a  great  convenience  to.  men  of  fcience,  as  many 
fa6ls  have  already  been  eftabliflied  by  the  indications  they 
aflbrdcd.  Jf  this  pannot  be  done,  one  of  the  two  following 
^lethods  might  he  adopted :   Either, 

\.  To  repeat  the  experiments  on  the  degrees  of  heat  nc- 

celTarv 


On  Mr.  IVedgWDod's  Pyrometer*  1^7 

ccflTary  to  fufc  the  different  metals,  &;c,  8cc.  and  note  them 
by  the  refults  obtained  from  the  pyrometers  made  from  known 
.materials  \  noting,  at  the  fame  time,  how  ;n any  degrees  of 
the  mercurial  thermometer  correfpond  to  one  on  Wedg- 
wood's fcale.     Or, 

2.  The  obje6t  in  view  might  perhaps  be  more  eafily  at- 
tained by  accommodating  the  width  of  the  two  pieces  of  brafs 
in  VVedgwood's  fcale  to  tlie  flirinkage  of  the  new  pyrometers, 
in  fuch  a  manner,  that  at  the  wide  end,  or  zero,  they  might 
remain  a«  at  prefcnt,  and,  by  making  them  approach  to  or 
recede  from  each  other  at  the  other  end,  receive  the  new 
pieces  at  that  part  of  the  gauge  which  (hall  indicate  the  proper 
degree,  obt-ained  by  comparing  the  refuks  of  fome  experi- 
ments made  with  them  and  fomq  of  Mr,  Wedgwood's  old 
cylinders,  which,  though  fcarce,  may  Hill  be  had. 

We  fliall  make  ourfelves,  perhaps,  better  underftood  by 
alTuming  fuppofed  refults  to  fliow  the  kind  of  alteration  that 
would  be  neceflary  to  accommodate  the  indications  of  the 
new  pyrometers  which  we  propofe,  to  thofe  which  have  been 
-determined  by  Mr.  Wedgwood^s. 

Expofe  one  of  each  to  a  ftrong  heat  in  a  clofe  crucible. 
When  withdrawn,  fay  Mr.  Wedgwood's  indicates  ioo%  and 
that  the  other  wguld  reach  lio°.  In  this  cafe  the  new  py- 
rometer would  havp  (larui^k  niore  in  the  fame  degree  of  heat 
than  the  old  one;  and  to  make  it  (land  at  loo^,  the  true  de- 
gree by  Wedgwood's  fcale,  (which  we  think  ought  by  no 
means  ^o  be  altered,)  all  that  would  he  neceflary  would  be 
to  bring  the  lides  of  the  gauge  fo  much  nearer  to  each  other 
^t  the  narrow  end  pf  the  groove  as  to  make  the  new  pyro- 
yneter  piece  Hop  at  the  proper  degree.  If  thefe  two  pieces 
were  aoain  expofed,  together,  to  a  ftronger  degree  of  heat,  it 
would  be  found,  that  whatever  degree  Mr.  Wedgwood's 
might  indicate  in  a  gauge  that  had  not  been  altered,  the  new 
pyrometer  would  alfo  indicate  \w  the  one  that  had  beeu 
accommodated  to  it  after  the  former  expofure  to  heat. 

If  the  n^vy  pieces  wpre  found  to  fliri^k  lefs  than  the  old 

ones,  the  gauge,  of  coyirfc,  would  require  to  be  proportionally 

widened  at  the  narrow  end,  to  allow  it  to  reach   the  degree 

indicated  by  Mr.  Wedgwood's  pyrometer ;  and  in  either  cafe, 

4  ^M 


1^8  Ed'amination  of  the  received  DoSlrlnes 

the  proportion  which  this  difference  in  the  width  of  the  gauge 
at  its  narroweft  cud  might  bear  to  the  whole  of  its  prefent 
width  at  the  fame  end,  lliould  be  accurately  afcertaincd  to 
enable  chcniiOs  in  diHerent  countries  to  obtain  a  uniformity 
\n  their  refalts. 


XX,  An  Attempt  to  prove  that  the  Matter  of  Heat y  like  other 
SubJIances,  pojjejfes  not  only  Volume  hut  Gravity ;  being  a 
'  Second  EJfay  on  Caloric,     By  ALEXANDER  TiLLOCH. 
Read  before  the  Afkejian  Society  Novemher  1800. 


I 


N  the  hafty  eflay  read  before  this  Society  in  the  eourfe  of 
ourjaft  feflion  *  T  ventured  to  call  in  queftion  the  truth  of 
certain  commonly  received  do6irines  refpe6ling  heat  or  ca- 
loric, mentioned  feveral  fa^ls  which  admit  of  conclufions 
very  diflerent  from  thofe  which  have  been  drawn  from  them 
to  fupport  the  do6lrines  referred  to ;  and  endeavoured  to 
iliow  that  heat  retains  uniformly  the  fame  charafter,  proper- 
ties, and  mode  of  a6tion;  in  oppofition  to  thofe  who  contend 
that  it  is  {omtixmt^  fenfible  or  free  y  and  at  other  times  latent 
or  fixed, 

1  alfo  endeavoured  to  prove  that  heat  is  a  real  diftinft  fub- 
ftance,  and  not  a  mere  quality  or  accident  refulting  from  the 
modification  of  matter.  I  fhowed,  by  many  proofs,  that  it 
poireflTes  volume,  which  is  a  charaderiftic  of  matter ;  that, 
when  expelled  by  chemical  combinations,  the  volume  of  the 
compound  is  lefs  than  the  fum  of  that  of  the  ingredients ; 
and  that,  probably,  the  diminution  is  exactly  equal  to  the 
volume  of  the  heat  that  has  been  thrown  out :  that,  on  the 
oilier  hand,  when  the  compound  is  increafed  in  volume,  it 
has  acquired,  from  the  contiguous  bodies,  a  portion  of  ca- 
loric, probably,  exa6lly  equal  in  volume  to  that  increafe : 
and,  to  be  brief,  that  the  general  laws  enumerated  in  my 
former  eflay,  and  which,  I  believe,  are  univerfally  admitted, 
being  fufficient  to  explain  all  the  known  phaenomena,  with-r 
put  having  recourfe   to  the  dodlrine  of  latent^  as  dillin-. 

'   c^cc  fbihfopbicul  Magazine^  yoi.  VII l.  p.  70,  119,  and  311. 

guiOlQcl 


rcfpeBing  Heat  or  Caloric,  159 

guiflied  ixom  free  beat,  the  do6trine  ought  to  be  reje£l<?(l,  on 
the  received  axiom,  that  no  more  caufes  (hould  be  admitted 
in  phyfics  than  what  are  true,  and  fufficient  to  account  for 
the  phaenomena. 

I  alfo  fucgefled  the  propriety  of  philofophers  turning  their 
attention  to  the  determining  the  mafles  or  vokmies  of  heat 
necefTary  to  produce  the  various  etFe<Sis  and  changes  which 
that  fubftance  operates  upon  bodies,  inftead  of  contenting 
themfelves  with  fpeaking  of  degrees,  to  which  they  annex 
ao  correct  idea ;  and  exprefled  a  hope  that,  at  no  very  diftant 
period,  this  improvement  might  be  expelled  in  fcience. 

In  venturing  to  call  in  queftion  the  truth  of  the  received 
do6lrines,  it  was  not  my  intention  to  depreciate  the  difco- 
veries  of  a  Black,  a  Crauford,  a  Lavoifier,  or  a  Cavendifh  ; 
men  vvhofe  memories  will  be  cheriflied,  while  the  world  en- 
dures, by  every  lover  of  fcience.  Their  genius,  their  per- 
fevering  induflry,  their  penetrating  judgment,  firft  brought 
to  view  thofe  luminous  fa6ls  which  muft  ferve  as  the  bafis  of 
rill  true  theory  refpe6ling  the  fubje£ls  of  which  they  treated ; 
and  thofe  fa6l3  will  remain,  w^hatever  may  be  the  fate  of  the- 
ories already  eftablifhed,  or  of  others  that  may  fuperfede 
.4hem. 

But  as  truths,  once  eftablifhed,  become  a  common  property 
in  fcience,  thofe  whofe  genius  would  never  have  difcovered  are 
not  debarred  the  ufe  of  them.  It  may  alfo  be  obferved,  that 
the  original  difcoverers  of  important  fa<St;s  have  often,  in  draw- 
ing their  inferences  and  making  their  dedu6lions,  given  an 
undue  weight  to  coniiderations  that  were  no  other  way  con- 
-Beded  with  the  fubje6l  than  by  being  unfortunately  y/z/w^/c^/ 
over  in  fonie  part  of  the  journey,  in  which  they  chanced  to 
he  out  of  the  right  road  ;  for  who,  that  firft  explores  an  un- 
known region,  can  be  expe6t:ed  to  get  on  without  interrup- 
tion or  impediment?  Such  accidents,  however,  have  an  un- 
avoidable influence  on  the  mind ;  and  to  exempt  any  man 
from  their  confequences,  when  they  occur,  would  be  tg  deny 
that  he  is  human. 

Thofe  who  are  not  aware  of  the  difficulties  of  this  kind 
with  which  genius  has  to  encounter,  can  never  rightly  appre- 
ciate the  merits  of  thole  who,  in  fpite  of  their  in§uciice,  give 

an 


J^<3  Ex'izmnaiion  of  the  received  DoSlrines 

an  unblaffed  account  of  the  fafts  they  difcover.  It  is  one  of 
the  greated  efforts  of  human  probity  to  give  them  undifguifed, 
unwarped  by  theory.  I'his  praiCe  i*due  to  the  men  to  whom 
I  have  alkided  :  their  labours,  therefore,  are  invaluable,  evert 
if  it  fhould  be  provctl  that,  in  fonie  few  inftances,  they  have 
been  miftuken  in  their  inference?. 

It  was  my  intention,  in  addition  to  the  fafts  generally 
mentioned  in  my  former  eflay,  to  have  brought  forward,  on 
the  prefent  occaiion,  a  number  of  further  evidences  of  the 
fubflantiality  of  heat ;  but  my  ftate  of  health,  (ince  our  laft 
feffion,  has  been  fuch  that  I  have  not  been  able  to  go  into  a 
wide  field.  I  (hall,  however,  bring  to  the  recollection  of  the 
Society  a  few  well-known  fa6ls,  which,  according  to  my 
liew  of  them^  ferve  to  prove  that  heat  is  a  fubftance  fuz 
generis. 

Volume,  as  I  frequently  had  occaflon  to  notice  in  my 
former  eflay,  is  a  chara<!ileriftic  of  matter;  but  liquids,  on 
being  mixed,  are  reduced  in  volume^  without  parting  with 
any  thing  except  heat— therefore  heat  is  matter* 

The  fame  effects  take  place  when  gafcs  are  prcfented  to 
^ny  fubftances  to  which  they  can  unite.  Thus,  muriatic  acid 
gas  eafily  combines  with  ice  cold  watery  but  in  doing  fo  it 
parts  with  its  heat,  which  forms  the  greateft  part  of  its  vo- 
lumci  The  gas  is  in  fa6t  decompofed  :  one  of  its  principles, 
the  muriatic  acid,  joins  the  Water,  and  its  other,  the  heat, 
being  thus  fcparated  from  its  former  alTbciate,  then,  accord- 
ing to  the  general  law,  firft  heats  the  fubftances  ncareft  to 
it,  the  acidulated  water  and  the  containing  velTel,  and  after- 
wards pafles  off  to  furrounding  obje6ts  till  equilibrium  is 
reftofed;  If  ice,  inftead  of  water,  be  prcfented  to  this 
gas,  it  will  be  melted  by  it  as  fpeedily  as  if  thrown  into  the 
fire. 

If  certain  gafes  be  united,  this  diminution  of  volume,  this 
pafling  off  of  matter,  (which^  though  in  union  in  the  ingre- 
dients, finds  the  capacitv^  of  the  new  compound  for  it  fo 
different  that  it  mud  diffufc  itfelf,)  is,  if  polfible,  ftill  mord 
ftriking.  When,  for  example,  oxvgen  gas  and  nitrous  gas, 
in  the  proportions  neceflary  to  form  nitroiis  acid,  are  pre- 
fentcd  tc>  each  other,  in  a.  bell -glafs,  over  water;  what  art 

abridgement 


I 


re/peeling  Heat  or  daloric.  i5i 

ftt)riclgment  of  volume  takes  place  !  It  cannot  be  oiherwifcj 
the  capacity  of  the  new  compound  for  heat  being  fo  much 
lefs  than  the  fum  of  that  of  the  ingredients ;  for  the  mole- 
culse  now  refpe6tively  arrange  thcmfelves  with  each  other  in 
fuch  a  manner,  that  they  can  afford  but  a  fmall  quantity  or 
Jodging-room  for  the  heat,  compared  with  what  it  occupied 
in  the  gafes ;  and  it  is  therefore  forced,  by  the  general  law^ 
to  diifufe  itfclf  among  and  through  the  contiguous  bodies  til! 
each  is  with  each  in  equilibrium*  But  each  th<jreby  receives 
an  increafe  of  volume,  that  is,  an  increafe  of  matter  5  and  it 
is  extremely  probable  that,  if  we  could  get  at  the  fum  of 
their  increafe,  it  would  be  found  exactly  equal  tb  the  differ- 
ence between  the  volume  of  the  gafes  before  mixture  and 
that  of  the  acid  produced. 

If  any  quantity  of  nitrous  gas  be  joined  to  twice  its  bulk 
of  atmofpheric  air,  we  all  know  that  the  fame  effe^ls  take 
place  as  in  the  cafe  jufl  mentioned ;  that  is,  the  fubiiance 
ijeat  changes  its  affociates. 

We  may  obferve  here  that,  as  heat  pafTes  freely  through  all 
bodies,  and  tends  to  an  equilibrium  5  and  as  this  equilibrium^ 
when  cftablifhed  in  any  fyftem  of  bodies,  is  fometimes  higher 
than  at  others,  it  feems  far  from  being  correal  to  talk  of  heat 
being  then  in  ajlate  of  conjineynent.  If  a  colder  body  be  made 
one  of  this  fyftem  it  will  foon  be  feen  that  the  heat,  inftead 
of  being  latent  in  the  other  bodies,  finds  \\,M^  free  to  pafs 
from  them  into  the  colder  body  till  it  has  received  the  por- 
tion fuited  to  its  capacity  compared  with  that  of  the  others. 

If  there  be  any  ftate  in  which  heat  is  Icfs  in  a  (late  of  con- 
finement than  another,  it  is  when  in  equilibrium ;  and  it  is 
only  when  it  has,  by  any  means,  been  accumulated  in  indi- 
vidual bodies,  in  greater  proportion  than,  by  their  capacity^ 
compared  with  that  of  the  furrounding  bodies^  they  ought  to  be 
fupplied  with,  that  any  thing  like  reftraint  can  be  confidered  as 
impofed  upon  it.  The  impediments  that  retard  its  equal  dif- 
fufion,  are,  in  fa^fc,  the  only  reftraints  it  experiences ;  and  to 
me  this  appears  fo  obvious,  that  I  cannot  help  wondering 
how  men  of  fcience  (hould  ever  have  thought  of  calling  it 
Jree  in  fuch  circumftances.  It  i^free,  to  be  fare,  but  not  in 
iheir  fenfe  of  the  word;  for  it  has  refUaiius  to  overcome ;  but 
Vol,  IX,  X  when 


t^i  iLxamlnation  of  the  recai'Vi'd  b'Mr'wcs 

\vheii  in  equilibrium  it  rufTers  no  reftraint  whatever,  for  theft 
every  individual  fubftance  has  its  ovn  proper  quantity  of  th6 
common  (lock. 

I  ftiall  now  examine  for  a  little  feveriil  fa6i:s  whiL'h  appeat 
to  pro've,  if  duly  weighed  and  applied,  that  heat  poirefTes  an- 
other chara6lei'iftic  of  inatter,  I  mean  gravity.  If  thi;' 
fa6l  can  be  eflabliflied,  we  ihall  have  another  llrong  proof  of 
the  fuhilailtiality  of  hea,t;  arid  tlie  fafts  I  mean  to  bring  to 
your  recollection  are,  I  think,  fufficient  to  eftablifli  it  as  1 
truth — a  truth  which  has  been  forcing  itfelf  on  the  riotice  of 
men,  fof  ilianv  centuries,  with  much  Orongef  evidence  than 
manv  others  vvhic'h  have  received  generaladmiffion,  though 
it  has  not  only  befen  overlooked,  but  many  experiments  havd 
been  brought  forward  to  eftablifli  the  oppofite. 

Heat  poured  into  bodies  lefTens  their  fpfccific  gravity ;  and 
yet  heat  may  riot  be  weiglied,  even  comparatively  ! !  There 
appears  to  me  to  be  foniethinsJ;  fo  extrerfielv  repugnant  to 
reafon  in  this  aflertion,  that  ever  fince  T  have  dated  to  reafon 
for  myfelf  I  have  found  myfelf  forced  to  refufe  my  aflcnt 
to  it.  If  heat  leflens  the  fpecific  gravity  of  bodies,  (and  we 
can  evefl  determhie,  in  many  cafes,  the  ratio  in  which  this 
lakes  place,)  I  think  W'e  iire  then  weighing  the  heat  itfelf, 
or,  rather,  thediffeffenccof  the  quantity  iri  a  body  at  one  tem- 
perature and  at  another^ 

Tn  the  Various  direct  attempts  that  have  becri  made  tof 
weigh  heatj  I  fear  philofophers  have  been  following  a  plart 
juil  about  as  rational  as  it  would  be  in  the  hih&bitants  of  thef 
ocean  to  attempt  to  weigh  water  by  employing  a  balance 
hilpcnded  in  the  medium  that  furrounds  them,  arid  putting 
hito  one  (liell  a  fubftance  that  to  them  flrOuM  feCm  wet,  and 
into  the  other  a  fubltance  which  they  might  call  dry  ! 

If  we  could  abftracSl  heat  entirely  from  a  l^odv,  as  we  can 
t\r  from  a  glafs  balloon,  We  ihotild  be  at  rio  lofs  in  weighing 
it :  but  is  there  tK)  other  way  c^f  weighing  air  but  that  one  > 
If  T  take  a  bladdct  containing  afi  unknown  quantity  of  air, 
1  cafily  find  out  how  nuich  W'cight  is  required  to  fink  it  in 
<r.'ater  :  if  I  afterwards  pour  into  the  bladder  a  known  bulk  of 
jiir,-  f  can  come  at  a  knowledge  of  the  weight  of  the  air  fo, 
added  by  attendiivg  tO*  the  quantity  of  weight  now  riecellliry 

4  IQ* 


refpcEling  Heat  or  Caloric,  l6^ 

to  fink  the  bladder  in  the  water,  the  fpecific  gravity  of  the 
water  being  known.  But  if  I  weigh,  in  water,  any  fubftance 
containing  an  unknown  quantity  of  heat,  and  find  that,  upon 
adding  a  known  bulk  of  heat  to  the  body,  it  will  then  require 
a  lefs  weight  to  make  it  (ink,  I  am  to  draw  no  inference  re- 
fpe<Sling  the  weight  of  the  caloric  that  ha«  been  added  ! !  Is 
this  reafonable  ?  Should  philofophers  ftop  (hort  in  this  man- 
ner, and  not  feize  upon  the  truth  which  fuch  efle6ts  exhibit 
to  them  ?  Is  it  not  obvious,  in  all  experiments  which  have 
for  their  objeft  the  determining  the  fpecififc  gravity  of  any 
body  in  difierent  temperatures,  that  they  are  doing  notliing 
but  weighing  comparative  quantities  of  heat,  by  obferving 
how  much  water  is  difplaced  bv  thofe  quantities  ? 

Though  I  think  the  truth  I  have  juft  ffcated  is  felf- evident, 
I  hope  I  (liall  not  be  thought  tirefome  if  I  endeavour  to  fet 
it  in  a  clear  point  of  view  by  an  illuftration. 

If  I  fufpcnd  a  piece  of  metal  in  water  at  one  end  of  a  ba- 
lance, and  if  to  this  metal  I  join  a  fmall  bit  of  any  fubftance 
lighter  than  water,  fiiy  a  bit  of  cork,  will  not  the  mafs,  by 
having  its  abfolute  gravity  incrcafed,  have  become  fpccificallv 
lighter  ?  I  am  now  confidering  the  metal  and  cork  as  one 
compound  bodv.  In  this  cafe  no  one  hefitates  in  admittincr 
that  the  addition  of  the  cork,  though  poifefling  abfolute  gra- 
vity, is  the  caufe  of  the  compound  body  appearing  lighter 
when  weighed  in  water ;  a  medium  more  rare  than  one  of 
the  ingredients,  but  denfer  than  the  other :  but  if  heat  injhad 
of  CQrh  bad  heen  added  to  the  metal,  ivould  not  the  effeB  have 
been  the  fame,  an  increafe  of  volume  and  a  diminution  of 
fpecific  gravity  ?  And  for  the  fame  reafon  too,  the  metal 
being  heavier  but  the  heat  lighter  than  water. 

Let  us  reverie  the  cafe. — ^A  compound  body,  iron  and 
cork,  poiTefles  a  certain  fpecific  gravity.  Remove  the  cork, 
that  is,  take  awav  from  the  mafs  4  portion  of  its  abfolute 
bulk  and  weighty  and  on  weighing  what  remains  it  is  found 
to  be  increafed  in  weight — in  water. 

Yet,  if  I  detach  from  a  piece  of  gold,  filver,  platlna,  copper, 
a  certain  quantity  of  heat,  by  mechanical  means,  and  thereby 
reduce  its  volume,  I  am  not  to  conclude,  though  I  find  ittj 
(jiecific  gravity  increafed,  that  the  matter  exprciVed  poiVefled 

X  %  abfolute 


1 64  Examhiaikn  gJ  tht  received  DoSirlnes 

^bfolute  gravity,  though  lefs  fpecifically  than  that  of  water  f 
Is  this  confiftent  with  loLmd  phy'fical  principles  ?  I  think  not: 
for  the  {kme  effedls  Ihould  always  be  afcribed  to  one  caufe. 

It  is  admitted  on  all  hands  that  caft  metals^  that  is,  metals 
in  their  largeft  natural  volume,  are  fpecifically  lighter  than 
when  drawn  into  wire  or  rolled  into  plates,  that  is^  -Cvhert  re-* 
duced  in  fize,  by  haying  fomcthing  feparated  from  them, 
namely^  heat. 

If  a  piece  of  denfe  wood,   that  has  been  foaked  in  oil  or- 
alcohol,  be  weighed  in  water ;  and  if  a  portion  of  the  imbibed 
liquid  be  cxpreffed,  and  the  wood  be  again  weighed,  its  fpe- 
cific  gra.vity  will  be  found  to  have  increaftd ;  becaufe  the  fluid- 
expelled  from  it  was  lighter  than  water.     Every  one  can  fee^ 
and  feel  the  oil  or  alcohol  dnven  out  of  union  with  the  wood ;. 
and  every  one  may  feel  the  heat  driven  out  of  metals  by  pafT- 
ing  them  through  rollers.     Is  it  becaufe  heat  is  only  cognif-* 
able,  in  the  firft  inftance,   by  one  grofs  fenfe  that  its  exift- 
ence  as  matter  is  denied  ?     It  may  be  feen  aS  well  as  felt,  as. 
I  have  Ix'fore  had  occafion  to  remark ;  for  when  driven  from 
one  body,  the  volume  of  which  is  in  confequence  diminiilied, 
it  enters  into  others,  and  theirs  become  vijibly  enlarged.     If 
it  were  not  fo,  even  the  common  thermometer  could  have  no 
exiftence. 

I  (hall  here  mention  the  diflferent  fpecific  gravities  of  a  few- 
metals  in  their  caft  ftate,  and  when  a  portion  of  heat  hasi 
been  ft,'parated  from  them,  by  their  molecul^e  being  brought 
fo  much  clofer  together,  by  mechanical  means,  as  to  increafe 
the  power  of  aggregation,  or,  in  other  words,  to  diminifh 
their  capacity  for  heat. 

Caft.  Hammered.         Rolled.      Drawn  into  wire. 


Pure  gold 

19258. 

1936^ 

Standard  gold 

17486, 

17589 

Pure  filver 

10474 

10511 

Pure  platina 

19500. 

20377 

2,2o6g 

2104^ 

Copper 

7788 

8878 

Brafs 

8396 

8544 

The  fa<^  is,  I  fufped,  univerfally  true,  that  where  the  fpe^ 
cific  gravity  of  a  body  is.  diminifhed,  its  abfolute  gravity  is 
and  muft  biE  izicreafed  j  and  thcfe  terms  ought  always  to  be 

confidered 


refpeSfitg  Heat  or  Caloric,  '  J ^5 

confidered  as  convertible.  When  a  diminution  of  the  fpecific 
gravity  is  declared,  an  increafe  of  the  abfolute  gravity  is  by 
the  fame  enunciation  afTerted,  whether  the  fpeaker  means  lo 
do  fo  or  not.  Now,  in  the  cafe  before  dated,  the  diniinu-' 
tion  of  the  fpecific  gravity  is  admitted ;  and  therefore  a  qnef- 
tion  naturally  prefents  itfelf^ — Why  has  the  increafe  of  abfo- 
lute weiorht  not  been  hitherto  obferved  ?  I  take  the  reafon  to 
be  this  :  they  attempted  to  determine  it  in  the  air;  overlook- 
ing this  plain  faft,  namely,  that  air  may  be  confidered  as 
bearing  the  fame  relation  to  heat  that  water  does  to  gold,  or 
rather,  to  a  fubftance  many  times  heavier,  if  fuch  could  be 
found ;  that  is,  the  air,  though  a  rarer  fubftance  than  the 
folid  bodies  weighed  in  it,  isadenfer  one  than  heat;  and 
they  have  been  demanding,  that  a  fubftance  fpecifically 
lighter  than  air  ftiould  defcend  in  it.  In  other  words  :  that 
the  laws  of  nature  fhould  be  inverted,  and  that  the  heavier 
fluid,  air,  ihould  afcend  to  make  room  for  a  lighter  one^  heat, 
to  defcend. 

But  Nature  will  not  bend  to  our  whims  and  fancies.  We 
mnft  court  her,  and  take  her  as  ftie  is,  or  remain  in  error. 
The  heated  body,  though  increafed  in  fize,  remains  in  equi- 
librium in  the  balance;  and  it  ought  to  do  fo  (if  not  to 
afcend),  being  buoyed  up  by  a  greater  quantity  of  air  than 
before  it  was  heated.  But  is  this  the  only  cafe  in  which 
that  effecl:  takes  place,  and  where  we  know  at  the  fame  time 
that  not  only  volume  but  real  fubftance  is  added  to  one  end 
of  the  beam  ?  No :  a  bladder  capable  of  eafily  containing  a 
gallon  of  air  will  always  weigh  the  fame  (in  air)  whether 
you  put  into  it  a  pint,  a  quart,  or  a  gallon. 

Aye,  fays  a  cavillcR,  but  you  have  not  put  into  the  bladder 
cny  thing  heavier  than  the  furrounding  medium,  though  you 
have  put  in  a  real  gravitating  fubftance ;  therefore  the  bladder 
cannot  weigh  heavier.  Inftead  of  anfwering  him,  I  fliall  leave 
him  to  his  own  meditations. 

Are  philofophers  always  to  continue  in  the  belief  that 
bodies  can  be  made  fpecifically  lighter  and  heavier  at  plea- 
fure,  without  any  thing  being  either  abftra6ted  or  added  > 
Can  a  nonentity  produce  the  effefts  of  which  we  have  been 
fpeakipg  ?  or,  is  gravity  itfelf  a  nonentity  ?    It  either  is,   or 

heat 


1 66  0?t  the  retcrjed  DoSrines  refpeB'mg  Heat, 

heat  is  materia].  But,  when  I  confider  the  rapid'  advance^ 
that  have  been  made  in  various  branches  of  fcience  withia 
thefc  few  years  pall,  I  cannot  allow  myfelf  to  believe  that  its 
votaries  will  much  longer  doubt  of  the  exiftence  of  the  nioft 
powerful  and  moft  generally  diflfufed  fubftance  in  nature,  or 
long  remain  of  the  opinion,  ^^  that  all  attempts  to  difcover 
anj  ejjuj  qf  heat  upan  the  apparent^iv eight  of  bodies  ivHl  be 
fruitlcjs,'' 

The  ingenious  philofopher  (Count  Rumford)  whofe  words 
I  have  jult  quoted^  and  to  whom  every  inquirer  into  Nature 
luuft  feel  himfelf  highly  indebted  for  the  unwearied  patience 
with  which  hq  has  watched  and  traced  her  fteps  in  many  of  her 
moft  intricate  operations,  and  for  the  zeal  which  he  has  ma- 
nifested in  applying  fcientific  truths  to  the  common  purpofea 
of  life,  will  be  among  the  firfl:  to  abandon  the  opinion ;  for, 
when  he  ihall  have  better  confidered  the  fubjecl,  he  will  find 
tjie  evidence  lies  wholly  on  the  other  iide.  If  the  opinions. 
I  have  controverted  were  held  only  by  men,  like  him,  en-r 
lightened  and  candid,  I  fhould  be  fanguine  enough  to  believe 
that  what  I  have  advanced  would  fuffice  to  convince  all  of 
their  abfurdity  without  the  neceility  of  faying  a  word  more 
on  the  fubje6l :  but  we  know  well  how  difficult  it  is  for  the- 
human  mind  to  lliake  off  imbibed  prejudices,  efpeoially  wherv 
they  have  been  theorifed,  and  applied,  like  the  fait,  fulphur, 
ajul  mercury,  of  the  alchemifts,  and  the  phlogillon  of  the 
Stahlians,  to  explain  all  the  phaenomena  of  nature ;  and 
therefore  I  cannot  promife  myfelf,  that,  the  mere  treaders  in 
tFammels  and  day-labourers  In  fcience  will  adopt  my  ideas 
without  fomething  more  lev<;il  to,  their  capacity  being  firlt 
oflered  in  addition  to  the  evidence  already  produced.  Indeed 
it  would  he  unreafonable  to  expeft  that  men  of  the  caft  to. 
which  I  i;ow  allude  fliould  at  one  glance  perceive  the  force 
of  truth  whct\  prefented  to  their  view.  If  they  ever  appre- 
hend truth,  it  is  when  it  chances  to  be  a  part,  of  the  fyfteni 
they  have  been,  taugVu ;  and  that  fyftem,  however  falfe,  they 
always  adhere  to,  tiU  eyery  perfon  of  fupprioc  Uitellect  ha& 
abandoned  it. 

With  a  Society,  however,  inftituted  for  purpofes  like  oura, 
tiath   will  meet  with  a  proper  reception.     Thofe  who  are. 

affociatQd 


iianne^  of  mahhig  Kumis,  1<^7 

JifTociated  for  the  exprefs  purpofe  of  exploring  philofophica! 
Jacls,  will  ever  lend  a  ready  hand  to  feparate  the  fine  from  the 
drofs ;  and,  T  doubt  nrtt,  Will  by  their  labours  give  form  and 
folldity  to  the  ftrudure  for  which  I  have  humbly  endeavoured 
to  colleft  a  few  materials. 

I  intended,  before  concludiiig  thefc  reitiarks,  to  offer  a  fevi*- 
experiments  for  the  confideration  of  the  Society,  which,  if 
properly  cJondu6ted,  would,  I  perfuade  inyfelf,  furhifh  direct 
evidence  of  the  gravitating  power  or  property  belonging  to 
heat  in  common  with  other  kinds  of  matter:  I  confider  the 
point  as  eftablifhed  by  the  arguments  already  advanced,  but 
I  mean  to  fay,  that,  by  certain  experiments,  (if  I  have  been 
i-Hider  no  millake  in  the  reafoning  that  led  me  to  frame  them) 
its  abfolute  weight,  in  certain  fpecific  cafes,  may,  I  think,  be 
afccrtained;  but  having  run  the  prefent  eilav  to  a  greater 
length,  and  encroached  further  upon  the  time  (;f  the  Society 
than  was  perhaps  proper,  I  (hall  referve  them  for  a  fupple- 
ment,  which  I  may  offer  hereafter,  or  pertmps  make  them 
the  fubje6t  of  a  future  effiy. 


XXI.  AccQiint  of  the  Marnier  in  ivhich  the  Tartars  and  KaU 
muks  make  their  Kumis,  or  fermented  Mare's  Milk  *. 

JL  AKE  of  mare's  milk  of  one  day  any  Quantity;  add  to 
it  a  fixth  part  of  water,  an  eighth  part  of  the  foufefl  cow's 
milk  that  can  be  got,  but  at  a  future  period  a  fmaller  portion 
of  kumis  will  better  anfvver  the  purpofe  of  louring ;  cover  the 
rellel  with  a  thick  cloth,  and  fet  it  in  a  place  of  mcxlerate 
warmth,  leaving  it  to  reil  for  twenty-four  hours  ;  at  the  end 
of  which  the  milk  will  have  become  four,  and  a  thick  fub- 
flance  gathered  at  top :  then  with  a  flick,  made  at  the  lower 
end  in  the  manner  of  a  churn  ftaff,  beat  it  till  the  ttiick  fub- 
ftance  above  mentioned  be  blended  intimately  with  the  fub- 
jacent  fluid :  let  it  reft  twenty-four  hours  in  a  high  narrow 
veffel  like  a  churn.  The  agitation  muft  be  repeated  as  before, 
iill  the  liquor  appears  to  be  perfectly  homogeneous;  and  in 
Ihi^  ftate  it  i;?  called  kumis  (or  koumis),  of  which  the  tafte 


*  From  Efons  S'avry  of  the  Turkijb  Empire. 


oughl 


>&8  Singular  Cafe  of  Dro{jj^\ 

pugbt  to  be  a  pleafant  mixture  of  fweet  and  four*  Agitatiojt 
mud  be  employed  eyery  time  before  it  is  ufed.  When  we^ 
iprepared  in  clofe  veiTels,  and  kept  in  a  cold  place,  it  will  keep 
three  months,  or  more,  without  any  injury  to  its  quality. 

It  ferves  both  as  drink  and  food,  and  is  a  reftorativc  to  the 
f?omach,  and  a  cure  for  nervous  diforders,  phthifis,  &c. 

The  Tartars  diilil  this  fermented  milk,  and  obtain  from  it 
^  fpirituous  liquor,  which  they  drink  inftead  of  brandy. 


XXII.  Singular  Cafe  of  Dropfy :  communicated  in  a  Letter 
/rowi  Dr.  Charles  Smith,  of  Ncw-Bru?fwick,  New- 
Jerfeyy  to  Dr.  J.  R.  B.  RoDGERS,  ProfeJJhr  of  Midzviferv 
and  of  Clinical  Medicine  in  Columbia  College^ » 


A 


CASE  of  chylous  dropfy  (if  I  may  ufe  the  exprcflion) 
lately  occurred  in  my  practice,  which  I  judge  to  be  rather  an 
uncommon  one ;  at  lead  it  is  new  to  me,  and  my  memory 
does  not  ferve  me  with  a  fimilar  inftance  on  record  brought 
to  a  favourable  termination. 

In  December  1799,  T.  L.  of  South- River,  applied  to  me 
for  worm  medicines  for  a  boy  twelve  years  old,  defcribed 
to  have  an  enlarged  abdomen,  and  very  infatiable  appetite. 
Calomel,  pink -root,  &c.  were  adminiftered  and  repeated 
without. any  beneficial  effeiSt.  On  vifiting  the  lad  afterwards, 
it  appeared  evident  that  his  abdomen  contauied  a  large  quan- 
tity of  fome  fluid,  fo  much  as  to  prevent  a  recumbent  ppfture 
altogether.  He  laboured  under  none  of  the  other  fymptoms 
of  dropfy,  fuch  as  oedematous  fwellings,  or  much  irelaxation 
bf  the  folids  :  he  only  appeared  fomewhat  leaner  than  ufual. 

The  patient  was  brought  to  town,  a  few  days  after,  and 
tapped.  On  withdrawing  the  flilette,  you  may  judge  our 
furprife  to  find  a  mod  pure,  white,  and  fragrant  chyle,  of 
milk,  to  follow,  which  continued  to  flow  until  we  obtained 
between  feven  and  eight  quarts.  This  chyle  had  rather  more 
of  a  chalky-white  colour  than  cow's  milk.  It  was  perfectly , 
fweet  and  plcaiiUit  both  to  the  fmell  and  tafle  j  and,  after 
ilanding  through  the  night,  aflbrded  a  good  cream,  though 

♦  An.erican  Midical  Rcp'jUoijy  Vol.  III. 

not 


f 


Singular  Cafe  of  GropJJ^i  t^ 

hot  (^iite  fo  much  as  id  ufually  obtained  from  the  fanae  quan» 
tity  of  cow's  milk. 

^  Aftc^r  the  oj>eration,  the  boy  was  reftbred  to  his  ufual  feel- 
ings, arid,  in  fa£l,  fceiiied  to  havfe  no  complaint,  fave  a  con- 
fl^lnt  braving  for  food.  He  was  taken  home  three  dayiJ  after, 
and  I  heard  no  more  of  him  for  fourteen  days,  when  I  was 
feqaefted  to  vifit  him  iti  the  cbuntry;  I  found  him,  in  all 
refpedls,  as  befofe,  fave  a  greater  degree  of  emaciation ;  and^ 
by  repeating  the  operation,  1  obtained  a  fluid  of  the  fame 
kind,  and  nearly  the  fame  (|\iantity,  as  before,  from  thi^ 
time  nntil  the  !^th  of  March  I  heard  nothing  of  my  patient: 
as  his  frieni!f>  had  determined  to  yield  him  to  his  fate,  pro- 
vided the  laft  attempt  fhould  prove  unfuccefsftd,  I  had,  in 
iny  imaginatibti,'  numbered  him  with  the  dead.  Having  oc- 
cafion  to  vifit  the  neighbotirhood  at  this  time^  I  was  agree- 
ably difappdinted  in  finding  him  in  perfe(St  health,  without 
any  intitmefcence  6f  the  abdbffien,  and  with  an  appetite' de- 
duced to  diie  moderation. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  circumftances  of  the  above  com- 
plaint, that  fdme  of  the  larger  chylifferous  ^eflels  werfe  eitbet 
el*dded  or  rupturcd ;  and  the  emaciation  which  was  taking 
place,  and  the  fhortfpare  of  time  which  had  elapfed  betweeri 
the  operations,  induced  me  to  coticlude  the  cure  beyond  the 
bounds  of  our  art.  I  therefore  contented  myfclf  with  order- 
ing a  few  dofes  df  calomel  ahd  laudarium,  \Vith  a  view  tc^ 
'excite  abforption ;  but  more  with  a  view  to  fatisfy  the  minds 
bf  thofe  concerned,  than  from  a  profpe(^  of  any  permanent 
utility.  I  advifed  ari  adherence  to  folid  rather  than  fluid  foodj 
and,  being  requelted,  permitted  a  moderate  ufe  bf  Geneva. 

On  inquiiy,  I  learned  that  ilo  medicine  of  any  kind  had 
been  given  after  the  day  of  the  fecond  operation ;  and,  by  the 
^ofitive  order  of  the  miftrefs  of  the  fiimilyj  the  patient  was 
entirely  reftrained  from  the  ufe  of  every  fluid,  except  gin, 
and  confined  to  bread  toafted  brown,  and  freih  medls,  boiled 
or  roafled,  without  pepper  or  fait.  This  regimen  was  en- 
forced, withbut  the  leaft  relaxation,  fot  the  firfl  tefi  days. 
For  the  two  fucceeding  weeks,  d  fmall  pcrlion  of  water  was 
fometiTnes  added  to  the  gin,  but  never  to  exceed  it  in  quan- 
tity. After  which  period,  perceiving  no  ttndency  to  the  former 

Vol.  IX,  Y  complaint^, 


t?©  R6y a}  Society  of  L^yidom 

complaint,  the  boy  was  permitted  to  return  gradually  to  hl^ 
tifual  mode  of  living,  and  has  fince  continued  in  good  health. 
l>urmg  the  time  of  the  above  regimen,  he  was  two  or  three 
times  fairly  intoxicated,  and  that  too  by  defign. 

You  will,  doubtlefs^  efteem  the  above  mode  of  treatment 
fuch  as  would  hardly  have  been  ventured  on  by  a  judicious 
practitioner  J  and  yet  to  ity  I  am  inelin<id  to  think,  the  boy 
owes  his  hfe. 

From  the  nature  of  the  food  and  drink,  the  quantity  of 
chyle  generated  muft  have  been  much  lefs  than  ufiraL  Andy 
admitting  that  a  proportibn  of  it  was  difcharged  into  the  cavity 
of  the  abdomen,  we  may  fuppofe  this  to  have  been  taken  up 
by  the  increafed  aftion  of  the  abforbent  veflels  of  that  cavity, 
excited  inlsa  more  than  ordinary  energy  by  the  flimulus  of  the 
gin.-  The  difeafed  veflel  or  veffels  being  Icfs  diftended  than 
heFctoforCy  would,  of  courfe,  be  more  difpofed  to  heal. 
.  ..If  yon.  Sir,  who  are  fo  competent  a  judge  in  matters  of 
this  kind,  conceive  the  above  cafe  can  be  of  any  fervice  to 
the  public,  yoii  have  my  permiffion  to  difpofe  of  it  in  fuch  a 
way  as  may  appear  to  you  mofl  likely  to  promote  that  end. 

Qui^re,    How  far  would  the  above  regimen  fucceed  in 
afcites,  after  the  operation  ? 


XXII r.  Proceedings  of  Learned  SocietteSy  Mifcellaneous  Arti-^ 
clesy  and  new  Publications,     March  iSoi.- 


o, 


Royal  socistY  of  London, 


N  February  26,  the  reading  of  Count  de  Bournon's* 
paper  on  the  cryftals  of  arfeniat  of  copper  and  iron,  found 
in  Gprla'nd  mine,  in  the  county  of  ComwaTl,  was  concluded. 

March  5th',  12th,  and  i8th,  were  entirely  taken  up  in  read--^ 
ing  the  chemieat  analyfis  of  tl«i  arfeniats  oi  copper  found  in 
Gorland  mine.  This  paper  was  of  a  nature  which  prevents- 
k&  being  detailed.  The  experiments  were  made  and  defcrlbed 
in  a  moll  accurate,  mallerly,  and  elegant  manner,  by  Richard 
Chtrncvix,  Efq.  F.R.S.,  and  will  be  of  the  higheft  import- 
ance to'tliofe  concerned  in  copper  works,  as  well  as  to  the 
fcientifie  wofld-ia general. 

FFIENCII 


Ch^rmjiry —  Galvafiifm — Metcorol(igy,  1 7 1 

FRENCH    NATIONAL    INSTITUTE, 

The  following  account  of  the  labours  of  the  Mathematical 
jind  Phyfical  Ciafs  of  the  Sciences  during  the  lafl  three  nionths 
iias  been  read. 

Chemi/iry, — C.  Berthollet  has  proved  that  the  propagation 
c»f  the  chemical  acSiion  is  lefl'ened,  ift,  by  the  weakiiefs  of 
that  a6lion :  adly,  by  conftitutional  changes  to  which  the 
fubftances  that  exercife  it  are  fubjc6l.  He  has  eftabliftied  the 
limits  of  the  chemical  knowledge  hitherto  acquired  in  regard 
to  vegetable  phyfiology.  He  has  fliown  alfo  that  rnotjon  ac^ 
celerates  the  conimunication  of  heat,  by  bringing  nearer  thofe 
parts  which  are  at  a  diftaijt  temperature;  fo  that  their  reci- 
procal aiSlion  becoui.es  tl)ereby  ipore  lively  and  inflantaneous; 
but  that  it  Qught  not  thence  to  be  concluded  that  liquids  ajid 
claftic  fluids  are  incapable  of  tranfmitting  heat. 

Guyton  is  employed  on  the  means  of  purifying  the  air  and 
checking  the  prpgrefs  of  contagign.  He  has  carefully  cxar 
mined  all  the  methocjs  hitherto  followed  for  this  purpofe, 
and  even  his  own,  and  determii)ed  thofe  which  ought  to  in- 
fpire  the  greateft  confidence.  He  has  read  alfo  a  m-pmoir  on 
the  preparation  of  mortar,  lime,  and  different  kinds  of  ppzzo- 
lauo,  in  ,^hich  hje  cpmpares  tl^e  natyre  of  thefe  fubftances, 
and  gives  the  refult  of  experiments,  ipade  on  a  l^irge  fcale, 
even  .under  |:he  w/iter  of  the  fea,  with  fon)e  flatters  which  he 
propofes  to  fubftityt.e  in  the  rtjpni  of  the  pozzolano  of  Italy. 
'  Experimental  Phijofophy, — Hallp  has  given  an  account  of 
experiments  refpecling  galvanjfni,  ejther  repeated  or  made 
for  the  firft  tin^e  at  th.e  School  of  Medicine  by  mcan^  of 
Volta's  apparatus.  The  general  refult  of  them  is  ^  prqpf  of 
the  identity  of  the  galvanic  principle  and  eledtricity, 

Meteorqlogy, — Teflier  has  prefented  a  ferie§  of  queftions 
to  be  propofpd  to  t^e  conltituted  authorities  arid  the  corre- 
fpondents  of  the  Inftitute  in  the  deparui]cnts,  in  order  to 
obtain  from  theji)  every  information  neccllkr}''  to  niake  known 
the  extent  of  the  efl[(>6ts  of  the  ftpfiP  which  took  place  in  \\\q 
jnonth  of  November. 

,    Lamarck  has  cndeavoi^retl  tp  fix  the  nomenclature  of  cer- 
tairi  meteors.     According  to  his  opinion,  hurricanes  and 

Y  %  '  fqualis 


Xf#  Frmch  National  JnJiiiuid'^Boianj, 

fquJIs  take  place  only  under  certain  clouds,  which  con-t 
ceal  the  caufe  of  them :  they  traverfc  a  band  of  the  atmo- 
fphere  in  a  ftraight  line,  and  in  the  direiSiion  of  the  wind  "by 
which  they  are  impelled ;  produce  only  tranfient  effects,  and 
cither  do  not  make  the  barometer  fall,  or  make  it  fall  very 
little.     Storms,  on  the  other  hand,  extend  their  effefts  to  ^ 
diftance ;  continue  at  leaft  ten  or  twelve  hours,  and  may  ever^ 
prolong  their  duration  to  thirty -fix  ;  they  do  not  come  on  of 
a  fudden,  and  make  the  barometer  fall.     According  to  thefe 
obfervations,  the  violent  winds  in  November  laft  were  th^ 
refult  of  a  real  ftorm,  ai^d  not  of  a  hurricane. 
-    Botany, — ^Ventenat,   in  a  mernoir  on  the   plants  called 
arum^  has  ihown,  that  fevera|  of  thofe  which  ihe  botanift^ 
have  hitherto  referred  to  that  cl^fs  are  fo  different  as  to  au- 
thorife  their  being  formed  into  a  particular  genus,  the  cha- 
rafters  qf  which  Ventenat  deterrnines,  and  whjch  he  calls 
caladium, 

Beauvois  has  prefented  feveral  drawings  of  plants  growing 
in  the  country  of  Oware  and  Benin,  a  Flora  of  which  he 
intends  foon  to  publilh.  He  has  given  a  particular  defcrip- 
tion  of  a  new  genus  of  the  family  of  the  cucurbits,  which 
he  calls  myriantbus ;  the  only  one  of  that  family  which  is  4 
tree  properly  fo  called.  It  might  be  diftinguifhed  by  th^ 
name  of  the  melon-tree. 

Ramond  has  difcovered  in  the  Pyrennees  a  new  genus  of 
plants  which  approaches  near  to  the  colchica,  bulbocoda,  ancj 
faffron ;  he  has  called  it  mtnderera  with  the  Spaniards,  and 
has  fpj^t  a  figure  and  defcriptiop  of  it.  He  has  alfo  made  a 
curious  obfervatjpn,  hitherto  unique  of  its  kind  :  he  has 
found  the  aquatic  ranunculus  douridiing,  not  as  ufual  at 
the  furface  of  the  water,  but  at  a  ccrtaui  depth  under  it. 

Picat-Lapeyroufe  has  announced  that  he  propofcs  to  pab- 
lifh  a  particular  defcription  of  the  plants  named  Jaxjfragii 
and  he  has  communicated  the  motives  which  induce  him  to 
do  fo,  and  the  bafes  on  which  he  propofes  to  eftablifh  it. 
The  leaves,  according  to  which  he  has  hitherto  diltinguiflied 
thefe  plants,  do  not  afford  conflant  characters :  befides,  iri 
this  genus  there  are  more  hybridae  fpecies ;  that  is  to  fay, 
fpecies  arifing  fropi  a  mixture  of  two,  than  has  been  hitherto: 

believed. 


believed.  .'  Lapeyroufe  has  fought  for  their  diftlngiijflijng 
marks  in  the  figure,  the  proportion,  and  the  rektion  of  the 
parts  of  fru<Slifi cation :  he  has  divided  the  whole  genus  into 
feveral  natural  groupes,  and  colleded  from  the  works  of  the 
old  botauifts,  and  in  their  herbajs,  a  mqre  corred  fynonymy 
than  any  hitherto  obtaintid. 

Zoologj'. — L^cepede  has  defcribed  ^  fierpent  hitherto  tia-* 
Jcnovvn  to  naturalifts  ;  he  has  formed  of  it  a  genuj  to  which 
he  gives  the  name  of  erpeton  tmtaculatum.  Its  chara£ters 
are,  that  it  has  ,^  row  of  large  fcalcs  below  the  body,  and  the 
lawyer  pajt  of  the  tail  covered  with  fmall  feales  like  thofe  of 
the  back. 

Cuvier  has  made  us  acquainted  with  the  prefent  ftate  of 
his  refearc^^cs  in  regard  to  quadrupeds ;  he  has  now  found 
twenty-three  kinds  of  thofe  animals,  none  of  which  has  ever 
beei>  fe$n  alive  on  the  earth. 

MediciTt^^—r-HAWc  has  given  an  account  of  the  fymptoms 
pf  that  contagious  malady  which  lately  occaiioned  fo  much 
devaftation  in  Spain.  He  has  proved  that  it  was  not  the 
plague  common  in  the  Levant,  but  that  malady  known  ia 
America  under  the  name  of  the  yellow  fever. 

Lafoffe  has  read  obfer\'ations  on  different  ligaments  ia 
man  and  aniuials;  and  by  reafoning  and  pra<9:ical  example^ 
has  fhown  that  there  are  cafps  in  which  the  cutting  of  thefe 
Jigaments  may  be  highly  advantageous. 

PHII-OMATIC    SOCIETY.  ^ 

Labillardicre  read  a  memoir  o\\  two  fpecies  of  the  litchi 
of  the  Moluccas.  The  two  fpecies  here  defcribed  are  ori.; 
ginally  from  China,  and  were  introduced  into  the  Moluccas 
by  the  Chinefe,  who  inhabit  thefe  iflands.  One  of  them, 
called  ramboutan  by  the  Malays,  is  the  nephelium  lappaceum 
Linn.;  the  other,  which  they  call  ramhutan-ake,  is  unknown 
to  botanifts. 

The  ncphelium  was  fo  little  known  that  it  has  been  fuccefi 
lively  clafled  among  the.  compojita^^  i\\*^  amentace^y  and  the 
euphorbia.  Labillardicre  proves  that  it  belongs  to  the  family 
of  i\\^  fafonaruc  ;  and  he  even  unites  it  to  the  genus  of  the 
iitchi.      Its  calyx  has   four  or  five  divifions  covered  witlt. 

hair. 


>74  Thilomqlic  Soeletj-^poiaftj', 

jbair,  and  no  corolla.  li  has  from  four  to  fix  ftamina  In^* 
ferted  in  the  piiiil,  and  o(  very  (hort  duration,  which  made 
it  be  confidercd  as  a  momecia.  Its  ovarium  has  two  rounded 
Jobes,  and  its  ftyle  divides  itfelf  into  two  hollow  ftigmata. 
One  of  the  lobes  of  thje  ovarium  generally  niifcarri.es,  and  the 
otlier  forms  a  red  oval  beny  full  of  fharp  points,  terminating 
in  hooks  and  covered  with  a  coriaceous  and  tuberous  rind. 
The  kernel  is  oval,  a  little  flatted,  and  lodged  in  a  pulpy  fub- 
ftance,  to  which  it  adheres  by  the  bafc.  It  is  here  {^^n  that 
this  tree  differs  from  the  litchi  only  by  the  abfence  of  the  co- 
rolla, and  becaufe  it  has  only  from  four  to  6x  flamina  inllead 
of  fix  or  eight.  The  points  of  its  fruit,  though  long,  are  not 
fuiHcient  to  make  it  be  confidered  as  a  diftin.6l  genus ;  fince 
the  fruit  of  the  common  litcbi  is  alfp  interfperfed  with  fmall 
points,  which  arife,  in  the  like  manner,  from  tubercles  cir- 
cumfcribed  by  irregular  polygons.  The  pulp  of  this  fruit  is 
fomewhat  acid :  it  is  ufed  in  the  Moluccas  for  allaying  the 
thirft  of  thofe  attacked  with  malignant  fevers.  The  furgeon 
to  the  expedition  fent  in  queft  .of  La  Peyroufe  ufed  this  juice 
with  fuccefs  for  th,Q  dyfentery.  The  fecond  covering  of  the 
fruit  does  not  appear  to  Labillardierc  a  phar^^teV  fuflicijsnt 
.  for  retaining  the  genus  nephelium ;  hp  fojunds  his  opinion  on 
the  example  of  the  viagntfera  indicq,  thp  fruit  of  which  have 
fometimes  a  fecond  covering  almoft  ligneous,  which  h  wa;)t- 
ing  in  the  other  varieties. 

The  liffea  ramboutan-ahe  differs  from  the  preceding  by 
the  divifions  of  the  calyx  being  more  ob]tufe;  the  fi;igmata 
pointed ;  the  being  jnterfperfed  with  ti|bercles  truncated  at 
the  fummit,  and  the  external  covering  thicker ;  by  its  rifing 
only  to  the  heighjt  of  fifteen  or  fixteen  feet ;  and  by  its 
branches  being  horizo|:ttal,  and  its  leaves  haying  from  fix  to 
eight  folioles.  Its  pulp  is  as  agreeable  to  the  tafte  as  that  of 
Xhc  liffea  chinen/is.  The  taftc  of  its  kernel  refembles  that  of 
a  nut.  An  oil  fimilar  to  olive  oil,  and  fuperlor  to  that  of  the 
coco  nut,  is  extracted  from  it. 

The  fame  author  read  another  memoiron  a  new  genus  of 
palm  called  arenga.  It  is  the  palma  indlca  vinarid  fecund  a  ^ 
Saguertis  feu  Goviutus,  (Rumph.  Herb.  Amb.  Vol.  I.  p.  57.) 
Jt  conftitutes  a  new  genus,  which  Labillardierc  calls  axengay 

from 


from  nrengy  the  name  given  to  It  in  the  Moluccas.     Its  na-' 
tural  charadtcrs  are  as  follow : 

Male  jlowers, — ^The  flieath  of  one  piece;  the  fpadix' much 
f-amifiedj  calyx  divided  into  fix  foliole;?;  the  three  exterior 
fhort,  in  the  form  of  a  heart,  and  having  a  protuberance  at 
their  bafe ;  the  three  interior  oval,  and  in  alternate  order  with 
the  former.  Stamina  fifty  or  fixty  filaments,  almbft  as  long 
as  the  interior  folioles,  and  the  reft  almoft  united  or  adherent- 
to  a  fhort  receptacle  which  rifes  from  the  centre  of  the  flower. 
Theantherae  linear,  indented  like  a  h^iart  at  the  bafe,  and  ad-, 
hering  to  filanients  tl>e  fumm its  of  which  proje6t  over  them. 

Female  jlowers  on  the  iiune  ftalk.  The  fheath  and  fpadix 
as  in  the  males-.  Thev calyx  divided  into  fi-x  folioles;  the 
three  exterior  femicircular^  th€  three  interior  much  larger^ 
and  having  the  form  of  an  ifofceles  triangle.  Piftil :  a 
fimple  oval  ovarium,  terminated  by  three  pointed  and  feffile 
ftigmata.  Fruit :  almoft  fpheric,  bacciibrm,  with  three  cells 
conlairiing  each  three  feeds  bearing  three  protuberances  op-, 
pofite  to  the  ftigmata^  feeds  oval,  convex  on  the  exterior  and 
deprcfled  on  the  interior  fide,  where  they  have  two  facets  fe-. 
parated  by  an  angle.  The  external  fkin  of  each  feed  thin, 
friable,  ancJ  covered  on  the  outfidc  with  afperities.  The 
embryo  lateral,  and  fituated  in  a  peculiar  cavity. 

The  arcnga  differs  from  the  borajjus  by  its  lateral  embryo, 
its  (heath  of  one  piece,  and,  in  particular,  by  its  fifty  oriixty. 
ftaminaj  a  remarkable  conformation  in  a  family,  all  the.ge-. 
nera  of  which  have  fix  ft:amii>a,  except  the  caryota  Linn,  and 
the  manicaria  Ga?rtn.  which  have  from  twenty  to  twenty-five.- 

The  only  kind  of  arcnga  knovn-  is  the  arengajacchariftray. 
which  rifes  to  the  height  of  fifty  or  fixty  feet ;  its  pinnated 
leaves  are  about  fifteen  or  fixteen  feet  in  length ;  the  foliolea 
Are  dentated  at  the  extremity,  aiid  have  one  or  two  appendages 
at  their  bafe  :  the  petioles  are  broad  towards  their  barfe,-  a-nd 
furnifhed  with  long  black  filaments,  of  which  the  Malays 
nrak<2  very  durable  ropes  and  cables.  The  petioles  are  em^ 
ployed  in  th6  conftrutSlion  of  their  houfes,  and  the  folioles- 
for  covering  them. 

A  very  faccharinc  liquor  is  obtained  from  this  palm  by 
tnakintr  incifions  in  it :  if  properly  managed,  the  liquor  may 

he 


W  dbtainetl  from  it  for  more  thart  half  the  yfeaf.  By  fimpT* 
evaporation  this  liquor  produces  a  kitld  of  fugar^  which  ha^ 
the  colour  and  cdnftf^eiicb  of  chon^lifte  newly  made;  bui 
which,  in  Jill  probability,  might  bcfui'ceptibleof  pttrificatibtl. 
Excellent  prefervd^  ^tt  nfiade  of  the  kernels  atitd  young  fruit 
of  the  arcn^^  and  V^ry  gc)od  fago  is  e:^tra6l:ed  from  the  trimk. 
i  Decanddlle  read  a  memoir  on  the  vegetation  of  the  mifleU 
to^,  whitrh,  as  is  \<^ell  ktio^in,  is  a  patafitic  plant,  that  grow^ 
oh  fcveral  trees  and  in  all  diretSbions.  Duhamel  hai  given  a 
very  accurate  and  interefting  account  of  it.  Refpefting  thi^ 
lingular  vegetable,  Decatidc^lle  miade  the  follovi^ing  experi- 
liients : 

■  ifti  To  prove  that  the  rfiifliettofe  derives  its  nt>uri(hmerit 
froth  the  tree  on  which  it  exiflSj  he  immt^rffed  iti  wjlter,  cd- 
Iburetl  red  with  cochineal,  a  branch  of  ari  stpple-tree  on  whicH 
i  mifleltoe  wets  growing.  The  cdloufcd  water  penetrated  the 
batrk  and  woo'd  of  the  appl^-tree  and  pafTed  ittto  the  miflfeltoe, 
inhere  its  colour  was  even  thore  intenfe  than  in  the  tree  itfelf. 
It  does  not,  however,  appear  that  theit  i§  a>eal  anaftomofis 
iJetwfeen  the  fibres  of  the  milfeUoe  and  that  of  the  kpple-tree  j 
Ibut  the  bafe  of  the  miffdtoe  is  furfourided  with  a  kind  of 
Cellulofity  where  the  fibres  of  the  apple-tree  feem  io  depofit 
the  fap,  and  where  thoib  of  the  mHTeltoe  feem  to  imbibe  it. 
The  pith  of  the  mifleltoe  is  green  in  the  youngftems;  andj 
"by  infpe<9[ing  a  tfanfverfal  fedliori  of  the  vegetable,  the  opi- 
nion of  Dcsfontaines,  that  the  cellular  tifliie  is  an  external 
pith,  rendered  green  by  the  light,  feertis  to  be  fully  confirmed. 

2(^  Decandolle  took  a  branch  of  an  apple-tree  bearing  ^ 
miifbhoe,  and  irnmerfed  the  latter  in  coiotifed  \tater.  Itg 
learies  dropped,  and  the  cicatrices  became  red.  The  liquor 
^Itovveil  the  ligneous  fibres  of  the  miffcltoe,  defccnded  into 
hs  nirots,  pafled  into  the  wood  erf  the  3fpple-tree,  and  de- 
ibended  towards  its  roots. 

3d.  Having  taken  twd  branched  of  an  applc-trcc  bearing 
^vo  mtirdtoes  of  equal  fize,  and  having  ftripped  of  their 
fcaves  both  the  branches  and  one  of  the  mififeltocs,  he  intro- 
duced the  ends  of  thefe  branches  into  tubes  hermetically 
ftaled,  and  filled  with  water;,  he  then  inverted  thefe  tubes  iri 
a  veficl  contamiflg  mcrcnry^  and  obferved  that  the  nwireltoe 
6  which 


Vhilomatic  Society — Botany,  177 

which  had  leaves  raifed  the  mercury  4-64  inches  in  nine 
hours,  while  the  mifTeltoe  deprived  of  its  leaves  raifed  it 
only  1*5  :  the  leaves  of  the  mifleltoe,  therefore,  a<St  the  fame 
part  in  regard  to  the  apple-tree  as  the  real  leaves  of  that  tree. 

4th.  Having  taken  two  milTeltocs  with  leaves,  one  of  which 
was  implanted  on  a  part  of  the  root  of  the  apple-tree,  and 
the  other  immerfed  immediately  in  water ;  and  having  dif- 
pofed  them  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  the  firft  mifleltoe 
raifed  the  mercury  about  4*48  inches;  the  other  once 
raifed  it  '42,  and  another  time  did  not  raife  it  at  all/  This 
lingular  experiment  Ihows,  that  the  mifleltoe,  by  itfelf,  is  aU 
moll:  entirely  deilitute  of  the  faculty  of  railing  the  fap. 

Decandolle  on  this  occafion  obferves,  that  the  faculty  of 
railing  the  fap  by  a  root  is  intimately  conneded  with  a  per- 
pendicular dire6lion.  In  regard  to  their  nutrition,  he  divides 
vegetables  into  two  clafles.  The  firft  receive  their  nourifh- 
ment  throucrh  their  whole  furface ;  do  not  live  but  in  one  fur- 
rounding  medium,  of  air,  as  the  lichens;  of  water,  as  the  fuci ; 
or  of  earth,  as  mufhrooms.  Vegetables  of  the  firft  clafs  have 
no  tendency  to  a  perpendicular  dire6lion.  Thofe  of  the  fe- 
cond  receive  their  nouri(hment  through  a  determinate  place 
called  their  root:  they  always  live  in  two  or  three  furround- 
ing  mediums  ;  in  the  earth  and  water,  like  the  potamogetons ; 
-in  water  and  air,  as  the Jlratiotes ;  in  the  earth  and  air,  as  the 
oak ;  in  the  earth,  water,  and  air,  as  the  nymphaea.  The 
plants  of  the  fecond  clafs  all  tend  to  the  zenith  with  more  or 
lefs  energy. 

Decandolle  has  alfo  read  a  memoir  on  the  pores  and  the 
bark  of  leaves.  The  word  gland  in  the  anatomy  of  animals 
fignifies  a  fecretory  organ ;  but  in  the  anatomy  of  plants  this 
name  has  been  given  to  feveral  organs  which  are  not,  or  at 
leaft  have  never  yet  been  known  to  be,  fecretory  organs,  and 
which  differ  confiderably  from  each  other.  The  miliary 
glands  of  Guettard  have  particularly  fixed  the  attention  of 
Decandolle ;  they  are  thofe  which  De  Sauifure  has  defcribed 
under  the  name  of  cortical  glands,  and  which  by  Hedwig 
are  called  vafa  ly?nphatica  cuticul^.  Decandolle  gives  them 
the  name  oi  cortical  fores )  an  appellation  that  relates  only  to 
■  their  form  and  their  pofition,  which  are  certain  things^  and 

Z  "not 


178       ,  Fhilofnatlc  Soclety-^Boidny, 

not  to  Ibf  ir  iife,  which  is  uncertain^  He  firft  examines'  tlieii 
efTeiitial  nature,  and  then  follows  their  variations  in  the  dif- 
ferent  parts  and  different  clalTes  of  vegetables,  and  under  va- 
rious circuniftances.  From  thefe  fads  he  endeavours  to  de- 
termine their  ufe. 

The  cortical  pores  form  part  of  the  cortical  tiflue  of  the 
leaves.  ,  It  may  be  feen  by  the  niicrofcope  that  they  arc  oval, 
and  furrdunded  by  an  oval  border,  which  connefts  them,  by 
two  or  three  fibres,  to  the  rett  of  the  tiflue.  The  meflies  of 
the'tiflUe  are  mpre  lengthened,  and  always  ^without  pores  on 
the  fibres;  the  bridles,  on  the  other  hand,  are  always  placed 
on  the  fibres  of  raniificutions.  DecandoUe  is  of  opinion  that 
thefe.  qdrtic^^l  ,pores  are  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  fibres 
which  compofe  the  leaf.  This  idea  was  fuggefted  to  liim  by 
the  conformation  of.  the  criijjhlay.  la^lea^  cotyledons^  &c.  h 
^  bundle,  of  fibtres  traverfes  tjie'parencihynia.of  their  leaves,  and 
ends  at  the  bark ;  the  plaqe  where  it  ends  is  an  aflemblage  of 
pores,  whereas  fcarcely  any  are  found  on  the  rell  of  the  fur- 
face.  This  idea  is  confirmed  by  the  pores  being  very  nume- 
rous on  coriaccou?  leaves,  ;ind^very  little  fo  on  thofe  that  are 
pulpy,  which  have  more  juice  and  fewer  fibres. 

The  cortical  pores  are  found  in  particular  on  the  leaves. 
The  leaves  of  herbs,  in  general,  have  fome  of  them  on  both 
faces,  and  thofe  of  trees  on  the  lower  furface  only ;  which 
coincides  with  the  experiments  of  Bonnet  on  fu^lion.  The 
flems  have  no  pores,  except  thofe  of  plants  which  are  very" 
herbaceous ;  fuch  as  the  cucurhita^,  graffes,  and  thofe  which 
■are  deftitute  of  leaves,  as  the  caitus^  epbedruy  8cc.  The  roots 
•never  have  pores.  Some  are  found  on  the  ftipulae,  and  the 
foliaceous  and  durable  bra^lece.  The  calices  in  general  are 
furnillied  with  them ;  but^  on  the  other  liand,  the  corollge 
have  none  :  ihis  rule,  hpweve.r,  is  liable  to  fome  exceptions, 
u  liich  DecandoUe  propofes  to  explain  in  a  particular  me- 
njoir.  The  pulpy  pericarpia  are  unprovided  with  pores,  but 
thofe  vi'hich  are  coriaceous  have  tliem.  -The  fkins  of  feeds 
have  none,  but  they  are  found  on  the  feminal  leaves.  None 
of  them,  however,  are  found  on  the  cotyledons  which  re- 
main on  the  ground,  nor  on  thofe  of  French  beans. 
'.  If  the  bark  of  various  families  be  examined,  it  will  be 
:  8  .  found. 


Pbilomafic  Society — Botany »  tj^ 

found,  that  .in:  plants  really  dcflitute  of  cotytcdohs,  fiich  as 
nuifli rooms,  the  hvffi,  fact,  Yichftws,  and  hepatle'a,  ho  pores ' 
are  found,  nor  even  real  bark,  nor  perhaps  epidermis.  This 
abfence  of  the  epidermis  explains  why  miifli rooms  arc  fo  pu- 
trefcible;  why  the  fuciy&ci  -imbibe  water  To  ealily;  why 
coloured  water  penetrates  into  the  leaves  of  lichens,  which 
does  not  take  pbcc  with  other  plants.  Plants  which  have, 
cotyledons  have  bark  :  molfes  have  no  cortical  pores;  ferns 
have  them,  biit  only  below.  The  monocotyledons  with 
longitudinal  fibries  have  pores  between  the  fibres;  and  hence 
the  diftingulfliing  characters  of  the  different  families  may  be? 
deduced.  The  cortical  pores  ai'e  found  only  on  plants  or 
parts  of  plants  expofed  to  the  air,  and  never  on  thole  v/hich 
ate  under  water :  immcrfed  plants,  therefore,  are  deftitute  of 
them,  and  flojUing  leaves  have  them  only  on  their  upper 
furface.  Decandolle  has  feen  an  aquatic  ranunculus,  which 
ufually  has  no  pores,  acquire  a  great  number  when  it  grew 
in  the  open  air.  He  alio  made  an  inverfe  experiment,  and 
found  that  mint,  made  to  grow  under  water,  fent  forth  leaves 
without  pores. 

Light  alfo  is  necefTarv  for  the  development  of  pores.' 
Blanched  plants  have  none;  creljes  which  grew  expoled  to 
the  light  of  fix  lamps  had  only  half  the  number  they  ufu- 
ally have  when  in  the  open  ail*.  The  coats  of  bulbous  roots 
have  none  in  the  parts  below  ground  ;  but  thofe  parts  ex- 
pofed to  the  light  and  the  air  have  pories. 

The  cortical  pores  do  not  ferve  for  the  production  of  the 
blue  pollen,  for  plums  have  no  pores;  oily  plants,  which 
have  few  pores,  have  blue  pollen  in  abundance;  and  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  thoufand,  plants  have  pores  without  pro- 
ducing blue  pollen. 

They  ferve  only  for  fenfible  tranfpiration,  for  the  diverfity 
of  the  matters  exhaled  fecms  to  indicate  a  diverfity  in  the 
organs :  befides,  they  are  found  in  all  vegetables,  and  that 
function  takes  place  only  in  fomc. 

They  do  not  ferve  for  the  efcape  of  oxygen  gas,  though  the 
want  of  them  in  blanched  plants  and.  the  corolle  gives  reafon 
to  think  that  they  arc  deltiued  for  that  purpofe ;  but  they  are 
found  in  leaves  coloured  re(l; which  ctT3it..no  air :  they  aro 

Z  2  ■  wantino* 


l8o  Philomatic  Society ^-^Butter, 

wanting  in  aquatic  plants,  nioffes,  green  lichens,  green  fruits, 
and  the  upper  furface  of  feverul  plants  which  give  oxygen  gas. 
Decandoile  is  of  opinion  that  the  cortical  pores  ferve,  i  ft.  For 
infenfible  tranfpiration  -,  and  indeed  this  function  is  exercif^d 
in  all  terreftrial  vegetables;  it  is  unknown  and  improbable 
in  aquatic  plants;  oily  plants,  which  have  few  pore€,  tranf- 
pire  little,  but  herbaceous  plants  tranfpire  a  great  deal; 
the  coroUae  and  blanched  plants  tranfpire  very  little :  in 
a  word,  it  may  be  eafily  conceived  that  the  lymph,  after 
having  traverfed  the  fibres  throughout,  their  whole  extent, 
and  having  depofited  in  its.  courfQctb©  alimentary  mo- 
leculae,  is  exhaled  at  their  extremity.  ad.  The  author 
thinks  that,  in  certain  cafes,  thefe  pores  may  fervc  for  the 
abforption  of  vapours ;  and  he  thereby  explains  the  agree- 
ment of  his  obfervations  with  thofe  of  Bonnet  on  fu6tion, 
the  efTcA  of  watering  on  withered  plants,  and  the  increafe  of 
oily  plants  when  hung  up  in  the  open  air.  He  proves  by 
an  experiment  that  oily  plants,  when  cut  and  expofed  to  the 
air  in  a  dry  place,  gradually  lofe  their  weight ;  but  that  it  is 
reftored  to  them  by  immerfion  in  water.  It  may  eafily  be 
comprehended,  if  Sennebier's  theory  of  the  afcent  of  the  fap 
be  admitted,  that  when  the  extremity  of  the  fibre  is  more 
humid  than  the  air,  it  gives  up  to  it  its  moifture ;  and  that, 
if  it  is  drier,  it  attra6ts  that  of  the  air. 

BUTTER. 

^^  The  butter,  which  is  moftly  ufed  in  Conftantinople, 
comes  from  the  Crimea  and  Kuban.  They  do  not  fait  it,  but 
melt  it  in  large  copper  pans  over  a  very  flow  fire,  and  fcum 
off  what  rifes;  it  will  then  preferve  fweet  a  long  time  if  the 
butter  was  frefli  when  it  was  melted.  We  preferve  butter 
moftly  by  faking.  I  have  had  butter,  which  when  frefli  was 
melted  and  fcummed  in  the  Tartar  manner,  and  then  falted 
in  our  manner,  which  kept  two  years  good  and  fine  tafted. 
Wafliing  does  not  fo  eflre6^ually  free  butter  from  the  curd  and 
butter- milk,  which  it  is  neceflary  to  do,  in  order  to  preferve 
it,  as  boiling  or  melting;  when  then  fait  is  added,  we  cer- 
tainly have  the  heft  procefs  for  preferving  butter.  The  melt- 
ing or  boiling,  if  done  with  care,  does  not  difcolour  or  injure 
the  tafte."— £/(}f/'5  Survey  of  th  TurkiJJj  Emfire. 

CHEMICAL 


i 


ChenuQal  K^iicfs^  t^t 


CHEMlCAI^   NOTICES. 


The  following  is  an  extract  of  a  letter  from  U.  P.  Salmouj, 
Phyfician  to  the  French  Army  m  Italy,  to  Profeflbr  Mafcagnj, 
of  Sienna; 

*^  Brugnatclli  is  much  employed  ^i  prefent  in  repeating , 
the  experiments  pf  Volta  on  the  folution  of  metals  by  what 
he  calls  the  ele6lric  acid.  I  have  feen  fome  of  his  ele6lrats  of 
filver,  which  are  the  moft  lingular  phseaomenon  I  ever  heard 
of.  Befides  other  curious  obfervations,  Brugnatclli  has  eoj^- 
firmed  the  difcovcry  of  the'  chemical  alteration  of  metals  by  the 
electric  fluid.  He  has  proved,  by  an  exceedingly  curious  ex^ 
periment,  before  made  by  Volta,  that  electricity  decompofes 
water ;  that  it  feizes  on  the  oxygen  difengaged  5  and  that,  in 
this  combination,  it  acquires  the  aftonifliing  property  of  dif- 
folving  filver  and  reducing  it  to  the  faline  ftate.  This  may  be 
eafily  tried  :  nothing  is  neceflary  but  to  adjuft  to  Volta's  appa- 
ratus a  filver  conductor  the  two  branches  of  which  are  each  im- 
merfed  in  a  glafs  of  water.  Scarcely  is  this  communication 
cftabliftied,  when  you  will  obferve  a  multitude  of  fmall  bub-' 
bles  moving  in  a  vortex  around  the  branch  of  the  conductor, 
which  receives  from  the  apparatus  the  eleftric  fluid,  while 
from  the  oppofite  branch  there  proceeds  a  cloud  of  a  cylindric 
form,  which  dcfcends  to  the  bottom  of  the  veflel.  If  the  free 
gas,  difengaged  from  the  branch  where  the  ele6lric  fluid 
enters,  be  colleCled,  it  will  be  found  to  be  pure  hydrogen : 
you  will  find  alfo,  by  infpefting  the  branch  immerfed  in  the 
fecond  veflel,  that  the  filver  has  not  only  been  diflblved,  but 
that  a  large  quantity  of  very  brilliant  dodecaedral  cryftals  has 
been  formed.  If  an  arc  of  gold  be  fubftituted  for  the  filver 
condu6lor,  the  branch  which  receives  the  eleftricity  and  the 
extremity  where  it  ifllies  will  in  like  manner  be  covered  with 
bubbles,  and  the  aeriform  fluid  collected  is  detonating  gas. 
The  gold,  however,  has  experienced  no  altera  lion.  It  is 
therefore  evident  that  ele6lricity  a£ls  as  a  powerful  acid ;  it 
appears  alfo  to  be  fufceptible  of  becoming  oxygenated  in  the 
dccompofition  of  water,  of  being  flrongly  charged  with  the 
acidifying  principle,  and  of  afterwards  extending  its  action 
to  the  metals,  with  which  it  produces  peculiar  falls.     The 

falts- 


184  Chemical  Noticgsj 

falls  already  known,  are  the  clc(Slrat  of  copper^  which  is  of  a 
beautiful  green  colour;  the  eleftrat  of  zinc,  which  is  of  a 
dark  gray;  that  of  iron,  which  has  a  rcddifli-yellovv  colour; 
and  the  beautiful  ele6trat  of  filver,  which  cryftallifes  in  re- 
gular and  exceedingly  tranfparfcnt  dodecaedra.  Thefe  me-' 
'tallic  ele6:rats  are  infoluble  in  water.  They,  however,  can 
be  earried  in  the  clc6lric  current  to  a  confiderable  diftance,' 
^nd  cover  other  metals  with  their  falinc  coatincr.  Hitherto 
the  c'Tec^rat  of  filvcr  is  that  which  has  exhibited  the  greateft 
conftancy  and  regularity  in  its  cryftallifation  :  it  depofits'itfelf 
on'condu<f^ors  of  gold  and  filver,  on  glafs^ .  an^  other  bodies^ 
with  which  it  is  in  conta6l.  •'  '-■"-'•'^ -'■'■' 

/'  Brugnatelli  has  endeavoured  to  determine  the'pro'periiiest 
rtPtiiefe  metallic  cryftals  :  he  has  found  that  they  are  iiifipld;- 
that  they  are  Infoluble  in  water,  and  that  they  efflorefce' 
in  an  Satmofphere  of  a  high  temperature.  The  nitric  acid 
diffolves  them  with  a  ftrong  efFen'efcence.  The  folution  is 
rmipid,  but  alkalies  render  it  turbid  and  decompofcit.  There 
is  precipitated  from  it  an  oxyd  of  filvcr,  which  can  be  attacked- 
bv  all  the  acids.  The  eras  difenjrajred  durins;  the  effcrvefcence 
has  not  yet  been  examined,  but  it  is  fuppofed  to  be  of  a  pe- 
caliar  nature. 

''  Gold  and  platina  are  not  fenfiblv  altered  bv  the  eleftric 
matter  which  pafTes  through  them  ;  though  it  often  happens 
that  the  electric  current  depofits  on  gold  a  fi;ratum  of  zinc^, 
copi^er,  mercur>^,  or  filver,  according  to  whichever  of  thefe 
metallic  bodies  it  traverfes. 

*'  Some  are  difpofed  to  believe  that  the  eleclric  matter 
poficfles  the  property  of  conveying  at  the  fame  time  two 
metals  through  a  third  body.  If  the  tongue,  indeed,  be 
touched  in  two  different  points  with  different  metals,  twf> 
pieces  of  coin  for  example,  one  of  gold  and  the  other  of  filver ; 
and  if  the  upper  edge  of  each  of  thefe  pieces  be  brought  into 
o6nta6l  fo  as  to  form  an  arc,  aflrorig  favour  will  be  perceived; 
and  the  nature  of  this  favour  will  be  different  accordino*  to 
the  diverfity  and  combination  of  the  metals;  which  evidently 
appears  to  indicnie  an  aflbciation  of  the  fubfi^ances. 

^^  To  conclude :  The  difcovery  of  Volta   is  ftill  in  its  in- 
:  as  yet  we  have  only  a  fmall  number  of  fa6ts,  and 

prudence 


ChMcal  Nmcis.  je8j 

.  radence  feetns  to  require  Ui^t  we  fliould  determine  the  ge- 
neral laws  which  the  elc6lric  matter  follows  in  its  combina- 
tion with  oxygen  before  we  attempt  to  form  theories." 

Xiei'peciing  Volta's  difcovery,  Mr.  Gottling  has  pubUdied 
the  following  notice : 

"^  The  galvanic  batte^^,  couf^rn^led  by  profefTor  Vplta, 
with  plates  pffllver  apd  zinc,  having  bits  of  pafteboard, 
nioiftened  with  fait  water,  interpofed  between  them,  is>  no 
doubt,  worthy,  of  the  utmoil  attention.  The  decompolitiori 
of  water;  the  decompofition  of  earthy  and  metallic^  falt^ji^tliiJ 
})rodu<Sbion  of  acids  and  of  fulminating  lilver;  the  decorapo- 
iition  of  the  fulphurous  acid,  which  have  already  been  ef- 
fected ;b)5iU;v  its  a6lion  on  alkalies  and  ammonia,  Sec.  (how 
iiow  intereding  this  difcovery  is  to  chcmifts,  and  What  im- 
portant difcoveries  may  be  expefted  from  it.  There  is  rea- 
fon,  therefore,  to  wifh  that  the  refearches  on  this  fubje6l,jppi^X 
be  multiplied  and  rendered  more  general.  The  plates  of 
filver,  hovyever,  neceflary  for  this  purpofe,  feejn  to  be  an. 
obftacl'e;.  as  the  pieces  of  coin,  commonly  ufed,  top  foon  Ipf^ 
their  brilliancy,  and  cannot  be  procured  in  fufficient  numb^ 
by  thofe  who  have  time  and  opportunity  to  make  the.  exp^r 
ximent^.  Copper,  indeed,  may  be  ufed  inftead  of  filver^  but 
it  loon  becomes  oxydated.  I  have  therefore  endeavoured  tp 
ilnd  fome  other  metal  to  be  ufed  inftead  of  filver;  and  of  ajj 
zhofe  mixtures  which  I  tried,  that  formed  of  one  part  of  ferr 
ruginous  antimony  and  two  parts  of  lead,  I  found  to  be  th^ 
moll  ufeful :  that  is,  regulus  of  antimony,  prepared  with  iroja 
in  the  common  way,  is  to  be  fufcd  with  lead  in. the  aboy^ 
proportion.  This  mixture  is  exceedingly  fufible,  and  may  be 
formed  into  plates  of  the  required  iize  by  being  poured  into 
moulds.  The  efie^ls  when  this  metal  is  employed  are  not 
fo  ftrong  as  with  filver;  and  according  to  my  experiments, 
100  pairs  of  zinc  plates  and  plates  of  this  mixed  met^al  are 
equal  to  80  pairs  of  zinc  and  filver  plates.  This  metal,  how- 
ever^ is  to  be  recommended  on.account  of  its  chcappefs,  and 
becaufc  it  is  not  eafily  oxydated.  ,.  The  mixture  employed  for 
printing-types  produces  nearlv  a  (imilar  eileSl." 

Profeffor  Guttling  has  publiihed  alfo  the  following  notice 

refpe^ing 


1^4  Chemical  Notices^ 

fefpefting  a  matter  fimilar  to  manna,  which  he  has  found  in 
preparing  fugar  from  beets  : 

*^  If  fugar/'  fays  he,  ^*  be  extrafted  from  dry  beet-roots, 
iiccording  to  my  method  *,  and  if  more  water  be  poured  over 
the  reliduum,  after  (landing  a  confiderable  time  it  will  be- 
come very  flimy.  If  the  flimy  waier,  which  has  no  longer 
the  lead  fweetnefs,  be  decanted  from  the  remaining  matter 
of  the  beets,  and  be  evaporated  in  a  glafs  6r  porcelain  difh  to 
the  thickncfs  of  fyrup,  at  a  flow  oven  heat,  it  appears  on 
cooling,  or  when  it  has  flood  fome  time  in  the  open  air,  in 
the  form  of  flellated  cryftals,  which  have  a  fweetifli-four  and 
fomewhat  naufeous  tafte.  If  reftified  fpirit  of  wine  be  boiled 
over  thefe  cryftals  in  a  proper  veflel,  they  in  a  great  meafure 
dilfolve  in  it;  but,  in  cooling,  again  feparate  themfelves 
from  the  folution  in  white  fliar[)-pointed  cryflals :  a  portion 
of  uncryftallifed  flimy  matter  remains  at  the  fame  time  undif- 
folved.  The  cryftallifed  part,  however,  is  far  from  being 
iTugar;  though  when  treated  with  nitrous  acid  it  furniflies 
Very  pure  oxalic  acid,  and,  lik^  fugar,  is  foluble  in  alcohol ; 
Irut  in  regard  to  tafte  it  has  a  great  fimilarity  to  manna.  It 
differs  from  fugar,  in  particular,  by  the  following  circum- 
Hancfes :— That  concentrated  fulphuric  acid  perfe6lly  colour- 
lefs  is  not  rendered  black  by  it :  that  by  combuftion  it  leaves 
?i  refiduum  of  vegetable  alkali,  and  is  decompofed  neither  by 
the  fpiritous  nor  acid  fermentation,  nor  by  flow  putrefac- 
tion. I  am  of  opinion,  therefore,  that  thefe  cryftals  are  to 
\)e  confidered  as  a  peculiar  component  part  of  beets,  not  yet 
known,  which  exifts  in  them  in  confiderable  quantity;  and 
1  think  myfelf  authorifed  to  aflert,  that  perfe6lly  pure  fugar 
cannot  be  obtained  from  beets  when  the  roots  are  cut  and 
the  juice  exprefled,  or  when  they  are  boiled  with  water,  and 
the  juice  afterwards  infpiffated  by  boiling,  becaufe  fome  of 
this  component  part  will  always  be  mixed  with  it.  To  be 
convinced  of  the  prefence  of  this  fubftance  the  following  me- 
thod may  be  employed  with  moft  advantage : — When  the 
■beets  are  dried,  and  the  fugar  has  been  extradcd,  more  water 

''■  Profeflbr  Gottling's  method  confifts  chiefly   in  cxtratting  the  iiigar 
,frpm  tlie  dry  beet;;  by  infuhng  them  in  cold  water. 

muft 


iRemedy  for  the  Tape-'worm,  1S5 

^uft  ht  poured  over  the  rematining  parts  of  the  beets;  Or, 
a  few  beets  alfo  may  be  rafped,  and  the  expreffed  juice  tnav 
be  brought  to  fpiritous  or  rather  acid  fermentation  in  the 
ufual  way,  that  the  fugar  it  contains  may  be  decompofed. 
When  the  femichtation  is  over,  pour  off  the  clear  liquid  and 
evaporate  it  to  dryilefs  at  a  gentle  heat ;  and  heat  over  the 
rcfiduum,  iti  a  retort  or  other  convenient  veffel,  rccSlificd 
fpirit  of  wine  till  it  begin  to  boil.  Then  decant  ti\e  clear 
fpiritous  liquid,  and  depo(it  it  in  a  cool  place,  where  this 
cornponent  p^vt  will  cryftallife  frorh  it.  To  obtain  the  cry- 
ftallifed  part  perfetftly  fi*ee  from  fpirit  of  wine,  the  latter  may 
be  made  to  evaporate  in  a  g-entlc  heat/' 

MEDICINE. 

Th&  Allgemeins  Medizintfche  Ajiiiaien,  publiflied  at  Alteri- 
burg,  for  the  rtionth  of  June  i8oo>  contains  the  following 
article,  in  a  letter  dated  from  Brunfwicl#: — ^^  The  fecret 
remedy  for  the  tape-worm,  for  the  difcovery  of  which 
M.  Mathicu,  formerly  an  apothecary  at  Berlin,  received  an 
annuity  from  the  prefcnt  king  of  PruilRa,  with  the  title  of 
aulic  counfelior,  is  as  below: 

i. 

fie.  Uimatur,  Stiinnt  AngL  pur.  icnc.  unam.. 
Pulv.  rad.  jilich  maris  drachmas  fex\ 
—  Sefnin,  cyn^  unciam  dimuUajn, 


—  Uadic,  jalapp,  refinofcu'^ 

Salis  polychrejH  ana  drachmam  tinavi. 


Mifc.    Fiat  cum  mellis  communis  fufficiente  quantitate  eleC' 
tuarium, 

ii. 

R.  Pulv.  rad.  jalapp.  rejinofis, 

Salis  polychrejL  ana  fcrupuhs  duos. 

— Scarnmonci  Aleppenjis  fcrupul.  nnzim. 

■— ^-- —  Gummi  guttle  grana  decern. 

Mifc.    Fiat  cum  melle  coWimuni  eleBuartum. 

*'  I  ft,  In  employing  this  remedy  for  the  tapc-vworm,    it 

is  eflential  to  make  the  patient  obferve,  during  feveral  days 

before,  a  ftri^l  regimen,  and  to  life,  above  all,  failed  food,  fuch 

Vol.  IX.  A  a  as 


l86  l^ffeds  of  Opium  counter aStsd, 

as  herrings,  &cc<  as  well  as  foups  with  bread,  and  light  vege-* 
tables. 

'^  2d,  In  regard  to  the  ufc  of  the  medicine  itfclf,  a  large 
tea  fpoonful  of  No.  i.  mull  be  given  to  the  patient  every  two 
hours.  This  nuill  be  continued  for  two  or  three  days  until 
the  patient  feels  the  motion  of  the  worm  in  the  inteftines. 

''  3d,  A  large  tea  fpoonful  of  No.  a.  mud  then  be  given 
to  the  patient  every  two  hours  till  the  worm  is  evacuated. 
When  the  evacuation  is  too  long  in  taking  place,  fome  fpoon- 
fuls  of  frefti  callor  oil  may  be  given  to  the  patient,  and  an 
injection  of  the  fame  oil  may  be  adminiftered. 

^'  4th,  As  the  age,  fex,  and  conftitution  of  the  patient  may 
require  a  confiderable  difference  in  the  application  of  the  re- 
medies and  the  quantity  of  the  dofes,  it  will  be  indifpenfably 
neceffary  that  the  diredion  and  modification  of  the  treatment 
fliould  be  entrufted  to  a  fkilful  phyfician. 

^^  In  the  lafttplacc,  it  mud  be  obferved,  that  the  efficacy 
of  tl>e  tirft  remedy  will  depend  chiefly  on  the  quality  of  the 
fern ;  and  that  it  is  abfolutely  neceffary  to  employ  the  root  of 
the  jUix  viasy  and  not  that  of  any  other.  Care  alfo  muff  be 
taken  to  pulverife  only  the  interior  folid  part;  and  that  the 
powder  obtained  have  a  reddidi  colour.'* 

l^he  following  cafe  of  the  deleterious  effe6ls  of  opium  re- 
medied by  the  exeitement  of  pain,  has  been  publiflied  in  the 
third  volume  of  the  American  Medical  Rcpofitory,  by  Va- 
lentine Seaman,  M.  D.— '^  Having  fo  frequently  obferved," 
fays  Dr.  Seaman,  "the  great  quantity  of  opium  that  a  perfon, 
mxler  the  operation  of  acute  pain,  v.'ill  take,  without  having 
any  foporific  effects  induced  by  it,  I  have  long  been  of  the 
mind,  that  pain  might  be  ufefuHy  excited  to  remove  the  deadly 
influence  of  a  large  dofe  that  may  have  Ixicn  previouily  taken. 

*^  Ycfterday  I  had  an  opportunity  of  putting  my  principles 
to  the  ted  of  experiment,  being  called  to  fee  a  female  patient 
who  had,  about  two  hours  before,  taken  an  ounce  of  lauda- 
num, and  then  lay  in  a  deadly  dupor,  from  which  alL  the 
efforts  of  her  friends  were  infufficicnt  to  awaken  her.  At- 
tempts liad  been  made  to  get  fome  vinegar  into  her  domach, 
but,   I  believe,   with  little  efietl;  nor  did  I  fucceed  much 

better 


Vaccine  Inoculation,  i%y 

better  111  endeavouring-  to  give  her  a  dofe  of  white  vitriol, 
I  then  procured  a  fniall  fwitchj  and  apphcd  it  pretty  freely  to 
her  arms  and  flioulders,  which  were  defended  only  by  a  thin 
linen  covering.  I  alfo  applied  fome  ftrokes  to  her  legs.  In 
ihe  courfe  of  a  very  fhort  time,  indeed  almoft  immediately 
upon  the  application  of  this  remedy,  (he  roufed  up,  and 
begged  me  to  defill.  She  continued,  for  a  time,  much  con- 
fufed,  with  involuntary  turns  of  laughter.  Two  fcruples  of 
white  vitriol  were  then  adminiftered,  followed,  in  about  fif- 
teen minutes,  by  half  a  dram  of  ipecacuanha ;  notwithftanding 
which,  and  alfo  having  her  throat  repeatedly  tickled  with  an 
oiled  feather,  it  was  near  an  hour  before  flie  could  be  made 
to  puke :  however,  finally,  fhe  puked,  and,  by  the  afliftance 
of  frequent  draughts  of  warra  water,  her  ftoinach  was  pretty 
thoroughly  evacuated. 

*'  By  the  affiftance  of  her  friends  (lie  was  kept  awake,  or, 
at  lead,  ilept  but  little  at  a  time  during  the  night,  and  thi^ 
morning  appears  entirely  recovered." 

VACCINE    INOCULATION, 

The  Medical  Committee  for  the  Vaccine  Inoculation  at 
Paris  has  lately  publiflied  the  following  notice : 

"  The  committee  has  juft  inoculated  fome  cows  with  the 
vaccine  matter.  This  experiment  has  fuccccded.  The  puf- 
tules  appeared  in  the  moft  regular  manner,  and  following 
the  fame  progrcfs  as  in  man.  The  committee  will  fpcedily 
publifh  a  detailed  account  of  this  noble  expe^imeHt,^  which 
had  been  before  tried  at  Rheims  with  full  fuccefs.  A  great 
many  medical  men  and  curious  perfons  came  to  be  con-' 
vinced,  by  ocular  demonftration,  of  the  truth  of  this  fa6l, 
fo  interefting  in  the  hiftory  of  the  vaccine." 

A  memoir  has  been  publiflied  at  Geneva  on  the  vaccine 
inoculation  by  Dr.  Oder,  profetlbr  of  medicine,  in  order  to 
be  fubmitted  to  the  minifter  of  the  interior,  which,  after 
giving  an  account  of  this  important,  difcovery,  and  of  the 
progrcfs  and  nature  of  the  difcafe,  concludes  with  the  fol- 
lowing obfervations  on  the  certainty  of  its  being  a  pre- 
ventative : — '^  We  have  acquired  certain  proof,  in  two  ways, 

A  a  ij  that 


iSS  Vaccine  Imculation. 

that  the  vaccine  inoculatioii  is  a  perfed  fecurity  againft  ikt 
finall-pox. 

^^  ift,  By  the  dire«9:  of  indlrc^i  communication  wticb  all 
our  inoculated  patients  had  with  a  great  number  of  childfeh 
attacked  with  the  fmall-pox  in  every  quarter  of  the  city.  It 
is  well  known  that  the  fmall-pox  is  infectious  long  after  th^ 
patients  are  in  a  condition  to  go  abroad.  Van  Swieten  elli^ 
mates  that  the  difeafe  is  Hill  capable  of  communicating  it- 
f(;lf  fixty  days  afterjt  has  made  its  appearance ;  but  moll  pa- 
tients^ after  the  twentieth  day,  go  about  as  ufual  in  thellreets 
and  public  places,  and  wherever  their  b.ufmefa  or  occupa- 
tions may  lead  them.  It  is  impoflible,  therefore,  that  nearly 
four  hundred  children,  inoculated  for  the  vaccine  four  months, 
ago,  fliould  have  all  efcaped  if  they  were  fufceptible  of  infcc-? 
tion  from  an  epidemic  diftemper  fo  general  as  that  which 
prevails  here  at  prefent,  and  to  which  150  children  have- 
fallen  a  facrifice  within  our  walls.  None  of  them,  however, 
have  had  the  fmall-pox  except  four,  who  certainly  had  thtj 
germ  of  the  difeafe  before  they  were  inoculated. 

^'  ad.  We  have  even  inoculated  the  fmall-pox  from  arm 
%o  arm,  and  with  all  the  precaution  neceffary  to  infure  the 
fuccefs  of  the  operation,  on  ten  or  twelve  of  thofe  inoculated 
with  the  vaccine,  and  feven  weeks  after,  the  fears  of  the  vac- 
cine had  dropped  off;  but  none  of  them  fhowed  the  leaft 
fymptpm  of  general  infedion.  The  incifion  became  lightly 
inflamed  j  hut  it  fpeedily  dried  up  without  areolae,  and  with-- 
out  any  appearance  of  fever. 

ff  We  have  acquired  alfo,  by  repeated  trials,  the  moft 
complete  proof  that  the  vaccine  is  not  a  contagious  difeafe. 
In  f(pveral  families  we  have  inoculated  two,  three,  or  four 
children  after  each  other.  Thofe  who  had  the  difeafe  flept 
with  fome  who  had  not  h^en  inoculated,  and  the  latter  were 
not  affeCled  till  they  were  inoculated  in  their  turn.  In  other 
refpe6l:s  we  faw  no  inftance  of  contagion. 

"  liliall  add,'-  fays  Dr,  Oder,  "  that  it  did  not  appear  to 
Its  that  the  inoculated  vaccine  was  followed  by  any  other 
malady;  neither  pjmples  nor  eruption,  ne^itber  for*  eyes  nor 
bad  ears,  nor  any  accunwlations  of  matter  fo  often  obferved 

after 


Vauin^  Inuulation»  (3.S9 

after  the  fiijall-pox,  bath  when  inoculated  and  when  the  dif*. 
eafe  takes  place  in  ^he  natural  way ;  on  the  contrary,  we  have 
inoculated  feveral  very  delicate  children,  whole  health  fecmc4 
to  be  much  improved  by  the  operation  in  every  refpetSt. 

Bxtrad  of  a  Letter  frovi  Dr.  Marshall,  dated  Vaktta 
{Malta),  January  31,  1801. 
*^  Since  my  laft,  I  have  the  pleafure  to  inform  you  tha^ 
Pr.  Walker  and  myfelf  have  been  very  fuccefsfql  in  purfuing 
the  obje6l  of  our  miflion.  We  have  had  the  happincTs  to  ar- 
reft  the  deftroying  progrefs  of  the  fmall-pox,  which  has  ragecj 
very  much,  and  has  been  very  mortal  at  Minorca  and  Malta, 
and  on  board  the  fleet.  The  Minorqueens,  who  at  firfl  re- 
ceived the  vaccina  inoculation  cautiou{ly,are  now  very  happy, 
and  it  is  generally  adopted  among  them.  At  Malta,  the  mod 
complete  fuccefs  has  attended  us.  When  we  arrived  here,  we 
at  iirft  inoculated  fome  children  belonging  to  the  Foundling 
J  lofpital,  and  from  them  feveral  others  j  but,  finding  it  difncult 
to  perfuade  the  people  of  its  efficacy,  we  fubje6ted  many  of 
^hefe  to  the  teft  of  the  infertipn  of  the  matter  of  the  fmall-pox, 
upon  all  of  whom  it  had  not  the  lead  effect.  This  experiment 
was  publicly  made  in  prefcjnce  of  the  governor*,  the  Tuniiian 
ambaffador,  the  Britifh  confwl,  and  mar>y  of  the  principal 
inhabitants.  In  going  to  the  hofpital  we  formed  a  procef- 
fion :  the  governor  walked  at  our  head  in  his  uniform,  the 
i^lergy  in  their  canonicals ;  and  we  were  accompanied  by  moft 
of  the  medical  profeffors,  The  fuccefs  attending  our  experi- 
jnent,  and  the  publicity  of  the  efficacy  of  the  Jennerian  in-, 
Cculation,  has  caufed  the  inhabitants  to  come  in  great  num- 
bers to  be  inoculated.  The  governor  has  had  Dr.  Jenner's 
work  tranf]  Ad  and  printed  for  the  inhabitants,  and  he  has 
^Ifo  eftablifticd  an  hofpital  for  the  inoculation  of  the  poor, 
under  the  name  of  the  Jennerian  Inltitution ;  and  as  on  our 
arrival  we  found  the  fmall-pox  in  the  ifland,  the  inhabit- 
ants have  preff^d  in  crowds,  both  the  mafs  of  the  people  and 
the  nobility.  Dr.  Jenner's  difcovery  is  held  here  in  fiich 
|iigh  efteem,  that  the  governor,  who  is  the  idol  of  the  Mai- 

'^  The  attendance  of  the  Tunifian  ambafladot  was,  nn  aCcclmt  6f  A 
wifb  (Ue  dty  bad  exprtfled  to  hdve  the  covv^jpox  yittoduc^d  at  Tunis. 

tefcj, 


1 90  Vaccine  Inoculation, 

tcfe,  and  for  whofe  welfare  he  is  continually  labouring,  among 
other  conciliating  meafures,  boafts  of  the  fervice  England 
renders  them  by  the  introdu6lion  of  the  cow-pox.  He  has 
alfo  behaved  to  us  in  the  nioft  kind  and  handfome  manner, 
and  has  allotted  to  us,  for  our  rcfidencc  during  our  (lay  here, 
the  mofl  beautiful  palace  ofValetta,  heretofore  the  grand 
niafter's.  The  fmall-po:^  being  very  prevalent  on  board  the 
fleet,  it  became  neceflary,  on  account  of  its  lliort  ilay  here, 
that  one  of  us  fhould  accompany  the  expedition  to  cornplete 
the  inoculation  ;  and  Dr.  Walker's  enterprifing  fpirit  could 
not  reft  till  it  was  determined  that  he  fliould  go ;  and  he  has 
failed  in  the  admiral's  Ihip. 

''  The  following  is  the  extra<?i:  from  the  admiral's  memoT 
randum,  in  confequenee  of  the  fmall-pox  raging  in  the  Alex^ 
der  an^  other  veflfels ; 

•  f  Foudrovant,  Malta,  Dec.  9,  1800, 

*■  The  commander  in  chief  thinks  it  neceffary  to  recom- 
mend to  the  refpeftive  captains  an  immediate  application  to 
Dr.  Marfhall  and  Dr.  Walker,  whofe  excellent  and  fafe  mode 
of  treatment  has  been  experienced  on  board  the  Foudroyant 
and  other  fliips  in  preventing  the  dreadful  efre61:s  fo  oftei^ 
attending  the  fmall-pox,  but  which  may  now  be  fo  eafily 
avoided,  without  danger  or  inconvenience. 

*  By  Gonimand  of  the  admiral, 

MV.  YOUNG.' 

^'  By  ^  frigate  which  arrived  here  laft  night,  I  learn  that 
the  fleet  and  army  were  on  the  13th  inft.  in  the  bay  of  Mar- 
moriflfe ;  and  Dr.  Walker  fends  me  word,  that  on  board  the 
fleet  the  fmail-pox  feems  now  to  be  extin6l ;  and  that  on  the 
loth  of  January  he  had  inoculated  the  Corfican  troops  in  the 
veflel  where  it  had  made  its  laft  appearance."  During  his 
abfence,  I  have  inoculated  the  troops  left  here  under  the  com- 
mand of  general  Pigot ;  and  am  occupied  from  morning  to 
night  in  vifiting  patients  both  in  town  and  country,  I  hope 
foon  to  be  joined  by  my  colleague,  and  then  we  intend  to. 
fail  for  Palermo.  It  is  extremely  gratifying  that  the  benevo- 
lent intentions  of  his  royal  highnefs  the  duke  of  York  to- 
wards the  army  are  fully  anfwercd  by  the  attention  we  have 
received  from  the  commanding  officers  at  the  garrifons  of 

Gibraltar, 


To  nil  IVeevils,  &C,  191 

Gibraltar,  Minorca,  and  Malta;  and  alfo  from  lord  Keith 
and  fir  Ralph  Abercrombie  in  the  expedition.'' 

AGRICULTURE. 

The  Free  Society  of  Agricukune^  Arts,  and  Commerce,  ift 
llic  department  of  the  Ardennes,  has  lately  publiflied  a  fele<SI: 
collection  of  memoirs;  among  which  are:  a  paper  on  the 
caufes  of  the  fmut  in  grain,  and  on  the.  means  of  preventing 
it;  on  the  cultivation  of  the  fuller's  thiftle  [dipfacus  fullo- 
7iuni)'y  on  the  culture  of  a  kind  of  poppy;  details  on  the 
turnip-rooted  cabbage  of  Lapland,  cultivated  at  Bouillon ;  and 
(imple  and  eafy  means  for  preferving  grain  from  weevils  and 
other  infeAs.  Tbefc  means  are  as  follows : — Immerfe  fome 
pieces  of  hemp  cloth  in  water ;  wring  them,  and  cover  with 
them  your  heaps  of  grain :  two  hours  after  you  will  find  the 
weevils  adhering  to  the  cloths ;  which  muft  be  carefully  col- 
le«Sled  that  the  infers  may  not  efcape.  You  may  then  dip 
them  fome  time  in  water  to  drown  them, 

A  plant  of  the  hyofcyamus  placed  in  the  middle  of  a  heap 
of  grain  drives  away  thefe  infe<5^s :  in  that  cafe  you  muft 
watch,  in  order  to  crufti  them  as  they  are  endeavouring  to 
efcape ;  which  will  not  require  long  time. 

The  laft  article  of  this  colle6lion  is  a  recipe  fot  a  vegetative 
liquor  proper  for  accelerating  the  blowing  of  bulbous -rooted 
flowers  in  winter  in  apartments.  It  is  as  follows :-— Take 
nitrate  of  potafh  (nitre)  three  ounces ;  muriate  of  foda 
(common  fait)  one  ounce;  carbonate  of  potafh  (potadi) 
half  an  ounce;  fugar  half  an  ounce ;  rain  water  one  pound  : 
make  the  falts  difTolve  in  a  gentle  heat  in  a  glazed  earthen 
pot,  and  when  the  folutlon  is  completed,  add  the  fugar  and 
filter  the  whole.  Put  about  eight  drops  of  this  liquor  into  a 
glafs  jar  filled  with  rain  or  river  water.  The  jars  mufl  be 
kept  always  full,  and  the  water  muft  be  renewed  every  ten  or 
twelve  days,  adding  each  time  a  like  quantity  of  the  liquor: 
the  flowers  alfo  muft  be  placed  on  the  corner  or  a  chimney- 
piece  where  a  fire  is  regularly  made. 

The  fame  mixture  may  be  employed  for  watering  flowers 
in  pots,  or  filling  the  difhcs  on  which  they  are  placed,  in 
order  to  keep  the  earth,  or  the  bulbs  and  plants  which  they 
contain,  in  a  ftate  of  moifture. 

6  DEATH  5^ 


^9^  PauIidr^-^Darcst 

DEATHS. 

Lately  at  Nlfmes,  the  place  of  his  birth,  the  ex-jefuit 
jpaulian,  author  of  feveral  works  on  the  mathematics,  at  the 
age  of  80.  He  was  born  of  a  proteftant  family-,  and  had 
iievcr  been  ill  in  the  courfe  of  his  life.  His  works  are  :  D'tc- 
itonnawi^  (Id  Phjjique,  which  went  through  feven  editions  in 
liine  years,  anil  which  wAs  long  the  only  one  ufed  in  the  public 
fchools  of  France  :  it  is  a  compilation  not  deftitute  of  merits 
though  inferior  to  that  (if  Briflbn.  o,.  Traiie  de  Paiix;  entre 
Ddfeartes  et  iVt?w/07z>  3  vol.  3.  Comment  aire  fur  La  Caille 
i)i  JJ HofpiiaL  4.  Le  verttahle  Syjleme  de  la  'Nature  opfofe 
0^1  faux  Syfieme  de  ia  Nature,  5.  ha  Vhyftque  mife  a  la 
Portee  de  t^ut  leMoTide :  two  volumes  only  of  this  work  were 
printed.  6.  he  DiSionnatre  Phtlofopho-Theologique.  This 
work,  deftintid  for  the  defence  of  the  Chriftian  religion, 
brought  upon  the  author  the  hatred  and  farcafms  of  Voltaire. 
Father  Paulian  was  a  man  of  a  mild  dif|X)fition  :  during  the 
revolution  he  always  behaved  with  great  circumfpe£lion  in 
the  exercifti  of  the  priefthood,  to  which  he  devoted  himfelf. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  academies  of  Nifmes  and  Lyons, 
He  has  left  fome  unpubliflied  works  among  them  :  Me^noirc 
fur  U  Pauls  des  Montag-nes,  and  one  on  Monfters. 

•On  the  night  between  the  I2th  and  i3th  of  February,  at 
the  age  of  78,  in  confequence  of  a  violent  pain  and  fpafms  in 
his  ftomach,  which  feem  to  have  been  the  confequence  of  a 
gouty  metaftafis,  the  celebrated  French  chcmiil  Darcet,  a 
learned  phyfician,  member  of  the  National  Inflitute  and 
feveral  other  Societies,  and  profelfor  of  chemiftry  in  tlie 
College  de  France.  Darcet  diftinguiflied  himfelf  by  various 
iifefui  labours  and  refcarches  :  experiments  on  earths  and  the 
manufa^ure  of  pottery  and  porcelain,  which  he  greatly  con- 
tributed to  improve  in  France ;  refearches  refpe6ling  the 
a6lion  of  fire,  long  continued  and  equally  maintained ;  on 
the  conftruftion  and  combuftion  of  the  diamond  ]  the  ana- 
lyfis  of  animal  matters,  feveral  miheral  waters,  and  a  great 
many  ores. 


!> 


t  ml 

XXlV.  Adcount  of  the  Life  and  IVritings  0/  0  L  o  t-  To  R  B  E  It  Jl 
Bergman,  Profefpjr  of  Chemijiry  at  Upfal, 

X  H  I  S  celebrated  cliemift,  the  fon  of  a  co]lci9:or  of  the 
king's  taxes,  was  born  at  Catharinaberg,  in  Weil  Goth- 
land, on  the  9th  of  March  1755.  'At  an  early  period  he 
fliowed  a  great  deal  of  fpirit  and  vivacity,  which  approached 
almoft:  to  giddnief^ ;  but,  by  application  to  ftudy  under  a  pri- 
vate tutor  and  at  the  fchool  of  Skara,  this  youthful  fervor 
gradually  fubfided.  At  the  age  of  17  he  was  fent  to  the 
univerfity  of  Upfal,  where  he  firft  applied,  in  confequence  of 
the  natural  bent  of  his  genius,  to  mathematics  and  various 
branches  of  philofophyj  which  he  ftudied  with  unremitting 
diligence,  though  one  of  his  relations,  under  whofe  care  he 
had  been  placed,  often  reprefented  to  him  that  thefe  were 
purfuits  not  likely  to  procure  him  a  livelihood.  As  he  was 
obliged  to  obtain  inllru6tion  in  thefe  fciences  merely  from 
books,  and  ofteii  employed  whole  days  in  ftudy,  fhut  up  in 
his  chamber  from  morning  till  night,  his  health  was  confi- 
derably  impaired;  and  in  order  that  he  might  reftore  it  he 
made  a  tour  to  the  country  to  fee  his  parents,  during  which 
he  amufed  himfelf  v^ith  the  ftudy  of  natural  hiftory.  When 
at  the  fchool  of  Skara  he  had  been  initiated  in  botany  and 
entomology,  particularly  the  latter^  to  which  he  applied  with 
fo  much  zeal  that  he  formed  a  fyftem  of  infects  according  to 
their  ftattj  of  larva,  which  was  fo  well  arranged  that  it  could 
not  have  beerl  confidered  as  the  work  of  a  youth  of  eighteen* 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  his  other  occupations  prevented  him 
from  purfuing  this  fubje(5t  further,  and  that  only  the  clafles 
of  the  larvae  were  engraved  and  publiflied.  De  Geer  and 
Linnaeus  were  both  fenfible  of  the  value  of  his  knowledge  in 
this  refpe(Sl;  and  the  latter,  to  fhow  his  efteem  for  him,  gave 
the  name  of  Bergman  to  a  fort  of  phalaena.  During  this 
time,  however,  he  did  not  neg'eft  his  favourite  purfuit,  and 
ftudied  Palmquift's  algebra,  fo  difficult  to  be  underftood 
without  afliftance* 
Vol.  IX.  Bb  At 


PHlt.  Mao.  No.  XXXV. 
April  1 80 1. 


1^4  Account  of  the  Life  and  Wrttttigs 

At  the  end  of  fifteen  months  he  returned  to  Upfjil,  and  i* 
^155  ^^^'^  ^  proof  of  the  progrefs  he  had  made  in  mathema- 
tics and  philofophy  hy  a  difputation  De  Crepuf culls.  Soon 
after  he  tranfmitted  to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Stockholm  two 
dilTertations  ;  one  of  them,  De  Cocco  AquaticOy  and  the  other 
De  Hirudinibus;  which  were  much  approved  by  Linmcus^ 
though  he  entertained  an  opinion  on  thefe  fuhjec^s  different 
from  that  of  the  author.  Ife  defended  alfo  a  difputation  on 
allronomical  intercalation,  in  confequence  of  which  he  got 
the  degree  of  do6lor  in  1758^  and  by  another  difputation  on 
general  xittra<Slion  he  obtained  leave  to  become  a  private 
teacher  of  philofophy^  Having  improved  himfelf  in  practical 
aftronomy  at  the  obfervatory  of  Upfal,  he  affilled  in  obferving 
the  tranfit  of  Venus  in  J  761,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  dili- 
gence and  application  by  being  made  affiftant  profeiror  of 
mathematics  and  philofophy. 

He  fent  different  papers  to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Stock- 
holm ;  one  of  which  was  on  the  rainbow,  another  on  the 
aurora  horeaVtSy  and  a  third  on  the  twilight.  The  northern 
lights  and  eleftricity  attracted  his  particular  attention,  and 
he  at  length  laid  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Upfal  a  feries 
of  obfervations  which  he  had  made  on  tliefc  fubjc6ls  daring 
the  courfe  of  four  years,  together  with  a  variety  of  informa- 
tion collecled  by  learned  men  both  in  Sweden  and  in  other 
countries.  His  obfervations  on  electricity  were  fo  much 
approved,  that  an  extract  from  them  w^as  inferted  in  the  Phi- 
lofophical  Tranfa6lians  by  Dr.  Wilfon.  The  fame  work 
contains  his  letters  on  the  ele6lric  nature  of  turmalin,  which 
nearly  put  an  end  to  the  difpute  between  Dr.  Wilfon  anet 
JEpinus. 

In  the  year  1753  he  obtained  a  prize  from  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy of  Stockholm  for  an  anfwer  to  the  queftion,  How  thofe 
caterpillars  which  deftroy  the  leaves  of  fruit-trees  can  be  ex- 
tirpated ?  and  two  years  after  a  double  prize  for  fome  ne\v^ 
obfervations  on  the  fame  fubjeft.  He  was  fo  zealous  for  the 
interefl:  of  the  Academy  of  Stockholm  that  he  fent  it  forty-one 
papers,  each  of  which  contained  either  fome  new  obfervations^ 
or  illultrated  and  expliyned  what  had  been  known  before. 
The  Academy  were  fo  fenfible  of  his  fervices  that  in  the 
9  y^'^^ 


{ 


cf  Olof  Torlcrn  Bergman,  195 

3  ear  1777  they  allowed  him  an  animal  falary  of  1^0  rix-dol-" 
fa rs  from  their  funds  in  order  to  defray  the  expenfe  to  which 
he  was  expofcd  by  his  experiments.  Though  mod  of  his 
time  was  occupied  with  natural  philofophy  he  (iill  retained 
his  tafte  for  entomology  :  he  difcovered  a  mcw  fprt  of  gall- 
apple  in  the  bark  of  the  oak;  wrote  a  diiTertatidn  on  the- 
faw-fly,  •  tenthredo ;  on  the  worms  fo  pernicious  to  the 
pine-fir;  and,  towards  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  he  wrote 
on  the  care  and  management  of  bees. 

In  the  year  1758,  in  conjunetion  with  fome  of  his  friends, 
lie  had  eftablifhed  a  cofmographical  fociety^  who  undertook 
to  give  a  defcription  of  the  earth.  The  phyfical  part  was 
allotted  to  Bergman  ;  and  when  it  appeared  in  1766,  it  was 
fo  well  received  that  the  whole  edition  was  fold  in  the  courfe 
of  half  a  year:  the  work  was  foon  after  tranilated  into  Ger- 
man, Danifl),  French,  and  other  languages.  A  fecond  edi- 
tion, much  enlarged,  appeared  in  1773  under  the  title  of 
A  Phyfical  Defcription  of  the  Earth.  In  this  work  Bergman 
difplaycd  a  greater  knowledge  of  mineralogy  and  chemiftry 
than  was  expelled ;  and  his  reputation  as  a  chemift  was  ftill 
further  increafed  by  a  dillertation  on  the  method  of  preparing 
alum,  which  he  publilhed  afterwards.  In  confequence  of  the 
la  ft- mentioned  work  he  was  appointed  profeffor  of  chemiilry 
in  1767.  About  this  period,  in  confequence  of  a  propofal 
which  he  made,  a  new  laboratory,  models,  various  kinds  of 
apparatus,  and  a  new^  houfe  for  the  profeiTor,  were  provided. 
Under  fueh  eircumftances  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that, 
befides  his  young  countrymen,  pupils  from  diftant  parts 
/lioukl  be  anxious  to  repair  to  Upfal,  that  they  might  profit  by 
tlie  iaftru6lion  of  a  man  who  had  acquired  fo  much  celebrity. 

liis  pupils  admired  not  only  his  zeal  and  diligence  in  com- 
municating inftru6lion  and  in  making  experiments,  but  the 
wonderful  perfpicuity  with  which  he  explained  the  mod  dif- 
ficult fubje6\s.  Bergman,  however,  did  not  confine  himfelfp 
to  oral  inftruclion:  he  enlightened  the  world  by  his.  writings;  ' 
and  his  firft  attempt  this  way  was  Schefier's  Chemical  Lec- 
tures, which  he  arranged,  and  enriched  with  valuable  ob- 
fcfvations.  His  next  publication  was  an  Introdu6lion  to 
Chemiftry  5  •  and  this  was  followed  by  his  Sciagraphia  of  the 

B  b  3  Mineral 


jg6  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings 

Mineral  Kingdom;  which  appeared  alfo  in  French  under  the 
following  title:  Manuel  de  Miner alogijle,  ^c  traduit  et 
augniente  par  Manges  le  Jeune",  Paris  1784;  8vo.  Bergman 
endeavoured  alfo,  by  examining  a  variety  of  fubllances  with 
unremitted  diligence,  to  enlarge  chemical  knowledge;  and 
the  refult  of  his  experiments,  which  he  communicated  to  the 
public  in  various  papers,  was,  for  the  moft  part,  afterwards 
colle6led  by  himfelf  and  publifhed  in  three  volumes,  with  the 
title  of  Opufcula  Vhyfica  et  Chemica  plerumque  anteafeorfum 
tdita,jam  ab  Au^ore  collegia  et  auBa\  Holmias  1779.  8vo.  A 
new  edition  of  this  work  was  publifhed  under  the  infpedlion 
of  the  celebrated  profeflbr  Lefkc  at  Leipfic;  and,  after  Berg- 
man's death,  profelfor  Hebenftreit  added  three  more  volumes 
of  his  detached  pieces,  and  publiflied  the  whole  with  the  title 
of  Bergmanni  Opufcula  Vhyfica  et  Chemica^  pleraque  J'eorfum 
antea  edita,  nunc  colleda  et  revifa.  Vol.  VI.  cum  Indice  locu- 
pletiffmo  et  Tab,  JEsn.  Editionis  Curam  p<fi  AuBoris  Mortem 
gefjit  E.  B.  G.  liehenjireit',  Lipfue  1788 — 1790.  8vo.  An 
Italian  tranflation  of  Bergman's  phyfical  and  chemical  w^orks 
w,as  publiflied  by  fii^)rcription  at  Florence  under  the  title  of 
Opufcoli  CJnmici.  e  Fifict  di  T.  Bergman  \  Florence  17 90, 
Tom.  III.  8vQ.  The  third  volume  of  this  tranflation  con- 
tains coi^fidcrable  additions  by  Polomieu,_which  form  nearly 
one-half  of  it. 

'Though  it  would  be  impoflible,  in  the  fpace  allotted  for 
this  fketch,  to  give  a  detailed  account  of  all  Bergman's  dif- 
coveries  and  the  improvements  he  made  in  chemiflry,  by 
which  he  acquired  fo  much  reputation, we  cannot  omit  enu-. 
meratmg Tome  of  them.  '.  He  explained,  in  the  moft  fatisfac- 
tofy  manner,  why  an  alum  ley,  without  any  addition,  does 
nol  cryflallife;  and  (bowed  that  this  phaenomenon  arofe  from 
its  containing  an  excefs  of,  acid.  He  rejedUd  the  common 
additiou,  and  inftead  of  it  ufed  pure  argil,  which,  without 
doing  any- hurt,  incre^fes  the  quantity  of  the  alum.  He  firft 
ihowed  that  fixed  air  is  a  real  pecuhar  acid,  which  is  not  in- 
debted for  its  properties  to  the  fubftances  employed  for  ex- 
trading  it.  Hp  confidcred  it  as  the  principal  component 
part  of  mineral  waters,  and  cave  a  moft  ingenious  method  of 
^ec9nipofuig  them  \  >yhich  is  a  procefs  exceedingly  difficult. 


of  Olof  Torlern  Bergman,  t^f 

He  (bowed  alfo  how  to  imitate  them  by  art,  and  prepared 
different  kinds,  which  had  a  perfe6l  refemblance  to  thofe  of 
Seltz,  Spa,  Pyrmont,  and  other  places.  By  a  carefid  ana- 
lyli?  of  the  hot  waters  be  was  led  to  an  equally  fuccefsful 
method  of  imitating  them  alfo.  In  a  word,  we  are  indebted 
to  him  aicne  for  the  great  improvement  which  has  been  made 
in  the  analyiis  of  mineral  waters,  and  the  art  of  afcertaining 
their  real  component  parts.  He  was  the  firft  who  gave  a 
proper  account  of  the  properties  of  the  newly  difcovered  acid 
of  fugar,  and  its  mode  of  union  with  other  bodies.  He  not 
only  explained,  in  the  cleared  manner,  the  nature  of  cobalt, 
nickel,  and  pjatina;  but  declared,  many  years  before  the  dif- 
covery  was  acknowledged,  that  manganefe,  molybdena,  and 
tungften,  muft  contain  peculiar  femi-metals;  and  this  con- 
jecture was  afterwards  fully  confirmed  by  the  experiments  of 
the  ableft  chemifts.  He  was  the  firft  alfo  who  gave  a  proper 
account  of  the  properties  of  manganefe  and  of  its  regulus. 
He  difcovered  the  caufe  of  the  phofphoric  quality  of  blende 
in  the  fparry  fluor  with  which  it  is  mixed.  He  was  the  firft 
who  difcovered  fulphurated  tin.  His  examination  of  iron  is 
a  maflerpiece,  and  to  him  we  are  indebted  for  our  know» 
ledge  of  the  caufe  of  the  brittlenefs  of  cold  fhort  and 
red  fhort  iron.  He  taught  a  moft  excellent  procefs  for 
analyfing  ores  with  the  blow-pipe  by  the  addition  of 
different  faline  fubflances,  and  an  ingenious  method  of 
analyfing  ores  in  the  wet  way.  The  difcovery  of  this  laft 
method,  before  unknown,  gave  rife  to  a  great  many  others, 
and  in  all  probability  will  produce  more.  Such  are  the  im- 
portant difcoveries  which  he  made  in  regard  to  the  nature 
and  properties  of  bodies ;  he  was  fully  fenfible  that  30,000 
experiments  would  be  neceffary  to  bring  them  to  perfeClion^ 
and  he  clearly  faw  that  more  time  would  be  required  for  this 
purpofe  than  he  could  hope  to  command,  even  if  his  life 
iliould  be  prolonged  to  a  more  diflant  period  than  he  had 
reafon  to  expe<Sl ;  but  he  opened  the  path  and  pointed  out 
the  way  v^^-hich  his  followers  ought  to  purfue. 

The  caufcs  which  enabled  this  eminent  man  to  make  fuch 
progrefs  in  chemiftry  were,  befidcs  great  ingenuity  and  in- 
defatigable application,  his  exlenfivc  knowledge  in  natural 

hidor)'. 


i()^  jiccount  of  the  Life  and  Writings 

Ifk^ory^  naturatphifofophy  and  mathematics,  which  he  applied 
tohrs  favourite  fcicnce.  He  introdiiccd  mathematical  accuracy 
intochcmiftry,  and,  by  his  example,  induced  others  to  call  ia 
the  aid  of  calculation  to  give  more  prcciiTon  to  their  refults. 
Analylis  enabled  him  to  examine  the  component  parts  of 
bodies,  and  by  fuhjefting  thefe  parts  to  calculation  he  could 
determine  the  quantities  with  more  accuracy  and  truth. 

To  him  is  modern  chemrflry  indebted  for  many  of  thofc 
himfnous  fafts  which  fcrve  to  fupportit;  and  it  may  be 
aflferted,  without  taking  from  the  merit  of  thofe  who  cfta- 
bhftied  the  new  fyftem^,  that  the  fpirit  of  accuracy  and  pa* 
ticnt  inve-ftigation,  intnxiuccd  in  a  great  meafure  by  Berg- 
man,, has  teiidcd  not  a  little  to  give  folidity  and  beauty  to  the 
cdi  flee, 

riis  w^ritings  are  all  diftinguifTicd  by  great  order,  pcrfpi- 
eiiity,  and  n^atnefs  of  language.  The  mofl:  celebrated  of  the 
learned  focietres  in  Europe;  thofe  of  London,  Stockholm, 
and  Gottingen  j  the  Academies  of  Dijon  and  Turin,  the 
Medical  Society  at  Paris,  the  Society  of  the  Searchers  into 
Katnre  at  Berlin,  and  the  Imperial  Academy  of  the  Searchers 
into  Nature,  alfchofe  him  a  membcrof  their  different  bodies. 
He  was  made  a  member  alfo  of  the  Academy  Oif  Montpclher 
after  he  ?iad  gained  the  doiaUle  prize,  fax  a  {>aper  on  the  di- 
fiinguifhing  marks  of  thofe  kinds  of  earth  which  are  mo{l 
iifefu!.  in  agriculture.  The  Royal"  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
P^ns,  which  admitted  only  eight  foreign  members,  made 
chok:^  of  Bergman  to  be  one  of  that  number.  The  Royal 
itrademy  of  Berlin  invited  him  to  that  city  in  1776;  ahcf 
€fh  his  declining  this  offer,  the  king  of  Sweden,  who  foon 
after  his- coronation  in  1772  had  railed  him  to  be  one  of  the 
ifft  twent}'-eight  knights  of  the  order  of  Vafa,  made  a  con- 
fiderable  addition  to  his  income.  The  ftndents  of  the  pro- 
t'ince-  of  Finland  caufed  a  medal,  often  ducats  value,  to  be 
£i^Tc^  a?  a  teftimony  of  their  cfteem  and  refpe^l  for  his  ta- 
lcnts->  on  the  one  fide  of  whirh  was  a  good  likcne's  of  him, 
with  the  infcriptiorir  Torb^  Bergman  Patr'uc  Decus,  ac 
Dccas  JEzn'.  on  the  reverfe,  Ephoro  egregio  Natio  Fennica^ 
ifzV  I  Man  M.DCC.LXXXiv. 

\V{|^n  It  is  coufidered  that  Bergman  was  of  a  weak  con- 

{li/luliou_y 


^f  Oiof  Torhern  BergTfian,  199 

illtiUion,  and  that  his  labours  were  often  interrupted  by  hit 
hodily  infirmities,, it  will  appear  rather  furprifing  that  he 
ihoiild  have  been  able  to  accomplifti  fo  much.  He  was  fre- 
<qiiciuly  tormented  with  the  hcad-aehe,  and  lutferec!  aifo  eon- 
fidcrably  from  the  haemorrhoids.  Finding  his  health  declining 
he  repaired  toMcdwi,  to  have  the  benefit  of  the  waters  there, 
from  which  he  had  often  l>efore  ex])crienccd  relief;  bnt  a 
few  days  after  his  arrival  he  was  feized'  with  convulfion?, 
which  attacked  him  feveral  times,  and  expired  on  the  8th  of 
July  178^1^  AW  the  company  then  at  the  baths  attended  K\s 
funeraL  He  left  a  widow,  by  whom  he  had  two  children, 
who  died  young;  and  from  her  the  king  purchafed  his  li- 
brary and  apparatus  for  the  ufe  of  the  chemical  profcflbr, 
giving  her  a  handfome  penfion  as  a  compenfation  for  them. 

Bergman's  chara6i:er  and  difpofition  were  well  calculated 
to  conciliate  refpe6l  and  cfleern.  He  was  far  from  being 
morofe,  or  an  enemy  to  innocent  mirth.  Whenever  he 
thought  he  could  gratify  his  friends^  he  was  always  ready  to 
participate  in  their  amufements.  He  never  apj>eared  obfti- 
nate  or  fupercihous  in  delivering  his  opinions  :  if  they  were 
thought  dubious,  he  explained  them;  but,  if  he  found  iu^- 
cient  reafon,  he  retra<Sled  them.  This  candid  and  magna- 
nimous condu6l  he  difplayed  alfo  as  a  writer;  but,  when 
fully  convinced  of  the  truth  and  folidily  of  any  point,  he 
adhered  to  it  with  unfliaken  iirmnefs.  However  ardently 
attached  to  his  favourite  fciences,  he  never  defpiied  other 
knowledge,  or  reje6led  any  thing  with  the  utility  of  which 
he  was  unacquainted ;  on  the  contrary,  he  valued  and  pro- 
moted every  thing  that  had  the  Icaft  tendency  to  enlarge 
human  kno\vled(j;e.  A  llranfrer  to  vanity,  he  never  folicited 
for  worldly  honours  or  dignities;  and  ihofe  which  were  of- 
fered to  him  he  ufed  as  a  philofopher  ought. 

Towards  his  friends  his  heart  was  ever  open  and  waiTn. 
When  afked  advice,  he  gave  it  with  readinefs  and  finccrity; 
and  his  benevolence  never  ftood  in  need  of  being  folicited. 
His  intimacy  with  Scheele  is  well  known :  he  was  the  firll 
perfon  who  called  the  attention  of  the  Swcdifh  nation  and  of . 
foreigners  to  the  talents  of  that  eminent  man  ;  and  it  is  very 
probible  that,  had  he  not  b^en  introduced  into  notice  by 

Bergman^ 


SCO  Hl/lory  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing* 

Bergman,  the  world  would  have  been  deprived  of  the  greater 
part  of  his  important  difcoveries.  The  many  hterary  friends 
Bergman  had  in  all  nations,  are  a  tellimony  of  the  efteem  in 
which  he  was  univerfally  held;  and  his  letters  not  only  Ihow 
how  capable  he  was  of  maintaining  a  literary  correfpondericc, 
but  that  he  pofleflcd  a  feeling  heart.  For  the  facred  writings 
be  always  entertained  the  utmoft  reverence;  he  made  them 
the  conftant  rule  of  his  actions;  and  if  any  one  in  his  com* 
pany  attempted  either  openly  or  indire6lly  to  attack  them, 
or  to  queftion  their  divine  origin,  he  defended  them  with  a 
warmth  which  on  other  occafions  he  feldom  manifefted. 


XXV.  Htjiory  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing,  from  the  earliefl  Ages^ 
By  J.  N.  BiscHOFF  *. 


H, 


OWEVER  ufeful  and  laudable  may  be  the  exertions  of 
thofe  who  tr^ce  back  the  various  fteps  by  which  the  arts  have 
rifen  from  infancy  to  a  ftate  of  improvement,  and  who  en- 
deavour to  throw  light  on  the  periods  of  their  invention^  and 
to  explain  the  means  and  accidental  circumftanoes  by  which 
they  have  been  brought  to  perfection,  it  muft  be  allowed  that 
this  talk  i^  attended  with  great  difficulty  as  well  as  uncer- 
tainty. Such  inventions,  in  general,  have  had  fo  rude  an 
origin,  that  mankind  did  not  think  them  worth  their  atten- 
tion till  they  had  attained  to  a  certain  degree  of  perfection. 
iThis  difficulty  feems  in  particular  to  occur  in  regard  to  the 
origin  of  dyeing,  as  it  appears  to  be  much  anterior  to  the 
oldeft  of  the  antient  writers  with  which  we  are  acquainted* 
Every  thing,  therefore,  that  can  be  faid  on  the  fubjeCi  muft 
be  founded  on  conje6lure. 

In  my  opinion  the  origin  of  dyeing  may  be  afcribed  to  that 
natural  vanity  inherent  in  human  nature,  and  which  infpires 
mankind  with  a  defire  to  pleafe,  and  to  diftinguifh  themfelves 
above  others.  The  efiefts  produced  by  the  juice  of  certain 
plants  or  befriey  when  bruifed,  by  the  rain  on  different  kinds 
of  earth,  or  by  the  blood  of  animals  applied  to  cloth,  fug- 

'^  From  Ftrfucbc  einer  grfcbichte  dcr  ¥h  berkunjl, 

gefted, 


Hi/lory  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing,  201 

geQed,  in  all  probability,  the  firft  idea  of  this  art;  iatid  the 
above  fubftaiices  were,  no  doubt,  the  firft  dye-fluffs  with 
which  the  inventors  ornamented  their  clothing  made  of  (kins. 
When  thefe  appeared  among  their  neighbours  with  theit 
parti-coloured  garments,  a  fpirit  of  imitation  would  natu- 
rally be  excited  among  the  latter;  and  this  paflion  would 
induce  them  to  find  out  better  dye-ftuffs;  fuch  as,  by  imi- 
tating the  bluenefs  of  the  (ky,  or  the  beautiful  tints  of  bird^ 
and  flowers,  might  enable  them  to  outfhine  thofe  who  had 
preceded  them  in  this  new  art. 

But  it  would  foon  be  obferved  that  this  beauty  was  of  (hort 
duration,  and  that  it  was  neccflary  to  renew  the  tints  by  a 
frcfli  application  of  the  colouring  fubftances.  The  many 
experiments  which  mankind  might  eafily  make  while  they 
lived  under  the  freedom  of  the  early  ages,  and  perhaps  fome 
fortunate  accident,  may  have  at  length  taught  them  hoW  the 
colours  could  be  fixed,  by  preparing  their  fkins  with  falts  and 
other  fubftances  of  the  like  kind. 

As  mankind  began  to  muhiply,  new  wants  were  created, 
employments  were  increafcd,  and  thofe  devoted  to  the  fer- 
vice  of  religion  began  to  be  diftinguiftied  by  a  ceftaln  kind 
of  drcfs  from  the  other  clafTes  of  fociety.  Hence  arofe  par- 
ticular ranks  and  conditions,  to  which  certain  diftinguifhing 
mark:^  were  afligned  according  to  their  functions;  and  fot 
this  purpofe  no  better  or  more  certain  means  could  be  found 
than  diverfity  of  colours.  In  the  earlieit  ages^  therefore,  par^^ 
ticular  colours  were  allotted  to  the  leaders  of  aritiies,  judges, 
and  pricils ;  and  for  feftivals,  funerals>  akid  feligioUs  Cere- 
monies. 

Mankind  would  now  begin  to  confider  dyeing  as  an  art 
not  merely  calculated  to  gratify  vanity  or  to  give  pleafure  to 
the  eve,  but  as  an  invention  of  the  utmoft  utility  to  fociety. 
No  longer  contented  with  the  dye-ftuffs  furnifhed  by  vege- 
tables and  land  animak,  they  began  to  fearch  even  the  ocean, 
with  which  they  were  become  more  familiar,  and  difcovered 
a  fubilance  proper  for  dyeing  purple, — the  firft  colour  refpedt- 
ing  the  origin  of.  which  we  find  any  certain  information  in 
the  monuments  of  antiquity.  Almoft  all  thofe  antient  au- 
thors who  fpeak  of  this  invention,  afcribe  it  to  love  and-a 

Vol.  IX,  Co  (hepberd's 


20'jt  Itijlory  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing, 

fliepherci's  dog.  The  dog  happening  to  take  in  his  mouth 
a  flielUlirti  which  he  found  lying  on  the  fand,  his  mouth 
became  coloured  with  the  purple  juice  it  emitted.  The 
fhepherd's  fweetheart  having  feen  this  colour,  was  ib  ftruck 
with  it,  that  (lie  requellcd  her  lover  to  procure  her  a  drefs 
dyed  with  it.  In  confequence  of  this  rcqnefl  the  iliepherd 
endeavoured  to  find  out  the  fubftance  which  had  produced 
fuch  a  beautiful  colour,  and  by  thcfe  means  difcovercd  the 
art  of  dyeing  purple  *.  Some,  however,  afcrihe  this  inven- 
tion to  a  Tyrian  named  Hercules,  who  prefented  the  refult 
of  his  firft  experiment  to  the  king  of  Phoenicia,  who  was 
fo  captivated  with  it,  that  he  made  purple  one  of  his  prin^ 
cipal  ornaments  f.  The  lail  opinion  appears  to  be  the  more 
probable,  as  the  former  fable  may  have  originated  from  i\ 
play;  qp  words;  fbr,  as  dog  and  colour  are  exprefled  in  the 
Syrian  language  by  the  fame  word  J,  the  Greek  writers,  who 
borrowed  this  flory  from  the  Syrians,  and  the  Romans  who 
copied  the  Greeks,  might  eafily  have  been  led  into  an  error. 
That  a  Tyrian  was  the  inventor  of  purple,  is  unanimouily 
alTerted  by  all  writers;  but  they  differ  in  regard  to  the  time. 
Some  place  the  invention  under  Phoenix,  the  tenth  king  of 
Tyre,  that  is,  about  1500  years  before  the  birth  of  Chrift  §  ; 
Qthers,  in  the  time  when  Minos  reigned  in  Crete,  or  about 
Jthc  year  1439  before  the  Chriilian  aera  |1.  The  period  of  the 
invention,  however,  can  be  better  determined  than  tliat  of  the 
aft  of  prepg.ring  the  colour;  though  the  diilertations  written 
by  old  as,vy;ell  as  ,ne\V'  authors  .on  this  fubje6i  are  fo  nume- 
rous that  they  would  almoft  form  a  fmall  library.  For  the 
fatisfadlion  of  the  reader,  I  fliall  here  give  an  abftraft  of  what 
lias  been  faid  by  thefe  authors  refpe6king  a  colour  which  tbr- 

'■■'  Caffiodorus,  lib.  1.  Var.  Ep.  ii.  Jul.  Pollux,  lib.  i.  4.  Achillesr 
Tatius  <ie  Arrtor.  Leue.  et  Clitoph.  lib.  ii«  Rviph.  Volateirani  Com- 
mcncar.  Urban,  lib.  xxvii. 

f  Goguet  de  TOrigine  Jes  Lois,  des  Arts,  et  des  Sciences,  book  li* 
chap.  i. 

:f  Rocliart  de  Animal,  p.  iv.  lib.  v.  cap.  1 1.  Braun  dc  Veftitu  Sace.rdot. 
Hebraeoruin,  cap.  14. 

^   §  Phoenix  was  the  Ton  of  Agen<Jfaft<i  brother  of  Cadmus :   the  latter 
came  to  Greece  in  the  year  15 19  before  Chrill. 

II  Goguet  ut  luprci. 

nierlv 


1 11  flory  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing i  io^ 

merly  w.is  hekl  in  fo  much  eftimation ;  which  is  mentioned 
fo  often  by  profane  as  well  as  facred  writers;  which  ftill 
makes  a  figure  in  our  poetry,  or  which  is  fo  often  ufed  as  a 
figure  in  common  life,  and  which  many  are  acquainte(f  With 
only  by  name.  ■    :        : 

The  fubftance  employed  for  dyeing  this  expenfive  colour 
was  the  liquor  of  a  kind  of  fliell-fifli  called  by  the  Hebrews 
argaman^  by  the  Greeks  Tros^w^a,  and  by  the  Romans  fur^ 
pura,  murex,  and  ojirum.  It  has  been  often  defcribed,  and 
the  ihell  of  it  may  often  be  feen  in  colle6tions  of  natural 
curioiitics.  There  were  two  kinds  of  this  fliell-fifh,  both  of 
which  were  employed  in  dyeing  purple.  One  of  them,  from 
its  figure,  was  called  buccinum.  The  other  was  the  purple 
(liell-fifli  properly  fo  called  {purpura,  pelagmm),  and  con- 
fifled  of  fcveral  kinds,  fome  of  which  were  fitter  than  others 
for  dyeing f.  The  heft  were  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Tyre,  on  the  coafl  of  Gaetulia,  and  near  Lacedemon.  It  is 
defcribed  by  Pliny  in  the  following  manner  J: 

'^  The  purple  (licll-fifh  has  a  conical  (hell  furrounded  with 
a  feven-fold  row  of  prickles  which  proceed  to  the  mouth, 
through  which  the  animal  can  project  its  tongue.  The  latter 
is  as  long  as  the  finger,  and  fo  hard  that  it  can  penetrate  the 
(liells  of  other  fiih  and  nourifh  itfelf  on  their  fubftance.  This 
alfo  affords  an  eafy  method  of  catching  it.  The  fifhermen 
take  a  net  with  wide  mefhes,  into  which,  inftead  of  bait,  a 
few  mufcles  are  put.  As  foon  as  thefe  are  immerfed  in  the 
water  they  again  become  frefh,  and  when  the  purple  fifli 
obfcrve  that  they  open  their  (hells  they  thruft  thejr  tongue 
into  them  ;  butfcarcely  do  the  mufcles  perceive  this  when  they 
again  flmt  their  fliells,  and  in  that  manner  they  are  caught. 

*'  In  frcfli  water  thefe  fliell-fifh  foon  die ;  but  they  can  live 
fifty  days  oi)  their  own  faliva.     In  the  fpring  they  emit  a  fort 

•  Michaclis  ufed  to  qbferve  in  his  leftures,  that  this  word  formerly 
fij^nified  a  funeral  monument. 

t  Plinius,  Hitt  Nat.  lib.  ix.  c.  36. 

X  A  more  circumftantial  account  may  be  found  in  the  following 
fcarce  works  :  Fabii  Columtue  Lynca:i  Purpura  cum  jig.  an.  Romae  1616. 
4to. ;  and  G.  Ootlob  Kichter  Progr.  de  Purpura  ant'iquo  et  710^0  Pigmcnto, 
Ci't.  1 74 1,  j^io. 

Qc.  %  of 


a04  ^tflory  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing, 

of  white  (limy  matter,  and  at  that  period  they  no  longer  pro-., 
duce  purple  :  they  niuft  therefore  be  caught  before  that  time 
or  after  the  dog-days  *." 

The  animal  itfeif  confifts  of  three  parts  ;  between  the  two 
firft  is  found  the  valuable  liquor,  to  the  quantity  of  a  few 
drops,  in  a  white  receptacle.  This  liquor  the  animal  emits 
with  its  life,  and  is  loft  when  it  dies  flowlyf.  They  are 
therefore  caught  alive,  and  killed  by  a  blow  %,  When  a, 
fufficient  quantity  of  the  Hquor  has  been  obtained,  a  little  fait 
is  added  to  it,  and  it  is  fufFered  to  (land  three  days.  The 
niafs  muft  then  be  boiled  a  certain  time  in  a  leaden  velTel 
over  a  flow  fire,  and  the  flefliy  particles  which  float  at  the 
top  muft  from  time  to  time  be  fcumnied  off.  It  is  then  kept 
for  ten  days,  after  which  the  colour  is  tried  on  a  bit  of  pure 
wool,  and  the  colour  is  boiled  till  it  no  longer  appears  red, 
but  has  a  blucifli  caft. 

Thus  far  the  procefs  for  preparing  the  liquor  feems  to  have 
been  the  fame  among  all  the  antient  nations.  But  in  the 
operation  for  dyeing  there  appears  to  have  been  fome  differ- 
ence. The  .Tews  immerfed  the  wool  ii^  lime-water  before 
it  was  dyed,  and  then  waflicd  it  in  a  ley§. 

I  am  of  opinion  that  among  other  nations  the  wool  was 
fubjp6lecl  to  a  fort  of  boiling,  and  that  the  antient  authors 
have  omitted  to  mention  this  circumftance,  as  well  as  other 
proccfles,  mcrejy  becaufp  they  were  things  uiiiv^rfally  known. 
At  any  rate,  the  firft  ground  of  the  polour  was  given  to  the 
wool  by  means  of  a  kind  q^  fea-weed  {fucus  fnartjius),  and 
then  it  was  dyed.  Iiei|ce  the  colour  acquired  the  name  of  . 
fucus  \\,  Alkanet  [aiichufa)  was  alfo  employed  to  lay  a 
foundation  for  the  purple^. 

"•■  Bliny,  lib;  ix.  C-  38. 

f  Ibid.  c.  36.     Ariftptle,  v.  5. 

\  Tliis,  in  my  opinion,  niav  ftrve  to  explain  a  paflage  in  Horaer's  Iliad) 
Ivjok  y.  ver.  8j.  whereit  is  faid  of  a  peiTon  killed  in  battle,  *♦  His  eyes 
were  clofed  by  purple  death;"  that  is  to  fay,  *' the  death  of  the  purple 
fteli-f^fh  ;"  a  fpeedy  death.  A  like  pafTage  is  found  in  the  TLneid,  book  ix, 
V.  ?49m  which  niav  be  explained  in  the  fame  manner. 

§  Rraun  de  Veftitu  Sacerdotum  Hebr;£orum,  p.  261. 

I)  Pliny,  c,  xxvi.  10. 
•I  J  bid.  c.  xxii.  17. 

The 


liijiory  cj  the  Art  of  Dyeing,  205 

The  Tyrians  gave  the  firft  ground  of  their  purple  dye  by 
the  unprepared  liquor  of  the /)wr/>//ri/,  and  then  improved  or 
heightened  it  by  the  liquor  of  the  buccmum.  In  this  manner 
they  prepared  their  double  dyed  purple  *,  purpura  d'lbapha^ 
which  was  fo  called  either  becaufe  it  was  immerfed  in  two 
different  liquors^  or  becaufe  it  was  firil  dyed  in  the  wool  and 
then  in  the  yarn. 

The  Greeks,  according  to  the  account  of  a  certain  Demo* 
critus,  poured  the  liquor  as  it  came  from  the  fire  into  a  veflel, 
immerfed  the  wool  in  it,  and  fuffered  it  to  remain  in  that  (late 
a  day  and  a  night.  Between  this  method  and  that  of  the 
Ilomans  there  feems  to  be  no  eliential  difference.  The  latter, 
according  to  Pliny,  fuffered  the  wool  to  remain  in  the  liquor 
five  hours,  after  which  they  dried  it;  they  then  immerfed  it 
in  the  liquor  again,  and  continued  in  this  manner  till  it  had 
imbibed  all  the  dye.  The  liquor  of  the  buccinum  alone  gave 
a  falfe  dye;  it  was  therefore  neceffary  to  fix  it  by  the  liquor 
o^  the  purpura  in  order  to  render  it  durable. 

To  fifty  pounds  of  wool  two  hundred  of  the  liquor  of  the 
hucci7iu7n,  and  a  hundred  and  ten  of  that  of  the  purpura-^, 
were  employed.  By  thefe  means  the  wool  acquired  4  colour 
like  that  of  the  amethyil:,  and  thence  it  had  its  name. 

The  colour  called  conchyl'mm  J  was  dyed  almofl  in  the 
fame  manner,  only  that  none  of  the  liquor  of  the  buccinum 
was  employed ;  that  half  as  much  of  the  liquor  of  the  purpura 
was  ufed  as  in  the  former  cafe :  and  that,  belides  this,  it  was 
mixed  with  one  half  urine  and  water.  This  colour,  there- 
fore, was  brighter  and  cheaper  than  the  other  §. 

Thefe  are  all  the  different  njethods  of  dyeing  purple  among 
the  antients.  But  befides  thefe  the  antients  were  acquainted 
alfo  with  the  method  of  dyeing  with  kermes  [cujculium^  graines 

*  Flinv,  lib,  ix.  c.  17. 

f  In  Pliny's  time,  100  pounds  of  the  liquor  of  the  pelagium  or  of  the 
purpura  could  be  purchaft-d  for  50  denarii,  about  i /.  10s.  The  liquor 
of  the  buccinum  was  double  that  price— See  Pliny,  lib.  ix.  c.40. 

I  ThiQ  colour  was  alfo  called  hyiiiyiihnSy  (<rruieus\  the  |evvs  cave  it  tlie 
nunc  o{  tbechelct,  from  which  loyicbvlhim  is  laid  to  be  derived.-  The  flicll- 
Mh  which  furnifhed  the  dye  was  called  chil%on.     See  Broun,'},  iz- 

§  Latter  writer^  confider,  but  improperly,  fhcfe  t\yo  colours  to  be  the 
faille. 

d*ecarJaie) 


ao6  H'tjhry  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing, 

d*ecar!ate)  a  fcarlet  colour*,  called  in  the  Bible  thotaat 
Jchani  {coloretn  coccwerdm),  which  they  held  in  high  eftima- 
lion  f.  Whether  the  fcarlet  of  the  antieuts  was  the  fame 
as  ours,  cannot  be  ealily  determined,  but  we  are  told  by  Pliny 
that  it  was  a  very  agreeable  rofe  colour. 

All  thefe  dye.>!,  the  pn'paration  of  which  I  have  here  de- 
fcnbed,  are  frequently  confounded  by  antient  authors,  who 
often  give  the  name  of  purple  to  all  red  colours  X ;  and  from 
this  circumflance,  and  from  that  of  various  other  colours 
being  produced  by  the  mixture  of  the  before-mentioned  four 
kinds  of  dye,  the  confulion  and  uncertainty  which  prevails 
on  this  fubjccl  have,  in  my  opinion,  arifen.  But  this  uncer- 
tainty might  perh^s  be  in  fome  meafure  removed  by  making 
the  following  diftin6lion.  The  purple  colours  of  the  antients 
were : 

I.  Simple  Purple  Colours, 

I  ft,  The  Tyrian  §  or  twice  dyed  purple,  purpura  Tyrta 
d'lhapba ;  becaufe,  as  above  faid,  it  was  neceflary  that  the 
cloth  or  wool  (l^ould  be  immerfed  in  two  different  liquors. 
This  was  the  purple  properly  fo  called.  The  colour  was  a 
dark  red,  like  that  of  curdled  blood ;  but  it  dione  with  moll 
fplendour  when  one  looked  at  the  cloth  from  the  bottom  up- 

"■'-  Whether  thisjpe  the  fcarlet  mentioned  in  Genefis,  xxxviii.  17 — 30, 
I  cannoi  determine.     It  is  thus  tranllitcd  \a  the  Septuaginr. 

f  I  (hall  hdve  occafion  tv^  (peak  further  of  this  d  vc-ftufFi  I  (liail  lierc 
only  obferve  that  the  Romans  procured  their  kcrmes  chiefly  from  Galatia, 
the  African  provinces,  and  Lufuania. 

1  It  was  in  general  a  proverbial  mode  of  exprelfion  arrone;  the  antients, 
%yhea  they  wilhed  to  dcfcribe  any  thing  red,  to  compare  it  to  the  Tyiian 
fiye.  Frequent  inftances  of  this  nnay  be  found  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
dramatic  wiiters.  See  Le  Clerc's  Liblioth.  Choifie,  torn.  xx.  p.  186 — 194, 
We  a-.e  told  bv  TElian  that  the  Lacedemonians  ufcd  purple  clothes  in  war 
to  prevent  the  blood  from  being  fcen  :  but  from  the  impollibility  of  giving 
purple  dreffcs  to  a  whole  arniy,  on  account  of  the  dearntfs  of  that  colour, 
iElian,  no  doubt,  alludes  to  (bme  cheaper  Vind  of  red  dye.  —  Far.  lllji, 
hb.  xvii,  chap.  6. 

§  This  dye  was  not  diftingniihcd  by  the  abovp  name  merely  on  account 
of  its  being  prepared  by  the  Tyrians,  but  becaufe  thefe  people  obtained  the 
bcft  purple  i.\olI-fifii  fiom  the  neighbouring  fea,  and  becaufe  they  under- 
jIooJ  beft,  according  to  the  tcftimony  of  all  antient  authors,  the  art  of  ^ 
dyci:)^  it. 

,4  wards^ 


tiijlory  of  the  Art  of  I^yelng,  20  J 

wards  *,  as  our  dyers  do  when  they  examine  whether  a  co- 
lour be  genuine  or  not. 

Befides  Tyre  there  were  other  places  celebrated  either  on 
account  of  their  purple  (hell-fifli  or  their  method  of  prepar- 
ing the  dye.  The  following  are  often  mentioned  in  the  works 
of  the  antients  : 

The  G^tulian  purple,  for  which  the  niell-fi(h  found  on  the 
Gictulian  coa(l  were  employed.  A  great  deal  of  cloth,  &c, 
was  dyed  in  particular  in  the  ifland  of  Madura  and  Porto 
San£lo,  which  on  that  account  were  by  the  antients  called 
the  Purple  Iflands  [hifulte  Purpurin^  ■[) , 

The  Lacedemonian  |. 

The  Tarentinc.    This  had  fomewhat  brighter  (liades  §. 

At  firft  thefe  kinds  of  purple  were  exceedingly  rare  at 
Rome,  but  under  Auguftus  they  became  the  fafliionable  co- 
lours ;  though  a  pound  of  purple  wool  could  not  be  procured 
for  lefs  than  a  thoufand  denarii,  fomewhat  more  than  32/. 
fterling.  The  almoft  incredible  prices  at  which  this  purple 
was  fold  among  the  antients,  is  to  be  underftood,  in  ge- 
neral, as  applicable  to  thcfe  kinds,  as  the  others  were  much 
cheaper. 

2d,  Amethyft  colour  {color  amethyjitnus),  the  preparation 
of  which  I  have  defcribed  as  above.  It  was  not  fuch  a  dark 
red  as  the  firft  kind,  but  inclined  fomewhat  to  blue,  like  the 
colour  of  the  precious  (lone  from  which  it  take^  its  nnme. 
This  colour  alfo  had  its  different  fliades,  according  to  whicli 
it  was  called  fometimes  color  janthinus  ||,  and  fometimes 
fuccinus^. 

3d,  Hyacinth  colour  {color  conchyUuSyhyaclnthuSyCceruleus), 
In  the  Bible  this  colour  is  called  thechelet,  from  which  the 
Latin  word  conchjlmm  is  faid  to  be  derived.  As  this  colour 
did  not  require  fo  much  purple  Uquor,  it  was  not  fo  dear  as 
the  former  colours  ;  and  in  the  time  of  Julius  Ciefar  a  pound 
of  it  ooll  only  100  denarii,  5/.  fterling.     It,  however,  was- 

*  Seneca  Natur.  Qued.  i.  5.  f  Piiny,  \\.  3:.. 

+  Pliny,  xxi.  S-  §  Ibid.   ix.   39. 

'  [i  From  yi',  a  kind  of  violet,  which  had  An  appearance  i-lmilar  to  rhi-. 
folour 

^  L.  70.  Digcft.  de  Lcgatione- 

not 


4oS  Hijioiy  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing. 

not  dark  red,  but  had  a  blueifli  cad  *.  Pliny  mentions  three 
fliadesofit,  one  of  which  he  compares  to  the  night- violet, 
viola  ferolina, 

IT.   Compound  Purple  Colours. 

lfl>  Color  Tyriametbyflus.  This  was  a  mixture  of  the 
Tyriaii  purple  with  the  amethyft  colour,  as  the  name  indicates. 

2d,  Color  hyfginus  \  was  compofcd  of  the  fcaflet  and 
Tyrian  purple  colours. 

Thefe  are  the  colours  which,  in  the  works  of  the  antients, 
are  particularly  diftinguiflied  by  the  name  of  purple.  As  no 
fpecimensof  them  have  been  preferved,  we  muft  be  contented 
with  the  defcriptions  given  of  them  by  Pliny  and  others ;  ^nd 
it  would  be  fruitlefs  to  attempt  to  obtain  a  more  accurate 
knowledge  of  them  %. 

Of  their  durability,  Plutarch  gives  a  remarkable  inftance 
in  the  life  of  Alexander.  This  prince,  it  is  faid,  found  in  the 
ireafury  of  the  Perfian  monarch  a  large  quantity  of  purple, 
180  years  old,  which  Itill  retained  all  its  beauty;  and  the 
caufe,  according  to  Plutarch,  was,  that  it  had  been  prepared 
with  honey. 

As  the  antients  had  no  colour  equal  to  the  purple  in  beauty, 
durabrlity,  and  coftlinefs  §,  it  is  not  furprifing  that  they  en- 

*  For  th's  rcaibn  it  w:is  called  (/y/j?;- <://7a'/wj,  c/Z'//////i,  and,  at  la(l,i^//<'/z<.<-, 
of  which  the  French  have  made  iifu,  the  Englilh  />/;/<?,  and  the  Germans 
ILiu  — Br  aim  ut  j^'pra^  c.  xiii.  CtiinJ.  Salmaf.  ad  TcrtidlUvi  de  PalliOf 
p.  189. 

t  Pliny,  lib.  ix.  c.  41,  deduces  this  name  from  a  certain  flov.er  whick 
had  a  finiilar  colour. 

\  ft  is  here  necciTary  to  noti<.e  fome  terms  of  artrcfpe^iini';  t!iis  c®lour, 
■which  ofreii  render  the  meaning  of  the  anticnt  authors  obicure.  The 
purple  li<iuor  was  calledy?05,  ro/,  janies,  "j'nns;  when  prepared  f<;r  dyeing, 
figmtninm^  meu'Lnmcnf  jns^  in  Greek  Bittxtxa,  ^tfxci.  Liquor  not  yet  rca-iy 
for  dyeing  was  called  rudia  rnedkanuniay  immatura  et  'uiridh  cordina  ;  a 
perfect  dark  red  Tyrian  colour  was  diltinguilhed  by  the  appellation  of 
iohr  prejfu! yfuurus ^  faturiitus^  ojuvatus^  pUnin^  adjirUiv^,  aujinus,  fuprrbus^ 
vepetus  ;  a  bright  fitry  red  colour  color  cxontraluSy  t'xdtatus,  clurus,  acuUis^ 
<vigiduSy  dilutusy  ahlutuSy  b lulus. 

§  See  Plato  de  Repub.  lib.  iv.  p.  449.  edit.  Lugd. 

The  learned  traoflatcr,  Marfilius  Ficinus,  has  rendered  this  paffage  fo 
confufed,  ih::t  without  the  help  of  the  (Jreck  text  it  is  not  poihtle  to  un- 
der ftand  ir.  Thus,  for  example*  he  trjrnliates  the  w»rd  B^-^iv:,  which  fi^ 
nitics  a  dyer,  by  futlo. 

nobled 


H'l/Jorj'  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing,  20^ 

iiobled  h  by  the  particular  purpofes  totwhich  it  was  defined, 
Jn  the  carlieil  periods,  and  immediately  after  its  invention, 
it  was  confidered  as  the  favourite  colour  of  the  gods.  Nay, 
the  Deity  himfelf  feems  to  have  conformed  to  the  wcaknefs 
and  ideas  of  man  by  choofing  it  to  be  the  nioft  dillinguifhed 
ornament  of  his  houfe  and  his  miniftcrs*. 

As  the  power  and  refpe6l  of  kings  increafed,  it  was  made 
a  fymbol  of  niajefty  f;  and  this  was  carried  fo  far,  that  in 
the  time  of  the  emperors  it  was  confidered  as  a"  particular 
right  belonging  to  the  princes  of  the  imperial  houfe;  fo  that 
immediately  after  their  birth  they  were  wrapped  in  purple 
fwaddling-clothes,  and  by  thcfe  means  obtained,  as  it  were, 
a  title  to  the  empire.  Nay,  it  was  confidered  as  an  almofl 
indifpenfable  cercmonv  in  the  choice  of  an  emperor  J  that 
the  fuccefsful  candidate  fliould  be  clothed  in  purple ;  and  we 
have  inftanccs  of  the  foldiers,  when  nothing:  clfe  was  at  hand, 
tearing  the  purple  from  their  ftandards  and  wrapping  it  round 
the  newly  chofen  emperor. 

In  free  republican  dates  this  colour  was  a  mark  of  the 
highell  official  dignity.  Thus  the  fupreme  magiftrates  at 
Rome  were  diiiinguiflied  by  broader  or  narrower  purple 
flripes  {lati  et  angujH  clav'i),  with  which  their  clothes  were 
Lprdered  behind  and  before.  Hence  it  happened  that  purple, 
which  every  one  had  been  before  at  liberty  to  ufe,  was  by  the 
emperors  made  a  regality;  and  when  ailumcd  by  private  per- 
fons,  or  when  a  piece  of  purple  was  applied  to  another  colour, 
this  crime  was  puniflicd  with  death  as  a  kind  of  high  treafon§, 

■■■  Exodus,  xxvi.  I.  xxviii.  5,  6,  8.  xxxviii.  iR.  xxxi:?;.  JJ.  Luther 
tmnflates  the  word  the^heht  very  improperly,  yellow  filk,  which  pn  pcrlv 
is  fky  blue,  or  hyacinth  colour,  and  a  kind  of  purple,  as  I  ha^'c  already 
obfcrved 

f  Hence  purple  is  called  fiicn  murex  in  ihe  Laws,  Tir.  c.  de  Vedib. 
holober.  et  Inrin6t  one  facri  Muricis;  and  hence  the  expre!(fion  ndorare pm- 
purum,  lib.  iv.  c.  dp  Conful.-  See  G.  Pancirollus  An  Rebys  dipcrduis, 
p.  i,  tit.  46.  c.  Commentar,  Salmuth.  *"<i^ 

^  Conftanrine  VII.  a  Gteek  emperor  of  the  tcntif^'bentury,  from  this 
ceremony  g;ot  the  title  of  Porphyrogfrrv^fes  \  that  is,  born  in  purple. 

§  This  is  mentioned,  for  the  firll  time,  refpe^ting  Ntro,  in  the  life  of 
that  emperor,  by  Suetonius.  Fi/a  Neronisy  c.  aj.  L.  i.  c.  Quae  res  venire 
:*n;i  poiT.^L.  iii.c.  de  Veftib.  holoberis. 

Vol.  IX.  *  D  d  *ln 


aiO  ^tjlory  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing, 

In  fevery  province,  and  particularly  in  Phoenicia,  there  were 
certain  houfes  for  dyeing  purple  belonging  to  the  emperors, 
and  each  of  thefe  was  under  the  inrpe6lion  of  an  ovcrfeer 
{procurator  ba/thiorum),  vvhofe  chief  bufinefs  was  to  take  eare 
that  the  articles  were  well  dyed.  Thefe  overfeers  were  alfo 
under  the  infpe6fion  of  a  co?nes  facrarum  largitionum  *. 
Neither  the  dyers  nor  their  children  durft  follow  any  other 
occupation,  but  formed  a  peculiar  tribe  and  had  their  own 
fymbol,  which  was  a  fmall  bafket  containing  purple  woolf. 

Though  the  art  of  dyeing  purple  was  Co  highly  efteemed 
and  fo  much  pracSlifed,  it  was  at  length  forgotten  in  the  weft 
and  afterwards  in  the  eaft,  fo  that  the  learned  coniidtr  it  as 
now  totally  loft;  while  others  doubt  whether  fuch  a  colour 
ever  exifted,  and  whether  it  was  poffible  to  prepare  it  from 
the  liquor  of  a  {hell-fifli  %-  But  ihefe  opinions  are  evidently 
refuted  by  the  unanimous  teftimony  of  antient  authors,  and 
particularly  by  the  experiments  and  attempts  which  have  been 
piade  by  the  moderns  to  revive  this  art. 

Thomas  Gage  fpeaks  of  a  fhell-fifli  of  this  kind  found  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Nicoya,  a  fmall  Spanidi  town  in  South 
America,  which  has  all  the  properties  of  the  purple  fhell-fifh 
defcribcd  by  Pliny  and  other  antient  authors.  The  Spaniards 
dyed  with  it  Segovian  cloth,  which  coft  twenty  crowns 
'per  elh 

About  the  year  1686,  a  Mr.  Cole  difcovered  on  the  coaft 
of  Somerfetfhire  a  ihell-fifh  of  the  like  kind  §.  Plumier  alfo 
found  at  the  Antilles  the  fame  fpecies,  which  he  calls  piJJTcurs, 
becaufe  they  can  fpirt  the  fca  water  from  them  to  a  great 
diftance  |]. 

*  We  have  an  account  of  nine  places  of  this  kind  for  dyeing  purple  : 
ift,  Calabria;  zd,  Dahnatii ;  3d,  Iftria;  4th,  Sicily;  5th,  Africa  ;'  6?  h, 
Tripoli;  7th, Gallia;  8th, The  iialearian  iflands  ;  9th,  GaUia  "Narboncnlis. 
-r-See  Gutd.  Fancirolbis  Not  it  La  Iviperi't^  lib.  ii.  59. 

f  Zano,  in  his  Lettere  dell'  Ai^ricultura,  lett.  i.  p.  57.  fpeaks  of  a 
toiTibftore  with  thendafcriprion  M-  'Tullio  purpjirario.  Grutcr  has  infertcd 
three  of  the  f^me  kiod  in  his  colle6tion. 

+  For  example,  Jacobfon  in  his  Schauplatx  dcr  Zeugmanufafturen  in 
Deutfchland,  vol,  i,  part  lo. 

§/Philoibphicdl  Tranfa6lions  for  1685,  No.  197.  Aila  Entditornm  for 
j686,  p.  (mo. 

^  Leipzeger  Sanin>Iungcn  fpr  the  yeJ^•  1746,  p.  274. 


Ilijlory  of  the  Art  of  Dyemg.  2il 

Mofl;  of  the  experiments  in  regard  to  this  purple  were 
made  by  Reaumur*  and  Du  Hamclf.  riie  latter  found  a 
huccinum  on  the  coaft  of  Poitou ;  but  in  particular,  certain 
balls  fliaped  like  an  egg,  which  he  calls  purple  eggs,  and 
which  contained  a  yellowini  liquor,  lliis  liquor,  when 
dropped  on  a  piece  of  linen,  gave  it  a  pale  yellow  colour; 
but  in  a  few  minutes,  to  his  great  ailoniflunent,  it  changed  to 
all  the  fliades  of  yellow,  green,  and  fky-blue,  till  it  at  length 
was  converted  into  purple.  The  experiment  mult  be  made 
in  the  open  air;  and  Du  Hamel  obferves  that  the  fun-beams 
contribute  a  great  deal  to  the  durability  and  darknefs  of  thei 
colour. 

'J'hat  this  great  influence  of  the  fun^beams  on  the  purple 
was  not  unknown  to  the  aritients,  is  proved  by  the  account 
left  us  of  this  colour  by  a  Greek  female  author  J,  and  which, 
in  all  probability,  firfl  induced  the  above  writers  to  undertake 
their  experiments.  As  the  paffage  which  contains  this  in- 
formation §,  and  which  was  pointed  out  to  me  by  a  friend, 
deferves  to  be  better  known,  I  fliall  here  fubjoin  the  follow- 
ing  tranllation  of  it : 

*^  The  Phoenicians  at  prefent  (in  the  lith  century)  catch 
this  animal  (the  purple  (liell-fiOi)  in  the  following  manner, 
and  give  with  it,  to  wool,  fuch  a  beautiful  colour  that  thu 
deceived  eye  miftakes  it  for  flowers. 

*^  They  form  a  ftrong  rope^  of  confiderable  lengthj  made 
of  twilled  ruihes,  faftened  together  with  knots,  fo  as  that  they 
can  let  it  down  into  the  fea.  To  this  rope  they  attach  balkets 
made  of  ruihes  or  reeds  plaited  through  each  other.     Thefe 


*  Memoires  de  I'Acad,  des  Sciences  for  171 1, 


p.  i«i. 


f  Ibid,  for  the  year  1736,  p.  49. 

1  FAulocia  MacreiiiJDolitifra*,  a  daughter  of  die  Greek  emperor  Con- 
ftantinc  VHl.  who  lived  about  tli^e  end  of  the  tenth  century.  Her  book, 
which  is  called  iwua,  contains  very  interefting  information  refpefling  cele- 
brated perfons  of  every  condition,  with  other  things  wiirthy  of  notice.  It 
was  prcferved  in  mattufcript  in  the  king's  Hbrary  at  Paris,  but  intended  for 
publication. — See  Anfelm.  Bandurius  Not,  ad  Anliq.  Polity  p.  8i8  ;  l^^bricit 
Bib.  Gra-cay  vol.  vi.  p.  715  j  /.  Cb.  JFdlf  Fragmenia  Mulierum  Grata- 
ruini-.p.  3p;  and  Catalog.  Fcminarum  olim  illufti  under  the  head  Etuto^^ 

§  Du  Frefnc-has  infertcd  it  in  the  appendix  10  his  Glajfarivm  under  ^e 
^ord  Koy)(v'Ktvrtt. 

D  d  3  .      ^        '       bafkets 


212  llijhry  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing, 

bafkets  have  fpikcs  at  the  mouth;  for  the  points  of  the  riifiies 
or  rccds  all  run  towards  each  other  inwardly,  lo  that,  when 
looked  at  from  without,  the  entrance  feems  cafy,  but  when 
the  ilfti  have  got  into  it  thev  cannot  return  *.  Thefe  ballcet?^ 
the  fifliermeii  let  down  to  the  roeks,  failening  to  the  upper 
end  of  the  rope  a  piece  of  cork  that  it  may  Hoat ;  and  in  this 
manner  they  are  left  night  and  day,  and  when  the  balket  i? 
drawn  up  it  is  found  to  he  full  of  the  purple  (licll-fifli.  The 
animals  arc  then  cut  in  pieces,  and  when  freed  from  dirt 
are  faked ;  after  which  they  are  thrown  into  a  kettle  over 
the  fire.  When  heated  the  blood  feparates  itfelf,  become? 
fiuid,  and  begins  to  throw  up  fcum  ;  a  part  of  it  turns  red  and 
another  blue,  and  another  airumes  fomc  other  colour.  If  a 
piece  of  cloth  be  now  put  into  this  liquor, it  acquires  the  fame 
colour  after  it  is  thoroughly  impregnated  with  it. 

*'  The  purple  colour  does  not  acquire  all  its  brilliancy  till 
it  has  been  expolcd  to  the  fun  ;  for  the  rays  of  that  luminary 
give  it  more  brightnefs,  and  render  the  colour  darker ;  and 
Its  fpiendour,  by  the  celeflial  lire,  is  brought  to  the  greateft 
perfections" 

This  pafTage,  combined  with  the  neweft  difeoveries  and  a 
little  practice,  might  eaiilv  enable  us  to  prepare  purple  a^ 
beautiful  as  that  of  the  antients.  But  the  perfe6lion  to  which 
other  dyes  have  been  brought,  and  the  dye-ftuf^s  difcovered 
in  modern  times,  render  this  method  of  dyeing  tumeeefrary. 

One  might  ahnoft  be  induced  to  ])elieve  that  the  antients 
had  no  other  eohjurs  befides  purple  ;  but  the  contrary  is 
proved  by  the  whole  hiftory  of  antiquity.  Nay,  it  is  probable 
that  they  had  otiier  colours  before  purple,  only  thev  were 
either  not  fo  durable  or  fo  pleiiiing  to  the  eve,  and  tliercfore 
the  antient  writers  did  not  think  it  worth  their  while  to  fay 
any  thing  refpcCling  them.  ,         ^  ^ 

The  Greeks,  about  the  period  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
under  his  fuccefibrs,  firit  began  to  render  black,  dark  blue, 
yellow,  and  green  dyes,  &;c.  more  beautiful,  and  tb  learn  ihe 
art  of  fixing  them  on  linen  t.     We  find,  however,  am jn^ 

Ijp  Xhis  isexadly  the  fonnof  Ibme  bal'kttsziuick  cU  prcient  fot'catchingfiffi. 
%  S-e  Pliny,  lib.  xix.  c-  i.    Zano,  Lcucrc  dcU'  Agiicult.  toMi.  in.  p.  i, 
let.  6.  p.  z%i.  Cluimbers'is  Uuiverfai  JJittionary,  under  the  iiead  Dyeinp. 

the 


Hiflory  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing,  2 1 5 

the  various  companies  eftabliflied  by  Numa  at  Rome,  a  dyers' 
company,  'colhgium  tinttoru7n ;  but  tlicfe  I  con  fid  cr  to  have 
been  at  Ml  purple  dycrs^.  Afterwards  the  art  of  dyeing  con-^ 
tinued  10  incrcafe  among  the  Romans,  and  they  began  to  di- 
vide colours  into  general  [prmcipales)  and  particular  {minus 
fnncipaUs).,  according  as  they  were  ufual  among  both  fexes, 
or  were  cxclufively  worn  by  either  f.  Thus  the  antient  au- 
thors frequently  fpcak  of  the  colours  by  which  the  four  dif- 
ferent parties  {fa^iones)  at  the  Circenfian  ganies  were  diilin- 
euiilicd  from  each  other,  and  which,  on  that  account,  w^e 
ailed  the  colores  circcnfis.  Thefe  were  green  {color'  prajinus)^ 
aurora  colour  {ruffafus),  afti  colour  {veTietusX),  and  white  §. 
But  the  art  of  dyeing  was  not  confined  merely  to  the  Phce- 
nieians,  Hebrews,  Greeks,  ^nd  Romans ;  it  was  foon  com- 
municated to  other  nations,  each  of  which  employed  tor  this 
purpofc  fuch  minerals  and  plants  as  their  different  countries 
produced.  According  to  the  account  of  Pliny  ||  and  other 
authors,  the  Gauls  who  inhabited  beyond  the  Alps  dyed  the 
molt:  beautiful  purple  and  other  colours  with  herbs  ;  but  they 
were  not  acquainted  with  a  meihod  of  fixing  them.     We  are 

■'•  Plutarch  in  the  Life  of  Nuina. 

t  Thus,  for  example,  yellow  was  commonly  ufed  as  the  colour  of  the 
veils  (^flammca')  worn  by  brides  on  the  day  of  their  nuptials,  and  peculiar 
o  the  female  fex  alone. — ?ltnyy  lib.  xxi.  c.  8. 

\  This,  in  particular,  was  the  colour  of  the  clothing  of  mariners  and 
uf  the  fails  of  fhips. 

§  This  colour  afforded  employment  in  particular  to  the  ftiUoncs^  who 
walhed  and  fcoured  white  as  well  as  coloured  clothing.  For  this  purpofe 
they  employed  urine,  chalk,  faltpetre,  and  fumigation  with  fulphur.  The 
procefles  to  be  ufed  were  prefciibed  by  a  peculiar  law  (^Lex  Metellana)  iflued 
by  the  tribune  Metellus  in  the  year  354  after  the  building  of  the  city. 
They  were  required,  in  the  tirft  place,  ta  walh  the  clothes  with  Sardiniia 
e:irth,  then  to  expol'e  them  to  the  vapour  of  fulphur,  and  to  fcour  therti 
with? unadulterated  Cimolian  earth,  (from  Cimolus,  one  of  the  iflands  called 
th.e  ^/wWifj,)  which  rertored  the  rpleiidour  of  the  colour  that  had  boen 
deftroycd  by  the  fulphur.  In  the  laft  place,  they  frtiooth^d  the  pile  of  the 
cloth  with  the  ikin  of*fe  hedge-hog  or  the  fuller's  thiftle  {carduus  fuUonius), 
and  then  prtlTed  it.  A  pydyge  in  the  gofpel  according  to  St.  Mark,  c.  ix. 
vcr.  3,  alludes  t^  this  prorefs.  Luther  t'-arfbrcs  the  \\ox<\y,a.'^ivi  (frdlo) 
improperly  by  making  it  fi^nify  i'Jjer. — See  Pliny,  xxxv.  17,  and  SibaU- 
genii  AHtiq:'i!at.  Fullcviie. 

ji  Lib.  xjfrii.  cap.  2. 

told 


114        '  Mlllorycf  the  Art  of  Dyeings 

told  alfo  by  Tacitus  that  the  German  women  mamifa<5lure<! 
linen  drelics,  and  dyed  them  of  a  beautifid  purple  red  colour, 
i^onie,  however,  aflert  that  thefe  dyes  were  communicated  to 
the  cloth  merely' by  dipping  it  in  the  blood  of  men  or  ot  ani- 
mals. But  this  opinion  is^evidently  erroneous  ;  as  it  is  im- 
poliible  that  clotli  could  acquire  a  good  colour  by  being  dipped 
in  bicK)d  ;  and  becaufe  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  Ger- 
mans would  learn  from  their  neighbours  the  Gauls,  with 
whom  they  had  fo  much  intercourfc,  their  art  of  dyeing, 
which  is  fo  highly  celebrated  by  Pliny. 

This  writer  gives  us  a  very  obfcure  dcfcription  of  an  inge- 
nious mode  of  dyeing,  which  has  a  near  refcmblance  to  our 
cotton  and  flannel  printing,  pra6lifed  by  the  Egyptians.  'I'hey 
applied  to  the  white  cloth  certain  tiuiir^ures  more  or  iefs  ca- 
pable of  imbibing  the  dyes  [color  em  jorhentihus  viedicamcnt'is)  ^ 
and  which  were  not  vifible.  The  cloth  was  then  put  into  a 
boiler  containing  the  dye  or  colouring  compofition  {cortina 
pigmenti  fervent  is),  and  after  it  was  taken  out  it  appeared  as 
if  painted  with  various  colours.  Thefe  colours  never  faded; 
and  the  cloth,  by  the  boiling,  was  rendered  more  durable*. 

Somethmg  of  the  fame  kind  is  related  by  Herodotus,  who 
informs  us,  that  certain  people,  who  lived  near  the  Cafpian 
fea,  by  means  of  the  leaves  of  trees,  which  they  bruifed  and 
fteepcd  in  water,  could  form  on  cloth  the  figures  of  animals, 
flowers,  (Kc.  which  were  as  lading  as  the  cloth  itfelff. 

The  art  of  dyeing  was  alfo  in  great  elieem  among  the  Per- 
Cans  at  an  early  period.  Nay,  the  Perfian  dyers,  notwith- 
i'tanding  their  being  Mahometans,  have  choi'cn  Chrift  as 
their  patron  5  for  they  have  a  tradition  among  them  which 
fays  that  he  was  "of  that  profeflion  |.  On  this  account  they 
call  a  dye-houfe  iit  prcfcnt   Chrift's  work-fliup  §.     Among^  j 

'•'  Pliny,  XXXV.   11.  ^       ^ 

t  The  fame  thing  is   ftill  praftifed  by  the  favages  in  T!hili  with  the 
juice  of  certain  plants,  which  contain  alfo  faponaccous  mr.tter.  —  See  Gcgw?/,, 
'  Vol.  ii.  b.  i,  c.  2. 

+  Sike,  Not,  ad  E^vang,  Infantile  Salnjatoris^  p.  55,  rtlares  this  tradition 
in  the  following  manner : — Chrift  being  put  apprentice  to  a  dyer,  his 
maftcr  dcfired  him  to  dye  fome. pieces  oi  clotli  of  different  colours ;  Chiift 
put  thtm  all  into  a  boiler,  an  i  when  the  dyer  took  them  out  he  was  ter- 
ribly frig!\tened  on  fiftding  that  each  had  its  proper  dolour. 

§j  Angcii  de  i;i  KrolTc  Le  ic-m  Pe'i'ani,  \mder  ihc  head  I'inSorla  ars. 

r  ^  the 


Hifiory  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing,  21^ 

the  Chinefo,  Hoang-ti,  one  of  their  carlieft  emperors,  was 
the  firfl:  who  wore  a  blue  drefs,  as  bcintr  the  colour  of  tlic 
heavens,  and  a  yellow  one,  as  behig  the  colour  of  the  earth  ^. , 
He  alfo  caufed  drefles  of  different  colours  to  be  made  in  imi- 
tation of  flowers  and  birds,  that  they  might  fervc  as  marks  of 
diftiuL^lion  to  the  high  and  the  low,  the  rich  and  the  poor, 
in  his  empire f. 

More  infianccs  which  fliow  that  the  art  of  dyeing  was 
held  in  high  efleem  at  an  early  period  among  other  nations, 
might  eafily  be  colle6led  from  antient  hiftory ;  but  what  has 
been  faid  is  fufficient  to  prove"  the  great  antiquity  of  it,  and 
how  Toon  it  was  fpread  almoft  over  the  whole  inhabited  part 
of  the  globe. 

Though  it  might  be  of  great  utilitv,  and  enable  us  to  ex- 
tend and  improve  the  art  of  dyeing  as  pra6\ifed  at  prefent,  if 
we  could  procure  a  complete  account  of  all  the  methods  and 
ingredients  employed  by  the  antient  dyers,  the  information 
left  us  by  the  antients  on  this  fiibjedl  is  exceedingly  defective 
and  obfcure :  for  their  philofophers  and  hiilorians  did  not 
think  it  Wv')rth  their  while  to  give  a  minute  defcription  of 
things  which  were  generally  known  in  their  time;  and  be-, 
fides  this,  they  were  too  proud  to  condefcend  to  viiit  tradcf- 
men  for  the  purpofe  of  making  themfclves  acquainted  with 
the  proceffes  which  they  followed  in  their  different  arts  J. 
Even  Pliny  deferves  reprehealion  on  account  of  this  miftakem 
pride  when  he  fays :  '^  I  (liould  have  defcribcd  the  art  of 
dyeing,  had  it  been  included  am6ng  the  number  of  the  liberal 
arts§/' 

As  further  information,  therefore,  is  not  to  be  obtained,  I 
fliall  lay  before  the  reader  the  following  catalogue  of  dye* 

'■'■  Martini,  Hiftoire  dc  la  Chine,  liy.  i.  p.  42. 

\  Goguer,  Oii<^ine  des  Loix,  vol.  iii.  p.  336^ 

%  Of  all  the  antient  philofophers  none  feems  to  have  entertained  mo« 
'.id  ideas  on  this  fubjc6t  than  Socrates,  who  thought  that  the  hand  of  the 
tift  ought  to  be  guided  by  the  eye  of  philofophy,  and  for  this  reafon  often 
^^itried  his  fcholars  to  the  workfhops  to  fee  the  different  procefTcs  ufed  in 
them.  Sonie  plcafing  iuftances  of  this  may  be  found  in  Xenoplion's  Me*- 
anorabilia.  * 

£  Plinv.  lib.  xxii.  z.  . 


*Sl6  Ut/iory  of  the  Art  of  Dj'eing, 

ftuffsufed  by  the  antients^  bcfides  the  purple  fhell-fifh  already 
mentioned  : 

1.  Aluinen,  alum.  Pliny  calls  it  an  earthy  fait,  falfugo 
terra.  Some  of  it  was  white,  and  fome  blackilh.  The 
former  was  ufed  for  bright,  the  latter  for  dark  colours  ♦.  It 
mufl  not,  however,  be  confounded  with  our  alum,  for  the 
antients  were  not  acquainted  with  the  art  of  lixiviating  falls 
and  making  them  cryrtallife.  This  art  was  invented  in  the 
twelfth  century  in  the  eaft,  and  therefore  the  antients  com- 
prehended under  the  name  of  falts  all  falinc  bodies  which 
they  found  in  diftri<Sls  impregnated  with  falts  f. 

2.  Anchufa^  alkanet.  It  was  ufed  for  giving  the  ground 
to  thofe  ftufls  which  were  to  be  dyed  purplifli  red  J.  The 
ladies  among  the  antients  employed  it,  according  to  Suidas, 
as  a  paint. 

3.  The  blood  of  birds  was  ufed  by  the  Jews  §. 

4.  Coccum,  kermes.  Thofe  obtained  from  Galatia  and 
Armenia  were  confidered  by  the  antients  as  the  bell ;  the 
next  were  thofe  brought  from  the  Aliatic  provinces  j  the  worit 
were  the  Spanifli  ||. 

5.  Oak-leaves  f. 

6.  The  fucus  marinvs  (a  kind  of  fca-weed) .  The  Cretan 
was  the  beil ;  it  was  generally  ufed  for  the  ground  of  good 
colours,  and  therefore  the  Romans  afterwards  gave  the  name 
of  fucus^*'  to  all  colours  whatever.  It  was  ufed  alfo  as  a 
paint  by  the  ladies. 

7.  Ge7zi/la,  dyer's  broom,  was  alfo  known  to  the  antients  ff. 

8.  Hyac'mtb?is,  the  violet.  The  Gauls  prepared  from  it  a 
dye  which  produced,  a  colour  fimilar  to  the  hyfginum^  before 
^efcribed  JJ. 

*  Piny,  XXXV.   15. 

t   Sec  Be  kman  Comment,  de  H/JIoria  Aluminis  in  the  Commeniat,  JiQVit^ 
S  cretiit.  Reg.  Gotti>tg.  for  the  year  1778,  p.  m, 
X  Phny,  xxii.   20. 

§  Braun  de  Veft.  Sacerdotum,  p.  :^oo. 
;|   Diofcoridcs,  iv.  4S. 
1^  Pliny,  lib.   xiii,   i 


•*  Ibid.  XXV!.  10.    xxxii.  6. 
^\   Ibid,   xvl.   iS. 
it  ItMv!.  xxi.  i6. 


Lotoi. 


Experiments  ivith  Voltas  Galvanic  Pile.  ai^    ^ 

9.  Lotos  medicago  arhorea.  The  rind  was  ufed  for  dyeiDg 
fkins,  but  the  root  for  dyeing  wool  *. 

10.  The  bark  of  the  walnut-tree  and  the  green  hufks  of 
walnuts.      The  dyeing  quality  of  thcfe  would  foon  be  dif-  , 
covered  from  the  effedl  they  |  roducecl  on  the  hand's  f. 

11.  Madder,  ruhia  erythrodanus.  The  antients  were  early 
acquainted  with  this  fubftance  J  ;  but  whether  it  was  the 
fame  with  the  root  known  at  prefent  by  thatTi'a,riieis  doubtful. 

13.  \Voa.i],  gl(7jhi?n,  called  alfo  vitrum  froni  its  glafiy-like 
colour.  Among  the  Gauls,  according  to  Pliny^  the  ladies, 
on  days  of  feftivity,  dyed  their  whole  bodies  with, it;,,  w^ich" 
gave  them  the  appearance  of  Moors.  The  Britons' alfo, 
before  they  engaged  in  battle,  painted  themfelves  with  it, 
that  they  might  have  a  more  terrible  appearance  §.  That 
the  plant  was  then  known  is  certain ;  but  whether  the  an- 
tients were  acquainted  with  the  art  of  preparing  it  as  we  do 
at  prefent  feems  dubious.  I  fhall  have  occafion  hereafter  to 
give  a  more  complete  dercription  of  it. 

This  {hort  account  of  the  art  of  dyeing  among  the  antients 
is,  in  my  opinion,  worthy  of  notice,  as  it  is  neceflary  for 
illullrating  various  pafTages  both  in  the  facred  and  profane 
writers  which  have  puzzled  many,  of  the  commentators 
becaufe  they  were  unacquainted  with  the  art.  It  muft  afford 
fome  fatisfaftion  alfo  to  modern  dyers  to  read  an  account  of 
the  ftate  of  their  art  among  the  antients,  and  may  perhaps 
induce  fome  of  them  to  make  further  refearches  on  the  fub- 
jc6t,  and  to  enrich  dyeing  vvitli  fome  new  difcovery. 

[  i  o  be  coiuinucd.] 


XXVI.  Letter  from  Dr.  Moves  to  Dr.  Garth  shore, 
containing,  an  Account  of  fome  httcrcfling  Lxperiments 
iL'ith  M.  Volta's  Galvanic  File,  Communicated',  by 
Dr.  Garth  SHORE.  i''V 


H 


Dear  Sir, 


AVING  lately  improved   my  galvanic  apparatus,  and 
having,  with  Mr.  Nicol's  afliftance,  tried  by  its  means  fome 

*  Pliny,  lib.  xvi.  30.  f   't)id.  xv.  72.  +  Ibid    xix.4-  xxiy   m., 

§  Ibid.xix  3.xxi.  iCjCsefarde  BeiloGailico,  5i  PomponiusMcla,  iii.  6. 

Vol.  IX.  K  e  experiments 


%iS  'Experiments  with  Voltas  Galvanic  VtU, 

experiments  alluded  to  in  my  former  communication^  I  fliall 
now,  in  compliance  with  your  obliging  requeft,  flate  to  yqu 
briefly  fuch  of  the  refults  as  feem  to  me  moft  deferving  of 
notice. 

ift.  When  two  gold  wires^  connected  with  the  extremities 
of  a  galvanic  column  containing  ^oo  fquare  inches  of  zinc 
and  400  of  copper,  were  infcrtcd  into  the  legs  of  an  inverted 
glafs  fyphon  a-ioths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  containing 
thirty  grains  of  diftilled  water,  the  water  in  one  leg  gave 
oxygen  gas,  ai^d  that  in  the  other  hydrogen  gas,  without  any 
apparent  diminution  of  rapidity  during  a  periofl  ,0(24  h'^^urs,^ 

3d.  When  the  wires  were  inferted  into  two  glafs  tubes 
clofed  at  bottom  with  double  bladders,  each  tube  coiitaining 
twenty  gjrains  of  diftilled  water,  and  partially  immerfed  in  a 
glafs  of  water ;  the  water  ir;  the  one  tube  gave  oxygen  gas,  and 
that  ill  the  other  gave  hydrogen  gas,  without  any  apparent 
diminution  pf  rapidity  as  long  as  the  experiment  was  con- 
tinued, which  was  fometimes  upwards  of  a  whole  day  :  but 
when  the  quantity  of  water  in  each  tube  exceeded  not  in 
weight  feveri  or  eight  grains,  the  production  of  gas  foon  began 
to  be  fenfibly  retarded,  and  in  nine  or  ten  hours  totally  ceafed, 
though  the  water  in  the  tubes  during  the  procefs  had  loft  but 
a  fmall  proportion  of  its  bulk;  and  the  power  of  the  column,, 
which  was  carefully  examined  from  tii^ie  to  time,  fuftained 
no  perceptible  degree  of  diminution. 

3d.  When  the  wires  were  inferted  into  the  legs  of  an  in- 
verted glafs  fyphon  containing  a  folution  of  white  arfenic, 
the  fluid  contained  in  one  of  J.he  legs,  namely,  in  that  which 
was  conne6led  with  the  leaft  oxydable  extremity  of  the  co- 
lumn, acquired,  in  the  fpacc  of  an  hour  and  a  half,  the 
power  of  reddening  the  tintlure  of  turnfol  -,  a  fa6l  which  was 
cxpeded  without  any  trial  by  our  ingenious  friend  Mr.  James. 
Wood. 

4th.  When  the  fyphon  was  filled  with  a  purple  infufion 
of  red  cabbage,  every  thing  elfe  remaining  the  fame,  the 
liquor  or  fluid  in  one  leg  foon  became  red,  and  that  in  the 
other  as  foon  became  green. 

5th.  When  the  wires  were  inferted  into  two  glafs  tubes, 
clofed  at  bottom  with  double  bladders,  each  tube  containing 

twenty 


Experiments  lulth  Vol  fa's  Galvanic  Pile,  219 

twciity  grains  of  a  purple  infulion  of  red  cabbag^^  and  par- 
tially immerfcd  in  the  fame  kind  of  fluid,  the  fluid  in  one 
liibe  fdon  became  red,  and  that  in  the  other  as  foon  became 
green,  whilft  the  colour  of  the  fluid  into  which  the  tubed 
Were  imriierfed  fuftained  no  perceptible  change. 

6th.  When  the  galvanic  column  was  placed  unclei*  an  ex- 
hauftcd  receiver,  its  power  of  giving  fliocks  was  almbfl  en« 
tirely  fufpended  3  but  it  detached  from  water  alfo  iii  the  re- 
beiver  both  oxygen  and  hydrogen  with  a  degree  of  vivacity 
remarkably  greater  than  that  which  it  exhibited  when  the 
whole  was  placed  in  the  open  air. 

7th.  When  th^  column  was  placed  without  the  receiver, 
and  the  water  on  which  it  a6lcd  was  placed  within,  the  evo- 
lution of  gas  was  feemingly  the  fame  as  it  was  when  both 
^ere  within  the  receiver ;  and  in  either  cafe  the  evolution  of 
gas  was  accelerated  and  retarded  in  a  fl:riking  degree  by  dimi-a 
nifliing  and  increafing  the  atmofpherical  preflure. 

8th.  When  a  com triurii cation  was  made  betweerl  the  ex^ 
trerriities  of  a  powerful  galvanic  column  containing  800  fquare 
inches  of  metal,  a  found  like  that  of  a  fmall  electrical  fpark 
ivas  diftinftly  heard,  and  a  flafh  was  as  diftin6lly  feen  every 
time  a  communication  wis  made,  even  in  the  full  light  of 
the  day. 

9th.  When  the  above  coliimri  was  at  the  height  of  its 
ftrength,  its  fparks  were  fecri  in  the  light  of  the  day  evert 
when  taken  with  a  piece  of  charcoal  held  in  the  hand,  the 
body  forming  the  reft  of  the  circuit;  yet  neither  extremity 
of  this  powerful  machine  difcovered  any  tendency  to  attract 
or  repel  the  lighteft  bodies  which  were  placed  in  its^ vicinity. 
Its  ihocks  were  greater  than,  a  man  tould  well  bear.  It 
maintained  its  power  with  little  diminution  for  more  than  a 
period  of  eight  days,  yet  it  moved  not  perceptibly  a  fine  linen 
thread  which  was  attracted  by  a  fmall  piece  of  fealing-wax  at 
the  diftance  of  more  than  three  inches. 

From  thefe  and  other  analogous  experiments,  which  were 
repeated,  I  think,  with  fufficient  attention,  we  may  draw, 
I  prcfumej  the  following  couclufions  : — ift,  That  no  quan- 
tity of  pure  water  can  ever  be  totally  changed  into  gas  by 

E  e  2  any 


t'ZO  Experiments  with  Voltas  Galvanic  Vile, 

any  known  a6i:ion  of  the  galvanic  influence*  2d,  That  the 
weight  of  the  gafes  which  any  given  quantity  of  water  can 
yield  to  any  known  a<5lion  of  the  galvanic  influence,  muft 
ever  bear  hut  a  fmall  proportion  to  the  weight  of  all  the  water 
employed.  3d,  That  two  veflels  filled  with  water  may  be 
fo  expofed  to  the  galvanic  influence,  that  one  of  them  fhall 
yield  hydrogen  gas  and  it  only,  whild  the  other  fliall  yield 
oxygen  gas  and  it  only.  4th,  That,  by  help  of  the  galvanic 
influence,  we  can  extratl:  at  pleafure  either  hydrogen  or  oxy- 
gen from  one  and  the  fame  quantity  of  water.  5th,  That, 
llri6lly  fpeaking,  water  is  not  deconipofed  by  furnifliing  gas 
to  the  galvanic  influence ;  it  giving  no  oxygen  where  it  fur- 
niilies  hydrogen,  /and  no  hydrogen  where  it  furniflies  oxygen. 
6th,  That  the  proportion  fubfiliing  between  the  elements  or 
component  principles  of  water  may  be  fenfibly  changed  by 
the  galvanic  influence.  7th,  That,  if  the  properties  of  com- 
pounds be  more  or  lefs  changed  by  every  change  in  the  pro- 
portions of  their  principles,  the  properties  of  water  may  be 
more  or  lefs  changed  by  a  proper  application  of  the  galvanic 
power.  8th,  That  water,  after  being  duly  expofed  for  a  proper 
length  of  time  to  the  galvanic  influence,  mufl:  certainly  de- 
ferve  d  medical  inquiry,  as  in  all  probability  it  will  have  me- 
dical powers  different  from  thofe  of  ordinary  water.  9th,  That 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  at  the  moment  of  their  galvanic  fepara- 
tion  fro/m  water,  are  peculiarly  difpofed  to  a  ftate  of  combina- 
tion, loth,  That,  at  the  moment  of  their  galvanic  repara- 
tion, from  water,  both  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  difpofed  to 
combine  with  atmofpherical  azot ;  the  one  to  produce  the 
volatile  alkali,  and  the  other  the  nitrous  or  nitric  acid, 
nth.  That  the  galvanic  feparation  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen 
from  water  nndc;r  an  exhaufl:ed  receiver,  is  probably  accele- 
rated by  two  caufes,  a  great  diminution  of  atmofpherical 
azot,  and  a  great  diminution  of  atmofpherical  preflTure. 
1 2th,  That,  when  a  galvanic  column  is  placed  under  an 
cxhaufted  receiver,  its  power  of  communicating  (hocks  is 
ahnort:  entirely  fufpended  ;  probably  in  confequence  of  the 
extremely  attenuate^!  fluid  furrounding  it  being  a  better  con- 
ductor of  the  galvanic  influence  than  the  fentient  parts  of  the 
6  animal 


Efl:!perments  with  Voltd^s  Gal'Vanlc  Apparatus.       %3i 

animal  frame:  and  laftly.  That,  if  the  galvanic  influence  in 
fomc  of  its  properties  be  apparently  analogous  to  the  elec- 
trical fluid,  it  differs  from  it  in  others  in  a  ftriking  degree. 
^  Thefe,  Sir,  are  fome  of  the  pofitions  which  the  foregoing 
experiments  appear  to  fupport.  If  they  fliall  happen  to  afford 
you  any  entertainment,  you  may  probably  receive  another 
fupply ;  and  I  hope  to  be  alfo,  at  fome  future  period,  able  to 
afford  you  fome  account  of  fomc  trials  of  the  galvanic  influence 
in  the  cure  and  mitigation  of  various  difeafes.  The  galvanic 
influence,  as  you  very  well  know,  happily  admits  of  an  eafy 
application  to  any  part  of  the  human  body.  It  may  fleadiiy  be 
applied  for  any  length  of  time^  with  very  little  labour  on  the 
part  of  the  operator,  and  with  lefs  inconvenience  on  that  of  the 
patient.  Its  action  may  be  eafily  increafed  or  diminifhed.  It 
may  be  rendered,  at  pleafure,  perceptible  or  not,  as  the  in- 
dications of  cure  may  happen  to  require ;  and  I  have  lately 
contrived  a  piece  of  apparatus  by  which  a  fucccflion  of  gal- 
vanic fliocks,  weak  or  llrong,  as  the  cafe  may  require,  may 
be  given  to  any  part  for  any  length  of  time  at  the  rate  of  ten 
or  twenty  per  fecond. 

I  am,  with  great  efteem  and  regard^ 
Dear  Sir, 
Your  very  much  obliged  and  faithful  fervant, 

^         "'  H.  MOVES. 

Edinburgh, 
ift  February  iSoi. 


XXVII.  Account  of  Experiments  Tnade  in  Germany  ivith 
Volta's  Galvanic  Apparatus.  Communicated  to  th^ 
French  National  Injiitute  bj  Dr.  Fru  lander  of  Berlin*. 


T, 


HE  firfi:  account  of  Volta's  galvanic  apparatus  was 
eommunicated  to  Sir  Jofeph  Banks  on  the  2d  of  March  1800, 
and  the  firft  experiments  made  in  England  were  undertaken 
by  MefTrs.  Carliflc  and  Nicholfon,  who,  by  its  means,  de- 
compofcd  watcif :  they  alfo  reddened  tin6lure  of  turnfol,  and 
precipitated  metallic  folutions  in  acids.     Mr.  Cruickfhank, 

'*  From  the  Journal  de  Pby/iquCy  Pluvlofp,   an.  9. 

of 


jlit         Experimenis  with  Vottcfs  Galvanic  Apparatus, 

of  Woolwich,  publifhed  in  Nicholfon'g  Journal,  that  he  haa 
formed  the  arbor  Dianae,  and  had  reafon  to  believe  that  he 
h^ad  produced  an  acid  and  an  alkali.  Mr.  Henry,  of  Man- 
chefter,  faid  he  had  decompofed  ammonia  and  fixed  alkali, 
and  had  found  that  air  was  not  a  good  conduftor  of  galva- 
nifm.  This  is  all  the  information  that  had  reached  us  in 
Germany  through  the  medium  of  the  French  papers,  and 
particularly  the  Phylical  Annals,  publifhed  by  Gilbert. 

M.  Ricliter,  well  known  in  Germany  by  his  Beltrage  %ur 
kahern  kentnifs  der  Galvamfmus,  faw  the  firft  notice  of  it  in 
the  Bruflfels  Journal,  and  had  made  the  greater  part  of  the 
difcoveries  above  mentioned  wheh  he  received  it.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  brief  account  of  what  he  had  difcovered  up  to  thd 
30th  of  September  1800. 

Exp.  7.  A  zinc  wire  applied  to  the  eye,  and  communi- 
cating with  a  piece  of  fome  other  metal,  touched  by  the 
moiftened  finger  to  form  the  gnlvanic  chain,  exhibits  to  the 
eye  looking  towards  the  column  a  blue  colour,  which  be- 
-comes  reddifli  when  the  finger  is  removed.  The  eye  muft 
be  a  little  accuftomed  to  this  experiment  before  it  can  be 
fully  fenfible  of  the  effe^l ;  the  phainomenon  then  becomes 
conftant. 

Exp,  II.  A  frog,  gal  van  i  fed  in  the  ufual  manner,  which 
at  the  end  of  half  an  hour  exhibited  no  more  movement,  ftill 
fhowed  fome  after  five  hours  and  a  half  when  Volta's  appra- 
ratus  was  employed. 

Exp.  III.  Gold,  the  flame  of  a  taper,  heated  glafs,  ani 
rarefied  air,  are  conductors  of  galvanifm  almoft  in  the  fame 
Jljianrter  as  they  are  of  eIe<Sbricity :  they  cannot  therefore  b* 
emplo}'ed  to  infulate. 

Exp.  IF.  When  two  metal  wires  are  brought  together  iii 
a  glals  tube,  formed  almoft  as  in  the  galvanometer  of  C,  Ro- 
bertfon^  no  effe<Sl:  is  produced.  Thfe  cafe  is  the  fame  whert 
removed  too  far  from  each  other.     See  Plate  V.  fig,  i.  ~ 

Exp.  V.  Tin,  lead,  iron,  copper,  or  bifmiith,  placed  at  d 
imd  ^,  exhibit  different  degrees  of  galvanic  force  proportioned 
to  the  degrees  of  the  oxydability  of  the  bc^dies  ehipldyed. 
Mercury  and  filver  produce  the  fame  efre6ti  Gold  expferi- 
ences  no  oxydatioij. 

Exp. 


JExperments  with  Volta^^  Galvanic  Apparatus.       225 

.:  Bxp»  VL  By  employing  gold  on  both  fides  M.  Richter  ob- 
ferved  that  there  were  formed  bubbles  of  air  arifing  from  the 
two  wires.  He  obferved  alfo  that  the  air-bubbles  which 
^rofe  from  one  of  the  wires  were  larger  than  thofe  from  the 
other;  and  he  thence  concluded  that  the  fpecific  gravity  of 
the  one  kind  of  air  mull  be  greater  than  that  of  the  other. 

Exp,  VIL  M.  Richter  endeavoured  tofeparate  the  two  airs, 
and  for  that  purpofe  invented  the  apparatus  reprefented  by 
fig.  2.  He  introduced  two  gold  wires  into  a  marble  veflel 
filled  with  water,  and  applied  the  zinc  at  a  and  the  filverat^; 
the  wire^  w^^  about  q,n  inch  diftant  from  the  wire  b.  He 
clofecj  the  chain,  and  found,  after  fixteen  hours,  that  the 
bell  ^,  which  he  had  fufpendcd  over  a,  contained  one  part  of 
air  J  while  thie  bell  ?^^  fufpendcd  oyer  b,  contained  two  an4 
a  half; 

'By  putting  phofphorus  into  the  air  s,  he  faw  vapour? 
formed,  which  became  more  abundant  in  proportion  as  the 
operation  advanced,  and  the  volume  of  air  at  the  end  of  fix 
or  eight  hours  was  diminifhed.  There  remained  only  about 
a  third  part:,  it  is  not  impoflible  that  4  portion  of  azotic  gas 
was  difengaged  from  the  water  during  the  experiment. 

The  air  in  w,  which  occupied  about  a  cubic  inch,  being 
inflamed  as  it  paffed  in  large  bubbles  into  the  atmofphere, 
detonated  with  the  fame  force  as  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
hydrogen  and  atmofpheric  air. 

M.Ilichter  had  placed  two  glaflfes,  d:  and  2;, below  the  wires: 
that  placed  under  b  contained  fome  metallic  parts,  arifing,  in 
all  probability,  from  a  little  copper  contained  in  the  gold. 

The  two  gafes  when  placed  together  produced  water,  as 
ufual,  on  an  ele61:ric  fpark  being  made  to  pafs  through  them, 

Exp,  VIIL  By  employing  on  the  fide  b,  zinc,  tin,  copper, 
charcoal, and  plumbago,  M.  Richter  always  obtained  hydrogen, 
provided  the  wire  brought  into  contact  with  the  zinc  of  the 
apparatus  was  of  fuch  a  nature  as  not  to  become  oxydated. 
He  employed  alfo,  inftead  of  gold,  charcoal,  plumbago,  and 
cryfiallifed  oxyd  of  mangauele  at  a  and  bi  the  phrenomena 
were  alwavs  the  fame  as  well  as  when  he  placed  platina  at  a^ 
keeping  the  gold,  charcoal,  plumbago,  and  oxyd  of  manga- 
nefc  at  b, 

Exp, 


■  '254        Tlxperments  wiw  Volt  a' s  Galvanic  Apparatus, 

Exp,  IX,  The  effe^l  is  ftrougcr  as  the  wires  approach^  but 
witlibut  touching  each  other;  and  particuhirly  if  the  wires 
are  of  zinc.  It  is  of  lefs  ftrerigth  with  gold^  and  weakefl 
with  oxyd  of  mangancfe. 

Ti  0  hii^h  tcmpei'ature  of  the  water  alfo  contributes  to 
flrcngthcn  it. 

'  Exp,  X.  M.  Richter  obferving  that  the  efle6ls  took  pl^ce 
even  ^heri  the  wires  were  far  removed  from  each  other,  he 
did  not  thiiik  it  probable  that  a  particle  of  water  at  the  one 
\yire5  fo  far  diflant  from  the  other^  would  give  hydrogen  when 
oxygen  is  produced  at  the  othfer  wire.  He  therefore  afked  him- 
felf  whethisr  it  was  really  the  fame  drop  of  water  that  furnifhed 
the  conftituent  parts,  or  whether  the  water  was  not  rather 
the  condudlor  of  the  galvanic  fluid,  which  produced  the  dif- 
ferent gafes  by  a  peculiar  compofition.  He  endeavoured, 
therefore,  to  feparate  the  two  wires  by  a  body  diflferent  from 
water.     Fig.  3.  fhows  how  this  was  accompliflied. 

He  filled  two  tubes  with  water,  and  formed  a  communica- 
tion between  them  by  means  of  a  gold  wire,  c :  the  two 
wires  at  the' extremities, /^  and  ^,  were  alfo  of  gold.  He 
employed  in  the  two  fides  the  zinc  and  filver  of  his  battery ; 
and,  putting  hjs  apparatus  into  a(^l:ion,  found  afterwards  h\ 
each  of  his  tubes  c^xygen  and  hydrogen  gas,  produced  in  the 
fame  manner  as  if  there  had  been  only  one  tube. 

Exp.  XL  M,  Hichter  then  endeavoured  to  find  a  body 
which  might  ferve  as  a  conductor  of  the  galvanic  matter 
without  decompofing  it.  He  found  none  among  the  folid 
bodies,  as  gold  had  produced  the  decompofition  of  the  water. 
He  employed  fpirit  of  wine  and  fulphuric  aether :  they  pro- 
duced no  air,  but  were  good  conduclors.  He  then  took  .con- 
centrated alkaline  folutions,  which  were  better  conductors, 
but  produced  gafes.  M.  Richter  at  length  found  that  co- 
lourlefs  concentrated  fulphuric  acid  gave  no  gas,  though  sl 
good  conductor.  Fig.  4  and  5  fhow  in  what  manner  he 
employed  it.  The  two  glafs  tubes,  conlbined  in  the  form  of 
a  V,  being  half  filled  with  acid,  he  made  water  to  flow 
gently  down  the  fides  of  the  glafs  upon  the  fulphuric  acid 
until  the  ,tubes  were  filled;  and  this  fucceeded  fo  well,  that 
the  fluids  did  not  .mix,  fince  a  bit  of  paper,  tinged  with  tinc- 
ture 


Experiments  with  Vollas  Galvanic  jlpparafus,       ^25 

tilre  of  turnfol,  did  not  become  red  when  placbd  very  near  the 
acid  in  tlic  water.  1'he  wires  c  and  //were  of  goki ;  a  the  zinc, 
and  b  the  filver,  of  the  apparatus  ;  when  brought  into  contat^t 
he  received  in  tlie  tube  next  the  zinc  oxygen  gas,  and  in  that 
towards  the  fiber,  hydrogen  gas.  • '     . 

Exp,  XII.  lie  obtained  tlic  fame  refult  by  fcparating  the 
two  tubes:  fee  fig.  6.  The  two  tubes  wesre  fdled. half  with 
acid  and  half  with  water,  and  one  of  tlie  gold  wires  was  in 
the  acid  and  the  other  in  tlie  water.  Thefe  two  wires  im- 
merfed  in  the  acid  conninuiicatcd  with  a  third  wire,  and  the 
other  two  with  the  zinc  and  filver  of  the  battery.  When 
the  apparatus  began  to  operate,  oxvgcn  gas  was  feen  to  rife 
in  the  one  tube,  and  hydrogen  gas  in  the  olher. 

To  jiroduce  a  contrary  elfecl,  nothing  was  neceflTary  but  to 
turn  the  zinc  towards  a, 

Kxp,  XIIL  M.  Ricluer  combined  feveral  tubes  in  this 
manner.  (Fig.  6.)  All  the  wires  which  produced  oxygen 
were  in  the  water,  and  all  thofe  which  produced  hydrogen 
in  the  acid.  The  wires  in  the  water  in  con taft  with  the  zinc 
of  the  battery  gave  immediately  oxygen  gas  5  and  when  the 
zinc  was  a^ipiied  on  the  contrary  fide  they  gave  hydrogen  gas. 

Such  are  the  experiments,  from  which  M.  Richter  concludes 
that  the  two  airs  cannot  be  conlidered  as  conftituent  parts  of 
water,  but  as  two  matters  produced  by  a  part  of  the  water 
combined  with  the  galvanic  fluid,  and  that  the  generation  of 
one  is  in  no  manner  depepdcnt  ou  the  production  of  the  other* 

Exp.Xir.  M.  Richter  filled  the  tube  of  fig.  1.  with  nitric 
acid  mixed  with  water:  he  employed  two  wires  of  ditferent 
metals,  p  e,  being  of  copper.  The  metal  began  to  be  dif- 
folved  ;  but,  when  he  brought  the  tube  into  contaft  with  his 
galvanic  battery  in  fuch  a  manner  that  they  formed  a  chain, 
the  wire  of  zinc  towards  a  dilTolved  much  fooner^  whereas 
that  of  copper  towards  b  ceafed  \o  be  diflblved. 

Exp.  XF.  M.  Richter  filled  the  tube  with  a  folution  of 
copper  in  fulphuric  acid.  The  two  wires  were  of  iron.  The 
precipitation  was  as  uiual ;  but  when  he  brought  the  tube 
into  the  galvanic  chain  the  precipitation  was  increafcd  to- 
wards a,  while  it  decreafed  towards  the  filver. 

Bv  putting  copper  w^ircs   into  the  folution  every  tiling  re- 
\'oL.  IX.  F  f  mained 


226  An  Account  of  the  Pftroht/m  IVelh 

mained  as  iifual ;  but,  when  lie  expofcd  it  to  galvauifm,  the 
wire  a  began  to  be  oxydated,  while  the  wire  at  b  preeipitntcd 
the  copper  from  its  folution.  The  wires  a  and  h  being  of 
filver,  and  the  tube  filled  with  a  folution  of  filver  in  nitrous 
acid,  the  efieol  was  the  fame.  The  fame  thing  took  place  in 
a  folution  of  zinc  in  the  nuiriatic  acid  when  the  wires  a 
aud  b  were  of  zinc. 

Exp.  XVI,  The  fame  eRcct  is  produced  if  the  aflinity  of 
the  bodies  diflTolved  is  greater  for  the  acid  than  that  of  the 
wire  immerfed  in  it. 

The  wires  a  and  h  were  of  copper,  and  the  tube  contained 
a  folution  of  zinc;  a  and  h  were  of  lilver,  put  into  a  folution  ot 
copper  or  zinc ;  a  and  h  were  of  gold,  put  into  a  folution  of  zinc. 

In  all  thefe  cafes  there  was  a  precipitation  at  />,  and  an  ox- 
ydation  at  a.  It  was  not  neceffary  that  the  wires  fliould  be. 
of  different  metals-     The  law  was  always  confiant. 

Such  is  the  feries  of  pha^nomcna  obferved  by  M.  Richter. 
The  celebrity  he  has  fo  jufllv  acquired  gives  reafon  to  think 
that  thefe  experiments  have  been  made  with  exaftnefs.  If 
the  commiflion  appointed  by  the  Inftitute  to  purfue  this 
labour  examines  and  confirms  them,  it  is  to  be  expelled  that 
they  will  produce  changes  in  the  laws  of  affinity. 


XXVIil.  An  ylc count  of  the  Petroleum  ] Veils  in  the  Bunnha 
Doininiom :  extracted  from  the  Journal  of  a  Voyage  from 
Uanghong  up  the  River  Erai-lVuddej  to  Amarapoorahy 
the  prefent  Capital  of  the  Burmha  Empire.  Bj  Captai/i 
ll I R A M  Cox,  Befident  at  Banghong * . 
Saturdaj^  Jan.  7,  ^791' 

VV   IND  eaflerly,  (liarp  and  cold,  thick  fog  on  the  river 

until  after  fun-rife,  when  it  evaporated  as  ufual,  but  foon 

after  collected  again,  and  dfcntinued  fo  dcirfe  till  -half  paft 

eight  A.  M.  that  we  could  barely  fee  the  length  of  the  boat. 

Thermometer  at  fun-rife  52'',  at  noon  74%  in  the  evening 

69";  general  courfe  of  the  river  north  20'^  well,  main  breadth 

from  one  mile  to  a  mile  and  a  half,  current  about  two  miles 

and  4  half  per  hour. 

■•'  From  the  Afiatlc  Rfcurcbe^f  Vul.  VI. 

Kafl 


in  the  Burmha  Dominions.  227*- 

Eaft  bank,  high,  rugged,  barren  clowns,  with  precipitous 
cliffs  towards  the  river,  of  free-flone  intermixed  with  ftratJk 
of  quartz,  martial  ore,  and  red  ochre;  beach  moderately 
Ihelving,  covered  with  fragments  of  quartz,  (ilex,  petrifac- 
tions, and  red  ochre,  and  with  rocky  points  projeding  from 
it  into  the  river. 

Weftern  bank,  a  range  of  low  fandy  iflands,  covered  with 
a  luxuriant  growth  of  reeds.  Thefc  at  prefcnt  narrow  the 
ftream  to  three  quarters,  and  in  fome  places  to  half  a  mile, 
but  are  overflowed  in  the  rains:  the  main  bank  rather  low 
and  fandy,  fubjed  to  be  overflowed,  its  whole  breadth  about 
three  miles  to  the  foot  of  a  range  of  low  woody  hills,  which 
in  point  of  vegetation  form  an  agreeable  contrail  to  the  eaftern 
Ihore:  thefe  hills  are  bounded  to  the  wclhvard,  at  the  dillance 
of  about  twenty  miles  from  the  river,  by  an  cxtenfive  range 
of  high  mountains  clothed  with  wood  to  the^r  fummits. 

At  half  part  ten  A.M.  came  to  the  lower  town  of  JRain- 
anghong;  a  temple  in  it  of  the  antique  Hindoo  Itylc  of 
building. 

At  noon  came  to  the  centre  town  of  Rainanghong  (lite- 
rally, the  town  through  which  flows  a  river  of  earth  oil), 
iituated  on  the  eaft  bank  of  the  river,  in  latitude  20°  26' 
north,  and  longitude  94°  45'  54''  eaft  of  Greenwich.  Halted 
to  examine  the  wells  of  petroleum. 

The  town  has  but  a  mean  appearance,  and  feveral  of  its 
temples,  of  which  there  are  great  numbers,  falling  to  ruins  : 
the  inhabitants,  however,  are  well  drefl'ed,  many  of  them 
uith  gold  fpiral  ear  ornaments,  and  are  undoubtedly  rich, 
from  the  great  profit  they  derive  from  their  oil  wells,  as  will 
be  feen  below. 

At  two  P.  M.  I  fet  off  from  niy  boat,  accompanied  by  the 
mew tbagbee,  ov  zemrndsiV  of  the  diftri^^,  and  feveral  of  the 
merchant  proprietors,  to  view  the  wells.  Our  road  led  to 
the  eall-north-ea(l:,  through  dry  beds  of  loofe  (and  in  llu! 
water  courfes,  and  over  rugged  arid  downs  and  hillocks  of 
the  fame  (n\\  as  defcribcd  above;  the  growth  on  them  con- 
filiing of  fcattercd  plants  of  euphorh'iuyn,  the  cailia  tree,  which 
•yields  the  terra  japonica,  commonly  called  cutch  or  cid,  and 
ufed   throughout  India  as  a  component  part  of  a  beera  oi 

V  f  2  paH7i^ 


248  An  Aecoiijit  of  the'Vetroleum  Wells 

faun^  alfo  a  very  durable  timber  for  lining  the  oil  wells  ;  and 
laiUy  the  hardy  h'lar  or  wild  plum,  cv)mmon  in  IJindoftan. 

The  iky  was  cloudlefs,  fo  that  the  fun  flione  on  us  with 
nndiminiflied  force;  and  being  alfo  unwell,  I  walked  flowly; 
and  as  we  were  an  hour  walking  to  the  wells^  I  therefore  con- 
clude they  are  about  three  miles  diftant  from  the  river;  thoft* 
we  faw  ar«  fcattered  irregularly  about  the  downs /at  ho  great 
diftance  from  each  other,  fome  perhaps  not  more  than  thirty 
or  forty  yards.  At  this  particular  place  we  were  informed  there 
are  180  wells,  four  or  five  miles  to  the  norih-eall  340  more. 

"In  making  a  well,  the  hill  is  cut  down  fo  as  to  form  a 
fquare  table  of ,  fourteen  or  twenty  feet  lor  the  crown  of  the 
well,  and  from  this  table  a  road  is  formed  by  fcraping  away 
an  inclined  plane  for  the  drawers  to  delcend,  in  railing  the 
excavated  earth  from. the  well,  and  lubfcquently  the  oil.  The 
fliaft  is  funk  of  aJquare  form,  and  lined,  as  the  miner  pro- 
ceeds, "with  fquares  of  caffia  Avood  Haves:  thefe  Oaves  are 
about  fi5^  feet  long,  fix  inches  broad,  and  two  thick ;  are 
rudely  jointed,  and  pinned  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
forming  a  fquare  frame,  about  four  and  a  half  feet  in  the 
clear  for  the  uppermoil  ones,  but  more  contracted  below.- 
When  the  miner  has  pierced  fix  or  njore  fe^.^  of  the  Ihaft,  a 
feries  of  thefe  fquare  frames  are  piled  on  each  other,  and  re- 
gularly added  to  at  top ;  the  whole  gradually  finking  as  he 
deepens  the  fliaft,  and  fec|.|ripg  him  againft  the  falling  in  of 
the  fides. 

The  foil  or  ilrata  to  be  pierced  is  nearly  fuch  as  I  have 
defcribed  the  cliffs  to  be  on  the  margin  of  the  river;  that  is, 
firft,  a  light  fandy  loam  internnxed  with  fragments  of  quartz, 
filex,  Sec;  fccond,  a  friable  fand-llone,  eafily  wrought,  with 
thin  horizontal  firata  of  a  concrete  of  martial  ore,  talc,  and 
indurated  argil  (the  talc  has  this  fingularity,  it  is  denticu- 
lated, its  lamina  being  perpendicular  to  the  horizontal  la- 
mina of  the  argil  on  which  it  is  feated)  at  from  ten  to  fifte<in 
fpet  from  the  furface,  and  from  each  pther,  as  there  are  fe- 
veral  of  thefe  veuis  in  the  great  body  of  free-ftone  :  thirdly, 
at  feventy  cubits,  more  or  lels,  from  the  furflice,  and  imme- 
diately below  the  free-ftone,  a  pale  b|ue  argillaceous  earth 
Ifchifius)  impregnated  with   the  petroleum,    and    fmelling 

Itrongly 


In  the  Burmha  Dojnlnhns,  129 

(Irongly  of  it.  This,  they  fay,  is  very  difficult  to  work  ;  and 
grows  harder  as  they  get  deeper,  ending  in  fchilt  or  {late,  fuch 
as  found  covering  veins  of  coal  in  Europe,  &c.  Below  this 
fchill,  at  the  depth  of  about  130  cubits,  is  coal,  I  procured 
fome,  intermixed  with  fulphur  and  pyrites,  which  had  been 
taken  from  a  well,  deepenetl  a  few  days  before  my  arrival, 
but  deemed  amongd  them  a  rarity,  the  oil  in  general  flow- 
ing  at  a  fmaller  depth.  Ttiey  were  piercing  a  new  well  when 
I  was  there,  had  got  to  the  depth  of  eighty  cubits,  and  ex- 
pe6^ed  oil  at  ten  or  twenty  cubits  more. 

The  machinery  ufed  in  drawing  up  the  rubbifli,  and  after- 
wards the  oil  from  the  well,  is  an  axle  eroding  the  centre 
of  the  well,  retting  on  two  rudeforked  Ilaunchions,  witli  a 
revolving  barrel  on  its  centre,  like  the  nave  of  a  wheel,  in 
which  is  a  Icore  for  receiving  the  draw-rope;  the  bucket  ii 
of  wicker  work  covered  with  dammer,  and  the  labour  of  the 
drawers,  in  general  three  men,  is  facilitated  bv  the  defcent 
of  the  inclined  plane,  as  water  is  drawn  from  d<-'t'p  wells  iu 
the  interior  of  Hindoftan, 

To  receive  the  oil,  one  man  is  Rationed  at  the  brink  of  thq 
well,  who  empties  the  bucket  into  a  cliannei  made  on  the 
furface  of  the  earth  leading  to  a  funk  jar,  from  whence  it  is 
laded  into  fmaller  ones,  and  immediately  carried  down  to  the 
river,  either  by  cooleys  or  on  hackeries. 

When  a  well  grows  dry,  they  deepen  it.  They  fav  none 
are  abandoned  for  barrennefs.  Even  the  death  of  a  miner, 
from  mephitic  air,  does  not  deter  others  from  perfiding  iu 
deepening  them  when  dry.  Two  days  before  my  arrival,  a 
man  was  fuflbcated  in  one  of  the  wells,  yet  they  afterwards 
renewed  their  attempts  without  further  accident.  I  recom- 
mended their  trying  the  air  with  a  candle,  ike.  but  feemingly 
with  little  effeft. 

The  oil  is  drawn  pure  from  the  wells,  in  the  liquid  ftate 
as  ufed,  without  variation ;  but  in  the  cold  fcafon  it  conge^ils 
in  the  open  air,  and  always  lofes  fomething  of  its  fluidity;  . 
the  temperature  of  the  wells  preferving  it  in  a  liquid  Itate  fit 
to  be  drawn.  A  man  who  was  lowered  into  a  well  of  110 
cubits,  in  my  preience,  and  immediately  drawn  up,  perfpired 
copioufly  at  every  pore  :  unfortunatelv  I  had  no  other  means 
8     '  of 


2:50  An  Account  of  the  Fetroleum  IVells 

of  trying  the  temperature.  The  oil  is  of  a  dingey  green,  and 
odorous;  it  is  ufed  for  lamps,  and  hoiled  with  a  little  dammcr 
(a  reiin  of  the  country),  for  paying  the  timbers  of  houfes  and 
the  bottoms  of  boats,  &c.  which  it  preferves  from  decay  and 
vermin;  its  medicinal  properties  known  to  the  natives  are  as 
a  lotion  in  cutaneous  eruptions,  and  as  an  embrocation  in 
bruifes  and  rheumatic  atleftions. 

The  miners  politively  aiTured  me  no  water  ever  percolates 
through  the  earth  into  the  wells,  as  has  been  fuppofed ; 
the  rains  in  this  part  of  the  country  are  feldom  heavy,  and 
during  the  feafon  a  roof  of  thatch  is  thrown  over  the  wells, 
the  water  that  falls  foon  runs  off  to  the  river,  and  what  pe- 
netrates into  the  earth  is  effectually  prevented  from  dcfccnd- 
ing  to  any  great  depth  by  the  increaling  hardncfs  of  the  ole- 
aginous argil  and  fchlit:  this  will  readily  be  admitted  when 
it  is  known  that  the  coal  mines  at  Whitbv  are  worked  below 
ihe  harbour,  and  tlie  roof  of  the  galleries  not  more  than  fifty 
feet  from  the  bed  of  the  fea :  the  deliciency  of  rain  in  this 
ira6l  may  be  owing  to  the  high  range  of  mountains  to  the 
ueftward,  which  range  parallel  to  the  river,  and  arreft  the 
clouds  in  their  paflage,  as  is  the  caie  on  the  eaftern  fide  of 
the  peninfula  of  India. 

Solicitous  to  obtain  accurate  information  on  a  fubjec?!:  fo 
intercfting  as  this  natural  fource  of  wealth,  I  had  all  the  prin- 
cipal proprietors  affembled  on  board  my  boat,  and  colle6led 
from  them  the  following  particulars;  the  foregoing  I  learned 
at  the  wells  from  the  miners  and  others. 

I  endeavoured  to  guard  againll  exaggeration,  as  well  as  to 
obviate  the  caution  and  referve  which  mercantile  men  in  all 
countries  think  it  neccflary  to  obferve  when  minutely  quef- 
tioned  on  fubje^ls  afi'e6ling  their  interefts,  and  I  have  reafoa 
to  hope  my  information  is  not  very  diflant  from  the  truth. 

The  property  of  thefc  wells  is  in  the  owners  of  the  foil, 
rjatives  of  the  country,  and  defcends  to  the  heirs  general  as 
a  kind  of  entailed  hereditament,  with  which,  it  is  faid,  go- 
vernment never  interferes,  and  which  no  ditlrefs  will  induce 
them  to  alienate.  One  family,  perhaps,  will  poflefs  four  or 
five  wells;  I  heard  of  none  who  had  more,  the  generality 
bavelpfs;  they  are  funk  by  and  wrought  for  the  proprietors; 

the 


in  the  Bunnha  Dominion^.  <i^i 

•the  coll  of  finking  a  new  well  is  iiooo  tccals  flowered  (ilvcr 
of  the  country,  or  3500  ficca  rupees  ;  and  the  annual  average 
net  profit  1000  tecals,  or  1250  ficca  rupees. 

'Jlie  contrail  price  with  the  miners  for  finking  a  well  is  as 
follows  : — For  the  flrll  forty  cubits  they  have  forty  tecals,  fof 
the  next  forty  cubits  three  hundred  tecals,  and  beyond  thefe 
eighty  cubits  to  the  oil  they  have  from  thirty  to  fifty  tecals 
per  cubit,  according  to  the  depth  (the  Burmha  cubit  is  nine- 
teen Inches  Engli(h) :  taking  the  mean  rate  of  forty  tecali* 
per  cubit,  and  one  hundred  cubits  as  the  general  depth  at 
which  they  come  to  oil,  the  remaining  twenty  cubits  will 
cod  800  tecals,  or  the  whole  of  the  miner's  wages  for  finking 
the  fiiaft  iJ^o  tecals;  a  well  of  100  cubits  will  require  9.;^o 
caffia  itave^-,  wliich  at  five  tecals  per  hundred  will  coil  471 
tecals.  Portage  and  workmanthip  in  fitting  them  mav  amount 
to  100  tecals  more  ;  the  leveUing  the  hill  for  the  crown  of  the 
well,  and  making  the  draw  road,  &c.  according  to  the  com- 
mon rate  of  labour  in  the  country,  will  cofi:  about  200  tecals  ; 
ropes,  Sec.  and  provifions  for  the  workmen,  which  are  fup- 
plied  by  the  proprietor  when  making  a  new  well;  e^:perffes 
of  propitiatory  facrifices,  and  perhaps  a  figniorage  fine  to  q;o- 
vernment  for  permififion  to  fink  a  new  well,  confume  the 
remaining  512J;  tecals.  In  deepening  an  old  well  they  make 
the  belt  bargain  in  their  power  with  the  miners,  who  rate 
their  demand  per  cubit  according  to  its  depth  and  danger 
from  the  heats  or  mephitic  air. 

The  amount,  produce,  and  wages  of  the  labourers  who 
draw  the  oil,  as  ftated  to  me,  J  fufpe6l  was  exaggerated  or 
erroneous  from  mifinterpretation  on  both  fides. 

The  average  produce  of  each  well  per  diem,  thev*faid,  was 
500  vifs,  or  1825 lbs.  avoirdupois,  and  that  the  labourers 
earned  upwards  of  eight  tecals  each  per  month  :  but  I  appre- 
hend this  wa^  not  meant  as  the  average  produce,  or  wages 
for  every  day  or  month  throughout  the  year,  as  mud  appear 
from  a  further  examination  of  the  fubjeft ;  where  faets  are 
dubious  we  muft  endeavour  to  obtain  truth  from  internal 
evidence.  Each  well  is  worked  by  four  men,  and  their 
wages  is  regulated  by  the  average  produce  of  fix  davs  labour, 
of. which  they  have  one-fixth,  or  its  value,  at  the  ratQ  of  uny 


232  An  Account  of  the  TefroleumlVdh 

tecal  and  a  quarter  per  hundred  vifs,  the  price  of  the  oil  at 
the  wells :  the  proprietor  has  au  option  of  paying  their  (ixth 
in  oil ;  but  I  underltand  he  pays  the  value  in  money  ;  and  if 
fo,  I  thhik  this  is  as  fair  a  mode  of  regulating  the  wages  of 
labour  as  any  -where  pracStifed  ;  for  in  proportion  as  the  la- 
bourer works  he  benefits,  and  gains  only  as  he  benefits  his 
employer,  lie  can  only  do  injury  by  over- working  himfelf, 
which  is  not  likely  to  happen  to  an  Indian  :  no  provifions 
are  allowed  the  oil  drawers,  but  the  proprietor  fupplies  the 
ropes,  &.C. ;  and,  laftly,  the  king's  duty  is  a  tenth  of  the 
produce. 

Now,  fuppofing  a  well  to  yield  500  vifs  per  diem  through- 
out the  year,  deducting  one-fixth  for  the  labourers  and  one- 
tenth  for  the  king,  there  will  remain  for  the  proprietor,  re- 
jecting fraclions,  136,876  vif^,  which  at  i-J-  tecal,  the  value  af 
the  wells,  is  equal  to  1710  tecalsper  annum.  From  this  fum 
there  is  to  be  dedu(9:ed  only  a  trifle  for  draw-ropes,  &c,  fori 
could  not  learn  that  there  were  any  further  duties  or  expenfe 
to  be  charged  on  the  produce ;  but  the  merchants  fay  they 
gain  only  a  neat  1000  tecals  per  annum  for  each  well,  and 
as  we  advance  we  ihall  have  reafon  to  ihink  they  have  given 
the  maximum  rather  than  the  minimum  of  their  profits : 
hence,  therefore,  we  may  infer  that  the  grofs  amount  produce 
per  annum  is  not  182,500  vifs. 

Further :  the  four  labourers  fliare,  or  one-fixth,  dedu6ling 
'the  king's  tythe,  will  be  2250  vifs  per  month  of  thirty  days, 
cr  in  money  at  the  above  price  twenty-eight  tecals  fifty  avas,  or 
feven  tecals  twelve  avas  each  man  per  month  :  but  the  wages 
of  a  comnKJU  labourer  in  this  part  of  the  country,  as  the 
fame  pcrfons  informed  me,  are  only  five  tecals  per  month 
when  hired  from  day  today:  they  alfo  admitted  that  the 
labour  of  the  oil  drawers  was  not  harder  th-iu  that  of  com- 
mon labourers,  and  the  employment  no-ways  obnoxious  to 
health.  To  me  the  fmell  of  the  oil  was  fragrant  and  grateful^ 
and,  on  being  wore  indirectly  (|ue(tioncd  (for  on  this  part  of 
the  fubjcct,  perhaps  owing  to  the  minutcnefs  of  mv  inquiries, 
I  obferved  mofl-reforve),  they  allowed  that  their  gain  was  not 
much  greater  than  the  common  labourers  of  the  country  : 
uor  is  it   reafonablc  to  expccl  it  fhould ;   ior,  us  iliere  is  no 

nr)'itery 


In  the  Burvtba  Dominions.  233 

myftcry  in  drawing  of  oil,  no  particular  hardfliips  endured, 
or  rifk  of  health,  no  compulfion  or  prevention   pMended, 
and  as  it  is  the  intcrcft  of  the  proprietors  to  get  their  work 
done  at  the  cheapell  rate,  of  courfe  the  numbers  that  would 
flock  to  fo  regular  and  profitable  an  employment  would  foon 
lower  the  rate  of,  hire  nearlv,  at  lead,  to  the  common  wages? 
of  the  country :  befides,  I  obfcrved  no  appearance  of  afflu- 
ence amongd  the  labourers,  they  were  meanly  lodged  and 
clad,  and  fed  coarfely,  not  on  rice,  which  in  the  upper  pro- 
vinces is  an  article  of  luxury,  but  on  dry  grains  and  indige- 
nous roots  of  the  nature  of  caflMda,  collected  in  the  waftes 
by  their  women  and  children.     Further,  it  is  not  reafonahle 
to  fuppofe  that  thcfe  labourers  worked  conftantly ;  nature  al- 
ways requires  a  refpite,  and  will  be  obeyed,  however  n*uch 
the  defire  of  gain  may  ftimulate,  and  this  caufe  mufl  more 
particularly  operate  in  warm  climates   to  produce  w  hat  we 
often  improperly  call  indolence.     f>en  the  rigid  Calf)  em- 
phatically fays,  that  the  man  who  has  not  time  to  be  idle  is 
a  (lave.     A  due  confideration  of  this  phyfical  artd  moral  ne- 
ceflity  ought  perhaps  to  vindicate  religious  legidators  from 
the  reproaches  too  Hberally  beftowed  on  them  for  fanclioning 
relaxation  :  be  that  as  it  may,  I  think  it  is  fufficiently  appa- 
rent that  the  article  of  wages  is   alio  exaggerated,  and  that 
500  vifs  mufl:  only  be  confidered  as  the  amount  produce  of 
working  days,  and  not  an  average  for  every  dav  in  the  vear.* 
The  labour  of  the  miners,  as  I  have  obforved  above,  is  alto- 
gether diftinc^  from  the  oil-drawers,  snd  their  pay  propor- 
tioned to  the  hardfliips  and  rifks  they  endure. 

Afluming,  therefore,  as  data,  the  acknowledged  profit  of 
]ooo  tecals  per  annum  A)r  each  well,  which  we  can  hnrdlv 
fuppofe  exaggerated,  as  it  would  expofe  the  proprietors  to  an 
additional  tax,  and  the  common  wiiges  of  precarious  em- 
ployment in  the  country,  that  is,  one  month  with  another, 
including  holydays,  the  year  round,  four  and  a  quarter  tecals 
per  month,  as  ihe  pay  of  the  oil-drawers,  which  includes 
the  two  extremes  of  the  quefl^ion,  it  will  make  the  averai^e 
produce  of  each  well  per  diem  300  vifs,  or  109,^00  vifs 
per  annum,  equal  to  399,675  lbs.  avoirdupois,  or  tons 
^7^^955  ^^^-y  «^' ii^  Viciuid  meafure  793  hogfheads  of  fixtv- 

VoL.  IX.  Gg  three 


234  -^^  Accoutit  of  the  Petrohum  IFclls,  ^c. 

three  gallons  each  ;  and,  as  there  are  ^30  wells  regldered  by 

government,   the  grofs  amounl  produce  of  the  whole  .per 

annum  will  be  56.940,000  vifs,  or  92,781  tons  1560  lb*.,  or 

412,360  hogflieads,  worth  at  the  wells,  at  one  and  a  quarter- 

tecal   per  hundred  vifs,    711,750  tecals,    or  889,737   licca 

rupees. 

From  the  wells,  the  oil  is  carried,  in  fmall  jars,  bycoolcys, 
or  on  carls,  to  the^river ;  where  it  is  delivered  to  the  merchant 
exporter  at  two  tecals  per  hundred  vifs,  the  value  being  en^ 
hanced  three-eighths  by  theexpenfe  and  rifk  of  portage;  there- 
fore the  grofs  value  or  profit  to  the  country  of  the  whole,  de- 
ducSling  five  per  cent,  foi^  waftage,  may  be  {lathed  at  1,081,860 
tacals,  or  1,362,325  ficca  rupees  per  annum,  yielding  a  dire<Si: 
revenue  to  the  king  of  136,232  ficca  rupees  per  annum,  and 
perhaps  thrice  as  much  more  before  it  reaches  the  confumer; 
befidcs  the  bc^nefit  the  wliole  country  muft  derive  from  the 
productive  induftry  called  into  action  by  the  conftant  em- 
ployment of  fo  large  a  capital  on  fo  gruff  ah  article.  There 
were  between  feventy  and  eighty  boats,  average  burthen  fixty 
tons  each,  loading  oil  at  the  feveral  wharfs,  and  others  con- 
flantly  coming  and  going,  while  T  was  there.  A  number  of 
boats  and  men  alfo  find  conrmnt  employment  in  providing 
the  pots,  &c.  for  the  oil ;  and  the  extent  of  this  fingle  branch 
of  internal  commerce  (for  alniofl:  the  whole  is  confunied  in 
the  country)  willferve  to  give  fome  infight  into  the  internal 
comm.erce  and  refources  of  the  countrv. 

At  the  wells  the  price  of  the  oil  is  feven  annas  fevcn  pies 
per  112 lbs.  avoirdupois;  at  the  port  of  Hanghong  it  is  fold 
at  the  average  rate  of  three  ficca  rupees  three  annas  and  fix 
pies  per  cwt.  or  per  hoglhcad  of  fixty-three  gallons,  wxii^h- 
ing504lbs.  fourteen  rupees  feven  annas  nine  pies,  exclufive 
of  thecafk,  or  per  Bengal  buzar  maund  two  rupees  five  annas 
eight  pies,  whereas  the  muftard-feed  and  other  vegetable  oils 
fell  at  Rijnghong  at  eleven  rupees  per  buzar  maund. 

To  conclude:  this  oil  is  a  genuine  petroleum,  pofiefling 
all  the  properties  of  coal-tar,  being,  in  fa6l,  the  felf-fame 
thing;  the  only  difference  ^s,  that  nature  elaborates  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth  that  for  the  Burmhas  for  which  European 
nations  are  obliged  to  the  ingenqky  of  Lord  Dundonald. 

XXIX.  Ac^ 


XXIX.  Account  of  Mr,  Mushet's  neiv  Methnd  of  making 
Steel  of  various  Qualities, 

IT^  O  R  this  invention  Mr.  Mufliet*  has  obtained  his  Ma- 
Jefty's  royal  letters  patent ;  and,  certdinly,  few  dileoveries  of 
fo  much  importance  to  this  country  have  bectl  made  for  a 
number  of  years  pa(h  Th€  manufacture  of  caft  fteel,  which 
has  hitherto  been  tedious  and  expenfive,  is  novv  reduced  to  a 
procefs  of  a  few  hoars ;  and  the  quaUty  of  the  article  at  the 
lame  time  fo  much  improved^  ;:s  to  be  applicable  to  many 
purpofes  to  which  fteel  of  the  common  manufa6hii*e  cannot 
be  applied.  We  (ball  not,  however,  dwell  on  the  utility  of 
the  invention,  but  lay  before  our  readers  an  account  of  it, 
extrafted  from  Mr.  Mufliet's  fpecification,  which  will  fpeak 
more  to  an  •  intelligent  mind  than  would  a  volume  of 
culogium. 

''  The  general  principles  of  my  procefs  of  pfocelTes  are 
the  fufion  of  malleable  iron,  or  of  iron  ore,  in  fuch  manner, 
and  by  fuch  means,  as  immediately  to  convert  them  into 
caft  fteei ;  and,  likewife,  in  certain  cafes,  the  after  cement- 
ation ot  this  fteel  to  give  it  malleability,  and  the  property  of 
welding,  in  order  to  fit  it  for  fuch  purpofes  as  require  fteel 
poflcfling  thefs^  properties.  Thefe  principles  can  be  a6led 
Upon  for  the  production  of  the  various  qualities  of  fteel  in  a 
Variety  of  ways ;  but  the  principle  of  my  inventioti,  and  the 
mode  of  operation,  may  be  fully  underftood  by  the  examples 
whii:h  I  fhall  adduce,  and  which  will  enable  any  perfon  to 
perform  the  fame,  and  to  vary  and  alter  the  mode  of  operation 
according  to  his  intention,  and  the  particular  quality  of  fteel 
he  may  wifti  to  manuFa6ture.    ^ 

^'  Thus,  caft  fteel  may  be  made  by  taking  any  convenient 
qiumtity  of  malleable  iron,  according  to  the  fizeof  the  furnace 
and  crucible  or  crucibles  to  be  employed,  and  introducing  it  into 
the  crucible  or  crucibles  along  with  a  proper  proportion  of 
charcoal j  charcoal  duft,  pit-coal,  pit-coal  duft,  black  lead,  or 

■•■  The  fame  gentleman  to  \vh(im  the  public  are  indwbied  for  the  feries  , 
of^  valuable  papers  pn  the  nianufafture  of  call  irou,  given  in  the  preceding 
volumcii  «f  the  Philolbphical  Macinzine. 

G  2  2J  pliimbagp. 


*3  ^  A'^-zt;  Mstbod  of  ma  king^  Steel 

plumbago,  or  of  any  fubftance  containing  the  coally  or  car- 
bonaceous principle  ;  but,  in  general,  charcoal, pit-coal,  or  pit- 
coai  cokes,  cfpocially  if  prepared  in  the  manner  herein  after 
defcribed,  will  be  found  to  anfwer  befh  For  this  procefs  not 
only  bar  iron  may  be  employed,  but  alfo  what  is  commonly 
called  fcraps,  or  walk  iron;  but,  when  the  latter  is  ufcd,  a 
little  more  carbonaceous  matter  mud  be  added  to  the  mixture, 
to  revive  the  ruit,  or  oxyd  of  iron,  adhering  to  the  fcraps. 
The  mixture  in  the  crucible  or  crucibles  mull  then  be  put 
into  a  furnace  capable  of  giving  a  fufficiently  intenfe  degree 
ot  heat  to  run  down  or  fufe  the  mixture,  wliich  mull  then  be 
poured  out  into  bar,  ingot,  or  other  moulds,  according  as  the 
manufacturer  intends  to  produce  bars  or  ingots,  or  various 
articles  or  utenfils  that  are,  or  may  be,  made  of  caft  fteel ; 
for  the  whole  iron,  by  fulion  with  the  charcoal  or  other  fub- 
llances  or  things  containing  carbonaceous  matter,  will  be 
found  to  have  palfed  into  the  date  of  cad  deel.  If  cad  into 
bars  or  ingots,  and  a  proper  quantity  of  charcoal,  or  other 
fubdances  or  things  containing  carbonaceous  matter,  has 
been  employed,  fuch  bars  or  ingots  will  be  found  in  a  date 
ready  to  take  the  hammer,  and  to  be  drawn  or  rolled  into 
other  diapes,  according  tojhe  intention  of  the  manufa6lurer. 
In  fome  cafes,  efpecially  where  a  heavy  charge  is  to  be  run 
down,  the  crucibles  mud  be  previoufly  properly  difpofed  in 
the  furnace,  and  the  mixturo  introduced  into  them'  after- 
wards. 

**^  By  the  procefs  before  defcribed,  and  which  may  be 
varied  with  circumdances  by  any  prudent  operator,  cad  deel 
may  be  made  in  a  fe\v  hours,  which,  by  the  procefs  or  pro- 
cedes  hitherto  difcovered,  has  ufually  required  many  days, 
and  fometimes  weeks;  for  call  deel,  by  the  common  method 
of  manufa<^lure,  has  been  hitherto  made  from  bar  deel, 
which  had  previoully  required,  for  its  own  converfioii  into 
that  date,  from  the  date  of  bar-iron,  or  of  fcrap-iron,  a 
tedious  cementation  with  charcoal,  in  a  fdrnace  coridru6led 
for  the  purpofe,  and  ufually  known  among  manufa6lurers 
bv  the  name  of  a  convertinor  furnace. 

**  It  cannot  here  efcape  obfervation,  that  this  is  not  the 
duly  faving  in  point  of  time  and  cxpcnfe,  gained  by  my  pro- 
cefs 


of 'various  Oualltles.  fiJ7 

t?efs  or  procefles;  for,  when  I  meet  with  or  procure  iron- 
ftones  or  iron-ores  fufficicntly  rich,  and  free  from  foreign 
niixturt's,  I  fave  even'  the  time  and  expcnfe  neceflary  for  the 
converdon  of  iuch  iron-ltonc  or  iron-ore  firft  into  calt  or  pig- 
iron,  and  afterwards  by  a  tedious  and  expenfive  proeefs, 
aeCompanied  with  a  great  wafte  of  metal,  into  bar-iron. 
For  fuch  ore  or  iron-llones,  being  previoufly  roafted  or 
torrified,  when  that  procefs  may  be  found  neceifary,  which 
will  often  happen,  niav  be  fubftituted  for  the  bar- iron, 
fcrap,  or  wafte  iron,  as  before  defcribed,  and  the  refult  will 
be  caft-fteei,  if  a  proper  quantity  of  charcoal,  charcoal-duft, 
pit-coal,  pit-coal-duft,  plumbago  or  black  lead,  or  of 
any  fubftance  containing  carbonaceous  matter,  has  been 
ufed. 

.*^  For  the  common  and  ordinary  qualities  of  caft-fteel,  a 
much  fmaller  quantity  of  carbonaceous  matter  is  requifite  in 
the  mixture  than  perhaps  could  have  been  fufpe^Sled  before 
my  invention.  When  charcoal  from  wood  is  employed,  a 
feventieth  to  a  ninetieth  of  the  weight  of  the  iron  will  gene- 
rally be  found  fufficient.  When  the  quantity  of  the  carbo- 
naceous matter  or  principle  exceeds  one  feventieth,  and  is 
increafcd  to  from  one  fixtieth  to  one  fortieth  or  more  of  the 
weight  of  the  iron,  the  (leel  becomes  {o  completely  fufible 
that  it  may  be  run  into  moulds  of  any  (hape,  and  be  capable 
afterwards  of  being  Jllcd  and  poliflied.  Hence  by  caliing 
may  be  conftrueled  (loves,  grates,  kitchen  utenfils,  many 
kinds  of  wheels  and  mill  works,  a  great  variety  of  fmall 
machinery,  and  many  other  articles,  which  could  not  be  fo 
made  by  the  procefles  now  in  ufe,  and  which  way  of  making 
fuch  articles  conftitutes  a  part  of  my  invention. 

"  Bv  mv  procefs  various  kinds  of  ftecl,  differing  as  much 
from  each. other  in  their  qualities  as  the  various  kinds  of  pig 
or  cad-iron  differ  from  each  other,  can  be  formed  by  merely 
varviug  the  proportion  of  carbonaceous  matter.  Caft-rtcel 
of  the  common  and  ordinary  qualities  is  too  volatile  when  iu 
fufion  to  admit  of  being  run  into  any  (liape  except  ftraight 
moulds  of  a  eonlider.ible  diameter ;  but  (leel  of  fuch  deiiliiy 
as  to  admit  of  being. call  into  any  form. may  be  produc;pd  by 
my  procefs,  by  iucrcallng  the<iaant!ty  of  chajcoal,  or  matter 


contanuntr 

9 


43^  Nezv  Method  of  making  Steel 

containing  the  carbonaceous  principle,  and  then  fiifing  the 
ITiixture  as  before  directed.  When  I  wilh  lo  produce  qualities 
of  fteel  fofter  than  is  ufually  manufaftured  by  the  common 
proct'iH-s,  I  rtnd  it  bed  to  ule  a  fmall  proportion  of  charcoal, 
fometimes  fo  little  as  a  two  hundredth  part  of  the  weight  of 
the  iron.  Steel  produced  with  any  proportion  of  charcoal, 
•not  exceeding  a  hundredth,  will  generally  be  found  to 
pofiefs  every  property  necelTary  to  its  being  caft  into  thofe 
ihapes  which  require  great  elafticity,  (Irongth,  and  folidity.  It 
will  alfo  be  found  gener|lly  capable  of  fuftaining  a  white 
heat,  and  of  being  welded  like  malleable  iron  ;  and,  indeed, 
as  the  proportion  of  charcoal  or  other  carbonaceous  matter  is 
reduced,  the  qualities  of  the  iteel  will  be  found  to  approach 
nearer  to  thofe  of  common  malleable  iron. 

*#  By  further  purfuing  the  principle  of  mv  new  invention, 
I  fufe  down  malleable  bar  or  fcrap-iron  in  a  crucible  or 
emcibles,  without  any  viiible  addition  of  carbonaceous  mat- 
ter, a4id  ruff  it  into  bar,  ingot,  or  other  moulds.  In  this 
ilate  the  metal  is  nearly  of  the  fame  quality  as  when  put  in, 
only  altered  by  the  combination  of  a  fmall  portion  of 
carbonaceous  matter,  which  the  iron  by  its  chemical 
afiinity  attracts  from  the  ignited  fuel,  or  from  theignitcd 
carbonic  gas  of  the  furnace,  and  which  enters  by  the  mouthy 
or  through  the  pores  of  the  crucible  or  crucibles,  probably 
difl'olved  in  caloric  at  a  very  high  temperature.  But  whether 
fo  dillblved  or  not,  the  fa£t  is,  that  a. portion  of  the  carbon 
pafl'es  from  the  fire  into  union  with  the  iron,  and  thereby 
converts  it  into  an  extremelyjoft  fteel. 

"  Befides  the  different  modes  of  operation  above  fpecificd, 
I  further  reduce  iron-ore,  bar-iron,  or  fcrap-iron,  by  the 
addition  of  lime  or  chalk,  or  other  carbonats,  or  of  carburets,  . 
with  clay,  glafs,  and  other  fluxes,  in  various  proportions^ 
and  form  all  the  various  qualities  of  Heel  formerly  enunxe- 
rated. 

"  If  the  various  kinds  arid  qualities  of  Heel  obtained  by 
the  procefs  or  procefles  above  nu'ntioned  be  introduced  into 
the  common  converting  or  other  fteel  furnaces,  in  conta6?fc 
with  carbonaceous  matter,  or  with  earths,  arid  heated  for 
^st  days,  or  more  or  !efd,-  according  to  the  thicknefs  of  the 

bars 


of  various  Qualities,  239 

bars  or  other  forms,  and  the  quantity  introduced,  the  baps^ 
ingots,  or  other  fliapes,  Ijoing  then  taken  from  the  furnace, 
will  be  found  to  polTefs  all  the  folidlty  which  they  formerly 
were  pofTefTed  of  as  caft-fieel,  with  that  property  of  welding 
peculiar  to  bliflered,  faggot,  or  German  fteel  of  the  ufual 
mode  of  manufa^lure.  ■ 

''  By  this  invention  T  obtain  fleel  which  for  folidity  may 
be  ufed  for  the  purpofcs  of  call-fteel ;  uniting  at  the  fame 
time  the  property  of  welding,  without  dedroying  the  folidiiy 
or  quality  of  the  metal  r  —  a  circurnftance  of  the  highefl:  im- 
portance to  our  manufacturers.  Ingots,  bars,  plates,  and 
every  (liapc  into  which  this  (iecl  is  call,  rolled,  or  hammered, 
will  be  poflefled  of  uniformity  of  quality,  without  thofe 
numerous  reed-4,  flaws,  bifter^  and  disjoined  laminae  found 
in  ftcel  made  by  the  proceflTes  in  ufe  before   my  invention.' 

^'  When  pit-coal  cokes  are  to  be  ufed  in  any  of  the  foregoing 
operations,  either  in  mixture  with  the  ore,  or  with  the  iron, 
or  for  fuel  in  the  furnaces,  in  which  the  cruciHll|5  containing 
the  mixture  arc  expofed  to  tlie  aftion  of  tlie  fire,  it  is  of  the 
utmoil  importance  that  the  cokes  be  properly  prepared. 
The  procefs  which  I  have  found  to  anfwer  beft  for  this  pnr- 
pofe,  though  common  cokes  will  alfo  do,  is  founded  upon 
the  princvle,  that  all  accefs  of  c^xvgen  to  the  coals  to  be 
coked,  fliould  be  prevented  :  this  end  is  gained  by  preparing 
the  cokes  in  iron  veflels,  in  the  fame  manner  as  wood  is  now 
charred  for  the  purpofe  of  being;  employed  in  the  manufac 
ture  of  gun-|)owder.  The  bitumen,  or  coal-tar  as  it  is  com- 
monly called,  which  is  volatir!z|<|-from  the  coals  to  be  coked, 
by  the  heat  applied  to  the  extei^^jf^r  of  the  iron  vcfTel  or  other 
chamber  containing  the  faid  Goals,  is  thus  favcd,  inftead  of 
being  burnt  or  diffipaled  in  the'-^tmofphere,  as  is  the  cafe  in 
the  common  procefs  of  coking;'  -in  which  the  coals  are 
expofed  to  combuftion  in  open  h^aps,  and  which  alio  par- 
tially, though  in  a  lefs  degree^'  takes  place  in  the  procefs 
commonly  known  by  the  name' lOf  Lord  IXmdonald's  procefs* 
for  preparing  9oal  tar." 


T^xperlmerJs 


[     34^    ] 

XXX.   ILxperiments  and  Ohfcrv^atlons  on  the  Utality  and  JJfe 
of  Germs.    By  Victor  Mic.-ielotti^  M.D.  oflurin^. 


A. 


5  I  propofe  to  examine  in  this  memoir  the  vital  power, 
I  have  thought  proper,  in  order  that  the  fubje6l  may  be  ren- 
dered eafier,  to  take  vitahty  at  that  period  of  life  when  the 
iiun)ber  and  complications  of  its  funftions  are  the  lead; 
ihat  is  to  fay,  in  the  embryo  :— it  is  then  reduced  to  fimple 
nutrition  and  a  fpeedier  increafe. 

We  are  as  yet  little  acqiraintcd  with  the  powers  by  which 
the  embryo  is  animated  and  expanded ;  the  only  obje6t  of 
the  obfervations  hitherto  made  on  different  kinds  of  eggs 
and  feeds,  was  to  prove  or  refute  the  fvftem  of  the  pre-exift- 
ence  of  germs  or  at  n^^^  to  throw  light  on  the  formation 
and  expanfion  of  fome  of  their  parts.  It  is  on  this  power, 
however,  with  which  living  bodies  are  endowed,  and  the 
a6lion  of  b^ies  which  have  fome  iniiuence  on  it,  that  the 
phasnomena  of  life  depend. 

But  how  comes  it  that  certain  agents  which  >a6t  with  fo 
much  energy  on  adults  fcem  to  have  no  a6lion  on  the  foetus, 
iincethe  vital  power  and  the //iw?^/^^  employed  are  the  fame? 
Is  there  then  at  certain  peridds  of  life,  a  particular  llimulus, 
deftined  to  aft  on  particular  organs  ?  or  does  fenfibility  vary 
in  the  different  periods  of  life  ? 

In  fupport  of  the  firft  hypothef.s  we  might  take  light, 
for  example,  which  appearing  to  be  one  of  the  vivifying 
principles  of  animals  and  vegetable?,  feems,  hov.ever,  to  have 
no  influence  on  the  expanfion  of  germs,  fince  the  greater 
part  of  them  pafs  the  firfi:  period  of  life  in  obfcuritv. 

But  if  we  fuppofc  a  different  fenfibility  in  the  various  fiates 

sof  life,  we  fliall  obferve  that  the  vivifying  principle  of  the 

animal   ought  to  be  more  energetic  in  proportion  as  it  is 

nearer  its  fource,  fince  the  whole  fpace  paffed  over  ought  to 

be  at  the  expenfe  of  the  force  employed  to  make  it  pafs. 

One  of  the  firfi:  modifications  under  which  the  vital  power 
prefents  itfelf  is  that  of  irritaliUty;  and  it  is  exaftly  during 
the  firft:  expanfion  of  the  foetus  that  the  greatell,  and  as  we 
■'■  From  Journal  i^e  PbyJ:quc'f\ tnloiKy   an.  9. 

6  may 


on  Ihe  Vitality  and  Life  of  dehns,  c^l 

!iiay  fay,  the  mod  impatient  irritability  is  obferved.  But 
Vvhy  does  a  ftimuliis  fo  powerful  as  caloric,  in  a  certain  dofe, 
extingLtifli  the  life  of  the  aduh,  without  altering,  or,  at  leaft^ 
without  alterincT  much,  the  life  of  the  fame  animal  ftill 
in  embryo?  4 

We  have  as  little  knowledge  refpe6ling  the  action  of  gafes, 
odoriferous  Or  narcotic  effluvia,  miafmaia.  Sec,  In  a  wordj 
there  would  be  many  agents  to  examine  by  applying  them 
to  animals  externally;  but  I  fhall  confinfc  mylelf  to  an  ex- 
amination of  the  principal  ones,  and  in  the  fimpleft  and 
eafielt  manner,  ift,  Has  light  any  aftion  on  the  embryo 
Hill  contained  in  the  egg?  Is  its  a6lion  ufeful  or  prejudicial 
to  it? 

I'o  decide  this  queftion,  I  took  oti  the  5th  of  December 
1796,  four  glafs  jars  of  the  fame  fize,  two  of  which  I  co- 
vered with  a  coating  of  black  wax,  and  I  put  iiito  ,each  an 
equal  quantity  of  the  eggs  of  the  phal^na  difpar  Linn.  I 
clofed  each  of  them  \vith  a  pierced  ftopper,  through  which 
I  iiifcrted  a  bent  tube,  coated  in  the  fame  manner,  to 
inaintain  a  free  communication  between  the  internal  and 
external  air,  preventing,  as  much  as  poffible,  the  pafTage  of 
light  into  the  coated  ]ars.  I  then  placed  in  a  northern  expo- 
fure  a  black  jar  and  a  tranfpareilt  one  in  a  lituation  where 
the  fun  had  no  accefs;  the  other  two  wereexpofed  to  the 
fouth,  that  is  to  fay^  to  the  moil  powerful  a<Slion  of  that 
luminary. 

In  both,  places  the  greateil  cold  during  winter  was  -f-  i8^° 
Fahrenheit,  and  the  greateft  heat  towards  the  north,  that  at 
the  period  of  the  birth  of  the  caterpillars,  was  +  66",  while 
towards  the  fouth  in  the  fun  it  was  as  high  as  +  109^-°. 

On  the  20th  and  2l(l  of  April  1797,  when  the  eggs  of 
thefephala^noe  were  not  hatched  in  the  fields,  on  vifiting  my 
black  jar  towards  the  fouth,  I  found  the  greater  part  of  the 
eggs  already  hatched;  the  fmall  caterpillars  had  aCcended  to 
the  highell  part  of  the  neck  of  the  jar,  to  which  they  had, 
no  doubt,  been  attra6ted  by  f()nie  rays  of  light  that,  not- 
withftauding  mv  precautions,  penetrated  through  the, bent 
luoe.  On  infpe<Sling  at  the  fame  time  the  other  jar  towards 
Vpi..  IX.  "  H  U  the 


i4^  TjXperiments  and  Ohfervatwiii 

the  foiith,  which  was  tranfparcnt,  I  found  only  one  Cg'g^ 
batched*  In  another  fmall  tranfparcnt  bottle,  which  con-* 
taincd  fome  thoufantls  of  cg-^rs,  there  were  onlv  five  capabld 
of  being  hatched,  as  all  the  relt  had  perilhcd.  I  removed  a 
bit  of  the  black  coating  fif)m  the  jar,  that  I  miglit  be  ablci' 
to  obfcTve  the  caterpillars;  I  left  it  expofed  lo  the  1"un  along 
with  its  companion,  and  I  can  allert,  tliat  after  that  period 
liot  oile  of  the  eggs  was  hatched,  if  I  except  the  firll  and 
iecond  day,  when  a  few  came  forth. 

The  fpecdler.  hatching  of  the  eggs  in  the  coated  jar  might 
be  afcribi^d  to  the  greater  degree  of  heat  it  experienced,  if  the 
Air  contained  in  the  jar  had  not  had  free  comniunication 
with  tlic  external  air. 

The  jars  expofed  to  tlic  north,  in  fiich  a  manner  as  to  re- 
ceive only  a  l^etleclied  light,  muft  inform  us  whether  thi? 
light  wa;9  equally  fenfible  to  the  tender  germs.  On  the  2ift 
rtf  April,  indeed,  I  found  fcveral  of  them  already  hatched  in 
the  black  jar,  aiid  three  days  after  they  began  to  become 
animated  in  a  paper  cornet,  in  which  I  kept  a  great  number 
of  them  fliut  up,  and  it  was  hot  till  the  end  of  five  days  that 
Ihey  began  to  be  hatched  in  the  tranCparcnt  jar  expofed  to 
the  north. 

I  repeated  thefe  experirnents  in  1798,  with  this  difference, 
that  I  varniilied  my  glaflTcs  with  oil  colours,  and  that  to  the 
black  tranfparcnt  ones  I  added  others  covered  with  red  and 
white  paint. 

The  refults  were  equally  decifive_,  fince  at  noon  I  faw'  all 
the  eggs  ^jontained  in  the  black  jai*  hatched  firl^,  then  a  great 
part  of  thofe  in  the  white,  but  none  of  tliofe  I  left  in  the 
tranfparcnt  one;  on  the  contrary,  they  foon  aflumed  a 
pearly  grav  eolour,  which  T  found  by  experience  to. .be  a 
certain  fign  that  the  eggs  \vere  no  longer  fufceptible  of  being 
hatched. 

The  remaining  ea'gs  contained  in  the  red  jar  and  the  white 
one  towards  the  fouth  became  alfo  gray,  and  incapable  of 
beinsr  hatched.  The  experiment  was  attended  with  the 
fame  fuccefs  towards  the  north,  fince  the  firlt  hatched  were 
ihofc  in  the  black  jar^  then  thofe  in  the  red  and  white  ones 

aluu'.ll 


on  the  Vitality  andZ>ife  of  Germs,  243. 

aJmod  at  the  fame  time :  tliof(i  in  the  tranfparent  one  were 
the  lad. 

To  anfwcr  an  oI)je6liou-<that  jnight  be  made,  that  the 
different  varniflies  produced  a  confiderable  diflercnce  in  the^ 
heat  ill  the  glafl.es^  (though  this  diffieulty  can  have  no  rela- 
tion tc|  .thofe  expofed  tp  the  north,)  I  prepared,  on  the  ^i\\ 
of  February  1798,  two  bent  glafs  tubes,  one  of  them  var- 
nifljed  black,  and  put  hito  each  about  a  hundred  of  the 
Oame  eggs.  Thefe  I  inferted  in  a  pretty  large  bottle,  not 
varniflied,  filled  with  water,  which  I  took  care  frequently  to 
change,  left  it  fliould  become  corrupted,  and  expofed  them 
to  the  fouth. 

On  the  I  ft  of  March  the4:ggs  began  to  be  hatched  in  the 
black  tube,  and  eight  days  after  in  the  other;  before  the 
end  of  the  month  94  were  j)atched  in  the  black  tube,  while 
in  the  tranfparent  one  there  were  only  41,  the  remainder, 
having  become  gray,  that  i^  to  fay,  having  p^rjfhed. 

The  confiderable  anticipation  in  the  birth  of  the  cater- 
pillars in  thefe  tubes  ouaht,  in  my  opinion,  to, be  afcribed 
to  their  being  immcrfed  in  watp,  wherp  they  were  not 
liable  to  changes  of  temp^^rature 'fot-violjint.,,  iince  the  cold 
was  not  greater  than  it  had  been  the  pre<pcding  year,  and 
as  the  water  contained  in  thp  bpttle,  during /^h^.greateft  heat, 
did  not  exceed  66"^  above  zero ;  ^vhile  in  the  jars  expofed  to 
tho.fup  it  rofe  to  -\-  88  and  +'109,  bqt  towards  the  north 
it  was, only  from  -f  55'^  to  -5-6^,  a  temperature  fufficient  to 
hatch  the  eggs  of  thefe  infedls;  ^nd  as  the  pr^fent  year. this 
degrc^e ,  of  heat  had  been  experienced  iW9r;<^,  than  u Rial,  it 
appears  to  be  very  probable  that  ..irt  ^i,s  not  ^^  certain  period 
of  time  that  is  necellary  for  hatching,  but  a  certain  degree  of 
heat. 

I  repeated  the  fame  experiments  on,  the  pbuLena  mori 
hinti,  (the^filk-worm)  :  the  results  were  pcrfe6tly- analogous 
to  thdfe  aboYjC  mentioned.  I  :il|a^l  not  .enter^iptp., all, the. de- 
tails, but  relate  tl>.ofp  wj^ich  I  ma(|jD,ou,},^e^^s,^^^jfoj:(^p( 

Thefe  eggs  be^ng,  pvcrcd  only  with  "a  very  thin  pellicle^ 
appeared  to  mc  very  proper  for  the  experiment  j  and  bcfid^§ 
this,  the  attention  with  which   the-  mother  envelops  th.em, 

II  h  2  and 


344  'Exfetiments  and  Ohfervations 

and  conceals  them  in  the  crevices  of  trees^  prepoireflcd  nie- 
in  their  favour. 

On  the  36th  of  March  1800,  I  put  on  two  pieces  of  white 
paper  feveral  of  thefe  eggs,  which  I  covered  with  fniall  bells 
of  very  thin  glafs,  taking  care  to  leave  a  fmall  aperture  at 
their  fummits  to  maintain  a  circulation  of  air,  I  varnilhed 
one  of  them  black,  and  expofed  them  to  the  fouth. 

At  the  end  of  fome  days  the  eggs  which  were  under  the 
tranfparent  bell  became  coloured  and  dry,  and  all  thofe. 
under  the  black  bell  were  hatched  on  ihe  jith  of  April.  I 
repeated  on  thefe  eggs  the  experiments  of  the  tul)es  im- 
merft'd  in  water,  and  the  refult  was  equally  decifive,  fince 
I  faw  hatched  not  only  all  the  eifgs  contained  in  a  bent  glafs 
tube  covered. with  a  very  thin  plate  of  lead,  but  flill  they 
preceded  others  which,  though  placed  alfo  in  a  dark  place, 
were  not  immerfed  in  water. 

In  regard  to  thofe  contained  in  the  tranfparent  tufee,  they 
all  peri(hed.  At  firft  they  exhibited  no  fenfible  fign  of  any 
change :  afterwards  they  began  to  become  a  little  coloured ; 
they  then  daily  affumed  a  redder  colour,  but  they  did  not 
perifli  altogether  till  the  lad  days,  during  which  thofe 
in  the  covered  tube  were  hatched. 

From  thefe  different  experiments  we  may  therefore  con-r 
elude,  that  light  has  a  df  cided  action  on  thofe  germs  which 
are  dxpofed  to  it;  that  this  aclion  is  prtjudicial  to  them ; 
aijd,  in  the  lad  place,  that  it  manifefts  its  aC/tion  by  retarding 
their  expanfion  if  the  light  be  weak,  or  a  rcfle6led  light,  or 
by  the  total  exlin6lion'of  their  life  if  it  be  very  intenfe,  as 
that  which  comes  di really  from  the  fmi. 

To  thefe  fa6};s  if  I  add,  that  the  expanfion  of  viviparous  ani- 
nials  begins  and  is  completed  in  darknefs ;  that  oviparous 
animals  produce  eggs  with  an  opake  Ihell,  as  thofe  of  birds, 
8cc.  that^if  the  eggs  hi^ve  a  delicate  fliell  the  mother  gene- 
rally depoiits  them  in  dark  and  copcealed  places,  where  (lie 
Covers  thehi  with  hair,  earth,  &c.  we  fliall  be  inclined  to 
thii)k  that  the  aftion  of  light  is  generally  prejudicial  to  thq 
fexpanfiqn  of  the  germs.  But  in  what  manner  does  it  hurt 
thenu— rThis  is  what  I  fhall  endeavour  to  explain. 

|t  may  be  conceived  th?it  the  a^idn  'of  light  can  hurt 


en  the  VliaVity  and  Life  ofSerms,  243 

germs  three  different  ways;  either  by  the  deficcation  it  may 
produce  by  too  much  heating  the  bodies  expofed  to  it;  or  by- 
favouring  new  combinations  between  the  ahiioft  liquid  part* 
of  the  germ,  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  deftroy  their  natural 
dIfpofition;.or,  in  the  laft  place,  becaufc,  being  itfelf  4 
Himulus,  that  is  to  fay,  an  agent  capable  of  affecting  vitaHty 
different  ways,  it  may,  by  the  violence  of  its  intenfity,  o> 
the  continuation  of  its  aelion,  cxtingui{h  the  vitality,  as  ail 
ftimuii  too  violent  or  too  long  continued  exhautl  the  fubjecSl 
on  which  they  aift. 

It  may  be  readily  fccn  that  the  firft  hypothefis,  that  of 
the  deficcation  produced  by  the  light  of  the  fun,  is  void  of 
all  foundation,  as  is  proved  by  the  black  jars  e:xpofcd  to 
the  north,  and  the  tubes  which  were  kept  immerfed  in  water. 

In  regard  to  the  influence  which  light  may  have  en 
germs,  by  facilitating  or  producing  new  combination",  it 
certainly  defcrves  lobe  examined.  Tt  may,  indeed,  be  cafily 
conceived  that  a  new  difpofition  of  the  parts,  contrary  to 
that  which  is  neceflary  for  the  exercife  of  life,  cannot  take 
place  without  deflroying  it;  and  we  know  by  the  dificrent 
experiments  of  Hunter,  how  much  power  the  vital  principle 
has  to  caufe  the  germs  of  the  eggs  of  fowls  (which  are  eafily 
injured  by  froll  when  the  vital  principle  is  dcdroycd)  to 
refifl  cold  with  efiicacy. 

Harvey,  and  feveral  other  philofophers,  have  alfoobferved 
that  the  egg  will  keep  as  long  as  the  membrane  which  con- 
tains the  orcrm  is  found ;  and  various  obfervers  have  re- 
marked,  that  the  vital  principle  can  even  make  the  feeds  of 
certain  plants  refift  the  injury  of  ages. 

Info6ls  which  are  fufceptible  of  a  kind  of  refurre(M:ion  arc 
fo  only  as  long  as  the  vital  principle  exifts  in  them,  by 
the  means  of  which  they  reiifl  the  agency  of  dcflrucftive 
powers;  but,  if  thefe  powers  derange  their  organization,  thev 
irrecoverably  lofe  the  faculty  of  refuming  new  life.  That  is 
to  fay,  in  thefc  animals,  as  in  germs,  the  vital  principle  is 
always  cfTentially  united  to  a  certain  difpofition  of  organiza- 
tion, which  is  iwt  changed  till  aft^r  the  deflru6lion  of  the 
vital  force. 

It 


34^  Experiments  and  OhfervnttonS' 

It  appears  to  me  then  that  light  deflroys  the  vital  prin- 
ciple of  germs,  and  that  after  its  dedniftion  new  combina- 
tions arc  formed. 

The  colour,  indeed,  which  the  eggs  ailumed  during  my 
experiments,  never  manifelted  iifelf  without  the  deflrudion  of 
life,  and  it  never  iliowed Itfelf  till  the  light  had  exercifed  on 
them  a  prettv  ftrong  aAion. 

The  toial  exhaudion  of  vitalilv  elTctSlcd  by  light,  ought 
not  to  be  different  from  iliat  efie6led  by  other  ftimuli ;  that 
js  to  fay,  light  weakens  tlic  germ,  and  confequently  retard* 
its  cxpanfion:  in  a  word,  by  weakening  and  exhaufting  it 
it  cxtinguiilies  its  life;  which  is  perfedlly  agreeable  ^o  what 
we  have  obfcrvcd  in  eggs  retarded  in  the  procefs  of  hatch- 
ing, or  which  periflicd,  according  to  the  inteniity  of  the 
light  they  had  received. 

It  might  be  conje6lured  that  the  light  affefts  chiefly  the 
nervous  fubllance  of  the  tender  embryos,  becaufe  we  know 
the  vehemence  with  which  it  affe6ls,  and  in  a  very  fcvere 
manner,  our  retina,  when  its  action  on  it  is  too  long  conti- 
nued. The  exidcnce  of  the  pupillary  membrane  in  the 
fcetus,  and  ihe  pain  experienced  by  young  animals  when  firil 
expofed  to  the  light,  are  further  proofs  in  ,  favour  of  this 
hypothecs.  In  my  eggs  I  could  difcover  op  the  head  of  the 
iufe6l  thofe  ,two  hemifpheres,  with  facets  which  afterwards 
formed  the  eyes  of  the  infe6l-;  ;a  proof  of  their  advanced  or- 
ganization. 

However  plaufible  this  reafoning  might  be,  I  was  defirous 
of  pulting  it  to  the  teft  Ojf  experiment.  As  vegetables  have, 
no  nervous  fubllance  deftined  for  feeling,  they  appeared  to 
me  proper  for  this  purpofc^  t  therefore  took  French  beans, 
(pba/cojus  "julgar'is  //i/Z7A.j)  .chick  pea s_,  [cicer  ariciinum)  lu- 
pines, {luplnus  albus)  and  moiflened  ijiem  till  they  began  to. 
fliow  i]gns  of  gernii nation.  L  then  removed,  the  bark,  and 
put  tiicn»  thus  peeled  into,  glafs  tub<^s  with  a  little  watej:, 
J  imuicrrcd  thefe  tubes  in  a  bottle  of  very  thin  tranfparent 
gUfs  filled  with  water;  fome  of  the  tubes  I  ha4  wrapped  up 
in  a  plate  of  lead,  to  flielter  them  from  the  light  of  the  fun^. 
and  they  were  all  kept  at  the  fame  temperature.     I  firfl  ob- 

fervcd 


t>n  the  f^italUy  and  Life  ofG^rmi, '  247  ' 

fervcd  in  all  the  tubes  a  more  rapid  germination  ;  I  faw  the 
feeds  in  the  tranfparent  tubes  become  equally  yellow,  but 
afterwards  they  began  to  putrefy  without  any  further  figrl 
of  vegetation  :  on  the  other  hand,  tlie  feeds  contained  iii 
the  tubes  darkened  by  the  plate  of  lead  became  yellow  alfo  J 
but,  afluming  afterwards  a  darker  c()lour,f  they  in  a  little 
time  became  green,  threw  out  roots,  expanded  their  coty- 
ledons, and  appeared  in  full  vegetation.  As  the  fmallnef^ 
of  the  tul)es  did  not  permit  them  to  expand  more,  as  foon  as 
they  filled  the  whole  capacity  of  them  they  ceafed  to  ve-' 
getate. 

The  different  dcrrrees  of  veo-etation  to  which  thefe  feeds 
attained,  lliowed  that  light  may  have  an  influence  on  the 
feeds  of  vegetables,  though  deditute  of  nervous  fubftance  ; 
but,  that  I  might  be  fully  convinced  of  this  fa6l,  I  proceeded 
in  the  following  manner: 

I  put  fomc  feeds  of  lupines  and  chick-peas,  frepd  from 
their  hark,  and  in  a  (late  of  germination,  into  two  bot- 
tles, furniflied  at  the  bottom  with  a  little  tow  moidened 
with  water.  I  removed  from  the  coated  bottles  a  little  of 
their  varnifh  on  one  fide,  in  order  that,  being  illuminated  in 
that  parij  I  might  be  aWe  to  obferve  through  the  aperture 
the  vegetation  of  the  feeds  without  being  obliged  to  take 
th«m  out. 

The  feeds  at  firfl:  continued  to  vegetate  equally  in  the  two 
bottles,  and  to  throw  out  roots  ;  but  I  foon  obferved  that  the 
extremity  of  the  fmall  roots  of  the  feeds  contained  in  the  tranf- 
parent bottle  began  to  alTume  a  colour  more  and  more  dark, 
and  they  at  length  putrefied  altogether.  As  fome  expanfionof 
the  germ  of  the  plant  took  place  at  this  period  at  the  ex- 
penfe  of  the  cotyledons,  and  as  the  latter  were  moiflCned,  it 
happened  that  the  expanfion  of  the  germ  did  not  totally 
ceafe,  though  it  was  very  How.  The  principal  root  even 
threw  out  fome  fmall  toots:  but-  they  foon  rotted  with  the 
rod  ;  fo  that,  after  having  languilhed  fome  time,  the  vegeta- 
tion ceafed  altogether. 

In  the  varnidied  bottle  the  cafe  was  difierent :  all  the  feeds 
vegetated  completely,  fent  forth  numerous  roots  in  the  ttnv, 
and  only  two  feeds  gave  any  fign  of  putrQfa<Slion  at  the  ex« 
,  8  trcuiitv 


&4^  ^'H^perhnents  arid  Oljlr'Vatians 

tremity  of  their  principal  root,  wliile  in  the  other  papts  they' 
vcre  found  and  vigorous,  fome  oi  the  plants  even  role  to  the 
funnnitof  the  bottle:  in  a  word,  I  did  not  fee  any  difterence 
between  thefe  plants  and  thofe  whieh  vegetate  naturally  in 
the  earth,  except  that  thofe  in  the  dark  bottle  had  the  jiem  and 
fmall  roots  longer  and  whiter,  and  the  cotyledons  greener. 

From  thefe  obfervationslhcre  is  reafon  to  conclude,  that 
if  philofopl^crs  have  been  long  acquainted  with  the  influence 
of  light  on  vegetation,  they  knew  but  iniperfe6lly  *  that  the 
fird  degree  of  vegetation,  that  is  to  fay,  the  expanfion  of  the 
germs  of  plants,  requires  obfcurity  like  that  of  the  germs  of 
animals,  fince  light  is  evidently  prejudicial  to  them 

If  we  rccolleft  that  the  feeds  of  vegetables  are  all  covered 
with  a  pretty  hard  opake  bark,  we  (hall  be  inclined  to  be 
licve  that  this  bark  is  not  only  deftined  to  defend  them  from 
the  prejudicial  influence  of  the  air,  gafes,  8cc.  but  alfo  to 
ihelter  the  tender  and  fenfiblc  germ  from  the  action  of  the 
folar  light,  which  wo'.ild  make  tliem  perifh. 

I  fliall  terriiinate  this  memoir  with  a  remark  which  has 
occurred  to  me  in  regard  to  the  lite  of  embryos.  In  my 
opinion,  the  vital  power  of  embryos  is  expanded  in  a  manner 
very  fmiple  and  common  to  all  germs,  and  the  only  obje6t 
of  it  is  the  expanlion  of  thofe  organs,  the  exercife  of  which 
is  to  form  afterwards  real  life.  Though  thefe  organs  all  exill 
in  the  embryo,  they  have  fcarcely  any  influence  on  the  actual 
hfe.  The  fafts  which  induce  me  to  entertain  this  opinion 
are,  that  the  feeds  of  vegetables,  deftitute  not  only  of  eyes 
but  even  of  a  nervous  fyitem,  are  ncverthelefs  aliected  by 
hght  as  well  as  the  germs  of  animals. 

Obfervatious  made  on  the  refpi ration  of  the  eggs  of  ani- 
mals h'^.ve  (liow'n  me  alfo  that  thefe  €ggs,  during  their, ex- 
panfion, abforb  oxygen  gas;  if  this  gas  is  not  fupplied  to 
them,  their  expanfion  is  fufpended  j  and  this-  refpiration  or 
rather  abforption  of  air  may  be  accekratcd  or  fa fpcnded 
i)V  accelerating  or  checking  the  influence  of  the  oxvgen, 
>vhich  has  an  influence  on  tlie  expanlion  of  the  jvenn. 

We  are  taught  by  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Cruickfliank 

*  l\vo  able  pUiioloi  hers,  Senebitr,  an«l  my  eouniryir.an  Vaiiiilli,  hz\e 
maUtt.ih*  Uimc  pbftrvii'.on. 

that 


on  the  Vitality  and  Life  of  Germs,  249 

that  barley,  on  germinating,  abforbs  oxygen  gas ;  and  that 
this  abforption  is  in  the  ratio  of  the  evolution  of  the  germ. 
At  this  epoch  of  life,  however,  as  the  tracheae  of  plants 
and  animals  do  not  feem  to  be  proper  for  refpiration,  I  am 
of  opinion  that,  as  the  germs  which  formed  the  obje6l  of 
my  experiments  were  fenfible  to  the  light,  though  deditute  of 
organs  deiigned  for  feeling,  thefe  young  beings,  thefe  germs, 
abforb  the  air  into  thofe  veflels  which  are  one  day  to  be  their 
organs  of  refpiration.  Germs,  in  expanding,  live  then  and 
feel  in  a  new  manner  which  is  peculiar  to  them. 

Additional  Note  ^,  \ 

It  has  been  long  obferved  in  gardens,  in  hot-houfes  and 
hot- beds,  that  a  fudden  and  flrong  light  often  deftroys  in  an 
inftant  the  young  plants  which  have  appeared.  There  are 
none,  perhaps,  which  dread  more  the  cold  and  the  light  than 
the  germs  of  the  larch,  and  fome  other  Alpine  plants  which, 
however,  remain  nine  months  of  the  year  under  the  fnow, 
and  the  other  three  under  a  fcorching  fun  and  the  fereneft 
(ky.  They  have  need  of  being  (Ijeltcred  during  their  infancy, 
like  the  plants  of  the  Cape.  Would  the  cafe  be  different 
with  the  human  race  ?  It  appears  that  general  rules,  like 
the  maxims  of  philofophers,  are  every  day  contradi6led  by  a 
kind  and  provident  Nature,  which  knows  to  yield  and  to 
put  herfelf  within  the  reach  of  every  being,  and,  without 
ftarts  or  agitation,  to  watch  over  their  prefervation.  Nothing 
lefs  than  dire61:  experiments  can  check  the  influence  of  opi- 
nion, which,  in  confequence  of  the  eloquence  or  reputation 
of  great  men,  hurries  away  the  indolence  or  indifference  of 
the  multitude.  Thofe  of  Dr.  Michelotti,  which  are  really 
original,  raife  up  a  corner  of  that  veil  which  covers  the 
mylleries  with  which  Nature  is  pleafed  to  conceal  her  pro- 
ductions. They  are  a  Icffon  to  mankind  on  the  danger  of 
deducing  confequences  too  general  from  particular  fa6ls.  In 
a  word,  they  teach  us,  what  it  would  appear  good  fenfe 
ought  to  have  infpired  long  ago,  that  the  firft,  the  mod  ufe- 
ful,  and  the  mod  vivifying  of  all  the  elements  of  life  may  ex- 
*  By  the  Editor  of  the  Journal  de  "Phyftque, 

Vol.  IX.  I  i  tinguifli. 


?50  Mem^r  oa  the  Quatitiiy  tf 

tingiufhj  check,  and  - luibcate  it  in  a  moment;  fuch  ^ire 
caloric  and  light,  given 'prematurely  to  the  germs  of  plants 
and  of  animals.  , 

Mutatd  fratiguHti  tjc^fneU  donfiwaHt,  Liiw. 

.fc        .  ...         ■  ■  '   I .■  ■  1  ^ 

V  '  '.I 3 n ►  'r       ■■ ~-|  ■      -;  i      ■  •  - 

.  .■    ■■  ■■'  ■'  :"  ;■  -no  V  ■♦.•■'     ■ 

XXXI.  Memoir  ott  tbe  Quantify  of  P'iMl^'Aif^  in  the  At  mo- 
fphere^  and  the  different  Methods  of  meafuring  it.  By 
M.  Anthony  de  Marti^  Member  of  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy of  the  Arts  and  Sciences  at  Barcelona, 

JL  H  E  celebrated  Hales  obferved  that  common  air,  when 
expofed  with  other  fiibltances,  was  reduced  to  a  fmaller  vo- 
hctnti  '■  Dr*  Prieftley  advanced  further  in  this  matter^  having 
difcoi'^Ttd  by  his  experiments  that  nitrous  gas  caufes  a  dimi* 
nation  in  air  more  confiderable  according  as  it  is  more  proper 
for  refpiration;  and  on  the  other  hand,  that  inflammable  air, 
mephitic  air,  and  other  aeriform  fluids  incapable  of  main* 
taining  animal  life,  do  not  in  the  like  manner  diminiih  ni-* 
trous  gas.  Other  philofophers  afterwards  obferved  this  di- 
minution of  air  proportioned  to  its  purity  by  means  of  hvef 
of  fulphur,  apafte  made  of  fulphur  and  filings  of  iron  moifl- 
ened  with  water,  by  the  combuflion  of  inflammable  air,  and 
by  that  of  phofphorus.  Thefe  fubdances,  which  abforb  the 
refpirable  air  to  the  exclufion  of  other  aeriform  bodies  which 
may  be  mixed  with  it,  have  fervcd  as  the  means  of  afcertain* 
ing  the  purity  of  every  kind  of  air  whatever.  Different  kinds 
of  eudiometric  proofs  have  been  employed  :  ift^  That  of  ni- 
trous gas :  ad.  That  of  fulphuret :  3d,  That  of  a  pafl;e  of  ful- 
phur and  iron  :  4th,  That  of  inflammable  gas  :  5th,  That  of 
phofphorus.  But  have  all  thefe  pioofs  been  carried  to  fuch 
a  degree  of  perfe6lion  as  to  render  them  equally  convenient 
and  correal?  This  examination  will  form  the  fubjeft  of  this 
eflay,  which  will  naturally  lead  me  to  the  analyfis  of  atmo- 
fpheric  air* 

This  air  is  conflantly  found  more  or  Icfs  impregnated  with 

different  heterogeneous  bodies,   and   particularly  water,  the 

^quantity  of  which  M.  De  Saullure  has  (hown  us  a  method 

•  4  of 


vital  Atr  in  the  Atmofphere,  251 

of  meafunnjr.     But  it  eontains  alfo  two  atirkl  fobftances, 
vi%.  vital  air,  and  mephitic  air  or  azotic  gas. 

In  a  former  memoir,  publiflicd  in  1787,  I  mentioned  the  , 
opinion  of  Mr.  Cavendifti,  that  the  vital  air  at  London  forms 
nearly  a  fifth  part  of  the  atmofphere;  fo  that  lOQ  parts  of  at- 
mofpheric  air  contain  %o  of  vital   air  and  80  of  mephitic  air. 
Dr.  Prieitley  thinks  that  the  quantity  of  vital  air  is  between 
0-20  and  0*25.  Scheele,  who  made  his  experiments  at  Stock- 
holm during  the  year  1778,  found  that  the  quantity  of  vital 
air  is  between  0*24  and  Q*30.     Lavoifier  and  other  chemifts 
at  Paris  are  of  opinion  that  it  is  nearly  0'28.     From  fome 
experiments  of  Senebier  there  is  reafon  to  infer  that  the  air 
of  Geneva  varies  fome  hundredth  parts,  and  that  its  portion 
of  vital  air  exceeds  0*25.     But  other  obfervations  made  in 
Europe,  which  are  entitled  to  fome  confidence,  feem  to  have 
proved  that  atmofpheric  air  contains  not  more  than  30  per 
cent,  of  vital  air,  nor  lefs  than  20.     When  I  tranfmitted  to 
this  Society,  in  the  month  of  June  1787,  my  Obfervations  on 
the  Vital  Air  of  Plants,  I  announced  that  the  common  air 
which  I  had  breathed  at  AltafuUa,  my  native  place,  during 
the  four  preceding  months,  was  of  from  97  to  100  degrees ; 
inx.  that  ICO  parts  of  nitrous  air  and  an  equal  quantity  of 
common  air,  mixed  in  the  manner  of  Ingenhoufz,  were  re- 
duced 100  or  103  ;  confequently,  from  97  to  100  parts  had 
difappeared.     Since  that  time  I  have  continued  my  experi- 
ments on  the  fame  fubjeft,  both  by  this  and  other  proofs, 
to  afcertain  whether  this  fmall  inequality  might  not.  arife 
from  circumftances  attending,  the  operation  rather  than  from 
the  nature  of  the  air. 

Proof  hy  Nitrous  Air, 

The  proof  by   nitrous  air  is  th^t  which  chemifts  have 

chiefly  endeavoured  to  bring  to. perfection.     Fontana,  Prieft- 

ley,  Ingenhoufz,  and  fcveral  other  chemifts,  have  made  many 

experiments  to  accomplifti  that  object;  but  this  method  pre- 

'  fcnts  many  difficuhieg  to  be  overcome. 

ift,  The  water  in  which  the  experiment  is  made  is  never 
pure.  It  contains  a  greater  or  lefs  quantity  of  oxygen>  azot, 
and  carbonic  acid,  which  it  is  not  eafy  to  determine. 

li  2  2d,  Nitrou* 


2^%  Memoir  on  the  Quantity  of 

2d,  Nitrous  air  is  not  always  of  the  fame  purity. 
3d,  The  nitrous  air  is  in  part  abforbed  by  the  nitrous  acid 
which  is  produced. 

Proof  by  Injiammahle  Air. 

It  is  then  demonflrated  that  the  eudiometric  proof  made 
with  nitrous  air  is  imperfe^l.  The  fecond  proof,  of^vvhich  I 
murt  fpeak,  pra<^ifed  by  the  means  of  inflammable  gas,  from 
its  being  an  aerial  body  like  nitrous  gas,  will  be  fubje£t  alfo 
to  the  fame  imperfection.  For  this  reafon  I  have  not  only 
given  over  ufing  it,  but,  in  confidering  the  difcovery  of  Mr. 
Cavendifl),  that  a  quantity  of  mephitic  air  may  unite  with 
vital  air  in  the  ftate  of  ignition,  I  mud  obferve  that,  in  the 
proof  by  inflammable  air,  which  is  burned  with  the  air  fub- 
je6led  to  examination,  the  whole  portion  of  vital  air  con- 
tained in  the  latter  may  not  only  dilappear,  but  a  certain 
quantity  of  mephitic  air  be  abforbed,  unlefs  the  two  airs  are 
entirely  free  from  it,  which  cannot  be  known  without  great 
difficulty;  and  it  will  be  neceflary  to  calculate  how  much 
inflammable  and  azotic  gas  the  refiduum  contains,  to  be  able 
to  afcertain,  with  fufficient  exadnefs,  the  quantity  of  vital  air 
which  has  difappeared,  and  which  is  the  point  to  be  deter- 
mined. 

Proof  hy  Phofphorus* 

It  is  therefore  better  that  the  fubftance  employed  for  deter- 
mining the  purity  of  the  air  fhould  not  be  gafeous,  nor  in  a 
ftate  of  combufl:ion.  For  this  reafon  phofphorus,  recom- 
mended by  M.  Achard  as  proper  for  eudiometric  proofs, 
though  a  folid  matter,  may  be  liable  to  the  fame  inconveni- 
ence; for  not  only  the  vital  will  lofe  its  elaftic  form,  but  a 
part  of  its  mephitic  air  will  be  abforbed. 

Proof  by  a  Mixture  of  Iron  and  Sulphur. 
The  proof  which  feems  to  be  fubjed  to  no  error,  is  that 
by  a  moiltened  mixture  of  fulphur  and  filings  of  iron.  At 
firfl  I  employed  this  method  as  much  as  that  by  fulphuret, 
judging,  with  other  philofophers,  that  they  were  equally 
proper.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  both  thefe  fubftances  abforb 
only  that  portion  of  vital  air  which  is  contained  in  the  atmo- 
fph eric  air,  leaving  the  mephitic  air  untouched;  and  thus, 

by 


Vital  Air  In  the  Atmofpherc,  255 

by  mcafurlng  the  refiduum  of  the  quantity  of  air  employed, 
the  quantity  which  has  difappeared,  and  which  can  be  no- 
thing but  vital  air,  will  be  determined.  During  fume  days 
of  the  year  1787,  in  which  the  con)mon  air  experienced  no 
variation  by  the  means  of  nitrous  air,  fince  100  parts  of  each 
were  uniformly  reduced  to  99  or  co,  I  was  defirous  of 
making  a  comparative  trial  of  the  fame  common  air  by 
means  of  iron  and  fiil[)hur,  and  I  obferved  that  of  100  parts 
of  air  there  remained  from  79  to. 81,  and  that,  confecjuently, 
from  19  to  21  hundredths  had  difappeared.  On  fimilar  days 
1  expofed  100  parts  of  atmofphcric  air  to  liquid  fulph'^ret, 
and  found  that  the  air  loft  between  21  and  23  parts.  From 
this  circumflance  of  always  finding  the  relults  of  the  laft 
proof  higher,  I  began  to  fufpedl  that  fulphuret,  and  a  mix- 
ture of  iron  and  fulphur,  ought  not  to  be  employed  indifier* 
cntly,  but  that  the  former  ought  to  be  preferred.  AVhen  I 
recolle6led,  indeed,  the  obfervations  of  Lavoilieron  the  fornix 
ation  of  the  vitriolic  acid,  and  thofe  of  Dr.  Prieftlev,  that  a 
paltc  of  fulphur  and  fihngs  of  iron  gave  inHammable  air  in 
certain  circumftances;  I  knew  that  during  the  abforption  of 
vital  air  the  latter  unites  itfelf  with  the  ful]}hur,  producing 
by  the  combination  fulphuric  acid,  Which,  in  exercifins;  its 
adlion  on  the  iron,  produces  a  little  inflammable  air,  v\/hich 
afcends  to  joi;i  itfelf  to  the  azotic  gas  remaining  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  veflel  after  the  operation  ;  and  though  there  really 
difappeared  from  21  to  23  parts  of  vital  air  which  enier  into 
the  compofition  of  100  parts  of  atmofpheric  air,  it  feems  that 
only  from  19  to  21  were  really  wanting;  fince,  befides  the 
077  or  0*79  of  mephitic  air,  O'l  or  02  parts  of  inflammable 
gas  united  themfelves  alfo,  from  which  there  refulted  from 
o*79  to  o*8i.  It  appeared  not  only  from  the  experiments  of 
common  air,  but  from  thofe  alfo  of  another  kind  very  fupe- 
rior,  fuch  as  that  extra6led  from  the  American  agave,  .that 
a  very  fmall  quantity  more  was  diminiflicd  by  fulphuret  than 
by  the  mixture  of  iron  and  fulphur;  fo  thaft  air,  extracted 
from  that  plant,  with  proper  precautions,  is  fo  pure  that  fofne- 
times  it  is  found  free  from  every  other  aerial  fubftance;  and 
is  abforbed  by  the  fulphuret  without  the  refiduiin'.  of  a  hun- 
dredth part. 

Vrccf 


254  Memoir  on  the  Quantity  of 

proof  by  Sulphuret, 

The  proof  by  fulphuret  is  that  beft  calculated  to  afcertain 
the  quantity  of  vital  air  contained  in  any  gafeous  fluid,  fince 
it  will  leave  the  mephitic  air,  and  the  other  kinds  of  air  which 
do  not  combine  with  it,  without  fear  of  any  other  gafeous 
fuhflancc  being  produced,  or  any  loft,  except  the  quantity  of 
vital  air,  which  alone  has  an  affinity  with  the  fulphuret,  as 
I  aflTured,  myfelf  in  1787.  A  hundred  parts  of  atmofpheric 
air  expofed  to  fulphuret  loft  between  O'^i  and  0*23  ;  and  as 
feveral  other  prvjofs  on  ihe  fame  air,  made  with  nitrous  gas, 
had  taught  me  that  it  experienced  no  feniible  variation,  I 
was  then  convinced  that  the  air  which  we  breathe  in  Cata- 
lonia is  conftantly  compofed  of  irom  o*2i  to  0*23  of  vital  air, 
and  from  077  to  079  of  azotic  gas.  To  afcertain  whether 
there  might  not  be  variations  afterwards  in  the  proportion  of 
thefe  two  principles  which  conftitute  in  the  atmofphere  that 
elaftic  fubftance  on  which  our  life  chiefly  depends,  I  contw 
nued  mv  experiments  by  means  of  fulphuret. 

In  order  to  Ihorten  the  operation,  I  provided  fome  glafs 
fiafks  of  diflerent  fizes,  each  ending  in  a  narrow  neck,  and 
furniflied  with  a  ground  ftopper.  I  filled  one  of  them  with 
liquid  fulphuret  of  lime,  and,  having  immerfed  the  neck  of 
It  in  water,  I  introduced  into  it,  with  the  utmoft  fpeed, 
through  its  orifice,  a  portion  of  atmofpheric  air.  The  fiafk 
"being  then  flopped  was  fhaken  for  a  little  time,  and  on  exa- 
mining it  immediately  I  found  its  diminution  complete.  My 
refcarches  were  foon  after  dire<Slcd  towards  deicrminins^  the 
refpeclive  quantities  of  air  neceffary  to  be  introduced  to  that 
of  the  fulphuret,  not  only  that  I  might  learn  the  fliorteft  pof- 
iible  means  of  being  able  to  effect  my  proofs,  but  alfo  to 
afcertain  whether  they  would  be  equally  correal  if  made  with 
a  large  (ir  a  fmalt  portion  of  vital  air.  Different  experiments 
made  with  this  view  furniflied  me  with  the  following  obfer- 
valions : 

A  quantity  of  atmofpheric  air,  from  a  fourth  part  of  a 
meafure  to  a  whole  one,  which  is  the  volume  of  an  ounce  of 
water,  loft  between  0'2i  a.nd  0-23,  in  flafks  capable  of  con- 
taining from  one  and  a  half  to  fix  meafiires,  filled  with  liquid 

fulphuret, 


Vital  Air  in  the  Atmofphere*  'Z^^ 

fulphuret,  without  being  fhaken,  keeping  the  apcrtUTcs  un- 
ftopped  and  immerfed  in  the  fame  liquid?  eont-aincd  in  a 
veflcl.     Several  other  experiments  gave  me  the  fame  refuUs. 

A  fourth  part  of  a  meafure  of  common  air,  Ihakcn  with  five 
nieafures  or  twenty  times  its  voUime  of  fulphuret,  loft  o-a6. 
I  fuppofed  that  this  fubflancc,  except  the  0*21  or  0*22  of 
vital  air,  which  compofed  the  atmofpheric  air,  had  abforbed 
dlfo  o*5  of  its  mephitic  air.  1  thence  concluded,  that  if  I 
fliould  Ihake  another  ecpal  quantity  of  common  air  in  the 
fame  fulphuret,  which  by  the  preceding  manoeuvre  I  confi- 
dered  as  already  united  with  all  the  mephitic  air  it  could  take 
up,  it  would  not  dccreafe  more  than  from  0*21  to  0*23;  and, 
indeed,  this  was  the  refult.  I  immediately  introduced  an 
equal  quantity  of  mephitic  air,  which  fuftained  no  lofs  by 
the  agitation  of  the  fame  fulphuret,  which  muft  have  been 
already  impregnated  with  it.  But  on  ihaking  this  mephitic 
fiiir  in  a  flaflc  containing  alfo  five  meafures  of  fulphuret,  differ- 
ing from  the  other  only  in  this,  that  it  had  not  been  before 
fliaken  with  any  air,  it  loft  0*05  ;  which  is  the  difference  of 
21  and  26.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  fulphuret  is  capable 
of  containing  a  certain  portion  of  mephitic  air;  and  the 
more  it  is  deprived  of  it,  the  greater  will  be  the  abforption  of 
atmofpheric  air.  This  fa6t  was  proved  by  the  following  ex- 
periment:— I  filled  a  flafk,  capable  of  containing  five  mea- 
fures, with  fulphuret  newly  made,  and  ftill  in  a  ftate  of  ebul- 
lition, and  which,  confequently,  was  free  from  gafeous  mat- 
ter :  and  without  giving  it  time  to  abforb  any,  I  corked  it 
lip,  and  when  it  had  cooled  I  introduced  the  fourth  part  of  a 
meafure  of  atmofpheric  air,  which  being  regularly  fhaken 
from  three  to  five  minutts,  loft  0*50 ;  that  is  to  fay,  one-half 
of  the  whole.  In  this  cafe  then,  befides  the  o*2i,  it  abforbed 
0*29  of  mephitic  air ;  and  I  really  found  this  to  be  the  cafe, 
by  trying  one-founh  of  a  meafure  of  mephitic  air,  which  was 
fhaken  in  the  fame  fiafk^  with  frefh  fulphuret,  in  every  thing 
fimilar  to  the  former.  The  hundredths  wanting  between 
29  and  50,  which  are  21,  indicate  the  quaiuity  of  vital  air 
only  which  had  difappeared  in  the  proof  of  the  atmofpheric 
air»     After  this  it  may  be  eafily  conceived  that  this  air  will 

decreafe 


%^6  Memoir  on  the  Quantity  of 

decreafe  in  proportion  as  the  rcfpevSlive  quantities  of  the  ful- 
phurct  fliall  be  greater, 

I  fhall  now  proceed  to  explain  my  method  of  operation, 
which,  after  fcveral  trials,  appeared  to  me  the  limpleft  and 
tlie  moft  correct.  I  have  employed  it  for  a  long  time  without 
having  oblerved  the  difference  of  a  hundredth  in  the  rcfults. 

My  whole  apparatus  is  a  glafs  tube  five  lines  in  diameter, 
and  ten  inches  in  length  :  it  is  clofcd  atone  of  its  extremities, 
and  divided  on  the  lide  into  lOO  equal  parts,  each  of  a  line, 
and  which  all  together  are  capable  of  containing  about  an 
ounce  of  water.  As  the  common  air  is  found  every  where, 
to  take  a  quantity  correfponding  to  the  lOO  divifions  nothing 
is  neceflarv  but  to  fill  the  tube  with  water,  keeping  it  in  a 
perpendicular  pofition,  with  the  aperture  downwards.  The 
finger  applied  to  the  aperture  muft  be  removed  at  intervals, 
and  the  tube  inclined  a  little,  by  which  means  the  external 
air,  if  the  tube  be  at  the  furface  of  the  water,  will  enter  it ;  and, 
when  it  occupies  the  lOO  lines,  it  muft  be  flopped,  keeping  the 
orifice  clofed  by  the  finger.  The  tube  muft  be  immerfed  in  the 
water  tub,  that  it  may  allume  the  fame  temperature.  When 
it  is  taken  out,  it  muft  be  examined  whether  the  air  furpafTes 
or  not  the  fpace  of  too  lines,  to  take  away  or  add  the 
quantity  neceflary  to  make  it  fiand  exactly  on  a  level  with  the 
place  where  the  divifions  begin.  I  then  introduce  this  air 
in  the  ufual  manner  into  a  flafk  containing  from  twice  to 
four  times  its  volume  of  liquid  fulphuret  of  lime,  previoufiy 
impreunated  with  azotic  gas.  I  then  ftop  it,  and  lliake  it  for 
live  minutes  ;  after  which  I  transfer  the  air  back  into  the 
graduated  tube,  and  find  that  the  aeriform  fluid,  which 
before  occupied  loo  divifions  cxa<Slly,  occupies,  after  the  opera- 
tion, only  79;  and,  confequently,  21  parts  havedifaj^peared. 
If  the  graduated  tube  ends  in  a  neck  with  a  ground  ftopper, 
inftead  of  water  it  may  be  firft  filled  with  fulphuret,  and 
by  proceeding  as  above  the  operation  will  be  fpeedier,  without 
bavinp-  occafion  to  employ  water,  or  to  introduce  air  into  the 
Hafks,  and  to  transfer  it.  To  try  another  refpirable  air, 
however,  not  atmofpheric,  fimilar  transfers  are  indifpen fable, 
as  i»  evident,  and  they  may  be  executed  with  the  greatcft  con- 
venicneCj  by  means  of  Funtana's  fmall  meafurc. 

In 


Vital  Air  In  the  Atmofpherc,  i^f 

In  examining  vital  air,  fuch  as  that  which  iffues  from 
plants  cxpofed  to  the  fun^  it  fometimcs  happens  that  the 
eudiometric  proof  muft  be  performed  with  a  fmall  quantity  : 
if  the  air  colle^led  occupies  only  the  fpace  of  25  lines, 
inftead  of  a  hundred,  it  is  evident  that  a  hundredth  inftcad  of 
a  line  will  corrcfpond  to  a  fourth  part  of  one ;  but  in  por- 
tions of  air  dill  Icfs,  as  the  divifions  would  be  infenfible,  a  tube 
of  a  lefs  diameter  muft  be  employed.  With  this  precaution, 
and  that  of  not  forgetting  to  fliake  the  fulphuret  before  with 
mephitic  air,  in  order  to  faturate  it  fully,  and  of  employing 
flafks  proportionally  lefs,  thofe  who  have  acquired  the  prac- 
tice and  addrefs  neceffary  for  fuch  experiments  will  never  find 
the  dilfercnce  of  a  hundredth  part. 

I  repeated  them  fo  many  times  with  atmofpheric  air,  and 
on  fo  great  a  number  of  days,  that  the  uniformity  in  my 
rcfuits  demonflrates  not  only  the  exaftnefs  of  this  method, 
but  it  feems  to  refult  from  my  obfervations  made  on  the 
fouthern  coaft  of  this  province  : 

ift,  That  the  wind  never  canfed  the  variation  of  a  hun- 
dredth part  in  the  refpcftive  quantities  of  vital  air  and  azotic 
gas  which  compofe  the  elaftic  fluid  of  our  atmofpherc,  fince 
I  have  always  found  that  a  hundred  parts  contained  79  of 
the  latter  and  ai  of  the  former,  without  ever  reaching  at  22. 

2d,  That  neither  the  moifture  nor  drynefs  of  the  atmo- 
fpherc, nor  the  ftate  of  the  latter  in  being  tndre  or  lefs 
charged  with  exhalations,  nor  ferene  or  rainy  weather,  occa- 
fioncd  any  difference.  It  cannot  be  denied  that,  in  an  equal 
ipace  of  the  atmofpherc,  as  the  aeriform  fluid  contains  a 
greater  portion  of  water  difl'olvcd,  and  more  impregnated 
with  other  heterocreneous  bodie?,  there  cannot  be  found  the 
fame  ([uantity  of  air  free  from  foreign  matters;  but  the 
number  2 r  of  the  vital  part,  found  fo  many  times  in  the  two 
cafes,  fliows  that  the  elements  which  conftitute  its  elaflic 
portion, ib  valuable  andfc)abundant,are  refpe-dlively  invariable. 

3d,  That  the  proportion  of  the  quantities  of  the  two  fam0 
principles  was  equally  conftant  during  the  days  that  Reau- 
mur's thermometer  flood  at  the  freezing  point,  as  well  as 
during  thofe  when  it  indicated  24  degrees  of  heat. 

4th,  That  I  did  not  obferve  any  variation  in  the  air  thus 
Vol.  IX.  K  k  taken 


2^S  Mt-moir  on  i!?c  Quantity  of 

taken  while  the  mercury  of  the  barometer  was  ver)-  low,  and 
when  it  exceeded  zo  inches. 

If  ihe  greatcO  variations  in  the  heat  and  prcfTurc  of  the 
atmofphere  oblervtd   in  this  country  did  not  occafion  any 
variation  in   regard  to  the  refpcclivc  quantities  of  the  two 
aeriform  iluids  which   compofe  it,  neither  did  tlie  dilatation 
or  compreflion  of  the  fauie  eonunon  air,   which  is  in  the 
compound  ratio  of  the  variations  of  the  heat  and  prcHbre, 
occafion  any  diBerencc.     The  niephitic  air  being   the  only 
one  of  all  the  aerial  fubfianccs  which  I  found  incapable  of 
being  combined  with  water,  this  unalterabilitv  fuggcfted  to 
me  the  id(iii  of  compofing  a  permanent  inftrument  for  alcer- 
taining  the  greateft  or  lead  dilatation  which  the  atmofpheric 
air  experiences  either  frcmi  one  of  the  two  caul'es  above  indi- 
cated, or  from  both  of  them  united.     I  took  a  giafs  tube  of 
a  final!  diameter,  and,  having   filled   it  with  water,  I  then 
introduced  into  it  a  (|uantitv  of  mephitic  air,  the  fpace  occu- 
pied by  which  was  divided  into  a  hundred  equal  parts.    This 
fmall  tube  I  put  into  another  larger  one  containing  alfo  water 
to  a  determinate  and  conflant  elevation,  and  which  was  left 
open  to  receive  the  imprenions  made  bv  the  variation  of  the 
atmofphere,  which,  prelHng  more  or  lefs  on  the  column  of 
mephitic  air,  made  it  extend  in  proportion,  and  with  I'b  much 
exactnefs  and  permanency,  that  at  the  end  offome  months 
it  retained  the  fame  dimenfions,  which  the  barometer  and 
thermometer  fliowed  to  be  thofe  correfponding  to  the  decrees 
of  prelTure  and  heat.     I'his  fimpic  intlrument  enabled  n^e  to 
correal,  with  the  greateft  precition,   the  error  which  fome- 
tlmt'S  arlfes  from  the  dlflerence  in  the  dilatation  of  the  air 
which  I  examined,  and  which  mi2;ht  readilv  occur  durinrr 
the  long  time  necclfary  to  complete  the  proof  by  fulphuret 
without  agitation,  obferving  the  hundredth  parts  it  marked 
at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  operation.     By  fimilar 
corrci^ions  this  method,  though  of  long  duration,  correfponds 
exaclly  with  that  of  fliaking  the  fulphuret,  during  which,  as 
the  change  of  dilatation  does  not  take  place,  the  number, 
conftantly  indicated  is  21  complete.     In  a  word,  during  *winr' 
ter,  in  fummer,   in  fpring,  and  in  autumn,  in  every  month 
and  at  all  hours.  I  found  the  air  of  my  country,  taken  in  the 

■.     A^*    1.-.    .  .  ^  '   ■'      '  ■        - 

open 


Vital  Air  in  the  Atmofpherc.  259 

open  fields,  to  be  always  compofed  of  from  21  to  22  parts  of 
vitM  air,  and  of  from  78  to  79  of  azotic  gas  ;  and  if  at  any 
time,  which  however  very  rarely  happened,  the  rcfult  varied 
a' few  hundredth  parts,  the  fucceeding  experiment,  which  I 
could  repeat  with  the  greateft  facility,  and  in  a  few  minuter, 
fi)on  detected  the  error.  I  was  convinced  that  this  fmall  dif- 
ference did  not  arife  from  the  nature  of  the  air,  but  from  foiiie 
neghgcnce  in  the  operation.  I  have  often  colle6led  air  in 
places  where  a  great  many  perfons  were  aflembled,  or  near 
ponds  of  ftagnant  water,  and  I  always  found  this  air  as  pure' 
as  the  common  air. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  flagnant  v.*ater,  the  furface  of 
which  occupies  a  confiderable  fpace,  may  produce  ini'alu- 
brious  cffetts;  but  it  appears  no  lefs  certain  that  infalubrlty 
cannot  arife  from  the  difproportion  between  the  vital  and 
nu'phitic  air  in  the  atmofphcre ;  for  the  difiercnce  was  not 
feniiblc  by  a  hundredth  part.  It  is  well  known  that  three 
different  kinds  of  air  are  difcngaged  from  ftagnant  water, 
viz.  mephitic  air,  inflammable  air,  and  carbonic  acid  gas ; 
all  incapable  of  maintaining  animal  life:  but  we  muft  fup- 
pofe  that  thefe  fluids  are  difengaged  in  bubbles  and  iii  a  very 
fmall  quantity  in  regard  to  a  great  extent  of  atniofpheric  air; 
that  the  laft,  being  more  ponderous  than  common  air,  mult 
he  immediately  precipitated,  or  combine  with  the  water  fuf- 
pended  in  it;  that  the  fecond,  being  lighter,  muft  rife  to  the 
higher  regions ;  and,  in  the  laft  place,  that  th'?  firil  being  of 
equal  denlity  mud  rapidly  penetrate  and  lofe  itfelf  in  the 
imnienfQ  fpace. 

It  would  therefore  excite  no  furprife  if  all  thefe  aerial  fub- 
ftanccs  (hould  alter  the  quantity  of  the  elaftic  portion  of  the 
atmofphere,  fo  that  the  difference  fliould  become  perceptible 
by  fome  hundredths  in  the  proportion  between  the  quantity  of 
vital  air  and  that  of  the  other  fluids  it  is  capable  of  contain* 
ing;  but  if  this  variation  in  air,  collt6^ed  in  places  where 
emanations  of  non-reipirable  kinds  of  air  are  known  to  exifl, 
does  not  rife  to  a  hundredth  part,  how  is  it  puflible  that,  at 
a  great  difiance  from  the  fphere  of  the  a«Slivity  ot  thefe  partial 
caules,  there  fliould  be  greater  variations,  which  fome  philo- 
fophers  pretend  to  haveobferved  not  only  in  different  months, 

K  k  ^  ,  but 


26o     ^  McmfAr  on  the  Quantity  of 

but  ot  different  hours  of  the  fame  day  ?  It  nmffc  certainly  be 
afcribed  to  the  imperfeftion  of  fiiir  inftrunientSj  or  to  fome 
negligence  in  the  mode  of  operation,  if  confiderable  inequaH- 
ties  are  fometimes  obfcrved  in  the  purity  of  the  air  around 
us ;  and  repeated  experiments  give  me  reafon  to  think  that, 
wherever  there  is  a  free  communication  with  the  vaft  recep- 
tacle of  the  atmofphere,  the  air  which  we  breathe  will  always 
be  found  to  confifl  of  from  o*2i  to  0*22  of  vital  air,  and  from 
078  to  o*79  of  azotic  gas,  provided  it  be  examined  with  the 
precautions  which  I  have  here  pointed  out, 

yf  eudiometric  proofs  are  not  fufficient  for  explaining  the 
dangerous  eflre6ls  experienced  in  the  neighbourhood  of  ftagr 
nant  waters,  the  caufe  might  perhaps  be  found  by  analyfing 
the  water  that  floats  in  the  atmofphere.  The  obfervations  of 
gerthollet  prove  that  volatile  alkali  is  compofed  of  azot  and 
hydrogen  deprived  of  cajoric,  or  of  that  principle  which  be- 
fore kept  them  feparate  in  an  elaftic  form,  and  we  know  that 
thcfe  two  fluids  are  difengagcd  from  ftagnant  waters :  mav 
we  not  then  prefume  that  its  alkahne  portion,  always  the 
fame  in  its  moditications.  Is  in  part  decompofed  j  and  that  a 
large  quantity,  not  decompofed,  either  alone  or  combined 
with  fome  other  unknown  fubftance,  is  eagerly  abforbed  by 
tjie  water,  as  its  putric)  fmell  in  evaporating  feems  to  indi- 
cate; and,  confequently,  remaining  diifolved  in  the  portion 
of  water  fufpended  in  the  neighbouring  air,  it  produces  cer- 
tjiin  alterations  in  regard  to  animal  life  ? 

It  is  not  impoffible  to  colie6l  fuch  a  quantity  of  this  water 
as  to  be  ah!e  to  examine  it :  the  produ6ls  given  by  the  means 
of  analyfis,  compared  with  thofe  of  other  water  fufpended  in 
4ip  contiguous  to  running  water,  might  ferve,  perhaps,  to 
niake  known  the  eaufe  of  the  infalubrity  of  ftagnant  water, 
gudiometric  qxperirnents  have  not  been  able  to  throw  light 
on  this  difficulty,  and  have  taught  us  only  that  we  ought  not 
to  afcribe  the  inlalubrity  .of  certain  places  to  the  exiftence  in 
the  atmpfphere  of  a  quantity  of  aeriform  fluids  too  great  for 
ihat  of  vital  air. 

Bu|;  though  this  proportion  does  not  vary  a  hundredth  part 
iij  the  courfe  of  feveral  months,  and  even  years,  may  it  vary 
a"  very  fmall  part,  fuch  as  a  thoufandth  part,  which  after  4, 


F'kal  Air  in  the  Atmvfpherc.  oJSv 

very  long  time  may  become  fufHciently  fenfiule  to  make  the 
proportion  of  the  vital  air  of  the  atniofphere  experience  a 
progreflive  or  periodical  increafc  or  diminution  ?  The  expe- 
riments which  I  have  hitherto  made  are  not  fiifficicnt  to 
enable  nie  to  afcertain  whether  there  be  fach  a  difference  of  - 
feme  thoiifandth  parts,  and  this  <;ould  not  be  known  even 
by  employing  more  confidcrable  portions  of  common  air  and 
very  long  tubes.  Obfervation,  indeed,  ihows  that  fulphuret 
may  contain,  int^rpofed  between  its  particles,  a  certain  portion 
of  mephitic  air,  and  we  do  not  know  whether  it  may  not  vary 
fome  fniall  part ;  befides,  the  particles  of  the  water,  which  are 
more  or  lefs  adhefive  to  the  inner  furface  of  the  tube,  what- 
ever care  may  be  taken,  difference  of  temperature  and  other 
caufes  united,  though  they  can  be  fo  fur  avoided  as  not  to 
have  in  the  refuft  of  the  operation  the  error  of  a  hundredth 
part,  are  capable  of  occafioning,  fomctimes,  others  lefs  con- 
lidcrable,  fuch  as  of  a  thoufandth  part,  unlefs  a  degree  of 
attention  of  which  few  perfons  arc  capable  be  employed. 

Though  we  may  confider,  as  exact,  in  general,  the  ana- 
lyfis  of  natural  produ6lions  carried  to  that  degree  of  perfec- 
tion yielded  bv  eudiometric  proofs;  yet  it  is  not  impofli- 
ble,  for  feveral  reafons,  that  greater  exa(Jl;nefs  might  be  at- 
tained to  refolve  the  propofed  queftion.  Thofe  would  cer- 
tainly be  in  an  error  who  fhould  calculate  the  lofs  of  vittd 
air  produced  in  the  atniofphere  from  the  cauics  of  its  dc- 
ibu6lion  already  known :  they  would  certainly  lind  ifim- 
poflible  that  many  years  could  elapfe  without  its  becoming 
perceptible;  the  quantity  which  animals  confume  being 
very  great,  as  well  as  that  conlumed  by  combuftible  bodies^; 
with  which  it.  combines  during  the  acl  of  combultion.  Con- 
fequently,  pofierity  would  be 'forced  to  refpire  an  air  inore 
charged  with  mephitic  gas  than  that  which  we  breathe  at 
prefent.  But  we  are  not  entirely  ignorant  of  the  means 
wViicl*  the  Divine  Providence  employs  for  refioring  that 
adive  fluid  to  the  common  receptacle,  via.  plants  a<Sted  upon 
by  the  rays  of  the  fun.  It  is  not,  however,  poiTible  to  calculate 
the  quantity  of  the  vital  air  which  the  atmofphere  recovers, 
from  that  quarter.  We  have  reafon  to  expccl  that  the  ob- 
servers pf;  ^atvire,  will  difcover  other  caufes  of  the  additioa  o£ 
.    "  vital 


'Z6z  On  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vifii, 

vital  air,  or,  perhaps,  of  the  dcftruvSlion  of  mephitic  air  in 
the  atmofphere,  to  conipeniate  the  loflcs  it  fuilains,  and  to 
maintain  conftantly  the  quantity  requifite  for  the  prefervation 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  without  producirtg  a  conti- 
nueci  increafe  or  diminution  in  the  aerial  fuhftances  of  which 
the  atmofphere  is  compofcd.  What  diforders  might  enfue 
if  a  few  hundredth  parts  of  vital  air  only  were  wanting? 
Fire  would  lofe  it?  ilrcngth,  candles  would  not  diffufc  fnch 
complete  light,  and  animal&  would  with  difficulty  receive 
the  vivifying  air.  No  Icfs  inconveniences  would  arife.  if  the 
atmofphere,  on  the  other  hand,  were  more  charged  with  vital 
than  mephitic  air.  Animal^i  indeed,  by  thcfe  means,  would 
acquire  a  freer  refpiration^;  but  let  us  only  confider  the 
acS:ivity  which  flit  would  acquire  by  air  of  fupcrior  purity. 
We  know  that,  on  fome  occafions,  the  leart  fpaik  excites  the 
ftrongeft  flame  in  a  combudible  body,  and  which  increafes 
fo  much  as  to  confume  it  in  a  few  moments:  candles  then 
would  be  no  fooner  lighted  than  tbev  would  be  defiroycd, 
without 'anfwering  any  other  purpofe  than  that  of  dazzling 
us  for  a  few  moments:  iron  would  be  calcined,  indead  of 
acquiring  from  the  tire  that  foftncfs  necelHiry  for  transform- 
ing it  into  various  inftruments,  and  which  it  cannot  receive  in 
a  more  moderate  heat.  Nothing  would  be  capable  to  check 
the  progrefs  of  this  dcftructive  clement,  which  is  nouridied 
by  vital  'air,  if  this  aeriform  fubfiance  were  not  abundantly 
mixed  with  mephitic  air,  which  fervcs  to  rcftrain  it. 


XXXII.  A  Trcatifc  on   the  Cultivation  of  the  Viiie,  and  the 
Method  of  making  Jpi?ies,     By  Q.  Ckaptal, 

[Cgntiiiucd  from  Pdge  134.] 

in.  Of  the  Means  re^ui/tte  to  difpofe  the  IVinefor  Fcrmen^ 

tation, 

J\S  ripe  grapes  rot  on  the  twigs,  the  faculty  which  the 
fweet  and  faccharine  juice  of  the  fruit  poflefies  of  being  con^' 
verted  into  a  fpiritous  liquor  may  be  confidered  as  the  pur'©' 
effect  of  art,  and  it  is  by  the  fermentation  of  this  juice  ex-' 

prcOcd 


avd  the  Method  of  making  TVincs,  26% 

prcflld  that  this  change  is  profluced.  The  method  of  dif- 
pofiiig  grapes  to  fcmicntation  varies  in  different  countries; 
but  as  the  diiftrences  occafioned  in  fo  eflential  an  operation 
refl  on  certain  principles,  I  have  thought  it  proper  to  make 
them  known. 

We  are  informed  by  Pliny  {Dc  brio  'vino  apud  Graces 
ciari/flmo  ,  that  the  grapes  were  e(>lle6led  a  iitt'e  before 
their  raaturitv;  that  they  were  dried  by  being  expoied  to  the 
ardnnt  fun  for  three  davs,  turning  them  three  tunes  every 
day,  and  that  on  the  fourth  they  wcrei.expre{fed. 

In  Spain,  particularly  in  the  environs  of  St.  Lucar,  the 
grapes  are  left  cxpofed  lor  two  days  to  the  full  ardour  of  the 
fun.   . 

In  Lorraine,  part  of  Italy,  Calabria,  and  the  ifland  of 
Cyprus,  the  grapes  rire  dried  before  they  are  exprelTed.  It 
is  in  particular  when  white  fvvcet  wines  are  to  be  made  that 
the  grapes  are  dried,  to  thicken  the  juice,  and  thereby  to 
moderate  the  fermentation. 

It  appears  that  the  antients  were  acquainted  not  only  with 
the  art  of  drying  the  grapes  in  the  fun,  but  even  that  tliey 
were  not  ignorant  of  the  proeefs  employed  to  boil  and  con- 
centrate the  mud;  on  which  account  they  diftinguifhed 
wines  into  three  kinds,  paj/u?n,  defrutu?n,  Siudjiipa,  The 
firft  was  made  from  grapes  dried  in  the  fun;  the  fecond  was 
obtained  by  reducing  the  muft  one- half  by  the  means  of 
heat;  and  the  third,  from  muft  fo  concentrated  that  there 
remained  no  more  of  it  than  a  third  or  a  fourth.  For  very 
interefting  details  refpedling  thcfe  operations  the  reader  may 
confult  Pliny  and  Diofcorides.  Thefe  methods  are  ftill  ufed 
at  prefent,  and  we  (hall  Ihow,  when  we  come  to  fpcak  of 
fermentation,  that  it  may  be  directed  and  managed  in  an 
advantajreous  manner  by  infpiflating  a  portion  of  m\id,  and 
afterwards  mixing  it  with  the  remainder  of  the  mafs;  we 
iliall  (how  alfo  that  this  is  an  infallible  method  for  giving  to 
all  wines  a  deirree  of  ftrength  to  which  the  greater  part  of 
them  cannot  otherwife  attain. 

Agriculturifts  were  long  divided  in  regard  to  the  queftion, 

whether  it  is  mod  advantageous  to  free  the  grapes  from  the 

dalks  or  not  ?     Each  of  thcfe  methods  has  its  partifans,  and 

4  writers 


s64  On  the  Cuhwation  nf  the  Vine, 

writers  of  merit  may  be  quoted  who  have  fupported  bolls. 
In  my  opinion,  in  tliis  as  well  as  in  other  cafes,  boih  parties 
have  been  too  exelulive,  and  bv  bringing  back  the  queirion 
to  its  real  point  of  view  it  will  be  eal'y  tor  u3  to  terrninatc 
the  diifereiice. 

It  is  certain  that  the  (lalks  are  hardi  and  auflere,  and  it 
cannot  be  denied,  that  wines  produced  from  grapes  ribt  freed 
from  the  ftalks  do  participate  in  that  quality  :  *1nit  ihefe 
ere  weak  and  alnioft  infipid  wines,  fuch  as  the  greater  part 
of  thofe  made  in  moift  countries,  where  the  flighf^harfli 
tafle  of  the  ftalks  heightens  the  natural  infipidity  of  that  be- 
verage. Thus,  in  the  Orleanois,  agriculturills,  after  freeing 
the  grapes  from  the  ilalks,  have  been  obliged  to  abandon 
this  method,  becaufe  they  ohfcrved  that  the  grapes  freed  front 
the  ftalks  fiirnifhed  wines  more  inclined  to  become  oily.  It 
refults  alio,  from  the  experiments  of  Gentel,  that  fcrmenta- 
lion  proceeds  with  more  force  and  regularity  in  nuifl  mixed 
with  the  ftalks  than  in  that  which  has  been' freed  from 
them  ;  fo  that  in  this  point  of  view  the  (talks  mav  he  confi- 
clered  as  an  advantageous  ferment  in  all  cafes  where  it  is  to 
be  appreiieaded  that  the  fermentation  may  be  too  flow  or 
retarded. 

In  the  environs  of  Bourdeaux  the  red  grapes  are  carefully 
freed  from  the  ftalks  when  it  is  propofcd  to  ohtain  good 
•  wine.  But  this  operation  is  ftill  modilied  according  to  the 
degree  of  the  maturity  of  the  grapes.  It  is  much  employed 
wlien  the  grapes  have  little  ripenefs,  or  when  froll  has  takerf 
place  before  their  being  colleiSled;  but  wlien  the  grapes  afe 
very  ripe,  it  is  performed  with  lels  care.  Labadie  obferves^ 
in  the  iiiiormation  with  which  lie  has  fupplied  me,  that  tHe 
liralks  muli:  be  left  to  facilitate  the  fermentation. 

White  grapes  are  never  freed  from  the  ftalks  ;  and  experi^ 
ence  proves,  that  grapes  feparated  fnmi  the  ilalks  give  wine? 
lefs  fpiritous,%ud  more  fufceptible  of  becoming  oily. 

The  ftalks,  no  *loubt,  add  neither  to  the  faccharine  prin- 
ciple nor  to  the  aroma;  and  in  this  double  point  of  view% 
thev  cannot  contribute  by  their  principles  cither  to  the  fpi- 
fitous  quality  ofthewlneor  to  its  ftavour,  but  their  flight 
Iwltcfity  inay.corrt(^,  with  advantage,  the  weaknefs  of  fomc- 
i.-'-i;:./  wines; 


and  the  Method  of  making  Wines,  265 

^incs;  and  befides,  by  facilitating  the  ferinentntion,  they 
concur  to  effect  a  more  complete  decompofition  of  the  muft, 
and  to  produce  all  the  alcohol  it  is  fufccptiblc  of  yielding. 

Without  wandering  from  the  fubjcct  in  quellion,  we  may 
confidcr  wines  alfo  under  two  points  of  vicwy  according  to 
the  ufes  to  which  they  are  applied.  They  are  all  employed  ci- 
ther as  a  heverag-e  or  for  diftillation.  In  the  former,  qualities 
are  required  which  would  be  ufelefs  in  the  iecond.  Talle, 
which  forms  almoft  the  whole  merit  of  the  one,  adds  no- 
thing to  the  qualities  of  the  other.  Thus,  when  wine  is 
deftincd  to  be  diftilled,  it  is  neceffary  to  pay  attention  only 
to  the  means  of  developing  a  great  deal  of  alcohol :  it  is  of 
little  importance  whether  the  liquor  be  tart  or  not ;  in  this 
cafe,  to  free  the  grapes  from  the  Oalks  would  be  loll  labour. 
But  if  wine  is  prepared  for  a  beverage,  it  is  then  necelTary 
to  give  it  an  agreeable  taftc  and  a  delicate  flavour,  and  for 
this  purpofe,  care  muft  be  taken  to  avoid  every  thing  that 
may  alter  thefc  valuable  qualities.  On  this  account,  there- 
fore, it  is  neccflary  to  withdraw  the  ftalks  from  the  fer* 
mentation,  to  pick  the  grapes,  and  to  clean  tkem  with 
care. 

It  is,  probably,  in  confequence  of  a  knowledge  of  thcfe 
effcAs,  which  experience  every  day  places  before  the  eyes  of 
the   agriculturift,  rather  than  from  caprice  or  habit,  that  in 
certain  countries  tire  grapes  are  freed  from  the  ftalks,  and 
that  this  procefs  is  omitted   in  others.     To  attempt  to  re* 
duce  the  whole  to   one  general  method  would  be  (bowing 
ignorance  of  the  effecls  produced  by  the  ftalks  in  fermenta- 
tion, and  of  the  difference  which  exifts  in  the  various  qua- 
lities of  the  grapes.     In  the  fouth,  where  the  wine  is  natu- 
rally  generous,    the   ftalks  would   only  add   a   dilagreeable 
harflinels  to  a  liquor  already  too  ftrong  by  its  nature.     AH 
the  grapes,   therefore,   deftincd  to  form  wines  for  the  table, 
are  freed  from  the  ftalks,  while  thofe  deftined  for  diftillation 
are  fermented  with  them.     But  what  may  appear  aftoniftiinj:^ 
is,   that  in  different  parts  of  tlie  fame  canton  in  France,  we 
fee  fome  agriculturifts  free  their  grapes  irom  the  ftalks,  and 
extol  their  method,    while  others  in   the   neighbourhood, 
equallv  (kilftjl,  reje<il  this  pru'-Vice,  and  endcavuiir  to  fnp-. 
Vol.  IX.  LI  port 


a6S  Oti  the  CuUtvaiion  of  the  Vine^ 

port  thL'ir  method  by  the  refult  of  their  experience.  The 
oi>e  makes  wines  more  delicate,  the  other  wines  ot  a  ftronger 
quality  ;  both  find  partifans  of  the  liquor  which  they  pre* 
pare :  but  this  is  a  matter  of  tafte,  which  docs  not  contradict 
the  principles  wc  have  here  laid  down, 

In  general,  a  fork  with  three  prongs,  which  the  wprk- 
man  turns  and  agitates  in  a  circular  manner  in  the  val 
where  the  grapes  are  contained,  is  employed  for  freeing 
them  from  the  {talks.  By  this  rapid  motion  the  llalks  are 
detached  from  the  grapes,  and,  being  drawn  up  to  the  fur- 
face,   are  removed  with  the  hand. 

They  may  be  freed  from  the  (^alks  alfo  by  means  of  a 
common  fie^T  formed  of  ofier  twigs,  diftant  from  each  other 
about  half  an  inch,  and  having  above  it  a  clofe  ofier  pad  or 
prefier,  about  four  inches  thick. 

But  whether  the  grapes  be  freed  from  the  ftalks  or  not, 
it  is  indifpenfi^bly  npcefifary  to  tread  them,  in  order  to  facili- 
tate the  fermentation,  and  this  procefs  is  performed  as  the 
grapes  are  collected  and  brought  home  from  the  vineyards. 
The  operation  is  nearly  the  fame  in  all  the  wine  countries, 
and  is  performed,  for  the  moft  part,  in  a  fqnarc  box,  open 
at  the  tqp,  and  about  a  yard  and  a  half  in  breadth.  The  fides 
confill  of  wooden  bars,  with  intervals  of  fuch  a  fize  that 
the  grapes  may  not  pafs  through  them.  This  box  is  placed 
911;  the  vat,  and  kept  in  its  pofition  by  two  beams  refting 
on  the  edge  of  the  veflel.  The  grapes  are  poured  into 
this  box  as  they  arrive  from  the  vineyards,  and  are  immedi- 
ately trod,  in  a  llrong  and  equal  manner,  by  a  man,  having 
pn  his  feet  large  wooden  plogSj  or  ftrong  ihoes.  While  em- 
ployed in  this  labour,  he  refts  with  his  two  hr^nds  on  the 
(L*dge  of  the  box,  ftamping  \yith  rapidity  on  the  flratum  of 
the  grapes,  while  the  expreflcd  juice  runs  into  the  vat 
through  the  interftices  left  between  the  bars.  Nothing 
remains  in  the  box  but  the  pellicle  and  ilalks  of  the  grapes  j 
and  when  the  workman  finds  that  all  the  juice  is  exprefled, 
he  raifes  a  plank,  which  forms  a  part  of  one  of  the  fides  of 
|.he  box,  and  purties  the  fkins  and  (talks  with  his  foot  into 
the  vat.  This  door  Hides  in  two  grooves,  formed  on  two 
pci4)endicular  bars.     As  foon  as  the  box  has  been  cleaned, 

ft  ne\v 


dnd  the  Method  of  lilaVmg  Wines,  267 

fk  new  quantity  of  grapes  are  introduced  to  be  trod  in  the 
fime  manner;  and  this  operation  is  continued  till  the  vat  i^ 
full,  or  until  the  vintage  is  terminated. 

In  fome  countries  the  grapes  arc  irod  in  tubs.  This  me- 
thod is  perhaps  better  in  regard  to  the  i:'S<t&.  than  the  former^ 
but  it  is  (lower,  and  cannot  be  cmpldyed  in  countries  where 
the  vineyards  are  of  great. extent. 

There  arc  fome  countries  alfo  where  the  grapes  are  poured 
into  the  vat  as  they  come  from  the  vineyards;  and  when  fer- 
mentation begins  to  take  place,  the  muli;,  which  floats  on  the 
furface,  is  carefully  removed  in  order  to  be  conveyed  to  the 
cafks,  where  the  fermentation  is  coriipleted.  The  refiduntn 
is  then  fqueezcd  under  a  prefs,  to  form  wine  of  a  higher  co- 
lour and  lefs  flavour. 

In  general,  whatever  be  the  method  employed  in  treading 
the  grapes,  what  concerns  this  important  operation  may  be 
reduced  10  the  two  following  principles  : 

Grapes  cannot  experience  fpirituous  fermentation  unlefs 
the  fugar  be  extracted  by  proper  prefllire,  in  order  that  it 
may  be  fubje(Sled  to  the  a(9ticjii  of  thoife  caufes  which  deter- 
mine the  movement  of  fermentation. 

It  follows  from  this  fundamental  truth,  that  not  only  the 
means  proper  for  treading  the  grapes  ought  to  be  employed, 
but  that  the  operation  will  not  be  complete  unlefs  all  the  jrrapes 
are  equally  preffed  ;  without  this  the  fermentation  can  never 
proceed  in  an  uniform  manner:  the  period  of  the  decompo- 
filion  of  the  expreffed  juice,  would  terminate  even  before  the 
grapes  which  efcaped  being  trod  upon  had  begim  theirs,  and 
there  would  thus  be  produced  a  whole^  the  elements  of  which 
would  no  longer  bear  relation  to  each  other.  However,  on 
examining  the  producl  depdfited  in  the  vat  after  the  treading 
is  finillied,  it  will  readily  appear  that  the  compreflion  has 
been  always  unequal  and  imperfect:;  arid  by  reflecting  a  mo- 
tiient  on  the  rude  proccfles  employed  for  treading  the  grapes, 
there  will  be  not  reafon  for  being  aftohiflied  at  the  imperfect 
tion  of  the  refults. 

It  appears,  then,  that  to  give  to  this  very  important  part  of 
tlie  labour  of  the  vintage  the  neceflary  degree  of  perfection j 
k  would  be  nccefTary  to  fubmit  to  the  a<^ion  of  the  pfefs  all 

L  1  i  the 


a^8  On  thd  Cuhhation  of  the  Fhia,  ^v, 

the  grapes  as  they  are  brought  from  the  vuieyard.  The  jitice 
would  be  received  in  a  vat,  where  it  might  be  left  to  fpon-i- 
taneous  ferineutatioii.  By  this  method  alone  the  movement 
of  decompofition  would  be  excrcifed  on  the  whole  mafs  in 
an  equal  manner;  the  fermentation  would  be  uniform  and 
iiaiuhaneous  in  regard  to  all  the  parts;  and  the  figns  which 
announce,  accompany,  or  folh)w  it,  would  not  be  difturbed 
or  obfcured  by  particular  movements.  The  muii^,  freed  from 
llie  rtalks  and  huflcs,  would  no  doubt  produce  wine  lefs  co- 
k)ured)  more  delicate,  and  more  difficult  to  be  prefcrved  ;  but 
if  the  inconveniences  of  this  method  exceeded  the  advantages, 
k  wouM  be  eafy  to  prevent  them  by  mixing  the  exprefled 
refufc  with  the  muiL 

In  confcquence  of  thefe  principles,  care  oucht  to  be  taken 
to  fill  tire  vat  in  twenty-four  hours.  In  Burgundy  the  vintage 
is  terminated  in  four  or  (ive  days.  Too  long  time  would  be 
attended  with  the  difagrceablc  inconvenience  of  a  fucceflive 
feiies  of  fermentations,  which,  on  that  account  alone,  would 
be  all  imperfecl ;  a  portion  of  the  mafs  would  be  already  fer- 
mented, while  the  fermentation  would  be  fcarcely  begim  in 
another.  The  wine  thence  refulting  would  then  be  a  real 
mixture  of  feveral  wines  more  or  lefs  fermented.  The  in- 
telligent agriculturifi:,  therefoie,  anxious  for  the  quality  of  his 
produces,  ought  to  determine  the  number  of  the  vintagers  ac- 
cording to  the  known  capacity  of  his  vat;  and  when  unex- 
pe6led  rain  makes  him  fufpend  the  labour  of  collecting  the 
grapes,  he  ought  to  leave  to  ferment  feparatelv  the  juice  of 
thofc  already  colle6led  and  placed  in  the  vat,  rather  than  run 
the  hazard  of  expoling  himfelf  Ibme  days  after  to  the  danger 
of  interrupting  its  movements  and  altering  its  nature  by  the 
addition  of  frelh  and  aqueous  muft. 

[  To  be  continued.] 


XXXliT.   Account  of  Nciu  PuhVications. 

Pbllofophiciil   Tranfa6lions  (f  the  Bnyal   Soc'ietj  of  London 
/or  1800.     Part  III.    ^lo,     Elmlly. 

X  HIS  part  cotltains  :   ii^xperimcnts  on  the  Solar  and  on 
the  Tcrrdtrial  Kavs  that 'jccalion  Heat;   with  a  comparative 

View 


Neiv  Ptlhlkallom,  26<} 

Vkw  of  the  Laws  to  which  Light  and  Heat>  or  rather  the 
rays  which  occafion  thciii,  are  ful)jc6l,  in  order  to  determine 
whether  they  are  the  fame  or  different.  Part  TT.  By  Wil- 
liam Ilerfchel,  ^X.D.  F.  R.S.  And,  An  Account  of  the 
Trigonometrical  Survey  carried  on  in  the  years  1797,  1798, 
and  1799,  by  order  of  the  Marquis  Cornwailis,  mailer-gc- 
ueral  of  the  ordnance.  By  Captain  William  Mudge,  of  the 
Royal  Artillery,  F.K.S.  Communicated  by  his  Grace  the 
Duke  of  Richmond,  F.R.S. 

The  P/jjjtcal  Pr'mciphs  of  Chemijlry,     By  M.  J.  Brisson, 

Memhtr  of  the  Trench  National  Inflilute^  and  Vrrfefjor  of 
Chem'ijlry  in  the  Central  School  of  Paris,  Tranjlated  frovi 
the  French,  llliijlrated  with  Etngravings,  8co.  Cuthell, 
and  V^ernor  and  Hood. 

THE  prefent  work  contains  much  ufeful"  matter,  well  di- 
gefted,  well  arran^x'd,  and  comprefTed  into  as  little  bulk  as 
its  nature  could  admit  of,  without  omitting  any  thing  necef- 
fary  in  an  elementary  treatife. 

The  tables  of  the  combinations  of  all  the  acids  with  the 
falifiable  bafes.  In  the  order  of  their  affinities,  io  far  as 
yet  known,  are  fo  ample  that  the  work  cannot  fail  to  prove 
extremely  ufeful  even  to  thofe  who  are  well  acquainted  with 
chemidry;  and  the  various  procelfes,  which  are  detailed  w-ith 
precifion,  yet  without  prolixity,  are  illuftrated  with  engrav- 
ings of  the  necelTary  apparatus,  executed  in  a  maftcrly  man- 
ner by  Lowry.  .       . 

The  work  poflefles  confiderable  merit,  and  the  tranflation 
is  well  executed.  The  following  extract,  will  ferve  as  a  fp?- 
cimcn  of  both : 

^'  Nitrous  Gas. 

*'  Nitrous  gas  was  difcovered  by  Hales ;  but  Pricftley 
made  known  the  greater  part  of  its  properties.  It  docs  not 
cxift  in  a  natural  Hate,  and  mu(l  be  obtained  by  the  afliit- 
ance  of  art.  It  is  one  of  the  conllitiient  parts  of  the  nitrous 
flcid  ;  and  it  wouM  be  nitrous  acid  itfelf,  were  it  not  de- 
prived of  a  large  portion  of  its  oxygen,  which  makes  it  ceafe 
to  be  an  acid.  It  is  compofed  .with  the  fame  bafe  as  that  of 
ihe  nitrous  ,acid^  which  is  azot  holding  in  a  ftate  of  gas  two 

parts 


iyo  ^ftv  Puhttcaftonf, 

parts  of  oxygen  ;  that  hk^e  being  combined  with  caloric,  tti 
this  ftate  it  is  not  foluble  in  water;  but  if  you  furnifh  it  with  . 
a  third  part  of  oxvgen,  by  combining  with  that  cxcefs,  it 
becomes  acid,  and  very  foKible  in  water;  If  in  one  part 
therefore  of  atot  there  are  only  two  ports  of  oxygen,  it  \9 
merely  a  nitrous  tjxyd  ;  which  is  the  bafe  of  nitrous  gas  ;  if 
there  are  three  parts  of  oxygen^  it  forms  fuming  nitrous 
acid;  if  there  be  four  parts,  the  rcfuh  is  white  nitric  acid; 
Thefe  two  Lift  compounds  arc  acid,  and  perfeclly  foluble  iri 
water ;  the  flr(l  is  neither  acid  nor  foluble.  * 

"  It  may  eafily  be  (liOwn,  both  by  analyfis  and  fynthcfis^ 
that  the  bafc  of  the  nitrous  lacid  is  Jizot  combined  with 
oxygen,  but  not  to  faturation,  which  would  make  it  nitric 
acid,  lit.  By  analvfis.  Nitrous  acid  niay  be  dccompofed 
by  making  it  ac^  on  fome  metal  (copper,  for  example)  which 
takes  from  it  a  part  of  its  oxygen,  and  reduces  it  to  the  ftate 
of  nitrous  gas  ;  if  you  then  cxpofe  this  nitrous  gas  over  art 
alkaline  fulphuret  which  will  deprive  it  of  the  reft  of  its 
oxygen,  nothing  will  remain  but  lazotic  gas,  therefore,  &c,- 
2d,  By  fynihefis.  Mr.  Cavendifli  formed  nitrous  acid  by 
expofmg  feven  parts  of  pure  air  and  three  of  azotic  gas  to 
the  a£tion  of  the  electric  iluid  5  the  azot  combined  with 
the  oxvgen  of  the  pure  air,  and  the  refult  was  nitrous  acid  i 
the  bafe  of  nitrous  gas  therefore  is  azot  combined  with 
oxygen , 

**  Nitrous  gas  therefore  may  be  obtai'^ed  from  the  nitrous 
or  nitric  acid,  m;ule  to  acl  on  combuftible  matters.  Thefe' 
matters  ^combine  with  a  greater  or  lefs  portion  of  the  oxygen 
of  the  acid,  while  the  azot,  which  retains  a  p?.rt  of  the 
oxygen  by  combining  with  caloric,  forms  nitrous  gas,  which 
paffes  into  the  bell  placed  to  receive  it.  The  fubftances  pro- 
per for  this  purpofe  are  iron,  copper,  brafs,  tin,  filver^  mer- 
cury, bifmuth,  and  nickel.  It  may  be  extracted  alfo  by 
means  of  gold  and  antimony  {lom  the  nitric  acid,  which 
makes  a  component  part  in  the  niuo-muriatrk acid  employed 
to  dtlTolve  tbefe  metals.  It  may  he  extracted  alfo  from  the 
i^itKuus  acid,  by  making  it  to  a6t  oa  alcohol,  ettier,  oils^ 
f«iinB,  gnms^  charcoal,  fugar,  8cc. 

"  By  whatever  iubltaaice  extruded,  its  properties  are  the 

fame  ^ 


New  Publications,  2JX 

fame  ;  but  it  is  obtained  in  the  grei^ten;  quantity  by  means  of 
metals.  There  are  i'oTuc,  however,  by  niiiiins  of  which  you 
extra6l  only  azotic  gas,  becaufe  they  feize  on  all  the  oxygen 
of  the  nitrous  acid  employed.  The  flafk  made  ufe  of  to 
caufe  the  acid  to  cxercife  an  action  on  the  metal  ought  to  be 
cijtirely  filled  with  the  former,  becaufe,  if  any  air  were  left  in, 
the  gas  in  difengaging  itfelf  would  combine  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  piire  air,  and  this  combination,  diflblving  in  the 
Jiquor,  would  occafion  a  vacuum  which  would  permit  the 
water  of  the  tub  to  pal's  into  the  flafk. 

*^  Nitrous  gas  is  a  little  heavier  than  atmofpheric  air :  its 
fpecific  gravity  is  to  that  of  air  as  105*35  is  to  100,  and  to  that 
of  dillillcd  water  as  33*0179  is  to  looco.  A  cubic  inch  of 
this  fluid  weighs  0*4860;  and  the  cubic  foot  i  ounce  3 
drams  48  grains*. 

^' Nitrous  gas,  wlien  very  pure^  is  not  foluble  in  water; 
as  may  be  eafily  proved  by  agitating  it  in  that  liquid. 

*'  It  gives  no  fjgn  of  acidity,  as  it  does  not  redden  blue  ve- 
getable colours;  nor  does  it  combine  with  alkalies  unlefs.it 
be  mixed  with  air,  for  it  then  becomes  acid  by  fejzingou  the 
t)xygen  of  the  air. 

<*  Nitrous  gas  fpeedily  deftroys  plants  and  animals  im- 
merfed  in  it ;  and  it  extinguishes  burning  bodies,  firft  making 
the  flame  afllime  a  green  colour. 

^'  If  nitrous  giiS  be  mixQd  with  atmofpheric  air,  it  becomes 
red,  and  has, the  odour  of  nitrous  acid;  as  may  be  ealily 
proved  by  diflufing  a  little  of  it  through  the  air:  it  then  ab- 
forbs  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  combines  with  it,  and  becomes 
nitrous  acid.  This  may  be  better  fliovvn  by  the  following 
experiment : — Put  two  meafurcs  of  atmofpheric  ^ir  and  then 
one  of  nitrous  ga»  into  a.glafs  tube  marked  in  equal  divifions 
with  a  diamond  :  the  mixture  will  immediately  become  red 
and  grow  hot;  and  as  this  combination,  which  is  really 
nitrous  acid,  is  very  foluble  in  water,  you  will  fee  the  water 
nfccnd  in  the  tube  in  proportion  as  the  mixture  dilfolves  iri 
it,  fo  that  of  the  3  mcafures  about  i  |  will  be  diffolvtd,  if 

*  According  to  the  new  Fiench  fvTtcm,  a  cubic  dcctmctrt-  of th  s  flu  d 
tK'cighs  I  ijrammd  30*1  inill«gramtr;t.s  j  and  a  cubic  iilttre,  i  chi.iognin.mc 
•301  giammts  335  niillijjrammes. 

'  the 


%y-2  Keiu  PuhlJcafions, 

the  air  be  of  a  good  quality.  What  remains  under  the  ga^ 
fcous  form  is  nothi»g  but  azotic  gas.  The  heat  produced  on  • 
ibis  ocCalion  is  owing  to  the  caloric  of  thcfe  fluids,  which  ^ 
klfumes  tlic  free  (late.  If,  inftead  of  atmofpheric  air,  you'* 
mix  pure  air  with  tlx?  nitfous  gas,  '^ix.  two  mcafurcs  ot  gas 
and  one  of  pure  air,  the  rcdncfa  will  be  much  rnbre  intenfe,  ' 
the  heat  protluccd  far  greattT,  and  ih'e  njixture.  ivill  bealmqft"-^ 
entirely  diflTolvcd  in  the  water. '■  '  »•  ;       '   -> 

"  It  may  be  here  fecn,  that  by  means  of  thi-s- gas  we  can  \ 
afccrtain  the  falubrity  of  the  air  3  for  it  combines  Only  with  ' 
oxygen,  or  the  bafe  of  pure  air,  which  is  the  only  rcfpirable 
part  of  the  atmofpherc.  Air  fubje6led  to  this  tcft  ought  * 
therefore  to  be  coniidered  as  fo  much  fitter  for  rcfpi ration, ^^ 
according  as  the  quantity  of  it  abforbed  is  greater.  '  '^* 

*'  The  water  in  which  this  mixture  of  nitrous  gas  and  pure  - 
air  is  diflblved,  becomes  liquid  nitrous  acid ;  fo  much  the 
lironger  the  lefs  it  contains  of  water,     ift.  It  reddens  blue- 
vegetable  colours  j  it  is  therefore  acid  :  2d,  This  acid  .unites 
and  combines  with  alkalies,  and  forms  with  them  dctonatingi 
nitres:  it  is  therefore  nitrous  acid.     To  prove  this,  affix  to' 
the  bottom  of  a  bell-glafs  fome  concrete  carbonat  of  ammonia# 
tred  up  in  a  fmall  piece  of  gauze,  afid  place  the  bell  on  the 
flielf  of  a  pneumatic  tub  in  fuch  a  manner  that  the  bell  may 
be  two-thirds  filled  with  atmofpheric  air,  while  the  otlier 
third  contains  water.     If  you  thcti  make  nitrous  gas  to  pafs 
into  the  bell,  the  mixture  w'ill  immediately  aflumc  a  red  co- 
lour: an  etfccl;  produced  by  the  combination  of  the  gas  with 
the  refpirablc  part  of  the  air.     By  this  combination  the  gas 
has  become  nitrous  acid.     You  will   then  perceive  a  great 
cleal  of  whil-e  vapours  arifing  from  the  combination  of  this 
acid  with  the  carbonat  of  ammonia.     Thefe  vapours  arc  af- 
terwards coiulenfed,   and  cryftallife.     The  crvftals  collected 
will  fufe  on  burning  coals,  and  therefore  are  nitre. 

*'  Oxygenated  Muriatic  Gas, 

**  Oxygen&ledm^iriatic  grYs,  the  dephlogifticated  muriatie 
acid  of  S.chcelc.^ujder.ii  gafeous  form,   is  the  muriatic  acid 
gas,  of- which  \ve  fliall  fpeak  hereafter,  but  furcbargcd  with 
oxygon  and  perfectly  dephlegmated. 
-■'''  8  <^  This 


Keib  VulUcntkm,  273 

*^^  Thi>:  gas  is  obtained  by  fxpofiiig  the  miinatic  acid  tp 
heat  and  evaporation  while  it  is  a6lihg  on  a  fabihnce  that 
'contains  oxvgen ;  fuch,  for  examplej  af5  the  tialive  oxyd  of 
hiangancfe.  If  you  therefore  put  50  parts  of  the  liativeoiyd 
^fmanganefe  arid  160  parts  of  muriatic  acid  into  a  glafs  re- 
tort^ and  t'xpofc  it  to  heat,  il  ftrohg  feriiien ration  will  be  ex- , 
fcited,  during  whith  the  muriatic  acid  will  be  coilvertcd  into 
gas,  but  furchargcd  with  oxygen  which  it  takes  from  tjie 
bxyd  of  manganefe,  becaufe  it  has  a  great  afiinity  for  that 
fubllance.  To  collecl  ibis  gas,  when  »'ou  have  reafon  to 
think  that  all  the  air  in  the  retort  has  palled  over,  introduce 
the  beak  of  it  below  a  bell  filled  with  mercury  or  water;  for 
this  gas  dt)es  riot  diOblve  in  watfer  biit  in  a  hnall  quantity, 
and  when  the  water  is  faturated  with  it,  the  excefs  of  the  gas 
will  pa fs  into  the  upper  part  of  the  bell. 

*^  This  gas,  then,  is  compofed  of  muriatic  acid  gas  and  an 
fexccfs  of  oxygen.  It  is  this  oxygeti  in  excefs  which,  though 
it  be  the  acidifying  principle,  deprives  it  of  the  whole,  or 
hearly  the  whole,  of  its  acidity,  and  renders  it  lefs  foluble  in 
water.  This  is  a  h&  difiicult  to  be  explained.  We  have 
have  alreadv  faid  that  an  excefs  of  oxvo-en  added  to  nitrous 
gas  produces  in  it  a  Contrary  eflc6l ;  for  it  gives  it  an  acidity 
it  did  not  bef()ffc  poffjfs,  aiid  renders  it  perfectly  foluble  in 
water.  It  would  be  difiicult  to  account  for  thtfe  different 
eftecSts,  but  they  are  hS.s,  well  attelled,  which  we  ought  to 
adopt  though  ignorant  of  the  caufe. 

"  Oxygeilated  muriatic  gas  is  not  invlfible  like  the  other 
gafes;  it  is  of  a  green ifli- yellow  colour,  which  renders  it 
very  perceptible,  ft  has  a  ftrong  pungent  odotir,  and  i§ 
dangerous  to  infpire,  becaid'c  it  excites  a  violent  cough,  and 
hiight  occafion  a  haemorrhage. 

"  We  have  before  mentioned  that  oxygenated  muriatic 
gas  is  tiot  acid,  or  at  lead  verv  little  fo :  a  proof  of  this  is, 
that  it  does  not  combing,  or  at  leaft  very  little,  with  alkalies; 
and  that  it  has  not  force  fufncient  to  drive  the  carbonic  acid 
from  the  dit^erent  bafe?  with  which  it  is  combined  :  an  Q^t^ 
produced  by  all  the  kitown  acid?,  howevfei-  weak ;  bcfides,  it 
does  not  redden  bhie  vegetable  colours,  as  it  would  do  if  ii 
were  acid.     It  however  deftroys  not  only  hh^dj  but  alii.)  all 

Vol.  IX.  Mm  '  the 


^74  K^w  Pitblicatiom. 

the  other  vegetable  colours,  and  convert^;  thcni  into  white. 
It  deprives  all  flowers  of  tiieir  colour,  and  bleaches  cloth, 
yellow  wax,  filk,  &c.  It  is  by  means  of  it^  excefs  of  oxygen 
that  it  produces  thcfe  effects;  and  by  lofing  it!^  excefs  of  ox- 
ygen it  returns  to  the  ftate  of 'finiple  muriatic  acid  gas,  which 
is  then  entirely  foluble  in  water. 

*'  Oxygenated  muriatic  gas  extinguiflies  burning  bodie^^ 
and  fpeedily  dcttroys  animals  immerfed  in  it. 

**  This  gas  has  the  property  of  decompofing  ammonia  : 
its  excefs  of  oxygen  combines  with  the  hydrogen  of  the  am- 
monia (which  is  compofed  of  one  part  of  hydrogen  and  fix  of 
azot),  and  forms  water,  while  the  azot  is  left  free. 

**  Oxygenated  muriatic  gas  is  not  fo  foluble  in  water  as 
tke  plain  muriatic  acid  gas,  which  can  in  no  manner  be 
collected  over  water:  it  is,  however,  foluble  in  ie  to  a  certain 
degree,  and  then  forms  liquid  oxygenated  murlat,  which  h 
the  real  folvcnt  of  gold,  platina,  Sec.  as  may  be  proved  by 
putting  into  that  liquor  fomc  gold  leaf,  which  will  be  fpeedily 
di  looked. 

*'  In  the  nitro-murlatic  acid  It  is  the  agent  that  difTolves 
gold,  for  that  acid  is  a  mixture  of  muriatic  acid  and  nitric 
acid.  In  this  mixture  the  muriitic  acid,  the  radical  of  whicri 
has  a  great  affinity  for  oxygen,  combines  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  nitric  acid,  and,  by  thcfe  means,  becomes  oxygenated 
muriat,  and  the  bafe  of  the  nit/ic  acid  remains  free;  fo  that 
in  this  li(juor  no  more  acid  perhaps  is  left.  The  nitric  acid 
has  lofi;  its  acidity  by  loling  Its  oxygen,  and  the  muriatic 
;icid  has  loft;  its  acidity  by  combining  with  the  oxygen  of  the 
jtitric  acid.  Thcfe  are  two  facts  which,  as  already  fuid,  are 
difficult  to  be  explained. 

"  The  oxygenated  muriat  is  gradually  decompofed  by  the" 
contact  of  light  which  difengages  its  excefs  of  oxygen.  By 
lofing  this  excefs  of  oxygen  it  pailes  to  the  Hate  of  pure  mn^ 
tiatic  acid;  and  the  oxygen  thus  difengaged  combining  with 
caloric,  forms  pure  air,  called  oxygen  gas.'* 
An  Epitome  cf  ChcmTjlrj.  By  William  IJcnry.  Small  i^mo^ 
Johnfon,  St.  Paul's  Church-Yard. 
THIS  valuable  little  volume  is  divided  into  three  parts. 
Pdrt  I.  intended  to  facilitate  to  the  Itudcnt  the  acquifuioii 

of 


Kt'-zv  Puhlicaimis.  275 

f>f  chemical  knowledge  by  minute  in(lrii(ftlons  for  the  per- 
formance of  ex'periments. — Part  11,  Diredions  for  the  ana- 
iyfcs  of  mineral  waters,  of  earths  and  ftones,  of  ores  of  me- 
tals, and  of  mineral  bodies  in  general. — Part  III.  Inllruc- 
tions  for  applying  chemical  teiis  and  re-agents  to  various 
ufcful  purpof'es.  I1ic  plan  and  objects  of  the  work,  as  t^e 
nuthor  hinifelf  obfervcs,  are  fiifficicntly  difiincil  from  every 
other  compendium  of  chemillrv  to  authorife  its  addition  to 
the  cxtenfive  iiii:  of  elementary  work?.  One  object  propofcd 
to  be  fulfilled  by  this  epitome  is,  *'  that  it  may  ferve  as  d 
companion  to  the  colleiStions  of  chemical  fubftances,  which 
the  author,  by  the  repeated  applications  of  Undents  of  this 
fcience,^has  been  induced  to  fit  up  for  public  Aile.  The 
utility  of  thefe  collections  has  hitherto  been  limited  by  the 
want  of  a  concife  but  comprehenfive  code  of  inftru^tions  for 
their  ufe.  With  the  concurrent  aid  of  the  firft  part  of  this 
work,  and  of  a  correfj^onding  che(t  of  chemical  re-agents, 
the  labours  of  the  lludeut  cannot  tail  to  be  much  facilitated  5 
for  one  of  the  principal  clifficiilties  in  ftudying  chcmiftry  ex- 
perimentally, is  the  acquifition  of  a  great  variety  of  fubftanccs, 
many  of  which  are  not  cafy  of  attainment." 

'I'he  following  extracts  refpe^ing  the  methods  fbr  afcer- 
taining  the  purity  of  chemical  preparations.  Sec.  are  frpm 
Part  III. 

Acetic  Ac'iu — AciJiim  Acctofum  of  the  London  Pharmacopoeia, 

Radical  or  concentrated  Vhicgat. 

*'  This  acid   is  often .  contaminated  by.  fulphureous  and 

fulphuric  acid.     The  firft  mav  be  known  by  drawing  a  little 

of  the  vapour  into  the  lungs,  when,  if  the  acid  be  pure,  no 

unplcafant  fenfalion  will  be  felt;  but,  if  fulphureous  acids  be 

contained  in  the  acetic,  it  will  not  fail  to  be  difccvered  in  this 

mode.     The  fulphuric  acid  is  detected  by  muriatcd  barytes  ; 

oopper  by  fuper-faturation  with  pure  ammonia;  and  lead  by 

fulphufet  of  anmionia.  ..  *. 

'^  The  fpccific  gravity  of  t histoid  (Itould  be  lO^^Q-at  leafti 

<f  Acetous  Acid—Acetzim  BifttUatum,  P.  L,    DijlUhd 

Vinegar. 

'    *^  If  viwcgar  be  diftilled  in  copper  vefffls,  it  can  hardly  fail 

'  >I  m  :j  b<4ing 


2^6  New  Tiihltcationi, 

being  contaminated  by  that  metal ;  and  if  a  Icnden  worin  be 
ufcd  for  its  x:onden{iUion,  fomc  portion  of  lc;id  will  certainly 
be  difTolved.  The  former  metal  will  appear  on  adding  an 
cxccfs  of  folution  of  amnionia;  and  lead  will  be  detected  by 
jthc  fulphurated  ammonia^  or  by  water  faturatcd  with  fulphur- 
at^jd  hydrogen. 

.  **  It  is  pot  uniifual,  in  order  to  incrcafe  the  acid  taftc  of 
vinegar,  to  add  fulphnric  acid.  This  acid  may  be  immedi- 
ately difcovercd  by  folutions  of  barytas,  which,  when  vinegar 
has  been  thusadultcratpd,  throw  down  a  white  precipitate." 

" .  Ci^rhonat  of  Toinjh — Kali  Treparatumy  P.  L. 

**  The  Ailt  of  tartar  of  the  {l)ops  generally  contains  fidphat 
find  muriat  of  potaili,  and  filiceoiis  and  calcareous  earths.  It 
should  diflTolve  entirely,  if  pure,  in  twice  it§  weight  of  cold 
water;  and  any  thing  that  remains  undiffolyed  may  be  re?. 
garded  as  an  impurity.  Sometimes  one-fourth  of  foreign 
admixtures  may  tluis  be  dptefted,  the  greater  part  of  whicl^ 
IS  fulphat  of  potafli.  To  afpertain  the  nature  of  the  adullera^ 
tion,,  diflblve  a  poriion  in  pure  and  diluted  nitric  acid.  The 
filiceous  earth  only  will  remain  undiflblvpd.  Add,  to  one 
pprlion  of  the  fqlution,  nitrat  of  barytes.  This  will  detect 
fiilphat  of  pqtafh  by  a  copious  precipitate.  To  another  por- 
tion add  nitrat  of  filveir,  whjch  will  difcover  muriatic  faltsj; 
and,  to  a  third,  oxalat  of  ammonia,  which  will  det^i^  calca- 
reous earth. 

'f  The  fqlution  of  carbonat  of  potaili  (Aqua  Kali_j  P.  L.) 
ijHay  be  examined  in  a  firnilar  manner. 

'^  Solution,  of  pure  Fota/lp—^Aqjta  Kali  Purr,    P.  L. 

^'  This  may  be  affayed  for  fulphuric  and  muriatic  falts  by 
faturation  \yith  nitric  acid,  and  by  the  tefts  recommended  iu 
fpcaking  of  carbonat  of  potaOi.  -A  perfeftly  pure  folution  of 
potadi  flaouild  remain  traiifparent,  on  the  addition  of  barytic 
water.  If  a  precipitate  fliould  cnfue,  which  didblves,  with 
efliirvefccnce,  in  dilute  muriatic  acid,  it  is  owing  to  the  pre- 
fence  of  carbonic  -acid  j  if  the  precipitate  is  not  foluble,  it  in- 
dicates fulphuric  acid,  A  redundancy  of  carbonic  acid  i$ 
alfo  fhown.  by  an  efiervcfccnce  on  adding  diluted  fulphuric 

acici  i 


AW  Tuhlicatiom.  ^77 

acid;  and  an  exccfs  of  lii^ie,  by  ^  white  precipitate,  onblow* 
jng  air,  from  the  lungs,  through  the  foiqlion,  by  means  of  a 
tobacco-pipe." 

*^  Mercury  or  Quichjilver — Hydrargus,  P.  L, 
♦^  Scarcely  any  fubftance  is  fo  liable  to  adulteration  as 
inercur)',  owing  to  the  property  which  it  pofTcfl'es  of  diffolv- 
ing  completely  fome  of  the  bafer  metals.  This  union  is  fo 
(Irong,  that  ^hcy  even  rife  along  with  the  quickfilver  when 
diHillcd.  The  impurity  of  piercury  is  generally  indicated  by 
its  dull  afpe^l;  by  its  tarn  idling,  and  becoming  covered  with 
a  coat  of  oxyd  on  long  expofure  to  the  air,  by  its  adhcfion  to 
the  furfcce  of  glafs ;  and,  whfjn  fliaker^  with  water  in  a  bot- 
tle, by  the  forrnation  of  a  black  powder.  Lead  and  tin  are 
frequent  impurities ;  and  the  mercury  becomes  capable  of 
taking  up  more  of  thefe,  if  ?inc  or  bifmuth  be  prpvioufly 
added.  In  order  to  difcover  lead,  the  mercury  may  be  agi- 
tated with  a  Httle  water,  in  ofder  tp,  oxvdale  that  metal. 
Pour  off  the  water,  and  digeft  the  mercury  with  a  little  acet- 
pus  acid.  This  will  diflblve  the  oxyd  of  lead,  which  will  be 
indicated  by  a  blackifh  precipitate  with  fulphuratcd  water. 
Or,  to  this  acetous  folution,  add  a  little  fulphat  of  foda,  which 
will  precipitate  a  fulphat  of  lead,  containing,  when  drv, 
73  per  cent,  of  metal.  If  only  a  very  minute  quantity  of 
lead  be  prefent  in  a  large  quantity  of  metal,  it  may  be  de- 
tefted  by  folution  in  nitric  acid,  and  the  addition  of  fulphu- 
ratcd water.  A  dark  brown  precipitate  will  cnfue,  and  will 
fubfide,  if  allowed  to  {land  a  few  days.  One  part  of  lead 
may  thus- be  feparated  from  15,263  parts  of  mercur}'.  Bif- 
nuith  is  detpcled  by  pouring  a  nitric  folution,  piepared  with- 
out heat,  into  diftilled  water;  a  white  precipitate  will  appear, 
if  this  metal  be  prefent.  Tin  is  manifefted,  in  like  mannex, 
by  a  weak  folution  qf  nitro-muriat  of  gold,  which  throws  down 
a  purple  fediment;  and  zinc,  by  cxpofmg  the  metal  to  heat.'* 

*^  Moih'  of  dcU^lhig  the  Adulteration  of  Poiijjhesy  VcarlaJJ.'cSy 

and  Barilla, 

^'  Few  objects  of  commerce  are  fophifticatcd  to  a  greater 

extent  than  the  alkalies,  to  the  great  lofs  and  injury  of  the 

{j|eacher,  the  dyer,  the  glafs-maker,  the  foap-bolle.rj  and  of 

9  aJJ 


2^8  Kt^iu  Vuhllcations. 

aJI  other  artlfts  who  am  In  the  habit  oP  empJoying  tlufe 
fiibfVancc5.  In  the  firft  part  of  this  work  I  have  already  trivvii 
riik^  for  diicovering  fuch  ad  ii  Herat  ions  ;  and  to  what  has  been 
faid,  I  apprehend  it  is  only  neccflary  to  add  the  direftions  of 
Air,  Kirwan,  intended  to  cftl'6l  the  fame  end,  but  differing  in 
the  mode.  They  are  tranfcribed  iVoni  his  paper  cntitlefj 
*  ilxperiments  on  the  Alkahnc  Siibliances  .«ifed  in  Bleach-' 
ing-.' — Sec  Tran^a<!^lioDs  of  the  Iriih  Acadeniy  for  1789. 

*'  To  difan-er  whether  any  quantity  of  fixed  alkah  worth 
attention  cxifts  in  any  fahne  compound,  diflolveone  ounce  oi 
it  in  boiling  water,  and  into  this  fohition  let  fall  a  drop  of  a 
fc^utlon  of  fublimatc  corrofive;  this  will  be  converted  into  a 
brick  colour,  jf  an  alkali  be  pref^nt,  or  into  a  brick  colour 
l»ixcd  with  yellow,  if  the  fubltance  tried  contains  lime. 
'  "  But  the  fubftances  vifcd  by  bleachers  beincr  always  im- 
piregi^ated  with  an  alkali,  the  above  trial  is  in  general  fupcr- 
f^uous,  except  for  the  purpofe  of  detecting  Ihne.  The  qiian^ 
tity  of  alkali  is  therefore  what  they  fliould  chiefly  be  foli-r 
citons  to  determine,  and  for  this  purpofe, 

<'  I  ft.  Procure  a  quantity  of  alum,  fuppofe  one  pound,  re-t 
^uce  it  to  powder,  waili  it  with  cold  water,  and  then  put  it 
mto  a  tea-pot,  pouring  on  it  three  or  four  times  its  weight  of 
lioiling  water. 

'^  adly.  Weigh  an  ounce  of  the  afli  or  alkaline  fubftance 
tolixe  tried,  powder  it,  and  put  it  into  a  Florence  flafk  with  ontj 
pound  of  pure  water  (common  water  boiled  for  a  quarter  of  an 
hour,  an<l  afterwards  filtered  through  paper,  will  anfwer),  if 
the  fubftance  to  be  examined  be  of  the  nature  of  barilla,  of 
potafli  ',  or  half  a  pound  of  water  if  it  contain  but  little  earthy 
matter,  as  pearl-afli ;  let  them  boil  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  : 
whencool,  let  the  fblution  be  filtered  into  another  Florence  flafk, 

"  3dly.  This  being  done,  gradually  pour  the  folution  of 
af[«m,  hot,  into  the  alkaline  folution  alfo  heated;  a  prccipi-, 
tation  will  immedigtely  appear;  {hake  them  well  together^ 
'anJ  let  the  effervefcence,  if  any,  ceafe  before  more  of  the 
aluminous  folution  be  added ;  continue  the  addition  of  the 
almn  until  the  mixed  liquor,  when  clear,  turns  fyrup  of  vio- 
jels-,  or  pr.per  tinged  blue  by  radifhcs,  or  by  litmus,  rccj'* 
th«n  pour  the  }i^uor  and  precipitate  on  a  paper  filter  placed 


\\\  a  glafs  funnel.  The  precipitated  earth  will  remain  on  the 
filter;  poiir  on  this  a  pound  or  more  of  hot  water  gradually^ 
until  it  paifes  taltelcfs :  tatce  up  the  filter,  and  let  the  earth 
dry  on  it  until  they  feparate  eafily.  Then  put  the  earth  into 
u  cup  of  Stafford  (hire  ware,  place  it  on  hot  fand,,  and  dry  th« 
earth  until  it  ceafes  to  (tick  to  glafs  or  iron;  then  pound  It, 
and  reduce  it  to  powder  in  the  cup  with  a  glafs  peftle,  aiid 
keep  it  a  quarter  of  an  hour  in  a  heat  of  from  470°  to  500^. 

^*  4thly.  The  <,'arth  being  thus  dried,  throw  it  into  a  Flo- 
rence flalk,  and  weigh  it;  then  put  about  one  ounce  of  fpirit 
of  fait  into  anoth<^r  llalk,  and  place  this  in  the  fame  fcale  as  the 
earth,  and  counterbalance  both  in  the  oppofite  fctde:  this 
being  done,  pour  the  fpirit  of  fait  gradually  into  the  {ia(k  that 
contains  tljc  earth  ;  and  when  all  etfervefccncc  is  over  (if  there 
be  any)  blow  into  the  iialk,  and  obfcrve  what  weight  mull  be 
added  to  the  fcale  containing  the  flafks  to  reftore  the  cqiiili- 
"hiiuni;  fubtracl  this  weight  from  that  of  the  earth,  the  re- 
mainder is  a  weight  exa6lly  froporthued  to  the  weight  of  mere 
alkali  ofthat  particular  fpecies  which  is  contained  in  one  ounce 
of  the  fubihnce  examined  ;  all  befidc  is  fupcrfluous-matter. 

"  I  have  faid  that  alkalies  of  the  y^zw^  yJ^t-T/V^  may  thus 
be  direiS^ly  compared,  becaufe  alkalies  of  different  fpecies  can- 
not but  require  the  intervention  of  another  proportion;  and 
the  reafon  is,  becaufe  ^^r/^z/ quai.t'ties  of  alkalies  of  diiferent 
fpecies  precipitate  unequal  quantities  of  earth  of  alum.     'J'hu« 
100  parts,  by  weight,  of  mere  vcgcUihU  alkali  precipitate  78 
of  earth  of  alum;  but  too  parts  of  wmrrt/ alkali  precipitate 
170,8  parts  of  that  earth.     Therefore  the  precipitation  of  78 
parts  of  earth  of  alum  by  vegetable  alkali  denotes  as  much  of 
this  as  the  precipitation  f)f  170,8  of  that  earth  by  the  mineral 
.alkali  denotes  of  the  mineral  alkali.     Hence  the  quantities  of 
alkali  in  all  the  different  fpecies  of  pot-aihes,  pearl-a/lies,  wec^ 
or  wood*afhes,  may  be  immediately  compared  by  the  above 
teli:,  as  they  all  contain  the  vegetable  alkali ;  and  the  different 
kind  of  kelp  or  kelps  manufa<Slured  in  ditlcrcn't  places,  an4 
the  diOercnt  forts  of  barilla,  may  thus  be  compared,  becaufe 
they  all  contain  the  mineral  alkali.    But  kelps  and  pot-aflie?, 
as  they  contain  different  forts  of  alkali,  can  only  be  compar<i-d 
together  by  means  of  the  proportion  above  indicated." 

[Tg  be  contiiiu.ed.] 

XXXIV. 


586  Rof-al  Society  of  Lomhn, 

XXXI V.  Proctrditigs  of  Learntd  Socle  ties. 


A- 


ROYAL   SOCIETY  OF   LONDON. 


T  the  meeting  of  this  learned  body,  on  thfc  '26th  of 
jMarch,  there  was  read  an  hiftorical  and  anatoniical  account 
of  a  dubious  amphibious  animal^  only  found  in  a  fmali  lake 
in  Camiola  :  by  M.  Schrader. 

On  account  of  Pilffion  and  Eafter  weeks  there  were  no 
meetings  on  the  2d  and  9th  of  April. 

Oh  the  17th  the  account  of  the  animal  \va;3  concluded^ 
and  the  reading  of  a  paper,  by  Dr.  Herfchel,  containing  ob- 
fervations  on  the  nature  of  the  fun,  was  commenced^  and 
was  continued  on  the  2'>^(\,  but  not  then  concluded.  The 
Doctor  fays  that  continued  obiervations  have  confirmed  him 
in  his  opinion  that  the  fun  is  a  magniGccnt  habitable  world, 
and  gives  this  paper  as  a  more  comprchenfive  view  of  the 
fubjc6l  than  the  one  formerly  laid  before  the  Society,  (fee 
Philofophical  Magazine,  Vol.  V.)  and  fuch  as  a  feries  of 
obfervations  with  an  improved  reflc<5lor  has  enabled  him  tni 
make;  obfervations  which,  the  Do6i:or  conceives,  will  be  of 
utility  in  future  meteorological  refearches.  The  names  al- 
ready in  uie  for  the  folar  pha^nomena  he  objecis  to,  as  con- 
teving  no  meaning;  fuch  as  fpots,  maculrc,  faculas,  penum- 
t)r£e,  &c.;  and  wilhes  to  fubftitute  for  them,  openings,  flals^ 
krancles,  ridges,  nodtdes,  dimples,  pundures.  The  open- 
ings are  what  were  denominated  fpols,  and  he  conceives  arc 
caufed  tly  an  elatlic  but  not  a  luminous  gas  being  difengaged 
from  the  fun  arid  driving  away  the  luminoils  fluid,  which  en- 
ables us  to  behold  his  body.  Flats  are  what  are  ufttally  called 
penumbne,  and  are  deprellions  below  the  general  furface  of 
tbc  fun,  but  not  fb  deep  as  the  body  of  it.  Krancles  are 
irregular  elevations  and  depreflions  which  cover  the  whole 
di(k  of  the  fttn.  Ridges  arc  elevations  above  the  general  fur- 
face  of  th^  fun  :  ridges  generally  accompany  openings.  This 
^aper  ctfntains  many  moll  curious  obfervations  on  the  altera- 
tions and  paffing  into  one  another  of  thefe  apptarances;  bdt 
as  the  reading  of  the  papw  is  not  yet  iiaifhed,  we  forbear 
itating  any  more  at  prefent.- 

ROYAL 


Hqyal  tnjlitute  of  Great  Britain.  ^Si 

ROYAL  INSTITUTE  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

It  mull  give  pleafure  to  bur  readers  to  learn  that  this  new 
and  ufeful  inftitution,  the  objed  of  which  is  the  application 
of  fcience  to  the  common  purpofcs  of  life,  may  be  now 
confidered  as  fettled  on  a  firm  bufis.  The  ledures  of  Dr. 
Ganiett  have  been  fuch  as  to  do  equal  honour  to  the  inftitu- 
lion  and  the  profeflbr,  and  have  been  well  attended. 

We  have  alfo  to  notice  a  courfe  of"  lectures,  juft  com- 
menced at  the  inftitution,  otl  anew  branch  of  philofophy — 
we  mean  the  Galvanic  phasnomena.  On  this  intereftiilg 
branch  Mr.  Davy  (late  of  Bfiftol)  gave  the  firft  lecture  on 
the  25th  of  April.  He  bcgail  with  the  hiltory  of  Galvanifm, 
detailed  the  fncceflive  difcovefies,  and  defcribed  the  difFefent 
methods  of  accumulating  galvanic  influence.  Poliflied 
plates  of  different  metals,  and  the  effect  of  their  lying  to- 
gether in  conta6l  with  water  and  air,  werd  exhibited.  Air 
is  abfolutely  neceflary  to  the  oxydating  procefs.  He  ob- 
ferved  that  it  was  difficult  to  prove  that  hydrogen  was  given 
out  in  the  decompofition  of  water  in  this  way,  and  that  it 
feemed  rather  probable  that  alkali  was  formed.  He  fhowed 
the  effects  of  galvanifrn  on  the  legs  of  frogs,  and  exhibited 
fome  interefting  experiments  on  the  galvanic  effeds  on  the' 
folution  of  metals  in  acids. 

By  fome  recent  experiments  of  this  ingenious  chemifl  it 
appears,  that  with  one  kind  of  metal  only,  more  powerful 
etfecls  may  be  produced  than  with  two  as  heretofore  em- 
ployed ;  but  in  this  cafe  there  mud  be  more  than  one  liquid 
interpofed  between  the  plateg.  Mr.  Davy  flates  that  copper, 
for  example,  and  difcs  of  cloth  or  pafleboard  moiliened  with 
diluted  nitrous  acid,  and  iblutions  of  muriat  of  foda  and 
fulphurct  of  potafh,  (and  arranged  in  the  order" in  which 
we  have  named  them,  vi2.  copper,  nitrous  acid,  muriat  of 
foda,  fulphurct  of  potafli,  copper,  nitrous  acid,  Sec.)  give 
much  more  fenfible  fliocks  than  the  pile  as  at  firfl  con- 
llru6led. 

Sir  Jofeph  Banks^  Count  Ruftiford,  and  other  diftingulfhed 
philofophers  were  prefent.  The  audience  were  highly  gra- 
tiHed,  and  teftitied  their  fatlsfadlion  by  general  applauf^. 
Mr.  Davy,  who  appears  to  be  very  young,  acquitted  himfelf 

Vol.  IX.  N  n  admirably 


2S^  .  Britlfh  Mineralogkal  Scclefj\ 

admirably  well:  from  the  fparkling  Intelligence  of  his  eye, 
his  animated  manner,  and  the  tout  t-nfcvLbhy  avc  have  no 
doubt  of  his  attaining  a  dlHinguiflK'd  eminence. 

The  fecond  lecture  was  given  on  the  28ih,  and  the  others, 
to  the  number  of  five  in  all,  are  to  be  delivered  on  th*^ 
Tuefday  and  Saturday  evenings  till  completed* 

BIlITlSH    MINRKALOGTCAL   SOCIETY. 

Th«  ufeful  body  has  lately  circulated  the  follovvir^g  notice  : 
**  To  Fa rmers  and  Perjhns  engagfcl  in  Experimcriis  on  Agrim Ihtre . 

'^  The  innnenfe  importance  which,  at  all  times,  and  par- 
iicuhrly  at  prefcnt,  is  attached  to  improvements  in  agricul- 
ture, and  the  liberal  encouragement  to  experiments  in  the 
art  of  cultivating  the  land  offered  by  the  patriotic  views  of  the 
Board  of  Agriculture,  have  rendered  it  a  defirable  obje6l  to 
affift  the  inquiries  of  the  farmer  in  that  part  of  experimental 
chemiftry  which  determines  the  nature  of  foils  by  an  analyfis 
of  their  feveral  contents. 

*'  The  Britifli  Mineralogical  Society,  having  of  late  in- 
creafed  the  number  of  their  members,  find  tlicmfelves  en>- 
abled  to  extend  the  plan  of  their  inltitution,  from  the  ana- 
lyfis  o(  minerals,  in  the  ufual  fenfe  of  the  term,  to  that  of 
the  various  foils  which  are  made  the  bafis  of  agricultural 
operations. 

^'  They  therefore  give  this  public  notice  that  they  will 
examine,  free  of  expcnfe,  all  fpecimens  of  earths  or  foils, 
with  a  view  of  determining  the  nature  and  proportion  of 
their  different  contents,  with  as  much  accuracy  as  ihall  feem 
requilTte. 

"  They  require,  hofwevcr,  that  the  perfons  fending  fpeti- 
mens  {liall  comply  with  the  following  conditions  : 

^'  That  the  fpecimcn  be  about  three  or  four  pounds'  in 
weight,  inclofcd  in  a  deal  box  properly  packed  with  hay, 
And  -along  with  it  an  account  be  added  of  the  pariili  and 
county  from  which  it  is  procured,  the  name  of  the  fender 
and  his  addrefs  pet  pofi,  and  an  Anfwer  to  the  following 
queries What  is  the  depth  of  the  foil  ? — What  the  na- 
ture of  the  fub-foil  ?  is  it  oh  a  hill  or  level  ground?  and,  if 
the  former,  what  is  the  afpe^l  r — how  near  to  any  river  or 

^  9  jftreara? 


TiD'Ier*.s  Second  Society  at  Haarlem,  2^3 

'.ftream  ?— and  is  the  foil  iifclf  dry  nr  fpringy? — what  is  ihe 
rotation  of  crops  which  it  iifually  bears? — has  it  ever  been 
iinicd  or  had  any  other  earth  iaid  on  ? Any  other  parti- 
culars worthy  of  notice  Riav  alfo  be  added,  and  a  fpccimeu 
of  the  fub-foil  flioiild  alfo  be  inclofed.  ^ 

''  Before  the  fpecinien  is  packed  up,  it  (liould  be  gently 
dried,  cither  in  the  fun  or  in  any  warm  place,  for  a  few  days, 
but  mu(i:  on  no  account  be  heated  over  a  fire. 

*'  The  box  containing  the  fpeciniens  muft  be  fent,  carriage 
pa/J,  to  Mr.  W.  H.  Pepys  Jun.  No.  24,  Poultry,  London. 

*'  The  Society  intend,  if  confident  with  their  other  occu- 
pations, to  return  the  refult  of  the  aaalyfis  within  twp  months 
of  the  arrival  of  the  fpecifneu." 

"London,   April  16,  i>-.oi.'' 

TETLEr's   second   society  at  HAARLEM. 

This  focicty  has  propofcd  the  following  prize  fubje6l: 

A  view  or  delineation  fapporled  by  fufficient  proofs  and 
illufl rations  of  what  peculiarly  character ifes  the'  eighteenth 
century  in  regard  to  improvements  in  fcience  and  morals 
in  coniparifon  of  preceding  centuries.  The  focicty  requires 
thkt,  agreeably  to  what  has  been  formerly  announced,  the 
candidates  will  examine  and  point  out  whether  the  principal 
nations  of  Europe  during  the  eighteenth  century  have  made 
any  progrcfs  in  the  above  ref])e61  ?  Should  this  be  anfwered 
in  the  aflirmalive,  it  i:^  required  to  kuov/  in  what  this  pro- 
grefs  confifis?  If  anfwered  in  the  negative,  to  what 
caufes  is  this  want  of  progrcfs  to  be  afcribed  ?  The  fociety 
confequcntly  requires  to  know :  Whether,  and  how  far  in 
general,  that  part  of  mankind  whofe  hiflory  is  beft  knowa 
have  advanced  in  real  knowledge  and  moral  improvement. 

The  fociety  promifes  to  the  perfon  who  (hall  fend  the 
bed  anfvver  to  thcfc  queftions  before  the  ill  of  April  1802, 
a  golden  medal  of  the  value  of  400  iiorins. 

The  fociety  alfo  renews  the  prize  queftion  for  the  year 
1799,  refpec^ing  the  aqueous  phenomena  of  the  atmofphere, 
no  farisfii'lory  anfwer  to  which  has  been  yet  received,  and 
promifes  for  the  bell  anfwer  feat  in  before  the  fame  period;^ 
aiike  prize  of  400  florins.     This  queftion  is  as  follows : 

N  n  ^  As 


i^4  T&ytgT^s' Second  Society  at  Haarlem, 

As  it  is  of  the  greatell  importance  to  every  branch  t)f 
natural  philofophy,  that  the  prefcnt  ftate  of  our  knowledge 
rcfpetfling  them  {hould  be  clearly  explained,  and^  that  every 
thing  proved  by  experiment  ihould  be  carefully  feparated 
from  what  is  fupported  only  by  hypothcfis,  the  fociety  re- 
quires to  know : 

What  is  the  prefent  (late  of  our  knowledge  in  regard  to 
aqueous  phaenomena  ?•— How  far  can  we  afccrtain  from  well 
authenticated  experiments  the  caufes  by  which  water  is  re- 
ceived into  the  atmofphere  and  retained  there  in  the  form  of 
vapour  or  in  any  other  manner? — And  to  what  caufes  is  it 
to  be  afcribed  that  the  water  retained  in  the  atmofphere  is 
fet  at  liberty  and  falls  down  under  various  forms?  —  Can  the 
aqueous  phaenomena  be  afcribed  to  the  liberation  of  the 
water  retained  in  the  atmofphere  alone?  or  are  there  any 
obfervations  which  clearly  fhow  that^  during  fome  aqueous 
phaenomena,  water  is  produced  in  the  atmofphere? 

The  fociety  renews  alfo  the  following  qucftion,  to  which 
no  fatisfadlory  anfwers  have  been  received,  and  offers  a 
gold  medal  of  the  value  of  400  florins  for  the  beft  anfwer 
tranfmitted  to  the  fociety  before  the  ifl  of  April  1802  : 

What  do  we  know  with  certainty  refpefting  the  nourifli- 
ment  and  growth  of  plants?  or  how  far  can  we  determine, 
from  decifive  and  well-authenticated  experiments,  thofe  fub- 
ftances  or  matters  which  ferve  in  particular  as  the  pabulum 
of  plants,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  receive,  fecretc, 
and  aiiimilate  them? —How  much  of  the  information  given 
us  on  this  head  by  eminent  naturalifts  is  ftill  to  be  confidcred 
as  doubtful  ? — By  what  experiments  might  our  knowledge 
on  this  fubje£l  be  enlarged  or  confirmed  ?  and  what  in- 
formation docs  our  aclual  knowledge  of  the  growth  and 
nourifliment  of  plants  fupply  us  with  to  enable  us  to  raife 
and  tranfpiaT:it  with  more  fuccefs  ufeful  vegetables  in  different 
kinds  of  foil  ? 

The  fociety  requires,  in  particular  in  regard   to  the  twq 
fir  ft  members  of  this  queftion,  that  the  candidates  will  give 
an  accurate  account  of  the  prefent  ftate  of  this  part  of  the ' 
natural  hiftory  of  plants^  and  at  the  fame  time  make  a  dif- 

•  tin<5lioo 


Meteorology,  i^^ 

tinftlon  between  what  is  douhtful  and  what  has  been  fully 
proved.  By  thcfc  means  this  part  of  the  queflion  can  be 
anfvvercd  in  a  fatisfa^tory  manner,  though  the  branch  of 
natural  hillory  to  which  it  belongs  may  not  be  enriched 
with  new  difcoveries. 

The  candidates  are  requefted  to  turn  their  attentiom  to  the- 
lateft  writers  on  this  fubje^:,  in  which  many  hints  will  be 
found  to  direct  them  in  their  refearches,  fuch  as  F.  A.  Voii 
Humboldt's  Aphorifms,  in  regard  to  the  Chemical  Phyfiology 
of  Plants,  Lelpfic  1794,  8vo. ;  and  C.  G.  Rafn's  Sketch  of  a 
Phyfiology  of  Plants,  Leipfic  1798,  8vo. 

The  anfwers  to  all  tl|pfe  quellions  muft  be  written  in 
Dutch,  French,  Englifh,  or  German,  but  not  in  German 
charadlers,  and  tranfmittcd,  in  the  ufual  manner,  with  a 
fealed  note  containing  the  author's  name,  to  Teyler's  lufti- 
tutc  at  Haarlem,  before  the  id  of  April  1802,  that  the  prizes 
may  be  adjudged  on  the  id  of  November  the  fame  year. 


XXXV.  Mifcellaneous  Artichs, 

METEOROLOGY, 

X  H  E  following  curious  notice  has  lately  been  publiflied  in 
one  of  the  foreign  journals  by  Schweighaufcr : — '^  A  prelate 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bale,  having  extended  in  his  garden 
an  iron  wire  of  confidcrable  length  for  the  purpofe  of  fuf- 
pending  from  it  a  moveable  mark  to  fire  at,  obfervcd  that, 
during  variations  of  the  atmofphere,  which  modified  a  change 
of  weather,  the  wire  emitted  a  fironger  or  weaker  found,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  thefe  changes.  He  communicated' 
this  obfcrvation  to  Mr.  Haas,  who  had  come  to  fee  him,  and 
who,  on  his  return  to  Bale,  having  caufed  a  fimilar  wire  t© 
be  extended  in  his  garden,  obferved  the  fame  phrenomenon* 
Some  time  after,  the  celebrated  Volta,  when  on  a  vifit  to 
Haas,  faw  this  new  kind  of  barometer,  and,  in  order  to  af- 
c/2rtain  the  nature  of  the  meteoric  humming  it  emitted,  ex- 
tended wires  of  dificrent  metals  in  dificrcnt  dire6lions;  but 
found  that  no  vibration  took  place,  except  in  regard  to.  thofc 

wires 


mSS  Gafeous  Oxyd  of  Carlotu 

wires  extended  in  the  diredron  of  the  ilnendian.  Voha,  in 
coufa^uenct  of  this  pecuharity,  afcribed  the  phacnonienon  to 
the  magncttc  fluid:,  and  fpeaks  of  it  in  his  works.  !•  do  not^ 
bowercFy  know  that  this  i>e\v  effect  of  a  flmd  fa  Taniverfally 
diffiifcd'  has  been  fuflicicntly  examined. 

*■'  Mr.  Haas  jan.  inforracd  me  that  the  wires  ought  at  leaft 
to  be  a  hundred  feet  hi  length  (thofc  of  his  father  were  about 
three  hundred),  and  that  they  muft  be  ftretched  as  much  as, 
po^ble t  they  do  mot  fiomid  tiH  they  have  been  expofed  to  the 
air  fo*r  feveral  weel<s^.  Mr.  Haas  fen.  liad  extended,  for  Tome 
limCy  ibiirteen,  of  d liferent  fizesj  which  emitted  fometimcs 
verv  sgreeabb  founds.*'  ff 

Hum.boldt  at  Caraecas,  fn  South  America,  has  made  fome 
mtereftiiTo;  obfervaiijons  on,  the  motion  of  the  barometer  near 
tibc  equator.  **  I  have  read,"  fays  he,  "  in  the  Tranfaftions^ 
of  the  Bengal  Society,  that  the  barometer  rifes  and  falls  there 
rcgulifcrly  every  twenty -four  hours.  Here,  in  South  America, 
its  ii»€>tion-  i&niore  aftoniOiing.  There  are  fjur  atmofpherical 
tidies  every  twenty-four  hours,,  which  depend  only  on  the 
4tt:r2b£)tEon  of  the  fun.  The  mercury  faUs  from  9  o'clock  in 
the  morning  till  4  ©'clock  in  the  evenkig.  It  rifes  from  4  till 
11  o'clock;,  it  falls  from  11  o'clcKk  till  half  paft  4  in  the 
anjonitng^  k  reafcends  from  that  time  till  9  o'clock :  neither 
winds,  ftorms,  nor  earthquakes,  have  any  influence  on  this 
ln.otroa."  This  fa6l  goes  a  great  way  towards  proving  the 
general'  truth  of  Mr.  Ilow^ard's  theory,  given  in  the  PhiJo- 
Ibphical  Magazine,,  VoL  VIL 

GASEOTTS    OXTD    OF    CARBON, 

TlVi?  name  is  given,  by  Mr.  Cruickfliank,  of  Woolwich, 
««•  thei-nfiammablc  jras  hberated  from  a  mixture  of  fonxe-fcalefi 
<f)f  iron  3>nd  charcoal,  the  production  of  which  has  been  held 
^-  Dr.  Prielllev  as  a  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  phlogiftic  theory,, 
as  water  could  not  be  fwppofed  prefen.t  to  aflift  in  producing, 
the  z'^^  by  being  decompx)fed. 

^If  fcales  of  iron  and  charcoaT,  both  previGufly  ignited  ta 
rfr*ve  off  every  kind  of  moidure,  be  introduced  into  a  coated 
glai^  retort,  m  into  an  iron  one,  and  tl»e  retort  be  expofed, 

conne<5ied 


Oafious'Oxydof  Carhtn.  iSy 

<;(muc£tecl  with  a  pneumatic  ap}>aratus,  to  a  red  heM5a  qua«i-^ 
titv  ot'n,  gas  conies  over  which  biirus  in  a  manner  finnlATto 
<he  hydrocarbonats.  It  conlills  of  about  one  part  of  car- 
bonic acid  and  fix  parts  of  a  fpecies  of  inftanimabk  gas  whklb 
Dr.  Prieftley  confiders  as  a  fnecies  of  hydrocarbonat. 

A  mixture  of  oTav  ox  yd  of  iron  (fGrgc-fcales)  and  carbon  at 
«f  barytesby  (Inrilar  treataient  gives  alfo  .an  inflammable  gas, 
which  Mr.  Cruickfliank  finds  to  confill  of  car^jonic  acid  gas 
i\-  parts,  and  gafeous  oxyd  of  carbon  one  part, 

Mr.  Cruickfhank  obtained  a  (imilar  gas  from  -mixtures  of 
charcoal  and  ful)Hmcd  oxyd  of  zinc,  red  oxyd  of  cop^Tier,  ii- 
tbanre,  nianganefe;  and  concludes,  that  all  tnetalli^  oxyd^ 
capable  of  enduring  a  red  heat,  being  treated  with  charc(xal,- 
«^'ill  yield  not  only  carbonic  acid  buta  fpecies 'of  infiamttiaHe 
gas  ;  that  the  oxyds  which  retain  their  oxygen  moH  obfti-- 
nately  yield  molt  inflammable  gas,  and  ihofe  vvliich  part  wit-h 
it  readily  mod  carbonic  acid.  The  latter  comes  wer  ^-biefly 
at  the  beginning,  and  the  inflammable  gas  towards  the  conelu- 
fion  of  the  proccfs. 

Mr.  Cruickihank,  having  repeatedly  wafhed  this  inflaJai'- 
mabie  air  with  lime  water  to  feparatc  the  carbonic  acid,  foiisaxi* 
it  to  be  only  a  very  little  lighter  than  conunon  air,  that  is  to 
faV;  in  the  proportion  of  about  22  to  23  5  the  common  hydro^- 
carbonats  are  not  more  than  half  that  weight.  Having  eii— 
deavoured  to  eftimate  the  quantity  of  pure  oxygen  ncc^ilary^ 
io  faturate  it,  after  feveral  trials  he  foiuid  that  four  nteaftue;? 
of  it  and  t>vo  of  oxygen,  exploded  in  a  ftrong  glafs  jar  over 
mercury  by  means  of  the  eleolric  fpark,  were  reduced  to  3.^, 
which  by  agitation  with  linie  water  were  proved  to  be  car- 
bonic acid,  except  about  -i  of  a  meafure  which,  by  the  nitrous 
tell,  was  pure  oxygen :  hence  it  would  appear  that  eight 
meafurcs  of  the  gas  require  3^;  meafures  of  pure  oxygen  gas 
to  faturate  them,  aiul  produce  by  their  crjmbination  fix  mea- 
furcs of  carbonic  acid  gas*  with  a  little  water.  Six  meafurcs 
of  carbonic  acid  gas  require  for  their  production  at  lead  feveit 
meafurcs  of  pure  oxygen  inftead  of  3  [,  the  quantity  made  ufe 

'^  Hydro-carbonats  mixed  with  oxygen  and  cxpluded,  are  increafcd  in 
volunje  yiftead  of  h-S\v\g  dimin'lbcd^  as  is  rhe  ^fe  with  xhh  gafeous  oxyd. 


a88  GiifroUs  Oxyd  of  Carhon* 

of  in  tl>e  prefent  cafe;  and  therefore  Mr.  Cruickfliank  iiifcrSy^ 
with  juliice,  that  the  other^Mnull  have  been  originally  com- 
bined with  the  gas,  confiitiiting  it  a  gafeousoxyd;  and  hence 
it  appears  that  this  gas  bears  the  fame  relation  to  carbonic 
acid,  that  nitrous  gas  does  to  the  nitrous  acid. 
•  This  gafeous  oxyd  feems  to  owe  its  orrgin  to  a  dccompofi- 
tion  of  carbonic  add  at  a  high  temperature ;  for  it  may  be 
obtained  from  a  mixture  of  iron  filings  and  carbonat  of  lime 
in  (lead  of  gray  oxyd  and  charcoal,  and  in  more  abundance* 
Twenty  parts  of  the  gas  fo  obtained,  freed  from  carbonic  acid,, 
mixed  with  eight  parts  of  oxygen,  and  fired  6ver  mercury  by 
the  eleftric  fpark,  the  whole  was  reduced  to  i8  or  19  parts, 
which  were  found  to  be  carbonic  acid,  being  totally  abforbed 
by  lime  water ;  it  contains  neither  water  nor  the  bafis  of 
water  :  that  obtained  by  means  of  charcoal  yields  waler,  ow- 
ing to  the  hydrogen  which  enters  more  or  lefs  into  the  com- 
polition  of  all  common  charcoal. 

None  of  the  known  hydrocarbonats  are  frmilar  in  their 
properties  to  the  gafeous  oxyds  of  carbon,  being  much  lighter 
and  yielding  a  far  lefs  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  when  corn- 
biped  with  oxygen.  They  conlift  of  carbonic  acid  united 
U'ith  or  held  in  iblution  by  hydrogen  ;  but  the  gafeous  6x^  d:i 
are  nothinc;  but  carbon  united  with  or  held  in  folution  bv 
oxygen,  and  rendered  gafeous  by  caloric.  In  their  produ<Slion 
from  a  metallic  oxyd  the  metal  is  fotmd  revived,  its  oxygen 
having  gone  into  the  compofition  of  the  gafeous  oxyd  and 
acid;  and  from  their  pTodu£lion  by  the  decompofition  of  the 
fame  acid,  (as  when  chalk  and  iron  filings  are  employed)  it 
would  appear  that  carbonic  acid,  when  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture, may  be  decompofcd  by  any  fixed  fubftanee  which  has 
a  ftrong  affinity  for  oxygen.  I'hus  the  objetkions  to  the  new 
fyfteni  of  chemiftrv  advanced  on  this  head  by  Dr.  Pricllley 
fcem  to  have  been  fnfficiently  anfwered  by  Mr.  Cruickfliank  f 
and  the  prefence  of  hydrogen  or  water  feems  by  no  means  ne- 
ceflfary  to  the  production  of  thefe  gafeous  oxyd s  *. 

'■'^  Thofe  who  wifli  to  perufe  a  full  ncconnt  of  Mr.  Cruickfhank's  in- 
rerefting  experiments  on  this  fubjc6l,  arc  referred  to  iVIr.  Nicholllm'siiJ 
Journ^,  Vol.  V.  April  iSoi. 


[     289     ] 

XXXVI.     Ohservalions  on  Mosaic^  and  the  most  cehlrated 
Works  of  that  Kind,  both  antient  and  modern^. 


M, 


OSAIC  is  a  kind  of  painting  by  means  of  small  bits 
of  glass,  stone,  wood,  enamel,  and  other  substances  of  dif- 
ferent colours,  cemented  to  some  surface  bv  some  sort  of 
mastic,  and  which  may  be  executed  in  such  perfection  that 
at  a  little  distance  a  common  eye  would  take  it  for  real  paint- 
ing. The  common  name  mosaic  comes  from  the  Italian 
musdico,  derived  from  the  Greek  word  musakion^  used  in  the 
lower  ages  to  denote  those  kinds  of  works  called  in  Latin 
musivum. 

Though  this  kind  of  painting  was  very  common  among 
the  antients,  Pliny  speaks  neither  of  works  in  mosaic  nor  of 
artists  who  exercised  it.  We  cannot  judge,  therefore,  of  the 
mechanism  of  the  art  hut  from  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
executed  by  the  moderns,  and  from  the  antient  monuments 
of  this  kind  which  have  been  preserved.  To  construct  works 
in  mosaic,  the  artist  first  forms  a  ground  of  flat  stones,  bor- 
dered with  bands  of  iron  and  surrounded  with  a  solid  rim  of 
stone.  This  ground  is  covered  with  thick  mastic,  in  which 
the  coloured  pieces  of  glass,  stone,  &:c.  are  implanted  accord- 
ing to  the  design  traced  out  on  the  ground ;  and  during  his 
labour  the  artist  has  before  him  the  painting  he  intends  to 
copy.  This  mastic  ac(juires  the  hardness  of  stone,  and  when 
the  whole  has  sufficient  consistence  it  is  polished  in  the  same 
manner  as  glass.  As  the  splendour,  however,  which  mosaic 
then  acquires  prevents  the  design  from  being  accurately  di- 
stinguished, large  works  intended  to  be  viewed  at  a  distance, 
such  as  those  placed  in  ceilings,  cupolas,  &c.  are  not  polished. 
The  art  has  been  discovered  of  giving  to  the  colour  of  the 
glass  as  many  different  shades  as  are  necessary  for  executing 
paintings  of  every  kind.  T!ie  artist  in  nu)saic,  wliile  at  work, 
has  the  pieces  of  glass,  marljle,  &c.  ranged  in  cases  according 

*  From  Magazin  Emyc/opJdujue,  Vol.  VI.  No.  9?. 

Vol.  IX.  O  o  to 


Phil.  Mag.  No.  XXXVI. 
Maij  1801. 


290  Ohservations  o?i  Mosaic* 

to  their  different  shades,  hke  a  printer's  types.  The  art  of 
making  mosaics  in  rehef  is  said  to'  have  been  invented,  several 
years  ago,  by  Pompeo  Savini,  of  Urhino.  Archenholz,  in  his 
Picture  of  Italy,  asserts,  however,  that  no  work  of  importance 
was  ever  executed  according  to  this  method.  Some  have  also 
tried  to  saw  through  mosaic  works  in  a  transversal  direction, 
in  order  to  multiply  them.  According  to  Bjornstahl,  in  the 
second  volume  of  his  Travels,  Pompeo  Savini  was  the  first 
person  who  tried  this  method  at  Rome.  It  appears  that 
pavements  in  coarse  mosaic,  executed  among  the  antients, 
were  not  made  at  the  same  period  as  those  of  more  delicate 
workmanship.  The  place  where  it  was  necessary  to  implant 
the  mosaics  were  in  the  former  left  more  delicately  termi- 
nated. Thus  at  Herculaneum,  according  to  Winkelman^, 
there  was  found,  in  the  middle  of  a  coarse  mosaic  pavement, 
a  portion  of  mosaic  of  more  delicate  workrnanship,  wjiich  did 
not  adhere  to  the  rest,  and  which  only  had  a  relation  to  it. 

It  appears  that  the  origin  of  niosaic  ought  to  be  ascribed  tQ 
the  different  compositions  of  hard  stones  employed  by  the 
orientals  as  ornament,  and  of  which  we  find  a  striking  ex- 
ample in  the  ornaments  of  the  high-priest  amorg  the  Jews. 
It  is  observed  in  general  that  all  nations  among  whom  civil- 
isation has  made  little  progress  are  fond  of  splendid  and  varie- 
gated colours  :  we  find,  therefore,  that  mosaic  was  in  great 
esteem  during  the  first  centuries  of  the  French  monarchy, 
as  is  proved  by  the  mosaics  with  which  Clovis  caused  the 
church  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  at  present  that  of  Sainte- 
Genevieve,  and  the  tomb  of  Fredegouda,  to  be  ornamented; 
and  hence  it  became  usual  to  cover  surfaces  with  coloured 
bodies  according  as  their  figures  permitted  them  to  be  joined, 
and  to  ornament  buildings,  pavements,  ceiling-s,  &c.  with 
stones  of  different  colours.  It  is  probable  that  the  Persians, 
Babylonians,  and  other  people  of  the  Ea'Jt,  whose  countries 
abounded  with  hard  stones,  were  acquainted  with  th.is  kind 
of  embellishment.  They  displayed  a  considerable  degree  of 
ingenuity  in  executing  flowers,  animals,  &c.  by  the  combi- 
nation of  pieces  of  stone  of  different  colours:  this  was  the 
extent  of  their  art ;  but  it  was  the  Greeks  who  introduced 
into  this  process  that  taste  and  perfection  which  entitle  it  to 

the 


Ohservations  on  Mosaic,  29 1 

the  appellation  of  an  art.  These  people,  indeed  found  means 
to  manage  the  shades  with  so  much  dexterity,  and  to  give  to 
the  figures  and  groups  which  they  executed  such  order  and 
harmony,  tliat  at  a  distance  they  resembled  paintings. 

This  art  was  conveyed  from  the  Greeks  to  the  Romans. 
Sylla  was  the  first  among  the  latter  who  caused  to  be  exe- 
cuted in  the  temple  of  Fortinie  at  Praeneste,  at  present  called 
Palaestrina,  a  mosaic,  great  part  of  which  still  exists.  At 
first  the  pavements  of  buildings  only  were  ornamented  in 
this  manner,  but  afterwards  walls  and  arched  ceilings. 
Portable  floors  for  the  tents  of  princes  and  the  commanders 
of  armies,  in  order  to  guard  against  moisture,  were  orna- 
mented also  in  the  same  manner.  The  invention  *of  coloured 
glass  gave  to  this  art  a  greater  degree  of  perfection.  This 
material,  in  particular,  was  employed  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus. But  pieces  of  glass  or  marble  were  still  of  too  large 
size  to  admit  of  the  shades  being  properly  blended,  and  con- 
se(piently  of  giving  the  natural  colour  to  the  objects.  Under 
Claudius  the  Romans  began  to  colour  marble,  and  under 
Nero  to  give  it  spots  by  an  artificial  process. 

In  the  fifth  century,  when  the  arts  were  expelled  from 
Italy  by  the  invasions  of  the  barbarians,  mosaic  painting  and 
sculpture  were  preserved  much  longer  among  the  Greeks  of 
Byzantium  for  ornamenting  the  altars  and  utensils  of  the 
church.  Mosaic,  however,  lost  at  Constantinople,  as  the 
other  arts  did,  that  character  of  elevation  which  characterizes 
the  monuments  of  Grecian  art :  besides,  works  of  this  kind 
were  executed  with  pearls  and  precious  stones,  whereas  the 
antient  Greeks  preferred  marble  for  mosaic.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  13th  century  an  Italian,  named  Andrew  Tassi, 
learned  the  art  of  mosaic  from  one  Apollonius,  a  Greek, 
who  decorated  with  it  the  church  of  St.  Mark,  at  Venice, 
where  an  excellent  pavement  by  him  is  still  to  be  seen.  But 
in  general  these  works  want  design,  are  in  a  bad  taste,  and, 
besides,  have  a  bad  colour.  Since  that  period  this  art  has 
been  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  in  Italy.  Pope 
Clement  VIII.  contributed  greatly  to  this  improvement  in 
the  17th  century,  by  causing  all  the  interior  part  of  the  cupola 
of  the  church  of  St,  Peter  to  be  oniamented  with  mosaic. 

O  o  2  Among 


292  Observaiio?is  on  Mosaic, 

Among  the  artists  employed  for  tliis  purpose  the  most  distiu- 
guiihed  were  Paul  Rossetti  and  Francis  Zucchi.    These  orna- 
nieiits  were  fini'shed  in   1(503.     In  the  same  century  John 
Baptist  (^alandra,   of  Vercelli,  in  Piedmont,   who  was  born 
in  I086  and   died  in    1(544,  invented  a  new  mastic,  which 
greatly  contributed  to  bringinj*;  the  art  to  perfection.    During 
fourteen  years  he  executed   mosaics  for   the  church  of  Saint 
Peter  at  Rome,  and  particularly  the  figures  of  the  four  fa- 
thers of  the  church  in    the  cu})ola,  after   paintings  by  Lan- 
franchi,  Sacchi,  Romanelli,  and  Pellegrini.     He  copied  also 
the  picture  of  the  archangel  Michael,  by  Joseph  Cesari;  but 
he  gave  it  too  fine  a  polisli,  so  that  it  has  too  much  reflection. 
Afterwards  various  artists  in  mosaic  endeavoured  to  give  faith- 
ful copies  of  the  finest  paintings  ;  such  as  that  of  the  martyr- 
dom of  St.  Petronilia,  by  Guerchin,  in  the  church  of  St. Peter 
at  Rome;  the  death-bed  communion  of  St.  Jerome,  by  Do- 
.  meniquin,   formerly  in   the  church  of  Santo   Girolamo  della 
Carita  at  Rome,  but  now  in  the  Musseum  of  the  Arts  at  Paris. 
The  person,  however,  who  carried  this  art  to  its  highest  degree 
of  perfection  was  Peter  Paul  de  Christophoris,  who  founded 
iit  Rome   a  school  of  mosaic   in  the  commencement  of  the 
18th  century.    He  formed  several  distinguished  pupils,  among 
whom  were  Brughio^   Conti,  Coccei,  Fattori,  Gossone,  and 
Otlaviano.     Alexis   Matthioli  found  out,  in  1730,  the  art  of 
making  glass  of  a  bright  red  colour.     In   modern  times  mo- 
saic has  been  distinguished  into  two  kinds  :  that  of  Rome,  in 
which  stones  of  a  very  small  size  are  employed,  which  gives 
to  works  more  delicacy  and  variety,  and  admits  the  execution 
.  of  great  historical  paintings,    in  this  manner  the  most  beau- 
tiful paintings  of  Raphael  have  been  copied;  and  Clement  VHI. 
caused  the  cupola  of  the  church  of  St.  Peter  to  be  decorated 
with  mosaic  of  the  same  kind.     His  successors  continued  to 
cause  other  paintings,  both  in  oil  and  in  fresco,  to  be  copied. 
According  to  Bjornstahl,    the  number    of  shades  found  in 
these  mosaics  sometimes   exceeds    10,000.      In   the   palace 
Borghese  at  Rome  there  are  six  beautiful  mosaics,   one  of 
which  represents  Orpheus  surrounded  by  animals  :  it  is  said 
to  be  composed  of  9000  pieces.     The  mosaic  of  Florence, 
called  by  the  Italians  commesso,  is  executed  with  larger  stones, 

ar 


Observations  on  Mosaic,  203 

a«(l  w  employed  for  copying  paintings  of  less  size.  The  best 
works  of  this  kind  are  in  the  chapel  of  the  grand  duke  at 
Florence,  Several  beautiful  mosaics  of  this  kind  are  now  in 
tiie  Musijeum  of  the  Arts  at  Paris, 

One  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  mosaic  is  its  resistance  to 
every  thing  that  generally  alters  the  beauty  of  fine  paintings, 
and  the  facility  with  which  it  may  be  cleaned,  by  giving  it 
a  new  polish  without  any  danger  of  destroying  the  colours. 
As  mosaic,  however,  can  be  executed  only  in  a  slow  manner^ 
and  as  it  requires  considerable  expense,  it  never  can  be 
brought  into  such  general  use  as  painting ;  it  would  never 
even  have  attained  at  Rome  and  Florence  to  that  degree  of 
perfection  to  which  it  was  carried,  had  not  the  governments 
of  these  two  countries  defrayed  the  expenses. 

In  modern  times  very  beautiful  mosaics  in  wood,  known 
in  England  by  the  name  of  inlaying,  in  France  by  that  of 
manjuelerie^  and  in  Italy  under  that  of  tausia  or  larsiay  have 
been  executed  in  different  countries,  Philip  Bruneleschi  and 
John  de  Vanone  at  Florence,  who  lived  in  the  15th  century; 
John  Marc,  of  Blois,  who  worked  for  the  king  of  France  ; 
and  Melchior  Rummer,  who  resided  near  Heidelberg,  distin- 
guished, themselves  most  in  the  execution  of  this  sort  of  mo- 
saic. Shell-work  may  be  considered  also  as  a  kind  of  mosaic. 
In  one  of  the  groves  of  Versailles  there  is  a  master-piece  of 
this  kind,  Bonavita  Blank,  director  of  the  cabinet  of  natural 
history  at  Wiirzbourg,  is  the  inventor  of  a  new  kind  of  mosaic, 
in  which  nothing  is  employed  but  different  sorts  of  moss,  and 
has  been  able  to  execute,  with  the  greatest  fidelity,  landscapes, 
marine  views,  volcanoes,  ruins,  and  buildings.  The  beau- 
tiful collection  of  this  artist  has  been  exhibited  in  four  halls 
of  the  castle  of  Wurzbourg  since  1794,  the  period  when  it 
was  purchased  by  the  bishop. 

The  most  beautiful  mosaics  preserved  in  the  pavements  or 
on  the  walls  of  antient  buildings  are  :  1st,  That  found  in  the 
pavement  of  a  chamber  of  the  villa  Hadriani,  near  Tivoli ; 
it  represents  a  vase  filled  with  water,  on  the  edge  of  which  are 
four  pigeons,  one  of  them  in  the  attitude  of  drinking.  The 
great  merit  of  this  work  consists  chiefly  in  its  being  composed 
oi  small  stones,  while  in  all  the  other  mosaics  pastes  of  glass 

are 


1294  Ohseivaiions  on  Mosaic, 

are  employed  to  obtain  those  shades  of  colours  which  do  not 
exist  in  stones.  It  belonged  formerly  to  cardinal  Furietti.  It 
was  purchased,  togetlier  with  some  centaurs,  for  the  sum  of 
13,000  scudi,  by  Clement  XIII.  who  caused  it  to  be  placed 
in  the  Capitol.  Furietti  thought  it  to  be  the  mosaic  of  Per- 
gamus  mentioned  by  Pliny  :  but  Winkelman  has  shown  the 
falsity  of  this  opinion.  This  mosaic  is  commonly  known 
under  the  name  of  the  four  pigeons,  or  the  mosaic  of  the 
Capitol,  It  has  been  copied  a  great  number  of  times,  on  a 
small  scale,  for  snuff-boxes  and  medallions. — 2d,  The  mosaic 
executed  by  the  order  of  Sylla  in  the  temple  of  Fortune  at 
Praeneste,  at  present  Palastrina.  It  waJ5  first  published  by 
Kircher,  Montfaucon,  and  Shaw ;  and  afterwards  by  the 
abbe  Barthelemy,  vvho  made  it  the  subject  of  a  particular 
memoir,  in  which  he  establishes,  that  the  subject  it  represents 
is  the  expedition  of  Alexander  to  Egypt.  Winkelman  con- 
sidered it  as  Menelaus  and  Helen  in  Egypt.  Count  Caylus 
also  published  an  engraving  of  it  in  the  same  colours  as  the 
original.  This  mosaic,  remarkable  in  particular  for  the  light 
which  it  throws  on  the  natural  and  local  history  of  Egypt,  is 
at  present  at  the  seat  of  the  Barberini  family,  built  on  the 
mountain  where  formerly  stood  the  temple  of  Fortune,  and 
at  the  bottom  of  which  is  Palaestrina.  It  is  commonly 
known  under  the  name  of  the  mosaic  of  Palcestrina. — 3d,  In 
the  pavem.ent  of  the  same  temple  there  was  also  found  an- 
other mosaic,  of  less  size,  but  of  wofkmanshij>  nmch  more 
elegant  than  the  former  :  it  is  at  present  in  the  Barberini 
palace  at  Rome.  It  represents  the  rape  of  Europa.  The 
upper  part  exhibits  the  sea-shore,  on  which  are  observed  the 
companions  of  that  princess,  and  Agenor  her  father.  The 
same  subject  is  represented  on  a  mosaic  engraved  by  the  care 
of  the  prelate  Casali. — 4th,  In  the  villa  Albani  there  is  a 
beautiful  mosaic,  which  was  found  in  the  territory  of  Ur- 
bino,  and  which  represents  a  school  of  philosophers.— -5th, 
A  mosaic  representing  the  history  of  Hesione,  the  daughter  of 
Priam,  exposed  on  a  rock  to  a  monster,  and  delivered  by 
Hercules,  who  gave  her  in  marriage  to  his  friend  Telamon, 
was  discovered  about  the  year  1762.  According  to  Winkel- 
man, the  workmanship  has  as  great  beauty  and  delicacy  as 

that 


ObservuHojis  on  Mosaic,  2^ 

that  of  the  pigeons  of  Furietti. — 6th,  A  mosaic,  two  pahns 
in  height,  was  found  in  a  villa  near  Pompeii  (perhaps  that 
of  the  emperor  Claudius),  in  the  month  of  April  \7Cy3,  It 
represents  three  females  with  comic  masks,  who  play  on  dif- 
ferent instruments :  near  them  is  a  child,  who  plays  on  a 
flute.  Winkehr.Jin  says  that  the  workmanship  of  this  piece 
is  so  delicate  that  a  magnifying  glass  is  necessary  to  distinguish 
it.  The  name  of  the  artist,  Dioscorides  of  Samos,  is  inscribe4 
on  it  in  Greek  letters.— 7th,  Another  mosaic  of  the  same 
artist,  and  of  workmanship  equally  delicate,  was  dug  up  in 
the  presence  of  Winkelman  in  the  month  of  February  1764. 
It  also  represents  three  females  with  coinic  masks,  and  a 
child  wrapped  up  in  a  mantle  which  has  no  mask.— 8th,  A 
mosaic  pavement  twenty-seven  palms  in  length  and  twenty- 
five  in  breadth  was  discovered  at  Praeneste  in  1766.  The 
design  of  it  was  sent  to  Rome  at  the  time  when  Winkelman 
was  employed  in  explaining  that  of  Sylla  found  at  Praeneste. 
The  subject  of  it  is  not  known,  nor  do  we  know  whether  it  has 
been  engraved  and  explained,  or  to  what  place  it  was  carried. 
• — 9th,  An  antique  mosaic  dug  up  at  Rome  in  1769  ;  another 
with  flowers,  from  the  villa  Hadriani ;  and  a  modern  mosaic, 
representing  St.  Peter  and  the  Virgin,  are  to  be  seen  at  Man- 
heim. —  10th,  Bar  toll's  work  on  the  tombs  of  the  antient 
Romans  and  Etruscans,  reprinted  in  the  twelfth  volume  of 
the  Thesaurus  AntiqullatiLm  Grcecarum  of  Gronovius,  con- 
tains several  engravings  of  antient  pavements  with  mosaiCs«, 
viz,  figs.  14,  17,  and  IS,  of  the  tombs  of  the  villa  Corsini  j| 
fig.  110  exhibits  a  beautiful  mosaic  representing  Ganymede 
feeding  the  eagle  of  Jupiter  :  it  w^as  taken  from  the  catacombs 
of  St.  Sebastian.  The  first  volume  of  the  Lucernce  Sepulc/ira- 
les  of  Bartoli  and  Bellori  contains  also  an  antique  pavement 
in  mosaic  from  the  tombs  of  the  villa  Corsini.  It  represents, 
amidst  several  other  figmes  and  ornaments,  four  naked  mimic 
dancers  of  that  kind  wlio  preceded  the  funerals  of  distinguished 

personages  among  the  aiiticnts 11th,  Three  pavements  in 

mosaic,  one  of  wliich  represents  a  comic  scene  surrounded 
by  theatrical  masks,  flowers,  birds,  helmets,  &c. ;  the  second, 
Theseus  and  the  Mhiotaur;  and  the  third,  the  combat  of 
Entellus  and  Dares,  were  discovered,  in  1790,   without  the 

walls 


S96  Observations  on  Mosaic. 

walls  of  Aix,  in  the  place  occupied  by  the  aiitieiit  city  in  tFie 
time  of  the  Romans.  These  mosaics,  the  destruction  of  which 
Saint-Vincens  could  not  prevent,  were  engraved  by  the  care 
of  his  son,  and  published  in  the  Biographical  Notice  which 
the  latter  gave  of  his  learned  father.  Me  could  procure  only 
some  interesting  fragments  of  them,  which  he  affixed  on  the 
\vii\h  of  his  cabinet.  Several  otlier  mosaics  were  found  at 
Aix,  which  have  been  engraved  in  the  history  of  that  city  by 
Menard.  One  of  them  re  presents  a  female  with  a  dog  and  a 
flambeau  :  the  female  has  a  great  resemblance  to  the  goddess 
Nehalennia  of  the  Gauls.  Some  pavements  which  exhibit 
nothing  but  compartments  were  dug  up  also  at  Auxerre. 

During  the  searches  which  the  prelate  Cazali  caused  to 
be  made  at  Rome,  there  was  found  a  very  beautiful  mosaic 
paivement,  which  contained  a  representation  of  the  rape  of 
Europa :  it  was  removed  to  his  house  to  ornament  the  floor 
of  his  apartment,  and  he  likewise  had  it  engraved. 

The  pavements  in  the  Pio- Clementine  mnsaeum  are  orna- 
mented with  several  beautiful  mosaics.  In  the  vestibule,  at 
the  top  of  the  stnir-case,  there  is  one,  found  at  Rusinella,  near 
the  antient  Tusculum,  which  represents  a  bust  of  Pallas  in 
the  middle  of  an  elegant  grotcsfjue.  Another,  dug  up  at 
Otricoli,  ornaments  the  grand  rotundo  :  it  is  divided  into 
several  zones  intermixed  with  meanders,  large  compart- 
ments containing  tritons,  nereids,  and  combats  of  centaurs, 
who  have  in  the  middle  of  them  a  buckler  covered  with 
scales,  and  on  which  is  seen  the  Gorgon.  This  large  mosaic 
is  surrounded  by  a  border  of  other  mosaics  white  and  black, 
among  which  is  distinguished  the  adventures  of  Ulysses  and 
the  Syrens.  In  an  octagon  hdl  close  to  this  rotundo  there 
is  seen  also  a  l)eautiful  grotesque  of  mosaic  with  a  Medusa  iu 
the  middle,  found  in  one  of  the  vaults  of  the  palace  Caetani 
on  the  Esquiline  hill.  Several  other  mosaics,  representing 
animals  and  articles  of  provision,  are  observed  also  in  oIIrt 
halls. 

In  the  mu-{eurn  of  the  Augustines  there  is  a  singular  mo- 
saic, executed  in  the  sixth  century.  It  is  the  tomb  of  Fre- 
degonda,  composed  of  a  great  number  of  small  stones  broken 
and  pounded  in  a  mortar,  like   those  coloured  grains  with 

which 


Observations  on  Mosaic,  297 

which  confections  are  besprinkled.  The  whole  is  inclosed  in 
a  kind  of  filigrane  of  copper,  forming  a  rude  design,  Du- 
fourny  possesses  a  work  of  the  Lower  Empire  executed  with 
cubes  of  enamelled  copper. 

The  Italians  at  present  often  employ  antique  mosaics  to  or- 
nament the  floors  of  their  apartments ;  and  they  make  use  of 
a  very  ingenious  process,  before  they  remove  the  mosaic,  for 
fixing  with  cement  the  small  cubes  which  compose  it ;  also  for 
detaching  it  from  the  place  which  it  occupies,  and  for  depo- 
siting it  in  a  new  one.  They  cut  it  into  portions,  fix  them 
on  large  sheets  of  paper  called  perpeluo,  surrounded  with  iron, 
which  they  number,  and  afterwards,  when  they  wish  to  make 
use  of  them,  they  place  the  pieces  on  the  floor  according  to 
the  numbers;  and  these  portions,  when  joined,  form  a  whole 
as  smooth  as  it  was  before  the  mosaic  was  displaced. 

The  principal  works  which  treat  of  the  theory  and  practice 
of  mosaic  are  the  following : — J.  Ciampini,  On  the  Mosaics 
of  Temples  and  other  Buildings :  Rom.  1690;  fol.  2  vols. 
Besides  the  mosaics  the  engravings  of  this  work  represent  also 
the  temples  constructed  till  the  time  of  Constantine  the 
Great. — .T.  Alex.  Furietti,  On  Mosaics;  Rom.  1752;  4to, 
with  plates.  An  extract  from  these  two  Latin  works  has  been 
published  in  French  under  the  title,  Essat  sur  la  Peinture  en 
Mosa'iqne,  par  M.  De  Vielle :  Buonarotti  has  also  sppken  of 
them  in  his  Observations  on  the  antient  Glass :  Florence  1716: 
4to.  A  dissertation  on  this  subject,  by  G.  Piacenza,  may 
be  found  in  the  first  volume  of  his  edition  of  Notizie  dci 
Prqfessori  del  Disegno  da  Cimalue :  Tor.  1 768 ;  4to, 
Fougeroux  de  Banderoix  gives  a  Traite  sur  la  Fahrique  des 
Mosdiques  at  the  end  of  his  Recherches  sur  les  Ruines  d'Hcr- 
culaneum  :  Paris  1770;  8vo.  Count  Caylus  speaks  of  them 
in  his  Essai  sur  la  Maniere  de  Peiiidre  en  Marhre^  in  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  Vol.  XXIX.  In  the 
last  place,  M.  Gurlitt  has  given  a  particular  dissertation  on 
mosaic. 

The  works  which  contain  descriptions  and  explanations  of 
the  most  curious  antique  mosaics  are :  Opus  Musivum  erniiim 
ex  Ruderilus  Villce  Hadriani:  Flor,  1779.  The  designs  are 
by  C.    Savorelli,  and  the  engravings  by   Capellani.     This 

Vol,  IX.  P  p  mosaic 


298  On  the  Improvement  of  Time-Keepers, 

mosaic  represents  a  hunting  party.  Observations  sur  la  Mo- 
smque  des  Ancietis,  a  V  Occasion  de  quelques  Tableaux  e^i 
Mosdique  qui  se  trouveiit  a  la  Galerie  des  Peintres  de  V  EUc- 
teur  Palatin,  par  M.  VAhh6  Htefflin,  in  the  Comment.  Hist  or. 
Academics  Theodora  PalatincB,  Vol,  W .  No.  3^  p.  89:  Man- 
helm  17S3;  4to.  M.  Haefflin  compares  mosaic  in  glass  and 
in  stone  with  the  paintings  executed  by  means  of  the  feathers 
of  birds  by  the  Americans  :  Explicatio7i  de  la  Mosdique  de 
Palceslrtne ;  par  M.  I'Abbe  Barthelemy:  Paris  1760;  4to. 
And  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  huscriptions,  Vol. 
XXX.  Kircher  in  his  Latium,  and  Montfaucon  in  the  fourth 
volume  of  his  Supplement  de  V Antiq^dte  Expliquee,  had  be- 
fore attempted  to  give  an  explanation  of  this  mosaic  :  Osser- 
4}ationi  di  Ennio-Quirino  Visconti,  su  due  Musdichi  antichi 
istoriali :  Parm.  1788;  4to.  These  two  mosaics,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Visconti,  relate  to  pyromancy,  were  found,  in  1 788, 
in  the  Campagna  di  Roma.  They  are  now  in  the  collection 
of  the  chevalier  Azzara ;  Description  de  la  Mosdique  trouvte 
a  Seville,  et  pulliee  par  Ordre  du  Roi  d'Espagne.  Alexan- 
der Laborde  is  about  to  publish  a  description  of  nine  mosaics 
found  in  Spain. 


XXXVII.  On  the  Improvement  of  Time- Keepers,  By  David 
RiTTENHOusE,  LL,D,  President  of  the  American  Philo- 
sophical SccietT/*, 

J.  HE  invention  and  construction  of  time-keepers  may  be 
reckoned  among  the  most  successful  exertions  of  human 
genius.  Pendulum  clocks  especially  have  been  made  to 
measure  time  with  astonishing  accuracy ;  and  if  there  are 
still  some  causes  of  inequality  in  their  motions,  the  united 
efforts  of  mechanism,  philosophy,  and  mathematics,  will  pro- 
bably in  time  remove  them. 

The  last  and  least  of  those  causes,  which  perhaps  may  be 
worthy  of  notice  when  all  others  of  more  importance  are  re- 
moved, is  that  rising  from  unequal  density  of  the  air,  which 
bv  varying  the  actual  weight  of  the  pendulum  will  accelerate 

•  Fioro  the  Trantactiom  of  the  American  Philofophical  Society. 

or 


On  the  Improvement  ofTime^Ketpers,  290 

or  retard  its  motion.  The  effects  arising  from  this  cause  will 
indeed  be  found  very  small ;  for,  if  we  suppose  the  greatest 
range  of  the  barometer  to  be  three  inches,  which  indicates 
a  change  of  density  in  the  air  of  above  one-tenth  of  the 
whole  'y  and  supposing  lead,  of  which  pendulums  are  gene- 
rally made,  to  be  8,800  times  heavier  than  air,  the  variations 
of  the  actual  weight  of  a  pendulum  may  be  l-68000th  part 
of  its  whole  weight,  and  consequently  the  change  in  its  rate 
of  going  1-1 76000th  part.  And,  as  there  are  86,400  seconds 
in  a  day,  the  clock  may  vary  in  its  rate  of  going,  from  this 
cause,  about  half  a  second  in  24  hours.  Mentioning  the  ba- 
rometer, seems  naturally  to  point  out  a  remedy  for  this  causa 
of  irregularity  by  means  of  that  instrument.  But  my  design 
is  at  present  to  describe  a  very  different  and  extremely  simple 
method,  which,  though  only  a  matter  of  curiosity  at  present, 
may  at  some  future  time,  perhaps,  be  found  useful;  especially 
as  the  variation  above  mentioned  is  governed  solely  by  the 
actual  density  of  the  surrounding  air,  and  the  barometer  can 
only  give  the  weight  of  an  entire  column,  which  does  not 
strictly  correspond  with  the  density  of  its  base  3  whereas  the 
method  I  propose  depends  on  the  real  density  of  the  air  sur- 
rounding the  pendulum,  and  nothing  else. 

Let  AB  (Plate  VII.  fig.  1.)  be  a  pendulum  vibrating  on 
the  point  A,  and  removed  from  the  perpendicular  line  DE. 
Let  the  inflexible  rod  be  continued  from  BA  to  C,  and  let  a 
body  C,  of  equal  dimensions  with  the  pendulum  B,  but 
hollow  and  light  as  possible,  be  fixed  on  the  rod,  making 
AC  equal  to  AB.  Now  it  is  evident  that  B  will  be  pressed 
upwards  by  a  force  equal  to  the  weight  of  its  bulk  in  air,  and 
its  descent  retarded.  But  the  body  C  will  be  equally  pressed 
upwards,  and  consequently  the  motion  of  the  pendulum  to* 
wards  the  perpendicular  will  be  as  much  accelerated.  These 
two  forces,  therefore,  will  destroy  each  other,  and  the  pen- 
dulum will  perform  its  vibrations  in  equal  times,  whether  the 
air  be  light  or  heavy,  dense  or  rare. 

I  have,  for  greater  perspicuity,  described  the  most  simple 
case,  but  perhaps  not  the  most  eligible;  for  if  we  can  enlarge 
the  vessel  or  body  C  in  any  proportion,  the  distance  of  its 
centre  from  A  may  be  diminished  at  the  same  rate. 

P  p  2  However 


500  Description  of  a  Steam- Evgine 

However  plausible  the  above  may  appear  in  theory,  no 
doubt  difficulties  will  occur  when  we  attempt  to  reduce  it 
into  practice.  But  I  am  persuaded  they  will  not  be  found 
insuperable. 

The  only  experiment  I  have  hitherto  made  on  this  subject 
has  been  merely  to  show  that  a  pendulum  can  be  made  in 
this  manner  which  shall  vibrate  quicker  in  a  dense  medium 
than  in  one  more  rare,  contrary  to  what  takes  place  with 
common  pendulums, 

I  made  a  compound  pendulum,  on  the  principles  above 
mentioned,  of  about  one  foot  in  its  whole  length.  This  pen- 
dulum, on  many  trials,  made  in  the  air  57  vibrations  in  a 
minute.  On  immersing  the  whole  in  water  it  made  59  vibra- 
tions in  the  same  time,  showing  evidently  that  its  motion  was 
quicker  in  so  dense  a  medium  as  water  than  in  the  air.  "When 
the  lower  bob  or  pendulum  only  was  plunged  in  water,  it 
made  no  more  than  44  vibrations  in  a  minute ;  the  remain- 
ing 15  being  solely  the  effect  of  the  pressure  of  the  water 
against  the  upper  vessel  C. 


XXXVIII.  Description  of  a  new  invented  Steam- Engijte, 
intended  to  give  Motion  to  JVater  Wheels  in  Places  where 
there  is  no  Fall,  and  but  a  very  small  Stream  or  Spring, 
By  John  Nancarhow*. 

A,  (Plate  VI 1.  fig.  2.)  the  receiver,  vy'hich  may  be  made 
either  of  wood  or  iron. 

B,  B,  B,  B,  B,  wooden  or  cast-iron  pipes,  for  conveying  the 
water  to  the  receiver,  and.  thence  to  the  penstock. 

C,  the  penstock  or  cistern. 

D,  the  water-wheel. 

E,  the  boiler,  which  may  be  either  iron  or  copper. 

F,  the  hot-well  for  supplying  the  boiler  with  water. 

G,G,  two  cisterns  under  the  level  of  the  water,  in  which 
the  small  bores  B,  B,  and  the  condenser  are  contained. 

*  Tiom  the  Tramactions  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society. 

HUH, 


to  give  Moilon  to  VTater-fVlteels,  301 

HHH,  the  surface  of  the  water  with  which  the  steam- 
engine  and  the  water-wheel  are  supplied. 

a,  a,  the  steam-pipe,  through  which  the  steam  is  conveyed 
from  the  boiler  to  the  receiver. 

b,  the  feeding-pipe  for  supplying  the  boiler  with  hot  water. 
c,CyC,CfC,  the  condensing  apparatus. 

dy  dy  the  pipe  which  conveys  the  hot  water  from  the  con- 
denser to  the  hot  well. 

e^  e,  i,  valves  for  admitting  and  excluding  the  water. 

J'f,  the  injection-pipe,  and  g  the  injection-cock, 

h,  the  condenser. 

It  does  not  appear  necessary  to  say  any  thing  here  on  the 
manner  in  which  this  machine  performs  its  operations  with- 
out manual  assistance,  as  the  method  of  opening  the  cocks, 
by  which  the  steam  is  admitted  into  the  receiver  and  conden- 
sed, has  been  already  well  described  by  several  writers.  But 
it  will  be  necessary  to  remark  that  the  receiver,  penstock, 
and  all  the  pipes,  must  be  previously  filled  before  any  water 
ean  be  delivered  on  the  wheel ;  and  when  the  steam  in  the 
boiler  has  acquired  a  sufficient  strength,  the  valve  at  i  is 
opened,  and  the  steam  immediately  rushes  from  the  boiler  at  E 
into  the  receiver  A;  the  water  descends  through  the  tubes 
A  and  B,  and  ascends  through  the  valve  k,  and  the  other  pipe 
or  tube  B^  into  the  penstock  C.  This  part  of  the  operation 
being  performed,  and  the  valve  i  shut,  that  at  /  is  suddenly 
opened,  through  which  the  steam  rushes  down  the  condensing- 
pipe  c,  and  in  its  passage  meets  with  a  jet  of  cold  water  from 
the  injection-cock  g,  by  which  it  is  condensed.  A  vacuum 
bfeing  made  by  this  means  in  the  receiver,  the  water  is  driven 
up  to  fill  it  a  second  time  through  the  valves  e,  e,  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  external  air,  when  the  steam-valve  at  i  is  again 
opened,  and  the  operation  repeated  for  any  length  of  time  the 
machine  is  required  to  work. 

There  are  many  advantages  which  a  stearh-engine  on  this 
construction  possesses  beyond  any  thing  of  the  kind  hitherto 
invented ;  a  few  of  which  1  shall  beg  leave  to  enumerate. 

1.  It  is  subject  to  little  or  no  friction. 

2.  It  may  be  erected  at  a  small  expense  when  compared 
with  any  other  sort  of  steam-engine,  . 

3,  It 


^02  History  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing. 

3.  It  has  every  advantage  which  may  be  attributed  to 
Boulton  and  Watt's  engines,  by  condensing  out  of  the  re- 
ceiver, either  in  the  penstock  or  at  the  level  of  the  vj^ater. 

4.  Another  very  great  advantage  is,  that  the  water  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  pipe  adjoining  the  receiver  acquires  a  heat, 
by  its  being  in  frequent  contact  with  the  steam,  very  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  boiling  water  :  hence  the  receiver  is  always 
kept  uniformly  hot,  as  in  the  case  of  Boulton  and  Watt's 
engines. 

5.  A  very  small  stream  of  water  is  sufficient  to  supply  this 
engine,  (even  where  there  is  no  fall,)  for  all  the  water  raised 
by  it  is  returned  into  the  reservoir  HHH, 

From  the  foregoing  reasons  it  manifestly  appears,  that  no 
kind  of  steam-engine  is  so  well  adapted  to  give  rotatory  mo- 
tion to  machinery  of  every  kind  as  this.  Its  form  is  simple, 
and  the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed  are  cheap ;  the 
power  is  more  than  equal  to  any  other  machine  of  the  kind, 
because  there  is  no  deduction  to  be  made  for  friction,  except 
on  account  of  turning  the  cocks,  which  is  but  trifling. 

Its  great  utility  is  therefore  evident  in  supplying  water  for 
every  kind  of  work  performed  by  a  water-wheel,  such  as  grist- 
mills, saw-mills,  blast-furnaces,  forges,  &:c. 

XXXIX.  History  of  the  Art  of  Dyeings  from  the  earliest 
Ages.     By  h  N.  Bischoff. 

[Concluded  from  Page  217-3 

If  the  history  of  dyeing  in  the  former  period  appears  im- 
perfect and  deficient,  it  will  be  found  still  more  so  in  the 
present  one,  which  contains  an  account  of  the  state  of  it  in 
the  west  after  the  fifth  century.  And,  indeed,  it  needs 
excite  no  wonder  if  great  silence  prevails  respecting  an  art  at 
that  time  so  little  valued,  as  we  are  left  in  much  uncertainty 
in  regard  to  many  other  things  of  great  importance.  This 
much,  however,  we  know,  that  during  the  general  banish- 
ment of  the  sciences,  aits,  and  manufactures  from  the  west, 
in  consequence  of  the  incursions  incessantly  made  by  multi- 
tude's of  barbarians  and  warlike  nations,  that  of  dyeing  was 

among 


History  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing,  303 

among  the  number.  It  cannot,  however,  be  denied  that 
there  occur  traces  of  this  art  being  practised  in  some  of  the 
Italian  monasteries  and  other  places.  But  the  articles  dyed 
were  of  little  importance,  being  chiefly  brown  or  black  linen, 
or  skins,  so  that  the  art  in  this  state  scarcely  deserves  the 
name  of  dyeing. 

Of  this  art  Muratori  gives  only  one  instance  in  the  eighth 
century  from  an  old  manuscript  preserved  in  a  monastery*, 
which,  on  account  of  the  barbarous  Latin  in  which  it  is 
written,  and  the  illegible  passages  in  it,  is  scarcely  intelligible. 
This,  however,  is  sufficient  to  give  us  an  idea  of  the  state  of 
dyeing  in  the  west  at  that  period ;  but  if  more  should  be 
thought  necessary,  I  have  no  doubt  that  there  are  documents 
in  old  monasteries  to  satisfy  the  curiosity  of  those  who  wish 
for  further  information  on  the  subject. 

It  is  certain,  indeed,  that  the  art  of  giving  cloth  and  other 
articles  a  beautiful  dye,  had  disappeared  from  the  wsst  in  the 
fifth  century,  and  was  to  be  found  only  in  the  eastf.  But 
even  there  little  attention  was  paid  to  improvement  and  new 
discoveries,  as  dyers  were  satisfied  with  those  colours  which 
had  been  long  usual,  and  which,  in  a  great  measure,  have 
been  already  described. 

The  Greeks  and  Saracens  were  for  a  long  time  the  exclu- 
sive possessors  of  this  art,  and  furnished  the  west  with  dyed 
stuffs,  and  particularly  purple,  which,  according  to  the  ac- 
count of  the  female  Greek  writer  mentioned  in  the  former 
part  of  this  paper,  was  prepared  there  of  a  beautiful  colour 
in  the  1 1th  century.  The  public  taste,  however,  was  at  length 
changed,  and  people  began  to  set  as  great  value  on  the 
scarlet  then  dyed  as  upon  purple,  and  at  length  to  prefer  it^ 
and  on  this  account,  in  the  12th  century,  the  art  of  dyeing 
purple  in  the  east  was  entirely  forgotten  J. 

•  Muratori  Dissertat.  de  Artibus  Italicor.  post  Inclinationem  Romani 
Imperii ;  in  his  Antiquitat.  Italic,  vol.  ii.  diss.  24.  p.  367. 

t  It  is  not  improbable,  therefore,  that  Attila  brought  with  him  that 
purple  cloth  with  which  his  throne,  according  to  an  old  poet,  was  hung 
round  during  a  great  festival.  Sec  the  Deutsche»  Museum  for  Jan.  1730, 
p.  69. 

X  Muratori  Dissertat.  de  Textrina  .et  Vestibus  Saeculorum  Rudium ;  ia 
vol.  ii.  Antiquitat.  Ital.  diis.  25.  p.  115. 

Though^ 


3,^4  Mk^KV  ^  (V  4f,{  of  Dyeing, 

Though,  in  ^onseuueuce  of  the  crusades  in  the  l;]th.and 
fQ^lowiug  centuries,  this  art  began  to  be  revived  in  the  west, 
^s  the  Christian  princes  who  went  on  these  expeditions 
brought  back  with  them  a  great,  many  Greek  artists,  dyeing 
bad  been  so  htUe  iraprpy^ed,  that,  according  to  the  testimony 
of  an  old  English  poet,  Gualfred  de  Winesauf,  who  wrote  a 
^ttre  about  the  year  1202,  the  Romans  at  that  period  ob- 
tained their  scarlet  from  Greece^.  Soon  after,  however,  the 
Italians,  and  particularly  the  Venetians,  made  considerable 
progress  in  this  art :  for  as  the  crusaders  were  conveyed  to 
the  Holy  Land  and  brought  back  from  it  chiefly  in  Italian 
ships,  the  Italians  had  the  best  opportunities  either  of  learn- 
ing the  art  of  dyeing  beautiful  colours  themselves,  or  of  carry- 
ing back  expert  dyers,  whom  they  must  have  found  very  ne- 
cessary to  their  manufactures,  which  were  then  beginning  to 
increase  f.  About  this  period,  therefore,  we  find  here  and 
there  traces  of  new  dye-materials,  or,  at  least,  materials  not 
before  mentioned.  Thus,  a  charter  of  the  year  1194,  which 
is  a  contract  between  the  inhabitants  of  Bologna  and  those 
of  Ferrara  respecting  certain  duties,  speaks  of  Brasil  grains 
fgrana  de  BrasileJ  and  of  indigo,  as  articles  which  xyere 
obliged  to  pay  duty  at  Bologna  J. 

In  regard  to  the  indigo  here  mentioned,  I  can  hardly  be- 
lieve that  we  are  to  understand  by  it  our  dye-stuif  of  the  same 
name  ;  as  a  more  modern  writer,  Plictho,  whom  I  shall  men- 
tion hereafter,  was  unacquainted  with  our  indigo.  It  is  much 
more  probable  that  what  is  here  meant  is  the  substance 
which  occurs  in  Pliny  under  the  name  of  indiciim^  and 
>yhich  was  merely  a  paint  §.  In  the  like  manner,  a  paint 
was  known  in  Germany  called  cndich  before  real  indigo  was 
known ;  which,  as  we  arc  told  by  Crolach  in  his  description 

♦  Muratori  ut  supra. 

+  So  early  as  the  year  1338  there  were  in  Florence  200  cloth  manu- 
factories, which  manufactured  annually  from  /O  to  80,000  pieces  of 
cloth,  valued  at  1 ,200,000  florins.— See  Delia  Decima,  torn.  ii.  p.  3. 
sez.  4.  c.  9. 

X  Muratori  Dissert,  de  Mercatihus  et  Jvlercatura  Soeculorum  Rudium, 
torn.  ii.  Antiquitat.  diss  .30.  p.  8<)8. 

§  Plin.  lib.  XXXV.  cap.  6.  He  describes  this  colour  as  a  scum  which 
adhered  to  certain  reeds. 

of 


Hlstcnry  of  the  Aft  of  Dyeing.  805 

©f  woad)  taken  from  an  old   author,  was  made  of  what  the 
dyers  at  present  call  the  flower  of  the  woad. 

But  the  Brasilian  grains  and  Brasilian  wood  are  mentioned 
in  more  old  charters,  as,  for  example,  of  the  years  1198  and 
1306,  under  the  name  of  braxilis.  This  wood,  therefore, 
may  have  not  taken  its  name  from  the  country  called  Brasil ; 
but  the  latter  rather  got  its  name  from  the  wood,  which  was 
found  there  in  abundance,  and  in  the  language  of  the  country 
was  called  ibirapitanga.  In  my  opinion  the  name  hrasilis 
comes  from  hragia^  in  French  braise,  a  burning  coal,  which 
it  may  have  obtained  both  from  its  colour  and  its  having  the 
property  of  communicating  it  to  others.  But,  as  1  shall  have 
an  opportunity  hereafter  of  enlarging  further  on  this  dye  stuff, 
I  shall  proceed  to  another  discovery  of  that  period,  made  by 
a  Florentine,  viz.  that  of  dyeing  by  orchilla-weed. 

A  Florentine  merchant,  who  about  the  year  1300  traded 
in  the  Levant,  happening  to  make  water  on  a  rock,  observed 
that  the  green  colour  of  the  moss  which  grew  on  it,  and  on 
which  the  urine  accidentally  fell,  was  changed  to  a  beautiful 
blueish  colour.  Reflecting  a  little  further  on  this  circum- 
stance, he  found  after  several  experiments,  that  when  mixed 
with  urine  and  other  things  it  communicated  to  cloth  a  co- 
lumbine colour.  This  process  he  long  kept  as  a  secret,  and 
acquired  by  it  a  great  deal  of  money.  The  invention  at  that 
period  was  so  profitable  to  the  Florentines,  and  excited  so 
much  wonder,  that  the  family  of  the  inventor,  which  still 
exists  in  Italy,  were  called  Rucellai,  from  the  name  of  the 
moss,  which  in  Spanish  is  distinguished  by  the  appellation  of 
orciglia,  and  the  dye  made  from  it  is  called  orchilla*. 

After  this  period  the  manufactures  in  Italy  increased  so 
that  the  attention  of  the  different  governments  was  particu- 
larly directed  to  the  art  of  dyeing.  In  the  year  1429  there 
were  published  at  Venice  some  regulations  respecting  dyeing 
{Mariegola  dell*  Arte  dei  Tintori),  in  which  certain  precepts 
were  given  for  dyeing,  and  according  to  which  dyers  were  to 
exercise  their  art  f.  These  regulations  were  renewed  in  the  ^ 
year  15 1<),  with  a  great  many  improvements.     One  John 

*  Domenico  Manni  Commentar.  de  Florentinorum  Inventis,  e.  '20. 
t  Zanon  Lcttcrc  dell'  Agricultura,  kc.  toin.  iii.  p.  2.  Ictt.  6. 

Vol.   IX.  Qq  Ventura 


306  History  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing, 

Ventura  Rosetti,  however,  finding  these  precepts  too  imper- 
fect, made  a  tour,  at  considerable  expense,  through  Italy  and 
other  countries  to  procure  information  respecting  the  art  of 
dyeing,  and  on  his  return  wrote,  under  the  assumed  name  of 
Plictho,  a  book  on  it  ;  the  first,  perhaps,  that  ever  appeared 
on  this  subject,  and  which  und()ul)tedly  laid  the  first  founda- 
tion for  the  improvement  in  this  art  which  afterwards  took 
place  *. 

The  title  of  this  work,  exceedingly  scarce  even  in  Italy,  an 
original  edition  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  royal  library  at 
Gottingen,  is  as  follows  : — Plictho's  Art  of  Dyeing ;  which 
teaches  how  to  give  to  Cloth,  Linen,  Cotton,  and  Silk,  real 
and  beautiful  as  well  as  false  and  common  Dyes.  Venice  1548. 
4to.t  The  whole  work  is  divided  into  three  sections;  the 
first  of  which  treats  on  the  dyeing  of  wool,  linen,  cotton, 
chintz,  &;c.  the  second  on  the  dyeing  of  silk,  and  the  third 
on  the  dyeing  of  skins. 

However  difficult  it  may  have  been  at  that  time  to  write 
upon  this  art,  Plictho,  in  the  preface  to  his  book,  where  he 
speaks  of  the  period  in  which  he  lived  with  a  candour  pecu- 
liar to  himself,  says  :  "  I  will  therefore,  dear  reader,  no 
longer  keep  back  these  three  works.  I  have  exerted  myself 
with  all  my  powers  by  day  and  by  night  for  months  and  years, 
with  danger  and  loss,  at  the  expense  of  much  hard  labour, 
and  as  far  as  my  poor  circumstances  would  permit,  to  im- 
prove this  important  art,  for  sixteen  years  past,  and  with  God's 
help  to  bring  it  to  a  proper  state." — This  author  was  not  ac- 
quainted either  with  indigo  or  cochineal ;  but  he  speaks  of 
brasil  wood,  v.'hich  he  calls  verz'mo,  a  name  still  given  to  it 

*  Beckmann  s  Technology,  p.  60. 

f  The  Italian  title  is  Plictho  de  larthe  de  Tentori,  che  insegna  Tenger 
Panni,  Telle,  Banbasi  et  Sede,  si  per  larthe  magiore  come  per  la  com- 
mune, rinegia  1543.  4to.  The  real  name  of  the  author,  as  I  have  al- 
ready observed,  was  John  Ventura  Rosetti ;  he  was  overseer  of  the  ar- 
senal of  Venice,  as  he  gives  us  to  understand  himself  in  the  end  of  his 
book.  This  work  has  been  translated  into  French  under  the  following 
title  :  Suite  duTeinturier  parfait,  ou  I'Art  de  Teindre  les  Laines,  Soyes, 
Fils,  Pcaux,  Polls,  Plumes,  &c.  comme  il  se  pratique  h.  Venize,  Genes, 
Florence,  et  dans  tout  le  Levant ;  et  la  Maniere  de  passer  en  Chamois 
toute  Sortc  de  Peaux,  traduite  de  I'ltalien.     Paris  1716. 

in 


History  of  llie  Art  of  Dyeing,  307 

ill  Italy,  and  from  which  the  word  brasilis,  as  appears,  has 
been  derived.  Though  Hellot  and  others  despise  this  work 
as  a  wretched  collection  of  recipes,  we  cannot  deny  the  author 
the  merit  of  having  first  opened  the  way  to  improve  the  art  of 
dyeing;  of  having  brought  it  into  high  reputation;  and  in  par- 
ticular, of  having  excited  towards  it  the  attention  of  foreign 
nations. 

For  about  two  hundred  years  before,  the  Itdians,  and  par- 
ticularly the  Venetians,  had  a  monopoly  of  dyeing,  and  pro- 
cured large  sums  by  it  from  neighbouring  nations,  who  made 
no  exertions  to  practise  the  art  themselves ;  for  statesmen 
and  men  of  letters  did  not  think  it  v/orth  their  while  to  give 
themselves  any  trouble  about  it,  and  from  dyers  no  change 
whatever  was  to  be  expected.  But  PHctho  was  tlie  first  who. 
exhibited  this  art  in  its  full  lustre,  and  excited  the  French, 
English,  and  Germans,  to  apply  in  earnest,  in  their  different 
countries,  to  the  improving  so  useful  and  extensive  a  branch 
of  manufacture. 

In  France  some  progress  towards  this  object  had  been  aU 
ready  made.  One  Giles  Gobelin,  who  had  learned  from  a 
German  the  art  of  dyeing  scarlet,  endeavoured  to  establish  it 
in  that  country,  and  for  this  purpose  erected  a  dye-house,  in 
the  suburbs  of  Paris,  on  a  small  stream  called  the  Bievre,  the 
water  of  which  was  found  peculiarly  favourable  to  that  co- 
lour. This  undertaking  was  at  first  considered  to  be  a  work 
of  so  much  difficulty  that  no  one  believed  he  would  be  able 
to  complete  it,  and  for  that  reason  this  dye-house  was  called 
La  Folie  Gobelin,  that  is.  Gobelin's  Folly*. 

Gohelin,  however,  continued  his  business,  and  scarlet  dyed 
after  his  manner  is  still  called  Gobelin's  scarlet,  and  a  build- 
ing in  which  tapestry  is  now  made  is  still  distinguished  by  his 
namef.  But  dyeing  in  general  continued  in  a  very  imperfect 

state 
*  See  Histoire  de  VAcademie  Royale  des  Sciences  de  Berlin  iar  1767» 

p.  ^7- 

\  People  at  that  time  were  so  ignorant  in  matters  of  this  kind  that  they 
could  not  believe  that  Gobelin  performed  nhat  he  did  without  superna- 
tural assistance.  They  invented,  therefore,  the  following  story  : — Gobelin 
is  said  to  have  entered  into  a  compact  with  the  devil,  who  was  to  teach 
him  the  art  of  dyeing  scarlet ;  and,  having  learned  it,  he  gained  by  it  )i 
gieat  deal  of  money.     When  the  term  of  the  compact,  however,  was 

nearly 


508  History  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing, 

state  till  Colbert,  the  great  minister  of  Louis  XIV.  in  the 
year  1669,  undertook  to  pay  attention  to  its  improvement. 
With  this  view  he  examined  the  establishment  and  defects  of 
the  French  dyeing,  and  a  M.  d'Albo,  at  his  desire,  composed 
a  set  of  regulations  respecting  dyeing,  which  were  printed  and 
published  at  Paris  in  the  years  16G9  and  1672*. 

The  introduction  to  this  book  contains  a  proof  of  Colbert's 
mode  of  thinking  in  regard  to  this  art : — "  If  the  silk,  woollen, 
and  linen  manufactories,"  says  he,  "  are  those  which  con- 
tribute most  to  the  support  and  advancement  of  trade  and 
commerce,  dyeing,  which  supplies  that  variety  of  colours  by 
which  the  most  beautiful  things  in  nature  are  imitated  and 
represented,  may  be  considered  as  the  soul  of  it,  without 
which  the  body  would  be  animated  only  by  feeble  life.  Wool 
and  silk  in  their  natural  colours,  formerly  raw  articles  of  little 
value,  now  find  sale  in  the  country,  when  they  have  received 
from  dyeing  those  attractions  which  render  them  valuable  and 
agreeable  to  the  most  savage  nations/' 

The  treatise  itself  is  divided  into  twelve  chapters :  the  first 
treats  on  the  five  principal  colours,  and  the  preparation  of  the 
articles  before  ihey  are  dyed  5  the  second,  of  the  application 
of  the  dye-stuffs ;  the  third,  of  the  different  shades  of  the  above 

nearly  terminated,  as  Gobelin  was  passing  through  the  court-yard  with  a 
light  in  his  hand,  the  devil  came  to  fetch  him  away.  Gobelin  begged  for 
a  respite,  but  the  evil  spirit  would  not  grant  it.  Gobelin  at  last  requested 
that  the  devil  would  wait  till  the  bit  of  candle  in  his  hand  was  burnt  out. 
This  being  granted.  Gobelin  immediately  threw  it  into  a  well  and  pushed 
the  devil  in  after  it.  The  devil  thus  outwitted  was  exceedingly  angry ; 
but  Gobelin  had  time  to  get  a  guard  of  ecclesiastics,  who  secured  him  from 
similar  attacks  in  future. — See  Zanon  as  above,  sixth  book,  third  letter. 
*  The  title  is  :  Instruction  ginirale  pour  la  Teinture  det  Laines  et  Mcl- 
nvfactures  de  Laine  de  toutes  Couleurs,  et  ponr  la  Ctdture  des  Drogues  ou 
Ingrcdiens  quon  y  employe:  a  Paris  1672.  12mo.  This  work  was  re- 
printed in  the  last  century  under  the  following  title  :  Le  Teinturier  par- 
fait:  ou  Instruction  nouvelle  et  generale  pour  la  Teinture  des  Laines  et  Ma-- 
nufacture  de  Laine  de  toutes  Couleurs,  et  pour  la  Culture  des  Drogues  on 
Jngrediens  quon  y  employe:  k  Leyde,  chez  Theod.  Haack,  I7O8.  8vo. 
The  iast  edition  appeared  in  1726  in  two  parts.  There  is  also  a  German 
edition  by  Paul  James  Marperger,  M'ith  the  title  Ars  Tinctoria  fundu" 
mcrUalis.  Respecting  this  book  see  Memoires  concernant  les  Arts  et  les 
Sciences  for  the  year  16/3 ;  and  the  Leipz.  Sammlm^gen,  vol.  iii.  for  1716, 
p.  1013. 

colours  \ 


History  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing.  309. 

colours;  the  fourth,  of  compound  colours;  the  fifth,  of  the 
division  of  colours  into  fine  colours  {teinturieis  en  Ion  teint) 
and  common  colours  (ieinturiers  en  petit  teint  *) ;  the  sixth, 
of  the  dyers'  marks,  with  which  they  mark  the  articles  they 
dye  in  both  the  above  ways ;  the  seventh  contains  a  cata- 
logue of  the  dye-stuffs  permitted  to  be  used  for  dyeing  the 
fine  and  common  colours ;  the  eighth  gives  an  accoimt  of 
the  reasons  why  certain  kinds  of  dye-stuffs  are  prohibited  ; 
the  ninth  treats  entirely  on  dyeing  black ;  the  tenth,  of  the 
ground  and  bath  proper  for  each  colour;  the  eleventh  treats 
on  the  dyeing  of  linen  and  hats ;  and  the  twelfth  recommends 
the  use  and  cultivation  of  indigenous  dye-stuffs,  a  list  of  which 
is  given. 

That  these  regulations  might  be  properly  observed,  certain 
inspectors  and  commissioners  were  not  only  appointed  to  visit 
the  dye-houses  and  repositories  of  the  merchants,  but  orders 
were  afterwards  given  to  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences to  make  experiments  for  improving  and  beautifying 
different  dyes,  and  to  lay  the  result  of  his  discoveries  before 
the  academy,  which  were  afterwards  to  be  published  for  the 
practical  use  of  dyers. 

The  great  advantage  of  this  establishment  may  be  easily  con- 
ceived from  the  preference  given  to  the  French  dyes  ;  and  the 
works  which  Du  Fay,  Hellot,  and  others,  have  written  on  this 
subject,  and  with  which  every  dyer  ought  to  be  acquainted. 

About  this  time  the  dye-stuffs  brought  to  Europe  from  the 
newly  discovered  countries,  but  especially  indigo  and  cochi- 
neal, began  to  be  employed  with  great  advantage.  The 
Netherlanders,  in  particular,  endeavoured,  by  means  of  these 
new  dye-stuffs,  to  discover  more  durable  and  livelier  colours ; 
for  though  they  had  begun,  almost  at  the  same  time  as  the 
Italians,  to  apply  to  the  art  of  dyeing  with  great  zeal,  and  to 
take  advantage  of  the  troubles  in  the  East,  they  had  never 
been  so  fortunate,  notwithsanding  all  their  exertions,  as  to 
make  any  great  progress  in  it. 

•  This  division  was  made  in  the  earliest  periods  in  Italy  as  well  as  in. 
France,  as  proved  by  a  French  ordinance  of  Nov.  17,  1383;  1)ut  it  liad 
not  been  bo  strictly  observed  till  Colbert  found  it  necessary  to  define  it 
moi-f  accurately. 

At 


310  History  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing, 

At  last  a  Flemish  painter  named  Peter  Kloeck,  who,  du- 
ring his  long  travels  in  various  parts  of  the  East,  had  learned 
the  art  of  giving  the  most  beautiful  colours  to  silk  and  woollen 
stuffs,  as  well  as  that  of  dyeing  scarlet,  which  he  acquired 
from  the  German  inventor  ^hom  I  shall  mention  hereafter, 
returned  to  his  own  country*,  excited  as  much  attention  by 
his  method  as  Gobelin  did  at  Paris,  soon  brought  dyeing  into 
repute,  and  continued  to  practise  his  art  till  1550,  when  he 
diedf. 

After  that  epoch  this  art  was  exercised  by  the  Flemings 
with  so  much  zeal,  that  the  Netherlands  afterwards  supplied 
not  only  France,  but  even  England  and  Germany,  with  ex- 
perienced dyers. 

Dyeing  seems  to  have  been  practised  also  in  England  at  a 
very  early  period,  for  in  the  14th  century  Edward  HI.  brought 
a  great  many  dyers  from  Flanders  J.  Under  Edward  IV.  dyers 
were  so  numerous  in  London,  that  in  the  year  1472  they 
were  established  into  a  particular  company,  which  at  present 
forms  one  of  the  ninety-two  incorporated  companies,  and 
holds  the  thirteenth  rank :  this  company  has  its  own  arms, 
and  its  hall  on  Dowgate-hill§. 

After  the  discovery  of  America  the  new  dye-stuffs  begau 
to  be  used  also  in  England ;  but  here  people  were  at  first  so 
mistrustful  of  them,  that  under  queen  Elizabeth  dyeing  with 
indigo  was  not  only  limited,  but  the  use  of  logwood  was  en- 
tirely prohibited,  and  it  was  burnt  wherever  it  was  found  ||. 
This  prohibition  was  afterwards  repeated,  but  it  was  annulled 
under  Charles  II.  in  1661. If 

*  Beckmann's  Technology,  p.  64. 

f  Mem.  do  1  Aca'*.  de  Berlin,  17^7,  p.  92, 

\  Rymer's  Acta  publican  torn  ii.  p.  iii.  p.  68. 

§  Noorthouck's  New  History  of  London,  vol.  ii.  p.  60L 

jl  The  Statutes  at  large.  Statute  23  Eliz.  c.9 ;  an  act  for  abolishing 
of  certain  deceitful  stufl'  used  in  dyeing  of  cloth,  &c. 

^  Statutes  of  Charles  II.  13.  c.  1 1.  Frauds  and  abuses  in  his  majesty's 
customs  prevented  and  regulated.  Under  this  head  the  following  passage 
oceurs  :— ,*' As  it  has  now  been  found  that  our  dyers,  by  diligence  and 
dexterity,  have  made  such  progress  as  to  be  able  to  dye  with  logwood 
as  good  and  durable  colours  as  with  other  kinds  of  wood,  the  use  of 
this  wood  is  in  futui'e  permitted." 

But 


History  of  the  Art  of  By eing,  311 

But  notwithstanding  the  attention  hitherto  paid  to  dyeing 
by  government,  it  still  remained  in  a  languishing  state  till  the 
year  1643,  when  a  German  named  Kepfler  first  brought  to 
England  his  new-invented  method  of  dyeing  scarlet;  and 
because  he  established  a  dye-house  at  the  village  of  Bow,  the 
scarlet  he  dyed  was  called  the  Bow  dye'^\  At  length  a 
Fleming  named  Brauer,  who  in  1667  went  to  England  with 
Iiis  whole  family,  brought  the  dyeing  of  woollen  there,  in 
general,  to  that  degree  of  perfection  at  which  it  has  been 
since  maintained  by  the  English  f.  Men  of  letters  in  Eng- 
land now  began  to  turn  their  attention  to  this  art,  and  we 
find  a  treatise  on  dyeing  published  in  1667  t,  which  was  soon 
followed  by  others  of  the  same  kind. 

As  a  distinction  had  always  been  made  in  Italy,  France, 
and  the  Netherlands,  between  fine  and  common  dyers,  the 
case  appears  to  have  been  the  same  in  England  from  the  ear- 
liest periods ;  so  that  blue,  red,  and  yellow,  belonged  exclu- 
sively to  the  fine  dyers ;  but  both  the  fine  and  common  dyers 
were  allowed  to  dye  brown,  fawn-colour,  and  black  §. 

Since  the  art  of  dyeing,  as  we  have  already  seen,  could 
not  be  revived  in  Italy,  France  and  the  Netherlands,  from 
its  long  state  of  depression  to  which  it  had  been  subjected  in 
the  fifth  century,  it  will  not  appear  surprising  that  the  Ger- 
mans, who  during  the  middle  ages  paid  very  little  attention 
to  manufactures,  should  begin  to  apply  later  than  other  na- 
tions to  this  art,  which  is  always  an  attendant  of  manufac- 
tures. All  the  beautiful,  lively,  and  high  colours,  which  arc 
mentioned  by  the  German  writers  of  that  period,  were  pro- 
cured from  the  Italians,  as  these  had  procured  them  from  the 
Greeks. 

It  is  probable  that  the  Germans  had  dyers  of  their  own  for 
black  and  brown  colours,  as  the  former  was  their  gala  colour 
or  colour  of  honour,  and  the  latter  the  common  colour  of  the 
monks  and  other  people,  both  of  which  required  no  foreign 

*  Anderson's  History  of  Commerce,  vol.  ii.  p.  77* 
X  Anderson's  History  of  Commerce,  vol.  ii.  p.  132. 
X  William  Petty's  Apparatus  to  the  History  of  the  Common  Practices 
of  Dyeing,  in  Sprat's  History  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  p.  284. 
§  Chambers's  Dictionary  of  Arts,  under  the  head  Djeing.  ' 

dye- 


312  History  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing, 

dye-stuffs  or  expensive  preparation.  But  this  scarcely  de- 
servfed  the  name  of  dyeing,  and  extended  at  most  to  hnen  or 
coarse  woollen  stuffs,  and  even  to  these  the  dyers  could  not 
communicate  fast  and  durable  colours. 

As  the  number  of  those  who  prepared  these  colours  after- 
wards increased,  the  first  dyers  were  under  the  necessity  of 
forming  themselves  into  a  company  to  secure  themselves  and 
their  occupation  from  the  encroachment  of  foreigners ;  and 
this  was  the  origin  of  that  company  known  in  Germany  at 
present  under  the  name  of  black  dyers;  but  whether  this 
society  was  formed  under  Henry  I.  in  the  year  925,  as  the 
chancellor  Von  Ludewig  asserts"^,  cannot  be  with  certainty 
determined.  With  the  above  two  colours  the  Germans  were 
long  satisfied,  till  at  length,  m  the  12th  century,  a  great 
many  artists  and  manufacturers  took  shelter  in  Germany  in 
consequence  of  Milan  being  over-run  by  the  emperor  Fre- 
deric I. ;  and  by  the  crusades  the  Germans  in  the  East  became 
more  and  more  acquainted  with  the  woollen  manufactories, 
which  they  afterwards  brought  back  with  them  into  their 
own  country  f. 

These  circumstances,  and  the  encouragement  given  to  the 
(rerman  navigation  and  trade  with  foreign  nations;};  by  the 
Khinish  and  Hanseatic  league  in  the  13th  century,  encou- 
raged the  Germans  not  only  to  apply  with  more  ardour  to 
their  home  manufactures,  but  rendered  it  necessary  for  them 
to  obtain  better  dyers  and  dye-stuffs,  that  their  manufactures 
might  find  a  good  sale  in  foreign  markets.  They  endeavoured, 
therefore,  to  procure  from  Italy  and  the  Netherlands,  where 
the  art  of  dyeing,  as  is  well  known,  had  been  much  culti- 
vated, expert  workmen  §,  who,  from  the  woad  which  they 
ehkfly  employed  for  dyeing  blue  and  green  colours,  were 
called  woad  dyers  and  also  cloth,  dyers  ]|,  because  they  dyed 

only 

*  Ludewig  Dissert,  de  Re  Bafiaria  Tinct.  p.  11. 

t  See  Piittner's  Deutsche  Rcichsgeschlchte,  §  107-  III.  p.  257. 

:ibid.  §  118.  p.  291. 

§  Ludewig  ut  suprtty  p.  12.  Schrebei-'s  Abhafid.  vom  TVaidt,  pait  5. 
§  3.  Zink'i  Manufactur  und  kandwerks  Lexicon,  under  the  word  Dyer. 

II  The  appellation  woad  dyer  occurs  in  a  Charter  of  the  year  1339.  Zink, 
therefore,  is  wrong  when  he  says  that  woad  was  not  used  till  a  late  period, 

and 


History  of  the  Art  of  Dydng.  313 

ouly  good  cloths.  They  were  called  likewise  Rhenish  dyers ^ 
either  because  the  Rhenish  league  encouraged  cloths  of  beau- 
tiful colours,  or  because  a  great  many  dyers  from  Rliineland 
had  settled  in  otlier  provinces  of  Germany. 

The  above  league,  however,  endeavoured  to  encourage 
dyeing  in  Germany,  not  only  by  promoting  trade  and  pro- 
curing expert  dyers,  but  also  by  various  laws  and  regulations. 
Thus  we  find,  besides  others,  an  ordinance  of  the  Hanse 
towns,  written  at  Lubec,  in  Latin,  in  the  year  14 18,  the 
sixth  section  of  which  contains  the  following  passage  : — "  No 
merchant  shall  purchase  undyed  cloth  in  any  town  and  dye 
it  in  another ;  but  the  cloth  shall  be  dyed  in  the  place  where 
it  is  bought,  under  the  penalty  of  forfeiting  the  cloth  and  the 
dye-stuffs"^." 

After  this  period  we  find  two  kinds  of  dyers  in  Germany, 
viz,  the  before-mentionad  cloth,  luoad,  or  Rhenish  dyers,  and 
the  old  Hack  or  ordinary  dyers.  The  former  endeavoured 
chiefly  to  improve  their  art  by  new  inventions,  as  was  the 
case  in  the  IGth  century,  when  a  fine  dyer,  whom  some  call 
Kiister,  others  Kiiffler,  some  Kepfler,  and  the  Dutch  Drebel, 
found  out,  by  means  of  a  solution  of  tin,  the  art  of  dyeing 
the  new  scarlet  colour f.  From  this  dyer  the  before-men- 
tioned German  painter,  Kloeck  or  Gliick,  learned  the  art ; 
and  Gobelin  having  been  taught  it  by  the  latter,  it  was  soon 
made  known  over  a  great  part  of  Europe.  Besides,  the  Ger- 
mans now  began  to  establish  silk  manufactories ;  and  as  silk 
Tequired  a  particular  method  of  dyeing,  there  arose  a  new 
kind  of  dyers  called  silk-dyers,  of  whom  mention  is  made  in 
the  laws  of  the  empire  in  the  16th  century  J. 

At  last  dye-stuffs,  before  unknown,  from  the  newly-dis- 
covered countries,  or  at  least  such  as  were  rare  and  expensive, 

and  that,  therefore,  the  black  dyers,  by  way  of  ridicule,  called  the /ti# 
dyers  woad dyers. — See  Grosser  Analecta  Fastor.  Zittauiensium,  p.  iv.«.  4. 
p.  168.  §  10.  The  name  cloth  dyer  occurs  frequently  in  the  Upts  of  the 
empire.  For  example,  in  those  of  the  year  1577,  under  the  head  Pur- 
chasing of  Woollen  Cloth,  §  21.  also  3. 

*  Flitter  sReichsgesckichte,  §  145.  iv.  not.  10. 

t  Hellot  on  Dyeing,  p.  276  j  Beckmann's  Ter!inology,  p.  ^4.  The 
antients  had  a  scarlet  colour  which  they  dyed  n-ith  the  cocoum  kermes. 

X  See  Reich' 9  Aback,  zu  Regensburg  for  thb  year  1594.      , 
Vol.  IX.  Rr  being 


3 1 4  History  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing, 

being  imported  into  Europe,  were  much  employed  by  the 
German,  Italian,  and  French  dyers.  By  these  productions 
they  were  enabled  to  prepare  dyes  much  more  beautiful  and 
at  less  expense  than  they  had  ever  been  able  by  means  of 
the  dye-stuffs  before  known. 

As  the  Germans  did  not  obtain  these  new  dye-stuffs  so 
early,  and  were  not  yet  acquainted  with  the  art  of  treating 
them,  the  Flemish  and  French  dyers  came  to  Germany  in 
great  numbers,  and  united  themselves  to  the  German  cloth 
and  woad  dyers,  under  the  name  of  the  art,  u'oad,  and  fine 
dyers^. 

Thus,  in  the  middle  of  the  IGth  century,  a  Fleming  named 
John  Nicolaus  Schmidt  established  a  house  for  fine  dyeing  at 
Geraf.  But  on  this  occasion  the  jealousy  and  envy  of  the 
black  dyers,  who  had  hitherto  been  secret  enemies  to  the 
woad  dyers,  were  displayed  in  their  full  force.  They  not 
only  persecuted  with  all  their  might  the  new  strangers,  but 
they  endeavoured  to  make  the  new  dye  materials,  which  the 
line  dyers  particularly  used,  to  appear  to  the  different  princes 
contemptible  and  pernicious ;  especially  as  they  were  already 
disagreeable  to  financiers,  because  they  lessened  the  consump- 
tion of  indigenous  productions,  and  especially  of  woad.  Tlie 
elector  of  Saxony  |  and  duke  Ernest  the  Pious  §,  therefore, 
not  only  issued  severe  prohibitions  against  indigo ;  but  it  was 
made  a  subject  of  discussion  at  the  diet,  where  it  was  de- 
scribed as  a  pernicious  eating  devil  and  corrosive  dye-stuff  jj. 
The  use  of  these  ingredients,  however,  had  become  so  pre- 
valent, and  their  superiority  to  the  indigenous  was  too  evi- 
dent to  admit  of  their  being  entirely  banished.  On  the  other 
hand  the  division  into  fine  and  common  dyers,  to  which  the 
French  and  Dutch  dyers  were  already  accustomed,  was  more 
firmly  established  -,  and  both  kinds  distinguished  themselves 
by  their  greater  or  less  dexterity ;  by  the  dye-stuffs  they  em- 

*  Hence  arose,  no  doubt,  the  connexion  which  still  subsists  between 
the  German  tine  dyers  and  the  French,  English,  and  German  dyers,  as 
the  black  dyers  cannot  go  beyond  the  boundaries  of  Germany. 

f  Ludewig  ut  supra,  p.  1. 

X  Codex  Augustceus,  part  i.  p.  236,  1521,  15^17. 

§  Gothaische  Landeford>:ung,  p.  ^. 

II  R.  Pol.  0.  zu  Frankf.  lo/T-  tit.  21.  §  3. 

ployed  ) 


Biographical  Sketch  of  Count  Rumford,  315 

ployed;  the  instruments  they  used  ;  their  fellowship ;  and,  in 
the  last  place,  by  the  objects  to  which  their  attention  was 
chiefly  directed. 

The  black  and  common  dyers,  particularly  in  Saxony, 
learned  the  art  of  communicating  good  dyes  to  linen  or 
linsey-woolsey,  and  assumed  the  title  of  black  awd  fine  dyers, 
by  which  they  endeavoured  to  distinguish  themselves  from 
the  common  linen  dyers,  as  they  were  then  called.  They 
were,  however,  established  into  one  company  with  the  black 
and  fine  dyers  by  an  ordinance  of  the  elector  of  Saxony,  dated 
May  24th  1595,  and  divided  into  three  principal  branches, 
viz,  those  of  Leipzic,  Dresden,  and  Zwickaw*;  and  this 
union  chancellor  Von  Ludewig  considers,  improperly,  as  the 
union  of  the  art  dyers  with  the  Hack  dyers  f.  Such  is  the  state 
of  dyeing  at  present  in  Germany,  and  of  the  establishment  of 
the  dyers. 


s, 


XL.  A  Biographical  Sketch  of  Count  Rumford. 


IR  BENJAMIN  THOMPSON,  Count  of  Rumford,  a 
native  of  America,  was  born  in  the  town  of  Rumford,  in  the 
province  of  Mafssachusets.  In  the  American  war  he  raised  a 
regiment  of  dragoons,  and  signalized  himself  on  different  oc- 
casions in  the  service  of  the  mother  country.  In  February 
1 784  he  received  from  His  Majesty  the  honour  of  knighthood ; 
and  in  the  same  year,  with  his  sovereign's  permission,  en- 
gaged in  the  service  of  his  Serene  Highness  the  Elector  of 
Bavaria. 

In  that  electorate  his  services  were  of  the  most  active  and 
useful  kind ;  for,  in  addition  to  the  duties  of  his  military  pro- 
fession, he  devoted  himself  to  the  amelioration  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  vagrant  poor  :  a  Herculean  labour,  of  which  no 
one  can  form  an  adequate  idea  without  perusing  the  account 
since  published  by  the  Count,  and  yet  managed  with  so 
much  address  as  to   conciliate  the  good  wishes  of  even  the 

*  Schreber  Beschreibung  des  Waidts,  part  5.  §  3. 

t  Ludewig  ut  supra.  This  perhaps  may  have  induced  Von  Justi,  in 
his  PoUceywissemchaft,  vol.  i.  book  5.  p.  20.  div.  3.  §  583.  to  make  the 
jsame  assertion. 

R  r  2  mendicants 


316  Biographical  Sketch  of  Count  Rumford. 

mendicants  themselves,  and  to  beget  in  them  habits  of  indus- 
try, cleanliness,  and  sobriety. 

In  pursiiini^:  the  plans  of  oeconomy  necessary  to  give  tlie 
greatest  efficacy  to  these  improvements  in  Bavaria,  he  was  led 
to  devote  his  attention  to  the  means  of  providing  the  greatest 
quantity  of  nutriment  with  the  least  possible  expense,  and  at 
the  same  time  pleasing  and  palatable.  The  oeconomy  of  fuel 
also  claimed  his  attention ;  and  to  these  laudable  motives  we 
think  the  world  is  chiefly  indelUed  for  the  philosophical  in- 
vestigation of  those  important  particulars  so  ably  conducted 
by  count  Rumford  in  his  various  Essays,  and  from  which,  in 
former  volumes,  we  have  laid  several  interesting  abstracts 
before  our  readers. 

The  estimation  in  which  these  services  rendered  to  Bavaria 
were  held  by  the  elector  may  be  estimated  by  the  marks  of 
honour  conferred  by  him  on  the  person  who  rendered  them ; 
who  was  created  count  of  Rumford,  knight  of  the  orders  of  the 
white  eagle  and  St.  Stanislaus ;  and  appointed  chamberlain, 
privy  counsellor  of  state,  and  lieutenant-general  in  the  service 
of  the  duke  of  Bavaria,  colonel  of  his  regiment  of  artillery, 
and  commander  in  chief  of  the  general  staff  of  his  army. 
The  monument  erected  at  Munich  in  1795,  in  commemora- 
tion of  his  public  services,  of  which  our  readers  will  find  an 
account  in  our  fifth  volume,  pages  205  and  312,  will  serve  to 
hand  down  to  posterity  the  remembrance  of  the  gratitude  of 
those  who  erected  it. 

To  dwell  upon  the  benefits  resulting  to  society  from  pur- 
suits like  those  in  which  the  count  has  been  occupied  is  al- 
together unnecessary :  the  public  kitchens  in  almost  every 
town  and  village  in  the  kingdom  are  practical  commentaries 
upon  them,  v^^hich  speak  more  to  the  feeling  mind  than  could 
the  most  elaborate  eulogium. 

Of  living  characters  propriety  demands  that  we  should  say 
but  little.  Before  closing,  however,  this  very  brief  sketch,  we 
must  take  notice  of  the  zeal  manifested  by  the  Count  for  even 
the  future  furtherance  of  the  advantages  resulting  to  mankind 
by  the  oeconomy  of  fuel.  For  this  purpose,  on  the  12th  of 
July  1796,  he  deposited  with  the  Royal  Society  one  thousand 
pom  ds  stock  in  the  three  per  cent,  consols^  "  to  the  end  that 

the 


Biographical  Sketch  of  Count  Rumford.  317 

the  interest  may  be  applied  once  every  second  year  as  a  pre- 
mium to  the  author  of  the  most  important  discovery  or  useful 
improvement  which  shall  be  made  and  published  by  printing, 
or  in  any  way  made  known  to  the  public  in  any  part  of  Eu- 
rope during  the  preceding  two  years,  on  heat  or  on  light;  th^ 
preference  always  being  given  to  such  discoveries  as  shall,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  president  and  council  of  the  Royal  Society, 
tend  most  to  promote  the  good  of  mankind." 

The  formalities  to  be  observed  (^y  the  president  and  council 
in  deciding  on  the  comparative  merits  of  those  discoveries 
which  in  their  opinion  might  entitle  the  authors  to  be  con- 
sidered as  competitors  for  this  biennial  premium,  the  Count 
left  to  the  president  and  council  to  determine  as  in  thefr 
wisdom  and  judgement  they  might  judge  necessary.  But  iu 
regard  to  the  form  in  which  this  premium  is  to  be  conferred^ 
his  request  was,  "  that  it  may  always  be  given  in  two  medals^ 
struck  in  the  same  dye,  the  one  of  gold  and  the  other  of 
silver,  and  of  such  dimensions  that  both  of  them  together 
may  be  just  equal  to  the  amount  of  two  years  interest  of  the 
stock ;  that  is  to  say,  that  they  may  together  be  of  the  value 
of  sixty  pounds  sterling. 

**  Should  it  so  happen  at  any  time  that  no  new  discovery 
respecting  heat  or  light  should  be  made  in  any  part  of  Europe 
within  two  years  from  the  preceding  adjudication,  which  in 
the  opinion  of  the  president  aud  council  of  the  Royal  Society 
should  deserve  this  premium,  in  that  case  the  Count  desires 
*^  that  the  premium  may  not  be  given ;  but  that  the  value  of 
it  may  be  reserved,  and,  being  laid  out  in  the  purchase  of 
additional  stock  in  the  English  funds,  may  be  employed  to 
augment  the  capital  of  this  premium  ;  and  that  the  interest 
of  the  same,  by  which  the  capital  may  from  time  to  time  be 
augmented,  may  regularly  be  given  in  money  with  the  two 
medals,  and  as  an  addition  to  the  original  premium,  at  each 
succeeding  adjudication  of  it."  And  it  is  further  his  "parti- 
cular request  that  those  additions  to  the  value  of  the  premium, 
arising  from  its  occasional  non-adjudications,  may  be  suf- 
fered to  increase  without  limitation.'' 

It  is  principally  to  the  exertions  of  this  active  individual, 
in  which  he  was  ably  supported  by  the  worthy  president  of 

the 


.118  New  Method  of  Bleaching 

the  Royal  Society,  that  the  world  is  indebted  for  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  Royal  British  Institution,  which  pro^ 
mises  to  be  of  the  greatest  public  benefit. 

To  conclude :  The  different  productions  of  count  Rumford 
on  scientific  subjects,  published  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions and  in  separate  essays,  are  so  well  known  to  the  public 
that  any  enumeration  of  them  in  this  place  is  unnecessary. 
His  writings  are  also  well  known  on  the  continent ;  indeed 
many  of  them  have  been  translated,  and  from  all  of  them 
large  extracts  have  been  given  in  different  European  languages. 


XLI.  Account  of  Messrs,  Turnbull  and  Crook^s  7ieiu 
Met  hod  of  Bleaching  or  Whitening  and  Cleansing  Cotton- 

'  Wool,  Flax,  Hemp,  &c.  and  Goods  manufacttired  from 
any  of  these  Materials , 

J.  HE  inventors  of  this  method  have  secured  the  same  by 
patent,  and  the  present  account  is  extracted  from  their  spe- 
cification. 

The  goods  to  be  bleached  or  cleansed  are  directed  to  be 
first  washed,  and  freed  from  the  dirt  and  foreign  matters  that 
may  be  adhering  to  them,  and  from  any  kind  of  paste  or 
dressing  (as  the  workmen  call  it)  which  may  have  been  used 
in  their  manufacture.  This  is  to  be  performed  by  mill-washing 
or  any  of  the  usual  processes. 

When  thus  cleansed  they  are  put  into  a  lye  of  vegetable  or 
of  mineral  fixed  alkali,  or  of  the  volatile  alkali,  cither  mild  or 
made  caustic  by  quicklime,  or  into  a  lye  of  quicklime  only, 
or  into  a  soapy  lye,  or  into  a  lye  composed  of  all  or  any  of 
these  substances,  (with  or  without  the  addition  of  oxygenated 
muriatic  acid,)  of  a  strength  fit  for  the  purpose  of  extracting 
the  coloured  or  colourless  gumm.y,  resinous,  or  other  impuri- 
ties which  may  exist  naturally  in,  or  which  may  have  been 
introduced  (by  accident  or  design)  into  the  fibre  or  texture  of 
the  materials  or  goods  under  process,  and  which  are  too  inti- 
mately united  with  them  to  admit  of  being  removed  by  the 
first  above-described  washing  or  cleansing.  The  alkaline, 
soapy,  or  other  lye  may  be  prepared  by  the  method  or  me- 
thods 


Coi ton- f Fool,  Max,  Hemp,  ^c.  319 

thods  usually  followed  by  bleachers ;  the  present  invention 
not  consisting  in  the  kind  of  alkaline  lyes  or  other  liquorc 
employed,  or  in  the  way  of  preparing  them,  but  in  the  mode 
of  applying  such  alkaline,  soapy,  or  other  lyes,  and  in  the 
method  of  obtaining  and  applying  the  volatile  alkali  or  am- 
monia to  the  same  purpose ;  for  when  the  goods  or  article* 
to  be  bleached  are  immersed  in  the  alkaline,  soapy,  or  other 
lye  or  liquor  as  before  directed,  instead  of  boiling  or  bucking 
them  in  it,  as  is  the  practice  usually  followed,  the  patented 
only  steep  them,  or  keep  them  long  enough  in  the  said  lye  to 
be  thoroughly  impregnated  with  it,  which  requires  a  longer 
or  shorter  time  according  to  the  quantity  and  texture  of  th« 
articles  or  goods.  The  goods  are  then  drawn  out  upon  a  rack 
over  the  vessel  in  which  they  were  impregnated,  and  suffered 
to  drain,  that  the  superficially  adhering  lye  or  liquor  may 
run  from  them  back  into  the  said  vessel.  After  this  draining, 
the  goods  will  still  hold  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  lye  or 
liquor  employed  to  answer  the  end  in  view.  They  are  then 
put  into  a  vessel  of  sufficient  strength  and  dimensions,  which 
they  call  the  steaming-vat,  and  which  is  connected,  b]f 
means  of  a  pipe,  tube,  or  hose,  with  a  boiler,  kettle,  or  cai- 
iiron,  which  they  call  the  steaming-kettle,  and  which  may 
be  of  any  convenient  form  and  dimensions^  The  tube  above 
mentioned  may  pass  from  any  part  of  the  edge  or  of  the  sid« 
of  the  steaming-kettle,  or  ^ven  from  its  cover,  which  ought 
to  fit  steam-tight  into  any  part  of  the  side  or  bottom  of  the 
»teaming-vat,  the  intention  and  use  of  it  being  to  convey 
«team  from  the  foresaid  kettle  to  the  foresaid  vat,  and  is  fur- 
liished  with  a  stop-cock,  a  valve,  or  any  contrivance  that  will 
answer  the  purpose  of  shutting  and  opening  at  pleasure  the 
communication  between  the  said  kettle  and  vat.  The  steam- 
ing-vat  ought,  for  the  convenience  of  lifting  out  the  good^ 
to  be  furnished  with  a  false  bottom  of  some  kind  in  the  inside, 
as  of  wood  or  of  net-work,  for  the  goods  to  lie  upon  5  and  to 
this  false  bottom  should  be  attached  ropes,  by  means  of  which, 
and  the  assistance  of  a  crane  and  pulley,  or  any  other  conve- 
nient mechanical  power,  the  goods  may  be  withdrawn  from 
the  vat  after  the  operation  of  steaming  the  goods.  The  oj)ei- 
ration  of  steaming  the  goods  is  performed  by  opening  .the 

communis 


S2§  }7ew  Method  of  Bleaching 

communication  between  the  steamihg- kettle  an5  steaming 
¥at;  the  former,  which  contains  s«me  water  or  aqueous  solu- 
tion, being  kept  at  a  proper  heat  by  means  of  a  fire  put  under 
it,  and  the  latter  having  previously  its  cover  fitted  on  steam- 
tight.  The  steam  is  thus,  as  it  were,  pent  up  in  the  kettle 
and  vat,  and  made  to  act  with  any  pressure  that  may  be  de-^ 
tired,  or  that  the  strength  of  the  vessels  may  be  able  to  sustain. 
To  secure  the  safety  of  the  people  employed,  the  apparatus 
ought  always  to  be  furnished  with  a  safety-valve,  attached  to 
any  part  of  the  steaming-kettle  or  of  the  steaming-vat,  or  of 
the  tube  of  communication,  that,  when  the  elastic  force  of 
the  inclosed  steam  reaches  a  determined  point,  the  valve  may 
open  of  itself,  and  allow  a  portion  of  it  to  escape.  By  this 
process  the  goods  can  be  heated  considerably  above  the  boil- 
ing point;  a  circumstance  that  adds  so  much  to  the  dissolving 
power  of  the  alkaline  or  soapy  or  other  lye,  that  the  quantity 
left  in  the  goods  after  draining,  as  before  described,  is  found 
sufficient  to  dissolve  and  discharge  by  one  steaming  as  much 
of  the  resinous,  gummy,  or  other  impurities  fiom  the  goodsi 
under  process,  as  could  have  been  discharged  by  a  long  boiling 
of  the  goods  in  the  lye  itself,  as  is  the  usual  practice ;  and  by 
this  means  a  great  saving  is  made  in  the  alkalies  and  other 
ingredients  employed  for  whitening  the  goods.  For  in  the 
common  method  the  colouring  matter,  as  discharged  from 
the  fibre  or  texture  of  the  goods,  is  diffused  throughout  the 
whole  lye ;  which  soon  renders  it  so  foul,  that  it  is  obliged  to 
be  changed  long  before  it  has  become  saturated  with  the  sub- 
stances or  matters  on  which  it  exercises  its  power.  But  by 
this  method  there  is  no  more  lye  employed  for  one  steam- 
ing than  what  is  sufficient  merely  to  impregnate  the  goods 
thoroughly;  and  the  alkali,  thus  deposited  in  the  texture  or 
fibre  of  the  goods  under  process,  is  more  or  less  disengaged 
from  the  said  texture  or  fibre  by  the  action  of  the  steam,  and 
is  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  steaming-vat,  of  a  dark  colour, 
occasioned  by  the  matters  it  has  dii^solved  and  carried  down 
with  it.  The  steaming-vat  miay  be  very  commodiously  freed 
from  this  deposit  by  a  common  stopcock,  or  even  a  plug,  at 
or  near  its  bottom,  to  be  opened  as  often  as  may  be  neces^sary. 
The  sam«  end  ia  also  effected  by  using  only  a  deep  boiler 

with 


Coiton-WocU  Flax,  Hemp,  &c,  321 

with  a  steam-tii^ht  cover,  and  suspending  the  goods  previously 
impregnated  with  the  alkaline  or  other  lye,  as  before  directed, 
on  frame  and  net  work  over  boiling  water  in  the  said  boiler, 
and  employing  oxygenated  muriatic  acid,  acidulated  waters, 
mill  waj-hing,  or  exposure  to  the  sun  and  air  when  these 
may  be  necessary.  Particular  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  a 
supply  of  water  or  some  aqueous  solution  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  boiler  below  the  frame  or  net  work  on  which  the  goods 
lie,  as  otherwise  they  may  be  singed  or  actually  burnt,  and  a 
lor-s  be  consequently  incurred.  But  putting  them  in  steaming- 
vats  is  preferable  to  putting  them  in  a  boiler  in  the  manner 
just  described ;  and  that  on  several  accounts,  but  especially 
because  by  means  of  one  steaming-kettle  steam  can  be  thrown 
into  as  many  vats  as  can  be  convenientiy  ranged  round  it ; 
which  is  a  mean  of  making  a  considerable  saving  in  the  article 
of  fuel. 

One  steaming  generally  requires  from  four  to  eight  hours ; 
but  the  length  of  time  will  vary  according  to  the  kind  or 
quality  of  the  goods  to  be  whitened,  and  the  strength  of  the 
lye  that  has  been  employed  for  impregnating  them.  After 
the. steam  has  been  continued  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  the 
cover  of  the  steaming-vat  is  taken  off,  the  communication 
with  the  steaming-kettle  is  cut  off  by  means  of  the  foresaid 
cock  or  valve  provided  for  that  purpose,  and  the  goods  are 
lifted  out  by  means  of  a  crane  or  pulley,  or  other  fit  mecha^ 
nical  power,  as  before  mentioned.  They  are  then  well  washed 
by  milling,  or  by  any  of  the  processes  followed  by  bleachers : 
after  this  they  are  again  impregnated  with  lye,  steamed,  and 
then  washed ;  and  these  manipulations  are  repeated  in  the 
manner  that  has  already  been  described,  till  the  goods  are 
brought  to  the  required  degree  of  whiteness  and  purity.  The 
usual  operation  of  steeping  in  acidulated  waters,  and  exposure 
to  the  sun  and  air,  or  to  the  action  of  the  oxygenated  mu- 
riatic acid,  in  such  stages  of  the  process  as  the  bleacher  may 
think  proper,  may  be  employed  with  advantage  in  this  me- 
thod as  well  as  in  the  common  and  usual  method  of  bleach- 
Bg.  Every  bleacher's  own  experience  must  point  out  to  him, 
that  when  acidulated  waters,  exposure  tp  the  sui>  and  air,  or 
.  Vol.  IX,  S  §  the 


322  New  Method  of  Bleaching 

the  oxygenated  muriatic  acid,  are  to  be  employed  after  any 
steaming,  the  goods  should  first  be  washed. 

When  silk,  sheep's  wool,  or  goods  containing  sheep's  wool. 
Of  animal  hair  or  fur  of  any  kind,  are  wished  to  be  cleaned, 
scoured  or  whitened  by  the  above  described  method,  the  lye 
employed  ought  to  be  much  weaker  than  in  the  case  of  cot» 
ton,  flax,  or  hemp,  or  of  goods  manufactured  of  these  or  any 
of  them ;  for  a  strong  caustic  lye  would  entirely  destroy  the 
former,  and  convert  them  into  a  saponaceous  matter. 

By  the  means  above  described,  or  by  another  or  different 
application  of  the  volatile  alkali  or  ammonia,  the  manner  of 
performing  which  shall  be  imuiediately  described,  a  degree 
of  whiteness  and  purity  may  be  given  to  cotton-wool,  flax, 
hemp,  silk,  and  sheep's  wool,  and  to  goods  of  every  descrip- 
tion made  or  manufactured  of  any  of  them,  or  of  mixtures  of  all 
or  any  of  them,  which  cannot  otherwise  be  obtained  but  at 
a  much  greater  expense. 

When  the  volatile  alkali  is  to  be  employed  in  place  of  that 
already  described,  that  as  little  of  the  volatile  alkali  as  possible 
may  be  lost,  it  is  recommended,  that  instead  of  the  safety- 
valve  being  affixed  to  some  part  of  the  steaming-kettle  or  of 
the  steaming  vat,  or  of  the.  tube  of  communication  between 
them,  so  as  to  allow  the  steam  to  escape  when  it  acts  with  a 
certain  force,  it  may  be  attached  in  such  a  manner  that 
when  opened  by  the  internal  pressure  the  vapour  may  not 
escape  into  the  atmosphere  and  be  lost,  which  would  occasion 
a  waste  of  the  alkali,  but  may  pass  into  a  worm  passing 
through  a  refrigeratory,  that  it  may  be  condensed,  and  fall 
into  a  receiver  adapted  to  the  lower  extremity  of  the  worm. 
This  part  of  the  apparatus  is  exactly  similar  to  that  employed 
in  the  distillation  of  ardent  spirits  ;  but  the  receiver  should  be 
surrounded  with  cold  water  as  well  as  the  worm,  the  more 
effectually  to  condense  the  volatile  alkali.  The  worm-tub  and 
receiver  may  either  be  elevated  higher  than  the  steaming- 
kettle,  for  the  purpose  of  returning  the  condensed  alkali  froQi 
time  to  time  from  the  receiver  into  the  steaming  kettle,  by 
means  of  a  tube  of  communication  and  a  stopcock  between 
these  two,  in  this  manner  to  keep  u]i  a  continual  circulation 

''::.]:     '  -of 


Coiioh^fFool,  Max,  Hempy&c,  323 

of  the  .volatile  alkali ;  or  they  may  stand  at  any  convenient 
place  at  the  side  of  the  steaming-kettle  or  of  the  steaming- 
vat,  and  the  condensed  alkali,  instead  of  being  returned  into 
the  steaming-kettle,  may  be  laid  aside  for  other  purposes,  or 
for  sale,  as  the  way  and  manner  in  which  the  patentees  ob- 
tain the  volatile  alkali  and  apply  it  to  the  purpose  intended, 
and  which  constitutes  a  part  of  their  invention,  may  some- 
times render  such  sale  advisable ;  that  is  to  say,  instead  of 
employing  volatile  alkali  or  ammonia  in  the  prepared  state, 
as  usually  sold  in  commerce,  they  employ  either  urine  or  soot, 
or  any  substance  containing  it  naturally,  or  which  may  be 
made  to  produce  it  by  either  putrefaction  or  lixiviation,  or 
any  of  the  common  chemical  processes  that  may  not  be  too 
expensive  for  such  an  application  and  use. 

Thus,  if  urine  be  the  material  employed  for  producing  the 
volatile  alkali,  it  should  be  allowed  to  stand  till  it  putrefy  or 
become  stale ;  for  which  about  a  week's  time  in  summer,  and 
three  or  four  weeks  in  cold  weather,  will  generally  be  requi- 
site ;  but,  indeed,  the  longer  the  better.  By  this  putrefaction 
an  internal  movement  and  new  arrangement  in  the  elementary 
principles  of  the  urine  is  effected  by  nature  so  as  to  produce 
in  it  real  volatile  alkali,  which  only  requires  to  be  called  fortli 
and  brought  into  action  by  the  aid  of  proper  means,  of  which 
the  following  may  serve  as  an  example: — To  about  eight 
parts  of  stale  urine  add  one  part  of  caustic  or  quick-lime, 
the  fresher  burnt  the  better ;  stir  the  ingredients,  and  allov/ 
them  to  rest  for  about  six  or  eight  hours,  to  give  time  to  the 
sediment  to  settle  at  the  bottom  of  the  cask  or  other  vessel  in 
which  the  mixture  is  made.  The  clear  liquor  or  lye  may 
then  be  drawn  off  by  a  plug  or  cock  at  such  a  height  from 
the  bott(mi  of  the  vessel  as  to  allow  the  lye  to  run  off  without 
disturbing  the  sediment.  By  this  means  the  volatile  alkali 
which  was  formed  in  the  urine  by  the  putrefactive  process  is 
rendered  caustic,  the  lime  seizing  on  the  carbonic  acid  which 
served  to  neutralise  it  and  render  it  mild;  and  all  that  is  now 
necessary  is  to  put  this  lye  into  the  steaming-kettle  before 
described,  and  then,  by  means  of  heat,  the  whole  alkali  will 
disengage  itself  from  the  urine  and  pass  into  the  steaming- 
vats,  to  exercise  its  action  upon  the  goods  deposited  therein, 

S  8  2  •  which 


32 1  New  Method  af  Bleaching 

which  in  this  case  may  or  may  not  be  previously  impregnated 
uitli  an  alkahne,  soapy,  or  other  lye. 

If  soot  be  the  substance  employed  to  furnish  the  volatile 
alkali,  a  lye  nnist  be  prepared  from  it  by  lixiviation  with 
water.  For  this  purpose,  a  cask  or  other  vessel  shou}d  be 
provided  with  a  double  bottom,  the  upper  one  perforated 
with  a  number  of  small  holes,  and  the  space  between  the 
two  filled  with  straw,  or  with  any  material  which  will  lie 
open  enough  to  allow  the  lixivium  to  percolate,  and  yet  close 
enough  to  prevent  the  soot  from  passing  with  the  clear  liquor, 
such  straw  or  other  material  being  intended  merely  to  perform 
the  office  of  a  filter.  Into  this  cask  or  other  vessel  the  socc 
is  to  be.  introduced  above  the  double  bottom,  and  water  is  to 
be  thrown  upon  it,  in  which  it  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
for  some  hours  ;  after  which  the  water  may  be  drawn  off  by 
a  hole  in  the  side  close  to  the  lower  bottom  of  the  cask  or 
other  vessel  aforesaid,  and  will  be  found  to  have  extracted  a 
considerable  quantity  of  volatile  alkali  from  the  soot,  and  to 
have  become  an  alkaline  lye,  which,  after  being  rendered 
caustic  by  the  addition  of  about  one  pound  of  quick-lime  to 
every  eight  pounds  of  the  lye,  may  then  be  conveyed  to  the 
steaming-kettle,  and  applied  to  the  purpose  of  bleaching, 
whitening,  and  purifying  in  the  manner  before  directed  re- 
specting the  lye  prepared  with  stale  urine  and  quicklime ;  or 
it  may,  before  being  rendered  caustic,  be  again  put  upon  a 
second  and  a  third  quantity  of  soot,  and  made  to  pass  through 
them  as  at  first  to  render  it  more  alkaline,  and  being  then 
rendered  caustic  by  quicklime,  as  before  directed,  may  be 
applied  to  the  purpose  aforesaid. 

.  Where  such  simple  and  cheap  materials  as  urine  or  soot 
cannot  be  procured  in  sufficient  quantity,  other  substances 
"inay  be  employed  for  the  production  of  the  volatile  alkali,  or 
for  extracting  it  from  j  or  the  common  volatile  alkali  of  com- 
merce mav  be  employed  with  the  steaniiug-kcttlc,  steaming- 
vat,  and  other  apparatus  before  described,  and  which  may  be 
varied  in  form,  shape,  and  arrangement,  to  answer  the  site 
and  other  circumstances  connected  with  particular  buildings. 

The  method  of  employing  volatile  alkali  that  has  been  spe- 
cified will  in  every  ca?:e  be  found  to  be  more  advantageous 

til  an 


Cotton- JFool,  Flax,  Hemp,  &fc.  32r) 

than  any  other  that  has  heretofore  been  made  use  of,  the 
action  of  the  alkali  being  much  more  powerful  when  pent  up 
in  close  vessels  than  when  otherwise  applied,  and  all  waste 
being  thereby  prevented.  Even  the  volatile  alkali  that  may 
remain  condensed  in  the  fibre  or  tissue,  or  on  the  surface  of 
the  goods  when  taken  from  the  steaming-vat,  ought  not  to 
be  lost.  The  goods  should  be  rinsed  in  water  to  extract  the 
alkali  from  them,  and  this  water  should  be  employed  for  the 
next  lixiviation  of  the  soot,  where  soot  is  made  use  of,  or 
should  be  thrown  into  the  steaming-vat,  and  the  volatile 
alkali  be  separated  from  it  by  means  of  heat,  and  made  to 
pass  into  the  receiver  before  described,  which  will  never  re- 
quire a  long  time  or  a  waste  of  much  fuel,  being  so  much 
more  volatile  than  the  water  that  it  soon  passes  over. 

In  the  application  of  the  volatile  alkali,  the  goods  may  be 
taken  from  the  steaming-vat  or  vats  from  time  to  time,  and 
the  operations  of  washing,  steeping  in  acidulated  waters,  ex- 
posure to  the  sun  and  air,  or  to  the  action  of  oxygenated 
muriatic  acid,  be  employed  with  advantage  in  such  stages  of 
the  process  as  the  bleacher  may  think  proper,  as  has  been 
above  observed  respecting  the  application  of  fixed  alkaline, 
soapy,  or  other  lyes,  to  the  bleaching,  whitening,  and  to  thei 
purifying  and  cleansing  of  the  various  goods  above  enume- 
rated, by  the  use  or  through  the  medium  of  any  apparatus, 
"constructed  on  the  principles  before  stated.  When  cloth  or 
garments  are  to  be  washed  and  cleansed  by  means  of  the 
steaming  apparatus  before  specified,  they  may  be  impregnated 
with  a  strong  solution  of  soap  made  from  tallow,  or  from  oil, 
or  from  fish,  or  from  bones,  or  from  wool,  and  with  or  with- 
out an  addition  of  fixed  alkali,  and  with  or  without  the  ap- 
plication of  the  volatile  alkali  in  the  manner  before  specified. 
It  is  only  necessary  further  to  observe,  that  oak  should  not  be 
employed  in  the  construction  of  the  steaming-vat  or  other 
necessary  vessel,  nor  any  kind  of  wood  that  contains  that  sub- 
stance known  among  chemists  by  the  name  of  the  gallic 
GCiV/,  and  formerly  called  the  astringent  principle,  because  a 
portion  of  it  might  be  dissolved  in  the  lye,  and  would  not  fail 
to  exercise  its  action  upon  the  steaniing-kettie  if  made  of 
iron,  (which  is  the  best  material  for  that  vesse^^,)  and  would 

,  pioduce 


326  On  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine, 

produce  an  ink  more  or  less  dilute,  according  to  the  quantity 
of  gallic  acid  present,  which,  of  course,  would  blacken  the 
goods  :  nor  should  any  kind  of  brass  or  copper  be  made  use 
of  in  the  apparatus,  as  the  volatile  alkali  exercises  so  strong 
an  action  on  these  that  they  would  be  partially  dissolved,  and 
prove  injurious  to  the  process. 


XLI.  A  Treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine,  and  the 
Method  of  making  Wines,     By  C.  Ciiai^al. 

[Continued  from  page  288."] 

IV,  Of  Fermentation, 

JL  HE  must  is  scarcely  put  into  the  vat  when  it  begins  to 
ferment.  That  which  flows  from  the  grapes  by  the  pressure 
or  agitation  they  receive  during  the  carriage,  works  and  fer- 
ments before  it  arrives  at  the  vat.  This  is  a  pha^nomencn 
which  any  one  may  easily  observe  by  following  the  vintagers 
in  warm  climates,  and  carefully  examining  the  must  which 
issues  from  the  grapes  and  remains  mixed  with  them  in  the 
vessel  used  for  carrying  them. 

The  antients  carefully  separated  the  first  juice,  which  can 
arise  only  from  the  ripest  grapes,  and  which  flows  naturally 
by  the  eftect  of  the  slightest  pressure  exercised  on  them.  They 
caused  it  to  ferment  separately,  and  ol)tained  from  it  a  deli- 
cious beverage,  which  they  called  protopon.  Mustums  pontc 
defluens,  anteqiiam  calcentur  uvce.  Baccius  has  described  a 
similar  process  practised  by  the  Italians  :  Qui  piimus  liquor 
non  calcatis  uvis  dejluit,  vinnm  efficit  vlr^ineum  non  inqui- 
natumfcecilus ;  lacrymam  vacant  Ilali-,  cito  potui  idoneum 
fit  et  valde  utile.  But  this  virgin  liquor  forms  only  one  part 
of  the  juice  which  the  grapes  can  furnish,  and  it  cannot  be 
treated  separrttely,  except  when  it  is  required  to  obtain  wine 
very  delicate  and  little  coloured.  In  general,  this  first  liquor 
is  mixed  with  the  rest  of  the  grapes  which  have  been  trod, 
and  the  whole  is  left  to  ferment. 

The  vinous  fermentation  is  always  effected  in  vats  of  stone 
or  of  wood.     Their  capacity  in  general  is  proportioned  to  the 

quantity 


and  the  Method  of  making  Wines.  327. 

quantity  of  the  grapes  collected  from  one  vineyard.  Those 
constructed  of  mason  work  are  for  the  most  part  of  good  cut 
stone,  and  the  inside  is  often  lined  with  bricks  joined  toge- 
ther by  a  cement  of  pozzolano  or  strong  clay.  Wooden  vats 
require  more  care  to  maintain  them,  are  more  subject  to 
variations  of  temperature,  and  liable  to  more  accidents. 

Before  the  vintage  is  put  into  the  vat,  care  niust  be  taken 
to  clean  it.  It  must  therefore  be  washed  with  warm  water 
and  well  scrubbed,  and  the  sides  must  be  covered  with  two 
or  three  strata  of  lime.  This  covering  is  attended  with  this 
advantage,  tliat  it  saturates  a  part  of  the  malic  acid,  which 
exists  abundantly  in  the  must,  as  we  shall  show  hereafter. 

As  the  whole  process  of  vinification  takes  place  during 
the  fermentation,  since  it  is  by  it  alone  that  the  must  passes 
to  the  state  of  wine,  we  think  it  necessary  to  consider  this 
important  subject  under  several  points  of  view.  We  shall 
.  first  speak  of  the  causes  which  contribute  to  produce  ferment- 
ation ;  we  shall  then  examine  its  effects  or  its  product,  and 
shall  conclude  with  deducing,  from  what  we  actually  know  on 
the  subject,  some  general  principles  which  may  direct  the 
agriculturist  in  the  art  of  managing  it. 

Of  the  Causes  which  have  an  Influence  on  Termentation. 

It  is  well  known  that  to  establish  fermentation,  and  make 
it  follow  all  its  periods  in  a  regular  manner,  some  conditions 
with  which  observation  has  made  us  acquainted  are  necessarv. 
A  certain  degree  of  heat,  the  contact  of  the  air,  the  existence 
of  a  sweet  and  saccharine  principle  in  the  must — such  are 
nearly  the  conditions  that  are  requisite ;  we  shall  endeavour 
to  make  known  the  effects  produced  by  each  of  them. 

1 .  Influence  of  the  Temperature  of  the  Atmosphere  on 
Fermentation. 

The  54th  degree  of  Fahrenheit  is  pretty  generally  considered 
as  the  temperature  most  favourable  tospiritous  fermentation  5 
below  that  degree  it  is  languid ;  above,  it  becomes  too  tu- 
multuous. At  a  temperature  too  cold  or  too  hot,  it  does  not 
take  place  at  all.  Plutarch  observed  that  cold  could  prevent 
fermentation,  and  that  the  fermentation  of  must  was  always 

proportioned 


.328  Oil  the  Cultivation  of  the  Pine, 

proportioned  to  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  *.  Bacon 
recommends  the  immersion  of  vessels  containing  wine,  in  the 
eea,  to  prevent  its  decomposition.  Boyle  relates,  in  his  Treatise 
on  Cold,  that  a  Frenchman,  to  keep  his  wine  in  the  state  of 
must,  and  preserve  to  it  that  svveetness  of  which  some  persons 
are  fond,  closed  the  cask  hermetically  and  immersed  it  in  a 
well  or  a  river.  In  all  these  cases  the  liquor  was  not  only 
l:ept  in  a  temperature  very  unfavourable  to  fermentation,  but 
it  was  secured  from  the  contact  of  the  air,  which  checks, 
or  at  least  moderates,  fermentation. 

An  extraordinary  phaenomenon,  but  which  seems  con- 
firmed by  a  sufficient  number  of  observations  to  merit  full 
belief,  is,  that  fermentation  is  slower  as  the  temperature  has 
Veen  colder  at  the  time  of  collecting  the  grapes.  Rozier  found 
in  1769  that  grapes  (•ollectcd  on  the  7th,  8th,  and  9th  of 
October  remained  in  the  vat  till  the  19th  without  showing 
the  least  sign  of  fermentation :  the  thermometer  in  the  morn- 
ing had  been  at  3|  degrees  below  freezing,  and  maintained 
itself  at  +  4.  The  fermentation  was  not  completed  till  the 
25th;  while  similar  grapes  collected  on  the  16th,  at  a  tem- 
perature much  less  cold,  terminated  their  fermentation  on  the 
21st  or  22d.     The  same  thing  was  observed  in  1740. 

In  consequence  of  these  principles,  it  has  been  recom- 
mended to  place  the  vats  in  covered  places ;  to  remove  them 
from  damp  and  cold  places;  to  cover  them,  in  order  to  mo- 
derate the  cold  of  the  atmosphere ;  to  heat  again  the  mass  by 
introducing  boiling  must ;  and  to  make  choice  of  a  warm  day 
for  collecting  the  grapes,  or  to  expose  them  to  the  sun,  &c. 

2.  Influence  of  the  Jir  on  Fermentation, 
We  have  seen  in  the  preceding  article  that  fermentation 
may  be  moderated  and  retarded  by  withdrawing  the  must 
from  the  direct  action  of  the  air,  and  keeping  it  exposed  to  a 
cool  temperature.  Some  chemists,  in  consequence  of  these 
facts,  are  of  opinion  that  fermentation  can  take  place  only 
bv  the  action  of  the  atmospheric  air ;  but  a  more  attentive 
ob.^ervation  of  all  the  phenomena  it  presents  in  its  different 
states  will  enable  us  to  set  a  just  value  on  all  the  opinions 
which  have  been  entertained  on  that  subject. 

•  Quaiat.  Nat.  27.  The 


a?id  the  Method  of  making  Wines,  329 

The  air,  no  doubt,  is  favourable  to  fermentation.  This 
truth  seems  established  by  a  concurrence  of  all  the  facts 
known  :  for,  when  preserved  from  the  contact  of  the  air, 
must  will  keep  a  long  time  without  any  change  or  alteration. 
But  it  is  proved  also,  that  thougli  must  shut  up  in  close  vessels 
undergoes  very  slowly  the  pheenomena  of  fermentation,  it  at 
length  terminates,  and  that  the  wine  produced  by  it  is  more 
generous.     This  is  the  result  of  the  experimets  of  D.  Gentil. 

If  a  little  yeast  of  beer  and  melasses,  diluted  in  water,  be 
introduced  into  a  flask  with  a  bent  beak,  and  if  the  beak  of 
the  flask  be  opened  under  a  bell  filled  with  water,  and  inverted 
over  a  pneumatic  tub,  at  the  temperature  of  60  or  65  degrees ; 
Recording  to  my  observations,  the  first  phaenomena  of  fer- 
mentation will  always  appear  a  few  minutes  after  the  appa- 
ratus has  been  thus  arranged ;  the  vacuum  of  the  flask  soon 
becomes  filled  with  bubbles  and  foam;  a  great  deal  of  car- 
bonic acid  passes  under  the  bell ;  and  this  movement  does 
not  cease  till  the  liquor  has  become  spiritous.  In  no  case 
have  I  ever  seen  an  absorption  of  atmospheric  air. 

If,  instead  of  giving  free  vent  to  the  gaseous  matters  which 
escape  by  the  process  of  fermentation,  their  disengagement 
be  checked  by  keeping  the  fermenting  mass  in  close  vessels, 
the  movement  then  slackens,  and  the  fermentation  termi- 
nates only  with  difficulty  and  after  a  very  long  time. 

In  all  the  experiments  which  I  tried  on  fermentation,  I 
have  never  seen  that  the  air  was  absorbed.  It  neither  enters 
into  the  product  as  a  principle,  nor  into  the  decomposition  as 
an  element ;  it  is  expelled  from  the  vessels  with  the  carbonic 
acid,  which  is  the  first  result  of  the  fermentation. 

Atmospheric  air,  then,  is  not  necessary  to  fermentation ; 
and  if  it  appears  useful  to  establish  a  free  communication 
between  the  must  and  the  atmosphere,  it  is  because  the  gaseous 
substances  which  are  formed  in  the  fermentation  may  then 
escape,  by  mixing  with  or  dissolving  in  the  surrounding  air. 
It  follows  also  from  this  principle,  that  when  the  must  is  put 
into  close  vessels,  the  carbonic  acid  will  find  obstacles  to  its 
volatilisation  :  it  will  be  forced  to  remain  interposed  in  thie 
liquid;  it  will  be  dissolved  there  in  part,  and,  making  a  con- 
tinual effort  against  the  liquid,  and  each  of  the  parts  of  which 

Vol.  IX.    ^  Tt  it 


^^0  On  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine, 

it  is  composed,  it  will  slacken,  and  extinguish  almost  com- 
pletely, the  act  of  fermentation. 

That  fermentation  therefore  may  be  established,  and  pass 
through  all  its  periods  in  a  speedy  and  regular  manner,  there 
must  be  a  free  communication  between  ths  fermenting  mass 
and  the  atmospheric  air.  The  principles  which  are  then  dis- 
engaged by  the  process  of  fermentation  easily  enter  the  at- 
mosphere, which  serves  them  as  a  vehicle,  and  the  ferment- 
ing mass  from  that  moment  may,  without  any  obstacle,  ex- 
perience movements  of  dilatation  and  expansion. 

If  wine  fermented  in  close  vessels  is  more  generous  und 
more  agreeable  to  the  taste,  the  reason  is,  that  it  has  retained 
the  aroma  and  the  alcohol,  which  are  in  part  lost  in  ferment- 
ation that  takes  place  in  the  open  air;  for,  besides  their 
being  dissipated  by  the  heat,  the  carbonic  acid  carries  them 
to  a  state  of  absolute  solution,  as  we  shall  show  hereafter. 

The  free  contact  of  the  atmospheric  air  accelerates  fer- 
mentation, and  occasions  a  great  loss  of  principles  in  the  al- 
cohol and  aroma;  whilcj  on  the  other  hand,  the  withdraw- 
ing of  that  contact  slackens  the  movement,  threatens  explo- 
sion and  rupture,  and  the  fermentation  requires  a  long  time 
to  be  complete.  There  are  therefore  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages on  both  sides ;  but  perhaps  it  might  be  possible  to 
combine  these  two  methods  with  so  much  success  as  to  re- 
move all  their  disadvantages.  This,  no  doubt,  would  be  the 
highest  point  of  vinification.  We  shall  see  hereafter  that 
some  processes  practised  in  different  countries,  either  for 
making  brisk  wines,  or  preserving  to  them  a  certain  agreeable 
perfume,  give  us  reason  to  hope  for  a  more  happy  result  of 
the  labours  that  may  be  undertaken  on  this  subject  by  per- 
sons of  ability. 

'    3.  Injiiience  of  the  Volume  of  the  fermenting  Mass  on 
Fermentation. 

Though  the  juico  of  the  grape  ferments  in  a  very  small 
mass,  since  I  have  made  it  pass  through  all  its  periods  of  de- 
composition in  glasses  placed  on  a  table ;  it  is  nevertheless 
true,  that  the  phaenomena  of  fermentation  are  powerfully 
modified  by  difference  of  volumes. 

In 


a7id  the  Method  of  making  Wines.       *       331 

In  general,  fermentation  is  the  more  rapid,  speedieF,  more 
tumultuous,  and  more  complete,  as  the  mass  is  more  consi- 
derable. I  have  seen  the  fermentation  of  must  in  a  cask  not 
terminated  till  the  eleventh  day ;  while  a  vat  filled  with  t\ie 
&ame  liquor,  and  containing  twelve  times  the  volume  of  the 
cask,  ended  on  the  fourth  day.  The  heat  in  the  cask  never 
exceeded  70  degrees ;  in  the  vat  it  rose  to  88. 

It  is  an  incontestable  principle,  that  the  activity  of  fer- 
mentation is  proportioned  to  the  mass  ;  but  we  must  not 
thence  conclude  that  it  is  always  of  advantage  to  carry  on 
the  process  of  fermentation  in  a  large  mass,  or  that  the  wine 
arising  from  fermentation  established  in  the  largest  vats  has 
superior  qualities  :  there  is  a  term  for  every  thing,  and  there 
are  extremes  equally  dangerous,  which  must  be  avoided.  To 
have  complete  fermentation,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  obtain 
it  with  too  great  precipitation.  It  is  impossible  to  determine 
the  volume  most  favourable  to  fermentation ;  it  even  appears 
that  it  ought  to  be  varied  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
wine  and  the  object  proposed.  If  it  be  the  preservation  of 
the  aroma,  it  ought  to  be  performed  with  a  smaller  mass 
than  when  it  is  required  to  develop  all  the  spiritous  part  to 
make  wines  proper  for  distillation.  I  have  seen  the  thermo- 
meter rise  to  92  degrees  in  a  vat  containing  thirty  muids  * 
of  vintage  Languedoc  measure.  In  that  case,  indeed,  all  the 
saccharine  principle  is  decomposed ;  but  there  is  a  loss  of  a 
portion  of  the  alcohol  by  the  heat  and  the  rapid  movement 
which  the  fermentation  produces. 

In  general,  the  capacity  of  the  vats  ought  to  be  varied 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  grapes.  When  they  are  very 
ripe,  sweet,  saccharine,  and  almost  dry,  the  must  has  a  thick 
consistence,  &c.  fermentation  takes  place  with  difficulty,  and 
a  great  mass  of  liquid  is  required  that  the  syrupy  juice  may 
be  entirely  decomposed ;  otherwise  the  wine  remains  thick, 
sweetish,  and  too  luscious.  It  is  only  after  being  long  kept 
in  the  cask  that  this  liquor  acquires  that  degree  of  perfection 
to  which  it  is  capable  of  ataining. 

The  temperature  of  the  air,  the  state  of  the  atmosphere, 

*  A  muid  contains  300  quarts,  comprehending  stalks,  skins,  and 
dregs.— E. 

Tt2  and 


332  On  ike  Cultivation  of  the  k^ine, 

and  the  weather  which  prevails  during  the  vintage — all  these 
causes  and  their  effects  must  he  alw  ys  present  in  the  mind 
of  the  agriculturist,  that  he  may  he  able  to  deduce  from  them 
rules  proper  for  directing  his  conduct  in  regard  to  this  object. 

4.  Liflueiice  of  the  constituent  Principles  of  Must  on 
Fermentation, 

The  sweet  and  saccharine  principle,  water,  and  tartar,  are 
the  three  elements  of  the  grape  which  seem  to  have  a  power- 
ful influence  on  ferujentation :  it  is  not  only  to  their  exist- 
ence that  the  first  cause  of  this  sublime  operation  is  due,  but 
it  is  to  the  very  variable  proportions  of  these  different  con- 
stituent principles  that  we  must  refer  the  principal  differences 
exhibited  by  fermentation. 

Ist^  It  appears  proved,  by  comparing  the  nature  of  all  the 
substances  which  undergo  spiritous  fermentation,  that  none 
are  susceptible  of  it  but  those  which  contain  a  sweet  and  sac- 
charine principle;  and  it  is  beyond  a  doubt  that  it  is  at  the 
expense  of  this  principle  that  alcohol  is  formed.     By  a  con- 
sequence which  naturally  flows  from  this  fundamental  truth, 
bodies  in  which  the  saccharine  principle  is  most  abundant 
ought  to  furnish  the  most  spiritous  liquor.     This  is  what  is 
confirmed  by  experience.     But  it  is  impossible  to  insist  too 
much  on  the  necessity  of  making  a  careful  distinction  between 
sugar  properly  so  called  and  the  sweet  pri?iciple.     Sugar 
without  doubt  exists  in  grapes,  and  it  is  to  it  in  particular 
that  is  owing  the  alcohol  which  results  from  its  deconi|jositioii 
by  fermentation ;  but  this  sugar  is  constantly  mixed  with  a 
sweet  body,  more  or  less  abundant,  and  very  proper  for  fer- 
mentation :  it  is  a  real  leaven,  which  almost  every  where  ac- 
companies sugar,  but  which  by  itself  cannnot  produce  alcohol. 
Hence  it  happens  that,  when  it  is  necessary  to  ferment  sugar 
in  order  to  obtain  rum,  it  is  employed  in  the  state  of  syrup 
called  vezou,  because  it  then  contains  the  sweet  principle  which 
facilitates  the  fermentation. 

The  distinction  between  the  sweet  principle  and  sugar  pro- 
perly so  called  has  been  very  well  established  by  Deyeux  in  the 
Journal  des  Pkarmaciens, 

This  sweet  principle  is  almost  inseparable  from  the  prin- 
ciple 


and  the  Method  of  waking  Wines ^  333 

ciple  of  sugar  in  the  products  of  vegetation ;  and  these  two 
principles  are  so  well  combined  in  some  cases  that  they  can- 
not be  completely  disunited  but  with  difficulty.  This  is  what 
will  long  prevent  sugar,  perhaps,  from  being  extracted  for 
commerce  from  several  vegetables  which  contain  it.  Th- 
sugar-cane  appears  to  be  that  of  all  the  vegetables  in  which 
this  separation  is  easiest.  Many  facts  induce  us  to  believe  that 
this  sweet  principle  approaches  near  in  its  nature  to  the  sac- 
charine principle ;  that,  under  favourable  circumstances,  it  may 
even  be  converted  into  sugar :  but  the  present  is  not  the  mo- 
ment for  discussing  this  important  point. 

Grapes,  then,  may  be  very  sweet  and  very  agreeable  to  the 
taste,  yet  produce  very  bad  wine ;  because  sugar  may  exist 
only  in  very  small  quantity  in  grapes  which  to  appearance 
are  highly  saccharine.  This  is  the  reason  why  grapes  exceed- 
ingly sweet  to  the  taste  do  not  always  furnish  the  most  spi- 
ritous  wines.  In  a  word,  a  very  little  practice  is  sufficient 
to  enable  us  to  distinguish  the  really  saccharine  savour  from 
the  sweet  taste  which  some  grapes  possess.  Thus  the  mouth 
habituated  to  taste  the  highly  saccharine  grapes  of  the  south, 
will  not  confound  with  them  the  chasselas,  though  very  sweet, 
of  Fontainebleau. 

We  ought  therefore  to  consider  sugar  as  the  principle  which 
gives  rise  to  the  formation  of  alcohol  by  its  decomposition, 
and  sweet  and  saccharine  bodies  as  the  real  leaven  of  spiritous 
fermentation.  That  must,  then,  may  be  proper  for  under- 
going a  good  fermentation,  it  ought  to  contain  these  two 
principles  in  proper  proportions :  sugar  alone  does  not  fer- 
ment, or  at  least  the  fermentation  of  it  is  slow  and  incom- 
plete. Pure  mucilage  does  not  furnish  alcohol ;  it  is  only  to 
the  union  of  these  two  substances  that  we  arc  indebted  for 
good  spiritous  fermentation  *. 

2d,  Very  aqueous  must,  as  well  as  too  thick  must,  experi- 
ences fermentation  with  difficulty.  A  proper  degree  of  fluid- 
ity, then,- is  necessary  to  obtain  good  fermentation;  and  this 

*  There  are  some  mucous  bodies  capable  of  undergoing  sph'itous  fer, 
mentation ;  but  it  is  probable  that  these  mucous  bodies  contain  sugar- 
which  is  more  difficult  to  be  extracted  in  proportion  as  the  quantity  is  less. 

is 


334  On  the  Caltivaiion  of  the  Vine, 

is  presented  by  the  expressed  juice  of  grapes  which  have  come 
to  perfect  maturity. 

When  the  must  is  very  aqueous  the  fermentation  is  slow 
and  difficult,  and  the  wine  arising  from  it  is  weak,  and  very 
susceptible  of  decomposition.  In  this  case  the  antients  were 
accustomed  to  boil  their  must :  by  these  means  they  caused 
the  supernatant  water  to  evaporate,  and  brought  back  the 
liquor  to  the  proper  degree  of  thickness.  This  process,  al- 
ways advantageous  in  the  northern  countries,  and  in  general 
wherever  the  season  has  been  rainy,  is  still  practised.  Maupin 
has  even  contributed  to  make  this  method  be  more  adopted, 
in  proving,  by  numerous  experiments,  that  it  may  be  used 
with  advantage  in  almost  all  the  wine  countries.  It  however 
appears  to  be  useless  in  warm  climates ;  it  is  not  applicable 
but  in  cases  when  the  season  having  been  rainy  has  not  per- 
mitted the  grapes  to  attain  to  the  proper  degree  of  maturity, 
or  when  the  vintage  has  taken  place  during  wet  or  foggy 
weather. 

There  are  some  countries  where  baked  piastre  is  mixed 
with  the  grapes  to  absorb  the  excess  of  humidity  they  may 
contain.  The  custom  established  in  other  places  of  drying 
the  grapes  before  they  are  fermented  is  founded  on  the  same 
principle.  All  tbese  processes  tend  in  an  essential  manner  to 
remove  the  humidity  with  which  the  grapes  may  be  impreg- 
nated, and  to  present  a  thicker  juice  to  fermentation. 

3d,  The  juice  of  ripe  grapes  contains  tartar,  which  may 
be  shown  in  it  merely  by  concentrating  the  liquor,  as  we  have 
observed:  but  verjuice  furnishes  a  still  greater  quantity;  and 
it  is  generally  true  that  grapes  give  less  tartar  the  more  sugar 
they  contain. 

The  marquis  de  Bouillon  extracted  from  2J  wine  pints  of 
must  about  10  dwts.  of  sugar  and  \\  dwt.  of  tartar.  It  ap- 
pears from  the  experiments  of  the  same  chemist,  that  tartar 
as  well  as  sugar  concurs  to  facilitate  the  formation  of  alcohol. 
To  obtain  three  times  as  much  ardent  spirit,  nothing  is  ne- 
cessary but  to  increase  the  proportion  of  the  tartar  and  the 
sugar. 

The  same  chemist  has  also  proved  that  must  deprived  of 

its 


and  the  Method  of  making  IVines ,  335 

its' tartar  does  not  ferment,  but  that  the  property  of  ferment- 
ing may  be  restored  to  it  by  restoring  to  it  that  principle. 

About  120  quarts  of  water,  100  ounces  of  sugar,  and  a 
pound  and  a  half  of  cream  of  tartar,  remained  three  months 
without  fermenting.  About  16  pounds  of  pounded  vine- 
leaves  were  added,  and  the  mixture  fermented  strongly  for 
fifteen  days.  The  same  quantity  of  water  and  vine-leaves, 
left  to  ferment  without  sugar  and  without  tartar,  produced 
only  an  acidulous  liquor. 

In  500  quarts  of  cassonade  and  10  pounds  of  cream  of 
tartar  fermentation  was  fully  established,  and  contiimed 
forty-eight  hours  longer  than  in  vats  which  contained  simple 
must.  The  wine  resulting  from  the  first  fermentation  furnished 
one  part  and  a  half  of  brandy,  at  twenty  degrees  of  Baume's 
areometer,  in  seven  parts  which  had  been  distilled ;  while  the 
wine  made  without  the  addition  of  sugar  or  tartar  produced 
only  a  twelfth  part  of  spirit  at  the  same  degree. 

Saccharine  grapes  require,  in  particular,  the  addition  of 
tartar :  it  is  sufficient  for  this  purpose  to  boil  it  in  a  kettle 
with  the  must,  in  order  that  it  may  be  dissolved.  But  when 
must  contains  tartar  in  excess,  it  may  be  disposed  to  furnish 
ardent  spirit  by  adding  to  it  sugar. 

It  appears,  then,  from  these  experiments,  that  tartar  facili- 
tates fermentation,  and  concurs  to  render  the  decomposition 
of  the  sugar  more  complete. 

Phcenomena  of  the  Products  of  Fermentation , 
Before  we  enter  into  a  detail  of  the  principal  phaenomena 
exhibited  by  fermentation,  we  think  it  proper  to  trace  out 
briefly  the  progress  it  follows  in  its  periods. 

Fermentation  first  announces  itself  by  small  bubbles  which 
appear  on  the  surface  of  the  must ;  by  degrees  some  are  seen 
to  arise  from  the  centre  even  of  the  mass  in  a  state  of  fer- 
mentation, and  to  burst  at  the  surface;  their  passage  through 
the  strata  of  the  liquid  agitates  all  its  principles,  displaces  all 
their  moleculae,  and  there  soon  results  a  hissing  noise  similar 
to  that  produced  by  a  gentle  ebullition. 

Small  drops,  which  immediately  fall  back,  are  then  seen 
to  rise  several  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  liquid.    In  that 

state 


336  On  the  Cultivation  of  the  Fitie, 

state  the  liquor  is  turbid,  and  every  thinu;  is  mixed,  cotj- 
founded,  agitated,  &;c. ;  filaments,  pellicles,  flakes,  grapes, 
and  stones,  float  separately,  and  are  pushed,  expelled,  preci- 
pitated, and  thrown  up,  till  they  at  leuirth  settle  at  the  sur- 
face, or  are  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  In  this 
manner,  and  by  a  series  of  intestine  movement,  there  is 
formed  at  the  surface  of  the  liquor  a  crust  of  greater  or  less 
thickness,  called  by  the  French  le  chatenu  de  la  vendaniie. 

This  rapid  movement  and  continual  disengagement  of  these 
aeriform  bubbles  considerably  increase  the  volume  of  the 
mass.  The  liquor  rises  in  the  vat  above  its  primitive  level. 
The  bubbles,  which  experie4ice  some  resistance  to  their  vo- 
latilisation by  the  thickness  and  tenacity  of  the  ckupeav,  force 
a  passage  to  themselves  in  certain  points,  and  produce  abun- 
dant froth. 

The  heat  increasing  in  proportion  to  the  energy  of  the  fer- 
mentation, an  odour  of  spirit  of  wine  is  disengaged,  and  dif- 
fused every  where  around  the  vat;  the  liquor  assumes  a  darker 
colour;  and  after  several  days',  and  sometimes  even  after  a 
few  hours',  tumultuous  fermentation,  the  symptoms  decrease  ; 
the  mass  resumes  its  former  volume,  the  liquor  becomes  bright, 
and  the  fermentation  is  almost  terminated. 

Among  the  most  striking  phcenomena  and  the  most  sensible 
effects  of  fermentation  there  are  four  principal  ones  which 
require  particular  attention  ;  the  production  of  heat,  the  dis- 
engagement of  gas,  the  formation  of  alcohol,  and  the  colora- 
tion of  the  liquor. 

I  shall  here  speak  of  each  of  these  phaenomena,  according 
to  what  we  know  of  them  with  certainty  from  observation. 

1st,  Production  of  Heat. — It  sometimes  happens  in  cold 
countries,  but  particularly  when  the  temperature  is  above  55 
degrees,  that  the  liquor  put  into  the  vat  experiences  no  fer- 
mentation, unless  some  means  can  be  found  to  heat  the  mass. 
This  may  be  done  by  introducing  into  it  warm  must,  stirring 
the  liquor  strongly,  heating  the  atmosphere,  or  covering  the 
vat  with  cloths. 

But  as  soon  as  the  fermentation  begins  the  heat  acquires 
intensity.  Sometimes  a  few  hours'  fermentation  is  sufficient 
to  carry  it  to  the  highest  degree.  In  general  it  is  in  the  ratio 

of 


and  the  Method  of  making  Wines,  337 

of  the  swelling  up  of  the  mass;  it  increases  and  decreases  like 
it,  as  will  be  proved  by  the  experiments  which  I  shall  subjoin 
to  this  article. 

The  heat  is  not  always  equal  throughout  the  whole  mass  5 
it  is  often  more  intense  towards  the  middle,  especially  when 
the  fermentation  is  not  sufficiently  tumultuous  to  mix  and 
confound  by  violent  movements  all  the  parts  of  the  mass :  in 
that  case  the  vintage  is  trod  again  ;  it  is  agitated  from  the 
circumference  to  the  centre,  and  an  equal  temperature  is 
established  in  every  point. 

We  may  admit  as  incontestable  truths :  1st,  That,  at  an 
equal  tem}]u2rature,  the  greater  the  mass  of  the  vintage  the 
greater  will  be  the  effervescence,  movement,  and  heat,  2d, 
That  the  effervescence,  the  movement,  and  heat,  are  greater 
in  vintage  where  the  juice  of  the  grapes  is  accompanied  with 
the  pellicles,  stones,  stalks,  &c.  than  in  must  separated  from 
all  these  matters,  3d,  That  fermentation  can  produce  from 
59  to  95  degrees  of  heat :  at  least,  I  have  seen  it  in  activity 
between  these  two  extremes. 

2d,  Disengagement  of  Gas, — ^The  carbonic  acid  gas  dis- 
engaged from  the  vintage,  and  its  effects  hurtful  to  respira- 
tion, have  been  known  since  fermentation  itself  was  known. 
This  gas  escapes  in  bubbles  from  every  point  of  the  vintage, 
rises  in  a  mass,  and  bursts  at  the  surface.  It  displaces  the 
atmospheric  air  which  rests  on  the  vintage,  occupies  every 
where  the  vacant  parts  of  the  vat,  and  flows  over  the  edges, 
precipitating  itself  in  the  lowest  places  on  account  of  its  gra- 
vity. It  is  to  the  formation  of  this  gas,  which  takes  a  por- 
tion of  oxygen  and  carbon  from  the  constituent  principles  of 
the  must,  that  we  shall  in  future  refer  the  changes  which 
take  place  in  fermentation. 

This  gas,  retained  in  the  liquor  by  all  the  means  that  can 
be  opposed  to  its  evaporation,  contributes  to  preserve  the 
aroma  and  a  portion  of  alcohol  which  exhales  along  with  it. 
The  antients  were  acquainted  with  these  means,  and  they 
carefully  distinguished  the  product  of  a  free  from  that  of  a 
close  fermentation  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  fermentation  effected 
jn  open  and  that  effected  in  close  vessels.  Brisk  wines  are 
indebted  for  that  quality  to  their  having  been  shut  up  in  the 

Vol.  IX.  U  u  bottles 


338  On  I  he  Cultivation  of  the  Vine, 

bottles  before  their  fermentation  was  completed.  This  gas, 
being  slowly  developed  in  the  liquor,  remains  compressed  in 
it  till  the  moment  when,  the  effort  of  the  compression  having 
ceased,  by  the  opening  of  the  vessels  it  can  escape  with  force. 
This  acid  gas  gives  to  all  liquors  impregnated  with  it  a 
tartish  savour.  Those  mineral  waters  called  gaseous  waters 
are  indebted  to  it  for  their  principal  virtue.  But  it  would  be 
having  a  very  incorrect  idea  of  its  real  state  in  wine,  to  com- 
pare its  effects  to  those  which  it  produces  by  its  free  solution 
in  water. 

The  carbonic  acid  disengaged  from  wine  holds  in  solution 
a  pretty  considerable  portion  of  alcohol.  I  think  I  was  the 
first  who  made  known  this  fact,  when  I  showed  that,  by  ex- 
posing pure  water  in  vessels  placed  immediately  above  the 
chapeau  of  the  vintage,  at  the  end  of  two  or  three  days  this 
water  is  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid,  and  that,  to  obtain 
very  good  vinegar,  nothing  is  necessary  but  to  put  it  into 
uncorked  bottles,  and  to  leave  it  to  itself  for  a  month.  At 
the  same  time  that  the  vinegar  is  formed,  abundance  offtakes, 
which  are  of  a  nature  analogous  to  fibrous  matter,  are  preci- 
pitated in  the  liquor.  When  water  containing  earthy  suU 
phats,  such  as  well-water,  is  employed  instead  of  pure  water, 
there  is  disengaged  at  the  moment  of  acetification  an  odour 
of  sulphurated  hydrogen  gas,  which  arises  from  the  decom- 
povsition  of  tlie  sulphuric  acid  itself.  This  experiment  suffi- 
ciently proves  that  the  carbonic  acid  gas  carries  with  it  al- 
cohol and  a  little  extractive  matter;  and  that  thes(^  two  prin- 
ciples, necessary  for  the  production  of  the  acetous  acid,  being 
afterwards  decomposed  by  the  contact  of  the  atmospheric  air, 
produce  acetous  acid. 

But  is  the  alcohol  dissolved  in  the  gas,  or  is  it  volatilised 
merely  by  the  heat  ?  This  question  cannot  be  determined  by 
direct  experiments.  Gentil  observed  in  177 J),  that  when  a 
glass  bell  was  inverted  over  the  vintage  in  fermentation,  the 
inside  of  it  became  covered  with  drops  of  a  liquid  which  had 
the  smell  and  properties  of  the  first  phlegm  that  passes  when 
spirits  are  distilled.  Humboldt  has  proved  that  if  the  vapour 
of  champagne  be  received  under  bells,  in  an  apparatus  for 
collecting  gas,  surrounded  with  ice^  alcohol  is  precipitated  on 

the 


and  the  Method  of  making  Wines,  339 

the  sides  merely  by  the  impression  of  the  cold.  It  appears, 
then^  that  the  alcohol  is  dissolved  in  the  carbonic  acid  gas, 
and  it  is  this  substance  which  communicates  to  the  vinous 
gas  a  part  of  its  properties.  Every  one  feels,  by  the  impres- 
sion which  the  vapour  of  champagne  makes  on  our  organs, 
how  this  gaseous  matter  is  modified,  and  differs  from  pur^ 
carbonic  acid. 

It  is  not  the  most  saccharine  must  that  furnishes  the  most 
gaseous  acid,  nor  is  it  that  employed  in  general  for  making 
the  briskest  wines.  If  the  fermentation  of  this  kind  of  grapes 
were  checked  by  shutting  them  up  in  casks  or  jars  to  preserve 
the  gas  disengaged  from  them,  the  saccharine  principle,  which 
abounds  in  them,  would  not  be  decomposed,  and  the  wine 
would  be  sweet,  luscious,  thick,  and  disagreeable.  There  are 
some  wines  all  the  alcohol  of  which  is  dissolved  in  the  gaseous 
principle  :  that  of  Champagne  furnishes  a  proof  of  it. 

It  is  difficult  to  obtain  wine  red  and  brisk  at  the  same 
time ;  especially  as,  to  make  it  acquire  colour,  it  mu^t  be  suf- 
fered to  ferment  over  the  skins,  stalks,  &c. ;  and  as  by  these 
means  the  acid  gas  is  dissipated. 

There  are  some  wines  the  slow  fermentation  of  which  con- 
tinues for  several  months.  These,  if  put  into  bottles  at  the 
proper  time,  become  brisk  :  there  are  none,  strictly  speaking, 
but  wines  of  this  kind  capable  of  acquiring  that  property. 
Those  the  fermentation  of  which  is  naturally  tumultuous 
terminate  this  process  too  soon,  and  would  break  the  vessels 
in  which  t^iey  are  inclosed. 

This  acid  gas  is  dangerous  to  be  respired.  All  animals 
exposed  to  it  are  suffocated.  Such  melancholy  accidents  are 
much  to  be  apprehended  when  the  vintage  is  made  to  ferment 
in  low  places  where  the  air  is  not  renewed.  This  gaseous  fluid 
displaces  the  atmospheric  air,  and  at  last  fills  the  whole  cellar. 
It  is  the  more  dangerous  as  it  is  invisible  like  air ;  and  too 
much  precaution  cannot  be  taken  against  its  fatal  effects. 
To  ascertain  whether  there  be  any  danger,  those  who  enter  a 
place  where  vintage  is  in  a  state  of  fermentation  ought  to 
«ause  a  lighted  candle  to  be  carried  before  them:  if  the  candle 
continues  burning,  there  is  no  danger ;  but  if  it  is  seen  to 
grow  dim,  and  then  to  go  out,  it  will  be  prudent  to  retire. 

U  u  2  This 


340  On  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine, 

This  danger  may  be  prevented  by  saturating  the  gas  in 
proportion  as  it  is  precipitated  on  the  floor,  by  scattering  in 
several  places  milk  of  lime,  or  quicklime.  A  place  rendered 
noxious  by  this  pernicious  gas  may  be  purified  by  throwing 
upon  the  floor  and  against  the  walls  quicklime  diluted  in 
water  :  a  caustic  alkaline  ley,  such  as  soapmakers'  ley  or  am- 
monia, will  produce  a  similar  effect.  In  all  cases  the  gaseous 
acid  instantly  combines  with  these  matters,  and  the  external 
air  descends  to  occupy  its  place. 

3d,  Formation  of  Alcohol. — The  saccharine  principle  exists 
in  must,  and  makes  one  of  its  principal  characters :  it  dis- 
appears by  fermentation,  and  is  replaced  by  alcohol  3  which 
essentially  characterizes  wine. 

We  shall  mention  hereafter  in  what  manner  this  phaeno- 
menon,  or  this  interesting  series  of  decompositions  and  pro- 
ductions, may  be  conceived.  Our  business  at  present  is  to 
indicate  the  principal  facts  which  accompany  the  formation 
of  alcohol. 

As  the  object  and  effect  of  spiritous  fermentation  are 
merely  the  production  of  alcohol  by  decomposing  the  sac- 
charine principle,  it  thence  follows  that  the  formation  of  the 
one  is  always  in  proportion  to  the  destruction  of  the  other, 
and  that  the  alcohol  will  be  more  abundant  as  the  saccharine 
principle  is  greater :  for  this  reason,  the  quantity  of  alcoJiol 
may  be  augmented  at  pleasure  by  adding  to  the  must  the 
sugar  which  seems  to  be  wanting. 

It  invariably  follows  from  these  principles,  that  the  nature 
of  the  vintage  in  fermentation  is  every  moment  modified  and 
changed :  its  smell,  taste,  and  other  characters,  are  continu- 
ally varying.  But  as  there  is  a  very  constant  progress  in  the 
process  of  fermentation,  it  may  be  followed  in  all  its  changes, 
which  may  be  considered  as  invariable  signs  of  the  different 
states  through  which  the  vintage  passes. 

1st,  Must  has  a  sweetish  odour,  which  is  peculiar  to  it. 
2d,  Its  savour  is  more  or  less  saccharine.  3d,  It  is  thick, 
and  its  consistence  varies  according  as  the  grapes  are  more 
or  less  ripe,  more  or  less  saccharine.  I  have  found  by  ex- 
perience that  some  marked  75  degrees  of  the  areometer,  and 
others  only  from  40  to  42.  It  is  exceedingly  soluble  in  water. 

Scarcely 


and  the  Method  of  making  Wines,  84 1 

Scarcely  is  the  fermentation  determined  when  all  the  cha- 
racters are  changed  :  the  odour  begins  to  become  pungent  by 
the  disengagement  of  carbonic  acid ;  the  savour,  still  very 
sweet,  is  however  already  mixed  with  a  little  of  the  pungent; 
the  consistence  decreases;  the  liquor,  which  hitherto  presented 
only  one  uniform  whole,  exhibits  flakes  which  become  more 
and  more  insoluble. 

The  saccharine  savour  becomes  gradually  weaker,  and  the 
vinous  stronger :  the  consistence  of  the  liquor  is  sensibly  les- 
sened :  the  flakes  detached  from  the  mass  are  more  com- 
pletely insulated.  The  odour  of  the  alcohol  is  petceived  at 
a  greater  distance. 

At  last  the  moment  arrives  when  the  saccharine  principle 
is  no  longer  sensible ;  the  savour  and  smell  now  indicate  no- 
thing but  alcohol :  all  the  saccharine  principle,  however,  is 
not  destroyed ;  a  portion  of  it  still  remains ;  the  existence  of 
which  is  not  masked  by  that  of  the  predominant  alcohol,  as 
is  confirmed  by  the  very  correct  experiments  of  Gentil.  The 
further  decomposition  of  this  substance  takes  place  by  the  aid 
of  the  tranquil  fermentntion  which  is  continued  in  the  casks. 

When  the  fermentation  has  passed  through,  and  termi- 
nated all  it's  periods,  no  more  sugar  exists;  the  liquor  has- 
acquired  fluidity,  and  presents  only  alcohol  mixed  with  a 
little  extract  and  colouring  principle. 

4th,  Coloration  of  the  vinous  Liquor, — The  must  which 
flows  from  the  grapes  transported  from  the  vineyard  to  the 
vat  before  they  have  been  trod,  ferments  alone,  produces 
virgin  wine^  the  protopon  of  the  antients,  which  is  not 
coloured. 

Red  grapes,  the  juice  of  which  is  expressed  by  mere 
treading,  always  furnish  white  wine  when  not  fermented  v/ith 
the  skins,  stalks,  &c. 

Wine  becomes  more  and  more  coloured  as  the  vintage 
remains  longer  without  being  fermented.  Wine  is  less  co- 
loured as  the  grapes  have  been  less  trod,  as  greater  care  has 
been  taken  to  cause  them  to  ferment  in  the  skins,  &c. 

VVine  is  more  coloured  as  the  g^rapes  are  riper  and  less 
aqueous. 

The 


342  Researches  respecting 

The  liquor  furnished  by  the  skins,  &c.  when  subjected  to 
the  press  is  less  coloured. 

The  southern  wines,  and,  in  general,  those  made  from  grapes 
collected  in  places  well  exposed  to  the  south,  are  more  coloured 
than  the  wines  of  the  north. 

Such  are  the  practical  axioms  which  have  been  sanctioned 
by  long  experience.  Two  fundamental  truths  thence  result : 
the  first  is,  that  the  colouring  principle  of  wine  exists  in  the 
skins  of  the  grapes ;  the  second  is,  that  this  principle  does 
not  detach  itself,  and  is  not  completely  dissolved  in  the  vint- 
age but  when  the  alcohol  is  developed  in  it. 

We  shall  treat  in  the  proper  place  of  this  colouring  prin- 
ciple, and  shall  show,  that  though  it  approaches  resins  in 
some  of  its  properties,  it  is,  however,  essentially  different. 

Any  one,  after  this  short  exj^lanation,  may  account  for  all 
the  processes  usual  for  obtaining  wines  more  or  less  coloured ; 
and  may  readily  conceive  that  it  is  in  the  power  of  the  agri- 
culturist to  give  to  his  wines  whatever  tint  of  colour  he 
chooses. 

[To  be  continued.}. 


XL  11.  Researches  respecting  the  Laws  of  Affinity,  By 
C.  Berthollet,  Member  of  the  French  National 
Institute, 

[Continaed  from  p.  153.] 
X*  Of  the  Determination  of  Elective  Affinities, 

J.  O  determine  the  elective  affinity  of  two  substances  for  a 
third,  according  to  the  idea  which  we  ought  to  form  of  it,  is 
to  ascertain  in  what  ratio  this  third  substance  ought  to  divide 
its  action  between  the  two  former,  and  at  what  degree  of 
saturation  each  of  them  ought  to  be  'Wllen  their  forces  are 
equally  opposed.  The  respective  adfinities  will  be  propor- 
tional to  the  degree  of  saturation  whic^i  each  has  attained  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  which  has  acted;  so  that,  if  the 
quantities  are  equal,  the  comparative  degree  of  saturation  will 
give  the  measure  of  the  respective  affinities. 

2d,  When  I  speak  of  the  saturation  of  a  substance,  I  do 

not 


the  Laws  of  Affinity,  343 

not  mean  the  absolute  saturation  at  which  all  reciprocal 
action  would  cease ;  but  a  degree  of  saturation  whicli  it  is 
easy  to  ascertain,  and  which  is  common  to  all  combinations : 
it  is  that  of  neutralisation,  when  the  properties  of  neither  of 
the  constituent  parts  predominate.  The  term  of  the  crystal- 
lization of  salts  does  not  always  coincide  with  neutralisation  : 
for  example,  m  regard  to  alkaline  carbonats,  which  still  give 
signs  of  alkalinity,  and  in  regard  to  the  acidulous  tartrite  of 
potash,  which,  on  the  other  hand,  retains  an  excess  of  acid. 
The  last  combination,  however,  may  be  taken  at  the  term  at 
which  it  is  neutral,  because  it  still  has  the  property  of  cry- 
stallization :  it  is  even  this  tartrite  that  is  necessarily  obtained 
when  in  the  experiment  there  is  present  an  excess  of  the  base; 
but  when  there  is  an  excess  of  acid,  the  degree  of  saturation 
of  the  acidulous  tartrite  of  potash  may  be  determined  by  the 
quantity  of  potash  necessary  to  neutralise  it. 

3d,  A  consideration  which  seems  to  deserve  some  atten- 
tion is,  that  in  comparing  affinities  it  would  be  necessary  to 
employ  in  all  the  experiments  the  same  proportions  of  all  the 
substances  successively  subjected  to  operation;  because,  if  the 
proportions  vary,  the  result  of  the  action  not  being  the  same, 
the  affinity  could  no  longer  be  represented  by  the  same 
number.  I  shall  render  this  observation  more  sensible  by  an 
example: 

Let  1 00  represent  the  potash,  which  ought  to  be  saturated 
by  100  parts  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  let  100  parts  of  soda  be 
opposed  to  it.  Let  us  suppose  that  after  the  action  it  is  found 
that  the  potash  has  taken  up  60  parts  of  acid,  and  the  soda  40^ 
I  should  thence  conclude  that  the  affinities  of  these  two  bases 
for  the  sulphuric  acid  are  in  the  ratio  of  60  to  40 :  but  there 
remain  40  parts  of  potash  uncombined,  which  really  continue 
to  act,  and  which  by  their  action  Contribute  to  divide  the 
acid ;  so  that,  if  this  quantity  be  varied,  the  result  cannot  be 
the  same ;  for,  if,  instead  of  100  parts  of  potash  and  100  parts 
of  soda,  we  take  80  parts  of  each,  we  shall  have  for  the  un- 
combined portion  20  parts  of  potash  and  another  quantity 
of  soda ;  so  that  the  forces  exercised  by  these  two  parts  are  no 
longer  in  the  former  ratio  :  hence  it  results  that  the  two  satu- 
rations cannot  be  in  the  ratio  of  60  to  40, 

4th, 


344  Researches  respecting 

4th,  But  to  ascertain  the  degree  of  saturation  to  which 
each  of  these  substances  can  attain^  a  separation  must  be 
made,  which  can  only  be  effected  by  the  elasticity,  crystal*- 
lization,  precipitation,  or  action  of  a  solvent :  but  we  have 
seen  that  these  different  means  ought  to  be  considered  as 
foreign  forces,  which  alter  the  results,  and  which  determine 
the  combinations  formed,  without  a  possibility  of  our  measur- 
ing their  effect  so  as  to  disengage  from  it  that  of  the  elective 
aflinity;  so  that  the  separations  which  in  articles  I.  II.  III. 
were  considered  only  as  an  effect  of  elective  affinity  and  of 
proportions,  are  really  the  effect  of  a  concourse  of  several 
forces,  as  is  proved  by  the  observations  which  followed  these 
articles. 

When  it  is  necessary,  for  example,  to  ascertain  the  quan- 
tity of  the  sulphat  of  potash  and  of  soda  formed,  as  the  force 
of  cohesion  of  these  two  sulphats  does  not  much  differ,  it  is 
probable  that  it  would  not  occasion  much  change  in  the  pro- 
portions of  the  two  salts  which  would  crystallize,  but  it  would 
be  necessary  to  separate  the  excess  of  the  alkali  by  means  of 
alcohol  in  order  to  obtain  the  whole  crystallization  j  but  al- 
cohol not  acting  with  equal  force  upon  potash  and  soda, 
would  produce  a  new  change.  To  these  considerations  we 
may  add,  that  a  change  of  proportions  would  not  only  make 
the  force  of  the  soda  and  the  potash  (No  1.)  to  vary,  but 
also  that  of  the  alcohol,  not  to  mention  the  affinity  of  the 
water,  which  serves  as  a  solvent. 

If  barytes  were  to  be  compared  with  either  potash  or  soda, 
we  should  have  changes  still  more  considerable  :  in  that  case, 
the  force  of  cohesion  of  the  sulphat  of  barytes  would  be  such 
that  it  would  leave  to  the  alkali  but  a  very  small  quantity  of 
sulphuric  acid,  which  would  be  the  expression  of  the  ratio  of 
the  force  of  the  cohesion  of  the  sulphat  of  barytes  to  that  of 
the  solvent,  rather  than  of  the  affinity  of  the  barytes  to  that 
of  the  alkali. 

This  is  so  certain,  that  if,  with  the  view  of  comparing  the 
affinity  of  the  acids  for  barytes,  we  should  begin  by  treating 
the  barytes  with  an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid,  it  would  be 
almost  entirely  precipitated,  unless  the  acid  were  highly  con- 
centrated 3   it  would  even  be  impossible  to  distinguish  the 

combined 


the  Laws  of  Affinity .  345 

combined  portion  from  that  which  is  not,  and  to  say  that  the 
barytes  has  more  affinity  for  the  former  than  for  the  latter. 
This,  however,  is  what  is  really  said  when  it  is  affirmed  that 
the  sulphuric  acid  has  more  affinity  for  the  barytes  than  any 
other  acid  has,  because  a  sulphat  of  barytes  is  formed  by  pre- 
cipitation ;  and  thus  an  effect,  which  depends  in  particular 
on  the  force  of  cohesion  peculiar  to  the  sulphat  of  barytes, 
is  ascribed  to  elective  affinity. 

It  is  manifest,  therefore,  that  the  elective  affinity  of  two 
substances  in  regard  to  a  third,  cannot  be  determined  by  a 
direct  experiment  even  when  trial  is  made  on  two  substances 
which  are  in  a  liquid,  and  which  may  become  neutralised 
by  saturation ;  sines,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  saturation,  it  is 
necessary  to  employ  the  intervention  of  foreign  forces. 

5th,  We  have  shown  in  articles  II.  and  III.  that  the  affi-* 
nity  of  a  substance  may  be  compensated  by  its  quantity. 

From  this  consideration  it  would  appear  that  it  is  sufficient 
to  ascertain  the  capacities  of  saturation  of  different  bases  for 
an  acid,  or  of  different  acids  for  a  base,  in  order  to  establish 
the  ratio  of  their  affinity ;  for  it  ought  to  be  in  the  inverse 
ratio  of  the  quantities  necessary  to  produce  the  same  degree 
of  saturation. 

This  consequence,  however,  is  erroneous  when  we  are  de- 
sirous of  applying  it  to  the  elective  affinities;  because,  as  soon 
as  the  two  substances  are  put  in  circumstances  to  combine 
with  a  third,  new  forces  are  established,  which  not  only  de- 
termine other  results,  but  even  change  the  constitution  of 
these  substances.  Thus,  if  we  compare  the  sulphuric  acid 
with  carbonic  acid,  it  is  certain,  that  if  a  quantity  of  potash 
be  brought  to  the  term  of  neutralisation  by  carbonic  acid, 
it  exercises  a  force  as  great  as  the  quantity  of  sulphtiric  acid 
which  would  be  necessary  to  produce  the  same  effect :  and 
yet  if  sulphuric  acid  be  poured  on  the  combination  thu» 
formed,  all  the  carbonic  acid  is  disengaged;  because^  not 
being  retained  by  an  equal  force,  it  resumes  the  elastic  state  ; 
and  even  if  it  be  retained  by  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water, 
it  will  no  longer  be  in  the  same  state  of  compression ;  it  will 
no  more  have  the  same  constitution  5  it  will  no  longer  be  the 
same  substance  in  regard  to  chemical  action.     In  a  word,  we 

Vol.  IX.  X  X  "  must 


346  Researches  respecting 

must  apply  to  the  action  of  substances  unequally  saturated 
the  observations  made  in  the  preceding  articles. 

A  comparison,  then,  of  the  capacities  of  saturation,  though 
it  may  conduct  to  important  considerations,  cannot  be  ap- 
plied to  the  deternfiination  of  elective  affinities. 

XL     Of  some  Errors  which  arise  from  a  false  Idea  of 
Elective  Affinity, 

1st,  I  shall  here  discuss  some  opinions  adopted  respecting 
elective  affinities  i  I  shall  show  how  little  foundation  they 
have,  and  shall  oppose  to  them  the  application  of  principles 
established  in  the  preceding  articles. 

Baume  observed  that  when  the  sulphat  of  potash  was  dis- 
solved by  means  of  heat,  in  an  equal  weight  of  nitric  acid, 
crystals  of  nitrat  of  potash  were  obtained  by  cooling,  He 
ascribes  this  decomposition  of  the  sulphat  of  potash  to  reci* 
procal  affinities,  which  produce  opposite  combinations  with- 
out determining  the  cause  of  this  contrary  effect. 

2d,  The  explanation  of  this  remarkable  fact  has  been  con- 
tradicted by  Bergman.  He  observes  that  there  are  salts  which 
tend  to  have  an  excess  of  acid,  such  as  the  acidulous  tartrite 
of  potash.  He  is  of  opinion  that,  when  these  salts  are  in  a 
state  of  neutralisation,  we  must  consider  their  base  as  divided 
into  two  parts ;  one  upon  which  the  whole  action  of  the  acid 
is  particularly  exercised  to  form  an  acidulous  salt,  while  the 
other  part  only  tends  to  satisfy  the  excess  of  acidity  in  the 
acidulous  salt.  This  part  of  the  base  is  retained  then  only 
by  a  weak  acidity,  and  it  may  be  taken  away  by  an  acid  very 
inferior  to  that  which  enters  into  the  first  combination.  Thus 
the  acetous  acid  may  take  away  part  of  the  potash,  which  in 
the  tartrite  of  potash  is  superfluous,  to  the  combination  that 
constitutes  the  acidulous  tartrite  of  potash,  though  this  acid 
has  a  much  weaker  affinity  than  the  tartareous  acid. 

But  the  sulphat  of  potash  is  among  the  number  of  those 
vsalts  which  tend  to  form  an  acidulous  salt;  nearly  two-thirds 
of  its  base  enter  into  this  combination,  and  it  is  only  this 
portion  which  is  subject  to  all  the  affinity  of  the  sulphuric 
acid;  the  other  third  may  be  separated  by  an  acid  of  an  affi- 
nity inferior  to  thai  of  the  sulphuric  acid^  such  as  the  nitric, 

Uiuriatic^ 


the  Laws  of  Affinity.  347 

muriatic,  or  tartareous  acid.  When  the  decomposition  is 
canied  to  its  boundary,  it  stops,  whatever  may  be  the  quan- 
tity of  the  acid  opposed ;  and  if  the  quantity  is  not  too  great 
to  prevent  crystalhzation,  or  if  the  excess  be  expelled  by  heat, 
an  acidulous  sulphat,  which  forms  crystals  permanent  in  the 
air,  will  be  obtained  by  solution  and  evaporation. 

3d,  How  could  the  illustrious  Bergman  deviate  from  the 
route  traced  out  to  him  by  observation  ?  His  own  experiments, 
even,  prove  that  the  acid,  which  is  superabundant  in  the  aci- 
dulous sulphat  of  potash,  exercises  its  affinity ;  that  it  is  in 
combination  ;  and  that  it  acts  in  the  ratio  of  its  quantity : 
for  he  says,  that  if  sulphuric  acid  be  added  to  the  acidulous 
sulphat  of  potash,  this  salt  dissolves,  and  loses  its  property  of 
crystallizing ;  that  this  excess  of  acid  can  with  difficulty  be 
expelled  even  by  distillation  in  a  retort ;  and  that,  to  produce 
this  effect,  the  saline  combination  must  be  fused  in  a  crucible, 
or  be  exposed  several  times  to  the  action  of  very  pure  alcohol. 

4th,  The  limit,  then,  which  Bergman  gives  to  the  action 
of  acids  on  the  acidulous  sulphat  is  ideal.  This  sulphat  ex- 
hibits the  same  phaenomena  as  all  the  salts  which  are  capable 
of  resisting,  to  a  certain  degree,  the  action  of  an  excessof  acid 
®r  base  (Art.  V.  No.  4.),  as  well  as  the  action  of  another 
acid  or  a  foreign  base.  The  only  difference  there  is  between 
them  in  this  respect  depends  on  the  force  of  cohesion  which 
may  act  more  or  less  to  produce  crystallization,  and  which  is 
proper  to  certain  proportions  of  acid  and  base ;  probably  a 
consequence  of  the  figure  assumed  by  the  moleculae  of  their 
combination. 

5  th,  When  an  acid  has  the  property  of  forming  a  preci- 
pitate by  combining  with  a  base,  it  is  concluded  that  it  has 
more  affinity  for  that  base  than  for  the  acid  with  which  it 
was  first  united,  without  examining  how  far  the  new  acid 
may  have  operated  the  decomposition,  and  without  reflecting 
that  an  opposite  decomposition  takes  place  by  a  simple  change 
of  proportions,  and  might  consequently  conduct  to  an  opposite 
conclusion. 

Thus,  as  the  tartareous  acid  has  the  property  of  forming, 
with  potash,  an  acidulous  salt  very  little  soluble,  and  con- 
sequently forms  a  precipitate  with  all  salts  having  a  base  of 

X  X  2  potash. 


348  Researches  respecting 

potash,  and  not  diluted  with  too  large  a  quantity  of  water, 
it  has  been  concluded  that  it  has  more  affinity  for  potash  than 
the  other  acids.  Bergman  has  excepted  the  sulphuric  acid, 
because  he  supposed  that  the  tartareous  acid  could  act  only 
on  the  potash  redundant  to  the  combination  of  the  acidulous 
sulphat  of  potash  ;  a  supposition  which  I  think  I  have  al-» 
ready  destroyed  in  the  preceding  articles.  He  has  excepted 
also  the  nitric  and  muriatic  acids,  because  he  supposed  that 
the  tartareous  acid  showed  the  same  phaenomena  in  regard  to 
^he  nitrat  and  muriat  of  potash  as  in  regard  to  the  sulphat ; 
though  he  has  not  ascertained  the  existence  of  an  acidulous 
nitrat  and  muriat  of  potash  analogous  to  the  acidulous  sulphat 
of  potash. 

He  also  concludes,  from  experiments  made  on  salts  having 
a  base  of  soda,  but  without  making  the  experiments  known, 
that  the  tartareous  acid  ought  to  be  placed  after  the  oxalic 
acid :  but,  not  to  dwell  on  these  exceptions,  the  tartareous 
acid,  according  to  him,  decomposes  completely  all  the  other 
salts  with  a  base  of  fixed  alkali. 

What  embarrasses  Bergman  is,  that  the  tartareous  acid 
produces  no  precipitate  with  salts  that  have  a  base  of  soda. 
In  his  opinion,  this  apparent  difference  depends  on  the  soda 
not  having  the  property  of  forming  a  salt  but  little  soluble, 
by  taking  up  an  excess  of  acid ;  but  in  that  case  there  is  no 
evidence  of  a  decomposition,  and  we  are  to  be  satisfied  with 
the  probability  that  the  affinities  of  the  one  fixed  alkali  follow 
the  same  order  as  those  of  the  other. 

All  this  classification  of  affinities  is  founded  on  the  false 
supposition,  that  one  acid  expels  another  from  its  combina- 
tions by  its  affinity  alone  considered  as  a  constant  force;  and 
this  supposition  renders  others  necessary  in  order  to  explain, 
as  exceptions,  those  facts  necessarily  arising  from  a  general 
property. 

6th,  I  have  examined  the  decomposition  of  acidulous  tar- 
trite  of  potash  by  the  nitric  acid,  which,  according  to  the 
received  ideas,  which  I  then  adopted,  ought  to  decompose  it. 
Uy  seizing  entirely  on  its  base.  I  digested  acidulous  taltrite 
of  potash  and  nitric  acid,  and  obtained,  by  cooling,  beautiful 
crystals  of  nitrat  of  potash.    I  repeated  the  operation  several 

timfes. 


ike  Laws  of  Jffinity.  349 

times,  adding  nitric  acid  until  no  more  nitrat  of  potash  was 
separated.  I  then  exposed  the  liquor  to  a  heat  sufficient  to 
cause  the  nitric  acid  which  might  be  free,  to  evaporate  with- 
out altering  the  tartareous  acid.  After  this  the  liquor  had 
an  oily  consistence ;  it  was  destitute  of  smell,  and  announced 
neither  the  existence  of  nitric  acid  nor  that  of  potash ;  but 
when  exposed  to  a  strong  heat  there  was  disengaged  a  great 
deal  of  nitrous  gas,  the  tartareous  acid  was  reduced  to  char- 
coal, and  its  ashes  gave  a  considerable  quantity  of  carbonat 
of  potash. 

7th,  In  this  operation  there  is  separated  a  part  of  the  nitrat 
of  potash,  effected  by  the  crystallizing  force  of  that  salt,  and 
carried  by  it  just  to  the  degree  when  that  force  is  exceeded 
by  the  superabundant  acid.  The  acidulous  tartar  is  rendered 
soluble  by  the  action  of  the  nitric  acid,  which  takes  from  it 
at  the  same  time,  by  crystallization,  a  part  of  the  base  neces- 
sary for  its  insolubility. 

On  the  other  hand,  tartareous  acid  added  to  a  solution  of 
nitrat  of  potash,  takes  up,  to  a  certain  term,  the  potash  from 
the  nitric  acid,  and  forms  an  acidulous  tartrite,  which  is  pre- 
cipitated ;  but,  as  it  has  not  the  property  of  forming  an  aci- 
dulous tartrite  of  soda  little  soluble,  it  does  not  produce  a 
precipitate  with  salts  having  a  base  of  soda. 

In  both  these  cases,  every  thing  that  cannot  be  separated 
by  the.  force  of  cohesion  forms  a  liquid,  in  which  the  sub- 
stances exercise  an  action  proportioned  to  their  present  masses. 

Nothing,  then,  can  be  concluded  in  regard  to  the  respec- 
tive affinity  from  these  separations,  which  are  effected  by  pre- 
cipitation or  crytallization ;  since,  by  the  change  of  the  pro- 
portions alone,  opposite  decompositions  may  be  often  obtained, 

8th,  The  precipitation  observed  to  take  place,  when,  in 
comparing  the  affinities  of  two  bases,  one  of  them  was 
found  to  have  formed  an  insoluble  combination,  gave  rise  to 
an  error  of  the  same  kind ;  and  it  is  on  this  foundation  alone 
that  it  has  been  asserted  that  lime  has  more  affinity  than 
alkali  for  the  fluoric,  phosphoric,  and  arsenic  acids  :  in  a 
Word,  for  all  those  which  form  with  it  an  insoluble  combina- 
tion 5  and,  consequently,  that  it  has  the  property  of  decom- 
posing entirely  the  salts  formed  by  an  alkali  and  these  acids. 

This 


350  Researches  respecting 

This  precipitation  is  not  the  result  of  elective  affinity,  and  it 
is  not  complete,  but  its  quantity  is  determined  by  the  ratio 
of  the  action  of  the  Hquid  to  the  cohesive  force  of  the  preci- 
pitate :  hence  it  happens  that  the  precipitate  is  often  re-dis- 
solved on  augmenting  the  quantity  of  the  substance  opposed 
to  it. 

9th,  Though  Bergman  has  explained  very  clearly  the 
changes  which  heat  may  produce  on  chemical  action  when 
the  substances  have  a  disposition  to  volatilisation;  and  though 
he  even  recommends  to  avoid  too  strong  heat  in  evaporation^ 
the  extent  of  the  influence  which  it  may  have  in  the  opera- 
tions by  which  salts  are  separated,  in  order  to  form  a  judge- 
ment of  their  affinities,  has  not  yet  been  fully  discovered. 
.  It  ought  not  to  have  been  concluded  that  the  sulphuric 
acid  has  more  affinity  for  fixed  alkalies  than  the  nitric  or 
muriatic  acids,  merely  because  that  by  a  strong  heat  it  expels 
these  acids  from  their  combinations.  Chemists  should  havc^ 
observed  that,  even  by  the  heat  employed  to  produce  eva- 
poration, and  to  cause  salts  to  crystallize,  the  proportions  of 
the  volatile  acids  may  be  considerably  changed  in  regard  to 
the  sulphuric  acid  which  remains  opposed  to  them,  and  that 
the  latter  may  at  length  entirely  expel  them,  by  means  of 
the  difference  which  exists  between  its  fixity  and  that  of  these 
acids.  (Art.  VII.  No.  5.) 

10th,  We  are  indebted  to  Bergman  for  useful  observations 
on  the  errors  which  may  arise  from  the  solubility  of  one  sub- 
stance,  which  is  eliminated,  and  of  which  the  separation  is 
not  observed.  He  remarks  that  potash  and  soda  do  not  dis- 
turb the  transparency  of  the  solution  of  a  salt  with  a  base  of 
lime,  if  this  solution  be  diluted  with  fifty  times  as  much  water, 
because  the  lime  separated,  being  soluble,  remains  in  the 
water ;  but  he  did  not  reflect  that,  if  the  lime,  in  that  case, 
had  no  more  than  its  natural  solubility,  it  would  be  a  very 
weak  obstacle  to  its  precipitation,  for  it  requires  nearly  seven 
hundred  parts  of  water  to  dissolve  it :  what  adds  greatly  to  its 
natural  solubility  is,  that  it  continues  to  be  in  combination 
with  the  acid  (Art.  V.  No.  5.),  and  that  it  cannot  be  sepa-"* 
rated  but  by  retaining  a  part  (Art.  III.  No.  9.),  which  in- 
creases its  solubility. 

Uth, 


ihe  Laws  of  Affinity,  351 

\  1th,  Notwithstanding  his  general  observations,  Bergman 
mistook  the  effects  of  solubility  iu  several  cases  :  thus,  he  did 
not  think  that  the  nitric  and  muriatic  acids  had  an  action  on 
the  combination  of  the  phosphat  of  lime,  though  the  only 
difference  that  can  be  established  in  this  respect  between  these 
two  acids  and  the  sulphuric  acid,  the  comparative  force  of 
their  affinities  not  being  known,  is,  that  the  two  former  form 
only  soluble  combinations,  while  that  produced  by  the  sul- 
phuric acid  may  be  withdrawn,  in  a  great  measure,  by  the 
force  of  crystallization. 

12th,  It  is  the  solubility  of  the  lime  as  well  as  of  the  ba-^ 
rytes,  increased  by  the  action  of  the  acid  on  these  earths, 
which  causes  ammonia  not  to  produce  any  precipitate  in 
the  solution  of  the  salts  of  which  they  are  the  base.  The 
first  portion  of  the  ammonia,  however,  mixed,  for  example, 
with  the  muriat  of  lime,  scarcely  suffers  any  odour  to  be  ex- 
haled ;  which  indicates  that  it  has  entered  into  combination, 
and  that  its  action  may  be  rendered  sensible,  as  shall  be  here 
shown, 

I  mixed  ammonia  with  a  solution  of  the  muriat  of  lime, 
and  I  caused  the  liquor  to  evaporate  in  a  retort :  when  it  was 
reduced  to  a  certain  point,  there  was  formed  a  pretty  consi- 
derable precipitate.  I  continued  the  operation,  at  the  end 
of  which  the  quantity  of  the  precipitate  Was  very  much  di- 
minished; there  was  formed  a  pellicle;  and  by  cooling,  a 
large  quantity  of  crystals  in  pretty  long  needles.  It  was  a 
triple  salt,  from  which  the  ammonia  could  be  disengaged  by 
lime.  This  salt,  when  redissolved,  and  evaporated  in  the 
open  air,  gave  no  more  indications  of  ammonia  in  the  proof 
by  lime. 

It  is  seen,  then,  that,  when  the  water  has  not  been  too 
abundant,  the  ammonia  precipitated  a  part  of  the  lime, 
though  it  was  rendered  much  more  soluble  by  the  acid,  and 
though  the  action  of  the  ammonia  was  considerably  weakened 
by  the  heat,  which  diminished  its  affinity  and  its  quantity. 
In  proportion  as  the  latter  was  reduced,  the  precipitate  was 
re- dissolved :  there  however  still  remained  ammonia  after  a 
long  evaporation,  and  it  was  only  by  the  help  of  the  action 
of  the  air  that  it  vyas  entirely  dissipated,     The  separation  of 

the 


352         Experiments  and  Remarks  on  Galvanism, 

the  lime  would,  no  doubt,  become  much  more  sensible  if  the 
ammoniacal  gas  were  received  in  a  strong  solution  of  the 
muriat  of  lime. 

If  the  ammonia  produces  a  precipitate  with  salts  having  a 
base  of  alumine,  it  is  because  this  earth  has  less  solubility 
than  lime,  even  when  it  is  combined  with  the  portion  of  the 
acid  which  it  retains  while  it  is  precipitated. 
[To  be  continued.] 

XLIII.   Experiments  and  Remarks  on  Galvanism,  A  Letter 
from  a  Correspondent  to  the  Editor, 

JLJlAVING  read  with  much  pleasure,  in  your  very  valu- 
able monthly  publication,  the  several  opinions  and  experi- 
ments respecting  the  influence  excited  in  the  pile  of  Volta, 
I  take  the  liberty  of  submitting  to  you  some  observations  on 
the  same  subject. 

It  has  been  said  by  some  very  ingenious  experimentalists 
that  the  oxydation  of  one  side  of  the  plates,  or  the  difference 
of  oxydation  in  the  two  metals,  or  between  one  metal  and 
different  fluids,  is  the  cause  of  the  production  of  the  galvanic 
influence.  I  find  that  the  acids  increase  the  power  of  my 
pile,  and  I  also  find,  when  the  papers  or  cards  are  moistened 
with  the  pure  alkalies,  and  particularly  with  a  solution  of  pure 
ammonia,  that  the  effect  is  much  greater  than  by  any  other 
substance.  This  fact  is,  I  believe,  sufficient  to  prove  that  the 
oxydation  of  the  metals  is  not  the  cause  of  the  phaenomenon. 

It  is  very  convenient  to  use  the  alkalies  in  this  manner,  a3 
it  does  not  require  so  much  trouble  to  clean  the  metals,  or 
to  keep  the  pile  in  order. 

I  took  ten  saucers,  and  placed  in  each  a  plate  of  silver  and 
a  plate  of  zinc ;  I  connected  these  metals  in  the  several  saucers 
together,  by  means  of  slips  of  tin-foil,  and  completed  the  cir- 
cuit by  means  of  wires  in  water.  I  first  filled  these  saucers 
with  salt  and  water,  and  found  that  the  wires  in  the  water 
produced  a  trifling  effect :  some  few  air-bubbles  escaped, 
which  proved  that  the  influence  was  excited,  I  then  re- 
moved 


Experiments  and  Remarks  on  Galvanism.         353 

moved  the  salt  and  water,  and  substituted  in  its  stead  an 
aqueous  solution  of  pure  potash  in  water :  a  much  greater 
effect  was  produced  in  the  liquid  through  which  the  circuit 
was  made.  On  the  addition  of  water  of  pure  ammonia,  the 
effect  was  very  strong. 

You  will  observe  that  in  these  experiments  I  employed  the 
decomposition  of  water  (as  it  is  called),  by  means  of  platina 
wires,  as  a  galvanometer. 

As  I  found  that  the  water  of  pure  ammonia  succeeded  so 
well  in  the  saucers,  I  built  up  my  pile,  interposing  pieces  of 
blotting-paper  moistened  with  this  alkali :  I  was  astonished 
at  the  increase  of  power;  with  fifty  or  sixty  pieces  of  silver  it 
was  much  too  strong  to  be  agreeable.  A  person  above  six 
feet  high,  and  very  strong,  started  several  paces  on  receiving 
the  shock,  although  he  knew  he  was  to  receive  one ;  and  this 
after  the  pile  had  been  constructed  five  hours.  I  mention 
these  facts  thus  particularly,  because  I  wish  to  show  that  the 
fluid  excited  in  the  pile  does  not  arise  from  the  action  of  acids, 
or  from  any  combination  of  oKvgen  with  the  metals. 

The  next  subject  to  which  I  wish  to  draw  your  attention 
is,  the  effect  which  this  new  agent  will  have  on  the  prevailing 
theory  of  chemistry.  The  advocates  for  the  Lavoisierian  hy- 
pothesis say  that  it  decomposes  water.  The  facts  which  are . 
already  before  the  public,  completely,  in  my  opinion,  unsettle 
that  doctrine.  In  your  last  Number,  Dr.  Moyes  mentions 
that  the  influence  will  not  continue  to  decompose  the  water 
after  it  has  been  acted  on  to  a  cejtain  point.  I  have  kept 
my  two  platina  wires  in  the  same  small  quantity  of  water  for 
months,  and  I  find  that  when  connected  with  my  pile,  the 
gases  are  produced  as  rapidly  as  when  they  were  first  used. 

Indeed,  now  that  I  use  the  v/ater  of  pure  ammonia,  they 
pour  forth  very  large  quantities.  If  a  syphon  be  made  to 
connect  two  glasses  of  water,  and  in  each  be  placed  a  wire, 
one  connected  with  the  zinc  and  the  other  with  the  silver, 
the  gases  are  produced.  If  a  particle  of  water  is  composed 
of  a  particle  of  oxygen  and  a  particle  of  hydrogen,  what  rapid 
currents  must  there  be  of  those  two  substances  !  Where  the 
oxygen  is  produced,  the  hydrogen  nuist  first  descend  to  the 
bottom  of  the  leg  of  the  svphon,  pass  through  it,  and  appear 
Vol.  IX.  *      y  y  aC 


354         Experiments  and  Remarks  on  Galvanism. 

at  the  wire  in  the  other  glass,  and  vice  versa  with  the  oxygen  ; 
for,  where  each  appears,  there  is  not  the  shghtest  trace  of  its 
former  concomitant  in  the  particle  of  water. 

The  visionary  hypothesis*  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  being 
the  bases  of  certain  gases,  the  one  a  principle  of  aridity  and 
the  other  the  generator  of  water,  in  their  combinations  also 
with  another  substance,  azot,  forming  atmospheric  air,  ni* 
trous  acid,  gaseous  oxyd,  &c. ;  with  carbon  also  forming  all 
the  substances  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  must 
now,  in  concurrence  with  the  hitherto  invariable  opinions  of 
some  of  our  most  learned  philosophers,  be  entirely  abandoned. 

From  the  experiments  with  the  pile,  it  appears  that  the 
difference  between  vital  and  inflammable  air  does  not  arise 
from  any  difference  between  their  ponderable  parts,  those 
being  in  both  instances  water.  A  question  ari.ses  respecting 
the  minus  side  of  the  pile.  How  is  it  that,  by  abstracting 
electricity  (which  must  be  the  case  if  the  negative  side  be 
only  deficient  in  quantity)  from  the  water,  that  water  is 
changed  into  an  highly  elastic  aeriform  fluid,  into  oxygen 
air,  which  of  all  airs,  according  to  M.  Lavoisier,  has  the 
greatest  capacity  for  containing  caloric  ?  Surely  the  abstrac-* 
tion  of  fire,  though  it  should  be  in  the  form  of  electricity, 
could  not  change  water  into  so  highly  an  elastic  substance  aa 
oxygen  air. 

The  following  conclusions  appear  to  me  to  result  from  what 
I  have  read  and  seen  respecting  the  pile  of  Volta. 

The  oxydation  or  rusting  of  the  metals  in  the  pile  does 
not  appear  to  be  the  cause,  but  the  consequence,  of  the  m-^ 
fluence.  As  the  rusting  of  the  metals  diminishes  and  destroys 
the  power  of  the  pile,  I  conceive  the  pure  alkalies  to  act  by 
reaching  the  pure  metals. 

Water  is  not  decomposed  when  forming  part  of  the  cir^ 

*  The  admitted  facts  in  philosophy  had  been  so  well  canvassed  by  the 
adherents  of  the  new  and  the  old  systems  of  chemistry  before  we  com^ 
menced  our  work,  as  to  enable  us  to  steer  pretty  clear  of  all  controversy 
in  conducting  it.  New  facts,  however  they  may  operate,  demand  the  at-^ 
tention of  philosophers  j  and  those  qonnected  with  galvanism,  in  particular, 
may  serve  to  clear  \ip  some  parts  of  a  theory,  which,  if  not  perfect,  de- 
serves, at  any  rate,  a  more  respectful  epithet  than  that  of  being  a  visionary 
hypothesis, — Edit, 

cuit, 


On  th!B  Manufacture  of  Gunpowder,  355 

tuit.  Oxygen  and  hydrogen  airs  have  the  same  basis,  water. 
Oxygen  and  hydrogen,  as  solid  bases,  are,  consequently,  non- 
entities.    Positive  and  negative  electricity  are  distinct  fluids. 

As  these  two  electricities  change  water  into  two  airs,  and 
as  those  airs  can  from  water  be  obtained  in  any  proportion, 
and  as  those  airs  can  be  united,  and  again  form  water  and 
fire;  I  consider  those  electricities  as  theprinciples  of  fire. 

I  consider,  therefore,  that  the  influence  is  excited  by  the 
decomposition  of  heat,  caloric,  or  fire  3  as  the  tourmalin  de- 
composes it  by  merely  heating  it. 

The  elastic  state  of  aeriform  bodies  does  not  depend  so 
much  on  the  quantity  of  vvhat  is  termed  latent  heat,  as  on 
the  nature  of  one  of  the  principles  of  heat  which  it  contains. 
The  solid  oxygen,  according  to  the  Lavoisierian  hypothesis, 
in  nitre,  contains  as  much  latent  heat  as  in  the  state  of  gas. 

Put  a  piece  of  red-hot  iran  on  an  electrometer,  and  drop 
la  little  water  on  it,  does  not  hydrogen  air  escape  ?  Now,  as 
positive  electricity  and  water  form  hydrogen  air,  does  not  the 
electrometer  show  signs  of  negative  electricity  ? 


XLIV.  On  the  Manufacture  and  constituent  Parts  of  Gun- 
poivder.  Read  before  the  Askesian  Society  May  1801.  By 
Mr,  R.  Coleman,  of  the  Royal  Mills,  Waltham  Alley, 
a  corresponding  Member  of  the  Society. 

J.  HE  process  of  manufacturing  gunpowder  is  so  inaccu- 
rately described  in  every  author  which  I  have  seen,  and  in 
many  instances  so  extremely  absurd  an  account  is  given,  that 
I  am  induced  to  hope  that  a  true  account  thereof  will  not  be 
unacceptable  ;  and  more  particularly  as  I  apprehend  nothing 
tan  tend  more  to  establishing  a  true  theory  of  the  combustion 
of  gunpowder,  than  a  knowledge  of  the  ingredients  it  is  com- 
posed of,  and  the  manner  of  their  combination.  With  this 
view  I  have  drawn  up  the  following  account  of  the  process, 
&c.  in  manufacturing  that  article,  and  added  some  facts  on 
the  explosive  force  thereof,  which  I  now  beg  to  lay  before  the 
Society. 

Yy2  On 


356  On  the  Mamifacture  and 

On  the  Invention  of  Gunpowder, 
Gunpowder  has  for  ages  been  known  in  the  East,  particu- 
Jarly  in  China,  and,  it  is  said,  has  been  in  use  there  ever  since 
the  year  85. 

The  first  introduction  of  gunpowder  into  Europe  has  gene- 
rally been  ascribed  to  Roger  Bacon,  who  wrote  a  treatise  in 
1280,  in  which  we  find  the  first  hints  for  the  application  of 
it  to  the  purposes  of  war.  In  1320,  Bartholomew  Schwartz, 
a  monk,  is  said  to  have  re-invented  it  in  Germany,  by  acci- 
dentally pounding  in  a  mortar  the  ingredients  of  which  gun- 
powder is  made,  and  into  which  a  spark  of  fire  falling,  blew 
the  mortar  to  pieces.  This  opinion  has  lately  been  contra^ 
dieted  in  France  by  Citizen  Langles,  who  contends,  in  a  me- 
moir read  in  the  French  National  Institute,  that  the  know- 
ledge of  gunpowder  was  conveyed  to  us  from  the  Arabs  on 
the  return  of  the  crusades  into  Europe,  and  that  the  Arabs 
made  use  of  it  at  the  siege  of  Mecca  in  690 ;  that  they  de- 
rived it  from  the  Indians,  who,  in  their  sacred  books  forbid- 
ding the  use  of  it  in  war,  may  reasonably  be  concluded  to 
have  known  it  for  ages. 

However  this  may  be,  it  seems  probable  that  gunpowder 
was  early,  known  in  India;  for  in  whatever  country  nitre 
abounds,  there  its  deflagrating  quality  is  likely  to  be  observed. 
Sir  George  Staunton  observes  :  *^  The  knowledge  of  gun- 
powder in  China  and  India  seems  coeval  with  the  most  di- 
stant historic  events.  Among  the  Chinese  it  has  at  all  times 
been  applied  to  useful  purposes,  as  blasting  rocks,  &c.  and  in 
making  of  fire-works;  although  it  has  not  been  directed 
through  strong  metallic  tubes,  as  the  Europeans  did  soon 
after  that  they  had  discovered  it." 

The  honourable  George  Napier  procured  some  gunpowder 
made  in  China,  and  on  the  average  analysis  of  two  ounces 
of  it  (960  grains),  he  found  it  to  consist  of  saltpetre  720 
grains,  charcoal  141  grains,  and  sulphur  89  grains.  Here 
is  a  deficiency  of  10  grains  in  the  process.  Now,  admitting 
the  deficiency  to  be  in  equal  proportions  to  each  ingredient, 
^nd  bringing  the  same  to  the  proportion  of  100  parts  of  gun- 
powder, there  will  be. 

Saltpetre 


constituent  Parts  of  Gunpowder,  357 

Saltpetre  -  75,7 

Charcoal  -  14,4 

Sulphur  -  9,9 

Total     100 
If  this  is  the  case,  it  will  be  seen  that  their  proportion  dif- 
fers very  little  from  the  English  proportion. 

Having  thus  given  a  brief  account  of  the  invention,  I  shall 
now  proceed  concisely  to  give  the 

Process  of  manufacturing  Gunpowder, 

Gunpowder  is  made  of  three  ingredients,  saltpetre,  char^ 
coal,  and  brimstone.  They  are  combined  in  the  following 
proportions:  to  each  100  parts  of  gunpowder,  saltpetre  75, 
charcoal  15,  and  sulphur  10. 

The  first  thing  to  be  attended  to,  it  is  evident,  is  the  purity 
of  these  articles;  for,  if  they  are  defective,  the  gunpowder  can 
never  be  good,  though  ever  so  well  manufactured. 

The  saltpetre  is  either  that  which  has  been  imported, 
principally,  from  the  East  Indies,  or  that  which  has  been 
extracted  from  damaged  gunpowder.  It  Is  refined  by  solu- 
tion, filtration,  evaporation,  and  crystallization  ',  after  which 
it  is  fused,  taking  care  not  to  use  too  much  heat,  that  there 
may  not  be  any  danger  of  decomposing  the  nitre;  by  this 
means  it  is  not  only  rendered  more  pure,  but  the  water  of 
crystallization  more  certainly  got  rid  of.  The  principal  object 
in  refining  th^  nitre  is,  to  get  it  free  from  the  earths  and  salts 
it  is  combined  with  in  its  grough^  state,  and  which  by  de- 
liquescing would  render  the  gunpowder  liable  to  injury  by 
attracting  moisture,  and,  thereby  decomposing  the  accurate 
mixture  of  the  composition,  rendering  it  unfit  for  use. 

The  sulphur  used  is  that  which  is  imported  from  Sicily, 
and  is  refined  by  melting  and  skimming :  the  most  impure 
is  refined  by  sublimation. 

The  charcoal  formerly  used  in  this  manufacture  was  made 
by  charring  wood  in  the  usual  manner.  This  mode  is  called 
charring  in  pits.  It  consists  in  the  wood  being  cut  into  lengths 
of  about  three  feet,  and  then  piled  on  the  ground  in  a  circular 

*  This  is  the  term  used  for  the  nitre  as  iuiportetl. 

form 


358  Ofi  the  Manvfaclure  and 

form  (threCj  four,  or  five  cords  of  wood  making  what  is  called 
a  pit),  and  covered  with  straw,  fern,  &c.  kept  on  by  earth  or 
sand  to  keep  in  the  fire,  giving  it  air  by  vent-holes  as  may 
be  found  necessary.  This  mode  of  charring  is  uncertain  in 
its  operation,  and  defective  in  every  respect  for  the  purpose 
of  making  good  charcoal ;  and  therefore  no  dependance  cotdd 
ever  be  placed  on  the  charcoal  so  made. 

The  method  now  adopted  for  making  charcoal  for  gun- 
powder, consists  in  distilling  N(if  I  may  so  call  it)  in  iron  cy- 
linders and  collecting  the  pyro-ligneous  acid,  the  carbon  re- 
maining in  the  cylinder  or  retort.  The  wood  to  be  charred 
is  first  cut  into  lengths  of  about  nine  inches,  and  then  put 
into  the  iron  cylinder,  which  is  placed  horizontally.  The 
front  opening  of  the  cylinder  is  then  closely  stopped  :  at  the 
further  end  are  pipes  leading  into  casks.  The  fire  being  made 
under  the  cylinder,  the  pyro-ligneous  acid,  attended  with  a 
large  portion  of  carbonated  hydrogen  gas,  comes  over.  The 
gas  escapes,  and  the  acid  liquor  is  collected  in  the  casks.  The 
fire  is  kept  up  till  no  more  gas  or  liquor  comes  over,  and  the 
carbon  remains  in  the  cylinder. 

This,  it  is  evident,  is  a  more  eligible  method  than  the 
former ;  and,  indeed,  the  only  proper  one.  The  difference 
in  the  vStren^th  of  the  powder  made  from  the  two  sorts  of 
charcoal  will  be  more  particularly  mentioned  hereafter.  I 
shall  here  only  remark,  that  the  proportion  of  powder  used 
for  the  several  pieces  of  ordnance  by  the  navy,  &c.  has  been 
reduced  one-third  in  consequence  of  the  increased  strength  of 
he  composition  into  which  this  cylinder  charcoal  enters. 

The  wood,  before  charring,  has  the  bark  taken  off;  for 
which  purpose  it  is  felled  in  the  summer  season,  when  the  sap 
is  up,  and  it  will  flow  clean.  One  reason  for  taking  off  the 
bark  is,  that  it  would  render  the  powder  therefrom  full  of 
sparks ;  which  would  be  of  course  injurious,  and  dangerous 
in  the  use*. 

The  wood  made  use  of  is  either  alder,  willow,  or  (black) 
dog-wood ;  but  the  distillation  in  the  cylinders  making  the 

*  This  is  clearly  seen  by  the  combustion  of  charcoal,  with  the  bark  on, 
in  oxygen  gas. 

charcoal 


constituent  Parts  of  Gunpowder,  359 

charcoal  of  different  woods  nearly  alike,  it  is  not,  I  believe, 
materia!  as  to  the,  sorts  of  wood  made  use  of. 

The  several  ingredients  being  thus  prepared,  are  ready  for 
manufacturing.  They  are,  1st,  separately  ground  to  a  fine 
powder :  2d,  mixed  together  in  the  proper  proportions  :  3d, 
the  composition  is  then  sent  to  the  gunpowder-mill,  which 
consists  of  two  stones  vertically  placed,  and  running  on  a  bed- 
stone. On  this  bed-stone  the  composition  is  spread,  and 
wetted  (hot  with  sal-ammoniac,  urine,  &c.  as  some  authors 
state,  but)  with  as  small  a  quantity  of  water  as  will,  together 
with  the  revolutions  and  weight  of  the  runners,  bring  it  into 
a  proper  body,  but  not  into  a  paste.  After  the  stone  runners 
have  made  the  proper  number  of  revolutions  over  it,  and  it  is 
in  a  fit  state,  it  is  taken  off. 

A  powder-mill  is  ,a  slight  wooden  building  and  boarded 
roof.  Only  about  40  or  501b.  of  composition  is  worked  here 
at  a  time,  as  an  explosion  will  sometimes  happen  from  the 
runners  and  bed-stone  coming  in  contact,  and  other  causes. 
These  mills  are  either  worked  by  water  or  by  horses. 

4th,  The  composition  taken  from  the  mills  is  sent  to  the 
coming-house  to  be  corned  or  grained.  Here  it  is  first  passed 
into  a  hard  and  firm  body,  broken  into  small  lumps,  and  the 
powder  then  grained,  by  these  lumps  being  put  into  sieves, 
in  each  of  which  is  a  flat  circular  piece  of  lignum  vitss.  The 
sieves  are  made  of  parchment-skins,  having  round  holes 
punched  through  them.  Several  of  these  sieves  are  fixed  in 
a  frame,  which  by  proper  machinery  has  such  a  motion  given 
to  it,  as  to  make  the  lignum  vitse  runner  in  each  sieve  go 
round  with  a  quick  velocity,  breaking  the  lumps  of  powder, 
and  forcing  them  through  the  sieves,  forming  grains  of  several 
sizes.  The  grains  are  then  separated  from  the  dust  by  proper 
sieves  and  reels, 

5th,  They  are  then  hardened,  and  the  rougher  edges  taken 
off  by  being  rmi  a  sufficient  length  of  time  in  a  close  reel, 
having  a  proper  circular  velocity  given   it. 

The  powder  for  guns,  mortars,  and  small  arms  is  gene- 
rally made  at  one  time,  and  'always  of  the  same  composition. 
7'he  difference  is  only  in  the  size  of  the  grains,  which  are 
separated  by  the  sieves  of  different  fineness, 

6th, 


360  On  the  Manufacture  and 

6th,  The  gun})owder,  thus  corned,  dusted,  and  reeled, 
(which  is  called  glazing,  as  it  puts  a  small  degree  of  gloss  on 
it,)  is  sent  to  the  stove  and  dried ;  taking  care  not  to  caise  the 
heat  so  as  to  decompose  the  sulphur.  The  heat  is  regulated 
by  a  thermometer  placed  in  the  door  of  the  stoves,  if  dried 
in  a  gloom-stove*. 

A  gunppwder-stove  either  dries  the  powder  by  steam  or  by 
the  heat  from  an  iron  gloom,  the  powder  being  spread  on 
cases,  placed  on  proper  supports,  round  the  room. 

If  gunpowder  is  injured  by  damp  in  a  small  degree,  it  may 
be  recovered  by  re-storing  it;  but  if  the  ingredients  are  de- 
composed, the  nitre  must  be  extracted  and  the  gunpowder 
re-manufactured. 

There  are  several  methods  of  proving  and  trying  the  good- 
ness and  strength  of  gunpowder.   This  it  is  not  the  object  of 
,  this  paper  to  describe ;  but  1  shall  just  mention  one,  by  which 
a  good  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  purity  of  the  gunpowder, 
and  also  some  conclusion  as  to  its  strength. 

Lay  two  or  three  small  heaps  (a  dram  or  two)  on  separate 
pieces  of  clean  waiting-paper ;  fire  one  of  them  by  a  red-hot 
iron  wire:  if  the  flame  ascends  quickly,  with  a  good  report, 
leaving  the  paper  free  from  white  specks,  and  does  not  burn 
it  into  holes  5  and  if  sparks  fly  off,  setting  fire  to  the  adjoining 
heaps,  the  goodness  of  the  ingredients  and  proper  manufac- 
ture of  the  powder  may  be  safely  inferred :  but  if  otherwise, 
it  is  either  badly  made  or  the  ingredients  impure. 

Having  thus  completed  the  process  of  manufacturing,  \ 
shall  now  relate  the  result  of  some  experiments  I  have  repeat- 
edly made,  and  which  have  been  made  from  large  quantities 
in  the  manufactory. 

*  This  species  of  stove  consists  of  a  large  cast-iron  vessel  projecting 
into  one  side  of  a  room,  alid  heated  from  the  outside  till  it  absolutely 
glows.  From  the  construction  it  is  hardly  possible  that  fire  can  be  thrown 
from  the  gloom,  as  it  is  called ;  but  stoves  heated  by  steam  passing 
'  through  steam-tight  tubes,  or  otherwise,  ought  surely  to  be  preferred  ;. 
for  the  most  cautious  man  may  stumble  ;  and  if  he  have  a  case  of  the  pow- 
der in  his  hand,  some  of  it  may  be  thrown  upon  the  gloom ;  and  it  is  surely 
possible  that  in  this  way  some  of  the  accidental  blowing  up  of  powder- 
mills  may  have  been  occasioned. — Edit. 

Exper, 


constiiuent  Parts  of  Gunpowder,  861 

Exper,  1. — 100  parts  of  composiiion  gain  from  three  to 
four  or  five  parts  in  weight,  by  the  water  used  at  the  mills. 

Exper»  2. — This  water  appears  to  be  totally  got  rid  of  by 
the  succeeding  processes  of  manufacturing  and  stove-drying  ; 
and  therefore  it  follows  that  the  only  aqueous  matter  in  gun- 
powder is  what  may  be  at  first  contained  in  the  ingredients. 

Exper,  3. — The  ingredients,  only  pulverised  and  mixed, 
have  a  very  small  explosive  force. 

Exper.  4. — Gunpowder  granulated  after  having  been  but 
a  short  time  on  the  mill  has  only  acquired  a  portion  of  its 
strength. 

Exper.  5. — It  is  not  till  it  has  been  the  proper  time  on  the 
mill,  and  been  properly  made  there,  that  it  has  obtained  its 
full  powers. 

Exper.  6. — The  strength  of  gunpowder  does  not  depend 
on  the  granulation,  the  dust  of  gunpowder  after  manufacture 
having  nearly  the  same  force  as  when  granulated. 

Exper.  7. — Powder  made  in  every  respect  the  same,  but  of 
two  sorts  of  charcoal,  viz.  pit  and  cylinder,  is  very  different 
in  strength — the  cylinder  charcoal  rendering  the  gunpowder 
made  therewith  much  superior  to  that  made  with  pit  charcoal. 

Exper.  8. —  Powder  undried,  in  every  stage  of  manufactory, 
is  weaker  than  when  dried. 

Observation, 

If  the  composition  on  a  mill  explodes  by  any  accidental  cause, 
shortly  after  it  has  been  put  on  the  stones,  it  goes  off  with  a 
very  slight  explosive  force,  principally  in  flame ;  but  if  it  has 
been  on  an  hour  or  two  under  the  runners,  and  then  explodes, 
it  more  or  less  destroys  the  mill,  throwing  the  boards  of  the 
covering  and  sides  to  a  considerable  distance. 

I  shall  here  state  a  circumstance  that  happened,  which,  al- 
though not  immediately  connected  with  the  subject,  may 
serve  as  a  strong  illustration  of  one  branch  of  philosophy.  On 
the  explosion  of  the  powder  in  a  mill  which  had  been  ort 
about  two  hours,  the  mill  was  wholly  unroofed  and  the  side* 
blown  out.  The  doors  and  windows  of  the  mills  on  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  stream  were  forced  open  outwards,  and  the 
nails,  &c.  drawn. 

Vol.  IX.  Z  z  In 


362  On  the  Manufacture  and 

In  respect  to  the  specific  gravity  of  gunpowder,  count  Rum- 
ford  states,  that  '^  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  holding  1000  ounces, 
will  hold  1077  ounces  of  fine  grain  powder,  well  beaten  and 
shaken  together ;  and  that  the  real  specific  gravity  of  the  solid 
grains  of  gunpowder  is  as  1868  to  1000." 

I  have,  by  repeated  trials,  found  that  the  density  of  powder 
varies  considerably  from  various  causes  in  manufacturing,  for 
which  reason  no  exact  table  of  the  specific  gravity  can  be 
given ;  but  I  must  observe,  that  the  above,  as  given  by  count 
Rumford,  is  the  greatest  it  will  ever  attain,  in  my  opinion.  I 
have  never  seen  any  so  much,  and  I  have  frequently  seen  it 
less  than  that  of  water. 

In  the  foregoing  account  I  have  confined  myself  to  a  simple 
relation  of  facts,  from  a  consideration  of  which  the  following 
observations  are  clearly  deduced  : 

1st,  That  the  explosive  force  of  gunpowder  depends  very 
materially  on  the  purity  of  the  carbon  employed.   (Exper.  7.) 

2d,  That  the  mixture  only  of  the  ingredients  does  not  make 
that  thorough  incorporation  necessary  for  the  proper  combus- 
tion and  explosive  effects  of  gunpowder.  (Exper.  3,  4,  5,  6.) 
3d,  That  the  less  moisture  there  is  in  gunpowder,  the 
stronger  is  its  eiTect.  This  is  clear,  from  gunpowder  which 
has  attracted  any  degree  of  humidity  being  weaker  than  when 
first  made. 

I  shall  now  beg  to  submit  some  ideas  that  occur  to  me  from 
a  consideration  of  the  whole  of  the  circumstances  I  have  re- 
lated, and  from  what  may  be  deduced  from  an  examination 
of  the  component  parts  of  gunpowder.  It  appears  to  me  that 
no  part  of  the  explosive  force  consists  in  elastic  vapour,  formed, 
ay  the  combustion,  from  water  contained  in  it.  So  small  a 
portion  of  water  is  in  the  ingredients,  and  I  have  observed 
that  not  any  is  gained  in  the  manufacturing,  that  1  cannot 
conceive  any  water  is  carried  off  undecomposed,  but  that  it 
is  converted  into  hydrogen  and  oxygen  gases.  Mr.  Cruick- 
shauk  observes,  ^'  after  the  explosion  of  gunpowder  over  mer- 
cury, no  water  is  seen.*'  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  explosive 
force  of  gunpowder  consists  wholly  in  the  several  gases  formed 
by  the  combustion;  and  that,  the  quicker  it  takes  fire, 
the  more  gas  19  generated  in  a  given  time^  and  its  force  con- 
sequently 


constituent  Parts  of  Gunpowder.  363 

sequently  greater.  Lavoisier  observes,  its  effect  is  increased 
by  the  quantity  of  caloric  disengaged  at  the  moment  of  de- 
flagration. 

It  seems,  therefore,  that  the  combustion  is  carried  on  by 
the  oxygen  supplied  from  the  nitre ;  that  this  gas  is  instantly 
taken  up  by  the  sulphur  and  carbon ;  and,  converting  those 
substances  into  carbonic  and  sulphureous  acid  gases,  azotic 
gas  being  at  the  same  time  hberated  from  the  nitre,  the 
water  wliich  may  be  in  the  nitre,  and  also  that  which  is  in 
the  charcoal,  is  decomposed ;  and  the  oxygen  taken  up  by  the 
carbon  and  sulphur,  and  the  hydrogen  set  free.  The  force 
arising  from  these  gases,  with  the  increased  elasticity  they  re- 
ceive from  the  increase  of  temperature  caused  by  the  combus- 
tion, is  surely  sufficient  to  account  for  the  effects  we  observe 
in  gunpowder. 

It  may  probably  serve  to  elucidate  the  subject,  if  we  con- 
sider a  little  minutely  what  the  component  parts  of  gunpowder 
are  from  chemical  analysis. 

Nitre.  100  parts  of  nitre,  according  to  Kirwan,  consist  of 
Potash         -         -         51-8 -J 

Acid  -  -         44*0  Vdried  in  a  heat  of  70^' 

Water  of  composition      4*2  J 

By  several  experiments,  I  have  found  that  nitre  which  had 
been  dried  at  70*^  loses  3  per  cent,  in  melting. 

Lavoisier  says,  100  parts  nitre  consist  of 

Potash  49,  dry  acid  5 1*0 ;  and  that  this  dry  acid  is, 
Oxygen  49'6 
Azot       10-4 

Charcoal,  according  to  Lavoisier,  absorbs  2*5714  of  oxygen 
in  combustion.  From  several  experiments  which  I  have 
made,  I  have  reason  to  conclude,  that  charcoal,  when  used, 
contains  about  l-8th  part  of  water,  which  it  has  absorbed. 

Sulphur,  according  to  Berthollet,  requires  for  every  160 
parts  36*8  of  oxygen  to  form  sulphuric  acid;  of  course,  a 
smaller  quantity  of  oxygen  would  be  necessary  for  their  con- 
version into  sulphureous  acid  gas :  I  shall  take  this  at  30  per 
cent,y  which  is  probably  not  far  from  the  truth,  and,  at  any 
rate,  near  enough  for  our  present  purpose.  No  experiment, 
that  I  know  of,  has  been  made  to  ascertain  this  point. 

Z  z  ?  Admitting 


364  On  the  Manufacture  of^unpowder . 

Admitting  the  foregoing  observations  to  be  tolerably  correct, 
the  following  will  turn  out  to  be  the  quantities  of  the  con- 
stituent principles  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  gun- 
powder : 

nK       f     f    •.  .  •  •       /Dry  nitre     7425 

75  parts  of  nitre,  contammg  ^^^Va^er     -       075 

,r        ^      r   u         1  fCarbon        13-13 

15  parts  of  charcoal       -        -[^^Vater  1-87 

10  parts  of  sulphur         -  Sulphur        1000 

100  100-00 

And  these  again  contain,  viz. 
Potash.         Oxygen.        Azot.     Hydrogen.     Carbon. 
36-75  +  30-34  +  7-80  +  6-11  =  Nitre         75 

1-60  +  0-27  +  13-13   =  Charcoal  15 

Sulphur  -----  10 

100  parts  of  gunpowder,  therefore,  appear  to  consist  of 


^  Potash 

36-75 

Carbon 

13-13 

Sulphur 

10-00 

Oxygen 

31-94 

Azot 

/   7-8 

Hydrogen 

0-38 

100-00 
We  know  that  the  whole  of  the  charcoal  is  not  consumed 
in  the  act  of  combustion ;  Mr.  Cruickshank  says  3  parts  re- 
main of  100  parts  of  gunpowder,  therefore  only  10*13  parts 
are  destroyed.     Now, 

10-13  parts  of  carbon  absorb     -     2605  of  oxyg<?n 
.And  10  parts  of  sulphur  absorb    -   3-00  of  oxygen 

Oxygen  used  -  -  29*05 

Quantity  of  oxygen  in  ingredients  31*95 

Surplus  of  oxygen  -  2  90 

It  is  clear  the  smallest  error  in  the  quantity  of  cliarcoa. 

used,  will  easily  account  for  this  difference  of  oxygen.     On 

the  above  calculation  it  seems  the  quantity  of  each  ingredient 

is  pretty  well  regulated^  and  that  the  gases  formed  will  be 

expended 


Letter  from  M,  A.  Htimloldt,  &c.  365 

expended  In  producing  the  effects  we  observe  in  the  combus^ 
tion  of  gunpowder. 

The  residuum  of  fired  gunpowder  Mr.  Howard  thinks  to 
be  an  alkaline  sulphuret  mixed  with  carbonat  and  sulphat  of 
potash.  But  by  several  trials  I  have  long  since  made,  1  am 
induced  to  form  the  same  opinion,  as  to  the  qualities  of  this 
residuum,  as  Mr.  Cruickshank  :  the  quantity  I  have  not  had 
an  opportunity  of  ascertaining.  Mr.  Cruickshank  says  : 
*'  This  residuum  is  very  deliquescent,  and  when  exposed  to 
the  air  absorbs  nioisture  sufficient  to  dissolve  a  part  of  the 
alkali ;  in  consequence,  the  charcoal  becomes  exposed,  and 
the  whole  assumes  a  dark  or  black  colour :  that  this  residuum 
is  potash  united  with  a  small  quantity  of  sulphuret  of  potash 
and  unconsumed  charcoal:  and  that  100  grains  of  gunpowder 
yield  53  grains,  of  which  three  are  charcoal." 


XLV.    Letter  from  M.  A.  Humboldt  to  C.  Delambre, 

Member  of  the  French  National  Institute, 
_^^  New  Barcelona,  Nov.  24,  1800. 

i-JURING  my  stay  in  South  America  I  dispatched  several 
letters  to  you  and  Lalande.  I  know  you  are  interested  in  my 
fate,  and  I  never  let  slip  an  opportunity  of  writing  to  you, 
though  I  have  scarcely  any  hopes  of  my  letters  reaching  the 
place  of  their  destination.  I  am  now  on  the  point  of  setting 
out  for  the  Havannah  and  Mexico,  after  having  performed 
a  tour  of  thirteen  hundred  nautical  leagues  in  this  part  of  the 
New  World,  situated  between  Popayan,  Quito,  and  Cayenne. 
I  have  slept  for  three  months  in  the  open  air,  in  the  woods, 
surrounded  by  tigers  and  hideous  serpents,  or  on  plains  co- 
vered with  crocodiles.  Bananas,  rice,  and  manioc,  have 
been  our  sole  nourishment;  for  all  provisions  soon  become 
putrid  in  this  damp  and  scorching  country. 

How  grand  and  majestic  is  nature  among  these  mountains.! 
From  Baraquan  and  Uruana,  which  unknown  nations  have 
covered  with  hieroglyphics,  as  far  as  the  volcano  of  Duida, 
at  the  distance  of  sixty  leagues  from  the  small  lake  of  Dorado, 
the  elevation  of  which  I  have  found  to  be  2176  metres,  there 
is  only  one  cordillera  of  granite,  that  descends  from  Quito, 

and 


^6G  Letter  from  M,  A,  Humhold't 

and  proceeds  from  west  to  east  to  join  the  mountains  of  the 
French  part  of  Guyana.  What  variety  among  the  Indian 
races !  All  free,  all  governing  themselves  and  eating  each 
other,  from  the  Guaicas  of  Gehetta,  a  pygmy  nation,  the 
largest  of  whom  are  about  four  feet  two  inches  in  height,  to 
the  white  Guajaribos,  who  have  really  the  whiteness  of  Eu- 
ropeans; from  the  Otomacos,  who  eat  a  pound  and  a  half 
of  earth  per  day,  to  the  Marivitanos  and  the  Magueritares, 
who  feed  on  ants  and  resin.  Having  already  spoken  of  all 
these  in  a  letter*,  which  I  dispatched  from  the  mouths  of 
the  Orenoquo  to  our  good  friend  Pommard,^!  shall  confine 
myself  at  present  to  a  few  astronomical  observations,  which, 
I  think,  T  have  made  with  a  considerable  degree  of  care. 

IVIy  time-keeper,  by  Berthoud,  continues  to  go  with  great 
correctness.  I  regulate  it  every  four,  five,  or  six  days,  by  cor- 
responding altitudes,  taken  with  my  instruments,  which  do 
not  err  a  second  ;  viz.  sextants  by  Ramsdcn  and  Troughton, 
a  quadrant  by  Bird,  and  a  horizon  by  Carroche.  You  know 
that  I  am  not  very  learned  in  the  mathematics,  and  that  astro- 
nomy is  not  the  object  of  my  travels;  yet  with  zeal  and  ap- 
plication, and  by  daily  handling  the  same  instruments,  I 
have  been  able  to  do  something,  and  to  do  it  better.  As  I 
traversed  a  country  never  visited  by  Europeans  till  about  thirty 
years  ago,  in  which  all  the  Christian  missions  do  not  amount 
to  1800  souls,  and  consequently  where  no  one  has  ever  yet 
been  able  to  make  observations,  I  conceived  that  I  ought  not 
to  neglect  so  favourable  an  opportunity  of  enlarging  our  geo- 
graphical knowledge.  You  would  have  laughed  had  you  seen 
me  amidst  the  Ydapamianeres  Indians  in  the  forest  of  Casqui- 
ara,  with  my  instruments  mounted  on  boxes  or  trunks,  while 
the  shells  of  tortoises  served  us  as  stools.  Eight  or  nine  apes, 
which  we  carried  with  us,  had  a  strong  desire  to  handle  my 
hygrometers,  barometers,  and  electrometers  also  :  around  all 
these  ten  or  twelve  Indians  stretched  out  in  their  hammocks, 
together  with  fires  to  secure  us  from  the  tigers,  which  are  no 
less  ferocious  here  than  in  Africa.  The  want  of  nourishment, 
the  mosquitoes,  the  ants  ;  the  chigers,  which  enter  the  skin 
and  plough  up  the  flesh ;   the  desire  of  cooling  ourselves  in 

*  This  letter,  when  this  was  published,  had  not  reached  France. 

th9 


>  to  C,  Delamlre.  367 

the  water,  and  the  impossibility  of  doing  it  on  account  of  the 
ferocity  of  the  caymans,  the  danger  of  being  pricked  by  the 
rajas  and  the  teeth  of  the  small  carib-fish — youth  and  a  great 
deal  of  resignation  are  reijuired  to  endure  all  these.  The 
evil  is  passed,  and  I  have  reaped  more  than  I  durst  venture 
to  hope. 

It  is  believed  {see  the  map  of  father  Caulin,  the  best  ex- 
tant, though  all  the  names  are  wrong,)  that  the  Spanish  pos- 
sessions of  Guyana  extend  to  the  equator.  But  I  have  found, 
by  very  good  observations  o£  the  stars  called  the  Cross  and 
Canopus,  which  I  made  among  the  rocks  of  Culimacaii,  that 
San  Carlos  del  Rio  Negro,  the  most  southern  establishment, 
is  in  1*^  53' of  north  latitude;  and  that  the  line  passes  through 
the  government  of  Great  Para,  near  St.  Gabriel-de-las-Ca- 
chuellas,  where  there  is  a  cataract,  but  not  so  considerable  a$ 
the  two  famous  ones  of  Atures  and  Maypura. 

At  Cumana,  before  the  earthquake,  which  we  experienced 
on  the  4th  of  November  1799,  the  magnetic  inclination, 
measured  with  Borda's  compass,  was  found  to  be  44°  20'  of 
the  new  division :  after  the  earthquake  it  was  43°  35';  the 
needle  made  229  oscillations  in  the  course  of  ten  minutes. 
Experiments  have  proved  that  the  magnetic  charge  has 
changed  in  this  part  of  the  world,  and  not  in  the  needle. 

At  Calabozo,  in  the  centre  of  Uana,  lat.  8'  56'  5fj",  long, 
from  Paris  44°  40'  18",  the  inclination  was  39^  30':  number 
of  oscillations  222. 

At  Atures,  one  of  the  cataracts  of  the  Orenoquo,  in  lat, 
5""  39',  long.  44°  42'  19'',  the  inclination  was  32°  b5':  num- 
ber of  oscillations  221. 

At  St.  Fernando  d'Atabapo,  a  mission  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Guaviara,  lat.  4°  9'  50',  the  inclination  was  30'  30' :  num- 
ber of  .oscillations  219. 

At  St.  Carlos  de  Rio  Negro,  lat.  1°  53',  the  inclination 
was  23°  20' ;  number  of  oscillations  216. 

According  to  the  rules  given  by  Messrs.  Cavendish  and 
Dalrymple,  care  was  always  taken,  while  observing,  to  turn 
the  compass  to  the  east  and  west  to  find  the  mean  inclina- 
tions, and  to  correct  the  error  which  takes  place  when  the 
axis  of  the  needle  does  not  pass  exactly  through  its  two  points. 

During 


86^  Letter  from  M»  A,  Humboldt 

During  this  journey,  which  lasted  a  year,  I  determined 
51  points  of  South  America,  in  which  I  observed  the  latitudes 
and  longitudes  :  the  former  deduced,  for  the  most  part,  from 
the  meridian  altitude  of  two  stars  at  least ;  and  the  latter, 
either  from  the  distances  of  the  moon  from  the  sun  and  stars, 
or  from  the  time-keeper  and  horary  angles.  I  am  now  em- 
ployed in  constructing  a  map  of  the  country  throiigh  which 
I  have  travelled ;  and  as  my  observations  fill  up  the  vacuum 
found  in  the  maps  between  Quito  and  Cayenne,  to  the  north 
of  the  river  of  the  Amazons,  I  flatter  myself  that  they  will  be 
interesting  to  geographers. 

My  time-keepers  have  not  given  me  with  exactness,  but 
the  differences  of  meridian  between  the  places  of  my  departure 
arid  the  Caraccas,  Cumana,  and  St.  Thomas  de  Nueva-Guay- 
anna,  lat.  8=^  8'  24",  long.  21  of  time,  east  from  Cumana. 
I  am  very  anxious,  therefore,  on  account  of  my  map,  to  fix 
the  position  of  these  three  places  in  regard  to  Paris,  and  by 
observations  purely  astronomical.  Besides,  it  is  very  neces- 
sary that  navigators  should  be  able,  at  the  time  of  their  ar- 
rival on  this  coast,  to  find  the  longitude  of  the  ports  well  de- 
termined, that  they  may  know  the  state  of  their  chronome- 
ters; for,  except  Martinico,  Guadaloupe,  Portorico,  where 
M.  De  Churucca  observed ;  Cayenne,  and  Quito,  there  are 
very  few  places  the  longitude  of  which  can  be  depended  on  ; 
especially  in  Spanish  America.  Carthagena,  according  to 
the  Connoissance  des  Temps,  is  at  5h.  12'  12".  But  the 
three  emersions  of  the  satellites,  observed  by  Herrera,  all  give 
69*^  24'  10"  west  of  Cadiz,  or  5h.  13'  1 1"  to  the  west  of  Paris. 

1  observed,  with  a  telescope  of  Dollond,  which  magnifies 
95  times,  at  Cumana,  in  lat,  10^  27'  37  :        ' 

The  immersion  of  the  second  satellite  Nov.  7,  1799,  at 
lib.  41'  18"  true  time. 

Of  the  second  satellite,  Sept.  11,  at  16  h.  3  TO"  true  time. 

Of  the  first  satellite,  Sept.  25,  1800,  at  17h.  10' 21"  mean 
time. 

The  emersion  of  the  4th  satellite,  Sept.  26,  at  17  h.  28'  0" 
mean  time. 

Of  the  third  satellite,  Sept.  27,  at  16  h.  25'  55"  mean  time. 

Of  the  fourth  satellite,  Sept.  26,  at  17  h.  28'  0''  mean  time. 

I  am 


to  C.  Delamhre,  369 

I  am  therefore  mistrastful  of  the  longitude  of  Cumana^  as 
given  me  by  my  time-keeper.  When  I  arrived  from  the  Cana- 
ries at  the  Continent,  I  found  the  longitude  to  be  4h.  26' 4"; 
and  tlie  observations  of  M.  Fidalgo,  who  observed  emersions 
at  Trinidad,  hut  not  at  Cumana,  give  still  more ;  viz.  4  h. 
26'  16".     Fidalgo  found  Trinidad  55"  16'  32"  to  the  west  of 
Cadiz,  and  Cumana  2M  I'  25"  to  the  west  of  Puerta  Espana. 
But  the  map  of  Trinidad,  published  at  London,  from  the 
excellent   observations  of  M.  De   Charucca,   makes   Puerta 
Espana  61''  22'  west  from  London.     I  am  of  opinion,  there- 
fore, that,  in  constructing  the  map,  the  authors  had  before 
them  the  calculations  by  Lalande  of  the  occultation  of  Alde- 
baran,  observed  at  Porto  Rico  on  the  21st  of  October  1793 ; 
for  the  capital  of  Porto  Rico  is  by  the  time-keepers  4°  34'  to 
the  west  of  Puerta  Espana,  calculating  the  longitude  by  that 
of  Porto  Rico  63*^  48'  15'';  and  for  Cumana  66^  29'  40"  to 
the  west  of  Paris.     The  five  eclipses  of  the  satellites  which  I 
send  you  must  throw  light  on  this  subject ;  and  in  my  opi- 
nion the  longitude  of  Cumana  will   not   be   much  beyond 
4h.  25' 20".     Unfortunately,  the  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which 
I  completely  observed  on  the  2Slh  of  September  at  Cumana, 
making  the  horns  pass  along  the  horizontal  and  vertical  wires,  . 
was  not  visible  in  Europe.   I  observed  the  end  at  8  h.  14^  22" 
mean  time;  the  time  certain  to  1"  nearly,  having  taken  cor- 
responding heights  the  same  day. 

At  Carras  (Plaza  della  S.  Trinidad)  lat.  10°  31'  4",  I  ob- 
served : 

The  immersion  of  the  first  satellite,  Dec.  7,  1799,  at  16  h. 
ir  57"  true  time. 

Of  the  third  satellite,  Dec.  7,  at  17  h.  1 1'  36"  true  time. 

The  emersion  of  the  first  satellite,  Jan  17,  1800,  at  11  h. 
14' 8"  mean  time. 

Of  the  second  satellite,  Jan.  28,  at  7  h.  58'  8"  mean  time. 

Of  the  fourth  satellite,  Jan.  18,  at  8h.  13'  3"  mean  tipie. 

At  the  Valle  del  Tuy  al  Pic  della  Cocuiza,  lat.  10M7'  23'V 

The  emersion  of  the  first  satellite,  Feb.  9,  1800,  at  llh, 
26'  57"  mean  time. 

Of  the  third  satellite  on  the  10th  of  February,  at  7  h.  58 
50  mean  time. 

Vol.  IX.  A  But 


3T0  Royal  Society  of  London, 

But  these  last  eclipses  were  observed  with  a  telescope  of 
Caroch^,  which,  though  u  very  good  one,  magnifies  only  58 
times,  not  being  able  to  carry  along  with  me,  to  Rio-Negro, 
the  large  telescope  by  Dollond. 

Declination  of  the  magnetic  needle  at  Cumana  on  the  27th 
of  October  4^  13' 45";  at  Caraccas,  4^*38' 45";  at  Calabozo, 
4^  54'  of  the  old  division. 

The  port  of  La  Guayra  is  exactly  29'  in  time  west  from 
Caraccas ;  and  I  hope  that,  by  giving  immersions  and  emer- 
sions, the  meridian  of  Caraccas  will  be  properly  fixed. 

I  have  described,  with  Bonpland,  more  than  1200  plants** 


XLVI.  Proceedings  of  Learned  Societies. 

ROYAL   SOCIETY   OF  LONDON. 

April  so.  The  reading  of  Dr.  Herschel's  observations 
on  the  nature  of  the  sun  was  concluded.  The  doctor  re- 
marks that,  if  the  luminous  matter  of  the  sun  was  a  fluid,  or 
even  of  a  nature  similar  to  an  atmosphere,  every  opening 
must,  by  the  laws  of  hydrostatics,  be  instantly  filled  up.  His 
supposition  is^  that  the  sun  is  surrounded  by  an  atmosphere  of 
considerable  density  on  which  the  luminous  matter  floats, 
and  which  he  conjectures  to  be  of  similar  nature  to  our 
clouds.  Having  consulted  all  the  astronomical  acounts  of 
observations  on  the  telescopic  appearance  of  the  sun,  and  com- 
j)ared  them  with  the  registers  of  the  price  of  corn  for  those 
years  in  which  they  were  made  ;  he  infers,  from  a  careful  ex- 
amination of  the  whole,  that  in  those  years  in  which  few 
openings  were  seen,  there  has  been  a  rise  in  the  price  of 
wheat  in  consequence  of  a  scarcity,  arising  from  a  smaller 
emission  of  the  matter  of  heat. 

*  A  Letter  from  Haspel-la-Chenaye,  chemist  at  Guadaloupe,  dated 
Jan.  5,  states,  that  M.  Humboldt  had  set  out  for  the  Havamiah,  after 
having  left  with  the  agent  of  the  government  at  Guadaloupe  a  box  for 
the  Institute  and  two  packets,  one  for  Fourcroy  and  the  other  for  Delam- 
bre.  As  the  box  has  not  yet  arrived,  nor  the  packets  addressed  to  Four- 
croy, it  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  above  letter  is  not  that  mentioned 
by  Haspel-la-Chenaye. 

On 


French  l^ational  Inst'iliUe,  371 

On  May  7th  was  read  a  paper  by  Everard  Home,  Esq.  on 
the  grinding  teeth  of  the  wild  boar. 

On  the  14th,  additional  observations  on  the  emission  of 
light  and  heat  from  the  sun ;  being  a  continuation  of  the 
observations  on  the  nature  of  the  sun;  read  April  16,  23, 
and  30 :  by  Dr.  Herschel.  These  additional  remarks  are  the 
result  of  observations  made  from  the  2d  of  March  to  the  3d  of 
May,  and  during  the  late  mild  weather;  and  tend  to  confirm 
the  Doctor's  former  conjecture,  as  on  some  of  the  days  there 
were  no  less  than  sixty  openings.  The  Doctor  supposes  that 
one  side  of  the  sun  has  the  power  of  sending  forth  more  heat 
than  the  other.  As  great  inconvenience  resulted  from  the 
heat  transmitted  through  coloured  glasses,  he  viewed  the  sun 
through  fluids.  Alcohol,  Port  wine,  ink  diluted  with  water, 
which  gave  an  image  of  the  sun  as  white  as  snow ;  and  even 
common  water,  answered  the  purpose  of  stopping  the  heat 
remarkably  well. 

A  paper  by  Thomas  Andrew  Knight,  Esq.  on  the  ascent 
of  sap  in  vegetables,  was  partly  read  the  same  evening,  and 
was  concluded  at  the  following  meeting.  It  contains  a  vast 
assemblage  of  curious  facts,  observations,  and  experiments, 
on  the  physiology  of  vegetables. 

FRENCH    NATIONAL    INSTITUTE. 

The  following  is  an  account  of  the  labours  of  the  Class  of 
the  Mathematical  and  Physical  Sciences  during  the  second 
quarter  of  the  year  9 : 

Mathematical  Part  read  ly  Lalande. 

Lalande  read  a  memoir  on  the  longitude  of  Alexandria  in 
Egypt,  which  he  determined  by  an  emersion  of  the  star 
Antares,  compared  with  a  complete  observation  of  the  same 
eclipse  made  at  Marseilles  by  Thulis,  associate  of  the  Insti- 
tute. It  results  from  this  calculation  that  the  difference  of 
the  meridians  is  1°  50'  26",  which  varies  a  little  from  that 
established  by  Nouet  and  Qucnot.  The  position,  therefore, 
of  this  point  seems  now  to  be  well  known. 

Prony  read  a  notice  on  the  grand  decimal  trigonometrica 
tables,  calculated  under  the  direction  of  Lalande,  by  a  me- 
thod entirely  new,  and  which  is  attended  with  this  advantage, 

that 


372  .French  National  Institute, 

that  an  indefinite  number  of  calculators  might  be  employed 
at  the  same  time,  the  greater  part  of  whom  would  have  oc- 
casion for  no  other  knowledge  than  that  of  addition  and  sub- 
traction. 

Galvanic  Experiments,— C,  Cuvier  stated  the  different 
opinions  that  have  been  advanced  respecting  the  galvanic 
fluid,  and  how  far  its  effects  were  supposed  to  affect  the  re- 
ceived doctrines  respecting  the  composition  of  water ;  but 
from  the  length  of  his  notice  on  this  head,  and  the  period 
at  which  it  came  to  hand,  we  are  obliged  to  defer  it  till  next 
month. 

The  other  notices  read  by  Cuvier  were  the  following : 

Discussions  on  the  Composition  rrf  Water. — While  Fourcroy 
and  Vauqnelin  were  defending  the  French  chemistry  against 
the  objections  which  galvanism  gave  rise  to,  C.  Van  Mons, 
associate  resident  at  Brussels,  was  combating  an  adversary 
who  employed  arms  of  another  kind. 

M.  Wiegleb,  a  German  chemist,  having  made  water  in  a 
state  of  vapour  to  pass  through  different  kinds  of  tubes  con- 
taining different  matters,  obtained  gases  different  from  those 
which  compose  that  liquid,  according  to  the  pneumatic 
theory.  He  thence  concluded  that  water  can  be  changed  ac- 
cording to  circumstances  into  various  kinds  of  gases.  Some 
of  the  Dutch  chemists,  having  repeated  and  varied  these  ex- 
periments, found  that  the  gases  obtained  had  penetrated 
through  the  pores  of  the  tubes,  the. matter  of  which  was  not 
sufficiently  compact ;  that  they  were  always  produced  by  the 
substances  with  which  these  tubes  were  surrounded,  and  that 
by  employing  impermeable  tubes  nothing  of  the  like  kind 
was  manifested.  M.  Wiegleb  wrote  a  reply  to  the  Dutch 
chemists,  and  Van  Mons  has  now  refuted  his  answer  in  a 
Latin  memoir.  As  we  cannot  here  enter  into  a  minute  dis- 
cussion of  this  subject,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  observe  that 
the  result  of  Van  Mons  is  entirely  favourable  to  the  French 
theory. 

Means  of  purifying  the  Air, — Three  months  ago  I  gave  an 
account  of  Guyton's  labour  on  the  means  of  purifying  the 
air_,  preventing  contagion,  and  checking  its  progress.  He 
■tontinued  the  reading  of  his  paper  at  some  sittings  of  this 

quarter. 


French  National  Institute,  373 

quarter,  and  it  will  soon  be  submitted  to  the  public.  Guy- 
ton  has  obtained  the  most  gratifying  reward  that  a  philoso- 
pher can  expect  for  his  researches  :  it  was  in  a  great  measure 
by  the  processes  he  has  pointed  out,  viz.  fumigations  with 
the  muriatic  acid,  that  the  epidemical  disease  which  ravaged 
Andalusia  was  destroyed.  This  fact  appears  from  the  report 
made  to  the  Spanish  government  by  Dr.  Queralto,  sent  from 
Seville  for  that  purpose,  and  the  report  communicated  to 
Guyton  by  M.  Gimbernat,  one  of  the  pensioned  travellers  of 
the  king  of  Spain. 

Extraction  of  Soda  from  Marine  Salt, — Berthollet  has  been 
employed  on  a  subject  of  great  importance  to  the  arts,  the 
decomposition  of  marine  salt.  Leblanc  having  published  a 
process  for  extracting  the  soda,  Berthollet  has  made  some 
changes  in  it  which  render  it  more  advantageous,  easier,  and 
appKcable  with  more  oeconomy  to  the  different  arts  in  which 
the  oxygenated  muriatic  acid  is  used. 

On  the  supposed  Returns  of  the  principal  Variations  of  the 
Atmosphere, — To  be  able  to  foretel  the  variations  of  the  at- 
mosphere would  be  a  thing  of  so  much  general  utility,  that  it 
needs  excite  little  astonishment  that  it  should,  at  all  times, 
have  been  an  object 'of  research  to  philosophers;  and  it  ought 
to  excite  less,  that  the  obscurity  in  which  this  as  well  as 
every  other  part  of  futurity  is  involved,  has  made  those  who 
pretend  to  foresee  the  variations  of  the  air  to  be  ranked  in 
the  same  class  as  those  who  prstehd  to  foretel  moral  and 
political  changes.  It  may,  however,  be  easily  seen  that  these 
events  are  not  of  the  same  order ;  that  the  causes  of  the 
former  are  much  less  varied,  and  consequently  are  susceptible 
of  combinations  less  numerous;  that  these  causes  have  not 
the  mobiiity  of  the  affections  of  the  mind;  and  that,  if  some 
of  them  still  escape  us,  it  is  not  necessary  they  should  do  so 
always. 

These  reflections  induced  Lamarck  to  examine  the  follow- 
ing question  : — "  Among  the  different  variations  of  the  state 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  especially  those  observed  in  our  la- 
titudes from  40  degrees  to  the  poles,  are  there  any  the  perio- 
dical return  of  which  can  be  determined  ?"  Lamarck  has  been 
able  to  convince  himself  that  the  solutionof  this  question  can- 
not 


374  French  National  Institute, 

not  be  obtained  unless  three  means,  which  he  points  out, 
are  employed  in  conjunction  :  of  these  means  we  shall  men- 
tion that  only  which  consists  in  the  establishment  of  a  regu- 
lar correspondence  of  observations  made  every  day  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  an  extensive  country,  in  order  to  ascertain 
whether  the  great  atmospheric  variations  observed  in  any 
one  place  are  really  the  result  of  any  cause  which  has  a 
determinable  periodical  return.  This  means,  says  Lamarck, 
is  so  essential  that  it  is  astonishing  it  should  have  been  hither- 
to neglected. 

After  laying  down  these  bases,  Lamarck  gives  an  account 
of  the  results  he  has  been  able  to  obtain :  he  distinguishes 
them  into  the  knowledge  of  facts  which  cannot  be  doubted, 
and  simple  observations.  The  alternate  elevation  or  depres- 
sion of  the  moon,  above  or  below  the  equator,  in  the  course 
of  each  lunar  month,  produces  in  the  atmosphere,  according 
to  this  author,  very  apparent  effects.  During  the  austral 
declination  of  the  moon,  and  particularly  on  the  approach  of 
the  austral  lunistice,  the  winds  which  then  prevail  blow 
from  the  regions  of  the  north,  north-west,  or  north-east,  or 
east,  or  from  some  of  the  points  comprehended  between  these 
points.  The  constitution  of  the  atmosphere  thence  resulting 
tends  to  give  dry  or  cold  weather,  according  to  the  season, 
and  to  restore  a  bright  atmosphere^and  fine  weather.  During 
the  boreal  declination  of  the  moon,  and  particularly  the  ap- 
proach of  the  boreal  lunistice,  the  prevailing  winds  blow 
from  some  of  the  points  opposite  to  those  mentioned  above 
as  predominant  during  the  austral  declination.  The  atmo- 
spheric constitution  thence  resulting  tends  to  give  cloudy 
weather,  more  or  less  damp  and  rainy.  It  is  favourable  to  the 
formation  of  storms,  which  never  take  place  but  during  this 
declination  of  the  moon. 

Among  the  signs  which  Lamarck  considers  as  simple  ob- 
servations I  shall  mention  only  the  following,  and  shall  em- 
ploy the  same  expressions  as  the  author. 

''As  the  position  of  the  lunar  points  changes  very  slowly, 
which  makes  them  fall  for  several  months  successively,  some- 
times on  the  lunisticial  days  and  sometimes  on  the  mean  days, 
this  position  gives  rise  to  that  stationary  state  of  the  atmosphere 

which 


Electricity — Antiquities,  37^ 

which  is  observed  in  such  or  such  season  of  certain  years, 
which  renders  these  seasons  and  these  years  singularly  re- 
markable." 


XLVII.  Miscellaneous  Articles, 

ELECTRICITY, 

A  Correspondent,  Mr.  Richard  Hunt,  of  Howden,  observes 
that  it  is  commonly  held  "  that  for  the  purpose  of  exciting 
electricity  by  a  machine,  communication  with  the  earth  is 
necessary,  either  from  the  cushion  or  the  conductor;  and, 
above  all,  that  in  charging  jars  the  jar  must  communicate 
with  the  earth ;  but  that  this  is  not  quite  correct,  all  that  is 
gained  by  such  a  communication  being  neither  more  nor  less 
than  an  indirect, connexion  being  established  between  the 
cushion  and  the  outside  of  the  jar.  Accordingly  he  finds 
that  if  the  machine,  the  jar,  and  the  operator  be  all  insulated, 
still  the  jar  may  be  charged  if  a  communication  has  been 
established  between  the  outer  coating  and  the  cushion  by 
means  of  a  wire  or  any  conducting  body  interposed  between 
them." 

Our  correspondent  probably  knows  that  by  means  of  Mr. 
Nairn's  electrical  machine  two  jars  are  charged  without 
having  any  connexion  with  the  ground,  and  that  in  this 
case,  as  well  as  the  one  he  has  stated,  the  effect  may  be 
satisfactorily  explained  by  the  present  or  by  the  Fiankliniau 
theory. 

ANTIQUITIES. 

The  East  India  Company  has  received  from  its  agent  at 
Bagdad  twelve  bricks  of  those  which  are  still  remaining  near 
Hilla,  on  the  Euphrates,  on  the  spot  where  the  antient 
Babylon,  according  to  Major  Rennel  and  other  geographers, 
is  supposed  to  have  stood.  On  these  bricks  characters  are 
engraved  perfectly  similar  to  those  which  are  found  in  Persia 
on  the  ruins  of  Chehilniinar,  about  a  day's  journey  from 
Shiraz,  and  commonly  called  Persepolitan.  These  charac- 
ters, which  have  already  been  noticed  by  Le  Bruyn,  Kamp- 
fer,  Niebuhrj  and  others^  have  hitherto  been  reckoned  peculiar 

to 


376  Natural  History. 

to  these  ruins,  being  only  found  on  blocks  of  marble  or  on 
gems  dug  up  there.  By  the  discovery,  however,  of  the  present 
bricks  it  has  been  proved  that  they  were  used  also  in  other 
parts,  having  been  found  amongst  the  rums  of  the  antient 
capital  of  Chaldaea.  Besides,  having  received  by  this  means 
more  copious  specimens  of  that  species  of  writing,  it  will  be- 
come easier  to  decide  whether  these  characters  are  of  the 
alphabetic,  or  syllabic,  or  hieroglyphic  kind,  whether  they 
ought  to  be  read  from  the  right  or  from  the  left,  horizontally 
or  perpendicularly,  from  the  top  or  from  the  bottom.  Per- 
haps each  word  may  be  expressed  by  a  particular  group,  like 
those  antient  characters  of  the  Chinese  published  lately  in 
London  by  the  learned  Dr.  Hagar,  where,  instead  of  nailsy 
like  those  now  made  use  of,  leaves,  flowers,  bracelets,  snakes, 
and  other  representations,  are  employed,  arranged  in  different 
positions  to  express  different  words. 

NATURAL    HISTORY. 

A  correspondent  sends  us  the  following  curious  notice  :— • 
**  In  the  year  1794,  a  hen  belonging  to  Captain  Nicholson, 
Duke-street,  Whitehaven,  swelled  to  an  enormous  size,  which 
continued  near  five  weeks,  when  she  died.  One  of  his  sons 
cut  her  open  for  a  favourite  dog,  when  he  discovered  an  e^g 
of  a  prodigious  bulk,  which  was  found  to  contain  two  chickens. 
These  chickens  were  carried  to  Dr.  Wylie  of  the  same  place, 
where  the  eg^  and  its  contents  may  be  seen.  The  flesh  of  the 
hen  was  turned  entirely  black." 


INDEX 


[    377    ] 


INDEX  TO  VOL.  IX. 


AbILDG/IARD,     Professor, 
death  of,  96 

Academy  of  Stockholm ,  108 

Acetic  Acid,  a  new  method  of 
preparing,  88.  To  test,     275 
Acetous  acid,  to  test,  2/5 

A  chard,  eudiometry,  252 

Adolphus,  Prince,  lOp 

Affinity,  on  the  laws  of,  146,  l/I 
342 
Africa,  Bamberger's  travels  in, 
64,  137 
Agriculture,  l.Ql,  282 

Air,  remarks  on,  by  Hales,  250  j 
Saussure,    250  j    Cavendish, 
251,    252;     Priestley,   250, 
251 J  Schecle,  251  j  Lavoisier, 
Senebier,    Jngenhousz,     and 
Fontana,  251  ;  Achard,    252 
Air,  means  ot  purifying,       372 
Alexandria,  position  of,        37  I 
Alkalis,  on  the  fwrmati(.m  of,  89 
Alkalis,  new  method  of  employ- 
ing, in  bleaching,  319 
Ameilhon,  C,  on  an  Egyptian 
monument.  141 
America,  South,  letter  from  303 
American  elk  domesticated,    92 
Ammonia,  produced  from  acida-^ 
lous  tartrite  of  potash  and  wa- 
ter, 87.  To  prepare  for  bleach- 
ing,                                    322 
Analysis  of  gunpowder,        3t')3 
Animal.     A  new  one,  120 
Antiquities,                            3/5 

in  Egypt,      91,141 

Apple- trees  decorticated  do  not 

die,  6*3 

Aqueous  phcenomena,    a    prize 

question,  283 

Arhogast,  14 

Arnold,  1  ]  7 

Vol.  IX. 


Askesian  Society,  papers  read  in 
the.  158,  355 

Astrolabes,  9,  10 

Astronomical  observations  oflhe 
Arabs  in  the  10th  century,  5 
Astronomy,  \ ,  86,  28^),  368,  369 
Atlas,  Bode's  celestial  4 

^/moypAere,aprizequestion,283 

,  variations  of,       373 

Atmospherical  tides  observable 

in  South  America,  286 

Atures,  position  of,  36/ 

Babylon,  bricks  from,  375 

Badolliers  process  for  preparing 

acetic  acid,  88 

Banks,  Sir  Joseph,  14 

Barilla,  to  t.-st,  277 

Bark  stript  from  trees  without 

killing  them,  63 

Bark  of  leaves,  facts  respecting. 

Barometer    in  the    East    Indie* 

and  South  America,  286 

Bartons  natural  history,         57 

Baudin  the  navigator,  113 

jBa?^anV/,mapot,constructing,107 

Beaume,  135,  346 

Beauvois  on  a   new  species  of 

Siren,  1 1 8 

Beet-routs,      Gottl'.ngs    exp;-^ri- 

ments  on,  184 

Bergeret,  I07 

Bergman,  the  life  of,  I93 

Bergmans  works  noticed,     346 

Bernier,  J  2,  115 

BcrthoUd,  80,  82.    On  affinity, 

\4Q,  342 

Biography,       78,  97,  1 93,  3 1 5 

Birds,  on  the  utility  of,  5Q 

Bischoff's  history  of  dyeing, 

200,  302 
3  B  Black, 


3;8 


INDEX. 


318 

4,  12 

110 

15,  no 

91,268 

10 

172,  1/3 


Black,  Dr.  79 

Bleaching, TumhuW  and  Crook  s 

njw  process  for. 
Bode,  M. 
Bogdanich,  M. 
Boriaparte,  Gen. 
Books,  new, 
Borda, 
Botany, 

Bournon,  Count,  paper  by,    86 
Bouvard,  5,  6,  8,  15 

Boyle,  7p 

Bradley,  6,  1 1 

Bread-fruit  tree,  g6 

.Bremew,  position  of,  108 

Bridgewaters,  Duke  of,  inclined 
plane,  31 

Brisso?i\-  Physical  Principles  of 
Chemistry,  account  of,  iQg 
British  Mineralog,  Socitty,  2S2 
Brugjiatelli'  s  g'.\\v3n\cQ\[)iir .  181 
Brunsumk,  position  of,  10b 
Bugge,  Professor  108 

Burckhardt,  A,  6,  7,  9,  12 

Bvrg,  6,  12,  110 

Burmha  empire,  petroleum  wells 
in,  226 

Butter,  Tartarian  method  of  pre- 
serving, ]  80 
Buttons,  gilt,  manufacture  of,  15 

Cadet's  noice  en  oxalic  acid^  S8 
Cagnoli,  Professor,  12 

Ca/ah)%a,  posiiion  of,  36y 

Caloric,  on  the  gravity  of,  158 
Car  Ion,  the  gaseous  oxyd  of,  286 
Carhonut  of  potash,  to  test,  2/6 
Carlunic  acid,  decomposition  of, 
288 
Carlisle,  Anthony,  Esq.  85,221 
Carnoi, on  infinitesimal  calculus, 

39 
Caroche,  C.  105 

Car/hagena,  position  of,        363 
Cariwright,  Mr  \o7 

Cast  sleet,  to  make,  235 

Caussin,  5 

Cavendish, SO, 25 1 ,252,2/0,367 
Celestial  atlas,  Bode's,  4 

Chalrol,  1  i  5 

Chapdie,  Due  ta,      II,  12,  110 


Chaptal  on  wine,  21,  122,  262, 
320 
Characters,  bricks  with  Persepo- 
litan,  375 

Chehihmnar,  inscriptions  at,  375 
Chemical  affinity,  on,  146,  171, 
342 
Chtmical  notices^  87 

Chemical  Soc.  of  Philadelphia,  9 1 
Chemistry,  Brisson's  work  on, 269 
Chemistry,  Henry's  Epit.  of,  274 
67z/iy/o/)/iom,mosaicpainter,292 
Chylous  dropsy,  account  of  a,  168 
Clock,  a  curious,  1 05 

Coal-tar,  native^  234;  to  make, 
239 
Coins,  2000  Roman,  found,  92 
Coleman,  Mr.,  on   gunpowder, 
355 
Coles,  Mr,,  wild  geese  domesti- 
cated by,  92 
Collard  and  Frazer  on  the  ma- 
nufacture of  gilt  buttons,     15 
Comet  of  lygg,  4 
Connoissance  des  Temps,  notice 
respecting,                            12 
Coraloeuf,  C.                           113 
Cortical  pores  of  plants,         lyQ 
Cousin,  the  astronomer,         1 17 
Cofv-pockinoculation  at  Paris  and 
Geneva,  18/.    At  Mnlta,  I89 
Coxe,  Dr.,  on  opium  from  let- 
tuce,                                  135 
Crell,                                         80 
CrnoJiS  and  Turnbults  bleaching 
process,                                  3 1  8 
Cruichs hank's  new  gaseous  oxyd 
of  carbdn,                           286 
Cumana,  position  of,              069 

Damhergers  UVi\ch,  64,  137 
i'y'rtrce/,thechemist,deatlK)f,  I92 
Davy,  Mr  ,  on  galvanism,  281 
Deaths,  1  1 6,  I92 

Lecandolle  on  \he  misseltoe,  1/6; 
pores  and  bark  of  leaves,  1/7 
Delomire,  9,11,12,110 

Derfflinger,  12 

Descartes,  14 

Dickson  s,  Dr.,  notes  on  Carnot, 

39 
Dioscorides, 


INDEX. 


379 


Dioscorides, 

■■  of  Samos, 


263 
295 


Dropsy,  a  singular  case  of,  16'8 
Uundunald,  Lord,  234,  239 
Diipuis,  112 

Du  Saron,  \Q 

DicuauceL,  1 1 

Dyeing,  history  of,        200,  302 

Eclipse  o{  \SA7 ,  11 

of  1804,  11 

Eaga  of  insects,  experiments  on, 
241 
Egypt,  antiqiiilies  of,     9I,  141 
Eifyp/ia«  astronomy,  J 12 

Elective  ojjinities,  on,  146,  342 
Electric  acid,  Brugnatellion,  181 
Electricity,  a  phenomenon  in, 
075 
Elephants  lu&h,i\xh^i?i\\ces{ow\\d 
in,  80 

Elk,  the  American,  domesti- 
cated, 92 
Eudioweiric  experiments,  260 
Euler,  1 1 7 
Euphrates,  bricks  from  the,  SJS 
Eyes,  on  diseases  of  the,         90 

Family  oven,  a  new,  30 

Fermentation  of  wine, '262,  326 

Fluxions,  Carnot   and   Dickson 

on,  39 

Fontana—7{\x,  25 1 

French  National  Ir^stitute,  141, 

171,371 

Frulander,  Dr.,  on  galvanism, 

221 

Galvanism,  171,  181,  183,217, 
221,  281,  3f>2,  372 
Garden  lettuce,  opium  from,  135 
Garnet,  Dr.  281 

Gas,  nitrous,  on,  269 

Gas,  oxygenated  muriatic,  272 
Gaseous  oxyd  of  carbon,  286 
Gazeran,C.,  on  pyrometers,  155 
Gew/e/'5exptiriments  noticed,  264 
Geography,  sGj 

Georgium  Sidus  planet,        7,  8 
Germs,  experiments  on  the  vi- 
tality of,  240 


Gilt  buttons,  manufacture  of,  J  5 
G/r/c//z/7er,  of  Gottingen,  SO 
G'o^^^/m,  the  dyer,  307,313 
Goose,  the  wild,  domesticated,  92 
Gotha,  the  duke  of,  106 

Gottingen  observato.y,  105 

Gottling  on  galvanism,  1 83  j  on  a 
vegetablesubstance  like  manna, 
184 
Grain,  to  free,  from  weevils,  191 
Grapes,  culture  of,  21,  122,  262 
Greek  inscription    from   Egypt, 
142 
Gren,  80 

G««/jozWer,  manufacture  of,  355 

Hadancouri,  the  astronomer,  1 17 
Hahn,  12 

Hales,  allusions  to,  7Qy  250 
Hunna,  death  of,  at  Pekin,  II7 
I  far  ding,  M.  IO9 

Hawkins,  J.,  Esq.  paper  by,  86 
Heat,  on  the  gravity  of,   158j 
on  the  transmission  of,   171, 
Premium  for  discoveries  re- 
specting, 317 
/7tf«n,  the  astronomer,         1J5 
Hermlstadt,  of  Berlin,  80 
Herschel,  Dr.,   13,   14:  on  the 
sun,                             280,  370 
HerscheVs  planet,                  7,  8 
Hilla,  bricks  from,                373 
Howard's  theory  of  atmospheric 
movements  :  a  proof  of,  28(5 
Humboldt  mentioned,    111:    a 
notice  by,    .               266,  365 
Hwmcawe  of  Nov.  1800,      115 

Inclined  plane  at  Walkden  Moor, 

31 
Indians  of  South  America,   366 
Infinitesimal   Calculus,    Carnot 
on,  39 

Ingenhausz ,  air,  25 1 

Inguana,  description  of  the,  120 
Inoculation  On  the  Vaccine,  1 87 
Inscriptions  brought  from  Egypt, 
141 
/nsec/5,  utility  of  birds  in  destroy- 
ing, 56:  a  hint  for  destroy- 
ing, 63  :  a  new  genus  of,  87 
Irriia' 


380 


INDEX. 


Irritahililij  a  modification  of  the 

vital  power,  241 

lunis  Jhn,  the  works  of,  5 

Jenncrianlnstitut.i\i  Malta,  189 
Jupiter,  ^  8 

Kdsiner,  Professor  A  G.  life  of,  97 

K-mtsch,  12 

A"777^  of  England,  106,109 

Alr/g. of  Denmark,  108 

King  of  Prussia,  10/ 

King  of  S  weden_,  1 98 

Klxiproth,  SO. 

Koehler,  32,  117 

Kuniisy  to  prepare,  167 

Lalandes  history  of  astronomy 

for  1800,  1,  105 

Lalande  the  younger,  4,  7 

— — Madame,  4 

Laplace,  5,  6,  7,  12,  13 

Laireille,  C,  on  insects,  8/ 
Lavit,  Madame,  6 

Lavoisier,  the  life  of,  78.  Air,  25 1 
Lax,  professor,  13 

Learned  Soc.  85,  170,280,370 
Lettuce,  on  opium  from,  135 
Lichtenberg,  80 

Light ^  experiments  with,  on  ve- 
getation, 179:  on  the  vitality 
of  germs,  240.     Premium  for 
discoveries  respecting,       3 1 7 
Literature,  journals  of,  111 

J.ivijigslon  on  American  elk,  92 
Locusts f  a  curious  notice  respect 
ing,  93 

Longitude,  French  boardof,6, 1 1 4 
,  Danish  board  of,  108 

Magnetic  needle,  declination  of, 
at  Paris,  9 

Magnetic  inclination,  367  •  de- 
clination in  S.  America,  370 
Marchand.  110 

Mures  milk,  to  ferment,  167 
Mars^  tables  re-calculated,  7 
Marshall,  Dr.,  on  vaccine  ino- 
culation, I89 
Marti,  on  eudiometry,  250 
MaskelynCf  Dr.  Q 


Masonj  on  lunar  tables  of,       o 
Mayer,        0,  1 1,  80,  100,  101 
Mecanique    celeste,    notice    re- 
speciing,  13 

Mecliain,  4,  11,  15,  11 0 

Medical  notices, go,  1 73, 1 85, 1 86 
Medical  Society,  the  Philadel- 
phia, *  ,  89 
Mentelle,  the  engineer,  1  17 
Mercury,  the  planet,  7,  8,  IO9 
Mt'/  cMr^,iK:parities  of,  to  detect, 

V7 

Meridian,  degree  of,  measured 

in  1735,  108 

Messier,  4,  12 

Meteorology.  1 7 1 ,  285,  286\  373 

Meteors^  remarks  on,  IO9 

iHicMo/Zi  on  vitality,  241 

Mineralogicol  notices,     9I,  2&2 

A/mt^/^oe,  exper.  on  the,       \'t6 

Mitchill,  Dr.,  op  decorticating 

trees,  63 

Monge,  80 

Monneron  senior  II7 

Montuclas  history  of  rnatheraa- 

tics,  116 

Moon.  Theory  and  motion  of,  5 

Morals    A  prize  question,    2S3 

Mosaic  work.  The  process',  289  : 

orign  of,  29O :  progressive  im- 

provem^int,  29 1  :    two  kinds 

of  292.     List  of  best  pieces, 

293  J  to  transfer,  297.  Books 

on,  -  297 

Moyes,  Dr.,  on  Volia's  pile,  21 7 

Murcena  Siren.   On  the,       120 

Mushet  on  steelj  235 

Nancarrow's  steam  engine,  300 
Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  of,  at  Paris,  87 
Natural  History,  365,  0/6 

Nautical  tables  piJibVished,  110 
Nebulce,  Schroeter  on  fixed,  86 
Negro  turning  white,  92 

Netherlands,  the  map  of,  108 
Newton,  14 

New  publications,  9 1 ,  268 

iVi{/ro«5  ^fl5,  account  of,  269 
Noel's  telescope,  J  05 


OUt 


12, 108 
Opium 


INDEX. 


381 


Opium  from  poppies,  134 ;  from 
lettuce,  135  J  remedy  for 
over-dose  of  1 80 

Orchards^  on  freeing,  from  in- 
sects, (i3 
Oven.  An  improved  one,        30 
Oxalic  acid  formed  in  a  mixture 
of  suljjhuricacid  and  alcohol  S8 
Oxyiisnated  muriatic  gas,      2/2 
Oxgyen  gas,  on  the  quantity  of, 
in  the  atmosphere              250 
Pain  em})kned  to  counteract  the 
effects  of  opium,                1 86' 
Paintings  in  mosaic,              292 
Palissey.,  /Q 
Palm,  a  new  genus  of,    17-+: 
yields  a  kind  of  sugar,       1 75 
Parace/sTts,                                79 
ParcevaL,  De,  7 
Paulian,  the  ex-jesuit,  death  of, 

Pearl' ashes f  to  test,  277 

Pendulums,  improved,  299 

Persepo/itan  characters,  375 
Petroleum  wellsy  account  of,  220 
Philadelphia  Medical  Society,  SQ 
Philoma tic  Society ,  Paris,  87, 1 73 
Philosophical  Transactions,  268 
Physical  Priuciplesof  Chemistry , 

account  of  Brisson's  269 

Plants,  light  destroys  young,  249 
Plants,  a  prize  question  on,  284 
Play  fair,  Mr.  14 

Pliny ,  re  m  a  r  k  s  o  f,  123,2  Q\i 
Poilevin,  1 2 

Potash,  on  the  formation  of,  89j 

to  test,  276 

prize  medal,  Count  Rumford's, 

317 
Prize  fjueUions,  6.  SQ,  253 

Priestley,  Dr.,  yg,  80,  250,  25  i, 
286.  288 
Prony,  1 C) 

Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  inscriptions 
respecting,  142 

Pullications,  new,  91,  268 

Pule.x,  new  species  of,  87 

purple  dye  origin  of,  201  :   ex- 
periments on,  211 
Pyrometer;     on     Wedgwood's, 
153 


Quenot,  12 

Quicksilver,  impurities  of,  to  de- 
tect, 277 

Rainnnghong,  position  of,  227 
Rams  den,  IO6 

Roy,  79 

Richters  galvanic  experiments, 

222 
Rittenliouse  on  tinie-keepers;298 
Roman  coins,  2000  found,  92 
Royal  Institution  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, 281 
Royal  Society  of  London,  85, 
170,268,280,370 
Ruviford,  Count,  life  of,      315 

S.  Fernando  d'  Atahapo.,  position 

of,  367 

San  Carlos  del  Rio  Negro,  posi-" 

tion  of,  367 

Sap  of  vegetables,  experiments 

on,  '  176 

Saturn,  7,  6 

Saussure,  250 

Scheele,  ■  J  99,  251 

Schroeter,  12,  86,  106,  109 
Science,  a  question  on,  283 

Seguin,  63 

Stnebier.  Air,  251 

Scrrcs ,  Oli v ier  d e,  1 3 1 

Shucld'urgh,  Sir  George,  105 
Silver,  a   vein  of,   in  Hurland 

mine,  s6 

Sines,  new  tables  of,  JO 

Siren,  on  a  new  species  of,  1 18 
Soc.  of  N'at.  Hist,  at  Paris,  87 
Soda,  on  the  formation  of,  89 
Solstices,  ancient  position  of,  92, 
112 
Sound,  experiments  on,  285 
Specu lu m  o f  p  1  a t  i na ,  103 

Spirits  from  ujare's  milk,  I68 
Stars,  Schroeter  on  fixed,  86 
Steam  engine,  a  new  one,  300 
Steam  advantageously  employed 

in  bleaching,  319 

5/ee/,new  process  for  making, 235 
iS/or^Ao/w,  academy  of,  108 

Sugar  from  a  species  of  palm, 

1 7^ :  from  beets,  1 84 

Sun, 


382 


INDEX. 


5k»,  tables  of  the,  8 

Sun,  the,  Herschei's  opinion  of, 
280 
SwaMa,  the  map  of,  108 

Syena,  position  of,  112 

Tope-worm^  remedy  for  the,  1 85 
Tartarian  preparation  of  mare's 
milk.  10'/ 

Tartarian  method  of  preserving 
butter,  18'J 

Telescope  f,  2,99,100,109 

Teyler's  Second  Society  at  Haar- 
lem, 283 
Thomas,  Mr.  Leigh,  85 
Tiltoch  on  cnloiic,  158 
Time- keepers,  upon,  10(),  298 
Travels,  Damberger's 


64, 


Triesnecker, 
Troughion, 


'^7 
365 
11,  12 

00, 107 


Ti/rw^ttZ/'A  bleaching  process,  3  1 8 

Under-ground  Inclined  plane,  31 

VacciJie  inoculation  at  Paris,  1 8/: 
at  Geneva,  ib.:  at  Malta,  I89 
Vaillant,  110 

Vancouvery  110 

Van  Hehnont,  79 

Vauquelin,  C.  154 

Vegetables,  experiments  on,  176 


^^^^/a//o«,  a  liquor  to  hasten,!  9I 

Vegetation.  A  prize  question,  284 

FiJa/'i' observations  of  mercury, 7 

/^i//e,cultureof  the,  21 ,  122,  262 

326 

Vital  air,  on  the  quantity  of,  in 

the  atmosphere,  250 

Vitality,  experiments  on,      240 

Vulta's  galvanism,  i  7  i ,  18 1 ,  1 83 

217,221,  281,  352 

Von  Zach,  8,  108 

Voyages  undertaken,   110,  112, 

113 

IVater,  comj)osilion  of,  3/2 

IVuter  luheelsj   to   move    where 
there  is  no  fall,  300 

IVedgwood's  pyrometer.  On,  153 
Westphalia,  the  map  of,  108 
JVestrinub,  80 

{Vine,  on  making,21,  122,  262, 
326 
JVoodhoitse,  Mr.,  paper  by,  86 
IVorm,  remedy  for  the  Tape,  185 
JVurmb,  '  S,  12 

Yellow  ferer  in  Spain,  173 

Zell,  position  of,  10^ 

ZodiaCy  old  representations  of, 

9"^  H2 
Zoology,  1 73 


END    OF    THe    NINTH    VOLUME. 


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