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THE
PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
JRIOYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON,
FROM THEIR COMMENCEMENT, IN 1665, TO THE YEAR 1800;
WITH NOTES AND BIOGRAPHIC ILLUSTRATIONS,
BY
chari.es hutton, ll.d. f.r.s.
george shaw, m.d. f r.s. f.l.s.
richard pearson, m.d. f.s.a.
VOL. X.
FROM 1750 TO 1755.
LONDON :
PRINTED BY AND FOR C. AND R. BALDWIN, NEW BRTDGE-STREET, BLACK KR I »R>
1809.
r/i
/'^C4^d/,
ILOAN STACK
CONTENTS OF VOLUME TENTH.
. WARD, Ancient Roman Inscri|iiion. . 1
Fa. Hallerstein, Astron. Observations at Pekin 'i
J. Martyn, an Aurora Australis 3
Chr. Maire, Observations of Eclipses .... 4
J. Bartrani, Dragon-fly of Peiinsylvaiiia . . ibid
Alb. Haller, Experiments on Respiration. . 5
Fa. Gaubil, Geography of the Chinese. ... 6'
Apothecaries, Catalogue of 50 Plants .... 7
Dr. Miles, Green Mould on Firewood. ... 8
H. Baker, on small Plants and Seeds .... ibid
M. Grischow, on a Solar Eclipse 9
Alb. Haller, the Course of the Semen. . . . ibid
J. Martyn, an Aurora Borealis 12
Dr. Miles, an Aurora Borealis ibid
Wm. Watson, Electrical Experiments .... ibid
L. Euler, the Orbits of the Planets l6"
Apothecaries, Catalogue of .50 Plants .... 18
J. Lock, Inundation near Keswick ibid
Mr. Chalmers, Extraordinary Fireball .... !<)
M. Nollet, on Italian Electricity 20
J. Barde, Fracture in the Arm 28
J. Bartrara, May-flies of Pennsylvania .... ibid
Apothecaries, Catalogue of :' 0 Plants .... 29
Dr. Layard, Imposthume in the Stomach. . ibid
Edw. Wright, Irregular Tide in the Forth. . 31
Jos. Warner, Tumour in the Bladder .... 32
Ld. Macklesfield, Solar and Lunar Cycles,
the Epact, and on Easter 33
Biographical Notice of Earl Macklesfield. . ibid
Dr. Starr, Morbus Strangulatorius 43
Dr. Hales, on the Purging Waters 48
J. Ward, on Boze on Medals 50
Rob. Mare, Travels through Italy 52
D. E. Baker, Account of a Dwarf 53
Rob. More, gathering Manna at Naples . . ibid
Dr. Huxham, on the Northern Lights. ... 54
Dr. Starr, a Horse bitten by a Mad Dog . . ibid
Job. Baster, of a monstrous Fetus 57
Dr. Pringle, Substances resist. Putref. 57, 73, 84
Biographical Notice of Sir John Pringle 57
J. Ward, Ancient Greek Inscription 62
H. Baker, on several Aurorae Boreales .... 6'3
Gowan Knight, on his Mariner's Compass. . 64
J. Smeaton, Improvements of the same . . 67
Biographical Notice of Mr. John Smeaton ibid
Dr. Mortimer, on a curious Fish 70
Dr. Burton, Excrescence in the Womb. ... 71
J. Catlin and J. Short, a Lunar Eclipse . . 72
Jos. Piatt, curious Spheroidal Stone 77
Arth. Dobbs, Economy of Bees 78
J. Robertson, Log. Tang, and Merid. Line 89
Biographical Notice of Mr. John Robertson 89
G. M Bose, of a Lunar Eclipse 94
Dr. Miles, Heat of the Weather ibid
Wm. Arderon, on the same subject ibid
Dr. Bevis and J. Short, a Lunar Eclipse . . 95
J. EUicott, Height of Rockets' Ascent ... . g6
Wm. Watson, Platina, a New Semi-metal g7
Dr. Brownrigg, on the same 98
Dr. W. lleberden, a large Human Calculus 103
Biographical Notice of Dr. Wm. Heberden ibid
Dr. Cha. Lytileton, Petrified Iiisect 105
voii. X. a
IMve
Dr. Mortimer, on the same subject 106"
a curious Spheroidal Stone 107
various Accounts of Earthq. 10«
Wm. Smith, of a Fire-ball in the Air 124
H. Baker, on the same 126
Dr. Sledman, Thermomet. Observations . . ibid
The. Simpson, on Infinite Series 127
Dr. Bayly, Bark in the Small-pox 131
J. Canton, on Artificial Magnets ibid
Biographical Notice of Mr John Canton. . ibid
Peter Gabre, an Aurora Borealis 134
P. CoUinson, on the Cancer Major ibid
Horace Walpole, his Di^ea.se of the Stone . 135
Biographical Notice of Horace Walpole . . ibid
M. Nollet, on the Grotto de Cani 137
Rev. Patr. Murdocke, the Moon's Apogee. . 138
M. Herissant, Poison of Lamas & Ticunas 144
Tho. Deh)enham, Bones of a Fetu; extracted 153
Dr. Donati, Discoveries on Coral 154
Dr. Parson, on the Phocoe Marina: 161
Dr. de Castro, on an Iliac Passion l64
P. Wargentin, Magnetic Variation 1 65
Biographical Notice of Peter Wargentin . . ibid
Mr. Freeman, Ruins of Herculaneum I66
Dr. Parsons, on Hermaphrodites 170
— — — on a very small Monkey .... 17 1
Antiquities found at Herculaneum 172
Dr. Bevi.s, Occultation of Venus 174
Ja. Short, curious Appearances in the Moon 1/5
Apothecaries, Catalogue of 50 Plants .... 176"
Wm. Watson, on the Sex of Flowers .... ibid
J. Harrison, a small Species of Wasps. ... 182
Dr. Cole, on Mr. Bright the Fat Man I84
Dr. Stedman, Etfects of White Henbane. . 185
Wm. Watson, Remarks on the same 186
Fra. Blake, Esq. on Steam-engine Cylinders 187
Biographical Notice of Francis Blake, Esq. ibid
Ja. Short, Occultation of Venus I89
Wm. Watson, on Franklin's Electricity . . ibid
Biographical Notice of Dr. Franklin ibid
Capt. Ellis, on Hales's Ventilators ; also the
"I'emperature and Saltness of the Sea. ... 195
Tho. Percival, on Roman Stations, Sec 197
Wm. Watson, on Winkler's Elect. Exper. ibid
—— Bp. of London's Garden . . 200
Ph. C. Webb, of an inverted Iris 201
Dr. Huxham and Mr. Tripe, on a Body
found in a Vault 202
L. Euler, Motion of the Moon's Apogee . . 203
Dr. Alston, on Lime-water, &c 204
M. le Cat, a New Trocart ibid
M. GeofFroy, Vitrum Antimonii Ceratum. . 207
J. Browning, on a Dwarf 209
Rd. Dunthorne, on Comets ibid
B. Franklin, Effects of Lightning 21^
M. le Cat, Excrescences of the Bladder .. 214
Wm. Watson, on the Cinnamon Tree. .. . 217
Dr. Cha. Morion, on Muscular Motion . . 219
Biographical Notice of Dr Charles Morton ibid
R. Supple, Eruption of Vesuvius 220
J. Short, on a Lunar Eclipse ibid
Fa. Hallerstein, Letter from China ibid
M le Cat, Hernias with Sacks 221
Jos. Palmer, Effects of Lightning 223
Ja. Dodsoti, on Bills of Mortality ibid
Biographical Notice of Mr. James Dodson ibid
M. le Cat, Dissection of a Rupture 227
Wm. Watson, Medical Electricity ibid
Ja. Short, on Serson's Horizontal Top 22^
Dr. T. Heberden, on the Pike of Teneriffe 230
, on the Weather in Madeira 232
W. Van IT:'zen, Quant, of Rain at Leyden 233
Tho. Percival, on a Double Child ibid
Wm. Watson, on Electricity in Vacuo. . . . ibid
Fa. Halle.stein, Astron. Observ. at Pekin . . 238
Dr. Mackenzie, Plague at Constantinople. . 239
Apothecaries, Catalogue of 50 Plants .... 242
Wm. Watson, on Medical Electricity ibid
Jos. Warner, a Case of the Empyema .... 244
Eruption of Mount Vesuvius 245
Dr. Wilbraham, of an Hydrophoby ibid
J. Smeato'.i, Improvement of the Air Pump 247
W. Watson, Aphyllon and Dentaiia Hepl. 250
Dr. Bond, Machine for striking Whales .. 251
J. Smeaton, on the Steam-engine 252
Dr. Parsons, on the Shells of Crabs 254
F. Blake, Splier. Trigon. reduced to Plane 255
M. Peyssonni'l, Treatise on Coral 257
Rd. Brooke, on Inoculation 268
Horace Walpole, his Case of the Stone . . 269
J. Parker, Eruption of Vesuvius 270
Jos. Warner, Stone in the Bladder ibid
Rev. B. Ray, in a Water-spout 271
J. EUicott. Influ. of Heat & Cold on Clocks ibid
J. Smeaton, New Tackle of Pulleys 278
Wm. Dixon, some Vegetable Balls 280
Rev. H. Kenroy, Copper Springs of Wicklow ibid
Dr. Maty, Inoculation at Geneva 282
Biographical Notice of Dr. Maty ibid
Dr. Parsons, on Corals, Corallines, &c. . . ibid
Dr Mackenzie, Plague at Constantinople. . 283
J Short, Efi'ects of Heat & Cold on Clocks ibid
Biographical Notice of John Harrison .... 284
Henry Eeles, on the Cause of Thunder . . 287
Dr. T. Hope, on Couching a Cataract .... ibid
M. Mazcas, Analogy of Lightning and Elect. 289
M. Nollet, Electricity from the Clouds. . . . 295
M. Mylius, on the same subject 298
M. Faget, on the French Styptic ibid
B. Franklin, the Electrical Kite 301
Wm. Watson, Exper. on Thunder Clouds 303
Mr. Brown, Inoculation at Salisbury ibid
Dr. Henry, an extraordinary Wind ibid
J. Short, on Frisi's Figure of the Earth 305
Rev. G. Costard, Eclipse foretold by Thales 310
Dr Hosiy, Ca.se of Bones softened, &c. . . 313
Fra. Drake, on a Roman Altar 3l6
Dr J. Ward, on the same Altar ibid
Dr. J. Pringle, on the Jail Fever 318
Rev. Wm. Borlase, Islands of Scilly 324
Wm. Watson, making Sea-water Fresh . . 327
Sig. Paderni, Antiquities at Herculaneura. . 328
M. Clairaut, on Frisi's Figure of the Earth ibid
Rev. Wm. Borlase, Storm of Thunder 335
Dr. Henry, Copper Springs at Wicklow . . 338
J. Robertson, Log. Lines on Gunter's Scale ibid
CONTENTS.
Page
Vii^c
John Dollond, Improvement of Telescopes 341
Biographical Notice of John Dollond .... ibid
Wm. Watson, Therm. Observ. in Siberia, . 344
Apothecaries, Catalogue of 50 Plants .... 345
J. Ellis, Remarkable Coralline ibid
Henry Baker, uncommon Fossils 347
Dr. Ward, on Boze's History of the Emperor
Tetricus 349
Wm. Watson, on the Flora Siberica 351
P. Miller, Spondyl. Vulgare Hirsutum 355
Rev. G. Costard, on Zenophon's Eclipse . . 356
Sam. Sharp, Extraction of the Crystalline . . 357
Dr. Hume, Fish and Flesh pres. in Lime-wa. 358
J. Short, Invention of a new Micrometer. . ibid
Serv. Savery, on his new Micrometer .... 359
J. Dollond, to Measure small Angles 364
J. Bond, Copper Springs at Wicklow .... 366
Dr. Bevis, Gascoigne Inventor of Microscope 369
J. Short, on the Transit of Mercury 370
Wm. Watson, on Nollet's Electricity .... 372
J. Browning, the Population of Bristol. . . . 379
Dr. Stukely, Eclipse predicted by Thales. . 380
Dr. Pocock, Giant's Causeway, Ireland 3S2, 383
Wm. Kersseboom, on Mortuary Tables . . ibid
M. D'Incar\'ille, Observations on China. . . 387
T. Melville, Different refrangibility of Light 390
Mr. Short, Remarks on the same 393
Jos. Warner, Operation for the Empyema. . 394
Ja. Dodson, Inf. Series and Logarithms. . . 396
Dr. Lining, the Rain at Charlestown 40O
Da Costa, on a Fossil found at Dudley. ... 401
Ja. Short, Euler's Theorem for Aberrations, ibid
J. Dollond, on the same 402
Mr. Euler, on the same 403
Dr. Pringle, Softening, &c. of the Bones. . 406
Dr. Bevis and Ja. Short, Astron. Observats. 408
J. Ellis, a Cluster Polype, found at Greenland. 409
M. Gaubil, Observations at Pekin. ... 411, 412
Wm. Shervington, Transit of Mercury. .. 414
Ja. Simon, Weather Sec. at Dublin ibid
Sam. Sharp, on Opening the Cornea ibid
Dr. Ward, Roman Inscription at Bath 419
Benj. Wilson, Electrical Experiments. . . . 420
J. Canton, Electrical Experiments 421
M. Boss, on the vegetable Byssus 425
Wm. Watson, Remarks on the same ibid
Ja. Short, Obs. on the Transit of Mercury. 426
Dr. R. Simson, on Converging Fractions. . 430
M. Mazeas, Electricity of the Air 434
Ja. Silvab'elle, Equinoxes, Nodes, &c 436
Geo. Costard, Age of Homer and Hesiod. . 440
Dr. T. Birch, on Nollet's Electricity 446
Biographical Notice of Dr. Thomas Birch. . ibid
Rev. Jos. Spence, Herculaneum Antiquities 447
Ja. Dodson, Annuities and Survivorships. . 448
Geo. Edwards, Pennsylvania Pheasant. . . . 450
Biographical Notice of Mr. George Edwards, ibid
J. Ellis, Particular Species of Coralline. . . 453
Wm. Arderon, on the Severe Cold Weather. 454
M. de L'Isle, Observations of the Planet Mars 455
J. Ferguson, on his Eclipsareon 456
Dr. Miles, on the Severe Cold Weather. . ibid
Apothecaries, Catalogue of 50 Plants ibid
J. Smeaton, to Measure a Sh4)'s Way. , , . ibid
Page
J. Chevalier, Eclipses observed at Lisbon. . 46"l
J. Short, Observations on the same ibid
J. Doliond, Instrument foi Small Angles. . Mi'i
Da. E. Baker, Earthquake in Yorkshire. . . 40'9
John Landen, Properties of the Circle. . . . ibid
Biographical Notice of Mr. John I.»-inden. . ibid
Dr. Robert Watson, a Disease of the Skin. 475
Sam. Sharp, Agaric to Stop Bleedings. . . . 478
Jos. Warner, on the same subject. . . 479. 480
J. Smeaton, a New I'yrometer, &c 482
J. Martyn, on the Sex of Holly 486
Wm. Watson, on the same subject 487
Dr. T. Heberden, the Weather in Madeira. 488
Dr. Parsons, Archimedes" Burning Mirrors. . 488
Mr. Jacob. Elephants Bones in Sheppy I. . 4^;)
J. Ellis, the Corallines on Oysters, &c. . . . 4i)()
C. Paderni, Antiquities of Portici 4.')3
Wm. Lewis, Experiments on Platina 495
Biographical Notice of Mr. Wm. Lewis. . . ibid
J. Swinton, on Palmyrene Inscriptions. . . . o'2'Z
Dr. Lining, Electrical Kite Experiment. . . ibid
Wm. Watson, Death of Professor Richman. 525
J. H. Winkler, Electrical Experiments. . . 529
Wm. Hirst, on a Fireball at Hornsey 530
M. Clairaut, Refrangibility of Light ibid
J. Canton, Electrical Experiments 5 52
Dr. C. Hart, Medical Electricity 534
Dr. Brakenridge, Population of London. . . 535
Wm. Watson, Large Calculus in a Mare. . 541
Guitavus Brander, on the Belemnites .... 542
Wm. Watson, on Agaric, to stop Bleeding. .'-46"
J. Warner, and B. Glooch, on the same .... ibid
M. Bonnet, on Inoculation 548
Dr. Mackenzie, Earthq. at Constantinople, ibid
C. Paderni, Discoveries at Herculaneum. . 549
Sir James Gray, on the same 551
Dr. Ste. Hales, to keep Water and Fish with
Lime-water ibid
Dr. Huxliam, Observations on Antimony. . 554
Wm. Watson, on Mr.Tull's Castrating Fi.sh. ibid
W. Mountain & J. Dodson, Variation Chart. 556
Chr. Hce, on Moving Machines 558
Tho. Simpson, Isoperimetrical Problems. . . 56o
Dr. Huxham, Effects of Lightning ibid
Edw. Spry, Case of a Morbid Eye 56l
H. Baker, on the Distempered Skin 562
Js. Jaraineau, Eruption of Vesuvius 563
Wm. Watson, Styptic Agaric Plant ibid
Pe. Ascanius, Mountain of Iron Ore 564
Rd. Guy, Extraordinary Case of a Child. . . 565
Ja. Latterman, Agaric of Oak 566
La Fosse, Powder of Lycoperdon ibid
Dr. Parsons, Lycoperdon Styptic ibid
Dr. Miles, Thermometrical Observations. . ibid
Dr. Oliver, Dropsy Cured by Sweet Oil. .. ibid
J. Chevalier, Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites. 567
M. Le Cat, Malignant Fevers at Rouen. . . ibid
Death of Professor Richman of Petersburg. 574
Biographical Notice of Professor Richman. . 577
Dr. Ward, a Roman Inscription at Malton, ibid
Apothecaries, Catalogue of 50 Plants 579
Tho. Simpson, Advantage of taking Means, ibid
Ja. Ford, Agaric, &c to stop Bleedings. . ibid
Ja. Porter, Remarks on Constantinople. , . 5S0
cont'ents. iii
Page
Tho. HoUis, Herculaneum Antiquitiea. . . . 584
On the same subject 58()
Ja. Porter, Earthquakes at Constantinople. . .587
H. Eeles, Vapour, Wind, Weather, &:c. . ibid
Dr. Parsons, on a Petrified Echinus 5.')4
M. Mazeas, on Toxicodendron ibid
Ph. Miller, on the same C^G
Dr Brakenridge, Probabilities of Life. . . . 598
Dr. Parsons, a Sheep with a Horn under
the Throat 601
M. Daviel. Cancer of the Eye-lids, &c. . . 6"02
Dr. Ward, on four Roman Inscriptions. . . . 606
Israel Mauduit, American Wasps Nest. . . ()07
Magist. of Mascali, Eruption of Etna 6O8
Mr. Farrington, Chart-fish in Wales 609
J. Wathen to Restore Hearing ibid
J. A. Schlosser, Action of Quicklime 6 12
J. Needham, part of the Intestines cut out. ibid
Dr. Brocklesby, Sensibility and Irritability
of some parts of Animals 61 3
Dr. Nicholls, Worms in Animal Bodies.. 616"
Dr. T. Brady, on some Polype Insects. ... 61 7
Mr. Porter, Astron. and I'hys. Observations. 61 8
Dr. Fleming, the Fetus nourished by the
Liquor A'nnii 61.V
Wm. Thornhill, on Agaric to stop Blood , . 621
J. M. S. Barbosa, a Lunar Eclipse ibid
Dr. Brakenridge, Population of England. . . ibid
Dr. Ward, on two Roman Inscriptions. . . . 6'2i>
Fr. Byam, Impression of a Fish in a Stone,
and the Rain at Antigua 628
Arthur Pond, on the same Impression. . . . ibid
G. Brander, Effects of Lightning 62Q
Benj. Franklin, Electrical Experiments. . . . ibid
, Electrical Observations. . . 6'32
W. Child, Effects of Lightning at Dorking. 634
Dr. Hales, Blowing Air through Distillations. ( 35
, on Ventilating Ships 641
, the same to cure lU-tasted Milk. 642
T. Barker, on the Comet expected in 175.S. 045
Biographical Notice of Thos. Barker, Esq. ibid
Extraordinary Agitation of Waters, by J.
Robertson, p. 647. By P. C. Webb, p.
647. By Dr. Adee, p. 649. By John
Hodgson, p. 649. By W. Tempest, p.
649. By Dr. Pringle, p. 649. By Henry
Mills, p. 650. By Dr. Birch, p. 6)0. By
Mr. Thomlinson, p. 651. By R. Philips,
p. 651. By Cap. Clarke, p. 651. By Dr.
J. Blair, p 651. By Ld. Viscount Parker,
p. 652. By Dr. Huxham, p. 652. By
W. Borlase, p. 653. By Jos. Steplin, p.
655. By M.D. Hant, p. 655. By M.
AUamand, p. 655.
Rev. Mr. Bullock, the Earthquake Nov. I .
1755, in the Lead Mines Derbyshire. . . 656
Mr. Wolfall, the same Earthq. at Lisbon. . ibid
Dr. J. M. Sacchetti, the same at Lisbon. . . 659
J. Latham, on the same at Lisbon ibid
Mr. Stoqueler, the same at Lisbon 660
On the same Earthquake at Oporto 66 1
On the same at Madrid 662
Benj. Bewick, the same at Cadiz ibid
Don Ant. d"Ulloa, the same at Cadiz ibid
a 2
IV
CONTENTS.
(Jencial Fowke, the same in Barbary
Dr. Tho. Heberden, the same at Madeira. .
Cha. Chambers, the same at Madeira
M. Trembley, Earthq. at Geneva, Dec. 9.
J. Hyde, Earthq. at Boston, Nov. 18, 1755.
C. Colden, the same at New York
The same in Pennsylvania
Dr. Alex. Russel, four Fishes at Aleppo. . . .
Biographical Notice of Dr. Alex. Russel. . .
Dr. J. A. Schlosser, Coral-like Substance. .
J. Ellis, Remarks on the same
Jos. Warner, Diseased Knee-joints
Wm. Pye, Description of Manilla
Dr. J. Wall, on the Malvern Waters
Edw. Spry, on the Man who Swallowed
Melted Lead at the Burning of Eddystone
Lighthouse
Dr. Huxham, on the same case
Chr. Warwick, on Injecting Claret, &c.
while Tapping
C. Pade'ni, Antiquities at Herculaneum. . .
Dr. R. Watson, Remarks on the same. . . .
C. Paderni, on the same subject
Dr. Whytt, Earthquake at Glasgow, &c. . .
M. Bonnet, Earthquake in Swisserland . . .
M. AUemand, Earthquake in Holland
Tho. Pennant, CoroUoid Fossil Bodies
Biographical Notice of Tho. Pennant, Esq.
Sir Hans Sloane, Account of Inoculation. .
Page Pag«
663 Sir Tho. Kilpatrick, Extra. Agitation of the
66+ Water in a Lake near Dumfries 692
665 Lord Anson, Irregularities of the Tides in
666 the Thames 695
ibid Rob. Dingley, on the same 694'
667 Dr. Brownrigg, on Dr. Hales's New Method
ibid of Distillation ibid
ibid Mrs. Belcher, Extra. Motion of the Waters
ibid in the Lake Ontario 695
670 M. Grovestius, Earthquake in Holland 696
67 1 M. Allemand, on the same ibid
ibid Dr. Pringle, Earthquakes at Brussels ibid
673 Edw. Matthews, Sinking of a River ibid
ibid Dr. Pringle, Agitation of Waters in Scotland 69?
Edw. Wright, Microscopical Observations 698
Dr. Hart, Paralytic Arm cured by Electr. . 700
ibid Dr. Peyssonnel, Observations in Guadaloupe 701
676 Sam. Warren, Earthquake at Dover, &c. . . 703
Abr. Trembley, Basaltes in Germany. . . . ibid
ibid , Donati's Essay on the Natural
679 History of the Adriatic Sea 704
685 J. Swinton, on a Parthian Coin ^ 706
686 Apothecaries, Catalogue of .'^0 Plants ibid
687 Dr. Donati, Earthquakes at Turin 707
ibid Jesuits, Earthquakes at Brigue ibid
ibid Condamine, Herculaneum Antiquities j
688 Structure of the Earth 709
ibid Dr. Peyssonnel, Currents of the Sea 710
('90 Geo. Edwards, a kind of Crocodile 712
'JHE CONTENTS CLASSED UNDER GENERAL HEADS.
Class I. Mathematics.
1 . Arithmetic, Annuities, Political Arithmetic.
Annuities and Survivorship, Dodson 443
Population of London, Brakenridge 535
Advantd'ge of taking Means, Simpson .... 579
Probabilities of Life, Brakenridge 598
Population of England, Brakenridge 621
Bills of Mortality, Ja. Dodson 223
Log. Lines on Scales, J. Robertson 338
Population of Bristol, J. Browning 379
Mortuary Tables, Wm. Kersseboora 383
Infinite Series and Logarithms, Dodson . . 396
Converging Fractions, Dr. Simson 430
U. Algebra, Analysis, Fluxions.
Infinite Series, Tho. Simpson. 127 Isoperimetrical Problems, Simpson 560
3. Geometry, Surveying, &c.
Spherical Trigonometry reduced to Plane, Properties of the Circle, J. Landen 469
Fra Blake 255 Isoperimetrical Problems, Simpson 360
Class 11. Mechanical Philosophy.
Dynamics.
203 Equinoxes, Nodes, &c. Silvabelle ." 436
305 Moving Machines, Chr. Hee 558
328
1.
On the Moon's Apogee, L. Euler
Figure of the Earth, J. Short
On the same, by M. Clairaut
2. Astronomy,
Astron. Observ. at Pekin, Fa. Hallerstein. .
Observation of Eclipses, Chr. Maire
A Solar Eclipse, M. Grischow
Orbits of the Planets, L. Euler
Solar and Lunar Cycles, Epact, Easter, &c.
Ld. Macclesfield
The Mariner's Compass, G. Knight
On the same, by Mr. John Smeaton
Chronology, Navigation.
2 A Lunar Eclipse, Catlin and Short 72
4 Log. Tang, and Merid. Line, Robertson . . 89
9 A Lunar Eclipse, G. M. Bose 94
16 Bevis and Short 95
Moon's Apogee, P. Murdocke 138
33 Occultation of Venus, Dr. Bevis 174
64 Curious Appearance of the Moon, Short . . 175
67 Occultation of Venus, J. Short 189
CONTENTS.
Page
The Moon's Apogee, L. Euler 203
On Comets, Richard Dunthorne 209
On a Lunar Echpse, J. Short 220
Observations in Gliina, Hallerstein ibid
Horizontal Top, J. Short .' 229
Astron. Observ. at Pekin, ITallerslein .... 238
Eclipse predicted by Thales, Costard 310
Zeiiophon's Eclipse, G. Costard 356'
Transit of Mercury, J. Short 370
Eclipse predicted by Thales, Stukely 380
Astron. Obser\'. Bevis and Short 408
Observations at Pekin, Gaubil +11,412
Transit of Mercury, Sher\ inton 414
On the same, by J. Short 426
3. Pneumatics.
On the Air-pump, J. Smeaton 247 Elasticity of the Air, M. Mazeas
4. Optics, Alusic.
Equinoxes, Nodes, &c. Silvabelle
Age of Homer and Hesiod, Costard
Observations on Mars, de L'Isle
Eciipsareon, J. Ferguson
Measuring a Ship's Way, Smeaton ....
Eclipses at Lisbon, J. Chevalier
Obsen'ations on the same, J. Short ....
To take small Angles, J. Dollond
Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites, Chevalier ,
Advantage of Means, Simpson
Astron. and Phys. Observ. Porter ,
A Lunar Eclipse, Barbosa
Comet ex|)ected 1758, Tho. Barker . . . . ,
On the same Theorem, J. Dollond . . .
On the same again, L. Euler
Instrument for small Angles, Dollond .
Archimedes' Burning Mirrors, Parsons.
Refrangibility of Light, Clairaut
Microscopical Observations, Wright. . .
5. Electricity, Magyietism, Pyrotecliny, Thermometry, &c.
Improvement of Telescopes, Dollond .... 341
Measure of small Angles, Dollond 36"4
Gascoigne Inventor of Microscope, Bevis. . 369
Refrangibility of Light, T. Melville 390
Remarks on the same. J. Short 393
Euler's Theorem for Aberrations, Short . . 401
Electric.ll Experiments, Wm. Watson 12
Italian Electricity, M. NoUet 20
Mariner's Compass, Gowan Knight 64
Improvements of the same, J. Smeaton . . 67
Thermometer Observations, Stedman .... 126
Artifici.il Magnets, J. Canton 131
M.ignetic Variations, P Wargentin l65
On Franklin's Electricity, Wm. Watson . . 189
Winkler's Electrical Experiments, Watson 197
Effects of Lightning, B. Franklin 212
Medical Electricity, Wm. Watson 227, 242
Electricity in Vacuo, Wm. Watson 233
Analogy of Lightning and Electric. Mazeas 289
Electricity from the Clouds, M. NoUet 295
On the same subject, M. Mylius 298
The Electrical Kite, B. Franklin 301
Experiments on Thunder Clouds, Watson. . 303
Therm. Obser\'. in Siberia, Watson 344
On NoUet's Electricity, Watson 372
Electrical Experiments, B. Wilson
^ J. Canton
Electricity of the Air, M. Mazeas
On NoUet's Electricity, Dr. T. Birch . .
New Pyrometer, &c. J. Smeaton
Archimedes's Burning Mirrors, Parsons
Electrical Kite Experiment, Dr. Lining. . ,
Death of Professor Richroan, Watson . . ,
Electrical Experiments, J. H. Winkler. . ,
, J. Canton
Medical Electricity, Dr. C. Hart
Variation Chart, Dodson and Mountain. . . .
Effects of Lightning, Dr. Huxham
Thermometer Observations, Dr. Miles. . . .
Death of Professor Richman of Petersburg
Effects of Lightning, G. Brander
Electrical Observations, B. Franklin
Paralytic Arm cured by Electricity, Hart. .
Class III. Natural History.
I. Zoology.
4 A small species of Wasp, J. Harrison .
Cluster Polype at Greenland, J. Ellis .
Pennsylvania Pheasant, Geo. Edwards .
Charr-fish in Wales, Farrington
Fishes at Aleppo, Dr. A. Russel
A kind of Crocodile, Geo. Edwards . . ,
Dragon-fly of Pennsylvania, Bartram . . .
Travels through Italy, Rob. More 52
A Curious Fish, Dr. Mortimer 70
The Cancer Major, P. CoUinson 134
Phoca: Marinae, Dr. Parsons 161
A very small Monkey, Dr. Parsons 171
2. Botany
Catalogue of 50 Plants, Apothecaries, 7; 18; Vegetable Balls, Wm. Dixon
29; 176; 242; 345; 456; 579; 706. ~ ~ ~" "" '""
Of White Henbane, Dr. Stedman 185
Remarks on the same, Wm. Watson .... 186
Bp. of London's Garden, Wm. Watson . . 200
The Cinnamon Tree, Wm. Watson 2!7
Aphyllon and Dentaria Hept. Watson .... 250
The Flora Siberica, Wm. Watson
Spondyl. Vulgare Hirsutum, Miller . .
The Vegetable Byssus, M. Bose . . . .
Remarks on the same, Wm. Watson
The Sex of Holly, J. Marty n
On the same subject, Wm. Watson. .
Page
436
440
455
456
ibid
461
ibid
462
567
579
6I8
621
645
434
402
403
462
488
530
698
420
421
434
446
482
488
522
525
529
532
534
556
560
566
574
629
632
700
182
409
450
609
6Gr
712
280
351
355
425
ibid
486'
487
VI
CONTENTS.
Curious Spheroidal Stone, Jos. Piatt
Platina, a new Semi-metal, Wra. Watson
On the same, Dr. Brownrigg
Petrified Insect, Dr. Cha. Lyttleton
On the same. Dr. Mortimer
Curious Spheroidal Stone, Mortimer
Discoveries on Coral, Donati
Treatise on Coral, Peyssonnel
Copper Springs of Wicklow, Kenroy
Corals, Corallines, &c. Dr. Parsons. ... .
Copper Springs of Wicklow, Dr. Henry .
Remarkable Coralline, J. Ellis
Uncommon Fossils, Henry Baker
Copper Springs of Wicklow, J. Bond . . .
Giants' Causeway in Ireland, Dr. Pocock 382
Mineralogy.
Page Pase
77 A Fossil found at Dudley, Da Costa 401
97 A Species of Coralline, J. Ellis 453
98 Elepluint's Bones in Sheppy Isle, Ellis .... 489
105 On the Belemnites, G. Brander 542
106' Mountain of Iron Ore, P. Ascanius 564
107 A Petrified Echinus, Dr. Parsons 594
154 On Toxicodendron, M. Mazeas ibid
257 On the same. Ph. Miller 596"
280 Impression of a Fish on a Stone, Byam . . 6'28
282 On the same, Arthur Pond 628
338 A Coral-like Substance, Schlosser 670
345 Remarks on the same, J. Ellis 671
347 Coralloid Fossil Bodies, T. Pennant 688
366 Basaltes in Germany, Trembley 703
, 383 Adriatic Natural History, Trembley 704
4. Geography and Topography
Chinese Geography, Fa Gaubil 6 Oporto Earthquake
Keswick Inundation, J. Lock 18
Earthquakes in various places, Mortimer . . 108
The Grotto de Cani, M. NoUet 137
Vesuvius Eniption, R. Supple 220
Pike of Teneriffe, Dr. T. Heberden 230
Eruption of Mount Vesuvius 245
On the same, J. Parker 270
Figure of the Earth, Ja Short 305
Scilly Islands, Wni. Borlase 324
Figure of the Earth, M. Clairaut 328
Giants' Causeway in Ireland, Pocock, 382, 383
Observations on China, D'lncarville 387
Observations at Pekin, Gaubil 411,412
Earthquake in Yorkshire, H. Baker 469
Weather, &c. in Madeira, Dr. T Heberden 488
Sheppy Isle, Elephant's Bones, Jacob .... 489
Constantinople Earthquake, Mackenzie . . 548
Vesuvius Eruption, Jamineau 563
Constantinople Remarks, Porter 580
■ Earthquakes, Ja. Porter . . 587
Etna Eruption, Magistrates of Mascali . . . 6O8
Madrid Earthquake
Cadiz Earthquake, Bewick, &c
Barbary ditto, Fowke
Madeira ditto, Heberden, &c 664
Geneva ditto, Trembley
Boston ditto, J. Hyde
New-York ditto, Colden
Pennsylvania ditto
Manilla, Description of, Wm. P)'e
Glasgow Earthquake, Dr. Whytt
Dumfries, Motion of Waters, Kilpatrick . .
Holland ICarthquakes, AUemand, &c
Brussels ditto. Dr. Pringle
Sinking of a River, Matthews
Scotland, Motion of the Waters, Pringle. .
Guadaloupe Observation*, Peyssonnel
Dover, &c. Earthquake, Warren
Germany Basaltes, Trembley
Adriatic Natural History, Trembley
Turin Earthquakes, Donati
Brigue ditto. College of Jesuits
Herculaneum Antiquities, Condamine ....
Structure of the Earth, Condamine
Derbyshire Earthquakes, Bullock 656
Lisbon Earthquakes, Wolfall 656
On the same, by Latham, &c 659, 660
5. Hydrology.
Irregular Tides in the Forth, Wright 31 Robertson, &c. 647, 649, 650, 651, 652,
To Sweeten Sea-water, Wm. Wat'ion 327 653, 655, 673, 692, 693, 694, 695, 697,
Extraordinary Agitation in the Waters, by 710.
Class IV. Chemical Philosophy.
661
662
662
6«3
665
6(i(i
ibid
667
ibid
673
687
692
696
ibid
ibid
G97
701
703
ibid
704
707
ibid
709
ibid
On Purging Waters, Dr
Putrefaction, &c. Dr. Pringle 57, 7S, 84
Poison of Lamas and Ticunas, Herissant. . 144
Sweetening Sea-water, Wra. Watson .... 327
Lime-water preserves Flesh, &c. Hume . . 358
On the same, by Dr. Hales 551
J . Chemistry.
Hales 48 On Antimony, Dr. Huxham 554
Action of Quicklime, Schlosser b'jo
Ventilating Distillations, Hales 635
■ Ships and Milk, Hales 641, 642
Malvern Waters, Dr. Wall 673
Aurora Borealis, J. Martyn, Dr. Miles, 3, 12
Fireball, Mr. Chalmers 19
Aurora Borealis, Dr. Huxham, H. Baker, 54, 6'3
Heat of the Weather, Dr. Miles, W Arderon, 94
Various Earthquakes, Mortimer 108
Dr. Hales's Distillation, Brownrigg 694
2. Meteorology.
Fireball in the Air, Wm. Smith 124
( )n the same, Henr)' Baker 126
.Aurora Borealis, P. Gabre 134
All Inverted Iris, Ph. C. Webb 2OI
Elfects of Lightning, Franklin, Jos P.ilmer 2 1 2,223
Westher in Madeira, Heberden
The Rain ;U Leyden, Van Hazen
A Waterspout, B. Ray
Cause of Ihunder, Hen. Eeles
Lightning and Electricity, Mazeas
Electricity in the Clouds, Nollet. Mylins.2y5,
The Electrical Kite, Frnnklin
Thundi.'r-clouds, VVai Wiitsou
Extraordinary Wind, Dr. 1 lenry
Thunder-storm, Win. Borlase
CONTENTS. Vll
Pa^e Fagt
238 Rain at Charlestown, Dr. Lining 400
233 Weather, Sc. at Dublin, J. Simon 41+
27 1 Severe coldWeatlier, Arderon, Dr. Miles, 454,5+6'
2S7 Electrical Kite, Dr. Lining 522
289 Death of Professor Richman, Watson .... 525
2.9'> Fire-ball at Hornsey, Wm. Hurst 530
301 Effects of Lightning, Dr. Huxham 560
303 Vapour, Wind, Weather, &c. Eeles 587
ibid Eftects of Lightning, G. Brander 6"29
335 at Dorking, Wm. Child 6'34
On Respiration, Haller 5
Course of the Semen, Haller 9
May-flies of Pennsylvania, Bartram 28
Alorbus Strangulatorius, Dr. Starr 43
Of a Dwarf. D. E. Baker 53
A Monstrous Fetus, Job Baster 57
Econoniv of Bees, A. Dobbs 78
On the Cancer Major, P. Gabre 134
On Hermaphrodites, Dr. Parsons 170
Mr. Bright the Fat Man, Dr. Cole 184
A Corpse found in a Vault, Huxham .... 202
Class f\ Physiology.
1. Physiolog!/ of Animals.
On a Dwarf, J. Browning 209
Muscular Motion, Dr. Morton 219
A Double Child, Tho. Percival 233
Shells of Crabs, Dr. Parsons 254
Corallines on Oysters, &c. Ellis 490
TuH's Castrating Fish, Wm. Watson 554
A Sheep with a Horn under its Throat .... 6'01
Sensibility and Irritability, Brock 6"l3
Worms in Animal. Bodies, NichoUs 6\6
Polype-Insects, Dr. Brady 6l7
Fetus nour. by the Liq. Amnii, Dr. Fleming 619
1. Physiology of Plants.
Green Mould on Fire-wood, Dr. Miles. ... 8 Vegetable Balls, Wm. Dixon 280
Small Plant? and Seeds, H. Baker 8 The Sex of Holly, J. Martyn, W.Watson 486,487
Manna at Naples, R. More 53 American Wasps' Nest, Mauduit 007
3. Medicine.
On Purging Waters, Dr. Hales 48
A Horse bitten by a Mad Dog, Starr ... 54
Bark in the Small-pox, Dr. Bayly 131
Disease of the Stone, Walpole' 135, 26'9
Poison of Lamas and Ticunas, Herissant . . 144
Effects of White Henbane, Dr. Stedman . . 185
Remarks on the same, Wm. Watson .... 1 86
Lime-water, &c. Dr. Alston 204
Fracture in the Arm, J. Barde 28
Imposthume in the Stomach, Layard .... 29
Tumor in the Bladder, Warner 32
Excrescence in the Womb, Dr. Burton . . 71
A I/arge Human Calculus, Dr. Heberden . . 103
Disease of the Stone, Walpole 135
Bones of a Fetus Extracted, Debenham . . 1 53
The Iliac Passion, De Castro l64
A New Trocart, Le Cat 204
Excrescences of the Bladder, Le Cat 214
Hernias with Sacks, Le Cat 221
Dissection of a Rupture, Le Cat 227
Case of the Empyema, Warner 244
On Inoculation, Rd. Brooke 268
Case of the Stone, Walpole 269
Stone in the Bladder, Jos. Warner 278
Inoculation at Geneva, Dr. Maty 282
Couching a Cataract, Dr. Hope 287
On the French Styptic, M. Paget 298
Inoculation at Salisbury, Brown 303
The Bones Softened, &c. Dr. Hosty 313
Extracting the Crystalline, S. Sharp 357
Operation for the Empyema, Warner .... 39 1.
The Bones Softened, &c. Dr. Pringle .... 406
Plague at Constantinople, Mackenzie 239, 283
A Hydrophoby, Dr. Wilbraham 245
Case of Softened Bones, &c. Dr. Hosty .. 313
The Jail-fever, Dr. Pringle 318
Disease of the Skin, Dr. R. Watson 475
Medical Electricity, Dr. Hart 534
Malignant Fevers at Rouen, Le Cat 567
Paralysis cured by Electricity, Dr. Hart . . 70O
Surgery.
Opening the Cornea, S. Sharp 414
A Disease of the Skin, Dr. R. Watson .... 475
Agaric to stop Bleedings, S. Sharp 478
On the same, J. Warner 479, 480
Large Calculus in a Mare, Watson 541
Agaric to stop Bleeding, Wm. Watson . . 546
On the same, Warner and Gooch 546
Inoculation, Bonnet 543
Of a Morbid Eye, Edw. Spry 561
The Distempered Skin, H. Baker 562
Styptic Agaric Plant, Wm. Watson 563
Extraordinary Case of a Child, Gay 565
Agaric of Oak, J. Latterraan ^QQ
Lycoperdon Styptic, \ja Fosse, Parsons .... 566
Agaric Styptics, 8fc. Ja. Ford 579
Cancer of the Eye-lids, &c. Daviel 602
To restore Hearing, J. Wathen 609
Intestines cut, J. Needham 612
Agaric Styptic, Wm. Thornhill 621
Diseased Knee-joints, Jos. Warner 67 1
The Man that swallowed Melted Lead, Spry 673
On the same Case, Dr. Huxham djd
Injections while Tapping, Warwick 676
Account of Inoculation, Sir Hans Sloane , , 69O
Till
CONTENTS,
Class VI. The Arts.
1 . Mechanical.
Pajic Hige
Clocks affected by Heat and Cold, Short . . 283
A New Micrometer, Ja. Short 358
, Serv. Savory 359
Ascent of Rockets, J. Ellicott 96'
Steam-Engine Cylinders, Fra. Blake 187
Hales's Ventilators, Capt. Ellis 1 95
Machine to strike Whales, Dr. Bond .... 251
The Steam-Engine, J. Smeaton 252
Clocks affected by Heat and Cold, EUicot 27 1
New Tackle of Pulleys, J. Smeaton 278
2. Chemical.
Action of Rockets, Ellicott g6 Vitrum Antimonii Ceratum, Geoffroy
3. Antiquities.
To measure Small Angles, Dollond SG*
Gascoigne, Inventor of Micros. Bevis .... 36'9
To measure a Sliip's Way, Smeaton 456
Small Angles, Dollond 462
207
A Roman Inscription, Dr. Ward 1
Boze on Medals, Dr. Ward 50
Greek Inscription, Dr. Ward 62
Herculaneum Ruins, Freeman 166
Antiquities 172
Roman Stations, &c. Tho. Percival 1 97
A Roman Altar, Fra. Drake & Dr. J. Ward 3 16
Herculaneum Antiquities, PadernI 328
The Emperor Tetricus, Dr. Ward 349
Inscriptions at Bath, Dr. Ward 419
Age of Homer and Hesiod, Costard 440
Herculaneum Antiquities, Spence 447
Class VII. Biography ;
Page Page
693 Dollond, John 341
187 Edwards, Geo. ... 450
446 Franklin, B 189
Portici Antiquities, Padenii +93
Palmyrene Inscriptions, Swiuton 522
Herculaneum Antiquities, Sir James Gray 551
Roman Inscription at Malta, Ward 577
Herculaneum Antiquities, T. Hollis 584
On the same Subject 586
Roman Inscriptions, Ward 606, 626
Herculaneum Antiquities, Paderni . . 549, 679
Remarks on the same. Dr. R. Watson .... 685
On the same Subject, Paderni 686
A Parthian Coin, J. Swinton 706
Anson, Ld. ,
Blake, Fra. . . .
Birch, Dr. Tho.
Barker, Tho. . .
Canton, John . .
Dodson, Jas. . . .
645 Heberden, Dr. W. 103
131 Harrison, John .. 284
223 Landen, John 469
Herculaneum Antiquities, Condamine
or. Account of Authors.
Page
Lewis, Wm 495 Robertson. John. .
Macclesfield Ld. 33 Ricbman
Morton.Dr.Cha. 219 Russel, Alex..
Maty, Dr 282 Smeaton, John . .
Pringle, Sir J. . 57 Walpole, Hor. . .
Pennant, Tho. . 688 Wargentin, P
709
Page
89
577
6&1
67
135
163
REFERENCES TO THE PLATES IN VOLUME X.
Plate I,Fig.I,p. 11; 11,12; III, IV, V, VI, 70; VII,V1II,51; IX to XIV, 105; XV to XVIII,
106; XIX to XXII. 107.
p. 108.
I, 126, II, III, 132; IV, V, VI, 133; VII, 134; VIII, 138; IX, X, 140; XI,
XII, XIII, 164.
I to XVIII, 154 to 160.
Letter A to r, 159.
I, 188; II, 204; III, IV, V, 205; VI to X, 217; XI, 253; XII to XIV, 256;
XV, 296.
I to IV, 272; V, 379.
I, 307 ; II, 350; III, VI, 347; VII, 360 ; VIII, 401. Letter a to c .346.
1,359; 11,360; IlltoV, 361; VI, VII, 362; VIII, 364; IX, 437; X, XI, 483.
Letter a to n, 41 1
Letter a to k, 453.
I, II, 473; III, IV, 474; V, 526; VI, 528; VII, 529; VIII. 530, IX, 558; X, 628;
I to VII, 491.
p. 52 Z.
I, II, 532; III, IV, 533; V to XVI, 545.
XV, .. I to VII, 617; VIII to X, 644; XI to XIV, 668.
XVI, . . Letter a to d, 67 1; fig. I to XII, 688 ; XIII, 699; XIV, 712.
II, ..
III, ..
IV, ..
V, ..
VI, ..
VII, . .
vm, .,
IX, ..
X, , .
XI, ..
XII, .,
XIII, .
XIV,
Errata.— Page 51, line 34, for fig. 3, 4, read fig. 7,8; 1. 3:., for fig. 10, read fig. 7 ; p. 106, 1. 1 1, for fig, 9, read 15 ; p.
180,1. 10, for pi. fl, r.pl. 5,1.27, for fig. H, r. fig. b, 1. 37, for fig. d, r. fig. n: p. 348, 1. 11, fr. bot. for fig. 1,2, r. fig. 3, 4 ;
p. 359, 1. 5, fr- bot. for pi. lo read pi. 9; p. 401,1. 14, for fig. 8, pi. 9, read fig. 8, pi. 8; p. 522,1. 25, for pi. 14, read pi. )8.
THE
PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON;
ABRIDGED,
Remarks by Mr. John fVard, F. R. S. on an Ancient Roman Inscription, in the
Possession of Richard Rawlinson, LL. D., F. R. S. found in that part of
Italy which formerly belonged to the Sabines. N° 494, p. 293.
This inscription is cut in a small brass plate. Tlie words of the inscription,
as they stand on the plate, with some account how and where it was found, were
formerly published by Fabretti. They are as follow:
FLORAE
•ti plavtivs drosvs
MAG II
V. S. L. M.
The plate, and the inscription on it, so exactly agree with this account of Fa-
bretti, as to leave no doubt of their being the same with those described by him.
The present possessor of the plate purchased it at Rome, in Jan. 1720, n. s.
At which time a small brass label was fixed to it, containing the following words
cut in capital letters, ex regiis Christina thesavris.
The words of the inscription may be read at length, with the proper supple-
ments, in the following manner:
Florae Tiberius Plautius Drosus, pagi magister anni secundi, votum solvit
libens merito.
The goddess Flora was thought by the Romans to preside over fields and trees,
and therefore they addressed to her to favour them with prosperous and fruitful
seasons. It appears from passages of Varro, referred to by Fabretti, that she
was first a Sabine deity, and introduced at Rome by king Tatius in the time of
Romulus, many ages before the institution of the Floralia. For that festival was
not observed till the year of the city 513, when the expence of it was ordered
VOL. x. B
'2 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
to be paid out of the fines levied on those persons, who had converted the public
lands to their own use, for feeding their cattle.
Ti, the two first letters of the prenomen of the person mentioned in the in-
scription, are the usual abbreviation of Tiberius; as a single t is of Titus.
plavtivs, which follows, denotes the family name, and often occurs in Ro-
man writers, as also on coins, where it is sometimes written Plotius, and at other
times Plutius.
DROSvs, the cognomen, he does not remember to have seen so spelt elsewhere,
but he doubts not of its being the same as Drusus, which is frequently met
with. For thus, as was just now observed, his family name is written three
several ways, Plautius, Plotius, and Plutius.
MAG. II. according to the explication given above, are an abbreviation of the
words magister secundi, which stand for pagi magister anni secundi, was the
whole to be expressed at length. The word pagus signifies a division or large
portion of land, not much unlike what we call a shire or county.
That the characters n. stand for anni secundi, the date of the time, during
which this Drosus had then held that office, is confirmed by several inscriptions
published by Gruter. In one of which we have mag. anni. v; in another
MAGisTRi. anni. VI; and in two others mag. anni. primi, where the word
denoting the time is expressed at length. As these different ways therefore of
expressing the time relate to persons, who all bore that title, though not the
same office, as appears by the inscriptions, they plaij;ily show in what sense those
characters are to be taken here.
The concluding letters v. s. l. m. which stand for votum solvit libens merito,
contain the usual form of dedicating votive monuments.
But the thing dedicated is not mentioned here, which was most probably a
statue or an altar ; and probably the latter, from the number of such inscriptions
in Gruter, and other collectors of ancient monuments, taken from altars.
Observations of the Comet seen at Pekin in 1 748. jilso of an Occultation of
Mars by the Moon, Dec. 6, 1747 ; and a Conjunction of Mars and f^eniis in
March 1748; also a Conjunction of Jupiter and Venus Jan. 1, 1748. By the
Rev. Father ^ug. Hallerstein. N° 494, p. 305. From the Latin.
April "26, 1748, about 3 in the morning, this comet was first seen from the
observatory at Pekin, in China; when the place of it was rudely taken, viz. in
18° of ^, with 27° north lat. Its head was equal to a star of the 3d order, and
the tail about 1° long. Other observations, when the weather was favourable,
were as follow.
April 27, 2'' morn... 21° 10'^ long 31° 35'n lat.
28, 2 25 15 36 0
29} 2 29 10 40 O
VOL. XLVI.] l-HILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 3
The comet was seen several times after, till the 18th of June; chiefly among
several unknown small stars ; but in its progress it passed just by the star y in
Cepheus.
Dec. 6, 1747, vvas an occultation of the planet Mars by the moon; viz. at
5*" 34™ 34* true time, Mars entered under the moon's obscure limb, and wholly
disappeared. At 6*^ 46™ 2' the planet emerged from under the moon.
March 15, 1748, at 6** 28", Mars and Venus were observed, in exact con-
junction, almost touching, being nearly equal both in longitude and latitude.
Jan. f, 1748, was observed a conjunction of Jupiter and Venus. At S'' 15™
4P their distance was 1° 3' 49", Venus being 50' 35" more south, and 2™ 52' of
time more west than Jupiter.
An Observation of the Comet oflTAS, and some other Astronomical Observations
made at Pekin. By Father Antony Gaubil. From the Latin. N° 494, p. 31 6.
These observations nearly agree with those of F. Hallerstein preceding. From
June 2 to 7 J the right ascension of the comet increased 6° and some minutes, and
the declination decreased 55'.
In the conjunction of Mars and Venus 1748, March 15*^ S*" 10"", he observed
the distance of the western limbs of the planets to be J ' 29".
Some eclipses of Jupiter's satellites were observed as below ; viz.
True Time.
Oct. 13<* g^ 40™ 30* Emersion of the 3d satellite.
Ditto of the 1st.
Total immersion of the 3d.
Emersion of the 2d, doubtful.
First emersion of the 2d,
Nov. 7 8 52 59 First emersion of the 1st.
Of an Aurora Aiistralis, seen Jan. 23, 1749-50, at Chelsea. By John Marty n,
F.R.S. N°494, p. 319.
Jan. 23, 1749-50, about half after 5 in the evening, looking to the s.s.w.,
Mr. M. thought he saw a reddish light about the planet Venus, which then
shone exceedingly bright. Being suspicious of some fire in the neighbourhood,
he went immediately to a window on the stair-case, where he saw a reddish light,
which shone with such exceeding brightness, that the lustre of the fine constella-
tion of Orion was almost effaced. He then went to a window facing the n.n.e.
where he presently saw a very broad band of crimson light, like that which he
observed from the same window, March 18, 1738-9; an account of which is
printed in the Phil. Trans. N°46l. But in the former the red band was bounded
on the north by streams of a greenish blue ; whereas the band now observed
B 2
13<i
9^
40™
30^
15
8
37
26
20
10
7
56
21
5
52
12
28
8
29
20
7
8
52
59
4 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1750.
was entirely of a deep crimson colour, being of a much darker red than the
former.
Thence he withdrew into the garden, where he plainly saw a band or arch, of
a very deep crimson colour, in appearance about 1 5° broad, the southern edge
of which passed just above Canis Minor, and the shoulders of Orion. It was
terminated to the westward, near Venus, then about 20° high : but it extended
to the eastward as far as he could see ; and the farther it went that way, the
deeper was the colour, and the broader the band. About a quarter before 8,
there was formed a crown, about 30° to the southward of the zenith. From
this crown a great many rays darted to the east, south, and west, but not to-
wards the north, where only some whitish streaks were to be seen, but very
faint. Presently after this, the part of the arch extending to the east seemed
to be suddenly kindled, as if some train had been fired ; grew extremely bright
and vivid ; and as if all the red matter had been then consumed, put an end to
the phenomenon before eight. During the rest of the evening, a pale light
covered the south part of the heavens, as if the moon had shone.
Observations made at Rome of the Eclipse of the Moon, Dec. 23, 1749; and of
that of the Sun, Jan. 8, 1750. By Mr. Christopher Maire. N° 4g4, p. 321.
The place of both observations is in the latitude of 41° 54' O', and 4 seconds
of time eastward of St. Peter's.
Eclipse of the moon, Dec. 23, 1740.
Chord of the part eclipsed 13', as deduced from the map of the
moon 7^ 47m i8«
Hence beginning of the eclipse 7 40 53
End of the eclipse, as far as could be perceived through a thin cloud 10 O 1 6
He judged the eclipse to be somewhat less than 5 digits.
Solar Eclipse, Jan. 8, 1750.
Beginning by a reflector of Mr. Short, Jan. 7 20'' 34" 35'
Quantity of the eclipse 7 dig. 48' 2 1 49 4
Again more exactly . . 7 43 21 51 28
The sun appears for a moment; horns nearly horizontal 21 36 15
Two digits remain eclipsed 22 55 37
One digit exactly 23 3 42
End of the eclipse 23 11 32
Some Observations on the Dragon-fly or Libella of Pennsylvania, collected from
Mr. John Bartrarns Letters. Communicated by Peter Collinson, F.R.S.
N° 424, p. 323.
About the beginning of May many deformed water-insects, by naturalists
VOL. XLVI.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 5
called hexipodes, creep up out of the water, and fix themselves on the shrubs
and rushes ; in this situation they continue but a few hours before their back
splits open ; and from this deformed case creeps out a beautiful fly, with shining
transparent wings : at its first appearance there is only what one may call the
rudiments of wings ; but it is a most entertaining sight to observe how they shoot
out, and expand themselves : thus, in less than an hour, they have attained
their complete dimensions. During all this operation the creatures are immove-
able, and so continue till their wings are dry ; and then they fly swiftly away,
roving about the sides of ponds and rivers, seeking their food, being insects of
prey, are very voracious, and, like the hawks among birds, are very swift of
flight, and nimbly secure their prey, which is mostly flies, and small green gras-
hoppers: they delight in sun-shine: in cloudy weather they are rarely to be seen;
but seek protection under the leaves and boughs of trees.
Towards the end of May the female is ready to deposit her eggs. She then
seeks the warm quiet sides of ponds and water courses, continuing in a hovering
posture, dodging up and down in the water : in this action the male seizes her,
and with the end of his tail catches fast hold by the back of her head, and so
flies away with her. It is uncertain how long they continue in this position be-
fore the female bends the end of her body, so as to penetrate the part between
the belly and breast of the male. In this singular and surprising manner she is
impregnated ; she then repairs again to those still shallow waters, whose bottoms
are covered with moss, sticks, and weeds, which may be a security to the little
grubs. Here in a hovering posture she deposits her eggs in the water, which
immediately sink, and find a proper nidus in the aquatic moss, &c. The eggs
are soon hatched ; the young reptiles creep among the stones and weeds, &c. and
so continue water animals the gi-eatest part of the year, till the season comes
round for their appearance in that beautiful fly before mentioned, which is dif-
ferent from the European ; but their process agrees with the European, as it is
described by M. Reaumur. There is a great variety of this tribe of insects in
America as well as in Europe.
Some Experiments on Respiration. By Albert Haller, Arckiater, Professor of
Physic at Gottingen, and F.R.S. Abstracted Jrom the Latin. N"494, p. 323.
The experiments related in this communication were made with a view to de-
termine 1 disputed points on the subject of respiration. 1 . Whether the inter-
nal intercostal muscles elevate the ribs, as Mayow asserts, or depress them, as
Galen, Boyle, and others maintain ? 2. Whether there is air, in an elastic state
between the pleura and lungs, or whether the lungs come into close contact with
the pleura ?
Relatively to the first question, Professor H. describes the following experi-
6 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
ment. Having tied down a dog, let the pectoral muscles be laid bare by dissect-
ing away the skin, especially from the upper part. Next let both the pectoral
muscles be removed, and let so much of the external intercostal muscles be cut
away, as shall suffice for observing the condition and action of the internal inter-
costals. It will be desirable to force the animal to breathe as strongly as possible f
which may be done either by puncturing one side of the thorax, so as to let in
the air (thus rendering one of the lungs useless) ; or, without puncturing the
thorax, by applying some spirit of wine to the wounded parts. In this state of
things, it will be seen, that in the act of inspiration, the spaces between the ribs
are diminished more than one-half; that the internal muscles are brought into
violent action ; that they swell and become hard ; that all the ribs ascend ex-
cept the first rib, which is scarcely moved ; that they all turn round an imaginar)'
point, which is in the cartilaginous appendix not far from the sternum ; that part
of the rib which is joined to the sternum descending, while the part which is re-
mote from it, ascends and is turned outwards. In expiration all the ribs descend,
with the exception again of the first rib, which is scarcely moved ; the spaces
between the ribs, during a violent expiration, are increased, and the internal
muscles remain inactive.
In regard to the other question : let an animal (no matter whether dead * or
alive) be plunged under water, and let the pleura be perforated. If there be any
air, in an elastic state, between the pleura and lungs, bubbles will rise up through
the water. If no bubbles ascend, there is no air. Professor H. tried this expe-
riment repeatedly ; but no bubbles ever appeared. He therefore infers, that no
air is present, in an elastic state, between the pleura and the lungs.
On the Knowledge of Geography among the Chinese; and of Paper-money cur-
rent there. By Father Anthony Gauhil, Jesuit. Translated from the French
by T. S., M. D., F. R. S. N° 494, p. 327.
Father Gaubil received from M. de L'isle part of a map of the world, found
among the papers of the late Dr. Kaempfer. In this map were several Chinese
characters, some well, some ill written, which the late professor Bayer had at-
tempted to decypher. In his answer to M. de L'isle, Father G. informed him
that it was by no means a Chinese work ; that it could be of no service to a
learned European ; and that Mr. Bayer's explanations were full of faults. There
is no monument extant to prove, that before the arrival of the Jesuits in this
country, the Chinese had charts or maps of the world, any way resembling that
found among Kaempfer's writings.
It is now above 1600 years since they tolerably well knew the northern and
• Recently dead.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ' 7
eastern countries of India, and those which lie between China and the Caspian
sea. On these dift'erent countries their history affords several informations, which
are not to be found in the Greek, Latin, or other historians. They had some
notions, but very confused, of the regions beyond the Caspian sea; such as
Syria, Greece, Egypt, and some parts of Europe. He does not speak of the
times of Gtentchiskan and his successors ; for then the Chinese were made ac-
quainted with Russia, Poland, Germany, Hungary, Greece, &c. from accounts
given by their own countrymen who followed that prince, his sons, and grand-
sons: but the monuments that remain of this their knowledge are very confused.
As to the countries to the east of China, there are proofs remaining in books,
that above 170O years since, the Chinese were well acquainted with the eastern
part of Tartary as far as the sea, and the river Ameur, Corea, and Japan. Their
books speak also in general, and without sufficiently entering into particulars, of
many countries to the east and to the north of Japan. With regard to the mo-
numents of the Cape of Good Hope, which have been mentioned by some, there
are none in China; and if there have been any, they are now lost. It was from
the Europeans that the Chinese have learnt the name and the situation of the
Cape.
Two paper money-bills are of the reign of Hongvou. The year of Christ 1368,
was the first of the empire of Hongvou, founder of the dynasty of Ming. Du-
ring the dynasty of Yuen (who were Mogul Tartars) which Hongvou destroyed,
there was a great deal of paper money. There had also been some, 140 years
before, under the dynasty of Kin (Oriental Tartars) who reigned in the northern
provinces of China, and in Tartary. The Yuens destroyed this dynasty, as well
as that of the Song's, who were Chinese, that reigned in the southern provinces
of China. We find no paper money of the dynasties of the Yuens and Kins ;
and that of Hongvou is scarce. The Bonzes and Chinese empirics superstitiously
say, that this paper money laid upon children, brings them good luck.
These 2 bills are the same with those, the figures and explanations of which
are to be seen in Father du Halde's Description of China, torn. 2, p. 168.
A Catalogue of 50 Plants from Chelsea Garden, presented to the Royal Society,
by the tvorshipful Company of Apothecaries, for the Year \7A7 , pursuant to the
Direction of Sir Hans Sloane, Bart., F.R.S. N° 494, p. 331.
[This is the 26th presentation of this kind, completing to the number of 130O
different plants.]
S PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1750.
Concerning the Green Mould on Fire-wood ; with some Observations of Mr.
Baker s on the Minuteness of the Seeds- of some Plants.* By the Rev. Henry
Miles, D.D., F.R.S. N" 494, p. 334.
Happening to take notice of a quantity of what is commonly called mould,
of a bright verdigrise colour, on the bark of some fire-wood. Dr. M. viewed
it with a lens, o{ about an inch focus, which he then found to consist of num-
bers of minute funguses, whose regular appearance invited him to examine
them in the microscope, with a good magnifier; when their spherical heads
seemed as if they had been nothing else but globules of seeds ; at the same time,
he observed several seeds adhering to the transparent foot-stalks, which supported
the heads, and many scattered on the glass plate, where the substance was placed,
in order to be viewed. And here he saw many distinct seeds, which appeared
nearly of an oval form, but several times larger than the seeds of common mush-
rooms, even when seen with the second magnifier, and the latter with the first.
Having often viewed the heads of a small kind of fungus, which are about -f
inch diameter, of a coriaceous substance, he always found the seeds, which are
produced on the gills, much larger than those of any mushrooms he ever exa-
mined, though rather less than those produced by this unregarded plant.
Now, that a body whose form is not to be distinguished by the unassisted eye,
should produce seeds several times larger than another of the same genus does,
which exceeds it many millions of times in bulk, must suggest very curious
thoughts to our mind.
Some Observations on the above-mentioned Plants and Seeds. By Henry Baker,
F.R.S. N°494, p. 337.
Mr. B. carefully examined the plants and seeds sent him by Dr. Miles, in
order to determine their real size; and he found that the diameter of these fun-
gous bodies was at a medium, the 210th part of an inch. The seeds were oval ;
and the medium of each diameter was the 2430th part of an inch.
And according to these calculations, 44,100 of the fungous heads, or
5,904,900 of the seeds may lie by each other in the surface of an inch square.
Yet, minute as the seeds of this little fungus are. Dr. Miles observes, very justly,
that they are larger than the seeds of some mushrooms, which exceed it many
millions of times in size. As to which, Mr. B. takes notice, that the proportion
in size, of the fruits or seeds of trees or plants, to the size of the trees or plants
that bear them, comes under no regulations that correspond with our concep-
tions. For the vast bulk of some sorts of timber-trees, the beech and ash for
instance, is produced from a seed smaller than that of the common garden bean.
The towering and mighty oak produces for its fruit only a little acorn, whereas
• The plant here described appears to be a species of the Limiaean genus Mucur.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. Q
the pumkin, sometimes weighing above a hundred pounds, is the production of
a feeble creeping plant, unable to support itself, and much less its enormous
fruit. The vanilla (a plant that rises to the height of several feet, by clasping
about whatever it finds near it), produces, in long pods, seeds so small, that
their diameter is not more than the 100th part of an inch. Supposing therefore
the cavity of the pod to be equal to a cylindrical tube of -yV of an inch diameter,
and the length of the pod to be 6 inches, the number of seeds contained in one
single pod will be more than 47000. Most kinds of fern, of which some are
pretty large plants, bear seeds so extremely minute, that they appear to the
naked eye only like a fine dust; while seeds of a considerable size are produced
by plants of a much smaller size.
An Observation of the Eclipse of the Sun on Jan. 8, 1730, n.s. taken at the Ob-
servatory at Berlin. By M. Grischow, jun. and M. Kies. Translated from
the French. N° 494, p. 339.
The beginning was at 8*' 59" 1 9^** true time.
The end of the eclipse at 11 20 5^
M. Euler observed in his own house, which stands a little to the west of the
s.w. of the observatory, at the distance of igo Rhinland yards (verges) in a
straight line, that
The beginning was at 8^ 58'" 30" true time.
And the end at 11 19 50
That is, 34' more than at the observatory.
The diameter of the umbra was 6-^ Rhinland inches.
Ohservations on the Course or Passages of the Semen. By Albert Haller, Prof.
of Physic at Goltingen, F,R.S , &?c. From the Latin, N° 494, p. 340.
ProfessorH. observes, that the filamentous structure of the testicles, composed
of minute yellowish vessels, is sufficiently known ; but that respecting the pas-
sages by which the semen, secreted in those vessels, is transmitted to the epidi-
dymis, much uncertainty has always prevailed. De Graaf alone saw this matter
in its true light, succeeding writers having added nothing to his discoveries.
Let the epididymis be slowly and cautiously injected with quicksilver, the
operator stopping every now and then, or plunging the testicle into warm water
that the vessels may gradually expand ; for if the epididymis were suddenly filled
with quicksilver, it would burst.
By repeated injections conducted in this manner, Professor H. found that the
epididymis, throughout its whole length, where it adheres to the testicle, (the
head excepted) is composed of a single canal, which may be unravelled from its
VOL. X. C
10 PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
plicae or folds, connected together by cellular membrane. This was rightly
seen by De Graaf, de Part. Genital. Viror. p. 65.
In the upper part of the epididymis, which he calls the head, and which is
firmly attached to the tunica albuginea, the structure is different. For there
this single canal is divided into 10, 12, or more, canals. These Prof. H. calls
vasa efFerentia semen.
Folded up, and collected into a cone, each forms a distinct fasciculus, and by
a retrograde duct returns towards the lower part of the testicle, and enters into
the middle of it, at the place where the epididymis, loose on one side, adheres
only on the other. De Graaf has given a pretty good delineation of these ves-
sels and cones. These vessels are gradually extended on the surface of the tes-
ticle, which is continuous with the albuginea, and running parallel and con-
joined,* they form a net (rete).
From this conj unction -^ it often happens that when only 1 or 2 of the vasa
efferentia are injected from the epididymis, all of them become filled. De Graaf
alone saw and delineated this structure ; but he has represented the vessels too
parallel, and not joined together by intermediate branches. He has also made
them too long. All other anatomists have taken them either for a single duct,
or for a blind membrane.
From the rete or net are sent forth vessels without plicae or folds, and which
from their straight direction, Prof. H. terms recta vascula testis. They are
larger than might be supposed, and more tender than the canal of the epididymis,
so as to be easily burst by the weight of the quicksilver. Into these straight
vessels (recta vascula) are inserted the yellowish serpentine vessels of the testicle,
which Ruysch so beautifully resolved into hair-like filaments. It has some
times happened that the quicksilver has entered even these exceedingly mi-
nute and tender vessels, so as to place it beyond all doubt that they are hollow
canals.
Thus it appears that the yellowish-coloured semen is generated in the serpen-
tine vessels (vascula serpentina) ; that it passes from thence into the straight
vessels, (vasa recta) ; that by the straight vessels it is conveyed into the rete or
net ; and that from the rete or net it is carried through the tortuous vascula ef-
ferentia into the epididymis. +
From the epididymis the passage of the semen is two-fold, one by no means
obvious, the other well known, and leading to the vesiculae. The first of these
* By intermediate branches. t Connexion by intermediate branches.
J The structure of the testicles in man, and other animals, was afterwards farther illustrated by the
present professor of anatomy at Edinburgh, Dr. Monro, in his inaugural thesis De Testibus et Se-
niine in Variis Animalibus, published in 1755.
▼OL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 11
passages Prof. H. had thrice succeeded in filling with quicksilver, at the date
of this memoir (1750).
A single vessel (for he had not seen more than one) goes straight from the
middle of the epididymis, and ascends with the vessels of the testis. Professor
H. could not trace this vessel to its termination, but he doubts not that it be-
longs to the lymphatic vessels, which he had often seen in the spermatic cord of
the human subject. These are the exceedingly minute vessels in the abdomen
(for though Prof H. had hitherto seen but one, he would not deny there might
be more) which, in the hare, Ruysch (Catal. Mus. p. 152) injected by the vas
deferens. Professor H. thinks it highly probable that this vessel (or vessels) may
ser\e for absorbing the more fluid part of the semen, and rendering it thicker.
The other passage, by which the semen is conveyed to the vesiculae seminales,
is easily traced. By injecting this passage with quicksilver. Prof H. observed
some things which deserve to be mentioned. After slightly noticing that the ductus
deferens is continued straight into the urethra, and that the excretory duct of the
vesicula seminalis is inserted into it at a very acute angle, and that notwithstanding
the excretory duct is smaller than the urethral duct, yet liquors injected into the
ductus deferens easily pass into the vesicula ; he proceeds to what he principally
wishes to point out, viz. that each vesicula seminalis is a small intestine (intesti-
nulum), into which are inserted many blind appendages (csecee appendices). This
is clearly seen when the vesicula is filled with quicksilver or wax, and afterwards
dissected, carefully removing the portions of cellular membrane, by means of
which both the principal intestinulum and blind appendages are held together.
In several preparations thus conducted. Prof. H. found that the appendices varied
considerably in length, simplicity, direction, and diameter ; but in all instances
he found the principal intestinulum of the vesicula to terminate in a thick, ob-
tuse, blind cone. Into this intestinulum are inserted 8 or 10 appendices, the
first of which are commonly, but not constantly, branched ; the last are rather
simple. Something similar was observed by Leal Lealis, and Henricus Bassius,
Obs. Anat. Chir. Dec. 1, n. V. T. 2 ff ; but both these authors have made the
appendices too small, and Bassius moreover has added an anulus, which Prof.
H. asserts to be a plica, and not a true circle. He adds, that these appendices
are so large and so complex, that it is difficult to determine which is the trunk,
and which the appendix.
Fig. 1, pi. 13, represents the testicle filled with quicksilver; a the ductus de-
ferens ; b the lower part where it begins to ascend under the name of epididymis ;
c the whole epididymis injected, composed of a single serpentine vessel ; d the
head of the epididymis ; eeeee so many coni vasculosi, of which the head of the
epididymis is composed : f f the vascula efFerentia arising from the cones. They
c a
12 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
are marked with few letters, not to spoil the engraving ; gg the rete of the tes-
ticle ; hh some rectilinear ducts. The other globules were separated from the
quicksilver, effused through some of the ruptured vessels, as here delineated,
that the engraving might in every respect exactly represent the original prepara-
tion; i the flesh of the testicle laid bare (caro testis nuda).
In fig. 2, pi. 13, aa is the urinary bladder ; b the posterior plane of the longi-
tudinal fibres ; c the prostate ; dd the ureters ; e the arteries of the vesiculae ; fg
the ductus deferentes at their cellular extremity ; h the right vesicula seminalis,
as it naturally appears ; i the seminiferous duct, which perforates the prostate ;
1 the left vesicula seminalis, filled with wax ; mm the blind appendages of the
vesiculae, which appendages were short in this subject ; nn some branched ap-
pendages ; o the seminiferous duct going through the prostate ; p the excretory
duct of the vesicula inserted into it.
Concerning an Aurora Borealis seen Feb. l6, 1749-50. By John Martyn,
M.D. F.R.S. Dated Chelsea, Feb. 2\, 17 49-50. N" 494, p. 345.
On Friday the l6th there was a bright aurora borealis, the northern part of
the sky being entirely filled with a pale light, in which frequent coruscations
were visible. Besides these lights, there was a perfect uniform arch, extending
from east to west, the colour of it was the same with that of the aurora ; with
which however it did not seem to have any communication, being placed several
degrees to the southward. The shoulders of Orion were visible through this lu-
minous arch, in the western part of it, and Cor Leonis in the eastern part.
Concerning an Aurora Borealis seen Jan. 23, 1750-51. By the Rev. Henry
Miles, D.D., F.R.S. N° 494, p. 346.
On Tuesday, Jan. 23, last, about 6 in the evening. Dr. M. saw a cloud (not
large) of an obscure red colour, but much deeper than any he had ever seen
before, which rose from the s. w. it was then advancing apace to thcN.E. and
quickly reached the zenith, when there appeared a luminous zone, about the
breadth of the galaxy, its edges regularly defined, compassing the hemisphere,
from the horizon in the n. e. to the zenith, in the same direction in which the
above-mentioned cloud had passed, from the s. w. The colour was much
fainter, and more luminous, resembling the usual colour of an aurora, and the
laminae or streamers soon appeared.
A Letter from Mr. fVilliam Watson, F.R.S. to the Royal Society, declaring that
he as well as many others have not been able to make Odours pass through a
Glass by means of Electricity ; and giving a particular Account of Professor
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 13
Bases (at fVittemlerg) Experiment of Beatification, or causing a Glory to
appear round a Mans Head by Electricity. N" 494, p. 348.
The inquiry into the nature and properties of electricity has been, within
these few years, the pursuit of many excellent and ingenious persons ; and most
of its extraordinary phenomena, which have been made to appear in one place,
have, with proper attention to the requisite circumstances, appeared in others :
but there have happened two very remarkable exceptions to this rule. The first
is, that the odours of odoriferous substances do not only pervade, from friction,
the glasses which contain them, but that these odours were carried along with the
current of electricity into such non-electric bodies as were destined to receive
them, and manifested themselves in those bodies by communicating to them
their smell and other properties. These, and other things yet more extraordi-
nary, were said to have been performed by Mr. Pivati at Venice, and to have
been repeated by Mr, Winkler at Leipsic ; but, though no care or expence has
been spared, either by Abbe NoUet at Paris, Mr. Jallabert at Geneva, Mr.
Bose at Wittemberg, Pere Garo at Turin, and by Mr. W. himself at London,
to bring about the same effects, they have hitherto been unsuccessful. For
which reason the truth of these relations has been greatly questioned by many ;
as Mr. Buccamare, in a treatise * since published, says, that Mr. Pivati con-
fessed to those who addressed themselves to him to see the experiments, that
more especially made with balsam of Peru, that it never succeeded but once, and
that he could never repeat it. Mr. W. likewise received a letter from the Abbe
NoUet, who is just returned to Paris from Turin and Italy. He says, that his
first care was to inquire into the truth of those wonders in electricity, of which
we have heard so much for almost 3 years : and he imagines the Royal Society
would be glad to know what they really were : for which reason he has just now
sent a memoir to the duke of Richmond, in which will be seen the most circum-
stantial account he has been able to procure of them at Turin, at Venice, and at
Bologna. For his own part, he thinks that there has been a great deal of pre-
judice, credulity, and exaggeration ; to which may be added, very little care and
caution in making these experiments. He is now sorry he has lost so much
time in attempting to make them ; and thinks Mr. Winckler has been too hasty
in asserting, that he had repeated these Italian experiments : but why should he
call thein Italian, when the nation he says will not allow the appellation, and,
except 3 persons, he finds there no defender of what has been said to be done ;
and adds, that there is not a philosopher of repute there, who believes them any
more than himself?
The other is, an experiment called by Professor Bose at Wittemberg, the
• Tentamen de Vi Electric. &c. p. 1 83.— Orig.
14 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
apotheosis or beatification. The making this experiment, in the manner men-
tioned by this gentleman in his writings, has been attained to by none. He
says, if in electrizing you employ large globes, and place a man on a large cake
of pitch, by little and little a lambent flame arises from the pitch, and spreads
itself around his feet ; from hence by degrees it is propagated to his knees, his
body, and at last to his head : that then, by continuing the electrization, the
man's head is surrounded by a glory, such a one in some measure, as is repre-
sented by painters in their ornamenting the heads of saints : that in this state if
the electrized man is touched by one that is not, the pain felt by both is very se-
vere, reaches from the finger to the shoulder, and remains a long time. Pro-
fessor Bose, in another part of his writings, says that the beatification indeed
does not always succeed with him ; that sometimes, when other circumstances
have been very favourable, a man will be beatified by 1 sphere in 2 minutes ; at
other times, 2 or 3 globes will not do it under 6 or 8 minutes ; and even at
sometimes after 20 minutes, when 5 or 6 globes were made use of, no light has
been visible : that under the same circumstances, when one person was capable
of being beatified, another was not. This is a short account of Professor Bose's
beatification, given in his writings, in which nothing of what he says essential to
the operation is omitted.
This experiment, which was not only a desirable thing to be seen, but as it
seemed to communicate to non-electric bodies a greater quantity of electricity
than any other did, that of Leyden excepted, Mr. W. was very desirous of re-
peating : but though he omitted no trouble, and varied not the least circum-
stance, that could any ways conduce to it, he was disappointed. He tried the
combined force of many globes, of different machines, in the best weather, and
with different persons, but no radiation in the manner before mentioned.
When he underwent this operation himself, supported by solid electrics per se of
more than 3 feet high, and as much distant from the sides of the room as pos-
sible, to prevent the escaping of the electric matter, he found in himself, as se-
veral others did, a tingling on the skin in his head, and in many parts of his
body such a sensation as would be felt from a vast number of insects crawling
on our bodies at the same time ; but he constantly observed this sensation to be
greatest in those parts of his body which were nearest any non-electric ; but still
no light on the head, though to make the eye more ready to observe it, this ex-
periment was made in the dark for some continuance. The sensation of the
snaps in this state were very acute. If the hand of a bystander was brought
near the back of the hand of the person electrized, the hairs on it sent forth a
great number of luminous points ; and if a bunch of fine lace wire was placed on
his head, you saw a great deal more of the same appearance ; but this was al-
ways most brilliant in those parts nearest the non-electric, and still more, when
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 15
the non-electric was brought to a proper distance. But this was vastly short of
that mentioned by Mr. Bose, not only in its lustre, but as it never was general,
hardly ever showing itself in 2 parts of the body at the same time. This want of
success after many trials, as he by no means doubted Mr. Bose's veracity, in-
duced him to conclude, that either some very essential part of the apparatus had
been suppressed by the author, or that the air of Germany, being on the conti-
nent, was more dry, and more fit, than that of our island. It was difficult in-
deed to allow this last, as the experiment had failed here, after the long continu-
ance of a very dry season. This want of success occasioned many persons here,
well versed in these matters, to conclude, that the experiments in electricity had
been carried farther in Germany than in England,
However, some time after, Mr. W. found that this experiment, in the man-
ner before mentioned, had been made no where on the continent, Wittemberg
excepted ; and Mr. Jallabert at Geneva, in his Treatise on Electricity, says, that
he had likewise attempted it ; but instead of beatification, he saw from the hair
of the head of the person electrized, especially from the back part, a great num-
ber of luminous points. These, he says, were likewise observable on his clothes,
which were made of a mixture of thread and cotton, more especially on their
borders. When the person electrized changed his situation on the pitch, on
which he stood, the place he left appeared luminous. What this gentleman
mentions besides is very nearly like to what Mr. W. experienced, as above related.
Mr. J. says also, that he believes Mr. Bose had been the only person, who had
made the beatification succeed.
A person here however exhibited to the public the famous experiment of beati-
fication, found out, as he says, by a German professor. Whether he knew how
this experiment was said to be done, or whether it was with him as with many
of the discoverers of the longitude, and of the quadrature of the circle, Mr. W.
does not determine; but thus it is, that his experiment has been exhibited as Mr.
Bose's for 2 or 3 years.
Mr. W. is unwilling to be thought to detract from the merit of this experi-
ment, which he thinks a very beautiful one ; but he takes upon him to say, that
it dilFers as essentially from every part of that said to have been made by Prof.
Bose, as any 2 electrical experiments whatever.
In a letter Mr. W. wrote afterwards to Mr. Bose, among other things ac-
quainting him of not being able to make the beatifying experiment succeed ; and
that nobody any where had been able to do it, so that the power of seeing this
extraordinary phenomenon was yet with himself alone. Mr. W. desired of him
farther, that if any material part of the process had been omitted in his writings,
he would communicate it ; for that some people here were not quite satisfied of
its having ever been made. To this he was so obliging as to send an answer
l6 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
nearly in the following words : ' As to my beatification, I am highly obliged to
you for writing to me so freely and candidly about it ; and I will discover to you
my whole artifice without any retention, though I concealed the same from all
my friends and correspondents. Now, sir, it is true that I have embellished a
little my beatification by my style and expressions ; but it is also true, that the
basis of the phenomenon is constant. I found in our armoury at Leipzic, a
whole suit of armour, which was decked with many bullions of steel ; some
pointed like a nail ; others in form like a wedge ; others pyramidal. In the
dark, you well know, that not all, but very many, of the said bullions will
sparkle and glister with tails like comets : and it is clear, that when the electri-
city is very vigorous, the helmet on the head of the person electrized will dart
forth rays like those round the head of a canonized saint; and this is my beatifi-
cation. You are the first, sir, with whom I trust my mystery, which if you com-
municate to the R.s. I hope you will take care of its being inserted in the Phil.
Trans., that the beatification did not succeed until I communicated my method.
Many people have imagined this experiment of mine to be extravagant and false.
If the armour is not ornamented with steel bullions, I believe it will not succeed.
If the armour is well enriched with bullions, and well polished, the comets ap-
pear twice, once in the air, and once by reflexion from the armour. A stoma-
cher, or a doublet, set with nails or needles, will exhibit a small degree of beati-
fication.'
Part of a Letter from Mr. Professor Euler, to the Rev. Mr. fVetstein, Chap-
lain to his Royal Highness the Prince, concerning the Contraction of the Orbits
of the Planets. Translated from the French byT.S., M.D., F.R.S. N°
494, p. 356.
You have done me much honour, says Mr. E.in communicating an extract of my
last letter * to the illustrious r. s., November 2, 1749. I am still thoroughly con-
vinced of the truth of what I advanced therein, that the orbs of the planets con-
tinue to be contracted, and consequently their periodical times grow shorter.
But in order to put this fact out of doubt, we ought to be furnished with good
ancient observations, and also to be very sure of the time elapsed, since those
observations, to this day : which we are not, with regard to the observations
that Ptolemy has left us. For chronologists, in fixing the moments of those ob-
servations, ran into a mistake, by supposing the sun's mean motion to be known •
which ought rather itself to be determined by these same observations. Now
if we reduce the days marked by Ptolemy to the Julian calendar, we run the
risk of committing an error of a day or two, in the whole number of days elapsed
• See Phil. Trans. N" 493.— Orig.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 17
from that to our time ; because the course of the Julian years, according to
which every 4th ought to have been bissextile, has been frequently interrupted
by the pontifices ; of which we find some sure marks in Censorinus and Dion
Cassius. Hence it might well happen, since the times marked by Ptolemy, that
there has really been a day or two more than we reckon, and consequently, that
Ptolemy's equinoxes, ought to be put a day or two back ; which would lengthen
the years of those times. I was in hopes that the Arabian observations would
not be liable to this inconvenience; because the Julian calendar has not been
interrupted for these last past 1200 years. The late Dr. Halley had also re-
marked, that the revolutions of the moon are quicker at present than they were
in the time of the ancient Chaldeans, who have left us some observations of
eclipses. But as we measure the length of years by the number of days, and
parts of a day, which are contained in each of them ; it is a new question, whe-
ther the days, or the revolutions of the earth round its axis, have always been of
the same length. This is unanimously supposed, without our being able to pro-
duce the least proof of it : nor indeed do I see how it could be possible to per-
ceive such an inequality, in case it had really existed. At present we measure
the duration of a day by the number of oscillations, which a pendulum of a given
length makes in this space of time : but the ancients were not acquainted with
these experiments, by which we might have been informed, whether a pendulum
of the same length made as many vibrations in a day foraierly as now. But even
though the ancients had actually made such experiments, we could draw no in-
ferences from them, without supposing, that gravity, on which the time of an
oscillation depends, has always been of the same force : but who will ever be in
a condition to prove this invariability in gravity ? thus, even supposing that the
days had suffered considerable changes; and that gravity had been altered suitably
to them, so that the same pendulum had always completed the same number of
vibrations in a day ; it would nevertheless be still impossible for us to perceive
this inequality, were it ever so great. And yet I have some reasons, deduced
from Jupiter's action on the earth, to think, that the earth's revolution round
its axis continually becomes more and more rapid. For the force of Jupiter so
accelerates the earth's motion in its orbit round the sun, that the diminution of
the years would be too sensible, if the diurnal motion had not been accelerated
nearly in the same proportion. Therefore, since we hardly at all remark this
considerable diminution in the years, from thence I conclude, that the days
suffer much the same diminution ; so that the same number will answer nearly
to a year.
VOL. X. D
18 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO J 750.
A Catalogue of the 50 Plants from Chelsea Garden, presented to the Royal So-
ciety by the fVorshipful Company of Apothecaries for the Year 1748, pursuant
to the Direction oj Sir Hans Sloane, Bart. &c. N° 494, p. 359.
[This is the 27th annual presentation of this kind, completing to the number
of 1350 different plants.]
A Surprising Inundation in the T'^alley of St. John's near Kesivick, in Cumberland,
August 22, 1749, in a Letter from a Young Clergyman to his Friend. Com-
municated by John Lock, Esq., F.R.S. N° 494, p. 362.
This remarkable fall of water happened at 9 o'clock in the evening, in
the midst of the most terrible thunder, and incessant lightning, ever known
in that part in the memory of the oldest man living, the preceding after-
noon having been extremely hot and sultry. And what seems very uncommon,
and difficult to account for, the inhabitants of the vale, of good credit, affirm
they heard a strange buzzing noise like that of a malt-mill, or the sound of wind
in the tops of trees for two hours together before the clouds broke. From the
havock it has made in so short a time, for it was all over in less than 2 hours,
it must have far exceeded any thunder-shower that we have ever seen. Most
probably it was a spout or large body of water, which, by the rarefaction of the
air, occasioned by that incessant lightning, broke all at once on the tops of these
mountains, and so came down in a sheet of water on the valley below.
This little valley of St. John's lies east and west, extending about 3 miles in
length, and half a mile broad, closed in on the south and north sides, with pro-
digious high, steep, rocky mountains : those on the north side, called Legburthet
Fells, had almost the whole of this cataract. It appears also that this vast spout
did not extend above a mile in length ; for it had effect only on 4 small brooks,
which came trickling down from the sides of the rocky mountains. But no
person, that does not see it, can form any idea of the ruinous work occasioned
by these rivulets at that time, and in the space of an hour and half. At the
bottom of Catcheety Gill, which is the name of the greatest, stood a mill and a
kiln, which were entirely swept away, in 5 minutes time, and the place where
they formerly stood, now covered with huge rocks, and rubbish, 3 or 4 yards
deep. One of the mill-stones cannot be found, being covered, as is supposed
in the bottom of this heap of rubbish.
In the violence of the storm, the mountain has tumbled so fast down, as to
choak up the old course of this brook ; and it has forced its way through a
shivery rock, where it now runs in a great chasm, 4 yards wide, and between 8
and 9 deep. In the course of each of these brooks, such monstrous stones, or
rather rocks, and such vast quantities of gravel and sand, are thrown on their
VOL. XLVI.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIOM&. IQ
little meadow-fields, as render the same absolutely useless, and never to be re-
covered.
It would surpass all credit to give the dimensions and weight of some rocks,
which are not only tumbled down the steep parts of the mountains, but carried
a considerable way into the fields, several thrown on the banks larger than a
team of 10 horses could move. Near a place called Lobwath, one was carried
a great way, which was 676 inches, or near 19 yards about. The damage done
to the grounds, houses, walls, fences, highways, with the loss of the corn and
hay then on the ground, is computed variously, by some at lOOOl. by others at
15001.
One of these brooks, which is called Mose or Mosedale Beck, which rises near
the source of the others, but runs north from the other side of Legburthet
Fells, continues still to be foul and muddy, having, as is supposed, worn its
channel so deep in some part of its course, as to work on some mineral substance,
which gives it the colour of water hushed from lead mines, and is so strong as
to tinge the river Derwent, into which it empties itself, even at the sea, near
20 miles from their meeting.
Of an Extraordinary Fireball Bursting at Sea. By Mr. Chalmers.
N° 494, p. 366.
Nov. 4, 1749, in the latitude of 42° 48', longitude 9° 3', the Lizard then bore
N. 41° 5' about the distance of 569 miles, as Mr. C. was taking an obsei-vation
on the quarterdeck, about 10 minutes before 12 o'clock, one of the quarter-
masters desired he would look to windward, which he did, and observed a large
ball of blue fire rolling on the surface of the water, at about 3 miles distance
from them. It came down upon them so fast, that before they could raise the
main tack, they observed the ball to rise almost perpendicular, and not above 40
or 50 yards from the main chains : it went off with an explosion as if hundreds
of cannon had been fired at once ; and left so great a smell of brimstone, that
the ship seemed to be nothing but sulphur. After the noise was over, which did
not last longer than half a second, they found the main-topmast shattered into
above a hundred pieces, and the mainmast rent quite down to the heel. There
were some of the spikes, that nailed the fish of the mainmast, drawn with such
force out of the mast, that they stuck in the main deck so fast, that the car-
penter was obliged to take an iron crow to get them out : five men were knocked
down, and one of them greatly burnt, by the explosion. They thought that
when the ball, which appeared to be of the size of a large millstone, rose, it
took the middle of the main-topmast, as the head of the mast above the hounds
was not splintered. The ball came down from the n. e. and went to the s. w.
D 2
20 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
An Examination of Certain Phenomena in Electricity, published in Italy. By
the Abbe Nollet, F. R. S., and translated from the French by Mr. IVatson,
F. R. S. N" 494, p. 368.
Electricity, after having excited every where the emulation of the ingenious,
after having filled us vv^ith wonder by an infinite number of phenomena more
singular and more admirable one than another, seems, within these few years, to
have shewn itself equally surprizing, but more useful, in Italy, than it had done
in England, France, G^ermany, &c. where, for these 20 or 25 years, so great a
progress had been made. We have heard of nothing less than the cure, or the
almost sudden relief, of distempers of every kind, and of purging all sorts of
persons in a manner of all others the most proper to avoid the repugnance and
disgust we naturally have to medical potions. Even that disease which we are
most desirous of concealing, was not by these means without its remedy ; the
mercury being volatilized, and carried, by the electric matter, into the body of
the patient, tinged his skin of a leaden colour, and procured him a certain cure
by a copious salivation.
The manner in which this was done was not less to be wondered at than the
thing itself; persons afflicted with inveterate gouts, rheumatisms, fluxions, tu-
mours, &c. were relieved by being electrized for a few hours, and often a less
time was sufficient. Sometimes the rubbing a glass tube only, or at other times
a glass tube lined with some medicine appropriated to the disease of the patient,
was employed. These medicines, to exert their operation on the patient,
passed through the glass ; and this they were very certain of, as they saw them
sensibly diminish in their quantity, though the glass containing them was
stopped as close as though sealed hermetically. To promote stools, it is only
necessary that a person should be electrized for 6 or 8 minutes, holding in his
hand a piece of scammony or gamboge ; the effects were as certain, as though
these drugs were taken internally. Besides, if a person was desirous of being
perfumed from head to foot, nothing more was necessary than being electrized
with a glass vessel lined with balsam of Peru, benjamin, or some such drug ;
and from this electrization the odours were perceptible for 2 or 3 days, even so
much as to incommode those to whom these smells were disagreeable.
Effects no less wonderful than these were published every day, by writings
printed, and printed again, or by particular letters and memoirs in manuscript
addressed to the ingenious all over Europe. They were also confirmed by re-
spectable witnesses, and by such as were capable of imposing them on persons
the most guarded against the exaggerations, which never fail accompanying the
relations of interesting novelties.
The importance of the facts themselves, and the appearance of authenticity
which attended them, demanded that they should be considered ; and indeed
VOL. XLVI.] rHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 21
they roused every where the attention of those philosophers, who had for any
time turned their thoughts to these inquiries. Every one of them was desirous
of repeating what Mr. Pivati said had been done at Venice, Mr. Verati at Bo-
logna, and Mr. Bianclii at Turin ; and to begin them, as the experiment seemed
more simple, they attempted at first the transmission of odoriferous substances
through the pores of the glass, the first foundation of intonacatores, so called
by Mr. Pivati ; and which we shall, in the progress of this paper, call medicated
glasses ; and they endeavoured to purge persons of all ages, and of both sexes,
by making them hold in their hand, while they were electrized, scammony,
gamboge, aloes, and such like. But it was very extraordinary, that of all the
persons who were engaged in these experiments, no one could succeed ; and,
from a sort of shame, each of them expected, that some one would complain of
his want of success : but this was retarded, as yet, by the haste with which Mr.
Winkler sent to the Royal Society, and to some ingenious men in France, the
result of his own experiments, which well agreed with those of Italy, and on
the credit of which he had made them.
Mr. N. declares he will speak without any restraint : when he found his at-
tempts were fruitless, he communicated it to all the philosophers, with whom he
corresponded : he desired them to let him know if they had been more successful
than himself, and to acquaint him how they had proceeded, that he might con-
form himself to the same. He was much more willing to confess his inability,
and to learn from others the method which must of necessity be observed, than
to be deprived longer from seeing those phenomena which ought to result from
it. Instead of instructions, which might conduct him to the desired success,
he received nothing but such confessions as his own : from these he saw that
all methods had been tried ; and that nothing remained to be done, but either
to believe every thing on the faith of others, or to doubt, without hopes of being
better informed. From this moment he formed the project of travelling ; and,
among the different motives which made him undertake the journey to Italy,
one of the most pressing was, the desire of seeing succeed, in the hands of those
who had said they had, those phenomena in electricity, towards the verification
of which he had made so many fruitless efforts. He formed to himself a great
pleasure in seeing balsam of Peru, benjamin, camphire, cinnamon, &c. pei-vade
an electrized glass, which he had tfiken care to stop himself; to see people
purged by the palm of their hands ; to see an old gouty man, as the bishop of
Sebenico, clap his hands together, strike the ground with his feet, and walk
freely, after an electrization of 1 minutes : but what still more piqued his cu-
riosity was, to learn, if possible, why the Italian electricity should enjoy these
prerogatives, to the exclusion of that of every other country.
Abbe N. arrived at Turin about the beginning of May 1749 : and one of his
^2 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
first cares was to visit Mr. Bianchi, a celebrated anatomist, and the first author
of purging by electricity. And he begged of him, that all the experiments,
which had neither succeeded with the Abbe, nor a great many others, might be
repeated between them. Mr. B.'s complaisance easily granted what was desired :
they set about it ; and Pere Garo, a minim, and professor of philosophy in the
University, caused to be carried to the place, where they determined to make
the experiments, his electrifying machine.
May 21, about 4 in the afternoon, the weather cool, but uncertain, Mr.
Bianchi having procured a lump of scammony, and another of gamboge, each
of which was about the size of a hen's egg ; Mr. N. took the former in his
right hand, and having applied his left near the surface of the glass globe, and
standing on a cake of resin, he was electrized 15 minutes without interruption.
This day the electricity was indifferently strong.
After him, a young man, aged 22, of a pale complexion, was electrized ;
whom a few days before Mr. N. had taken into his sei-vice. They then electrized
a young woman of about 1 6 or 17, of a weakly constitution; but who at that
time was tolerably well. After that M. Beccari, professor of philosophy in the
University, aged about 35, of a dry habit, was electrized. They then electrized
a servant belonging to the house where the experiments were made, aged about
24, who did not appear to be indisposed. They also made the same experiment
on another servant, a strong man of about 40 ; and each of these persons was
electrized the same time, viz. 15 minutes successively.
Mr. N. did not perceive in himself any effect, which he could attribute to the
electricity ; no extraordinary motion or pain in his bowels ; and it was the same
with M. Beccari, with the servant aged 40, and with the young woman. But
the young man of 22, being interrogated after the others, said, that he had had
in the night 2 stools, and some complaints of the colic. The servant of the
house, who was asked the same questions, declared, that he had had a very
large stool, as though he had taken a purge.
These last 2 depositions were, as the others, taken on the spot ; and Mr. N.
began to consider them as important, when he learned, from the confession of
the last, that he had taken, for some days, a decoction of wild succory, for an
indisposition which he had not spoke of till then. The young man who said he
had had 2 stools, rendered his testimony more than suspicious, by certain sin-
gularities* which he was desirous of adding some hours after; and since that
* This young man made himself very happy in relating to every body, that he had been electrized;
^ and that he had been purged by it, as though he had taken physic : and added, that an hour after his
electrization, having had the curiosity of visiting his wife, to see what would be the consequence,
he had communicated this electricity to her, and that she had been purged as well as himself. —
Orig.
Vol. xlvi.] philosophical transactions. ^3
time he has conducted himself in such a manner, as to prevent Mr. N.'s having
any confidence in what he said.
What has just been mentioned of these two servants, one of which kept Mr.
N. ignorant some time of his having taken broth with succory ; and the other
having testified such a love for the marvellous, that one ought in prudence to
suspect every thing he said ; this made him very delicate in the choice of the
persons who should be admitted to the experiments. He declared he was not
willing to receive to them either children, servants, or people of the lower class;
but only that reasonable people should be admitted, and of an age sufficient to
leave nothing to be feared of the truth of what they might depose.
The next day, Mr. N. was again electrized 15 minutes successively, as the
day before, holding in his hand a large piece of scammony , and after him there
went successively through the same trial. Dr. Scherra a physician, Mr. Verne,
demonstrator of anatomy, the Marquis of Sirie, the Abbe Porta, a professor in
the University, the preceptor to the children of the Marquis D'Ormea, and
the preceptor to the young Messieurs D'Osa. This day the electricity was in-
difterently strong.
Of all these persons who were electrized, not one felt any pains in his belly,
no one had any evacuation which could be attributed to the electrical power.
Thus of 7 persons there was not one who suspected the operation of electricity
to have had any sensible effect upon him.
May 23, the electricity being stronger than the preceding days, we chose a
piece of new scammony, very strong in its flavour, and which weighed 4 ounces:
The Marquis D'Ormea, Dr. Allion, a physician, the 2 above-mentioned pre-
ceptors, Pere Garo, Count Ferrero, and Mr. N. held, one after the other, this
piece of scammony, and each was electrized 1 3 minutes, as had been done in
the former experiments. After which, 2 days passed, and absolutely none of
these persons perceived any thing, that could be attributed to the electricity.
The same day they repeated an experiment, which M. Bianchi had written of
some months before, and which had not succeeded with Mr. N. at Paris, This
experiment was the transmission of odours along a chain, or an iron bar electrized.
They prepared and applied a little piece of linen, covered with balsam of Peru,
on the iron bar, which received the electricity from the globe : they fastened to
this rod the end of an iron chain, which was electrized by communication ; and
they expected that the odour of the balsam would be transmitted to the other
end of the chain, to which was hung a ball of metal. But this was expected in
vain ; nobody could perceive the slightest sign of this transmission.
M. Bianchi, seeing that the result of all these experiments did not agree with
those which he had believed to have taken place before, said, that this difference
might arise from having now employed an electricity too strong ; because that
24 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
which he had experienced with success had always appeared more weak. Mr.
N. submitted to this reason, having no other to give him more plausible ; and
to bring the whole operation as near as might be to its first circumstances, they
met together, to the number of 14, at M. Bianchi's, and were electrized,
one after the other, by him, as long a time as he judged proper, sometimes
with scammony, and sometimes with gamboge, which he himself had chosen.
The machine used this day was the same, with which M. Bianchi had al-
ways made his own experiments. It consisted of a hollow glass cylinder, 3
inches in diameter, and something more than half a foot in length, mounted
between 1 supporters on a board, which was fastened to a table with screws.
This cylindrical vessel was turned round, without any other intermediate appa-
ratus, by a handle, which was at least 4 inches in its radius ; so that the hand,
by which this machine was turned, revolved with greater velocity than the sur-
face of the glass cylinder, which was put in motion by it.
This machine had this convenience, that one person only might turn the
handle with one hand, and rub the surface of the glass vessel with his other :
but there is no difficulty in comprehending, that the electricity could not but be
always very weak with such a cylinder, and from such friction ; so that, in the
experiments of this day, they were scarcely able to perceive any snaps, in touch-
ing the iron chain, by which the electricity was communicated, or from the per-
son electrized ; but this was precisely what was desired.
These experiments were made on Thursday May ig, between 4 and 6 in the
afternoon, in a very hot and serene day : on Sunday evening, all the persons
who had been electrized, being interrogated, answered without hesitation, and
in a manner absolute in all respects, that they had perceived nothing which could
be attributed to these experiments : these persons were the Marquis de Siria,
Count Ferrero, the Marquis D'Ormea, Mons. de Tignola, an officer of artillery,
Pere Beccari, Pere Garo, Dr. Allion, Monsieur Verne, Dr. Scherra, the Abbe
Porta, the two preceptors, the young woman, whom Mr. N. mentioned before,
and himself.
The night following, viz. that between Sunday and Monday, Mr. N. was
troubled with an indigestion, and felt pains of the colic ; but he attributed them
much less to the being electrized the preceding Thursday, than to some roots he
had eaten the day before at dinner, and to a very large glass of iced lemonade,
which he had drank some time after, and contrary to his usual custom. Yet as
some persons were desirous of saying that the electrizing had purged him, and
that he had not the candour to speak of it, he thought it his duty to add here
for his justification, that during his whole life he has had a weak stomach ; that
he could never take ice, nor liquors very cold, without a good deal of circum-
spection, and always at the hazard of being incommoded ; and tliat these roots.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 45
which are called ravanelle in Piedmont, notwithstanding his attention to eat
sparingly of them, had often disturbed his digestion, during his stay there, and
at times when he had no concern in electrical experiments. Besides, the not
being incommoded for 3 days, and more, was sufficient to prevent attributing
what happened to him to the electrical power.
The extreme circumspection, with which he was desirous of choosing the per-
sons for all the experiments ; the difficulty of procuring and moving such sick
people, as were in a condition and disposition to leave nothing to be feared on
their parts from their prejudice, and their heated imagination ; that of recon-
ciling his time with that which a physician of great practice could grant him ;
these obstacles prevented his attempting with M. Bianchi such cures, as he be-
lieved to have been brought about by means of the electric virtue, either by its
own action, or by joining medicines appropriated to the condition of the sick,
and contained in glass vessels electrized by friction. But Mr. N. testified a great
desire of seeing those persons who had been cured, or considerably relieved, by
this method before this time. He asked, for this purpose, the gentlemen of the
profession, who had been witnesses of the experiments, and who were yet in a
condition of seeing every day some of the persons, cited in a manuscript which he
had ofM. Bianchi's; and of whom the exact history is -mentioned in the Qth
chapter of a Treatise of M. Pivati: Mr. N. went himself to the shoemaker, in
whose shop the young man of 21 years of age worked, mentioned in the 1 10th
page of the above treatise. The obligation of saying the truth, to which phi-
losophers ought to sacrifice every human regard, would not permit him to dis-
semble that his inquiries made with all possible diligence, and without any other
interest than that of knowing the truth, have made him see sufficiently clear,
that these facts have been greatly exaggerated. He was willing to believe, that
it is the fault of the sick, who, being prejudiced perhaps by too great hope, and
possessed by a kind of enthusiasm, have said and made others believe, more than
really was the case. One might have examples enough to cite of such illusions ;
but be that as it will, he cannot help believing, that a great part of the electrical
cures of Turin, have been no other than temporary shadows, which have been
taken with a little too much precipitation, or complaisance, for realities.
Mr. N. carried with him to Venice the same curiosity, and the same desire of
being instructed, on the subject of the transmission of odours from medicated
tubes, and of the cures, or of being relieved from disorders almost suddenly, ty
the electrical power. One of his first cares was, to find out some friends or ac-
quaintance of M. Pivati, to acquaint him of his arrival, and to obtain of him
the favour of being admitted into his laboratory ; and that he would have the
complaisance to satisfy his great desire of seeing him cause odours to pervade the
sides of a well stopped glass, or by electrifying to diminish sensibly any substance
VOL. X. E
•26 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
therein contained. Mr. Angelo Quirini, a Venetian gentleman, a great friend
to the sciences, accordingly acquainted M. Pivati ; and on the 1st of August,
1749, we waited on him, and found there a large company, among which were
several persons of distinction : among others were Mr. Antony Mossinigo, here-
tofore embassador in France, Abbe Horter, &c. At the sight of this great as-
sembly he believed that his curiosity had been suspected of disbelief, and of an
obstinacy to doubt ; this company therefore was called together to be an evidence
of his conviction. But how great were his surprize and regret, when M. Pivati
declared in the presence of this whole company, that he would not attempt to
show Mr. N. the transmission of odours; that that phenomenon had not suc-
ceeded but once or twice, as he had said in his first letter printed at Lucca,
though since that he had made many attempts to repeat that experiment, with
the same as well as with other glasses ; that this cylinder had been since broken ;
and that he had not so much as kept the fragments of it !
But at least, Mr. N. said he wished to see him use one of his medicated tubes,
and weigh it before and after electrifying, to see the included matter diminish
sensibly. This fact Mr. P. then said had succeeded vidth him a great many times ;
but that now there was too much company ; that it was too hot, and in conse-
quence that the electricity would be too weak for it. He might perhaps be in
the right : but why did he call together so numerous a company ? Mr. N. then
asked him concerning the cures related in his works, and especially concerning
that of the bishop of Sebenico. He acknowledged, (and in part Mr. N. knew
it already,) that the prelate was not cured; and that since the electrification he
had been as he was before.
Mr. N. took his leave of M. Pivati, and acquainted him, that he proposed to
continue about a week in Venice ; and he very earnestly begged of him to col-
lect together his best vessels, to renew the substances in them, and to let him
know, that if they succeeded, he might wait upon him, that he might be able to
publish them as an eye-witness, &c. M. Pivati promised him he would ; but, as
Mr. N. heard nothing from him afterwards, he presumed that he had nothing
to show him.
Mr. Nollet then relates a number of other trials that he had seen, and that
had been told him by different persons, in several other parts of Italy, much to
the same purport as the foregoing : from all which he draws a conclusion to the
following purport. That he learned nothing in the other cities of Italy, which
did not strengthen his doubts in regard to those electrical phenomena, which he
had a desire to verify in the course of his travels. Pere la Torre, professor of
philosophy at Naples ; M. de la Garde, director of the coinage at Florence, one
who has been much engaged in these inquiries ; M. Guadagni, professor of ex-
perimental philosophy at Pisa ; the Marquis MafFei, at Verona ; Dr. Cornelio,
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. %"]
at Placentia; Pere Garo, at Turin; all these, with very excellent and well con-
trived iTiachines, and with a great desire of succeeding, have attempted many
times to transmit the odours, as well as the powers of drugs closed (carefully) in
tubes or spheres of glass, by electrizing them : all these have attempted to purge
a number of persons ; and, according to the accounts they gave, have never
gained their point ; or the little success they had, appeared too equivocal to draw
any consequences conformable to those M. Pivati had believed to have seen in
his experiments.
I am now then, says Abbe Nollet, as it were, certain of what I began to be-
lieve last year, when I printed my Treatise on Electricity, that M. Pivati has
been deceived by some circumstance to which he had not given sufficient atteh-
tion ; and what makes me believe it more than ever is, that he assured me him-
self, that this transftision of odours, and of drugs, through electrized glass ves-
sels, had never manifested itself to him but once or twice directly ; I mean by a
sensible diminution of bulk, and by such emanations as the smell was capable of
perceiving. It is however on this pretended transmission, and with a glass tube,
which was cracked from one end to the other, as M. Pivati tells you himself, on
this fact, than which nothing can be less certain, that they have established the
use and effects of lined tubes, of which they are willing to abate nothing. I
am disposed to believe, that the electricity may have cured or relieved distem-
pered persons ; but I do not find the proofs of M. Pivati sufficiently strong, or
sufficiently certain, to make me conceive that the lined glasses have contributed
to these good effects. I think, and M. Verati himself appeared to me pretty
much of the same opinion, that if any one has been so happy as to cure disi-
tempers by electrifying with glasses containing drugs, all that can be said in fa-
vour of these substances is, that they have not hindered the operation of
electricity.
It remains to say, that in these researches I have coveted truth, only for her
own sake ; and have no interest in convincing those who may think proper still
obstinately to believe, what has been published concerning lined tubes, electrical
purgations, instantaneous cures, &c. I do not pretend to make any of my^
opinion, but those who, having read without prejudice what I have here related,
may find themselves touched by my reasons : but if after this there can be any
one, on whom the love of the marvellous can make a victorious impression, I
shall not think ill of them, if they embrace opinions opposite to mine ; qui vult
decipi, decipiatur.
JS2
28 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO J 750.
An Extraordinary Case of a Fracture in the Arm. By Mr. John Barde, Sur-
geon in New York. Covimunicated by Mr. John Frehe, F. R. S., Surgeon to
St. Bartholomew's Hospital. N" 4Q4, p. 397.
This fracture occurred to a lady about the 3d month of her pregnancy, in
consequence of which the bones did not unite until 9 days after her delivery.
From that time, in less than a month, the callus was entirely confirmed, and the
patient recovered the use of her arm. This case, (adds the author,) is similar
to 2 cases related by Hildanus, in which the formation of a callus, was retarded by
pregnancy.
A further Account of the Libella* or May-flies, from Mr. John Bar tram of
Pennsylvania, communicated by Mr. Peter Collinson, F. R. S. N° 494, p. 400.
The May-flies of America have no very remarkable difference from ours ;
excepting a few days in the fly state, they live all the year a water insect. Their
bodies being replenished with an oily matter, they easily quit their husks, and
rise up to the surface of the water, and disperse themselves a mile or more back
in the woods, while others stay near the water.
May the 4th 1749, Mr. C. perceived many had attained wings, and were
very thick spread on the bushes and grass, by the river sides. The second day
after their leaving their aquatic abode they cast another skin, after which their
tails are longer, and their wings drier, and more transparent. The 5th and 6th
was rainy, the 7th windy ; so very few came out. The 8th was cool ; so few
were seen : but the 9th and 10th, being warm, many swarmed late in the
evening; and the Uth, 12th, 13th, they swarmed abundantly. What he calls
swarming, was their gathering thick as bees, near the rivers, to lay their eggs
in the water.
In their flight they mount to the tops of trees, 20 or 30 feet high : their
motion is surprizing, hovering up and down, rising and falling, 7 or 8 feet at a
time: this he takes to be the time and manner of their impregnation. After which
they fly to the brooks, cast out their eggs, and perish immediately : their eggs
sink directly to the bottom, and lodge among the mud and gravel, and may be
food for some minute water animal. From their eggs proceeds a deformed grub,
which subsists under water, and is food for eels, till next season, that it attains
its fly state, and then is food for fish and fowl. It is remarkable, the males are
black, and live several days after the females.
The reason of their being so long in coming forth this year was, the cold
chilly weather : other years, in a warm season, in five days they would have per-
formed all their functions, and disappeared.
We have two other smaller kinds, which very much resemble the former,
* See page 290 of volume ix.
VOL, XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SQ
A Catalogue of the Fifty Plants from Chelsea Garden, presented to the Royal
Society, by the Worshipful Company of Apothecaries for the Year\TA<^, Pur-
stiant to the Direction of Sir Hans Shane, Bart. ^c. N° 495, p. 403.
[This is the 28th presentation of this kind, completing to the number of 1400
different plants.] ..
The Case of a Young Lady who had an Extraordinary Impostume formed in her
Stomach. By Daniel Peter Layard, M. D., F. R. S. N° 495, p. 406.
A young lady of 17 being at a boarding school about 3 miles from this city,
was, on the 28th of November 1745, taken with profuse sweats, which, after
some continuance, and weakening her much, were stopped by means of saline
draughts, made with elixir vitrioli. On the removal of those sweats, an ob-
struction of the menses, with all its symptoms, ensued. A shortness of breath,
a dry cough, an acute pain in the left hypochondrium, rigors, &c. were taken for
the signs of a peripneumonia ; and the medicines usually prescribed having no
effect, a blister was applied on the left hypochondrium. The foetids, and musk,
as in a nervous case, were also administered in large quantities, but with ;^s
little success. p
It being thought adviseable to bring the young lady to town. Dr. L. first saw
her on the 12th of Feb. 1743-6, when he observed a large prominent tumor on
the left hypochondrium, which reached to part of the right, filling up the epi-
gastrium and scrobiculus cordis, where she complained of a constant acute
pain. The muscles of the larynx, pharynx, and neck, were much swelled, and
the glands indurated. The other symptoms were a continual quick pulse, thirst,
hoarse cough, difficulty of breathing, cardialgia, and obstruction in the oeso-
phagus, so that, as soon as any liquid " fell down," as she expressed it, " to the
pit of her stomach," she instantly threw it up with violent pain, borborigmi,
eructations, and singultus.
On the 14th, finding the symptoms increase, especially the obstruction in the
oesophagus, and apprehending that an abscess was forming in the stomach, he
desired Dr. Mead should be called in, who confirmed Dr. L.'s opinion. In order
to assuage the inflammation, a cooling mucilaginous mixture, &c. were pre-
scribed, as also a laxative glyster. Next day being told that not a drop of the
mixtures could be admitted into the stomach. Dr. Mead took his leave, advising
the repetition of the glyster every 3 or 4 days, as necessity might require, and
that nature should be watched, in case of a favourable turn, which he did not
much expect, having observed, that those abscesses more frequently terminate
in a gangrene than by suppuration. ^.
On the 16th the glyster brought away with the faeces some pieces of mem-
30 PHILOSOPHIC A.L TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
branes, about a finger's length, and 2 in breadth ; to lubricate the intestines Dr.
L. directed 10 oz. of plain mutton broth to be injected, which, after the first
time, was constantly absorbed, and was repeated twice every day, till the 3d
of May.
In this state, with no other sustenance than these broth-glysters, the laxative
one repeated every third day, and a warm carminative plaister applied on the
tumor, did the patient continue till the 17 th of March, when, observing an in-
termission in the pulse, and hoping that a decoction of the cort. Peruv. might
corroborate the solids, if absorbed, as the broth glysters were, he directed 8 oz.
of the decoction to be injected, and repeated 4 hours after : by accident, the
first was not half thrown up; the 2nd on the 18th of March, at 2 o'clock in the
morning, had a very extraordinary eflfect ; for being entirely absorbed, about 2
hours after, the young lady complained of a most acute pain in her stomach,
which by its violence brought on a profuse sweat, and threw her into a syncope,
in which she remained a full quarter of an hour ; then, shrieking, made signs to
her nurse to bring her the basin ; she vomited near 2 lb. of grumous blood, and
then some purulent matter ; then she discharged by stool above 4 quarts of well
digested pus, with several pieces of membranes, like those before-mentioned.
The purulent discharge continued gradually decreasing till the 23d of April. Bal-
samics, and small quantities of thin veal and mutton-broth, were daily given.
April the 29th the patient was purged with pulp of cassia. May the 3d the
mutton-broth glysters were omitted, the stomach now performing its office. The
7th 10 oz. of blood were taken from the foot, which brought down the menses.
The tumefaction and induration of the muscles and glands of the neck were re-
moved by the continual application of the emplastr. saponac. And after the use
of stomachics, and mineral waters, the young lady was perfectly cured on the
17th of June 1746, and continued well ever after.
It may not be improper to observe, that the stomach, on account of the num-
ber of blood-vessels it is furnished with, is as liable to inflammations, and ab-
scesses, as any part of the human body. These are occasioned by a stagnation
of the blood, which, if not speedily removed, must greatly endanger the pa-
tient's life, by obstructing the necessary vital functions of that viscus. The
speedy progress of this disease, and the remoteness of the part from proper ap-
plications, render its termination mostly fatal; and these abscesses more fre-
quently terminate by a gangrene, than come to suppuration. Those that do
suppurate, generally form ulcers, penetrating into the cavity of the abdomen,
and sometimes also perforate the integuments.
Luetus (De His Qui Vivunt Sine Alimento) relates several instances of persons
who have lived a long while without food, but then they could admit of liquids ;
and the young lady which Mons. Littre (Mem de I'Academ. des Sciences. Ann.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TjaANSACTIONS. 31
1716,) nourished with broth-glysters, in which a yolk, or 2 of eggs, and some-
times a glass of wine, were mixed, could also keep water in her stomach,
though no other fluid. An advantage which this patient was deprived of.
From what has been related it appears, that this young lady had an abscess in
her stomach, which gradually ripened, and then broke, suppurated, digested,
and cicatrized, as all other abscesses do ; and that during this time, which was
near 3 months, she was almost all the while nourished solely by the mutton-
broth glysters.
Account of an Irregular Tide in the River of Forth. By Mr. Edward Wright.
N° 495, p. 412.
There are in this river, at ebbing and flowing, certain irregular motions, not
to be found in any other river in Scotland, perhaps in Great Britain, or even in
all Europe, called by the common people leakies ; which means that when the
river is flowing, before high water, it intermits and ebbs for a considerable time,
after which it resumes its former course, and flows till high water ; and, vice
versa, in the ebbing, before low water, the river flows again for some time, and
then ebbs till low water. The leaky begins at a place called Queen's Ferry, 7
miles above Leith, at neap tide, and low water, and goes to the house of Maner,
which is about 25 miles above Queen's Ferry, that is, going by water;
though it be but 4 miles by land. This is noticed as he takes these windings to
be the cause of the leakies. At neap tide and high water, as also at spring tide
and low water, the leaky reaches as far as the sea fills, which is to the groves of
Craigforth, 19 miles above Maner house, and 3 above the town of Stirling.
At Queen's Ferry there are no leakies at neaps and springs at high water, nor in
the latter at low water ; they begin between Borrowstowness, a village about 7
miles above Queen's Ferry, and the mouth of a rivulet called Carron, 5 or 6
miles farther up the river than Borrowstowness. It is very remarkable, that in
the very lowest neaps, the leaky, after it has ebbed for some time, before high
water, makes up again, and will be 2 feet higher than the main tide. In the
beginning of the spring tides, it does not rise so high by a foot : at the dying of
the stream, it is often 2 feet higher than the main tide, which is to be under-
stood, before high water, when the leaky makes up again. At neap tide and
low water it will ebb 2 hours, and fill as much, and at full water ebb an hour,
and fill another.
It is observable, that at full moon, there are no leakies, either at high or low
water, in the spring tides which are at that time, but in the neaps which fol-
low them, these motions are observable, as before described ; as also in the
spring tides, which happen on the change of the moon, there are leakies both
3*2 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
at high and low water. All this is to be understood, when the weather is sea-
sonable ; for, otherwise, these motions are not so discernible.
Case of a Tumour growing on the Inside of the Bladder, successfully extirpated
by Joseph JVarner, Surgeon to Guy's Hospital. N° 495, p. 414.
Mary Bevan, aged 23, June 24, 1747, strained herself by endeavouring to
lift a great weight ; she was immediately seized with violent pain in the small of
her back, and a total suppression of urine ; which symptoms, notwithstanding
the several methods used for her relief, continued till the 29th of the same month ;
when an eminent physician and man-midwife was called to her assistance ; who
drew off her urine with the catheter. During the suppression she was seized with
an acute fever, and for 1 8 or 20 hours before her urine was dravra off, she dis-
charged by the mouth a great quantity of saltish water tinged with blood; which,
on lying down, flowed in so great quantities as to threaten suffocation.
In April 1750, she applied to Mr. W. On inquiry he learnt she had never
been able, from the moment of the accident, to void a drop of urine without the
assistance of the catheter, which had been used ever since 2 or 3 times every 24
hours ; that she was in continual pain, and had been lately much weakened by
having several times lost considerable quantities of blood, occasioned by the force
used for the introduction of that instrument. On examining her with his fore-
finger, which he introduced with great difficulty through the meatus urinarius,
he discovered a considerable tumour, which seemed to be of a fleshy substance,
and took its rise from the lower part of the bladder near its neck ; the extent of
which he could with difficulty reach. She informed him, she first discovered
this swelling about 20 months before. He observed it to protrude a little way
out of the meatus urinarius on straining to make water when the bladder was
full; but on ceasing to strain it presently returned. It had preserved pretty nearly
the same appearance ever since it was first noticed ; and about 1 8 months before
a small incision was made into it, on presumption of its containing a fluid, but
without any effect.
The method he took for the extirpation of the tumour was this : having first
prepared the patient as before the operation for the stone ; when her bladder was
fiill, he made her strain as though she was going to make water, on which he
perceived ihe tumour to protrude a little ; this he effectually secured from re-
turning into the bladder by the help of a crooked needle and ligature passed
through the tumour in different directions, and endeavoured to draw it out
through the meatus urinarius, but could not effect it by reason of its size ; on
this he dilated the meatus urinarius on the right side by cutting it upwards about
rOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 33
halfway towards the neck, when by pulling the tumour forwards, he had suffi-
cient room for tying a ligature round its basis, which was very broad.
For the first 3 days after the operation, she complained of a good deal of pain
in the abdomen. On the 6th day the tumour dropped off. From the first of
the operation, she voided her urine without any assistance, and was afterwards
perfectly well in every respect.
Remarks on the Solar and the Lunar Years, the Cycle of \g Years, commonly
called the Golden Number, the Epact, and a Method ofjinding the Time of
Easter, as it is now observed in most Parts of Europe. Being Part of a
Letter from the Right Honourable George Earl of Macclesfield.* N° 494,
p. 417.
Of the Solar Year. — The mean tropical solar year, or that mean space of time
wherein the sun, or earth, after departing from any point of the ecliptic, returns
to the same again, consists, according to Dr. Halley's tables, of 365'* 5*^ 48™
55': which is ll™ 5* less than the mean Julian year, consisting of 365'' 6^.
Hence the equinoxes and solstices anticipate, or come earlier than the Julian
account supposes them to do, by ll™ 5% in each mean Julian year; or 44"" 20'
in every 4 ; or 3** l*" 53™ 20* in every 400 Julian years. To correct this error
in the Julian year, the authors of the Gregorian method of regulating the year,
when they reformed the calendar in the beginning of Oct. 1 5, 1582, directed that 3
intercalary days should be omitted or dropped in every 400 years ; by reckoning
all those years whose date consists of a number of entire hundreds not divisible
by 4, such as 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, &c. to be only common, and not bis>
sextile or leap years, as they would otherwise have been; and consequently
omitting the intercalary days, which, according to the Julian account, should
have been inserted in the month of February in those years. But at the same
time they ordered that every 400th year, consisting of a number of entire hun-
dreds, divisible by 4, such as 1600, 2000, 2400, 2800, &c. should still be
considered as bissextile or leap years, and of consequence that one day should be
intercalated as usual in those years. This correction however did not entirely
remove the error: for the equinoxes and solstices still anticipate l'' 53™ 20' in
every 400 Gregorian years. But that difference is so inconsiderable as not
to amount to 24 hours, or to one whole day, in less than 5082 Gregorian years.
Of the Lunar Year, Cycle of IQ Years, and the Epact. — The space of time
* This nobleman had been a pupil of the celebrated Wm. Jones, Esq. vice-president of the Royal
Society, who was father of the no less celebrated Sir Wm. Jones, chief judge in India. Earl M.
was elected president of the Royal Society about the year 1751, on the resignation of Martin Folkes,
Esq. His lordship was greatly instrumental in procuring the introduction of the New or Gregorian
stile into use in this country, which took place in 1752. And he died ia the year 1764 .
VOL. X. F
34 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
between one mean conjunction of the moon with the sun and the next following,
or a mean Synodical month, is equal to 29'' 12^ 44" 3' 2* 56', according to Mr.
Pound's tables of mean conjunctions. The common lunar year consists of 12
such months. The intercalary or embolimaean year consists of 13 such months.
In each cycle of 19 lunar years, there are 12 common, and 7 intercalary or em-
bolimaean years, making together 235 synodical months.
It was thought, at the time of the general council of Nice, which was holden
in the year of our Lord 325, that IQ Julian solar years were exactly equal to
such a cycle of IQ lunar years, or to 235 synodical months ; and therefore that at
the end of IQ years, the new moons or conjunctions would happen exactly at
the same times as they did 1 9 years before: and on this supposition it was, that
some time afterwards, the several numbers of that cycle, commonly called the
golden numbers, were prefixed to all those days in the calendar, on which the
new moons then happened in the respective years corresponding to those num^
bers ; it being imagined, that whenever any of those numbers should for the
future be the golden number of the year, the new moons would invariably happen
on those days in the several months, to which that number was prefixed.
But this was a mistake :
For 19 Julian solar years contain 6939"* 18*' O™ 0» O*
Whereas 235 synodical months contain only 6939 16 31 56 30
And are therefore less than I9 Julian solar years by O 1 28 3 30
This difference amounts to a whole day very nearly in 310.7 years, the new
moons anticipating, or falling earlier, by 24 hours in that space of time, than
they did before: and therefore now in the year 1750, the new moons happen
above 4-^ days sooner, than the times pointed out by the golden numbers in the
calendar.
In order therefore to preserve a sort of regular correspondence between the
solar and the lunar years, and to make the golden numbers, prefixed to the days
of the month, useful for determining the times of the new moons, it would be
necessary, when once those golden numbers should have been prefixed to the
proper days, to make them anticipate a day at the end of every 310.7 years, as
the moons will actually have done ; that is to set them back one day, by prefixing
each of them to the day preceding that against which they before stood.
But as such a rule would neither be so easily comprehended or retained in me-
mory, as if the alteration was to be made at the end or at the beginning of com-
plete centuries of years ; the rule would be much more fit for practice, and keep
sufficiently near to the truth, if those numbers should be set back 9 days in the
space of 2800 years ; by setting them back one day, first at the end of 400 years,
and then at the end of every 300 years for 8 times successively : by which they
would be set back, in the whole, 9 days in 2800 years. After which they must
YOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 35
again be set one day back at the end of 400 years, and so on, as in the preceding
2800 years. By which means the golden numbers would always point out the
mean times of the new moons, within a day of the truth.
It is plain however that the lunar year will have lost one diiy more than ordi-
nary, with respect to the solar year, whenever the new moons shall have antici-
pated a whole day ; as they will have done at those times, when it is necessarj'
that the golden numbers should, by the rule just now given, be set back one
day : and consequently the epact, for that and the succeeding years, must ex-
ceed by an unit the several corresponding epacts of the preceding 1 Q years.
For the epact is the difference, in whole days, between the common Julian
solar and the lunar year ; the former being reckoned to consist of 365, and the
latter of only 354 days. If therefore the solar and the lunar year at any time
should commence on the same day, the solar would, at the end of the year,
have exceeded the lunar by 1 1 days ; which number 1 1 would be the epact of
the next year : 22 would be the epact of the year following, and 33 the epact of
the year after that, the epacts increasing yearly by 1 1 . But as often as this
yearly addition makes the epact exceed 30, those 30 are rejected as making an
intercalary month, and only the excess of the epact above 30 is accounted the
true epact for that year. Thus when the epact would amount to 31, 32, 33, 34,
&c. the 30 is rejectetl, and the epact becomes 1, 2, 3, 4, &c.
Since therefore the lunar year will have lost a day more than ordinary, in re-
spect of the solar year, whenever it is necessary to set the golden numbers one
day back, as before observed ; it follows, that the epact must at the same time
be increased by a unit more than usual ; the difference between the solar and the
lunar year having been just so much greater than usual. That is, 12 must be
added, instead of 1 1 , to the epact of the preceding, in order to form what will
be the epact of the then present year. Which addition of a unit extraordinary
to one epact, will occasion all the subsequent epacts (which will follow each other
in the usual manner, each exceeding the foregoing by U) to be greater by 1,
than their respectively corresponding epacts of the preceding IQ years.
If therefore, instead of the golden numbers, the epacts of the several years
were prefixed, in the. manner the Gregorians have done, to the days of the ca-
lendar, in order to denote the days on which the new moons fall in those years
of which those numbers are the epacts ; there would never be occasion to shift
the places of those epacts in the calendar ; since the augmentation by 1 extraor-
dinary of the epacts themselves would answer the purpose, and keep all tolerably
right. Thus in a very easy method may the course of the new moons be pointed
out, either by the golden numbers, or by the epacts, according to the Julian
account or manner of adjusting the year, which goes on regular and uniform
without any variation.
t2
36 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
But the regulating these things for those who use the Gregorian account, is
an affair of more intricacy ; and for them it will require more consideration to
determine, when the epacts are to be more than ordinarily augmented, and at
what, times they are to continue in their usual course ; nay, to know when they
are not only not to be extraordinarily augmented, but also when they are to be
diminished by a unit, by increasing one of them by 10 only instead of 11 as
usual : and this happens much oftener with the Gregorians, than the increasing
one of them by 12 instead of 1 1. For in every Gregorian solar year, whose date
consists of any number of entire hundreds not divisible by 4, it is supposed that
the equinox has anticipated one whole day ; and therefore 1 day, that which
ought to be the intercalary one, is omitted ; and consequently the preceding
solar year, where one day was lost, exceeded the lunar year by lO days only,
instead of 1 1 .
In order therefore to adapt the before-mentioned rule to the Gregorian ac-
count, and to know in what years the epacts should either be extraordinarily
augmented or diminished, and the golden numbers should either be set back-
wards or forwards in the calendar ; the following rules and directions must be
observed.
First, that in the years 1800, 2100, 2700, 3000, &c. where the number of
entire hundreds is divisible by 3, but not by 4, the Gregorian solar, as well as
the lunar year, will have lost a day ; and consequently the difference between
them will be the same as usual : therefore in those years there must be no alter-
ation, either in the epacts or the golden numbers ; but the former must go on
in the same manner, and the latter stand prefixed to the same days in the calen-
dar, for another, as they did for the last 100 years.
2dly. The like will happen in the years 2000, 2800, 3200, &c. where the
number of entire hundreds is divisible by 4, but not by 3 : for neither the Gre-
gorian solar nor the lunar year is to be altered ; and therefore the epacts must
go on, and the golden numbers stand, as they did before.
But 3dly, in the years 2400, and 36oo, whose number of entire hundreds is
divisible both by 3 and 4, the Gregorian solar year goes on as usual, and the
lunar year has lost a day. The difference therefore between them being 12,
the epact of the preceding year must be augmented by that number instead of
11, in order to form the epact of the then present year; by which a new set of
epacts will be introduced, exceeding their precedent corresponding epacts by 1 :
and the golden numbers must be set 1 day back in the calendar.
4thly and lastly, in the years IQOO, 2200, 2300, 2500, &c. where the num-
ber of hundreds is divisible neither by 3 nor 4 ; the Gregorian solar. year having
lost one day, and the lunar none, the difference between them being only 1 o ;
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 37
that number only, and not 11, is to be added to the epact of the preceding, to
form the epact of that, the then present year , by which a new set of epacts will
be introduced, all less by one than their precedent corresponding epacts : and
the golden numbers nmst be set a day forwarder in the calendar ; that is, be
prefixed to the day following that against which they stood in the precedent hun-
dred years.
This method would preserve a sort of regularity between the solar and the
lunar years ; and, by means of the rules and directions before mentioned, the
days of the new moons might be pointed out, either by the golden numbers or
by the epacts, placed in the calendar for that purpose ; according to the Julian
account for ever, and according to the Gregorian account till the year 4199 in-
clusive, after which there must be some little variation made in the 4 last precepts
or rules; but it would be to little purpose now, to attempt the framing of a new
set of rules for so distant a time.
The Gregorians have chosen to make use of the epacts to determine the days
of the new moons, and follow pretty nearly the niles prescribed above ; except
that they order the epacts to have an additional augmentation of a unit 8 times
in 2500 years, beginning with the year 1 800, as at the end of 400 years ; to which
400 years if there be added 3 times 700, or 2100 years, the period of 2500 years
will be completed in the year 3Q00. After which they do not make their extra-
ordinary augmentation of a unit in the epacts, till at the end of another term of
400 years ; which defers that augmentation from the year 4200 to the year
4300. And this is the reason that the rules above delivered will require a vari-
ation in the year 4200 ; whereas it is directed in this paper that the epacts should
be augmented, or (which is the same thing) the golden numbers be set back in
the calendar Q times in 2800 years. This arises from the Gregorians supposing,
that the difference between 19 solar and as many lunar years, would not amount
to a whole day in less than 312^ years ; whereas it has appeared above, that it
would amount to a whole day in 310.7 years. But though the rule prescribed in
this paper comes much nearer the truth, yet the error in either case is very in-
considerable, being so small as not to amount to a whole day in many thousand
years; and therefore is not worth regarding.
Of fading Easter. — From what has been said, a method may be obtained for
fixing, with sufficient exactness, the time of the celebration of the feast of Easter,
which is governed by the vernal equinox, and by the age of the moon nearest
to it. The former of which, when once rightly adjusted, may, (by the corrections
mentioned in that part of this paper which relates to the solar year) be made to
continue to fall at very near the same time with, or at most not to differ a whole
day from the true equinox : and the same rules and directions which, as before
shown, would without any great error, point out the times of the first day of the
38 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
moon, would with equal certainty point out the 14th, 15th, or any other: and
thus the times of the oppositions, or the full moons, might be as well marked
out, as those of the conjunctions or the new moons.
The method now used in England, for finding the 14th day of the moon, or
the ecclesiastical full moon, on which Easter depends, is by process of time be-
come considerably erroneous : as the golden numbers, which were placed in the
calendar to point out the days on which the new moons fall in those years of
which they are respectively the golden numbers, now stand several days later in
the same than those new moons really happen. Which error, as before ob-
served, arises from the anticipation of the moons since the time of the council of
Nice: and as the vernal equinox has also anticipated 11 days since that time;
neither that equinox, nor the new moons, now happen on those days on which
the church of England supposes them so to happen.
When pope Gregory the 13th reformed the Julian solar year, he also made a
correction as to the time of celebrating the feast of Easter, by placing the epacts
(which he directed to be used for the future instead of the golden numbers)
much nearer to the true times of the new moons, than the golden numbers then
stood in the old calendar : he says, much nearer to the true times ; because in
fact the epacts, as placed by him, were not prefixed to the exact days on which
the new moons then truly fell. And this was done with design, and for a reason
which it is not material to the purpose of this paper to mention.
But the church of England, and that of Rome or the Gregorians, still agree
in this ; that both of them mark (the former by the golden numbers, and the
latter by the epacts corresponding to them) the days on which their ecclesiastical
new moons are supposed to happen: and that 14 th day of the moon inclusive,
or that full moon, which falls upon, or next after, the 1 1 st day of March, is the
Paschal limit or full moon to both : and the Sunday next following that limit, or
fiill moon, is by both churches celebrated as Easter-day. But the 21st of March
being reckoned, according to the Gregorian account or the new style, 1 1 days
sooner than by the Julian account or the old style, which is still in use among
us ; and their ecclesiastical new moons being 3 days earlier than those of the
church of England; it happens that though the church of England and that of
Rome often do, yet more frequently they do not, celebrate the feast of Easter
on the same natural day.
It might however be easier for both, and could occasion no inconvenience,
now that almanacs, which tell the exact times of the new moons, are in most
people's hands; if all the golden numbers and epacts now prefixed to those days
of the calendar, in our book of Common Prayer, and in the Roman breviary, on
which the respective ecclesiastical new moons happen, were omitted in the places
where they now stand; and were set only against those I4th days of the moon.
TOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SQ
or those full moons, which happen between the 2 1st day of March and the 18th
of April, both inclusive. Since no 14th day or full moon, which happens before
the 21st of March, or after the 18th day of April, can have any share in fixing
the time of Easter. By which means the trouble of counting to the 14th day,
and the mistakes which sometimes arise from it, would be avoided. We do as
yet in England follow the Julian account or the old style in the civil year; as also
the old method of finding those moons on which Easter depends, both of which
have been shown to be very erroneous.
If therefore this nation should ever judge it proper to correct the civil year,
and to make it conformable to that of the Gregorians, it would surely be advise-
able to correct the time of the celebration of the feast of Easter also, and to
bring it to the same day on which it is kept and solemnized by the inhabitants
of the greatest part of Europe, that is, by those who follow the Gregorian ac-
count. For though their method of finding the time of Easter is not quite ex
act, but is liable to some errors: yet all other practicable methods of doing it
would be so too; and if they were more free from error, they would probably be
more intricate, and harder to be understood by numbers of people, than the
method of determining that feast either by a cycle of epacts, as is practised by
the Gregorians, or by that of IQ years or the golden numbers, in the manner
proposed in the following part of this paper: and it is of no small importance,
that a matter of so general a concern, as the method of finding Easter is, should
be within the reach of the generality of mankind, at least as far as the nature of
the thing will admit.
For which reason, in case the legislature of this country should, before the
year IQOO, think fit to make our civil year correspond with that of the Grego-
rians, and also to celebrate all the future feasts of Easter on the same days on
which they celebrate them; this last particular might be easily effected, without
altering the rule of the church of England for the finding of that feast; and this
only by advancing the golden numbers, prefixed to certain days in the calendar,
8 days forwarder for the new moons, or 21 days forwarder for the 14th days or
full moons, than they now stand in our calendar.
In order to explain this, it must be observed, that the Gregorian account, or
the new style, is 1 1 days forwarder than the Julian account or the old style,
which we still make use of; that is, the last day of any of our months, is the
nth day of their next succeeding month. If therefore their ecclesiastical new
moons fell on the same days with those of the church of England, the golden
number 14, which now stands against the last day of February in our, that is
the Julian calendar, should, when we should have adopted the Gregorian calendar
be prefixed to the 1 1th day of March. But since their ecclesiastical new moons
happen 3 days earlier than our ecclesiastical new moons at present do; so much
40 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
should be deducted from those 1 1 days, by which the golden numbers ought
otherwise to be advanced; and the golden number 14 should not be placed against
the 11th, but the 8th day of March; which being reckoned the first day of the
moon, if we count on to the 14th day of the same inclusive, that would be
found to fall on the 21st day of March; on which day the Gregorian paschal
limit or full moon will happen, when the golden number is 14. And the like
course should be taken with the rest of the IQ golden numbers ; which ought to
be placed 8 days forwarder than they now stand, if they are to point out the new
moon; or 21 days forwarder than they are at present, if they are to mark the
14th day of the moon, or the full moon ; the latter of which, as has been shown,
would be more eligible, than to prefix those numbers to the days on which the
new moons happen.
Thus may the rule and method now used in the church of England, be most
easily adapted to show the time of Easter, as it is observed by the Gregorians,
till the year IQOO; at which time, and at the other proper succeeding times, if
the golden numbers in the calendar shall either be advanced or set backward a
day, according to the foregoing rules and directions for that purpose, they will
continue to show the new or the full moons of the church of Rome, or the Gre-
gorian calendar, with great exactness, till the year 4199: when, as has been
already mentioned, there must be a little variation made in those rules and direc-
tions. There is however one exception to those general rules and directions,
which will be taken notice of in the next paragraph.
On these principles is framed the table accompanying this paper, and showing,
by means of the golden numbers, all the Gregorian paschal limits or full moons,
from the reformation of the calendar, &c. by pope Gregory, to the year 41 99
inclusive. Which space of time is there divided into 1 6 unequal portions or
periods; at the beginning of each of which, all the golden numbers, when once
they shall have been properly placed in the calendar, must either be advanced or
set back 1 day, with respect to the place where they stood in the preceding period,
agreeably to the foregoing rules; except those numbers which shall happen to
stand against the 4th and 5 th of April, to show the paschal new moons, or
against the 17th or 18th of the same month to mark out the paschal full moons;
both which numbers at some times, and only one of them at others, must
keep the same place for that which was allotted to them in the immediately pre-
ceding period.
In order to determine at what times, and on what occasions, this exception is
to take place; let it be observed, that in the months of January, March, May,
and some others in our present calendar, as well as in the table above-mentioned,
some of the golden numbers stand double or in pairs, and follow one the other
immediately: while others, on the contrary, generally stand single and by them-
VOL. XLVI.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIOMS. 41
selves. Now, when any of those pairs, or two numbers which usually accom-
pany each other, happen, in pursuance of the foregoing rules, to be prefixed the
one to the 4th and the other to the 5th of April for the new moons, or the one
to the 17 th and the other to the 1 8th of April for the paschal limits or full
moons; and when any of those numbers, which generally stand single, are pre-
fixed, according to the said rules, to the 5th of April for the new moons, or to
the 18th for the full moons; in these cases those pairs or single numbers that
are so situated, must not be set forward, or advanced at the beginning of the
next period, but must keep their places during another period, if the foregoing
rules direct all the golden numbers to be advanced a day; which must be com-
plied with in respect to all the other golden numbers, except those so situated as
above. Instances of which may be seen in the table, under the respective periods
beginning with the years 19OO, 2600, 3100, and 3800. But if, in conformity
to the foregoing rules, all the golden numbers are to be set one day backward,
those pairs or single numbers, though situated as above-mentioned, must not
keep their places, but must move one day backward, like all the other golden
numbers; as they may be seen to do in the periods beginning with the years 2400
and 3600.
VOL. X. G
4'2
PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS.
[anno 1750.
A Table showing, by means of the golden numbers, the several days on
which the Paschal limits or full moons, according to the Gregorian account,
have already happened, or will hereafter happen ; from the reformation of the
calendar a.d. 1582, to the year 41 99 inclusive.
Golden Numbers from the Year 1583 to 1699, anc"
I so on to 4199,
all inclusive.
Paschal
full Moons.
1583 1700
1900
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2900
3100
3400
3500
3000
3700
3800
4100
Days of the
to to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
Month, and
1699 i»99
21.Q9
2299
6
2399
17
2499
2599
2899
3099
9
3399
3499
I
3599
12
36'99
1
3799
12
4099
4J99
4
Sund. letters.
3
14
6
17
Mar. 21. c
,
3
14
6
.
6
17
,
9
1
1
12
,
.... 22. D
11
3
14
,
14
.
6
17
.
'9
.
9
,
1
12
23. E
,
11
,
3
14
3
14
,
6
17
.
9
•
9
,
1
24. F
19
,
U
,
3
3
14
,
6
17
17
,
9
25. G
8
19
11
U
,
3
14
.
6"
17
6
17
'9
. . . . 26. A
,
8
19
,
11
,
u
,
3
14
,
6
.
6
17
27. B
16
8
19
19
.
11
,
3
14
.
14
6
17
28. c
5
I'e
.
8
19
8
19
,
11
.
3
14
3
14
6
.... 29. D
,
5
16
, ■
8
,
8
19
,
11
3
.
3
14
.
... 30. E
13
,
5
16
,
16
,
8
19
.
11
.
11
,
3
14
.... 31. F
2
13
,
5
16
5
16
8
19
•
11
.
11
3
Apr. 1. G
,
2
13
.
5
,
5
16
.
8
19
,
19
11
.... 2. A
10
.
2
13
,
13
,
5
16
,
8
19
8
19
,
11
.... 3. B
,
10
,
2
13
2
13
,
5
16
,
8
.
8
19
,
. . . . 4. c
18
10
,
2
.
2
13
,
5
16
,
16
,
8
19
. . . . 5. 0
7
18
,
10
•
10
,
2
13
,
5
16
5
16
,
8
.... 6. E
7
18
,
10
,
10
2
13
,
5
,
5
16
. ... 7. F
15
,
7
18
,
18
,
10
,
2
13
,
13
5
16
8. G
4
15
7
18
7
18
10
,
2
13
2
13
,
5
. . . . 9. A
4
15
,
7
.
7
18
10
2
•
2
13
,
10. B
12
,
4
15
,
15
.
7
18
,
10
.
10
,
2
13
11. C
1
12
4
15
4
15
,
7
18
.
10
10
2
.... 12. D
1
12
4
4
15
.
7
18
18
,
10
,
.... 13. E
9
,
1
12
.
12
,
4
15
,
7
18
7
18
10
. ... 14. F
9
.
1
12
1
12
,
4
15
.
7
7
18
,
15. G
17
9
.
1
,
1
12
4
15
15
.
7
18
.... 16. A
6
17
17
9
9
,
,
12
12
4
15
4
15
15
7
.... 17. B
14
6
6
17
9
17
9
9
1
1
12
4
12
4
4
15
. . . . 18. c
... Ii9. D
... 20. E
.... 21. F
22. G
. .. 23. A
24. B
25. c
To find the day on which the Paschal limit or full moon fells in any given yearj look, in the
column of golden numbers belonging to that period of time in which the given year is contained, for
the golden number of that year ; over-against which, in the same line, continued to the column
entitled Paschal full moons, you will find the day of the month, on which the Paschal limit or full
moon happens in that year. And the Sunday next after that day is Easter day in that year, according
to the Gregorian account
YOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 43
0/ the Morbus Strangulat onus. By John Starr, M.D. N° 495, p. 435.
Dr. S. mentions, that there had been raging in the neighbourhood of Liskard
for some time previous to Jan. 10, 1749, (the date when this account was written)
a disease formidable in its advances, and fatal in its consequences, viz. an occult an-
gina, called with some propriety morbus strangulatorius. Dr.Fothergill's sore throat
with ulcers, and Dr. Cotton's St. Alban's scarlet fever, &c. are in his opinion but
its shadows. None practising in those parts have reason to boast their success in
attempting its cure. The way to cure disorders is first to know them. Where
the deviations of nature are hidden, where we cannot discern how and in what
manner the distressed functions suffer, the art of healing must have its difficulties.
The sudden, and indeed unexpected death of some patients greatly alarmed him*
He concluded the cause deeper than at first imagined. The case herewith sent,
confirmed his conjecture. It is extraordinary and uncommon. Does (he asks)
medical history afford its like? it is possible it may, but it had not fallen within
the compass of his reading, or study. Tulpius's Observation, lib. iv. cap. ix. falls
vastly short of it.
The morbus strangulatorius, with great propriety and justice thus denominated,
had a few years before reigned in several parts of Cornwall with great severity.
Many parishes had felt its cruelty, and whole families of children, whence its
contagious nature was but too evident, had, by its successive attacks, been swept
off. Few, very few, had escaped. The disorder did not appear with the same
train of symptoms in every subject. On the contrary, a vast difference was ob-
servable; but then whatever, or how various soever, the symptoms might be,
there was a certain degree of malignity, or signs of a putrid disposition of the
juices, in all.
Some, he was informed, had had corrosive pustules in the groin, and about
the anus, eating quick and deep, and threatening mortification, even in the be«
ginning. Others after a few days illness had numbers of the worst and deepest
petechiae break out in various parts of their body. Such he had not seen. Many
on the first attack had complained of swellings of the glands, as tonsils, parotids,
submaxillary and sublingual glands, but frequently of no great importance. A
few, from an internal tumour, had a large external oedematous swelling of the
subcutaneous and cellular tunic, from the chin down to the thyroid gland, and
up the side of the face. One such he was concerned with, the tumour broke in
the fauces ; but, instead of a laudable pus, some ounces of a coftee-coloured ex
ceedingly fetid matter were spit off. The man recovered. As respiration only
suffered here by pressure, he rather chose to call this a malignant angina, than
the true morbus strangulatorius.
Not a few early in the disorder had gangrenous sloughs formed in their
G 2
44 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO J750.
mouths, and perhaps so early in some, that the disorder was scarcely complained
of, till the slough was formed, so quick had it been in its progress. Others
again, without any of the preceding symptoms, had only complained of a slight
pain in swallowing, succeeded with a hot flesh, feverish pulse, never quick and
weak, but as to the stroke quick, and sufficiently full and strong, a short, low,
becking, hoarse cough, the patient generally so hoarse as to be difficultly under-
stood after a day or two's illness, which sooner or later, for he never could ob-
serve any certain period, was productive of a difficult, noisy, and strangulating
respiration. These last, especially the former of them, he esteems as the pathog-
nomonic symptoms of the real morbus strangiilatorius : the above-mentioned
were rather symptomata causae, quam morbi.
He had not mentioned a foetor oris, which, when it happened, was usually an
early symptom, because, though some had it, others had it not.
This respiration, however agonizing it appeared, had, especially in the begin-
ning, its remissions and exacerbations. Its cause could not of course be perma-
nent. He took it to be owing to a lodgement of some matter in or about the
glottis, and larynx, through which the inspired air is obliged to pass ; while this
matter was capable of being expectorated, and happened to be coughed off, the
breathing for a time became free, and the patient' was delivered from the utmost
seeming distress ; but, on its recollection, which, if the progress of the disorder
could not be stopped, never failed to happen, this symptom again occurred, and
the patient either died suddenly, or being worn out, or quite dispirited, sank
away gradually, or, falling into convulsions, in these expired.
He was called to a girl of 5 years old. Her tongue was quite clean ; she could
move it every way as in health. Nothing morbid was seen in her mouth, or
indeed fauces: she had a trifling pain in swallowing, it was felt on depressing
the epiglottis for the passing the bole, not sufficient to prevent her from eating
bread and butter, biscuit, figs. It was on the 4th day of her disorder she had
the strangulating respiration, with a cough exceedingly hoarse. After the use of
a stimulating gargle, &c. her cough became stronger, and she threw off a large
quantity of white rotten flesh, or membranes, mixed with a slimy adhesive
matter; her respiration became so easy, that she seemed to ail nothing. In 3
hours it grew again difficult, and gradually increased till it arrived at its former
violence. Those about her fancied there was somewhat in the passage which
ought to come off: the child gargled, and provoked her cough as far as she was
able, but in vain. Her agonies increasing, she said, as well as she was able
" I shall be choaked," and in a few minutes died. This case shocked Dr. S.,
being satisfied, that somewhat very extraordinary and uncommon could only occa-
'Sion so sudden, and seemingly, violent a death.
He had frequently examined the matter those patients had at times spit.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 45
Though there was some difference in various subjects, yet he never once saw a
well-digested or concocted phlegm, or mucus: on the contrary, the greatest part
was of a jelly-like nature, glary, and somewhat transparent, mixed with a white
opaque thready matter, sometimes more, sometimes less, resembling a rotten
membranous body or slough. Such a slough he had seen generated on the skin
of one of these patients in the neck and arm, where blisters had been before ap-
plied. The blisters had been dressed with colewort leaves, and ran but little;
but, contiguous to them, small red pustules, not exceedingly fiery, arose, which,
sweating plentifully in a few hours, became quite white; these, hourly enlarging
their bases, united, and covered a large surface, fresh pustules arising in the
adjacent parts. This white surface had the aspect of an oversoaked membrane,
which, being oversoaked, was become absolutely rotten. The part blistered, if
not quite, was in effect dry, and the flux from the slough was incredibly great.
If he mistook not, clothes 10 times double, the child's shift, a double bed-gown,
were wet quite through, and a large spot was seen in the bed of some hands
breadth, and this in a very few hours. He scratched the slough with his nail ; it
separated with ease, and without being felt by the child. What , his nails took
off afforded the same appearance with the matter of the spittle before-mentioned.
Hence, he thought, he saw sufficient reason to convince him that the disorder in
the larynx and aspera arteria was similar to this, generated in the same manner,
and arising from the same internal cause; and supposing this conjecture true, the
production of every symptom seems easy to be accounted for.
Dea 1748, while the morbus strangulatorius was at Liskard, a child here and
there had red pustules, not unlike the above, which broke out in the nape of
the neck, and threw off a surprising quantity of thin transparent ichor, vastly
glutinous when dry. These were easily cured in the beginning, if managed
aright; but, being drawn with colewort leaves, or poulticed according to the direc-
tion of our old female practitioners, the above mentioned slough was soon gene-
rated. Dr. S. was desired to look on a poor person's child in this unhappy situa-
tion, who, with little intermission for near 2 days, had bled profusely at the
nose; her pulse was almost gone; the bleeding was with difficulty stopped; but,
being quite exhausted, in about 6 hours she sunk in a faint fit. The slough
had spread from shoulder to shoulder, extended full a third down her back,
and seemed very thick. All treated in the above manner died. Scarifying af-
forded no relief.
Now, though this was not properly the morbus strangulatorius, yet he appre-
hends it was analogous to it, and produced from the same cause; and it is likely,
had the anatomical knife been employed, what was seen on the back of one
might have been discovered in the aspera arteria of the other. There is a cir-
cumstance which adds to the probability of this opinion, viz. in one or more in-
46 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
stances, these different disorders appeared in different subjects, in the same family,
at the same time.
What he had hitherto said, did not demonstrate the case to be as represented,
but the following history throws the strongest light on this dark, mysterious
affair, renders the disorder, by its consequences affrightful, even shocking to tlie
imagination, accounts for its too common fatality, and must prove the great
difficulty of the cure, if in itself possible, unless attempted with judgment in the
very beginning.
Dec. 11,. 1749, he was called to the son of Mr. Kitto, an honest and deserv-
ing farmer in the parish of St. Eve, a lad aged 10^ years. This was the 7th day
of his illness. His first complaints were, a pain in swallowing, not great; a
cough, hoarse, vexatious, like an incipient catarrh, a pain on coughing shot into
his ears. This was still felt at times; a thin ichor ran from his mouth, in great
plenty, supposed to be a quart, or 3 pints daily. His pain in swallowing was now
so trifling, that the Dr. saw him drink a considerable draught without removing
the vessel. He was now so hoarse that he could scarcely be heard. His cough was
rough, low, short, and ineffectual; breathed with much straitness and noise,
especially in inspiration ; the wheezing or rattling might be heard at a great dis-
tance, was always worse during a coughing fit, or for a short time after. When
he spit by the cough, it was glary, but glutinous; a whitish rotten sort of stuff
would sometimes accompany it ; its quantity never great.
Examining his mouth, he could move his tongue every way without the least
pain; forward it was clean, but behind a little furred. Depressing it with a spa-
tula, a white body was seen on the velum pendulum palatinum and tonsils. Dr.
S. desired Mr. Scotchburn, a surgeon present, to examine with his forceps, if
this body adhered firmly to the velum, or was loose ; on trial he found it strongly
adhered. The lad complained of no pain on his taking hold of it. The circum-
ambient parts of a somewhat deeper red than natural; his breath stinking, and
highly offensive. He was but little thirsty, pulse quick, but sufficiently strong;
slept but little; what sleep he had was disturbed; he breathed much better up
than in bed; here he was always in danger of suffocation, and feared it.
After pronouncing a prognostic disagreeable to himself, and all concerned, the
Dr. ordered the slough, as he then thought it, to be well rubbed once in 3 hours
a mixture acuated with spir. sal. marin. by means of a silver probe armed with
cotton, after which, an astringent, detergent, antiseptic gargle was to be fre-
quently used, and a cordial mixture to be taken at proper intervals.
After rubbing with the probe, &c. twice, and gargling often, in a violent fit
of coughing with a deal of slimy filthy stuff from the pipe of the lungs, an irre-
gular membrane separated from the velum palatinum. It was really the external
and mucous coat of the part, was not rotten like a slough, but retained, though
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 47
dead, its membranous structure, was strong, would bear liandling, and stretch-
ing without breaking. It was at first thick, having its fibres and cavities soaked
with a very viscid and slimy matter, which, by washing in water, leaked off,
when the membrane became evidently thinner. The lad immediately, it seems,
breathed better, without that noise and wheezing heard before, and was less
hoarse; not, he thinks, from the separation of the membrane, but from that
load of filth discharged at the same point of time from the distressed respiratory
passages.
But, as usual, this relief did not prove lasting. In li hour the noisy respi-
ration began anew, his hoarseness increased, and his cough, though short and
low, was busy and vexatious; now he appeared as if quite strangled, and in the
agonies of death; now he would again revive; for a few days he was interchange-
ably in these different states; at length his father perceiving somewhat in his
mouth which he thought thick phlegm, thrust in his finger and thumb, and,
taking hold of it, drew it out. It was a hollow bag, as he thought, filled with
rot and corruption, for a considerable quantity ran out of it. It was, when full,
he said, as thick as his thumb, and of many inches in length. The agonies of
the child, during these moments, were not to be expressed; his face was livid
or black; but, being freed from this burthen, he soon revived, smiled, and said,
" now I am easy." Being put to bed, he soon slept, and continued to have short
naps for 2 hours.
Dr. S. got to the house, being sent for in the beginning of the lad's extremity,
a few minutes after the affair was thus concluded. The account greatly surprised
him; but he was more surprised, when, on sight, he found the supposed bag
was the mucous coat of part of the larynx, the whole aspera arteria, with the
grand division of the bronchial ramifications. He spread it on paper, for the
conveniency of carriage, being some miles from home, and thence took its like-
ness with great exactness. There was something bloody visible about its middle.
It was more rotten and tender than the former, also somewhat thicker, excepting
where it belonged to the branches of the bronchia. What sweated from it was
as sticking as bird-lime. It is probable this morbid affection ran through the
whole bronchia ; for the ends plainly discovered a laceration ; consequently much
more remained to be separated and discharged.
He now complained of soreness in the pipe, and pointed to the first and second
eosta, as the place of its termination. His inspiration was now free, soft, but
short; his pulse was become a little more frequent and weaker. Examining his
mouth, no ulcer or wound was discernible in that part of the velum, &c. It was
smooth, clean, and looked only like a new skin not quite hardened. While the
Dr. was in the house, he spit off" another membrane of an irregular figure, thin-
ner than either of the former, but more than sufficient to cover a crown-piece.
48 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
It came from the fauces. After this he was informed he brought off with diffi-
culty another tubular membrane of some length ; and whenever he had strength
to expectorate, little bits of the same were observed mixed with a very slimy
mucus. He lived 2 1 hours after the second coat was drawn from him, and died
in the end somewhat suddenly, though in his perfect senses. Dr. S. adds, that
he never saw one in this disorder attacked with a delirium.*
Of the Strength of several of the principal Purging Waters, especially of that
of Jessop's fVell. By the Rev. Ste. Hales, D. D. and F. R. S. IViih a
Letter from Swithin Adee, M. D., F. R.S. on the Virtues of the said [Fell,
N° 495, p. 446.
An account of the several quantities of sediment which were found in a
pound Avoirdupois of the following purging waters, evaporated away to dryness,
in Florence flasks, cut to a wide mouth; viz.
Marybone fields, near London, 24 grains. Peter-street brewhouse, Westminster,
27; Ebsham 34; Scarborough 40; — And it was found nearly the same by Dr.
Shaw and Dr. Short: a little more or less according to the wetness or dryness of
the seasons, y.,- of this in calcareous matter; the rest, mostly what is called
nitrous salts, on account of the oblong crystals which it shoots into. — Dog and
Duck, Lambeth 40-^ grains; Kilbum, 4 miles from London, in the way to
Edgeware 43; Acton 44; Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, 60.
Dr. Short found the following proportions in Cheltenham water, viz. — Sept.
1738, calcareous sediment -r4.-5- of 74 grains; Dec. 1738, -^of42; July 1739,
TT "^ 70 ; He says it is the best and strongest nitro calcareous water in England,
very bitter, having only a little subtile impalpable earth, mixed with its salt.
Cobham well, a mile south of Church Cobham, Surrey, once 68 grains, ano-
ther time 60 grains.
Jessop's well, on Stoke Common, in Mr. Vincent's manor, about 3 miles
southward of Claremont, Surrey, Sept. 11, 1749, after long dry weather, 82
grains in a pound of the surface water; Oct. 16, after a considerable quantity of
rain, the surface water yielded but 60 grains. Nov. 21, the surface water yielded
65 grains.
This great inequality of the strength of the surface-water put him upon trying
whether the water at the bottom of the well, near the springs, were stronger
than the surface-water. And he found that the lower water yielded 82 grains,
the surface-water only 48 grains; and it was the same on a second evaporation of
* The case last described was evidently a case of cynanche trachealis or croup ; but some of the
preceding observations in Dr. Starr's paper, seem to relate to the cynanche maligna or gangrenous
sore throat.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 40
those waters. Hence we see how much stronger the water near the bottom is,
than at the surface ; even when the preceding rains have been but moderate ;
for they had not as yet been sufficient to raise the springs in this country much.
Hence we see that the stronger lower water may easily be come at by means of a
pump ; as also, that the upper land springs, soon after rains, make the water
near the surface weaker : but, in long dry weather, when there are no land-
springs, the surface-water, and that at the bottom, are nearly of an equal
strength : for it requires time for the saline mineral virtue to be equally diffused
through a mass of that depth of water, whose upper part is incessantly weakened
by a land-spring of fresh water. Hence we see how adviseable it is, in order to
keep out the land-springs, to dig a narrow trench some feet depth, round the
well, to be filled with stiff clay well rammed.
The mineral virtue in this water seems to be much like that of Cheltenham,
in its shooting into very bitter, regular, oblong crystals, which are, on that ac-
count, called nitrous; though they are not a true nitre; for neither these, nor
those of Cheltenham, will deflagrate or flash in touch-paper, nor on burning
charcoal, as true nitre will do; some of which will retain their form and firmness
for 1 7 months after being crystallized ; whereas the crystallized salts of several other
purging waters have crumbled, and in a great measure wasted away in much less
time : a greater proportion of the salts of Jessop's well shoot into oblong crys-
tals, than those of Cheltenham , and its water also gives a stronger green tinc-
ture, with violet-flowers. The purging quality resides chiefly in these crys-
talline salts, and a small proportion of common salt ; some of which there is in
all these mineral waters.
The proportion also of its earthy calcareous matter, is but -pf.,- part of it ;
which, like that of Cheltenham, is but little, in comparison of the much greater
quantity of it in other purging waters : it is also soft and impalpable, like that
of Cheltenham, and not harsh and coarse, as it is in some other purging waters.
And as the quantity of purging salt in this water is considerably greater than
in any other, so it is found by experience, that proportionably a less quantity of
it suffices, which makes it sit the better on the stomach. It is also observed to
exhilarate those who take it.
It was observable of the sediment of several of these waters, that when dried,
and while hot, there ascended plenty of invisible volatile salt fumes, so pungent
that the nose could not bear them. Hence we may reasonably conclude, that
the waters which abound most with purging salts, such as those of Jessop's well,
should be proportionably preferable to weaker waters, which are strengthened by
boiling half away ; by which not only the more subtile active parts are evapo-
rated ; but those that are left are decompounded, and formed into new grossed
combinations ; as are also the calcareous particles, which are so fine as to pass
VOL. X. H
50 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
the filter before evaporation, but not after it. This was the reason which in-
duced him to examine, by various repeated trials, and to give an account of the
superior strength of Jessop's well water, above all others that he had examined
or heard of.
When Jessop's well was cleaned, Oct. l6, 1/49, after a considerable quantity
of rain, after about half a foot depth of black muddy filth was taken out, then
the natural fat sandy-coloured clay-bottom appeared ; through several parts of
which the water oozed up at the rate of l6o gallons in 24 hours.
The water which then came fr-esh from the spring gave a weak blush with
galls ; but when put into bottles it did not do so next day ; a sign that there is
some degree of steel in it.
It was very observable, that the man who stood about 3 hours bare-legged
in this well-water to clean it, was purged so severely for a week, that he said he
would not venture, on any account, thus to clean the well again. And it was
the same with another man, who cleaned the same well about ] 2 years since.
And he was credibly informed by a merchant, that being in a warehouse in
Egypt to see senna baled up, it had the like purgative effect on him.
To get a satisfactory account of the efficacy of these waters, he desired Dr.
Adee of Guildford, who has long prescribed them to his patients, to give his
opinion of them ; which he did as follows.
I have found very advantageous and uncommon effects from the use of the
waters of Jessop's well. Some of my patients, who have drank them steadily and
cautiously, have been cured of obstinate scurvies. As I had a long time ago
reason to think there was a fine volatile spirit in them, I obliged some to drink
them for a course of time at the well as an alterative, with very happy conse-
quences. When I have ordered them as a purge, they have worked verj-
smartlv, but have not dispirited. I am glad to have it in my power to confirm
your sentiments by my own observations ; and am satisfied these waters, if con-
tinued a proper time, and taken in a proper manner, may be rendered very be-
neficial to mankind.
Abstract of a Discourse intitled. Reflections on the Medals of Pescennius
Niger, and on some Circumstances in the History of his Life ; written in French
by Mr. Claude Gros de Boze, Keeper of the Medals in the French King's
Cabinet, &c. and sent by him to Dr. Mead, who communicated it to this So-
ciety. By John Ward, R. P. G., F.R.S. N° 495, p. 452.
The learned author begins his discourse with observing, that no medals of the
Roman emperors, who reigned during the high empire, are more rare, than
those of Pescennius Niger ; that they are somewhat scarcer in silver, than in
brass ; and that it is the general opinion of antiquaries, there is not one extant
TOL. XLVI.3 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTION. 51
in gold, though there have been counterfeits : as he shows from the account of
several authors on such coins.
In the years 1726 and 1727 he received accounts of one and the same gold
medal of Pescennius, as brought from 4 different quarters ; first from Spain,
then from Sicily, afterwards from Malta, and lastly from England. But he
found it to be false, as all others had done, who had seen it. It had been cast
from a silver one of that prince, on the reverse of which is the figure of the
goddess Hope ; with the inscription of bonae spei, which is the most common
of any. Those in the cabinets of Arschot and Saxe Gotha have likewise the
same reverse, and doubtless from the same origin. And the like disappointment
attended several other accounts.
At length in July 1748, Mr. de Boze had fresh encouragement to pursue his
inquir}' ; which he did with greater attention, and better success, than before.
A barefooted Carmelite of the convent of Paris shewed him a letter, which he
had received from one of his own order at Marseilles, who lately arrived from
the Levant, where he had been employed as a missionary. His correspondent
acquainted him, that he had a gold medal of Pescennius, which the curious at
Marseilles were desirous to purchase, and had offered him a considerable sum for
it ; but as he hoped to get more at Paris, especially if it was not in the king's
cabinet, he desired him to let him know that, as also what value Mr. de Boze
put upon it. His answer was, that he would certainly give a good price for it,
if it was ancient ; but that he could offer nothing, till he had seen it. The
owner therefore brought him the medal, which was fair, well preserved, and free
from any thing, which might occasion the least suspicion ; so that he valued it
considerably higher, than what had before been offered, and immediately pur-
chased it for the king.
Soon after he shewed it to the greatest connoisseurs and most curious persons
at Paris, who were charmed with the sight of so valuable and unexpected a
medal in the royal cabinet. And many both natives and foreigners being de-
sirous of a draught of it, he ordered it to be engraved ; together with a Greek
medallion in silver, no less rare in its kind, of the same emperor, which is also
in the same cabinet, having been purchased at London by Mr. Vaillant of Mr.
Falkner, father of Sir Everard. A print of both these pieces accompanies this
paper. See fig. 3, 4, pi. i.
The gold medal, fig 10, has on one side the head of Pescennius Niger crowned
with laurel, with this legend, imp caes c pesc niger ivstvs avg. And on
the reverse, the goddess Concord, represented by a female figure standing, with a
diadem on her head, one of her hands elevated, and a double horn of plenty in
the other ; and round the figure only the word concordia. For the letters pp
placed below in the field, on the 2 sides of the figure, being the usual abbre-
H 2
52 THILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. |^ANNO 1750.
viation of pater patriae, are to be considered as part of the inscription sur-
rounding the head of Pescennius.
^ Letter from Robert More, Esq.; containing several Curious Remarks in his
Travels through Italy. N° 495, p. 464.
Mr. M. thinks that travellers do not seem sufficiently to have considered the
force and effects of steam, which may be formed by springs of water falling on a
vast surface of the fluid lava, but talk too much of sulphur, deceived by the com-
plexion of a salt that covers the ground in some places there. In the Solfatara he
held a cold iron in the vent, and there ran down it a stream of water. When he
went down into the crater on the top of Vesuvius, it was full of smoke. Yet he
did not perceive it suffocating but thought it steam. What the guides call sul-
phur, when he got it home, ran per deliquium.
At Arienzo, a village half way to Beneventum, are coppice-woods, from which
they make manna. They are of the tree which our gardeners call the flowering
ash. The manna is procured by wounding the bark at the season, and catching
the sap in cups: it begins to run (they used the scripture term piovere, i. e. to
rain) the beginning of August ; and, if the season proves dry, they gather it 5
or 6 weeks. The king has a great revenue from it ; yet the tree grows as well
in England.
The fire among the snows, on the Apennines, he imagined to be of the same
sort with that about a little well at Brosely* in Shropshire; of which the Society
has had an account ; the same as of the foul air sent them from Sir James Low-
ther's-|- coal pits ; and the like made by a gentleman with filings of iron and oil
of vitriol. The flame when he saw it, was extremely bright, covered a surface
of about 3 yards by 1, and rose about 4 feet high. After great rains and snows,
they said, the whole bare patch, of about Q yards diameter, flames. The
gravel, out of which it rises, at a ver)' little depth, is quite cold. There are 3
of these fires in that neighbourhood ; and there was one they call extinct. He
went to the place to light it up again, and left it flaming. The middle of the
last place is a little hollowed, and had in it a puddle of water : there were strong
ebullitions of air through the water. But that air would not take fire; yet what
rose through the wet and cold gravel flamed brightly. Near either of these
flames, removing the surface of the gravel, that below would take fire from
lighted matches.
• See Pbilos. Trans. N" 482.— Orig. + N* 482, N°442.— Orig.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 58
Extract of a Letter from Mr. fVilliam Arderon, F.R.S. Containins, an Account
of a Lhvarf; ivith a Comparison of his Dimensions with those of a Child
under A Years old. Dated Norwich, May 12, 1750. By David Ershint
Baker. N° 405, p. 467.
John Coan, a dwarf, was born at Twitshall in Norfolk, in the year 1728,
and has been shewn in this city for some weeks past. Mr. A. weighed him
April 3, 1750, and his weight, with all his cloaths, was no more than 34 pounds.
He likewise carefully measured him, and found his height, with his hat, shoes,
and wig on, to be 38 inches. His limbs are no larger than a child of 3 or 4
years old : his body is perfectly straight : the lineaments of his face answerable
to his age ; and his brow has some wrinkles in it, when he looks attentively at
any thing. He has a good complexion, is of a sprightly temper, discourses
readily and pertinently considering his education, and reads and writes English
well. His speech is a little hollow, though not disagreeable ; he can sing tole-
rably, and amuses the company that come to see him, with mimicking of cock's
crowing, which he imitates very exactly. In 1744 he was 36 inches high, and
weighed 27 -^Ib. His father says, when about a year old he was as large as
children of that age usually are, but grew very little and slowly afterwards.
On receiving the account of this little man, a * child of 3 years and not quite
9 months old, son of the late very worthy William Jones, Esq. f. r. s. was
measured and weighed. This boy, though very lively and handsome, is no way
remarkable for his size ; and therefore his dimensions and weight, compared
with the dwarf's, may give a tolerable idea of the real smallness of the dwarf.
The weight of the dwarf, with all his cloaths on, was no more than 34lb.
The child's weight, with its cloaths likewise on, was 361b.
The height of the dwarf, with his shoes, hat, and wig on 3Q^ inches ; the
height of the child, without any thing on his head 37-Jg. inches ; and so propor-
tionably in all the other dimensions.
Concerning the Method of gathering Manna near Naples. By Robert More, Esq.
N°495, p. 470.
At Arienzo, a town between Naples and Benevento, he found an ash cop-
pice, of 8 or 10 years growth, from which they collect manna. It seemed to
have been tapped 2 years for that purpose ; the branches had been barked each
year about an inch broad, and 2 feet high ; but he was told this was done by
an inch at a time.
They place a cup at the bottom of the wound, which they empty every 5 days ;
• This child it would seem, must have been that celebrated character. Sir Wro. Jones, chief
judge in India.
54 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
and the liquor becomes manna. They formerly let it dry on the tree; but the
present way keeps it cleaner. The manna begins to run (they say in the scrip-
ture style to rain) the beginning of August ; and if the season proves dry, they
gather it 5 or 6 weeks. The king of Naples has so large a revenue from it, that
he is extremely jealous of it, and during the season he guards the woods by Sbirri,
who even fire on people that come into them, and he makes the stealing of the
liquor death. Mr. M. believes it to be what our gardeners call the flowering ash ;
the complexion of the bark and bud agrees with one of them he had in his garden
at Lindley. The man who shewed the wood said it bore a pretty flower in the
spring. At Pisa, in the physic garden, they shewed that tree in bloom as the
manna-ash. The tree is indeed common enough in that neighbourhood : the
Italians call it Orno. A botanist at Rome said it was the ornus ofiicinarum.* A
physician at Benevento to the same purpose, that it was the ornus used in me-
dicine.
Observations on the Northern Lights, seen Feb. 15 and \Q, 1749-50. By -John
Huxham, M. D., F. R. S. N° 495, p. 472.
Feb. 15, 1749-50, in the evening there was a very vivid northern light, which
darted forth several beautiful, crimson, and fiery-coloured rays ; wind n w b n 1,
barometer 30. 2 ; 50 minutes past 8 a surprizingly bright and exceedingly white
arch, about the breadth of a common rainbow, appeared in the heavens, ex-
tending nearly from east to west ; it reached within 5 or 6 degrees of the western
horizon, and ended about 8 or 10 above the eastern. It passed exactly between
Castor and Pollux, and directly over Aldebaran, which appeared plainly through
it. Near the top of the arch several very lucid, white, short, vibrating columns
were attached to it ; none of them seemed above 6 or 7 degrees long, and did
not appear to communicate in the least with the aurora borealis. About 9*^ 12™
the arch vanished ; but several white, bright, corruscating nubeculae remained
here and there in the zodiac for 1 2 or 15 minutes longer. The aurora borealis
continued more or less till midnight.
Feb. 16, about 7 p- m. was another aurora borealis, though not quite so fiery
and luminous as that of the night before : it continued till near 11. At S'' 56"^
p. m. exactly, such another arch appeared, very nearly of the same extent and
direction, but not altogether so broad or lucid. This at first also passed be-
tween the 2 bright stars of Gemini, but declined more and more to the south-
ward, till it was 2 or 3 degrees to the south of Pollux. Its western limb, about
9, passed through the north shoulder of Orion : it quite disappeared about 10 or
12 minutes after.
Of a Horse bitten by a Mad Dog. By John Starr, M. D. N" 495, p. 474.
Dec. 1, 1745, a neighbour's large mastift'dog, mad, broke out in the night
• Fraxinus Ornus, Lin. a more particular account of which is given in the 6oth vol. of these Trans.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 55
from the place where he was too carelessly confined ; and, by a rotten back win-
dow, entered Dr. S.'s stable, fell upon his horse, and bit him in many places,
as the shoulder, breast, and right nostril ; which was indeed much torn. He
bled largely. The town being early alarmed by this mad dog, and the horse
being found loose, his collar broke to pieces, wounded in many places, and
much blood scattered up and down the stable, it was too justly concluded the
dog had fallen upon him.
According to Desault's method, and what Dr. James said, in a letter Dr. S.
had from him on another occasion, would effectually prevent the ill consequences
of this bite ; he immediately ordered the wounds to be well rubbed with a mer-
curial ointment, ex axung. pore. jvj. argent, viv. jij. About §ij. were at
times expended. Next morning he was bled 2lb. or more ; after which he gave
him in milk* lichen ciner. terrest. 3vj. pip. nig. 5iiij. 5 mornings successively;
which he repeated at the end of a fortnight for 4 mornings more.
As the pulv. antilyssus was not in our shops, and no one in town knew the
lichen but himself, he went with his servant Sunday forenoon, the day of his
horse's misfortune, to seek it. What he found was, he fears too young ; for it
seemed just coming from the earth, and the leaves were scarcely one third as
large as its full growth. He got what he hoped might be sufficient ; and, after
cleansing, perhaps too hastily dried it at the fire, that it might be ready for use
the next day.
The wounds healed up soon, without any other application ; and the horse fed
uncommonly hearty after a day or 2, during which the fright had made him
uneasy and fretful, and seemed to improve considerably in every respect. He
omitted riding him for 20 days ; but about the 20th rode him 2 short journeys
only. He travelled chearful and brisk, and he took care not to heat him. He
saw him every day, but could in no respect discover any thing amiss.
Dec. 25, two days before the full moon, his servant told him, that in the
morning he trembled much on entering the horse-pool, and refused to drink at
the watering trough ; but in the evening drank heartily at another well. This
alarmed him ; but considering that horses frequently refuse to drink there, and
that he drank in the evening, he was somewhat easy ; but ordered the servant
if he refused next morning drinking at one, to try him at the other ; and if he
refused at both, to let him immediately know it.
Dec. 26, as soon as he entered the horse-pool, he trembled all over in a most
surprizing manner, and would by no means attempt to drink. The servant im-
mediately returned with him. Dr. S. ordered him to be led into a small pool of
rain water which stood in the court. The trembling returned ; every muscle
* See these Trans. N" 237, p. 49, anno 1697.— Orig.
56 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
was strangely agitated ; he looked as if he were melancholy on the water, smelt
to it, but would not touch it. Being put into the stable, a bucket of pure clean
water was brought to him; he eagerly thrust his mouth into the water, but,
endeavouring to suck it, a convulsion seized him.
Dr. S. was now satisfied he had a true aquae pavor. He was bled to about 3
pints, musk 3 ft. cinnab. ant. jj. made into a ball with cons, anthos was given
him. In bleeding he once snapt at the smith, though well known to him,
having shod him for years : and indeed this was the only time he attempted to
bite any one.
In about 1 hours after the musk was given him, Dr. S. offered him with his
own hands about 2 gallons of white water warm : he drank it off without the
least difficulty or hesitation. Had he dissolved in it 2 oz. of nitre, he had (he
thinks) done well.
Had the quantity of musk at first given been greater (for Dr. James writes,
that he gives the above quantity of the best musk in a watchfulness remaining
after a febrile delirium is removed,) or had Dr. S. now again repeated the same
ball, he was apt to think the horse might have been saved (this being the Ton-
quin method, even after the appearance of the hydrophobia ;) for he was as yet
quiet and tractable. He went to him as usual, handled him, and he behaved
as in his former health; he ate both hay and oats heartily. In the evening,
about 9 o'clock, more of the white water was offered him, but he drank none.
Dec. 27. This night the madness increased much ; for he had bitten the
manger as far as he could reach, and made it quite ragged. In the morning he
frequently bit his breast where the wound had been ; and when he happenol to
take hold, violently drew up the skin with his teeth. Both these things he did
during the day at times, but most in the morning. Dr. S. put a tub of water
before him ; he greedily ran his nose into it ; but, endeavouring to drink, a
dreadful convulsion seized him, which sometimes drew his buttock to the ground;
at others his back was so hollowed with it, that his belly was brought almost
down on the litter. During the convulsion he would groan in an affecting man-
ner ; and frequently cry out. As soon as the convulsion was over, he repeated
his endeavours to drink with the same cruel event ; and would, he believed, had
the water stood before him, have repeated it the whole day.
He still eat his allowance of hay and oats ; but when not eating, he was con-
tinually thrusting out his tongue, and working with his lips, as if to moisten
and cool them. His tongue was exceedingly dry, and of a blackish brown colour
on the surface. As he eat oats. Dr. S. sometimes lamented he had not mixed
turpeth. mineral, with them. He tried him with water about Q at night ; every
thing was as in the morning ; only the convulsion was stronger, if possible, and
more excruciating ; for he groaned deeper, louder, and in a more affecting tone.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 57
His breath was exceedingly hot ; it came from his nostrils like smoke from a
chimney top ; he expanded his nostrils as if he had been violently running ; and
the steam was visible for more than a yard distance.
Dec. 28. This night he broke his collar in pieces, broke down the partition
by which he was separated from the place of Dr. S.'s other horse, traversed the
stable, attempted to get out ; in order to which he beat down the under half of
the stable door; however, in the morning, being spoken to by the servant, he
neighed, immediately went to his place, where he stood biting his breast and
manger almost continually. His look was now become wild and furious, and
about 10 o'clock Dr. S. ordered him to be shot.
P. S. Dr. S. observed he was always worse, every symptom being aggravated
at the time the moon came to the meridian ; which again, as the day declined,
in some degree abated.
Of a Monstrous Fetus without any Distinction of Sex. By Job Baster, Acad.
Ca-s., F.R.S. N°495, p. 479.
A woman about the 7th month of her pregnancy, was delivered of a monstrous
child. The head was not of the natural round figure, but pointed at the top.
The right arm was well formed; but the radius and ulna of the left much shorter.
There was no appearance of any genital parts or anus : but instead the skin lay
in rolls, with much fat. From the middle of the belly proceeded one foot only,
ending as it were in one toe, but without a nail.
Experiments on Substances Resisting Putrefaction. By John Pringle,* M.D.,
F.R.S. N''495, p. 480.
Having been led to make some experiments and remarks on putrefaction, from
the accident of having had an uncommon number of putrid distempers under his
* Dr. (afterwards Sir) J. Pringle was descended from a good family in Scotland, where he was
born in 1707. He studied first at St. Andrew's, next at Edinburgh, and afterwards at Leyden,
where he attended the lectures of the celebrated Boerhaave, and took his degree of m. d. there in
1730. Not long afterwards he returned to Edinburgh. Here in 1734 he was appointed joint pro-
fessor of moral philosophy with Mr. Scott. Through the recommendation of Dr. Stevenson, he was
appointed, in 1742, physician to the Earl of Stair, who had the command of the British army that
was destined to co-operate with the allies in Flanders. This was the foundation of our author's sub-
sequent celebrity and fortune. He was afterwards made physician-general to the British forces in
the Low Countries, and physician also to the Duke of Cumberland, whom he attended in his expe-
dition against the rebels in Scotland. His services as army-physician ceasing at the peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle, Dr. P. occupied himself in writing his Observations on the Jail Fever, and in making ex-
periments on septic and anti-septic substances, which he communicated to the r. s., and for which
he was honoured with the Copleian medal. In 1752 he published his great work, the result of long
and diligent observation while he was attached as physician to the land forces, entitled Observations
on Diseases of the Army. This work has gone through numerous editions, and its value is too well
VOL. X. I
SfS PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
care in the hospitals of the army, Dr. P. ventured to lay before the Society what
he had found somewhat different from the common opinion, as well as some
facts, which, as far as he knew, had not been mentioned before.
1. Finding it a received notion, that bodies by putrefaction became highly
alkaline, he made the following experiments, to inquire how far this was the
iactl
The serum of human blood putrefied, made, with a solution of sublimate, first
a turbid mixture, and afterwards a precipitation. This is one of the tests of an
alkali, but scarcely to be admitted here ; since the same thing was done with
recent urine (of a person in health), which is never accounted alkaline. The
same serum did not tinge the syrup of violets green ; and made no effervescence
when the spirit of vitriol was poured on it. He made the experiment twice on
portions of different serum, both highly putrid; and once on water, in which
corrupted flesh had been some time infused ; and the most he could find was,
that, having given the syrup previously a small reddish cast with an acid, this
colour was rendered fainter, but not destroyed by the putrid humours; and as to
the effervescence, having dropped the spirit of vitriol into these liquors unmixed,
and also diluted with water, the mixture was quiet, and only a few air bubbles
established to need commendation here. It may be remarked however that in the treatment of scene
disorders lie resorted too freely to venesection, his partiality for which was doubtless to be ascribed to
the precepts of Boerhaave. In 1758 he was admitted a licentiate of the Lond. Coll. of Phys. Two or 3
years afterwards he was appointed physician to the queen's household. In 1763 he was made physician
extraordinary to her majesty, and in the same year he was elected a fellow of the Lond. Coll. of Phys.
In 1766 he was raised to the dignity of a baronet. He had been chosen f. r. s. in 1745. After he had
been one of the council of that learned body for several years, he had the honour in 1772, of being called
to the president's chair. In this situation he delivered, for a succession of years, some admirable discourses,
on presenting Sir G. Copley's gold medal to those members who had distinguished themselves by the
communication of important improvements and discoveries in science. These discourses were after-
wards printed at the request of the r. s. They are 6 in number, and were delivered on presenting the
aforesaid medals to Dr. Priestley, Mr. Walsh, Dr. Maskeleyne, astronomer royal, Mr. Mudge, and
Dr. Charles Hutton, mathematical professor at Woolwich, for their respective papers. The medal
for Captain Cook was assigned to him while he was out on his 3d voyage of discovery (1776), from
which he never returned. About !: years after his elevation to the presidency of the k.s. Sir J.
Pringle was appointed physician extraordinary to the king ; and various foreign academies had elected
him one of thefr members. In the midst of these honours his health began to decline, insomuch
that in 1778, finding the situation of president of the tt.s. to be attended with much inconvenience
and fatigue; he felt himself under the necessity of resigning the chair, and was succeeded in that
honourable situation by Sir Joseph Banks. After this Sir J. P. went to Scotland, and resided some
time at Edinburgh ; but deriving no benefit from this change, he again removed to London, whero
he died in 1782, being then in the 75th year of his age.
Had Sir J. Pringle's merits been confined to his profession, he would still have held a conspicuous
place in the list of British physicians ; but he possessed a mind capable of mastering more than one
"branch of science ; and if he was justly celebrated for his skill in physic, he was equally entitled to
distinction for his acquirements in philosophy. It is this union of general science with professional
jskill, that gives a physic ian the fairest title to respect and reward.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SQ
appeared on shaking the glasses. On the whole, though there were some marks
of a latent alkali in the putrid serum, they were so very faint, that one drop of
spirit of hartshorn in a quantity of water equal to that of the putrid liquors,
showed more of an alkali than 20 drops of any of the other.
2. It has been a maxim, that all animal substances, after putrefaction, being
distilled, send forth a great quantity of volatile salt in the first water ; but Mr.
Boyle (Nat. Hist, of Human Blood, vol. iv. p. 178, fol. ed.) found that this held
good only in urine ; and that in the distillation of the serum of human blood
putrefied, the liquor which first came over had little strength, either as to its
smell or taste, and did not at first effervesce with an acid. And here it may be
observed, that the chemists have generally applied those properties they discover
in urine, to all the humours indifferently; whereas in fact there is a great diver-
sity. For some animal substances, such as urine and bile, soon putrefy ; the
saliva and the white of an egg slowly. Yet those that soonest corrupt do not always
arrive at the highest degree of putrefaction. Thus the bile is soon corruptible,
but the rankness of it is not to be compared to that of flesh; and the white of an
egg is not only much less disposed to putrefy than the yolk, but, when corrupted,
yields a different and less offensive smell. And it seems particular to stale urine
to contain an alkaline salt, which, without distillation, makes a strong effer-
vescence with acids : whereas most other animal humours putrefied, though of a
more intolerable fetor, yet contain less volatile salt, less extricable, and not effer-
vescing with acids. But what makes the difference between stale urine and other
putrid substances still more specific, is its inoffensiveness with regard to health ;
while the steams of most other corrupted bodies are often the cause of putrid and
malignant diseases.
Now, on finding in urine a much greater quantity of volatile salt, and that
more easily separable than in any other humour, and that stale urine is the least
noxious of putrid animal substances, so far then from dreading the volatile al-
kali as the deleterious part of corrupted bodies, from this instance we may rather
infer it to be a sort of corrector of putrefaction.
3. Daily experience shows how harmless the volatiles are, both when smelled
to, or taken in substance ; but still there remains a prejudice, as if these salts,
being the produce of corruption, should therefore hasten putrefaction ; not only
in distempers where these salts are unwarily taken, but also in experiments out
of the body.
Now, as to the effects arising from the internal use of them, little can be said,
unless the kind of disease was precisely stated. For supposing they were by
their nature disposed to promote putrefaction ; yet if that is already begun, from
a languor of circulation, and obstruction, then may the volatiles, by their stimu-
lating and aperient quality, be the means of stopping its progress: and on the
i1
60 PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
Other hand, though they were really antiseptic, yet if the humours are disposed
to corrupt from excess of heat or motion, these very salts, by adding to the cause,
may augment the disease. So that, on the whole, it will be the fairest criterion
of the nature of these volatiles, to inquire, whether out of the body they accele-
rate or retard putrefaction.
In order to decide this question. Dr. P. made repeated experiments of joining
both the spirit and salt of hartshorn to various animal substances ; and had con-
stantly found, that so far from promoting putrefaction, they have evidently hin-
dered it ; and that with a power proportioned to their quantity. The trials have
been made with the serum of the blood, and also with the crassamentum, after
it had been dried by keeping. He once separated the thick inflammatory' crust
of pleuritic blood from the rest of the mass ; and dividing it, he put one portion
into distilled vinegar, the other into spirit of hartshorn ; and after keeping the
infusions above a month in the middle of summer, he found the piece which lay
in alkaline spirit as sound as that in the acid. Another time he put in one phial
about H oz of an equal mixture of ox's gall and water, with 100 drops of spirit
of hartshorn ; and in another as much of the gall and water without any spirit.
The phials, being corked, were set by a fire, so as to receive about the degree
of animal heat ; by which in less than 2 days, the mixture without the spirit be-
came putrid, but the other was not only then, but after 2 days longer, un-
tainted.
He afterwards infused 2 drs. of the lean of beef with 2 oz. of water and J- a
dr. of salt of hartshorn. Another phial contained as much flesh and water, with
a double quantity of sea-salt : in a 3d was the flesh and water only, to serve by
way of index. These phials were placed on a lamp-furnace, in a heat varying be-
tween 94 and 104 degrees of Fahrenheit's scale. About 18 hours after infusion
the contents of that phial which served as an index, were rank; and in a few
hours more that with the sea-salt was also putrid ; but the flesh with the volatile
alkali was sound, and continued so after standing 24 hours longer, in the same
degree of heat : and that the smell of the hartshorn might occasion no decep-
tion, the piece of flesh was washed from the salt, and still smelled sweet.
About the same time he took 3 pieces of fresh beef, of the same weight as
above ; and laying 2 of them in gallypots, he covered one with saw dust, and
the other with bran : but the 3d piece being strewed with salt of hartshorn
powdered he put into a 4-oz. phial which had a glass stopper. They were all 3
placed in the outside of a window exposed to the sun ; and the weather being
warm, on the 3d day the flesh in the gallypots began to smell ; on the 4th were
putrid. Next day the phial was examined ; when the flesh was washed from the
salt, and found quite sweet. It was then dried and salted again with hartshorn ;
and having stood in the house some weeks longer in sultry weather, it was looked
at a second time, and observed to be as sound as before ; neither was the sub-
\OL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 6l
stance at all dissolved, but was of such a consistence as might be expected from
common brine.* And lest it might be suspected, that the flesh in the gallypots
by being more exposed to the air than that in the phial, became sooner putrid,
he afterwards inclosed flesh in phials, as that with the hartshorn, and found the
confinement rather hasten the putrefaction.
Now, by these and many other experiments of the kind, finding that volatile
alkaline salts not only do not dispose animal substances to putrefaction out of the
body, but even prevent it, and that more powerfully than common sea-salt, we
may presume that the same taken by way of medicine, will, caeteris paribus,
prove antiseptic; at least we cannot justly suppose them corrupters of the hu-
mours more than fermented spirits or sea-salt ; which taken in immoderate quan-
tities may raise a fever, and thus accidentally be the occasion of corruption.
4. He had likewise made several experiments with the fixed alkaline salts, which
have no less antiseptic power than the volatile. The trials were made both with
the lie of tartar and salt of wormwood. But here we must not confound a dis-
agreeable smell of such mixtures, with one that is really putrid ; nor the power
those lixivials have of dissolving animal substances, with putrefactioni
5. From these experiments it was natural to conclude, since acids by them-
selves were amongst the most powerful antiseptics, and the alkaline salts were
likewise of that class, that the mixtures of the two to saturation would resist pu-
trefaction little less than the acid alone. But in the trials he made on flesh with
a spiritus mindereri, composed of vinegar saturated with salt of hartshorn, and
also with the juice of lemons saturated with the salt of wormwood, he found
the antiseptic virtue considerably less than when either the acids or alkalis were
used singly.
6. As for the comparative virtues of these salts on flesh, he found 4. oz. of
lemon-juice saturated with 1 scr. of the salt of wormwood resisted putrefaction,
nearly as much as 15 grains of nitre ; but when the trial was made with ox's gall,
2 drs. of this mixture were more antiseptic than 1 scr. of that salt. Again, nitre
compared with the dry neutral salts, weight for weight, is more antiseptic than
any, in preserving flesh he had yet tried. Crude sal ammoniac came next to it
and even exceeded it in the experiment with ox's gall. After these the sal diure-
ticus, tartarus solubilis, and tartarus vitriolatus, seemed to have nearly the
same power.
He had mixed vinegar with a large quantity both of chalk and crabs-eyes, in
order to neutralize it ; but, though seemingly saturated, by the effervescence
ceasing, it still retained an acidity, and was found much more antiseptic than
• The same piece after being kept dry a twelvemonth, was untainted, and as firm as at first. — Orig.
62 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
lemon juice neutralized with the salt of wormwood ; though this last acid be
considerably stronger than vinegar.
7. Thus far have we considered the common neutral salts; which, however
powerful in resisting putrefaction, are inferior to some resinous substances, and
even some vegetables which he had tried. Thus myrrh, *in a watery menstruum
was found at least 1 2 times more antiseptic than sea-salt. Two grains of cam-
phor, mixed with water, preserved flesh better than 6o grs. of that salt : and he
imagined, could the camphor be kept from flying ofi^, or concreting to the sides
of the phial, that i gr. or even less, would have sufficed. An infusion of a few
grs. of Virginian snake-root in powder, exceeded 12 times its weight of sea-salt.
Camomile flowers have nearly the same extraordinary quality. The Jesuits' bark
has it also ; and if he had not found it so strong as the two substances last men-
tioned, he imputes that in part to his not being able to extract its embalming
parts in plain water.
Now vegetables possessing this balsamic quality are the more valuable, in that,
being usually free of acrimony, they may be taken in much greater quantities
than either spirits, acids, resins, or even the neutral salts. And as in the great
variety of substances answering this purpose, there may be also some offensive or
useful qualities annexed, it may not be amiss perhaps to review some part of the
materia medica for this end.
He adds, that, besides this extraordinary power in preserving bodies, he had
discovered in some of these substances a sweetening or correcting quality, after
putrefaction had actually begun. But these experiments he should lay before the
Society some other time ; with a table of the comparative force of salts, and some
further remarks on the same subject.
y4n Attempt to explain an Ancient Greek Inscription, engraven on a Curious
Bronze Cup with 2 Handles, and published with a Draught of the Cup by Dr.
Pocoche, in his Description of the East, vol. ii. part 1, p. 207- By John IVard,
F.R.S. N''495, p. 488.
The diameter of the cup on the inside is about 13^ inches ; and the inscrip-
tion is placed round the upper side of the rim.
As jto the circular form of the inscription, we read in Pausanias of an instance
not very much unlike this. Iphitus king of Elis is said to have restored the
Olympic games, during which all hostilities ceased among the several states of
Peloponnesus. Throwing the discus or quoit was one of the exercises performed
in those games, and the discus of Iphitus was deposited in the temple of Juno at
Olympia ; on which the cessation of arms, always observed at that solemnity,
being engraved, was then publicly read. Which inscription, as the historian ob-
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOFHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 68
serves, was not cut in straight lines, but in the form of a circle. This inscrip-
tion Mr. Ward thinks may be thus read in the common Greek characters:
M N A
BAZIAErS M10PAAATHS EmATftP
T012 ENTOS TOr TrMNAZIOr Em ATOPISTAIS
rr<i>A vel rot<s>A aie2C2E.
In Latin thus:
Monumentum dedit
Rex Mithridates Eupator Eupatoridis
in gymnasio [vel intra gymnasium]
Gypha [vel Gupha] servavit.
The letters M N A stand by themselves over the rest, which are placed below
them in the form of a circle. And the situation of these 3 letters shows over what
words of the circular part they are placed.
Abstracts of several Observations of Aurora Boreales lately seen. By Mr. Henry
Baker, F.R.S. N° 405, p. 499.
On Tuesday, Jan. 23, 1750, some unusual appearances were observed in the
sky, at London, and the towns about it, by thousands of people during the
whole evening, of which some accounts were laid before the r.s. And as ap-
pearances of the like kind were observed in the heavens, the same evening, at
great distances from London, the following is a description of what was seen at
the city of Norwich by Mr. Wm. Arderon, f.r.s.; and also of what was observed
at Wells (a little sea-port town in the same county of Norfolk, about 30 miles
nearly due north from Norwich) by Mr. Joseph Sparshal, and sent by him to Mr.
Arderon.
This wonderful aurora began at 6 o'clock in the evening, at Norwich, with a
blackish cloud in the n. e., out of which sprang up a streak of scarlet-coloured
rays, of a surprizing beauty and vividness. This presently extended to within a
few degrees of the s.w. horizon, passing directly through the zenith, and so con-
tinuing near a quarter of an hour, when red and yellow columns began to rise
upwards from every quarter. At 7 o'clock a black cloud rose up in the s.e. and
quickly took a semicircular form, with light yellowish vapours ascending out of
its upper edge, and representing a glory of an uncommon brightness. At 8
o'clock the black cloud was dispersed, but the yellow glory remained ; and round
that sprang up another circle of red, which made the whole appear very tre-
mendous. The reddish streams, as well as this last mentioned circle were
sometimes s6 dense, that even stars of the first magnitude could not be seen
through them.
On Tuesday Jan. 23, the air at W^ was clear and serene during the great-
64 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
est part of the day, with a fresh breeze of wind at s.s.e. which terminated in an
evening extremely remarkable for appearances in the heavens of an uncommon
aurora borealia. At 15 minutes past 5, Mr. Sparshal noticed the foot of an
arch, which formed an angle of about 10° with the n.e. part of the horizon.
This arch shot out pointed streams like pyramids, of a fiery red colour, which
generally ascended within a few degrees of the zenith, then vanished, and were
immediately succeeded by others, from the n.e., where the principal magazine
seemed to be. They continually shifted towards the e. and s.w. with sudden
flashings and dartings ; but towards the west the appearances seldom altered. At
30 minutes past 5, a luminous stream, of a bright flame-colour, shot up on the
N. side of the fiery arch, which still kept somewhat of that form, though fre-
quently interrupted by shooting flashes from the n. e. At 40 minutes past 5,
there appeared suddenly in the n.e. an elliptical corona, of an amazing bright-
ness, elevated about 9° above the horizon, and having its longest diameter
parallel to it. There shot up perpendicularly from this streams resembling
columns of fliime intermixed with others of bright red. And so on, for various '
other curious appearances.
At the beginning of these lights the mercury stood at 29.9, but quickly fell
to 29.8. The wind at s.e. During part of the time there was an uncommon
motion in the magnetic needle. And this evening were seen several of those
meteors called falling stars ; particularly some which, on taking fire, left a long
train of sparks behind them.
Description of a Mariner s Compass contrived by Gowin Knight, M.B., F.R.S.
N° 495, p. 505.
Almost all the compasses on board merchants' ships have had their needles
formed of 2 pieces of steel wire ; each bent in the middle, so as to make an ob-
tuse angle ; and their ends, being applied together, make an acute one ; so that
the whole represents the form of a lozenge ; in the centre of which, and of the
card, is placed the brass cap. Mr. M. procured 20 cards, with needles of this
kind fixed to them ; and after touching them with a pair of large bars, he tried
each of them, with the same cup and pin, by drawing them aside 90° from the
true point, and then seeing where they would rest. He found them all to vary
more or less, either to the east or west ; and some of them as far as 8°. Few of
them came to the same degree twice together ; and when they did, that was
never the true point. In short, they not only varied from the true direction,
but from each other, and from themselves. He then tried, by drawing them
gently aside, how far he could make them stand from the true point, without
returning ; and found they might frequently be made to do it at the distance of
o
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 65
a whole point on either side. One of them, which generally varied 6 or 7 de-
grees to the east, being drawn the same way, would stand at l6°.
All these irregularities are owing to the structure of the needle : for the wires,
of which it is composed, are only hardened at the ends ; and that is done by
making the ends red-hot, and quenching them in water : if all these ends are not
equally hard, or if one end be hardened higher up than the other, when they
come to be put together, in fixing them to the card, that end which is hardest
will destroy much of the virtue of the other ; by which means the hardest end
will have most power in directing the card, and must consequently make it vary
towards its own direction. If you retouch these wires when fixed to the card,
the error will still remain ; for that wire which is best hardened will always be-
come the strongest. ;
The wires being disposed in the form of a lozenge is the reason why these'
cards had so little force, that they might be made to stand at the distance of se-
veral degrees, on either side the point from which they were drawn. For all
magnetical bodies receive an additional strength by being placed in the direction
of the earth's magnetism, and act proportionably less vigorously when turned
out of it. So that, when such needles are drawn aside from their true point, 2
of the parallel sides of the lozenge will conspire more directly than before with
the earth's magnetism ; and the other 2 will be less in that direction : by which
means the first 2 sides will very much impede its return ; and the latter 2 will
have that impediment to overcome, as well as the friction, by their own force
alone.
The needles that are used on board the men of war, and some of the larger
trading ships, are made of one piece of steel, of a spring temper, and are broad
towards the ends, but tapering towards the middle, where a hole is made to re-
ceive the cap. At the ends they terminate in an angle greater or less, according
to the skill or fancy of the workman. Now, though the worst of these are infi-
nitely preferable to those of wire, yet the best of them are far fi-om being perfect.
Every needle of this form has 6 poles instead of 2. There h one at each end, 2
vv'here it becomes tapering, and 2 at the hole in the middle. This is owing to
their shape ; for the middle part being very slender, it has not substance enough
to conduct the magnetic stream quite through from one end to the other. All
these poles appear very distinctly, when examined with a glass that is sprinkled
over with magnetic sand. Yet this circumstance does not hinder the needle
from pointing true; but as it has less force to move the card, than when the
magnetic stream moves in large curves from one end to the other, it is certainly
an imperfection.
Two needles, that were quite straight, and square at the ends, were found to
VOL. X. K (U ..jr.v i|£i) oji4^„ oni
66 VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1/50.
have only 2 poles; but about the hole In the middle the curves formed of steel-dust
were a little confused. These always came exactly to the same point, after vi-
brating a long time ; and if drawn ever so little on one side, would return to it
again without any sensible difference. We may therefore conclude, that a re-
gular parallelopiped is the best shape for a needle, as well as the simplest ; with
the holes for the caps as small as can well be contrived ; or if it can be made to
answer the purpose without any hole at all, it will be still more perfect. Yet the
common shape has one advantage which this has not : for being made broad at
the ends, and slender in the middle, its weight is removed as far as possible from
the centre : on which account, if it once points true, the friction at the centre
cannot so easily put it in motion ; and its vibrations, when in motion, will be
slower ; so that their limits may be more nicely observed, and the middle point
between them is that where it would stand, if at rest.
Being unwilling to part with these advantages, Mr. K. contrived a light circle
of brass, of the same diameter with the card, which will supply a weight acting
at the greatest distance from the centre of motion, and also serve to support the
card ; which may now be made of thin paper, without any thing to stiffen it.
So that the extraordinary weight of the brass ring is compensated in a great mea-
sure by the lightness of the card. This ring is of service in another respect ; for
being fixed below the card, and the needle above it, the centre of gravity is
placed low enough to admit of the cap being put under the needle ; by which
the hole in the needle becomes unnecessary ; and the latter being placed above
the card, renders it easier to be touched with a pair of bars.
Having thus completed the needle and card to his satisfaction, what chiefly
remained, was to contrive such a cap and point as will have the least friction
and be most likely to continue in a state of perfection. The caps in use are
either of brass, a mixed metal, like that of a reflecting telescope, crystal, or
agate. The first 2 will only admit of brass points, and the latter are rather too
expensive for common use. He therefore thought of trying glass caps : he had
3 of them made by a' glass-blower, 2 of which he got polished : they were all set
in brass, so as to screw into the same needle, which had also one of agate fitted
to it. He compared them with that of agate, by trying with each of them how
many vibrations the same card and needle would make, when drawn aside Q0°,
on the same point ; which was a very small sewing needle.
The number of vibrations with the agate cap, on the first trial, were 39, then
37, then 39 again ; with one of the glass caps it made 23, and then 20. This
difference from the agate cap was so great, that he concluded the point must
be damaged, and therefore chose a finer ; on which the same glass cap made 4 1
vibrations; then 43; and another glass cap made 47, and the next time 43. But
the agate cap with this point made 51, 57, and 58 vibrations. The unpolished
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. 67
glass cap performed much the same with the others. He had 1 of them polished
again by Mr. Smeaton; and in company with him repeated the same experi-
ments ; but with no better success. The agate cap made always many more vi-
brations than the glass one ; and generally with the latter the number diminished
by repeated trials ; whereas with the agate cap it usually increased.
These experiments made him lay aside the glass caps, and put him on think-
ing how agate ones might be made with as little expence as possible. With this
view he got a cap turned of ivoiy, in such a manner as to receive a small bit of
agate at the top. This being ground concave, and polished on that side, where
it formed the apex of the hollow cone in the cap, was capable of answering the
purpose as well as if the whole had been agate, and was much lighter. These
caps may be made cheap enough for common use ; and if good at first cannot
easily be impaired.
For a point, he chose a common sewing needle, and contrived to fix it in such
a manner as to be taken out with the greatest ease, and replaced by another, if
necessary ; by which means an excellent point may be always had with little
trouble or expence. Common needles, when well tempered, have all the quali-
fications that can be desired for the purpose intended. The smallest are strong
enough to bear the weight of a card ; and are neither so soft as to be liable to
bend, nor so hard and brittle as to break ; and the}' are generally better pointed
than any that a common workman could pretend to make extempore.
The specimen of the improved compass, shown to the Society, was made by
Mr. Smeaton, a gentleman whose uncommon skill in the theory and practice of
mechanics has enabled him to execute whatever Mr. K. proposed in such a man-
ner as always to exceed his expectations : and not only so, but Mr. S. added a
considerable improvement of his own. By a very simple contrivance he made
the same instrument capable of serving the purposes of an azimuth and amplitude
compass ; and that in a manner much preferable to any thing hitherto contrived;
the description and use of which he has drawn up himself, for the perusal of the
Society, as follows.
On some Improvements of the Mariner s Compass, in order to render the Card
and Needle proposed by Dr. Knight, of General Use. By John Smeaton, *
Philosophical Imtrument-maher. N" 495, p. 513.
The cover of the wooden box being taken off, the compass is in a condition to
be used in the bittacle, when the weather is moderate : but when the sea runs
•John Smeaton, a celebrated engineer, was born 1724, at Austhorpe, near Leeds j wherp.
also he died in 1792, in the 69th year of his age. Mr. S. seems to have been born an engineer. The
originality of his genius, and the strength of his understanding, appeared at a very early age. His
K 2
68 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
high, as the inner box is hung very free on its centres, the better to answer its
Other purposes, it will be necessary to slacken the milled nut, placed on one of
the axes that supports the ring, and to tighten the nut on the outside that cor-
responds to it. By this means the inner box and ring will be lifted up from the
edges, on which they rest, when free ; and the friction will be increased, and
that to any degree necessary to prevent the too great vibrations ; which otherwise
would be occasioned by the motion of the ship.
To make the compass useful in taking the magnetic azimuth, or amplitude of
the sun and stars, as also the bearings of head-lands, ships, and other objects at
a distance ; the brass edge, designed at first to support the card, and throw its
weight as near the circumference as possible, is itself divided into degrees and
playtliings were not those of children, but the tools men work with ; and he had always more amuse-
ment in observing artificers work, and asking them questions, than in any thing else. Continually
occupied in such pursuits, Mr. S. acquired, at 18 years of age, an extensive set of tools, and the art
of working in most of the mechanical trades ; which he continued to work with occasionally to the
end of his life.
Mr. Smeaton's father being an attorney, he thought of bringing up his son to the same profession.
Accordingly he was s«nt up to London in 1742 -, where after some time employed in tliat line, find-
ing that the practice of the law did not suit the bent of his genius, as he used to express it, he wrote
a strong memorial on the subject to his father, whose good sense, from that moment, left Mr. S. to
pursue the bent of his genius in his own way. After this, Mr. S. continued to reside in London,
where, before the date of the above paper, 1750, he had commenced philosophical instrument maker,
which he continued to exercise for some time, and formed an acquaintance with most of the ingenious
men of that time.
In 17J3 Mr. S. was admitted f. r.s., and in 1759 he was honoured with the Society's gold
medal, for his paper on the natural jxjwers of water and wind, to turn mills, and other machines de-
pending on a circular motion. From about 1753 or 1754 Mr. S. seems to have practised as an
engineer ; soon after which he undertook to rebuild the Edystone light-house, which he completed
with stone in 1759. In 1764 he was appointed one of the receivers of the forfeited Derwentwater
estate, applied to the uses of Greenwich hospital; which office beheld till 1777, when he resigned
it in favour of Sir John Turner, a son of the Earl of Sandwich, then first lord of the admiralty.
After this, Mr. S. going into full employment as an engineer, it would be endless to attempt to
particularize all the great works he so ably conducted, as mills, wheels, engines, levels, canals,
bridges, harbours, &c. in all which he was equally eminent. Particularly he saved from immediate
destruction London bridge, after the opening of its great arch. Indeed as a civil engineer Mr. S. was
perhaps unrivalled, certainly not excelled by any one. Astronomy was also, for amusement, a fa-
vourite pursuit of Mr. S., and he made several curious instruments nf this kind for his friends, as
well as for himself; with which, to the time of his death, he continued to make many observations.
The chief of Mr S.'s publications, was his History of Edystone Lighthouse. Besides which, many
of his reports and memorials on the different works he was concerned in, were occasionally printed
in his life-time; as well as an ajlditional volume of the same since his death. He had also inserted
in the Philos. Trans, a considerable number of valuable papers, both mechanical and astronomical, in
most of the volumes from the year 1750 to 1776. A much larger account of this ingenious and
worthy man may be seen in Dr. Hutton's Dictionary, from which the above particulars are extracted ;
ot in the account of his life prefixed to the volume of his reports above mentioned.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 6p'
halves ; which may be easily estimated into smaller parts if necessary. The di-
visions are determined by means of a cat-gut line stretched perpendicularly with
the box as near the brass edge as may be, that the parallax arising from a different
position of the observer may be as little as possible. Under the card are 2 small
weights, sliding on 1 wires, placetl at right angles to each other ; which, being
movetl nearer to or farther from the centre, counterbalance the dipping of the
card in different latitudes, or restore its equilibrium, where it happens by any
other means to be got too much out of level.
There is also added an index at the top of the inner box, which may be put on
and taken off at pleasure, and serves for all altitudes of the object. It consists
of a bar, equal in length to the diameter of the inner box , each end being fur-
nished with a perpendicular stile, with a slit parallel to the sides. One of the
slits is narrow, to which the eye is applied, and the other is wider, with a small
catgut stretched up the middle of it, and from thence continued horizontally
from the top of one stile to the top of the other : there is also a line drawn
along the upper surface of the bar. These four, viz. the narrow slit, the hori-
zontal catgut thread, the perpendicular one, and the line on the bar, are in the
same plane, which disposes itself perpendicular to the horizon, when the inner
box is at rest, and hangs free. This index does not move round, but is always
placed on so as to answer the same side of the box.
When the sun's azimuth is desired, and his rays are strong enough to cast a
shadow, turn about the wooden box, till the shadow of the horizontal thread ;
or, if the sun be too low, till that of the perpendicular thread in one stile, or
the light through the slit in the other, fall on the line on the index bar, or vi-
brate to an equal distance on each side of it, gently touching the box, if it vibrate
too far : obsei-ve at the same time the degree marked on the brass edge by the
catgut line. In counting the degree for the azimuth, or any other angle reck-
oned from the meridian, make use of the outer circle of figures on the brass
edge ; and the situation of the index bar, with regard to the card and needle,
will always direct on what quarter of the compass the object is placed.
But if the sun do not shine out sufficiently strong, place the eye behind the
narrow slit in one of the stiles, and turn the wooden box about, till some part of
the horizontal or perpendicular thread appear to intersect the centre of the sun,
or vibrate to an equal distance on each side of it ; using smoked glass next the
eye, if the sun's light be too strong. In this method another observer will be
generally necessary to note the degree cut by the nonius, at the same time the
first gives notice that the thread appears to split the object. From what has
been said, the other observations will be easily performed ; only in the case of
the sun's amplitude, take care to number the degree by the help of the inner
70 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
circle of figures on the card, which are the coinplements of the outer to go, and
consequently shew the distance from east or west.
The azimuth of the stars may also be observed by night ; a proper light serving
equally for one observer to see the thread, and the other the degree on the card.
It may not be amiss to remark further, that in case the inner box should lose
its equilibrium, and consequently the index be out of the plane of a vertical
circle, an accurate observation may still be made, provided the sun's shadow be
distinct : for, by observing first with one end of the index towards the sun, and
then the other, a mean of the 2 observations will be the truth.
Fig. 3, pi. 13, is a perspective view of the compass, when in order for ob-
servation. The point of view being the centre of the card, and the distance of
the eye 1 feet; ab is the wooden box; CD are two milled nuts; by means of
which the axes of the inner box and ring are taken from their edges, on which
they move, and the friction increased, when necessary ; e f is the ring that sup-
ports the inner box ; g h is the inner box ; and i is one of its axes, by which it is
suspended on the ring ef; kl is the magnet or needle ; and m a small brace of
ivory, that confines the cap to its place. See fig. 4.
The card is a single varnished paper, reaching as far as the outer circle of
figures, which is a circle of thin brass, the edge being turned down at right an-
gles to the plane of the card to make it more stiff; o is a catgut line drawn down
the inside of the box; for determining the degree on the brass edge; pqrs is
the index bar, with its 1 stiles and catgut threads ; which being taken off from
the top of the box, is placed in two pieces, t and v, notched properly to receive
it ; w is a place cut out in the wood, serving as a handle.
Fig. 4 is the card in piano, with the needle fixed on it ; being one third of the
diameter of the real card.
Fig. 5 is a perspective view of the backside of the card; where ab represents
the turning down of the brass edge ; c is the under part of the ivory cap; d and
E are the '2 sliding weights to balance the card; and f and g, 2 screws that fix
the brass edge, &c. to the needle.
Fig. 6 is the pedestal that supports the card, containing a sewing needle,
fixed in 2 small grooves to receive it, by means of the collet c, in the manner of
a port-creyon. At d the stem is filed into an octagon, that it may be the more
easily unscrewed.
Description of a Fish* shown to the Royal Society by Mr. Ralph Bigland, March
11, 1749-50 : drawn up by C. Mortimer, M. D., Sec. R.S. N°495, p. 518.
This fish is smooth skinned, has no scales, nor teeth. It has one erect fin on
• This fish is the Zeus Luna. /in. Si/st. Nat. Gmel. the Opah Pennt. Brit. Zool.
VOL XliVI,} PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. fl
on its back, which arises below its neck, and runs within a little of its tail. On
each side about the middle, between its back and belly, behind the gills is a fin :
from the bottom and middle of its belly, a little forward of the vent, arise 2
fins : from behind the vent runs one fin, within a little of the tail : the tail-fin
is large and forked. Its eyes are large ; the irides are scarlet, encompassed with
a circle of a gold colour verged with scarlet. Its nostrils are placed above its
eyes. The back, and upper part of the body quite to the tail, is of a dark blue,
or violet colour ; these, and the sides of the body, which were of a bright green,
are all speckled with oblong white spots ; the chaps are of a pale red ; the nose,
gills, and belly, of a silver colour ; and all the fins of a bright scarlet.
It was 3 feet 7 inches long, and 3 feet 10 inches round in the thickest part,
and weighed 82 pounds. Its mouth is small : its tongue thick, almost like a
human tongue in shape, but rough, and thick-set with beards or prickles, which
pointed backwards ; so that any thing might easily pass down, but could not
easily slip back again ; while these might serve instead of teeth for retaining
its prey or food. Its gills resemble those of a salmon. Its body grows very taper
towards the tail ; and, fi"om being compressed to 10 inches thick, becomes near
the tail almost round, and about 3 inches thick. The whole shape of this fish
much resembles the sea-bream ; but it differs in size, being much larger, and in
not having teeth nor scales. The fin standing erect on the back, has some
aculei next the neck, and rises up 8 inches ; but in the middle diminishes to 1
inch ; and near the tail rises again to about 3 inches. The belly-fin opposite to
this spreads 3 inches near the tail, and diminishes towards the vent. The tail-
fin is forked, and spreads 12 inches. The gill-fins are g inches long, and 3
wide at their basis. The 2 belly-fins were 1 1 inches long, and 3 wide at their
basis. It seems to be a new species offish, not yet described by any author: ^
but on the coast of Guinea is known by the name opah.
Mr. Bigland said, that, on opening it, all its bowels would have gone into a
quart mug ; that the flesh of the fore part was firm, and looked like beef, and
the hinder part like fine veal ; that the bones were like those of quadrupeds ;
particularly the shoulder blades, which resembled those of sheep.
On the Extirpation of an Excrescence from the Womb. By John Burton of
York, M. D. N° 495, p. 520.
The wife of one Chapman, a whitesmith, at Selby, 10 miles from York, up-
wards of 7 years since, lay in of her last child, and had a tolerable easy labour :
soon after which, she had v/hat she called the fluor albus, that continued ever
since, and increased on her ; insomuch that she says, she has sometimes had
such a discharge as to wet the place she sat on through all her clothes.
For some months before Dr. B. was concerned for her, she began to com-
74 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1750.
plain of a pain and weight in the uterus ; which increased as the substance grew
in bulk. ; and at last the excrescence was so large as to appear outwards, and
then it grew very fast. The patient consulted her midwife, who thought the
womb had come out ; but was so prudent as not to do any thing ; and desired
they would call in better advice. Accordingly they sent for Mr. Fell, an
eminent man-midwife and surgeon in this city ; who, not having met with a case
like that, desired Dr. B. also to go and see her , which was in December last
(1749.) The substance not only filled, but extended, the entrance into the
vagina. Dr. B. introduced a finger into the passage, and soon found the ex-
crescence to be less in bulk there, than what appeared without the body. He
followed the substance till he reached the os uteri, which he found chiefly filled
up with the neck or smallest part of this substance, leaving only a small part of
the OS tincae to be perceived on the left side, obliquely towards the back. He
. tried to penetrate the os tincaa with the end of his finger, but could not ; how-
ever, he so far opened it, as to let out a sort of bloody ichor, which was a little
offensive in smell. Hence, and from other inquiries, he concluded that she had
an ulcer just within the os uteri, from the edge of which the fungus or ex-
crescence grew. The patient complained of a pain in the uterus and back, was
very faint, and frequently was provoked to vomit, with a feeble pulse, and
sometimes sweat.
On consultation it was thought proper to tie a ligature as high up within the
vagina as the surgeon could reach : which being done, and some internal me-
dicines being ordered, they left her. And 4 or 5 days after, the excrescence
dropped off" at the ligature.
Tlie patient afterwards, in part, recovered her strength ; though she was not
in a good state of health, and her fluor albus, as she called it, was still trouble-
some to her. The excrescence was very solid, of a dark liver colour, and, while
adhering to the uterus, was quite insensible. When cut in two, it resembled
the solid substance taken out of cancers.
The Eclipse of the Moon, June 8, 1750, observed in Surry -street in the Strand.
By Mr. John Catlin and Mr. James Short, F. R. S. N° 496, p. 523.
About half an hour after 9 o'clock, the clouds clearing away, they saw the
moon then totally eclipsed ; though considerably brighter on the east than on
the west side ; by which -they found that she was then past the middle of the
eclipse. They then observed the
Emersion, or end of total darkness, at Q^ 45" O'
End of the eclipse at 10 51 30
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 73
Continuation of the Experiments on Substances Resisting Putrefaction. By John
Pringle, M.D., F.R.S. N° 496, p. 525.
I . Three pieces of the lean of fresh beef, each weighing 2 drs. were put se-
parately into wide mouthed phials. Two ounces of cistern-water were added to
each ; in one were dissolved 30 grs. of sea-salt ; in another 60 ; but the 3d con-
tained nothing but flesh and water. These bottles were little more than half
full ; and, being corked, were placed in a lamp furnace, regulated by a ther-
mometer, and kept about the degree of human heat.
About 10 or 12 hours after, the contents of the phial without salt had a faint
smell ; and in 3 or 4 hours more were putrid.* In an hour or 2 longer the
flesh with the least salt was tainted ; but that which had most, remained sweet
above 30 hours after infusion. This experiment was often repeated with the
same result, making allowance for variations of the degree of heat.
The use of this experiment was for making standards, forjudging of the septic
or antiseptic strength of bodies. Thus, if water with any ingredient preserved
flesh better than without it, or better than with the additions of the salt, that
ingredient might be said to resist putrefaction more than water alone, or with 30
or 60 grs, of sea-salt. But if, on the other hand, water, with any addition,
promoted corruption more than when pure, the substance added was to be
reckoned a septic, or hastener of putrefaction.
The following experiments were therefore all made in the same degree of heat
with the quantity of flesh, water, and air, as above specified; together with such
septic or antiseptic substances, as afterwards mentioned, and were all compared
with the standards. But whereas the least quantity of salt preserved flesh little
longer than plain water. Dr. P. always compared the several antiseptic bodies
with the greatest quantity of salt ; so that whenever any substance is said to
oppose putrefaction more than the standard, he means more than 60 grs. of
sea-salt.
He began with examining other salts, and compared them in the same quan- •
tity with the standard ; which being of all the weakest, he supposed it equal to
unity, and expressed the proportional strength of the rest in higher numbers in
the following table.
A Table of the Comparative Powers of Salts in resisting Putrefaction.
Sea-salt 1 Tartar, vitriolated 2
Sal gemmae. 1 -|- Spiritus mindereri 2
• It is to be observed, that these pieces were all entire ; but when they are beat to the consistence
of a pap, with the same quantity of water, the putrefaction then begins in less than half the time
mentioned here. — Orig.
VOL. X. L
74 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. |_ANNO 1750.
Tartarus solubilis 2 Salt of hartshorn 4+
Sal diureticus 2+ Salt of wormwood 4 +
Crude sal ammoniac. 3 Borax 12+
Saline mixture 3 Salt of amber 20+
Nitre 4+ Alum 30+
In this table the proportions are marked by integral numbers ; it being hard,
and perhaps unnecessary, to bring this matter to more exactness ; only to some
the sign + is added, to shew that those salts are stronger than the number in
the table by some fraction ; unless in the last 3, where the same sign imports
that the salt may be stronger by some units.* The tartar vitriolated is rated at
2 ; though more than 30 grs. of it was taken to equal the standard : but per-
ceiving it was not wholly dissolved, an allowance was made accordingly. On the
other hand, as part of the hartshorn flies off, its real force must be greater than
what appears by the table. The salt of amber is likewise volatile ; and as 3 grs.
of it were found more preservative than 6o grs. of sea-salt ; it may therefore be
much more than 20 times stronger. This is indeed an acid salt ; but as the acid
part of it is inconsiderable, this high antiseptic power must be owing to some
other principle. The sp. minder, was made of common vinegar and salt of harts-
horn ; the saline mixture of salt of wormwood saturated with lemon juice. The
alkaline part in either of these mixtures with water only, would have resisted
with a power of 4 + ; so that the acid added rendered these salts less antiseptic ;
viz. the sp. minder, by a half, and the saline mixture by a 3d part : which was a
circumstance very unexpected.
Next he proceeded to try resins and gums, and began with myrrh. As part
of this substance dissolves in water, 8 grs. were made into an emulsion ; but
most of it subsiding, he could not reckon on a solution of more than 1 or 2 grs.
which nevertheless preserving the flesh longer than the standard, we may account
the soluble part of myrrh perhaps about 30 times stronger than sea-salt.
Aloes, asa fetida, and the terra japonica, dissolved in the same manner as
myrrh, like it subsided, and with the same antiseptic force. But gum ammoniac
and sagapenum shewed little of this virtue : whether it was that they opposed
putrefaction less, or that all the antiseptic principle fell with the grosser parts to
the bottom. Three grains of opium dissolved in water did not subside, and
resisted putrefaction better than the salt. But more air than usual was gene-
rated, and the flesh became tenderer than with any of the stronger antiseptics.
* Five grs. of borax was the smallest quantity compared with sea-salt ; but holding out so much
longer, he suspected 3 grs. would have been sufficient} in which case the force of this salt was to be
estimated at 20 : a singular instance of the strength of salt not acid. One grain of alum was weaker
than 60 grs. of sea-salt; but 2 grs. were stronger. The power therefore of alum lies between 30
and 60 ; but it seemed nearer the first number. — Orig.
AOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. JS
Of all the resinous substances, camphire resisted most ; 2 grs. dissolved in 1
drop of sp. of wine, 5 grs. of sugar, and 2 oz of water, exceeded the standard;
though during the infusion most of the camphire flew off', swam at top, or stuck,
to the phial. Suppose only the half lost, the remainder is at least 6o times
stronger than salt ; but if, as he imagined, the water suspended not above a 10th
part, then ciimphire will be 300 times more antiseptic than sea-salt. That
nothing might be ascribed to the minute portion of the spirit, used in this ex-
periment, he made another solution of camphire in a drop or 2 of oil, and found
this mixture less perfect, but still beyond the standard.
4. He made strong infusions of camomile-flowers, and of Virginian snake-
root ; and finding them both greatly beyond the standard, he gradually lessened
the quantity of these materials, till he found 5 grs. of either impart a virtue to
water superior to 6o grs. of salt. Now as we cannot suppose these weak infusions
contained \ gr. of the embalming part of these vegetables, it follows, that this
must be at least 1 20 times more antiseptic than common salt.
He also made a strong decoction of the bark, and infused a piece of flesh in
2 oz. of it strained; which flesh never corrupted, though it remained 2 or 3
days in the furnace, after the standard was putrid. In this time the decoction
became gradually limpid, while the grosser parts subsided : by which it appears,
that a most minute portion of the bark intimately mixed with water (perhaps less
than of the snake-root, or camomile-flowers) is possessed of a very extraordinary
antiseptic force.
Besides these, pepper, ginger, saffi-on, contrayerva-root, and galls, in the
quantity of 5 grs. each, as also 1 0 grs. of dried sage, of rhubarb, and the root
of wild valerian,* separately infused, exceeded 6o grs. of salt. Mint, angelica,
groundivy, senna, green tea, red roses, common wormwood, mustard, and
horse-radish, were likewise infiised, but in larger quantities, and proved more
antiseptic than the standard. And as none of these can be supposed to yield in
the water above 1 gr. or 2 of the embalming principle, we may consider them all
as very powerful resisters of putrefaction. Further, he made a trial with a de-
coction of white poppy-heads, and another with the expressed juice of lettuce,
and found them both above the standard.
By these specimens we may now see how extensive antiseptics are ; since, be-
sides salts, fermented spirits, spices, and acids, commonly known to have this
property, many resins, astringents, and refrigerants, are of the number ; and
even those plants called anti-acids, and supposed hasteners of putrefaction ; of
which class horse-radish is particularly antiseptic. And indeed after these trials,
• Though the experiment was only made with 10 grs. of the powder of this root, yet con-
sidering how long that quantity resisted putrefaction, we may reckon the valerian among the strongest
antiseptics.^-Orig.
l2
76 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
he expected to find all dissolvable substances endowed with some degree of this
quality; till on further experiments, he perceived some made no resistance, and
others promoted corruption. But before entering on that part of the subject,
he deems it proper to relate some other experiments more nearly connected with
the preceding.
5. Having seen how much more antiseptic these infusions were than sea-salt,
he then tried whether plants would part with this virtue without infusion. For
this purpose, having 3 small and thin slices of the lean of beef, he rubbed one
with the powder of the bark, another with snake-root, and a third with camo-
mile flowers. It was in the heat of summer, yet, after keeping these pieces for
several days, he found the flesh with the bark but little tainted, and the other 2
quite sweet. The substance of all the 3 was firm , particularly that with the
camomile, which was so hard and dry, that it seemed incorruptible. Why
the bark had not altogether the same effect, was probably owing to its close
texture.
6. He had also made some attempts towards the sweetening of corrupted flesh,
by means of mild substances ; because distilled spirits, or strong acids, the only
things known to answer this intention, were of too acrid and irritating a nature
to be thoroughly useful, when this correction was most wanted. As for salts,
besides their acrimony, it is well known that meat once tainted will not take salt.
A piece of flesh weighing 1 drs. which in a former experiment had become
putrid, and was therefore very tender, spongy, and specifically lighter than
water, was thrown into a few ounces of the infusion of camomile-flowers, after
expressing the air, to make it sink in the fluid : the infusion was renewed twice
or thrice in as many days ; when, perceiving the faetor gone, he put the flesh
into a clean bottle, with a fresh infusion ; and this he kept all the summer, and
had it then by him, quite sweet, and of a firm texture.* In like manner he had
been able to sweeten several small pieces of putrid flesh, by repeated affusions of a
strong decoction of the bark ; and he constantly observed, that not only the
corrupted smell was removed, but a firmness restored to the fibres.
Now, since the bark parted with so much of its virtue in water, it was na-
tural to think it would still yield more in the body, when opened by the saliva
and bile ; and therefore it was by this antiseptic virtue it chiefly operated. From
this principle we might account for its success in gangrenes, and in the low state
of malignant fevers, when the humours are so evidently putrid. And for inter-
mittents, in which the bark is most specific, were we to judge of their nature,
from circumstances attending them in climates and seasons most liable to the
distemper, we should assign putrefaction as a principal cause. They are the
• This piece was kept a twelvemonth in the same liquor, and was then firm and uncor-
rupted.— Orig.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ff
great endemic of all marshy countries, and rage most after hot summers, with a
close and moist state of air. They begin at the end of summer, and continue
through autumn ; being at the worst, when the atmosphere is most loaded with
the effluvia of stagnating water, rendered more putrid by vegetables and animal
substances that rot in it. At such times all meats are quickly tainted ; and dysen-
teries, with other putrid distempers, coincide with these fevers. The heats dis-
pose the humours to acrimony ; the putrid effluvia are a ferment ; and the fogs
and dews, so common to those climates, stop perspiration, and bring on a
fever. The more these causes prevail, the easier it is to trace this putrefaction
of humours. The nausea, thirst, bitter taste of the mouth, and frequent eva-
cuations of putrid bile, are common symptoms and arguments for what is ad-
vanced. We shall add, that in moist countries, in bad seasons, the intermit-
tents not only begin with symptoms of a putrid fever, but, if unduly managed,
easily change into a putrid and malignant form, with livid spots and blotches,
and mortification of the bowels. But, as a thorough discussion of this question
might carry him too far from the present subject, and be unseasonable here, he
refers it to its proper place, and only remarks, that whatever medicines (be-
sides evaqjiations and the bark) have been found useful in the cure of intermit-
tents, they are, so far as he knows, all highly antiseptic ; such are myrrh, cam-
phire, camomile-flowers, wormwood, tincture of roses, alum with nutmeg, vi-
triolic or strong vegetable acids with aromatics.
Thus far are only related experiments on flesh, or the fibrous parts of animals ;
he next intends to shew what effects antiseptics have on the humours ; for
though from analogy we may conclude, that whatever retards the corruption of
the solids, or recovers them after they are tainted, will act similarly on the fluids ;
yet, as this does not certainly follow, he judged it necessary to make new trials ;
which, with some experiments on the promoters of putrefaction, the reverse of
the former, will be given hereafter.
Concerning a Flat Spheroidal Stone having Lines Regularly Crossing it. By Mr.
Joseph Piatt, of Manchester. N° 496, p. 534.
A man found a stone at Ardwick, 7 feet deep, near this town, in driving a
slough through some gret stone. It is what is called a nodule, of a close, com-
pact, smooth matter ; was incrustated with coarser earth, or soft stone ; is 3
inches and a half diameter ; formed not unlike one of the echini marini ; except
the papillas or small protuberances, which it wants. It had 4 white seams,
about the thickness of a horse-hair, which quarter the stone very correctly.
The angles are exactly the same, and correspond so well, that it would require
thp nicest mathematical head and hand to draw the like.
78 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
On Bees, and their Method of Gathering IVax and Honey. By Arthur Dobbs,
Esq. N° 496, p. 536.
The only 2 things in which Mr. Dobbs differs from M. Reaumur, are, thpt he
apprehends Mr. R. says, the bees range from flowers of one species to those of
another, while they are gathering one load ; so that the farina, or crude wax,
loaded on their legs, is from different species of flowers ; which is contrary to
what Mr. D. observed. The other thing that he differed from him in is, that
he says the wax is formed in the bee, from the crude wax, or farina (so far Mr.
D. agrees with him :) but by his observations, he says, after digestion it is dis-
charged upwards by the mouth ; whereas, by Mr. D.'s observations, it is the
faeces, husks, or shells of the farina or crude wax, after digestion, discharged
by the anus.
As to the first, says Mr. Dobbs, I have frequently followed a bee loading the
farina, bee-bread, or crude wax, on its legs, through part of a gr^at field in
flower ; and on whatever flower it first alighted and gathered the farina, it con-
tinued gathering from that kind of flower ; and passed over many other species
of flowers, though very numerous in the field, without alighting on, or loading
from them ; though the flower it chose was much scarcer in the field than the
others : so that if it began to load from a daisy, it continued loading from the
same, neglecting clover, honeysuckles, violets, &c. ; and if it began with any
of the others, it continued loading from the same kind, passing over the daisy.
So in a garden, on the wall-trees, I have seen it load from a peach, and pass
over apricots, plumbs, cherries, &c. yet made no distinction between a peach
and an almond.
Now M. Reaumur, in his memoir on the bee's making honey, mentions
Aristotle's observation of the bee's loading or gathering from one species of flower
without changing; not quitting a violet to gather fi-om a cowslip ; which he
says is not justly founded; for he has observed frequently a bee on a large border
gathering from flowers of different species. If M. Reaumur only means that,
when the bee gathers honey, it takes it indifferently from any flower, I can say
nothing against it; but, if he intends it to mean the bee's loading the farina on
its legs, then my observation directly contradicts it.
What further confirms my observation is this, that each load on the legs of a
bee, is of one uniform colour throughout, as a light red, an orange, a yellow, a
white, or a green, and is not on different parts of the load of a different colour ;
so that as the farina of each species of flowers, when collected together, is of one
uniform colour, the presumption is, that it is gathered from one species. For,
if from different kinds, part of the load might be of one colour, and part of
another.
TOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 7Q
Another observation to confirm the same fact is, that bees, in the height of
the season, return to their hives with loads of very different magnitudes, some
having loads as large as small shot, while others have very small loads ; it cannot
be conceived that this difference is from the inactivity or sloth of the bee in col-
lecting its load, but rather from the scarcity of the flowers, on which it first
began to load.
Now, if the facts be so, and my observations true, I think that Providence
has appointed the bee to be very instrumental in promoting the increase of ve-
getables ; but otherwise, might be very detrimental to their propagation ; and
at the same time they contribute to the health and life of their own species.
From the late improvement made by glasses, and experiments made, in ob-
serving the works of nature, it is almost demonstrable, that the farina on the
apices of flowers, is the male seed ; which entering the pistillum or matrix in the
flower, impregnates the ovum, and makes it prolific. It is often necessary to
have wind and dry weather to waft this farina to the pistillum, and from flower
to flower, to make the seed prolific : and we find in wet seasons, that grain,
nuts, and fruit, are less prolific, by the farina's not being properly conveyed to
the pistillum ; and also in very hot dry weather, from clammy honey-dews, or,
more properly sweet exudations from the plants themselves, which clog the
farina, and cause blasts and mildews. Now if the farina of specifically different
flowers should take the place of its own proper farina in the pistillum, like an
unnatural coition in the animal world, either no generation would happen, or a
monstrous one, or an individual not capable of further generation.
Now if the bee is appointed by Providence to go only, at each loading, to
flowers of the same species, as the abundant farina often covers the whole bee,
as well as what it loads on its legs, it carries the farina from flower to flower,
and by its walking on the pistillum and agitation of its wings, it contributes
greatly to the farina's entering into the pistillum, and at the same time prevents
the heterogeneous mixture of the farina of different flowers with it ; which, if
it strayed from flower to flower at random, it would carry to flowers of a dif-
ferent species.
Besides these visible advantages, it may be of great benefit to thdr own
species and society ; for, as this farina is the natural and constant food of the
bees, during one half of the year, and from this digested, as accurately observed
by M. Reaumur, is the bouillee and jelly formed; which is lodged for the food
of the young bees, till they become nymphae : it is also necessary that its stores
should be lodged in the cells adjoining to the honey, for their winter provision ;
without whicii, M. Reaumur observes, they would be in danger of dying of
looseness, their most dangerous malady.
It seems therefore highly reasonable to believe, that different kinds of farina
80 - PHILOSOPHIC A.L TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
may have different physical qualities : so that, by making collections of the same
kind in each cell, they may have proper remedies for themselves against ailments
we have no knowledge of, which otherwise they would not have, if they were
filled at random from all kinds of flowers. These further advantages, directed
to them by Providence, seem to add weight to my observations, and are a pre-
sumptive proof that they are true.
The only thing, besides the former, in which my observations differ from
M. Reaumur, is in the manner the wax is made and emitted by the bee. I
absolutely concur with him, that the wax is formed by digestion in the bodies of
the bees, and is emitted by them, and then becomes wax ; and that it is almost
impracticable to form wax any other way, unless the wax extracted from the
myrtle-berries in America by boiling be an exception from it. By M. Reaumur's
observations, he forms his opinion, that after the bee has fed upon the farina,
or bee-bread, and it has passed through the first stomach (which is the reservoir
where the honey is lodged, from whence it is discharged upward by its mouth
into the cells) it is conveyed into the second stomach ; and yet, when there,
great part of it continues in its spherical or oval form, still undigested, as
viewed by him with his glasses ; and consequently must be conveyed further,
before it be thoroughly digested, and the particles broken ; yet this he supposes
is reconveyed upwards through both the stomachs, and is emitted by its mouth ;
and he forms his judgment from his observation, that the bee, when working,
and finishing the cells, nips with its teeth the wax, where it is too thick, or
wrong laid ; and has observed a motion of its tongue as it were smoothing or
laying on more materials, which he thinks must be then discharged fi-om the
stomach by its mouth.
What makes me disagree from him in his opinion and observations, is from
the remarks I have made, that the faeces of the bee discharged by the anus,
after the farina is digested, is the true wax. We may with truth believe, that
the farina, which is the male seed of all vegetables, consists of a spirit or moving
principle, floating in a sweet oil, surrounded by an exterior coat or shell, in
which is that monade that impregnates the grain or fruit, and makes it prolific ;
that on separation or digestion, this spirit and sweet oil becomes the nourish-
ment of the bee ; which spirit is of the same nature with the animalcules in se-
mine masculino of animals, and becomes the animal spirits in the bee and other
animals ; and perhaps the true honey is the sweet oil included in the farina : and
as all vegetables abound with these vegetable vivifying atoms, since from many
every bud is capable of increasing each species, so the true honey breaking
through its shell by great heat, occasions those honey-dews observed in hot
weather on the leaves and flowers of most vegetables ; which is no more than an
exudation from the leaves and blossoms of these vessels that break with the heat;
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. 81
besides those that appear on the apices of flowers, which afterwards impregnates
the fruit.
Of this inner substance of the farina, diluted with water, after digestion, is
formed the bouillee and jelly, which the bees discharge upward by the mouth,
into the cells, to nourish the young bees till they become nymphae ; while the
husk, or outer coat is discharged by the anus, and becomes the genuine wax. I
have frequently, when bees have been swarming, had them alight on my hands
andcloaths; and many, at different times, have discharged their faeces on them :
this I have taken off, and found it of the consistence of warm wax, with the
same glutinous adhering quality, not crumbling like the farina. I have also
distinguished it by the smell to be wax; but it had a heavier stronger smell, as
it was fresh and warm from the bee.
What further confirmed me in this fact, was from my observation of the bees
when working up their comb in a glass hive; where I have constantly seen (and
must believe it impossible not to be observed by so accurate an observer as M.'
Reaumur) that several bees, soon after one another, have by hasty steps, walked
along a comb then forming, for the length of 2 or 3 cells, bending their tails to
the comb, and striking it with a wriggling motion from side to side, in a zigzag
way ; which I was convinced was discharging their faeces, or the wax, against
the border of the cells, as they ran along, and repeated it as long as they had
any to discharge, and then quit it ; which is the reason why the outer border of
the cells is so thick and strong : immediately afterwards, other bees came
along the cells, and with their fore feet raised up the borders like paste, and
thinning it, while other bees were ripping off with their teeth, and pruning
away any irregular excrescences, so as to make the divisions of the cells vastly
thinner than the borders or edges, which were always thick and strong, from the
discharging the faeces or wax upon them.
M. Reaumur has very justly observed that, besides the 3 transparent smooth
eyes which the bee has placed in a triangle between the antennae on the top of
its head, the bee has also on each side of its head and eye, or rather a multitude
of eyes, formed by a number of distinct lenses each surrounded with short hairs,
which are confirmed to be eyes, both from Swammerdam, and his own experi-
ments to determine it ; and that, notwithstanding these lenses are lined with a
dark opaque substance, yet they assist so miich their vision, that when darkened
by paint laid over them, the bees could not find their way to their hive, though
at a small distance, but soared directly upwards ; nor could they find their way
when the 3 smooth eyes were darkened.
But there is one observation, which I don't find he has made, which may have de-
termined the garden bees to make almost all their cells imperfect hexagons. The ob-
servation is this ; that these opaque eyes on each side of the head, consist of many
VOL. X. M
81 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
lenses, each of which is a perfect hexagon ; and the whole eye, when viewed in a
microscope, appears exactly like a honeycomb : now as the eyes, composed of these
hexagonal lenses, are in full view to the other bees, does it not seem that Providence
has directed them so as to be a pattern set before them, for the bees to follow in
forming their combs ? It is not also reasonable to believe, from the disproportion
of the convexity between the 3 smooth transparent eyes, and the lenses of the
dark, rough eyes, that they are appointed for different purposes ? Why may it
not be thought that the lenses are great magnifiers to view things near at hand,
and by many reflections to convey light into the dark of hives, where light is still
necessary ; and that the 3 other eyes are to observe objects at a great distance,
so as to conduct them abroad to fields at a distance, and back again to their
hives ?
I agree with M. Reaumur in the form and use of the fang or tromp of the
working bee, and of the use of the mouth within the teeth of the bee ; so that
it does not suck, but laps or licks with its rough fang or tromp, like a dog.
But I have never observed the bee nipping or breaking open the apices of flowers,
to let out the farina, when it is not fully blown or open ; but have often with
pleasure observed the bee gathering the farina on its fang, by licking it off the
apices, and laying it on the first pair of legs, which convey it to the second pair,
and these lodge it on the pallet of the third pair, with surprizing briskness ; so
that, by the time the second pair has lodged it on the third pair, the bee has
gathered more, and lodged it on the fore legs ; so that all are in constant
motion.
From the curious observations made by M. Reaumur, on the structure and
behaviour of the queen or mother bee, the drone or male bee, and the working
or mule bee, which is of neither sex ; from the queen bee's being so exceedingly
prolific, as to lay from 30 to 40000 eggs of working bees in a season ; besides
the eggs of 800 male bees, and of 8 or 10 queen or mother bees ; and from the
coldness of the male bee who so long resists the caresses of the queen or female
bee ; and also from the indefatigable labour and economy of the working bee, to
nourish the young bees, make up the combs, and lay in stores of farina and
honey for winter ; I think very good reasons may be given why the queen should
have a seraglio of some hundreds of male bees ; and why the working bee should
destroy the males, when no longer necessary to impregnate the eggs of the
mother bee.
It is evident, from the economy of the garden bee, that Providence has ap-
pointed that they should share their store with mankind, by making them so in-
dustrious in every climate, as to provide, in tolerable seasons, a store of honey
and wax, double of what is necessary for their subsistence during the winter, and
of combs for the queen's laying her eggs in spring, before new work can be made.
VOL. XLVI.J PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. 83
From the vast number of eggs which the queen lays in a season, it is absolutely
necessary that she should have a great store of male sperm, to impregnate her
eggs ; and as the eggs are not sensibly large in her body for 6 months after her
coition with the males, who die, or are killed, in August, and she does not
begin to lay from that time till February or March ; it is therefore necessary
that she should have a great store of male sperm within her, to impregnate all
the eggs she lays from that time, till June or July, when young drones or males
are hatched, who are not designed for her use, but for the young queens, who
go oft' with the swarms, or for the young queen who succeeds the old one
in the old hive ; since the drones are great feeders, and no workers ; and are of
no use, but to give a sufficient store of sperm to the mother bee ; as the work-
ing bees have so many enemies to deprive them of their store, they cannot be
maintained during the winter, even if their life should last so long ; and as it is
probable that each male has but one act of coition with the queen, as they are
so cold, and take so much caressing before they act, and, by M. Reaumur's
observation, die soon after the act is over, when probably their whole store of
sperm is exhausted in that act, as soon as the queen has got as much sperm
lodged in the proper reservoir, as is sufficient to impregnate all her future eggs,
the males are no longer of use ; and if those who have acted die, those who have
not, being of no further use, are killed by the working bee, out of economy to
save their winter store, when probably by nature they could live but few days
more ; as we find the silk-worm moth dies soon after the eggs are laid, as well
males as females. It seems therefore necessary that the queen should breed so
many males as, by one act of coition from each, may impregnate all her eggSj
and that the working bee should dispatch them, as soon as that is over, and a
Store is lodged.
There are 2 vessels described by Swammerdam in the mother- bee ; one of
which is placed between the two lobes of the ovarium, which he supposes to be a
bladder to contain air ; the other is a spherical vessel, seated close by the common
duct, in which the eggs fall from the lobes of the ovarium, which he supposes
is to ooze out a juice to moisten the eggs in their passage. I take one of thescj,
but most probably the last, to be the reservoir and repository of the male sperm,
wherein it is lodged from the act of coition, till the eggs are enlarged, and pass
through the adjoining duct from the 1 lobes of the ovarium.
Since the preservation and increase of bees are evidently beneficial to the pub-
lic, I approve very much of M. Reaumur's instructions in driving bees from a
full hive into an empty one, in case it can be done time enough to have new
work, sufficient for the queen to lay her eggs in in spring ; since they can be
fed at very little expence, if care be taken to keep them in a middle state of
stupefaction, neither too hot nor cold, during the winter : but I approve nmch
M 2
84 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750,
more of his castrating or sharing the combs with the bees, by taking the combs
best stored with honey, and leaving those having the nymphae and bee-bread;
but think, in taking the combs, a safer and easier way may be taken, than he
directs: his method is to stupefy the bees with smoke, to oblige them to croud
together in the crown of the hive, and then turning up the hive, and cutting
out the combs filled with honey. Now I think, that turning up the full hive,
and setting an empty hive upon it, and driving the bees into it, is preferable to
smoking; for then a very few bees will remain in the full hive, and those few
may be stupefied, and the bees in the empty hive being put on a table, the
combs may be taken out and selected at leisure, without hazard; and afterwards
the empty hive may be turned up, and their old hive set over them, so that they
will go up without scruple into their former hive, and repair their work, by
making new combs: and if the queen had not quitted the old hive, as is often
the case, then they would return to their queen, and the society would not be
lost, as is sometimes the case, in driving into an empty hive.
Further Experiments on Substances Resisting Putrefaction ; with Experiments
on the Means of Hastening and Promoting it. By John Pringle, M. D.,
F. R. S. N° 496, p. 550.
1 . Decoctions of wormwood and of the bark, also infusions of camomile-
flowers, and of snake-root, these preserved yolks of eggs, not only several days
longer than water did alone, but also when a good quantity of sea-salt was added
to it. Dr. P. likewise found that salt of hartshorn preserved this substance better
than 4 times its weight of sea-salt.
2. Ox's gall was kept some time from putrefaction by small quantities of ley of
Tartar, spirit of hartshorn, crude sal ammoniac, and the saline mixture, and still
longer by a decoction of wormwood, infusions of camomile-flowers, and of snake-
root; by solutions of myrrh, camphor, and salt of amber; all were separately
mixed with gall, and found more antiseptic than sea salt; and seemingly in pro-
portion to their effects on flesh. Only nitre failed; which, though 4 times
stronger than sea salt in keeping flesh sweet, is inferior to it in preserving gall,
and remarkably weaker than crude sal ammoniac: which again is somewhat less
powerful than nitre in preserving flesh. The nitre was soon opened by the gall,
and emitted a vast quantity of air, which rose as from a fermenting liquor: and
when this happened, the gall began to putrify. But the saline mixture gene-
rated no air, and opposed the putrefaction of gall more than it did that of
flesh.
3. The last trial was with the serum of human blood, which was preserved
by a decoction of the bark, and an infusion of snake-root, nor with less efficacy
than flesh. But saffron and camphor were not here above a 4th part so antiseptic
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 85
as before ; whether it be that they are less preservative of this humour, or, as he
suspects, that they were not well mixed. Nitre acted nearly with its full force,
being about 4 times stronger than sea-salt; it generated some air, but much less
than it did with the gall. No other humour was tried; but from these specimens,
addal to the former experiments, we may conclude, that whatever is preservative
of flesh, will be generally antiseptic, though perhaps not always with equal force.
4. Having already shown how putrid flesh might be sweetened, he concludes
this part of his subject with a like trial on the yolk of an egg. A portion of
this, being diluted with water, stood till it corrupted; when a few drops were
put into a phial with 1 ounces of pure water, and about twice as many drops
were mixed with a strong infusion of camomile-flowers. At first both phials had
some degree of a putrid smell ; but being corked, and kept a few days near a
fire, the mixture with plain water contracted a strong fetor, while the other
smelled only of the flowers.
Thus far he has related the experiments made with antiseptics; by which it ap-
pears, that besides spirits, acids, and salts, we are possessed of many powerful
resisters of putrefaction, endued with qualities of heating, cooling, volatility,
astriction, and the like, which make some more adapted than others to particular
indications. In some putrid cases, many proper antiseptics are already known:
in others they are wanting. We are yet at a loss how to correct the sanies of a
cancerous ulcer ; but from such a multitude of antiseptics, it is to be hoped some
may be found at last adequate to that intention. It may be further remarked,
-that as different distempers of the putrid kind require different antiseptics, so
the same disease will not always yield to the same medicine. Thus the bark will
fail in a gangrene, if the vessels are too full, or the blood sizy ; but if the vessels
are relaxed, and the blood resolved or disposed to putrefaction, either from a bad
habit, or the absorption of putrid matter, then is the bark a good specific. With
the same caution are we to use it in wounds, viz. chiefly in cases of absorbed
matter, which infects the humours, and induces a hectic fever. But when in-
flammatory symptoms prevail, the same medicine increasing the tension of the
fibres, and siziness of the blood, a state directly opposed to the other has such
consequences as might be expected.
By the success of the bark in so many putrid cases, it should appear that as-
triction had no small share in the cure. And indeed the very nature of putre
faction consists in a separation or disunion of the parts. But as there are other
cases, in which astringency is less wanted, we may find in contrayerva-root,
snake-root, camphor, and other substances, a highly antiseptic power, with little
or none of the other quality. And since several of these medicines are also dia-
phoretic, their operation is thereby rendered more successful.
Dr. P. comes now to the last thing proposed, which is, to give an accotmt of
'#5 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
some observations made on substances hastening or promoting putrefaction ; an
inquiry not less useful than the former. For, setting aside the oftensive idea
commonly annexed to the word, we must acknowledge putrefaction to be one of
the instruments of nature, by which many great and curious changes are brought
about. With regard to medicine, we know that neither animal nor vegetable
substances can become aliment, without undergoing some degree of putrefaction.
Many distempers proceed from a deficiency of this action. The crises of fevers
seem to depend on it; and perhaps even animal heat, according to a late inge-
nious theory.*
But, in the prosecution of this subject, he had met with very few real septics;
and found many substances, commonly accounted such, of a quite opposite na-
ture. The most general means of accelerating putrefaction is by heat, moisture,
and stagnating air; which being sufficiently known and ascertained, he passed
over, without making any particular experiment on those heads. Lord Bacon,
(vide Nat. Hist. cent. iv. exper. 330,) as well as some of the chemists, has hinted
at a putrid fermentation, analogous to what is found in vegetables; and this hav-
ing so near a connection with contagion. Dr. P. made the following experiment,
for a further illustration of this matter.
5. In the yolk of an egg, already putrid, a small thread was dipped, and a
small bit of this was cut oft' and put into a phial, with half of the yolk of a new-
laid egg diluted with water. The other half, with as much water, was put into
another phial, and both being corked, were set by the fire to putrefy. The
result was, that the thread infected the fresh yolk, for the putrefaction was
sooner perceived in the phial that contained it, than in the other. But this ex-
periment was not repeated.
In this manner the putrefaction of meat advances quicker in a confined than
a free air ; for as the most putrid parts are also the most fugitive ; they incessantly
issue from a corruptible substance, and disperse with the wind; but in a stagna-
tion of air, they remain about the body; and by way of ferment excite it to
corruption.
6. As for other septics, recited by authors. Dr. P. found none of them answer
the purpose. The alkaline salts have been considered as the chief putrefiers.
But this is disproved by experiments. Of the volatiles it may be indeed observed,
that though they preserve from the common marks of putrefaction, with a force
4 times greater than that of sea-salt ; yet, in warm infusions, a small quantity of
these salts will soften and resolve the fibres, more than water does by itself.
They also hinder the coagulation of blood , and when taken by way of medicine,
♦ An Essay on the Cause of Animal Heat, by J. Stevenson, m. d. Vide Medical Essays, vol. y.
— Orig.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 87
thin and resolve it, but are not therefore septics. For so little do these salts
putrefy, or even resolve the fibres, when applied dry, that he had kept, since
the beginning of June last, notwithstanding the excessive heats, a small piece of
flesh in a phial, preserved only with salt of hartshorn, at present perfectly sound,
and firmer than when first salted.
7. From the specimens he had of the antiscorbutic plants, it is likewise probable
that none of that tribe will prove septic. Horse-raddish, one of the most acrid,
is a very powerful antiseptic. And though carrots, turnips, garlick, onions,
celery, cabbage, and colewort, were tried, as alcalescents, they did not hasten,
but somewhat retarded the putrefaction.
8. The case was different with such farinaceous vegetables as were examined,
viz. white bread in infusion, decoctions of flour, barley, and oatmeal; for these
did not at all retard putrefaction: but, after it was somewhat advanced, they
checked it by turning sour. By a long digestion the acidity became considerable ;
which, by conquering the putrescency of the flesh, and generating much air,
did not ill represent the state of weak bowels, which convert bread, and the
mildest grains, to such an acid, as prevents a due resolution and digestion of
animal food.*
g. He examined cantharides, dried vipers, and Russian castor, all animal sub-
stances, and therefore most likely to prove septic. The flies were tried both with
fresh beef, and with the serum of human blood: the vipers only with the former:
but neither of them hastened putrefaction. And as for the castor, so far from
promoting this process, that an infusion of 12 grs. opposed it more than the
standard salt.
10. After finding no septics where they were most expected, he discovered
some which seemed the least likely; viz. chalk, the testacea, and common salt.
20 grs. of crabs'-eyes prepared, were mixed with 6 drs. of ox's gall, and as much
water, into another phial was put nothing but gall and water, in the same quan-
tity with the former; and both being placed in the furnace, the putrefaction
began much sooner where the powder was than in the other phial. He infused
afterwards in the lamp furnace 30 grs. of prepared chalk, with the usual quantity
of flesh and water; and observed, that the corruption not only began sooner, .
but went higher by this mixture; nay, what had never happened before, that in
a few days the flesh resolved into a perfect mucus. The experiment was repeated
with the same effect ; which being so extraordinary, he suspected some corrosive
substance had been mixed with the powder; but, for a trial, a lump of chalk
* It is to be remarked that, in making this experiment. Dr. P. did not then attend to a fermenta-
tion that ensued, and which was the cause of the acidity. This kind of fermentation between
ammal and vegetable substances, being hitherto overlooked, is set forth in the next paper. — Orig. .
88 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
being pounded, 30 grs. of it proved fully as septic as the former. The same
powder was compared with an equal quantity of salt of wormwood, and care was
taken to shake both the mixtures alike: but after 3 days warm digestion, the salt
had neither tainted nor softened the flesh, while the chalk had rotted and con-
sumed that which was joined to it. Nor were the effects less of the testaceous
powders of the dispensary. Egg-shells in water resisted putrefaction, and pre-
served the meat longer firm than plain water.*
1 1 . To try whether the testacea would also dissolve vegetable substances, he
infused them with barley and water, and compared this mixture with another of
barley and water, without the testacea. After a long maceration by a fire, the
plain water swelled the barley, became mucilaginous and sour; but that with the
powder kept the grain to its natural size, though it softened it, made no muci-
lage, and remained sweet.
1 1. Nothing could be more unexpected than to find sea-salt a hastener of pu-
trefaction. But the fact is thus: 1 dr. of salt preserves 2 drs. of fresh beef, in 2
oz. of water, above 30 hours, uncorrupted, in a heat equal to that of the human
body ; or, what amounts to the same, this quantity of salt keeps flesh about 20
hours longer sweet than pure water ; but ^ dr. of salt does not preserve it above
2 hours longer. This experiment has been already mentioned. Now he after-
wards found, that 25 grs. have little or no antiseptic virtue; and that 10, or 15,
or even 20 grs. manifestly both hasten and heighten the corruption. -f- It is
moreover to be remarked, that in warm infusions with these smaller quantities,
the salt, instead of hardening the flesh, as it does in a dry form, in brine, or
even in solutions, such as our standard, it here softens and relaxes the texture of
the meat, more than plain water, though much less than water with chalk, or
the testaceous powders.
Many inferences might be made from this experiment: but he only mentions
one. Salt, the indispensable seasoner of animal food, has been supposed to act
bv an antiseptic quality, correcting the too great tendency of meats to putrefac-
tion. But, since it is never taken in aliment beyond the proportion of the cor-
rupting quantities in these experiments, it would appear that salt is subservient to
digestion, chiefly by a septic virtue; that is, by softening and resolving meats;
an action very different from what is commonly believed.:};
* The trial was made with a coarse powder of this substance, but not repeated. — Grig.
t The most putrefying quantity of salt, with this proportion of salt and water, is about 10 grs.
—Grig.
I According to later physiologists, salt in small quantities proves subsen'ient to digestion, by its
stimulant action on the stomach; in the same manner as spices and other kinds of seasoning do.
vol,. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 6Q
On the late Dr. Hnlley's Demonstration of the Analogy of the Logarithmic
Tangents to the Meridian Line, or Sum of the Secants. By Mr. John Robert-
son* F.R.S. N"496, p. 559.
Dr. Halley, in this tract, N" 219, Philos. Trans, seems to have had 2 points
chiefly in view, first, to prove, that the divisions of the meridian line in a Mer-
cator's chart, were analogous to the logarithmic tangents of the half-complements
of the latitudes. 2dly. To find a rule by which the tables of meridional parts
might be computed from Brigg's, or the common logarithmic tangents. The
former of these the Doctor has clearly and elegantly proved, but lie has given
rather too few steps to show as clearly the investigation of the latter.
Article 1 . If the circumference of a circle be divided into any number of equal
parts, by as many radii; and a line be drawn from the circumference cutting those
radii, so that their parts intercepted between this line and the centre be in a
continued decreasing geometric progression ; then will that intersecting line be a
curve, called the proportional spiral, and will intersect those radii at equal angles.
This will be evident, by supposing the radii so near to each other, that the inter-
cepted parts of the spiral may be taken as right lines; for then there will be a
series of similar triangles, each having an equal angle at the centre, and the sides
about those angles proportional.
2. The same things still supposed: the parts of the circumference of the circle
reckoned from any one point, may be taken as the logarithms of the ratios be-
* John Robertson, f.r.s. the author of this paper, was born in the year 1712; and though he
was at first placed out in a trade, yet he must soon have quitted it, as in the title of his first book, a
Complete Treatise on Mensuration, in 1739, he is stiled teacher of the mathematics. In this line,
as a private teacher, he continued several years, till in 1754 he was appointed master of the Royal
Mathematical School in Christ's Hospital ; in which year also he published the first edition of his
Elements of Navigation. The year following however he left Christ's Hospital, in consequence of
an Admiralty appointment to be first master of the Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth; soon after
which, he published his treatise on mathematical instruments. In 1766, through the petty cabals of
the second master, he was dismissed from his situation by the first lord of the Admiralty; on which
he returned to London, where, in the latter part of that year, or early in the next, l)e was appointed
clerk and librarian to the Royal Society; an employment which he respectably held to the time of
his death, in Dec. 1776, at 64 years of age.
Besides the three publications above-mentioned, which were all excellent of their kind, particu-
larly the navigation, and have gone through numerous editions ; he had many ingenious papers in-
serted in the Philos. Trans, from the 46th to the 60th volume. Mr. R. was a person of very honour-
able character and conduct, being greatly respected by the more learned and best characters among
the members of the Royal Society; on most occasions his opinions in the council were much regarded-
and he had the honour to be one of the committee chosen to inspect and report on the government's
powder magazine at Purfleet, concerning its damage and security from lightning. In his mode of
teaching, and arranging the materials in his publications, he was remarkably neat and methodical • a
habit which he probably in some measure acquired in imitation of his good friend and master Wm
Jones, Esq. many of whose papers, on his demise, passed into the hands of Mr. Robertson which
were afterwards sold by auction, along with the valuable library of the latter, after his death.
VOL. X. N
go PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1730.
tween the corresponding rays of the spiral. — For those rays are a series of terms
in a continued geometric progression; and the parts of the circumference form
a series of terms in arithmetic progression. Now the terms of the arithmetic
series being taken as the exponents of the corresponding terms in the geometric
series, there will be the same relation between each geometric term and its corre-
lative, as between numbers and their logarithms. And hence the proportional
spiral is also called the logarithmic spiral.
3. That proportional spiral, which intersects its radii at angles of 43 degrees,
produces logarithms that are of Napier's kind. — For, if the ditterence betweeiv
the first and second terms in the geometric series was indefinitely small, and the
first division of the circumference was of the same magnitude; then may that
part of the spiral, intercepted between the first and second radii, be taken as
the diagonal of a square, two of whose sides are parts of those radii ; therefore
the spiral which cuts its rays at angles of 45°, has a kind of logarithms belong-
ing to it, so related to their corresponding numbers, that the smallest variation
between the first and second terms in the geometric series, is equal to the loga-
rithm of the second term, a cypher being taken for the logarithm of the first.
But of this kind are the hyperbolical logarithms, or those first made by their
inventor the Lord Napier: consequently the logarithms to that spiral which cuts
its rays at angles of 43°, are of the Napierian kind.
4. The rhumb-lines on the globe arc analogous to the logarithmic spiral. —
For every oblique rhumb cuts the meridian at equal angles; and it is a property
in stereographic projections, that the lines in it intersecting each other, form
angles equal to those which they represent on the sphere. Therefore a projection
of the sphere being made on the plane of the equator, the meridians will become
the radii of the equator, and the rhumbs intersecting them at equal angles, will
become the proportional spiral. Hence, the arcs of the equator, or the differ-
ences of longitude reckoned from the same meridian, are as the logarithms of
those parts of the corresponding meridians, intercepted between the centre and
rhumb-line.
) 5. A sea chart being constructed, in which the meridians are parallel to each
other, and the lengths of the degrees of latitude increase in the same proportion as
the meridional distances decrease on the globes, will constitute a Mercator's chart,
in which, besides the positions of places having the same proportions to each
other, as on the globes, the rhumb lines will be represented by right lines. —
For none but right lines can cut at equal angles several parallel right lines.
6. The divisions of the meridi:m line on a Mercator's chart, are the same as a
table of the differences of longitude answering to each minute, or small differ-
ence of latitude on the rhumb line making angles of 45° with the meridians. —
For, in such a chart, the parallels of latitude are equal to the equator, and are
at right angles to the meridians; and therefore a rhumb of 45° cuts the meri-
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. Ql
dians and parallels of latitudes at equal angles; consequently between the inter-
section of any meridian and parallel, and a rhumb cutting them at 45°, there
must be equal parts of the meridian and jjarallel intercepted; now, on tlie equa-
tor, or parallels of latitude, are reckoned all the successive differences of longi-
tudes; and on the meridians the successive meridional differences of latitudes, or
the divisions of the nautical meridian; therefore on the rhumb of 43°, the suc-
cessive differences of longitude are equal to the corresponding divisions of the
nautical meridian.
7. The tangents of the angles which different rhumbs make with the meri-
dians, are directly proportional to the differences of longitudes made on those
rhumbs, when the meridional differences of latitudes are equal ; or, are recipro-
cally proportional to unequal meridional differences of latitudes on those rhumbs,
when the differences of longitudes are equal. — For the meridional difference of
latitude, is to the difference of longitude, as radius is to the tangent of the
angle of the course, or of the angle which the rhumb makes with the meridian.
Therefore, when the meridional differences of latitudes are equal, the differences
of longitudes are as the tangents of the courses ; but when the differences of
longitudes are equal, the meridional differences of latitudes are reciprocally as
the tangents of the courses.
8. The logarithmic tangents of the half-complements of the latitudes, are
analogous to the lengthened degrees in the nautical meridian line, in a Mercator's
chart. — For, in the stereographic projection of the sphere on the plane of the
equator, the latitudes of places are projected by the half-tangents of the com-
plements of those latitudes; which half-tangents are the rays of a proportional
spiral. Now, if a series of successive latitudes be taken on any rhumb, the
corresponding differences of longitudes will be logarithms to the rays of the spiral,
or to the tangents of the half-complements of those latitudes; therefore the dif-
ferences of longitudes are as the logarithmic tangents of the half-complements of
the latitudes; but, art. 6, the lengthened degrees on the nautical meridian are
as the differences of longitudes on the rhumb of 45°; consequently the loga-
rithmic tangents of the half-complements of latitudes are as the lengthened de-
grees on the nautical meridian.
Corol. 1. When the angle between the rhumb line and the meridian is equal
to 45°, then the longitudes of places on that rhumb are expressed by logarithms
of Napier's kind; whose corresponding numbers are natural tangents of the
half-complements of the latitudes to arcs expressed in parts of the radius.
Carol. 2. Hence, to any two places on a rhumb of 45°, the difference of
longitude, or the meridional difference of latitude, is equal to the difference of
the Napierian logarithmic tangents of the half-com]jlements of the latitudes of
those places, estimated in parts of the radius.
Corol. 3. As there may be an indefinite variety of rhumbs, and therefore avS
N 2
g2' PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
many different kinds of logarithms, consequently every species of logarithms has
its peculiar rhumb, distinguishable by the angle it makes with the meridian :
therefore, among these there are 2 kinds, to which the differences of longitudes
are the differences of the logarithmic tangents of the half-complements of lati-
tudes, estimated in minutes of a degree; one of them belonging to Napier's
form of logarithmic tangents, and the other to Briggs's, or the common loga-
rithmic tangents.
9. The common logarithmic tangents are a table of the differences of longi-
tudes to every minute of latitude, on the rhumb line making angles with the
meridians of 51° 38' Q". — For, let z represent the meridional difference of lati-
tude between 2 places on the rhumb of 45"; or its equal, the difference between
the logarithmic tangents of the half-complements of the latitudes of those places,
estimated either in parts of the radius, or in minutes of a degree. Then, As
the circumference in parts of the radius = 62831,853 &c : To the circum-
ference in minutes of a degree = 2160O :: So is a meridional difference of lati-
tude in parts of the radius = z : To a meridional difference of latitude in mi-
nutes of a degree, = 0,34377468 &c. X z.
■ Whose corresponding rhumb is different from that which z belonged to; and
the angle which this rhumb makes with the meridian, will be found by the fol-
lowing analogy from art. 7- — As the meridional difference of latitude on one
rhumb = 0,34377^68 &c. z : To the meridional difference of latitude on a
rhumb of 45°, = z :: So is the natural tangent of the rhumb of 45°, = 10000 :
To the natural tangent of the other rhumb, = 29088,821 &c.
Which tangent answers to 71° l' 42"; and this is the angle that the rhumb
line makes with the meridians, on which the differences of the logarithmic tan-
gents of the half-complements of the latitudes, in Napier's form, are the true
differences of longitudes estimated in sexagesimal parts of a degree. Now Na-
pier's logarithms being to Briggs's, as 2,30258 &c. is to 1 ; therefore, 2,30258
&c. : 1 :: 29088,821 &c. : 12633,114 &c.; which is the tangent of 51° 38' Q";
and in this angle are the meridians intersected by that rhumb, on which the dif-
ferences of Briggs's logarithmic tangents of the half-complements of the lati-
tudes are the true differences of longitudes corresponding to those latitudes.
10. The difference between Briggs's logarithmic tangents of the half-comple-
ments of the latitudes of any two places, is to the meridional difference of lati-
tude in minutes between those places, in the constant ratio of 1263,3 Sec. to 1 ;
or of 1 to 0,0007915704 &c. — For Briggs's logarithmic tangents are as the dif-
ferences of longitudes on the rhumb (a) of 51° 38' Q"; whose natural tangent is
1263,3 &c.
The nautical meridian is a scale of longitudes on the rhumb (b) of 45°, by
art. 6, whose tangent being equal to the radius, may be expressed by unity. And
the differences of longitude to equal differences of latitudes on different rhumbs,
TOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TBANSACTIONS. 93
being to each other as the tangents of the angles those rhumbs make with the
meridians. Tlierefore, as the tangent of a (51° 38' Q") = 1,2633 &c : To the
tangent of b (45°) = 1,0000 : So is the difference of longitudes on a, or the
ditt'erence between the logarithmic tangents of the half co-latitudes of two places :
To the difference of longitudes on b, or the meridional difference of latitudes of
those places.
And hence arise the rules which are given in nautical works, for finding the
meridional parts by a table of common logarithmic tangents.
This curious discovery of Dr. Halley's, joined to that excellent thought of his,
of delineating the lines, showing the variation of the compass, on the nautical
chart, are some of the very few useful additions made to the art of navigation
within the last 130 years; for if, beside these, we except the labours of that in-
genious artist Mr. Richard Norwood, who improved the art by adding to it the
manner of sailing in a current, and "by finding the measure of a degree on a
great circle, the theory of navigation will be found nearly in the same state in
which it was left by that eminent mathematician Mr, Edward Wright; who,
about the year l600, published the principles on which the true nautical art is
founded; and showed, what does not appear to have been known before, how to
estimate a ship's true place at sea, as well in longitude as in latitude, by the use
of a table of meridional parts, first made by himself, and constructed by the
constant addition of the secants, and which differs almost insensibly from such a
table made on Dr. Halley's principles, contained in the preceding articles.
Mr. R. concludes this discourse with an article which, though it be somewhat
foreign to the preceding subject, yet, as it was discovered while he was contem-
plating some part of it, and perhaps is not exhibited in the same view by others,
it is annexed in this place; which is, to demonstrate this common logarithmic
property, that the fluxion of a number divided by that number, is equal to the
fluxion of the Napierian logarithm of that number.
Let BEG be a logarithmic spiral, cutting its ^^
rays at angles of 45°: then, if ae be taken as a » •■ ''/V M
number, bc will be its Napierian or hyperbolic \ -^ ^f.// \ '■■
logarithm. Also, let CD express the fluxion of tVc'"' ''X/^ / \ \
the logarithm bc ; then the corresponding \/r' / I ■
fiiixion of the number ae, will be represented ^^v\ / I '■
by FG, or its equal fe; as the angles feg and Bv""*"^ I "•
FGE are equal. Now, ac : cd :: ae : (ef =) fg. \ ^ tcT'^D
Therefore cd = — X ab. And if ab be taken \ | •
AE \ I ■•
as the unit or term from whence the numbers \l .". _
En. ' I'F
begin: then CD = — . Q. E. d. >v":
*' AE ^V
45
17
40
30
39
38
39
11
39
46
94 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
Observation of the Total Lunar Eclipse, June I9, 1750, N.s. at Witlemberg.
By G. M. Base, Prof, of Philos. N° 496, p. 570.
The end of the shadow, by corrected time, as follows :
11^ 40™ 37' End according to Mr. Bose himself.
. . according to a friend.
. . by the projection of a friend.
, , by the corrected calendar of Leipsic.
. . by the Connoisance des temps.
. . by the Ephemeris of Manfredi.
On the Heat of the Weather at Tooling, in July and September last. [1750]
By the Rev. Henry Miles, F.R.S., D.D. N° 496, p. 571.
The morning at 4, July 11, had nothing remarkable : at 2 p.m. the heavens
mostly clear, and no indications of a storm ; the barometer having fallen but -pf-j-
inch since 4 a.m. it then stood at 30, 20. the thermometer at &7-L, and before
.3 p.m. at 88^, which is the hottest temperature of the air he ever knew. At 4
p.m. was very distant thunder; soon after it came a little nearer, and was one
continued murmur, without any perceivable intermission for great part of an
hour : the lightning accompanying it, not much. The wind was nearly s.w.
and dark clouds passed by on each side till they united in the n. forming one of
the blackest clouds he ever saw, over the city, as near as he could guess. They
had not one drop of rain, nor did there fall either rain or hail for near 3 miles to
the N. of the place towards London : a few hail-stones it seems fell in some parts
ofClapham.
The barometer fell little, and the thermometer no more than usual at that
time of the evening. Mr. Canton writes that his thermometer in Spital square
(of the same construction, and kept too in the open air) fell no less than 17
degrees.
At 4 a.m. Sept. 2, the wind being easterly, and blowing strong, accompanied
with several short showers of rain, the barometer being at 29.97, the thermo-
meter abroad stood at 61 : a degree of heat exceeding any he had taken notice of
during the whole summer at that time of the morning.
On the Hot JVeather in JulyllbO, dated Norwich July 23. By Mr. fVm. Jrderon,
F.R.S. N°49(), p. 573.
For 12 days past, the weather was at Norwich the most excessive ever known.
The beginning of this heat was on July 8th ; when, though the whole day was
cloudy, the ground was so uncommonly hot, that Mr. A. could not bear to walk
on it long together without much uneasiness ; and many others were sensible of
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. (JS
the same inconvenience. On the 11th, which was the hottest day of all, the
thermometer in the sun's rays stood 1 1° above the heat of human blood ; and in
the shade only 8° below it. The distance between freezing and the heat of hu-
man blood being divided into 100 parts. An inch of tallow, -i\ of an inch in
diameter, liquefied in the sun in less than 30 minutes. A piece of resin, -^ of
an inch in diameter, became so soft as to be liable to take any impression in the
same time.
About 3 o'clock in the afternoon, when the sky is clear, is the hottest part of
the day ; but clouds mostly came on about that time on these days.
Several horses dropped down dead under their masters, overcome by this violeqt
heat.
j4 Total Eclipse of the Moon, observed Dec. 2, 1750, in the Morning in the
Strand, London, about 5' of Time West of St. PauCs, and 27' West of the
Roijal Observatory at Greenwich. By Dr. Bevis and Mr. James Short, F. R. S.
N° 496, p. 575.
A sensible penumbra (Dec. 1) at 16" 32'" O^
The eclipse judged to begin at ]6 36 50
Total immersion at 17 36 5
The moon begins to emerge 1 9 14 33
The moon was now got so low, and day-light so far advanced, that no more
phases could be observed with any degree of certainty. These observations were
made with a reflecting telescope, that magnified 40 times, and a refracting tele-
scope, which magnified 1 2 times , and the times were the same through these 2
telescopes ; for the air was exceedingly clear, and the shadow well defined, the
penumbra being scarcely sensible.
Here follows a computation, made from Dr. Halley's tables, by Mr. John
Catlin, of Guy's hospital ; and sent to Mr. Short the day before the eclipse.
Beginning of the moon's eclipse. (Dec. 1)... 16** 44™ 31*
Immersion at 17 42 45
Emersion at I9 20 37
End at 20 18 51
Hence it appears, that the eclipse began about 8 minutes sooner than the com
putation from Dr. Halley's tables gave it ; but the computation which Mr. Brent
made and published some time before the eclipse happened, was within a minute
of the time observed ; and this exactness he imputes to his leaving out 3 of the
7 equations of the moon, published by Sir Isaac Newton in his theory of the moon.
An Account of some Experiments, made by Benjamin Robins, Esq. F.R.S., Mr.
Samuel Da Costa, and several other Gentlemen, in order lo discover the Height
96 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750,
lo luhich Rockets may be made to ascend, and to what Distance their Light
may he seen. By Mr. John Ellicott, F.R.S. N° 496, p. 578.
Soon after the exhibition of the fire-works in the Green Park, on occasion of
the late peace, Mr. Robins communicated to the Society an account of the height
to which several of the rockets there fired were observed to rise. In this account,
after having given a short description of the instrument with which the heights
were measured, he observes, that the customary height to which the single or
honorary rockets, as they are styled, ascended, was about 465 yards : that 3
of them rose to about 550 yards ; and the greatest height of any of those fired in
the grand girandole was about 60O yards. He further observed, that supposing
rockets are made to ascend 600 yards, or more than a third of a mile, it follows,
that if their light be sufficiently strong, and the air not hazy, they may be seen
in a level country at above 50 miles distance ; and that, from the nature of the
composition, and the usual imperfect manner of forming them, he was of opi-
nion that rockets were capable of being greatly improved, and made to reach
much greater distances.
Mr. Robins not having been able to obtain any certain account to what dis-
tance any of these rockets were actually seen, and considering the great use that
might be made of rockets in determining the position of distant places, and in
giving signals for naval and military purposes, he resolved to order some rockets
to be fired at an appointed time, and to desire some of his friends to look out for
them at several very distant places. The places fixed on for this purpose, were,
Godmarsham in Kent, about 50 miles distant from London ; Beacon-hill on
Tiptery-heath in Essex, at about 40 miles ; and Barkway, on the borders of Hert-
fordshire, about 3S miles from London.
Mr. Robins accordingly ordered some rockets to be made by a person many years
employed in the royal Laboratory at Woolwich ; to which some gentlemen, who
had been informed of Mr. Robins's intentions, added some others of their own
making. The 27th of September, 17^9, at 8 in the evening, was the time ap-
pointed for the firing of them ; but, through the negligence of the engineer,
they were not let off till above half an hour after the time agreed on. There
were in all a dozen rockets fired from London-field at Hackney ; and the heights
were measured by Mr. Canton, Mr. Robins being present, at the distance of
about 1200 yards from the post from whence the rockets were fired. The great-
est part of them did not rise to above 400 yards ; one to about 500, and one to
600 yards nearly.
A letter received the next day from the Rev. Dr. Mason, of Trinity college,
Cambridge, who had undertaken to look out for them from Barkway on the
borders of Hertfordshire, informed, that he plainly saw 4 rise, turn, and spread;
XXTL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAI, TRANSACTIONS, QJ
He judged they rose about one degree above the horizon, and that their lights
were strong enough to have been seen much farther.
From Essex Mr. R. was informed, that the persons on Tiptery-heath saw 8 or
Q rockets very distinctly, at about half an hour past 8 ; and greatly to the east-
ward of these 5 or 6 more. The gentlemen from Godmarsham in Kent having
waited till above half an hour past 8, without being able to discern any rockets,
they fired half a dozen ; which, from the bearings of the places, were most pro-
bably those seen to the eastward by the persons on Tiptery-heath ; and if the
situations, as laid down in the common maps are to be depended on, at about 35
miles distance.
The engineer being of opinion that he could make some rockets, of the same
size as the former, that should rise much higher, Mr. Robins directed him to
make half a dozen. These last were fired the 12th of October following, from
the same place, and in general they rose nearly to the same heights with the
foregoing ; excepting one which was observed to rise 6qo yards. The evening
proved very hazy, which rendered it impossible for them to be seen to any consi-
derable distance.
Among some rockets fired in the last spring, there were two made by Mr. da
Costa of about 3-l inches diameter, which were observed to rise, the one to about
833, the other to QIS yards. At a second trial, made some time after, there
was one made by Mr. da Costa, of 4 inches diameter, which rose to 1 1 QO yards.
The last trial was made the latter end of April 1750, when 28 rockets were fired
in all, made by different persons, and of different sizes, from 1^ inch diameter
to 4 inches ; the most remarkable of each size were as follows : one of 1 -^ inch
rose to 743 yards ; one of 2 inches to 659 ; one of 2^ inches to 880 ; another
of the same size, which rose to IO71 ; one of 3 inches to 1254 ; one of 34.
inches to llOQ; and one of 2 inches, which, after having risen to near 700
yards, turned, and fell very near the ground before it went out. These were all
made by Mr. da Costa. Besides these, there was one of the rockets of 2-l inches
in diameter, which rose to 784 yards, and another made by Mr. Banks of the
same size to 833.
After allowing for possible errors, it still appears certain that several of these
rockets rose to 1000 yards, one to 1 100, and another to 1200 yards, or double
of any of those fired in the Green Park.
Several Papers concerning a new Semi -metal, called Platina. Communicated to
the R.S. by Mr. Wm. IVatson* F.R.S. N° 496, p. 584.
* As this appears to have been the first printed account of this new metal, it has been judged to
be due to the memory of those who communicated it to reprint it nearly in the original form.
VOL. X. O
gS^ PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
Extract of a Letter from William Brownrigg, M.D., F. R. S. to Wm. Watson,
F.R.S. Dated Whitehaven, Dec. 5, 1750. p. 584.
Dr. B. here communicates an account of a semi-metal called platina di Pinto ;
which, so far as he knew, had not been taken notice of by any writer on mine-
rals. Presuming therefore that the subject was new, he requested the favour to
have this account laid before the r. s. The experiments related were several of
them made by a friend, whose exactness in performing them, and veracity in
relating them, he could rely on : however, for greater certainty, he should him-
self repeat them.
Memoirs of a Semi-metal called Platina di Pinto, found in the Spanish West
Indies, p. 585.
Though the history of minerals, and other fossil substances, has been dili-
gently cultivated, especially by the moderns ; yet it must be acknowledged, that
among the vast variety of bodies which are the objects of that science, there still
remains room for new inquiries.
Gold is usually esteemed the most ponderous of bodies; and yet he had seen,
in the possession of the late professor Gravesande, a metalline substance,
brought from the East Indies, that was specifically heavier than gold, by at least
a 20th part.* Mercury, next to gold, is commonly said to be the heaviest
body; yet mercury was greatly exceeded in specific gravity by a semi-metal -|-
brought from the West Indies, of which he had presented specimens to the r. s.
This semi-metal seems more particularly to deserve attention, as it is endued
with some very singular qualities, which plainly demonstrate that certain general
theorems, though long established, and universally received by the metallurgist,
yet do not hold true in all cases, and ought not to be admitted into their arts,
without proper limitations and restrictions. For instance, that gold and silver
may be purified from all heterogeneous substances by coppellation, is a proposition
that all assayers and refiners have long thought true and undeniable; yet this
proposition ought not to be received by those artificers, without an exception to
the semi-metal here treated of; since, like those nobler metals, it resists the
power of fire, and the destructive force of lead in that operation.
This semi-metal was first presented to him (Dr. Brownrigg) about Q years pre-
• This metalline substance, in the possession of Gravesande, though brought from the East In-
dies, (indirectly from commercial intercourse by the Spaniards with South America) was probably
the very metal here treated of, viz. platina (now called platinum), of which the specific gravity in its
purest state is 23.000, while that of gold is only 19.3.
■\ Wrongly termed a semi-metal, but at that time taken for such, as the means of reducing it to i
reguline and malleable state were then unknown.
rOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 99
ceding the above date, by Mr. Charles Wood, a skilful and inquisitive metallur-
gist, who met with it in Jamaica, whither it had been brought from Carthagena
in New Spain. And the same gentleman had gi'atified Dr. B.'s curiosity, by
making further inquiries concerning this body. It is found in considerable quan-
tities in the Spanish West Indies, and is there known by the name of platina di
Pinto. The Spaniards probably call it platina, from the resemblance in colour
that it bears to silver. It is bright and shining, and of a uniform texture ; it
takes a fine polish, and is not subject to tarnish or rust ; it is extremely hard and
compact ; but like Bath-metal, or cast iron, brittle, and cannot be extended
under the hammer. * ./
The Spaniards do not dig it in the form of ore, but find it in dust, or small
grains, as were herewith presented to the r.s. Whether they gather it in a
pretty pure state, as brought to us, or wash it, like gold-dust, from among sand,
and other lighter substances, was to him unknown : however, it is seldom col-
lected perfectly pure ; since, among several parcels of it that he had seen, he
constantly observed a large mixture of a shining black sand, such as is found on
the shores of Virginia and Jamaica, which is a rich iron ore, and answers to the
magnet. It has also usually mixed with it some few shining particles of a golden
colour, which seem to be a substance of a different nature.
It is very probable that there is great plenty of this semi-metal in the Spanish
West Indies ; since trinkets made of it are there very common. A gentleman
of Jamaica bought 5 lb. of it at Carthagena for less than its vreight of silver ; and
it was formerly sold for a much lower price.
When exposed by itself to the fire, either in grains, or in larger pieces, it is
of extreme difficult fusion; and has been kept for 2 hours in an air-furnace, in
a heat that would run down cast iron in 15 minutes: which great heat it endured
without being melted or wasted ; neither could it be brought to fuse in this heat,
by adding to it borax, and other saline fluxes. But the Spaniards have a way of
melting it down, either alone, or by means of some flux ; and cast it into sword-
hilts, buckles, snufi'-boxes, and Other utensils.
When exposed to a proper degree of fire, with lead, silver, gold, copper, or
tin, it readily melts, and incorporates with these metals ; rendering the mixture,
like itself, extremely hard and brittle.
Having been melted in an assay-furnace, on a test with lead, and with it ex-
posed to a great fire for 3 hours, till all the lead was wrought off, the platina was
afterwards found remaining at the bottom of the test, without having suffered
any alteration or diminution by this operation.
A piece of platina was put into strong and pure aqua fortis, and with it placed
• Not in its native or crude state j but when properly purified, it may be extended under the hammer.
o a
100 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
in a sand-heat for 12 hours: the platina, when taken out of the aqua fortis, was
found of the same weight as when put into it ; being in nowise dissolved or cor-
roded by that menstruum.
It had been reported, that this semi-metal was specifically heavier than gold ; *
but having weighed several pieces of it hydrostatically in a nice assay-balance, he
found one of these pieces was to that of water exactly as 1 5 to 1 . Another piece,
that seemed to be cast very open and porous, he found in gravity to water only
as 13.91 to 1 : though this last-mentioned piece, could it have endured the ham-
mer as well as gold, might probably have been reduced to a considerably greater
degree of solidity than that of the first-mentioned specimen. For the purest gold
is seldom found, after fusion, to come up to its true specific weight, till it has
been brought up to its greatest degree of solidity under the hammer.
He also weighed an equal mixture of gold and platina, which he found nearly
as ponderous as gold itself; the specific weight of this mixture being to that of
water as 1 9 to 1 .
It had been reported, that the Spaniards had sometimes been tempted to adul-
terate gold with platina, as the mixture could not be distinguished from true
gold by all the ordinary trials : but the gold thus adulterated was, on a nicer
examination, found hard and brittle, and could not be separated from the platina,
and rendered ductile and pure, either by cementation, or by the more ordinary
operations with lead and antimony. In order therefore to prevent this fraud, the
king of Spain commanded that the mines of platina should be stopped up ; so
that this semi-metal is now much scarcer than formerly.
From the foregoing account it appears, that no known body approaches nearer
to the nature of gold, in its most essential properties of fixedness and solidity,
than the semi-metal here treated of; and that it also bears a great resemblance
to gold in other particulars. Some alchemists have thought that gold differed
from other metals in nothing so much as in its specific gravity ; and that, if
they could obtain a body that had the specific weight of gold, they could easily
give it all the other qualities of that metal. Let them try their art on this body;
which, if it can be made as ductile as gold, will not easily be distinguished from
gold itself.
On the whole, this semi-metal seems a very singular body, that merits an
exacter inquiry into its nature than has yet been made; since it is not altogether
improbable that, like the magnet, iron, antimony, mercury, and other metallic
substances, it may be endowed with some peculiar qualities, that may render it
of singular use and importance to mankind.
♦When thoroughly purified, it is specifically heavier than gold, weighing 23.000 j whereas the
specific gravity of gold is only 19.3. . ,
VOL. XLVI.]^ PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. 101
The 3d communication on this interesting subject is from Mr. Watson, who
says, that this platina di Pinto is likewise called in America, Juan Blanco. It is
not mentioned in any author he has met with, except Don Antonio d'Ulloa, who,
in the History of his Voyage to South America, vol. ii. b. 6, ch. 10, which he
has here extracted, and translated from the Spanish, when giving an account of
the gold and silver mines in the province of Quito, and of the various methods
of separating these metals from other substances, with which they are combined,
says, that " in the territory of Choco there are gold mines, in which that
metal is so disguised and enveloped with other mineral substances, juices, and
stones, that, for their separation from the gold, they are obliged to use quick-
silver. Sometimes they find mineral substances, which, from their being mixed
with platina, they chuse to neglect. This platina is a stone (piedra) of such re-
sistance, that it is not easily broken by a blow on an anvil. It is not subdued by
calcination; and it is very difficult to extract the metal it contains even with much
labour and expence."
In the before-mentioned work, ch. 11, the same author, when speaking of
the remaining works of the Indians of old, says, " the specula wrought out of
stones, which are found in the places of worship of the Indians, are of 2 kinds,
in regard to the matter of which they are made : one of these is called piedra de
Inga, the other piedra de Gallinazo. The first of these is smooth, of a leaden
colour, and not transparent ; they are usually found wrought of a circular figure:
one of the surfaces is plain, and as smooth as though it were made of a kind of
crystal ; the other surface is oval, or rather somewhat spherical, and not so much
burnished as the plain one. Though they vary in their size, they are commonly
from 3 to 4 inches in diameter; but he has seen one that was a foot and a half
in diameter. Its principal surface was concave, and. much augmented the size
of objects, for its polish was in as great perfection as though it had been worked
by a dextrous artist in these times."
" This stone has certain veins, or hair-like appearances, on its surface ; by
which it is rendered less fit for a speculum, and is apt to break in these veins in
receiving any blow. Many are persuaded, or at least suspect, that the matter of
these is a cast composition ; and though there are some appearances of this being
so, they are not sufficiently convincing. In this country there are gullies (que-
bradas) where the mineral of them is found rough, and from whence some are
always taken ; but these are not now wrought for those purposes f<jr which here-
tofore they were employed by the Indians : but this is no reason but that some
of them may have been cast, as with the same material taken out of the mine,
they may have been made artificially, and thereby have received a greater degree
of perfection, as well in their quality as in their figure." He says further, " that
though at present these, as well as several other things found there ; are but of
102 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
small value, yet they are extremely curious, and worthy to be esteemed, as well
for their great antiquity, as for their being the performances of those barbarous
people."
Some of these piedras de Inga Mr. W. laid before the Society, both in their
rough and in their polished state. They were brought hither with several other
curiosities from America, by Don Pedro Maldonado, and were presented by him
to the president, who was pleased to put them into his hands. They are doubt-
less of a metalline substance, and have, in his opinion, evident marks of having
been fused and cast. They very much resemble, as will be seen by comparing
them, the platina before mentioned : and though they are called (piedras) stones
by Don Antonio d'UUoa, he likewise gives the same appellation to the platina.
He cannot therefore help recommending to some curious metallurgist of the So-
ciety to make the experiment, whether, when the piedras de Inga are, by a
proper process, divested of their stony and other heterogeneous parts, the metal-
line residuum will not resemble, as well in specific gravity, as ip other properties,
the purified platina.
The fourth communication on this subject is from M. da Costa, who states
that in Jan. 1742-3, there were brought from Jamaica, in a Man of War, se-
veral bars (as thought) of gold, consigned from different merchants of that island,
to their different correspondents here, as bars of gold. These bars had the same
specific gravity, or rather more than gold, and were exactly like that metal in
colour, grain, &c. A piece of one of these counterfeit bars was sent to the
mint to be tested, and it was found to be 21 carats 3 grs. worse than standard.
yi The 5th communication is an extract of a letter from Wm. Brownrigg, m.d.,
F.K.s. to Wm. Watson, f.r.s., containing some further experiments on the pla-
tina. Dated Whitehaven, Feb. 13, 1750. Wherein he thanks Mr. Watson
for his trouble in presenting his specimen of platina to the r.s., together with
his memoir relating to it ; and he further thanks him for the addition made to it
of the extract from Don d'UUoa's Voyage.
The gentleman, whose experiments on platina Dr. B. mentioned to the r.s.,
was Mr. Charles Wood, who permitted him to make what use of them he
pleased ; and he did not pretend to have made any new discovery, nor to know
so much of that body, as had long been known to the Spaniards.
The chief thing about which he had any difficulty, was what had been asserted
of the platina's resisting the force of lead in coppellation. This experiment he
had tried, therefore, by adding to 26 grs. of platina, 1 6 times its weight of pure
lead, that he had reduced from litharge. To the lead put into a coppel, and
placed in a proper furnace, as soon as it was melted he added the platina, which
in a short time was dissolved in the lead. After the lead was all wrought off^
there remained at the bottom of the coppel a pellet of platina, which he found to
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 103
weigh only 21 grs. ; so that, in this operation, the platina had lost near a 5th
part of its weight.
According therefore to this experiment, the platina does not wholly resist the
force of lead in coppellation ; but, by repeated operations of that kind with larger
quantities of lead, may probably all be destroyed : and by such repeated coppella.^
tions, gold and silver may very likely be refined from it ; though what was before
asserted may hold pretty true, with regard to the common coppellations of the
assayers and refiners.
Mr. Wood said, that, in his experiment, he thought the platina rather gained
than lost in weight by coppellation. This might happen from some small mixture
of lead, or other metal continuing with it after it remained no longer fused.
From this single experiment Dr. B. would not be quite positive that lead thus
consumes some small quantity of platina, since it was possible the platina used
might not be pure. Besides, in order to keep it longer in fusion, he urged on
the experiment with an uncommon degree of heat, especially towards the end of
the operation ; though he thought no great error could thence arise ; as 4 dr.
of silver, which he coppelled at the same time, had lost only 1 grs. in the operation.
He was told that one Mr. Ord, formerly a factor to the South Sea Company,
took in payment from some Spaniards, gold to the value of 5001. sterling, which
being mixed with platina, was so brittle that he could not dispose of it, neither
could he get it refined in London, so that it was quite useless to him ; though,
if no error has been committed in the above-mentioned experiments, it might
probably have been rendered pure by a much larger dose of lead than is usually
employed for that purpose.
To his memoir he might have added, that attempting to cleanse a parcel of
the native platina from the black sand, with which it was mixed, he found that
a great many of its grains were attracted by the magnet he made use of for that
purpose. This circumstance he took notice of in a letter to Lord Lonsdale two
years before.*
Of a very Large Human Calculus. By fFilliam Heberden, M. D. -f- F. R. S.
N° 496, p. 596.
There is preserved in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, a stone taken.
♦ A most ingenious and complete set of experiments was made on platina between 3 and 4 years
afterwards by Dr. Lewis. These experiments are inserted in the 48th and 50th vols, of the Phil. Trans.
Since then it has occupied the attention of the first chemists in this and other countries ; and lately Dr.
Wollaston (Phil. Trans, for 1804 and 1805) has shown that there are 2 or 3 distinct metallic sub-
stances contained in the ores of platina.
+ This eminent physician, as we are informed in his life prefixed to the Commentaries on the
History and Cure of Diseases, was born in 17 10, in London, where he received the early part of his
104 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
from a human bladder, which for its uncommon size may deserve the notice of
this Society. It is of an oval shape, flatted on one side, and its surface is smooth.
The specific gravity plainly shews that it is of animal origin, its weight being to
that of water, only as 1.73 to 1. It was taken from the wife of Thomas Raisin,
locksmith in Bury, after her death, by Mr. Gutteridge, a surgeon of Norwich.
She had felt much less pain than might have been expected from so large a
stone; and might probably have lived much longer with it, had she not thought
herself well enough to attempt a journey on horseback ; for while riding she was
suddenly seized with violent pains, that obliged her to be taken off the horse
education. " In 1724 he was sent to St. John's College, Cambridge, of which he was afterwards
elected a fellow. From that time he directed his attention to the study of medicine, which he pur-
sued partly at Cambridge and partly in London. Having taken his degree of m. d. he practised in
the university for about 10 years, and during that time read every year a course of lectures on the
Mat. Med. In 174-6', he became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and 2 years after-
wards leaving Cambridge, he settled in London and was elected f. r. s. He very soon got into
great business, which he followed with unremitting attention above 30 years, till it seemed prudent
to withdraw a little from the fatigues of his profession. He therefore purchased a house at Windsor,
to which he used ever afterwards to retire during some of the summer months ; but returned to Lon-
don in the winter, and still continued to visit the sick for many years. In 1766 he recommended
to the College of Physicians the first design of the Medical Transactions, in which he proposed to
collect together such observations as might have occurred to any of their body, and were likely to
illustrate the history or cure of diseases. The plan was soon adopted, and 3 vols, have successively
been laid before the public. In 1778 the Royal Society of Medicine in Paris chose him into the
number of their associates." Besides his Commentaries on Diseases published after his death. Dr. H.
wrote several papers in the Medical Transactions, and others, in addition to the above, in the Phil.
Trans. He was the first who gave a clear and satisfactory account of that painful thoracic disease,
called angina pectoris. He died in 1801, when he was in his 91st year.
Dr. H. possessed a liberal and enlightened mind, a sound and accurate judgment, a refined and
classical taste, and was endeared to all who knew him by the rectitude of his moral conduct, and
an uniform complacency of disposition.
As a medical writer he ranks with the most eminent physicians which this country has ever pro-
duced In his Commentaries on Diseases, written and printed separately both in English and Latin —
in Latin which for classical purity may be compared to the latinity of Celsus himself — he has de-
scribed with a precision and fidelity which have never been surpassed the histories of morbid af-
fections ; and with a candour worthy of imitation, has told what modes of treatment he had found,
after long experience and diligent observation, to be beneficial and hurtful in each ; thus bequeathing
to posterity a work replete with practical truths, unmixed with theoretical reflexions. It may,
however, be remarked that he seems to have been too much prejudiced against chemical medicines;
and that having been disappointed in his trials of some reputed remedies in certain obstinate dis-
orders, he was too much inclined to doubt the possibility of their cure being effected by any kind of
medicines ; thus throwing a damp on further remedial exertions. "We readily admit that medical
enthusiasm has often proved disgraceful to the art ; on the other hand, we think that medical scep-
ticism may be carried to an improper length. Because there are diseases which have hitherto re-
sisted the action of various and even opposite remedies, we are not therefore to conclude that it is
hopeless to make further curative efforts. So long as the organization of parts essential to life re-
mains undestroyed, we ought not to despair. Nature has furnished a copious stock of meilicinaj
agents. It will require ages to exhaust them all.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ' 10^
immediately : after which she could never make water, unless the stone was first
moved, and she continued in great agonies till she died. This monstrous stone
weighs 33 oz. 3 drs. 36 grs. Troy. There appears to have been at least -J- oz.
broken off, to examine its internal structure ; not to mention what it must have
lost by mere wear in 80 years.
We are told, that they have in the hospitals of Paris, human calculi weighing
34 Paris oz. but this in Trinity library, even at present, weighs 34 Paris oz.
wanting Q grs. and must have weighed considerably more when it was whole.
Yet these are perhaps the heaviest that are any where recorded ; except that very
extraordinary one mentioned by Dr. Lister, in his journey to Paris, p. 232 ;
which he says was taken from a monk, a. d. 169O, and weighs 51 oz.
This history may confirm to us the usefulness of endeavouring to relieve the
violence of pain in this distemper, by altering the position of the stone in the
bladder, either with the help of the catheter, or by some proper alteration in the
posture of the patient ; since, with respect to the pain which it occasions, the
situation of the stone appears to be of far more consequence than its size.
0/ a Nondescript Petrified Insect.* By the Ren. Charles Lyttelton, LL. D. and
F. R. S., Dean of Exeter. N" 496, p. 598.
The curious fossil now exhibited to the society is as rare as its figure is elegant ;
having never been mentioned by any of our own writers who treat on fossils, and
but very imperfectly described by foreign lithographists. Dr. L. discovered a
single specimen of it fig. 9, 10, 11, pi. 1, last year, in the limestone pits at
Dudley in Worcestershire; and very lately a large mass of limestone (plate 2,)
full of them in the same place ; both which are now submitted to the inspection
of this learned body, who are best able to determine to what class of the animal
kingdom it properly belongs.
Addenda to the preceding paper. Extract of a letter from the Rev. Dr. Lyt-
telton to C. Mortimer, Sec. R. S. — ^The Rev. Dr. Shaw, of Oxford, has pro-
cured a specimen of the extended eruca. As the fossilists differed in their opinion
of this Dudley fossil, some pronouncing it an eruca, others a bivalve, he thought
it best to leave the reader to judge for himself from the engravings ; but, as
we are now able to add a specimen of this fossil in an extended position, there is
a better pretence to call it an eruca. See fig. 12, 13, 14, pi. 1.
* The aniinal itself is as yet undiscovered in its recent state. It seems to be a species either of
Oniscus or Monoculus. The fossil is the EntomoUtkus paradoxus of Linnaeus.
VOL. X.
106 PHILOSOPHICAL TfiANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
Some further Account of the before-mentioned Dudley Fossil. By the Editor of
these Transactions, Dr. C. Mortimer. N° 496, p. 600.
The Rev. Dr. Pocock, f. r. s. sent several specimens of this fossil to the pre-
sident ; who put them into Dr. M.'s hands, and desired him to draw up an ac-
count of them to be annexed to the preceding paper.
The first specimen is a mass of stone containing the face and eyes, with some
rudiments of legs on the sides ; but the back is entirely broken away. Another
specimen contains the head only : a third, the head, and part of the back, but
greatly distorted. But the most beautiful and complete are the 1 which are ex-
hibited in pi. 1, atfig. 15, ]6, 17, 18.
At fig. 9, is one of these insects completely extended at its whole length ;
where it appears, that the head is covered with a shell or crust consisting of 3
parts ; the middle part a, is broad and round ; which he therefore calls the
nose : the 1 side pieces are of a triangular form, bb, in each of which is si-
tuated a large protuberant eye, cc. The anterior part of the whole is encom-
passed by a round border, ddd, which looks like an upper lip ; though he does
not take it to be so ; but that the mouth is situated lower down, as in the crab-
kind, and does not appear in any of the specimens yet seen. On each side the
crown of the head, towards the back part of it, are two small knobs, ee. At
ii, in fig. 16, appear some traces of feet, which seem to lie under the belly: but
as the belly, or under side, was not distinct, not being cleared from its stony
and earthy matter, he could not discern any other legs.
Most likely the whole back of this creature, when alive, was covered with a
case, or undivided elytrum, as is the scolopendra aquatica scutata, described in
these transactions, n. 447, by M. Klein, of Dantzic ; and afterwards by the
Rev. Mr. Littleton Brown, both worthy members of this society. M. Klein
says the case was whole ; and that he was forced to slit it open to shew the back
underneath ; when it appears, that the body was trilobated, as in fig. 1 5 . The
case, being very thin and tender, may probably have been broken off at the
death of the animal, before its being petrified.
Mr. Brown does not mention in his insect the property of rolling itself up,
which this certainly had ; as appears by several of the figures, as fig. 9, 10, 11,
13, 17, and 18, which are entirely rolled up ; and as is more particularly repre-
sented by fig. 17 and 18, in which it appears, that the tail is turned up under
the belly quite to the mouth ; and at fig. 14 the creature seems but half
rolled up.
Dr. M. consulted all the books he could meet with, which give figures of in-
sects and crustaceous animals in their natural and petrified states ; but finds none
resemble this Dudley fossil so near as M. Klein's insect ; therefore till more in-
Vol. xlvi.] philosophical tbansactions. 107
formation is got, he calls it, scolopendrae aquaticae scutatae affine animal pe-
trifactum.
The Description and Figures of a small flat Spheroidal Stone, having Lines
formed on it. By C. Mortimer, M. D., and Sect. R. S. N° 496, p. 602.^
Mr. Peter Collinson produced, at a meeting of the r. s. on Nov. 8, 17S0, a
very curious spheroidal stone, about 4 inches diameter, of a chocolate colour,
marked with 4 white lines, about the breadth of a horse-hair, encompassing the
whole stone, like the meridians on a globe ; but, instead of crossing one another
in a point, as they do, on the globe, these are connected by a short transverse
line.
Dr. M. also lately received, by a friend, from the isle of Shepy in Kent, a
small stone, with similar lines on it. This is only i of an inch in diameter, of a
brown colour, and of the consistence of marble. As a description in words does
not convey so clear an idea as an exact drawing, he has given representations of
this stone in different views ; as at tab. i. fig. IQ, 20, 21, 22.
Fig. 19 represents the top of the stone, on which the lines are most regular,
being depressed into the stone, and of the same colour with it. a, c, d, e, are
the 4 principal lines, answering to those on Mr. Collinson's stone, and are con-
nected, as in his, by the transverse line g h. The line b is an irregularity in
this stone, and so is f, which are not in the other ; these irregular, or super-
numerary lines being continued to the other hemisphere.
Fig. 20, or bottom of the stone, make the directions of the other lines very
irregular, as may be seen in the figure ; only the lines c, d, and e, being con-
nected by the transverse line g h. which here stands at right angles with that
in fig. 19.
The following figures represent the section of the stone through its equator,
as nearly as possible ; only the mill cut away the substance to about the thick-
ness of a shilling. In these sections the ramifications appear quite white. Fig.
21 shews the section of the upper hemisphere, as fig. 22 does that of the lower
hemisphere ; in both of which the letters of reference answer to those in the
other figures, shewing where the outside lines abut on these sections.
An Explanation of the foregoing Figures Collected in PI. 1 .
9. The face of the Dudley fossil rolled up; 10, the back of the same; 1 1,
the fore and under part, with the tail folded close under the jaw ; 12, Dr. Shaw's
fossil half extended ; 13, the face of the same; 14, the under side of the same,
Tjeing folded but half way, leaving a space between the jaw and the tail ; 1 5,
Dr. Pocock's extended fossil, the back uppermost ; 1 6, a side view of the same ;
p 2
108 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO. 1750.
17, a side view of another folded up; 18, a front view of the same with the tail
folded close under the jaw.
The letters of reference in the description answer to the same parts in fig. 1 5,
16, 17, and 18; but IQ, 20, 21, 22, are the figures of the stone, described in
this article, in all which the letters refer to the same lines.
Plate II. represents a large mass of lime-stone dug up at Dudley, in which
are embodied many of these fossils, with several other petrified shells.
A Collection of Various Papers presented to the R. S. concerning several Earth-
quakes, felt in England, and other Countries, in 1750 and other Years.
N° 496, p. 601, &c.
About the year 1750 some earthquakes were felt in many parts of England,
indeed almost all over the country : and though no serious ill consequences at-
tended them, yet they produced a vast number of communications to the r. s.
stating the circumstances of them, from many dififerent parts of the country.
These accounts the Society collected, and printed all together, at the end of this
volume 46, forming the N° 497, being the last of this series of publication in
the form of N* by the Secretaries, on their own account. But, as may be ex-
pected, there being a general sameness or uniformity that runs through all these
accounts, such as loud rumbling noises, the shaking of the ground, the tottering
of houses, the rattling of the windows, and the furniture of houses, &c. which
circumstances may be all easily conceived ; it would be irksome and disgusting
to reprint such a number of tedious, and similar, and uninteresting accounts.
Instead of which therefore, we shall here give a summary of the whole in the
following table ; containing, in the 1st column, the date of the earthquakes;
in the 2d, the names of the persons communicating the accounts, with the
pages of the original vol. (46) where the accounts stand ; and in the 3d, the
places where the persons write from, or where the earthquake was felt. After
which, we shall advert to any particular circumstances, that may be more par-
ticularly deserving of that notice.
List of the Earthquakes in this Number, with the Places and Names of the Writers.
Dates, N. S. Authors and I'ages. Places. Dates, N. S. Authors and Pages. Places.
Feb. 8, 1750, Hen. Baker. .. p. 601, London. Mar. 8, 1750, Martin Clare. . . 620, Kensington
Gowin Knight. . . 603, Dr. D. P. Layard, 621, London.
Jo. Freeman. . . . 605, R. Pickering. . . . 622,
\Vm. Fauquier. . 505, Eltham. Ja. Burrow, Esq. 626,
Dr. Hen. Miles. . 607, Tooting Dr. H. Miles. .. . 628, Tooting.
Dr. John Martyn, 609, Chelsea Dr. J. Martyn. . . 630, Chelsea.
S. Lethicullier. . . 6l3, Aldersbrose Mic. Russel 631, London.
Mar. 8, 1750, M. Folkes, Esq. 6l3, London. Dr. Ja. Parsons... 633,
Rev. Tho. Birch. 615, Ja. Burrow, Esq. 637,
Henry Baker. . . 6l7, Dr. C. Mortimer, 638,
Dr. H. Miles. . . 619, Tooting Dr. Miles 639, Tooting.
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. IO9
Dates, N. S. Authors and Pages. Places. Dates, N. S. Authors aiid Pages. Places
Mar. 18, 1750, J. EUicott 6i6, Portsmouth. Apr. 2, 1750, Rev. J. Seddon. . 696, Warrington.
Dan. Wray, Esq. 6-i7, Mar. 8, 1750, Wm. Jackson 700, London.
Mar. 8, 1750, Rev. Dean Cooper, 647, Hertford. Mar. 24, 1750, M. Mackenzie. . . 701, Smyrna.
Mar. 18, 1750, Rev. Mr. Taylor, 6+9, Portsmouth. Sep. 30, 1750, Wm. Folkes, Esq 701, Newtown.
Mar. 19, 1750, Benj. Cooke. .. . 6'51, IsleofWight Ja. Burrow, Esq. 702, Suffolk.
Mar. 18, 1750, Jos. Colebrooke. . 652, Southampt Leicester.
. . P. Newcome. . . . 6"53, Hackney Sir Tho. Cave. . . . 706,
Ja. Burrow, Esq. 655, East Sheen J. Nixon 707, Norlhampt.
Mar. 8, 1750, Tho. Burrat. . . . 681, Kensington Weston.
Apr. 2, 1750, Rob. Paul 683, Chester 710, Warwick.
Mar. 14, 1750, W. Bowman 6"84, Ea.Molesey Dr. Dodridge. . . 712, Northampt.
Apr. 2, 1750, Mr. Pennant 687, Flintshire Steward of the Earl 1 Stamford
Mar. 18,1750, Nat. Downe 688, Bridport. of Cardigan 721,/
May 4, 1749, Henry Baker 689, Winbourn Henry Green. . . 723, Leicester.
July 1, 1747, Taunton. Aug. 23, 1750, M. Johnson. . .. 725, Spalding.
Oct. 11, 1749, M.Reaumur. .. . 691, France. Sep. 30, 1750, Dr. H. Miles 726, Tooting.
Feb. 9, 1750, Rev. W. Barlow. . 692, Plymouth Wm. Smith 727, Peterborough
It is pretty generally agreed that the shocks lasted only 3 or 4 seconds of time.
On occasion of these earthquakes, the Rev. Dr. Wm. Stukely wrote his thoughts
on the causes of such phenomena. These are given at 3 different parts of this
N° viz. at p. 641, 657, 731 ; and were also printed and published by the author
in a separate pamphlet, in 1750, in 8vo. He rejects, he says, the common
notion of struggles between subterraneous winds, or fires, vapours, or waters,
heaving up the ground like animal convulsions ; but he always thought it was an
electrical shock ; which he is induced to think is the case, from several circum-
stances, which he notices.
" We had lately, says Dr. S. a very pretty discourse read here, from Mr.
Franklin of Philadelphia, concerning thundergusts, lights, and like meteors.
He well solves them by"the touch of clouds, raised from the sea, which are non-
electrics, and of clouds raised from exhalations of the land, which are electrified :
that little snap, which we hear, in our electrical experiments, when produced by a
thousand miles compass of clouds, and that re-echoed from cloud to cloud, through
the extent of the firmament, makes that thunder, which afFrightens us. From
the same principle I infer, says the Dr. that if a non-electric cloud discharges
its contents on any part of the earth, when in a high electrified state, an earth-
quake must necessarily ensue. As a shock of the electric tube in the human
body, so the shock of many miles compass of solid earth, must needs be an
earthquake ; and that snap, from the contact, be the horrible uncouch noise
of it."
Dr. Ste. Hales also, p. 66q, besides noticing the phenomena of the earthquake,
ventures on an opinion of the cause of such convulsions. " As to the affairs of
earthquakes, says he, particularly that which happened March 8, 1730, about
20 minutes before 6 in the morning ; I being then awake in bed, on a ground
floor, near the church of St. Martin's in the Fields, very sensibly felt the bed
110 PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. [anNO 1750.
heave, and consequently the earth must heave too. There was a hollow, obscure,
rushing noise in the house, which ended in a loud explosion up in the air, like
that of a small cannon : the whole duration, from the beginning to the end of
the earthquake, seemed to be about 4 seconds of time. The soldiers who were
on duty in St. James's Park, and others who were then up, saw a blackish cloud,
with considerable lightning, just before the earthquake began ; it was also very
calm weather.
" In the history of earthquakes it is observed, that they generally begin in calm
weather, with a black cloud. And when the air is clear, just before an earth
quake, yet there are then often signs of plenty of inflammable sulphureous matter
in the air ; such as Ignes Fatui or Jack-a-Lantems, and the meteors called
falling stars.
" Now I have shewn many years since, in the appendix to my Statical Essays,
experiment 3, page "280, the effect that the mixture of a pure and a sulphureous
air have on each other ; viz. by turning the mouth downwards, into a pan of
water, of a glass vessel of a capacity sufficient to hold about two quarts, with a
neck about 20 inches long, and 1 inches wide ; then, by putting under it, in
a proper glass vessel, with a long narrow neck, a mixture of aqua fortis, and
powdered pyrites, viz. the stone with which vitriol is made, there will be a brisk
ferment, which will fill the glass with redish sulphureous fumes; which, by ge-
nerating more air than they destroy, will cause the water, with which the whole
neck of the glass vessel was filled, to subside considerably. When the redish
sulphureous air in the upper part of the glass is clear, by standing 2 or 3 hours,
if then the mouth of the inverted glass be lifted out of the water, so as to let the
water in the neck of the glass fall out ; which, supposing it to be a pint, then an
equal quantity of fresh air will rush in at the mouth of the neck of the vessel,
which must immediately be immersed in the water : and on the mixture of the
fresh air with the then clear sulphureous air, there will instantly arise a violent
agitation between the two airs, and they will become, from transparent and clear,
a reddish turbid fume, of the colour of those vapours which were seen several
evenings before the late earthquakes : during which effervescence, a quantity of
air, nearly equal to what fresh air was let in, will be destroyed ; which is evident
by the rising up of the water in the neck of the glass, almost as high as before.
And if, after the effervescence of the mixed airs is over, and become clear again,
fresh air be admitted, as before, they will again grow reddish and turbid, and
destroy the new admitted air as before ; and this after several repeated admissions
of fresh air : but after every readmission of fresh air the quantity destroyed will
be less and less, till no more will be destroyed. And it is the same after stand-
ing several weeks, provided, in the mean time, too much fresh air had not been
VOL. XLVI.] FHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. Ill
admitted. Now, I found the sum total of the fresh air thus destroyed to be
nearly equal to the first quantity of sulphureous air in the inverted glass.
" Since we have in this experiment a full proof of the brisk agitation and effer-
vescence which arises from the mixture of fresh air with air that is impregnated
with sulphureous vapours, which arise from several mineral substances, espe-
ciallv from the pyrites, which abounds in many parts of the earth ; may we not
witli good reason conclude, that the irksome heat, which we feel in what is
called a close sultry temperature of the air, is occasioned by the intestine motion
between the air and the sulphureous vapours, which are exhaled from the earth ?
which effervescence ceases, as soon as the vapours are equably and uniformly
mixed in the air ; as happens also in the effervescences and ferments of other li-
quors. The common observation therefore, that lightning cools the air, seems
to be founded on good reason ; that being the utmost and last effort of this ef-
fervescence.
" May we not hence also, with good probability, conclude, that the first
kindling of lightning is effected by the sudden mixture of the pure serene air
above the clouds, with the sulphureous vapours, which are sometimes raised in
plenty, immediately below the clouds ? the most dreadful thunders being usually
when the air is very black with clouds ; it rarely thundering without clouds :
clouds serving, in this case, like the above-mentioned inverted glasses, as a par-
tition between the pure and sulphureous airs : which must therefore, on their
sudden admixture through the interstices of the clouds, make (like the two airs
in the glass) a more violent effervescence, than if those airs had, without the
intervention of the clouds, more gradually intermixed, by the constant more
gradual ascent of the warmer sulphureous vapours from the earth, and descent
of the cold serene air from above. And though there was no luminous flash of
light in the glass, yet, when such sudden effervescence arises, among avast
quantity of such vapours in the open expanse of air, it may, not improbably, ac-
quire so rapid a velocity, as to kindle the sulphureous vapours, and thereby be-
come luminous.
" And since, from the effects that lightning is observed to have on the lungs
of animals, which it often kills, by destroying the air's elasticity in them, as
also from its bursting windows outwards, by destroying the air's elasticity on the
outside of those windows : since, I say, it is hence probable, that the sulphu-
reous fumes do destroy a great quantity of elastic air ; it should therefore cause
great commotions and concussions in the air, when the air rushes into those
evacuated places ; which it must necessarily do with great velocity.
" Dr. Papin has calculated the velocity with which air rushes into an exhausted
receiver, when driven by the whole pressure of the atmosphere, to be at the
rate of 1305 feet in a second of time ; which is at the rate of 889 miles in an
112 PHILOSOPHICAI- TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1750,
hour : which is near 1 8 times a greater velocity than that of the strongest storms ;
which is estimated to be at the rate of 50 miles in an hour.
" Hence, we see that an outrageous hurricane may be caused, by destroying
a small proportion of the elasticity of the air of any place, in respect to the
whole. No wonder then that such violent commotions of the air should produce
hurricanes and thunder showers ; especially in the warmer climates ; where both
the sulphureous and watery vapours, being raised much higher, and in greater
plenty, cause more violent effects.
" Monsieur de BufFon in his Natural History, and Theory of the Earth, men-
tions black dark clouds in the air near the tempestuous Cape of Good Hope, and
also in the ocean of Guinea, which are called by the sailors the Ox's Eye ; which
are often the forerunners of terrible storms and hurricanes. Whence it is to be
suspected, that they are large collections of sulphureous vapours ; which, by
destroying suddenly a great quantity of the elastic air, cause the ambient air to
rush with great violence into that vacuity, thereby producing tempests and hur-
ricanes. And off the coast of Guinea they have sometimes 3 or 4 of these hur-
ricanes in a day; the forerunners of which are these black sulphureous clouds,
with a serene clear air, and calm sea ; which on a sudden turns tempestuous,
on the explosion of these sulphureous clouds. And in Jamaica they never have
an earthquake when there is a wind to disperse the sulphureous vapours.
" In like manner we find, in the late earthquakes at London, and in the ac
counts of many other earthquakes, that before they happen there is usually a
calm air, with a black sulphureous cloud : which cloud would probably be dis-
persed like a fog, were there a wind : which dispersion would prevent the earth-
quake ; which is probably caused by the explosive lightning of this sulphureous
cloud ; being both nearer the earth than common lightnings ; and also at a
time when sulphureous vapours are rising from the earth in greater quantity
than usual ; which is often occasioned by a long series of hot and dry weather.
In which combined circumstances, the ascending sulphureous vapours in the
earth may probably take fire, and thereby cause an earth-lightning ; which is
at first kindled at the surface, and not at great depths, as has been thought :
and the explosion of this lightning is the immediate cause of an earthquake.
" It is in the like manner that those meteors, called falling stars, are sup-
posed to be kindled into a flame at the upper part of a sulphureous train, which
is kindled downwards into a flame, in the same manner as a fresh blown-out
candle is instantly lighted from another candle held over it at a distance, in the
sulphureous inflammable smoke of it.
" I am sensible that it may seem improbable, that the ascending sulphureous
vapours in the earth should thus be kindled ; but since they are continually as-
cending through the pores of the earth, more or less, for many good and useful
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 113
purposes, it is plain there is room for them to pass. Besides, as Mons. de
Buffoii remarks, naturalists have observed perpendicular and oblique clifts, in all
kinds of layers of earth, not only among rocks, but also among all kinds of
earth, that have not been removed, as is observable wherever the earth is open
to any depth. Now these clifts are caused by the drying of the several horizontal
layers of the earth ; and will also be considerably the wider in long dry hot sea-
sons, which arc usually the preparatory forerunners of earthquakes, and the ex-
plosion of the sulphureous vapours may probably widen them more.
" It is very observable, in the opinion of Borelli, and other naturalists, that
Volcanos begin first to kindle near the surface or top of the mountains, and not
in the caverns in the lower parts of them. Mons. de BufFon says, that earth-
quakes are most frequent where there are Volcanos ; sulphureous matter abound-
ing most there : but that, though they continue burning long, yet they are not
very extensive. But that the other sort of earthquakes, which are not caused by
a Volcano, extend often to a great distance. These are much longer east and
west, than broad north and south ; and shake a zone of earth with different de-
grees of force in different parts of their course ; viz. in proportion to the dif-
ferent quantities of explosive sulphureous matter in different places. These
kinds of earthquakes are observed to be progressive, and to take time to extend
to the great distances sometimes of some thousands of miles. They are an in-
stantaneous explosion in every place, near the surface of the earth ; and therefore
do not produce mountains and islands, as volcanos sometimes do.
" The earthquake in London, March 2, was thought to move from eastward
to westward. M. Buffon mentions an earthquake at Smyrna, in the year 1 688,
which moved from west to east ; viz. because the first kindling probably began
on the western side ; and in the earthquake at London on the eastern side. And
accordingly it was observed, that the reddish bows in the air, which appeared
several days before that earthquake, arose in the east, and proceeded westward.
It was observed, after the earthquake at Smyrna, that the castle-walls, which
run from east to west, were thrown down ; but those from north to south stood ;
and that the houses on rocks stood better than those on the earth.
" M. de Buffon relates, that the vibrations of the earth, in earthquakes, have
commonly been from north to south ; as appears by the motion of the lamps in
churches : which makes it probable, that though the progress of the earthquake
at Smyrna was from west to east, yet the vibrations of the earth might be from
north to south ; and thereby occasion the falling of the castle walls, which run
from east to west, but not those which run from north to south. A probable
argument that, as the freest passage, so the greatest explosions were made in
the clifts of the earth which run east and west ; which would make the vibra-
tions north and south, '^j
VOL. X. Q
114 PHILOSOPHICAL TUANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
" It was observed, that the waters turned foul the day before an earthquake
at Bofogna in Italy : and I was informed, that the water of some wells in Lon-
don turned foul at the time of the earthquakes. Which was probably occasioned
by the ascent of great plenty of sulphureous vapours through the earth.
" As to the hollow rumbling noise, which is usually heard in earthquakes, it
seems not improbable, that it may be occasioned by the great agitation that the
electrical aethereal fluid is put into by so great a shock of a large mass of earth.
For, if the like motion of a small revolving glass globe can excite it to the velo-
city of lightning, and that with a force sufficient to kill animals, how much
greater agitation may it probably be excited to, by the explosive force of an
earthquake !
" The explosion of a cannon in St. James's Park is observed to electrify the
glass of the windows of the treasury. And what makes it still more probable, is
the analogy that there is between them in other respects. For, as the electrical
flash rushes, with the velocity of lightning, along the most solid bodies, as iron,
&c. and as I have seen it run only on the irregular gilding of leather ; so such
solid bodies are observed to be the conductors of aereal lightning, which rends
oaks in pieces, and has been known to run along and melt an iron bell-wire on
two sides of a room, &c. And accordingly it was observed, in the great earth-
quake in Jamaica, that the most tremendous roaring was in the rocky moun-
tains. And in the late earthquake of March 8 in London, the loudest explo-
sions were thought to be heard near such large stone buildings as churches, with
lofty steeples and spires.
" I, who lay in Duke's-Court, near St. Martin's church, and was awake all
the time of the earthquake, plainly heard a loud explosion up in the air, like
that of a small cannon : which made me conjecture, that the noise was owing
to the rushing off, and sudden expansion, of the electrical fluid, at the top of
St. Martin's spire ; where all the electrical effluvia, which ascended up along the
larger body of the tower, being by attraction strongly condensed, and accele-
rated at the point of the weathercock, as they rushed off, made so much the louder
expansive explosion.
"The Rev. John Seddon, says, p. 697, as soon as I felt the shock, I was
immediately apprehensive what it was, and went out to see whether there was any
thing remarkable in the atmosphere. I then observed a very uncommon appearance;
viz. an infinite number of rays, proceeding from all parts of the heavens, con-
verged to one point; no luminous body appeared at all. The rays were at first of
a bright yellow ; afterwards they became blood-red. This phenomenon was not
far from our zenith. It continued about 20 minutes, and then disappeared.
Dr. Dodridge, p. 718, says, the morning on which the phenomenon hap-
pened, was remarkably calm ; but quickly after the shock, the wind rose ; and
TOL. XLTI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 115
the clouds, which had covered the lieavens for several days, were pretty much
dispersed. There was a report that, at near 4 o'clock that morning, (Sunday,)
a ball of fire was seen. On Monday night the sky in the east was as red as
blood ; and on Tuesday night was the finest aurora borealis he ever saw. He
s;iys that a Mr. Sciuven was confident that he heard that rushing noise, so gene-
rally mentioned by all who observed any thing extraordinary, not only before,
but after the shock ; and that he could trace the direction, from s. w. to
N. E. He adds, that a niece of Sir Hans Sloane observed, that just before the
shock, her birds drooped remarkably, and hid their heads under their wings : a
circumstance often observed in Italy, and other places where these phenomena
are frequent.
The last of these papers is by Dr. Stukely, p. 731, on what he calls the
philosophy of earthquakes : he recounts the most remarkable circumstances men-
tioned in the several accounts, and thence deduces a theory to explain the whole.
We have had, says he, many opportunities of reflecting on that most awful, and
hitherto unusual appearance. The year 1 7 50, may rather be called the year of
earthquakes, than of jubilee. For, since they began with us at London, they
have appeared in many parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, and have like-
wise revisited many counties in our island : at length on 30th of September,
have taken their leave (as we hope) with much the most extensive shock we have
seen in our days.
We have been acquainted by those that remember it, that in the earthquake
of November 1703, which happened in Lincolnshire, the weather was calm,
close, gloomy, warm, and dry, in a degree highly unusual at that season : and
thus it has been with us all the year : and from the numerous accounts we have
received at the Royal Society, in the beginning and end of the year, where any
mention is made of the weather, they agree in the like particular : which is con-
sentaneous to what is remarked as the constant forerunner of earthquakes, and
what prepares the earth's surface to receive the electrical stroke.
We had a paper read at the Royal Society, concerning the first earthquake
felt by us at London on 8th of February. A shepherd belonging to Mr. Secre-
tary Fox at Kensington, the sky being perfectly serene and clear, was much
surprized with a very extraordinary noise in the air, rolling over his head, as of
cannon close by. This noise passed rushing by him ; and instantly he saw the
ground, a dry and solid spot, wave under him, like the face of the river. The
tall trees of the avenue, where he was, nodded their tops very sensibly, and
quavered. The fiock of sheep immediately took fright, and ran away all to-
gether, as if the dogs had pursued them. A great rookery in the place were
equally alarmed ; and, after a universal clangor, flew away, as if chased by
hawks. il;,,.- ■;■■ ...^^ u.l,i
a2
Il6 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
It was likewise mentioned, that in the same earthquake, a great parcel of hens
and chickens, kept at that time in Gray's-Inn-Lane, on the shock, ran to the
roost affrighted : and the like was observed of pigeons. And in our account of
the last earthquake from Northampton, it is remarked, that the birds in cages
put their heads under their wings, as to hide themselves.
Mr. Jackson, potter at Lambeth, gave an account of some boats and lighters,
in the river at that time ; the people in them seemed to feel as if a porpoise, or
some great fish, had heaved and thumped at the bottom of the lighters. This is
sometimes the case with ships at sea ; which seems evidently owing to an electrical
impression on the water.
In the Evening Post, June 23, we had a paragraph from Venice, that a ter-
rible earthquake had lately been felt in the Isle of Cerigo ; a little rocky isle. It
threw down a great number of houses, and above 2000 inhabitants were buried
in the ruins. Another earthquake about that time happened in Switzerland,
which split a vast rocky mountain, and an old castle wall, of an immense thickness.
But, since then, these wonderful movements have stalked round the globe ;
(and been lately felt in our own island, though to the terror only of many thousand
people) besides those that appeared in the western parts, in the more early time
of the year.
In a letter from Maurice Johnson, Esq. the founder and secretary of the Li-
terary Society of Spalding, which has now subsisted these 40 years, he says that,
on Thursday the 23d of August last, an earthquake was very sensibly felt there,
about 7 o'clock in the morning, throughout the whole town and neighbourhood,
and many miles round ; but chiefly spread northward and southward. He says,
that for a fortnight before the weather had been serene, mild and calm ; and one
evening there was a deep red aurora australis, covering the cope of heaven, very
terrible to behold. This same shock was felt at Grantham, Stamford, and Mil-
ton by Peterborough ; and generally at all the intermediate places.
But we have had many advices from all hands, at the first and second meetings
of the B. s. for the winter season ; with further particulars relating to this great
' concussion : that it was felt at the same time at Rugby in Warwickshire, and
reached to Warwick ; at Lutterworth in Leicestershire ; at Leicester, and round
about. They describe it, that the houses tottered, and seemed to heave up and
down, though it lasted but a few seconds. It was attended with a rushing noise,
as if the houses were falling ; and people were universally so affrighted as to run
out ; imagining that their own, or neighbours' houses, were tumbling on their
heads. In the villages around, the people, being at divine service, were much
alarmed, both with the noise, which exceeded all the thunder they had ever
heard, beyond compare ; and with the great shock accompanying, which was
like somewhat that rushed against the church-walls and roof ; some thinking the
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTION*. 117
pillars cracked ; many, that the beams of the roof were disjointed ; and all, that
the whole was falling ; and happy were they that could get out first. A few
slates, tiles, and parts of chimneys, fell from some houses ; pewter, glasses, and
brass, fell from shelves ; a clock-bell sometimes struck ; windows universally
rattled ; and the like circumstances of tremor.
The same extended itself to Coventry, Derby, Nottingham, Newark ; then
came eastward to Harborough, Towcester, Northampton, Rowell, Kettering,
Wellingborough, Oundle in Northamptonshire, Uppingham, Oakham in Rut-
land, Stamford, Bourn, Grantham, Spalding, Boston, and to Lincoln, in Lin-
colnshire; Holbech, and All-Holland, in that county; Peterborough, Wisbech
in the Isle of Ely, together with all the intermediate and adjacent places. Then
it passed over the whole breadth of Ely-Fen, and reached to Bury in Suffolk, and
the country thereabouts ; of which we had notice from Lady Cornwallis : an ex-
tent from Warwick to Bury of about 100 miles in length ; and, generally speak-
ing, 40 miles in breadth. And this vast space was pervaded by this amazing
motion, as far as we can get any satisfaction, in the same instant of time.
In regard to circumstances, they were pretty similar throughout. At North-
ampton, a gentlewoman, sitting in her chair, relates, that she and her chair
were twice sensibly lifted up, and set down again. A stack of chimneys were
thrown down in College-lane ; a place retaining the memory of a sort of univer-
sity once beginning at Northampton. The windows of houses rattled throughout
the whole town ; but no mischief done.
They fancied there the motion of it, as they express it, to be eastward. In
streets that run north and south, the houses on the east side of the way were
most affected : and Dr. Stonehouse's dwelling, the strongest in the town, was
most sensibly shaken. So it was likewise observed, that churches were most
subject to its violence. They thought too that the motion seemed rather hori-
zontal, or lateral, than upward. Some counted the pulses distinctly, to the
number of 4. That the second and third pulse were stronger than the first and
fourth. From all these various accounts, there was no sulphureous smell, or
eruption ; no fissures in the ground perceived ; yet several people were sick
upon it.
It was more evidently perceived by people standing ; most, by those that were
sitting ; least, by such as were walking ; and in upper stories of houses more
than in lower, or in cellars. Some, coming down stairs, were in danger of being
thrown forwards ; several sitting in chairs, and hearing the hollow thundering
noise, and thinking it was a coach passing by, when they attempted to get up,
to see what it was, they were thrown back again into their chair. Some heard
the wainscot crackle. A lady, sitting by the fire, with her chair leaning for-
wards, was thrown down on her hands and knees.
1]8 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1750.
It was particularly remarked (as before mentioned), that birds in cages were
sensibly afirighted, thrusting their heads under their wings. Mrs. Allicock, of
Loddington, a lady in childbed, was so aiFected that it caused her death. Some
people felt such a sudden shortness of breath, that they were forced to go out
into the open air, it so affected the pulmonary nerves. Many were taken with
head-achs.
These are, in general, the observations made at the time of these earthquakes.
Give me leave now to make the following remarks.
1 . As far as we can possibly learn, where no one can be prepared at different
places by time-keepers, this mighty concussion was felt precisely at the same
instant of time, being about half an hour after 12 at noon. This, I pre-
sume, cannot be accounted for by any natural power, but that of an electrical
vibration ; which we know acts instantaneously.
2. Let us reflect on the vast extent of this trembling, 100 miles in length, 40
in breadth, which amounts to 4000 square miles in surface. That this should be
put into such an agitation in one moment, is such a prodigy, as we should never
believe, or conceive, did we not know it to be a fact, from our own senses. But
if we seek for a solution of it, we cannot think any natural power is equal to it,
but that of electricity ; which acknowledges no sensible transition of time, no
bounds.
3. We observe, the vulgar solution of subterraneous eruptions receives no
countenance from all that was seen or felt during these earthquakes : it would
be very hard to imagine how any such thing could so suddenly and instanta-
neously operate through this vast space, and that in so similar and tender a man-
ner, over the whole, through so great a variety as well as extent of country, as
to do no mischief.
A philosophical inquirer in Northamptonshire, who had his eye particularly
on this point, takes notice there were not any fissures in the ground, any sul-
phureous smells, or eruptions, any where perceived, so as to favour internal
convulsions of the earth ; yet we learn, from a letter, at Uppingham in Rut-
land, that a plaster floor became cracked thereby. These kind of floors are fre-
quent in this country : what we call stucco in London ; and it gives us a good
notion of the undulatory vibration produced by an earthquake ; which some have
compared to that of a musical string ; others, to that of a dog, or a horse, shak-
ing themselves when they come out of the water.
4. The former earthquake, that happened at Grantham, Spalding, Stamford
(which towns lie in a triangle) took up a space which may in gross be accounted
a circle of 20 miles in diameter ; the centre of which is that great morass called
Deeping-Fen. This comprehends 14 miles of that 20 in diameter; and where,
probably, the electrical impression was first made. Much the major part of
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. IIQ
Deeping-Fen is under water in the winter ; underneath is a perfect bog : now
it is very obvious how little favourable such ground is for subterraneous fires.
In the second earthquake, not only this country was affected again, but like-
wise a much larger space of the same sort of fenny ground, rather worse than the
former: all Donington-Fen, Deeping-Fen, Croyland-Fen, Thorney-Fen, Whitle-
sea-Fen, Bedford-Level, and the whole extent of Ely-Fen, under various deno-
minations. This country, under the turf, abounds with subterraneous timber of
all kinds ; fir, oak, and brush-wood ; stags' horns : now and then they find a
quantity of hazel nuts, crouded together on a heap: I have some of them. This
is a matter common to all boggy ground over the whole globe. They are the
ruins of the antediluvian world, washed down from the high country, where
they grew, here lodged, and by time overgrown with the present turf They
that seek for any other solution of this affair, than the universal Noachian de-
luge, want to account for a general effect by a partial cause ; and shut their eyes,
both to the plain history of this matter, and to the infinite notorious demonstra-
tions of it from fossil appearances.
5. All this country, though underneath it is a watery bog, yet, through this
whole summer, and autumnal season (as they can have no natural springs in such
a level) the drought has been so great on the superficies, that the inhabitants
were obliged every day to drive their cattle several miles, for watering. This
skows how fit the dry surface was for an electrical vibration ; and we learn from
hence this important particular, that it reaches but very little below the earth's
surface.
Mr. Johnson, in another letter which he wrote concerning the second earth-
quake, observed at Spalding, says, on this occasion, he was obliged to scour his
canal, and deepen it ; that they came to a white quicksand, which afforded to
all the neighbourhood excellent water in plenty.
In the gravelly soil of London, and where the 1 shocks were felt by us, in
the beginning of the year, we know there is not a house in the whole extent of
this vast city, and all around it, but a spring of water is ready, on digging a
well : whence we have much reason to believe, that the internal parts of the
earth are like a sponge soaked in water ; so that the only dry part of it is the
superficies ; which is the object, and the subject, of that electric vibration,
wherein it seems an earthquake consists. This shows the mistake of the ancients;
who, fancying that earthquakes proceeded from subterraneous eruptions, built
their prodigious temple of Diana of Ephesus on a boggy ground, to prevent
such a disaster.
6. Earthquakes are truly most violent in a rocky country ; because the shock
is proportionate to the solidity of the matter electrified : so that rocks, old castle-
walls, and strong buildings, are most obnoxious to the concussion. The Isle of
120 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1750.
Cerigo was more liable, and more rudely treated by the late earthquake ; both
because it was an isle, and because it was rocky. So we must say of the late
earthquake in Switzerland, that split the mountain and the old castle-wall.
Whence Mr. Johnson, in his second letter, says, it cracked a very strong brick
house in Gosberton by Spalding. Dr. Doddridge observes, from Northampton,
that Dr. Stonehouse's dwelling, being a very strong one, was most sensibly
shaken. And, throughout the whole extent of this great earthquake, we find
both the noise, the shock, and the terror, was greatest at the churches, whose
walls and bulk made more resistance than houses : and generally speaking, the
churches throughout this whole extent have very fair and large towers, and many
remarkable spires of good stone.
This same vibration, impressed on the water, meeting with the solid of the
bottom of ships and lighters, gives that thump felt there. Yet, of the millions
of ordinary houses, over which it passed, not one fell : a consideration which
sufficiently points out to us what sort of a motion this was not ; what sort of a
motion it was ; and whence derived : not a convulsion of the bowels of the earth,
but a uniform vibration of its surface, aptly thought like that of a musical string ;
or what we put a drinking-glass into, by rubbing one's finger over the edge ;
which yet, brought to a certain pitch, breaks the glass ; undoubtedly an electric
repulsion of parts.
7. We find, from all accounts ancient and modern, that the weather preced-
ing these shocks was mild, warm, dry, serene, clear, frosty : what notoriously
favours all our electrical experiments. We very well know, that generally all
last winter, spring, summer, and autumn, have been remarkably of this kind of
weather ; more so than has been observed in our memory ; and have had all
those requisites, appearances, and preparations, that notoriously cause electri-
city, that promote it, or that are the effects of it.
8. We find the blood-red australis aurora preceding at Spalding, as with us at
London. This year has been more remarkable than any for fire-balls, thunder,
lightning, and coruscations, almost throughout all England. Fire-balls more
than one were seen in Rutland and Lincolnshire, and particularly observed.
All these kinds of meteors are rightly judged to proceed from a state of electricity
in the earth and atmosphere.
Mr. Johnson, in both his letters on the first and second earthquakes at Spald-
ing, remarks particularly of their effects being mostly spread to the north and
south, and especially felt on the sea-coast. We may observe that such is the
direction of Spalding river, which both conducts and strengthens the electric vi-
bration ; conveying it along the sea-shore, thence up Boston channel, and so
up Boston river to Lincoln ; as we discern, by casting our eye upon a map.
We observe further, that the main of this second earthquake displayed its ef-
VOL. XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 121
fects along and between the 2 rivers Welland and Avon ; and that from their
very origins down to their fall into the sea. It likewise reached the river Wi-
tham, which directed the electric stream that way too to Lincoln : for which
reason, as there meeting the same coming from Boston, the shock was most
sensibly felt. It reached likewise to the Trent at Nottingham, which conveyed
it to Newark.
The first electrical stroke seems to have been made on the high ground above
Daventry in Northamptonshire, where are the Roman camps, made by P. Osto-
rius the propraetor. Thence it descended chiefly eastward, and along the river
Welland, from Harborough to Stamford, Spalding, and the sea ; and along the
river Avon, or Nen, to Northampton, Peterborough, and Wisbech, to the sea.
It spread all over the vast level of the Isle of Ely, assisted by many canals and
rivers, natural and artificial, made for drainage. It was still conducted east-
ward, up Mildenhall river in Suffolk, to Bury, and the parts adjacent. All
this affair, duly considered, is a confirmation of the doctrine I advanced on this
subject.
10. I apprehend it was not the noise in the air, as of many cannon let off at
once, preceding the earthquake, that so much affrighted people, or affected the
sheep, the rookery at Kensington, the hen and chickens in Gray's-Inn-Lane,
and the pigeons : it could not be barely the superficial movement of the earth
that disturbed them all at once : I judge it to be the effect of electricity, some-
what like what causes sea-sickness ; such a sort of motion as we are not accus-
tomed to. So the earthquake affects all those of weak nerves, or that have
nervous complaints, obnoxious to hysterics, colics, rheumatic pains in their
joints. Several women were seized with violent head-achs, before both the
shocks we felt in London. It was this that affected the people with a shortness
of breath. This made the dog run whining about the room, seeking to get out:
This made the fishes leap up in the pond at Southwark ; like the experiment
of electrifying the fishes ; it makes them sick : and this causes the birds in cages
to hide their heads under their wings, because they cannot fly away : which is
commonly observed of them in Italy, and countries where earthquakes are more
frequent.
1 1 . I observe, the shepherd of Kensington thought the motion of the earth-
quake, and the sound, were from n.w. tos.E. On the contrary, Mr. Byfield,
the scarlet dyer in Southwark, thought the noise came from the river below-
bridge, and went toward Westminster; where it rattled so, that he did not
doubt but that the abbey-church was beaten down. Dr. Parsons took pains to
find out the way of the motion of the earthquake, from the different position of
the beds ; but from the contradictory answers given, he could obtain no satisfac-
VOL. X. R
1'2'i PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. [anNO 1750.
tion, as to that point. All this, and what was observed from Northampton, of
the motion being thought by some to be upward and downward, by others,
rather horizontal or lateral, the counting the pulses, and the like, only points
out to us the prodigious celerity, and the vibratory species of the motion of an
earthquake , but far, very far, is this from being owing to the tumultuous ebul-
lition, the irregular hurry of subterraneous explosions.
12. How the atmosphere and earth are put into that electric and vibratory
state, which prepares them to give or receive the snap, and the shock, which we
call an earthquake, what it is that immediately produces it, we cannot say; any
more than we can define what is the cause of magnetism, or of gravitation, or
how muscular motion is performed, or a thousand other secrets in nature.
We seem to know, that the Author of Nature has disseminated ethereal fire,
through all matter ; by which these great operations are brought about. This isi
the subtil fluid of Sir Isaac Newton, pervading all things ; the occult fire dif-
fused through the universe, according to Marcilius Ficinus, the Platonic philo-
sopher, in the Timaeus of his master. And the Platonists insist on an occult
fire passing through and agitating all substance by its vigorous and expansive
motion.
Before them, Hippocrates writes in the same sense, 1. de victus ratione, that
this fire moves all in all. This ethereal fire is one of the 4 elements of the an-
cients : it lies latent, and dispersed through all the other 3, and quiescent ; till
collected in a quantity, that overbalances the circumjacent ; like the air crouded
into a tempest ; or till it is excited by any proper motion.
This fire gives elasticity, and elasticity, or vibration, is the mother of elec-
tricity. This fire is in water, and betrays itself to our senses in salt water.
Many a time, when I have passed the Lincolnshire washes in the night-time,
the horse has seemed to tread in liquid flames. The same appearance is often at
tlie keel of a ship.
•k. The operation of the ethereal fire is various, nay infinite, according to itft
quantity, and degree of incitement, progress, hindrance, or furtherance. One
degree keeps water fluid, says the learned bishop of Cloyne : another turns it
into elastic air : and air itself seems nothing else but vapours and exhalations ren-
dered elastic by this fire.
This same fire permeates and dwells in all bodies, even diamond, flint, and
steel. Its particles attract with the greatest force, when approximated. Again,
when united, they fly asunder with the greatest celerity. All this is according to
the laws prescribed by the Sovereign Architect. This is the life and soul of
action and re-action, in the universe. Thus has the Great Author provided
against the native sluggishness of matter ! light, or fire, in animals, is what we
VOL XLVI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 123
call the animal spirits; and is the author of life and motion. But we know not
the immediate mode of muscular motion, any more than how, in inanimate
matter, it causes the vibrations of an earthquake.
13. The great question then with us is, how the surface of the earth is put
into that vibratory and electric state by heat and dryness ? We must needs acquit
the internal of the earth from the charge of these superficial concussions. How
is the ethereal fire crouded together, or excited, so as to cause them ; seeing, in
our ordinary electrical experiments, we make use of friction }
But that friction alone does not excite electricity, we know, from the obvious
experiment of flint and steel ; where the suddenness of the stroke, and hardness
of the matter does it. Another method of exciting it, is the letting ofFa number
of great guns ; which so crouds the ethereal fire together, as to electrify glaSs
windows ; observed by Dr. Stephen Hales. The aurora borealis, australis, all
kind of coruscation, meteors, lightning, thunder, fireballs, are the effects, and
may reciprocally be the cause, of electricity ; but how, in particular, we
know not.
Come we to the animal world, we must needs assert, that all motion, volun
tary and involuntary, generation, even life itself, all the operations of the vege-
table kingdom, and an infinity more of nature's works, are owing to the activity
of this electric fire ; the very soul of the material world. And, in my opinion,
it is this alone that solves the famous question, so much agitated with the writers
in medicine, about the heat of the blood. Hrfw these, how earthquakes, art
begun and propagated, we are yet to seek.
We may readily enough presume, that the contact between the electric and
the non-electric, which gives the snap, and the shock, must come from without,
from the atmosphere; perhaps by some meteor, that crouds the ethereal fire
together, causes an accension in the air, in the point of contact, on the earth's
surface ; perhaps another time by a shower of rain. We may as readily con-
clude, that, though the original stroke comes from the atmosphere, yet the at-
mosphere has no further concern in it : no aerial power, or change therein, can
propagate itself so instantaneously over so vast a surface as 4000 miles square :
Therefore the impetuous rushing noise in the air, accompanying the shock, is
the effect, not the cause. But surely there is not a heart of flesh that is not
affected with so stupendous a concussion. Let a man estimate his own power
with that which causes an earthquake, and he will be persuaded that somewhat
more than ordinary is intended by so rare and wonderful a motion.
That great genius Hippocrates makes the whole of the animal economy to be
administered by what we call nature , and nature alone, says he, suffices for all
things to animals: she knows herself, and what is necessary for them. Can we
deny then that he here means a conscious and intelligent nature, that presides
R 1
124 PHILaSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1751.
over, and directs all things ; moves the ethereal spirit or fire, that moves all
things ; a divine necessity, but a voluntary agent, who gives the commanding
nod to what we commonly call nature ; the chief instrument in the most im-
portant operations of the vast machine, as well as in the ordinary ones ? And
this leads us,
14. Lastly, in regard to the spiritual use we ought to make of these extraor-
dinary phenomena, or of our inquiries about them ; I shall first observe, that we
find abroad, that several of these earthquakes this year have been very fatal. In
the last we read of at Philippoli in Thrace, the whole city was destroyed, and above
4000 inhabitants killed. At home, where above half a score separate concussions
have been felt, there has not been one house thrown down, one life lost. I'his
ought to inspire us with a very serious reflection about them. We may ob-
serve, that if we did but read the works of Hippocrates, Plato, and his followers,
of Tully, Galen, and the like ethic writers of antiquity, whilst we study and
try the affections of matter, we should improve in philosophy, properly speaking ;
we should lift up our minds from these earthly wonders, and discern the celestial
monitions they present to us.
The original meaning of the word philosophy was rightly applied to moral
wisdom ; we, who have improved both, should join them both together. By
this means we gather the truth of the highest and most excellent philosophy, to
be found in those volumes of first antiquity, which we call sacred; and we should
adore that divine light which they hold forth to us ; especially in a country where
the principles of true religion are open and undisguised; where the established
profession of it is rational, noble, and lovely; worthy of the moral governor of
the world."
END OF THE FORTY-SIXTH VOLUME OF THE ORIGINAL.
Art. I. Of a Fire-ball seen in the Air July 21, 1730. By Mr. tVm. Smith, of
Peterborough. Fol. XLFII, Anno 1751, p. 1.*
On Sunday, July 22, 1750, 20 minutes before Q, in the evening, was seen
near Peterborough, a ball of light, seemingly about the height of the sun when
* As this volume of the original is the first of a new series, when the Royal Society began to pub-
lish the Philos. Trans, themselves under the direction of their committee; on which occasion they
prefaced the volume with the following advertisement, and which has been since, with little variation,
continued to the present time in every volume; it has therefore been thought proper to print this
advertisement once for all. It may also be here remarked that another alteration was introduced
in the mode of publishing the Transactions, and which has also continued ever since, viz. that in-
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 125
about 1 hours high, and larger than a star of the first magnitude; the colour
like that of a rocket, when thrown, and in its full glory. It drew a tail of light,
to our view about 3^ feet long, which was broadest and brightest next the ball,
and grew taper in form, and languid in colour, to its termination. Its course
was about north-west to south-west. It moved in a direct line horizontally, and
its motion through the air was little swifter than the passage of a pigeon in its
flight. It was seen about -f of a minute. It was also seen at Bourn, which is
stead of the former way in small numbers, of a few sheets each, the last of which was N" 496,
they have been ever since published in whole volumes once a-year, or else in half volumes each half
year; having the papers numbered in a series of articles from the beginning to the end of each vo-
lume. The annual advertisement, here first given, is as follows :
Advertisement. — ^The committee appointed by the Royal Society to direct the publication of tlie
Philos. Trans, take this opportunity to acquaint the public, that it fully appears, as well from the
council books and journals of the Society, as from the repealed declarations which have been made in
several former Transactions, that the printing of them was always, from time to time, the single act
of the respective secretaries, tUl this present 47th volume. And this information was thought the
more necessary, not only as it has been the common opinion that they were published by the autho-
rity, and under the direction of the Society itself, but also because several authors, both at home and
abroad, have in their writings called them the Transactions of the Royal Society. Whereas in truth
the Society, as a body, never did interest themselves any further in their publication, than by occa-
sionally recommending the revival of them to some of their secretaries, when, from the particular
circumstances of their affairs, the Transactions had happened for any length of time to be inter-
mitted. And this seems principally to have been done with a view to satisfy the public, that their
usual meetings were then continued for the improvement of knowledge, and benefit of mankind,
the great ends of their first institution by the royal charters, and which they have ever since steadily
pursued.
But the Society being of late years greatly enlarged, and their communications more numerous, it
was thought adviseable, that a committee of their members should be appointed to reconsider the
papers read before them, and select out of them such as they should judge most proper for publica-
tion in the future Transactions; which was accordingly done on the 26th of March 1752. And the
grounds of their choice are, and will continue to be, the importance or singularity of the subjects,
or the advantageous manner of treating them ; without pretending to answer for the certainty of the
fects, or propriety of the reasonings contained in the several papers so published, which must still rest
on the credit or judgment of their respective authors.
It is likewise necessary on this occasion to remark, that it is an established rule of the Society, to
which they will always adhere, never to give their opinion, as a body, on any subject, either of na-
ture or art, that comes before them. And therefore the thanks which are frequently proposed from
the chair, to be given to the authors of such papers as are read at their accustomed meetings, or to
the persons through whose hands (hey receive them, are to be considered in no other light than as a
matter of civility, in return for the respect shown to the Society by those communications. The like
also is to be said with regard to the several projects, inventions, and curiosities of various kinds,
which are often exhibited to the Society; the authors whereof, or those who exhibit them, frequently
take the liberty to report, and even to certify in the public news-papers, that they have met with the
highest applause and approbation. And therefore it is hoped that no regard will hereafter be paid to
such reports, and public notices; which in some instances have been too lightly credited, to the dis-
honour of the Society.
i<2,6 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
north-west 12 miles off, in the same manner. It must consequently be at a
great height, though it did not seem to be so, as the people in Borough-Fen,
which lies north-east of the place where he was when he saw it, saw the same
on the same hand as he did, and its form and course in the same manner.
//. Of the same Meteor. Bi/ Mr. Henry Baker, F.R.S. p. 3.
Mr. William Arderon, f.r.s. wrote, that the same meteor was seen at Nor-
wich by thousands of people, on Sunday the 22d of July, at 9 in the evening;
the appearance of which is exhibited in fig. 1, pi. 3. Its direction was, as near
as he could guess, from north to south, moving with great velocity. When due
east of him, its altitude was about 30 degrees; at which time the great distinct-
ness of its figure made him imagine it was not above 2 or 3 miles from him.
The splendour and beauty of its nucleus, particularly on the fore part, surpassed
all the fires he ever saw, being of a bright silver colour; its tail was of the co-
lour of a burning coal, though something fainter. Its head, or nucleus, ap-
peared to him under an angle of somewhat more than 2", and its tail of about
21°. He lost sight of it in a cloud, not above 20° above the southern part of
the horizon, into the middle of which it entered; but a friend of his, being
about 4 miles more southward, saw it again, after it came out of this cloud, till
it entered into another.
///. Thermometrical Tables and Observations. By John Stedman, M.D. p. 4.
This journal of the heat was kept during the encampment in Dutch Brabant,
in the last year of the war, viz. 1748, and is chiefly remarkable in showing the
difference between the heat in the tents and in the open air.
Dr. S. observed, 1. That in tents the heat frequently varies 20, 25, and
sometimes 30°, in 24 hours; reckoning by Fahrenheit's scale.
2. That the uneasiness, felt on great changes of heat and cold, depends more
on the sudden change from the one to the other, than on the excess of either;
having often seen, in a long course of sultry weather, men sitting unconcern-
edly in their tents, when the air they breathed in was raised to about 90°; and
the same men in winter standing in the open air with no warmer clothes, and
yet without any complaint, though the cold was some degrees below the freezing
point. Whence it appears, that, if such a change of air be gradual, the same
person can, without any uneasy sensation, bear the difference of 60, 62, or d4°
of heat.
3. That we are able to endure a greater degree of heat, than what has been
hitherto thought enough to kill animals, as will appear from the following ex-
ample. A soldier being confined to a tent called the standard-guard, while the
weather was so extremely hot, that the thermometer rose within the tent 103 or
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 127
104"; on the second clay his pulse was quick, and full, his mouth foul, and he
complained of thirst, a nausea, and head-ach. A thermometer being then kept
for some time in his arm-pit, rose to 106°. On the third day all the symptoms
increased, though the thermometer applied to his body, rose no higher than the
day before ; but on Dr. S. representing the danger from the heat, he was enlarged,
and immediately recovered. The heat in this instance was several degrees
beyond what the learned professor Boerhaave tjiought sufficient to coagulate the
blood.
4. That a damp air (caeteris paribus) gives a sensation of greater heat or cold
than a dry air, viz. a sensation of greater heat, when the mercury is about 70°
or upwards; and of cold, when about 50°, or below that point.
5. That we are able to endure the open air, when heated to a degree consi-
derably greater than the air of a room, that is heated by a fire ; and, since one
may stay some hours in a bagnio, where the heat is at 100°, we may conclude,
that the open air, heated to that degree, will be suffered with less uneasiness,
than when it is so confined,
6. That medicines, for whose operation a pretty high degree of heat is neces-
sary, cannot be taken safely, where the heat is very variable, though it should
not be less than the degree requisite for the working of such medicines. Thus
a mercurial salivation may be carried on safely, where the heat is kept from 66
to 72°; but, were the heat suddenly to vary 15 or 20°, the change would be
dangerous, though the heat was not to fall below 66°.
7. That the body is sometimes difi^rently affected, according to the different
constitutions of the air; though the air remains the same, so fer as we can judge,
witli regard to heat, humidity, and gravity.
8. That, when the thermometer is high, our bodies are very sensible of a
small addition of heat : but it is uncertain, whether this proceeds from the heat
being near the greatest degree we can bear ; or, that a greater proportion of heat
is requisite to raise the thermometer the same number of degrees after it is high,
than when it is low. If this be the case, then, in graduating the thermometers,
the degrees ought to be marked shorter, proportionally to the height of the mer-
cury; but in what proportion, is not yet discovered. .inKm :.
JV. A General Method for exhibiting the falue of an Algebraic Expression in-
volving several Radical Quantities in an Infinite Series : wherein Sir Isaac
Newton s Theorem for involving a Binomial, ivith another of the same Author,
relating to the Roots of Equations, are demonstrated. By T. Simpson, F. R. S.
p. 20.
Among all the great improvements, which the art of computation has in these
128 VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
last ages received, the method of series may be justly deemed one of the most
considerable i since not only the doctrine of chances and annuities, with some
other branches of the mathematics, depend almost entirely on it ; but even the
business of fluents, of such extensive use, would, without its aid and concur-
rence, be quite at a stand in a multitude of cases, as is well known to mathe-
maticians.
It is for this reason, that the celebrated binomial theorem, for converting
radical quantities into serieses, is ranked by many among the principal discoveries
of its illustrious author ; seeing, by it, a vast number of fluents are found, that
would otherwise be impracticable : nor is there any case, however complex, to
which it may not be extended.
It is true, when 2 or more compound radical quantities are involved together,
the operation, by having two or more serieses to multiply into each other, be-
comes very troublesome and laborious; and, what is worse, the law of continu-
ation, by which a part of the labour might be avoided, is exceedinglv hard, if
not impossible, this way to be discovered. In the following paper something is
attempted towards obviating the said inconveniencies.
Prob. 1. — To find a series exhibiting the value of
(1 -h j)"- X (1 -}- 1^)" X (1 -h ^)' X (1-1- ^)', &c. in simple terms ; x being in-
determinate, and a, b, c, d, m, n, p, &c. any given numbers, whole or broken,
positive or negative.
PutM=(l4-^-)«,«;=(l-t-^r, y = (H-J),z = (l-H|), &c.
Also let A = uwyz, &c. (= the quantity proposed)
Then, in fluxions, ^ = uwyz &c. -\- uwyz &c. -|- uwyz &c. -}- uwyz &c. &c.
Which equation, divided by the preceding one, gives
A iL + i + -L+1 &c.
A u to ' y ' i
But since u = (1 + -)"*, we have « = wii X (1 -|- -)**"' ; and therefore
i =^ X {.+'-)- =V X O-i+i;- 5 + ?_&c.)b,dl,lsio„. Andin
the same manner it appears, that ^ = yX 1 — |--|-p&c. &c.
Hence, our equation, by substituting these values, becomes
['m mx j^ mx^ mx' . T
la a^ * a^ a*
k . \ 1 nx , nx' nj?
C^ ' t^ C* J
&C. &C. &C. &C.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. l^Q
Put P = ^+"- + ^+£-&C.
a ' 0 c ' a
m , n p , g s
a' ' 6" ' e" ' <?
&C. &C.
Then it will be
^ = ,r X (p — Qx 4- ^ — s^ + Tz* — vx* &c.)
Assume Z\ =. a -\- bx -\- cx'^ + ^^ + Ear'* &c. let this value, with that of ^,
be substituted in the last equation : whence, by comparing the homologous
terms, there will come out
B =: PA
PB — QA
2
PC — QB — RA
3
PD
— QC + RB
—
SA
4
PE
— QD + RC
—
SB
+
TA
5
PF-
-QB + RD-
SC
+
TB
—
VA
c =
D =
E =
P =
6 "^ ^^ a tH ,• ajiiic.
&c. ..ti,S <:./-._ ...'J
(Where the law of continuation is manifest, and where it is also evident, that,
the value of A, the first term of the required series, must be a unit, because
when X = 0, then the given expression becomes l"" X 1" X 1' = 1. q. e. i.
Carol. 1. — If a be taken = 1, and n, p, q, &c. each = O; then will p = m
a = m, R= m, &c. And therefore
A = ] ; B = m; 2c = mB — mx;
3d = rac — OTB + mA := mc — 2c ;
4e = TOD — TOC -j- TOB — TOA := TOD — 3d
&C.
, m.m — 1 c X m — 2 m.m — l.m— 2 Exm— T
Consequently c = — - — , d = = — , e = -±iL^_i_.
2.3
l.m— 2.m — 3o 'hUh. itir
— &C. 1
2.3.4.
TT iU- 1 I 1 "t.m — 1 a , m.m — l.m— 2 ,„
Hence, in this case, 1 + mx ■] — x^ -\ — *'&c. (= a +bx -f
car^'&c.) = (1 -\- x)": which series is the same with that given by Sir Isaac
Newton.
Carol. 1. — If a be taken = -, p = -, y =i -, &c. and z = i ; then will the
proposed expression be transformed to ■ i
(1 + ^rx (1 +^)" x(i + j)^x (i + ^)'&c. ^j
VOL. X. S
130 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
Also V =: mx -{• n(i -{- py -{- &c.
H — mx^ + «P^ + py" + &c.
&c.
And consequently (1 + ")"" X (1 + ^-)" X (I + j)** X (1 + J)' &c. =A +
" _i- - 4- -, &c. where a := 1, b := pa, c = — -" — &c. as before. Which equa-
tion or theorem answers in case of a descending series.
Carol. 3. — Hence, if each of the quantities m, n, p, &c. be taken equal to
unity, and their number be denoted by v; then will
(l+l)X(l+f)X (1 +J)X(l+^)&c. be = A + J + l + ?&c.
Which equation, multiplied by z", gives (z + «) X (z + P) X (z + y) X (z-{-S)
&C. = AZ- + BZ"- + CZ"-' + DZ"-' &C.
Whence it appears, that (z — a) X (z — fS) X (z — y) X (z — i) &c. is =
Az — Bz'""' + cz'"-« — Dz'"~' &c. Where a = 1, b = pa, c =
llJZ^*^ D = ^^~*^3 ^ ^^> &c. as before ; p being in this case = sum of all the
quantities «, P, y, S, &c. a = the sum of all their squares ; r = the sum of
their cubes, &c. &c.
Carol. A. — Since a, P, y, S, &c. are the roots of the equation, z" — bz*"' +
ex"-* — DS""', &c. = 0 ; it follows, that, if b, c, d, e, &c. be given , the sum
of those roots (p) ; the sum of their squares (q), and the sum of their cubes (r)
&c. will also be given from the foregoing equations : whence will be had
p = B
a = + PB — 2c
R = — PC + OB + 3d
S = -|- PD — GC + RB — 4e
T = — PE + an — RC + SB + 5f
&c. &c.
where the law of continuation is obvious.
These values are the same with those given (without demonstration) by Sir
Isaac Newton, in his Universal Arithmetic, for finding when some of the roots
of an equation are impossible.
Pfob. 1. — To find a series expressing the value of
(1 + ?)- X (1 + ~Y X (1 + '-)' X (1 + jV, &c.
By putting u = (1 + ^)"', w = (1 + ^)", &c.; and proceeding as in the last
problem ; there will be had
- = !^ X (1 - - 4- "' - 4 &c.)
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 131
&C. &C.
Whence, making
suming A + Bar + cr' + dt^ + E'^*> &c. to express the series sought, the several
values of a, b, c, d, &c. will be exhibited by the very equations brought out in
the resolution of the preceding problem.
F", On the Use of the Bark in the Small-pox. By Geo. Bayly, M. D., p. 27.
An account is here given of a gentlewoman of a fat, corpulent habit, who at
the age of 73 had the small-pox in the natural way. During the first 3 days of
the eruption the patient went on well ; but on the 8th day the pustules were at a
stand ; they sunk in, and her life was despaired of. At this period Dr. B. di-
rected blisters to be applied to the legs, and prescribed 3SS. of the powder of
Peruvian bark, and a few grains of serpent. Virginiana every 3 hours ; by the
use of which the pustules were made to rise and brought to a maturation. The
bark and serpentaria were afterwards given in decoction. By a long continuance
of these medicines (with the use of the lancet once, and with the help of occa-
sional purges) the patient was restored to health.
To this is subjoined the case of a healthy young man, who, in July 1 746,
had the small-pox by inoculation. The eruption came on at the right time ; but,
3 or 4 days after, in dressing the incisions, 3 or 4 purple spots were observed
about them, which occasioned Dr. B.'s being called in. The pustules, which
were very numerous, were here and there livid, and in the arms and thighs of a
dark colour, tending towards a mortification. He immediately prescribed 353. of
bark to be given, and repeated once in 3 hours ; which was accordingly done
for 1 1 days successively ; during which time he took 47 doses of bark, viz. in
all, 3 oz. wanting -i- a dr.
VI. A Method of v\,aking Artificial Magnets without the Use of, and yet far su-
perior to, any Natural ones. By John Canton,* M. A., andF. R. S. p. 31.
Procure a dozen bars ; 6 of soft steel, each 3 inches long, one quarter of an
* Mr. Canton, a very ingenious natural pliilosopher, was born at Stroud, in Gloucestershire,
17I8; where his father, a broadcloth weaver, at a proper age put him to learn his own business.
But young C. having at school acquired some knowledge in the elementary branches of mathematics,
and a taste for philosophical subjects, he spent his time by stealth in reading books of that kind.
His singular habits and early acquirements procured him the notice of several learned men, and
among others the Rev. Dr. Henry Miles of Tooting, who prevailed on the father to permit the
young man to come up to London to try his fortune there ; which he accordingly did in 1737, when
S2
132 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751,
inch broad, and Vt of an inch thick, with two pieces of iron, each half the
length of one of the bars, but of the same breadth and thickness ; and 6 of hard
steel, each 54- inches long, half an inch broad, and -J^ of an inch thick, with 2
pieces of iron of half the length, but the whole breadth and thickness of one of
the hard bars : and let all the bars be marked with a line quite round them at
one end.
Then take an iron poker and tongs, or 2 bars of iron, fig. 2, pi. 3, the larger
they are, and the longer they have been used, the better ; and fixing the poker
upright between the knees, hold to it near the top one of the soft bars, having
its marked end downward, by a piece of sewing silk, which must be pulled
tight with the left hand, that the bar may not slide : then grasping the tongs
with the right hand a little below the middle, and holding them nearly in a ver-
tical position, let the bar be stroked by the lower end, from the bottom to the
top, about 10 times on each side, which will give it a magnetic power sufficient
to lift a small key at the marked end : which end, if the bar was suspended on a
point, would turn toward the north, and is therefore called the north pole, and
the unmarked end is, for the same reason, called the south pole of the bar.
Four of the soft bars being impregnated after this manner, lay the other two,
(fig. 3) parallel to each other, at the distance of about one-fourth of an inch,
between the two pieces of iron belonging to them, a north and a south pole
against each piece of iron : then take 2 of the 4 bars already made magnetical,
he articled himself for i years as an assistant to Mr. Watkins, master of the academy in Spital-square :
on the expiration of which period, in 1742, he was taken into partnership with that gentleman,
whom he afterwards succeeded in the school, and there continued till the time of his death, in 1772,
In the 54th year of his age.
Mr. C. being a man of very genteel and modest behaviour, he gained the respect and acquaintance
of the most eminent philosophers of his time ; with whom he ardently entered on the pursuit and
improvements of the then fashionable topics in philosophy ; as electricity, magnetism, lightning,
&c. in many branches of which he made considerable improvements and discoveries. In 17-1-9 he
was engaged, with his friend Mr. Robins, and Mr. Ellicot, in making experiments on the height to
which rockets can ascend, and the distance at which their light can be seen. His paper above
printed, on making artificial magnets, procured his election as a fellow of the a. s. and the present
of their gold medal : and the same year he was complimented with the degree of m. a. by the
university of Aberdeen. And in 1751 he was chosen one of the council of the r. s. an honour
which was twice repeated afterwards. In 1752 he, first of any person in England, verified Dr.
Franklin's hypothesis of the similarity of electricity and lightning, by drawing electric fire from the
clouds during a thunder storm. Next year also he communicated to the r. s. another discovery of
this kind, viz. the negative and positive states of electricity among the clouds; a discovery also just
made in America by Dr. Franklin. In 1 762 Mr. C. communicated his curious experiments on the
compressibility of water; for which he was a 2d time honoured with ttie r. s.'s gold medal. Num-
berless other ingenious papers were written by Mr. C. and published in the Philos. Trans, as well as
several other periodical works : a particular account of which, and many other circumstances in Mr.
Canton's life, may be seen in Dr. Hutton's Dictionary of Philosophy and Mathematics,
VOL. XLVir.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. J 33
and place them together, so as to make a double bar in thickness, the north
pole ol" one even with the south pole of the other ; and the remaining 2 being
put to these, one on each side, so as to have 2 north and 2 south poles together,
separate tlie north from the south poles at one end by a large pin, and place
them perpendicularly with that end downward, on the middle of one of the
parallel bars, the 2 north poles towards its south, and the 2 south poles to-
wards its north end : slide them backward and forward 3 or 4 times the whole
length of the bar, and removing them from the middle of this, place them on
the middle of the. other bar as before directed, and go over that in the same man-
ner ; then turn both the bars the other side upward, and repeat the former ope-
ration : this being done, take the 2 from between the pieces of iron, and placing
the 2 outermost of the touching bars in their stead, let the other 2 be the outer
most of the 4 to touch these with : and this process being repeated till each pair
of bars have been touched 3 or 4 times over, which will give them a considerable
magnetic power, put the half dozen together after the manner of the 4 (fig. 4,)
and touch with them 2 pair of the hard bars, placed between their irons at the
distance of about half an inch from each other : then lay the soft bars aside ;
and with the 4 hard ones let the other 2 be impregnated (fig. 5) holding the
touching bars apart at the lower end near -^ of an inch, to which distance let
them be separated after they are set on the parallel bar, and brought together
again before they are taken off: this being observed, proceed according to the
method described above, till each pair has been touched 2 or 3 times over. But
as this vertical way of touching a bar will not give it quite so much of the mag-
netic virtue as it will receive, let each pair be now touched once or twice over,
in their parallel position between the irons (fig. 6) with 2 of the bars held hori-
zontally, or nearly so, by drawing at the same time the north of one from the
middle over the south end, and the south of the other from the middle over the
north end of a parallel bar ; then bringing them to the middle again without
touching the parallel bar, give 3 or 4 of these horizontal strokes to each side.
The horizontal touch, after the vertical, will make the bars as strong as they
can possibly be made : as appears by their not receiving any additional streno-th, '
when the vertical touch is given by a greater number of bars, and the horizontal by
those of a superior magnetic power. This whole process may be gone through in
about half an hour, and each of the larger bars, if well hardened,* may be
* The smith's manner of hardening steel, whom Mr. C. chiefly employed, and whose bars have
constantly proved better than any he could meet with beside, is as follows : having cut a sufficient
quantity of the leather of old shoes into very small pieces, he provides an iron pan, a little exceedino-
the length of a bar, wide enough to l.iy two side by side without touching each other or the pan, and
at least an inch deep. This pan he nearly half fills with the bits of leather, on which he lays the
two bars, having fastened to the end of each a small wire to take them out by : he then quite fills
134 PHILOSOPHICAX TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
made to lift 28 Troy ounces, and sometimes more. And when these bars are
thus impregnated, they will give to a hard bar of the same size, its full virtue ia
less than 2 minutes : and therefore will answer all the purposes of magnetism in
navigation and experimental philosophy, much better than the loadstone, which
is well known not to have sufficient power to impregnate hard_ bars. The half
dozen being put into a case (fig. 7) in such a manner, as that 2 poles of the
same denomination nmy not be together, and their irons with them as one bar,
they will retain the virtue they have received . but if their power should, by
making experiments, be ever so far impaired, it may be restored without any
foreign assistance in a few minutes. And if, out of curiosity, a much larger set
of bars should be required, these will communicate to them a sufficient power to
proceed with, and they may in a short time, by the same method, be brought
to their full strength.
f^lf. An Aurora Borealis observed at the Hague, Feb. 27, N. S. 1750. By
Peter Gabre, J. K. D. Phys. Astron. et Math. From the Latin, p. 3Q.
This very luminous aurora borealis was in the form of an iris, the extremities
of which extended from the eastern horizon to the west, and its top towards the
south near the zenith, rising near 80° above the horizon. Its breadth at the
vertex was about 2°, but narrowed to cusps at the two extremities. The
middle of the arc emitted a strong white light ; but weaker towards the sides.
Fill. Further Observations on the Cancer Major. By Mr. Peter CoUitison,
F.R.S.y p. 40.
That the cancer major, and all species of crabs, cast their shells, is certain ;
but at what season of the year, or how frequently, is not exactly to be deter-
mined ; but it is believed to be annually at the beginning of the summer, sooner
or later, according to the greater or less strength of the crab.
There is in the under part of the shell a suture in the form of a crescent,
which retains a part of the shell of the same figure. At the time of casting the
old shell, this suture opens, and leaves a space sufficient for drawing out the
whole body ; after which the thorax drops its breast-plate, and then the legs
quit their crustaceous coverings. The carcase now is left inveloped with a soft
skin like wet parchment. In this helpless state the crab is incapable of moving,
but it lies at the bottom of the sea, between the rocks, till its new shell ac-
quires a sufficient hardness and consistence, fit for its defence, and its limbs
grow strong enough to bear its weight, and carry it about, to perform its ne-
the pan with the leather, and places it on a gentle flat fire, covering and surrounding it with char-
coal. The pan being brought to somewhat more than a red heat, he keeps it so about half an hour,
and then suddenly quenches the bars in a large quantity of cold water. — Orig.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 185
cessary functions; while the old shell is left in two parts, that which
covered the body in one part, and that which covered the breast and legs, in
another.
It happens sometimes that the shell hardens prematurely. In this case the
poor animal is made a prisoner, being so cramped, that he cannot disengage
himself from his hiding-place, till found by the fishermen, and set at liberty by
moving the stones from about him. It is surprizing to consider how a creature
can live long confined without any aliment, and yet increase in its dimensions
But that the crab will subsist without a sensible decay in the fishermen's pen-
pots,* for the space of some months, is very certain. The more healthy and
thriving a crab is, the more frequently he casts his sheH. But, if he becomes
sickly and wasting, the old shell remains on him, till such time as he recovers
strength and vigour to cast it.
When the fishermen take a crab, that is not in a good condition, they return
it into the sea, and often mark it on the back with a sharp-pointed iron, or
top of a knife ; and this mark not only remains on the old shell, as long as
it continues on, but is found in the same manner impressed or serrated on
the new shell ; a very strange and surprizihg phenomenon, but I am assured
it is fact.
If a crab receives a small wound in the very extremity of the claw, he
generally bleeds to death, or pines away by slow and insensible leaking of
the vital moisture. But if he receives any considerable wound or hurt, that
gives him pain, he instantly throws off the offending member, and all is
safe, and a new limb soon succeeds to make it again perfect. The leg is
always thrown off at the same joint ; the blood is stopped by the membrane,
that lines that articulation, contracting itself in the form of a purse.
If a crab be brought near the fire, he throws off the legs, which feel a pain-
ful heat. In like manner if a crab be thrown into hot water, he casts off all
his legs together. For which reason, when they are to be boiled, they put
them into the pot in cold water, and let it warm very slowly, till the creature
gradually die.
The lobster casts its shell much in the same manner as the river crayfish,
which are a species of fi-esh water lobsters.
JX. An Account of the Right Hon. Horace fValpole,'\- clraivn up by Himself.
Dated April 1750. p. 43.
Mr. W. here states, that Lord Barrington having heard of his complaint,
• These are cages in the sea, made with willow-twigs to keep the crabs in. — Orig.
+ Brother to the celebrated statesman Sir Robert Walpole, and uncle to the late Horace Walpole
(Lord Orford). He died in 1737. From his earliest years (observes Mr. Coxe in his Memoirs of
VOL. X. s 4
136 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
sent him the 5th vol. of the Edinb. Medical Essays, containing Dr. Whytt's
account of the good effect which the taking of soap and limewater had had in
cases similar to his; with ingenious reflections and directions relating to that
cruel disease, and the remedy for it. He read them with great satisfaction,
and would have immediately fallen into that method, but his relations, touched
with the fatal effects, which Dr. Jurin's lixivium* had had on the late Lord
Orford, would not suffer him to follow his own inclinations. But while he had
a severe fit upon him, he was visited by the Earl of Morton, who, on hearing
what was his disorder, gave him an account of the powerful benefit and entire
cure, which Mr. Summers had found in voiding the stone, that had tormented
him for many years, by adding lime-water to the soap, which he had taken for
some time without any success.
This example, by the encouragement of Mr. Graham, his apothecary, fixed
his resolution to follow that method; and accordingly before he left the town,
he often perused Dr. Whytt's Essay relating to the stone. In March 1 747-8,
he began at first with taking every day -i^ oz. of Alicant soap, made up into pills
with the syrup of marshmallows, and drank upon it about a pint of lime-water
made of oyster-shells ; mixing a spoonful of milk with it, and drinking a spoon-
ful after it, to take away the nauseousness of the tastes.
On the road as he went into the country in May 1 748, he had a most severe
fit at Newport, making bloody water, with frequent interruptions at short in-
tervals, attended with violent pains, which continued on him to such a degree,
that he could not endure the horses to go more than a foot-pace for about 70
miles, till he came home. After his arrival there he was tolerably well for some
days; but the least motion in a coach, or even in walking, brought the dis-
order upon him. He was always entirely easy when he lay in bed, but was ob-
liged, when he got up, to take his couch ; and could not venture to move fitjm
thence but on necessary occasions. In the mean time he continued to take the
soap and lime-water, which by degrees he increased so far, as to take at different
Sir Robert Walpole, vol. i. p. IS4) he had been trained to business, under Stanhope, in Spain ; under
Carleton, when chancellor of the exchequer, and secretary of state ; under Townshend, at the con-
gress of Gertruydenberg, and during the negociation for the Barrier Treaty in 1710. At the acces-
sion of George I., he was appointed secretary to Lord Townshend, and afterwards secretary to the
treasury; and, as envoy to the states general, had conducted with great skill and ability the compli-
cated negociations which took place at the Hague in 1715 and 17l6. In 1722 he was deputed as en-
voy to the Hague, which post he filled with great credit and dignity, and was particularly noticed by
George 1. as a man of business and address.
* In the medical practice of the preseiit day neither the lixivium here mentioned, nor lime-
water (both which, but particularly the first of the two, possess a causticity which proves hurtful to
the stomach,) are prescribed in calciJous affections j but in their stead the so called soda-water, in
which the alkaline salt is rendered mild by super-saturation with the carbonic acid, (fixed air,) in
which state it does not injure the stomach, and may be safely continued a great length of time.
VOL. XLVII.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 137
times 1 oz, of soap, and 3 pints of lime-water, every day, observing a very re-
gular diet. After some months he found himself extremely easy in his ordinary
motions ; but he never ventured to walk far, nor go at all in a wheel-carriage,
keeping himself as quiet as he could, till he should be obliged to go to par-
liament.
Just before he left the country, Mr. Ranby made him a visit; and though he
had felt no pain nor symptom of his disease for some time, he advised him not
to hazard going to town by any means, unless it were in a litter. However,
having caused an easy voiture to be made, he undertook the journey in it the
20th of November 1748, which was regulated by the horses going no faster than
a gentle walk, and only 20 miles a day. The cold weather, and the tediousness
of creeping so slow, made the coachman sometimes fall into a trot, which he
perceived, but finding no inconvenience, did not check his pace. The set stages
were observed only the last 2 days, and particularly the last day the coachman
drove from Harlow to Whitechapel as full a trot as the horses could well go at
any time ; and he felt not the least disorder. He took a chair at Whitechapel,
and all that winter made use of nothing else, and continued extremely well';
but, about 2 months after his coming to town, he found some small uneasiness
in making water, and in 2 or 3 days he voided with his urine something of a
flat shape about the size of a silver penny, covered with a soft white mucus,
which, when it was dry, was plainly of a stony substance ; and after that had
never been troubled with the least symptom of that cruel disorder -. And he found
himself so well in the country last year, that, contrary to the advice of all his
friends, he undertook in his coach a journey to Chatsworth in Derbyshire from
his house in the countr}', at least l6o miles, to pay a visit to the Duke of De-
vonshire, the horses going as round a trot as they could conveniently, according
to the road; and the last 10 or rather 15 miles, from Hardwicke to Chatsworth»
a most rugged and rocky way, they neither spared themselves nor the horses.
The great shocks on the stones broke the springs of the coach, but gave
him not the least uneasiness, and he had ever after continued, with respect to
his former disorder, as well as ever he was in his life ; but he had now and then
voided, after he had sat a great while in the House of Commons, some re
gravel.
X. Extract of the Observations maae in Italy, by the j4bbt! Nollet, F. R. S. on
the Grotta de Cam. Translated from the French by Thomas Stack, M. D.
F. R. S., p. 48.
This celebrated grotto is described in numerous books of travels, &c. Dogs
exposed to the gas emitted from this cavern are thrown into a state of asphyxia,
from which, however, they soon recover on being brought into the open air.
VOL. X. T
138 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
XL A Letter from the Rev. Patrick Murdocke, F. R. S. concerning the Mean
Motion of the Moon's Apogee, to the Rev. Dr. Robert Smith, Master of Trin.
Coll. Camb. p. 62.
A warm dispute arose lately at Paris between M. de BufFon and M. Clairaut ;
the latter pretending that the Newtonian law of attraction is inconsistent, with
the motion of the moon's apogee ; and that its quantity ought not to be expressed
by - of the distance, but by two, or perhaps more, terms of a series, as \ •\- — ;
which new doctrine M. Clairaut had got inserted in the memoirs of the Aca-
demy, and M. de BufFon had followed him close with another memoir, confuting
it. At first it was impossible to judge of the validity of M. Clairaut's reasoning,
because he kept his calculus a profound secret. But an absurd consequence of
his new law of attraction occurred as soon as M. de BuiFon mentioned the thing,
that, " if we should put the attraction, expressed by his two terms, of an assumed
quantity g, and resolve the equation, there would necessarily arise 1. different
values of the distance x, for the same attractive force."
Suspecting therefore, that some error must have slipt into M. Clairaut's
reasonings (as he himself afterwards found there had), Mr. M. tried whether,
by an arithmetical calculation from Sir Isaac Newton's propositions only, the
motion in question might not be accounted for. By Mr. Walmesley's ingenious
treatise on the same subject, it appears that however M. Clairaut's hypothesis is
given up, yet a notion still prevails as if Sir Isaac Newton's propositions, con-
cerning the motion of the apsides were mere mathematical fictions, not applicable
to nature. The following calculation however of Mr. M. shows the contrary.
Of the mean Motion of the Moons Apogee, according to Sir Isaac Newton.
The rule given by Sir Isaac Newton, in the Qth section of his first book, is to
this purpose :
1. That, supposing the common law of attraction, and that a central body t
attracts the body p, fig. 8, pi. 3, revolving round it in an orbit nearly circular,
with a force as unity ; if to this be added a constant force, whose ratio to the
former is expressed by c ; then the angular velocity of the body p, in an immove-
able plane, will be to its angular velocity, reckoned from the apsis of its orbit,
1 -I- c
in the subdublicate ratio of 1 -f- c to 1 -j- 4 c, or as \/ :^—-r ^'^ unity. And there-
fore, if a represent any arc described by the revolving body in an immoveable
plane, then a X V' will be the corresponding arc in its orbit, reckoned
from the apsis. And their difference a x {s/ £ — - — 1), willbethe regress of the
apsis. But if the force of the central body t be diminished by some constant
VOL. XLVII.] VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ISQ
force as c, then the sign of c is changed in these expressions ; and the direct
motion of the apsis will be a X (1 — V^TZl — )•
2. And hence, if some foreign variable force, added to, or subtracted from,
the central force of attraction, produce a given motion of the apsis, retrograde
or direct ; it is easy to find a constant force as c, which should produce the
same motion.
3. Let s represent the sun, at an immense distance, t the earth, (supposed,
for the present, at rest) p the moon's place in her orbit adbc, in which c, d, are
the quadratures, a, b, the syzygies : then if pk, parallel to ab, and cutting tc
in K, be produced till kl is double of pk ; and lm parallel to pt meet ab pro-
duced in M ; LM and mt will represent the disturbing forces of the sun, by which
the moon is urged in the directions pt, mt. See Princip. lib. i. prop. 66, and
lib. iii. prop. 25, 26. And if tr be made perpendicular to lm, the force mt
shall be resolved into two forces as rt and mr ; of which the latter, mr, taken
from LM, reduces the disturbing force, in the direction pt, to their difference lr.
4. Put now pt (= lm) =: 1 ; pk, the sine of the arc PC =s: and then tm
(= PL = 3s): MR :: 1 : .«; that is, MR = 3*^, and lr, the disturbing force in
the direction pt, is as 1 — 3*^. When cp, the moon's distance from the quadra-
ture, is an arc of 35° 15' 52", in which case 1 — 33* = O, / and r coincide ; and
the disturbing force vanishing, the line of the apses becomes stationary. But if
the moon's distance from her quadrature be still greater, as at v, then jaj exceeds
(*x; and their difference xj is a force represented by — (1 — 3j^), acting in the di-
rection ttt. This force, at the syzygies, is double of to.
5. Hence, and from § 1, it follows; that c being the sun's disturbing force
in the direction ct, at the quadrature ; at any other point, as p, it will be
+ c X (1 — Ss"^)- And that writing for c the variable quantity c- x (1 — 3i^),
and A for the fluxion of the arc cp, the fluent of a X V ^-—: ~ f,\ will ecive
1 + c X ( 1 — 3«') °
the motions of the apsis.
6. The quantity c being , } gf-° ^ of the earth's mean attractive force at the
moon ; by computing as above, it will be found, that while the moon moves
from c to p, through an arc of 35° 15' 52", the total regress of the apsis is to
the arc cp, as .005404 {= n) to unity ; and that the sum of its direct motions,
while the moon moves from p to a, is to the arc j&A, as .0105707 (= n) to
unity. It will be found likewise, by the inverse operation hinted in § 2, that
putting k — .00362552, and k = .OO69611 ; + k and — k are forces, which
acting constantly, the one from c to p, the other from p to a, would produce
the same motions of the apsis.
7. The quantities h and k might have been found, pretty near the truth, only
T 2 ■ •
140 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, [aNNO 1751.
by summing the ordinates 1 Z. R? or 1 — 3s\ on the arc A : in which case we
should have had k = c X .648869 = .00370g'25, and k = c X 1.24018 =
.006939 : and the motions thence computed would not have been much dif-
ferent from their just quantity. This however is mentioned, not as if the me-
thod itself were sufficiently exact ; but to show that if hereafter, in cases where
the limits of the forces are incomparably narrower, we shall, instead of summing
the momenta, make use of a mean force determined in a like manner, there is
no sensible error to be apprehended.
8. Hitherto we have considered the body t, round which p revolves, as qui-
escent ; and it is thus that authors have always considered it : though the case in
nature, to which they meant to apply Sir Isaac Newton's rule, is widely different.
The earth and moon revolve about their common centre of gravity; their dis
tances from which being inversely as their masses, and the forces, by which either
is attracted by the other, as also the forces of the sun to disturb their motions,
being in the same ratio; it follows that the earth, in her motion round the
common centre of gravity, will suffer disturbances every way similar to those of
the moon. And the whole motion of the apsis of the moon's orbit, resulting
from the two disturbing forces, will be nearly the double of what either of them
could produce separately, round a fixed centre.
9. To determine this, we may conceive the earth as revolving in an orbit al-
ready in motion from the sun's disturbing force on the moon; the retrograde
motion of the orbit, while the earth moves from c to p, being n X cp; and the
direct motion, for the rest of the quadrant, being n X />a ; hence it will follow,
that the disturbing force, = k, affects the earth's motion through an arc of her
orbit equal to cp X (1 -f- w); and the force — k acts through the arc pA X
(1 -f n). And the motions of the apsis being in the same ratios, if r be the
regress of the apsis of the moon's orbit (determined as in ^ 6) and p its progress ;
the regress of the apsis of the earth's orbit will be r X (1 + ")> and its direct
motion, J!j X (1 — n). That is, the whole motions of the apsis, resulting from
the sun's action on the earth and moon together, will be (r =) r x (2 + n),
and {p =) p X (2 — n); and the motions to be ascribed to either arc, r X
(1 4- i-n), and /> X (1 — ^n). — Now p, found as above, being 2082'''.9 and
N = .0105707, p is 4143". 8. And the same way, R = 1375".7- whose differ-
ence p — R multiplied by 4, that is, 4 X 2768" = IIO72" = 3° 4' 32", is the
direct motion of the apsis in a revolution.
First correction for the moons variation. Fig. Q. — 10. In the foregoing cal-
culation, it is supposed, that the moon's orbit is nearly circular, more nearly
indeed than it possibly can be, even abstracting from its excentricity. For though
the moon had been projected with a direction and force to make her describe
a circle round the earth, as eol, the action of the sun would have changed this
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 141
orbit into an oval, as oadbc; whose greatest diameter, passing through the qua-
dratures CD, is to the least, as 70Vt to 69^. The reason and determination of
which we have in Princip. lib. iii, prop. 26, 28.
11. That this action of the sun, and the figure resulting from it, must lessen
the mean motion of the a{X)gee, is easily shown. For let p be the moon's
place in her orbit, w hen the apsis is stationary ; and eol the circle of her mean
motion, cutting the orbit very near tne octant o, and pt in 0; then the accele-
rating forces of the earth at p and o, being inversely as the squares of pt and ot,
and the sun's disturbing force at the points p, 0, being in the simple direct ratio
of the same lines; ot being given, the ratio of the sun's disturbing force at the
point p, to the earth's accelerating force at the same point, that is, the quantity
c in the theorem, will be as the cube of the distance pt; and, a fortiori, in
every point of the orbit, from the quadrature c to p, will exceed the mean force
at o, and its effect in producing a retrograde motion of the apsis will be greater.
For the remaining part of the quadrant, where the motion of the apsis is
direct, the force c is indeed greater than its mean quantity from p to o; but,
through the whole octant oa, it is continually decreasing as the cube of the dis-
tance from T ; hence, on the whole, that force, and its effect, from p to a, fall
short of their mean quantities at o. Seeing therefore the direct motion is dimi-
nished, and the retrograde increased; their difference, that is, the direct motion
in the quadrant cpa will be diminished.
But this mean motion will be diminished somewhat also from the inequable
description of the areas (in prop. 26, lib. iii) ; on which account, the cubes of
the distance pt must be every where increased, or diminished, in the duplicate
ratio of the moments of time in which a given small angle is described, to the
mean moment at the octant.*
12. By computing from these principles, it will be found: 1. That the angle
CTP, which was of 35° 15' 52* in the circle, will, ift the oval orbit, be dimi-
nished to 34° 43' 34". 2. That the ratio of the mean of the cubes of the
moon's distances in the arc cp, to the cube of the mean distance, will be ex-
pressed by 1.0239] 6 {= g), and the like ratio, in the arc pa, by .9852467
(= h). 3. Multiplying therefore the forces k and — k, found in ^6, hy g and
• To express the distance pt by « the sine of the angle ctp, in an ellipsis not very eccentric;
from any point p draw pk an ordinate to the axis cd, and meeting the circumscribed circle in m;
draw likewise m/' perpendicular to tp produced. Then putting to = 1, ta = d,
■ ' = <i by conjoining the ratios of tp to pk, pk to pm, pm to pf, it will he tp = — 2_ : in
which, for the variable numerator rf, we might, because of the smallness of the angle ptm, write
unity; but taking it rather of its mean quantity tn (= -9999^7 in the moon's orbit) the distances,
whose cubes are to be summed, will be ~ — ;. And the ratio of the moments of time to the mean
moment, is that of 1 10.23 to 109.73 + *», by prop. 26, lib, iii.— Orig. '»
142 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
by h, substituting the products for c, in the formula, with the arcs cn, and ng,
respectively, and finishing the operation as for the circle, the regress in a peri-
odical month will be 5548".3, and the progress l6489''.8: whose difference is the
direct mean motion sought, 3° 1\" 24-'.
13. But nearly the same conclusion maybe obtained, and with much less
trouble, as follows: In the circle cgd, take cm = 35° 15' 51", and through p,
the point where mk, perpendicular to tc, cuts the orbit, draw tpn meeting the
circle in n. Then, if r be the regress of the apsis in a circular orbit,
Ry/ — will be the regress in the oval cpa.
In like manner, having inscribed in the orbit the circle aw//, and made a
similar construction for the rest of the quadrant, p v^— t will be the direct mo-
tion in the oval, p being the direct motion in a circle.
Thus, the angle of variation mtn being (in Dr. Halley's tables) 33' g", the
subduplicate ratio of cm to cn will be I.007927, and that of Am to xh, or of
GM to GN, will be .99499, And therefore r (in § 9) will be augmented to
1386*.6, and p diminished to 4123"; whose difference, multiplied by 4, gives
3° 1' 25f "; exceeding the former only by about A".
14. The rule is founded in this, that if, from the centre t, a circular arc f/
be described, including in the angle ctn the sector ft/] equal to the elliptic
sector CTP, the cube of tp, the radius of this circle, may be taken for the mean
of the cubes of the moon's distances in the arc cp. And because the area cpt
is to the sector cmt, as pk to km, or as ta to tc ; and to or te is a geome-
trical mean between ta and tc, it will easily appear that tf^ : to^ :: cm| : cn|.
And that p, found from the tables, being (nearly at least) the stationary point
in the oval, if the force h be increased in the sesquiplicate ratio of cm to cn, and
the arc cn substituted for a in the formula, we shall, by § 1, find the retrograde
motion of the apsis.
Now when the constant force -f- A is given, the regress r is as the arc a ; and
when a is given, and A is but a little augmented, r is proportional to A: in general
therefore, if A be but a little augmented, r is as ^ X a. Write q for the regress
in the oval, R standing for that in the circle, already found; and it will be q :
R :: i X (— )^ X cn : A X cm, or a = r X -/ — , according to the rule. The
CN CN
like reasoning for the direct motion.
Second correction for the excevtricity. Fig. 10. — 15. This equation is incon-
siderable, because, though the ratio of the disturbing force, when the moon is
at a greater than her mean distance, is more increased than it is diminished in
the opposite points of her orbit ; this increase is very nearly compensated by the
comparative smallness of the angular velocity. Let ado represent the moon's
elliptic orbit, whose centre is c, its axes Aa, Del, the mean excentricity ct, and
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 143
the circle of her mean motion Momd, cutting Aa in m and m. Then, because
it is a mean motion we seek, generated while the axis ao passes through all its
different aspects of the sun ; we may conceive the direct motion already found,
of 3° 2' 21-^', to be produced by a constant disturbing force — k, acting on the
moon as she revolves in her circular orbit mdotc/; and we have only to inquire
how much this force, and its effects, are to be increased, the moon really moving
about the same centre x, in the elliptic arc ad ; and how much diminished in the
arc Da.
16. For which purpose, the constant force k is to be increased in the ratio of
the mean of the cubes of the moon's distances, in the arc ad, to the cube of
TD or CA, and diminished as the mean of the cubes of the distances in d«. Let
the forces resulting be k X g and k X h; and these being substituted in the
formula, with the arcs "Zdm, or 2T)m, respectively, the sum of the motions found
will be the whole mean motion of the apogee, including the correction for the
excentricity.
Now K will be found to be .00557337, and the excentricity tc being .05505,
and a the quadrantal arc to radius 1 ; the ratio g, or, which is the same, the
sesquiplicate of the time in which the elliptic arc ad is described, to the time in
the circular arc dm, that is, {- — —)^, will be 1.110942; and h = (^ ~ '^-)^
= .9001387; hence the whole motion, found as above directed, will be 10962"
= 3" 2' 42"; the correction, on account of the excentricity, being only 21".
Multiply 3° 2' 42" by 1.080853, and the product 3° 17' 28" is the mean mo-
tion of the apogee, in a synodical month; exceeding the quantity marked in the
tables by no more than 4".
17. Of the obliquity of the moon's orbit, to the plane of the ecliptic, we take
no notice; because though, absolutely speaking, a force in that plane, referred
to the moon's orbit, would thence be diminished by about -poVo parts; yet, in
the present case, the efl^ect of the obliquity is included in the first determination
of the quantity c, from the periodical times of the earth and moon ; all but what
belongs to the corrections; and which is only 110". X. 003 = 0". 33, to be
subtracted.
18. The force c is itself the effect of the sun's parallax, and the total effect;
excepting only a small difference between his action on the moon, when she is
waxing or waning, and when she is in the other half of her orbit; neglected as
altogether inconsiderable.
On the whole, we may conclude, that, in this, as in the other phenomena of
the celestial motions, the principles and rules of Sir Isaac Newton are fully con-
firmed and verified.
144 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 175 1.
XII. Experiments made on a great Number of living Animals, with the Poison
of Lamas, and of Ticunas* By Mons. Herissant, M. D., andF.R.S.
Translated from the French, by Tho. Stack, M. D. p. 75-
Mons. de la Condamine, on his return from the voyage which he made in the
interior parts of South America, from the coast of the South Sea to the coasts
of Brasil and Guiana, by going down the river of the Amazons, brought to Paris
a small quantity of a very dangerous poison, much in use among the Indians of
Lamas, -|- Ticunas, Pevas, and also among the Yameos, who all extract it by fire
from divers plants, especially from certain plants which the French call lianas.
Those savages are very dexterous at making long trunks, which are the most
common weapon used by the Indians for hunting. To these they fit little arrows
made of palm-tree, on which they put a little roll of cotton, that exactly fills
the bore of the tube. They shoot them with their breath, and seldom or never
miss the mark. This simple instrument advantageously supplies the defect of
fire-arms among all those nations. They dip the points of these little arrows, as
well as those of their bows, in this poison ; which is so active that in less than a
minute, especially when fresh, it kills certain animals, from which the arrow has
drawn blood.
Mons. de la Condamine says, in the abridged account of his voyage, that
" when he arrived at Cayenne, he had the curiosity to try whether this poison,
which he had kept above a year, still retained its activity ; and at the same time
whether sugar was really as efficacious a counter-poison as he had been assured.
Both the experiments were performed, he says, in presence of the commandant
of the colony, of several officers of the garrison, and of the king's physician.
A hen, slightly wounded with one of these little arrows, the point of which had
been dipped in the poison 13 months at least, before the trial, blown through a
trunk, lived half a quarter of an hour; another, pricked in the wing with one
of these arrows, newly dipped in this poison diluted with water, and immediately
• Other experiments on the poison of Ticunas were afterwards made by the Abbe Fontana (Phil.
Trans, vol. 70). He confirms Dr. Herissant's account of the deleterious operation of this poison
(the Ticunas), when applied to a bleeding wound, or injected into a vein ; but contrary to what is
related by Dr. H. he did not find any bad effects to be produced by the vapour which arose from it, in
boiling or burning.
+ Lamas is a Spanish village, or little town, in Upper Peru, situated in about 7° of south latitude,
to the west of the river of Guallaga. The native Indians of this district prepare a famous poison for
poisoning arrows, different from that of the Yameos, Pevas, and Ticunas, Indian nations on the
borders of the river of the Amazons, towards the mouth of the Napo, in 3° or i" of south latitude.
The poison of Ticunas is the most famous of all for its activity. They say, that that of Lamas
sooner loses its force, but that it is more proper for certain animals than that of Ticunas. And it is
the common opinion, that that of Lamas, being mixed with that of Ticunas, becomes more violent
and active by the mixture. — Orig.
VOL. XLVir.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 14J i.,
drawn out of the wound, seemed to doze a minute after; convulsions soon came
on, and, though we had made her swallow some sugar, she expired. A third,
pricked with the same arrow, dipped again into the poison, having been instantly
assisted by the same remedy, showed no signs of being indisposed, &c."
Mons. H. was struck, with amazement on reading these facts; but his surprise
was soon followed by a desire of repeating those experiments himself, and even
of trying them on different sorts of animals. . Mons. de la Condamine, to whom
he imparted his intention, offered to satisfy his curiosity, and for that purpose
made him a present of a certain quantity of this poison : and the result of the
experiments, which he made with this same poison, forms the subject of this
memoir.
,nHe begins the detail of those experiments by that of two accidents, which
had like to have disabled him from prosecuting the work he had undertaken; •
having very narrowly escaped death. The first accident happened thus: M. de
la Condamine had forewarned him, that when the Indians designed to use their
poison, which in colour, consistence, and even in smell, has a great deal of re-
semblance to Spanish liquorice, they dissolved it in water, and then evaporated it
on a slow fire to the consistence of a soft extract. M. H. made this preliminary
preparation in a small closet, in which a young lad was actually at work ; and he
did not think of making him quit it, because he did not imagine, that the poison,
of which he intended to make trial, could produce any bad effects, without being
introduced into the blood by the opening of a wound. Nor did he then recollect,
what M. de la Condamine had told him; which is, that while they are preparing
this poison in the country they oblige some criminal old woman to take care of
the boiling of this poison, after shutting her up alone in a separate place; so
that when this woman dies, it is a sign that the poison is sufficiently boiled, and
that it has all the qualities requisite to make it good. But he was soon made
sensible of his imprudence: the door of the closet, where the young lad above-
mentioned staid, was open; and from the next chamber he saw, that the lad,
who had been there about three quarters of an hour, sat still, with his arms
across. He began to reprimand him for his laziness, but he excused himself by
answering, with a trembling voice, that he was sick at heart, and felt himself
very faint. It is easy to imagine the uneasiness which this sight gave M. H. ;
but luckily it cost him no more than the fright. He made the lad come out of
the closet immediately, led him down into the yard, and made him swallow a
pint of good wine, in which he had dissolved a quartern of sugar. He reco-
vered his strength by degrees, and was soon able to return to his own home, very
merry and happy, without the least notion of the danger he had been in. Some
days afterwards he came to M. H. and assured him that he had not felt the least
indisposition since the day in question. iflT'wori 7?0i
VOL. X. U
14tj PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1751.
The fact above related was shocking enough to have made M. H. abandon his
project : however curiosity got the better of his fear, and he even took a strong
fancy to repeat the experiment. It would have been inhuman, not to say cri-
minal, to make it on any other person but himself: therefore he resolved to run
the risk, or rather persuaded himself, that he should run none, because he
shoukl be timely enough to flee from the danger, as soon as the effect of the
poison should come to a certain pitch. Besides, he was encouraged by the good
success of the foregoing example. Therefore he disposed every thing as at
the first time, and he staid in the closet. In about an hour's time he perceived
his legs to bend under him, and his arms became so weak, that he could scarcely
use them. He had but just time enough to come quickly out of the closet, and
get down into the yard; where he ordered wine and sugar to be brought him,
as he had before done for the young lad. Such was the first danger, which he
incurred in preparing the American poison : the second was not inferior to it.
After having dissolved the poison of Ticunas in water, and reduced it to the
consistence of an extract in the manner above described, he put it into a phial,
which he stopped very exactly, and locked up in a desk till he should have occa-
sion to use it in the experiments he intended to make. He began these experi-
ments on the 6th of June 1748; which was so hot a day, that he stripped to
his shirt, and had his breast and arms exposed to the air. In his left hand he
held the phial, the cork of which flew up to the cieling with vast rapidity. At
the same instant there issued out of this phial a yellowish vapour, of a very pene-
trating smell, which was soon followed by the extract itself, that spread itself all
over the rim of the neck of the bottle. He was so stupified at this unexpected
accident, that he imagined (as it was very possible) that the bottle was broken in
pieces; and as soon as he saw his hands, arms, and breast, coloured in several
places. by the poison, which had besprinkled them in the explosion, he looked on
himself as a dead man: which must certainly have been the case, if the bottle
had burst, and the pieces of glass had scratched or cut him. But luckily that
did not happen; and he soon resumed courage: when, after some minutes, he
found himself quite as well as before the explosion of the poison, the effect of
which is almost instantaneous; and it gave him no other trouble than to wash
and dry himself very carefully.
From this accident he learned that this poison, thus prepared, ought not to
be put into glass bottles close stopped, but should rather be kept in a glazed
earthen pot, covered with paper only ; since it was susceptible of so great an effer-
vescence. Therefore he put it into a gallypot; and the experiments, which he
made with this same poison a good while afterward, convinced him, that there is
no reason to apprehend, that it would lose any of its activity by evaporation.
These two facts plainly show how much precaution ought to be taken, when
VOL. XLVn.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 147
this poison is to be used. And we sliall be tlie better convinced of it, when we
consider that one single drop, conveyed directly into the blood by a puncture,
&c. is sometimes sufficient to kill, or at least to cause great disturbance in the
animal economy. It is quite otherwise when taken in at the mouth ; for then it
does no sort of mischief, as he proves in another place.
He then proceeds to the experiments, which he had repeated a number of
times on difterent species of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, insects, and reptiles.
But he first observes, that, of all those animals, none but quadrupeds and birds
were killed by this poison, as will more particularly appear by the journal of his
experiments: the others, viz. the fishes,* the insects,-^- and the reptiles,;}: were
not killed, though several of them seemed to be disordered by it.
M. H. had verified what M. de la Condamine says, in the account of his
voyage, relating to the use that may be made of animals killed by this poison,
without apprehending any ill consequences to those who eat of them. In effect
he had eaten rabbits, which he had killed with this poison, and afterwards made
several other j^ersons eat of them ; and no one perceived the least indisposition.
On the 6th of June 1748, M. H. made a small wound, of about 3 lines long,
in the left hinder leg of a rabbit of 6 months old : into this wound he put a bit
of cotton soaked in the poison of ticunas : the creature died suddenly in his
hands, without giving the least indication of having felt pain, and even before
he could apply a bandage to the wound. The same day he repeated this expe-
riment on 8 other rabbits, and on 4 dogs : they all died in about a minute.
The 7th of June of the same year he dipped the point of a lancet into the
poison : and with this instrument he pricked 4 cats and 2 rabbits, some in the
head, and the others in the paw, dipping the lancet each time that he pricked an
animal. The rabbits died in as short a time as the preceding day ; but the cats
held out about 3 minutes.
The same day he made a small wound, about 2 lines long, in the right hinder
leg of a rabbit, and put into it a small pledget of cotton soaked in the extract
of opium diluted in a little spirit of wine : but this did not cause any disorder in
the creature ; nor did arsenic, which he applied to another in the same manner.
In fine, to a third he made use of the extract of white hellebore, and he per-
ceived, that this animal became restless, nearly as he had observed in the ani-
mals that died by the efi^ect of the poison of ticunas. However, this rabbit did
not die, but fell into a sudden fit of fury, which went off in about 8 minutes.
• Those which Mr. H. employed, were tlie carp, the eel, the pike, the gudgeon, the barbel,
and the tench. — Orig.
t As caterpillars, bees, different flies of 2 and 4 wings, the grillo-talpa, butterflies, May-flies. —
Orig.
J For example, earthw orms, vipers, snakes. — Orig.
U 2
148 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
He had likewise made trial of this extract on other rabbits, dogs, and cats ; and
the effect was the same, more or less. Of all the extracts, which he employed,
as for example those of henbane, nightshade, tobacco, &c. he found none but
that of white hellebore that seemed to raise some little disorder in the animal
economy. The essential oil of the lauro-cerasus did not incommode the ani-
mals, into whose mass of blood he conveyed it, instead of the poison.
The 8th of June, with a lancet he made a very small incision between the
ears of a cat, and with a pencil he put into it a drop of the poison of ticunas
mixed with that of lamas : in an instant the creature died between his hands.
June the Qth, he put some of the same poison into small wounds, which he
made in different parts of insects, reptiles, fishes ; and not one of them died
of it.
The same day he made a wound, that penetrated into the cavity of the abdo-
men of a large cat, without hurting any of the contained parts ; and, with a
crotchet holding up the integuments, to keep them from touching the abdo-
minal viscera of this animal, that lay on its back, he introduced the end of a
funnel, and through it poured into the cavity of the abdomen about -^ dr. of the
poison of lamas mixed with that of ticunas. By this management he intended,
that the edges of the wound should not be wetted with the poison, and that it
should touch nothing but the surface of the abdominal viscera. He made a
suture of one stitch to join the lips of the wound, and he kept the integuments
constantly suspended, to prevent their touching the poison : and in this he was
certain that he succeeded. At first the creature did not seem to suffer much
from this operation ; but in an hour's time he died, with such violent convul-
sions in his throat, that it was almost impossible for him to breathe.
June the 10th, he pricked with a lancet the left fore leg of a large fat cat,
and put in a drop of the poison of the ticunas. He let this animal run loose
about the room, without dressing the wound. By the time he had made a
turn round the room, he seemed very restless and timorous : his legs failed him ;
he lay fiat on his belly ; and the skin all over his body trembled considerably ;
the hair of his tail stood up, and his paws were agitated with a frightful tremor.
All this while the animal made no noise : in fine, his head fell all at once be-
tween his fore legs, and he died in 4 minutes after the insertion of the poison.
June the 1 2th, he made the same experiment on 2 other cats, and on 3 dogs ;
these animals seemed to fall sick almost in an instant : the cats had their hair
bristled up, and their bodies gathered into a heap : they scratched the ground
with their fore feet. The dogs did the same, and all of them had a languishing
look, and their eyes bathed in tears ; some of them looked at him stedfastly,
and made a mournful noise : they were seized with a shivering, and in fine they
became paralytic in their feet only ; after which they died, turning their head
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 149
very quick to the right and left, with their mouth wide open. During this
scene, he perceived a spasmodic contraction in all the muscular parts of the
neck.
July the 15th he pricked a hawk in the left claw : into the puncture he intro-
duced a small drop of the poison of ticunas mixed with that of lamas, and then
set the creature at liberty. From that moment it was impossible for him to fly ;
the most he could do was to perch on a stick, which was within 6 inches of the
ground. There he shook his head several times, as if to get rid of something
that seemed troublesome in his throat. His eyes were restless, and his feathers
were all bristled up. In fine, after several gapings, his head fell all at orce be-
tween his legs, and in 3 minutes he died thus with his wings expanded. He
repeated this experiment on several sorts of birds,* and they all died with pretty
much the same symptoms as those above-mentioned, and in as short a time.
He made 6 of these birds swallow a good close of sugar, before inoculating them
with the poison : 3 of them escaped death, but the other 3 died very soon. The
moment after inserting the poison into 4 other birds, he made them swallow a
good deal of sugar ; but that did not prevent their dying, almost as soon as those
that had taken none. He made other birds swallow sea-salt instead of sugar ;
and not one of them recovered, whether they took it before or after the appli-
cation of the poison.
July the 1 6th he put a little of the same poison into a small wound he had
made in the right fore foot of a young rabbit. The moment this operation was
performed, he cut off that foot above the place of insertion of the poison. He
dressed the stump, and the animal did not die. Some days afterwards, he re-
peated this experiment on '2 large dogs, and on a lamb ; and not one of them
died.
July the 20th, he made a tight ligature on the right hinder leg of a young
rabbit, in order to see, if he could thereby prevent the poison from penetrating
too quick into the mass of blood. That done, he put a drop of the poison of
ticunas and lamas into a small wound, which he made below the ligature : and
the animal died in less than 2 minutes.
July the 22d, he poisoned the point of a sword with the same poison ; and with
this sword he pierced the left thigh of a large cat, which died in a minute, with-
out shewing any signs of suffering.
July the 24th, after having introduced some of the same poison into little
wounds, made in the legs, and other parts, of several dogs, cats, foxes, and "
horses, he immediately applied a red-hot iron, or burning charcoal, on the
wounds : not one of these animals died : but this operation must be performed
very speedily.
• As pigeons, hens, blackbirds^ sparrows, ducks, geese, and magpies. — Orig. '
130 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
July the 30th, he pricked a great number of rats and mice in the feet, with a
lancet, after poisoning its point. They all died in less than a minute, after
being tormented with a frightful shivering, which was immediately followed by
an almost general palsy. The same thing happened to moles, which he made
use of for this experiment.
August the 6th, he made a small wound in the left hinder leg of a pig, of 3
months old ; and then he put into it 2 drops of the poison of ticunas : this
creature died in 6 minutes. He repeated this experiment on 2 young wolves,
which died in the same space of time.
August the 7 th, he cut off the tip of the ear of 6 puppies, and rubbed the part
with the poison of ticunas : not one of these animals died of this operation. Two
days after, he shaved the hair off of their backs very close, and rubbed the part
with the same poison : they all died in less than 3 minutes.
The 10th, 1 1 th, and 12th of the same month, into small wounds made in diffe-
rent parts of the body of several dogs, cats, polecats, Guinea-pigs, &c. he instil-
led 7 or 8 drops of blood, which he drew from the vena cava of a dog, which he
had killed with the poison of ticunas mixed with that of lamas. These animals
did not die indeed, but were plainly indisposed ; insomuch that they lost their
vivacity, and became very sullen. Eight days after this experiment, he repeated
it on these same animals ; and then they became still weaker and fainter. In
fine, the next day he made it a third time on them, when they languished 4 or
5 days, and then died.
August the 15th, after having put some of the same poison into a wound made
in the right hinder leg of 6 horses, one of which was a very vigorous stone-
horse, he quickly bled them all in the neck ad aniini deliquium : 2 of them es-
caped with life ; but those that were the weakest, and most worn out could not
stand against this operation. Two days afterwards, he again pricked those
horses, that did not die of the last experiment ; and then they died in about 8
minutes.
He made the following observations on these animals, from the insertion of
the poison to their death. The muscle, wounded by the incision made for in-
sinuating the poison, was contracted and relaxed alternatively, just as it happens
in animals fresh killed : this lasted about 2 minutes ; after which these animals
seemed restless and impatient, endeavouring to scrape the ground with their
fore foot, which he had suspended in the air with a cord, to prevent their running
away. Sometimes also they made a sudden effort, as if to get away, which
lasted the space of 2 minutes ; after which they grew quiet, and amused them-
selves with nipping the grass, but not in a natural manner. Then their respi-
ration became very difficult ; and, though the weather was very hot, there vi-
sibly came out of their nostrils a vapour, like that which issues in winter in the
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ISl
time of expiration. A minute after, he observed that these horses endeavoured
to rest the suspended leg on something : and, in another minute, he perceived
the fore leg, that rested on the ground, beginning to grow weak, and bend ;
which occasioned these animals to fall forward, and rise up again alternately,
with more or less difficulty. In 1 minutes more, their hind legs grew weak,
and bent under them, like the fore legs ; and in line, these animals fell down
like a dead lump, without being able to rise again, though he whipped them
heartily. Then their sides began to work, and the whole habit of the body was
seized with a dreadful horror. He whipped them, and pricked them with a pin;
but in vain ; for they gave no sign of feeling. All the muscles of the trunk
and extremities were become paralytic ; and none retained their action, but
those of respiration, and those of the ears and eyes. These creatures continued
in this condition about 1 minutes ; after which their respiration became so
operose, that each inspiration consisted of 3 successive attempts, and then fol-
lowed a most precipitate expiration, accompanied with so violent a hiccup, that
the body bending double, the hind legs were pulled quite to the fore legs. In
fine, this manner of taking in and letting out breath lasted one minute; in which
time their eyes were darkened, and death ensued. yixno ,
He opened the dead bodies of these horses, and observed as follows : the blood
was of a deep-brown colour, and spouted out in a full stream, which lasted near
a minute, both from the arteries and veins, which he cut. This phenomenon
surprized him much, as well as the horse-flayer, who attended him, and assured
him that he had never seen the like. The muscles were flaccid, blackish and
very cold. The heart was so violently contracted, that, in cutting it across, he
could not see any appearance of the ventricles, till he pulled their sides jisunder
by force. The lungs and liver were stuffed with blood.
In making the small wounds, for introducing the poison, great care nmst be
taken, to avoid cutting any trunk of an artery or vein ; because, when that
happens, the blood that issues out, carries off" a good part of the poison ; which
makes the animal pine more or less without dying ; or, if he dies, it is in a
longer or shorter time, according to the quantity of the poison that has got into
the vessels, and been mixed with the circulating fluid. This thing happened to
him in trying the experiment on a mare, which had been condemned to the lay-
stall. This beast lived about 4 hours, because the wound bled abundantly, and
hindered the success of the experiment, for the reasons alleged above.
November 18, he took a small steel arrow, and jxiisoned it with the j)oison
of ticunas mixed with that of lamas. He caused tiiis arrow to be shot into the
right hinder leg of a bear, belonging to M. de Reaumur, which he wanted to
have killed, in order to put it into his cabinet of natural history. The creature
immediately roared out, from the anguish of the puncture ; after which he made
152 fHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
a tour round the stable, in which he was, without seeming to be in any pain.
Soon afterwards he fell on his side, and died in less than 5 minutes, having his
throat squeezed, as if he had been strangled.
M. le Chevalier de Grossee had an eagle, which he had kept a good while in
his court-yard, and intended to make a present of it to M. de Reaumur, to adorn
his cabinet, but wanted to know how to put it to death without damaging the
feathers. M. de Reaumur sent him the same arrow above-described, which had
been fresh dipped in the poison ; it was struck into the wing of this large bird,
which dropped down dead in an instant.
Such are the chief experiments, which M. H. made with the poison of ticunas
and lamas : and the following are the results of his observations. 1 . In almost
all the animals, which he killed with the poison of ticunas and lamas, he observed,
that in general they seemed to feel little or no pain before dying, by the action
of this poison ; 1, That before they die, these animals are seized with a sudden
and almost universal palsy , 3, Though the colour of the blood seemed to be al-
tered in certain animals, yet we ought not to draw any inference from thence ;
because in many others the blood had undergone no sort of alteration, either in
colour or consistence. 4. That all the muscles are so vastly contracted in the ani-
mals thus poisoned, that there is not a drop of blood to be found in them, whatever
way you cut into them. These muscles are clammy to the touch, and seem to ap-
proach the condition of flesh beginning to be tainted, which feels clammy ; 5, That
he did not know a more certain rule for determining that an animal died by the
energy of this poison, than this state of the flesh which feels clammy immediately
after death : but a person must have handled it more than once, if he would avoid
being mistaken ; 6, That the whole mass of blood, during the action of the poison,
is carried in abundance into the liver and lungs. 7. That neither sugar nor sea-
salt ought to be regarded as a specific antidote ; because the poison operates so
quick, that it does not allow time for these drugs to act, so as to prevent death.
He had found nothing but red-hot iron applied in time, that cures with sufiicient
certainty ; 8, That the more the animal is of a lively and sanguine constitution,
the more speedily and forcibly the poison acts ; Q, The lustier and fatter the
animal is, the more poison and time also are required for producing the expected
effects.
He remarks, that the poison must be dried on the instrument, before it be
struck into the animal, which we intend to kill: for if it be liquid, it remains on
the outside of the wound, while the instrument penetrates into the flesh : in
which case, either the animal dies not at all, or at least with great difficulty : as
it happened with regard to a wolf, which did not die, though the arrow above-
mentioned was stuck into one of his thighs ; because the poison, which it re-
VOL. XLVII,] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIOKS. 153
tained from the dip, continued liquid, and remained on the outside of the wound
made by the arrow in piercing the flesh. Therefore time must be allowed for
the poison to become hard on the instrument, which is intended to be used ;
that so, entering into the wound together with the weapon, it may be there di-
luted, and carried in the course of the circulation to those parts which it must
effect, in order to cause death.
XIII. The Case of a IVoman, from whom the Bones of a Fetus were extracted.
By Mr. Thomas Debenham, Surgeon, at Debenham in Suffolk, p. 92.
On the 25th of April 1749, this woman, aged about 34 years, being preg-
nant of her 8th child, had all the symptoms of a woman in labour. Accord-
ingly a midwife was sent for ; who, from the violence of the pains, expected
that she would soon be delivered ; but, to her great surprize, nothing ensued
but a loss of blood, and the pains were considerably abated. A fever immediately
came on, which cast her into an excessive faintness, and loss of strength, ac-
companied with a nausea.
May 26, Mr. D. was desired by her husband to visit her ; and by the ac-
count she gave him he much suspected that she must have miscalculated with
regard to her time ; and he proposed to examine her : but she, out of a mis-
taken modesty, not complying, he contented himself with cooling injections,
mild cathartics, and cordial powdeps, &c. ; by the use of which medicines she
got better ; and, on the 26th of March following, undertook to walk a journey of
15 miles.
He heard no more of her for some time; but on the 27th of April 1750 the
pains returned, very much like those of labour ; which obliged her husband to call
Mr. D. out of bed. He immediately gave her an anodyne, which abated her
pains, and composed her to rest.
On the 14th of May she felt a pricking pain in her navel, with a swelling and
redness, which in a few days appeared like a boil ; when, being desired to in
spect the tumour, he applied an emollient cataplasm. The next morning, on re-
moving the dressings, a fetid matter ensued ; then dilating the small sinus with
the scissars, the scapula of a foetus presented itself. On the 25th of July, by
the direction of a physician, he undertook, by making a circular incision round
the navel, to enlarge the orifice into the cavity of the abdomen, in order to ex-
tract the foetus that way : but the woman being very weak, and much emaciated,
he could only take off the scapula.
The next day, he extracted one whole arm, some ribs, part of the vertebrae,
&c. and the day following the greatest part of the remaining foetus, except the
cranium, which seemed to adhere to the intestines. This determined him to
proceed very cautiously, and not to attempt the removal of it at once, but piece-
VOL, X. X
154 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO. 1751.
meal, and by degrees, as opportunity would permit ; which he did with his for-
ceps : but, notwithstanding all his care, the sharp edges of the broken pieces of
the cranium tore the intestines, so that the faeces issued from the wound at every
dressing for several weeks together.
The wound was daily dressed with dry lint, spirituous fomentations, and ca-
taplasms. Injections, made of sack and warm water, were found of great use,
thrown in in large quantities ; and (what was well worth observation) several
parts of the bones, as the tibia, fibula, &c. were discharged by the vagina.
By the means above-mentioned, and proper bandages, the wound was tho-
roughly deterged, incamed, and, by the use of epulotics, completely cicatrized ;
and the woman was perfectly recovered, and afterwards grew fat.
After the discharge of the whole fcetus, the patient had milk in her breasts, as
on a natural delivery.
XIV. New Discoveries relating to the History of Coral,* by Dr. Vitaliano Do-
nati.-^ Translated from the French, by Tho. Stack. M. D. F. B. S. p. 95.
Coral is a marine vegetation, in shape nearly resembling a shrub stripped of
its leaves. It has no roots, but is supported on a broad foot, or basis, which
adapts itself like wax, and sticks to any body in all its parts, so firmly, that it is
impossible to disengage it. The shape of this foot is not always the same; but
it mostly approaches to rotundity, as n, n, fig. 1, pi. 4. Its use is to hold the
coral fixed, and support it ; not to nourish it : since there are found pieces of
coral, with their feet broken ofi^, which nevertheless continue to live, to grow,
and to propagate, at the bottom of the sea. From this foot arises a trunk, gene-
rally single, the greatest thickness of which seldom exceeds an inch.
Out of this trunk the branches shoot, which commonly are few in number ;
and they afterwards divide into several smaller and slenderer branches. The
branches are mostly disjoined, and separate ; sometimes two or more branches
spring from the foot united and parallel, and as it were clung together so inti-
mately, that the place of their union cannot be distinguished. Frequently two
branches adhere and unite in the same manner, in whatever place they happen
to touch : and from two branches thus united, there sometimes arises afterwards
only a single branch. If a shell happens to stick to the trunk or branches of the
coral, it is in time surrounded and covered, either in part, or in the whole, with
the same coralline matter to which it stuck.
The greatest height to which coral rises in the Adriatic, is a Paris foot, or a
little more. And even this height is very rare in that sea. The trunks, as well
as the branches, are commonly round ; yet frequently some are flatted and
* Red coral. Isisnobilis. Lin. Gorgonia nobilis. Lin. Gmel.
-(■ Author of an ingenious work, entitled the Nat. Hist, of the Adriatic Sea, written in Italian
and printed at Venice 1750, with numerous plates.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 165
broad. The foot, trunk, and branches of this sea-production, are of one uni-
form matter : being formed of a substance homogeneous in all its parts, and of
a bark or coat. The substance forms the inner part of the coral ; and this, even
at the bottom of the sea, is nearly as hard as marble. At the ends of the branches
it is not so hard as the bark ; in some places near the ends it is of equal hard-
ness with it; but in the thick branches and trunk it is harder.
This substance, being observed by a microscope, in corals of one colour, as
the red, and those which are not corroded by worms, appears uniform, smooth,
without spots of other colours, without holes or pits, being quite even, hard,
and capable of a perfect polish. But it is otherwise, in corals of more colours
than one ; as sometimes in those of a yellowish rose-colour, and those of a rose-
colour. For in some of these, the transverse sections exhibit different lines, or
annular bands (fig. 2, s, s, s, s,) of which one part is a rose-colour, and the other
yellowish, others white, and others more or less charged with colour, which
form concentric circles, a, like the coats of an onion. The same sort of annu-.
lar lines is observable in red coral a little burnt ; but they are of a grey colour,
and parted asunder by a line of a deep brown grey, (s, s, s.)
When this substance, though very hard, happens to be stripped of its bark,
either by age, or accident, it is liable to a sort of teredo, or worm ; a small ani-
mal, that enters into the body of the coral by very small holes, (fig. 3, a, a,)
gnaws its inside, and makes itself roundish cells, (s, s.) These cells have a com-
munication with each other, (a, a,) and are separated by very thin partitions,
which weakens the coral extremely, and makes it brittle and improper for
any work. There is also another worm, which passes through the coral trans-
versely from side to side, and in right lines, by straight cylindrical holes. Even
the hardest marbles, lying in the sea, are liable to be corroded in the same man-
ner. The surface of the substance of coral is furrowed and wrinkled (fig. 4 and
2, e, u.) The wrinkles begin from the foot, and ascend, always nearly parallel,
to the trunk and branches. However, these wrinkles are not so deep in the
slender branches, and sometimes are not visible there : but they are always more
elevated, and more considerable, in the thick branches and trunk : they are not
smooth, but uneven, with knobs or bumps on them, and the surface composed
of very small hemispheres.
This substance of the coral, being exposed to a strong fire, is reduced to a
very fine ash-coloured powder. As common ashes, when taken clean from
burning charcoal, and examined by a microscope, exhibit a sort of skeleton,
composed of the fibres and vessels of the wood ; so the ashes (of the substance)
of coral sufficiently show of what sort of parts it is composed. The microscope
discovers in it ashes formed of very small white corpuscles, united in clusters ;
each one of which is nearly spherical. The ashes of the bark of the coral are of
x2
156 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. | ANNO 1751.
the same shape and colour ; so that the substance of coral agrees with its bark
in the primitive arid constituent parts, which seem to be the same in both.
In pieces of coral broken transversely, are often observed some prominent
wrinkles, which disengaging themselves from the exterior wrinkles above-men-
tioned, run towards the centre (fig. 1, u.) Hence it plainly appears, that there
is an affinity or connection between the interior and exterior wrinkles. To the
exterior wrinkles, and to the whole outer surface of the hard part of the coral
(fig. 2, a, s, e, s,) there is closely attached a white or pale pellicle (fig. 1, g, fig.
5, n, n,) which is pretty soft, and composed of vascular and follicular minute
membranes, which, by their interlacing, form a reticular body. The whole is
accompanied with small vessels, which contain a whitish juice, diffused through
all the folliculi or membranulae ; which have also attached to them certain
very small red corpuscles, united together by means of other membranulae.
These corpuscles are nearly of a spherical figure, and in size and shape ex-
actly like those of the ashes of the coralline substance, and of the bark : so that
we may properly say, that these little bodies constantly remain entire, even after
the action of the fire ; having undergone no other change but in their
colour. In this pellicle (fig. 5, n, u,) the globular corpuscles are not numerous,
but the greatest part of the said pellicle is occupied by very white membranes,
from which it takes its colour, and not from the red globular corpuscles. This
pellicle, lying immediately on the coral, deposits the red corpuscules, and adapts
them to it : and thence it is that the wrinkles are covered as it were, by ex-
tremely small hemispheres ; and these infallibly show the formation of the coral-
line substance. If any one should ask, whence can these little spheres derive
their origin ? Dr. D.'s answer would be, without hesitation, from the polypi of the
coral. And the reason is, that if these polypi produce their eggs, as will be shown
in the sequel, covered with such corpuscules, we may justly infer that cor
puscles of the same nature, wherever they are found, are formed by the same
polypi.
To this white pellicle is attached the bark of the coral (fig. 2, t, t, e, s, s,)
which is soft, of a vermillion colour, or of a brighter colour than the coralline
substance. It is formed of very fine membranulae, or net-work ; to which are
annexed, and reciprocally fastened, the red globular corpuscles, which cause its
deeper colour. It is along this bark, that cylindrical vessels (fig. 2, t, t, t, t,
fig. 5, i, fig. 6, n,) are observed to run lengthways of the coral ; which appear
by the microscope to be parallel to each other, and out of which issue laterally
other vessels infinitely small, (fig. 5, t, t, t,) which have a communication with
the above-mentioned membranulae. The use of these vessels is to give nutri-
ment to the coral, by means of a milky juice contained in them. The surface of
this bark is slippery and uneven, when the coral has been just fished out of
VOL. XLVIl.] VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 167
the sea; somewhat raisal in some places, in others more depressed and
flatted.
There are observed in several parts of the said bark, small tubercles or promi-
nencies, (fig. 7, s) which maybe seen even without a microscope. These tu-
bercles are pretty large at their bottom or basis, and round (fig. 1, n, n), grow
somewhat narrower towards their upper part (o), and terminate in a lip of some
thickness, regularly divided into 8 parts (fig. 1, s, s, fig. 8, s, s) more or less
even; which form the mouth (fig. 1, t, fig. 8, t, fig. Q, a) of each tubercle, or,
to speak more properly, of each cellule. The bark of the coral ends at the ex-
tremity of these parts : and thus it is, that all the inner part of each cellule of
the white pellicle is formed. The white pellicle (fig. 2, g, fig. 5, n, n) is doubled
in some places, and forms a little bag (fig. 6, s, c) which lines the inside of each
cellule (t), that is, to the beginning of the lip, or to about the middle of the
cellule.
The substance of the coral (fig. 6, o) gives way to the cellule by small cavities :
yet these are not very visible in the old thick branches, but they are pretty easily
seen in the young and slender (fig. 4, a, c). Thus the cellule does not end at the
coralline substance ; since the white pellicle (fig. 6, s) is between it and the said
substance. The hollow of the cellule grows narrow into a sort of cone, with an
obtuse apex ; the belly of which is greater in diameter than the basis. The
bottom of such a cellule faces the foot of the coral, and its mouth the branchy
or most distant part from the foot. In this cellule is lodged the polypus, which
is visible to the naked eye, (fig. 7j s) but its exact shape is only to be seen by
the microscope ; and it was by this means, that a drawing has been made of it.
TherefcJre it is from each cellule (fig. 6, t, c) that a white, soft, and some-
what transparent polypus (fig. 10) comes forth, or extends itself; which in shape
resembles a star with 8 equal rays, nearly conical, (fig. 11) and furnished with
other conical appendices (fig. 11, a, a, fig. 10, a, a,) which issue out of it on
both sides. The two rows of these have their direction nearly on the same plane.
The rays are somewhat flatted, (fig. 10, a, a,) and a trough (fig. 12, c, fig. 10,
n, o,) rises out of their centre, somewhat widened at its beginning, with an
opening or great mouth at top (n). In its sides there are 8 upright ridges, broad
and elevated, and as many wrinkles, or fiirrows ; and each ray is inserted be-
tween every two wrinkles (a, a). This trough is placed on a smooth part, (fig.
12, g) which we may call the belly of the animal; and this part, while the animal
lives, and has not been hurt, is always erect in the cellule ; though it be entirely
disengaged, and separated on all sides from the said cellule ; as may be plainly
seen in some positions of the polypus.
All these particularities are to be seen only when J;he coral is just drawn out,
of the sea, and suffered to stand in some of the sea-water : for, if you take the
158 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
coral out of this water ; or even if you do but touch it in the water, the polypus
immediately retires into its cellule. In retiring, it contracts itself, the trough is
closed up (fig. 10, n, o) and each ray, (fig. 13, c) as also each appendix (a, a, a, a)
shrinks, and enters into itself, just as snails pull in their horns : cash ray pulls
in about half its length, and with their ends they adapt themselves to the edges
of the trough (fig. 14, 15).
It is in this position that the polypus is seen the moment the coral is drawn
out of the sea. The polypus, in this contracted state, seen without a micro-
scope, resembles a drop of milk ; and this is what all the good coral-fishers take
for the real milk of the coral ; the rather because, by pressing the bark of the
coral with the fingers, the polypus is forced out, and in coming forth it always
retains the appearance of milk. And this makes it probable, that the accurate
Andreas Caesalpinus, who was the first observer of milk in coral, in reality saw
nothing but the polypi in the semblance of milk.
Though the polypi have their belly (fig. 12, g) quite disengaged from the cel-
lule, as said above; yet they always keep it therein, shortening and widening it
so, as to make it thicker than the mouth or opening of the cellule (fig. 1 6, g) :
and this may be seen very distinctly by separating the cellule and its polypus
from the substance of the coral, and then observing it on the back part. In this
attitude it is that we see, not only the belly very much shortened (fig. 1 6, g) but
also the position in which the polypus keeps itself in its own habitation.
At the bottom of the belly (fig. 12, g) of some polypi, are observed some
roundish hydatides, extremely small and soft, transparent, yellowish, or tending
to pale. The situation and figure of these hydatids induced Dr. D. to believe,
that they are true eggs of the polypus. Although the size of these eggs is not
much above the 40th part of a line, yet by the assistance of a good microscope,
are discovered some vestiges of little grains, like those which are common on the
bark and substance of coral. These eggs are detached from the polypus, and
being soft they adapt themselves, and stick to the hard bodies, on which they
all. Afterwards they spread at the foot or bottom, and swell up a little (fig. 17) ;
and in this case we very well discern an inward cavity in them, the upper part of
which becomes uneven by 8 wrinkles, (fig. 18) but is not open as yet. Shut up
within this cavity the fetus of the polypus remains, contracted within itself, and as it
were without form. In due time the polypus grows ripe, and as it were adult ;
and the upper part (fig. 1 , s, t, s) opening, it comes forth properly extended (fig.
12, g), and thus furnishes the coral with nutriment.
While the first cellule is shut up, (fig. 17) or the egg of the coral is in its
substance, we do not find any one hard part in it like bone or marble ; it is all
soft : but afterwards, when the cellule opens, we begin to observe some hard
lamellae ; and when it is grown larger, and arrived at the height of about a line
VOL. XLVII.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ISQ
and half, it widens at bottom, (fig. 9, n) and at the top, (a) and grows narrower
in the middle (o), assuming the proper consistence and hardness of coral. And
as this grows, the polypi are multiplied, and new branches of coral are formed.
Here then we see the vegetation of a plant, and the propagation of an animal.
It is submitted to the learned to decide at present, whether the coral belongs to
one of these kingdoms rather than to the other ; or whether, with greater jus-
tice, it deserves an intermediate place.
Description of the Madrepora. See pi. 5, fig. A. This is entirely like the
coral, as to its hardness, which is equal to bone or marble. Its colour is white,
when polished. Its surface is lightly wrinkled, and the wrinkles run length-
wise of the branches. Its inside is of a particular organization ; having in the
centre a sort of cylinder, (fig. d, i) which is often pierced through its whole
length by 2 or 3 holes. From this cylinder are detached about 17 laminae,
(fig. D, k, k) which run to the circumference in straight lines (fig. d, m, m, m, m).
These laminae are transversely intersected by other laminae, (fig. d, q, q) which
form many irregular cavities throughout the whole plant. The branches (fig. a,
g, g) are conical ; and the basis of the cone is formed by the summit of the
branch (fig. a, e, e). Every one of these summits has wrinkles on its outside,
which run in the longitudinal direction of the branches (fig. b, c, c); and each
wrinkle answers to a lamina, (fig. c, e, u, e, u) and each lamina is of the shape
of a prism, (fig. e) the basis of which is warty, and faces the outside, (fig. c.
e, u) and its point is cut into teeth, (fig. e, n, n, n) and belongs to the inside.
The cellule, (fig. b, a, a, a, c, c, fig.c, e, e, u, u) which is of the shape of a
chalice, is composed of these laminae ranged into a circle.
In every one of these cellules is found a little polypus, represented in fig. p,
but considerably magnified ; the mechanism of which is this : three different
parts, unlike each other, compose this animal ; viz. the feet, (fig. p, o, i) a
trough, (fig. F, g, H, t) and a head (fig. g, n). Each foot begins by 2 conical
appendices. By the union of these appendices a rounded part is formed, which
in some degree resembles the belly of a muscle, fig. h, i, fig. i, x) by means of
which the foot is shortened and lengthened. To this part (fig. i, x) is annexed
a little cylinder, *g. i, n, fig. h, c) the length of which is indeterminate.
These feet are ranged all around in great number, and annexed to the laminze,
(fig. B, a, a, c, c) and are all united to the trough, (fig. h, c) on the outside of
which are seen 10 canities, with an equal number of prominences (fig. h, t, t, t
Sj s, c), and in these is lodged the animal's head, (fig. g) which has prickly rays,
the precise number of which could not be determined, on account of the ex-
treme velocity of the continual oscillatory motion of the head from right to left
and from left to right, yet he thought he could perceive the number of these rays
l60 PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751,
to be 8 : and the use of them may be for the animal to catch and hold its food.
This part is not always to be observed, because it sometimes hides itself, by closing
up the trough (fig. h, s, s, t, c) about it; and thus it is safe in its habitation.
As the figure of this animal bears no resemblance to the urtica marina, he can-
not see how we could class the polypus of the madrepora with the urtica. This
animal is extremely tender, and generally transparent, and very beautiful for its
variety of colours. He observed it in spring and autumn in the neighbourhood
of Rovigno and Orsera, where it is often fished up.
A Description of the Miriozoon, or Pseudoforalium album fun gosum of Jldro-
vandm.* — As the size and shape of this polypary is sufficiently seen in fig. k, pi. 6,
he describes only what the microscope has enabled him to observe in it ; and what
Count Marsigli, though peculiarly diligent, has either overlooked, or examined
with too little attention. And the rather, as the mechanism of this body appears
very wonderful.
Its substance is, rather like that of bone than of marble, but brittle : and its
brittleness proceeds from the great number of cellules with which it is hollowed.
These cellules are ranged all around in the branches, (fig. m) and disposed in
the manner of a quincunx; (fig. l, n, o) resembling those cinerary urns, fre-
quently found in Italy (fig. o).
In each of these cellules lodges an oblong polypus (fig. a), slender at the tail,
(fig. a, t) thick at the belly, (fig. a, e) and again slender at the neck, (fig. a, s)
to which is attached a little cover, (fig. a, o, and p, o) round, concavo-convex,
and of a bony substance. This cover is attached by its lower part (fig. p, n) to
the entry of the cellule.
When the polypus chuses to spread itself out, it opens the cover, and out of
its neck thrusts an ample proboscis (fig. k, g), in the shape of a cup ; and with
this it probably takes its food. There are two little muscles (fig. h, a, a) at the
lower part of this proboscis, which are attached to the cover. When the animal
returns into its nich, the proboscis sinks into itself; and the animal, by con-
tracting itself, draws back the cover ; and thus the cellule is perfectly closed, and
the creature secure in its retreat.
However, all the polypi of this plant do not enjoy this conveniency and se-
curity, but only the adults; that is those which dwell about the, branches. As
for the others, that are not as yet adult, and live and lodge on the tops of the
branches, fig. l, r, n, n, and n, n, x) they have no covers ; and a considerable
number of them dwell in imperfect cells, or in such as are finished only in part,
(fig. D, t, t) and made of a sort of cartilaginous and membranaceous materials.
The imperfection of these cellules, and the weak consistence of the paste which
* This coral is the Millepora tnmcata, Linn.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. l6l
forms them, afforded a plain proof that the cellules are the work of the polypi, as
the niches, where they lodge, are made by some shell-fish.
XV. On the Class of the Phocte Marinie* By James Parsons, M.D,,
F.R.S. p. 109.
InFebruary 1742-3, Dr. P. gave some account of the sea-calf, which was shown
at Charing-cross at that time, which he often saw while alive, and afterwards
opened it. It is printed in the 496th number of the Trans. There is also now
in town a seal (another species of phoca) alive ; which gives occasion to taking
further notice of this class of animals, that the Society may have a clear idea of
their differences, and great variety.
All the species of phocae, this being the generical name, have among them
a very great likeness to eiach other, in the shape, not only of their heads, but
also of their bodies and extremities. They are webbed nearly alike, are alike
reptile, viviparous, bringing forth, suckling, and supporting their young alike ;
and in fine all have the same title to these appellations, phocce, vitulus marinus,
sea-cow, sea-lion, &c. and these names are vulgarly given to them, as their size
happens to be greater or smaller ; and the first of these names from (paxr, or, ac-
cording to Dr. Charleton, from Pwxn, signifying a noise, or kind of grunting,
which they all at some times make.
The different species of this class, or rather genus, of animals, are distinguish-
able, by their proportion, their size, as to their full growth, their teeth, webbed
feet, and whatever other parts in some may not be proper to others.
As to the first, this species before us is shorter and thicker in proportion than
that described before. Dr. Grew, in his excellent book of the Rarities, &c.
mentions a difference in the proportions of 2 which he describes, in their thick-
ness ; that presented to the Museum by Mr. Haughton being thicker than the
other. He also gives an account of another species, which he calls the long-
necked seal, in these words: " he is much slenderer than either of the former;
but that wherein he principally differs, is the length of his neck ; for from his
nose-end to his fore-feet, and from thence to his tail, are the same measure ; as
also in that instead of his fore-feet, he hath rather fins: not having any claws
thereon, as have the other kinds." The head and neck of this species are ex-
actly like those of an otter. One of those, which is also now in our museum,
taken notice of by the same author, has a head shaped like that of a tortoise ;
less in proportion than that of every other species, with a narrowness or stric-
• In this paper Dr. Parsons includes not only the seals, strictly so called, but likewise the walruset,
manatis, &c. and thus forms a kind of large natural genus under the title of Phoca.
VOL. X. _ jao<j«!fiT>ii« !i'i\m 'ji»iiw (Siswtma mofl )yn.\/-\
l62 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 175 J.
ture round the neck : the fore-feet of these are five-fingered, with nails, like the
common seal.
Their size, as to the utmost growth of an adult, is also very different. That
before described, was 7^- feet in length ; and, being very young, had scarcely any
teeth at all. This in town is but about 3 feet long, is very thick in proportion,
and has a well-grown set of teeth ; which, in a great measure, shows this to be
about its full growth. The manati is also a phoca, and is one of those species
which grows to a prodigious size. The great skin, in the museum, is that of a
manati ; which seems to agree with the other species of this family, in every es-
sential part, except broad bifid webs, instead of webbed feet : and Peter Martyr
gives an account of one of these, which was 35 feet long, and 12 thick.
The docility of this seal in town is, with reason, much admired, as a thing
unusual and strange to us ; but it appears, from Dr. Charleton, that in his time
it was not uncommon for the seamen and fishers to catch some of these creatures
sleeping, on the coasts of Cornwall and the Isle of Wight, and bring them to be
so tame, as to get money by showing them, and their performances : and he
adds, that the people of the former place call the larger kinds about that coast
soils, and the smaller seals. But the story told by the above author Martyr, of
that great manati, shows how capable these creatures are of being rendered very
familiar ; and how susceptible of impressions, though they really seem as unfit
for any kind of education as any other whatever. This author describes the
manati very fully; and then tells this remarkable story:
" A governor, in the province of Nicaragua, had a young manati, which was
brought to him, to be put into the lake Guanaibo, which was near his house ;
where he was kept during 26 years, and was usually fed with bread, and such-
like fragments of victuals, as people often feed fish with in a fish-pond. He be-
came so familiar, by being daily visited and fed by the family, that he was said to
excel even the dolphins, so much celebrated by the ancients for their docility and
tameness. The domestics of this governor named him Matto ; and at whatever
time of the day they called him by that time, he came out of the lake, took
victuals out of their hands, crawled up to the house to feed, and played with the
servants and children; and sometimes 10 persons together would mount upon
his back, whom he carried with great ease and safety cross the lake."
All that is here mentioned of the docility of this manati, does not much sur-
pass that of this seal in town. He answers to the call of his keeper, and is ob-
servant of his commands ; takes meat from his hand, crawls out of the water,
and stretches at full length, when he is bid ; and when ordered returns into the
water ; and in short stretches out his neck to kiss his keeper, as often and as
long as required. These are marks of a tractableness, which one could hardly
expect from animals, whose mien and aspect promise little, and indeed whose
VOL. XLVII."! PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 1 63
place of abode, being for the most part inaccessible, prevent their being fami-
liarized to any commerce with men, except by mere chance.
The teeth are very well preserved in the skin of the manati in the museum :
they are l6 in the upper, and 14 in the under jaw; and of these, 4 are between
the canine teeth of the upper, and 2 between those of the under jaw. They are
all conical from the gums ; the canine teeth are 1 in each jaw ; being an inch
and half long each, and of the same form with the rest ; and they all bend a little
backwards by a small curve in themselves. Nor have the very back teeth of all
the least resemblance to the molares of other animals.
The walrus or mors, is another species of phoca, and differs very little in
shape and parts from the other species of this genus ; except that the 2 canine
teeth of the upper jaw are of a prodigious size, like the great teeth of an
elephant.
There are some species of this genus of the phoca, which never grow to above
a foot long ; and there are of all sizes at full growth from these to the manati
and walrus. The skins of every species have short hair, and their colours are
variegated from the straw-colour and yellow to the deepest brown and black.
They are sometimes regularly brindled, sometimes curiously spotted ; sometimes
in brown clouds on a yellow ground, like that of a pied horse ; and sometime*
the brown or black occupies the greater part of the skin, having less of the yel-
low : and in short even those of the same species are as variously spotted or
clouded as the hounds in the same pack ; and it is probable, that in unfrequented
islands and countries, other species of this tribe are yet undiscovered. But it
must be observed, that where no other difference, but the variegation of the
colour, appears among them, that is, in their size, proportion, teeth, or extre-
mities, they are no more to be accounted different species, than cows having va-
rious changes in the distribution of the clouds or spots on their skins.
In the first chapter of the second book of Lord Anson's Voyage, is described
an animal under the name of the sea-lion. This history may be applicable to
other species of phocae ; and by this description, as well as the figures exhibited
in the book, what are counted sea-lions, are manatis.
Linneus ranks this genus of animals with those of his 2d order of quadrupeds :
and indeed with great propriety, however injudicious it may lately have been
thought : for though none of this tribe can use the posterior extremities to raise
themselves up, or stand upon them, as on legs and feet; yet they swim and
guide themselves in the water with them ; for which they claim the title of pal-
mipedes, or webbed feet ; for they have no similarity with fins.
If it be objected, that these animals would come more naturally under his class
of amphibia ; we may assert, that he had 2 very good motives for ranking them
Y 2
l64 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751,
with quadi-upeds. First, he had our great Ray for his director, who has him-
self done the same thing: and, secondly, he found, that though these creatures
are really amphibious, yet the commanding characters, by which he has, with
great sagacity, distinguished his classes, prevail here to give them a place rather
among the quadrupeds than the amphibia.
This great naturalist divides the animal kingdom into 6 classes, and each class
into 6 orders. Each order is again divided into different genera, and each genus
again has its different species. The phoca then is the 6th genus under the 2d
order of the quadrupedia ; which order is that he calls ferae.*
M. de la Condamine, in the account of his voyage down the River of the
Amazons, describes an animal, which doubtless is a species of the phoca. See
figs. II, 12, 13, pi. 3.
XVI. Of an Iliac Passion, from a Palsy of the large Intestines. Communicated
to Dr. de Castro, F. R. S. Translated from the Latin, by Tho. Stack, M. D.,
F. R. S. p. 123.
A merchant, aged 70, who had been accustomed to hardships from his in-
fancy, was, for the last 6 years, subject to rheumatic pains ; but considering his
disorder as the effect of old age, he rejected all medical advice. In these cir-
cumstances it happened that he was suddenly set upon by a party of soldiers, who
with severe threatenings turned him out of his house, and took possession of it :
which so terrified him, that he was seized with a violent belly-ach ; and his agony
so overpowered him, that he fell on the ground half dead, and at the same time
voided blood by the anus.
Afterwards he was much subject to the gripes all the ensuing winter, which he
took no care of. During this time he suffered much from costiveness, till March
1747, when he was seized with severe pains about the navel ; and though he had
clysters of several sorts given him, not one of them could be made to pass. He
was feverish and thirsty, with a white moist tongue, and could not sleep. He
was blooded as much as he could well bear ; and the blood did not appear in-
flammatory. He was treated with laxative medicines, antiphlogistic fomenta-
tions, to ease the gripings, and give a free passage ; but nothing took effect for
7 days together.
On the 8th he began to break wind, retain the clysters, discharge some little
faeces, and to sleep, though not quietly; and on the Qth to make turbid urine.
But these promising appearances were but of short duration ; for on the 1 1 th his
belly was so bloated, that he seemed tympanitic ; and an acute pain, which he
• Dr. P. here refers to the tenth edition of the Systema Naturae of Linneus.
VOL. XLVII.] VHXLOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. J 65
had in the hypogastric region, darted up towards the midriff on the right side :
and now the mucus of the intestines came away with the clysters. He had bad
sweats, and made foul urine, without sefliment.
On the 15th a consultation was held ; and as his thirst and fever were abated,
and the medicines hitherto prescribed for opening a passage, and taking down
the swelling, of the belly, which seemed ready to burst, had proved ineffectual,
it was agreed to make him swallow 6 oz. of crude quicksilver, with oil of sweet
almonds, and syrup of violets ; and soon after to throw in several purging
clvsters.
In 9 hours a passage was opened, and he voided much black liquid excrement,
without the least grain of quicksilver. A little after that, he vomited much ;
and in what he threw up there plainly appeared excrements, and globules of
mercury. This was soon followed by thirst, a little slow fever, very troublesome
gripings, no sleep, red high-coloured thick urine, in very small quantities,
breaking of wind without any ease, vomiting of every thing he took, great
weakness, and partial sweats in the forehead and breast. Under these symptoms
he languished to the 20th day, and then died.
The appearances, on dissection, were these: the omentum was consumed;
and the colon was inflamed in several places, and so distended with wind, that it
nearly filled the whole abdominal cavity. Its ligaments or bands were so tho-
roughly effaced, that there was not the least sign of them remaining. The
caecum was so stretched, as to occupy the whole capacity of the pelvis ; and that
part of it, which is touched by the thick gut, was gangrened, and perforated
with a small opening. Having cleared it of the excrements, there were no inter-
nal rugae at the insertion of the ileum, nor any traces of the valve of the colon,
or of its braces, to be observed. For it was quite smooth on the inside, as well
as the colon, by the destruction of the cellules, which it has in a natural state.
The quicksilver was dispersed all over the cavity of the abdomen, in such quan-
tities, that it was easy to perceive, that none had been discharged by stool.
Every thing else contained within both the cavities, was in its natural condition.
XVII- On the Variation of the Magnetic Needle. By Peter Wargtnlin,* Sec.
of the Royal j^cad. of Sciences in Sweden. BVom the Latin, p. 126.
Dr. Halley suspected that there was some correspondence between the aurora
borealis and the magnetic needle. And Celsius and Hiorter found by experi-
ments that the needle was greatly disturbed, and unsteady, whenever the north-
* Peter Wargentin was a Swedish mathematician, but chiefly distinguished as an astronomer, and
particularly for his tables for computing the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, which have been much used
by astronomers. He was born in 1717, and died at the observatory at Stockholm in 1783, at 6()'
years of age.
\66 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS., [aNNO 1751.
em lights rose to the zenith or passed southward, so as that the declination
seemed to follow the motion of the light, and in a very few minutes of time
would sometimes vary 3 or 4 degrees. M. Wargentin has also, by observations
in Feb. 1730, like as Graham, Celsius, and others, observed before, found
that there is a diurnal variation of the needle backward and forward : so as that
from 7 in the morning till 2 afternoon, the needle declined more and more to
the west by -f or -}- part of a degree ; after which it gradually returned again, so
as by 8 at night to be nearly the same as it was at 8 in the morning. After this
it is nearly at rest during the rest of the night, except some small motion to
the west about midnight. And this diurnal variation never fails, but is constant
and almost regular, unless when it is impeded by the northern lights. This he
observed constantly from the 1st of February to the 15 th, on which last day an
aurora borealis appeared, and deranged the needle so, as in 10 minutes time,
about 10 at night, it shifted 20' to the west, and in another ten minutes
returned thirty-seven minutes to the east. But on the lights disappearing,
the needle settled at rest. And thus it continued in its regular diurnal vibrations,
till Feb. 28, when it was again disturbed by another appearance of the northern
lights, so as to cause the needle to vibrate irregularly between 6° 50' and 9° l' of
west variation. And on the 2d of April, from a like cause, it differed from itself
little less than 5°, shifting irregularly and frequently backward and forward, be-
tween 4° 56' and Q° 55'.
Xf^IlL Abstract of a Letter, dated May 2, 1750, from Mr. Freeman at Naples,
relating to the Ruins of Herculaneum.* p. 131.
About 7 or 8 years ago, the discovery of Herculaneum was much spoken of,
which was reported to have been swallowed up by a violent eruption of Mount
Vesuvius, according to the last accounts, in the first year of the reign of Titus,
79 years after Christ. The situation of this city is at the foot of Vesuvius near
the sea, and just at one end of the village of Portici, the summer residence of
the king of Naples ; and probably a great part of the city is under the said
village.
You are first conducted down a narrow passage, scarcely wide enough for 2
persons to pass ; and in a gradual slope, to the depth of about 65 feet perpen-
dicular. Here is shown a great part of the ancient theatre, a building in the
form of a horse-shoe. That part where the spectators sat, is visible, and consists
of 18 rows of broad stone seats, one above another, in a semicircular form. At
proper distances within the circuit of the seats, through the whole range, from
bottom to top, are little narrow flights of steps, by which the spectators might
come to, or go from, their seats commodiously, without crouding. These steps
* See some former accounU of these ruins, vol. viii, p. 435 — 138, vol. ix, p 36'.' of these Abridg-
ments.
TOL. XLVII.^ PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. idjfl
or stairs also lead up, in a straight line, to a sort of gallery, several feet wide,
which ranges all round the outside of the theatre, and is called the precinct ;
above which there are other stairs, which lead to a second. By this precinct
it is judged, that the theatre, with the orchestra, must be about 52 or 53 feet
diameter.
Going round the theatre, are seen several large square pilasters, equally distant
from each other ; and which supported the whole edifice. These pilasters are of
a thin compact red brick, adorned with marble cornices. The pavement of this
theatre must have been very beautiful, by the different coloured marble, that has
been taken out of it, and some that remain. In short, by the broken pieces of
cornices, mouldings, and carved work, and the many fragments of pillars, &c.
which have been found within and without the theatre, it appears to have been a
most magnificent edifice.
There are 2 principal gates to the theatre, with inscriptions on the architraves,
which are taken out, and placed in the king's palace, among the other curiosities.
There is another opening, distant from that which leads to the theatre, by
which they have made a way into some houses. Here they seem to have dug
infinitely more than about the theatre ; for one may ramble, as in a labyrinth,
for at least half a mile. Among the things that have been dug out of either of
the two places, are many parts of broken horses, with part of a triumphal car or
chariot, all of gilt bronze ; and which, they say, was placed over one of the gates
of the theatre. Two equestrian statues, which were found on each side of one of
the said gates, and they suppose fronting a street that led to the theatre. Those,
they say, were erected in honour of the 2 Balbis, father and son, who were bene-
factors to the Herculaneans. One of these statues cannot be repaired ; the other,
which happened to be better preserved, is well repaired, and is set up under the
piazza in the gate-way of the king's palace at Portici.
This is a most beautiful statue, and is considered to be one of the best in the
world. Not far from it, at the bottom of the palace stair-case, are fixed a beau-<
tiful statue of the emperor Vitellius, very perfect and entire ; one of Nero, with
a thunderbolt in his hand ; one of Vespasian ; one of Claudius ; one of Grermani-
cus ; and 2 beautiful statues, sitting. There are many others, of marble, and of
bronze, all larger than life ; and even some gigantic, or colossal ; many without
heads, or arms, and others so destroyed as never to be repaired. Of busts, there
are some very beautiful, as that of Jupiter Ammon, Neptune, Mercury, Juno,
Ceres, Pallas, &c. In the apartments of the palace is a vast number of little
statues, many of which are extremely beautiful : also a great number of little
idols, tripods, lachrymatories, and many vases curiously wrought. Among these.
1 68 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
is a whole loaf of bread burnt to a coal ; which they will not suffer any one to
touch. It is covered with a glass bell, through which are perceived letters on .
the loaf, which possibly were the baker's mark.
There are many other valuable curiosities locked up in the king's closet, and
private apartments ; such as medals, intaglios, and cameos.
Of the pictures, some were taken out of a temple near the theatre, others
from the houses. They have all preserved their colours to admiration, which are
very lively. They are painted in fresco, and were sawed out of the walls, with
much trouble and care ; and are now fixed, with binding mortar, or cement, in
shallow wooden cases, to prevent their breaking, and varnished over, to preserve
their colours. You must think, that these pictures are not alike valuable,
otherwise than from their antiquity ; some doubtless have been done by good
hands, others by bad, as one sees by the works of those now-a-days. There are
two as large as life. One of these pictures, they say, represents Theseus. The
figure is naked, and holds a snnall club in his hand : between his legs lies a Mi-
notaur, the posture of which produces a most admirable foreshortening. There
stand about him also three little boys, one of which kisses his right hand, an-
other embraces his left arm, and the third his left hand ; all extremely well ex-
pressed. The other picture is of the same size as the former, and composed of
many figures as large as life. A woman sitting with a wand in her hand, and
crowned with flowers : on one side of her stands a basket of pomegranates, grapes,
and other fruit : near her is a little satyr or fawn, playing on one of the ancient
instruments, of 6 or 8 tubes, joined together in a row. There is a lusty naked
man standing by her, with his face turned somewhat towards her, with a short
black beard. He has a bow, a quiver of arrows, and a club. In the same piece
is another woman, who appears talking to the first ; she is crowned with ears of
com. There is also a hind giving suck to a boy, which they say represents the
story of the discovery of Telephus. Another picture represents a winged Mer-
cury, with a child sitting across his neck, near whom is a woman sitting, and
taking Mercury by the hand. This, we were told, was supposed to be Bacchus
carried to nurse. Another piece represented Jupiter embracing Ganymede. In
another is a hunt of stags and swans. Three others, in each a Medusa's head.
Another, representing two heads of imaginary animals. A beautiful one, re-
presenting 1 of the muses, one playing on the lyre, the other with a mask on
her head. Another, with a lion, a wood, and distant views. In another, various
centaurs, buildings, &c. In another, a stag ; over which is a bird flying, and
seeming to beak at him. Two other small pictures of a dolphin. Another with
architecture, and distant views. One with a peacock. Another with a temple,
adorned with various pillars.
There have been also found two large cornucopias of bronze gilt, a large
VOt. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 16Q
round shield of metal, 2 metal dishes, several lachrymatories of glass, others of
earth ; 4 large candlesticks of bronze, a large, metal vase with a handle ; many
others of earth, curiously wrought ; the foot of a lion most curious, but in
marble, and which supported a marble table ; a beautiful mascharron of metal,
having the face of a cat, with a mouse in her mouth. There is also a very fine
medallion, extremely well preserved, with a bas relief on both sides ; on one is a
woman, near whom is a man naked killing a hog ; on the reverse is an old man,
naked to his waist, sitting and playing on 2 pipes, which he holds in his hands.
There is also another odd piece in bas relief, which represents a green parrot,
drawn in a chariot, and driven by a green grasshopper, which sits on the box, as
coachman. There are many baskets and cases full of diftbrent things, all jumbled
together ; such as kitchen utensils, locks, bolts, rings, hinges, and all of brass.
Things, that were of iron, were totally eaten up with rust. When the workmen
came to any thing of that sort, it mouldered to dust as soon as they touched it ;
occasioned doubtless by the dampness of the earth, and the many ages during
which it lay buried. There were found many vases, and crystal bottles full of
water ; but that might penetrate through the earth, and fall into them, if not
close stopped : also a sort of standish, or inkhorn, in which were found many
stylets or pens, with which they wrote in those days. When it was first taken
out, they say the ink had not only its natural colour, but that it was yet capable
of tinging : it is very dry now. There were eggs found quite whole, but empty ;
also nuts and almonds ; grain of several sorts, beans and pease, burnt quite
black. Many other sorts of fruit were found burnt quite to a coal, but whole
and entire. -
Mr. F. declares that he cannot be of the opinion of some, who assert that this
city was suddenly swallowed up, which implies that the earth must have opened,
and formed a pit to receive it. His opinion is, that it was overwhelmed with the
boiling matter issuing from the mountain, at the time of the eruption ; because
most things were found upright, chiefly the buildings. That it was not a sudden
overwhelming, and that the inhabitants had time to escape with their lives,
though not with their goods, is proved, by their not finding dead bodies, where
they have hitherto dug. It is said that some human bones were found, though
few. Very little money or plate has been found, or any other portable thing of
great value ; which is another proof that the inhabitants were not destroyed.
Doubtless before the violent eruption came on, the people for some days might
perceive such tokens and signs, as could not but alarm them, and put them on
their guard ; as at the eruption which happened in 1737, before it burst forth for
some days, the inhabitants of Portici, and the adjacent villages, all retired ;
being by some signs apprised of the event.
The matter (called the lava) it seems is not of the same quality nor substance
VOL. X. Zf "•'{ J«i*i-* i
170 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
all the \v:iy through the body of it; for in descending to the theatre, the sides of
the passage at the entrance were a sort of mold, 8 or 10 feet thick; after which
appeared stone of a blackish or dark grey colour, to the thickness of about 3 or
4 feet; then another layer of sandy earth, under which was a layer of the same
sort of stone, and thus it continues stratum superstratum, to the bottom. The
theatre and the houses seem all to have been filled with earth. In general, this
stone is very hard and heavy, and the whole city of Naples is paved with it.
Some of it will bear a fine polish, and of which they make snuff-boxes.
XIX. Of the Hermaphrodite shown in London. By J. Parsons, M. D., F. R. S.
p. 142.
She was a French girl about 18 years old, and the true description of her pu-
denda was as follows: What was mistaken for a penis, and had at first sight
f;aused the deception, was the clitoris, grown to an inordinate size. The pre-
puce of this was continued down on each side, to form the nymphae; under these
the natural urethra was in its proper place, as in all females, and just under this
was a natural vagina. This vagina was concealed by a skin growing up from the
perinaeum, and continued to the labium of each side quite over it; which, if
snipped with scissars, would lay the orifice of the vagina bare, and show the
person a perfect female, having only this morbid size of the clitoris. This was
really the fact, which any one might have been satisfied of, by passing a finger
down under this skin to the perinaeum, when he would meet the orifice of the
vagina, and find it as perfect as that of any other woman of the same age.
The vagina being thus covered, and the clitoris thus large, it was no wonder,
that she should at first sight be taken for a male by the vulgar; but it would
seem a little too careless in any of the faculty to be so deceived. However if we
consider the following observations, we shall find it no such strange affair, as it
now seems to the world: nor is it new to find people imagine that, since this
mistaken penis is imperforate, the urethra is preternatural ly directed to appear
under it, without considering it to be a true female urethra, in its natural place.
Dr. P. on the 30th of April, 1741, laid before the Society 7 or 8 female
foetuses, fi-om about 6 to somewhat more than 7 months growth. Each of these
had its clitoris larger in proportion than the present girl, or any other he had
ever seen; which is the case with all female foetuses, during the greatest part
of the time of gestation. And this is nature's common rule all over the world.
Now it is impossible that so many hermaphrodites should be formed at once,
since we have so few instances among the European nations of those so reputed;
though they are common enough in Asia and Africa, in all those places especially
that are nearest the equinoctial line, where the non-naturals themselves conduce
much to the general relaxation of the solids in human bodies, and consequently
to this unseemly accretion of that part.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 171
Now as the female foetus iiicreiises in the uterus in a natural way, the neigh-
bouring parts of the pudenda grow more in proportion than the clitoris, drawing
away the integuinents from it, whereby it becomes by degrees less conspicuous;
and at length, as the child grows up, it is shrunk between the labia, and remains
always covered, as it is now the common appearance in our women. But when
it continues its growth, together with the neighbouring parts in the same pro-
portion, which all female foetuses have it in, maintaining its first proportional
size, the person, when grown up, is called by the vulgar a hermaphrodite; since
the natural structure of this part is in a great measure like that of a penis virilis.
Nor is its largeness in a foetus much to be wondered at, since there are other
very similar cases in the same body, as the gland thymus and glandulae renales;
both which, as the child grows larger, diminish in their proportion.
These macroclitorideas are so numerous among many nations of Asia and
Africa, that the ancients, Albucasis especially in his 71st chap, informs us of the
necessary operation and method of cure, which he terms cura tentiginis, finding
the part so called inconvenient from its largeness. Nor was this knowledge con-
fined to men of science alone among the Egyptians and Ethiopians, and Angolans;
for all parents know, when the child has these parts longer than ordinary, and
they cut or burn them ofl^, while girls are very young, and at the same time never
entertain the least notion of the existence of any other nature besides the true
female, in those children who are thus deprived of that part. The learned De
GraafF was well acquainted with this, and gives his approbation of the operation,
as highly necessary, as well as decent: " estque hujus partis chirurgia orientalibus
tam necessaria quam decora."
It has been said too, that this girl in town had not the least appearance of
breasts; but those who reported this, must surely have never seen the breasts of
the women of any other nation but our own. On the contrary, she had as large
breasts as any French girl of her age, and as good a nipple. Besides she was a
thin girl, and small of her age ; and really among our own young women, when
they are spare and small in stature, it will be hard to find any with breasts more
conspicuous than hers, if so much.
Dr. P. had considered this subject more at large in his Critical Inquiry into the
Nature of Hermaphrodites, to which the reader is referred.
XX. Of a very small Monkey.* Communicated by Jumen Parsons, M. D.
F.R.S. p. 146.
It is, from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail on the edge of the spine,
* This aoimal is the timia iacchus of Linnxus. Striated monkey. Pennant. It is a native of
South America.
Z'2
172 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
only 7-^ inches; and the tail, from its root to the extremity, is Q inches; its face
about an inch long; and hardly 4 of an inch broad at the eyes, where it is
broadest. Its weight is about 44 oz. The face is naked, and of a flesh-colour;
the eyes black, having no white part visible; the ears are thin, large in propor-
tion, and of a dark colour ; and are surrounded each with a grove of very white
hairs ; between which the hairs of the neck are blackish, and so are the 4 extre-
mities; the rest of the body and tail is a mixture of dusky and yellow, so as to
compose a dark olive; the hairs of the body are exceedingly soft, and each hair
is parti-coloured, dusky at the root, then a little yellowish, then dark, and then
yellowish again, somewhat like the soft feathers of partridges. The fingers are
slender, each having 3 joints; they are 5 on each extremity, and are pointed by
nails rather resembling the claws of birds, than those of human bodies; which
is common to most other species of the cercopitheci.
XXI. Abstract of a Letter from Naples, concerning Herculaneum, containing
an Account and Description of the Place, and what has been found in it.
p. 150.
The entrance into Herculaneum is described to be down a narrow passage, cut
with a gradual descent; and towards the bottom into steps, and the city is sup-
posed to lie about 60 feet under the surface of the ground. Those who go down
into it, carry each of them a wax taper, and are preceded by a guide. It is
supposed that besides the earthquake, which swallowed up this town, it was also
at the same time overwhelmed with the burning lava, which ran down from
mount Vesuvius, during the eruption. And accordingly all the passages into it
are cut through this lava; which is a very hard substance, like stone, of a slate
colour, and said to be composed of various kinds of metals and glass ; which
indeed is manifest in the appearance of it. The streets of Naples are paved with
the same lava; but it seems to be of a much more soft and sandy substance in
Herculaneum, than in the places where they dig it for use.
The appearance of this city would greatly disappoint such, as should have
raised their expectation to see in it spacious streets and fronts of houses ; for they
would find nothing but long narrow passages, just high enough to walk upright
in, with a basket on the head ; and wide enough for the workmen, who carry
them, to pass each other, with the dirt they dig out. There is a vast number
of these passages, cut one out of another; so that one might perhaps walk the
space of 2 miles, by going up every turning.
Their method of digging is this : whenever they find a wall, they clear a pas-
sage along the side of it. When they come to an angle they turn with it; and
when they come to a door or a window, they make their way into it. But when
they have so done, they are far from finding themselves in a spacious room, or
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 178
open area; for all the rooms and places they have yet found, are so filled with
lava, that it sticks on to the sides of the walls; and they can advance no farther
than as they can make their way by digging ; which is such labour, that when
they cease to find any thing worth their search, they fill up the place again, and
begin to dig elsewhere. By which means no place is quite cleared. Conse-
quently it does not appear how many stories high the houses may be ; nor is any
thing to be seen over head but lava. In this are vast numbers of burnt beams,
that seem to have been joists of floors ; though they are now little more than
black dust; and where they are quite mouldered away, one may plainly see the
grain of the wood imprinted on the lava, so close did it stick.
A skeleton was found in a door-way, in a running attitude; with one arm ex-
tended, which appeared to have had a bag of money in the hand of it, for the
lava had taken so exact an impression of the man, that there was a hole under
the hand of the extended arm ; which hole was apparently the impression of the
bag, and several pieces of silver coin were found in it. This man therefore must
have had notice enough of the danger, to endeavour to secure his treasure;
though he must have been instantaneously encompassed with liquid fire, in at-
tempting it. No manuscripts have yet been found; but they have met with
some few inscriptions on marble, but none of any consequence, or which serve
to give new light on any point of antiquity.
The writer proceeds next to give some account of the paintings, and observes
that, much the greatest part of them are little better than what you will see on
an alehouse wall. They are all painted on plaster, which has been very carefully
separated from the wall, in as large pieces as possible. These pieces are now
framed, and there are above 1500 of them, but not above 20 that are tolerable.
The best of them are 3 large pieces; one of which is a sort of history piece,
containing 4 figures, with some expression in their faces; but even these best, if
they were modern performances, would hardly be thought worthy of a place in a
garret. There are about a dozen little pieces, of women dancing, centaurs, &c.
the attitudes of which are very genteel, and the drawing pretty, but the shading
is mere daubing.
The colouring is allowed to be surprisingly fresh and well preserved, considering
how long it has been done, but the painters seem to have been masters of only
a few simple colours, and those not very good. The red is the brightest and
best. The lava was found sticking to all the painting; which, some think, has
helped to preserve it. The paint is liable to be rubbed off; to prevent which
inconvenience, they have slightly varnished it.
The designs of the greatest part of these paintings are so strange and uncouth,
that it is almost impossible to guess what was aimed at. Much of it looks like
such Chinese borders and ornaments as we see painted on skreens. There are
174 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
numbers of little figures dancing on ropes; a few small bad landscapes; and
some very odd pieces, either emblematical, or perhaps only the painter's whim.
Of which last the writer gives two specimens; one, of a grashopper driving a
parrot, the other, of a vast great head, in the midst of what seems to have been
intended for a green field encompassed with a hedge.
The rest of this paper is only a repetition of that in art. 1 8 preceding, on the
same subject.
XXI I. An Occultation of the Planet Fisntis by the Moon in the Day time, ob-
served at Mr. Short's, in Surrey street, London, April \6, 1751, O. S. By
Dr. John Btvis. p. ISQ.
The whole matter in this business was to direct a tube so, as to find out Venus
a little before her ingress, and to manage the instrument so, as also to have sight
of her at the instant of her egress. And knowing that Mr. Short is never un-
provided with one or more instruments exceedingly well adapted to this and other
purposes, the same that he has described in Phil. Trans. N° 493 ; which, for its
easy removal from place to place, may be considered as a sort of portable obser-
vatory. Dr. B. intimated his intention to him the evening before; who was so
kind as to set up two of the said instruments, which he found rectified, and
ready for observation, when he visited him the. next morning. One of these,
placed near his clock, he intended for his own use, and the other was for the
Doctor.
The air was of itself clear; but the wind, being in the north-east quarter,
brought such drifts of smoke, as much impaired the distinctness of Venus, which
however looked round. Several minutes before Dr. B. expected it, the figure of
the planet was manifestly altered; on which he called out to Mr. Short to hasten
to his instrument, which he did, though too late. The total ingress was at
10*' 39"" 30* by the watch. From his first perceiving the change of the figure,
to the entire ingress, could not be a full minute.
He observes, that not a glimpse of the moon, then not 1 days old, could be
discerned; so that the business of securing Venus, at the instant of her emer-
sion within the field of the telescope, over which she passed in about 2™ 10*,
depended entirely on a due management of the screw, which gave motion both
to the equatorial or horary plate, and to the telescope. A little after 1 1 he
brought the point of the hour circle, answering to Venus, to the index, and
might then have seen her near the middle of the field, had she already emerged.
Every 1 minutes after he was careful to turn the screw so much, as to be sure of
keeping her within the field. At length setting his eye to the instrument imme-
diately after one of these operations, he perceived her quite emerged and round:
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. \f;S
this was at 1 1** 13"' 15^ by the watch, which still kept exact pace with the clock;
and his eye had not been removed more than a minute.
Venus passed the meridian in the transitory at l*" 37"" 55' afternoon by the
clock: the sun passed this day at ll'^ 57'" 27% and yesterday, the 15th, at ll''
57"" 28^; whence it is easy to reduce all to apparent time, as follows:
Total ingress of Venus 1751, April 15'^ '22^ 42'" 2'
Her total emersion 15 23 15 47
Her meridian transit l6 1 40 29
Now, supposing the whole disk to have taken up one minute,
as it seemed thereabout, both in the ingress and egress,
the middle of the occultation must have been 15 22 58 24-1-
And the duration, with respect to the centre of Venus .... 33 45
P. S. Mr. John Canton sent notice that he observed the occultation of Venus
by the moon last Tuesday, at his house in Spital-square, and found the immer-
sion at 10'' 42*" 20" a. m. emersion at ll'' 15"" 40*.
XXIII. Of a remarkable ^"fppearance in the Moon, Jjjril 22, 1751. By
James Short, F.R.S. p. 164.
In N° 396 of the Phil. Trans, there is an account of an observation made on
an uncommon appearance of the lunar spot called Plato in the nomenclature of
Riccioli's and Grimaldi's "Selenography, and Lacus niger major in that of Heve-
lius. Signor Bianchini, to whom we owe this communication, says, that it was
the 16th of August, 1725, N. s. about an hour after sun-set, when he took his
observation with a dioptric telescope, of 1 10 feet, made by the famous Campani,
the air being very serene, and the moon, as he says, speaking of the same phe-
nomenon in his book of Venus, a day past the first quarter: so that the said
spot then lay in the common section of light and darkness. The mountainous
oval margin, with which it is surrounded, was brightly illumined with the sun's
rays; but the plain bottom looked darkish, as having not yet received his light.
There was however extended along its area, from end to end, a track of reddish
light, as if a beam had been admitted through some perforation in that side of
the margin, which was then exposed to the sun. M. Bianchini proposes the so-
lution of this matter in two different ways: first, by supposing an aperture in the
margin, as just now mentioned: or secondly, by conceiving the moon to have
an atmosphere, and that thereby the rays passing near the summit of the margin
might be so refracted as to be thrown on the plain area or bottom.
Mr. S. having lately had an opportunity of observing something of the same
nature himself, he here lays it before the Society, with a conjecture concerning
its cause. Monday, April 22, 1751, o. s. being at Marlborough house, and
having directed the great reflector to the moon, he perceived a single streak of
176 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1751.
light projected along the flat bottom of the spot Plato; and from what he was
then able to recollect of Bianchini's narrative, he doubted not but that it was of
the same kind with that he saw, and which he had so often looked for in vain.
By the position of the spot on the disk, and the shadow of the mountains on
the west side of it, we should not have expected to have seen any light on the
bottom. Soon after he discerned another streak of light extended along the
bottom, parallel to the first, but somewhat lower, which in a very short time
was evidently divided into two. He sought in vain for such a perforation, as
that hinted at in the other account; but through the great magnifying power of
this instrument, he was able to discover a gap or notch in the mountains to the
westward, which abutted against the first streak or stream, and pursuing the
object with great attention, he also perceived a similar gap in the direction of
the lower streak; but though this streak was divided into two, he was not able
at any rate to find out another notch, by which to account satisfactorily for the
whole appearance; which he would have considered as solved, could such a one
have been discerned in a right situation.
XXIV. A Catalogue of the Fifty Plants from Chelsea Garden, presented to
the Royal Society by the Company of Apothecaries for the Year 1750, pur-
- suant to the Direction of Sir Hans Shane, Bart. p. ^66.
[This is the 29th presentation of this kind, completing the number of 1450
different plants.]
XXV. Observations on the Sex of Flowers. By W. ffatson, F. R. S. occasioned
by a Letter on the same Subject, by Mr. My litis of Berlin, p. 169.
i Extract of Mr. Mylius's Letter to Mr. Watson, dated at Berlin, Feb. 20,
1750-51. — " The sex of plants is very well confirmed by an experiment which
has been made on the palma major foliis flabelliformibus. There is a great tree
of this kind in the garden of the royal academy. It has flowered and born fruit
these 30 years; but the fruit never ripened, and when planted, it did not vege-
tate. The palm-tree, as you know, is a planta dioecia; that is, one of those in
which the male and female parts of generation are on different plants. We
having therefore no male plant, the flowers of our female were never impregnated
by the farina of the male. There is a male plant of this kind in a garden at
Leipsic, 20 German miles from Berlin. We procured from thence in April
1749 a branch of male flowers, and suspended it over our female ones, and our
experiment succeeded so well, that our palm tree produced more than 100 per-
fectly ripe fruit; from which we have already 11 young palm trees. This expe-
riment was repeated last year, and our palm tree bore above 2000 ripe fruit. As
I do not remember a like experiment, I thought convenient to mention it to
VOL XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 177
you; and, if you think, proper, be pleased to communicate it to the Royal
Society."
In pursuance of his correspondent's desire, Mr. Watson lays this account be-
fore the Royal Society, which he thinks very curious ; not on account of its no-
velty, or of its confirming the sex of plants, which is now sufficiently esta-
blished; but on account of the male and female palm-tree's flourishing so com-
pletely in such high latitudes as those of Leipsic and Berlin.
The impregnation of the female palm tree by the male has been known in the
most ancient times. Herodotus, when speaking of the palm tree, says, " that
the Greeks call some of these trees male, the fruit of which they bind to the
other kind, which bears dates: that the small flies, with which the male abounds,
may assist in ripening the fruit; for, says this author, the male palm tree pro-
duces in its fruit small flies, just as the fig tree does." The very remote age, in
which Herodotus wrote, sufficiently apologizes for his believing, that what was
really brought about by the farina foecundans of the male flower, was to be attri-
buted to the insects frequently found in it, and which perhaps very often do carry
this farina from the male to the female. They had seen the effects of caprifica-
tion in fig trees by these insects, and were misled by the analogy. They are here
translated small flies ; but they had a particular appellation given them by Hero-
dotus, Aristotle, and Theophrastus, who call them 4"ii'- Pliny, in his history,
when treating of caprification, which is almost a translation from Theophrastus,
calls them culices, Linneus ichneumones, and Tournefort moucherons. Theo-
phrastus, in his account of the palm tree, gives the very process mentioned by
our correspondent. " They bring together, says he, the males and the females,
which causes the fruit to continue and ripen on the trees. Some, from the simi-
litude of this to what happens in fig trees, call it caprification; and it is per-
formed in the following manner: while the male plant is in flower, they cut off
a branch of these flowers, and scatter the dust and down in it on the flowers of
the female plant. By these means the female does not cast her fruit, but pre-
serves them to maturity." Pliny also mentions the like process. Among more
modern authors, Prosper Alpinus, gives at large the manner of the impregnation
of the female palm tree by the male, for the purposes before-mentioned. We
have also copious accounts of the same process by Tournefort, Kaempfer, and
Ludwig. As Kaempfer was an eye-witness, his account of this matter is most
to be depended on.
Mr. W. observes, that though the ancients distinguished rightly, in deter-
mining the true sexes of the palm tree, it is the only plant in which they have
not erred. Though they called plants of the same genus, or of others very
nearly related to it, male and female, it was on an imaginary, a false principle: and
that usually taken from their size, the difference of their leaves, or the figure of
VOL. X. . A A
178 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, [aNNO J751.
tlieir fruit; and what therefore they have denominated male and female, must
not with the modern exactness be rigorously considered as such. Thus Aristotle,
after having taken notice that there was the distinction of male and female ob-
servable in plants, says, " that the male plant is more rough and strong, the fe-
male more weak and fruitful." And Theophrastus, when speaking of the male
and female pine tree, says, " that the Macedonians have trees nearly related to
pines, of which the male is of shorter growth, and has harder leaves; that the
female is taller, and has its leaves softer and more fleshy." He says, on his own
authority, " that the wood of the male pine is hard, that of the female more
soft." Pliny also in his history gives a like reason for his distinguishing the sex
of the pine: he says further, in another part of the valuable monument he has
left us, " that the most expert naturalists assert, that every tree, and every herb,
which the earth produces, has both sexes;" but this is to be understood in the
manner just mentioned; and so likewise is the distinction among the more mo-
dern botanists in their denominations of several plants, such as veronica, eupa-
torium, anagallis, tilia, paeonia, balsamita, filix, quercus, orchis, laureola, abro-
tanum, com us, polygonum, equisetum, mandragora, and others, which are
termed imaginarily male and female; as the discovery of the real sex of plants
was reserved for the accuracy of the present age. Besides the before-mentioned
erroneous principle, from which the ancients, as well as some more modeiTi
authors, determined the sex of plants, there is yet another, and that is, a deno-
mination of plants from their sex, which is absolutely false; and in order to elu-
cidate this position, and to show at the same time in what the sex of plants really
consists. Mr. W. premises, that it is in the flowers of vegetables only that the
parts subservient to generation are produced. Simple flowers, to use this term
in opposition to the compound flowers of the botanists, are either male, female,
or hermaphrodite. By male flowers, he means those which are possessed only
of those organs of generation analogous to the male parts of animals; and these
are what former botanists have denominated stamina and apices, but are since
named more properly by Linneus, filamentum and anthera. The female flower
is only endowed with parts like those which perform the office of generation in
females; and these are the pistillum and its appurtenances, which, by Linneus,
with his accustomed accuracy, are divided into three parts, viz. the germen,
stylus, and stigma. The hermaphrodite flower, which constitutes the great bulk
of the vegetable creation, is possessed of all these parts in itself, and is itself
thus capable of propagating its species without any foreign assistance; which, by
many incontestible experiments, it has been found neither the male nor female
flower simply is able to do. Much the greater number of plants, as just hinted,
have hermaphrodite flowers; but there are some which have both the male and
female flowers growing from the same root. Such are mayz, or Indian corn,
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 179
nettles, box, elm, birch, oak, walnut, beech, hazel, hornbeam, the plane tree,
pine, fir, cypress, cedar, the larch tree, melons, cucumbers, gourds, and several
others. In many of these, though the male and female flowers are at consider-
able distances, the farina foecundans, which Providence, on account of its being
liable to be spoiled by rain, or dissipated by winds, has provided in great abun-
dance, is conveyed to the female by means of the atmosphere. It is this class
of vegetables, and the following, the quantity of the produce of which is much
more precarious than those plants which have hermaphrodite flowers ; as the im-
pregnation of these last may be performed within their own calyx; whereas the
fonner must necessarily commit their farina to the circumambient air. It is for
this reason that if, during the time of the flowering of these plants, the weather
is either very wet or stormy, their produce of fruit is very inconsiderable, from
the spoiling or hasty dissipation of the male farina. Thus, independent of frosts,
the fniit of the nut and filberd tree is most numerous in those years, in which
the months of January and February are the least stormy and wet, as at that time
their flowers are produced. For the same reasons, a stormy or wet May destroys
the chesnuts; and the same weather in July prodigiously lessens the crop of mayz
or Indian corn, as its spikes of male flowers stand lofty, and at a considerable
distance from the female. In like manner a judgment may be formed of the
rest of these. Some of the more skilful modern gardeners put in practice, with
regard to melons and cucumbers, the very method mentioned by Theophrastus
200O years ago, in regard to the palm tree. As these plants, early in the sea-
son, are in this climate confined to frames and glasses, the air, in which they
grow, is more stagnant than the open air, by which the distribution of the farina
foecundans, so necessary towards the production of the fruit for the propagation
of the species, is much hindered ; to obviate which, they collect the male flowers
when fully blown, and presenting them to the female ones, by a stroke of the
finger they scatter the farina foecundans in them, which prevents the falling of
the fruit immaturely.
Besides the vegetables before-mentioned, which bear male and female flowers
on the same root, there are others, which produce these oigans on different
roots: in the number of these are the palm-tree, (the more particular subject of
this paper,) hops, the willow-tree, misletoe, spinach, hemp, poplar, French
and dog's mercury, the yew-tree, juniper, and several others. Among these,
the valisneria of Linneus, as to the manner in which its male flower impregnates
the female, is one of the most singular prodigies in nature. The manner of this
operation is figured by Micheli, in his Nova Plantarum Genera, and described by
Linneus, in the Hortus Clifibrtianus. As that elaborate and expensive work is
in very few hands, Mr. W. here gives a short account of it.
The valisneria grows in rivulets, ditches, and ponds, in many parts of Europe.
A A 2
180 VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. | ANNO 1751.
The male plant, which is continually covered with water, has a short stalk, on
the top of which its flowers are produced. As this top never reaches the sur-
face of the water, the flowers are thrown off" from it, and come unopened to the
surface of the water ; where, as soon as they arrive, by the action of the air,
they expand themselves, and swim round the female flowers, which are blown at
the same time. These last have a long spiral foot-stalk, by which they attain
the surface of the water, and remaining there in flower a few days, are impreg-
nated by the male flowers detached from the stalk at the bottom. This opera-
tion seems to be thus directed, as the farina foecundans could not exert its effects
in so dense a medium as water; and we find that even the hermaphrodite flowers
of water-plants, such as those of potamogiton, renunculus aquaticus, hottonia,
and nymphasa, never expand themselves till they reach the surface of the water.
But to return : it was not possible for Mr. W. without premising these things,
to make evident what he just now mentioned, in regard to the falsely denomi-
nating the sexes of plants ; as it is to this last class that the wrong application
has been made by botanical writers. This error seems to have been first in-
troduced as early as Dioscorides, and has been continued through a great va-
riety of writers, even to our own time. It is most certain, that those plants,
which produce the seed, ought to be considered as females ; but it happens that
in the French and dog's mercury, the seeds are produced in the female plants by
pairs ; and these are contained in a capsule, which was thought to resemble the
scrotum of animals; and from this testiculated appearance they called these
plants males, and the others females. Thus, for example, Dioscorides, when
treating of mercurialis, or what we here call French mercury, says, " the seed
of the female is produced in bunches, and is copious ; that of the male grows
near the leaves ; it is small and round, and disposed in pairs like testicles." Do
donaeus, Lobel, Delechamp, John and Caspar Bauhin, Morrison, Tournefort,
and Boerhaave, in their several works, have followed Dioscorides, and have de-
nominated the seed-bearing plant of this kind, the male ; and the other, the fe-
male. Fuchsius and John Bauhin likewise call the cynocrambe or dog's mer
cury, which bears fruit, the male ; and the spiked one with male flowers only,
the female. This mistake is observable in hemp, hops, and spinach.
We observe that the operations of nature are carried on most usually by cer-
tain general laws, from which however she sometimes deviates. Thus almost
all plants have either hermaphrodite flowers, or male and female flowers, grow-
ing from the same root, or male and female flowers from different roots : but
there are a few of another class, which fi-om the same root furnish either male
and hermaphrodite flowers, or female and hermaphrodite flowers. Of this kind
are the mulberry-tree, the musa or plantain-tree, white hellebore, pellitory, ar-
rachj the ash-tree, and a few others. But of this class the empetrum or berry-
VOL. XLVII.^ PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 181
bearing heath is the most extraordinary ; as of this are found some plants with
male flowers only, others with both male and female flowers separately, and still
others with hermaphrodite flowers. What Pere Labat mentions in his Voyage
a r Afrique Occidentale should likewise be taken notice of here. This author,
after having laid down the difierent methods of impregnating the female palm-
tree by the male, says, that this process is not absolutely necessary for the pro-
duction of dates ; for being at Martinico, he there saw growing by an old con-
vent near the place, where they anchored, a palm-tree bearing dates, though
the only one of its kind which was thereabouts. Whether it was male or fe-
male, he did not pretend to determine, but was certain, that there then was
none, nor had been any, within 2 leagues of the place where it grew. He
doubts indeed whether this tree bearing fruit did not proceed from the farina
foecundans of the male cocoa tree, which is a species of palm, and which grew in
abundance near the tree that bore dates : but he observes, that the stones of
these dates did not vegetate, and that those who were desirous of propagating
date-trees, were obliged to plant the Barbary dates ; as he believed the others
had not the germ proper to produce the tree. From this account it is very ob-
vious, that the palm-tree here mentioned, was a female, in which though the
fruit ripened, it was in such a state of imperfection, as not to be able to propa-
gate its species. In this manner we have eggs furnished by hens without a cock ;
but these eggs produce no chickens. What this father says of the female palm-
tree's bearing fruit without the assistance of the male, Mr. Miller says, has been
fully confirmed to him by several persons : and John Bauhin, an author of great
credit, describes and figures the whole fructification of a palm-tree, which he
saw growing at Montpelier, and which not only produced branches of male
flowers, but also female ones bearing dates. Mr. Ray many years after tells us
in his history of plants, that at Montpelier he saw this very remarkable tree men-
tioned by John Bauhin. This variety in the fructification of the palm-tree, sin-
gular as it may seem, has been likewise observed in some few others. The
learned Jungius, in his Doxoscopia, mentioning that class of trees which are
male and female in different parts of the same tree, says, " that trees of this kind,
when they have for many years, produced flowers without fruit, afterwards pro-
duce fruit without flowers. This, he thinks, should be further inquired into."
This, since Jungius's time, has been done, and it has been found, that some-
times some of the trees of this class are wholly male, while young ; but as they
advance in age, they have flowers of both sexes, and afterwards become entirely
female. This fact Mr. Miller has frequently himself observed in the mulberry-
tree ; and the Chevalier Rathgeb, a gentleman excellently well versetl in what-
ever relates to vegetation, has observed, that a large lentiscus, or mastich-tree
182 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
near his garden, had for 30 years produced only male flowers, but that for 3
years past it had produced plenty of fruit.
The foundation of the discovery of the real sex of plants, which is of no less
importance in natural history, than that of the circulation of the blood in the
animal economy, was laid by the members of this learned Society ; though much
of the honour due to them is attributed by foreigners to the late ingenious Mons.
Vaillant of Paris : and this may have arisen from our language not being gene-
rally understood on the rx)ntinent. Sir Thomas Millington, sometime Sedleian
lecturer of natural philosophy at Oxford, as we see by our worthy member Dr.
Grew's anatomy of plants, seems first to have assigned a more noble purpose to
the stamina and apices of flowers, than that which had been attributed by pre-
ceding writers, and by Mons. Tournefort afterwards; viz. that of secreting some
excrementitious juices, which were supposed hurtful to the embryos of the fruit.
Sir Thomas conjectured, and rightly, " that the stamina and apices served as
the male for the generation of seed." This hint, which was afterwards adopted
by Mr. Ray, in the preface to his Sylloge Stirpium Exterarum, Dr. Grew carried
farther, as we find by his works ; and it was followed by Camerarius, professor
at Tubingen: but our member Mr. Morland, afterwards pursued this inquiry
much higher, as we see by his memoir published in the Phil. Trans. N° 287.
After these, Messrs. Vaillant and Geofiroy illustrated and strengthened these
discoveries by very curious experiments; so that now nothing seems wanting for
the confirmation of the truth of this doctrine.
So much for the discovery of the sex of plants in general, on which Linneus
has founded his system of botany, at present so much and so well received.
Whoever therefore would consider minutely the structure of flowers, and the al-
most infinite variety of the number and disposition of their parts, may consult
Linneus's Philosophia Botanica lately published, where this subject is treated in a
very copious and instructive manner,
XXPI. On a small Species of fVasps.* By Mr. John Harrison of Cambridge,
in New England, p. 184.
About the 28th of May, Mr. H. discovered hanging to the roof on the inside
of a green-house (which was of wood) something about the size of a child's farthing
ball, in shape like a Provence rose full grown, before it opens, that is, a round
bottom, ending in a blunt point , at which point was a round hole, large enough
for insects (something less than a wasp) to go in and out at. He soon perceived
that it was the work of insects, a small species of wasps. They have 6 legs,
* See a pretty good representation of nests of this kind in the 6th vol. of Reaumur's Hist, of
Insects, pi. 19.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 183
black near tlie body, then yellow, ending in cinnamon colour. Some have 6 or
7 rings, of a bright yellow colour round the tail part, with small hollows or in-
dents on the upper parts. The divisions between the rings are of" a bright jet
colour ; the face is yellow ; on the head are 2 horns. These insects are very in-
dustrious in making their nest. The top is fastened to the ceiling, and formed
of many round coverings, one within another, yet not touching each other, by
the 8th of an inch. Probably this space is left to make the cells, in which they
lay their eggs.
Their manner of working is curious, and as it is principally perfomied exter-
nally there is an opportunity of seeing every circumstance of the operation, which
is carried on with as much application, and perhaps more skill and contrivance
than the honey-bees, who are beholden to a hive or hollow tree, &c. to fabricate
their combs in ; whereas these little animals are the sole builders of the outer
walls, as well as the interior parts of their dwellings. They range about for the
materials, but with all his endeavours Mr. H. could never observe from whence
they were collected ; only that they bring a little lump of dark-coloured paste
between their fore legs, about the size of a radish seed. This they carry first to
the inside of the covering, which they are about to finish, and stay near half a
minute, probably to work some of it on that side ; then they return with the
greatest part, to enlarge it on the outside, which they execute in a most dextrous
manner, by taking the paste from between their legs with their mouths, (which
open cross ways to their body) and fixing it on the edge of the covering, working
backwards, for about an inch at a time in length, and then spread and smooth it
with their horns. This is all performed in about 2 minutes, and they are seldom
more than 5 days in finishing a whole cover. Their number is only between 20
and 30. They seem not at all hurtful ; and are so intent on their business,
that if 3 or 4 people at a time are looking within so many inches of their nest,
they neither attack them, nor forbear to carry on the public work, which comes
to be about 5 inches diameter, and about 4 deep.
They continued their work till they had finished J 5 coverings one over another,
and began 3 more, which they never completed. About the l6th of August
there was a cessation of their usual industry. There was only one or two in a day
at work, which continual to the 26th, when they quite gave over adding any
more to their nest. Since that, he could only see one or two going in and out
once or twice a day, for about a fortnight after. In that time he observed 2 of
these insects come out of their nest, of an extraordinary size, at least one-third
larger than those that built the nest. These seem, and doubtless are, the parents
or queens appointed by the all-wise Creator for continuing their species, as their
sluggishness has a near analogy to the queen-bees, that are sometimes seen to
184 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1751.
come to the mouth of the hive, without any other seeming business than to take
the air, and show themselves, and then return into the hive again. About the
6th or 7th of September, he saw the last ; none were afterwards seen (Dec. 22).
If these insects may be compared to hornets, which they most resemble, in their
making and hanging up of their nest, the queens will only survive, and each in
the next spring be the founder of a new colony. The common wasps are under
the same regulation. The males die at the approach of winter, and leave but
few females to survive them. This is wonderfully contrived to prevent the in-
crease of such noxious animals ; whereas the bees, so beneficial to mankind,
survive the winter, unless robbed of their honey, which is their support during
that season.
In the spring, finding none of the insects appeared, Mr. H. took down the
nest, which he found had been quite deserted.
XXFIl. Concerning Mr. Bright, the Fat Man at Maiden in Essex. By T.
Cole, M.D. Dated Chelmsford, Jprd \Q, 1751, p. 188.
Mr. Edward Bright, grocer, of Maiden in Essex, died there the 10th of
November 1750, in the 30th year of his age. He was a man so extremely fat,
and of such an uncommon bulk and weight, that there are very few, if any, such
instances to be found in any country, or on record in any books. He was
descended from families greatly inclined to corpulency, both on his father's and
his mother's side. He was always fat from a child, yet strong and active, and
used much exercise, not only when a boy, but till within the last 2 or 3 years of
his life, when he became too unwieldy. He could walk nimbly, having great
strength of muscles, and could not only ride on horseback, but would some-
times gallop after he became between 30 and 40 stone weight. He used to go
to London about his business, till the journey (40 miles) became too great a
fatigue to him ; so that he left it off some years before he died. In the last
year or two he could walk but a little way, being soon tired, and out of breath.
At 124- years old he weighed 144 pounds ; and before he was 20 he weighed 24
stone or 336 pounds. The last time he was weighed, about 13 months before
he died, his weight, exclusive of his clothes, was 41 stones and 10 pounds, or
584 pounds. What it exactly was at the time of his death, cannot be told; but
as it was manifestly increased smce the last weighing, if we take the same propor-
tion by which it had increased for many years on an average ; viz. about 2 stone
a year, and only allow 4 pounds addition for the last year, on account of his
moving about but little, while he continued to eat and drink as before, this will
bring him to 44 stone or 6l6 pounds neat weight.
As to his measure, he was 5 feet 94- inches high. His body round the chest
just under the arms measured 5 feet 6 inches, and round the belly 6 feet 1 1
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 185
inches. His arm in the middle of it was 2 feet 2 inches about, and his leg 2
feet 8 inches.
He had always a good appetite, and when a youth used to eat somewhat re-
markably ; but toward the end of his life, though he continued to eat heartily,
and with a good relish, yet he did not eat more in quantity than many other
men of good appetite. Though he did not take any liquor to an intoxicating
degree, yet perhaps on the whole he drank more than might have been advisable
to a man of his very corpulent disposition. When he was a very young man, he
was fond of ale and old strong beer ; but afterwards his chief liquor was small
beer, of which he commonly drank about a gallon in a day. In other liquors
he was extremely moderate, when by himself, sometimes drinking half a pint of
wine after dinner, or a little punch, and seldom exceeding his quantity; but
when he was in company, he did not confine himself to so small an allowance.
He enjoyed for the most part as good health as any man, except that in the
last 3 years, he was 2 or 3 times seized with an inflammation in his leg, attended
with a little fever ; and every time, with such a tendency to mortification, as to
make it necessary to scarify the part. But by the help of scarifications and fo-
mentations, bleeding largely once or twice in the arm, and purging, he was
always soon relieved.
He married when 22 or 23 years old, and lived a little more than 7 years in
that state ; in which time he had 5 children born, and left his wife with child of
the 6th, near her time.
His last illness, which continued about 14 days, was a miliary fever. It began
with pretty strong inflammatory symptoms, a very troublesome cough, great
difficulty of breathing, &c. and the eruption was extremely violent. His body
began to putrify very soon after he was dead ; so that notwithstanding the wea-
ther was cool, it became very offensive the next day before a coffin could be
made. The coffin was 3 feet 6 inches broad at the shoulders, 2 feet 3^ inches
at the head, 22 inches at the feet, and 3 feet I4 inch deep. ''
XXFIII. The Effects of the Hyoscyamus Albus* or White Henbane. By Dr. J.
Stedman, late Surgeon Major to the Regiment of the Royal Grey Dragoons.
p. 194.
In the month of August 1748, while the Greys were cantoned in the village of
Vucht near Boisleduc in Dutch Brabant, 5 men and 2 women of that regiment
having eaten of the leaves of the hyoscyamus albus, shred and boiled in broth,
were soon after seized with a giddiness and stupor, as if drunk. Dr. S. saw them
• The plant here mentioned was, as Mr. Watson afterwards remarks, the hyoscyamus iiiger,
Linn, or common henbane '
VOL. X. Bb •
J86 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
about 3 honrs after eating of it ; and then 3 of the men were become quite in-
sensible, did not know their comrades, talked incoherently, and were in as high
a delirium as people in the rage of a fever. They all had low irregular pulses,
slavered, and frequently changed colour: their eyes looked fiery, and they
catched at whatever lay next them, calling out that it was going to fall. They
complained of their legs being powerless. He mixed what ipecacuanha he had
with him in warm water, and made them drink it ; and afterwards threw in as
much warm water and oil, as he could prevail with them to swallow. Those
who were not insensible vomited freely, and were relieved by it. Two of the 3
affected with delirium, though they drank great quantities, did not vomit, but
had profuse sweats, and passed plenty of urine, by which they were likewise
somewhat relieved. The 3d of these was obstinate, and could not be prevailed
on to do any thing. The symptoms with him continued longer, and were more
violent. He was so restless, that though he could not walk, 2 of his comrades
were not able to keep him in a chair. Next morning they had no other com-
plaint than people commonly have after great drinking ; but afterwards (though
the danger seemed over) some of them complained of feebleness and a weight at
their stomachs ; others, of gripes, stitches, headach ; and all of them were ver-
tiginous at times. These complaints continued above a month after the accident.
One of the women had her hands stiff and swelled; whether from the action of
the vomit, or the force of the poison, he knew not. The man who gathered
these leaves in mistake for another plant, said, that from the nearest conjecture
he could make, there might be from 15 to 20 leaves, boiled in about 10 quarts
of water. They did not eat half of that quantity, and the poison began to dis-
cover itself with some of them in half an hour. This seemed to be the hyoscy-
ainus major albus of Caspar Bauhin. It is easily known by its large duskish
bell-fiower ; but if not in the flower, the remarkably noisome smell of the leaf,
somewhat narcotic, if once known, will ever after discover it.
Some time before this accident, some of the horses had been put into an
orchard, where they cropped the branches of these trees, and in about 4 hours,
without any previous symptom of disorder, dropped down, and after a struggle
of a minute or two died. This was probably about the time that the juice entered
the blood.
Remarks by Mr. Wm. IVatson, F.R.S. — On reading the above paper, Mr.
Watson observed, that the effects could not arise from the hyoscyamus albus, or
white henbane, as Dr. Stedman imagines ; that plant, from the concurrent tes-
timony of the best botanical writers, not being found so far north as Brabant :
but the mischief was done by the hyoscyamus niger, or black henbane, which
grows plentifully there, as well as almost all over Europe in uncultivated places,
and by the sides of roads. The white on the contrary is sown in gardens, and
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 18?
not found spontaneous in higher latitudes than the southern parts of France.
Dr. Stednian's description demonstrates likewise that the above plant was the
hyoscyamus nigcr, as he says, that ' it is known by its duskish bell-flower.' The
flower of black henbane is of that hue, being of a yellow colour interspersed with
veins of purple ; whereas the flower of the white henbane is of a pale yellow
colour. This error arises from the improper denomination imposed on many
plants by the ancients, and which has been preserved even since the revival of
letters ; which, to one not very well acquainted with botany, is liable to mislead.
Thus, in the case before us, the leaves of the black henbane are very little less
white than those of the white ; but this denomination took its rise from the difr
ferent colour of their seeds. In such cases therefore, without being well ac-
quainted with the specific difference of each plant, before it ripens its seed, it is
not a little difficult to distinguish them one from the other. This specific dif-
ference will be best furnished by the leaves. Thus in the henbane, the leaves of
the white are placed on long footstalks ; those of the black have none, but the
lower extremity of the leaf surrounds the stalk.
XXIX. The best Proportions for Steam-engine Cylinders, of a Given Content,
considered. By Francis Blake * Esq. F.R.S. p. 197.
The steam-engine, for draining of mines, is a master-piece of machinery, a
very capital contrivance in the works of art, and meriting our attention for fur-
ther improvements. The prodigious vessel of water to be kept always boiling,
when only an inconsiderable part of it is employed in the work, savours too little
of the frugality of nature, which we ought ever to imitate. But waving that
now, what Mr. B. inquires into here, and endeavours to regulate, is the propor-
tion of the cylinder's altitude and base ; which has not been hitherto noticed.
It is evident, in the first place, from a general law of mechanics, that the
content of the cylinder remaining the same, the quantity of water discharged at
each lift will in all cases be equal, by only changing the distance of the centre
of the piston from the fulcrum of the balance. It will be granted also that the
excess of the column of atmosphere, above that of the water, is a weight on the
piston, driving it to a depth of about 5 feet, by the present construction, within the
cylinder ; acceleratedly till friction and an impediment from the steam, which
remains in the cylinder even after the jet d'eau, and is increased in elasticity
while its bounds are diminished, shall equal the accelerative force ; and that then
again the piston is retarded the rest of the way. It may be convenient to re-
* Francis Blake, Esq. a gentleman of great fortune, and a very learned map, was the father of tl|e
present Sir Francis Blake, Bart, of Twizel Castle in the county of Northunjberland, also a learned
and very respectable characier. . , ,5^"" 4
B B 2
188 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
mark too, that if the rarefaction be so complete, that the descent would be
greater than the construction admits of, the retardation is augmented by a
brachium of the balance pressing on springs. But to say nothing of friction here,
we can, notwithstanding this diminution of force by the remainder of steam
within the cavity of the cylinder, demonstrate the ratio of the velocities, and the
times of descent of the pistons, in cylinders of unequal altitudes, to be exactly
the same as if the resistance was nothing ; whence we shall without difficulty
arrive at some conclusion in this matter.
MN is the working part of a steam engine cylinder, of the usual height, equal in
diameter to a shorter one m n, fig. 1, pi. 6; and the rarefaction in both of them
being supposed the same, AG=aq, RQ=rq, and AR=ar, may represent the ex-
cess of the atmosphere's weight above the column of water, the resistance to the
pistons from the remainder of steam, and the effective force, respectively, e. g.
at the beginning of the descent. Take then every where ak: ak:: an: an,
and at all similar positions the resistance b c of m n and force k c on its piston,
will be equal to the resistance b c of m n and force k c on its piston ; and by what
Sir Isaac Newton has demonstrated (Book 1, Prop. 39,) of the descent of bodies,
we have y^akcr: ^akcr:: celerity in k: celerity in k. But these areas
being evidently as the corresponding parallelograms kq and kq, and these again
as their heights, the celerities generated are in the subduplicate ratio of ak: ak,
as if the resistance had been nothing ; and by an obvious enough reasoning from
the said proposition, the times also appear to be in the above-mentioned ratio ;
which ratio is not any way varied, though the resistance prevails from the inter-
secting points o.
Now, to apply what has been said to the business in hand ; if t w be a cylinder
of equal content with the cylinder mn, the quantity of water delivered by both
will, as a consequence of the fundamental law of mechanics observed above, be
the same at each lift : but the cylinder t w is no higher than n m, and ex
hypoth. their rarefactions are equal ; therefore by what has been proved with
regard to the times, the time of the piston's descent in t w, will be to that of the
piston's descent in mn:: y^Ew: \/an; whence in any given time the broad
cylinder t w will perform more than the longer one m n of equal content, and
that in the ratio of their diameters; for fe^ X ew = ma^ X an ex hypoth.
andEw: an:: ma'^: et% consequently v'ew: v'an:: ma: te. The friction
too is diminished with the slowness of the motion, and because the periphery in-
creases in a less ratio than does the area of a circle.
The result of the whole then is in favour of the broad cylinder ; and still the
broader the better ; for unless some mechanical considerations should limit the
problem, it is evident in a geometrical sense, that there is no limitation. A
disadvantage might arise perhaps to the effect of the jet d'eau from thus increas-
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 189
ing the breadth ; which howevec would probably be remedied by a number of
these jets : but be that as it may, it is certain, that to augment the diameters,
and diminish the lengths of the smaller kind of cylinders, now used, could have no
such inconvenience, nor fail of being attended with an augmentation of force.
XXX. Mr. John Bradley s Observation of the Occultation of Fenus by the Moon.
Communicated by Mr. James Short, F.R.S. p. 201.
Mr. Gael Morris having favoured Mr. Short with the observation of the late
occultation of Venus by the moon, taken at Greenwich with great exactness by
Mr. John Bradley, he laid the same before the Royal Society, in order to show
its very near agreement with those phases, which Dr. Bevis observed at his house
in Surry-street, allowing for the difference of meridians.
Apparent time.
1751 April 15, 22*' 41"" 45' The first contact; doubtful to 1 second.
42 18 Quite immerged.
23 15 3 6-1- Began to emerge.
16 8-1^ Wholly emerged.
16, 1 39 12 Venus passed the meridian.
XXXI. An Account of Mr. Benjamin Franklins* Treatise, intitled. Expert-
ments and Observations on Electricity, made at Philadelphia in America. By
JVm. Watson, F.R.S. p. 202.
Mr. Franklin's Treatise, lately presented to the Royal Society, consists of 4
letters to his correspondent in England, and of another part intitled, ' Opinions
* Dr. Benjamin Franklin, one of the most celebrated philosophers and politicians of the 1 8th cen-
tury, was born at Boston in North America, in the year 1706. His father was a tallow-chandler
there, and young Franklin was taken from school at 10 years of age to assist him in that business.
But after two years spent in this situation, he was apprenticed to an elder brother, then a printer in
Boston, who in 1721 began to print a newspaper there j the copies of which our author was sent to
distribute, after having assisted in composing and printing it. On this occasion, our young philoso-
pher enjoyed the secret and singular pleasure of being the much admired author of many essays in
this paper ; a circumstance which he had the address to keep a secret, even from his brother himself j
and this when he was only 15 years of age.
The frequent ill usage from his brother produced a separation between them, when our author, at
17 years of age, withdrew privately to New York, and thence to Philadelphia, where he worked
with a printer a short time. Here he was much noticed by Sir Wm. Keith, governor of the pro-
vince, who advised him to go to England to purchase printing materials, to commence the business
on his own account in Philadelphia, promising to advance him the money, and send him letters of
credit to London for that purpose. This promise however was never fulfilled, and Mr. F. was thus
thrown upon London at 18 years of age, without either money, friends, or credit. He soon found
employment however as a journeyman printer j and after continuing about 18 months in this station;
he returned to Philadelphia in 1726, along with a merchant of that town, as his clerk. But his
IQO PHILOSOPHIC A.L TKANSACTIONS. [anNO 1751.
and conjectures concerning the properties and effects of the electrical matter
arising from experiments and observations.'
master dying the same year, be again applied to the printing business, and soon after set up a print-
ing house himself. About the same time Mr. F. selected, and assembled together, a few youths like
himself, of a literary and philosophical turn of mind, forming a club or society, to meet on certain
days to converse on such subjects, to read books, and to write useful essays. Their collection of
books gradually increased, and at length advanced to a public library. The other colonies, sensible
of its advantages, began to form similar plans ; and hence originated the libraries at Boston, New-
York, Charlestown, &c. ; that of Philadelphia having since become equal to any in Europe.
About 1728 or 1729, young Franklin set up a newspaper in Philadelphia, which proved very pro-
fitable, and otherwise useful, as affording an opportunity of making himself known as a political
writer. He now became a public man ; his talents began to be generally known, and in consequence
he was appointed successively to the offices of printer to the House of Assembly, clerk to the Gene-
ral Assembly of Philadelphia, and post-master, and at length a member of the general assembly itself.
In 1738 he formed the first fire-company there, to prevent and extinguish fires in houses, &c. also
insurances from the same ; plans which still exist, and were soon imitated by other persons and in
other places. In 1744, during a war between France and England, the French and Indians falling
on the back settlements, by Mr. F.'s exertions a body of 10,000 volunteers were raised for their de-
fence and security.
Pursuits of a different nature next occupied his chief attention for some years. Being always much
addicted to the study of natural philosophy ; and the discovery of the Leyden experiment in electri-
city having rendered that science an object of general curiosity ; Mr. F. applied himself to it, and
greatly distinguished himself in it. By his experiments he made a number of important discoveries
and proposed ingenious theories to account for various phenomena ; which have since been generally
adopted. His observations he communicated, in a series of letters, to his friend Mr. Collinson in
England, by whom they were published; the first of which is dated March 28, 1747. In these he
makes known the power of points in drawing and throwing off the electric matter, on which he
afterwards founded his celebrated method of securing buildings from the stroke and damacre of thun-
der and lightning, having previously proved experimentally the identity of electricity and the matter
of lightning : on similar principles too he explained the aurora borealis.
In the year 1749 he proposed a plan of an academy, to be erected in the city of Philadelphia, as a
foundation for posterity to found a seminary of learning, more extensive and suitable to future cir-
cumstances; and in 1750 three of the schools were opened, viz. the Latin and Greek school, the
mathematical school, and the English school. This foundation .soon after gave rise to another more
extensive college, incorporated by charter in 1755, which is now in a veiy flourishing condition.
In this last year, when he returned to London, he met wiUi the greatest respect from all learned
men: he was elected f.r.s., and had the honour of the Society's gold medal for his philosophical
discoveries ; he had also the degree of doctor of laws conferred on him by different universities. But
at this time, by reason of the war which broke out between England and France, he returned to
America, and interested himself in the public affairs of that country, with most effectual benefit. In
1757 he was again sent to England as agent for the province of Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Mary-
land, and Georgia; after remaining here 5 years, he returned to America in 176"2, where he received
public thanks for his faithful services. In 1764 he again returned to England as a provincial agent,
where he remained many years. In 17(56 he was examined before the House of Commons relative to
the state of America, particularly as to the stamp net, which was soon after repealed. But the
troubles were now beginning, and the British government seemed resolved to accelerate rather than
divert the storm. Dr. F. remained in Europe till 1775, and then returned to his native country.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. IQl-
The 4 letters, the last of which contains a new hypothesis for explaining the
several phenomena of thunder-gusts, have either in the whole or in part been
before communicated to the k. s. It remains therefore now only to lay before
the Society an account of the latter part of this treatise, as well as that of a letter,
intended to be added to it by the author, but which arrived too late for publi-
cation with iL
This ingenious author, from a variety of well adapted experiments, is of opi-
nion, that the electrical matter consists of particles extremely subtle, since it can
permeate common matter, even the densest metals, with such ease and freedom,
as not to receive any perceptible resistance. Electrical matter, according to him,
differs from common matter in this, that the parts of the latter mutually attract,
and those of the former mutually repel each other ; hence the divergency in a
stream of electrified effluvia: * but that, though the particles of electrical matter
do repel each other, they are strongly attracted by all other matter. From these
3 things, viz. the extreme subtilty of the electrical matter, the mutual repulsion
of its parts, and the strong attraction between them and other matter, arises this
effect, that when a quantity of electrical matter is applied to a mass of common
matter of any size or length within our observation (which has not already got
having first endeavoured in vain to dissuade the ministry from their coercive measures. His fame
stood as high in the political as it had done in the scientific world. He became an active member of
the new legislative assembly, and America is indebted for the formation of its constitution to this
virtuous and enlightened philosopher. After this important service he was sent ambassador to France,
to negociate an alliance with that country, in which he was completely successfiil. He also acted as
one of the plenipotentiaries for his country in signing the treaty of peace with England in 1783. Two
years after, he returned again to America, and received from his grateful countrymen those honours
and distinctions which he had so justly merited. At length, after rendering to mankind the most
essential benefits as a natural and moral philosopher, the infirmities of age and sedentary employments
increasing fast upon him, he became more and more afflicted with the gout and the stone, till the
time of his death, which happened the 17th of April 1790, at 84 years of age.
To record Dr. Franklin's numerous discoveries and experiments, with the many useful institutions
founded by his means, and the other curious transactions of his long and valuable life, would require
an ample volume : and indeed a posthumous volume has been published, drawn up by himself, but
containing only about half the term of his life ; which leaves a general wish that the remainder of
such interesting memoirs may one day see the light.
Dr. F. was author of very numerous tracts and essays on various branches of natural philosophy, as
well as on politics and miscellaneous subjects, which have been published in different forms. His
diction was easy, natural, and flowing; and his conversation at once amusing and instructive. His
temper and manner lively, innocent, playful, interesting. His character leading and persuasive,
not commanding. Among his playfellows, while a boy, be was always the captain, leader, and
conductor ; among men o!' all descriptions, in maturer age, he was the life and soul of every com-
pany.
• As the electric stream is observed to diverge very little, when tlie experiment is made in vacuo,
this appearance is more owing to the resistance of the atmosphere, that to any natural tendency ia
the electricity itself. W. W. — Orig.
1Q2 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
its quantity) it is immediately and equally diffused through the whole. Thus
common matter is a kind of sponge to the electrical fluid ; and as a sponge would
receive no water, if the parts of water were not smaller than the pores of the
sponge ; and even then but slowly, if there was not a mutual attraction between
those parts and the parts of the sponge ; and would still imbibe it faster, if the
mutual attraction among the parts of the water did not impede, soiijg force being
required to separate them ; and fastest if, instead of attraction, there were a
mutual repulsion among those parts, which would act in conjunction with the
attraction of the sponge : so is the case between the electrical and common mat-
ter. In common matter indeed there is generally as much of the electrical as it
will contain within its substance : if more is added, it lies without upon the sur-
face,* and forms what we call an electrical atmosphere ; and then the body is
said to be electrified.
It is supposed, that all kinds of common matter do not attract and retain the
electrical with equal force, for reasons to be given hereafter , and that those
called electrics per se, as glass, &c. attract and retain it the strongest, and con-
tain the greatest quantity. We know that the electrical fluid is in common
matter, because we can pump it out by the globe or tube ; and that common
matter has near as much as it can contain ; because, when we add a little more
to any portion of it, the additional quantity does not enter, but forms an elec-
trical atmosphere ; and we know that common matter has not generally more
than it can contain ; otherwise all loose portions of it would repel each other, as
they constantly do when they have electric atmospheres.
The form of the electrical atmosphere is that of the body which it surrounds.
This shape may be rendered visible in a still air, by raising a smoke from dry
resin dropped into a hot tea-spoon under the electrized body, which will be at-
tracted and spread itself equally on all sides, covering and concealing the body.
And this form it takes, because it is attracted by all parts of the surface of the
body, though it cannot enter the substance already replete. Without this attrac-
tion it would not remain round the body, but be dissipated in the air. The
atmosphere of electrical particles surrounding an electrified sphere is not more
disposed to leave it, or more easily drawn off" from any one part of the sphere
than from another, because it is equally attracted by every part. But that is not
the case with bodies of any other figure. From a cube it is more easily drawn at
the comers than at the plane sides, and so from the angles of a body of any
other form, and still most easily from the angle that is most acute ; and for this
* The author of this account is of opinion, that what is here added, lies not only without upon the
surface, but penetrates with the same degree of density the whole mass of common matter, upon
which it is directed. — Orig.
Vol. xlvii.] philosophical transactions. 1Q3
reason points have a property of drawing on, as well as throwing off the electri-
cal fluid, at greater distances than blunt bo<lies can.
From various experiments recited in our author's treatise, the preceding ob-
servations are deduced. And the following are a few of the other most singular
ones. The effects of lightning, and those of electricity, appear very similar.
Lightning has often been known to strike people blind. A pigeon, struck dead
to appearance by the electrical shock, recovering life, drooped several days, ate
nothing, though crumbs were thrown to it, but declined and died. Mr. F. did not
think of its being deprived of sight ; but afterwards a pullet, struck dead in like
manner, being recovered by repeatedly blowing into its lungs, when set down on
the floor, ran headlong against the wall, and on examination appeared perfectly
blind; hence he concluded that the pigeon also had been absolutely blinded by the
shock. From this observation we should be extremely cautious, how in elec-
trizing we draw the strokes, especially in making the experiment of Leyden,
from the eyes, or even from the parts near them.
Some time since it was imagined, that deafness had been relieved by electrizing
the patient, by drawing the snaps from the ears, and by making him undergo
the electrical commotion in the same manner. If hereafter this remedy should
be fantastically applied to the eyes in this manner to restore dimness of sight, it
will be well if perfect blindness be not the consequence of the experiment.
By a very ingenious experiment our author endeavours to evince the impossi-
bility of success, in the experiments proposed by others of drawing forth the
effluvia of non-electrics, cinnamon, for instance, and by mixing them with the
electrical fluid, to convey them with that into a person electrified ; and our author
thinks, that, though the effluvia of cinnamon and the electrical fluid should mix
within the globe, they would never come out together through the pores of the
glass, and thus be conveyed to the prime conductor; for he thinks, that the elec-
trical fluid itself cannot come through, and that the prime conductor is always
supplied from the cushion, and this last from the floor. Besides, when the
globe is filled with cinnamon, or other non-electrics, no electricity can be ob-
tained from its outer surface, for the reasons before laid down. He has tried
another way, which he thought more likely to obtain a mixture of the electrical
and other effluvia together, if such a mixture had been possible. He placed a
glass plate under his cushion, to cut off the convmunication between the cushion
and the floor; he then brought a small chain from the cushion into a glass of
oil of turpentine, and carried another chain from the oil of turpentine to the
floor, taking care that the chain from the cushion to the glass touched no part
of the frame of the machine. Another chain was fixed to the prime conductor,
and held in the hand of a person to be electrified. The ends of the two chains
in the glass were near an inch from each other, the oil of turpentine between.
VOL. X. C c
194 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1751.
Now the globe being turned could draw no fire from the floor through the ma-
chine, the communication that way being cut off by the thick glass plate under
the cushion: it must then draw it through the chains, whose ends were dipped
in the oil of turpentine. And as the oil of turpentine, being in some degree an
electric per se, would not conduct what came up from the floor, the electricity
was obliged to jump from the end of one chain to the end of the other, which
he could see in large sparks ; and thus it had a fair opportunity of seizing of the
finest particles of the oil in its passage, and carrying them off" with it; but no
such effect followed, nor could he perceive the least difference in the smell of
the electrical effluvia thus collected, from what it had when collected otherwise;
nor does it otherwise afitct the body of the person electrified. He likewise put
into a phial, instead of water, a strong purging liquid, and then charged the
phial, and took repeated shocks from it; in which case every particle of the elec-
trical fluid must, before it went through his body, have first gone through the
liquid, when the phial is charging, and returned through it when discharging;
yet no other effect followed than if the phial had been charged with water. He
has also smelt the electrical fire, when drawn through gold, silver, copper, lead,
iron, wood, and the human body, and could perceive no difference; the odour
being always the same, where the spark does not burn what it strikes; and there-
fore he imagines, that it does not take that smell from any quality of the bodies
it passes through.
Mr. Franklin, in a letter to Mr. Collinson some time since, mentioned his
intending to try the power of a very strong electrical shock on a turkey. He
accordingly has been so obliging as to send an account of it, which is to the
following purpose. He made first several experiments on fowls, and found, that
2 large thin glass jars gilt, holding each about 6 gallons, were sufficient, when
fully charged, to kill common hens outright; but the turkeys, though thrown
into violent convulsions, and then, lying as dead for some minutes, would re-
cover in less than a quarter of an hour. However, having added 3 other such
to the former 1, though not fully charged, he killed a turkey of about 10 lb.
weight, and believes that they would have killed a much larger. He conceited,
that the birds killed in this manner eat uncommonly tender.
In making these experiments, he found that a man could, without great de-
triment, bear a much greater snock than he imagined; for he inadvertently re-
ceived tlie stroke of 2 of these jars through his arms and body, when they were
very near fully charged. It seemed to him an universal blow throughout the body
from head to foot, and was followed by a violent quick trembling in the trunk,
which went gradually off" in a few seconds. It was some minutes before he could
recollect his thoughts, so as to know what was the matter; for he did not see
the flash, though his eye was on the spot of the prime conductor, from whence
TOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. . 1Q5
it struck the back of his hand; nor did he hear the crack, though the bystanders
said, it was a loud one; nor did he particularly feel the stroke on his hand,
though he afterwards found it had raised a swelling there of the size of half a
swan-shot or pistol-bullet. His arms and the back of his neck felt somewhat
numbed the remainder of the evening, and his breast was sore for a week after,
as if it had been bruised. From this experiment may be seen the danger, even
under the greatest caution, to the operator, when making these experiments
with large jars; for it is not to be doubted, but that several of these fully
cliarged would as certainly, by increasing them, in proportion to the size, kill a
man, as they before did the turkey.
On the whole, Mr. Franklin appears in this work in the light of a very able
and ingenious man; that he had a head to conceive, and a hand to carry into
execution, whatever he thought might conduce to enlighten the subject of which
he was treating; and though there are in this work some few opinions, in which
Mr. W. could not perfectly agree with him, he thought scarcely any body was
better acquainted with the subject of electricity than Mr. F. was.
XXXII, On Dr. Hales's Ventilators; also the Temperature and Saltness of the
Sea, &c. By Captain Henry Ellis* F.R.S. dated Jan. 7, 1750-51, at
Cape Monte Africa, Ship Earl of Halifax, p. 211.
The following is a detail of the experiments, which Capt. E. made to prove
the utility of the ventilators. 1 . He took a wax candle, of 8 to the pound, and
drew it through a mold, to make it of one thickness from end to end: then
weighed it exactly, and lighted it in the ship's hold: where it wasted 67 grains in
30 minutes; that place not being ventilated during 24 hours, but after 6 hours
ventilation it wasted 94^- grains in the same time.
2. He carried into the hold a plate of silver, well polished, and a lantern and
candle, all blinded, except a round hole of about 2 inches diameter. He placed
the plate at 6 feet distance from it; and with such obliquity, that the rays from
the light should fall on its surface at an angle of 45 degrees. He then fixed a
white paper screen, at the same distance from the plate, and at the same angle as
the lantern, so that the reflected rays might fall on it also. This done, he ob-
served, that the reflection from the plate distinctly was only 17"" 30* with an
unventilated hold; it being turned the colour of tarnished lead; where<is, when
the air was replaced by 4 hours ventilation, it continued to reflect light, and
retain its brightness 4*^ 47".
3. The ship's bell, whose diameter is 14 inches, he had brought into the hold,
when ventilation had been omitted 1 2 hours. Having hung it under the lower
• Who published an account of his voyage to Hudson's Bay,
CC 2
\q6 philosophical transactions. [anno 1751.
deck, he took out the clapper, and having suspended it also by thread, which,
with its own length, made 4<1 inches; the angle, which the rim of the bell made,
with a line let fall perpendicular from the pin, on which the clapper hung, was
equal to 34'. He then held the clapjjer at the same angle, on the other side
of the line, in order that the strokes at different times might be with the same
force; when, letting it go, it struck the bell. In its return he catched it, and
counting the vibrations, he heard them distinctly only 3 times; whereas, when
the hold was well ventilated, it vibrated 5 times; but its vibrations were not so
quick in the latter as in the former case.
The ship's crew was very healthy, though their number was 130, not one
being sick aboard. The hold, which in most ships is very moist, in theirs was
quite dry. Their cargo arms, kept there in upright chests, without wrappers,
came out as bright as from a recent polish. The ventilator was far from being
inconvenient aboard of them, on the contrary, it was good exercise for the slaves,
and a means of preserving the cargo and lives. On the passage, Capt. E. made
several trials with the bucket sea-gage, in latitude 25' 13" north, longitude 25'
12" west. He let it down to different depths, from 36o feet to 5346 feet; when
he discovered, by a small thermometer of Fahrenheit's, made by Mr. Bird,
which went down in it, that the cold increased regularly, in proportion to the
depths, till it descended to 39OO feet: whence the mercury in the thermometer
came up at 53 degrees; and though he afterwards sunk it to the depth of 5346
feet, that is, a mile and 66 feet, it came up no lower. The warmth of the water
on the surface, and that of the air, was at that time by the thermometer 84
degrees. The water might be a degree or two colder when it entered the bucket,
at the greatest depth, but in coming up had acquired some warmth; for he found
that the water which came up in the bucket, having stood 43 minutes in the
air, the time of winding it up, the mercury rose above 5 degrees. When the air
had rendered it equally warm with the water on the surface, he tried their weight,
by weighing equal quantities very exactly, as also by the hydrometer, and found
that from great depths the heaviest, and consequently the saltest water.
This experiment, which seemed at first but mere food for curiosity, became
very useful to them. By its means they supplied their cold bath, and cooled
their wines or water at pleasure; which was vastly agreeable in that burning
climate.
On the preceding account Dr. Hales remarks that the bucket sea-gage, above-
mentioned, and which he provided for the Captain to find the different degrees
of coolness and saltness of the sea, at different depths, was a common houshold
pail or bucket, with 2 heads in it : which heads had each a round hole in the
middle, near 4 inches diameter, covered with valves which opened upwards ;
and that they might both open and shut together, there was a small iron rod
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 197
fixed to the upper part of the lower valve, and at the other end to the under
part of the upper valve : so that, as the bucket descended with its sinking weight
into the sea, both the valves opened by the force of the water, which had by
that means a free passage through the bucket. But when the bucket was drawn
up, then both the valves were shut by the force of the water at the upper part
of the bucket: by which means the bucket was brought up full of the lowest
sea-water, to which it had descended.
When the bucket was drawn up, the hole at the bottom was stopped with a
cork, to keep the water in, when the valves were opened, to come at the mer-
curial thermometer, which being tied to an upright stick, could readily be un-
fastened, by pulling out a loose nail, which went into the upper end of the stick,
which was fastened at its lower end in the same manner. But great care must
be taken to observe the degree the mercury stands at, before the lower part of
the thermometer is taken out of the water ; else it would immediately be al-
tered by the different temperature of the air. To keep the bucket in a right
position, 4 cords are fixed to it, which reach about 3 feet below it, to which the
sinking weight is fixed.
XXXIII. Observations on the Roman Colonies and Stations in Cheshire and
Lancashire. By Thomas Percival, Esq. ; communicated by Hugh Lord IVil-
louohby of Parham, F.R.S., p. 21 6.
In the second iter of Antonine's Itinerary, we find, after several other stations,
mentioned Eboracum, Calcariam m. p. ix, Camulodunum m. p. xx, Mamuci
um M. p. XVIII, Condate m. p. xviii, Devam m. p. xx. Though with various
readings of the names.
It is agreed, that Deva is Chester, and that Mamucium or Manucium or
Mancunium, is Manchester, by the common consent of all antiquarians. But
where Condate is situated, is yet a matter of debate ; Mr. P. thinks it must have
been what is now Kinderton. Though Mr. Camden and others declare for
Congleton ; and some also for Norwich. The great question, where Cambo-
dunum is situated, whether according to Mr. Camden, at Almondbury, or, ac-
cording to Mr. Horsley, at Greatlandmoor, may be so far determined, that is,
at neither. Mr. P. rather thinks it was about Kirklees, or near Rastrick on the
banks of the Calder.
XXXIF'. An Account of Professor Winkler s Experiments relating to Odours
passing through electrized Globes and Tubes, being the Extract and Transla^
tionfrom the Latin, of two Letters sent by that Gentleman to Cromn/etl Mor-
timer, M. D. Sec. R. S. With an Account of the Result of some Expert-
ments made here with Globes and Tubes, transmitted from Leipsic by Mr,
IQS PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
fVinkler to the R. S,, in order to verify the Facts before-mentioned. Btj Mr.
W. Watson, F. R. S., p. 231.
Professor Winkler, in his first letter to Dr. Mortimer, dated at Leipsic,
March 12, 1748, mentions, among other particulars, that if odoriferous sub-
stances were included in glass globes and tubes closely stopped, and if these
globes were electrized, the smell of the odoriferous substances would as easily as
the magnetical power pass through the glass, and be conveyed with the electrical
effluvia to considerable distances, on substances readily conducting electricity :
that when a man was electrized with a globe of this sort, the odoriferous matter
pervaded his whole body; and that -not only his skin and his cloths, but his
breath, saliva, and sweat, were impregnated with the smell of the substance in-
cluded in the glass. That after these globes had been rubbed a few minutes,
the flavour of their contents would be strongly perceptible on entering the cham-
ber in which this operation was performing ; and that the substances which he
had then tried, were sulphur, cinnamon, and balsam of Peru.
Mr. Winkler mentions, that when he made use of sulphur in his globe, in
company with his friend Mr. Haubold, and others, the smell of the sulphur was
perceived at more than 1 0 feet distance, and was so prevalent, that his com-
pany was driven away by it : but that himself staying in some time longer, his
cloths, his body, and his breath, were infected by it ; and that this smell even
continued on him the next day. Further, on his repeating the experiment, as
he had before found, that sulphur had been useful to him, he on the third day
found in his mouth manifest indications of an inflamed blood. After this he
wanted to transmit a pleasant odour ; and for this purpose employed cinnamon,
which under the like circumstances sent forth its odour in great abundance ; so
that it was not only immediately perceptible to any one entering the chamber,
but continued there the next day.
Balsam of Peru, under the like treatment, so impregnated the air of the
room, that the cloths and the breath of the persons in it smelled of the balsam,
after having passed through several streets ; and that Mr. Winkler, when drink-
ing his tea next morning, still perceived its flavour. A few days after, when the
smell of the chamber was gone off, he conducted a chain on silk lines from it,
through the open air into another chamber quite separate from the fornier. In
this second chamber he placed a man on a silk net, who held the chain in his
hand, and after having electrized him with the sphere containing balsam of
Peru for a quarter of an hour, any person who was perfectly ignorant of what
was doing, would immediately smell the balsam in it. The man who was elec-
trized, said that his tea next morning had a finer taste than usual.
As these experiments did not succeed here, though attempted with a due at-
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. IQQ
tention to whatever could be imagined necessary ; and as they had done so no
where on the continent, Italy alone excepted, Dr. Mortimer was desired by the
Royal Society to acquaint Mr Winkler of this want of success, and at the same
time to desire him to transmit hither, not only a circumstantial account of the
manner of making his experiments, but likewise, lest the difference of the result
might arise from employing different kinds of glass, some globes and tubes fitted
up under his own eye in the most advantageous manner. This Mr. Winkler
was so obliging as to comply with ; and accordingly the Society has received
from him 2 globes and 4 tubes ; and at the same time this gentleman sent a
letter to Dr. Mortimer, dated at Leipsic, Nov. 23, 1750, minutely describing
his manner of using them.
The tubes and globes referred to above, were received by the r. s. about the
middle of May 1751, and were presented to that body by the president at their
next meeting; and they were put into Mr. W.'s hands, that their effects on trial
might be reported at a future meeting. The largest sphere was of crystal glass
of about 7 inches diameter, fixed to its wooden spindles by a resinous cement,
and contained not more than half an ounce of a terebinthinate fluid, less deep
in colour than balsam of Peru, and more so than balm of Gilead. The smaller
globe was 5 inches in diameter, mounted nearly as the larger one, and contained
about half an ounce of beaten cinnamon. The tube containing the flowers of
sulphur was 2 feet in length, and about half an inch in diameter : it, like the
globes and the other tubes, was of crystal glass, and in like manner with the
rest of the tubes was hermetically sealed. The tube, said to contain balsam of
Peru and chalk, was about 20 inches long, and -f- of an inch in diameter : that
said to contain opobalsamum was about l6 inches long, and half an inch in dia-
meter: and that with spirit of wine and chalk was about 17 inches long, and
about half an inch in diameter. The manner of mounting these globes might
be somewhat exceptionable for the purposes intended, as the necks were fitted
to their wooden blocks with a resinous cement without glass stoppers ; so that
when the globes, from their being rubbed, had warmed the cement, if an odour
of the matter contained in the glass had been perceptible, it might have been
urged, that it came through the cement with more probability than through the
glass : but nothing of this kind could be objected to the tubes, as they were
hermetically sealed.
June 12, 1751, there met at the house of Mr. W. in order to make trial of
the effects of these glasses, Martin Folkes, Esq. p. Nicholas Mann, Esq. v. p.
Dr. Mortimer and Peter Daval, Esq. Sees. Mr Canton; and Mr. Schrader, a
gentleman of distinction well known to, and corresponding with Mr. Winkler.
The presence of this gentleman was fortunate, as he was thus enabled to satisfy
both himself and Mr. Winkler of the zeal and address which were exerted in
200 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
order to verify Mr. Winkler's assertions. The weather was dry, and very fit
for electrical experiments. Not the least alteration had been made in Mr.
Winkler's globes. The largest globe, said to contain opobalsamum, was first
put to the trial : it was first rubbed a considerable time with a dry hand chalked,
and the snaps at the prime conductor were but weak ; but on rubbing the globe,
first with the cushion and afterwards with read leather, the snaps were much
stronger ; and Mr. Canton, as well as another gentleman present, were electrized
by turns with it : but all this while no smell of the balsam could be perceived
by any of the company, either on the equator of the globe, or the persons elec-
trized, or the prime conductor, or any of the rubbers made use of;, though for
this purpose they carefully observed, not only the method suggested by Mr.
Winkler, but such others as appeared the most conducive to the present pur-
pose. When the globe was heated, indeed, by applying the nose to the mount-
ing, a smell of resin in it was perceived ; but this was all.
They next tried the less globe containing cinnamon, and most punctually ob-
served Mr. Winkler's directions : but all endeavours were to no purpose, for
they could never, after many trials, either smell the cinnamon, or make the
electricity the least perceptible on the prime conductor.
They then began with the tubes : but not one of the company, after very
many trials in different ways, could perceive the least odour of the substances
contained, either on the outside of the tubes, or on the substances electrized by
them. They thus spent more than 1 hours without success, in endeavours to
see the effects proposed by Mr. Winkler ; for they were not able to verify them
in one single instance.
XXXV. On the Bishop of London! s Garden at Fulham. By Mr. fVilliam
rVatson, F. R.fS., p. 241.
Mr. W. here gives an account to the k. s. of the remains of that famous botanic
garden at Fulham, where Dr. Henry Compton, formerly bishop of London, planted
a greater variety of curious exotic plants and trees, than had at that time been
collected in any garden in England. This excellent prelate presided over the
see of London from the year l675 to 1713 ; during which time, by means of a
large correspondence with the principal botanists of Europe and America, he in-
troduced into England a great number of plants, but more especially trees,
which had never been seen here before, and described by no author : and in the
cultivation of these, as we are informed by the late most ingenious Mr. Ray, he
agreeably spent such part of his time, as could most conveniently be spared from
his other most arduous occupations.
Mr. Ray, in the 2d volume of his history of plants, which was published in
the year l688, gives us a catalogue of the rare and exotic trees and shrubs.
VOL. XLVII.j PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 201
which he had just before observed in the bishop's garden, which he at that time
called hortus cultissimus, novisque et elegantioribus magno studio nee minore
impensa undique conquisitis stirpibus refertissimus. As this prelate's length of
life and continuance in the see of London were remarkable, so we find the bo-
tanists, who wrote after Mr. Ray, most frequently mentioning in their works
the new accessions of treasure to this garden ; and of this we meet with a great
variety of examples in the treatises of Dr. Pluknet, Herman, and Commelin.
On the death of Bishop Compton, all the green-house plants and more tender
exotic trees were, as Mr. W. was informed by Sir Hans Sloane, given to the
ancestor of the present Earl Tylney at Wanstead. And the curiosities of this
garden were no longer attended to, but left to the management of ignorant jjer-
sons ; so that many of the hardy exotic trees, however valuable, were removed,
to make way for the more ordinary productions of the kitchen garden.
Mr. W. then subjoins a catalogue of the exotic trees remaining in the Bishop
of London's garden at Fulham, June 25, 1751. These are the remains of that
once famous garden ; among which are some, that notwithstanding the present
great improvements in gardening, are scarcely to be found elsewhere. From the
length of time they have stood, several of the trees are by much the largest of
their kind he ever has seen, and are probably the largest in Europe. This ac-
count of them therefore is not merely a matter of curiosity ; but we learn from
it, that many of these trees, though produced naturally in climates and latitudes
very different from our own, have grown to a very great magnitude with us,
and have endured our rude winters, some of them for almost a century : and
that in proper soils and situations they may be propagated to advantage, as well
as for beauty. For the exemplification of this he recommends to the curious
observer the black Virginian walnut-tree, the cluster-pine, the honey locust, the
pseudo-acacia, and ash-maple, &c. now remaining at Fulham.*
XXXVI. Of an Inverted Iris, observed on the Grass in September, and another
in October, 1751. By Philip Carteret IVebb, Esq. F. R. S., p. 248.
Sept. 24, 1751, about 10 in the morning, Mr. W. observed a solar iris on a
grass lawn near his house, at Busbridge in Surry. The morning was fair and
clear, and the grass of the lawn was the night before almost covered with webs
resembling those of spiders, which many persons esteem the forerunners of fair
weather -, and there had fallen in the night much dew, with which the webs and
the grass were thoroughly wetted. The arch or bow appeared inverted, the
• Of the hardy exotics enumerated in the above paper, there were remaining in 1793 the follow-
ing: acer negundo, cupressus sempervirens, juniperus virginiana, gleditsia Iriacanthus, juglans ni-
gra, quercus alba, quercus suber, &c. most of them trees of a great height, and of large dimen.sion.<i
in the girth. See Lysons Environs of London, 2nd vol. p. 351. • '-'
VOL. X. D D
202 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
point being distant about 24 inches from the point of his foot ; and where ever
he moved on the lawn, it seemed to move at that distance before him. The
lawn on which he observed this appearance, is a hanging level, which drops
about 6 feet in 100. It extended itself to the end of the lawn, the grass of
which was short, and it was not visible on the surface of the adjoining water,
or grass fields. It was about 1 feet wide, and the colours were vivid and
distinct.
Oct. 3, 1751, at 30"" after 9 in the forenoon, he observed about the same spot
a like iris. It was a very fair morning : there had fallen much dew in the night,
and the lawn was then, and the night before, webbed over as it was the 23d of
September.
XXXVII. Extract of several Letters from John Huxham, M. D. of Plymouth,
F. R. S. and Mr. Tripe, Surgeon, at Ashburton in Devonshire, concerning a
Body found in a Fault in the Church of Staverton in that County : Communi-
cated by Thomas Stack, M. D. F. R. S.
Mr. Tripe to Dr. Huxham, dated Ashburton, June 18, J 750.
According to the register of burials, no person had been deposited in this
vault since October 15, 1 669, so that a body had lain there upwards of 80
years : yet, when the vault was opened about 4 months before the above date,
it was found as perfect in all its parts, as if but just interred. The whole
body was plump and full ; the skin white, soft, smooth, and elastic ; the hair
strong, and the limbs nearly as flexible as when living. A winding sheet, which
was as firm as if but just applied, inclosed it from head to foot ; and 2 coarse
linen cloths, dipped in a blackish substance like pitch, infolded the winding
sheet. The body thus protected was placed in an oaken coffin, on which, as it
was always covered with water, was found a large stone and a log of wood, pro-
bably to keep it at the bottom.
Various have been the conjectures as to the cause of its preservation ; but the
pitch-cloths and water seem to account for it ; the former, by defending the
body from the external air, and the latter, by preserving the tenacity of the
pitch. The left side, from the middle of the forehead to the scrotum, having
been for some time exposed to the air, was become black, and mouldered
away ; but where the pitch-cloths remained, the parts underneath were perfectly
fresh and firm. As the coffin was pretty much injured, though entirely
sound when the vault was first opened, the body was ordered by Mr. Worth, of
Worth near Tiverton, whose ancestor he was, to be speedily removed to another,
and then nailed up.
Dr. Huxham to Dr. Stack, May 21, 1751.
Mr. Tripe, on dissecting the corpse found the heart and lungs as sound as il
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 203
the person had not been dead above 4 days, but much more flat and compressed
than usual , the joints very flexible and supple ; the knees in particular, the pa-
tella, tendons, ligaments, and the whole articulation being as smooth, unctuous,
and flexible, as in a body newly dead.
Simon Worth, Esq. whose corpse this was, died at Madrid, and was sent home
in the manner described, and so buried. His wife's coffin, who was buried in
the same vault 2 years before, and 2 of his children about 1 1 years after (as ap-
peared by the register) were quite rotten. The oaken coffin, pitch-cloth, and
water, seem greatly to have contributed to the preservation of this body. His
coffin was found very sound.
Mr, Tripe to Dr. Huxliam.
Mr. Tripe here observes that on dissecting the corpse, and examining the in-
ternal parts, he found them answerable to the external, most of them nearly in a
natural state, but little altered or different from the condition of a living body.
XXXVJll. Extract of a Letter from Professor Euler, of Berlin, to the Rev.
Mr. Caspar fVetstein, Chaplain to Her Royal Highness the Princess Dowager
of JVales. p. 263.
You have doubtless heard that the Academy at St. Petersburg have fixed a
prize of 1 00 ducats, which they will give every year to him who shall give the
best answer to the question that shall be proposed ; and for the first time they
have proposed this question :
" Whether the theory of Sir Isaac Newton is sufficient to explain all the irre-
gularities which are found in the motion of the moon ?"
This question is of the last importance ; and I must own, that till now I al-
ways believed, that this theory did not agree with the motion of the apogee of
the moon. Mr. Clairaut was of the same opinion ; but he has publicly re-
tracted it, by declaring that the motion of the apogee is not contrary to the
Newtonian theory. On this occasion I have renewed my inquiries on this affair;
and, after most tedious calculations, I have at length found to my satisfaction,
that Mr. Clairaut was in the right, and that this theory is entirely sufficient to
explain the motion of the apogee of the moon. As this inquiry is of the greatest
difficulty, and as those who hitherto pretended to have proved this nice agree-
ment of the theory with the truth, have been much deceived, it is to Mr. Clai-
raut that we are obliged for this important discovery, which gives quite a new
lustre to the theory of the great Newton : and it is but now that we can expect
good astronomical tables of the moon.
D D 2
204 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO ]75].
XXXIX. Extract of Two Letters from Dr. j4lston,* Bat. Prof, at Edinburgh,
to Dr. Mortin.er, Sec. R. S. The first dated ITth March, 1749; the second,
August g, 1750. p. 265.
A property of quick-lime, which Dr. A. believed had not been observed before.
In June 1743, for some experiments in vegetation, he infused about 2 lbs. of
quick-lime in 24 lbs. of water, resolving to change the lime, as soon as it did
not communicate its virtues to the water. He soon made use of the first lime-
water, and filled the vessel with fresh water. When that was exhausted, he
filled it up a third time ; and so on for 20 or 30 times : for he had no reason to
change the lime for 3 years; so long it was good lime-water, gathered crusts on its
surface, turned syrup of violets green, vegetable infusions yellow, tasted as at first.
But at the end of the third year, it gathered no more crusts, was no more lime water.
The quick-lime, which he kept dry, fell soon into a powder ; it stood covered
for 3 years (the vessel with the lime-water in it was an inverted large bell-glass,
never covered) in the green-house. This powder he infused in water, but it
communicated no virtue to it whatever. The calx viva that he used, was made
of the common limestone. It was also a common observation of our farmers,
that the effect of lime on lands lasts only 3 years.
Second Letter, August Q, 1750.
The paradox, which he formerly mentioned, concerning calx viva, which no
body would at first believe, he had demonstrated by repeated experiments, by
which it appears, that the stone calx viva may afford more than 600 times its
own weight of good lime-water ; for from i dr. of quick-lime he had 40 oz. of
lime-water ; from 1 lb. of quick-lime 500 lbs. of lime-water ; and the lime was
not yet exhausted, the water being as good then as at first, by every experiment
that he knew. He poured some of it cold (very lately) on some small calculi,
in a drinking glass, and in one night's time such phenomena appeared as notably
explained, as well as confirmed, the use of lime-water in the stone. He found
also, that quick-lime kept dry, in the open air, 14 months, communicated
nothing to water, though long infused in it ; that lime-water, boiled down to a
4th part, is not weakened, neither sensibly stronger ; yet yields a very little of
small slender prismatic crystals.
XL. A new Trocart for the Puncture in the Hydrocephalus, and for other
Evacuations, which are necessary to be made at different Times. By M. le
Cat, F. R. S. Translated from the French by Thomas Stack, M. D.,
F. R. S., p. 267. , .,j.
This new trocart is represented by fig. 2, pi. 6, and has this peculiarity, that
• Author of lectures on the Mat. Med. 2 vols. 410; for the most part a compilation from the older
writers, and seldom referred to in the present day.
VOL. XLVir.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 208
the canula is much shorter than ordinary. This canula is represented separate
in fig. 3 : but there ought to be several, of different lengths for difFei'ent cases.
On the upper part of this canula are two circles, each fastened to a different
piece. These pieces are exhibited separate in fig. 4, and they are made so as to
be screwed on each other. These circles are somewhat concave in their surfaces,
which correspond reciprocally ; so that their circumferences touch, while there
is a tolerable vacuity towards their centre. By means of this simple mechanism,
Mr. le Cat applied the plaster x, with a hole in it, on the lower circle a, whose
screw passes into the hole of the plaster : this done, he screws the upper piece
B on the lower a, and he squeezes the plaster tight between these 2 circles.
The instrument becomes then as in fig. 5 . The plaster, which he had chosen,
is that of Andreas a Cruce ; but one may use Burgundy-pitch, or any other
powerful emplastic, at pleasure. His plaster was 3 inches broad. To the upper
end of the canula he adapted a very exact silver stopple c, fig. 3. The part,
where he intended to make the puncture, was shaved, wider than the plaster, 'o
Thus having prepared every thing, and the canula being armed with its tro-
cart, and fortified with the plaster, as it appears fig. 5, h. He performed the punc-
ture on Friday the 23d of October 1744, by thrusting in the trocart and canula
up to the circles and plaster, which he applied and made to stick in all its parts
on the head, by pressing it with his hand and fingers made very warm, and also
with hot linen cloths. When the plaster was thoroughly well fastened on, he
pulled out the trocart, and drew 4 or 5 oz. of serosity, of a brownish white, or
the colour of pale white wine, and somewhat foul; after which he closed the
canula with its stopple c.
By chemical experiments, this liquor was found to be neither acid nor alkaline,
being put on the fire, it evaporated quite away, and left at bottom a frothy neu-
tro-saline sediment.
Saturday, Oct. 24, he unstopped the canula, and drew the same quantity of
water. The infant was ill on the Sunday; he therefore did not disturb him that
day. Monday the 26th he was better. He drew 5 oz. more of water. Tuesday
he suffered him to take rest. Every time ttiat he made this evacuation, he bound
the head with a strong capeline.* Notwithstanding these precautions, the infant
died in the night between Tuesday and Wednesday; and it will presently appear,
that this hydrocephalus was of an incurable sort. He opened it, and found the
brain applied against the dura mater as usual; but this brain was thin, and as it
were spread out; it only formed a kind of thin sack filled with water. He
opened, and saw that the disease was nothing more than an excessive dilatation
of the two lateral ventricles, by the waters collected there. The glandula pinealjs
* A bandage peculiar to the head. — Orig. ,
206 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
was almost wasted, as well as the plexus choroides, of which some few vestiges
only remained. On the contrary, the other vessels, which lined the inside of
this sack, were very visible.
As the brain is a soft viscus without elasticity, it manifestly appears, that it
could not possibly resume its natural form, how slowly soever he had evacuated
the waters ; but perhaps the operation would have succeeded, if the seat of the
dropsy had been on the outside of the brain. However that be, this trocart to
him seems useful for several operations; and this is his first motive for presenting
it to the Royal Society. His second motive for so doing is, the consequences
which may be deduced from this observation with regard to the apoplexy.
How can one believe, that the apoplexy is caused by the extravasation of the
liquids, or by the fullness of the vessels, after having seen a brain filled with
water, and distended so vastly as this was, without any one apoplectic symptom?
Verduc, who in his pathology proposes an objection similar to this against his
own system, endeavours to solve it, but has not succeeded. The objection re-
mains victorious.
Nevertheless, when the brain of a person dead of an apoplexy is opened, and
extravasated blood is found in it, his death is imputed to this extravasation alone,
and the apoplexy is pronounced sanguineous. This has happened on the death
of M. de Frequienne, president of our parliament. On opening him M. leCat
found about a tea-spoonfuU of blood extravasated within the medulla oblongata,
between the 3d and 4th ventricle, at the beginning of the latter. Could so small
a quantity of blood press on the principles of the nerves so as totally to intercept
the course of the spirits? No, certainly; foF this would be mistaking the effect
for the cause. This extravasated blood was but an accident owing to the con-
vulsive motions of the dura mater, and of the vessels of the whole basis of the
skull, seized with the apoplectic disorder, which most commonly is nothing else
but the matter of the gout or rheumatism fixing on this source of the nerves.
Now this general attack, which swells and distends the dura mater throughout
this whole basis, makes the blood stagnate in the vessels, some of the weakest of
which burst, and at the same time closes all the canals of the nerves, and con-
sequently kills the patient. Unless a person would choose to say, that those
broken canals were those, which concurred in the substance of the brain to the
formation of the spirits, that give motion to the heart ; which opinion is not free
from difficulties; since it is well known, that this organ receives the influences
of several nerves at a time, all which ought to bear their part in this accident,
which, after all, is but the rupture of a simple capillary vessel.
The drift of these reflections is to engage practitioners to have somewhat less
confidence in their theories, and, for example, not to make a poor apoplectic
patient die under the lancet; a thing which he had seen several times, from the
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 207
notion which they hold, that it is the over great quantity of blood, that kills;
for, besides that this false opinion is fatal to this patient in particular, it will still
be so to all future apoplectics, if the prejudice in favour of this theory be such
as to prevent seeking the true causes, and the real remedies of the apoplexy.
XLI. Observations on the Effects of the Fitrum Antimonii Ceratum. By Mans.
Geoffrey, of the R. Acad, of Sciences, and F. R. S. Translated from the
French by Tho. Stack, M. D., F. R. S. p. 273.
This medicine, the preparation of which was first published in the Edinburgh
Meilical Essays, is made by mixing an ounce of the glass of antimony in powder
with a drachm of yellow wax. This mixture is kept in an iron ladle over a slow
clear charcoal fire about half an hour, stirring it continually with an iron spatula,
till the wax is consumed, and ceases to emit fumes. Such is the process of the
preparation, published in the Edinburgh Essays. In the memoirs of the Royal
Academy of Sciences for the year 1745, M. G. gave the detail of this operation,
with some remarks on the changes, which wax may occasion in the glass of
antimony.
Of all the preparations of glass of antimony this is doubtless the most perfect;
for it is infinitely superior to the chylista of Hartman. This chylista is nothing
more than a glass of antimony well pounded, and opened by acids, and then
digested in spirit of wine impregnated with mastic, which never can cover the
particles of this glass with coats of equal impenetrability with those formed by
wax bituminized by burning. This medicine succeeds equally in bloody fluxes,
diarrhoeas, simple loosenesses, quartan agues, even the most obstinate, and in
certain cases of the fluor albus. It must be given with caution, beginning with
a very small dose, as 1, 2, or 3 grains, especially when it has been levigated
again after its calcination; and thus it may be safely given to children, and even
to pregnant women. In giving it to robust persons, M. G. always began by a
small dose, as 4 or 5 grains, which he gradually increased to 18, according to
the effects produced by less considerable doses. It sometimes vomits or purges,
and sometimes cures (especially in robust constitutions) without producing any
visible effect. By gradually increasing the dose of this medicine, he had given
as far as 24 grains at a time, which had no other effect, but to procure 2 or 3
moderate stools the next day ; but in this case it would be imprudent to continue
its use without interruption ; because, as it passes slowly, the dose may possibly
unite with the first at the time, that it begins to operate; and these 2 doses thus
joined might cause a superpurgation, which is always to be dreaded.
He would never have ventured to give this medicine to pregnant women if
chance had not convinced him, that it is not more dangerous for them than for
others, when given with caution. For, among several women, whom he cured
208 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
of bloody fluxes with this medicine, there were some that were actually with
child, and did not know it themselves, at the time of their taking it. They
were all cured, and no accident happened to any of them. In pursuance of this
observation he thought he might try it, with precaution, even on sucking
children. In the meantime he was very attentive to the effect of the medicine:
when the first dose vomited or purged sufficiently, he did not increase the second.
Sometimes he diminished it, or even totally laid it aside for some days.
When this medicine produces nothing more than keckings at stomach, and a
plentiful expectoration of thick slime, the dose may be safely increased half a
grain or a grain every day. And this slight augmentation of the dose does not
hinder the effect of the medicine from diminishing, in proportion as the patient
comes nearer a perfect cure. When the patient has been purged too violently by
one of the first doses of this medicine, which are always small, it is a proof of
the weakness of the patient; and then he gave it to him but every second or
third day. The distance of time observed between the doses of this medicine
makes it operate less briskly, and more equally. When it vomits, the patient is
to drink warm water at every motion. When the dysenteric flux is attended with
sharp pains in the abdomen, with heat and tension, the vitrum antimonii is not
to be given, till the pains are removed by emollient clysters, and other proper
remedies.
He had not observed any difference in the effects of this medicine, whether
the patient had, or had not, been bled or purged: whether the disease was recent,
or of long standing; whether in fine it were attended with a fever, or not.
They were all cured equally well, agreeable to what is said in the Edinburgh
observations.
The vitrum antimonii ceratum is a good febrifuge; 3 or 4 days use of this
medicine generally suffices for removing the fever accompanying diarrhoeas,
loosenesses, &c. But, in order to its having this effect, it must either purge or
vomit the patient; otherwise it cures the looseness, but the fever continues, and
requires a very long use of the medicine to cure it. When it operates in a sen-
sible manner, it generally gives the patient an appetite, when he is near being
cured: but the^ weakness of his stomach does not allow his giving way to it,
without running great risks. When this remedy operates a cure without pro-
ducing any visible effects, it would be dangerous to increase the dose till it causes
evacuations; for, unless the patient be of a strong constitution, you endanger
the bringing on a hypercatharsis.
The finer the powder it is reduced to, the more efficacious it is. Also the
vegetable acids develope and increase the emetic quality of this medicine to such
a degree, that you would always put the patient's life, who takes it, in great
danger, if you did not absolutely forbid him the use of acid fruits, and aliments,
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 209
that are liable to turn sour, as milk, wine, &c. This medicine succeeds equally
well in uterine evacuations. In these cases it must be continued 15 or 20 days,
giving it every other day, according to the patient's strength, or the quantity
given at a dose. With this medicine alone he likewise cured a girl of 18, who
had the fluor albus abundantly from the age of 12.
In obstinate quartan intermittents, which had resisted the most powerful febri-
fuges, he had given this medicine on the 2 days of intermission, omitting it the
day of the paroxysm ; and continuing it thus, and increasing the dose very gra-
dually, the paroxysms grew considerably weaker, and generally the 4th did not
return.
Excepting in the cases of fevers, all the patients, who used the vitrum anti-
monii ceratum, drank habitually of a ptisan made with rice, oatmeal, or harts-
horn. These ptisans prevent the pains of the stomach, which this medicine
sometimes occasions. He had always given this medicine in a bolus incorporated
with the bitter extracts, or cordial electuaries. Great care ought to be taken,
not to make it up with conserves or syrups of acid fruits, for the reasons already
given.
XLII. Concerning a Dwarf. By John Brotvning, Esq. of Barton-hill, near
Bristol, p. 278.
This surprising, but melancholy subject, the son of one Lewis Hopkin, was
a young man entering the 15th ye^r of his age, though his stature was no more
than 2 feet 7 inches, and his weight 13 lb. labouring under all the miseries and
calamities of very old age; weak and emaciated, his eyes dim, his hearing very
bad, his countenance fallen, his voice very low and hollow; a dry husky inward
cough, low and hollow; his head hanging down before, so that his chin touched
his breast; consequently his shoulders were raised, and his back rounded, not
unlike a hump-back. His teeth were all decayed and rotten, except one fore
tooth below. He was so weak, that he could not stand erect without a support.
The father and mother both said, that he was naturally sprightly, though
weakly, until 7 years old, would attempt to sing and play about, and then
weighed IQ lb. and was as tall, if not taller, naturally straight, well grown, and
in due proportion ; but that from that period he had gradually declined, and grew
weaker, losing his teeth by degrees. The mother was a jolly healthy woman, in
the prime of life; the father enjoyed the same blessing. They said also, that this
lad has a sister about 10 years of age in the same declining state.
XLIII. On Comets. By Mr. Rich. Duntlwrne. Dated Cambridge, Oct. 5
1751. p. 281.
There is a manuscript in the Pembroke-hall college library, chiefly a.strolo-
VOL. X. E K
iW PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
gical, containing 5 tracts of different autliors concerning comets. One of them
intitled Tractatus fratris Egidii de cometis (written on account of a comet which
appeared in 1264) contains these passages relating to its place and motion.
Prolog. " Stella caudata seu crinita apparuit in regno Franciac in oriente ante
solis ortum a 1 g" kalendas Augusti usque 5° nonas Octobris in anno Domini
1264. — Cap. 1. " Cometeni, cujus occasione haec scripsimus, primo vidimus
extra circulum zodiaci versus aquilonem contra cancrum, et demum eundem
vidimus extra circulum versus austrum sub geminis inter canem et orionem. —
Cap. 3. " Vidimus autem et stellam caudatam, cujus occasione hoc scripsimus,
praeter motum circularem diurnum, aeque moveri motu retrogradationis, et nulli
alii similis, secundum latitudinem ejus, quae est a septentrione ad austrum.
Visus est moveri per duos menses solares plusquam 40 gradus, vix per 3 gradus
longitudinis permutans situm. — Cap. 7- " Cometes, cujus occasione haec scrip-
simus, primo visa est in vespere post solis occasum, demum post paucos dies
solem pertransiens in mane circa octavum gradum cancri, et ex hinc cito pro-
cessit retro in geminos: vidimus autem et cometem moveri ab aquilone ad au-
strum, secundum latitudinem quidem plus 50 graduum, et secundum longitudem
quidem vix 5 gradus processisse."
Hevelius in his Cometographia has also given the following paragraph, among
others, concerning this comet. " A. C. 1264, Stella, quae dicitur cometes,
apparuit, videlicet in oriente, ante ortum diei, post stellam matutinam ; apparuit,
scilicet, anteauroram cum radiis multis: ipsi ejus radii longe lateque apparuerunt
antequam oriretur ipsa Stella cometes. Igitur veloci cursu laboravit ipsa stella
cometes, ita quod prsecurrerit et longe versus meridiem praecessit stellam matu-
tinam, i. e. luciferum. Visa est circa festum S. Mariae Magdalenae, et usque ad
octavam S. Augustini apparuit. Compilat. Chronol."
Though this whole account be very slender and rude, it is however much the
best Mr. D. had met with, of any comet earlier than that which was observed
by Regiomontanus in the year 1472, (except perhaps the account given byNice-
phoras Gregoras of the comet of the year 1337, whose orbit is computed by Dr.
Halley) ; for which reason, he was induced to try, whether he could investigate
a set of elements capable of representing the places of this comet agreeable to
the above description ; and after several attempts, some of them indeed but ten-
tative, he fixed on the following numbers for that purpose, viz. the place of its
ascending node in TI|^ 19°, the inclination of its orbit to the plane of the ecliptic
36j-°, the place of its perihelion in Vf 21°, its perihelion distance from the sun
44500 such parts as the mean distance of the earth from the sun contains
100000, and the time of its being in perihelion July 6^ 8^ p. m. The motion
of the comet in this orbit was direct.
From these elements Mr. D. computed the places of the comet for the
VOL XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 211
months July, August, September, of the said year, which lie thinks agree as
well with the foregoing description as any regular computus can be expected to
do; and the resemblance of all the elements gives some ground for conjecture,
that this comet might possibly be the same with that which was observed by Paul
Fabritius and others in the year 1556, whose orbit Dr. Halley has computed.
(See his Synopsis Astronomiae Cometicae). Indeecl the change in the place of the
perihelion may perhaps be thought greater than could arise from the mutual gra-
vitations of the comets disturbing each other ; but then it may be considered,
that neither the place nor time of the perihelion, nor the perihelion distance of
the comet of the year 1556, could be determined very accurately from observa-
tions made only for 12 days, at 40 days distance from the perihelion, as those of
Fabritius were, unless they had been more exact than his appear to be. If these
were the same comet, its period is 292 years; and we may expect its return
about the year 1848.
There are in the before-mentioned manuscript, besides the passages already
quoted from Egidius, two other places which deserve to be taken notice of.
One of them is so much of a small tract, intitled. Judicium de Stella Cometa,
Anno Domini 1301, as concerns the place and motion of the comet; it is as
follows: " A. D. Mccc primo, primo die Septembris apparuit cometa in occidente,
et per mensem vel amplius visus ftiit. — Ultima autem die Septembris duabus
horis 40 minutis post occasum solis — inveni quod longitudo cdmetae in signis et
gradibus erat 20 gradus scorpionis, et latitudo * 26 gradus septentrionalis : Mars
autem tunc erat in 20 gradu scorpionis directus exeuns, et sic fere conjuncti
erant Mars et cometa accipiendo loca ipsorum per circulum transeuntem per polos
zodiaci. — Verum et sexta die Octobris, scilicet in festo sanctse fidis post occasum
solis eadem hora inveni quod longitudo ejus erat primus gradus sagittarii, et lati-
tudo ejus 10 gradus septentrionalis. — Cometae latitudo ecliptica circa principium
apparitionis suae fuit 20 gradus et amplius septentrionalis, — Apparebat cometa
moveri a septentrione in meridiem per oriens, ita quod ejus longitudo orientalis
continue videbatur augeri, et ejus latitudo septentrionalis continue videbatur
diminui. — In principio apparitionis suae coma protendebatur ad septentrionem :
et post motum successive movebatur per orientem ad meridiem versus stellam
quae dicitur altayr hoc est vultur volans."
Though this account is too imperfect for us to attempt determining the orbit
from, it may yet help us to know the same comet again, if any should hereafter
appear whose orbit will agree with this account ; which he believes none of those
already computed will do.
• This figure (2) is a ditferent writing from the rest of the manuscript, and has manifestly been
altered since it was first \\riiten; it seems to have been 16" at the first, which I thmk the truerread-
ing.— Orjg.
E £ 2
•2\'l FHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1751.
The other place hinted at as worthy of notice, is this short passage in a treatise
De Significatione Cometarum: " Et nos invenimus modo quod apparuit intem-
pore nostro unus cometa in principio piscium, et cauda attigit usque ad princi-
pium geminorum in nocte Mercurii, et hoc fuit in ultimam noctem Junii, anno
499 Arab, et sequebatur ordinem signorum quousque venit usque ad principium
cancri, et dimisit ordinem signorum, et incepit deficere."
The word Junii here found seems to have been transcribed by mistake for the
Arabic month Jumedi.j, the last day of which that year was Wednesday Feb. 7,
A. c. 1106; whereas the last day of June fell on a Saturday. This reading
agrees with the following notes concerning the same comet collected by Hevelius
in his Cometographia, p. 821. " a. c. 1106a prima hebdomada quadragesimae
cometam immensi fulgoris usque ad passionem Domini conspeximus." Lavath
ex Urspurg. — " a. c. IIO6, mense Februar. biduo post novilunium, visus est
magnus cometa, ad o<xasum solis brumalem." Calvis. ex Tyr.
The new moon was Feb. 5, Ash- Wednesday that year Feb. 7, and Good-
Friday, March 23.
If we suppose, with Dr. Halley, this comet to be the same with that which
appeared in 1 680, and that it was in perihelio Feb. 4, at noon (for it must have
been seen in 2 or 3 days after it had passed its perihelion) some of its places
would have been these:
com. long. com. lat.
Feb. 7^ 6" X 7° 50' 5° 44' north.
March 14 7-1- y 1 1 49
19 8 a 15 38
24 8 a 19 2.
The wide disagreement there is between the manuscript account of this comet,
and its places here computed, must very much lessen, if it does not quite over-
balance, the force of the arguments brought by Dr. Halley to prove the identity
of these two comets. Indeed if this comet had been the same with that of
168O, it could not have come to the beginning of Cancer, without a change in
the place of the perihelion too great to be easily admitted ; nor could it have left
the order of the signs without a change in the elements still greater.
XLIV. Concerning the Effects of Lightning. By Mr. Franklin. Dated Phi-
ladelphia, June 10, 1751. p. 289.
In captain Waddel's account (Phil. Trans. 492) of the effects of lightning on
his ship, Mr. F. could not but take notice of the large comazants (as he calls
them) that settled on the spintles at the topmast-heads, and burnt like very large
torches before the stroke. According to Mr. F.'s opinion, the electrical fire was
then drawing off, as by points, from the cloud; the magnitude of the fiame
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 21d
showing the great quantity of electricity in the clouds. And had there been a
good wire communication from the spintle heads to the sea, that could have
conducted more freely than tarred ropes, or masts of turpentine-wood, he ima-
gines there would either have been no stroke, or, if a stroke, the fire would
have conducted it all into the sea without damage to the ship. His compasses
lost the virtue of the loadstone, or the poles reversed, the north point turning
to the south. By electricity we have here frequently given polarity to needles,
and reversed it at pleasure. Mr. Wilson tried it with too small a force. A shock
from 4 large glass jars, sent through a fine sewing needle, gives it polarity ; and
it will traverse when laid on water.
If the needle, when struck, lie east and wests the end entei-ed by the electric
blast points north. If it lie north and south, the end that lay towards the north,
will continue to point north, when placed on water, whether the fire entered at
that end, or the contrary end. The polarity is given strongest, when the needle
is struck lying north and south ; and weakest, when lying east and west. Per-
haps if the force was still greater, the south end, entered by the fire, when the
needle lies north and south, might become the north ; otherwise it puzzles us
to account for the inverting of compasses by lightning ; since their needles must
always be found in that situation, and by our little experiment, whether the blast
entered the north, and went out at the south end of the needle, or the contrary, .
the end that lay to the north, still should continue to point north.
In these experiments the ends of the needles are sometimes finely blued, like a
watch spring, by the electric flame. This colour given by the flash from 1 jars
only, will wipe off"; but 4 will fix it, and frequently melt the needles. Some-
times the surface on the body of the needles is also run, and appears blistered,
when examined by a magnifying glass. The jars Mr. F. used held 7 or 8 gal-
lons, and were coated and lined with tin foil. Each of them takes 1000 turns
of a globe Q inches diameter to charge it. He sent 1 specimens of tin foil melted
between glass, by the force of 1 jars only.
, I have not heard, says he, that any of your European electricians have been
able to fire gunpowder by the electric flame. We do it here in this manner :
a small cartridge is filled with dry powder, hard rammed, so as to bruise some of
the grains. Two pointed wires are then thrust in, one at each end, the points
approaching eacii other in the middle of the cartridge, till within the distance of
half an inch : then the cartridge being placed in the circle, when the 4 jars are
discharged, the electric flame leaping from the point of one wire to the point of
the other, within the cartridge among the powder, fires it, and the explosion of
the powder is at the same instant with the crack of the discharge.
214 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
XLV. Observations on Fungous Excrescences of the Bladder; also a Cutting Forceps
for Extirpating these Excrescei^ces ; and on Canulas for Treating these Diseases.
By M. le Cat, F.R.S. Translated by The. Stache, M.D., F.R.S. p. 292.
A widow woman had for some years felt pain in the small of the back, thighs,
&c. In the year 1734, she made bloody urine, and had one thigh and leg cede-
matous. These accidents, having disappeared, were succeeded by worse symp-
toms : she had frequent calls to make water, and did it often, a little at a time,
and with pain, which was violent, particularly after the urine was discharged,
and this was of a dull red colour, or a little tinged with blood.
All the profession, as well as M. le Cat, thought that she had the stone ; but he
would not pronounce positively, till he had searched her ; which he did the 17 th
of October 1735, As soon as the sound was introduced blood came away, and
in greater quantity, the more it was moved about. The free play of the sound
was obstructed; he found no stone, but pretty sure signs of excrescences in the
obstruction of the sound, and the issue of blood, which its motion occasioned.
However, by dint of management he found a situation of the sound, in which,
by giving a little jerk, he touched a hard body, the dull percussion of which
conveyed nothing but obscurity to his hand or judgment. In order to come at
the knowledge of this body, he passed the crooked sound destined for men, the
bent of which he thought fitter to favour his inquiries. He found the same body
again, but still with the same obscurity. These doubts held them a long time
in suspense what course to take : but the extreme pain which the patient suffered,
and the frequent haemorrhages, which would soon have put an end to her life,
made them determine to perform the operation ; that is, to open the neck of the
bladder, either to extract the stone, if any, or remove and treat the funguses,
which existed beyond all doubt.
He cut the patient the 18th of Oct. 1735, by what he calls the rural appara-
tus, that is, without placing her on the table used in the hospitals, which could
not well be carried to the country where this woman dwelt. He placed her on
the edge of her bed : a chair turned upside down supported her shoulders. Un-
known to the patient he caused a board to be put under the first mattrass of this
edge of the bed ; and when she was placed on it, under her backside, or the os
sacrum, he laid another board, on which he put a straw cushion made compact
and covered with linen cloth. Two straps fixed to the ends of this board were
passed into the bars of the turned up chair, which supported the patient's body :
and these pieces, viz. the chair and the board with the cushion, were fastened
together by buckles fixed on the straps. The assistants, who were on each side
of the patient, had each a strong large swathing band folded double, and passed
into this fold in a slip knot: he used one of those strong woollen sashes or girdles,
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. jjlfl
with which curriers bind or swathe their body. This slip knot was passed on the
patient's wrists, who had seen nothing of these preparations, and she was bound
fest, almost before she was aware of it. Then he introduced a common grooved
staff, such as is used for abscesses of the bladder : he turned the groove towards
the patient's left thigh, and on this groove he pushed his knife into the bladder.
On that knife, which had a groove, he slid the gorget and forceps in the usual
manner.
He searched for the stone in vain, and found nothing but excrescences, one
of which was considerably hard : he extracted several clusters of them with the
forceps ; yet still he was not very certain but that there might be a stone behind
a rampart of excrescences which he telt ; and had not brought the crooked for-
ceps with him to search behind this intrenchment. When he judged that the
patient was fatigued by his searchings, and the extirpations which he made with
the forceps ; he had her put to bed, after having put a canula into the wound,
contrary to his usual custom ; for this case required it : these strange bodies
were to be removed, if possible; that organ must be injected, and consequently
the canula was absolutely necessary. The patient, who bore the operation ex-
ceedingly well, was blooded 2 hours after it : she had a pretty good night, and
was blooded again the next morning. He left one of his pupils with her, and
returned to Rouen.
The canula, which he left in the wound, was of the common sort, and there-
fore too narrow to admit of searching in the diseased part, and to give issue to
those excrescences, which we ought to endeavour to disengage and bring away
in this treatment ; besides, it is extremely difficult to make the canula remain
in the wound.
As soon as he got to Rouen, he ordered the canula (pi. 6, fig. 6) to be made ;
the advantages of which above the old one are : 1 . To afford a wider passage for
the substances that are to be evacuated and introduced. 2. To secure the instru-
ment in the bladder, by its own structure chiefly, and particularly by the swell-
ing at BB. 3. The neck aa, which is at the basis of the swelling, is embraced
by the neck of the bladder ; whence the surgeon may be sure how much of the
canula enters it : and the openings cc, immediately above the swelling b, are
fixed at the lowest part of the bladder.
Fig. 7, 8, 9, represent the same canula, but for further improvements, for
cases which require the evacuation of gross substances, the passage for which
cannot be too wide and direct.
He returned to the patient the next day ; and found her in a fever, with many
colicky pains ; but at the end of the 3d day there was nothing extraordinary.
He intended to make another search, but he feared renewing those accidents :
he therefore contented himself with injecting a liquid digestive ; arid deferred any
2l6 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
further trials till after the suppuration was well formed, which he expected about
the 8th or gth day.
He revisited the patient on the 7th, and found her a little feverish, but she
had a good night's rest. There was a small discharge through the canula of tole-
rably white pus, but of an intolerable smell. The canula seemed to be much
clogged with sloughs; and the stench made them suspect a collection and lodg-
ment of these sloughs behind the canula. They resolved to put in the canula
above described ; and as there was a necessity of dilating, in order to introduce
it ; they agreed to take the advantage of this dilatation, to try to discover by the
crooked forceps, which he had brought with him, if there miglit not be a stone
to be extracted, or at least some more of these excrescences, and to break or
bruise such as they should not be able to draw out, that they might fall off by
suppuration.
He execuied this trial on the 8th day. The dilatation was made between 2
grooved sounds, as it is done in the greater apparatus between the male and fe-
male conductors. He found no stone as yet, but brought away clusters of the tops
of funguses. He crushed the rest of the excrescences, and placed the large canula.
Experience had shown him that this bruising of the funguses of the bladder is
more painful and dangerous than can be imagined. They are far from being of
the same nature with the polypus of the nose, which is pulled out with little or
no pain, arid without any bad consequence. The funguses of the bladder have
more consistence, more solidity, and for that reason more sensibility. Accord-
ingly, after this last operation, the patient was seized with a violent fever, which
carried her off in 2 days. He opened her body, and found the bladder in the
condition represented by the figures, and their explanation.
This observation made him think, that if he should meet with a parallel case, that
is, a patient with fungous excrescences in the bladder, distinctly characterised, and
accompanied with pains and excessive haemorrhages, which render the palliative
cure useless and unsuccessful : and if he had a constitution and courage proper
to make him hope for success from a great operation ; he would find a way to
attack the excrescences with a cutting instrument, the operations of which are
much surer and less painful than any other method. Practitioners advise to sup-
purate such of these excrescences, as the fingers cannot reach, that is, those
which can neither be tied nor cut. But how can one bring such sensible parts
to suppuration ? We have no ointment that can raise a suppuration in a sound
part. Funguses are a sort of vegetation, which, though preternatural, are still
living, and, in some measure, sound parts : how then are they to be disposed to
suppurate ? It must be either by pulling them out, or by crushing them, as he
had done. But seeing this operation is dangerous, an instrument should be
contrived, which might be conveyed to the bottom of the bladder, like the for-
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 217
ceps ; and which might at the same time be able to cut these inaccessible excres-
cences, or the greatest part of them at least ; the remains of which being cut
open, would thereby acquire the necessary dispositions to suppurate, which are
indicated for the cure. For this purpose it was, that about that time he con-
trived the cutting forceps or scissars, fig. 10, pi. 6, to cut the excrescences of
the bladder or uterus, which are inaccessible to the fingers, a is the bend of
this instrument on the flat of its blades. B, buttons, which terminate each blade,
and are at some little distance from each other, even when the blades are closed
together ; that these ends might neither prick nor pinch the coats of the bladder.
Fig. 6, is the new canula. a, the neck, which is to be embraced by the neck
of the bladder, b, the swelling, which is to be within the neck of the bladder.
c, the head, which is to be in the cavity of this organ, together with its wide
openings, d, the style or sound of this canula.
Fig. 7, the same canula improved, as its end b, which M. le Cat names in-
troductor, is screwed on the canula a at c, and is unscrewed by means of the
structure of this introductor.
Fig. 8, The introductor separated from the canula. a, a wire or rod of steel,
which supports the end of the introductor, and ser\'es to unscrew it from the
canula. b, the extremity of the introductor, which ought to be made of silver,
cc, elastic steel plates or blades. These plates have on the inside of their edge a
female screw, which enters on a male screw of the outside of the end of the ca-
nula. Their springiness makes' them separate when the introductor is mounted
on the canula ; and by this widening asunder they leave the openings or eyes of
d, d, fig. 6, 7. But when they are unscrewed, they close together, as appears
in fig. 8, whereby this end becomes slender enough to pass through the canula,
through which this part of the instrument is drawn out, when the canula is placed
in its situation ; which is the intent of this structure ; for by this means the outlet
becomes larger, and the excrescences cannot be fretted.
Fig. 9. The canula stripped of the part above described, a, its funnel or tube
and wide straight orifice ; in which consists the improvement of this last canula,
which he had principally in view in the rectification of the first.
XLFI. An Account of the Chmamon-tree.* By W. Watson, F.R.S. p. 301.
Mr. W. laid before the r. s. a specimen of the bark and wood of the cinnamon-
tree, nearly of the length and size of an ordinary walking-cane, transmitted from
Mr. Benjamin Robins, in India, to Dr. Letherland. And in order to convey to
thern at the same time a yet more perfect idea of the tree itself Mr. W. sent
with it a small branch of this valuable plant from his own hortus siccus.
* Lauras Cinnamonmm, Liiir.
VOL. X. F K
•218 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO IJSJ.
Cinnamon in the stick is a great curiosity, and seldom seen in Euroi^e. Clu-
sius tells us, that he saw 1 specimens of it. Anciently indeed it was often brought
in this manner, viz. with the bark surrounding the wood ; and it is believed by
authors of very great credit, that the wood, not divested of its bark, as we now
see it, or the bark stripped from the wood, was called by different names. And
notwithstanding the various controversies, which have arisen in endeavouring to
fix properly these various terms, it appeared to the late Mr. Ray, that our cin-
namon, the cinnamon of the ancients, and the cassia lignea of the ancients, were
quite or nearly the same thing ; and that they only had their difference from the
soil in which they were produced, or from the circumstances under which they
were brought. Thus the younger branches of the tree with their bark covering
them, were called by the Greek writers jtin-ajawjuoi/, cinnamomum, and sometimes
guAoxao-ia, Or cassia lignea ; but when they were divested of their bark, which, by its
being dried became tubular, this bark was denominated )ta(ri'a c-vpiy^, or cassia fis-
tula. But as, in process of time, the wood of this tree was found useless, they
stripped the bark from it, and brought that only, which custom prevails at this day.
Both Theophrastus and Pliny mention a very odd, and doubtless a fabulous
account of the manner of separating the bark from the wood. They say, that it
is cut into short pieces, and sewed up in a fresh hide ; and that then the worms
produced by the putrefaction of the hide destroy the woody part, and leave the
bark untouched. However the cinnamon, or cassia cinnamomea of Herman,
the cassia lignea, and cassia fistula of the ancient Greek writers, might approach
near each other, they were applied by the modems to very different substances.
By cinnamon is now always understood that only produced in Ceylon ; by cassia
lignea, the cinnamon of Sumatra, Java, and Malabar, much inferior in every
respect to the former, though nearly agreeing with it in appearance, and not at
all woody, as the appellation seems to insinuate ; and by cassia fistula, a fruit
not described or used by the ancient Greeks, and agreeing with it in no one
particular, only that both are vegetable productions : great care should be taken
therefore that this confusion is not productive of error.
Burman, in his Thesaurus Zeylanicus, takes notice of his being in possession
of 9 different sorts of cinnamon of Ceylon ; the most excellent of which is that
which is called by the inhabitants rasse coronde, and is what is most usually
brought to Europe.
What we now call cinnamon, is only produced in Ceylon, of which the states
of Holland are in possession ; and 59 jealous are they of this tree, which affords
so valuable an article of commerce, that the fruit or young plants are forbidden
by an order of state to be sent thence, lest other powers might avail themselves
of it. And this they have been hitherto successful enough to keep to them-
selves ; though in Ceylon, according to Mr. Ray, the cinnamon-tree grows as
common in the woods and hedges, as the hazel with us, nor is of greater esteem
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 219
with the inhabitants than other wood, but is usai by them as fuel, and applied
to other ilomestic purposes. Probably the prohibition of sending cinnamon-trees
from Ceylon is of no long standing, as Paul Herman, who resided there some
time, and was after his return chosen professor of botany at Leyden, tells us, in
his Hortus Lugduni-Batavus, published in l687, that he sent several of these
trees to some considerable persons in Holland, and that they continued also as
well in the gardens of others, as in his own, for 2 or 3 years, and were killed
by a severe winter. Mr. W. was credibly informed, that 3 of these trees in pots
were presented to the late King William, by whom they were placed in the
garden at Hampton-court, and were intended to be sent to Jamaica, as a country
proper for their increase, under the care of the earl of Inchiquin, who was then
going thither as governor. But for want of attention these trees were left be-
hind ; and as the knowledge of hot-houses, as we now see them, was unknown,
and the state of gardening otherwise extremely low, these invaluable trees were
suffered to die here ; whereas had they been planted in some of our islands in
America between the tropics, in all probability before this time we might have
been supplied from them, and large sums been annually saved to the public, as
great quantities of cinnamon are consumed in diet and medicine.
XLVII, Observations and Experiments on Animal Bodies, Digested in a Philo-
sophical Analysis, or Inquiry into the Cause of Voluntary Muscular Motion.
By Charles Morton* M. D., F. R. S. p. 305.
The author of this paper is led by the experiments to which he refers, and the
arguments he employs, to the following conclusions : viz. that a muscle being
given, in its natural state, in a living animal body, the blood, which is present
in every part of its contracting substance, and which, in effect, to the sense of
the given muscle, (which is occasionally rendered more acute) puts on an in-
* Dr. Charles Morton was bom in Westmorland, about the year 17 16, and was a practising' ph}'-
sician at Kendal in 1745. In 1744' he married Miss Mary Berkeley, niece of I^dy Betty Germaine.
His second wife was Lady Saville, mother of Sir Geo. S., to whom he was married in 1772, and who
died Feb. 1791. The latter part of the same year, when he was 75 years of age, he married his third
wife. Miss Eliz. Pratt, a near relation of Lady Saville. And he died at his apartments in the British
Museum in Feb. 1799, being about S3 years of age. In 1751 Dr. M. was admitted a licentiate of
the College of Physicians ; and on the establishment of the British Museum in 1756", he was appointed
under librarian of the M.S. and medal department; and in \7Tt), he succeeded Dr. Maty as principal
librarian, which he enjoyed till his death. In 176O he succeeded Peter Duval as Secretary to the
R. s., which situation he resigned in 1774, when he was succeeded by Dr. Horsley, now the learned
Bishop of St. Asaph. Dr. M. has only 2 papers in the Philos. Trans, viz. that above abstracted, and
another in vol. 59, on a supposed connection between the writing of ancient Egypt and China. In
1759 he published an improved edition of Dr. Barnard's engraved Table of Alphabets. And, in
1772, Whitlockes Journal of the Swedish Embassy in l6'53, l654. Dr. M. was a man of a sweet
and amiable disixwition, of great uprightness and integrity, and much admired as a scholar.
F V 2
220 PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. [aHNO 175>.
creased heat, and again lays it down at the command of the will, is the immediate
mechanical cause, by which the muscle does instantly contract, and is again re-
laxed, at the command of the will.
^Tience it would appear that muscular voluntary motion is performed merely
as a sensation, (Hartley Conjecturae de Sensu, &c.) extremely acute, and under
the nicest management of the will ; which explains its velocity in a great measure.
^LVllI. An Account of the Eruption of Mount Fesuvius, Jrom its first Be-
ginning to the 28th of October 1751, in a Letter from Mr. R. Supple, p. 315.
TTiis communication is rendered unnecessary, 6rom a more particular account
being grven at p. !245 of this volume.
XL IX. Of the Lunar Eclipse which happened Nov. 21, 1751 ; observed by Mr.
James Short, F. R. S. in Surry-street. p. 317.
The weather was exceedingly tempestuous, and the sky overcast with clouds,
80 that the following times cannot be depended on to less than 2 minutes.
Penumbra very visible at 7^ 58" 0»
Beginning of the eclipse at. 8 6 O
End of the eclipse at 11 6 O
The quantity of this eclipse seemed about the middle to be larger than accord-
ing to all the tables.
The Transit of the moon over the meridian.
Preceding limb passed the meridian at 12'' 5" 18*
Subsequent limb passed the meridian at 12 7 50
Mr. Pound observed a similar eclipse at Wanstead, just two sarotic periods
before this, and has described it in the Philos. Trans. N° 347, and makes the
following remark, " This eclipse is the more considerable, as happening very
near the moon's perigee, and therefore usefld to veri^' her anomaly ; as also to
limit the greatest diameter of the shadow of the earth, and consequently the pa
rallax of the moon. This may be very properly compared with that of the 19th
of October 1697, whose middle was at 7"^ -Al" p. m. at London, and the quantity
the same as now."
It may be added to Mr. Pound's remark above, that this eclipse happened
nearer to the moon's perigee, than that which he observed in the year 1715,
and therefore more proper for verifying the moon's anomaly, and limiting the
greatest diameter of the shadow of the earth.
L. A Letter from the Reverend Father Augustin Hallerstein, of the Society of
Jesus, Pres. of the Astron. Col. at Pehin in China, to Dr. Mortimer, Sec. R. S.
Dated Pekin, Sept. 18, N. S. 1750. p. 31 9.
This letter contains no real or usefiil information ; but only complaints of the
missionaries' vrant of means and instruments and information, &c
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 221
LI. On Hernias with Sacks. By Mons. le Cat, F. R.S. Jrom the French, by
Tho. Stack, M. D., F. R. S., p. 324.
A Hernia by Rupture, having nevertheless a Sack. — In giving a private course
of operations to his English pupils, on the body of a lad of 18 years old, M. le
Cat discovered this hernia. The aponeurosis of the musculus obliquus extemus
ran over the whole tumor, and entirely covered it. At the anterior and lateral
internal part of this tumor was the ring lengthened into the shape of a perpen-
dicular button-hole ; which had nothing to close it but a cellular lamina, which
covered all this bag, being a continuation of the cellular membrana adiposa.
Through this button-hole appeared the cellular coat, with which the peritonaeum
furnishes the spermatic vessels. The intestine occupied the rest of this bag ; and
at the bottom was contained the testicle, which consequently had never taken
the way of the ring to come out of the belly, as it usually does ; but having
passed on one side, it had gradually pushed out the aponeurosis of the musculus
obliquus extemus ; and the intestine having followed it, and broke the true la-
mina of the peritonaeum, they had in concert formed this elongation. At least
this is the most natural explanation he could give of this singularity. That the
testicles are originally in the belly, is a fact sufficiently known. He had dis-
sected foetuses, in which he found them there, near the bladder. It is pretty
common to feel them in the rings in children ; and he had found them there
even in lads of upwards of 20 years old.
A Hernia having Tico Sacks. — Continuing the above-mentioned course, he
lOund in the body of a bachelor of 48 years of age, a rupture with a double
herniary sack, the first of which was formed by the expansion of the aponeurosis
of the obliquus extemus, as in the preceding observation, excepting that this
expansion was only on the outer side, that the ring was in its usual place, that
the bottom of the bag formed by this expansion had some empty spaces, where
the expansion was wanting. In short, the bag was neither so complete, nor so
thick as that of the foregoing observation ; but on the other hand, there was a
2d bag, formed as usual by the true lamella of the peritonaeum.
Another Sort of Duplicity of the Herniary Sack. — A coachman about 65 years
of age, had a rupture of long standing, of the strangulation of which he had al-
ready cured him in 1 748. Having taken off his truss, in order to get it mended,
he was seized with strangulation the IQth of Feb. 1750. After applying all the
remedies prescribed in such cases without success, he was obliged to perform the
operation on the 21st at 8 in the evening. Having laid the bag open in the
usual manner, which contained a little watery humour, he was much surprized at
discovering within this bag a second bag, or pocket, which could be nothing
else, but either a second hemiary bag, or an incomplete hernia ; that is, a por-
tion only of one side of an intestine elongated, and come down through the ring.
The number of considerable blood-vessels on this pocket, its thickness and fibrous
222 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
texture seemed to evince the latter. But first, on pressing this bag, all its con-
tents returned into the abdomen ; 2dly, the patient assured him, even at the in-
stant, that his rupture had kept up since its reduction in 1748 ; and he found
this bag adhering, not only to the first bag, but also attached by old and strong
adherences to the testicle and spermatic vessels ; and it was impossible that this
state should be the effect of 3 days of strangulation. However, as the patient
might possibly have deceived him in his account ; and it was dangerous to open
a bag which had too near a resemblance with the gut of an incomplete hernia,
he came to a resolution, which equally suited the 2 suspected cases. He sepa-
rated the testicle and spermatic vessels from this sack, and pushed back this
pocket, or second bag, into the belly.
The patient having died on the Qth day after the operation, they found that
the pocket which had given them so much uneasiness, and which he had re-
duced into the belly, was really a herniary sack formed by the true peritonaeum ;
and therefore that the first sack must have been either an interior aponeurotic
lamina of the abdominal muscles, or the cellular membrane thickened by the
long duration of the hernia and its strangulations. The considerable thickness
of the true or second sack renders this notion very probable. He says that the
first sack must have been formed by an interior aponeurotic lamina, and not
from an exterior one, like that of the first observation ; because, in this opera-
tion, he had freed the ring, in his usual manner, above this first sack, and with-
out opening it. Then he passed the grooved catheter over this sack, under the
aponeurosis or pillar of the musculus obliquus externus : and therefore this sack
could not be a continuation of this external aponeurosis, but that of some more
inner lamina, or of the cellular membrane of the very peritonaeum, separated
from the true lamina by the serosities which they found in it.
Two other observations are subjoined :
1*/. A Natural Blind Duct, being a Production of the True Lamina of the
Peritona-um by the Rings. — In the dead body of a woman, 46 years old, he
found this duct of the thickness of a goose-quill, being a production of the true
lamina of the peritonaeum stretched out by the rings ; of which Swammerdam
and Nuck dispute the discovery, and Blancard denies the existence. What made
him discover this, was, that its extremity was widened into the shape of a bubble
as large as the top of a finger, and full of a watery humour. This woman had
never had a hernia, nor even the least tendency towards one.
2d. Strictures and Carnosities in the Urethra. — Nothing is more common at
this day than to hear people assert, that strictures and carnosities of the urethra
are mere chimeras ; that the bodies of persons, who were thought to have these
strictures and carnosities, had been opened, and that none of these had been
found. He himself has made this observation, and he inferred thence, that
there were urethras, in which a phlogosis, a fungous inflation gave occasion to
VOL. XLVH.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 223
the deception, being taken for strictures and carnosities : but if he had drawn
this general inference, that of all the urethras, where these strictures and car-
nosities are thought to be found, not one has any thing in them, he should have
been deceived, and would now make his recantation.
One of his boarders preparing to perform the operation of cutting on the dead
body of a bachelor, aged 45, the sound could not pass ; the pupil forced, and
made a false passage. Mr. le Cat opened this canal, and found, 1st, that a
simple small stile could not pass into the urethra, by pushing it from the glans
towards the prostate ; but that it passed, by pushing it from the prostate towards
the glans ; 2dly, a little before the place, where the bulb becomes less thick,
and begins to surround the urethra, that is, about a large finger's breadth from
its beginning, there was a stricture entirely like that which Dr. Willis discovered
in the upper longitudinal sinus of the dura mater ; 3dly, some few lines lower
down was a caruncle, or a fleshy firm bump, of the size of a pea ; and below this
bump, the urethra was extremely straightened ; 4thly, the basis of this camosity
formed a kind of valve, and there he found the false passage, that went into the
substance of the bulb.
LII. On the Effects of Lightning at South-Moullon in Devonshire. By Joseph
Palmer, Esq. p. 330.
On Thursday June 6, 1751, about 3 o'clock in the afternoon, (that day, and
some others before, having been extremely hot and sultry, and the wind pretty
strong in the south-east) a flash of lightning, attended with an uncommon
thunder-clap, which immediately followed or rather accompanied it, fell on the
windows and walls of the church and steeple of South-Moulton in Devon,
greatly damaging them. Many stones in the walls, &c. were broken and splin-
tered in an extraordinary manner ; also much damage done to the bells and iron
spindles, and the church clock stopped. In the adjoining fields the ground was
much torn up, as if ploughed, and an oblique hole made of about 3 feet deep.
LIIL An Improvement of the Bills of Mortality. By Mr. J. Dodson.* p. 333.
There has lately been a scheme proposed for amending the form of the bills of
mortality of London, in a pamphlet called " Observations on the Past Growth
and Present Stite of London," by Mr. Corby n Morris, who has enumerated
many excellent purposes to which it may be applied, but has omitted to mention
* Mr. Dodson was an ingenious and very industrious mathematician, and the autlior of several use-
ful books ; but we have found few or no particulars of his life. He was some time master of the
Royal Mathematical School in Christ's Hospital, London. His publications chiefly were, 1. Anti-
logarithmic Canon, folio, 1742. 2. The Calculator, a collection of useful tables, large 8vo, 174.7.
3. Mathematical Repository, being a collection of analytical questions and solutions, in 3 vols. Svo,,
Ann. 1748, 1753, 1755.
224 MilLOSOPHlCAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
that of giving a greater degree of certainty to the calculations of the values of
annuities on lives ; a benefit too considerable to be passed by silently. The pre-
sent possessors of entailed estates are, in common law, justly called tenants for
life. Marriage-settlements generally convey the reversion of a considerable part
of the bridegroom's estate to the bride, for her natural life after his decease ; to
which two things all the freehold estates in these kingdoms are liable : and if to
these be added the great number of copyholds determinable on lives ; the great
quantities of church, college, and other lands, leased on lives, and the estates
possessed by ecclesiastical persons of all degrees ; we shall find that the values of
the possessions and reversions, of much the greatest part of the real estates in
these kingdoms, will one way or other depend on the value of lives. Likewise
the incomes annexed to all places, civil and military, all pensions, and most cha-
ritable donations, are annuities for life. The interest or dividends of many per-
sonalities in the stocks have been, by the wills of their possessors, rendered of
the same kind ; besides which, there are some annuities on lives which have
been granted by the government, and have parliamentary security for their pay-
ment ; and others that have been granted by parishes, in consequence of acts of
parliament made for that purpose.
After this summary view of the extensive property, vested in annuities on lives,
it would be very easy to name a great variety of circumstances, in which the
computations of the values of 1, 2, or more lives, will become necessary to
those persons who do not chuse to have their property determined by customs
which seem to have been established merely for want of good methods of calcu-
lation.
The advantages attending the determination of those things by calculation,
rather than by custom, being therefore considered as evident, it may seem
strange that, notwithstanding many of these tenures have subsisted from the very
origin of private property in these kingdoms, yet we do not meet with so much
as an attempt towards computing their values, till that of the late justly cele-
brated Dr. Halley, by the assistance of the bills of mortality of Breslaw in Silesia,
which was soon followed by Mr. De Moivre's truly admirable hypothesis, that
the decrements of life may be esteemed nearly equal, after a certain age. It has
been the opinion of some authors, that, since his hypothesis was originally de-
rived from the Breslaw observations, it cannot be near so well adapted to the in-
habitants of these kingdoms, as what has been derived from the bills of morta-
lity of London. But this argument does not, Mr. D. conceives, appear to be
conclusive; 1st, because those bills, as hitherto kept, are not well adapted to
answer this purpose ; 2dly, because the manner in which the inhabitants of Lon-
don, and those of most of the country towns and villages, live, their occupations,
diet, and diversions, nay the very air they breathe, are as different, as those of
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 225
Lonclon and Breslaw can possibly be ; and consequently so must the times of
their dissolution. All which has been, with a great deal of clearness, evinced
by the gentleman above quoted ; 3dly, because those persons who suppose that
Mr. De Moivre's hypothesis has its foundation peculiarly in the Breslaw obser-
vations, are greatly mistaken : for Mr. D. having lately been endeavouring to
discover some further helps to the speedy valuation of lives, he found that, on
the contrary, if tlie London observations had been then in Mr. De Moivre's
hands, he might as justly have derived his hypothesis from them.
For the same thing, which Mr. De Moivre mentions, concerning the equal
annual decrease in a certain number of persons, happens in the table of the Lon-
don observations ; and the like happens in other instances, to be met with in the
London observations, as published by different authors. Add to this, that
having calculated the value of an annuity on a life of 10 years of age, by both
tables, and also by the hypothesis, Mr. D. finds it to turn out thus :
By the Breslaw tables of observations 17-7237 years purchase.
By supposing the decrements of life equal. . . , 16.8814
By the London tables of observations , 16.3907
From which there seems to be some reason to conclude, that the hypothesis
(as it gives an answer less than the Breslaw, and greater than the London obser-
vations) may be the best method of the three. And it is further remarkable,
that the result by the hypothesis, is nearer to that by the London, than to that
by the Breslaw observations. However, if the argument for using the London
observations has any force at all, the computation of the value of each person's
life must be made from observations drawn from the bills of mortality, kept at
the place of his or her residence : and therefore it is, that Mr. D. contributes as
much as he can, to preserve a sufficient number of good bills of mortality.
There seeins to be an objection, both to the hypothesis, and to the observations ;
for it is well known that females, especially at two periods of their life, are ob-
noxious to fatal disorders not incident to the other sex, nor distinguished in the
present bills of mortality ; and consequently neither the tables of observations
nor the hypothesis (which is derived from them) will render the calculations of
the values of lives sufficiently certain ; unless there be a periodical distinction of
sexes in those bills : as it would probably appear, if such a distinction had been
introduced, that there is a wide difTerence between the values of a male and fe-
male life of the same age.
But there will be a great inconvenience, in rejecting the hypothesis, which
none of these gentlemen have remedied ; viz. the prolix and laborious compu-
tation hitherto directed for finding the values of lives from tables of observations;
whereas, by the hypothesis, as its author justly observes, more can be con-
VOL. X. G G
'226 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
eluded in a quarter of an hour, than can be performed in a quarter of a year,
by any method which the others have demonstrated. Whence it may be pre-
sumed, that the hypothesis will continue to be used, till better methods are
substituted instead of those derived from it.
When the bills of mortality digested into a proper form, shall have been kept
a convenient time in every city or considerable town, and also in every hundred,
or other proper division of the country ; then, and not till then, the hypothesis
may be tried by the facts that will appear from the bills, and be confirmed or re-
jected accordingly. Indeed Mr. D. is almost persuaded, from what has been
above remarked, that the hypothesis will, in general, appear to be the nearer the
truth, the more those bills of mortality shall be in number, and the correcter
they are kept. He proceeds therefore to mention those alterations which he
thinks may be of advantage, in the form of the bills of mortality, in every part
of these kingdoms, over and above those mentioned by Mr. Morris, in the
before-quoted pamphlet.
J . That there be a distinction made on the face of the bills of mortality,
between the persons who were born in the place where such bills were kept, and
those that were not. This will be effected with a very little trouble, if the
searchers of each parish be instructed to ask the question of the friends of the
deceased, and annex the answer to their report. This precaution will facilitate
many of the good purposes proposed by Mr. Morris ;' and particularly with re-
gard to fixing the values of lives, it will enable the persons who shall apply the
bills to calculation, to draw their conclusions only from the lives that were both
begun, and ended, in or near the same place ; the want of the possibility of
doing which is the principal objection to the London bills, as hitherto kept ; 2,
that there be a distinction, with regard both to age and disease, made on the
face of the bills, between the sexes ; and that one case be added to the list of
diseases ; viz. complaints peculiarly incident to the female sex. This will not
only solve the difficulty above started, but also answer many purposes in political
arithmetic, as well as to the sagacious physician ; 3, that a further division be
made in time ; for whereas Mr. Morris's scheme exhibits no age between 40 and
50, Mr. D. proposes, that the numbers dying between 40 and 45, and between
45 and 50, should be particularized in the bills ; the design of this being to fix
the periods that are fatal to the fair sex, with more certainty.
These alterations, together with those proposed by Mr. Morris, being made,
the yearly bill of mortality for London, will appear as in a specimen which
Mr. D. annexed, and according to which form nearly such tables are often
kept.
VOL. XLVir.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 227
Hl^. Concerning the Dissection nj a Rupture. By Mons. Le Cat. Translated
from the French, by Tho. Stacli, M. D., F. R. S. p. 341.
Mr. le Cat here mentions, that when he sent the remarks on the singular
hernia of Catherine Guillematre, (Phil. Trans. N". 46o) he had already made
some fruitless attempts to cure her, but had not then lost all hopes of success.
He imagined, that a long use of emollient cataplasms might restore suppleness
to the intestine which constantly kept out of the belly, and was turned inside
out, because it was the portion continuous to the cascum, colon, rectum, and
anus, which could be of no use, but much incommoded the patient by this ex-
traordinary situation. But all his trials were of no avail, though they were car-
ried so far as to render this gut quite bloody : its long exposure to the air made
it become too thick and hard ; and at the same time so robust or insensible,
that all these vigorous applications made no bad impression on the rest of the
animal economy. In fine, Catherine Guillematre quitted the hospital without
any other benefit but that of having afforded M. le Cat and his colleagues an
opportunity of instructing themselves.
From that time he had no news of this woman till the 6th of May, 1750;
when he was informed, that her body actually lay in the dead ward, and that
she died in the hospital of old age and a broken constitution, as much as of
any disease.
He was extremely curious to embrace this opportunity of having ocular de-
monstration of the probable conjecture, which he had made in this woman's life-
time, and a confirmation of his having solved the enigma arising from this sin-
gular hernia ; which, on opening the body, was accordingly confirmed.
Lf^. //« Account of Dr. BohadscKs Treatise, communicated to the Royal So-
ciety, entitled Dissertatio Philosophico-Medica de Utililate Electrisationis in
Curandis Morbis, printed at Prague., 175 J . Extracted and translated from the
Latin by Mr. Wm. fVatson, F.R.S. p. 345.
The author of this treatise, Dr. Bohadsch, was a Bohemian, a very learned
gentleman, who, while he was in England about 2 years before, was frequently
at the meetings of the r. s., and was very conversant with, and much esteemed
by many of that body, from whom he received very great civilities. He was
more particularly taken notice of by his grace the late Duke of Richmond, whose
loss we yet lament.
This treatise, from its title, promises only an account of the advantages of
electrization in medicine: but this is not the whole of which it treats ; it exhibits
also a series of observations of the effects of electricity on both solid and fluid
bodies, on animals in a state of health, as well as on the distempered.
GO 2
/
228 PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
Our author first takes notice that electricity, being continued for some hours,
lessens the weight of the body electrified. He exemplifies this first on fluid
bodies ; two equal portions of which, before electrizing, he accurately weighs ;
and then the diflference between these 2 portions, one of which has been electrized
between 4 and 5 hours, and the other, though in the same room, not electrized
at all, is attributed to the operation of the electric eflfluvia, viz. 4 oz. of river
water exposed in a glass vessel of 4 inches diameter were electrized 5 hours, and
lost in their weight 8 grains. But 4 oz of river water, in the same kind of glass,
but not electrized, lost in the same time only 3 grains. And so of other fluids,
less or more. Also each lost more by electrizing in a tin vessel, than in a glass
one. When the vessels were narrower, all the fluids lost proportionally less.
And when the opening was nothing, or close stopped, the evaporation was no
thing by electrization.
Hence our author concludes, 1 . That electricity augments the natural evapo
ration of liquors, unless those of a viscous kind, as oil of olives, which from
their tenacity lose nothing of their weight. 2. That electricity increases the
evaporation of liquors in proportion as they are more or less volatile. 3. That
electricity operates most in those vessels, which are most permeable to its efliu-
via, viz. in vessels of metal more than those of glass. 5. That the effects of
electrizing are not observed in vessels closely stopped.
He afterwards put to the trial several substances of a more solid form. And
from these experiments he observes, that the electricity diminishes the weight of
solid bodies, only if these are impregnated with humours liable to evaporate : and
therefore it is only on the fluids in them that the electricity operates.
Dr. B. then exhibits some experiments made by persons of credit, to discover,
whether electricity would accelerate the growth of plants ; and from several trials
he found that it did. There then follows a series of experiments, which prove,
that electricity augments the transpiration of animals. He proceeds to give a
theory of those distempers in which electricity seems to have the greatest eflects.
He confines himself however more particularly to the hemiplegia ; of which dis-
temper he gives the history, corresponding with what we find in the best medical
writers. He likewise gives the usual method of cure, and shows that the at-
tempts of relieving this malady by electricity, nearly square intentionally with the
remedies most celebrated in practice. That the electrical sparks and commotion
produce the same efifect, though in a more powerful manner, as warm sulphu-
reous baths, frictions, sinapisms, stinging with nettles, &c. generally made use
of in the cure of this distemper. This reasoning does very well in theory ; but
Mr. W. would have been glad to have seen it justified by practice, and his own
observations. But instead of these, our author contents himself with giving over
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 229
again the lying stories of Pivati, &c. He finishes this dissertation, by deducing
several conclusions from what he has premised, which are as follow :
1. That electricity may be advantageously applied to medicinal purposes. 2.
That it augments the natural transpiration of animals. 3. That this acceleration
of transpiration in men is through the exhaling capillary vessels, and not through
the subcutaneous glands. 4. That the nervous fluid may be called the electrical
fluid. 5. That the nerves subservient to sensation are not different from those
subservient to motion. 6. That the immediate cause of the hemiplegia is the
immeability of the nervous fluid through the nerves. 7. That of all other dis-
tempers the hemiplegia seems most properly the object of electricity. 8. That
it may be of use also in intermitting fevers. Q. That a palsy in the left side of
the body is owing to the right side of the brain, and vice versa. 10. That anger,
the parent of immerous evils, is sometimes useful to paralytics. ] 1. That as long
as the paralytic limbs are rigid, it is an argument, that the bursal ligaments of
the joints, and the sheaths of the tendons, are deficient in the fluid adapted by
nature for their lubrication. 12. That every species of palsy does not arise from •
the nerves being either obstructed or compressed.
Lf^I. Of a Horizontal Top. invented by Mr. Serson By Mr. James Short,
F.R.S. p. 352.
, The horizontal top, the invention of Mr. Serson, who was unfortunately lost
in his majesty's ship the Victory, is pretty well known. This ingenious person
found, that when this top is set a going in the proper way, its upper side, which
is polished, about 2 minutes after it was set up, moved in such a manner, as to
give a true horizontal plane ; and that this plane was not at all disturbed by any
motion or inclination you give the box, in which it is placed, and therefore might
be proper to be used aboard a ship ; by which means seamen might be enabled to
take the altitude of the sun or stars, in order to find their latitude, even though
they cannot see the horizon in thick hazy weather. Some gentlemen were of
opinion, that the air had some share in the cause of this horizontality. Mr.
Short therefore applied to Mr. Smeaton, who had the best air-pump he ever saw,
all of his own invention and construction. Having set the top a going, they put
a receiver over it, and immediately exhausted the air. By repeated trials it had
been found that the top, when set a going in the open air, played or spun during
the space of 35 minutes of time, from the instant of its being set up till it had
lost the circular motion : but they found, that in the exhausted receiver it playal
or spun during the space of 2 hours \6 minutes, preserving a perfect horizontality
for the space of 4 of an hour ; and therefore, that the air has no share at all in
the cause of its horizontality, but that the air is a great impediment to its
motion.
230 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
LVII. Observations made in going up the Peak ofTeneriffe. By Dr. Thomas
Heberden, and communicated by IVm. Heberden, M.D., F.R.S. p. 353.
At 1 o'clock in the afternoon they set out from the villa or town of Orotava,
about 6 leagues distant from the peak of Teneriffe. The weather was cloudy ;
and before they had travelled quite a league, they found themselves surrounded
by a very thick mist or fog, which lasted about a league : all which time they
travelled among gardens and woods of pine-trees, after which they came to an
open country ; the soil very dry ; here and there a single pine-tree, and some
few Spanish broom-plants ; some loose stones, as large as a butt ; others, which
seemed to have been burned, and are supposed to be cast out from the volcano
of the peak. The sky very clear, and the thick mist, which they had passed
through, now seemed a sea of ash-coloured clouds below them. Having tra-
velled 1 leagues on this soil, they arrived at 8 o'clock in the evening at the Falda
del Pico, or foot of the peak. Here they we;-e obliged to leave their horses ; the
road, by reason of its steepness and loose sandy soil, being impassable to them.
At half a league's distance they baited under some large rocks, called La Estancia
de los Ingleses, or the English baiting-place, being first used as such by some of
our countrymen in ascending the peak. Here they rested all night, making
fires to temper the air, which they found very cold. When the morning drew
near, they proceeded on their journey, ascending for a quarter of a leao-ue the
same soil (but more steep and loose) till they arrived at some large rocks of mal-
payses (or stone burnt by a volcano) ; among which, as the ground was more
firm, they walked with less trouble, or rather climbed, being frequently obliged
to make use of their hands to help them forward. Having gone about a quarter
of a league in this manner, they arrived at the famous cave of Teyde. It is sur-
rounded on all sides (or rather buried) with large mal-payses, orvolcanian rocks,
between which you discover the entrance about 6 feet high, and 4 feet wide.
The cave seems to be about 15 feet wide at the entrance; the extremity they
could not discover. From its entrance to the surface of the water, which covers
the bottom, seems to be about 12 or 14 feet. The top and sides of the cave are
of smooth stone. The bottom is covered with ice or snow ; above which is a
body of water about half a yard deep. This cave is the grand reservoir of snow
of the island, whence they are supplied, when their common reservoirs, which
they prepare for cooling their liquors, fail them.
At somewhat more than a quarter of a league's distance from the cave, they
came to a plain of sand ; from the middle of which arises a yellowish pyramid of
sand or cinders, which the inhabitants call La Pericosa, and we the Sugar-loaf;
around the base of which perspire vapours incessantly. The sugar-loaf is about
an 8th part of a league to the top, which \%. very difficult of ascent, occasioned
VOL. XLVII.] VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 231
by the loose soil, and steepness of the road. About 8 o'clock, in the morning
they gained the summit or caldera. It is about 12 or 15 feet deep: the sides,
sloping down to the bottom, form a concavity, or crater, resembling a truncated
cone, with its base uppermost. The crater seems nearly circular; its diameter
about 40 fathom. The ground is very hot; and from near 20 spiracula, as from
so many chinmeys, \ou perceive a smoke or vapour of a strong sulphureous
smell. The whole soil seems mixed or powdered with brimstone, which forms a
beautiful coloured surface.
One of the rocks forms a sort of vault or nich ; against which the vapour con
densing produces what the inhabitants call azufre de gota, or drop brimstone.
The nich, against which the vapour is condensed, is of a greenish colour, spark
ling with yellow like gold. The same colour you perceive on almost all the
stones thereabout. A small part of the Sugar-loaf is white like lime ; and there
is another less part, whose internal substance seems a sort of red clay, and whose
superticies is covered with a salt.
In the middle of one of the rocks was a hole, about 2 fingers breadth in dia-
meter, whence proceeded a noise like a great body of liquor boiling very strongly;
and one of the company burnt his hand by applying it to the spiraculum at 4 of
a yard distance. This Sugar-loaf is covered with snow the greatest part of the
year. The snow was lying on it from October 1742 to June 1743.
The different accounts of various authors concerning the height of this famous
peak would have induced one less inquisitive than Mr. H. to satisfy his curiosity,
by examining its real altitude : for which end, between 3 and 4 o'clock in the
afternoon of a very serene day, when not a cloud appeared, either on the sum-
mit, or in the whole atmosphere, (to prevent any accidental refraction) having
pitched on a plain along the sea-side for a horizontal stand, and measuring tri-
gonometrically a base sufficiently corresponding to the angles with the greatest
accuracy, he observed the height to be 2566 fathoms, or 3 miles, wanting
only 74 fathoms. Two subsequent observations by himself, as well as 2 ante-
cedent ones some years before by John Crosse, Esq. the British consul, served
only to confirm his opinion of the justness of this observation.
Though the body of the mountain is covered with clouds, the peak is gene-
rally seen above them quite clear ; but sometimes the contrary happens ; the
whole body of the mountain without a cloud, and only the summit of the peak
covered with a thick white cloud, as with a cap. This is often observed in the
finest weather ; when the Spaniards say, El Pico tiene su sombrerillo puesto ; i. e.
• The Peak has put his little hat on ;' and think it a certain sign of rain.
During 6 or 7 years, that Dr. H. lived in the villa of Oratava, as he had a
continual sight of the peak, he several times observed the above phenomenon,
and did not remember one instance in which the prediction of rain failed.
232
PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS.
[anno 1751.
LFIIl. Observations of the Weather in Madeira, made by Dr. Thos. Heberden,
and communicated by Wm. Heberden, M.D., F.R.S. p. 357.
The thermometrical observations are made with Fahrenheit's thermometer,
and the calculations deduced from 2 observations daily ; at 7 o'clock in the morn-
ing, and at 3 in the afternoon. The same method of calculation is to be under-
stood of the barometer. The rain fell through a funnel J 5 inches in diameter.
The Lestc, Levant, or hot winds, are very troublesome. The remedy is, to
keep within doors. October 1749, comparing 2 of Fahrenheit's thermometers
together, one of them exposed on the north side of his house to the open air,
the other within doors, the difference was as follows:
Hour,
Lest6, Oct, 20, 10, 12, 4
Madeira, Anno 1749.
Therm, within-doors.
73, 7^, 77
Therm, exposed to the air.
81,82,77
Anno 1750.
Barometer.
1 Thermometer.
Barometer.
Thermometer. |
Mean
Greatest
' Least
M. H.
G. H
L. H.
Mean
Greatest
Least
M- H-
G. H
L H
Height.
Height
Height.
Height.
Height.
Height.
Jan.
29.195
29-8
29.4
64.
68
62
Feb.
29.692
2975
29-5
63.8
Gl
61
March
29.81
30.2
29.8
64.66
70
61
29.12
29.65
29-3
66.5
71
61
April
30.075
30.2
I29.8
60.7
68
64
29285
29.4
29.1
66.45
68
65
May
2955
30.1
29.6
66.53
ii9
65
29-775
299
29-5
66.25
68
65
June
30.017
30.15
29.75
68.75
72
64
29.875
30.1
29-5
69.06
72
6
July
30.027
30.1
2995
74.58
75
72
29.887
29-95
29-8
73.
75
71
Aug.
30.013
30.1
29.95
75.07
77
74
29.386
30.1
29-75
75.4
78
72
Sept.
30.054
30.15
29.85
76.53
78
72
29.915
30.05
29-7
74.93
77
72
Oct.
29.841
30.
29.7
72.2
77
68
'29797
29-9
29-5
73.87
77
70
Nov.
29.68
30.
29.55
68.6
73
I37
29.875
30.05
29-55
70.825
76
67
Dec.
29.675
29-9
129.4.
164.9
68
62
29-843
30.2
29.7
66.27
74
64
An Account of the quantity of Rain, which has fallen in the Island of Madeira.
The Years 1749 and 1750, were such
dry years, that the corn was destroyed, and
the fruit-trees suffered much, particularly
the peach-trees, the fruit either falling to
the ground while green, or, if it remained
longer on the tree, being full of white
worms.
Anno 1747.
1748.
1749.
1750.
Inch Dec.
Inch Dec.
Inch Dec.
Inch Dec.
January
20.525
8.600
2.097
7.150
February
.485
10.958
1.203
1.771
March
4.339
5.241
932
1.123
April
.528
.722
.777
.039
May
.353
5.290
1.087
June
1.321
.420
.113
.226
July
.200
.176
August
.018
2.700
.003
September
.540
.810
.855
1.682
October
.010
3.303
1.512
6.601
November
5.181
2.654
3.059
5.611
December
7.351
1.500
6.527
1.882
Totals
40.851
37.508
22.365
27.351
VOL. XLVII.T PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 233
LIX. Extract of a Letter from Mr. fVillem Fan Hazen to Mr. Philip Miller,
F.R.S. concerning the Quantity of Rain, which fell at Leyden in the Year
1751. p. 360.
During the course of the year 1751, it rained at Leyden no less than l63 days ;
and the quantity of rain which fell was 4 ] inches.
LX. Of a Double Child. By Thomas Percival, Esq. p. 36o.
This uncommon child was born January 1732, at Hebus near Middleton, 5
miles from Manchester. The child, or children if they may be so called, are
both females. The one is a perfect healthy looking fine girl. The imperfect
one adheres to the perfect one by the cartilago ensiformis, by a cartilaginous
substance 4 inches in circumference. The body seems to be of a soft fleshy sub-
stance of very little regularity : it has no head nor neck, nor any respiration :
from the upper parts of its body come out two short arms. , On the right, which
is the longer, are 4 fingers, but no thumb ; on the left, which is very short, its hand
is very deficient, and on it are only 2 fingers. The thighs, legs, and feet, are the
most perfect, though the legs have only one bone in them. It has no vertebrae of
the back or loins. The os sacrum, as well as the os pubis, imperfectly ossified. All
its joints are very rigid and stiff. It has no anus, but passes off its water in the
natural way. Its sternum is very imperfect ; and it has no clavicula. It seems
insensible of pain, not removing its arms or legs, if laid in an uneasy posture.
LXI. On the Phenomena of Electricity in Vacuo. By Mr. fVm. ffatson,
F.R.S. p. 362.
From a comparison of experiments in electricity made in vacuo, with those
already made in open air, it appears that our atmosphere, when dry, is the agent
by which, with the assistance of other electrics per se, we were enabled to accu-
mulate electricity in and upon non-electrics ; that is to communicate to them a
greater quantity of electricity than these bodies naturally have. That, on the
removal of the air, the electricity pervades the vacuum to a considerable distance,
and manifests its effects on any non-electric substances, which terminate that
vacuum ; and that by these means, originally-electric bodies, even in their most
perfect state, put on the appearance of non-electrics, by becoming themselves the
conductors of electricity.
The experiments treated of in this paper must be considered to have been made
in a vacuum by Mr. Smeaton's air-pump, that rarefies lOOO times. The elec-
trical machine, with its prime conductor, need here no particular description ;
but that of the glass, in which the vacuum was made, should be more minutely
VOL. X. H H
234 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
considered. It consisted of a glass tube nearly 3 feet in length, and of almost
3 inches in diameter. A ring of brass, exactly fitting this tube, was cemented
to both its extremities, into each of which was screwed a hollow brass cap, nearly
of an hemispherical figure. Into the top of one of these caps was adapted a brass
box of oiled leathers, through which was admitted a slender brass rod of a length
sufiicient to reach within 8 inches of the other extremity of the tube. Into the top
of the other brass cap was fastened a brass rod, like the former, only of 8 inches in
length. Thus the extremity of one of these brass rods might at pleasure, with-
out letting in the air, be made to touch the other ; and for the better observing
what difference in effect would arise from an increase of surface, a small brass
circular plate was made to screw into each of these extremities. The intent of
being able to bring the extremities of these rods near together, and to separate
them again to what distance you pleased, was, that it might without difficulty
be determined, whether, and to what distance, the electrical fluid would ma-
nifest itself in vacuo, farther than in air of the same density with the external.
The tube then thus fitted, and made dry both within and without, was placed
in a cylinder of brass, of about 2 inches long, and of a diameter just sufficient to
admit the brass cap before mentioned ; and round the rim of this brass cylinder,
to prevent the ingress of air, was adapted a narrow piece of wet leather. These
being placed on the plate of the air-pump, which stood upon cakes of wax, a
piece of wire passed from the prime conductor to the long brass rod, at the other
extremity of the tube, and by these means, on setting the electrical machine in
motion, the long brass rod in the tube was electrified. When the brass plate at
the bottom of this rod was placed near, or even at the distance of 2 inches from
the plate of the other rod, the brushes of electrical fire were seen passing from
the periphery of the upper plate to that of the lower, and every part of the air
pump snapped on the touch of any one standing on the floor, and gave the other
usual signs of the accumulation of electricity. But, as these plates were made
to recede from each other, this effect grew less and less ; so that when they were
removed 5 or 6 inches from each other, no snaps could be drawn from the air-
pump ; as the dissipation of the electric fluid was now as easy from every part of
of the prime conductor, as from the upper brass plate in the tube.
On exhausting this tube, and electrizing as before, the air-pump still standing
upon cakes of wax, the electrical fire was not only seen to pass from one plate to
the other at the distance of 5 inches, but the same effect ensued at the greatest
distance, to which in the tube the brass plates could be drawn. Being therefore
desirous to see a further effect, and to avail himself of the whole length of this
tube, Mr. W. took from the inside of it the short brass rod, to which the lower
brass plate was fixed, and fastened this plate at the very bottom of the tube into
V.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 235
the cap. The consequence was, that the electricity, meeting with scarcely any
resistance, passed from the top to the bottom of the tube, and electrized the air-
pump as before : and it was a most delightful spectacle, when the room was dark-
ened, to see the electricity in its passage; to be able to observe, not, as in the
open air, its brushes or pencils of rays an inch or 2 in length, but here the co-
ruscations were of the w hole length of the tube between the plates ; viz. 32
inches, and of a bright silver hue. These did not immediately diverge as in the
open air, but frequently, from a base apparently flat, divided themselves into less
and less ramifications, and resembled very much the most lively coruscations of
the aurora borealis.
At other times, when the tube has been exhausted in the most perfect man-
ner, the electricity has been seen to pass between the brass plates in one con-
tinued stream of the same dimensions throughout its whole length ; and this,
with a subsequent observation, seems to demonstrate, that the cause of that very
powerful repulsion of the particles of electrical fire one to the other, which we
see in open air, is more owing to the resistance of the air than to any natural
tendency of the electricity itself; as we observe that its brushes from blunt bodies,
when the electricity is strong, diverge so much, as to form, when seen in the
dark, an almost spherical figure. This figure seems therefore to arise from the
electricity's endeavouiing to insinuate itself between the particles of air. The
figure that an elastic fluid of less density must form, when let loose, and equably
compressed by one more dense and more elastic, must necessarily approach to
that of a sphere.
On admitting a very small quantity of air into the tube, these phenomena dis-
appeared ; not so much from the small quantity of air admitted, as from the
vapours which insinuated themselves with it. These lined the sides of the glass,
and conducted the electricity imperceptibly from one end of the tube to the
other. These experiments seem to evince, that however great the vacuum
could be made, the electrical coruscations would pervade it through its whole
length.
Hence it appears that our atmosphere, when dry, is the agent by which we
are enabled to accumulate electricity on non-electrics: as in the experiment
before us, on the removal of it, the electricity passed off into the floor through
a vacuum, of the greatest length we have hitherto been able to make, became
visible in this vacuum, and manifested itself by its effects on the air-pump, being
the non-electric substance, which terminated that vacuum ; whereas, when the
air is not taken away, the dissipation of the electricity is from every part of the
prime conductor. We see here also, contrary to what we have found hitherto,
that an originally-electric body, viz. a dry glass tube, puts on the appearance of
HH 2
236 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO]751.
a noii-electric, by becoming itself the conductor of electricity, that is, by its
keeping out the air, and suffering the electricity to pervade the vacuum.
Mr. W. was desirous of knowing, for the further illustration of his proposi-
tions, whether the Leyden experiment could be made through the vacuum. For
this purpose he made the before-mentioned exhausted tube part of the circuit, so
necessary to this experiment. In this experiment it is absolutely necessary that
the whole quantity, or nearly so, of the accumulated electricity, should be dis-
charged in the same instant of time. Accordingly on making the experiment,
at the instant of the explosion, a mass of very bright embodied fire was seen to
jump from one of the brass plates in the tube to the other ; but this did not
take place when one of the plates was farther distant from the other than 10
inches. When the distance was greater, the fire then began to diverge, and lose
part of its force ; and this force diminished in proportion to its divergency, which
was nearly as the distance of the 2 plates.
The difficulty however of applying the Torricellian vacuum to these experi-
ments has been happily got over by Lord Charles Cavendish, our worthy vice-
president. This noble lord, who to a very complete knowledge of the sciences
joins that of the arts, and whose zeal for the promotion of true philosophy is
exceeded by none, has applied it in the following manner, and his lordship put
his apparatus into Mr. W.'s hands. This apparatus consisted of a cylindrical
glass tube of about -^ of an inch in diameter, and of 7-^ feet in length, bent
somewhat like a parabola in such a manner, that 30 inches of each of its extre-
mities were nearly straight, and parallel to each other, from which an arch
sprung, which was likewise of 30 inches. This tube was carefully filled with
mercury ; and each of its extremities being put into its basin of mercury, so
much of the mercury ran out, until, as in common barometrical tubes, it was
in equilibrio with the atmosphere. Each of the basins containing the mercury
was of wood, and was supported by a cylindrical glass of about 4 inches in dia-
meter, and 6 inches in length ; and these glasses were fastened to the bottom of
a square wooden frame, so contrived, as that to its top was suspended by silk
lines the bent tube filled with mercury ; so that the whole of this apparatus with-
out inconvenience might be moved together. The Torricellian vaccuum then
occupied a space of about 30 inches. In making the experiment, when the room
was darkened, a wire from the prime conductor of the common electrical ma-
chine communicated with one of the basins of mercury, and any non-electric
touching the other basin, while the machine was in motion, the electricity per-
vaded the vacuum in a continued arch of lambent flame, and as far as the eye.
could follow it, without the least divergency.
That the electricity was not furnished from the glasses employed in these ope-
A OL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, 237
rations, nor from the circumambient air, Mr. W. had heretofore, in his com-
munications on this subject, endeavoured to evince. He had shown, that elec-
tricity is the effect of a very subtil and elastic fluid, occupying all bodies in con-
tact with the terraqueous globe: and that every where, in its natural state, it is
of the same degree of density; and that glass and other bodies, which we deno-
minate electrics per se, have the power, by certain known operations, of taking
this fluid from one body, and conveying it to another, in a quantity sufficient to
be obvious to all our senses ; and that, under certain circumstances, it was pos-
sible to render the electricity in some bodies more rare than it naturally is, and
by communicating this to other bodies, to give them an additional quantity, and
make their electricity more dense; and that these bodies will thus continue until
their natural quantity is restored to each ; that is, by those, which have lost part
of theirs, acquiring what they have lost; and by those, to which more has been
communicated, parting with their additional quantity. Both one and the other
of these is, from the elasticity of the electric matter, attempted to be done from
the nearest non-electric: and when the air is moist, this is soon accomplished,
by the circumambient vapours, which here may be considered as preventing in a
very great degree our attempts to insulate non-electric bodies. But these matters
he had copiously treated of in his former communiaitions on this subject.
If therefore the beforementioned principles are true, and if the electricity is
not furnished by the globe in its rotation, nor by the air, it ought to be visible
in the vacuum of the before-described glass tube, in its ingress to the frame of
the electrifying machine, if this machine, and the man who turns its wheel, are
supported by electrics per se; and if, during this operation, the electricity, as
fast as furnished, is taken off by a bystander, or otherwise, from the prime con-
ductor; as under these circumstances the vacuum is the only passage open to its
progress, and from its elasticity the electricity should protrude itself through it.
And from experiment this is the case; for on a piece of wire being connected
with the end of the long brass rod, or with the brass cap at the upper extremity
of that tube, and the other end of the wire fastened to any part of the frame of
the electrifying machine, and this last put in motion, the electrical coruscations •
are seen to pass as before, from one of the brass plates contained in the tube to
the other ; and to continue, unless the air insinuates itself, as long as the ma-
chine is in motion. If, under these circumstances, the hand of a person stand-
ing on the floor be brought near the sides of the glass, the comscations will
direct themselves that way in a great variety of forms, extremely curious to
behold.
This experiment therefore, in which the electricity is seen, without any preter-
natural force, pushing itself on through the vacuum by its own elasticity, in
order to maintain the equilibrium in the machine, which had lost part of its
238 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
natural quantity of electricity by the present operation. Mr. W. considers as an
experimentum crucis of the truth of the doctrines here laid down; viz. not only
that the electricity is furnished by those bodies hitherto called non-electrics, and
not by the electrics per se;* but also, that we are able to add to, or take from,
that quantity of electricity, naturally adherent to bodies.
By what denomination shall we call this extraordinary power .!■ from its effects
in these operations, shall we call it electricity ? from its being a principle neither
generated nor destroyed; from its being every where and always present, and in
readiness to show itself in its effects though latent and unobserved, till by some
process it is produced into action, and rendered visible; from its penetrating the
densest and hardest bodies, and its uniting itself to them, and from its immense
velocity; shall we, with Theophrastus, Boerhaave, Niewentyt, Gravesande,
and other philosophers, call it elementary fire.'' or shall we, from its containing
the substance of light and fire, and from the extreme smallness of its parts, as
passing through most bodies we are acquainted with, denominate it, with Rom-
berg and the chemists, the chemical sulphureous principle, which, according to
the doctrines of these gentlemen, is universally disseminated? We need not
indeed be very solicitous in regard to its denomination; certain it is, that the
power we are now treating about is, besides others, possessed of the properties
before-mentioned, and cannot but be of very great moment in the system of the
universe.
LXIL Extracts of Father Augustin Hallersteins Astronomical Observations
made at Pekin in 1746 and 1747 . By Dr. Bevis. p. 376.
These are observations of the appulses and occultations of the planets and
fixed stars, made by the Jesuits at Pekin. They are not made with much accu-
racy, and are now of little or no use to science.
* Since the communication of this paper to the Royal Society in February 1752, viz. in the suc-
ceeding summer, the truth of this doctrine is put out of all doubt by the discovery made in France,
in consequence of Mr. Franklin's hypothesis, of being able, by a proper apparatus, to collect the
electricity from the atmosphere during a thunder-storm, and to apply it to the usual experiments,
which demonstrates, that the matter of thunder and lightning and that of electricity are one and the
same. That the electricity did not proceed from the glass, or other electrics per se, as they had
been usually called, Mr. W. first discovered in the year 1746'. See Phil. Trans, vol. xliv, p. 713,
and explained further vol. xlv, p. 9^, et seq. and though the electric matter may be taken from the
atmosphere during a storm of thunder, or even when it is only charged with what are usually called
thunder clouds, that is, when the atmosphere is replete with heterogeneous phlogistic matter, yet it
must not be considered as coming from pure dry air, which, as I before mentioned, I conceive to
contain in its natural state scarcely any of the electric matter, and is the agent, by which we are en-
abled to communicate electricity to other bodies. — Orig.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 239
LXIII. Extracts of several Letters of Mordacb Mackenzie, M. D. concerning
the Plague at Coiistantinople. By Dr. Clephane, F. R. S. p. 384.
Before he transcribes his friend Dr. Mackenzie's letters relating to the late
plague at Constantinople, Dr. C. premises a few particulars concerning the plague
in general, as he finds them scattered here and there in Dr. Mackenzie's former
letters to him on that subject.
In a letter dated March 24, 1749, Dr. M. observes that, in his time the plague,
whether at Constantinople, Smyrna, or any other part of the Levant, had been
mostly sporadic, seldom epidemical. That therefore the articles in our news-
papers, which so often mention the plague raging violently, are almost always
false. At Constantinople, and all over the east, people shun the plague, and
the infected, as much as we do; and every body, physicians as well as others,
who have been with the sick, or in places infected, are all obliged to perform 40
days quarantine. The Armenians and priests are the only people who attend
them; and they only to give them necessaries at a distance, or to perform the
last functions of the church : and this the priest is obliged to do by his religion.
The European plagues are much more violent than the eastern : those being really
the Thucydidian, which sweep all away ; while these are only gentle corrections
to put us in mind of mortality.
The Doctor, in another letter, finds fault with the method used in England
to prevent infection by shipping; " for, to what purpose (says he) keep ships in
Sandgate creek for weeks, and even months, without landing and serening the
goods? I hope you will allow, there is little to be feared from the bodies of men,
who get in gooti health from Smyrna to England, which voyage is seldom per-,
formed in less than 7 or 8 weeks ; which I presume will be thought too long for
infection to remain in the blood without producing some effect. Therefore as
all the danger is from the goods or cargo, greater care ought to be taken of this
and less of the men. Your nation differs much from Italy or Marseilles, where
a ship may, and often does, arrive in 8 days; for which reason, though it be
necessary to look after the men, as well as the goods, still however they make a
great distinction. You make none."
It is observable, that from the beginning to the status or acme of the disease,
they almost all die, afterwards its violence begins to abate, and about the end of
the season most people recover. The symptoms of the distemper are chiefly,
irregular fits of heat and cold; shiverings; violent head-ach, and retchings, for
the first 3 or 4 days; great anxiety about the praecordia, &c. both before and
after the eiiiptions, a wild staring countenance; sweats for the most part about
the head and breast only, at the same time the extremities cold; a dry parched
yellow furred tongue. The more violent those symptoms are, the greater the
240 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1751.
danger. Some are delirious, and raving ; others to a great degree stupid and
dull; both these are fatal appearances. Some die in 5 or 6 days; some outlive
20 days, and then die: some walk the streets for many days, and afterwards die.
Bleeding at the nose is reckoned a salutary sign. A swelling in the throat is a
common symptom: for which if you bleed, it proves almost always fatal: for it
is so far from abating this symptom, that after it a greater difficulty of breathing
ensues, and the patient seldom survives it above 3 or 4 hours.
The medical writers are divided as to the expediency of bleeding in the plague,
some contending for it warmly, others as warmly condemning it. The Doctor
distinguishes between the different stages of the distemper, and says, that as in
the beginning, during the ebullition, bleeding may be of some service, so when
the disease is advanced, and especially after the eruptions, it will prove fatal, as
well as purging, or any other violent evacuation. A moderate diaphoresis ought
always to be kept up. To the buboes, parotides, &c. they commonly apply a
roasted fig with some white sugar powdered : and this they reckon the best sup-
purative. They do not open the tumours, but leave them to break of them-
selves. They give the sick cold water to drink, and order the cool regimen quite
through the distemper.
Abstract of Dr. Mackenzie's first Letter concerning the late Plague at Constan-
tinople. Dated Constantinople, July 13, 1751.
" We have at present the most violent plague, that has been at Constantinople
in my time, by all reports. They are all taken the same way, with a shivering
and vomiting, a violent head-ach, thirst and fever, of which they die the 3d or
4th day, rather in a stupor than a delirium ; and such as have the misfortune to
te near the infected person, are taken in 7 or 8 days, though there are already
many instances to the contrary. The Greeks and Armenians suffer most, next
to them the Jews. The Turks suffer less in proportion than other nations."
Dr. Mackenzie to Dr. Clephane, F. R. S. Dated Constantinople, Nov. 23, 1751.
" During the 20 long years I have lived in this country, here and at Smyrna,
there has scarcely been a year, excepting 3, in which the plague did not threaten,
more or less; and in all that interval I observed no other difference in the seasons,
than that the winters might begin more early, and continue somewhat longer, and
with greater rigour ; though, by my thermometers, this difference never exceeded
5 or 6 degrees; which is no great difference here, where the south and north
winds make a difference of from 15 to 20 degrees in 24 hours : so that I cannot
see any other apparent cause of the virulency of the disease this year, besides the
occasion of greater communication. In the months of February. March, April,
and May last, the distemper was so strong at Cairo, as appears by letters from
the English consul there, that no doors were opened for 3 months. In the
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 241
mean time there arrived here in May last 4 ships laden with Cairo goods, which
goods and men being landed, they spread the infection over all the city at once,
after which, one conveyed it to another by contact. The only apparent cause of
the virulency in this case, is 4 ships arriving from Cairo, instead of 1 of 2, at
the same time; and if you please, you may add to this some little difference of
the seasons, mentioned in my letter to Dr. Mead, and a greater quantity of
cucumbers, melons, and fruit, than usual, on which the poorer sort of people
feed.
However I do not believe the number of the dead anywise equal to common
report, for the reasons following: The Turks have no bills of mortality; but they
reckon, that in and about Constantinople there are consumed daily 20,000 killows
of flour. Every killow is reckoned to weigh 20 oques, and every oque is equal
to 400 drachms, and ] 6o drachms thought sufficient for a person for 24 hours,
or one complete day, taking men, women, and children together. Therefore
one killow makes bread enough for 50 persons per day; but the consumption of
bread in the months of July, August, and September, was 3000 killows short;
from which it is concluded, that 3000 x 30 = 150,000 must have died of the
plague, without making any allowance for the great number of people, that run
away to Prusa, Nicomedia, Adrianople, the islands, and such as must have died
of other diseases in 3 months in a populous city of a million of souls, by the
calculation of 20,000 killows per day.
Next I must observe to you, that there are two vulgar errors with regard to
the plague established in this country. They say that a plague which begins
early, ends soon; which is false; for, in the year 1735, the plague began at
Smyrna the 15th of February pretty hot, so that all the houses in Frank-street
were shut up in February, and it continued till the latter end of November.
Another vulgar error is, that the heat kills the plague at Smyrna, and the cold at
Constantinople; which is very true with regard to Constantinople, but very false
with regard to Smyrna; for proof look back to the year 1735, when the vigour
of the malady showed itself most in the months of June and July, though so
very hot, that some people were said to die of the heat in going from the town
to the villages near it, so that it is very certain the heat does not kill the plague
at Smyrna, as is generally thought and said."
Dr. Mackenzie to Dr. Mead, F.R.S. Dated Constantinople, Oct. 2Q, 1750.
" This is the only summer since I have been in Turkey that I can say we have
been without any plague. The air was very temperate, no heavy rains, but high
winds at N. e. from which point ouretesian winds blow, commonly called milhem
in the Turkish language. Fruits have not been so plenty, or of such a good
quality as usual; few fevers of the intermittent kind, but not so regular as usual
VOL. X. 1 1
'242 VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
in their symptoms ; for they were seldom attended with any head-ach, the tongue
not much charged, and the urine seldom made any sediment of the lateritious
kind; and if they were not taken in time, a yellow jaundice came upon them
the 6£h or 7th day: and in the beginning of the fever, the patient seldom vomited
bile as usual, but rather a pituitous matter."
Dr. Mackenzie to Dr. Mead. Dated Constantinople, Nov. 13, 1751.
" I remember to have written to you my sentiments of this distemper some
years ago; and from all the observation I could make in the interval, I have no
reason to change my opinion, viz. that it is brought from Cairo commonly ; and
that when once a house or ship is infected, it is very difficult to eradicate the
animalcula, semina, effluvia, miasmata, or whatever name is proper for the
reliques or remains of it, which getting once into a nidus, lodge there: Condensed
by the cold during the winter, and when rarefied by a certain degree of heat,
they act on bodies which have a disposition, as women and children mostly, and
so spread by contact only, without communicating any malignancy to the am-
bient air. Otherwise very few could escape: whereas we found this last time,
and on all such occasions, that whoever kept their doors shut, ran no risk, even
if the plague were in the next house ; and the contact was easily traced in all the
accidents which happened among the Franks. The patients were this year sick
at stomach, and troubled with vomiting and nausea for 3 or 4 days after they
were infected, and before the eruption of the buboes, carbuncles, or tokens;
and in about 4 days more after the eruptions they died, or showed good symp-
toms of recovery, such as, the fever, with all its symptoms, decreasing; the
eruptions tending to maturation and suppuration, the nausea ceasing, and some
appetite beginning."
LXIV. A Catalogue of the Fifty Plants from Chelsea Garden, presented to
the Royal Society by the worshipful Company of Apothecaries for the Year
175], pursuant to the Direction of Sir Hans Sloane, Bart. By J. Wilmer,
M. D. p. 396.
This is the 30th presentation of this kind: completing to the number of
1 500 different plants.
LXV. Of Dr. Bianchims Recueil d^ Experiences faites a Fenise sur la Medecine
Electrique. By Mr. William Watson, F. R. S. p. 399.
The account of this work indeed may be now thought less necessary, as,
since the Abbe Nollet's journey to Italy, and our want of success here in our
attempts to do the like, every body has considered what the Italians printed on
the transmission of odours through the pores of glass, and on the subject of
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 243
medical electricity, as too hasty a publication. Mr. Winkler, however, from
Leipsic, sent to the ScK:iety, long since these publications, some tubes and
globes, whicli he said had transmitted odours by electrifying. What he con-
jectured the glasses would do, fell infinitely short of what he first gave out; but
even after the most careful trials, and complying with his instructions most scru-
pulously, we were disappointed in our expectations.
The gentlemen concerned in conducting these experiments, published by Dr.
Bianchini, divided them into 3 classes. The first class contains a series of expe-
riments made with tubes and globes containing odoriferous or other substances,
in order to observe, when these were closely stopped, whether the odorous, as
well as other effects of the substances included, would pervade the glass. The
second class includes experiments made with tubes and globes, which have no-
thing within them ; but the persons electrified hold in their hands, or sometimes
place under their naked feet, odoriferous, purging, or even the most poisonous
substances, in order to observe, whether the persons electrified in this manner
would be sensible of the effects of these substances. The third class gives a
series of experiments different from the two former,^ in which the substances
before-mentioned are mixed with the water, as in making the experiment of
Leyden. From these experiments we are to discover, whether from receiving
the shocks from these bottles, the person is sensible of the effects in his body of
the substances contained in them. But after many numerous and accurate trials
of all these, on several persons, no such effects were felt by them. There ap-
pears, through the whole course of the experiments contained in this work a
great deal of care and accuracy. They were made by persons fully acquainted
with the manner of employing their apparatus, and many of the experiments
were several times repeated.
After what has been done here at London, at Paris, and at Wirtemberg,
with the like success, these experiments cannot, to unprejudiced persons, but be
conclusive, that the extraordinary accounts from Italy and Leipsic, had no foun--
dation in fact ; and that no method has yet been discovered, by which from elec-
tricity the powers of medicines could be made to insinuate themselves into the'
human body.
This conclusion, however, does not, nor is meant to operate, against the ad-
vantages said to be gained by electricity itself. So subtil and so elastic a fluid
admitted in a large quantity into our bodies, as, from undoubted experience, it
greatly heats the flesh, and quickens the pulse, may, more especially when assisted
by the expectation of success in the patient, in particular cases be attended with
very great advantages.
I I 2
244 ' PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1751.
LXVI. The Case of the Operation of the Empyema, successfully performed by
Mr. Joseph JVarner, F.R.S. and Surgeon to Guy^s Hospital, p. 407.
Thomas Hines, aged IT, was admitted into the hospital, Dec. IQ, for a pain
in his right side, and cough; which he had laboured under for 3 weeks. He
was immediately put under the physicians care; but notwithstanding all proper
methods used for his relief, his disorder increased till Jan. 13 following, when
Mr. W. was consulted.
On inquiry, he found him afflicted with the following symptoms, a quick, low
pulse, frequent cough, and difficulty of breathing, which last symptom was
greatly increased on lying on his left side, or on sitting upright. He appeared
greatly emaciated, his countenance very pallid or sallow. The right side of the
thorax was somewhat enlarged; the integuments were visibly thickened, but
without the least discoloration, or perceivable fluctuation. However, being per-
suaded from the foregoing symptoms, that there probably was an extravasated
fluid underneath, he advised the operation, which was accordingly done on the
spot, in the following manner:
The patient being conveniently seated, he made an incision of about 3 inches
long, with a knife, between the 10th and 11th rib, counting from above, and
at about 4 inches distance from the vertebrae. The direction of the incision was
agreeable to the course of the ribs, and on being made nearer to the superior
edge of the 1 1th rib, than to the inferior edge of the 10th rib, the intercostal
artery by that means escaped being wounded. On dividing the intercostal
muscles, very near 20 oz. of matter were discharged, after which he introduced
his finger through the wound into the cavity of the thorax, but found no adhe-
sion of the lungs. Whence he conjectured that this- abscess was originally
formed in the cellular membrane of the pleura, which had at length made its
way into the cavity. What seemed to corroborate this conjecture, was that the
violent symptoms, which happened on lying on the sound side, or on sitting up-
right, did not occur till within a week before his application to him. From the
moment the matter was discharged, he found immediate ease, his respiration
became quiet ; his fever and cough gradually abated, till in about 6 weeks he
became perfectly well in all respects, and was accordingly dismissed the hospital.
The discharge from the wound continued in considerable quantities for the first
fortnight ; during which time the wound was kept properly open with tents ; but
when the discharge was no more than what might be expected fi-om any superfi-
cial wound of the same size, all tents were disused, and superficial applications
only made use of.
TOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 245
LXVII. Of the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Oct. 1751, written at Naples,
Jan. 15, 1752, N. S. p. 409.
After the usual phenomena of smoke and flame, and bellowings, &c. there, on
the 25th of October, in a place called Atrio del Cavallo, on the east side of the,
mountain, a fiery fluid, like melted glass in a furnace, burst out, or rather
seemed to boil over, which ran down the declivity of the mountain with great
velocity and force, carrying along with it large stones, gravel, calcined earth, &c.
In fi hours time it ran 4 miles, and covered vast tracts of fine land; destroyed
many farm-houses, villas, and vineyards. The reason why it does so much mis-
chief is, that it spreads itself, where the ground is plain, and covers in some
places above an acre in breadth; but where there is a hollow ground, it forms a
current river, making banks of its own substance, by cooling and hardening
towards the edges; and when this current happened to be opposed by a rising
ground, (the high banks of the cooling lava preventing its passage on either
side) it formed high mountains of lava of 50 or 6o feet; till at last, by the
weight and force of the red-hot river flowing incessantly from the bocca above,
it burst out from under this new hill, and forming a second fiery river, pro-
ceeded down the country, destroying all where it came. It was shocking to see
trees, and vines loaded with fruit, floating on this river of fire. And, to our
great astonishment, though we plainly saw the fluidity and rapid current of this
matter, yet was it so impenetrable, that no weighty body would sink in it; nor
did a sharp heavy iron instrument, thrown at it with great force, make the least
impression on it, but, remaining on it a few minutes, it became red-hot like the
lava. Nor could the pious procession and liquefaction of St. Januarius's blood
on the spot put a stop to the destructive inundation; for it has run for these 2
months past, and runs a little still.
LXFIII. Of an Hydrophoby. By The. mihraham, LL.D., F.R.S. p. 412.
On March 29, 1752, Isaac Cranfield, a waterman, about 30 years of age,
was received into the infirmary in Westminster, with an hydrophobia on him.
He had been that morning with Mr. Heathfield, one of the surgeons to that
infirmary, for advice; who being informed of that remarkable symptom, asked
him, if he had not been lately bitten by. a dog? he answered, no. But his wife,
who was with him, put him in mind, that he had received a wound from a dog
about 9 months before. This he presently recollected : and said, it was a strange
dog he met with at a public-house, that, as he was going to stroke him, gave
him a little bite in the hand..
The same day, about one o'clock. Dr. Coxe, Dr. Watson, and Dr. W. met
together to consult on his case. When he came to be examined, he repeated to
them the manner of his being bitten, as Just mentioned ; and said further, that
246 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
he no sooner found himself hurt, but he gave the dog such a blow with a poker,
as laid him dead on the spot. The wound, being slight, soon healed up, and he
thought no more of it ; and he enjoyed good health till about 2 o'clock the
Thursday morning before, when he was seized with a violent sickness and vomit-
ing. The day following he continued very ill, and particularly felt an unusual
pain, whenever he attempted to drink. Friday and Saturday that symptom grew
worse ; and on Sunday he could not swallow the least quantity of liquor, with-
out the utmost misery. This was the day they saw him. He looked somewhat
wild in his eyes ; but in his discourse discovered no signs of madness. His pulse
was extremely quick, but not weak and depressed. They examined his fauces,
and found an inflammation. They desired him to give them an opportunity to
see how he could bear an attempt to get down some liquid. He readily con-
sented. He chose to sit down on the floor, then took a cup of water in his own
hand, and put it to his mouth. The moment the liquor reached his throat, he
suddenly sprung up on his feet, and ran about the room in the most violent
agony that can be conceived. It must be observed, that he could get down
small quantities of food that was solid, all the time this symptom was upon
him.
He informed them he had been let blood twice the day before he came to
them. They agreed to take from him 12 oz. more, and to give him 1 gr. of
extract. Theb. every hour, till there appeared some signs of stupor from the me-
dicine. They also ordered him a clyster of decoct, furfuris with nitre. The
blood was found next day not differing from that of a person in health. The
extract was made up in pills of ] gr. each, which he could swallow without dif-
ficulty. Dr. W. saw him again at 8 o'clock at night, at which time he had
taken 5 grs. of opium, but did not appear to be in the least affected by it, being
much in the same state he had left him in at one. He had had the clyster twice,
but no stool either time. He went on with the pills till he had taken 15 grs.
but no effect could be perceived from them. He passed the night in great
anxiety, being for the most part on his legs, and at times light-headed. A good
deal of frothy saliva was discharged from his mouth. About 8 o'clock in the
morning he died. A few minutes before he expired, he said, that he was sen-
sible he was going to die; and expressed much concern for the loss which his
wife and children would have of him. That day they had him opened. The
lungs were found full of blood. Water in the pericardium in the usual quan-
tity. The blood in both ventricles of the heart fluid. The oesophagus without
any morbid appearance. (Vide Boerhaave Aphor. 1140.) The aspera arteria
full of such frothy substance as came from his mouth. The stomach filled with
liquor, notwithstanding the small quantity he had drank since Wednesday
evening. No other parts were examined.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 8,47
LXIX. Improvements made in the Air Pump. By Mr. S. Smeaton, p. 415.
The chief causes of imperfection in the common pumps arise, first, from the
difliculty in opening the valves at the bottom of the barrels ; lA\y, from the pis-
ton's not fitting exactly, when put close down to the bottom ; which leaves a
lodgment for air, that is not got out of the barrel, and proves of bad effect.
In regard to the first of these causes; the valves of air-pumps are commonly
made of a bit of thin bladder stretched over a hole generally much less than one
tenth of an inch diameter ; and to prevent the air from repassing between the
bladder and the plate, on which it is spread, the valve must always be kept moist
with oil or water. It is well known that at each stroke of the pump, the air is
more and more rarefied, in a certain progression, which would be such, that an
equal proportion of the remainder would be taken away, were it not aftected by
the impediments just mentioned: so that when the spring of the air in the re-
ceiver becomes so weak, as not to be able to overcome the cohesion of the blad-
der to the plate, occasioned by the fluid between them, the weight of the bladder,
and the resistance that it makes by being stretched, the rarefaction cannot be
carried further, though the pump should still continue to be worked.
It is evident, that the larger the * hole is, over which the bladder is laid, a
proportionably greater force is exerted on it by the included air, in order to lift
it up ; but the aperture of the hole cannot be made very large, because the pres-
sure of the incumbent air would either burst the valve, or so far force it down
into the cavity, as to prevent its lying flat and close on the plate, which is abso-
lutely necessary. To avoid these inconveniences as much as possible, instead of
one hole, Mr. S. made use of 7? all of equal si^ie and shape ; one being in the
centre, and the other six round it : so that the valve is supported at proper dis-
tances, by a kind of grating, made by the solid parts between these holes : and
to render the points of contact, between the bladder and grating, as few as
possible, the holes are made hexagonal,' and the partitions filed almost to an
edge. As the whole pressure of the atmosphere can never be exerted on this
valve, in the construction made use of in this pump ; and as the bladder is
fastened in four places instead of 2, the breadth of the hexagons are made -^ of
an inch ; so that the surface of each of them is more than Q times greater than
usual. But as the circumference of each hole is more than 3 times greater than
common, and as the force that holds down the valve, arising from cohesion, is,
in the first moment of the air's exerting its force, proportionable to the circum-
ference of the hole ; the valve over any of these holes will be raised with 3 times
more ease than common. But as the raising of the valve over the centre hole is
* If we examine the force, that air rarefied 140 times can exert in a common valve through a hole
of one tenth of an inch diameter, we shall find it not to exceed 0' grains at a medium. — Orig.
248 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
assisted on all sides by those placed round it ; and as they all together contribute
as much to raise the bladder over the centre hole, as the air immedietely acting
under it ; on this account the valve will be raised with double the ease, that we
have before supposed, or with a 6th part of the force commonly necessary. It is
not material to consider the force of the cohesion, after the first instant : for
after the bladder begins to rise, it exposes a greater surface to the air underneath,
which makes it move more easily. He has not brought into this account the
force that keeps down the valve, that arises from the weight of the bladder, and
the resistance from its being stretched ; for he conceives these as small in compa-
rison of the other.
But supposing all those difficulties to be absolutely overcome, the other defect
mentioned in the common construction, would hinder the rarefaction from
being carried on beyond a certain degree. For as the piston cannot be made to
fit so close to the bottom of the barrel, as totally to exclude all the air ; as the
piston rises, this air will expand itself; but still pressing on the valve, according
to its density, hinders the air within the receiver fi-om coming out : hence, were
this vacancy to equal the 150th part of the capacity of the whole barrel, no air
could ever pass out of the receiver, when expanded 1 50 times, though the piston
was constantly drawn to the top ; because the air in the receiver would be in
aequilibrio with that in the barrel, when in its most expanded state. This I
have endeavoured to overcome, by shutting up the top of the barrel with a plate,
having in the middle a collar of leathers, through which the cylindrical rod
works, that carries the piston. By this means, the external is prevented from
pressing on the piston ; but that the air, that passes through the valve of the
piston from below, may be discharged out of the barrel, there is also a valve ap-
plied to the plate at the top, that opens upwards. The consequence of this con-
struction is, that when the piston is put down to the bottom of the cylinder, the
air in the lodgment under the piston will evacuate itself so much the more, as
the valve of the piston opens more easily, when pressed by the rarefied air above
it, than when pressed by the whole weight of the atmosphere. Hence, as the
piston may be made to fit as nearly to the top of the cylinder, as it can to the
bottom, the air may be rarefied as much above the piston, as it could before have
been in the receiver. It follows therefore, that the air may now be rarefied in
the receiver, in duplicate proportion of what it could be on the common prin-
ciple ; every thing else being supposed perfect.
Another advantage of this construction is, that though the pump is composed
of a single barrel,* yet the pressure of the outward air being taken oft' by the
• It is obvious that these improvements will equally obtain, whether the pump is conslnicled
with a single or double barrel. — Orig.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. J4g
upper plate, the piston is worked with more ease* than the common pumps
with two barrels : and not only so, but when a considerable degree of rarefaction
is desired, it will do it quicker ; for the terms of the series expressing the quan-
tity of air taken away at each stroke do not diminish so fast, as the series an-
swering to the common one.
Having found the gages that have been hitherto made use of, for measuring
the expansion of the air, very unfit to determine in an experiment of so much
nicety ; Mr. S. therefore contrived one of a different sort, which measures the
expansion with certainty, to much less than the 1000th part of the whole. It
consists of bulb of glass something in the shape of a pear, and sufficient to hold
about a half a pound of quicksilver. It is open at one end, and at the other is a
tube hermetically closed at top. By the help of a nice pair of scales, he found
what proportion of weight a column of mercury, of a certain length, contained
in the tube, bore to that which filled the whole vessel. By these means he was
enabled to mark divisions on the tube, answering to a 1000th part of the whole
capacity, which being of about one tenth of an inch each, may by estimation be
easily subdivided into smaller parts. This gage, during the exhausting of the
receiver is suspended in it by a slip-wire. When the pump is worked as much
as shall be thought necessary, the gage is pushed down, till the open end is im-
merged in a cistern of quicksilver placed underneath : the air being then let in,
the quicksilver will be driven into the gage, -f- till the air remaining in it be-
comes of the same density with the external ; and as the air always takes the
highest place, the tube being uppermost, the expansion will be determined by
the number of divisions occupied by the air at the top.
The degree, to which he has been able to rarefy the air in experiment, has
generally been about 1000 times, when the pump is put clean together: but
the moisture that adheres to the inside of the barrel, as well as other internal
parts, on letting in the air, as in the succeeding trials worked together with the
oil, which soon renders it so clammy, as to obstruct the action of the pump on a
fluid so subtile as the air is, when so much expanded ; but in this case it seldom
fails to act on the air in the receiver, till it is expanded 500 times : and this he
found it to do, after being frequently used for several months without cleaning.
He also generally found it to perform best the first trial at each time of using ;
• Because, though the pressure of a column of air, equal to the diameter of the piston-rod, still
presses on it, yet as there is only the friction of one piston, and that not loaded with the weight of
the atmosphere; the friction of the leather against the side of the barrel, and that of the rack and
wheel, is much less: so that, notwithstanding the addition of friction in the collar of leathers, that
of the whole will be less. — Orig.
+ The bulb of the gage may be emptied of its quicksilver, without taking that out of the tube ;
and the tube being held horizontal, the column of mercury in it will have no power to contract or
expand the air at the top — Orig.
VOL. X. K K
250 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1751.
though nothing had been done at it from the time preceding ; which after a great
many trials made with this view, he also attributes to the moisture of the air
mixing with the oil.
Mr. S. also endeavoured to render the pneumatic apparatus more simple and
commodious, by making this air-pump act as a condensing engine at pleasure,
by singly turning a cock. This not only enables us to try any experiments
under different circumstances of pressure, without changing the apparatus, but
renders the pump a universal engine, for showing any effect that arises from an
alteration in the density or spring of the air. Thus, with a little addition of
apparatus, it shows the experiments of the air-fountain, wind-gun, &c.
This is done in the following manner : the air above the piston being forcibly
driven out of the barrel at each stroke, and having no where to escape, but by
the valve at the top ; if this valve be connected with the receiver, by means of
a pipe, and at the same time the ^alve at the bottom, instead of communicating
with the receiver, be made to communicate with the external air, the pump will
then perform as a condenser.
The mechanism is thus ordered. There is a cock with 3 pipes placed round
it, at equal distances. The key is so pierced, that any 2 may be made to com-
municate, while the other is left open to the external air. One of these pipes
goes to the valve at the bottom of the barrel ; another goes to the valve at the
top, and a third goes to the receiver. Thus, when the pipe from the receiver,
and that from the bottom of the barrel, are united, the pump exhausts : but
turn the cock round, till the pipe from the receiver, and that from the top of the
barrel, communicate, and it then condenses. The third pipe in one case dis-
charges the air, taken from the receiver into the barrel ; and in the other lets it
into the barrel, that it may be forced into the receiver.
LXX. Of /Jphyllon and Dentaria Hepiaphyllos of Clmius, omitted by Mr. Ray.
By Mr. fVilliam Watson, F. K. S. p. 428.
Mr. Watson presented to the Society some specimens of 2 plants, then in
flower, which he said were not frequently found in England. One of them was
the anblatum of Cordus, or aphyllon of John Bauhin. This plant is deno-
minated squamaria by Rivinus, and dentaria crocodylia by Tabernaemontanus.
Linneus, in the Flora Suecica, calls it lathraea caule simplicissimo, corollis nu-
tantibus, labio inferiore trifido. Mr. Ray, in his Synopsis Plantarum Anglias,
takes notice of its being found near Dorking in Surrey, but the plant now pre-
sented was collected near Harefield in Middlesex,
The other plant offered was the dentaria heptaphyllos baccifera of Caspar
Bauhin, or dentaria tertia baccifera of Clusius. This plant is treated of by Lin-
neus, in the Hortus Cliffbrtianus, and by Van Royen, in the Florae LeydensiS
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 251.
Prodromus, under the appellation of dentaria foliis inferioribus palmatis, summis
simplicibus.
This plant, which is frequently met with on the continent of the northern
parts of Europe, has been but lately discovered to grow in England, and that
only in one place ; viz. in a wood not far from Harefield in Middlesex, where it
was first discovered by Mr. Blackstone, an ingenious apothecary in Fleet-street.
This is one of those few plants omitted by the late Mr. Ray in his excellent Sy-
nopsis, which are to be found natives here ; and, from their great scarcity, it is
not wonderful that they were unobserved by that great naturalist.
LXXl. Of a Machine for Killing Whales. By John Bond, M. D. p. 420.
Whales being of the same structure internally with quadrupeds, must come
frequently to the surface of the water to breathe ; and when they expel the rare-
fied air from their capacious lungs, through a narrow tube, which protrudes
above the upper jaw, they occasion a great noise, which the fishers term the
blowing of the whales. This noise alarms the fishers, who are waiting for that
signal ; on which they furnish a boat with necessa'-y instruments, and row quietly
towards the whale. The harpooner, as they call him, sits rowing in the head
of the boat, and observes certain silent signals, which the boat-steerer gives him,
to inform him that he is near enough to strike the whale. Then the harpooner
takes the harpoon in both hands, and darts it into the whale ; which, as soon as
struck, plunges directly to the bottom, and moves with such prodigious velocity,
that the rope which follows the harpoon often cuts deep grooves in the boat, and
a man stands ready with an ax to cut the rope, if it does not run freely from the
coil. The whale being hurt by the harpoon, stays longer than usual under
water, till the blood, by the violent motion of the body, is collected about the
heart, and consequently obstructed in the head ; the nervous influx is interrupted,
the swimming bladder relaxed, and the whale becomes languid, and rises to the
top to breathe fresh air where it rests for some time, to recruit its exhausted
spirits ; which the fishers observing, row up and dispatch the whale with long
lancets.
It appears ft"om this account, that the greatest difficulty consists in making
the rope fast to the whale, by means of the harpoon ; which is barbed in the
common form of a dart, and is generally 20 oz. weight, and about 2 feet long,
with a small stalk of flexible iron, and a socket at the end, about which the rope
is spliced with a shaft of wood put into it, so that they cannot throw it any dis-
tance with any degree of certainty ; therefore are never sure of darting a whale,
till they are within a yard, or directly above her ; and there they are so much
afraid of being dashed to pieces, that they often miss good opportunities, though
they seldom meet with any so tame. They frequently see 40 whales within 30
kk2
252 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
yards of Uieir boats, but cannot strike one, unless it be sleeping, or suckling its
young ones. Hence the bad success, and necessity of giving a premium to in-
demnify the adventurers. Hence we also see that a machine, which would pro-
ject a harpoon 30 yards with sufficient force and proper direction, must give a
chance for taking 30 whales for one in the common way.
Several machines have been proposed to answer this end, but have all proved
abortive. The crossbow was tried, but was too weak, and subject to break with
the frost in those cold climates. Gunpowder was next applied, it is said with no
better success ; for, besides the difficulty of applying it to throw those heavy
bodies in the form of darts, especially such as must carry a rope along with them,
it frightens all the whales from the place, where it is fired, either by the light,
or by the explosion, which it poduces ; perhaps both ways ; but probably more
by the sound than the light ; for in the summer time there is in those parts a
continual day for several months, so that a flash would not be remarkable.
The machine which he recommends instead of those, is the ancient Balista,
which is accurately described in the 13th chapter of Polybius, translated into
French by Mons. Folard, who has nicely distinguished it from the catapulta,
with which most of the ancient historians have confounded it, though these ma-
chines had distinct offices ; for the catapulta threw vast masses of metal and
stone in a parabolic curve, and the balista projected darts, some of 6o lb. weight,
in a horizontal direction. The projectile power of both these machines de-
pended on twisted ropes, which moved a lever placed in their centre. In the
catapulta this lever moved vertically, and threw off globular bodies, as above-
mentioned ; but in the balista there were 2 levers, which moved horizontally,
and acted like a cross-bow. The force of this machine may be increased to any
necessary degree, by multiplying the number of springs or ropes, and increasing
the length of the lever, which turns the windlace, that draws back the cross cord,
or in other words charges it. It has all necessary motions, and is contrived to
stand on a pedestal in the head of a boat. It is so simple, that any person may
learn how to use it in a short time; and when once it is successfully applied, we
shall be no longer obliged to the instruction of the Dutch, who reckon it their
interest to obstruct our success in every useful branch of trade.
LXXII. An Engine for raising Water by Fire ; being an hnprovement of Sa-
verys Construction, to render it capable of working itself, invented by Mr. De
Moura of Portugal, F. R. S. described by Mr. J. Smeaton. p. 43(j.
This engine consists of a receiver, a steam and an injection-cock ; a suction
and a forcing-pipe, each furnished with a valve ; with a boiler, which, on ac-
count of its bulk and weight, is not sent with the rest ; but, as it may be of the
common globular shape, and having nothing particular in its construction, a de-
TOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TBANSACTIONS. ^33
scription of it will not be necessary, as also the rest of these parts already men-
tioned being essential to every machine of this kind, a further account of them
may be dispensed with. What is peculiar to this engine, is a float within the
receiver, composed of a light ball of copper, which is not loose in it, but fas-
tened to the end of an arm, made to rise and fall by the float, while the other
end of the arm is fastened to an axis ; and consequently, as the float moves up
and down, the axis is turned round one way or the other. This axis is made co-
nical, and passes through a conical socket , which last is soldered to the side of
the receiver. On one of the ends of the axis, which projects beyond the socket,
is fitted a second arm, which is also moved backward and forward by the axis, as
the float rises or falls. By these means, the rising or falling of the surface of the
water within the receiver, communicates a correspondent motion to the outside,
in order to give proper motions to the rest of the geer, which regulates the open-
ing and shutting of the steam and injection-cocks ; and serves the same purpose
as the plug-frame, &c. in Newcomen's engine. The particular construction and
relation of those pieces will better appear by the figure and references, than can
be done by a general description.
AB fig. 11, pi. 6, is an arm, which is fastened to a b, a conical axis, which
goes through a conical socket in c, a triangular piece soldered to the receiver.
This piece has this shape, to give liberty to the arm to rise and fall, that carries
the float on the inside, d e is a small cistern, soldered to the receiver ; which,
being kept full of water, keeps the axis and socket air-tight. This cistern is
constantly kept full of water, by means of a small leakage through the wooden
pegc, which follows the packthread cd to the cistern, e is a small weight to
counterpoise the float within, f is a slider ; which being set nearer to, or farther
from, the axis, will rise or fall a greater or less space, as may be required ; and
is fastened by the screw g. This slider is furnished with a turn-about, h i, which
is also fastened by a screw and nut at the end i, and sei-ves to adjust the length
of F G G H, a chain, which gives motion, by means of the shorter chain k 1, to
I K L, the balance, which opens and shuts the cocks ; and moves on the small
axis L. G G are two pulleys, supported by two arms, that are fastened to the
side of the receiver, and give the chain a proper direction in order to move the
balance, mn is the steam-cock; the end n being supposed to be detached from
a pipe, that gives it communication with the boiler, o is the injection-cock,
whose key is turned by the arm o m. p a is the injection-pipe, communicating
between the forcing-pipe above the valve, and the top of the receiver, r s is the
arm, by which the key of the steam-cock is worked, i k two rollers annexed to
the balance, which, by striking on the arm r s, open and shut the steam-cock,
as the balance is moved backward and forward, r n o is the steam-cock's key-
tail, which is furnished with two small rollers, n, o, which open and shut the
254 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
injection-cock, by acting on the arm o m in such a manner, that when the
steam cock, is opened, the injection is shut, and vice versa, x is a bell of advice
which, moving along with the balance, continues to ring as long as the engine
is at work, v is a cock, which serves to discharge the air from the receiver, and
is opened by hand when necessary, w is a weight sufficient to raise the balance
to a perpendicular position, when it is inclined to the right, and also to overcome
the friction of the float, axis, pulleys, chain, &c.
To put the engine in motion, press down the arm a b, which will bring the
balance over to the right side, and in its motion will open the steam-cock, and
shut the injection ; set open the cock at v, that the air may be discharged by
the entrance of the steam into the receiver. This done, shut that cock, and let
go the arm ; the weight w will bring over the balance to the left, and in its mo-
tion shut the steam-cock, and open the injection ; this presently condensing the
steam into water, in a great measure leaves a vacuum in the receiver. Things
remain in this situation, till the pressure of the atmosphere has caused the water
to mount through the suction-pipe into the receiver, where, as its surface rises,
it causes the float to ascend ; and, depressing the arm a b, raises the balance
till it has passed the perpendicular ; and in its descent, which is done by its own
gravity, the roller k lays hold of the arm r s, again opens the steam-cock, and
shuts the injection. The receiver being now almost filled with water, the ba-
lance cannot return, till the surface of the water in it subsides, and suffers the
float to descend. This is performed by the elasticity of the steam ; which, at the
same time that it fills the receiver, drives out the water through the forcing-pipe;
and when the surface is descended so low, as to suffer the weight w to bring the
balance beyond the perpendicular towards the lefl, it then falls of its own accord,
and in falling the roller i lays hold of the arm r s, shuts the steam-cock, and
opens the injection, as before.
When the engine is to be stopped, observe when the balance lies to the right,
to turn round the arm o m of the injection-cock, so that the tail of the steam-
cock may miss it in the next motion ; so that at the same time that the receiver
is filled with steam, and the steam-cock shut, the injection not being opened,
the motion will stop for want of it.
LXXIIL Concerning the Shells of Crabs. By Dr. Parsons, F. R. S. p. 439.
Dr. P. had no doubt of the animal's casting his shell at certain seasons ; he
only wanted to be satisfied, that the old exuviae were those of the soft crab ;
which the mutilated claw assured of, however difficult it might be to conceive
the manner of the animal's quitting it. The manner of his acquiring a new limb
is in nowise different from that of his obtaining a succeeding new shell ; which is
from a latent organization of the part ready for being indurated in due time.
TOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 255
after the discharge of the old one ; when and not before, the testaceous matter
has room for its secretion through its proper emunctories. It is in every circum-
stance analogous to all the other animals which annually cast their integuments ;
and, in its soft state, resembles that of a hen's egg before the testaceous matter
is secreted by the glands of the membrane ; being soft and flexible : for this
matter of all crustaceous animals, as well as of the eggs of fowls, is always suc-
cessive to the entire formation of the membrane under it ; nor are the glands ca-
pable of admitting the minima of the testaceous matter, till they have grown
into a state proper for that purpose. Hence it may be concluded that the crab,
the lobster, or other such animals, which had this property, are at first furnished
with this membrane entire, and sufficient to be a defence against the violence of
the agitated waves, and the rolling of sand, gravel, or other bodies, that might
prove hurtful even before it can grow hard. This seems to be the method or-
dained by the Creator for the preservation of every animal, however differing in
other little circumstances. The snake, adder, lizard, or any other kinds, which
we see endowed with this property, have the new skin entire under the shrivelled,
falling, old one ; and it is, no doubt, the case with crabs, lobsters, and other
crustaceous animals.
In order to throw a little more light on this matter, it may not be disagreeable
to observe the manner of the induration of the surfaces of the shells of eggs. It
has been supposed that these consist of a nmcus indurated on the surface of the
membrane : but this is not the case. The particles of the shelly matter are
solid, though never so minute, and are carried with the fluids of the animal to
the membrane, now ready to receive them into the ducts of its glands ; and are
thence thrown into such order in the cellules of the external surface, as to ac-
quire a structure no less firm in proportion, than bricks laid on one another ;
and as capable of bearing any fair pressure, as a well built arch.
When they are thus hardened and complete, they may be rendered as soft and
flexible, by being macerated in vinegar, as if the shelly particles had never been
placed on them. And this is not because the matter is quite dissolved; for a
vegetable acid is not capable of making a total dissolution of it ; but the minute
angles are destroyed, and the particles (which were before fixed like wedges to
each other, to which they were inevitably guided in the secretion by the very
structure of the receiving cellules of the membrane) are become round, by the
destruction of their angles, and admit of being rolled in some measure on one
another, so as in the whole to yield to the natural flexibility of the membrane.
LXXjy. spherical Trigonometry reduced to Plane. By Francis Blake, Esq.,
F.R. S. p. 441.
It is observable, that the analogies of spherical trigonometry, exclusive of the
256 PHILOSOPHICAL TRAKSACTION9. [aNNO 75 J.
terms cosine and cotangent, are applicable to plane, by only changing th ex-
pression, sine or tangent of side, into the single word side : • so that the lusi-
ness of plane trigonometry, like a corollary to the other, is thence to be inlrred.
And the reason of this is obvious ; for analogies raised not only from the onsi-
deration of a triangular figure, but the cur\'ature also, are of consequence ;iore
general ; and though the latter should be held evanescent by a diminution t the
surface, yet what depends on the triangle will nevertheless remain. These tings
may have been observed ; but on revising the subject, it further occurrd to
Mr. B., and he takes it to be new, that from the axioms of only plane tripno-
metry, and almost independent of solids, and the doctrine of the sphen- the
spherical c-ases are likewise to Ix; solvctl.
Suppose, first, that the 3 sides of a spherical triangle, abd, fig. 12, pi. (iare
given, to find an angle a; which case will lay open the method, and lead t(the
other cases, in a way that a|)pears the most natural. It is allowed that thean-
gents, ae, af, of the sides, ad, ab, including an angle, a, make a plane agle
equal to it ; and it is evident that the otiKr side, db, determines the angle inde
by the secants ce, cf, at c the centre of the sphere ; whence the distance, ef, be-
tween the tops of those secants, is given by case the fifth of obli(]ue plant; ri-
angles, which, with the aforesaid tangents, reduces it to case the 6th of obliue
plane triangles also-f-: and thus this 1 1th case of oblique triangles, so intricte
hitherto, becomes perfectly easy. The 12th case is reducible to the 11th, nd
the rest, whether right-angled, or oblique, we are authorised to considei ;is
reducible to right-angled triangles, whose sides are not quadrants, but eitcr
greater or less than such. Conceive therefore, now, in a right-angled sphenal
triangle, gkh, fig. M, that the tangent, gm, and secant cm, of either leg, p.,
is already drawn ; and in the point, m, of their union, draw a perpendicular, il,
to cm, the secant, directly above the other leg, viz. a perpendicular to the pine
of the secant and tangent, that it may be perjiendicular to both (Eucl. 4, 1 ) ;
for then will the tangent, gl, of the hypothenuse, gh, drawn from the saie
point, which that of the leg was, constantly terminate in the perpendicular lie,
that the radius and- tangent may make a right angle (Eucl. 18, 3.) Whei'-e
these tangents, g m, gl, and the perpendicular line, m 1, together with thee-
cants, c m, c I, will evidently form two right-angled plane triangles, g m 1. c ni ;
and to one or other of these the spherical cases are easily transferred. Thu.«.
in the spherical triangle, gkh, the hyjx)thenuse, g h, base, g k, and angle,
at the base, be the parts given and required, when any two are given, the tlic
may be determined by means of a plane triangle ; and at a single operation. Vt
* See M. de la Caille's remark at the end of the spherical trigonometry prefixed to liin Elemeiitt<f
Astronomy . — Orig.
i The angle to be found in this case must always be that formed by the two tangents. — Orig.
t>L. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. JSJ
hve, for instance, in the right-angled plane triangle, g m 1, formed as above,
ti: base g m, and hypothenusc g 1, to find, by lase the 5th of right-angled plane
dangles, the angle included, which is the same as on the sphere. And then if
•fc base gk, the angle g at the base, and the perpendicular k h, be the spherical
pits given and required: or if the angles g and h, and the hypothenuse g h, be
te parts given and required, we liave only that former proportion of the hypo-
tenuse and base, and angle at the base, in the triangles p n d, d p g, fig. 13,
btained by the complements, to transfer to the plane. But secondly, suppose
ke spherical proportion is of the 3 sides, any 2 being given, the 3d may be also
nrnd at a single ojx.«ration, in the 2d right-angled plane triangle c m 1, formed
8 above. We have, for instance, the hypothenuse and base, c 1, cm, viz. the
ecant of the spherical hypothenuse and base g h, g k, to find, by the 5th of
jght-angled plane triangles, the angle, c, at the centre, which is the measure
4" k h, the side that was sought. And then again, if the hypothenuse, one
eg, and the opposite angle, be the spherical parts given and required ; or if the
wo angles and a It^ be the parts given and required, we have only the former
)roportion of the three sides in the triangles, p n d, d r o, obtained by the com-
plements, to transfer to the plane. Whence, the 6 proportions of right-angled
spherical triangles being comprehended in this method, it is fully demonstrated,
tiiat all the cases of these triangles are so to be resolved.
The same might be deduced without the method of complements, but neither
11 so short nor satisfactory a way, and it shall therefore be omitted,
LXXV. Of a Manuscript Treatise presented to the Royal Society, intitled, A
Treatise on Coral, and several other Productions furnished by the Sea, in
order to illustrate its Natural History. By the Sieur de Peyssonnel, M. D.
&fc. Extracted and translated from the French, by Mr. William Watson,
F. R. S. p. 445.
This curious treatise, containing upwards of 400 quarto pages in ms, was trans-
mitted to the R. s. fr'om Guadaloupe, where the author resided as physician botanist.
It is the result of the observations of above 30 years. It is divided into 2 parts ;
the first relates to coral only, and is subdivided into 1 0 chapters ; to which is
subjoined a catalogue of the remedies and compositions, as well chemical as ga-
lenical, in which coral is an ingredient. The 2d part is subdivided into 8 rlis-
sertations, each of which has for its object some production of the sea ; and the
whole tends to evince, that as well coral, as the other marine bodies here speci-
fied, are produced by animals, viz. different kinds of urtica marina et purpura.
To these the author has added a complete index, referring to every thing taken
notice of in the whole work.
This work is the result of a great number of very curious obsei-vations
VOL. X. L L
258 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
and inquiries, and has for its object a part of natural history not hitherto well
known.
The first chapter of the work contains the opinions of the ancients concerning
coral, and the observations made on it since their time ; among which are the
opinions of Peireskius, Boyle, Piso, Boccone, Venette, the Comte de Marsigli,
and those of M. de Peyssonnel himself In the 2d is an examination, whether
coral is a plant, or a congelation ; in which are included 1 extracts, one from M.
Tournefort's Elements of Botany, and the other from the Memoirs of the Royal
Acad, of Sciences. The 3d chapter exhibits new observations, from which are
discovered the urticae marinae and purpurae, which form coral ; where likewise are
explained the formation and mechanism of this marine production. In the 4th
chapter we find new chemical observations on the distillation of coral, which tend
to prove that coral is the production of insects.* In the 5th are exhibited the de-
finition, etymology, colours, and different sizes of corals, and of the insects
inhabiting them. The 6th shows the places where they fish for coral, and the
manner of fishing for it. In the 7 th we have the manner of working upon, and
of polishing coral, and the commerce with it. The 8th, Qth, and 10th chapters
give the chemical preparations of coral, its virtues and uses in medicine, when
variously prepared.
The subjects of the 8 dissertations of the 2d part of this work, are the several
species of vermicular tubes found in the sea, the madrepores, millepores, litho-
phytes, corallines, sponges, the various shell-fish, which inhabit the sea without
changing their place, and the formation and mechanism of these several substances.
This then is the general scope of our author ; and though every part of his
work deserves to be considered, Mr. W. on account of the space usually allowed
to works of this nature, confined himself to such parts only, as seemed most to
merit the attention of the r. s.
It had b<'en long the received opinion, that coral was soft in the sea, and was
hardened by the air on taking it out of the water ; and the learned Mr. Boyle
was not willing to quit this opinion. But as experiments are the only way of
assuring ourselves of the truth, Boccone, for this purpose, went to sea in one of
the coral-fishers vessels, and by plunging his arm into the water had an oppor-
tunity of examining the coral, as they were fishing it up, before it came into the
air. He invariably found it hard, except at its extremities ; where, on pressing
it between the nails of the fingers, it furnished a small quantity of a milky fluid,
resembling in some degree the juice of spurge or sow-thistle. Boccone observes
further, that he saw several furrows under the bark of the coral, which terminate
at the extremities of the branches, about which one might clearly see several
small holes of the form of a star, which he imagines are destined for the produc-
* Improperly called insects, being the production of worms.
VOL. XLVII.j PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 259
tion of branches. Venette's account of coral in his treatise of stones is much the
same as Boccone's.
The Count de Marsigli, in a letter to the Ahhi Bignon, in the year 1706,
takes notice that, in order to give the most exact account of the production of
coral, he wanted to be assured, whether the milky juice before mentioned was
found there both in winter and summer, which was a matter of dispute even
among the coral-fishers. For this purpose he went in winter for a few days to
sea with the coral-fishers, and made several important discoveries in the nature
of coral. He sent the Abbe Bignon an account of some branches of coral, which
he found covered with flowers, and which was a thing unknown even to the
coral-fishers themselves. These flowers were about a line and a half in length,
supported by a white calyx, from which proceeded 8 rays of the same colour.
These were of the same length, and of the same distance one from the other,
and formed a star-like appearance. These bodies, which the Count de Marsigli
imagined were flowers, M. Peyssonnel afterwards discovered to be the insects in-
habiting the coral. As to the fact, whether the coral furnished a milky juice in
winter as well as in summer. Count de Marsigli observed, that in December he
found the milky juice between the bark of coral and its substance, in the same
manner as he did in the month of June preceding.
M. de Peyssonnel was unwilling that the idea, which the ingenious discovery of
the Count de Marsigli had given, in regard to the flowers of coral, should be
lost; and therefore, being at Marseilles in the year 1723, he went to sea with
the coral-fishers. Being well apprised of what Marsigli had observed, and the
manner of his making these observations, as soon as the net, with which they
bring up the coral, was near the level of the water, he plunged a glass vessel in
it, into which he conveyed some branches of coral. Some hours after, he ob-
served that there appeared a number of white points on every side of this
bark. These points answered to the holes, which pierced the bark and
formed a circumscribed figure with yellow and white rays, the centre of
which appeared hollow, but afterwards expanded itself, and exhibited seve-
ral rays resembling the flower of the olive-tree ; and these are the flowers of
coral described by Marsigli. Having taken this coral out of the water the
flowers entered into the bark, and disappeareil ; but being again put into the
water, some hours after they were perceptible again. He thought them not so
large as the Count de Marsigli mentions, scarcely exceeding in diameter a large
pin's head. They were soft, and their petals disappeared when they were touched
in the water, forming irregular figures. Having put some of these flowers on
white paper, they lost their transparency, and became red as they dried. He
observed, that these flowers grew from the branches in every direction, from
broken ones, as well as from those which were whole ; but their number lessened
L L 2
260 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
towards the root ; and after many observations he determines that what Marsigli
took for flowers were truly insects [worms.]
Coral is equally red in the sea as out of it; and this redness is more shining when
just taken out of the water, than even when it is polished. The bark of coral,
by being dried, becomes somewhat pale. The extremities of its branches are
soft, to the length of 5 or 6 lines ; they are filled with a whitish juice tending
to yellow. The coral-fishers said, that in the month of May this juice some-
times appeared on the surface of the bark ; but this, notwithstanding great atten-
tion, our author could not observe. The body of coral, though hard, seems to
give way a little when pressed between the fingers ; and being broken at different
distances, when just taken from the water, there always came from it a small
quantity of milky juice through certain tubes, which appeared to be destined to-
wards the bark.
Having inquired of the fishers in what direction the coral grew in the sea, they
acquainted him, where the depth of the sea permitted them to dive, that they
had found it growing sometimes perpendicularly downwards, sometimes horizon-
tally, and sometimes upwards. Having verified these observations during the 8
days he staid with the fishermen, he adds, that he had never found any pores
perceptible in the substance of the coral ; that there issued forth less milk from
the large branches, than from the smaller ones ; and that the first was harder
and less compressible.
The bark of coral covers the whole plant from the root to the extremities of
the smallest branches. It will peel off"; but this is only when just taken out of
the water. After it has been exposed for a short time to the air, you cannot
detach it from the body of the coral, without rubbing it to powder. This bark
appears pierced with little holes, which answer to small cavities on the substance
of the coral. When you take off a piece of this bark, you observe an infinite
quantity of little tubes, which connect the bark to the plant, and a great number
of little glands adhering to these tubes ; but both one and the other do not dis-
tinctly appear, except when they are full of juice. It is from these tubes and
glands that the milky juice of coral issues forth. Besides these, you see in vari-
ous places the bark push itself outwards, where the substance of the coral is
hollowed, and formed into the little cells, taken notice of by Boccone and Mar-
sigli. In these you see little yellowish bodies, of the length of half a line, which
terminate at the holes in the bark ; and it is from these that the flowers appear.
Our author has found branches of coral, which, having been broken, have
fallen on other branches, have fastened themselves there, and have thus conti-
nued to grow. He has found, when a piece of stone, or shells, or other hard
bodies, have offered themselves between the ramifications of coral, that it has
expanded itself over them, and inveloped them in its substance. He has seen
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 26l-
pieces of coral growing upon detached pieces of rock, glass bottles, broken pots,
and other substances, .from which the plant could receive no nourishment. It
has been said by great authority, that coral grows from the rocks perpendicularly
downwards ; but our author has seen some growing to a round flint, which must
necessarily have vegetated upwards, like most other plants.
M. de Peyssonncl proceeds to examine, whether coral is a plant, according to
the general opinion, or a petritication or congelation, according to some ; and
after exhibiting the various arguments delivered in support of these, he concludes,
that coral, as well as all other stony sea-plants, and even sponges, are the work
of difterent insects, particular to each species of these marine bodies, which la-
bour uniformly according to their nature, and as the Supreme Being has ordered
and determined. The coral-insect, [worm.] which is here called a little urtica, pur-
pura, or polype, and which Marsigli took for its flower, expands itself in water, and
contracts itself in air, or when you touch it in water with your hand, or pour
acid liquors to it. This is usual to fishes or insects of the vermicular kind.
When our author was upon the coasts of Barbary in 1 725, he had the pleasure
of seeing the coral-insect move its claws or legs ; and having placed a vessel of.
sea- water with coral therein near the fire, these little insects expanded them
selves. He increased the fire, and made the water boil, and by these means
kept them in their expanded state out of the coral, as happens in boiling shell-
animals, whether of land or sea. Repeating his obser\'ations on other branches,
he clearly saw that the little holes perceptible on the bark of the coral, were the
openings through which these insects went forth. These holes correspond with
those little cavities or cells, which are partly in the bark, and partly on the sub-
stance of the coral ; and these cavities are the niches which the insects inhabit.
In the tubes, which he had perceived, are contained the organs of the animal; the
glandules are the extremities of its feet, and the whole contains the liquor or milk
of coral, which is the blood and juices of the animal. When he pressed this little
elevation with his nails, the intestines andwholebcxly of the insect came out mixed
together, and resembled the thick juice furnished by the sebaceous glands of the
skin. He saw that the animal, when it wanted to come forth from its niche,
forced the sphincter at its entrance, and gave it an appearance like a star with
white, yellow, or red rays. When the insect comes out of its hole without ex-
panding itself, the feet and body of it form the white appearance, observed by
Marsigli ; but being come forth, and expanded, it forms what that gentleman
and our author took for the petals of the flowers of coral, the calyx of this sup-
posed flower being the body of the animal protruded from its cell. The milk
before mentioned is the blood and natural juice of the insect, and is more or less
abundant in proportion to its health and vigour. When these insects are dead,
they corrupt, and communicate to the water the smell of putrid fish.
'i'Q'2. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
The substance of coral, by a chemical analysis, scarcely furnishes either oil,
salt, or phlegm : live coral with its bark furnishes about a 40th part of its weight
in these ; but the bark of coral alone, in which are contained these animals,
affords a 6th part. These principles resemble those drawn from human scull,
hartshorn, and other parts of animals.
After the accounts here laid down, we are able to assign the reasons of all the
particular facts we observe in coral. We see why a branch of it, broken off and
detached from its stem, may flourish. It is because the coral insects, [worms.^
which are contained in its cells, not having been injured, continue their operations :
and drawing no nourishment from the stem of the coral, are able to increase, de-
tach and separate. How they live and are nourished, is proposed to be explained
in treating of the urtica of the madrepora, in which these animals are vastly
larger, and appear very distinctly.
In each hole or star of the madrepora, on which our author lays the evident
proof of his new system, the urtica, placed in the centre of each pore, causes it
to increase in every direction by lifting itself farther and farther from the centre
of the stone. And in coral, and in the lithophyton, the urtica, being niched in
their crusts or barks, deposits a juice or liquor, which runs along the furrows
perceived on the proper substance or body of coral, and, stopping by little and
little, becomes fixed and hard, and is changed into stone ; and this liquor, being
stopped by the bark, causes the coral to increase proportionably, and in every di-
rection. In forming coral, and other marine productions of this class, the
animals labour like those of the testaceous kind, each according to his species,
and their productions vary according to their several forms, magnitudes, and
colours.
After what has been here laid down, none will surely consider these marine
productions as mere plants ; they are truly zoophytes, formed by the labour of
the animals, which inhabit them, and to which they are the stay and support.
Swammerdam seems to have proceeded very far in these discoveries, as we may
see by his 1 Qth letter to Boccone. He goes further, and says, that having with
a microscope examined a piece of coral, he found that each particle of it was
composed of 10 or 12 angular and crystalline spherules ; and having sawed across
a piece of coral, and given it the highest polish, he found, with the microscope,
and even without it, that coral from its centre is disposed in strata, which he
conjectures are formed by the application of the above-mentioned spherules.
M. de Reaumur having been made acquainted with whatM. de Peyssonnel had
observed, sent him a letter in the year 1726; where he takes notice, that no one
had hitherto considered coral as the work of insects. But it seemed to him dif-
ficult to establish this doctrine in the generality of marine productions, as was our
author s opinion. That in whatever mode you considered coral and lithophytes.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 2^8
it did not appear possible that they were the constructions of the insects inhabit-
ing them. That the only system to be adopted on these matters, was what he
mentioned to our author before ; viz. that the bark of these bodies only is a plant
properly speaking ; and that this deposits a stony matter, which forms the stalk
necessary to sustain it. That then, in his opinion, all the difficulties vanish
with regard to the organization of coral.
In the course of this work our author mentions, that besides the animals to
which coral owes its formation, there are 3 kinds, which he describes at large,
which pierce and corrode the coral while in the sea, without preventing its in-
crease. Contrary to what has been generally received, and to what even Mar-
sigli asserts, coral grows among the rocks, and in the caverns of the sea, open
to every exposure. It had always been said, that it never grew in caverns open
to the north ; they must always be exposed to the south, at least to the east or
west ; but on the coast of Barbary, which lies open to the north, coral is not
less frequently found than elsewhere. It is generally observed to grow better
and more readily in shallow, than in deep water ; and though they generally fish
for it at the depth of 10 or 12 fathom, they sometimes get it, though but sel-
dom, at 120.
M. de P. then gives the manner of coral-fishing, and describes 2 different
machines made use of for this purpose : one for fishing up the coral where the
bottom is smooth ; being the same which is described by Grassendi in his life of
Peyreskius. The other, which is called in the Provenqal language the salabre,
is constructed so as to be employed where the bottom of the sea is rocky and
unequal. He takes notice of the great skill and address of the coral-fishers in
the management of these machines, as well as their sagacity in finding, at con-
siderable distances from the shore, the very places where some time before they
have been successful. He observes that all the productions of the sea, of which
he treats, have been considered by naturalists sometimes as stones, and some-
times as plants. Their stony substance deceived some, their tree-like appearance
others ; insomuch that most writers, who have seen these bodies in their cabi-
nets, have only considered their figures. They have denominated pora that class
of them which seemed pierced with holes. Of these they found some having
their holes large ; and these they called madrepora. There is another confusion
among writers concerning these bodies : all those which had a tree-like form,
whether their surfaces were smooth, without holes, or whether they were rough
and unequal with them, were all styled corals. Those of any other form than
that just now mentioned, were called madrepora, lithophyton, or alcyonium. It
therefore appears necessary to establish some essential characters, to be able to
distinguish these different bodies one from another ; but before these marks of
distinction are laid down, our author thinks proper to examine what these bodies
264 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
are, and how they are formeci. He proceeds to remark that divers productions
are found in the sea of a stony nature. These bodies are always equal, and al-
ways the same in their different species : they have the same arrangement of
parts, the same essential figure ; and differ in nothing but their outward form,
like different vegetables. They are all pierced with holes and pores, which are
of the same size and figure, and are of the same disposition in each species ; so
that it appears evident that they are all produced from the same matter. But
how they are produced, and their mechanism, has been hitherto unknown.
When treating of coral, our author has given several observations of other
persons relating to it ; but he finds none relating to the madrepora, and the
other sea productions. But the knowledge which he had acquired on the nature
of coral, conducted him to the discovery, which he made, of the animals that
form the madrepora.
As this system is new, he thinks it necessary to give hi§ observations, as they
enabled him to form it. He defines the madrepora* to be all those marine bodies
which are of a stony substance, without either bark or crust, and which have
but one apparent opening at each extremity, furnished with rays proceeding from
the centre to the circumference. He then takes notice of the means by which
he found the madrepora to be the habitation of animals. So early as the year
1719, when his curiosity carried him to the coral fishing on the coast of Pro
vence ; and though intent only upon coral, and neglecting to examine any other
marine production, he nevertheless observed that the extremities of the madre-
pora were soft, and covered with a mucosity, which had a fishy smell. Thence
he suspected that they contained some kind of animal ; but his curiosity stopped
here. Afterwards, being on the coasts of Barbary, the fishermen brought him,
in a barrel of sea-water, one of those madreporas which are called in Provence,
fenouille de mer, or sea-fennel. It had been put into the barrel as soon as it
was taken out of the sea ; and he observed, that the extremities of this madre-
pora were soft and tender, furnished with a transparent mucosity, like that of
snails ; these extremities were of a beautiful yellow colour, and were 5 or 6 lines
in diameter. In this he saw an animal, resembling the cuttle-fish, polype, or
sea-nettle. The body of this fish filled the centre ; its head was placed in the
middle of it, and was surrounded by several feet or claws : these feet filled the
intervals of the partitions observed in the madrepora, and were at j)]easure
brought to its head, and were furnished with yellow paj)illae. Its head or centre
was lifted up occasionally above the surface, and often contracted and dilated itself
like the pupil of the eye. He had the pleasure of seeing it move distinctly all its
claws, as well as its head or centre. We can easily conceive all these motions,
from what we have lately seen in the fresh-water polype, discovered by M. Trem-
bley : and it is to be observed that the great sea polype (which is found on our
A'OL. XLVir.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. '2^5
own coasts, and usually called a prule) the animal of the madrepora, that of
coral, and the fresh-water polype, scarcely differ except in magnitude ; so that
from having seen one, an idea of the rest may easily be formed. And Mr. W.
mentions this with the more freedom, as on a visit with M. Trembley in Sussex
at the late Duke of Richmond's, he saw the same order and economy observed in
the coralline, as is mentioned by M. de Peyssonnel of the coral and madrepora.
This phenomenon M. Trembley had discovered some time before ; and having
put some fresh collected coralline into a phial of sea-water, brought it to Good-
wood ; where after it had been suffered to remain at rest a few hours, by the
assistance of a microscope a great number of very small white polypes, exactly in
form resembling the fresh water polype, but infinitely less, were seen to protrude
themselves from the inequalities of the coralline, each of which served as an ha-
bitation for a polype. When the water was still, these animals came forth, and
moved their claws in search of their prey in various directions ; but on the least
motion of the glass, they instantly disappeared ; as was the case of the coral in-
sect described by our author.
But to return. The flesh of the animal of the madrepora is so soft, that it
divides on the gentlest touch. This soft texture prevented M. de P. from de-
taching any one; and he observes that there are in those seas several large spe-
cies of urtica, which become pappy on the least touch. He mentions one sort
of above a foot in diameter, whose body is as large as a man's head, and which
is of a poisonous nature. After the madrepora had been preserved 3 days, the
contained animals covered its whole surface with a transparent jelly, which melted
away, and fell to the bottom of the water as the animal died ; and both the water
and madrepora then had a putrid fishy smell. After having destroyed and consumed
all the animals, the extremities of the madrepora became white.
Imperatus seems to have bordered upon this discovery, when he says, " that
the extremities of the madrepora are soft, of a obscure purplish colour, contain-
ing a membranous substance ; whence one might suspect, that it partakes of a
sensitive and animal life."
Our author made the experiment here laid down on every species of madre-
pora, which he found during the 3 months he continued on the coasts of Bar-
bary. He observed always the same appearance, allowing some little difference
for the colour and size of the animals, the texture of their bodies, and that of
the bodies themselves, on which they were produced.
From what has been extracted, concerning the coral and madrepora, an idea may
be formed of the millepora, lythophyton, corallines, and sponges ; each of which is,
according to our author, the habitation of numerous animals, and formed by them.
He has given, from his own observations, particular accounts of each of these
productions, and divided them into genera and species witli great accuracy ; and
VOL. X. Mm-
206 PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
though in common they are the habitations of animals, each species vaiying in
form and bulk, and composing its cell in various forms and manners, and of
different consistences, constitutes their essential character. As oysters, scallops,
muscles, cockles, snails, &c. have a power given them, by the Author of Nature,
of forming and enlarging their separate dwellings ; to these bodies, the subjects
of this treatise, the same power is given, but in large families. In the madre-
pora, its animal occupies the extremity ; in the millepora, the substance ; in
corallines and sponges, the void places ; in coral and lithophytes, the cortical
parts. Each of these animals, according to their kind, furnish substances dif-
fering as much in consistence as in form. That of coral is extremely hard, and
compact ; the madrepora and millepora are of a stony, but more loose texture ;
the coralline is still more soft ; the lithophyton, of a substance nearer horn than
stone ; and the sponge is soft and elastic.
We observe a great variety in the operations of nature : the crab, the cuttle-
fish, and the sea-spider, are endowed with a testaceous covering ; the esculent
sea polype, and others of that class, have no such defence. So most of the
animals hitherto noticed in this treatise, have a secure retreat ; but there is a
production denominated, by Imperatus, lorica-marina, which has no such con-
venience. It is as it were a soft madrepora. It grows at the bottom of the sea,
and is a series of circular tubes, of about half an inch long, and 2 or 3 lines in
diameter. Each of these, at the end most remote from the centre, is furnished
with a sphincter, from which are occasionally protruded the legs or claws of the
animal, like those before mentioned. The tubes themselves are likewise at
pleasure lengthened and shortened. They are fastened to the rocks by a com-
mon broad surface, after the manner of coral and such like marine productions,
and are of a coriaceous substance. Hither likewise may be referred the soft
lithophyton, usually called the sea-mulberry, and described by our author, which,
on observation, exhibits nearly the same phenomena as the preceding.
As to our author's opinion concerning the propagation of these animals : he
supposes that they spawn as oysters do ; and that their spawn is inveloped in a
viscous substance, like that of testaceous and other fish ; and that by this visco-
sity it is fastened indifferently to whatever solid body lies in its way, whether it
be a rock, glass, broken pots, flint-stones, &c. This viscous matter, coming
to stagnate, is changed, according to its nature, into a solid and forms a lamina
or stratum, such as is observed at the base of these productions, and ser\-es as it
were for their first principle. The egg, inveloped in this viscous substance, is
hatched in its proper time, and furnishes the animal, which resembles the sea-
polype and other soft fish. These animals have all the necessary organs, and
among others a particular gut, which, in the cuttle-fish, is filled with a black
liquoif the use of which, according to the vulgar opinion, is that of being poured
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 26/
out at pleasure, to prevent the animal being taken when pursued : but this
liquor, according to our author, serves the animals, the subjects of this treatise,
with a matter capable of becoming hard ; and furnishes the increase of the body
or shell of the animal, which, like other shells, remains always of the same form,
and is of a size projx)rtionable to the animal. In the madrepora it lifts itself up
under the animal, which always lies upon it ; but in the millepora it increases
from the centre as the animal grows larger ; and thus these marine productions
grow in just proportions.
These animals are nourished without changing their place, like American
oysters, which fasten themselves to the roots of the mangles ; or like what has
been heretofore called concha anatifera, which fastens itself to old planks. Na-
ture has furnished these polypes with claws, which they occasionally protrude
from their cells, and seize their prey, as it passes by them ; and thus they are
nourished and increase, according to their particular mechanism and construction.
There are some species of the polype of the madrepora, which are produced
singly, others in clusters. The first of these kinds may arise from the parent
animal furnishing only one egg at a time: other species deposit a number of
these eggs at the same time ; which, coming to life altogether, are joined in
such a manner, that they seem to constitute one and the same body.
The millepores grow one upon another ; their little animals produce their
spawn, which attaching itself either to the extremity of the body already formed,
or underneath it, gives a different form to this production. Hence the various
shapes of the millepora, which is composed of an infinite number of the celjs of
these little insects, which altogether exhibit different figures, though every par-
ticular cellule has its essential form, and the same dimensions, according to its
own species.
On the whole, we see, that M. de Peyssonnel, if his system is admitted, has
made a great alteration in this part of natural history. Naturalists had been
divided, whether coral, and the harder productions of the sea, should be consi-
dered as plants or stones. Those who considered them as stones, among whom
was Dr. Woodward, imagined themselves justified in this opinion from their
excessive hardness, and from their specific gravity ; and they were confirmed in
this by observing, that if these bodies were calcined, they were converted into
lime. Guisonagus, in his letter to Boccone, says positively that coral is not a
plant, but a real mineral, composed of much salt and a small quantity of earth :
he supposes its form given it by a precipitation, something like that of the arbor
Dianae of the chemists.
Dioscorides, Pliny, Caesalpinus, Boccone, Ray, Tournefort, and Geof^roy,
thought coral to be a plant, from its root being fixed to rocks or stones, as those
of trees are to the earth ; and from its sending forth a trunk, which ramified into
M M 2
'2.68 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
branches. This opinion was seemingly strengthened by Boccone's observation of
the milky juice at the tops and in the cells of coral, and most of all by the Count
de Marsigli's discovering, in the year 1706, what he conjectured were the flowers
of coral. Both these opinions, countenanced by long time, and great authority,
M. de Pcyssonnel has endeavoured to overturn; and to show that these produc-
tions were neither stones nor vegetables, but animals ; and that, like oysters, and
other shell-fish, nature has empowered them to form themselves a stony dwelling
for their protection and support, each according to its kind.
Some account of M. de Peyssonnel's discoveries was transmitted by him to the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris in the year 1727 ; but they were not much
attended to, till Mr. Trembley's discovery of the fresh-water polype. This added
much to their weight, and occasioned M. de Jussieu, in the year 1741, to visit
the sea-coasts of Normandy, in order to satisfy himself of the nature of these
marine productions, and his observations confirmed those of M. de Peyssonnel.
The sentiments of that great naturalist M. de Reaumur, on this subject, may
be seen at large in the preface to the 6th volume of his history of insects.
LXXP^I. Concerning Inoculation, in a LeLler from Mr. Rich. Brooke, Sur-
geon, to James Parsons, M. D. Secretary to the R. S, for Foreign Corre-
spondence, p. 470. /
In the year 1747, Mr. B. inoculated a young gentleman in Maryland, then
about 20 years of age. He made a slight incision, about an inch in length, on
the belly of the biceps muscle. In that he laid the lint impregnated with vari-
olous matter, covered with a digestive pledget ; then bound them on with a roller.
When he went afterwards to look at the arm, the roller being too slack, he found
the pledget and lint were moved to the opposite side from the wound ; the inci-
sion itself was but a little discoloured, but the part on which the lint lay, after
its removal, was inflamed, and full of red pimples. He was afraid that the
gentleman would not be affected with the disorder; but he had the fever, erup-
tions, &c. at the usual times.
As he had but about 30 pustules in all, he went through the different stages
of the disorder without the least threatening symptom. This induced him to try
to communicate the disorder without making any incision, only applying the
infected lint to the arm, and confining it with an adhesive plaster. The few
patients on whom he tried this method were children, and always with success.
The absorbent vessels, he believed in young subjects especially, would always
take in a sufficient quantity of the matter to contaminate the whole mass of the
circulating fluids, and though the density of the pores, or scaly inspissations of the
materia perspirabilis, in adults, might in some measure prevent the disorder from
being communicated by contact ; yet friction would easily remove that obstacle ;
for by this means we might make the cuticle as thin as we please, and the warmth
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 2^9
induced by friction would dilate the mouths of the absorbent vessels, and draw a
moderate flux of juices to the part, so that they might take in a sufficient quantity
of variolous matter to bring on the disorder,*
LXXVIl. A Sequel of the Case of Horace JValpole, Esq. relating to the Stone,
since his first Account in April, 1750.-|* p. 472.
After having found himself for 1 years together perfectly well, and free from
all symptoms of his former disorder, having taken for some time no more than
one half of the quantity of soap and lime-water that he had before used; in
November 1750, Mr. W. came out of the country in his coach in the usual
travelling pace, without the least inconvenience. But having ventured some-
times to go in a coach, after he came to town, on the stones, he began at times
to feel the symptoms of the same disorder, which on any motion, besides that of
going in a chair, even in walking to any degree, increased on him ; and driving
only in his chariot through the two parks to Kensington, without going on the
stones, he found himself greatly affected, by making frequently and involuntarily
water, and sometimes bloody, accompanied with sudden stops, and severe pains.
However, taking the precaution of going by water as far as the Old Swan, and
being carried from thence in a chair as far as Whitechapel, he ventured in a
chariot, fitted up with the best French springs, to go into the country with Mrs.
Walpole about midsummer last; but before he had got half way to Epping,
though the horses went but a gentle pace, he felt as great uneasiness, attended
with the same severe symptoms, as he had ever done; which frequently returned,
and continued during the whole journey for 4 days together, with little or no
abatement, except while in bed ; whereas formerly, after he had lain some time,
he was perfectly easy the whole night. In alighting from the coach, on his ar-
rival at his house in the country, he had indeed a cruel fit; but after he had
rested one night, and kept himself as quiet as possible for several days, he found
himself perfectly well again; and as he never went in a coach, and did not walk
much, during his whole stay in the country last year for about 5 months together,
he never felt the least symptom of uneasiness.
A few days before leaving the country in November last, he took a turn or
two round his park in the chariot, free from pain; which encouraged him to
undertake a journey to town again in the chariot, by short stages, and gentle
driving: and it was performed in 5 days to Whitechapel, without his being sen-
sible of the least inconvenience any part of the way ; neither had he felt any since
• After the above account was communicated to the Royal Society by Mr. Brooke, the experiment
was tried on 4 children by Dr. Conyers at the Foundling Hospitalj but was followed neither by the
variolous fever nor eruption in any one of the instances.— Orig.
■\ See p. 135 of this vol. of these Abridgments.
270 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
his arrival in town; and he continued well, taking daily, as he had constantly
done from the time he went last into the country, the full quantity of soap and
lime-water, as formerly he took.
LXXVIII. Part of a Letter from Mr. John Parker, an English Painter at
Rome, to his Father at London, concerning the late Eruption of Mount F^esu-
vius. Dated Rome, Dec. 20, 1751. p. 474.
The eruption lasted about 25 days in all, and broke out of the side of the
mountain, preceded by an earthquake, felt all over Naples at the time of the
eruption. The mountain in the middle of the crater or cup, which formerly
threw out the stones, sunk down, with about a third of the bottom of the said
cup. The breadth of the matter it threw out is in some places half a mile over,
in the least part near 6o feet; and it has filled a valley about 6o feet deep, and
raised a mountain in the same place, of matter and ashes, about 50 feet high;
and its whole length from the mouth to where it stopped, is about 5 miles; but
it did not arrive at the sea by near 5 miles. The matter, or lava, seems to be
composed of iron, antimony, sulphur, and salts, and is not always of the same
colour, taste, &c. in every place. The thing I can compare it to most, is the
large cinders thrown out of your great iron works, but covered over in many
places with the above salts and sulphur. While the lava ran red-hot, a man
threw a mass of the cool lava from a height upon it, which, far from sinking
into it, rebounded like a ball. Its motion was as slow as the common walk of a
man. It broke out in 5 different places. Mr. P. walked on it for about a mile
while near 3 feet of the top were cooled; but for many feet underneath as red to
the sight as the furnace of a glass-house. It covered and burnt up trees, houses,
&c. in short all it found in its way.
LXXIX. The Case of a Piece of Bone, with a Stone in the Bladder, success-
fully extracted, by Mr. Joseph Warner, F.R.S. and Surgeon to Guy's Hos-
pital, p. 475.
Eliz. England, aged 48, in all other respects a healthy woman, had been
afflicted with the symptoms of the stone in the bladder for about 2 years. After
the usual preparation Mr. W. proceeded to the operation in the following un-
usual manner: He cut the urethra obliquely upwards on the right side, to about
half its length, by introducing a small knife into the groove of the staff, and
found very little force requisite to the introduction of the necessary instruments
into the bladder, and in the extraction of the stone, &c. On laying hold of the
stone it broke; so that only a part of it, about the size of a pigeon's egg, was
extracted on the first introduction of the forceps; but at the second time, he
extracted a ragged piece of bone, weighing l6gr. Before it was cleansed, its
VOL. XLVII.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 271
cavities appeared filled and covered with a mixture of hairy and stony particles;
whence he conjectures that it probably was the nucleus of the stone. Nothing
remarkable occurred during the cure, but that the patient, ever after the second
day from the operation, was capable of retaining her urine, and soon perfectly
recovered.
LXXX. Of a Water-Sjjout, raised off the Land, in Deeping- Fen, Lincoln-
shire. By the Rev. Mr. Benj. Ray, of Cowbit near Spalding, p. 477.
May the 5th, 1752, a phenomenon appeared about 7 in the evening, in Deep-
ing-Fen, which, from its effects, seemed to be a water-spout, broken from the
clouds. A watery substance, as it seemed, was seen moving on the surface of
the earth and water, in Deeping-Fen. It passed along with such violence and
rapidity, that it carried every thing before it: such as grass, straw, and stubble;
and in going over the country bank, it raised the dust to a great height; and
when it arrived in the wash, in the midst of the water, and just over against
where Mr. R. lived, it stood still for some minutes. This watery substance
spouted out water from its own surface, to a considerable height, and with a ter-
rible noise.
On its second route, it proceeded in a side line into the river, breaking in its
passage a fishing-net, and there moved along, till it came to the church, where
it again stood a little while, and then made its next passage through the
space between the church and the parsonage house, towards Weston hills and
Moulton chapel. In its way to these places, it tore up a field of turnips, broke
a gate off the hinges, and another into pieces. Those who saw it evaporate,
affirm it ascended into the clouds in a long spearing vapour, and at last ended in
a fiery stream. There was a mist, like smoke, frequently round it. Three more
were seen at the same time in different places.
LXXXI. Of Two Methods, by tuhich the Irregularity of the Motion of a Clock,
arising from the Influence of Heat and Cold on the Rod of the Pendulum,
may be prevented. By John Ellicott, F.R.S. p. 470.
The first of these methods consists in a particular construction of the pen-
dulum itself, which occurred to him several years before. About the year 1732,
an experiment, which Mr. Ellicott made to satisfy some gentlemen, that the rod
of a pendulum was liable to be considerably influenced by moderate degrees of
heats and cold, led him to consider, that as metals differ from each other in their
density, it was highly probable they might also differ from each other in their
expansion; and that this difference of the expansions of two metals might be
so applied, as in a great measure to remove those irregularities in the motion of
a clock, which arise from the effect of heat and cold on the length of a pen-
272 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1751.
dulum. With this view, not long afterwards he contrived the pendulum repre-
sented by fig. 1, pi. 7- In which ab represents a bar of brass, made quite fast
at the upper part by pins, and held contiguous, at several equal distances, by the
screws 1, 2, 3, &c. to the rod of the pendulum, which is a bar of iron; and so
far as the brass bar reaches is filed of the same size and shape, and consequently
does not appear in the figure; but a little below the end of the brass bar, the
iron is left broader, as at dd, for the conveniency of fixing the work to it, and
is made of a sufficient length to pass quite through the ball of the pendulum to
c. The holes 1, 2, &c. in the brass, through which the shanks of the screws
pass into the iron rod of the pendulum, are filed as in the drawing, of a length
sufficient to suffer the brass to contract and dilate freely by heat and cold under
the heads of the screws; eeee represents the ball of the pendulum; f, f, two
strong pieces of steel, or levers, whose inner centres, or pivots, turn in two holes
drilled in the broad part of the pendulum rod, and their outer ones in a strong
bridge, or cock, screwed on the same part of the rod, but omitted in the draft ;
because, when put on, it covers this mechanism ; g, g, are two screws entering
at the edge, and reaching into the cavity near the centre of the ball. The ends
of these screws next the centre are turned into the form represented in the draw-
ing, which, pressing with the weight of the ball against the longer arms of the
levers, cause the shorter arms to press against the end of the brass bar at b.
Things being in this situation, let us suppose that the rod of the pendulum, and
the brass annexed to it, grow longer by heat; and that the brass lengthens more
than the iron of the same length ; then the brass, by its excess of dilatation,
will press the short ends of the levers downwards at b, and at the same time
necessarily lift up the ball, which rests on the long ends of the same levers at
f, f, to any proportion necessary; and provided the ends of the screws press on
the levers at a proper distance from the centres, the ball will be always kept at
the point of suspension, notwithstanding any alteration the rod of the pendulum
may be liable to from heat or cold. What this distance ought to be, may very
nearly be determined, if the difference of the expansion between the brass and
iron bars be known; for the proportion the shorter arms of the levers ought to
bear to the longer ones, will always be as the excess of the expansion of the
brass is to the whole expansion of the iron, as may be thus easily demonstrated.
Let the line ab, fig. 2, drawn perpendicular to the line ef, represent a bar of
iron; the line cd a bar of brass; the pricked line bg the expansion of the iron,
and dh the expansion of the brass bar, by the same degree of heat; let the line
gi be drav/n parallel to the line ef, then will ih represent the difference of the
expansion of the two metals; through the points h, g, draw a right line cutting
the line ef, as in k; this line may be supposed to represent one of the levers
turning on its centre at g, h the point where the brass bar acts on the shorter
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 273
end of the lever, and k the point where the screw acts on the longer end of the
lever, which being the place where it intersects the line ef, it is evident the ball
of the pendulum will be as much raised by the lever, as it would have been de-
pressed by the expansion of the iron ; but the triangle ihg is similar to the triangle
bgk ; and therefore as ih, the excess of the expansion of the brass, is to bg, the
whole expansion of the iron, so will hg, the shorter arm of the lever, be to gk,
the longer arm of the lever. Q. e. d.
At Fig. 1 is placed a strong double spring, whose ends pressing against the
under edge of the ball, hinder it from bending the brass bar by its forcible action
at the point b, which, when the ball is of a considerable weight, it might other-
wise be very liable to do.
The description here given is exactly agreeable to the original contrivance; and
the only alteration he afterwards made in it, consists in placing the screws g, g,
within the ball of the pendulum, as represented in fig. 4. But as the success of
this contrivance depended entirely on the supposition that metals were expanded
differently by the same degree of heat, before putting it in execution, he inquired
what experiments had already been made on this subject: when Mr. John Eames
put into his hands Mr. Graham's account of his quicksilver pendulum, as it is
now commonly called, published in the Philos. Trans. N° 3Q2, which account
was introduced by the following paragraph :
" Whereas several, who have been curious in measuring of time, have taken
notice, that the vibrations of a pendulum are slower in summer than ip winter;
and have very justly supposed this alteration has proceeded from a change of
length in the pendulum itself, by the influences of heat and cold on it, in the
different seasons of the year; with a view therefore of correcting in some degree
this defect of the pendulum, I made several trials, about the year 1715, to dis-
cover whether there was any considerable difference of expansion between brass,
steel, iron, copper, silver, &c. when exposed to the same degrees of heat, as
nearly as I could determine; conceiving it would not be very difficult, by making
use of two sorts of metals diflfering considerably in their degrees of expansion
and contraction, to remedy, in great measure, the irregularities, to which com-
mon pendulums are subject. But though it is easily discoverable, that all these
metals suffer a sensible alteration of their dimension by heat and cold ; yet I found
their differences in quantity, from each other, were so small, as gave me no
hopes of succeeding this way, and made me leave off" prosecuting this affair any
farther at that time."
The reading this paragraph proved at that time sufficient to make him lay
aside all thoughts of succeeding in a contrivance founded on principles, which a
gentleman of so great abilities, and known accuracy in making experiments, had
after trial judged to be insufficient. And it was not till about the latter end of
VOL. X. Nn
274 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1751.
the year 1734, that he again resumed them on the following occasion. A gen-
tleman desirous to make some experiments concerning the expansion of metals,
employed him to make an instrument like one invented by Mr. Muschenbroek
for that purpose, which he calls a pyrometer. On looking over Mr. Muschen-
broek's experiments, he not only found the difference between the expansion of
some of the metals much greater than he expected, but, as he thought (if they
were to be depended on) sufficient to answer his former purpose. This led him
to consider the structure of the instrument which Mr. Muschenbroek made use
of in his trials, and on examination he thought it liable to some objections,
which would probably make the result of experiments with it very uncertain.
He therefore endeavoured to contrive one of a different construction, that might
be more to be depended on. Such an instrument he some time afterwards com-
pleted : and though it was not in every respect so accurate as he could wish, he
is fully persuaded that such experiments as are carefully made with it, may be
depended on, as very near the truth. Having made a great variety of experi-
ments with this instrument on bars of different metals, as nearly of the same
dimensions as possible, he found, on a medium, their several expansions by the
same degree of heat to be as follows:
Gold Silver Brass Copper Iron Steel Lead
73 103 95 89 60 56 149.
Thus finding so great a difference between the expansion of brass and iron, he
immediately determined to make a pendulum after the manner above described,
composed of those two metals, and also ordered a clock to be made, with the
utmost aire and exactness, with which he intended to make the experiments.
These were both finished in the beginning of the year 1738; and having no
reason to doubt of success, he showed the pendulum to the late Mr. Machin,
and gave him a drawing and description of it, in order to its being communicated
to the Royal Society; but objections were made to it, of which the only one that
appeared to have any weight was, that it had been found by experiment, that
two bars of different metals, screwed together so as to be in contact with each
other, would not expand regularly and smoothly, but by jerks. In order to exa-
mine into the force of this objection, he directed two bars of equal dimensions
to be made, one of brass, the other of iron, of about 2 feet in length, fastened
together after the same manner as the two rods of the pendulum, which he
intended to place so, that, by acting very near the centre of an index of a con-
siderable length, even the smallest alteration in the bars would be made sensible,
and by the motion of the index, he should be able to form a judgment, whether
the rods moved regularly and freely, or not ; but before this was put into execu-
tion, he contrived, by fastening the two bars to the back plate of a clock, not
only to make them answer the end above proposed, but at the same time to
VOL. XtVII.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 275
lengthen or shorten a pendnlum of a common construction, in such a manner,
as sufficiently to correct the irregularities arising from the influence of cold or
heat upon it. The manner of applying them is represented in fig. 3,
In which, aaaa represent the back plate of the clock, bbb a triangular piece
of brass, screwed by two screws, through the slits cc, to the plate, yet so that
it may be drawn backward or forward by means of the screw at d ; ef is a brass
bar, about 2 feet in length, made fast at the bottom, by a screw and two pins at
f, to an iron one of equal dimensions, to which it is likewise screwed by the
screws l , 2, 3, &c. after the same manner as the rod of the pendulum already
described. The iron bar is fastened at the upper end of the triangular piece of
brass, nearly under that part of the brass bar marked e; gh is a strong brass or
iron lever, moveable on a centre at g, and is supported by the upper end of the
brass bar; ii is the cock, on which, in a common clock, the pendulum is hung;
kk, part of the rod of the pendulum, whose spring passing through a fine slit in
the cock ii, is fastened to a stud rivetted into the lever at 1. The slit in the
cock must be made so close, as to prevent the spring from having any lateral
motion in it.
From this description it is evident, that if the brass bar expand more than the
iron one, it will raise up the lever, and consequently the pendulum, which is
fastened to it; and as the length of the pendulum is only from the centre of
oscillation to the under part of the slit, through which the spring passes, the
pendulum will be thereby shortened; and by making the point of the brass bar
to act on a proper part of the lever (to which it is capable of being adjusted by
means of the screw d) the pendulum may be shortened to whatever degree shall
be necessary.
To prevent the pendulum from bending the bars, which it would be liable to
do, if the ball of the pendulum was of any considerable weight, the end of the
lever, farthest from its centre of motion, is hooked to the end of a chain, which
is wound about and fastened to a small pulley at m. On the same arbor, to
which this pulley is fixed, is fastened another pulley, of a much larger diameter,
to which is hung, by a silk line, the weight or counterpoise n. By means of
this counterpoise, any part of the weight of the pendulum may be taken off
from pressing against the brass bar. And if, on the end of the arbor to which
the pulleys are fixed, an index be placed, so as to point to a graduated circle, the
least motion of the lever will not only be easily perceived, but also whether that
motion is uniform and regular, or not. And on having, some time after, made
a clock with this contrivance added to it, he found the index not only to move
very sensibly, but very regularly, and never, that he could perceive, by jerks.
And he doubts not, but, when the [xiint of bearing of the brass bar on the lever
NN 2
27<5 FHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
is once well adjusted, it will be found to lengthen or shorten the pendulum to as
great a degree of exactness, as any other method whatever.
The method he took for adjusting the longer arms of the levers of the pen-
dulum to the shorter ones, is represented in fig. 4. To a strong post, fixed to
the wall, is fastened a small shelf, supported by two brackets a, b. In the middle
of this shelf is fastened a wire, by the screw e; to the end of which the pen-
dulum is to be hung. Below this shelf, at the distance of about 40 inches, is
placed the index cd, turning freely on a centre; the length of the index is 50
inches. At the distance of half an inch, on a part of the index produced be-
yond the centre, is placed a steel pm; and in the back of the pendulum, as near
the centre of oscillation as may be, is drilled a hole to receive this pin ; when the
pendulum is hung on the wire against the post, and the wire is screwed higher
or lower by the screw e, till the pin resting against the upper part of the hole
(which is filed into a proper shape for that purpose) keeps the index nearly in a
horizontal position. Below the bottom of the pendulum is placed a second index
fg, exactly like the former, except that it is kept in a horizontal position by the
screw k, bearing against the end of the iron rod. When the experiment is to
be made, the pendulum is first put into a box, and gradually heated by a large
fire, to a considerable degree, being often turned, that every part may be equally
exposed to the fire. And having continued shut up in the box for some time
after it is removed from the fire, that the two rods may be heated as uniformly
to the same degree as possible, the pendulum is hung on the wire, and the two
indexes made to stand nearly in a horizontal position. The two graduated
plates h, i, are then slid on a wire, till the divisions in each marked o are pointed
to by the indexes. As the pendulum cools, the lower index will be seen gradu-
ally to descend; but if the ends of the two screws, in the ball of the pendulum,
act on proper parts of the levers, the upper index will continue in the same
place. If the ends of the screws be either too far ofi^, or too near the centres
of the levers, the index will either rise or descend; and by comparing the number
of divisions it has varied, with those which the lower index has varied, a near
estimate may be made, how much the screws require to be altered; and, in a
very few trials, they may easily be adjusted to a very great exactness. In order
to make an actual trial how far this contrivance of the pendulum will answer the
end proposed, it is necessary, that the clock, to which the pendulum is fitted,
be made with great exactness, and entirely to be depended on; for otherwise the
experiments will be verv uncertain, as he found in the clock he first made use
of. In order to render this clock as perfect as possible, he made it in several
respects difl^erent from the common ones, in hopes of removing some imperfec-
tions he apprehended they were liable to. But as in this attempt he fell into an
▼OL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 377
error, which it was a considerable time before he discovered, his making the
trial was thereby greatly retarded. And in order to prevent others from falling
into the like mistake, he gives the following short account of it.
In a common clock, the pendulum is usually hung by a spring to a cock on
the back plate of the clock, while the wheel and pallets, by which the pendulum
is kept in motion, are placed in the middle of the frame ; and the pendulum is
moved by a piece of steel, called the crutch, riveted to one end of the arbor, to
which the pallets are fastened. This disposition of the pieces he apprehended
liable to some considerable objections : to remedy which, he contrived to fix the
pallets to the upper part of the pendulum itself, above the centre of motion ; and,
in order to make the pendulum vibrate as freely as possible, it was made to turn
on two steel points, and was hung in the middle of the frame, exactly under the
swing-wheel, and so as to vibrate in the same plane with it. By this means he
was in hopes, that it would have moved with much greater freedom and regularity,
than when hung after the common method ; and on trial it was found to move
with so great freedom, that a pendulum of above 20 pounds weight, when hung
in its place without the clockwork, and made to vibrate through an arch of 2
degrees, was found to make above 1200 vibrations, before it had lost half a
degree, and was observed to have a sensible motion above 20 hours afterwards ;
and the clock, when first put together, was kept going, for several days, by a
weight of only 1 1 ounces, hung to the end of a single line. But it was not long
before he discovered, that this great freedom made it liable to be considerably
affected by the least motion. A remarkable instance of this he communicated to
this Society, which was published in the Philos. Trans. N° 453. But the
greatest objection to this method was, the points being subject to wear ; and he
found that the least alteration in them would occasion the clock to vary much
more than he could have imagined. To remedy this inconvenience, he made
the pendulum to move upon edges, like those on which the beam of a pair of scales
turns ; but he found these likewise liable to wear, though not in so short a time
as the points ; so that, after much time spent in making several experiments, in
order to remedy this inconvenience, he found himself obliged to lay this method
wholly aside, and to hang the pendulum on a spring, as usual.
This alteration being made, he found that the clock went very regular ; and,
after a sufficient trial, he was fully satisfied the pendulum would answer his expec-
tations. But, fearing lest he might be thought prejudiced in favour of his own
invention, he engaged the Rev. Mr. Professor Bliss to make trial of it ; and ac-
cordingly, in the beginning of the year 1750, he sent to him, at Oxford, a clock
for that purpose ; and in January last he received from him a letter, giving his
opinion of it, of which the following (so far as relates to the clock) is an exact
copy.
278 PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
" SIR,
" I have now had thorough trial of the clock ; and am perfectly satisfied that
your pendulum takes oft' the effect of heat and cold, as well as either the gridiron-
pendulum (as it is commonly called) or the quicksilver pendulum ; and this upon
•sufficient trial for near 2 years. It has this advantage of both the fore-mentioned
ones, that it may, by lengthening or shortening the levers, be easily adjusted to
the exact proportion of the difference of the iron and brass, which neither of
those kinds is capable of, without very great trouble and difficulty. I was in-
deed prejudiced against the method of doing it by levers, as I had heard the late
Mr. Graham say, that he had tried levers in different ways, that he found they
did not work regularly and freely, but by jerks. However, in your method I
am satisfied, by the fullest experience, that they succeed as well as either of the
other sorts, or perhaps any other kind that may be invented hereafter,"
Before concluding, he observes that, in the year 1 748, he made a model of a
contrivance to be added to a pocket-watch, founded on the same principles, and
intended to answer the like purpose, as the pendulum above described. And,
at a meeting of a council of the Society, on Feb. 15th last, he produced a watch
which he had made for a gentleman, with this contrivance added to it, and also
the model, by which was shown what effect a small degree of heat would have
upon it.
LXXXTI. Of a Neiv Tackle or Combination of Pulleys. By Mr. John
Smeaton, p. 404.
The axis in peritrochio, and the compound pulley, are the only mechanic
powers which can with convenience be applied for moving large weights, when
the height to which they are intended to be raised is considerable. The ex-
cellence of the former is, their working with little friction ; that of the latter, in
their being easy to be moved from place to place, and applied extempore, as oc-
casion requires.
The present method of arranging pulleys in their blocks may be reduced to 2.
The first consists in placing them one by the side of another on the same pin ;
the other in placing them directly under one another, on separate pins. But in
each of these methods an inconvenience arises, if more than 3 pulleys are framed
in one block. For, according to the first method, as the last line, by wliich
the draught is made (or, as it is commonly called, tlie fall of the tackle) must
necessarily be on the outside pulley or shieve ; the difference of their friction
will give it so great a tendency to pull the block away, that as much will be lost
by the rubbing of the shieves against the block, on account of its obliquity, as
will be got by increasing the number of lines.
The 2d method is free from this objection ; but, as the length of the two
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 279
bhx^ks, taken together, must be equal to the sum of the diameters of the 6
pulleys, besides the spaces between for the ropes, and the necessary appendages
of the framing, when more than 3 pulleys are in each block, they run out into
^ich an inconvenient length, as to deduct very considerably from the height to
which the weight might otherwise have been raised : so that, on those accounts,
no very great purchase can be made by the common tackles of pulleys alone.
In order therefore to increase its power, sometimes a 2d tackle is fixed on
the fall of the first ; but here it is obvious, that whatever be the power of the
2d tackle, the height to which the weight might otherwise have been raised by
the first, will be less, in the same proportion, as the purchase is increased by
the 2d.
Again, very frequently the fall of the first tackle is applied to an axis in peri-
trochio, which increases the purchase very commodiously without the inconve-
niences last-mentioned ; but then the machine is rendered cumbersome, and con-
sequently less fit for a moveable apparatus.
All those impediments Mr. S. has avoided, by combining the two methods,
above described, in one. The pulleys are here placed in each block in 2 tiers ;
several being on the same pin as in the first method, and every one having
another under it, as in the 2d; as also that, when the tackle is in use, the 2
tiers that are the most remote from each other, are so much larger in diameter
than those that are nearest, as to allow the lines of the former to go over the
lines of the latter without rubbing.
From this construction arises a new method of reeving the line on the shieves :
for here, whatever be the number of shieves, the fall of the tackle will always be
on the middle shieve, or on that next the middle, according as the number of
pulleys on each pin is odd or even.
To do this, the line is fixed to some convenient part of the upper block, and
brought round the middle shieve of the larger tier of the under block, from
thence round one of the same sort next to the centre one of the upper block ;
and so on till the line comes to the outside shieve, where the last line of the
larger tier falls on the first shieve of the smaller, and being reeved round those,
till it comes at the opposite side, the line from the last shieve of the smaller tier
again rises to the first of the larger, whence it is conducted round till it ends on
the middle shieve of the upper block on the larger tier ; as will appear more
plain, by inspection of figure 5, pi. 7-
In this method all the lines are clear of one another, and the blocks are kept
parallel. The model which he showed the Society, and from which he made the
draught, is a composition of 20 shieves, 5 on each pin. With this model,
which may easily be carried in the pocket, he had raised 600 weight. But with
a tackle of this sort, properly executed in large, one man will easily raise a ton.
280 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
and a greater number in proportion. He had tried several numbers of shieves as
far as 36 ; but 20 seemed to be the largest number that will answer well in
practice. A very commodious tackle of 1 2 might be executed in wood, in the
same manner that common blocks are made.
In constructing a tackle of 20 for 3 tons, the larger tier of shieves should not
be less than 8 inches, the running line need not be thicker than half an inch
diameter, and the iron pins need not be so thick-
LXXXIII. On some Vegetable Balls. By IVm. Dixon, Esq. F. R. S. of Lover-
sail near Doncaster in Yorkshire, with Remarks on them by Mr. IVilliam
Watson, p. 498.
These balls seem to be plants of a very particular kind. They were taken up
in a fresh- water lake, on a large common in the East Riding of Yorkshire, about
12 miles west of Hull. The lake is from 100 to 200 acres in size, according to
different seasons, and empties into the Humber ; which is pretty salt, and has
sometimes infected it a little at very high tides. The water is very bright, and
the bottom in many places is quite covered with these balls, like a pavement, at
different depths. These now sent were about 6 inches under water ; and many
are left quite dry every summer. On this communication Mr. Watson observes,
that the vegetable here mentioned, he has never seen before ; neither had he
been able to find it described in any of the botanic writers he consulted. The
matter of which it is composed, is that of a conferva ; and should therefore
have had a place under that genus in Dillenius's Historia Muscorum. They are
of a deep green mossy colour, are hollow, of an irregularly spherical figure, and
of different sizes, from an inch an half to 3 inches in diameter. They are co-
vered with very short villi externally, and the thickness, from their external to
their internal surface, is about a quarter of an inch ; their texture is most com-
pact the nearest to the surface. He denominates them globose conferva. Mr.
Ray, in his History of Plants, vol. 1. p. 83, describes a plant, which he found in
Sicily, something like this now sent by Mr. Dixon.
LXXXIV. Of the Copper-Springs in the County of IVichlow in Ireland. By
the Rev. Henry Kenroy, D. D. p. 500.
These mines lie in the southern part of the county of Wicklow, on each side
of the river Arklow, and about 7 miles west from the town of that name, among
hills that rise to the height of small mountains. The mine, which was formerly
wrought, is that of Ballymurtogh, on the south bank of the river. It yielded
vast profit to the undertakers; but it has been disused for some years past.
This is amply compensated by the far richer mines of Crone-Bawn, on the north
side of this river.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRAWSACTIOWS. 281
Crone-Bawn is a hill of 2 miles in circumference, and about 1000 feet in
height, in the form of a large inverted bowl. The bowels of this hill are full of
rich mines. But the principal works lie on the east side, about halfway up the
hill, where several shafts are sunk, fk>m 50 to 70 fathoms deep. The first mi-
neral met with is an iron stone. Beneath this they arrive at a lead ore, which
seems mixed with clay, yet yields a large quantity of lead, and some silver.
Under this lies a rich rocky silver ore, which sparkles brightly, and yields 73
ounces of pure silver out of a ton of ore, besides a great quantity of fine lead.
Having pierced some fathoms through this, they arrive at the copper ore ; which
is very rich, and may be pursued to a vast depth.
In order to carry off the water from the mines, there are levels carried on a
great way under ground, from the lower part of the hill. Out of these levels
issue large streams of water, most strongly impregnated with copper. An ac-
cidental discovery, which happened not long ago, is likely to make these streams
more beneficial than all the rest of the mines. Some of the workmen having
left an iron shovel in the stream, found it some weeks after incrusted with cop-
per, insomuch that they thought it converted into copper. This gave the
hint of laying bars of iron in these streams, which is done in the following
manner :
Oblong pits are dug 1 0 feet long, 4 wide, and 8 deep : the bottom laid with
smooth flags ; the sides built up with stone and lime, with wooden rude beams
across the pits to lay the iron bars on. Chains of these pits are continued along
the stream, as far as the directors please ; for the water never abates of its qua-
lity, if it were conveyed from pit to pit through a thousand. Soon after the iron
bars are laid in these pits, they contract a copper rust, which by degrees entirely
eats away the iron. The copper, which is in the water, being thus continually
attracted and fixed by the iron, subsides to the bottom of the pit. To hasten
this dissolution, the iron bars are sometimes taken up, and the rust rubbed off
them into the pit. In the space of 1 2 months the whole bar is commonly dis-
solved, if the iron be soft ; for steel or hard iron will not do. The stream is then
Jurned off the pits ; and the men with shovels throw up the copper, which lies
on the flag at the bottom, like reddish mud. This mud, being laid in a heap,
as soon as dry becomes a reddish dust. It is then smelted into copper.
This being the apparatus, the product is thus. One ton of iron in bars pro-
duces a ton and IQi cwt. of this copper mud or dust. Each ton of this mud
produces, when smelted, l6cwt. of the purest copper, which sell at lOl. per
ton more than the copper which is made of the ore. There are about 500
tons of iron now laid in these pits ; and the proprietors may, with proportionable
advantage, lay in many thousands. The water that runs from these mines,
VOL. X. O o
281 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
enters the river Arklow on New Bridge ; and is of so corrosive a nature, that no
fish can live in this large river from hence to the sea.
LXXXF. Extract of a Letter to Dr. Maty* F. R. S. from Geneva, con-
cerning the Introduction and Success of Inoculation in that City. p. 503.
In September 1750, the practice of inoculating the small-pox was first intro-
duced into Geneva. The example was set by a young lady ; and was, the next
year, followed in the hospital of foundlings, where it was admitted by an order of
the governors, and authorized by the magistrates. Their method of doing it was
generally the same as that now commonly used in England ; whence instructions
were sent to Geneva, when they first began to inoculate. Yet 3 persons were
inoculated in a new manner. These were blistered slightly, by means of a small
vesicatory applied to that part of the arm, where the incision is usually made.
The blister occasioned by this plaster was opened, and a pledget dipped in the
pocky matter was applied to the excoriated part. In one instance the incision
was made only in one arm ; the success of which was the same, as when it had
been made in both. Some pocky matter was made use of, which had been kept
3 weeks ; and some that had even been kept 4 months, without any apparent
difference in the effects from that which was fresh ; unless it was owing to this,
that, in one instance, the small-pox came out 4 days later than the usual time.
The experience, which they have hitherto had in Geneva, has suggested to
them a conjecture, that the incision ought to be made deeper when the matter
has been kept some time. All who have yet been inoculated in Geneva, have
recovered ; and the far greater number of them have had but an inconsiderable
number of pustules.
LXXXVI. A Letter from James Parsons, M. D., F. R. S. to the Rev. Mr. Birch,
Sec. R. S. concerning the Formation of Corals, Corallines, &c. p. 505.
[As it is now perfectly well ascertained that corals and corallines are really the
fabrication, or at least the natural and necessary accompaniments, of animals of
the polype tribe, this paper may be considered as of no importance.]
* Dr. MaUhew Maty, an eminent physician, was born in Holland in 1718, and took his doctor's
degree at Leyden. In ] 740 he settled in England ; and in 1750 he comraenced a work, published every
2 months, called Journal Britannique, which gave an account of the chief productions of the English
press. In 1758 he was elected f. r. s. and in 1765 he succeeded Dr. Birch, as Secretary to that
learned body. He died in 1776', leaving one son, the Rev. Paul Henry Maty, who also was
afterwards Secretary of the r. s. Dr. Maty was likewise one of the librarians of the British Mu-
seum J and he wrote the Memoirs of the Earl of Chesterfield, prefixed to that nobleman's miscella-
neous works, in 2 vols. 4to,
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS.
283
LXXXVII. A farther Account of the late Plague at Constantinople, in a Letter
from Dr. Mackenzie, of the 23d of April, 1752. p. 514.
As a corollary to his former account sent to Dr. Mead, Dr Mackenzie sub-
joins that, on January 3, 1732, there was an accident of the plague, when the
thermometer was at 53. Jan. 24, another accident, therm. 62. Jan. 26, an
accident at Buiukdere, therm. 51. Feb. 8, accidents at Cassim, Pacha, and
Phanar, therm. 52. Feb. 10, an accident in Galata, therm. 55; patient re-
covered. Feb. 15, another accident in the same house, therm. 53. March 8,
an accident in Galata, therm. 56 ; and not one accident afterwards, though at
the above date the thermometer was at 50, and had been at 44 the l6th instant ;
so that they had great hopes to get clear, if no infection should be conveyed to
them from any other quarter.
Prosper Alpinus observes, that the etesian winds at Cairo remove the plague
entirely ; so that they fear nothing after these winds begin. And Dr. M. was
assured that all the plagues which had been at Smyrna and Constantinople for
the last 20 years, had been most violent during the season of the etesian winds;
still allowing that were it not for the etesian winds, the plague would be more
violent in the hot months.
LXXXFIII. A Letter of Mr. James Short, F. R. S. to the Royal Society, con-
cerning the Inventor of the Contrivance in the Pendulum of a Clock, to pre-
vent the Irregularities of its Motion by Heat and Cold. p. 517.
Soon after the invention of pendulum-clocks, justly ascribed to the celebrated
Huygens, it was found that they were liable to considerable inequalities in their
motion ; which were imagined to rise from the pendulum, in its vibrations, de-
scribing an arc of a circle , and consequently that the larger vibrations must be
slower than the shorter ones. In order to remedy this imperfection, Mr.
Huygens wrote a treatise, called Horologium oscillatorium, a piece of geometry
which does honour to the last century, in which he demonstrates, from the pro-
perties of the cycloid, that the vibrations of a pendulum, moving in a cycloid,
would be performed in equal times, even though the vibrations were unequal.
Pendulums therefore were made to vibrate in a cycloid ; but great inequalities
were still observed in the motion of clocks.
We do not read of any attempts after this, to regulate the motion of clocks
till the year 1720, when Mr. George Graham delivered into the Royal Society a
paper, which is published in the Phil. Trans. N" 392, in which he says, that it
having been apprehended, that the inequalities in the motion of clocks arose from
a change of length in the pendulum, by the influences of heat and cold, he,
about the year 1715, made several trials, in order to discover, whether there
002
•284 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
was any considerable difference of expansion between brass, steel, iron, silver,
&c. when exposed to the same degrees of heat ; conceiving that it would not be
very difficult, by making use of two sorts of metals differing considerably in their
degrees of expansion and contraction, to remedy in great measure the irregula-
rities, to which common pendulums are subject. He says also, that from the
experiments he then made, he found their differences so small, as gave him no
hopes of succeeding that way, which made him leave off prosecuting this affair
any more at that time : that, some time after, having observed an extraordinary
degree of expansion, by heat, in quicksilver, he thought of a proper manner of
applying a column of it to the pendulum of a clock, in order to prevent the in-
equalities arising from its different lengths by the effects of heat and cold; which
succeeded accordingly, and is what is now called Mr. Graham's quicksilver-
pendulum. Mr. Graham, in the same paper, takes notice, that, though the
pendulum of a clock was to remain invariable, yet there would still be some irre-
gularities in the motion of the clock, arising from the friction of the different
parts of the clockwork, and from the different degrees of foulness.
In the year 1725, Mr. John Harrison,* of Barrow in Lincolnshire, made se-.
vera! experiments on wires of different metals, to find their different degrees of
expansion and contraction : for he thought, that by a proper combination of
wires of two different metals, differing considerably in their expansion and con-
traction, he might be enabled to keep the centre of oscillation of a pendulum al-
ways at the same distance from the point of suspension. In consequence of
these experiments, he made a pendulum consisting of one steel wire, at the end
of which is the ball or weight, and on each side of this wire 4 wires alternately
brass and steel, so disposed and contrived, as to raise the pendulum the same
quantity as it is lengthened by heat, and to let down the pendulum in the same
proportion as it is raised by cold. He made also a drawing of a clock, in which
the wheels are disposed in a different manner from those then in use ; which
drawing Mr. S. has seen, signed by himself in the year 1725. Two of these
clocks with pendulums, as described above, were finished in the year 1726. In
these clocks Mr. Harrison has made a particular sort of pallets, so as to be al-
most entirely free from friction ; for though he had thus happily succeeded in his
* Mr. John Harrison, an ingenious clockmaker, was born in l693, at Foulby in Yorkshire, and
bred to his father's business, that of a carpenter. Having a good mechanical turn, particularly for
wheelwork, he constructed some wooden clocks, the accuracy ofwhich was so much admired, that
in 1728 he came to London with a drawing of a timekeeper, which he showed to Dr. Halley, who
recommended him to Mr. Graham, from whom he received great encouragement to prosecute his
design. In 1735 he visited London again with a complete machine, with which he was sent on a
voyage to Lisbon by the board of longitude, to make trial of its properties. From that time he went
on improving hislnvention, and at length received the reward of more than 20,0001. allowed by
parliament for the discovery of the longitude. He died in 1776", at 83 years of age.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 285
contrivance to prevent the inequalities in the motion of the clock, arising from
the different lengths of the pendulum by the effects of heat and cold, yet he found
there were considerable errors still remaining, occasioned by the friction of the
pallets, as in the common way. He also suspended the pendulum on the wall
of the house, entirely independent of the clock, and clock-case : for he had ob-
served considerable alterations in the going of the clock, when the pendulum is
suspended as in the common manner. His pendulum vibrates in an arc of about
15 degrees, with a ball of about 3 lb. between cycloidal checks, which he him-
self found were necessary; though he had never heard of Huygens's book, till
after he had made them. He has also disposed the force of his pendulum-wheel
on the pendulum, by his sort of pallets, in such a manner, that the vibrations of
the pendulum will not be aflected by the different resistance of the air. On the
whole, this clock is made in such a manner, as to be almost entirely free from
friction ; in consequence of which he uses no oil, and therefore there is no ne-
cessity ever to clean the clock. When he settled in London, he sent for one of
these clocks from the country, and set it up in his house in Orange-street, in
the year 1739, where it has stood ever since, and in all that time has never va-
ried above one minute from the truth. He can depend on it to a second in a
month.
About the year 1729, Mr, Harrison made his first machine for measuring
time at sea, in which he likewise applied this combination of wires of brass and
steel, to prevent any alterations by heat and cold. In 1746, he went on board
one of his majesty's ships of war with this machine to Lisbon, and returned,
where this machine was publicly shown. Since that time, he has made two more
of these machines or clocks for keeping time at sea, in both which he has like-
wise this provision, to prevent the effects of heat and cold. An account of these
and of the many contrivances which Mr. Harrison has made use of in them, for
answering their intended purpose, and an account of the success of his voyage
to and from Lisbon, is contained in a speech of the President Martin Folkes,
Esq. on his delivering to Mr. Harrison the gold medal of Sir Godfrey Copley ;
which speech is inserted in the minutes of the Society in 1749.
Mr. John Shelton, who was the principal person employed by Mr. Graham in
making astronomical clocks, informs, that Mr. Graham, in 1737, made a pendu-
lum consisting of 3 bars, viz. one of steel, between two of brass, and that the
steel bar acted on a lever, so as to raise the pendulum, when lengthened by heat,
and to let it down, when shortened by cold. This lever, which is very strong,
rests on a roller, made moveable, so as to adjust the arms of the lever to their
true proportion. The whole was made to be as free from friction as possible in
such a construction. Mr. Graham made observations, by transits of the fixed
stars, of the motion of the clock with this sort of pendulum, and from the ex-
286 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [annO 175 J.
perience of several years, during which the clock was kept constantly going, he
found that the clock was liable to sudden starts and jerks in its motion. Of this
he informed Dr. Bradley, Mr. Bliss, Mr. S. and several other gentlemen. This
clock still remains in Mr. Graham's house, in the possession of his executors.
Mr. S. had been informed, that one Mr. Frotheringham, a quaker, of Lin-
colnshire, caused a pendulum to be made, consisting of 2 bars, one of brass, and
the other of steel, fastened together by screws, with levers to raise or let down
the ball ; and that these levers were placed above the ball. This clock Mr. S.
had seen, and was told by the maker, Mr. John Berridge, that the pendulum of
it was made in 1738 or 1730, and that the dial-plate of it was engraved at Mr.
Sisson's house in 1738 : and this clock is in the possession of Mrs. Gibson, in
Newgate-street, who has had it ever since the year 1739-
In the Hist, of the Royal Acad, of Sciences at Paris, for 1741, there is a me-
moir of M. Cassini, in which he describes several sorts of pendulums for clocks,
compounded of bars of brass and steel, and applies a lever to raise or let down the
ball of the pendulum, by the expansion or contraction of the bar of brass. He
has also given in the same memoir, a problem for finding the proportion which
the two arms of the lever should have, to answer the intended purpose ; and
also a demonstration of it.
In June, 1752, Mr. John Ellicot gave in to the Royal Society a paper, con-
taining the description of a pendulum, consisting of 2 bars, one of brass, and
the other of iron, fastened together by screws, with 2 levers in the pendulum
ball, so contrived as to raise and let down the ball, by the expansion and con-
traction of the brass bar ; and also to adjust the arms of the levers to their true
proportion.* He says, that he first thought of these methods of applying bars
of brass and iron to prevent the irregularities of a clock, arising from the dif-
ferent lengths of the pendulum, by the effects of heat and cold, in 1732; and
that he put his thought in execution in 1738.
In 1743, Mr. S. bought a clock of Mr. Graham, which he had kept going
for 2 years before. This clock has a pendulum, compounded of wires of brass
and steel, in the manner of Mr. Harrison's combination. It has also a provision
in the ball, to adjust the wires, in case they happen to be too long. When
Mr. S. first took notice of this contrivance or provision in the ball, he asked Mr.
Graham the reason of it ; who told him, that having observed some inequalities
in the motion of the clock, he imagined that they arose from the wires being
somewhat too long ; and therefore added this contrivance, to adjust the length
• He has also given, in the same paper, another constmction of a pendulum to prevent the effects
of heat and cold, consisting of 2 bars, one of brass, and the other of iron ; the brass bar acting on a
lever, at the end of which is fastened the pendulum, the whole so constructed and contrived, as to
raise the pendulum, when it is lengthened by heat, and to let it down, when shortened by cold. — Orig.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 287
of the wires ; but that when he had done this, he found inequalities still re-
maining; and therefore justly concluded, that they arose from the difference in
the friction of the different parts of the clockwork, occasioned by the differences
in the fluidity of the oil, &c.
From what has been said above, it appears, that the improvement of clocks,
by a contrivance to prevent their inequalities arising from the different lengths
of the pendulum, in different seasons of the year, by the effects of heat and cold,
was first thought of, and executed, by Mr. George Graham ; and that the ap-
plication of wires or bars of two metals, which have different degrees of expan-
sion or contraction, to prevent the same inequalities, was also first thought of by
Mr. Graham, and first executed by Mr. John Harrison, without the least know-
ledge of what Mr. Graham had done before him.
LXXXIX. On the Cause of Thunder. By Mr. Henry Eeles, dated Lismore,
Ireland, June 18, IJb'i. p. 524.
Mr. Eeles's opinion on the cause of thunder is, that it is by electrical explo-
sions among the clouds, the fire of lightning and electricity being of the same
nature, as had been long before proved by the experiments of Mr. Franklin in
America. After the explosion, then the echo of it from the other clouds is the
cause of the continued or distant rumbling noise. Mr. E. adds, that he intends
afterwards to show, that this fire is a most considerable agent in nature. First,
that the ascent of vapour and exhalation is principally owing to it, and that our
atmosphere, by that means, is kept more homogeneal than is generally supposed,
and fitter for respiration, vision, &c. and that clouds of heterogeneous matter are
kept suspended at their usual height merely by this fire. Secondly, that this fire
is the cause of the reflection, refraction, and inflexion of light. Thirdly, that it
is the cause of that secondary attraction and repulsion, which Sir Isaac Newton
has taken notice of. Lastly, he will give some hints of the great use of this fire
in animal life, and in vegetation.
XC. On Mons. DavieVs Method of Couching a Cataract. By Thomas Hope,
M. D. p. 530.
Dr. H. states that he had heard of a new method of performing the operation
for the cure of the cataract, but did not care to say any thing of it, until he had
seen it himself, and had inquired into the success of it. M. Daviel, a surgeon
of Paris, was the first who, in 1745, began to put it in practice, and had at last
brought it to perfection ; of which he gave a memoir to the Academy of Sci-
ences, of 115 operations, 100 of which succeeded. Dr. H. saw him perforin it
on 2 persons, of which the following is a description.
After having placed the patient in a right light in a chair, he places himself
288 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1751.
over-agalnst, and somewhat higher than the patient : an assistant holds the
head steady, another keeps the upper eye-lid open ; he, with his left hand, keeps
open the lower eye-lid. He then takes an instrument like a lancet, of a myrtle-
form point, a little crooked upwards, and fixed in a handle, and, making the
patient look upwards, he pierces the cornea transparens at its lower circumfe-
rence, just where it joins the sclerotica, conveys the point of the instrument
between the cornea and iris upwards, beyond the pupil ; he enlarges this open-
ing on each side by the same instrument : he then takes out this instnmient, and
introduces another of the shape of a narrow lancet, made round at the point,
fixed in a handle : with the cutting sides of this he enlarges the opening. Tak-
ing out this, he introduces a pair of crooked scissars, enlarges the opening on
each side by different snips, always as near as he can to the circumference of the
cornea transparens, till he has made the opening round two-thirds of the cornea
transparens : he then takes out the scissars, and, with a small instrument like an
ear-picker, he raises the cornea, and having in his right hand a cataract-needle,
broader and stronger than the common, and pointed like a lancet, he cuts the
capsula of the crystalline through the pupil ; then, pressing gently the globe of
the eye with his finger from below upwards, the crystalline slips out of the cap-
sula, and drops out of the eye. On the first puncture, the aqueous humour
coming out, the cornea and iris join together : and it requires great dexterity,
and a very steady hand, to introduce the instruments so as not to wound the
iris, which would endanger the eye.
Though the operation lasted above 2 minutes, the patient never complained of
any pain ; and said he felt nothing but a tickling. By which it appears the cor-
nea is not much more sensible than the nail of one's finger. And this operation,
which seems so cruel to a by-stander, does not give so much pain as couching in
the usual manner. It is to be preferred to couching in many respects. It may
be performed at all times, and in all kinds of cataracts, whether they are come
to maturity or not. It also avoids many inconveniencies and accidents, which
often baffled the success of the best operations ; such as the rising again of the
cataract, violent defluxions and inflammations, which often destroyed the eye,
the hurting of the vitreous humour, which seldom failed in couching, &c. In
both the operations, which Dr. Hope saw, the patient, immediately after^ could
distinguish all large objects in the room.
M. Daviel says, that he has found by experience, that all those instruments
are necessary : and as to the extent of the incision, he says that he seldom
makes it above one-half of the circumference of the cornea transparens; and that
a smaller opening would not suffice to let the crystalline slip out easily ; the dia-
meter of which, in general, not being above a line less than that of the cornea,
and in some cases within half a line, insomuch that, in order to make it pass
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 289
through the pupilla, he has been obliged to give a snip of the scissars to the iris,
which he says is attended with no bad consequences.
In answer to what is said, that it has been practised before, and that Taylor
formerly performed it, he endeavours to prove, that it never was, excepting in
cases where the crystalline had, by some accident, slipt through the pupilla into
the anterior chamber. In regard to the operation, there is some mention made
of it among the Arabians, as what they had heard of; but the operation is not
described particularly any where. One convincing reason, that it never was
carried into practice among the ancients, is, that had they made the extraction
of the cataracts, they must have found it to be the crystalline humour, and not
remained in the error they have all fallen into, that the cataract was a mem-
brane formed in the aqueous humour.
In regard to Taylor, he may have attempted, but never did carry it into prac-
tice ; else he would not have failed to have published it in the numberless
productions he has given. Dr. H. knows that, in 1743, he followed him in
Edinburgh for 6 months, where he performed above 1 00 operations of the cata-
ract by couching ; but never once attempted this way, nor ever mentioned it, but
in the case where the crystalline is lodged in the anterior chamber ; which ope-
ration has been described in many authors. So that he thinks, Mr. Daviel may
be truly said to be the first, who had brought this method into general practice
for the cure of a cataract.
Dr. H. thinks, the greatest risk one runs in this operation, is the pushing out
of the humours of the iris through the opening, which forms a staph)loma ; and
he finds this has been the case in some of those that have failed ; and it is not
easy to contrive a bandage on that part, to make a compression equal to the re-
sistance of the cornea before it was opened.
XCI. Letters of the Abbe Mazeas, F.R.S. to the Rev. Stephen Hales, D.D.,
F.R.S. on the Success of the late Experiments in France, concerning the Ana-
logy of Thunder and Electricity. Translated from the French by James
Parsons, M.D., F.R.S. Letter 1, dated St. Germain, May 20, 1752, N. S.
p. 534.
The Philadelphian experiments which Mr. Collinson communicated to the
public, having been universally admired in France, the king desired to see them
performed. Therefore the Duke d'Ayen offered his majesty his country-house
at St. Grermain, where M. de Lor, master of experimental philosophy, should
put those of Philadelphia in execution. His majesty saw them with great satis-
faction, and greatly ajjplauded Messieurs Franklin and Collinson. These ap-
plauses of his majesty having excited in Messieurs de Buftbn, D'Alibard, and
De Lor, a desire of verifying the conjectures of Mr. Franklin, on the analogy
VOL. X. P P
'igO PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 175'2.
of thunder and electricity, they prepared themselves for making the expe-
riments. *
M. d'Alibard chose, for this purpose, a garden situated at Marly, where he
placed on an electrical body a pointed bar of iron, of 40 feet high. On the 10th
of May, 20 minutes past 2, afternoon, a stormy cloud having passed over the
place where the bar stood, those that were appointed to observe it, drew near,
and attracted from it sparks of fire, perceiving the same kind of commotions as
in the common electrical experiments. M. de Lor, sensible of the good success
of this experiment, resolved to repeat it at his house in the Estrapade at Paris.
He raised a bar of iron QQ feet high, placed on a cake of resin, 2 feet square,
and 3 inches thick. On the 18th of May, between 4 and 5 in the afternoon, a
stormy cloud having passed over the bar, where it remained half an hour, he
drew sparks from the bar. These sparks were like those of a gun, when, in the
electrical experiments, the globe is only rubbed by the cushion, and they pro-
duced the same noise, the same fire, and the same crackling. They drew the
strongest sparks at the distance of g lines, while the rain, mingled with a little
hail, fell from the cloud, without either thunder or lightning ; this cloud being,
according to all appearance, only the consequence of a storm, which happened
elsewhere. From this experiment they conjectured, that a bar of iron, placed
in a high situation on an electrical body, might attract the storm, and deprive the
cloud of all its thunder.
I do not know. Sir, whether Mr. Franklin's letters were before your conside-
ration on earthquakes : if they were, we are obliged to Mr. Collinson for his
communication of Mr. Franklin's notions ; if they are not, you deserve the
honour of the discovery ; and whoever it be, it is still to the r. s. we owe the
communication of this ingenious thought, which the experiments ofM. d'Alibard
and M. de Lor have confirmed. These 2 learned men deserve that esteem of our
nation which their talents have a long time procured them.
Letter 2. Dated St. Germain, June 14, 1752. — M. le Monnier, having
prepared to repeat the same experiments, avoided that inconvenience in the resin
cakes being wetted by the rain. He placed, in the garden of the hotel de
Noailles, a wooden pole, of about 30 feet high, at the end of which was fixed a
large glass tube, which received at the other end a long tin pipe ; and this pipe
received again, in its turn, a pointed bar of iron, of about 6 feet high. The
glass tube was instead of the cake of resin, to hinder the communication of the
electricity from the tin pipe to the pole. A wire was carried from the bar of
iron, which rested on a silken cord, about 50 paces from the pole ; but rain
coming on, the wire was conducted into the house. We perceived the commo-
tions of the electrical matter from the first clap of thunder ; it produced sparks,
and there were certain intervals, when the commotions were so strong, that they
VOL. XLVn.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. . , 2gl
were accompanied with very sharp pain. It seemed as if the commotion was the
greater, the nearer the thunder was to the bar.
Letter 3. Dated St. Germain, June 20, 1752. — On the 26th of this month
there was a storm at two different times : the 1 st was at 3 in the afternoon, and
the second at half after 6. This storm, which came from the south-west, was
very inconsiderable : there were but 2 or 3 claps of thunder, either at 3 or at 6
o'clock. ; and there was a considerable interval between the lightning and the
clap, which showed that the thunder was at a great distance. Yet the effects of
the electricity were very violent, which we attribute to M. le Monnier's ingenious
apparatus ; which was as follows :
It is certain that the greater the quantity of these bars, the greater is the
quantity of electricity furnished by the magazine. In the last experiment there
was a tin pipe of 7 feet long, and about 5 inches diameter. It was the 1 st ma-
gazine : the 2d consisted of 6 great bars of iron of 6 feet long each, placed in
parallel order on glass bottles. All these magazines communicated with the
iron wire, that descended from the little bar at the top of the great pole, des-
cribed in the last letter.
The 26th of this month, at 3 afternoon, very lively sparks were excited, and
M. le Monnier set fire to spirits of wine. At 6 o'clock the Abbe M. went up
to a proper place, in order strictly to observe the intervals between the commo-
tions and the electricity. The clouds extended from the south and west to the
zenith of the pole, and the lightning came from a very distant part ; and, in
proportion as the clouds came nearer, the electricity was felt with very smart
shocks, but without light or regularity ; for sometimes none were felt for 2 or 3
minutes, and it was commonly with every flash of lightning that the commotion
was felt. But when the clouds had covered a considerable part of the heavens,
the commotions of the electricity succeeded very quickly with noise and sparks ;
though the thunder could scarcely be heard, because of its distance. It may
hence be judged how strong the commotions would be, if the clouds, which
produced the thunder, were nearer the bar.
On June 2g there was another storm ; but the Abbe was not present at the
experiments made in the garden, being employed in a like experiment in his
chamber. He placed at his window, which was about 35 feet from the ground,
a bar of iron of 12 feet long, which received a very sharp iron wire of 6 feet
high ; the whole advanced into the street, by means of a wooden pole laid pa-
rallel to the horizon ; at the end of which was a glass tube filled with resin, to
receive the iron rod. The wire that hung from the extremitj' of the pole entered
into the chamber, and from thence into a gallery of 30 feet long. The electri-
cal magazine was in his chamber, and the iron wire, after several turnings, was
again brought thither. He had disposed of this wire in such a manner, that if
p p 2
2Q'2 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1752.
tlie stonn should come in the night, or if it happened by day, lie had it in his
power to observe all he proposed, without quitting his befl tir his business.
The storm came at 5 in the oening ; and though he had not )"et time enough
to Ibnn a sufficient magazine of electricity, Ik? had nevertlieless v-er}' satisfectory
signs. TIte person who held the iron wire felt a conunotion ; and at the same
instant silken ribands were attracted by the electrical niagazinr. There came on
a great shower of rain and hail, which wetted tlic resin in the glass tube that
supported tl>e bar; ami after tliat tl>ete were no more signs of electricity. T^e
same thing happened in the garden ; where the silken cords, which in several
places interrupted the communication of tite electrized bodies with the non-
elcctrif^, having been wet, sensibly diminished the desirvd efFcct. The electri-
city howc\-er was very strong before the rain fell ; and the conunotions wx're felt
at about a foot distance : but the storm only passed by, and lasted no more i
the whole than 1 or 3 minutes.
Letter 4. Dated St. C«rawra, Jul^ \1, I75'2.— M. le Monnier, who per-
formed the experimcmts, was oonvinocd that the higii situation, in which the bar
of iron was cuinmonly placed, b not abmlutdy necessary to produce the effects
of electricity : for a tin spedking trumpet suspeiKled on silken cords, about 5 or
6 feet from tite ground, Hm pcodooed very particular signs of electricity.
A man placed on a cake of resin, and holding with his hand a wooden pole, of
about 18 fixi long, round which an in»n wire was twisted, was so well electrized
while it thuiMiercd, that very lively sparks were drawn from his 6oe and hands.
Having taken away the oonxnunication of the electrical magazine with the
iron win*, which himg from the great wooden pole (this magazine consisting, as
mentioned in tlic last letter, of 6 great bars of iron, placxxl horizontally on glass
bottles, about 4 feet from the ground), this magazine was strongly electrized,
when the stormy cloud passed in the zenith.
A man standing on the electrical cake in the middle of the garden, and simply
holding up one of his hands in the air, attracted with the other haiul wcxxi-shav-
ings, which were held to him on a piece of lead. Whence it evidently follows,
that the matter which is the cause of all the surprizing phenomena, which elec-
tricity affbnls us, fills the atmosphere in the time of a storm ; that it j)enetrates
us ; that we breathe it with the air ; and tliat the height usually given to the
iron bar, only serves to intercept the &r greater quantity of the electrical matter.
At the time that M. le Monnier made his experiments, the Abbe, in his turn,
trieti to perfect the manner of bringing the electricity into his chamber. He
therefore increased tlie length of his wooden pole, which went out of his window,
and at the same time that of his iron rod, which was perpendicularly fastened
to its end. The greater the lengtli and height that tliese two were, the stronger
was tlie electricity in the chamber.
TOL. XLTII.^ PHILOSOPHICAL TIAN8ACTIONS. '1^3
Towanls 1 1 in the morning, the heavens began to be covered to the south-
west, with stMne claps of thunder and lightning at a gR^at distance. The AbW
had just time to go to the garden, where he found tiie Duke d'Ayen, wlio had
p(e|Mured ever)- thing for the experiments. An iron wire descended from the top
of tlte pole, and rested on the hot-house of the garden : this wire was supportetl
by m silken cord, and was tenninatetl by a tin cylinder, of about 3 inches dia-
meter, ami 3 feet long. The electricity of this cylinder was such that, when a
finger approached it, 'i or 3 very lively sparks at a time were proilucetl, with a
iliarkling noise, like that of the nails of one's fingers crackled against each other.
Tlien the Duke d'Ayen took the first shrub he met in the hot-house, which
happened to be that from which the labdanum is producetl : he placed it with its
pot on a cake of resin, and fastened the iron wire to one of its branches. This
shrub was instantly electrized, so tliat whitisli sparks issued from every leaf, witli
the same kind of crackling just mentioned ; but the trunk of this shrub had a
much stronger electricity ; whether at that instant the electricity of the cloud
was more stanig, (for it \-aries every moment) or that the force of the whole
electricity, expamled through the leaves, became concentrated in the trunk of
this shnib.
Tlie duke then took one of his silver watering-pots, which was 24 feet high ;
he rilled it with water within an inch of the brim, and placed it on the
electrical calie, dipping into it a wire of lead, which communicated with that
wire which came from the top of the pole. Of all the electricity tried till then,
this was incomparably the strongest; there were 20 sparks; and on advancing the
ringer towards it, the shock affected the arms and breast with great violence.
Letters. Dated Paris, August 1\, 1732. — A phenomenon, which I have
always thought worthy of strict obser\'ation, is the diminution of the electricity
of tliunder, when rain comes on during the storm. This diminution was re-
market! at St. Germain, every time I was a witness to M. le Monnier's experi-
ments ; and the same effect is, within this little while, confirmed to me by the
learned Mr. Euler, in communicating to me the observations of M. Ludolf.
I left St. Germain the 12th of July to come to Paris, at 7 in the evening. At
the instant of my arrival, I saw the heavens covered with clouds, and the light-
ning foreboded thunder, which soon was heard. I went up into the gallery of
the Hotel de Noailles, which is very high, and distant from the neighbouring
buildings : my pole was 10 feet high ; at the end of which a glass tube was made
fest ; and to this a very sharp iron spire, from the middle of which a wire of
about 20 /eet long came down, and rested on a long glass tube fixed to the ba-
lustrade, which environed the galler}-. My apparatus was scarcely ready, when
it thundered, and the clouds broke by this first clap, and poured down a conti-
294 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1752.
nual large quantity of rain, which lasted near 1 hours, without the least discon-
tinuance of the thunder.
I felt no commotion in putting my finger towards the wire, nor could I draw
any sparks from it. I was on the point of giving it over, when the wire happened
to touch the leads and the balustrade of the gallery ; and it instantly produced as
many sparks, as it touched places on the balustrade and leads. I then took the
wire in my hand, and threw it strongly against the bars of iron ; and as the wire
extended, and successively touched the bars, it always produced the same effect.
There were prodigious multitudes of these shining sparks, like those produced by
the finger in common experiments. I only wanted an electrical magazine to
accumulate electrical matter in, which would have produced me all the usual
phenomena.
The Abbe then communicates the observations that Mr. Ludolf made at
Berlin. ] . That the sparks drawn from the wire were half an inch long ; and they
caused so horrible a shock, that the entire body of the person who attracted them,
was shaken ; but the small sparks produced only a light sensation in the fingers.
1. It is also remarked, that this electricity communicates itself to all bodies else-
where, that are susceptible of it, provided they are placed on electrical bodies,
while they are made to communicate by a wire. 3. When there was plenty of
rain, they scarcely remarked any thing of the force of the electricity, though the
lightning and claps of thunder were very strong. 4. At every clap of thunder the
electricity seemed extinct, and returned not till after about 30 seconds, and some-
times longer. 5. When the wire was surrounded with drops of rain, it was
observed that only some of them were electrical, which was remarkable by the
conical figure they had ; while the others remained round as before. It was also
perceived, that the electrical and non-electrical drops succeeded almost alternately;
which made them call to mind a very singular phenomenon, that happened some
years ago to 5 peasants, who passed through a corn-field near Frankfort on the Oder
in a storm. The thunder killed the 1st, the 3d, and the 5th, without injuring the
2d and the 4th. 6. The storm of the 1st of August was very considerable,
with very great rain every minute they remarked 3 or more flashes of lightning ;
in the mean time some electrical sparks were observed on the wire. They put
upon a chain, which communicated with the wire, a thread, the 2 ends of which
hung down ; which showed electricity by mutually repelling each other ; for at
every flash of lightning they approached each other suddenly, as if they had been
pushed one against the other by some force. 7- Sometimes the electricity con-
tinued in the wire with great strength to 45 minutes, after the thunder and
lightning had entirely ceased, &c. Conformable to the 6th observation of Mr.
Ludolf, the Abbe says he has often observed, that in presenting dust or dried
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ^QS
snufF to the end of a tin cylinder, which hung to the wire in such experiments,
this dust was strongly attracted, as soon as the wire showed any signs of electri-
city. But when the electrical matter came to be accumulated in this cylinder,
the dust was powerfully repelled as by a strong blast, insomuch that the quan-
tity of molecules repelled was much greater than of those attracted at the same
time.
And with respect k) this successive attraction and repulsion, the Abbe men-
tions an experiment he was informed of, without knowing that the author of it
was Mr. Franklin. The dishes of a pair of scales were suspended to the balance
by silken cords ; the two dishes were electrized, and a very sharp needle was
presented to one of them. The scales immediately lost their equilibrium ; and
that dish under which the needle was held was attracted. The direct contrary
happened, when an obtuse or round body, such as a leaden bullet, was put on
the point of the needle, for then the dish was repelled. If this experiment be
true, it strongly imitates what happens in the clouds, when they are in equilibrio
in the atmosphere : and it gives room to conjecture, that it would be much less
dangerous to tenninate the tops of steeples with obtuse bodies, than with pointed
spires, on which the thunder falls, sooner or later, when they are very high.
XCII. On Extracting Electricity from the Clouds. Translated from the French,
by the Abbe Nollet, F.R.S. Dated Paris, June 6, 1752. n. s. p. 553.
The Abbe, after having taken notice of the discovery of M. d'Alibard in
France, in regard to extracting electricity from the clouds during a thunder-
storm, in consequence of Mr. Franklin's hypothesis, observes that he is piore
interested than any one to come at the facts, which prove a true analogy between
lightning and electricity ; since these experiments establish incontestably a truth,
which he had conceived, and which he ventured to lay before the public more
than 4 years ago. Examine the 4th volume of his Leqons de Physique, p. 314,
and you will find what follows : ' If any one should take upon him to prove,
from a well connected comparison of phenomena, that thunder is in the hands
of nature, what electricity is in ours ; that the wonders which we now exhibit at
our pleasure, are little imitations of those great effects which frighten us ; and
that the whole depends on the same mechanism ; if it is to be demonstrated that
a cloud, prepared by the action of the winds, by heat, by a mixture of exhala-
tions, &c. is opposite to a terrestrial object ; that this is the electrized body, and
at a certain proximity from that which is not ; I avow that this ideji, if it was
well supported, would give me a great deal of pleasure ; and in support of it how
many specious reasons present themselves to a man who is well acquainted with
electricity ! The universality of the electric matter, the readiness of its action,
its inflammability, and its activity in giving fire to other bodies ; its poverty in
296 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1752.
striking bodies externally and internally, even to their smallest parts ; the re-
markable example we have of this effect in the Leyden experiment ; the idea
which we might truly adopt in supposing a greater degree of electric power, &c.
all these points of analogy, which I have been some time meditating, begin to
make me believe that one might, by taking electricity for the model, form to
oneself, in regard to thunder and lightning, more perfect and more probable
ideas, than what have been offered hitherto, &c.'
To demonstrate, that glass is not absolutely impermeable to the electric fluid,
the Abbe offers the following experiment : Let the neck of a small thin phial a,
fig. 1 5, pi. 6, be placed in that of the receiver b ; and lute it in such a manner,
as that the air cannot pass through their joining. Exhaust the receiver, and
pour the little phial 3 parts flill of water, and conduct the electricity into it by
means of an iron wire, suspended to the conductor. Make the experiment in a
dark place, and for the greater surety fix the receiver to the plate of the air-
pump, not with wet leathers as usual, but with soft cement. You will see the
electric matter pass, as through a sieve, through the small phial into the receiver,
and present itself in an infinite number of luminous streams, of extraordinary
beauty ; and if you do not take care you will be smartly shocked, as in the Ley-
den experiment, by laying one hand on the receiver, and touching the plate of
the air-pump with the other.
To prove that in the Leyden experiment the electrical virtue, or power of
giving a shock, does not reside only in the glass, make the following experiment:
Electrize a phial two-thirds full of water ; pour this water into another thin
phial, placed on a glass stand ; plunge an iron wire into it, and attempt, while
the phial is in one hand, to draw a spark with the other : it is certain that if this
is done with a little readiness, you will make the Leyden experiment with this
water.* Possibly you may not always succeed with water ; but with mercury,
under the same treatment, it never fails. Whence proceeds the power of giving
the shock to the second glass, if it is not by means of the water, which it has
received ?
Electrize a bolt-head of glass, void of air, and sealed hermetically ; you may
make use of it for the Leyden experiment, and you will succeed. Is there not
then a communication between the exterior and interior surface of the glass ?
And is it not evident further, that the electric matter, which is perceived running
>vithin like a torrent of fire, passes through the glass ?
* Some years ago I showed this experiment to several members of the r. s., and not only produced
the Leyden experiment with it, but by pouring the electrized water into a basin, held in one hand
of an assistant standing on cakes of wax, who, on his presenting a finger of his other hand to some
warm spirit of wine in a spoon, held in the hand of a person standing on the floor, set it on fire. I
then considered this experiment as a proof of the electricity being accumulated in the water. W. Wat-
son.— Orig.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 207
When you force a hole through a piece of paper or pasteboard, attend to one
thing, which I constantly observe. If you electrize the plate of glass, ab, fig.
15, underneath, and that, by means of a thick iron wire somewhat bent, d,
you draw the spark through a piece of pasteboard, c, placed on the metal, with
which the glass is coated, the hole will appear invariably larger underneath, than
on the top of the pasteboard ; and this hole will have an impression at the place
where the iron wire shall have been supported. These 1 etFects leave no room
to doubt, but that the stroke of fire was directed from the glass to the conduc-
tor, E, by the bent iron wire. Besides, if the electric fire proceeds from the
upper surface of the glass, which receives the electricity from the under surface,
it necessarily follows, that it must have passed through the whole thickness of
the plate of glass ; and consequently that the glass is not impenetrable to the
electric fluid.
The electrical experiments, which have been made here during the thunder,
are now sufficiently verified. Dr. le Monnier, assisted by his advantageous situ-
ation, has sufficiently experienced, first, that a bar of iron, pointed or not, is
electrized during a storm : 2dly, that a vertical or horizontal situation is equally
fitting for these experiments : 3dly, that even wood is electrized : 4thly, that by
these means a man may be sufficiently electrized to set fire to spirit of wine with
his finger, and repeat almost all the usual experiments of artificial electricity ; for
thus the Abbe denominates that which is excited by friction.
Seeing therefore that these experiments succeeded so well, he attempted them
at Paris with a tube of tin, 18 feet in length, and of an inch and half in diame-
ter ; half of which tube he put out of the window, while the other half was placed
on, and fastened to, silk lines : and though he lived in the lowest part of Paris,
and his apartment in the Louvre is covered with an immense building, both in
height and extent, at any time when the thunder was but moderate, he per-
ceived signs of electricity. The sparks were more frequent after the lightning
than after the thunder ; and it even seemed that the clap of thunder put a stop,
for a very short time, to the force of the electricity.
Mons. Cassini de Thury, who was desirous of observing these effects with the
apparatus which they had erected on the terrace of the observatory, made the
same remarks ; and he has had a greater opportunity of observing them, because
the effects there were more considerable, on account of the situation. He even
remarked very evident signs of electricity, though there was neither lightning
nor thunder, but only the sky covered with such thick clouds as seemed to fore-
bode a storm.
Mons. le Roy, a member of the Academy of Sciences, who lives near the
Abbe, has repeated also a great number of these experiments and observations
VOL. X. Q Q
298 PHILOSOPHICAI«.iTRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1752;
by only making use of a pole of wood 25 feet long, about which he turned an
iron wire in form of a screw.
XCIII. Extract of a Letter from Mr. Mylius of Berlin, to Mr. W. Watson,
F.R.S., on the before-mentioned Subject. Dated at Berlin, August 26,
1752. p. 559.
March 16 last, at a little past 8 in the evening, we had here a slight earth-
quake, which manifested itself by its shaking the ground, the windows, and by
opening some doors. This we have had no example of before in our country ;
and it was perceived at the same time at Stavanger in Norway. I have made
experiments of collecting the electricity, during a thunder-storm, with great
success, in company with Professor Ludolf. He had erected an iron bar, of 12
feet long, which was fastened on a pole of wood, 50 feet in height, with 2 tubes
of glass covered with tin. The upper end of the iron bar was sharp pointed, and
near the lower end was fastened a very long iron wire, which being carried into
a summer-house, gave great sparks, as the thunder was approaching ; and these
sparks caused sometimes as violent a shock through the body, as the experiment
of Leyden. It was also continually observed, that the effects were greatest, when
the lightning was nearest ; and that for some moments after the lightning, the
effect ceased, but returned and increased by degrees.
XCIP . Mans. FageCs Remarks on the Use, &c. of the Styptic, purchased by
. his most Christian Majesty. Communicated by James Theobald, Esq. F. R. S.
p. 560.
About the end of the year 1750, Mr. Brossard, a surgeon from Berry, came
to Paris, to propose the use of a remedy, which he had discovered for stopping
the blood after amputations, and which he asserted to have found effectual in
several amputations of the arms and legs. At his request, some gentlemen of
the Academy of Surgery were deputed, in whose presence he was to make some
new experiments in stopping the blood on different animals, and in all which he
succeeded, by slopping it in the largest arteries after amputation. But the suc-
cess of this remedy might yet be considered a little dubious, because in many
animals, as in dogs particularly, the great arteries stop of their own accord ; and
rarely any dogs die from an haemorrhage, because their blood is more disposed to
coagulate, and by that means stop the discharge. For this reason the experiments
made on animals not being thought satisfactory, and yet being convinced that no
ill effect could follow the application of this remedy on human kind, Mr. Bros-
sard was permitted to use it at the Hospital of the Invalids, in an amputation of
the leg, which succeeded perfectly well.
VOL. XLVIT.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 2Qg
Some time after this 2 waggoners were run over by a waggon loaded with
stone, and each of them had one leg broken in a miserable manner. These 2
men being brouglit to the Hospital of the Charity, Mons. F. saw no other hopes
of success but in amputating the legs ; and therefore he requested Mr. Brossard
would be present, and give a proof of this new application, which they applied in
the following manner : As soon as the leg was cut oft', he slackened the tourne-
quet, to discover the vessels ; and Mr. Brossard applied, on the orifices of the
2 arteries, 2 pieces of his astringent, fastened one on the other with a ribband.
After tlie application was made, Mr. F. straitened the tournequet, and passed
the 2 ends of the ribband, which was fastened to the upper piece of the astringent,
on the stump over the knee, and applied a linen bag, filled slightly with the
same astringent in powder, on the whole wound ; and over all applied the com-
mon dressings in the like case. After the dressing was finished, he slackened
the tournequet, and 2 hours after took it entirely away. Eight and forty hours
after this, they took oft' the dressings, and not the least drop of blood followed
from the vessels: and they again applied 1 single piece of the astringent on the 2
vessels ; and he dressed the other parts of the wound with pledgets of lint, with
common digestive, a styrax plaster, and the usual bandage.
The 3d day the astringent fell off" of itself in the time of dressing ; and the
patient, after that time, was dressed in the common manner. The same was done
to the other patient, after the amputation, as to this.
The first of these men died on the 5 th day, and the other on the Qth : but
there did not appear, through the whole, the least tendency to an haemorrhage.
Thus the remedy fairly produced its effects, as to the stopping the blood.
However, in order to determine the manner in which this astringent produces
its effects, he examined the blood-vessels of those 2 patients after their death,
and found them contracted and straitened, as if they had been tied, and in the
largest of them a conical coagulation of the blood, which was an inch and half
long : and after having taken out this coagulation, it was with difficulty that
he could introduce the point of a very small probe into the orifice of that vessel.
The patient, who died on the Qth day, had the arteries contracted in the same
manner ; but with this difference, that the coagulation was at least 4 inches long.
Mr. Morand has employed this remedy with success in applying it to a wound,
made by a sword in the bending of the arm : and Mr. F. himself had made use
of it, with great success, on occasions where the temporal and intercostal
arteries had been opened. In the last-mentioned cases, he applied only 1 piece
of the styptic on the opening of the artery; and this generally fell off^ at the lirst
dressing, that is, 48 hours after the application, without th'.i least appearance of
an hicmorrhage, or other ill symptoms, which could raise any objection to this
styptic i for those patients were all recovered.
aa2
300 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1752-
There had been lately made, at the Hospital of the invalids, 1 experiments of
this astringent in amputations ; and in both the success has been equal to all that
can be desired. The surgeon, in these cases, used only the 1 pieces, applied
one over the other, without using the powder in the bag, as before ; and dressed
the whole wound with lint and the common bandage.
- Thus then at last there appears to be discovered a remedy beyond our hopes,
and which art has never yet equalled. The application of fire was the cruel re-
source of the ancients ; and Pare believed himself inspired when he discovered
the use of the ligature. But, alas ! how many accidents are there, which arise
from the use of those 2 manners, and which too often terminate in the death of
the patient ! Happy for us, that those accidents now appear to be no longer to
be feared, by the lucky discovery of this styptic, the first experiments of which
have so greatly promised success 1
It may be remarked, that, if this astringent succeeded only in coagulating the
blood, it had produced nothing extraordinary ; for these coagulations would not
have been sufficient to have stopped the haemorrhage, directly after the opera-
tion in amputations : but its excellency lies in contracting the arteries so closely,
that it hardly lets a little probe into the aperture of the artery, and by this means
forms, as it were, a perfect ligature, much more certain than the usual one ; as
this is not made in any one point of the cylinder of a vessel. Thus this appli-
cation exceeds every thing which has hitherto been produced by the operation
of our hands.*
• This singularity in the operation of this remedy supposes another in the
vessels, which is the great contractility of the fibres of the arteries. These
indeed do naturally contract of themselves ; but not to two-thirds of their dia-
meter ; nor to that state in which they are straitened by the effect of this as-
tringent ; because, by that the whole aperture is almost entirely taken off in the
largest vessels ; and it is easy to imagine their effects in the smallest.
It may be observed, that it is not in the dead parts of bodies, that this con-
traction can be made : it requires the assistance of the vital principle, and operates
on the fibres by certain articles contained in it, which dispose the animal body,
by its irritation, to shorten its fibres, and reduce the tissue, which they compose,
into a less volume.
This remedy is nothing else but the agaric of the oak. The best kind of it is
found on the parts of oak trees, where the large limbs have been cut off; and it
very often resembles a horse-shoe in its shape. This agaric is distinguished into
4 parts: the rind; the 2d part, which is preferable to the other; the 3d part
* In a subsequent number of these Trans, we shall take occasion to remark that notwithstanding
all that has been advanced in favour of this and other styptics, the best method of stopping a haemor-
rhage when a large artery is divided, is to have recourse to a ligature.
VOL. XLVII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 301
serves for the stopping the blood in the smaller vessels, as well as that part which
touches the tree. This last was what was powdered, and applied in the little
bag, as in the operations of the charity.
The 2d part is what Mr. F. makes use of in amputations, cut into pieces. It
must be beaten by a hammer till it is soft; and this is its whole preparation.
Every part is prepared alike. The best time of collecting it Mr. Brossard has
found to be in the autumn, in fine weather, after great heats.
XCV. A Letter from Benjamin Franklin, Esq. to Mr. Peter CoUinson, F.R.S.
concerning an Electrical Kite. Dated Philadelphia, Oct. 1, 1752. p. 565.
As frequent mention is made in the public papers from Europe, of the success
of the Philadelphia experiment, for drawing the electric fire from clouds by
means of pointed rods of iron erected on high buildings, &c. it may be agree-
able to the curious to be informed, that the same experiment has succeeded in
Philadelphia, though made in a different and more easy manner, which any one
may try, as follows:
Make a small cross, of two light strips of cedar ; the arms so long, as to
reach to the 4 comers of a large thin silk hankerchief, when extended: tie the
corners of the handkerchief to the extremities of the cross: so you have the
body of a kite; which being properly accommodated with a tail, loop, and string,
will rise in the air like those made of paper; but this, being of silk, is fitter to
bear the wet and wind of a thunder-gust without tearing. To the top of the
upright stick of the cross is to be fixed a very sharp-pointed wire, rising a foot
or more above the wood. To the end of the twine, next the hand, is to be tied
a silk ribband; and where the twine and silk join, a key may be fastened.
The kite is to be raised, when a thunder gust appears to be coming on, and
the person who holds the string must stand within a door, or window, or under
some cover, so that the silk ribband may not be wet; and care must be taken,
that the twine does not touch the frame of the door or window. As soon as
any of the thunder clouds come over the kite, the pointed wire will draw the
electric fire from them; and the kite, with all the twine, will be electrified; and
the loose filaments of the twine will stand out every way, and be attracted by an
approaching finger.
When the rain has wet the kite and twine, so that it can conduct the electric
fire freely, you will find it stream out plentifully from the key on the approach
of your knuckle. At this key the phial may be charged; and from electric fire
thus obtained spirits may be kindled, and all the other electrical experiments be
performed, which are usually done by the help of a rubbed glass globe or tube,
and thus the sameness of the electric matter with that of lightning completely
demonstrated.
302 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1752.
XCFI. A Letter from Mr. W. Watson, F. R. S. to the Royal Society, con-
cerning the Electrical Experiments in England on Thunder Clouds. Dattd
Dec. 20, J 752. p. 567.
After the communications received from several correspondents in different
parts of the continent, acquainting us with the success of their experiments last
summer, in endeavouring to extract the electricity from the atmosphere during a
thunder storm, in consequence of Mr. Franklin's hypothesis, it may be thought
extraordinary that no accounts have been yet laid before the Society of our suc-
cess here from the same experiments. That no want of attention therefore may
be attributed to those here; who have been hitherto conversant in these inquiries,
he states, that though several members of the Royal Society, as well as himself,
did, on the first advices from France, prepare and set up the necessary apparatus
for this purpose, they were defeated in their expectations, by the uncommon
coolness and dampness of the air here, during the whole summer. They had
at London only one thunder storm; viz. on July 20; and then the thunder was
accompanied with rain; so that, by wetting the apparatus, the electricity was
dissipated too soon to be perceived on touching those parts of the apparatus
which served to conduct it. This in general prevented verifying Mr. Franklin's
hypothesis; but Mr. Canton was more fortunate, as appears by the following
letter from him to Mr. Watson, dated from Spital-square, July 21, 1752.
" I had yesterday, about 5 in the afternoon, an opportunity of trying Mr.
Franklin's experiment of extracting the electrical fire from the clouds; and suc-
ceeded by means of a tin tube, between 3 and 4 feet in length, fixed to the top
of a glass one, of about 18 inches. To the upper end of the tin tube, which
was not so high as a stack of chimnies on the same house, I fastened 3 needles
with some wire; and to the lower end was soldered a tin cover to keep the rain
from the glass tube, which was set upright in a block of wood. I attended this
apparatus as soon after the thunder began as possible, but did not find it in the
least electrified, till between the 3d and 4th clap; when applying my knuckle to
the edge of the cover, I felt and heard an electrical spark; and approaching it a
2d time, I received the spark at the distance of about half an inch, and saw it
distinctly. This I repeated 4 or 5 times in the space of a minute; but the sparks
grew weaker and weaker ; and in less than 2 minutes the tin tube did not a[)pear
to be electrified at all. The rain continued during the thunder, but was consi-
derably abated at the time of making the experiment."
Mr. Wilson likewise of the Society, to whom we are much obliged for the
trouble he has taken in these pursuits, had an opportunity of verifying Mr.
Franklin's hypothesis. He informed Mr. W, by a letter from near Chelmsford
in, Essex, dated Aug. 12, 1752, that on tluit day about noon, he perceival se-
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. 303
veral electrical snaps, during, or rather at the end of, a thunder storm, from no
other apparatus than an iron curtain-rod, one end of which he put into the neck
of a glass phial, and held this phial in his hand. To the other end of the iron
he fastened 3 needles with some silk. This phial, supporting the rod, he held
in one hand, and drew snaps from the rod with a finger of his other. This ex-
periment was not made on any eminence, but in the garden of a gentleman, at
whose house he then was.
Dr. Bevis observed, at Mr. Cave's at St. John's gate, nearly the same pheno-
mena as Mr. Canton.
Trifling as the effects here mentiont^d are, when compared with those which
we have received from Paris and Berlin, they are the only ones that the last
summer here has produced; and as they were made by persons worthy of
credit, they tend to establish the authenticity of those transmitted from our cor-
respondents.
XCVII. On the Success of Inoculation at Salisbury, By Mr. Brown, Apothe-
cary there, p. 570. ^^^, j,^ .
From the 13th of August to the beginning of February had been inoculated,
in this city and neighbourhood, 422 persons. On 5 or 6 of these it had no
effect, though on one the experiment was tried a second time. Of this whole
number 4 died ; one of which was a patient of Mr. B.'s, who, he thinks, did
not do justice to this method; for the day on which the operation was performed,
the patient's blood had been heated violently by exercise, and suddenly chilled
again, by putting on clean linen, just before the operation was performed;
which he apprehends, was receiving the infection in an inflamed state of blood;
but with this he was not the least acquainted, till about 6 hours before the pa-
tient's death.
END OF THE POKTY-SEVENTH VOLUME OP THE ORIGINAL.
/. Of an extraordinary Stream of Wind, which shot through part of the Parishes
of Termonomungan and Urney, in the County of Tyrone, on JVednesday,
Oct. 11, 1752. Bij JVm. Henry, D.D., Rector of the Parish of Urney.
p. 1. Vol. XLVlil.
The air for the whole day was serene and calm ; sometimes a gentle breeze
from the s.e. About 4 in the afternoon, the sky seemed to open; and there
was a flash of lightning from the s.e. Half an hour after, thunder was heard
304 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753,
as at a great distance, from the same point. About 5 the sky was a little over-
cast with clouds, but the air continued in a dead calm. Suddenly a violent
rushing noise was heard; the sky seemed to open, and emitted a flash of light-
ning ; but no noise of thunder ; and a stream of wind instantly ensued, the vio-
lence of which nothing could resist.
This stream of wind, so far as can be traced by its effects, arose from a glin
called AUgolan, and continued its course for 3 miles from s. e. to n. w. The
violent current of it seemed to be confined to a space about l6 feet in breadth,
and the whole body of the air in motion did not exceed 6o feet, as may be com-
puted from some of the particulars which happened in the little village of Lisna-
cloon in the parish of Termonomungan, and the edge of the parish of Urney.
At the distance of a mile to the s. e. of this village, it cut a line through several
clamps of turf, which were standing in a bog, and threw down all the clamps in
this line. Thence it crossed the river Derge, in the same line, and dashed up
the water with great noise and violence. Thence, in the same line, and at the
space of half a mile, it took the village of Lisnacloon, carrying away fences,
the roofs of houses, and the tops of stacks. It then burst with incredible vio-
lence through a cow-house, and cut a passage of l6 feet quite through it, and
carried some of the ribs of the house before it 400 yards into the field; the rest
of the house was a little ruffled. A woman who was gone into the cow-house
a minute before, was knocked down by one of the ribs falling. She declared
that it was a dead calm the minute before; when, on a sudden, she saw a flash
of lightning, and heard and felt the violent storm, but heard no thunder. A
man being in the same field, but out of the line, in which the stream of wind
passed, felt no wind, but heard a mighty rushing noise, and saw the timber,
thatch, turf, and dust of the houses, fly by him, at the distance of 40 yards.
He saw a flight of rooks dashed down in the same field. In this village are se-
veral other inhabited houses, both on the north and south sides of the course of
this stream, none of which were in the least ruflied. The air continued still
among these houses ; and the inhabitants stood astonished, on seeing the sudden
devastation so near them.
After passing this village, the stream was continued in the same line, but with
less violence, to a large hill in the parish of Urney, called Muckle, and on the
north side of the hill, at the distance of a mile from Lisnacloon, burst open the
door of a weaver, and broke down a web in his loom. As at this last place
it entered a large bog, which is extended for 3 miles, it could be traced no
farther.
The time, in which this stream passed through the village of Lisnacloon, was
about 5 minutes. It was succeeded immediately by a torrent of rain.
VOL. XLTtll.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTION'S. 305
//. An Account of a Book, intitled, P. D. Pauli Frisii* Mediolanensis, &c.
Disquisitio Mathematica in Causam Physicam Figurte et Magnitudinis Telluris
Nostrce. Milan 1752. By Mr. J. Short, F. R. S. p. 5.
It may be laid down as a rule in mixed mathematics, " That the determination
of no physical quantity be carried further than the observations, or other mecha-
nical measures, can bear;" lest there follow this incongruity, of the conclusion
being more extensive than the premises. It would be absurd, for instance, in
the resolution of a triangle, to compute an angle to the exactness of seconds,
or a side to centesms of an inch, when perhaps the instruments used can mea-
sure no angle less than 10 minutes, or a side only to the exactness of a foot.
The conclusions of arithmetic and geometr}' are indeed rigorously true, but they
are only hypothetical; and whenever the quantities, that enter any practical
question, can only be measured within certain limits, it would be in vain to look
for an answer perfectly accurate. The error of the instrument becomes itself one
of the data, and we must content ourselves to find the limits which the quantity
sought cannot well exceed, or fall short of, by such rules as Mr. Cotes has
given in his excellent treatise on the subject.
In like manner, when any physical theory is deduced from observations, its
accuracy will still be in proportion to that of the observations on which it is
founded. Sir Isaac Newton, in computing the ratio of the earth's axis to its
equatorial diameter, confines himself to a reasonable approximation, and to 3
places of figures (229 to 230) ; because, whether that ratio is deduced from the
difterent lengths of isochronous pendulums in different latitudes, or from the
measurement of distant degrees of a meridian, or from both, the elements of
the calculus can scarcely furnish a greater degree of exactness. And of the same
judicious caution, we have many other examples in the works of that incompa-
rable author. On the other hand, when observations and theories are brought
together and compared, nothing can be justly inferred against a theory from its
disagreement with the observations, unless that disagreement is greater than can
be fairly imputed to the imperfection of instruments, and to the unavoidable
mistakes of an observer; especially if the difference should be sometimes in
excess, and at other times in defect ; or, as some of the observations should en-
tirely vanish.
Though these rules, manifestly well-founded, have been followed by all the
best writers, our author observes, that several ingenious men, both in France
and in Italy, have deviated from them, particularly in treating of the famous
question concerning the figure o'f the earth. Some, with Messrs. Clairaut and
Bouguer, attributing too much to the observations that have been made, and
* Fail] Frisi was born at Milan about the year 1789. '
VOL. X. R R
306 PHILOSOPHICAL TBANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
taking them for absolutely exact, have concluded Sir Isaac Newton's reasonings
on that subject to be faulty ; while Father Boscowich, a Jesuit at Rome, making
them quite loose and uncertain, thinks no argument at all can be drawn from
them, concerning the earth's figure : far less in confirmation of the Newtonian
theory. In opposition to these two extremes, equally contrary to reason, as they
are to each other, Frisi writes the treatise now before us; in the introduction to
which he shows, 1 . That, though the ratio of the axis of the earth to its equa-
torial diameter is, from M. de Maupertuis' operations in Lapland, and afterwards
in France, that of 177 to 178; and by the theory only 229 to 230; yet the
difference is no more, than what might arise from a mistake of about 60 toises
in the measure of either of the two degrees, that are compared, or of 30 toises
in each of them. Or, suppose the measure of the arcs to be exact, the same
difference might be owing to an error of 4 or 5 seconds in the astronomical part.
And such errors, or others equivalent to them, in a course of so many combined
operations, our author considers as difficult to be avoided. But he adds, if the
observations of M. de Maupertuis, and his fellow academicians, seem to differ
from the theory, those of Messrs. Bouguer and de la Condamine exactly agree
with it; according to whom, a degree at the equator, containing 56753 toises,
and in latitude 49° 22' 57183 toises, the difference of the axis and equatorial
diameter comes out to be -j-J-g •
In answer to Boscowich, and those who make no account of the observations,
our author allows, that if they were such as Cassini, and some other academicians,
made in France, of the measure of a parallel of latitude, they could not be much
depended on; that method being liable to several obvious inconveniencies. But
he insists that, with the excellent instruments which were used, and considering
the distinguished skill of the observers, as well at the polar circle as in France,
and at the equator, the error on one degree of the meridian could not exceed
60 or 70 toises, which is a degree of exactness not only sufficient for the deter-
mination of the first question, viz. whether the spheroid of the earth is fiat or
long; but likewise to found an agreement between the observations and the
theory, as near as can be expected or desired.
The work itself is divided into 10 chapters:
(1) De observationibus circa telluris figuram hactenus institutis. (2) De prin-
cipiis et hypothesibus quibusdam. (3) De rotatione corporum, et vi centrifuga.
(4) De mutationibus ex motu circulari ortis. (5) De attractione corporum ro-
tundorum. (6) De comparatione gravitatis in variis homogeneae sphaeroidis locis.
(7) De figura terrae. (8) De gradibus meridian] et parallelorum. (9) De loxo-
dromiis nautarum, de parallaxi lunae, et aliis ex eadem theoria pendentibus.
(10) De theoriag et observationum consensu.
In chap. 1, we have a short history of the inquiries that have been made into
VOT. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 30/
the magnitude and figure of the earth, down to the present times; and the pre-
ference is justly given to the measurements of Mr. Lat. Toises
Norwood in England, a. d. i635, and of the mem- O" O' 56753
bers of the French Academy of Sciences since that 45 0 57100
time. From these he gathers, that within less than 4Q 11 57183
60 or 70 toises, the lengths of a degree of the meri- 53 0 57300
dian are as annexed. &^ 20 57400
Chap. 1 contains an account of the principles on which this theory is founded,
viz. the universal gravitation of matter, and the diurnal rotation of the earth.
Our author mentions also the hypothesis of the earth's being originally in a fluid
state; but rejects it as precarious and improbable. He allows however, that with
regard to the present question, it is all one whether it was first a fluid or not,
seeing the ocean is circumfused just in the same manner, and to the same alti-
tude, as if the whole was still a fluid. Chap. 3 and 4 are employed in the doc-
trine of centrifugal forces, and their effect in changing a fluid sphere into the
form of an oblate spheroid. In the former of these chapters, the author resolves,
as usual, the centrifugal force of a particle into two others; one, that acts directly
contrary to the gravitation of the particle; and the other a force in a direction
perpendicular to it. And this last he considers again as acting laterally on the
contiguous particles impelling them towards the equator. But the quantity of
this force, when greatest at the octant, he computes to be only j^^, ^.^ of the
force of gravity; and therefore, says he, it may be safely neglected. In fact,
after the spheroid is come to be in a permanent state, and all its parts in equili-
brio, there is no longer any such- lateral force at all ; it being now entirely satis-
fied by the gradual contraction of the earth's axis.
The general contents of the following chapters are sufficiently expressed in
their titles already given. Nor can we be more particular, without entering into
a detail of algebraical operations, which would be improper for this place; and
which is the less necessary, as the same things have been treated of by several
other authors. This does not however in the least detract from the merit of
Frisi, who discovers throughout this work much acuteness and skill, joined with
all the candour and ingenuity that become a philosopher. And as he has not
yet exceeded his 23d year, it may be expected, that the sciences will one day be
greatly indebted to him ; especially as we find him actually engaged in composing
a complete body of physico-mathematical learning.
But there is in his 6th chapter, a criticism on one of Sir Isaac Newton's de-
monstrations, in which we cannot agree with him. And as this demonstration
has proved a stumbling-block, not only to Frisi, but to many other learned men,
we shall be obliged to consider that part of it, which has been mistaken, at some
length, by the help of the scheme, fig. 1, pi. 8. In which let the ellipsis a/>boa,
rr2
308 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1733.
whose axes ab, pq, are in any given ratio, as of m to n, have tlie circles apbq,
and APBQ, inscribed and circumscribed to it: and if the figure. revolves on the
axis PQ, there will be generated an oblate spheroid a/jb^a, with 1 spheres, the
greater circumscribed to the spheroid, and touching it in its equator aba, and
the lesser inscribed and touching it in the poles p, q ; the solid content of the
spheroid being the first of the 2 mean proportionals between the solidity of the
exterior sphere, and that of the interior.
But if the figure revolve on the axis ab, there will be generated a prolate
spheroid a/jb^a, inscribed in the exterior sphere at the poles a, b ; and circum-
scribing the interior sphere at the equator pqp, its solidity being the second of
the above mean proportionals. So that if o and p stand for the solidities of the
oblate and prolate spheroids, and s, s. for tlie two spheres; s : o : p : s-r— are in
the continued proportion of m : n. And s : 7, or o : s :: m^ : n'. As s : * :: m^ : n^.
Or we may with Sir Isaac Newton consider the genesis of these solids as
follows. 1. Let the sphere apbq be uniformly compressed in the direction of its
axis PQ, till that axis is diminished to p^, and the sphere changed into the oblate
spheroid. 2. Let this spheroid be equally compressed in the direction of that
diameter of its equator, which is perpendicular to pq and ab, or to the plane of
the figure; and it will degenerate into the prolate spheroid, whose poles are a
and b. 3. Let this last be compressed in the direction of its axis ab, till it is
changed into the sphere apbq; and, in each of these compressions, the solid
space which the body contains, will be diminished in the ratio of m to 7^.
Now, as the determination of the earth's figure depends not only on that of
the ratio of the centrifugal force, by which a body tends to recede from the axis
of rotation, to the power of gravity ; but also on the decrement of gravitation,
arising from the body's being in that rotation actually removed to a greater dis-
tance from the centre; it is not enough that we know, from the experiments
with pendulums, the centrifugal force at the equator to be about ^4-g- of the
force of gravity. We need fiirther two distinct propositions; one to determine
the attractive force of a spheroid at its pole ; and the other to determine its at-
traction at the equator. The first of these we have in Princip. lib. J, prop, gi,
and the second has been supplied by several authors. But Sir Isaac, who seldom
does any thing in vain, found that he could, by one of his artifices, make that
gist proposition serve likewise to determine the attraction at the equator, by the
following argument.
Let G be the attraction of the exterior sphere at a; and let the decrement of
that attraction, when the sphere is diminished into the oblate spheroid Apsq, be
d; and S the decrement of this last attraction, when the oblate spheroid is dimi-
nished into the prolate, whose poles are ab; then is d nearly equal to S; the
difference of the axes of the generating ellipse being small. For the attractive
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. • 309
matter that is taken away, has, in both cases, the same ratio to the matter that
is left; and its position, with respect to that which is left, is in both cases nearly
the same ; and therefore the successive attractions will be nearly in continued
proportion, g:g — d :g — d ~ S -^. Or multiplying and rejecting c/' as incon-
siderable, Gd = G^, and d = S.
Thus, if the attractions of the sphere Apsa, and of the prolate spheroid, at
its pole A, be 126 and 125 respectively; the attraction of the intermediate oblate
spheroid at its equator will be 125-1^: and how nearly this approaches to the truth,
may be seen from an exact computation of those attractions. For if the axes of
the generating ellipse be JOl and 100, and the attractive force at the surface of
the sphere 12(3; the attraction at the pole of the prolate spheroid will be 1 24.9838^
and that at the equator of the oblate 125.5077; which exceeds the arithmetical
mean between the two former, only by .0O68 ; that is, by about -rr-r-nr part of
the attraction of the oblate spheroid at the equator.
This reasoning is more shortly expressed in the Princip. lib. iii, prop, ig, as
follows. " Gravitas in loco a in sphaeroidem, convolutione ellipseos ApBg circa
axem ab descriptam, est ad gravitatem in eodem loco a in sphaeram centro c radio
AC descriptam, ut 125 ad 126. Est autem gravitas in loco a in terrain media
proportionalis inter gravitates in dictam sphaeroidem et sphaeram ; propterea quod
sphaera, diminuendo diametrum pa in ratione 101 ad 100, vertitur in figuram
terrae; et haec figura, diminuendo in eadem ratione diametrum tertiam, quae
diametris ap, pa perpendicularis est, vertitur in dictam sphaeroidem ; et gravitas
in A, in utroque casu, diminuitur in eadem ratione quam proxime."
In which the expression " eadem ratione" occurring a second time has misled
F. Frisi and others, to think, that this last ratio is also that of the axes, or of
101 to 100; wheyeas the identity of ratios here asserted, is to be referred only
to the words " utroque casu;" the ratio itself being not that of the axes, or of
mton; but the half of that ratio (whatever it is found to be by prop. Ql, lib. i)
which the attraction of the sphere has to the polar attraction of the inscribed
spheroid.
This inadvertence, however, of his own, Frisi charges on Sir Isaac Newton ;
and files it up, as the 6th of the errors, which he says have been discovered in
the Principia. ..." Ita dum stabilitae in IQ lib. 3 proposition! terrestrium axium
proportionis fulcimentum et patrocinium quaerimus, aliud in propositione eadem
sophisma sese offert, quod eorum, quae in principiis mathematicis Newtoni
nacta (i. e. detecta) sunt hactenus, sextum est, &c." But we may take it off
the file again; and for the present leave the other 5, till they are considered of
at more leisure.
In his 10th and last chapter, our author sums up the evidence, and finds
that all the good observations that have been made, as well by pendulums as by
310 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
actual mensuration, concur with the theory, in making the ratio of the earth's
axis and equatorial diameter to be as 22g to 230. This is indeed a sufficient
confirmation of the theory of gravitation : but it must be observed, that the co-
incidence is not perhaps quite so perfect as Frisi imagines. That ratio corres-
ponds well enough to the exactness to which the first elements of the calculus
can be obtained ; the length of a second pendulum, and that of the earth's
equatorial diameter, from which the centrifugal force (-g-^) is deduced. But, if
we suppose that force to be accurately f-i-<r> and compute more rigorously, we
shall find the ratio in question to be very nearly that of 225 to 226 ; agreeing
still with the observations as well as can be desired ; and showing, at the same
time, the inimitable art of Sir Isaac Newton in the contrivance and use of ap-
proximations ; seeing the strictest calculation raises the equator not the third
part of a mean geographical mile above what he had found by his method.
I sent, says Mr. Short, Frisi's book to my learned friend the Rev. Mr. Mur-
dock, who has fully considered the question concerning the figure of the earth ;
and who, after having perused the book, and discovered the above mistake of
Frisi, sent me the above theorem, and its demonstration. He likewise sent me
the following theorems, which, he says, he had communicated to M. de Bre-
mond, in the year 1740, when he was translating his treatise on sailing : but
M. de Bremond dying soon after, those who had the care of publishing the
translation, printed it incorrectly in several places ; particularly the theorems for
the prolate spheroid : on which account, he says, if they are thought worth
preserving, they may be inserted in the Phil. Trans.
Postscript. — Theorems for computing the ratio of the attractive force of a
spheroid, at its pole or equator, to that of the inscribed sphere.
2. In a prolate spheriod, the ratio is,
?n
Polel-;;^,— ^ +___^3X/:.
m'
1 . In an oblate spheroid, the ratio is,
1 m^
Equator j^;^r—[)i X A - ^^— y : ^ Equa. ^tzTT " ^;;rr)i X ^
In which m : 1, as the greater axis of the generating ellipse is to the lesser,
A is a circular arc, to the radius 1, whose tangent isV^m^— 1, or its reciprocal
if ^2 _ 1 c- 1 . And / is the natural logarithm of -, s being the sine of the arc,
whose co-sine is - X V'm^ — 1, and v the versed sine of the same arc.
m
Note, The first two theorems, by substituting l for '^ ni^ — 1, coincide with
those of Mr. Maclaurin for the oblate spheroid, in his dissertation on the tides.
HI. Concerning the Year of the Eclipse foretold by Thales. By the Rev. Mr.
George Costard, Fellow of fVadham Coll. Oxford, p. 17.
Riccioli supposes that the eclipse foretold by Thales happened the year a. c. 585 ;
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 311
and quotes both Theon and Cleomedes in confirmation of the opinion. Theon
perhaps had Cleomedes's words in view; but neither of these authors have cir-
cumstances enough to determine what eclipse in particular they meant. The
passage of Theon is in his chapter concerning the moon's parallax, where
he says that Hipparchus, being in doubt whether the sun had any parallax at all,
supposed, in the first book of his treatise concerning magnitudes and distances,
that the earth, in respect of the sun, was only a point ; whence, by means of an
eclipse there set down by him, he framed two distances of the sun, a less and a
greater. All then that is here said is, that the eclipse made use of by Hippar-
chus, was at the Hellespont ; but at Alexandria in Egypt a little more than 5
digits only. But he has neither given the asra of Nabonassar, the place of the
luminaries, nor any one circumstance besides, by which we might form any con-
clusion what year this eclipse was in.
Cleomedes, who perhaps saw the same treatise of Hipparchus, is as uncircum-
stantial as Theon. He says only, that the diameter of the moon's shadow at the
earth is something more than 4000 stadia. By the quantity of obscuration he
mentions, this seems to have been the same eclipse with that quoted by Theon
from Hipparchus ; but as the place of observation in both these authors appears
to have been Alexandria in Egypt, it must have been after that place was built.
Consequently it was probably observed there by Hipparchus himself, and there-
fore could not have been the eclipse foretold by Thales. Besides, if this eclipse
was total on the banks of the Hellespont, I know not what reason there is for
supposing, that the battle between the Lydians and the Medes was fought there.
It should rather seem, that the engagement was on the confines of the two king-
doms : consequently in a more southern latitude, and in a longitude more to the
east of Alexandria, this eclipse could not have been total ; nor therefore (as He-
rodotus said it did) turn day into night.
Sir Isaac Newton, in his chronology, likewise supposes the eclipse meant to
have been that in May, a. c. 585. But in this perhaps he rather follows others,
than adopted it after any examination of his own. That treatise never had the
finishing hand of its great author, and it is well known now in what manner it
came abroad.
According to Riccioli, this eclipse was central at the Hellespont, and at Sardes
fell out at 6 in the afternoon ; and therefore is rejected by Mayer, in the Peters-
burg acts, as being too late in the day.
According to my computation, the apparent time of the true conjunction was
at Greenwich, May 28, 4^35"' 15^; the beginning of the general eclipse 2*^3"'
30'; the end of the same 7^ l"" 46\ And by calculating the path of the pe-
numbra's centre over the earth's disk, it pretty plainly appears, that the centre of
the shadow passed so far from any place, where we can reasonably suppose the
312 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
battle between the Lydians and Medes to have been fought, that this can hardly
have been the eclipse mentioned by Herodotus.
Father Hardouin, in his chronology of the Old Testament, rejects this eclipse,
as not happening, he says, in the reign of Cyaxares, but in that of Astyages ;
not on the 4th year of the Olympiad, but a month before it began ; as falling
out too late in the day ; the greatest obscuration being scarcely half an hour be-
fore sun-set; and not total or central, or 12° 56' digits, as Riccioli makes it, but
almost Q. Though Pliny therefore says this eclipse was Olymp. xlviii, 4, and
A. V. G. CLx, yet six mss. he observes, in the French king's library, have clxx,
and so most printed copies. He thinks therefore, that instead of clxx, the num-
ber should be clvii, which he says is Olympiad xlviii, 4, and the year before
Christ 597 ; when there was an eclipse of the sun, on Wednesday July the Qth,
at 6 o'clock in the morning.
This eclipse Petavius also prefers ; though he makes the digits eclipsed only
9,22' : which is strange enough, as it could not have been lay any means the
cause of such a darkness as is described by Herodotus. Bu,t F. Hardouin sup-
poses, that this battle was fought on the banks of the river Halys in Cappadocia,
and in latitude north 40" ; where, says he, this eclipse must have been central
and annular.
According to Dr. Halley's tables, the year before Christ 597, the apparent
time of the true conjunction at Greenwich, was July 8'^ 21^ 50™ 9'; the be-
ginning of the general eclipse 19'' 8™ l6% and the end 9'' o'' 49™ 2^
And from the course of the centre of the penumbra, it appears that this eclipse,
at Sardes, or any where else where we can suppose this battle to have been
fought, could not have been great enough to turn day into night ; and there-
fore does not answer the description of Herodotus.
Archbishop Usher rejects both these eclipses, as inconsistent with his chrono-
logy ; and supposes that intended to have been a.m. 4113, An. Nab. 147, be-
fore Christ 601, Olymp. xliv, 4. Sunday July 20 3*' 25™ before noon, digits
eclipsed 9. But this also is greatly defective as to quantity. But though this is
insufficient for the purpose, yet there was one 2 years before this, or the year
before Christ 603, that will be found by good tables entirely satisfactory. Pe-
tavius indeed makes the digits eclipsed only 7 -20'; but, according to Dr. Hal-
ley's tables, the apparent time of the true conjunction was at Greenwich, May
J yd 20^ 42™ l^'- The place of the luminaries V 19° 12', and the moon's lati-
tude north 25' 17'.
Beginning of the central eclipse. 19^ 13™ 27^
End of the central eclipse 22 3 47
And if modern maps and geographers may be depended on, the centre of the
shadow passed over the kingdom of Barca and Africa, and crossed the Mediter-
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 313
ranean between Candia and Cyprus, and then over Antiochetta and Erzroum,
and a little to the south of Kars. Which agrees with what is said in the Pe-
tersburg Acts, [J. 332. If any allowance is to be made for the moon's accelera-
tion, or any other cause, the track here given will be a little different. As Mr.
C. cannot make several ancient eclipses, that he has tried, succeed to his mind,
without some such supposition, he has done the same with regard to this, viz.
45"", at Mr. Whiston's rate of 1™ in 54 years, or thereabouts. Then agreeably
to this he finds, that the centre passed more to the south than the former, and
went near Tripoli, Aracta, Nisabin, and Ardbil.
It is much to be wished, that Herodotus had told us where this battle was
fought ; that by this means we might have known which of these 2 paths to
have preferred. However, as he has not, and there is nothing in either of them
that is inconsistent with the history, Mr. C. concludes, from a number of other
circumstances besides, that this really was the eclipse foretold by Thales. He
was not a little pleased on looking into his papers, to find that Bayer and he
agi'eed so exactly in the very year, and he was a stranger to what he had said on
that subject, till he saw his account in the volume of the Petersburg Acts.
If^. The Case of Anne Elizabeth Queriot, of Farts, ivhose Bones were Distorted
and Softened. By Ambrose Hosly, M. D. of Paris, p. lQ.
Anne Elizabeth Queriot, aged 35, native of Paris, was nian-ied in the year
1746, was brought to bed in 1747, and for the first time complained of great
weakness in the small of her back, loins, and thighs, and could scarcely walk.
A 2d lying-in, a year after, removed her complaints for about 6 weeks ; after
which they returned. In the year 1749, being 2-|- months with child, she was
seized with a loss of blood, and miscarried. Two months after, she fell on her
left side ; which gave her great pain in the leg, thigh, and hip of that side, and
made them swell : but there was neither fracture nor dislocation. Her pains
after some time abated ; but the weakness of her limbs continued. She was a
3d time with child, and, in the beginning of her pregnancy, had a 2d fall ;
which revived her former pains, and caused new pains all over her body, with a
swelling, as before. This confined her to her bed, yet her pregnancy terminated
favourably, after which the swelling went off; but her limbs were so weak, that
she could not bear upon her feet.
In about 6 months after her last lying-in, her pains returned worse than be-
fore ; and about the same time, an abundance of white chalky sediment appeared
in her urine ; and the fore-finger of her right hand was observed to be distorted
towards the little finger : which was the first appearance of the dissolution that
ensued. Soon after the lower extremities began to turn upwards gradually, and
almost in a parallel line with her body, and continuing, till in 9 months her
VOL. X. S 8
314 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
lower limbs were turned upvvards. All the bones were affected, especially the
thorax, which had lost its natural form and capacity, and she was altogether mi-
serably distorted.
This miserable state was attended with exquisite pains ; and, according to the
seat of them, the patient used to say, ' Now such a part works.' Sometimes
they abated, and then she felt so sore, as not to bear being touched : and during
this ease from her pains, a quantity of the aforesaid sediment passed by urine,
though little or none in her sufferings. It was quite cretaceous, and, reduced
into a fine powder, fermented gently with acids. She could bear no covering,
but a few napkins, both from inward heat, and to avoid loading her breast. Not-
withstanding her preternatural posture, the evacuations by stool and urine vvere
regularly and easily performed. Her flesh seemed dead and oedematous, the
skin rough and scaly ; so that a mortification was often apprehended. She had a
cough, a laborious respiration, and sometimes a spitting of blood, from the coarc-
tation of her breast, all its bones plying inwardly. She was capable of no other
motion than turning her head on both sides, stirring her left arm in the shoulder-
joint only, and separating her fingers, but not bending them. She had her
menses regularly, till about 3 months before her death. She generally had a
low fever, inward heat, sweats, and restlessness. Her fever ran very high in
August, attended with delirium, headach, raving, and subsultus tendinum. A
little before her death, came on a deafness, a dimness of sight, a scalding of her
eyes, and a constant dropping ; violent pains in her head ; in short, a great
weakness m all the organs, which showed how much the head was then affected.
The distortion of her limbs went on so fast in August and September, that
almost every 3d day something new was observed ; especially the left foot, during
that time, came down gradually near 18 inches from under her ear, where it lay
before. It was also observed in August, that her neck grew visibly smaller, the
thorax much narrower. And then the napkins, on which she spit, grew black
in the washing, and stained as from the mercurial ointment, though Dr. Hosty
could not suspect it, as he could not learn she had ever used any mercury. In a
month after, he observed the same thing on all the linen, that touched her skin.
He got a napkin rubbed with soap, then dried, and afterwards washed. This
method had almost taken off the stains, as it does those from the mercurial oint-
ment. Her linen stained all the washing, like linen impregnated with it. Those
spots appeared on the linen a mixture of a cretaceous matter and grease.
Since this remark was made, none of the white sediment was seen. This, and
the apparent nature of the stains, made him believe that it was then dis-
charged by spittle, and the pores of the skin, and mixed with oily particles of
her fluids, which had acquired a quality analogous to that of mercury, of staining
all linen. He was also apt to think, that this sediment was the earthy matter.
YOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 315
that gives the bones their solidity and liardness, which had been dissolved by the
same vitiated quality of the fluids, and evacuated by the emunctories already
mentioned.
After great sufferings, she died the Qth of November. Her body was opened
in the presence of some of the most celebrated anatomists and academicians of
Paris. The operation was begun on the left tibia, cutting on the fore part of it,
from below the knee to its basis. It was wonderfully altered ; more or less soft
in all its length ; in some points entirely dissolved, and its sides not thicker than
the gristle of the ear. The spongy substance of its extremities supple, yielding
to the least pressure. The reticular matter was quite destroyed. The perone
was entirely dissolved in the middle, and only slight marks of its extremities re-
mained. Instead of marrow, they found in all the bones a red thick matter,
like coagulated blood mixed with grease. The rotula was entire, but very soft
and spong)' ; the condyles of the femur the same. All the cartilages were found
in their natural state. The head of the humerus was much diminished and
flattened ; its middle part very small, pliable softened in all points, yet in some
friable. The cubit and radius suffered the same alterations with the humerus.
By stretching all her limbs they laid them straight ; but they soon after returned
to their former curve. The phalanges of the fingers were not so much softened,
but were easily cut, and bent like whale-bone. The femur, vvas rather a fleshy
body than a bone ; its cavity was filled with a reddish suet, instead of marrow,
which, accumulated in different points, bulged out the fleshy sides. The capa-
city of the pelvis was much diminished; the bones, that compose it, were soft-
ened, thickened, and contracted. The spine kept its natural form ; the vertebrae
, soft and supple. The sternum, and all the cellular bones, seemed solid, but
could bend, and were easily cut. The ribs, though softened, were still friable.
Some of them, towards the sternum, were doubled over each other. The cla-
vicles seemed almost cartilaginous. The shoulder-blades were much thicker than
natural, less broad, and entirely disfigured. The 2 protuberances called acro-
mion and coracoides almost joined. The skull-bones were easily cut in slices,
and were twice as thick as in their natural state. Both plates were joined in one,
and no traces at all of a diploe. Their substance abounded with an extremely
diluted serum, easily squeezed out by a gentle pressure of the fingers. The su-
tures almost obliterated : the bones of the basis and face shared in the calamity.
The teeth hard as usual. The dura mater was incorporated with the bones.
The brain not softer than ordinary : its right hemisphere was by one third larger
than the left ; and hence, perhaps, the weakness of her left side, often manifested
by pains, achs, defluxions, heaviness, falls on that side, and every illness which
she had from her infancy, beginning in some part of it. When young, she fell
ss 2
3l6 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
on her head down '2 pair of stairs. The membranes, that separate the 2 hemi-
spheres of the brain, were much thicker than commonly.
In fine, all her bones were so soft, that the scalpel with very little force ran
through the hardest of them : even the rocky apophysis of the ear-bone, so called
from its excessive hardness. Nothing extraordinary was found in the viscera ;
but their size diminished by the compression, and a universal cachexy.
There could be no cause assigned of this woman's disorder, as she gave no
signs plain enough to prove either a scurvy, pox, or king's-evil, either heredi-
tary, or acquired ; her parents having lived healthy, the one to the age of 80,
and her mother being then alive, aged 6o, and in good health. She had 3
children, who died of disorders common to their age. One, 4 years old, died
of the measles.
This, it is added, is a rare case, but there have been some similar cases, which
are cited in the Abridgment of the Phil. Trans, in the remark upon the like case
presented to the b. s. by Mr. Silvanus Bevan. This differs from the other ex-
amples, by the sediment of the urine, the stain on her linen, the preternatural
situation of her limbs. Something very singular was, that she did not blow her
nose perhaps once a month, even in her health ; always slept with her mouth
opened, and her tongue hanging out. The manner in which such dissolutions of
bones are accounted for, in the above-mentioned remark, seems the most rational
and satisfactory, that can be given.
F. Of a Roman uiltar, with an Inscription on it, lately found at York, and
communicated to the Society of Antiquaries by Air. Francis Drake, F. R. S.
Also a Brief Explication of the Inscription by John fVard, LL.D., and
F.P.R.S. p. 33.
This altar was found, with other remains of antiquity, by some workmen, in
opening a deep drain down the centre of a large street, called Micklegate, in
the city of York. Its height with the pedestal, on which it stands, and which
is made hollow to receive it, is 14^- inches. But the breadth varies in several
parts of it, according to their different form. On the top is an apex, with a
volute on each side, and on the front a pediment over the inscription. It is
elegant for the workmanship, and well preserved. Mr. Drake has sent up a
draught of it in its just proportion, with the inscription upon it ; as also an-
other copy of the inscription, taken off from the stone, by pressing wet paper
into the letters, and then delineating both them and the stops with a pencil.
The inscription itself in words at length, as Dr. W. thinks it may be read, is as
follows :
Matribus Africis, Italicis, Germanicis,
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 317
Marcus Minucius ^nde. Jfi
miles legionis sexl<e victricis, -.^
gubernator legionis sextae,
votum solvit libentissime merito.
By this inscription, and many others of the like sort, found in Britain and
other countries, it appears that these female deities, under the name of Matres,
were worshipped in most parts of the Roman territories. Writers are not agreed
in their opinion concerning these female deities, who were worshipped under the
character of Matres. Spon supposes they were deified women, who, while liv-
ing, were thought to have the gift of prophecy. The reasons for which opinion
have been given at large in Horsley, p. 201. But Selden applies them all to
the Dea Syria, or Mater Deorum ; whom St. Augustin, as he observes, takes
for Juno, and says. Tot esse Junones, quot sunt simulacra. Agreeably to
which notion, we find several altars in Gruter inscribed Junonibus, in the plural
number. And Plutarch takes notice of the worship paid to the Deum Matri at
Enguium in Sicily ; which Cicero seems to allude to, when he says, Matris
magnae fanum apud Enguinos est. As we meet with several inscriptions, which
have on them the title of Matronae, to whom they are addressed, Spon thinks,
not improbably, that these Matronae were the same deities as the Matres, or
Matrae, as they are sometimes written, who were indifferently worshipped by
each of those titles, of which he has given a variety of instances.
The first two names of the person who dedicated this altar, were doubtless
Marcus Minucius ; but the third, as here abbreviated, is uncertain. This
Marcus Minucius describes himself by 1 characters or employments; first, as a
soldier of the 6th legion, which was honoured with the title of victrix; and then
as pilot of the same legion, the epithet victrix not being repeated the 2d time,
as unnecessary. The title of gubernator, or pilot. Dr. W. does not remember
to have met with in any other Roman inscription. And notwithstanding the 1st
line is placed at some distance from the rest ; yet it may, he thinks, connect
with them, without supplying the word sacrum. It appears, by an inscription
in Gruter, and republished by Dr. Gale, that this legion was transported from
Germany to Britain in the reign of the Emperor Adrian, under the command
of Marcus Pontius; who is there called, Tribunus militum legionis sextae victri-
cis, cum qua ex Germania in Britanniam transiit. The inscription therefore on
this altar at York, may refer to that voyage ; and intimate to us, that Marcus
Minucius, by whom it was erected, was then pilot to the legion. It is probable
indeed, as Horsley observes, that on its first arrival it made no stop in the
south, but marched directly by the usual route to Adrian's vallum ; since there
are several inscriptions on and near the wall, both in Northumberland and Cum-
berland, where this legion is mentioned. And in the following reign of Ante-
318 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753,
ninus Pius we find, by several other inscriptions, that it was in Scotland, and
had a share in building the wall there. Not long after it might very probably
be stationed at York, where Ptolemy places it, who lived under the next em-
peror Marcus Aurelius, as we learn from Suidas. The legion therefore being
thus settled, Marcus Minucius might then think it a proper time to pay his
vows, formerly made to those deities, whom he addresses in the inscription cut
upon this altar.
F^I. Of several Persons seized with the Jail-fever, working in Newgate ; and of
the Manner in which the Infection was communicated to one entire Family. By
John Pringle, M.D., F.R.S. p. 42.
In the month of October 1750, a committee of the court of aldermen was ap-
pointed to inquire into the best means for procuring in Newgate such a purity of
air, as might prevent the rise of those infectious distempers, which not only had
been destructive to the prisoners themselves, but dangerous to others, who had
any communication with them ; and particularly to the courts of justice on the
trial of malefactors ; of which a fatal instance had occurred that year at the Old-
Bailey sessions, when the lord-mayor, 2 of. the judges, and an alderman on the
bench, with several other persons then present, were seized with a malignant
fever, and died.
The Rev. Dr. Hales and Dr. P. being consulted by the committee on the
point referred to them, and having visited the jail in company with those gen-
tlemen, it was agreed, that, considering the smallness of the place, in proportion
to the number of the prisoners, it would be proper to make a further trial of
the ventilator, and to have it worked by a machine, in the manner of a windmill,
to be erected for that purpose on the leads of Newgate.
This scheme was laid before the court of aldermen, and approved of, but not
put in execution till near 2 years after. For on the 11th of July 1752, Dr.
Hales acquainted Dr. Knight and Dr. P. that several of the tubes were finished,
and that the machine had been going about 6 weeks ; therefore, being desirous
to see the effects, he had appointed Mr. Stibbs the carpenter, employed in that
work, to meet him that day at Newgate, and desired him to go along with them.
They went accordingly, and having visited several of the wards, they were all
very sensible, that such as were provided with ventilating tubes were much less
offensive than the rest that wanted them ; and Dr. Hales and Dr. P. could per-
ceive a considerable improvement in the air of the whole jail, since the time they
had been first there with the committee. Some of the wards were so free from
any smell peculiar to such places, that Dr. P. was persuaded, were Dr. Hales's
design completed, and a person appointed to regulate the sliders of the tubes,
and to keep the machine in order, the usual bad consequences from foul and
VOL. XL VIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SIQ
crouded jails, might in a great measure, if not wholly, be prevented in
Newgate.
One of the wards allotted for the women had a small room adjoining to it, in
which they usually slept. Both places seemed at that time well aired, though
the latter was close, and, he thinks, without either window or chimney. The
prisoners informed them, that before this ward received the tube, this sleeping-
place had been very offensive, but that soon after it became sweet ; and though
on the first working of the ventilator they had been more sickly than before,
they soon recovered their health, and had preserved it ever since. Now from
this account it must not be inferred that any danger will arise from a sudden
change of bad air for good ; since this accident may be better accounted for
from another circumstance, which they were then likewise told of; viz. that
this ward of the women had been supplied by a ventilating tube before those in the
lower story, where the air being in a more corrupted state, it had passed from
thence through the seams of the floor, and other passages, to replace that, which
was drawn off by the tube in the ward above : but that after the bad air was
exhausted, the benefit of the fresh air soon appeared, by the better health of the
prisoners.
But as it was not his design in this paper to set forth all the advantages that
might be expected from the ventilator, he would leave that subject to be treated
of by the ingenious inventor of it ; and would only take notice, that the tubes
from the several wards, uniting in one great trunk, convey all the putrid steams
by that channel into the atmosphere, through a vent made for that purpose in
the leads of Newgate ; and that though the wind was moderate during the time
they staid in the jail, yet they observed, that the ventilator threw out a consi-
derable stream of air, of a most offensive smell. Before they parted, Mr. Stibbs
informed them, that Clayton Hand, one of his journeymen, while he was em-
ployed in setting up the tubes, was seized with a fever, and carried to St. Tho-
mas's Hospital, after lying some days ill at his own house. Apprehending that
this man's sickness might be owing to the air of the jail. Dr. Knight and he
having the curiosity a few days after to go to St. Thomas's to make the inquiry,
they found the patient sitting in one of the courts, recovered of his fever, though
still weak, and he gave this account : that on first finding himself indisposed, he
had left off work for some days ; but on growing better he had returned to New-
gate. That soon after happening to open one of the tubes of the old ventilator,
which had stood there for 3 or ^ years, such an offensive smell issued from it,
that being immediately seized with a nausea and sickness at his stomach, he was
obliged to go home, and that the night after he fell into a fever, in which he
lay about 8 days before his friends carried him to the hospital. That becoming
soon delirious, he recollected no other symptom, succeeding these mentioned.
920 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO J753.
besides frequent retchings to vomit, a trembling of his hands, and a constant
head-ach. This man had taken no medicine before he came into St. Thomas's,
and since that time was attended by Dr. Reeves ; but as that gentleman was not
then present, they were informed by the apothecary, that Clayton Hand had
been admitted in the advanced state of a continued fever, attended with a stupor,
and a sunk pulse, and that the fever had not left him till several days after his
admission. The nurse's account was, that he had all along lain like one stupi-
fied, and that after the fever went off, he had continued for some time very dull
of hearing. They could learn nothing certain about the precise duration of the
fever, but from what the patient and his attendants told them, they collected,
that he must have been ill between 2 and 3 weeks. So that from all these
marks, they made little doubt, but that this person had been ill of the true jail-
distemper ; and were confirmed in their opinion by the following circumstance.
In company with the convalescent was one Thomas Wilmot, another of Mr.
Stibbs's journeymen, who had likewise worked in Newgate, and whom they re-
member a few days before to have seen in that place, very active, and in perfect
health. This man told them, he had come to see his companion, but as he
apprehended himself in danger of falling into the same fever, he should there-
fore be glad of their advice. On examination they found his tongue white, his
pulse quick, and that he complained of a pain and confiision of his head, with a
shaking of his hands, and a weakness in his limbs. He said his disorder had
come on gradually, since the time they saw him in Newgate, but that he was
then so very ill, he could work no longer. From which account it appeared to
them, that this man had also caught the infection ; but as the fever seemed not
to be quite formed, 'they had hopes of stopping its progress : and with this view
they advised him to take a vomit, and on the following night a sudorific. He
followed the prescription, and the effects shall afterwards be mentioned. After
Wilmot had told them his own case, he informed him of the indisposition of 3
more of his companions, who had been likewise employed by Mr. Stibbs in
Newgate : on which they took their direction, visited them, and found them all
ill of the jail-distemper. The first was Michael Sewel, who lodged in the Swan-
yard near Newgate. This man had been 10 days confined to his bed, without
taking any medicine. He was then delirious, and had the petechial eruption :
but observing that he lay in a close, ill-aired, and dirty room, without any at-
tendants but his wife, then suckling a child, they believed he had no chance to
recover where he was, and therefore recommended his case to Mr. Stibbs, who
procured his admission that day into St. Thomas's Hospital ; where he also
recovered.
The 2d was Adam Chaddocks, who lay at a green-shop in the little Old-Bailey.
He was taken ill on the same day with the former, and had used no medicine.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ' 321
He had likewise the petechial spots on his breast and back ; and though he was
not altogether insensible, was affected with a stupor attended with a sunk pulse,
and other symptoms of the distemper. His landlady, who took care of him, in-
formed them, that he had been troubled with retchings to vomit, and a head-
ach from the beginning, and that for some days past he had been seized with a
looseness, and that his stools were very offensive. As the room this person lay
in was large and well aired, they did not think it necessary to remove him, but
recommended him to the care of Dr. Pate, physician of St. Bartholomew's hos-
pital, who attended him till he recovered.
The 3d was John Dobie, apprentice to Mr. Stibbs, a lad about 1 5 years of
age, who lived with his parents in a court by the White Bear in Canon-street.
They saw him on the same day with the other two, which was the 14th of his
sickness, and the 1 2th since he took to his bed. His mother told them, that
some of the journeymen working in Newgate had forced him to go down into
the great trunk of the ventilator, in order to bring up a wig, which one of them
had thrown into it ; and that, as the machine was then working, he had almost
been suffocated with the stench, before they could get him up. That on coming
home he complained of a violent head-ach, a great disorder in his stomach, with
retchings to vomit, which had never entirely left him. They found him ex-
tremely low, with a sunk pulse, a delirium, and an unusual anxiety or oppression
about his breast. This last symptom they ascribed to the opiates he was then
taking for a looseness, which had come on 2 or 3 days before they saw him. He
being in no condition to be moved, and being besides well attended by his mo-
ther, and in a well aired chamber, they prescribed to him there, and repeated
their visits, till he was quite free of the fever. It was observable, that before he
was taken ill, he had been twice let down into the great trunk of the ventilator,
when the machine was standing still, without complaining of any ill smell, or
receiving any hurt ; but that the last time, when the machine was working,
he immediately cried out he was ready to be suffocated ; and the 1 men who
helped him out, by receiving the foul steam from the trunk, were both set a
vomiting so violently as to bring up blood.
On the 23d of August, Thos. Wilmot, above-mentioned, called on Dr. Knight,
and told him, that after taking the vomit and sudorific, he had immediately re-
covered ; but begged him to see his wife, who then lay ill of a fever, at his
house in Snow's-fields, Southwark. The doctor suspecting that this woman's in-
disposition might be owing to the contagion received from her husband, ac-
quainted Dr. P. with it, and carried him to see her. There they were informed,
that Wilmot's daughter, a girl of 8 years old, who lay with her parents, had
been seized with a fever, soon after her father's recovery ; that she had been ill
about a fortnight, and they believed had spots on her breast, but that she had
VOL. X. Tt
320, PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
recovered without any medicine. That her mother had not only nursed her, but
continued to lie with her; and that some time after the girl's recovery, the
mother began to complain, and soon after fell into a fever ; and that it was the
12th day since she was confined to her bed. This woman having the pete-
chiae, a stupor, with deafness, and a sunk pulse, there was no doubt of her
being likewise infected with the distemper, and probably by her daughter. As
she had been without any assistance, they advised her husband to send for Mr.
Breach, apothecary, in the Borough, who having served in the hospital of the
army during the war, was well acquainted with the nature of such fevers : and
having left directions with him, they did not return till after the crisis ; which
happened on the l6th or 17 th day from the time she was confined to her bed.
Some time after this, Mr. Breach the apothecary informed them that he was
again employed in Thomas Wilmot's family ; for that Eliz. Marshall, his sister-
in-law, after nursing his wife, was taken ill of the same kind of fever, and desired
their assistance. This person they found in the same bed, and in the same con-
dition, in which they had seen her sister some time before ; and in the room with
her, in another bed, a son of Wilmot's, a boy of 9 years old, ill of the same dis-
temper. The former had been attacked on the 15 th of September, and the
latter the day before. The woman's fever ran out the ordinary length of 1 6 or
1 7 days, but the boy's came some days sooner to a crisis, and was all along of a
milder nature. She recovered very slowly, complaining of great weakness,
deafness, and a confusion in her head, the ordinary consequence of these malig-
nant fevers.
One day, in his return from this house. Dr. P. called at St. Thomas's hospi-
tal, to inquire for one William Thomson, a lad of about 1 6 years of age, who,
as Wilmot then told him, was another of Mr. Stibbs's journeymen, and had
been taken ill by working in Newgate, since the 3 he had mentioned before.
This lad was recovered, but not yet dismissed. He said, that on finding him-
self growing ill, he had left his work, and kept at home for about a week, com-
plaining of a pain in the hinder part of his head, and his back, of a trembling of
his hands, and of restless nights ; that his feverish indisposition increasing, he
had been obliged to take to his bed, where he lay about 8 days before he was
sent to the hospital. The apothecary added, that he had continued under their
care about the same number of days before the turn of his fever ; that his pulse
had been extremely low all that time, and that they believed him to be in the
utmost danger. He added, that the wife of Michael Sewel (the second patient
they had received, of those who had been employed in Newgate) some days after
her husband's admission, came to seek advice for herself, and that her com-
plaints had been the same with Wilmot's at the time they saw him : he added
that he had given her some medicines, but had heard nothing of her since.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 823
On the last day of December Mr. Breach informed Dr. P. that about a month
before, lie had been called to attend Thomas Wilmot ; but as he died before he
saw him, he could give no other account of his sickness, than as they told him,
viz. that lie had long been in a bad state of health, and that at last he became
feverish, and went off with a looseness.
In the beginning of this month (January 1753) the widow applied to Dr.
Hales and Dr. P., in order to have the distress of her family attested, and laid
before the lord mayor, in hopes of having some provision made for them. On
which occasion they learned, that Thomas Wilmot her husband, after taking
the sudorific, so far recovered as to work at his business ; but thougFi he did
not return to Newgate, yet his strength would not permit him to continue at
work above a day or two at a time ; still complaining of a head-ach, and pains
across his breast, or, as he expressed it, about his heart, of a feebleness of his
limbs, a shaking of his hands, and a constant drought. That notwithstanding
these ailments, he went daily, till a week before he died, when he grew very
weak, and more feverish, had sometimes profuse sweats, and at other times a
looseness, and that both these excretions, and also his breath, were remarkably
offensive. That at last he was seized with convulsions, and having 3 fits in one
day, he died in the last of them. Mrs. Wilmot added, that her youngest son
James, a boy of 4 years of age, was after the father's decease seized with the
spotted fever, of the same kind with what had prevailed in the family, but that
he recovered ; and that her own mother Eleanor Megget, who did not live in
the house, but came often to see and attend them, was also taken ill of a fever,
but without spots, and died about 1 0 days after her husband. She concluded with
telling them, that the distress of her family had been the greater, by her being
deprived of all assistance from their neighbours, who having thus seen the whole
family, one after another, seized with this fever, were as much afraid to come
near them, as if they had been infected with the plague.
Besides these 6 persons, that were taken ill by working in Newgate, and whom
Dr. P. saw, there was another, called Rust, as Mr. Stibbs informed him, but
whom he never visited. So that, besides Wilmot's whole family, and Sewel's
wife, who received the contagion at second-hand, there were ^ originally infected
in the jail, out of 1 1 only, who were employed by the master-carpenter in that
place. Now as most of these 7 were attacked within a few days of each other,
and by the same kind of fever, it is not to be doubted but that the distemper was
owing to the corrupted air of Newgate. From all which it appears, how requi-
site it is, that the public should take such measures, as may prevent the like
accidents arising from foul and crouded jails ; or indeed from any place, where a
multitude of people are long, closely, and nastily kept ; and which in all proba-
bility can never be obtained without a constant change of air. 1 . « .
•VI 1
324 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1733.
Then follows a letter from Mr. Stibbs, stating the number of men seized with
the jail fever, and what proportion they bore to the whole number, employed by
him in setting up the ventilator in Newgate.
In this letter Mr. Stibbs gives the names of all the workmen that worked on
the ventilator in Newgate, and how many had the jail distemper. One of the
principal men, whose name was Wilmot, died, and all the rest recovered. He
was informed by the person, whose name was Jac;kson, that took care of the
windmill and ventilators, that but J person had died within 1 months; whereas
before the ventilator was used, there died 6 or 7 in a week; so that it appeared
very plain, that the ventilator caused the foul stagnated air to circulate, and-
thereby consequently was drawn out of the several wards.
Mens names: Mr. Sewel,* Mr. Hand,* Mr. Wilmot* (died), Mr. Letts,
Mr. Chaddock,* Mr. Rust,* Mr. Morris, Mr. Bates, Mr. Thompson,* Bur-
ton, apprentice, Dobie,* ditto.
N. B. All those marked * had the jail distemper.
VII. Of the great Alterations which the Islands of Scilly have undergone since
the Time of the Ancients, who mention them, as to their Number, Extent,
and Position; in a Letter to the Rev. Thomas Birch, D. D. Seer. R. S. by the
Rev. Mr. Wm. Borlase, M.'A., F. R. S. p. 55.
The inhabitants of these isles are all new-comers; not an old habitation worth
notice; nor any remains of Phenician, Grecian, or Roman art, either in town,
castle, port, temple, or sepulchre. All the antiquities here to be seen are of
the rudest Druid times; and, if borrowed in any measure from those eastern
traders before-mentioned, were borrowed from their most ancient and simple rites.
We are not to think, however, but that Scilly was really inhabited, and as
frequently resorted to anciently, as the old historians relate. All the islands
(several of which are now without cattle or inhabitant) by the remains of hedges,
walls, foundations of many contiguous houses, and a great number of sepulchral
barrows, show that they have been fully cultivated and inhabited. That they
were inhabited by Britons, is past all doubt, not only from their vicinity to Eng-
land, but from the Druid monuments; several rude stone pillars; circles of
stones erect; kist-vaens without number; rock-basins ; tolmens; all monuments
common in Cornwall and Wales, and equal evidences of the antiquity, religion,
and origin of the old inhabitants. They have also British names for their little
islands, tenements, and creeks.
How came these ancient inhabitants then, it may be asked, to vanish, so as
that the present have no pretensions to any affinity or connection of any kind
with them, either in blood, language, or customs ? How came they to disappear,
and leave so few traces of trade, plenty, or arts, and no posterity, that we can
VOL. XLVIII.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 325
learn, behind them? Two causes of this fact occurred while Mr. B. was at
Scilly, which may perhaps satisfy these inquiries: the manifest incroachments of
the sea, and as manifest a subsidence of some parts of the land.
The sea is the insatiable monster, which devours these little islands, gorges
itself with the earth, sand, clay, and all the yielding parts, and leaves nothing,
where it can reach, but the skeleton, the bared rock. The continual advances
which the sea makes on the low lands, are obvious, and within the last 30 years
have been very considerable. What we see happening every day may assure us
of what has happened in former times; and from the banks of sand and earth
giving way to the sea, and the breaches becoming still more open, and irrecover-
able, it appears that repeated tempests have occasioned a gradual dissolution
of the solids for many ages, and as gradual progressive ascendency of the
fluids.
Again, the flats, which stretch from one island to another, are plain evidences
of a former union subsisting between many now distinct islands. The flats be-
tween Trescaw, Brehar, and Sampson, are quite dry at a spring tide, and men
easily pass dry-shod from one island to another, over sand banks, (where, on the
shifting of the sands, walls, and ruins are frequently discovered) on which at
full sea there are 10 and 12 feet of water. History confirms their former union.
" The isles Cassiterides, says Strabo, are 10 in number, close to one another;
one of them, is desert and unpeopled, the rest are inhabited." But see how the
sea has multiplied these islands: there are now reckoned 140; into so many frag-
ments are they divided, and yet there are but 6 inhabited.
But no circumstance can show the great alterations which have happened in
the number and extent of these islands more than this, viz. that the isle of
Scilly, from which the little cluster of these cyclades takes its name, is no more
at present than a high rock, of about a furlong over, whose clifTs hardly any
thing but birds can mount, and whose barrenness could never suffer any thing
but sea-birds to inhabit it.
It has been mentioned before, that on shifting of the sands in the channel,
walls and ruins are frequently seen; there are several phenomena of the same
nature, and owing to the same cause, to be seen on these shores. Here then
we have the foundations, which were probably 6 feet above high-water mark,
now 10 feet under, which together make a difference as to the level of l6 feet.
To account for this, the slow advances and depredations of the sea will by no
means suffice; we must either allow, that the lands inclosed by these fences have
sunk so much lower than they were before; or else we must allow, that since
these lands were inclosed, the whole ocean has been raised l6 feet perpendicular;
-which last will appear much the harder and less tenable supposition of the two.
Here then was a great sudsibence ; the land between Sampson and Trescaw sunk
326 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
at least l6 feet, at a moderate computation. This subsidence must have been
followed by a sudden inundation, and this inundation is likely not only to have
destroyed a great part of the inhabitants, but to have terrified others who sur-
vived into a total desertion of their shattered islands. By this means, as I ima-
gine, that considerable people, who were the Aborigines, and carried on the tin
trade with the Phenicians, Greeks, and Romans, were extirpated. These
islands are no longer what they were anciently, fertile in tin ; nor are there any
remains of such and so many ancient workings as could maintain a trade, so
coveted by some of the ancients, and so industriously concealed by others.
There are no mines to be seen in any of these islands, but only on one load (so
we call our tin veins) in Trescaw island, and the workings here are very incon-
siderable, and not ancient. It must therefore be matter of wonder where the
Phenicians, Greeks, and Romans, could have found such a plenty of that useful
metal. Whatever resources they had from Cornwall, formerly reckoned pro-
bably among the Cassiterides, great part of their tin must doubtless have come
from these islands; but where it was found is uncertain. Nothing now appears
above ground which can satisfy such an inquiry. The story of the Phenician
vessel mentioned by Strabo to have purposely run ashore, and risqued the men
as well as lost the ship, rather than discover to the Romans the trade to these
isles, is well known, and proves beyond all doubt the commerce to have been
very advantageous. That the natives had mines, and worked them, appears from
Diodorus Siculus, lib. 5, ch. 2, and from Strabo, Geog. lib. 3, who informs us,
that Publius Crassus sailing thither, and observing how they worked their mines,
which were not very deep, and that the people loved peace, and at their leisure
navigation, instructed them how to carry on this trade to better advantage: that
is, seeing their mines but shallow, yet well worth working deeper, taught them
how to pursue the metal to a greater depth. The question then is, what is be-
come of these mines ? and how shall this question be answered, but by con-
fessing that the land, in which these mines were, is now sunk, and buried under
the sea?
Tradition seems to confirm this ; there being a strong persuasion in the western
parts of Cornwall, that formerly there existed a large country between the Land's-
end and Scilly, now laid many fathoms under water. The particular arguments
by which they support this traditon, may be seen in Mr. Carew's Survey of Corn-
wall, p. 3, and in the last edition of Camden, p. 1 1 .
But though there are no evidences, to be depended on, of any ancient con-
nection of the Land's-end and Scilly, yet that the cause of that inundation,
which destroyed much of these islands, might reach also to the Cornish shores,
is extremely probable ; there being several evidences of a like subsidence of the
land in Mount's-bay. The principal anchoring place, called a lake, is now a
VOL. XLVm,] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ' 327
haven, or open harbour. The mount, from its Cornish name,* we must con-
clude to have stood formerly in a wood, but now at full tide is half a mile in the
sea, and not a tree near it.
Fill. Of Mr. Applehxfs Process to make Sea water Fresh. By W. Watson,
F.R.S. p. 69.
Mr. Appleby's process is as follows : Into 20 gallons of sea water put 6 oz.
of a fixed alkali, prepared with quick-lime as strong as lapis infernalis, and 6 oz.
of bones calcined to whiteness, and finely powdered. With a slow fire, draw
off in a common still 15 gallons. — Mr. Appleby conceives, that the alkali here
employed, is the best adapted to prevent the bituminous matter in sea water from
rising by the heat in distillation.
The experiments of Mr. Clark, chemical operator at Apothecaries' hall. — Into
•a spoonful of the distilled sea-water he put 20 drops of a solution of silver in
aquafortis: he likewise did the same with the like quantity of common water
distilled. There appeared no change in either, and both retained their transpa-
rency. This demonstrates, that the distilled sea-water is by the process entirely
freed from marine salt, or its acid spirit. For, if we take a spoonful of common
distilled water, and add the least particle of sea-salt, with the point of a pen-
knife, and then drop into the mixture 1 or 2 drops of the solution of silver, it
will appear turbid and milky.
From the number of animal bodies constantly perishing in the sea, it may
reasonably be suspected, that a volatile urinous spirit may be retained in this dis-
tilled water; and this is evident from the following experiment: into a spoonful
of distilled sea-water drop 10 drops of a strong solution of sugar of lead, and
the mixture immediately becomes turbid and milky. Into another spoonful of
common distilled water, with 2 drops of spirit of sal ammoniac, and 10 drops of
a solution of sugar of lead ; and this mixture had the same appearance with the
foregoing.
If into a spoonful of common distilled water be dropped 1 drop of oil of tartar
per deliquium, and then added 10 drops of a strong solution of corrosive subli-
mate, the mixture will immediately become turbid and brown, and with a few
drops of the solution of silver, it will be precipitated, and turn milky. It is
therefore a volatile alkali, and not a fixed one, that is contained in this water.
The solution of silver will not discover a volatile alkali contained in water, but
very plainly a fixed one. A solution of sugar of lead will not discover a small
quantity of marine salt or spirit, till we add more. A solution of sublimate will
manifest both a volatile and fixed alkali.
• Guavas lake, signifying the grey rock in a wootl— Orig.
328 - PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
IX. On the Antiquities dug up from the Ancient Herculaneum, dated from
Naples, Nov. 18. 1752. By Sig. Camillo Paderni. Translated from the
Italian, p. 71-
The things, of which Sig. Paderni says he had the charge, are many, and
extraordinary, consisting of metals: that is, bronzes, silver and gold of all kinds,
of excellent workmanship. Beautiful cameos and intaglios. Glass of all sorts.
Various productions of the earth ; such as, grain, beans, figs, dates, nuts, pis-
tachios, almonds, rice, bread. Colours for painting. Medicines in pills, and
other forms, with their marks. A phial of oil. Gold lace, perfectly well pre-
served, and extremely curious, on account of its being made with massy gold,
spun out, without any silk, or other yarn. Soap, bran, and a variety of other
things, which it were tedious here to 'enumerate.
There were found many volumes of papyrus, but turned to a sort of charcoal,
and so brittle, that, being touched, it fell to ashes. Yet by his majesty's orders,
he made many trials to open them, but all to no purpose; excepting some scraps
containing some words, by which it appeared in what manner the whole was
written. The characters are made with a very black tincture, exceeding the
darkness of charcoal.*
There were found also very lately 3 beautiful statues of marble, and one of
them excellent; 6 heads of bronze, of which there was one that gave hopes
of finding the statue it belongs to. It is a young Hercules, of a kind of work
that has no fellow in the way of metal, having the hair finished in a surprising
manner. Also several little figures of metal ; a sistrum very neat and well pre-
served ; and not a day passes but they bring some curiosities newly found.
X. A Translation and Explanation of some Articles of the Booh intitled,
Theorie de la Figure de la Terre. By Mons. Clairaut of the Royal Academy
of Sciences at Paris, and F. R. S. p. 73.
Mr. Short, in his account of Father Frisi's Disquisito Mathematica in Causam
Physicam Figurae et Magnitudinis Telluris Nostras, having reported that philoso-
pher's sentiments on my reflections, says M. Clairaut, on the same matter,
without taking the trouble to examine whether they were founded on the truth
or not, I find myself under the necessity to lay before the Royal Society the pas-
sages of my book, which, having been misunderstood by F. Frisi, have occa-
sioned the misconstruction made of my sentiments, either on the trust I give
to the actual operation made for discovering the figure of the earth, or Sir Isaac
Newton's theoretical inquiries about the same subject.
* Since this was written some successful attempts have been made to unravel these ancient manu-
scripts, which treat of philosophy, music, &c.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 329
The expressions of Frisi, referred to by Mr. Short, are as follow:
" Quia tamen plerique omnes hucusque, aut nihil pro figura telluris determi-
nanda ex iis observ^ationibus deduci posse cum geoinetra celeberrimo Ruggero
Boscovik autumarunt, aut exinde cum ill. Clairaut, Bouguer, aliisque, contra
incomparabilem virum ac prope divinum Isaacum Newton insurgentes, admira-
bilem ipsius theoriam facto minus respondentem dixeruiit, assignatamque in prop,
jg, lib. 3, Princip. Mathem. terrestrium axium proportionem a vera absonam
omnino esse, alios mihi observationibus parum, alios nimis tribuere visum est,
omnes ferme oppositis erroribus pecc^sse, ubi res neque aurificis lance, neque
molitoris, ut aiunt, statera librandas sunt."
This, when compared with the propositions of my theory, which they relate
to, will appear, I hope, quite incoherent; Hnd I cannot show it more clearly
than by translating the last chapter of my book, to which Frisi refers the reader.
For the better understanding of that chapter, it is proper to know, that the
chief results of the precedent inquiries are these theorems:
1. Supposing the earth in its former state composed of several fluids of dif-
ferent densities, and settled all in equilibrium by the laws of gravity and centri-
fugal forces, the surfaces separating the different mediums will always affect the
form of a curve, which is so near to the ellipsis, that it may be supposed so,
without any error of the least moment. 2. That, in the case of the denser
fluids being nearer to the centre, as hydrostatics require, the spheroid will always
be less flat than in the homogeneous one, and vice versa. 3. And as to the
diminution of the gravity from the pole to the equator, it will always follow the
opposite rule, viz. if the spheroid be denser towards the centre, the gravity will
decrease in a less ratio than in the homogeneous spheroid, and vice versa. 4.
That if (? represent the fraction found out for the difference of diameters, , ■ ,
— S will express the total diminution of the gravity from the pole to the equator,
not only in the case of the spheroid supposed originally fluid, but in any suppo-
sition of variation for the densities and proportion of the diameters of the beds,
provided they be elliptical.
These premised, let us proceed to the last chapter of the theory of the earth's
figure; in which the principles laid down in the preceding chapters are compared
with the observations.
^ 68. For the diminution of the gravity from the north to the south.
It has been seen in the preceding chapter, that when a spheroid is not sup-
posed homogeneous, the diminution of the gravity from the pole to the equator
will be greater than in the case of homogeneity. Hence, if my theory holds in
our globe, the whole decreasing of the gravity will be equal to -^-^ or greater,
and never less; since the ratio of 230 to 231 will (§21) express the ratio of the
action of gravity at the equator and [X)le, when the spheroid is homogeneous.
VOL. X. ' U u
330 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1753.
And this conclusion of my theory quite agrees with experience; for, from all the
observations relating to the gravity made in several places of the globe, either by
actual measures of the second pendulum, or by the difference of duration of the
same pendulum's vibrations, it appears, that the gravity decreases from the north
to the south in a greater ratio, than it would be, if the total diminution from
the pole to the equator were only -jJ-,-.
^ 69. Por the proportion of the two diameters.
Supposing, as in the precedent chapter, the earth originally fluid, it follows,
from the ^ 63, that the ratio of the two diameters cannot exceed that of 230
to 231 ; since (^ 20) 230 to 231 is the ratio in the case of the homogeneous
spheroid ; and as the mensurations of the gravity cannot agree with the supposi-
tion of the homogeneity, the diameters of the earth ought to be in a ratio less
than 230 to 231.
Without adhering to the supposition of the earth's being formerly fluid, but
admitting, as in the chap. 3 and 4, all generality possible in the variation of
density and ratio of diameters of the beds or strata laid down from the centre to
the surface, there will still happen a difference of the diameters less than -^^
For, by § 50, the total diminution of the gravity from the pole to the equator
being subtracted from -t-ttj the remainder is the difference between the diameters.
Now the diminution of the gravity having been found greater than -^-k-^, the
ellipticity, or difference of diameters, ought to be less than that fraction, and
consequently the ratio of diameters less than 230 to 231.
That consequence of my theory is not so happy as the preceding; for the de-
gree measured in the north, compared to that of France, give the two diameters
as 177 to 178, which ratio is greater than 230 to 231 instead of being less, as
the theory would require.
As the measures made in the north have been performed with great care and
exactness,* their result seems at first to be preferred to that of my theory. But
a reflection on the errors unavoidable in actual measures, and an examination of
the limits of these errors, will show that, without violating the measures, they
would be brought nearer the theory, and even agree with it. For, by a conve-
nient calculation, it will be found, that a diminution less than 6o toises, made
to the difference between the degrees of Paris and Tornea, would give the dia-
meters in the ratio of 230 to 23 J . And if it be considered what is the smallness
of an error of 6o toises, when divided in two operations, which require so great
a number of astronomical and geographical observations, it will be thought that
an error a little larger may be supposed, without disparaging either our operation,
or Mr. Picard's ; and thus theory and experience would agree.
• Those measures have been since found very erroneous.
VOL. XLVIII,] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 331
Supposing, for example, that the difference between the degrees of Paris and
Tornea has been found too great by 80 toises, the difference between the two
diameters will come out about -^i-o, which, subtracted from -rW, gives -j-Lj,. for
the diminution of the gravity from the pole to the equator. And such a con-
clusion would agree pretty well with the observations made in France and Lap-
land with the excellent clock of Mr. Graham.
However, though the errors to be supposed in the operations, to reconcile
them with my theory, be in themselves small enough, I shall abstain from as-
serting that they have been committed. It is a fact not to be decided, till after
the result of the observations which are expected from Peru. For the great
difference which is to be found between the degrees of Quito and Tornea, is
the only means of knowing whether the diameters be less or greater than 230
to 23 1 .
Were the question only, to demonstrate the flatness of the earth, the mea-
sures of the degree of Paris and Tornea would be full sufficient; but to discover
the true ratio of diameters, is what can be performed only by the comparison be-
tween the degrees whose mutual distance is the greatest.
Such a ratio once fixed, if it happen to be less than 230 to 231, it will be
very easy, by the preceding theory, to imagine some hypothesis for the inside of
the earth, which shall agree with both theory and observation, whether admitting
the supposition of the original fluidity of the globe, or not.
But if the diameters were found undoubtedly in a greater ratio to one another
than 230 to 231, I own, that not only the theory established in this second part
of my book must be abandoned, but it would be very difficult to reconcile the
measures of the pendulums with those of the degrees on Sir Isaac's system.
And I dare say, that the success in tliat case would hardly depend on any na-
tural hypothesis.
The subsequent 70th article containing only a proof, that the preceding theory
agrees with any ratio between -^ and -^j for the quantity which expresses the ex-
cess of Jupiter's equator above its axis, there is no necessity for the translation of
the arguments leading to a result so answering to the observations ; and I pass to
the conclusion of that article, which ends my book.
The preceding theory agreeing with all the measures of the pendulum, and
observations of Jupiter's diameters, if besides it happen, that the measures ex-
pected from Peru give, when compared with those of Lapland, a difference of
diameters less than -^-^-u-, this theory will have all possible confirmation, and the
universal gravitation so well agreeing with the motions of the planets, will also
agree with their figures.
Now I beg every candid reader to examine, whether, in that chapter quoted
u u 2
332 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. £aNNO 1753.
by F. Frisi, I have too much relied on the certainty of observations, and at-
tempted to disparage Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries.
In the first place, I will ask F. Frisi if before the operations, which I de-
pended on, were performed, I could establish any thing against their agreeing,
or not, with Sir Isaac's proposition about the same matter ?
He perhaps will answer, that my remark of the 69th art. " But if the dia-
meters were found undoubtedly in a greater ratio to one another than 230 to
231," imports that I was not thoroughly convinced, that what care soever would
be taken by the gentlemen sent into Peru, they never would be able to measure
their degree with a sufficient exactness, to conclude, -from its length, compared
with that of the other degrees, whether the diameters were in a greater or less
ratio than 230 to 231 ; and consequently he will think, that my being in sus-
pense about it was an offence against Sir Isaac's theoretical determination. Then
I request F. Frisi to tell me, why he is so good as to commend operations so void
of use, as those which tended only to discover what was demonstrated before,
and needed not to be confirmed, since it could not be invalidated.
Perhaps F. Frisi, in representing me as depending too much on the observa-
tions, relied on these expressions of the 69th art. ' As the measures of the gra-
vity cannot agree with the supposition of the homogeneity :' and I confess, that
it seems to me impossible to reconcile the great number of all the measures of
that sort with the table which follows the homogeneity. For the simplicity of the
means made use of in the performance of those measures cannot admit the errors,
which should be supposed to bring them to Sir Isaac's theory : but as this theory
is founded on the homogeneity, which is only a mere supposition ; and as he has
himself suspected, in his second and third edition, that the internal parts of the
earth might be denser than those towards the superficies, I do not see how I
oppose myself to that illustrious philosopher, when I assume the same hypothesis
as he does. As I shall use all possible endeavour to understand F. Frisi's mean-
ing, I hazard this conjecture. Seeing that I thought favourably enough of the
exactness to be obtained in astronomy, when observations have been already
made in great numbers, and with all possible care, to suppose them fit to let us
know, whether the diameters are in a greater or less ratio than 230 to 23 1 : and
being informed afterwards, that the operation made in Peru led those who have
made use of it to imagine the spheroid flatter than the homogeneous, he con-
cludes, that I cannot help thinking like them, and accordingly indulges himself
in exposing how much I over-rate the validity of observations, and how little I
know the submission due to a proposition of Sir Isaac ; which, I must say by
the bye, that great man has never himself given as impossible to be opposed by
experience. But yet I would ask of F. Frisi, why he will guess at my sentiments.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 333
while I have not given room to know them on that point ? How can he know
whether, since the examination of all the measures, I have not found any way to
reconcile them with the theory ? Which I say in no manner as a hint I intend to
make any corrections in those measures, but merely to show the little foundation
which F. Frisi had to represent me as he has done.
However difficult it may be to account for F. Frisi's expressions, I shall hazard
yet another conjecture. His great zeal for Sir Isaac, for which he is certainly to
be commended (if not blinded by that zeal) has hindered him from distinguish-
ing between the different ways of opposing that great man's sentiments. Per-
ceiving then, that my calculations (§ 50, part 2) had led me to a result quite
different from Sir Isaac's assertion, (Prop. 20, lib. 3), he was offended at my
boldness to such a degree, that he was unable to examine impartially what I
said ; and instead of discussing a mathematical question quite independent of any
actual measure, wherein if I were mistaken, he would have forced every geome-
trician to condemn me, he has supposed that I have built my argument on an
operation which was not performed at the time when I wrote.
Tliis conjecture would appear to me the true cause of F. Frisi's error, if it
were not inconsistent with a proceeding of his towards Sir Isaac, which I will
venture to relate. After F. Frisi has examined himself the IQth problem of the
third book of the Principia, which is much less complicated than that I spoke
of, the truth of which is incontestable, he finds, by his own mistake, a disagree-
ment with the result of that proposition, and charges that illustrious author,
without the least apology, with an error, which, says he, (quite from the pur-
pose) is the 6th, that has been found in the same work, and also gives an enu-
meration of the 5 others, though they are not at all concerned in the question. ^
I cannot forbear saying, that the manner in which I have proposed my re-
marks on the 20th proposition of Sir Isaac, has nothing of that slight way of
treating so great a man ; and as my utmost wish is to be judged on that account
by the Royal Society, I shall relate what were my objections ; which I cannot
effect in a more concise and clear method, than by giving the translation of the
article which contains it.
^ 51. Of the 2d part of the theorj', 8ec. ' In which is seen what had induced
Sir Isaac Newton to think, that the planets, when denser at the centre than at
the surface, ought to be flatter than in case of homogeneity.'
' Some years ago I gave, in the Philos. Trans. N° 449, the theorem of the
preceding article ; and on this occasion I mentioned a passage of Sir Isaac con-
trary to it. Not having at that time looked into the 2d edition of his Principia,
I could not know what had engaged that illustrious philosopher to think so ; and
far from suspecting any mistake in his proposition, I was contented to think,
that the difference between our conclusions arose from a different way of con-
334 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1753.
ceiving the inside of the earth ; and I imagined, that he had happened to fall on
such a disposition of parts, as would answer to his assertion. I then followed
only his commentators, and especially Dr. Gregory, showing, that his explana-
tion of Sir Isaac's conclusion was wrong, as grounded on a proposition which
did not hold in the present case. For that proposition (which is, that the gra-
vity at any point of the earth is inversedly as the distance from the centre) only
holds when the earth is homogeneous ; and consequently ought not to be made
use of, when the density is greater towards the centre than at the superficies.'
' Since I have discovered that the theorem, the demonstration of which I had
given in the Philos. Trans, for the case of beds supposed of the same ellipticity,
holds in an infinity of other suppositions, I have taken greater care to discover
what could have induced Sir Isaac to think, that the earth is flatter, as the gravity
is more decreasing from the pole towards the equator ; and I believe I have found
it out in the second edition of the Principia, and it is, for having built on the
same argument as Dr. Gregory.*
' In p. 386, after having observed, that the experiments gave a diminution of
two lines to the second pendulum from the pole to the equator, he argues thus :
Since, says he, the case of homogeneity afforded only 1 yg^.„ to 4, the difference
7-^ miles between the two diameters (which followed from the same hypothesis)
is to be magnified in the ratio of 1 1 g ^ „ to 2, and it will come out 31-tV miles
for the real difference. For, pursues he, the retardation of the pendulum at the
equator denotes the diminution of the gravity in that place ; and the lighter the
matter is there, the higher will it rise to be equiponderant with that of the pole.'
' Further, p. 387, examining the measures of the degrees of latitude made in
France by M. Cassini, by which the earth is higher at the pole than at the
equator by about 95 miles, he pretends, that accordingly the pendulum should
be longer at the equator than at the pole by about half an inch. And all that
shows the opinion which Sir Isaac was of, that in any case whatever, the equili-
brium requires a gravity inversely proportional to the length of the columns,
which proportion, as I hope to have evinced, is only demonstrated in the case of
homogeneity, and is not true in general. Thus, what I argued in the Phil.
Trans, against Dr. Gregory, holds also against Sir Isaac'
By all that I have said, every body may judge, whether differing from Sir
Isaac's sentiments on a point, which I had for so long a time examined, I did
not express my disagreement with him in as decent a manner as any one should,
when speaking of so great a man. And in case the r. s. thought some alterations
were to be made in the form of my remarks, I declare that I shall execute it, as
may be prescribed to me by that illustrious company. But I cannot help think-
ing, that unless those, who would examine my demonstrations, find some error
in them, no alteration is requisite to be made in my expressions. I desire then
VOL. XLVIIl
,] VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. . 335
either F. Frisi, or any geometrician who thinks the question worth his exa-
mination, to take the trouble of reviewing my calculations, and to believe me
ready to acknowledge my error, when shown to me by a candid and impartial
examiner.
Of a Storm of Thunder and Lightning, near Ludgvan in Cornwall. By the
Rev. Mr. fVvi. Borlase, M.A., F.R.S. Dated Ludgvan, Feb. 1, 1753.
p. 86.
This storm was on Dec. 20 preceding. The first traces in the parish of Mad-
dern, were an incision, or scratch, made in the turf, about 3 inches wide, and
2 deep, where the lightning coming up from the south-west, passing through
the bank, and issuing out from the bank in 3 streams, which united again, and
turned away to the north. About 10 paces to the north of these breaches, there
are more marks of the same kind, but not in the same direction ; for the light-
ning here came from the north-west, and, passing upwards, the furrow, which
it had made, grew wider, and somewhat deeper, as it gained on the hill, espe-
cially where it met with bank or stone; and some banks were 5 feet wide, which
had their tops untouched, but were pierced through as with a bullet. This se-
cond furrow was (as all the rest) not in a straight line, but in a vermicular direc-
tion, and with its turnings led to a karn, or ledge of flat rocks, striking off many
splinters from it, and in some places making a perforation through it. There
were made also furrows 1 0 inches wide, and a foot deep ; besides which, were
several places in the hill which had holes about a foot wide, and 6 or 8 inches
deep, and several clods cut thin and clear off from the ground : which shows,
that as this lightning went like darts through banks and stones, and tore up the
ground in many places like a ploughshare, so in other places it spread into a
horizontal thin edge, which scooped up and carried ofi" the little unevennesses of
the turfy ground. The whole workings of this lightning were in length about a
furlong from west to east.
The first thunder-clap was succeeded, in less than a quarter of an hour, by^
another, which broke at a village, in the parish of Gullval, called Trythal, about
a mile and half to the south-west of Moelfra hill, and was attended with the fol-
lowing melancholy accidents :
Thomas Olivey, a respectable farmer, had returned from the field, about a
quarter before 12 o'clock, and had all his family round him in the kitchen, ex-
cept his daughter, who was in the hall. There was a pan over the fire in the
kitchen-chimney, full of boiling water. The farmer was sitting by the fire, and
his wife on a bench before it : their only son, 23 years of age, was standing at
the window, when it lightned much, and the first clap of thunder followed.
This was so violent that the back door of the kitchen, which opened to the
336 ' PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
north, quivered. The farmer called to his son, and desired him not to stand so
near the window, lest the lightning should hurt his eyes ; on which the young
man removed from the window, backwards, into the corner of the room, and
sat down. The lightning came from the west- north-west, and falling on the
stack of the kitchen-chimney, which was about 4 feet square, and as much in
height, of hewed stone, carried it clear off from the house, and threw it into a
pool of water 20 feet distant. In the chamber over the kitchen, directly beneath
the top of the chimney, there was a little closet boarded in ; all the boards were
broken to pieces, the timbers of the roof shattered ; as also the bedstead in that
chamber; of the chamber-partition 1 planks were forced, a large cloaths-press
thrown, and the south windows of the chamber-floor (excepting one casement)
all broken, and blown out. From the top of the chimney, and chamber-floor,
it descended into the kitchen below, where the family was : the farmer saw no
lightning, nor heard any thunder, after the first clap before mentioned ; but was
struck senseless with the first flash, and thrown into the middle of the kitchen,
and continued senseless for a quarter of an hour. As soon as he came to him-
self, he asked, who struck him ? but had not the use of his arms ; and felt an
aching pain, shooting, as he described it, into his bones ; and a brand-iron,
which hung in the chimney, being thrown down into the pan of water, on the
fire, had dashed the boiling water upon him to that degree, that his life was in
extreme danger for more than a fortnight after. Mrs. Olivey was struck down
before the hearth. Both her shoes, though buckled on as usual, were struck
oflf her feet ; but her feet not hurt : and being neither burnt nor senseless, was
able to cry out for help, but could not move ; for she had no use of her under-
limbs for a day and a half.
The farmer's brother was at the end of a long table in the same room, and
was only flung against the wall, about 3 feet distant, not hurt. Mrs. Olivey's
sister was near the back door ; a plank of this door was started, and beat in :
she was struck senseless, and thrown 1 1 feet off" against the settle, which stood
against the south wall of the house.
The farmer's son had his coat and waistcoats (for he had two on) torn into
shreds, so that it could hardly be distinguished where the pieces had formerly
joined ; his shirt had a rent 1 feet long down the back, and was scorched ; his
left shoe torn from his foot ; and the little toe of that foot so nearly cut off", that
it hung only by a bit of skin ; and he was quite dead. But though reduced to
this lamentable condition, as to his exterior, he was not moved from his seat, nor
his face at all changed : his dog was lying at his feet, dead likewise, but never
moved.
The farmer's daughter received the shock in the hall ; was struck senseless,
but revived soon ; felt a trembling all over ; her feet tickling, and partly be-
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TBANSACTIONS. 337
numbed and stiff, as if sleeping ; but perceiving in the room a cloud of smoke,
and hearing her mother cry, she made haste into the kitchen, which she found
full of smoke, stinking like brimstone. The lightning had left a mark quite
across the clavel of the kitchen-chimney, about half an inch wide, in an undu-
lating direction, broke through the partitions of the under floor, thrown down
the shelves, carried out all the south windows, forced up the stair-case, blown
out the north window, missed or spared a clock, which stood close by the win-
dow; and being somewhat spent, when it reached the hall, carried out the
windows ; moved not some Delft basins, which were in the south window, but
forced the door of a beaufet, at the end of the hall, an inch and a half inwards ;
and shook the eastern wall of the house to the very foundation.
The clouds over Moelfra hill, and the village of Try thai (a space of a mile and
a half) were so heavily charged with lightning, that here they broke, both the
first and the second time, and the thunder-claps were within a few minutes of
each other, as being produced but by two portions of one and the same
congeries.
The general tendency of this lightning was as the direction of the wind at that
time ; that is, from the north-west to the east, but where the principal explo-
sions were, as at the hill, and the house, many branches spread oft' in all direc-
tions. Nor were the shapes, in which it operated, less different than its motions.
Sometimes, as it appeared to Mr. B. at Ludgvan, it was pointed as a dart ; in
some places edged as a scythe, now but one thin sheet or stream, then 1 or 3,
and then one again. No\^ it fell as several separate balls of fire ; but on the
house as a large gush or torrent. It was all fire, yet of different powers, ac-
cording to the impregnation of its several portions. Subtil and penetrating as
the electrical fire, it affected, shocked, and permeated, all the human frame.
Some parts .of it only scorched wood, but did not melt iron, as with lightning is
very common : some tore the leather and clothes ; some cut and wounded, and
some killed without wound or rent ; and other parts of this lightning again, upon
stone, wood, leather, clothes, and flesh, only rushed and forced with the power
of air put into a violent agitation. All this happened in this place, and all
in an instant : and though the clothes were somewhat singed, as well as torn, and
the young man's skin round his waist was also scorched, yet, from the general
effects of this lightning in both places, it was rather swift, and irresistibly
piercing, than inflammatory. The house stands very high, without tree or hill
near it.
VOL. X.
X X,
338 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
XII. A Second Letter of the Rev. William Henry, D. D. concerning the Copper
Springs in the County of JVichlow in Ireland, p. 94.
This is only a confirmation of the former account of procuring copper by
means of iron bars laid in the stream of copper-water. He further remarks, that
to prevent any dirt or mud from being carried out of the mines, by the streams,
which are let into the pits, where the iron bars are deposited, the stream, as it
issues out of the level, is collected into a large deep basin, where all the dirt sub-
sides ; and the clear water only is from the surface of the basin let out into
the pits.
XIII. The Construction of the Logarithmic Lines on the Gunters Scale. By
Mr. John Robertson, F.R.S. p. 96.
The Gunter s scale (so called from its inventor Mr. Exlmund Gunter, astro-
nomy professor in Gresham-college, from March 6, 1619, till his death, Dec.
10, 1626,) is an instrument almost universally known, and amply described by
many writers ; therefore Mr. R. only shows on what principles the divisions of
the logarithmic sines, tangents, and versed sines, are usually protracted.
The line of numbers on these scales consists of 2 equal lengths, commonly
called 2 radii ; the first containing the logarithms of numbers from 10 to
100; and in the second are inserted those between 100 and 1000, or such of
them as can conveniently be introduced. These divisions are taken from a
scale of equal parts ; such, that 1 00 make the length of one radius ; and from
this scale, the divisions for the sines, tangents, and versed sines, are also
taken. Now, from this construction of the line of numbers, it is plain that, as
the numbers in one radius exceed those in the other, by one place in the scale
of numeration ; therefore the difl^erence of their indices must also be unity ; so
that such numbers only, whose index differs by 1, can be estimated in a length
of 2 radii : but in a length of 3 radii, numbers, whose indices differ by 2, may
be read ; and a difference of 3 may be reckoned in a length of 4 radii, &c. The
tables of logarithmic sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines, are generally
computed for a circle, whose radius is 10,000,000.
As the length of the Gunter s scale admits of no more than 2 radii, or of such
numbers only whose index differs by unity ; therefore, within this lengtli, no
more of the sines, tangents, or versed sines, can be introduced, than those
whose index differs by unity : and as not only the greatest number among the
sines and tangents, but also those more generally wanted, have the indices 9 and
8 differing by unity ; therefore all the sines from 90° to o" 34', and all the tan-
gents from 45° to 0° 34', are those only which are put on these scales ; the divi-
sions answering to the lesser sines and tangents being omitted for want of room.
VOL. XLVm.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 339
And this is the reason, why the sine of 90°, and the tangent of 45°, are limited
by the same termination as the 2d radius on the line of numbers.
To construct the line of logarithmic sines.
From the scale of equal parts, take the numbers expressing the arithmetical
complements of the log-sines of the successive degrees, and parts of degrees, in-
tended to be put on the scale, descending orderly from 90° : then these distances
successively laid from the mark representing 90° at the right-hand end of the
scale, will give the several divisions of a scale of logarithmic sines. For, the ends
of any scale being assigned, the progressive divisions of that scale are laid on it
from that end which represents the beginning of the progression : or, the same
divisions may be laid from the other end, by taking the complements of the
terms to the whole length of the scale : consequently the arithmetical com-
plements of the sines are to be laid from the division representing 90
degrees.
To construct the line of logarithmic tangents.
These are laid down in the same manner, and for the same reasons, that the
sines were ; the tangent of 45° standing against the sine of 90°. The divisions
for the tangents above 45°, are reckoned on the same line from 45° towards the
left hand ; or any tangent arid its co-tangent are expressed by the same division.
Thus one mark serves for 40° and 50° ; and the division at 30° serves also for
60°; that at 20° serves for 70°, &c. and the like is to be understood of the in-
termediate divisions. For, as the tangent of an arc, is to radius ; so is radius,
to the co-tangent of that arc. Therefore the tangent is equal to the square of
radius divided by the co-tangent. And the co-tangent is equal to the square of
radius divided by the tangent.
Now the radius being unity, its square is also unity. Therefore the tangent
and co-tangent of any arc are the reciprocals one of the other. But the recipro-
cals of numbers are correlatives to the arithmetical complements of their loga-
rithms. Therefore the logarithms of a tangent and its co-tangent, are arithmetical
complements one of the other ; and consequently will fall at equal distances
from 45 degrees. Therefore, in the line of logarithmic tangents, the divisions
to degrees under 45, serve also for those above ; both being equally distant from
45 degrees.
To construct the line of logarithmic versed sines.
As the greatest number of degrees will fall within the limits of the scale, by
beginning at 180°; therefore the termination of this line is at 180°, which is put
against 90° on the sines : and though the numbers annexed to the divisions in-
crease in the order from right to left, yet they are only the supplements of the
versed sines themselves. Now subtract the logarithmic versed sines, of such
X X 2
340 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. - [aNNO J753.
degrees and parts of degrees as are intended to be put on the scale, from the
logarithm versed sine of ] 80" ; then the remainder taken from the foresaid scale
of equal parts, and laid successively from the termination of this line, will give the
several divisions sought.
Hence it appears, that the least versed sine, which can be introduced within
the length of a double radius, falls between 10" and 20°, where the index changes
from 1 to 2 ; which will happen about 11° 28'.
If a table of logarithm versed sines to 180° are wanting, they are easily made
by the following rule : Take the logarithm sine of 30° from twice the logarithm
sine of (n) any number of degrees ; the remainder is the logarithm versed sine of
(2n, or) twice those degrees." For it is a well-known goniometrical property,
that the sine of any arc (a), is a mean proportional between radius (r) and half
the versed sine of twice that arc.
Therefore, putting v for the versed sine, and ,s for the sine ;
thenu 2a = (' — = ^^a X =ssa x tV=) "^^ X i; radius being 10.
Or the log. z; 2a = 2 log. s\ — log. 5.
But when radius is 10, the sme of 30° is 5.
Therefore the log. i'2a = 2 log. *a — log. sine of 30°.
Most of the writers on this subject give the following rule for laying down the
divisions of this line : From the line of logarithmic sines, take the distance be-
tween 90° and any arc ; that distance being twice repeated, from the termi-
nation of the line of versed sines, will give the division for twice the complement
of that arc." Thus the distance between 90° and 20° on the sines twice repeated,
gives the versed sine of 140°; or twice 70°, the complement of 20°. For the
divisions, to be laid on this line, are the difTerences between the logarithm versed
sine of 180°, and the logarithm versed sines of the successive arcs.
Now the difference between the logarithm versed sines of 1 80°, and of any arc
2a, is log. ver., sine 180 — 2 log. sin, a -|- log. sin. of 30°.
Or, 10,30103 4- 9,69897 — twice log. sin. of a.
Or, 20,00000 — twice logarithm sine of a.
Or the arithmetical complement of twice logarithm sine of a. That Is, the
difference between the logarithm versed sine of 180°, and the logarithm versed
sine of any arc, is equal to double the arithmetical complement of the logarithm
sine of half that arc, rejecting the indices.
But, as these differences give the divisions to the supplements of the real versed
sines ; therefore the arithmetical complement of the logarithm sine of any arc
being doubled, will give the distance of the division for the supplement of twice
that arc on the line of versed sines.
Thus, for 70°, the logarithm sine is 9397299
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ^ 341
The arithmetical complement is 0,02701
Its double is 0,05402
Which is the supplement versed sine of twice TO degrees.
Now, as the arithmetical complement of the log. sines of arcs, are the dis-
tances on the line of sines between 90", and the divisions to those arcs ; there-
fore the distances between 90° and any arc, being twice repeated, will give the
division of the supplemental versed sine to twice the co-sine of that arc.
XIV. Concerning an Improvement nf refracting Telescopes. By Mr. Jdhn Dol-
lond.* Dated Feb. 1i, 1753. p. 103.
It is well known, that the perfection of refracting telescopes is very much
limited by the aberration of the rays of light from the geometrical focus ; which
* Mr. John Dollond, f. r. s. was "born \706, in Spitalfields, London, where his father had settled
as a silk weaver, having fled from Fiance on account of the persecutions after the revocation of the
edict of Nantz. Here our author was bred to his father's profession, which he continued during a
great part of his life. But being of a very studious and philosophical turn of mind, his leisure hours,
even while a youih, were chiefly employed in mathematical pursuits. And though by the death of
his father, which happened in the infancy of our author, his education gave way to the necessities of
the family, yet at the age of 15 he amused himself by constructing sundials, drawing geometrical
schemes, and solving problems. Add to this, that an early marriage, and an increasing family, left
him but little opportunity of pursuing his favourite studies. Yet even under the pressure of a close
application to business, for the support of his family, the energy and perseverance of his genius urged
him, by abridging the hours of rest, to extend his mathematical knowledge, making a considerable
proficiency in optics and astronomy, to which he now chiefly devoted his attention ; having in the
earlier stages of life prepared himself for the higher parts of those branches by a competent knowledge
of algebra and geometry. To these he added the study of anatomy, particularly that of the eye;
and even made a considerable proficiency in the Latin and Greek languages.
His eldest son Peter he brought up to the same profession with himself; and for several years they
carried on their manufacture together in Spitalfields ; but the employment neither suited the expec-
tations nor disposition of the son, who having received much information on mathematicsl and philo-
sophical subjects from the instructions of his father, and observing the great respect which professional
men had for his father's knowledge in optics, he determined to apply that knowledge to the benefit
of himself and the family; and accordingly, under the directions of his father, he commenced op-
tician. Success attended these efforts ; so that in the year 1732, our author also, embracing the
opportunity of pursuing a profession congenial with his mind, joined his son, and in consequence of
his theoretical knowledge, soon became a proficient in the practical parts of optics. His first attention
was directed to improve the combination of the eye-glasses of refracting telescopes ; henoe be
proceeded till he produced telescopes furnished with 5 eye-glasses, which greatly excelled all former
ones, and of which he gave an account to the r. s. in the paper above printed. He soon after made
a very useful improvement in Savery's micrometers ; for instead ot employing two entire object-
glasses, as Savery and Bouguer had done, he used only one glass cut into 2 equal parts, one of them
sliding laterally by the other ; by which contrivance Mr. Short was enabled to apply it to the reflect-
ing telescope with much advantage ; an account of which was communicated to the r. s, by our au-
thor, and printed in the same +8th vol. of the Phil. Trans, p. 178. Thus Mr. Dollond's celebrity in op-
tics soon became universal; and in consequence the friendship and protection of the most emineut men
342 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
arises from 1 very different causes ; that is, from different degrees of refrangi-
bility of light, and from the figure of the sphere, which is not of a proper curva-
ture for collecting the rays in a single point. The object-glass is chiefly aftected
by the first of these; nor has there been yet any method discovered for rectifying
that aberration so, as in the least to remove the indistinctness of the image
arising from it. We are therefore reduced to the necessity of contracting their
apertures, which renders it impossible to magnify much, without very long glasses.
of science encouraged his pursuits. Under such favourable circumstances Mr. D. engaged in the dis-
cussion of a subject which then interested the public philosophical mind of all Europe. Sir Isaac
Newton had declared, in his treatise on Optics, p. 11 2i " That all refracting substances diverged the
prismatic colours in a constant proportion to their mean refraction ;" and drew this conclusion, " that
refraction could not be produced without colour;" and consequently " that no improvement could be
expected in the refracting telescope." No one doubted the accuracy with which Sir Isaac had made the
experiments; yet M. Euler and some others were of opinion that his conclusion went too far, and
they maintained that in very small angles refraction might be obtained without colour. Mr. D. how-
ever was not of their opinion, but defended Newton's doctrine with much ingenuity and learning ; as
appears by the letters that passed between Euler and Dollond on that occasion, and published in this
same 48th vol. of the Philos. Trans, p 287 ; where Mr. D. contended that, " if the result of the
experiment was as described by Newton, there could not be refraction without colour."
Mr. D.'s active and accurate mind however could not rest satisfied barely with an experiment made
by another, which he could perform himself Accordingly he began the examination himself in the
year 1757, which lie assiduously prosecuted till June 1758, when he found the result to be very dif-
ferent from what he expected, and from what Sir Isaac had related. He discovered " the difference
in the dispersion of the colours of light, uhen the mean rays are equally refracted by different mediums."
The discovery was complete, and he immediately drew from it this practical conclusion, "' That the
object-glasses of refracting telescopes were capable of being made without being aifected by the dif-
ferent refrangibility of the rays of light." His account of the experiments was printed in the Philos.
Trans, vol. 50, p. 743, and the same year he was presented by the r. s. with the annual gold medal
as a reward of his discoveries, though he had not yet become a member of the Society. This disco-
very however no way affected the points in dispute between Euler and Dollond respecting the doctrine
advanced by Newton. A new principle was thus discovered, which had no part in the former reason-
ings, and it was reserved for the accuracy of Mr. D. to have the honour of making a discovery
which had eluded the observation of the immortal Newton. This new principle being now esta-
blished, Mr. D. was soon able to construct object-glasses correcting the different refrangibility of the
rays of light, and the name achromatic was given to them by Dr. Bevis, though it seems that M. La-
lande had said he conferred that name. Mr. D.'s improvement in refracting telescopes has been of
great advantage in astronomy, having been applied to fixed instruments ; by w hich the motions of
the heavenly bodies are determined to a much greater exactness than by means of the old telescopes.
Navigation has also been much bt- nefited by applying achromatic telescopes to the Hadley's sextant.
In the beginning of the year 1761 Mr. D. was elected f. r. s., and appointed optician to the king.
But he did not long enjoy these honours : for, on the 30th of November, the same year, a fit of
apoplexy in a few hours terminated his life, at 55 years of age. Besides Mr. Peter Dollond, above
mentioned, our author's family, at his death, consisted of 3 daughters, and another son, Johu, who
with his elder brother Peter, carried on the optician's business with the greatest reputation to the time
of the death of the younger brother John, which happened in the year 1805. And the business is still
carried on by the elder brother Peter, in conjunction with his nephew Mr. Huggius Dollond.
A larger account of the Dollonds may be seen in the Philos. Magazine, vol, xviii. p. 47, from
which the above has been abstracted.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 343
But the case is widely different with regard to the eye-glasses ; for though they
are very much affected by both the aberrations before mentioned, yet by a proper
combination of several together, their errors may be in a great measure corrected.
If any one, for instance, would have the visual angle of a telescope to contain
20 degrees, the extreme pencils of the field must be bent or refracted in an angle
of 10 degrees; which, if it be performed by one eye-glass, will cause an aberra-
tion from the figure, in proportion to the cube of that angle : but if 2 glasses be
so proportioned and situated, as that the refraction may be equally divided be-
tween them, they will each of them produce a refraction equal to half the re-
quired angle ; and therefore, the aberration being in proportion to the cube of
half the angle taken twice over, will be but a 4th part of that which is in pro-
portion to the cube of the whole angle ; because twice the cube of one is but +
of the cube of 2 ; so the aberration from the figure, where 2 eye-glasses are
rightly proportioned, is but a 4th of what must unavoidably be, where the whole
is performed by a single eye-glass. By the same way of reasoning, when the
refraction is divided among 3 glasses, the aberration will be found to be but the
gth part of what would be produced from a single glass ; because 3 times the
cube of one is but one gth of the cube of 3. Whence it appears, that by in-
creasing the number of eye-glasses, the indistinctness, which is observed near
the borders of the field of a telescope, may be very much diminished, though not
entirely taken away.
The method of correcting the errors arising from the different refrangibility of
light, is of a different consideration from the former ; for whereas the errors
from the figure can only be diminished in a certain proportion to the number of
glasses, in this they may be entirely corrected, by the addition of only one glass ;
as we find in the astronomical telescope, that 2 eye-glasses, rightly proportioned,
will cause the edges of objects to appear free from colours quite to the borders of
the field. Also in the day-telescope, where no more than 2 eye-glasses are ab-
solutely necessary for erecting the object, we find, by the addition of a 3d rightly
situated, that the colours, which would otherwise confuse the image, are en-
tirely removed : but this is to be understood with some limitation ; for though
the different colours, which the extreme pencils must necessarily be divided into
by the edges of the eye-glasses, may in this manner be brought to the eye in a
direction parallel to each other, so as, by the humours thereof, to be converged
to a point in the retina ; yet, if the glasses exceed a certain length, the colours
may be spread too wide to be capable of being admitted through the pupil or
aperture of the eye ; which is the reason, that in long telescopes, constructed
in the common manner, with 3 eye-glasses, the field is always very much con-
tracted.
344 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
These considerations first set Mr. D. on contriving, how to enlarge the field
by increasing the number of eye-glasses, without any hindrance to the distinct-
ness or brightness of the image : And though others had been about the same
work before, yet observing that the five-glass telescopes, sold in the shops,
would admit of further improvement, he endeavoured to construct one with the
same number of glasses in a better manner; which so far answered expectations,
as to be allowed by such persons as are the best judges, to be a considerable im-
provement on the former.
Encouraged by this success, he resolved to try if possible he might gain some
further enlargement of the field by the addition of another glass : and by placing
and proportioning the glasses in such a manner, as to correct the aberrations as
much as possible, without any detriment to the distinctness, he obtained as
large a field, as is convenient or necessary, and that even in the longest teles-
copes that can be made.
These telescopes with 6 glasses having been well received, and some of them
being gone to foreign parts, it seems a proper time to settle the account of its origin ;
which is one of the motives, that has induced him to give this short sketch of the
considerations, that gradually led him to its construction. And as the subject
has never been fully treated by any author, he intends as soon as may be, to
draw up a more particular explanation of the aberrations of light by refraction.
Xy. j4 Comparison of Different Thermometrical Observations in Siberia. By
Mr. Wm. IVatson, F. R. S. p. 108.
According to the thermometrical observations made by Mons. DemidofF,
at Soliskamsky, on the borders of Siberia, latit. 59, in the year 1751, the
greatest degree of cold was on Nov. 9, at 7 in the morning, when the thermo-
meter, according to Fahrenheit's scale, stood at 34 degrees below O ; which is
6Q under the freezing point. This degree of cold, though much greater than
what is ever observed in these parts, is little, when compared with the accounts
given by Professor Gmelin, in the introduction to the Flora Siberica. This
gentleman, who was professor of chemistry and natural history at Petersburg,
was sent with several other learned men, to inquire into the natural history of
Siberia, and was attended by some students, a painter or two, a miner, and
other proper attendants. He continued 9 whole years on this expedition", and
the observations he made, extraordinary as some of them are with regard to
their truth, are scarcely to be doubted. The mercury in his thermometer, gra-
duated according to De L'Isle's scale, often sunk in winter, in very southern
parts of this country, as near Selinga, in lat. 48, to near 226, which is equal to
55i below 0 in Fahrenheit's thermometer, and is 87^ below his freezing point.
TOL. XLVnr.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIOWS. 345
But the cold is often more intense than this, as appears by the experiments made
at Kirenginshi, where its sharpness was so great that Professor Gmelin with dif-
ficulty staid at the door of his house between 3 and 4 minutes.
Feb. 10, 1/38, at 8 in the morning the mercury stood at 240 degrees in De
L'Isle; which is 72 below 0 in Fahrenheit. At the same place in 1736, Dec.
11, at 3 p. m. 254 in De L'Isle, almost QO below 0 in Fahrenheit, Dec. 20, at
4 o'clock, p. m. 263 in De L'Isle = 99 tVo- below O n Fahrenheit.
Jan. 9, 1735, 12 at noon, 275 = 113 -rVir-
Jan. 6, 6 in the morning, 280= 120 below 0 in Fahrenheit, and 152 be-
low his freezing point.
Such an excess of cold could scarcely have been supposed to exist, had not
these experiments demonstrated the reality of it ; and Professor Gmelin assures
us, they were made with all possible exactness, and agree with many others made
in different parts of Siberia by his direction.
It was not apprehended that a greater degree of cold existed any where than
that artificial one produced by Boerhaave, by means of ice and concentrated spirit
of nitre, which sunk the mercury 40 degrees below O i Fahrenheit's thermo-
meter ; and this was supposed to be the point, beyond which no animal could
bear it : and Gmelin's account is the more extraordinary, as the French acade-
micians under the polar circle mention the greatest degree of cold, observed by
them, to be by Reaumur's thermometer 37 degrees, which nearly corresponds
with 70 degrees below the O in Fahrenheit's.
XFII. A Catalogue of the Fifty Plants from Chelsea Garden, presented to the
Royal Society, by the Company of Apothecaries for the Year 1752, pursuant
to the Direction of Sir Hans Sloane, Baronet, p. 1 10.
[This is the 3 1 st presentation of this kind, completing to the number of 1550
different plants.]
XVIII. Observations on a Remarkable Coralline.* By Mr. John Ellis, p. 115.
This coralline he received from Mr. Collinson. It appears, from its size and
firmness, to belong to a warmer climate than this, and is probably American.
Some of the same genus, but of a different species, are found in our own coasts ;
but they are smaller, tenderer, and more transparent. There is one particu-
larly, called by Dr. Dillenius, in the 3d edit, of Ray's Synopsis, p. 37, N°. 20,
tab. 2, fig. 1, corallina pumila erecta ramosior : and in Buddie's Hortus siccus,
in the late Sir Hans Sloane's collection, there is a specimen like it, but not so
• Cellaria neritina. Ellis. Sertularia neritina, Linn.
VOL. X. Y Y
346 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, [aNNO 1753.
fully advanced in its ramifications : this he calls fucus minimus hirsutus fibrillis
herbaceis similis, from Doody's Appendix to Ray's Synopsis, p, 330.
This curious sea production, which has the appearance of a plant, arises first
from many small vermicular wrinkled tubes, by which it appears to have ad-
hered, like ours, to rocks, shells, fucuses, or other submarine substances.
These tubes, uniting, form a sort of stem which, as they rise, insensibly change
into rows of cells : these stretch out into many regular dichotomous branches :
each branch is made up of 2 rows of cells united together, and these cells placed
in such a manner side by side, that each cell joins 1 others on one side, and the
bottom of one is inserted in the top of the other. Their openings or faces look
one way : they are nearly of an egg-shape, a little compressed before : the broad-
est part is uppermost, and bends a little forward : the top of each is fortified by 2
angular points or spines.
By attentively viewing many specimens of this genus of corallines, in the mi-
croscope, that was taken out of the sea at different seasons of the year, Mr. E.
observed the progress of nature to be pretty nearly thus : the tubuli, or first be-
ginning of the corallines in the younger state, are found full of a yellow soft
substance, which soon decays ; in the more perfect state they are clear and trans-
parent. The cells, which communicate with these tubes, have in the spring
black specks in each, which he takes to be the embryo of the future production.
During this very tender and minute state, the opening of each cell is covered with
an extremely fine transparent membrane, the use of which no doubt is to cherish
and protect it. These specks in time swelling into spherical testaceous bodies, as
they are often found in summer, burst through this membrane, and sit in the
front of the cell, supported by an umbilical ligament, which is fastened to the
bottom of the inside of each cell or matrix, till they come to maturity, which
seems to be the case in the microscopical drawing, fig. a, pi. 8 : where they
appear to be rows of very small sea-snails, or rather testaceous bodies, of the
shape of a nautilus, ready to drop off, and provide for themselves. In the same
plate, fig. B, &c. is a microscopical drawing of one of the English corallines of
the same genus, with the embryo specks in each cell.
He further adds, that he believes, if the curious, with good microscopes, at
the sea-side, and at different seasons of the year, would strictly examine many of
these beautiful sea productions, hitherto claimed by the botanists, they would
find that several of the testaceous tribe proceed from some kinds of the larger
corals, as well as that many owe their origin to the smaller corallines ; and we
are the more encouraged to try, since we observe that various shapes and stages
of the same animal are no new thing in the laws of nature.
TOL. XLVni.] fHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 347
XIX. Of some Uncommon Fossil Bodies. By Mr. Henry Baker, F. R. S. p. 11 7.
The fossil bodies which Mr. B. sent to the k.s. with this paper, were such as
he had never before met with, nor remembered any description of. He received
them from W. Frankcombe, a young gentleman residing at Oxford, who was
very diligent in searching after curiosities of this nature. He found them him-
self, but could not get them out of the bed they lay in without breaking them in
many pieces : though he has glued those pieces so well together, that one may
judge of them nearly as well as if they had not been broken.
Mr. B. caused drawings of them to be made, for the satisfaction of those who
might never have an opportunity of seeing them ; to which drawings he refers in
his description of them. ,j
PI. 8, figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, show these curious fossil bodies at more than a 4th
their real size. They are only 3 in number, though there are 4 figures, one of
them being drawn in 1 positions. They are evidently of a bony substance, made
black, most likely, and rendered brittle, by some mineral steams or juices,
though not corroded by them. Two of these bodies (fig. 3, 4) have the greatest
part of their outer surface studded, as it were, with pretty regular rows of tu-
bercles, about the size of the heads of small nails, rising to a blunt roundish
point, nearly -rV of an inch above the surface they issue from. Many of them
appear radiated very prettily from the base to the apex ; and perhaps they have all
been so, though in some the lines are not now seen, and may have been obli-
terated by time. These tubercles are of a fine shining glossy black colour, and
of a much closer and harder substance than the bone from which they rise. ^
Fig. 3 represents one of these fossil bodies, whose length from end to end is
74- inches ; on the sides from a to b its breadth is 1 inches. The width of that
part where the teeth are placed at c about -|- of an inch ; but it gradually de-
creases, as does also the breadth of the sides, towards the smaller end, which
was probably about an inch longer than it now appears, and terminated in a
point. The tubercles are largest in the broadest part, and the farther they are
from the teeth, near which they are small and flat ; they likewise lessen towards
the smaller end, which is rigid for about an inch, and without any tubercles.
The under part of this body is placed uppermost, for the sake of showing its
teeth to the best advantage. There are 2 rows, running longitudinally, on a
little rising in the middle, with no great regularity, and ending in one row of
very small ones. The largest are about \ of an inch in length, hooked, of a
shining black colour, having still the natural polish, and being extremely sharp
and perfect. The sides of this fossil have swelled out, and been naturally more
rounded than they are at present : for they plainly appear to have been crushed
and compressed together by some foreign force.
Y Y 2
348 'PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
Fig. 4 is a fossil body, 10 inches in length, one part of which is rounded, and
the opposite part hollowed : this figure shows the hollow part, which from a to b
is more than one inch and half over ; the channel runs its whole length, and
where deepest is IJ- inch over, but it gradually becomes shallower and narrower
towards the smaller end. The sides are -^ of an inch in thickness.
Fig. 5 shows the same fossil body with the rounded part upwards. Its sides
from a to b are 2 inches. Great numbers of black shining tubercles, of the kind
described fig. 3, but in general larger, and with less variation in their size as to
one another, are disposed in rows, pretty regularly in the manner shown in the
picture. Many of them appear starry or radiated with several fine lines from the
base to the apex, which lines rise a little, and in some positions to the light
appear of a whitish colour. Two separate figures of these tubercles are given
(p, q) to make this account the better understood. One is a side and the other
a front view. They are shown magnified about 8 times.
Fig. 6 is a fossil body, much more solid and weighty than the former two. Its
length is 10 inches. It is rounded on the upper part, where the sides in the
broadest place are 1-j- inch : the under part has a hollow or channel 1-i^ inch in
depth, 7-r inch long, 1-^ inch over, its bottom rounded. From a 3 inches and a
half to b is quite solid, and at a in width 1-^ inch, whence it goes tapering to b,
where it is broken off so blunt, as to show that it must probably have extended 4
or 5 inches farther. In this solid part c stand many small teeth in rows, but not
quite regular ; some rows having but 2, some 3, and others 4. They begin an
inch distant from the channel, and went probably to the extremity that is broken
off. They are black and shining like those in fig 3, but the points somewhat
broken ; though when whole they must have been less hooked, and much smaller
than those. The rounded part of this fossil body has no tubercles like the other
two, though it is plainly a species of the same kind with them, but is pretty
strongly furrowed, and the ridges have the same black glossy polish as their
tubercles.
Mr. Francombe writes, " that he met with these 2 bodies, fig. ] , 2, in a pit,
on the right hand side of the road, as you ascend Shotover-hill from Oxford.
The uppermost stratum in this pit consists of a yellow sandy earth ; the next a
brownish clay ; then a regular stratum of large stony nodules, about J 2 inches
thick ; then a dark blue clay, of about 10 feet ; and immediately under, a rock
of fi-ee-stone. About 2 feet above the free-stone were found the fossils, fig. ] ,
2. The first was found at twice ; the second in searching to complete the first,
and both of them in many small pieces, as is evident from the bodies themselves,
which he carefully joined with some thick gum-water. That the first is of its
proper shape and figure plainly appears from the regularity of its tubercles ; and
the second is as he saw it himself in the stratum. In this clay are found bones
TOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 340
of several kinds, oyster-shells, ammonitaB, crustaceous shells, selenitae, and be-
lemnitic.
" The cliffs on the right hand side of Pyrton-passage over the Severn, Glouces-
tershire, afforded the body, fig. 6. This, says he, which was likewise found in
a stratum of blue clay, not unlike that at Shotover, and also in several pieces,
appeared different from the otliers in nothing, but in the want of tubercles, and
I flatter myself will serve to throw no small light on the subject. His being not
quite so conversant with these cliffs as with the pit at Shotover, prevents his
speaking of them so paiticularly as he could wish."
The general appearance of these fossil bodies gives reason to conjecture, that
they are bones belongingto the head or snout of some animal of the fish-kind,
or perhaps of some sort of lizard, alligator, or crocodile.
The piece, fig. 3, whose sides are a little crushed, was found in Oxfordshire,
with the piece fig 4 and 5, and may probably have been part of the same head :
and if so, it should seem from the 1 rows of teeth along its middle to have been
the upper part of the head or snout : for some kinds of fishes have teeth in the
palate or upper part of the mouth, but we know of none that have teeth along
the middle of the lower part : there a tongue most commonly is placed, and the
piece, fig. 4, has a hollow or channel well adapted to contain a tongue. The
teeth in the palate of the lupus piscis, and likewise of some other fishes, are fre-
quently found fossil, of various sizes and shapes, being what are called (very im-
properly) bufonitae. When the 2 pieces 3, 4, are brought together, their size,
figure, and appearance, greatly strengthen the above conjecture : and it is worthy
observing, that the teeth are hooked inward, to prevent the prey when taken
fi-om escaping.
The piece, fig. 6, found in Gloucestershire, serves likewise to confirm the
same opinion : for the toothing in the middle almost proves that part to have
been the palate of some animal; an animal of the same genus too with fig. 3 and
4 ; though its having no tubercles, and being more solid, show it to have been
of some different species.
Mr. B. remembered not any fossil bodies like these, mentioned by authors,
nor could he point out any animal to which they might with certainty be im-
puted. Animal substances, before unknown, are met with frequently in the
bowels of the earth ; for the inhabitants of seas and rivers have been hitherto so
imperfectly described, that we know but little of their internal structure ; and
many sorts we have never seen or heard of.
XX. An Abstract of a Discourse entitled. The History of the Emperor Tetricus,
explained and illustrated by Medals ; written in French by Mr. Claude Gros de
350 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1753.
Boze, keeper of the medals in the French King's Cabinet, &c. By John f^Fard,
LL.D., F.P.R.S. p. 124.
As the emperor Tetricus governed some years in Gaul, his reign makes part of
the history of that country. But the accounts given of him by ancient writers
being very confused and imperfect, this learned antiquary has attempted to clear
them up from medals. And as to those of Tetricus himself, the gold ones, as
he observes, are in general exceedingly scarce , and no medallion of this emperor
in any metal was known, till very lately, when he procured one in gold, for the
French king's cabinet, which is represented, fig. 2, pi. 8. But though M. de
Boze professes only to give the history of the Emperor Tetricus ; yet such was
the unsettled state of the Roman affairs at that time, he thought it necessary
for him to introduce it, by reciting a variety of incidents relating to other per-
sons, which prepared the way for his advancement to that dignity. It would be
unprofitable however to reprint here details of ancient writers. Suffice it there-
fore to observe, that after relating the historical events preceding the elevation
of Tetricus, it is shown that he was a governor of Gaul as a Roman province,
and that on occasion of the death of Marius, the emperor of the western part of
the Roman empire, he was elected his successor, according to M. de Boze, about
the beginning of the year 268 of Christ.
The ^dui, who applied to Claudius for his assistance, opposed at that time
the government of Tetricus ; whose medals give us a more noble idea of him,
from the use he made of his victories. For in some of these he is represented
not as a warrior, but in a state of peace and plenty, with the legend Salvs Au-
GVSTORVM, intimating that moderation in success is the true grandeur and safety
of princes. And in others are seen the figures of several temples erected by him,
some of them in a circular form like the Pantheon, with the legend Pact.
And to these happy times Mr. de Boze refers the curious gold medallion men-
tioned above, which represents Tetricus as crowned with laurel, and dressed in
the toga palmata, or consular robe, which was also worn in triumphs. In his
right hand he holds an olive branch, and a scepter, with the Roman eagle on the
top, in his left, and round his image is this inscription, Imperator Tetricvs
AvGVSTVS. But the reverse, if it has one, must remain unknown ; since the
medal is so fixed in the gold box, which contains it, that they cannot be sepa-
rated without endangering both. And the radiated circle of gold, with which it
is encompassed, is designed only to adorn and enlarge it.
After some notice of the struggles of the contending parties in the Roman
empire, M. de Boze adds, that in the mean while Tetricus, who remained un-
molested, was constantly employed in studying the welfare and prosperity of the
Gauls. And as both the situation, and natural fertility, of the country are very
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 351
well suited to promote commerce ; those advantages were greatly improved by
him, as well by repairing the roads as making new ones, the care of which
works was committed to his son ; some proofs of which yet appear from inscrip-
tions on the milliary pillars, erected to mark out the distance of the ways. The
legends also on some of their coins, struck in honor of Tetricus, plainly express
the happiness which the Gauls enjoyed under his auspicious government; such as
Vbertas, LjEtitia, Felicitas pvblica, and the like.
However, the arts of intriguing and caballing, which had been carried to the
greatest height in Gaul by Victorina, gave Tetricus a continual uneasiness, either
to detect or suppress them. And therefore on the return of Aurelian from the
conquest of Zenobia, whom with her two sons he sent to Rome in great pomp ;
when Tetricus could no longer bear with the insolence of his own soldiers, he
wrote a letter to him, in which he used this expression : Eripe me his, invicte,
malis. And afterwards on the arrival of Aurelian near Chalons in Campania,
drawing out his forces, as if he designed an engagement, he surrendered to him
both himself and his whole army. By this means Aurelian being then, as the
historian expresses it, princeps totius orbis, celebrated a most splendid triumph
at Rome; in which not only Zenobia with her two sons, but likewise Tetricus
and his son, were exposed to public view among the other captives, to denote the
subjection both of the eastern and western empire.
But Trebellius PoUio informs us, that he afterwards treated Tetricus with the
highest honour, often calling him colleague, sometimes fellow soldier, and at other
times giving him the title of emperor. His estate also was restored to him, and
his house, which had been demolished, was rebuilt on mount Coelius, changed
into a palace, and dedicated with solemnities like a temple. Aurelian was him-
self invited to this ceremony, and having entered the grand hall, was surprised
to see himself represented there, as delivering to Tetricus and his son the sena-
tor's robe with other marks of dignity, and receiving from them a civic crown
and scepter. And afterwards, Aurelian thinking himself in a condition to avenge
the outrages committed by the Persians under Sapor, on the Roman empire, he
entered on that expedition ; leaving the government of the greatest part of Italy
to the care of Tetricus, with this complaisant expression; Sublimius habendum
regere aliquam Italiae partem, quam trans Alpes regnare.
No historian has settled the time when Tetricus died. But M. de Boze,
after relating several circumstances in favour of his opinion, places it about the
end of the year 275 of the present era.
XXI. An Account of a Treatise inlitled, Flora Sibirica, sive Ilisloria Plan-
tarum Siberiee, tomus secundus. Extracted and Translated from the Latin of
Professor Gmelin, by IV. IVatson, F. R. S. p. 141.
This 2d vol. of the Flora Sibirica, contains 240 pages 4to, exclusive of the
352 PHILOSOPHICAL TEANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
preface, and 98 copper plates, very curiously engraved. It was printed at Peters-
burg in the year 1 749.
An account of the first volume of this valuable work was communicated to the
Royal Society, by Dr. John Fothergill,* and has been published in their Trans-
actions. From its title, we were only promised an account of the plants of Si-
beria; but Dr. John George Gmelin, its author, at that time professor of che-
mistry and natural history at Petersburg, and now at Tubingen, has gone much
further, and has given us a great number of new and useful observations con-
cerning the natural history of that vast region. The abundance of matter, and
the limits of an extract, obliged Dr. Fothergill to confine himself, principally
to the geographical and meteorological part of the work ; but as the contents of
this 2d vol. are chiefly botanical, Mr. W. takes a review of the 1st vol. to intro-
duce with propriety an account of the contents of the 2d.
The Flora Sibirica contains the plants, growing spontaneously in a region of
vast extent, bounded by the Uralensian mountains on the west, the ocean of
Kamtschatka on the east, the Mare Glaciale on the north, the countries of Kal-
mucks and Mongales, and the confines of China, on the south. Our author
has, among the productions of these countries, interspersed a few plants, col-
lected by the botanist G«rber, near the rivers Don and Wolga, and in the Uk-
raine; partly because many of the s^me kind grow in Siberia, and partly from a
desire that these curious plants should no longer be concealed from the public.
He has given no plant a place which he himself has not examined, at least in a
dried state, and of which he was not satisfied respecting its generical character.
The plants of Kamtschatka were collected by two of their company, detached
for that purpose, who sent to our author from time to time large collections and
descriptions of such natural bodies as occurred to them. In digesting the plants
into classes, the author has followed the method of Van Royen of Leyden, who
considers, that all plants may be ranged into 20 classes; and in consequence of
this system, he has given 5 classes in his 1st vol. viz. those which Van Royen
intitles, palmae, lilia, gramina, amentaceae, and umbelliferae; and 3 classes in
the 2d vol. viz. compositae, aggregatae, and tricoccae; the remaining 12 classes
therefore are probably to be published hereafter. The author has generally
adopted the genera of Linnaeus ;. some indeed he has taken from Haller; but
wherever he thought it expedient to differ from these great men, he gives his
reason; and when he finds a plant, which cannot properl)' be ranged under any
genus already established, he forms a new one; in the explanation of which,
after the manner of Linnasus, he omits nothing essential to it.
To the diffeient species, discovered in this expedition, P. Gmelin has affixed
names, after the manner of Linnaeus, Haller, Van Royen, and the more modern
* See Phil. Trans, vol. xlv, p. 248; vol. ix, p. 491, of these Abridgments.
^rOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 353
botanists, which are such, as that from the name of the species the plant may
be known. But in what relates to the plants before discovered, he adopts the
names given them by the botanists just now mentioned, and scarcely ever forms
a new one; as he thinks a name already received, though but an indifferent one,
should be retained in preference perhaps to a better; lest the number of syno-?
nyms, already too great, should be augmented. To these he usually adds the
synonyms of the Bauhins and Tournefort; and sometimes, for the sake of their
figures, those of Morrison, Dodonaeus, Plukenet, and Loeselius ; and also those
of the Russian botanists. Messerschmid, Bauxbaum, and Amman. He has also
throughout the work carefully separated the varieties of plants from their genuine
species, and has laid down the places of their growth, the names given them by
the inhabitants, and their application of them to the various purposes of life.
The figures of the plants were taken from the life, and are, as far as possibles-
represented in their natural proportion; but from these must be excepted those
of G^erber, collected near the Don and the Wolga, and some others collected by
Dr. Lerche, physician to the Russian embassy in Persia, near Astracan, and even
in Persia; these were delineated from dried specimens: and wherever the figure
does not, to our author's satisfaction, represent the plant inteiidedj by the neg-'
lect of the painter or engraver, he apprises you of it, and endeavours to remedy
this defect in his descriptions.
The venereal disease has made no inconsiderable progress among barbarous, as'
well as among the more polite and civilized nations; and our author has given
two methods of treating that distemper among the inhabitants of Siberia; from
which, in some degree, an idea may be formed of the state of medicine in those
parts of the world. One method is, a decoction of a species of cirsium,* which,
grows in those parts, and is first described by the author; in this decoction,
when the pains are violent, they add some leaves of a species of chamaerhodo-
dendron, which produces effects similar to opium, by relieving the pain, and
sometimes bringing on a delirium. If they are not cured by this decoction,
which often happens in an aggravated state of the disease, they then boil a small
quantity of sublimate of mercury, with some fat, in a spoon over a candle, mix
it with the beforementioned decoction, and let the patient swallow it. It is no
wonder that this rude method should destroy the patient, and put an end to his
life by severe torture, which frequently happens. The other method of cure is
a more reasonable one, and is effected by administering a cup full or two of the
decoction of a species of iris-|- every morning, detaining the patient in bed. Of
• " Cirsium inerme foliis scabris, lanceoliitis, inferioribus ex siiiuato deDtatis, sqiianiis supeiioribua
calicum subrotundis, membrariaceis." Flor. Sibir. torn. ii. p. I'l. — Orig.
+ Iris foliis linearibus, corollis iniberbibns, fructu trigono, raule tereti. Lin. Hort. Cliflort, p. Ip.
Flor. Sibir. torn. i. p. 27. ]ris pratensis angasiifolia, non ikiida, altior. C. B, P. p. 3'2. — Orig.
VOL. X. , Z z
364 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
this they give a greater or less dose in proportion to its operation, which is both
by vomit and stool. After having taken it a week, it ceases to have the eftect of
evacuating; nevertheless they continue it another week; during which time the
patient is laid on a heap of fresh burdock leaves, and his body is also covered
with the same, which must be renewed every day. This method is said to cure
the disease radically.
Russians, Tartars, and other nations in these parts, eat as food, either boiled
in milk, or roasted in the embers, various species of the roots of lilies. The
Tartars collect and dry the roots of the dens canis* of the botanists, and boil
them either with milk or broth, and consider them as very nutritious food.
This root certainly is in every respect nearly related to salep.
The Siberian hunters, who kill various animals for their fur, are obliged to go
in search of them into the most desert parts of the country, and remain there
during their dreadful winters. It often happens that from the intenseness of the
cold, the leaven, which ferments their bread, is spoiled, and ceases to be of use.
In this case they collect the inner bark of the larch tree, which is very juicy and
sweet, and cut it into small pieces, and digest it over the fire in warm water.
They then add to it some rye flour, bury the whole in the snow, and let it re-
main there 12 hours; in which time the fermentation begins, and the faeces,
which fall to the bottom, make excellent leaven.
Both the Russians and the people of Kamtschatka made great use of the
sphondylium -)> vulgare hirsutum of Caspar Bauhin and Tournefort; or, what we
usually call cow-parsnep. According to Gmelin, the plant in question differs
from that species frequently met with in the pastures of Germany and England,
only in its being much larger. This difference of size the Russian kind con-
stantly preserves, when planted in the botanic garden. What we generally meet
with here in England seldom grows higher than 3 feet, whereas the Siberian
plant is double that size. Our author has given us a very exact description of
it. This plant, which has never yet been applied to any useful purpose in these
parts of the world, is of very great importance to the Russians and people of
Kamtschatka. They indeed apply it to very different uses; the former distil their
brandy :}: from it; the latter dry it to eat in winter.
Dodonaeus § relates, that the inhabitants of Poland and Lithuania make a
kind of liquor, which the poor people use as beer, from the fermented leaves
and seeds of the sphondylium.
• Erythronium. Linnaei Hort. ClifF. p. 1 19. Flor. Sibiric. torn. i. p. 39. — Orig.
+ Heracleum foliolis pimiatifidis. Lin. Hort. ClifF. p. 103. Flor. Sibir. torn. i. p. 213. Sphon-
dylium. Rivin. tab. iv. — Orig.
J Spiritum ardentem. — Orig.
§ Dodon. Stirp. Histor. p. 304.— Orig.
VOL. XLVIII.^ PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 355
When Steller, whom Ginelin always mentions with esteem, was at Tobolski in
the year 1738, he was intbrmed, that 2 years before they were afflicted there with
pestilential carbuncles, which were so contagious as to seize those who approached
the person affected. The disease first began in horses and oxen, and afterwards
seized the human species. A red spot first was perceptible under the armpits,
or in the thigh, attended with great itching; and in a few hours grew to a very
large tumour, joined with a burning heat of the part affected; these symptoms
were attended with a very acute fever, entire loss of strength, violent pains in
the head, and redness of the eyes. An old country practitioner, famous in these
parts for his judgment, cured persons labouring under this severe disease in a
short time. He used first to the carbuncle the powder of an herb,* of which
is given a complete history and figure in this work, made into a thin poultice
with dregs -^ of beer; this poultice, gently warmed, was applied to the part af-
fected, and the patient confined to his bed, who was at liberty to take whatever
nourishment he liked, except milk, brandy, or the flesh of pikes. During this
time the patient drank plentifully of a decoction of this herb, collected during
the time of its flowering; though the powder, applied as above, was prepaied
from the leaves, before the flower-stalk was produced. The carbuncle, fVom this
treatment, generally broke in 24 hours, and the symptoms greatly abated. The
wound was sprinkled with sal ammoniac, and healed in a short time. This
disease affected the cattle in different manners; some suddenly set a running with
all their swiftness possible, and continued to do so till they dropped down dead; in
others, carbuncles arose, which were dressed by the practitioner before-mentioned
with the poultice above-described, mixing a large quantity of the herb with their
food: and by this method great numbers were cured. A plant so well recom-
mended, and which will grow in our own country, deserves to be better krtown
to us.
Throughout the whole work the author has shown a complete knowledge of
the botanic science, among the first professors of which he is deservedly placed.
XXIl. On a Mistake of Professor Gmelin, concerning the Sphondylium f-^u/gare
Hirsutum of Caspar Bauhin. By Mr. Philip Miller, F. R. H. p. 153.
Mr. Miller here remarks that in the abstract of the Flora Sibirica, which Mr.
Watson laid before the Royal Society, it was mentioned, that the inhabitants of
• Centaorea squamis ovatis, foliis pinnatis, foliolis decurrentibus, linearibus, scrratis et iiitegrii.'
Flor. Sibir. torn. ii. p. 89, tab. 41. y^
Cyanus floridus odoiatus Turcicus, seu orieiitalis major, flore luteo. Hort. Lugd. B.if. p. 211.--J
Orig.
f Faece cerevisiae; though I am inclined to think yeast is intended, which is usually written floi'
cerevisiae, or fermentum cerevisiae. — Orig. 1
35(5 , PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
Siberia ate the stalks of the sphondylium hirsutum C. B. P. But Mr. Miller
had great reason to believe that Gmelin mistook the species; for he describes
that plant as growing upwards of 6 feet high ; whereas the common sort seldom
rises much above half that height. Therefore probably the plant mentioned by
Gmelin was that species, which Breyn mentions in his 2d Prodromus, under the
title of sphondylium maximum Transilvanicum Ricini folio, the seeds of which
Mr. Miller brought from Dr. Boerhaave's garden in the year J 727, where it was
gi-owing near the common sort of Caspar Bauhin, and in the same soil and situa-
tion was more than twice the height; and the same difference has continued in
the growth of both these plants since, in the Chelsea garden; where the large
sort constantly rises to a stem, at least a month sooner in the spring than the
common sort, and the leaves are much larger, less divided, and not so hairy; so
that there can be no doubt of their being distinct species.
• The seeds of that species of Breyn Mr. M. had received from Siberia, by the
title of sphondylium vulgare, and Dr. Boerhaave told him, he had received the
seeds from Austria, Hungary, and Petersburg, by the same name ; so that it
is certainly the common sort in those countries. And it is very usual to find
many mistakes in the writers on botany ; which has happened from their suppos-
ing that the plants, which have been mentioned as common in one country, were
the same with those of the country where they inhabited. An instance of this
was the parietaria minor ocymi folio. C. B. which is the only species found wild
in England ; and so was by all the English botanists taken for the parietaria offi-
cinarum et Dioscoridis C, B. which are distinct species. And many "other in-
stances might be mentioned.
XXIII. Of an Eclipse mentioned by Zenophon. By the Rev. G. Costard, p. 155.
The doctrine of eclipses is of great use in history and chronology. The ear-
liest account of any in the Greek history is that said to have been foretold by
Thales to the lonians, which Mr. C. has already treated of. The next, gene-
rally taken notice of by writers, is that in the first year of the Peloponnesian
war mentioned by Thucydides. But there is another before, which Mr. C.
thinks equally remarkable, deserving some further consideration.
It is well known, that Herodotus and other writers make Cyrus to have de-
posed Astyages. On the contrary, Zenophon says, that Astyages was succeeded
by his son Cyaxares, who left the kingdom to Cyrus by will. The truth, Mr.
C. thinks, is, that Cyrus did not depose Astyages, and therefore so far Zenophon
is right ; but deposed Cyaxares, in which he was designedly wrong. That he
knew the Persians forced the empire from the Medes, appears from some no
very obscure hints even in the Cyropagdia itself. After some critical remarks on
the situation of certain places mentioned by ancient geographers, and astrono-
mical calculations of eclipses adapted to them, Mr. C. finds that the centre of
TOL. XLVIII.] fKILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 357
the shadow passed over Kerkisia, not improbably, the Carchemish of the prophet
Jeremiah, and a little to the north of Bagdad. It is not improbable therefore
that it crossed the Tigris not far from the place where, it seems by Xenophon's
account, Larissa was situated, and where consequently it would cause such a
darkness as might well be attended with the eftects he mentions.
This eclipse is, Mr. C. thinks, no inconsiderable acquisition to history and
chronology, and is at the same time a confirmation of the suspicion, that in
these very anc;;ent ones, there is some allowance or other to be made for the in-
fluence of some cause, whatever it may be, hitherto not fully determined. This
must be left for future observations. In the mean time however it may be of
service to the science of astronomy to examine all the past eclipses that can be
come at, and compare them with circumstances in the best manner we are able.
XXIV. A new Method of opening the Cornea, in order to Extract the Crystalline
Humour. By Mr. Samuel Sharp,* F. R. S. Surgeon to Guy's Hospital, p. l6l.
The operation of discharging the crystalline humour from the eye, for the
cure of that species of blindness called a cataract, was a k'w years since invented
by Mons. Daviel, who performed it on many jjatients with remarkable success.
Supposing it therefore admitted, that the extraction of the crystalline humour
has been found by experience to be a useful method of cure, Mr. S. here sub-
mits to the Society a new manner of making the incision of the cornea, by which
Mons. Daviel's operation may be very much shortened, the patient would suffer
less pain, and every skilful operator be equal to the undertaking.
Place the patient in the same situation as for couching, either opening the
eyelids with your fore finger and thumb, or letting an assistant raise the upper
eyelid, while you yourself keep down the under eyelid. Then, with a small
knife, holding its edge downwards, make a puncture through the cornea near its
circumference, into the anterior chamber of the eye, in such a direction, as to
carry it horizontally, and opposite to the transverse diameter of the pupil ; after
which you are to pass it towards the nose, through the cornea from within out-
wards, as near to its circumference as in the first puncture. When you have
made the second puncture, push the extremity of the blade one-seventh of an
inch beyond the surface of the cornea, and immediately cut the cornea down-
wards, drawing the knife towards you as you make the incision. After this, you
press gently with your thumb against the inferior part of the globe of the eye,
in order to expel the cataract, and the operation finishes, according to the dif-
ferent circumstances, as in the manner proposed by Mons. Daviel.
One extraordinary benefit seems to arise from the use of this single instrument,
• Author of 2 publications much esteemed, viz. one On the Operations of Surgery 1743, aud
another entitled Critical Inquiry into the present Slate of Surgery, 1750. .
358 FHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1753.
and perhaps from the shape of its blade, which increases in breadth all the way
towards the handle ; for, by this means, the punctures are so exactly filled up by
the blade, that very little of the aqueous humour is discharged before you begin
to make the incision, and consequently during this time, the cornea preserves its
convexity; whereas by using one instrument to puncture, and others to dilate,
the cornea immediately becomes flaccid on the issue of the aqueous humour,
and renders the operation tedious and embarrassing, as he himself had found by
experience in one patient, on whom he had performed the incision of the cornea
with a pair of scissars, as recommended by Mons. Daviel.
XXV. Experiments on Fish and Flesh preserved in Lime-waler. By Francis
Hume, M.D. p. l63.
With a design to find out how long he could keep fish and flesh fit to eat in
lime-water. Dr. H. put two haddocks, and a pound of beef, in different pots
full of lime-water, and corked them well, setting them in a cellar 18 days. He
then took out one of the fish; it was sweet, sound, and firm. He boiled one
part of it, and he broiled the other; it eat well, and had not the least taste of
lime-water; but was not quite so firm as a fresh fish. But when he opened the
beef-jx)t, to his great surprise, it stunk abominably. He poured the lime-water
from both pots, and put in fresh lime-water. This stood 4 weeks longer; the
remaining fish was quite fresh, and a little swelled, but when boiled, it dissolved
to a jelly. The flesh was very putrid.
Thus lime-water appears to presei-ve fish, but not flesh.
Dr. Alston's experiment was made with fish, and Dr. Pringle's with flesh;
which made the former say, that lime-water withstood corruption strongly; and
that the latter did it but weakly, if at all.
Dr. H. afterwards repeated the experiment more fully, and with the same suc-
cess. On the !26th of March, he put a haddock into a pot of common water.
He did the same to a piece of beef: the water was changed every day. At the
same time he put a haddock into a pot of lime-water, and did the same with a
piece of beef; at the same time he hung a fish and a bit of flesh in the air. On
the 2d of April the fish and flesh in the air were a little corrupted and dried;
the flesh and fish in common water smelt strong; the fish in the lime-water was
sweet, and the lime-water good, and are so at present, April 0; but the flesh
smelt rather worse than that in common water changed every day, and the cor-
ruption had quite overpowered the smell of the lime-water.
XXVL A Letter from Mr. James Short, F. R. S. to the Earl of Macclesfield,
P. R. S. concerning a Paper of the late Servington Savery, Esq. relating to
his Invention of a New Micrometer. Dated May JO, 1753. p. l65.
It is now above a year, Mr. Short says, since he received a letter from
TOL. XLVIII.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 35g
the Rev. F. Pezenas, professor of hydrography to the French king at Marseilles,
in which he informed him, that M. Bouguer had read, before the Royal Aca-
demy of Sciences at Paris, in the year 1 748, a memoir, in which he describes
an heliometcr; which is an instrument consisting of 2 objective glasses, for
measuring the diameters of the planets. He said also, that this memoir was ac-
tuall\ in the hands of M. de Fouchy, perpetual secretary of the Academy, or at
the Ro) al Printing-house ; and that it was registered in the minutes of the Aca-
demy for the year 1748.
Immediately after reading this letter, Mr. S. recollected to have heard a paper
on the same subject, from the late Servington Savery, of Exeter, Esq. read be-
fore the Royal Society, about the year 1743. He therefore had recourse to the
minute book, of the Society for that year, where he found the following minute,
which he copied in the presence of Lord Charles Cavendish, then vice-president.
" A paper communicated from Mr. Savery at Exon, containing a new method
for measuring the difference between the apogeal and perigeal diameters of the
sun was shown ; and thanks being ordered. Dr. Bradley was desir^ to oblige the
Society with an account of its contents. — Oct. 27, 1743."
On application to Dr. Bradley, he sent the original paper to Mr. Short; on
the back of which was a memorandum in the hand-writing of the late president,
Martin Folkes, Esq. as a further proof of its authenticity, which runs in these
words,
" Delivered to me by Mr. Graham, sealed up by the author, and then broke
open in his presence 5 26th Oct. 1743. M. Folkes."
Mr. Savery's original paper was as follows:
A new Way of Measuring the Difference between the Apparent Diametei- of the
Sun at the Times of the Earth's Perihelion and Aphelion, or when the Sun is
nearer to or farther from the Earth, tvith a Micrometer placed in a Telescope
Invented for that Purpose; though the Charge or Magnifying Power of the
Telescope is so great, that the whole Suns Diameter does not appear in it at
one Fiew. By Servington Savery, of Exeter, Esq. Read Oct. 27, 1743.
p. 167.
Though this may appear impossible, yet Mr. S. has contrived some dioptric
telescopes, and a reflecting one; either of which, by representing the object
double, will, if well made, answer the design.
Fig. 1, pi. 10, represents the whole body of the sun, as it ap{)ears double,
and magnified in the telescope. Let an be the diameter of the one, and rx of
the other image of the sun in perig£BO; so shall nr be the distance between the
two images at that time; which measured with the micrometer is equal to, sup-
pose, 10 seconds. Let bm be the diameter of the one solar image, and sw of
SflCH PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
the other, when in apogaeo; so shall ms be the then distance of the solar images,
measuring with the micrometer, suppose, \' 10. The difference of these two
observations, 1 minute, is the apparent diminution of the sun's diameter.
The little circle, whose diameter is dt, is the whole area visible at once in the
telescope, which is not a 3d part of the magnified diameter of the sun; but
since both nr at one time, and ms at another time, are visible within the teles-
cope's area, if good instruments are procured, Mr. S. sees no difficulty in per-
forming what he has proposed above, more accurately than it has ever yet been
done, except this one (which some time since Mr. Graham mentioned in a letter
to him) viz. that of defining the sun's disk, truly; and Mr. S. thinks, to do that
to good perfection, is beyond human art. A telescope for this use may be made
to magnify the sun's diameter to any degree whatever, not exceeding such degree
as will make any part of the line ms fall without the area of the telescope: and
he thinks it will be very difficult to make one with a charge so great, as not to
have more than a geometrical minute of the sun's apparent diameter visible
at once. v
Since the sun is an object so very remote, the pencil of rays flowing from the
centre of its disk, and incident all over an object-lens, though it should be a
foot broad, would not differ sensibly from a perfect cylinder within the distance
of above 100 miles from its basis at the lens; though in reality the whole pencil
is an acute cone, whose angle at the vertex is almost evanescent. Hence it fol-
lows, that if the two poles of two equal object-glasses are placed at the distance,
suppose, of a foot from each other, the two centres c, v, of the two solar images
must, as to sense, remain always at that very same distance, viz. 1 foot from
each other, though the sun should be placed 10 times as far off as it now is;
but since the sun's greater distance would diminish the diameters of both of the
solar images; mn, added to rs, must be the true difference of the apparent dia-
meters of the images, and also of the sun, at different times.
According to Mr. Azout, Harris's Lexic. Techn. vol. i, see sun, the apparent
diameter of the sun never exceeds 32' 45 "; hence its radius never exceeds l6'
12" 30'"; the tangent of which is about 476328, to the radius 100,000,000.
Then, as the said tangent : to the said radius :: so half an inch : to 104. 96 inches,
and decimal parts. According to this, if the focal length of a lens be IO4.96
inches and parts, it cannot collect the sun's rays to a less focus at the time of
his perigee, than 1 inch in diameter, or half an inch radius.
In fig. 2, the whole circle represents a well centred object-lens, whose focal
length is, as above calculated, 104. 96 inches and parts, or rather a little less,
that the two images may be sure not to touch each other. Let the two dia-
meters dm, qf, divide it into 4 quadrants, but the diameter qf must be occult, or
delible. Let cw be half an inch, and cv equal to it. Through v, and also
▼OL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 301
through w, let a chord line be drawn parallel to the diameter dm, viz. bg, hp.
Through the said chord lines bg and hp, and also through the diameter dm,
divide the lens into 4 parts.
Fig. 3, Let the straight edge of the frustum bvgq, in the preceding figure, be
cemented fast to that of the similar frustum hwpf of the same lens, as they ap-
pear in this fig. 3. Having then with barm fastened a white paper all over both
sides of the lens, he made for trial (which he did, not only to secure the ce-
mented joint from breaking, but to prevent the injury which the polish might
receive in cutting and grinding the edges) he described a circle qmnf on the
centre c. fit for the tube he had to put in it: and having made it round, and
washed it clean, after the edges were ground true, that nothing sandy might
hurt the polish, he soaked it in clean water, till he could easily take off the
paper. This model, made of a spectacle glass about 1 2 or 1 3 inches focus, gave
him encouragement to try the following one, which he thought better.
Fig. 4, Mr. S. made his second model of the 2 middle frustums mcdhwp,
mcdbvg, of the lens in fig. 2, by cementing their edges, hwp, bvg, together, as
they are placed in the present fig. 4, so the pole c of each part must consequently
be half an inch, supposing its focal length is about 104 inches, from the middle
where c stood in fig. 2, viz. the pole of one frustum where v, and of the other
where w now stands. He left open at each pole a semicircular aperture rwq, svt,
about ^ of an inch diameter, and covered all the rest of the circle axlkzo, to
which he had cut it fit for the tube. The focus of the lens he made it of, was
about 3 feet.
Note, The rays of red light in the two solar images will be next to each other
in both these models, which, he thinks, will render the sun's disk more easy to
be observed than the violet ones. This he mentions, because the glasses in these
two sorts are somewhat prismatical, but mostly those of the first model, which
could therefore bear no great charge. Also the frustum on the right hand of the
first model renders the solar image at the focus on the left, and that on the left
hand renders it on the right; but it is not so with the second model, or with the
next contrivance, which is the best, if well made.
Fig. 5, In this, the greatest difficulty consists in getting two well-centred ob-
ject-glasses, whose focal lengths are equal; for it is necessary they should be so,
because they are to be combined with the same convex eye- lens, common to
them, at the same distance, ab is the diameter of a plain brass plate, which
may be 2-i inches broad, or somewhat less; two short equal cylindric brass tubes
mn, rs, must be fastened on it, with their centre pc, equidistant from the centre
1 of the plate, and distant 1 inch from each other in the diameter ab, as the
figure shows. In the tubes must be put two equal object-glasses of the focal
length of 104-rV inches, or rather somewhat less, as aforesaid. Through the
VOL. X. 3 A
a62 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1753.
plate there must he made, in the middle of each tube, a round aperture, viz.
hg, \vx, whose diameters must be proportioned to the focal length of the eye-lens,
and not exceed the third part of it, lest the object appear confused.
And since it is scarcely possible to centre an object-lens to very good perfec-
tion, those in the two cylinders, may happen to render the two solar images at
too great a distance from, or too near to each other. But this fault, if not too
great, may be remedied, by turning one or both of the lenses a little way round;
and then their eccentric poles will by that means be brought nearer to, or farther
from each other; and when they are oncp well placed, there should be a mark
made in each lens, and its cylinder; that if it is taken out to be wiped, it may
be put in again the same way. There should also be a different mark in one of
the glasses, that each may know its own cylinder. They must both of them be
very close all round to their respective cylinders; otherwise one lens may slide
nearer to or farther from the other; which if it should in the least degree, be-
tween the first and second observation, all the labour would be lost. Either of
these three parts of double lenses may be combined with a convex eye-lens as
usual, and have a micrometer placed at the common focus.
Such a double lens, of either sort, may be proved whether it is well composed
or not, without the trouble of combining it with its eye lens, bv holding it in
the sun's rays, as one would a burning glass, and applying a piece of white paper
' at its focus, where, he apprehends, the two solar images will appear as distinct
as when an eye-lens is applied, though not so large; and each of them 1 inch
broad, if the focal length be as above, i. e. almost 104-,25^ inches. After the
same manner may the double object-mirror of a reflecting telescope for this use
be proved.
In fig. 6, the circle bdhpmg is the circumference of a concave mirror made of
black glass: it must be very thick, that it may not spring or bend with any thing
that presses on it to keep it fast, for that may injure its concavity. The circle
within it, on the same centre c, shows that its concavity must not be continued
quite home to the very edge of the mirror, but the little space between the two
circles must be ground very true on a plain. The pricked lines must not be
drawn; they are only to indicate where the poles vw of the two frustums must
be brought, after the mirror is diametrically bisected. 'Let the concave side be
defended, by pasting a paper all over it, and then let it be divided with a saw in
the diameter dcm ; taking care that the said diameter be in the middle of the
kerf, which may be as broad as the space between the lines ao, eq. Let the
asperities of the edges of both frustums be ground off, that they may be very
straight after being sawed.
Fig. 7j represents a thick round plate of brass, very plain, and equally thick
all over, having lines drawn on it, as on fig. 2, also one line on each side of the
VOL. XLVIII,] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 363
diameter dm, equidistant from, and parallel to it. The distance of these two
lines ao, eq, from each other equal to the kerf of the saw, which divided the
mirror. The diameter of this plate must be equal to that of the mirror before
it was divided.
On the under side of the plate must be two pins fastened t, t, their diameters
equal to the kerf of the saw, that they may keep the two frustums of the mirror
at the same distance from each other that they were before their division ; so
shall their circular edges be extended as far as the circumference of the plate,
and their straight edges touch the said pins in the lines ao, eq.
The end of the tube must be turned on the inside exactly to fit the plate and
mirror, that they may not slide any way, for that would spoil the observations.
In the diameter of the plate rs, on the points v, w, distant half an inch from
c, the centre of the plate, and a whole inch from each other, let a circle, for
the aperture of each frustum, of a proper size, according to the intended charge
of the telescope, be described, and cut out. Also in the said diameter, equidis-
tant from the centre c, viz. at x and z, let there be a screw for each frustum,
to elevate it a little from the plate, as shall be needful. Let there be a spring
contrived to press on the hack of the one frustum ora, against the point v, being
the middle between the edge ao, and the screw x, to keep the frustum close to
the plate at the points a, o, and also close to the screw x, when it is screwed in.
Let the like be also done on the back of the other frustum esq.
Then, 1 , before the two screws are put in at x, z, the two frustums of the
mirror will lie plain on the plate of brass, and have one pole at c common to
them, and consequently will collect all rays which, during their incidence, are
parallel to the axis of the tube, to one common focus in the said axis of the tube,
just as they would have done before the mirror was divided. 2. But when the
two screws xz are put in their places, and screwed a little way through the brass
plate, they will lift the two frustums free from the plate at their circular edges,
viz. at r and s, while their straight edges ao, eq, are kept to touch the plate
with both their ends (not in the middle, by reason of the mirror's concavity) by
the pressure of the springs, as mentioned above. By this means the pole c of
the frustum ora, will be removed from c towards r, and likewise the pole c of
the other frustum esq be removed from c towards s, more or less according to
the quantity of the elevation of each frustum, by the screw that raises it; so
that now there will appear at the focus two solar images; whereas there was but
one, before the screws were put in.
By moving the screws, the two solar images may be brought to any distance
from each other; but care must be taken not to raise one frustum more than
the other, and the two solar images nuist almost touch one another at the time
of the perigee ; otherwise it must be better adjusted. .,
3 A ii
364 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
This telescope may be finished with a small elliptical specillum of black glass,
ground plain on its reflecting surface, and a convex eye-lens, like that described
by J. Hadley, Esq. p. r. s. in Phil. Trans. N° 376. A micrometer may be con-
trived for it at the common focus, near the eye-lens.
Such a double-object speculum would be capable of a vast improvement, by
combining it with a concave specillum, ^vhich would reflect the images through a
hole in the centre c of the said speculum to fall on a convex eye-lens, after the
manner of our new sort of reflecting telescopes, were it not for the difficulty of
adapting such a micrometer to it as would exactly measure minutes and seconds ;
for the eye-glasses of such having usually a pretty large focal length, would bear
much larger divisions on a micrometer, than Mr. Hadley's with a small eye-
glass can do, though their charges should be equal, or that of the former did
exceed.
Finding that large object-glasses for telescopes are not commonly well cen-
tered, with their poles in the very middle of them, gives the following a rule for
centering optic-glasses ; which may be very ready for a glass-grinder's use, and
soon try whether a convex lens is well centered.
Fig. 8, represents a round plate of brass, conveniently thick, and well har-
dened by hammering, having many notches round it, one a little wider than
that which is next to it, and numbered 1, 2, 3, &c. in their proper order, each
of them wider at the bottom than at the entrance. He fitted such a notch to
the thickest side of one of the glasses he had received from London, so as the
edge entered it but a little way, not half its depth ; but, on trying the opposite
side, it went in, the whole depth, and would have gone deeper, if the notch
had been so cut : he then ground the lens narrower on that side which was
thinnest, till he found it was at that place as thick as where he first tried it in
the notch. After this manner he reduced the glass to an equal thickness on its
4 quarters, and then ground off from other places what was needful to bring it
circular. He also took care, when he tried it in the notch, that the lens should
not be warmer on the one side than on the other by grinding, but stopped till it
was thoroughly cold ; and was also careful not to thrust it in harder on the one
side than on the opposite side ; for he could plainly observe a diflerence after-
ward, if he neglected to mind both these circumstances, or indeed either of them.*
XXVII. Of a Contrivance for Measuring Small Angles. By Mr. John Dol-
lond. p. 178.
Let an object-glass, of any convenient focal length (being truly ground and
* Dr. Smith, in his Complete System of Optics, published in 1738, has described a very accurate
and ready method of centering object-glasses, which was always used by the late Mr. George Graham,
from whom the Doctor had it. — Orig.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 365
well centered) be divided into 2 equal parts or segments, by cutting it straight
through the centre ; and let a piece of machinery be so contrived, as to hold
these two segments in the same position to each other, as they stood in before
they were cut asunder ; and to be capable at the same time of drawing them to
different distances from that position, in the manner as represented in fig.
7, pi. 8.
Each of those segments will form a distinct image of any object, to which
they are directed ; differing in nothing from that which might have been made
by the whole glass before it was cut, except in brightness. And while these
segments are held in their original position, the images will coincide, and be-
come one single image as at first ; but in proportion as they are drawn off from
that situation, the images will separate more or less, according to the distance
they are drawn to. By this means the images of two different objects, or of
different parts of the same object, not very far from each other, may be brought
to a contact or coincidence at the focus : and this coincidence may be viewed to a
very great nicety with a proper eye-glass.
The measure of the angle subtended by the two objects, whose images are
thus brought to a coincidence, depends on 3 things; 1st, a careful observation
of the coincidence of the images : 2dly, an exact measure of the distance, which
the glasses are drawn out to, from that situation which makes the image single :
and lastly, a true knowledge of the focal distance of the glass. How the angle is
to be found from these measures, and how it may likewise be come at, by view-
ing two land-objects at a convenient distance, will be shown hereafter in the ex-
planation of the figure. It is easy to understand, in the mean time, that the
angle will be measured with more accuracy, in proportion to the length of the
glass which is used for that purpose ; but the difficulty of managing long teles-
copes is no less apparent. Therefore the most practicable method of using this
micrometer to advantage, is to apply the divided object-glass to the object-encj of
a reflecting telescope : for, as the apertures of this sort of telescopes are large
in proportion to their lengths, they will admit of very long glasses ; nor will the
measures be any way afiected by the metals or glasses, which the reflector is
composed of: and the angles will be found in the same manner, as though the
images were viewed with a single eye-glass, in the manner of a common re-
fracting astronomical telescope ; but with this advantage, that as the images will
be exhibited larger and distincter by the reflecting telescope ; and as every part
of it will be much more manageable than a long refracting telescope ; so the
contact or coincidence of the images will be more accurately observed.
Explanation of the Figure.
The two semicircles represent the two segments of the object-glass, whose
366 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
centres c and d are drawn off to the distance c d, and the points a and b are two
objects, or different parts of the same object ; therefore the lines a c g and b d g
represent two rays that pass through the centres or poles of the segments, and
are therefore not at all refracted, but go straight through to g, where they in-
tersect ; and g being the respective focus to the distance of the objects from the
glass, the two images will coincide at that point. It appears from the figure,
that ab: cd:: gh: ge; and from a common proportion in optics, g h : g e : :
he: e f. Therefore ab: Cd:: he: ef; f being the focus of parallel rays ;
and consequently the angles a e b and c f d are equal. That is, the angle sub-
tended by the distance of the centres of the segments from the distance of the
focus of parallel rays, is equal to the angle subtended by the distance between
the objects a and b from the end of the telescope.
XXVIIl. On the Copper Springs in IVichlow in Ireland. By John Bond,
M. Z). p. 181.
A spring of water flows from a rich copper mine, and is of a sharp acid taste,
and light-blue colour. It is received and collected in pits, where iron bars are
placed, which, after lying in the water about 3 months, are entirely consumed,
and at the bottom of the pits, a quantity of copper, greater than that of the iron
is found, in the form of coarse sand. This fact is confirmed by profitable expe-
riments, often repeated since the discovery, the honour of which is due to Mr.
Matthew Johnston, a worthy old gentleman, and one of the proprietors of the
mine, who first proposed this method of collecting the copper.
Experiment 1. Into some of this water, taken out of the stream above the
pits where the iron bars are placed, he poured a solution of an alkaline salt,
which raised a strong effervescence, and precipitated a large quantity of a dark-
brown substance. Which showed that the water contained a strong acid, with a
solution of the substance precipitated.
Exp. 1. He put some aqua-fortis, or spirit of nitre, into water taken out of
the same place ; and observed, that the strong acid immediately destroyed the
blue colour. Whence he concluded that the substance, which was precipitated
by the alkali in the first experiment, was so perfectly dissolved by the acid spirit
in the 2d, as to transmit all the rays of light.
Exp. 3. Some small iron nails put into this water, were in 4 minutes so
closely covered with some substance of a copper colour, that, with a magnifier
of \ inch focus, he could not discern the iron through it. In that time the nails
gained 4 grs. The water had the same effect on silver and tin, but not on
gold. The colour and increase of weight were owing to the adhesion of the
particles of the matter dissolved in the \\ater by an acid, that could not pene-
trate gold.
VOL. XLVUI.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 36;
Exp. 4. In order to determine the quantity and quality of the matter in the
water, he put 2 drs. of small iron nails into 3 oz. of it, and let them stand 24
hours ; then examined, and found the surface of the water covered with a thick
scum, like that of a chalybeate spa. It lost the blue colour, and sharp vi-
triolic taste. It was quite transparent, and at the bottom there was a quantity
of a brown ponderous powder, whif;h, when dried, weighed 14 grs. This pow-
der melted without any flux, produced 1 2 grs. of pure copper. The nails lost
8 grs. in the water, and were, in several places, covered with a solid lamina of
pure copper. The water, in which the nails lay, after being filtrated and evapo-
rated, afforded a green vitriol, which in every respect resembled sal martis, and
produced the same effects, when dissolved, and mixed with any astringent
tincture.
Exp. 5. From the spring water treated in the same manner, he obtained a
blue vitriol, the basis of which is copper.
From all these experiments he infers, that a mineral acid is the active quality
in this water ; which being diffused through the copper ore, unites itself with
that metal, and forms a vitriol, which is dissolved by the water, and remains
suspended in it, till it meets with iron in the pits, by which this acid is more
strongly attracted than by the copper, therefore it quits the copper, corrodes
the iron, and changes it into a vitriol, which is again dissolved, and carried off
in the stream continually flowing from the pits ; while the copper, deserted by
the acid, falls, by its specific gravity, to the bottom of the pits.
By this account it is evident, that this admirable process is a simple precipi-
tation of the copper, by means of the iron. Hence it has been improperly
called a transmutation of iron into copper. But, lest any difficulty should still
remain, concerning the consumption of the large quantities of iron put into the
pits, he adds the following observations, to show that it is dissolved and carried
off in the water.
Observation 1 . The water in the pits are covered with a thick scum, occa-
sioned by the air bubbles constantly rising, and bursting on the surface ; which
is an evident sign of the solution of the iron. — Obs. 2. The iron is gradually
consumed in the pits, and abounds with irregular depressions, like old iron : a
strong symptom of its being corroded by an acid. — Obs. 3. The channel of the
stream running from the pits is furred with red ochre, which, after being roasted
in a strong fire, was attracted by the magnet. As this ochre is only found in
the stream below the pits, it appears to be part of the iron dissolved in the
water. — Obs. 4. The quantity of copper found in the pits, after the iron dis-
appears, is generally greater than that of the ii*on when first put in : for the
proprietors assured him, that sometimes a ton of iron will produce, or rather
precipitate, a ton and half of copper. This fact alone would be sufficient to
368 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, [aNNO 1753.
prove, that the iron is not converted into copper ; since, according to Sir Isaac
Newton's table, the specific gravity of copper is to that of iron as 9000 to
7645.
When he was at this spring in August last, it ran at the rate of 12 oz. every
second ; and by putting iron into the water of the stream running from the pits,
he found, that every ounce contained 3 grs. of copper. Hence by calculation it
appears, that 129600 grains of copper are carried off every minute, and conse-
quently 1241001b. Troy weight in a year; supposing the quantity and quality
of the water to continue the same. Hence we may easily account for the death
of the fish, and other phenomena in the river, which receives this vitriolic
stream.
In a hot sunny day, when the water is exhaled, the heaps of mould, raised out of the
ore-pits, are covered with a vitriolic efflorescence : hence, in rainy weather, the
water appears like a strong solution of verdigrise. Whoever is desirous to imitate
the process carried on in these pits, may readily gratify his curiosity, by putting
pieces of iron into strong solution of vitriol. It is a common experiment, to
tinge polished iron by rubbing it with Roman vitriol ; which depends on the
cause before-mentioned ; viz. the acid in the vitriol penetrates the iron, and
leaves the copper on the surface. This experiment is also taken notice of by
that excellent chemist, and celebrated philosopher, Mr. Boyle, who calls it a
sympathetic precipitation, in his Essay on specific Medicines.
As soon as the attraction between the copper and the acid ceases, the mutual
attraction between the minute particles of the metal prevails, so as to form large
solid masses at the bottom of the pits, -^ of which are pure copper. These so-
lid masses are partly occasioned by the pressure of the incumbent heap of granu-
lated copper, constantly increasing. Hence we see, that the art of essaying, or
separating metals from their ores, chiefly consists in evaporating an acid, which
prevents the mutual attraction of the metallic particles : for when the acid is
driven off by the violence of fire, the particles fall into their proper sphere of
attraction, and assume a solid form. From what has been offered on the theory
of this admirable process, several practical hints may be taken to render such
springs more profitable ; and perhaps an easier method may be discovered of se-
parating copper from its ore, by precipitation, than by calcination.
This spring perhaps is as remarkable for its medicinal as its metallic qualities.
Though physicians generally reckon copper, taken internally, poisonous, yet the
miners and other people drink this .water frequently, without any ill conse-
quences. It purges and vomits severely, and is become their specific in several
diseases, particularly in cutaneous eruptions, arising either from an alkaline
acrimony in the blood, which stimulates the sensible extremities of the cuta-
neous arteries, and occasions a pustule, or from the irritation of insects lodged
VOL. XLVIII.] PHItOSOl'HICAL TRANSACTIONS. SSQ
in the skin ; both which causes may be removed by the strong acid in this water.
It is an excellent detergent for scorbutic ulcers, as Hoffman justly observes. It
has already performed several remarkable cures of this kind. Dr. B. had often
recommended it in such cases with success, joined with proper internal medi-
cines. How far the success of practice in the miners, who drink it frequently,
might be depended on, longer experience must determine. Certainly, a great
allowance must be made for the strength of their constitutions, and the insensi-
bility of their nerves, constantly exposed to the noxious steams of damp pits.
He never ventared to prescribe it internally : and as the materia medica affords
vomits and purges of a more innocent kind, he thought it in that respect unne-
cessary. He had reason to imagine, from the effects which this water had on
some earth-worms, that it was a very powerful anthelminthic, if cautiously
given.
Some fresh filings of iron, put in this water, soon precipitated all the copper,
and made it a strong and agreeable chalybeate. Hence it might be used as a sub-
stitute for spa-water, the virtue of which depends on the iron. Some prepared
filings of iron remained 8 days in this water ; without producing the least alter-
ation. Hence it appeared, that this medicine could have but a weak effect, if
any at all, in absorbing acids in the first passages.
XXIX. On Mr. Gascoigne's Invention of the Micrometer. By Doctor
Bevi.1, p. igo.
Though Mr. Townley, in his paper printed in the Philos. Trans. N" 25, p.
457, has sufficiently made it appear that the invention of the micrometer w<ls
Mr. Gascoigne's, and that he applied it to measuring small angles in the heavens,
and for settling the moon's parallax, long before Messieurs Auzout and Picard
thought of any such matters ; yet are the French astronomers apt to ascribe it to
their countrymen, without so much as once mentioning the name of Mr. Gas-
coigne. No sooner had the late Dr. Derham restored the application of teles-
copic sights to quadrants to its true author Mr. Gascoigne, than M. de la Hire,
who never made the doctor any reply on that head, took occasion, in the me-
moirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1717, to ascribe this contrivance of
the micrometer to M. Auzout, in conjunction with M.' Picaixi ; alleging, for
proof, an extract of a letter, dated Dec. 28, 1 666, from M. Auzout to M. Ol-
denburg, and printed in the Phil. Trans. N° 21. Several others have since co-
pied M. de la Hire's assertion, and last of all, M. Bouguer, in the memoirs of
the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1748, lately publishetl, where he describes
an instrument which he calls a heliometer ; the contrivance of which seems in
every respect the same as that sent about 10 years ago to the Royal Society, by
Servington Savery, Esq.
VOL. X. . 3 3
•
370 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1753.
I have now, says Dr. B. before me the copy of a letter of Mr. Gascoigne to
Mr. Oughtred, which I made myself from the original, written in 1 640-1 ;
which original was in the possession of the late William Jones, Esq. f. e. s. and
is now in the library of the Earl of Macclesfield. It consists of several sheets of
paper, all about his invention for measuring small angles to seconds ; where he
not only gives the geometrical and optical principles of his contrivance, and the
construction of the instrument, but also a series of observations actually taken
V/itb it ; some of which I shall transcribe.
l04O, Aug. 5. Jupiter's diameter o' 51"
Mars's O 38
Dec. 24. Mars's O 25
Venus's O 25
1640, Aug. 25. Moon's semidiam h. 8 p. m. . 15 17
Sept. 19 15 U
Oct. 9 h. 8 p. m. . 16 36
10 16 36
27 h. 7 p. m. . 15 38
29 15 41
30 15 43
31 15 49
These may suffice to prove that Mr. Gascoigne's micrometer was not a thing
merely in embryo, but brought to a good degree of perfection above 40 years
before that of the French gentlemen was ever so much as mentioned.
XXX. Ohservations of the Transit of Mercury over the Sun, May 6, 1753.
By Mr. John Short, F. R. S. p. 192.
The instrument prepared for these observations was a reflecting telescope, of
2 feet focal length, of the Gregorian form, magnifying about 65 times, and so
constructed in its machinery as to move in a plane parallel to the horizon, and
also to move in a plane parallel to the equator. This telescope had 2 eye-pieces,
each a combination of 2 glasses, viz. one eye-piece for the horizontal motion,
with wires at right angles to each other, the wires being between the glasses,
and one of the wires placed parallel to the horizon, and consequently the other
was vertical ; the other eye-piece was also a combination of 2 glasses, and adapted
to a micrometer, the glasses being placed between the wires of the micrometer,
and the eye of the observer, and was to be used when the telescope moved in a
plane parallel to the equator.
Mr. Short's house in Surry-street, being so situated as not to see the sun at
rising, the Rev. Dr. Birch, was pleased to allow the use of the leads on his
house in Norfolk-street, from whence we should be enabled to see the sun soon
VOL. XLViri.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 371
after he rose. The doctor's leads were chosen, as being not far from Mr. Short's
clock, which was easily within call, in order to compare a second-watch with
the clock, at every observation.
About half an hour after 4 in the morning of the 6th of May, Dr. Bevis and
Mr. Short went to Dr. Birch's house, where a series of observations was taken
with the above reflecting telescope moving parallel to the horizon, and the eye-
piece with the wires at right angles ; Dr. Bevis observing, and Mr. Short writ-
ing down the times. These were observations of the passage of the limbs of the
sun and mercury, by the vertical and horizontal wires of the telescope.
About half an hour after 6, Dr. Bevis and Mr. Short went to Mr. Short's
house, the sun then shining into his windows, in order to be near the clock,
where observations were made in the same manner as before. Dr. Bevis observing,
and Mr. Short writing down the tftnes.
The telescope, which hitherto had moved parallel to the horizon, was now
altered, to move parallel to the equator, and the eye-piece with the micrometer
was applied, about half an hour after ^ o'clock, Mr. Short observing, and Dr.
Bevis writing down the times of observation.
Mr. Short observed the last internal contact of mercury with the sun, with \
4-foot focal length reflector, magnifying about 135 times, at lO*" 5' 7'' by the
clock, uncertain to 1 or Z" ; and the total egress at 10*' 7' 42" by the clock;
uncertain to 5 or 6', the air then undulating through thin clouds.
Dr. Bevis obscr\ed the last internal contact with a 2-foot focal length re-
flector, magnifying about 65 times, at 10*' 5', and the total egress at lO*" 7' 38",
by the clock.
Mr. Sisson, at Beaufort Buildings in the Strand, observed the total egress at
10*' 7' 43", by Mr. Short's clock, through a 5-foot refracting telescope.
Mr. Bird, at his house in York-buildings, observed the last internal contact
at 10'' 4' 57"; and the total egress at lO'' f 43", by Mr. Short's clock, through
a 9-inch focal length reflector.
Mr. Smeaton in Furnival's-Inn-Court, Holbom, observed the total egress at
10*' 8' 30", by Mr. Short's clock, through a 6-foot refracting telescope. — He
suspects his time some seconds too late, a cloud having just passed off the sun,
when he perceived Mercury was gone.
Mr. Canton, in Spital-square, observed the total egress at 10*' 8' 12", mean
time, through a reflecting telescope, 3-foot focal length.
M. Short's house in Surry street, is 26' of time west of the Royal Observatory
at Greenwich.
N. B. Mr. Short's clock, by which these observation* were made, was found
to be 28' slower than mean time.
' 3 b2
SJH PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
May 7, Sun's preceding limb passed the meridian at 1 1*" 54' 38''
Subsequent limb passed the meridian 11 56 514-
May 8, Sun's preceding limb passed the meridian at 11 54 34-i-
Subsequent limb passed the meridian at 11 56 47-t
and this clock, by repeated observations, was not found to have varied above 1*
since the 22d of February last to the day of observation.
In the observatory of the Earl of Macclesfield, at Shirburn Castle in Oxford-
shire, the total egress was observed at 1 0'' 8' 1 1 '', apparent time. Latitude of
Shirburn Castle is 5 1° SQ' 25", and its longitude is 4*" 0* of time, west of Green-
wich observatory.
XXXII. Account of a Treatise, inlitled, " Letters conceriiing Electricity ; in
" which the latest Discoveries on this Subject^ and the Consequences which may
be deduced from them, are examined; by the Abb d Nollet, Mem. oj the Royal
Acad, of Sciences of Paris, F. R. S. &c." Extracted and Translated from
the French, by Mr. William Watson, F. R. S. p. 201.
This treatise is the production of a great master on the subject of electricity :
he has already published two volumes expressly on it, besides several memoirs
among the works of the Royal Acad, of Sciences at Paris, as well as several
valuable papers to the r. s.
The discoveries made in the summer of the year 1752 will make it memo-
rable in the history of electricity. These have opened anew field to philoso--
phers, and have given them room to hope, that what they have learned before in
their museums, they may apply, with more propriety than they hitherto could
have done, in illustrating the nature and effects of thunder; a phenomenon
hitherto almost inaccessible to their inquiries. "
These considerations have induced our author to examine with care, what may
truly be concluded from the experiments proposed by Mr. Franklin of Philadel-
phia, and since carried into execution in France, and elsewhere, in regard to the
electricity of the clouds during a storm ; by weighing every circumstance, and
comparing the magnitude of the effects, with the more than apparent insuffici-
ency of the means, which have been employed to produce them. He thinks, he
sees clearly, that considering the electrization of pointed bodies as a proof of
lessening the matter of thunder, is abusing a real discovery to flatter ourselves
with a vain hope ; and it is chiefly to dissipate this error, if it yet subsists, that
determined our author to print, in the work before us, some reflexions, which
he had made at first only for himself, and a few persons, to whom he was de-
sirous of communicating his opinion.
Mr. Franklin's treatise on electricity contains many very curious experiments ;
but the deductions from them being different from those which the Abbe Nollet
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, 37*
has gnen on the same subjects, it might be imagined, if he were silent on this
head, that he had given up his former opinions. This has been one motive for
the present publication, which the author is desirous should be considered, less
as a criticism on Mr. Franklin's doctrine, than as a defence of his own.
In some parts of these letters, the author mentions an electricity, which is very
often, and perhaps always, in our atmosphere, when there is no appearance of
thunder. He sjjeaks of this, as if he only suspected it, and in a manner as if it
wanted confirmation. He was then unacquainted with some decisive experiments
made on this subject by le Monnier,* at St. Germain-en-laye, and which have
been just published. He now considers, .as a thing certain, that electricity is a
very common meteor, which may manifest itself, when the weather is most se-
rene ; and that thunder is, strictly speaking, only one of its modifications, which
renders it more sensible to us.
The Abbe Nollet's treatise contains Q letters; 6 of which are addressed to Mr.
Franklin, one to Mad'"- Ardinghelli, who, when only l6 years old, translated
Dr. Hales's treatise of Ha^mastatics into Italian, and added to it some very inge-
nious remarks ; one to Mr. Jallabert of Geneva, and one to Mr. Boze of Wit-
temberg : to these are added some experiments in electricity, made in support
of opinions, laid down in this work, in the presence of Messrs Bouguer, de
Montigny, de Courtivron, d'Alembert, and le Roi, who were appointed by the
Royal Academy of Sciences for that purpose.
In the first letter the author gives his correspondent Mad"'' Ardinghelli an
account of the discoveries in electricity in the year 1732 ; among which he takes
particular notice of the experiment made on May 10, at Marly-la-ville, in con-
sequence of Mr. Franklin's hypothesis ; when pointed non-electrics, supported
by electrics per se, gave manifest signs of electricity during a thunder storm.
This experiment, in the letters to Mr. Collinson, Mr. Franklin had proposed,
but, as far as may be judged, had not then carried into execution. The expe-
riment of Marly-la-ville was soon after verified by le Monnier at St. GJermain-
en-laye, who found further, first, that the like effects were produced, whether
the iron rods were pointed, or not ; and that it was indifferent, whether their
position was horizontal or not. Secondly, that thunder electrized not only iron,
but also wood, living bodies, and other electrizable substances. Thirdly, that
it was not absolutely necessary to place these botlies at the tops of buildings ;
but that it was sufficient for them to be placed about 4 feet from the ground in
an open situation, and at some distance from large buildings. Fourthly,
that bodies electrized in this manner, produced the like phenomena with those
electrized by glass after the usual manner. It was afterwards discovered, that
• In a memoir read to the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, Nov. 15, 1752. — Orig.
STvi PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
electrizable bodies, thus disposed in open air, were sometimes electrized under
thick clouds, but without thunder, lightning, or even without rain or hail.
The Abbe Nollet recommends, that these experiments should be made with
circumspection, as he has been informed by letters from Florence and Bologna,
that those who have made them there, have had their curiosity more than satis-
fied by the violent shocks, which they have sustained, in drawing off the sparks
from an iron bar electrized by thunder. One of these in particular says, that
once, as he was endeavouring to fasten a small chain, with a copper ball at one
of its extremities, to a great chain, which communicated with the bar at the
top of the building, in order to draw off the electrical sparks by means of the
oscillations of this ball, there came a flash of lightning, which he did not see,
but which affected the chain with a noise like wild-fire. At that instant, the
electricity communicated itself to the chain of the copper- ball, and gave the ob-
server so violent a commotion, that the ball fell out of his hands, and he Was
struck backwards 4 or 5 paces. He never had been so much shocked by the
Leyden experiment.
From the experiment at Marly-la-ville, and those which have been made since,
have been drawn 2 consequences : one, that the matter of thunder, and that of
electricity, are one and the same : the other, that by the means of pointed iron
rods, one might, without its doing any harm, draw off all the fulminating matter
from a stormy cloud. But our author has shown, that pointed bodies are not
absolutely necessary ; and is desirous we should not too hastily believe, that
mischiefs arising from thunder may be averted by the apparatus proposed. He
thinks the means vastly too small for the magnitude of the cause. This first
letter to Mr. Franklin is an introduction to the 5 subsequent ones.
The 2d letter treats of the nature of the electric matter. In this its analogy
with fire is considered and proved ; and the author takes notice that Mr. Franklin,
he imagines, who has certainly made some important discoveries in the pro-
perties of electricity, cannot but be dissatisfied with the editors of his woric, for
publishing, "' that he exhibited to our consideration an invisible subtil matter,
disseminated throughout all nature, &c. which had hitherto escaped our obser-
vations." The latter part of which assertion is not strictly true ; as the consi-
dering the matter of fire, and that of electricity, to be one and the same, is a
fundamental principle of what both the Abbe Nollet and Mr. W. formerly pub-
lished on this subject.
The 3d letter to Mr. Franklin contains several proofs, that glass is not im-
permeable to the electric matter. Some of which experiments on this subject
Mr. W. heretofore laid before the r. s. and they are in his opinion fully
conclusive.
The 4th letter to Mr. Franklin relates to several phenomena of tlie Leyden
V^OL. XLVm.] FHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, 37-5
experiment. In this letter it is examined, whether the effects of this experiment
proceetl from the glass phial, or trom the non-electrics contained in it ; and
experiments are pi-oduced to prove, that the power of giving a shock in an elec-
trized phial of water, proceeds from the water in the phial, and not from the
phial itself, as Mr. Franklin imagines. In this letter likewise is an examination
of Mr. Franklin's opinion, that in the charged phial, as much fire as is received
by one of its surfaces is lost by the other.,n(f{ ai)
The 5th letter to Mr. Franklin is in respect to the power of pointed non-
electric bodies drawing off and throwing off electrical fire, at a much greater
distance than obtuse bodies do of the same kind. Our author thinks, that Mr.
Franklin has attributed more power to pointed bodies, than on experiment he
finds to be true.
The 6th letter to Mr. Franklin is on the analogy of thunder with electricity. .
This is a fact at present so well established, as to admit of no doubt. But our
author cannot agree with Mr. Franklin in his opinion, " that thunder is at pre-
sent in the power of men, and that we are able to dissipate it at our pleasure :
that an iron rot! (such a one as Mr. Franklin has directed, and such a one as
has been made use of) is sufficient to discharge of all its fire a stormy cloud
against which it is directed," For his part he confesses, that he cannot believe,
it ; first, because he sees too great a disproportion between the effect and the;
cause : secondly, because the principle, which is given us to support this opinion,,
is not sufficiently established. He can hardly think, that the fulminating matter
contained in a cloud, capable of covering a great city, can be drawn off in a few
minutes by a pointed bar, as thick as your finger. If even a number of these
placed on the tops of eminencies were only necessary to prevent the effects of
thunder, would not the vanes and crosses at the tops of our steeples have been,
sufficient to procure us this advantage ? These buildings however, in all timesy
have not been exempted from the mischiefs of thunder. He despairs of our weak
efforts ever being able to disarm the heavens.
In this letter are also considered the validity of Mr. Franklin's hypothesis o£
electric and non-electric clouds ; the former arising from the sea, the latter from.'
the land ; their operation approaching near each other ; the difference, according
to Mr. Franklin, between electrical and common fire ; and several other parts of
Mr. Franklin's doctrine.
The 8th letter is addressed to M. Jallabert of Geneva ; and, among other
curious particulars, inserts part of a letter, which our author had received from
Mr. Jallabert, giving an account of an experiment, which Mr. Jallabert had
some time since made at the water-works at Gtcncva. An account of this ex-
periment was communicated by Mr. W. to the Society ; and it has a near rela-
tion to the experiment which was made here in electrizing the river Thames (J
376 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753,
years ago. Mr. Jallabert consults the Abbe Nollet in regard to the solution of
the phenomena of this experiment ; and the Abbe now gives the same solution
to it, which Mr. W. first gave to a similar experiment of Le Monnier's, and laid
before the Society in January 1746, and since applied on other occasions in il-
lustrating the electrical circuit.
The Qth letter to Mr. Boze at Wittemberg, is in answer to one of Mr. Boze,
in which this gentleman expresses himself surprized, that so many ages have
passed, without it having been discovered that thunder electrizes bodies ; since
it depends on an experiment so simple, and which it is hardly possible to fail in,
when you desire to repeat it under proper circumstances. On this our author
observes, that people in general only see the facts, or are ignorant of, or do not
consider the means by which philosophers arrive at them ; nor perceive the cir-
cumstances, without which these phenomena could never have been made
known to us ; and that Mr. Boze will cease to be surprized, as he is so well
versed in these phenomena, when he reflects on what our author offers.
To make the experiment in question, it is necessary that bodies should be sup-
ported by glass, silk, or resin, without touching any thing else communicating
with what we now call non-electrics ; without which, the signs of electricity,
which are sought for, cannot manifest themselves. To this experiment there-
fore, a previous knowledge is required of insulating bodies to be electrized ; but
where is the man who was acquainted with this fact 30 years ago ? Before that
period, it was not even guessed at by any one.
Since Mr. Gray discovered, that bodies must be insulated, to communicate to
them a perceptible electric virtue, to what purpose could we set up iron bars
under a stormy cloud ? This thought could not have happened, but to those who
had taken notice of the analogy bet\yeen lightning and electricity, and on whom
this idea had made a strong impression. And no one could think seriously on
this analogy, but since the discovery of the Leyden experiment, that is, since
the year 1746. Before that time the electrization of bodies by thunder could
not have been perceived, but by an accident very diflcicult to meet, on account of
the conditions requisite.
Yet it may be urged, that bodies, being really electrized, have shown them-
selves in all ages,* as historians both ancient and modern have expressly men-
* 1 formerly took notice, that the electrical attraction had been observed so early, as to be men-
tioned by Theophrastus (see Phil. Trans, vol. xliv. p. 732) ; so its luminous appearance, though only
considered as a meteor, is mentioned by Plutarch, in the life of Lysander. Pliny, in the second
book of his Natural History, chap. 37. calls these appearances stars; and tells us, not only that they
settled oil the masts, and other parts of ships, but also on men's heads. Seneca too in his Natural
Questions, chap. i. takes notice of the same phenomenon. And in Caesar, de Bello Africano, cap. 6,
edit. Amstel. 1686", we find them attending a very violent storm. Livy, chap. 22, mentions two
similar facts.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 377
tioned. But to this it may be replied, that it was not enough to know the fact,
unless people wei'e sufficiently acquainted with it to take it for what it really was;
that is, the electric virtue : for without that, observations of this kind could have
very little weight with any person engaged in the inquiry. At present, indeed,
when we know, from the experiment of Marly-la-ville, that a stormy cloud is a
great electric mass, the action of which extends itself sensibly even to bodies
which are on the surface of the earth, we must agree, by reflecting on them,
that the lights which have been seen on the crosses placed on the tops of several
steeples, those which the Roman soldiers said they had observed at the end of
their pikes, and those lambent flames which appear on the masts of ships, which
mariners call St. Helmo's fire, are so many electrical phenomena. But until the
moment that this experiment was made, which opened our eyes with regard to
the possibility and nature of these marvellous effects, these appearances were re-
garded either as popular illusions, or false prodigies, or even as luminous va-
pours, which might be ranged in the class of phosphori. Besides, as these
were seen but seldom, if ever we had been tempted to attribute them to the in-
fluence of stormy clouds, we might have been dissuaded from it, by considering
the little agreement there is between the rarity of these effects, and the frequency
of the causes, which might produce them.
We see therefore how important it is to describe exactly the phenomena we
observe : otherwise, how long may it be, before we can deduce any real instruc-
tion from those, which we have been informed of in a negligent and superficial
manner ? We have heard all our lives of St. Helmo's fire, of those which the
ancients call Castor and Pollux, and of the comazants of our mariners. But,
from what we have had related to us, and from what we have read, who could
have been prevailed on to range them with electrical phenomena .'' We have heard
them represented as thin lambent shining lights, a kind of phosphoreal vapour :
but there is a passage in the memoirs of the Count de Forbin, quoted by our
author, mentioning St. Helmo's fire ; which if any one, well versed in the phe-
nomena of electricity, had carefully attended to and considered a few years ago,
he might have prognosticated success to Mr. Franklin, when he proposed his
These appearances are called, by both French and Spaniards inhabiting the coasts of the Mediter-
ranean, St. Helme or St. Telme's fires ; by the Italians, the fires of St. Peter and St. Nicholas, and
are frequently taken notice of by the writers of voyages. If some late accounts from France are to
be depended on, we are informed, that at Plauzet it has been observed for time immemorial ; and
M. Binon, the cure of the place, bears his testimony of the truth, that, for 27 years, which he haa
resided there in that capacity, in great storms, accompanied with black clouds, and frequent light-
ning, the three pointed extremities ot the cross of the steeple of that place appear surrounded with a
body of flame ; and that, when this phenomenon has been seen, the storm was no longer to bo
dreaded, and calm weather returned soon after. — Orig.
VOL. X. 3 C
378 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1753.
experiment on thunder. " In the night, says the author of those memoirs,
on a sudden it became exceedingly dark, and thundered and lightned most dread-
fully. As we were threatened with the ship's being torn to pieces, I ordered the
sails to be taken in : we saw, on different parts of the ship, above 30 St. Helmo's
fires ; among the rest, there was one on the top of the vane of the main-mast,
which was more than a foot and half in height. I ordered one of the sailors to
take it down ; when this man was on the top, he heard this fire ; its noise re-
sembled that of fired wet gunpowder. I ordered him to lower the vane, and
come down ; but scarcely had he taken it from its place, but the fire left it, and
fixed itself on the top of the mainmast, from which it was impossible to remove
it ; and it continued there a considerable time, till it gradually went out, &c."
If all the authors, who have taken notice of St. Helmo's fire, had spoken of
it as this just quoted, philosophers might have reproached themselves for its
having been so long before they had a just idea of it, and for their not having
shown the principle on which it depended. But how few historians are there,
who could have related this fact with circumstances so proper to put us in a right
train, as those just mentioned .''
" And here I cannot but observe, as I am convinced, that the matter of thun-
der and that of electricity are one and the same, how vast an idea must the
attending to the before-mentioned passage excite in the mind of persons, accus-
tomed to the phenomena of electricity ? How immense a quantity of it must they
conceive to have been at that time in the atmosphere surrounding the ship, and
within the verge of its action, to furnish more than 30 St. Helmo's fires ; the
same in fact which we see at the ends of our conductors in electrizing, one of
which was more than a foot and half in height ? At this time, and under these
circumstances, the mast, yards, and every part of the ship, I consider as con-
ductors of electricity, between the then electrized atmosphere, and the sea ; and
though, being of a vegetable nature, and, if dry, even of the worst kind for this
purpose, they conducted electricity much less perfectly than metal under the like
circumstances would have done, I doubt not but that they were greatly instru-
mental in averting the danger, with which the ship was threatened.
" On these considerations, I do not scruple to recommend, as Mr. Franklin
has done, communications of metal between the spindles and iron-work at the
tops of the masts of ships, and the sea ; or, which will answer the same purpose,
the bilge water in the well. This can be liable to little objection, as the doing it
is neither difficult nor expensive ; an iron wire, of the thickness of a goose-
quill, conducting electricity more readily than any piece of timber, however
large ; and these masts do it so much the worse, as they are of a resinous nature.
•' From attending to these phenomena, we every day see more and more the
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 379
perfect analogy, to compare great things with small, between the highly elec-
trized glass jar, in the experiment of Leyden, and a cloud replete with the matter
of thunder. But more of this perhaps on some future occasion.
" Though the number and continuance of the St. Helmo's fires, in the pas-
sage before mentioned, probably tended greatly to preserve the ship from the
destruction with which it was then threatened, yet the cause may be too great,
and come on too fast, to be lessened enough by these means to avert the mis-
chief. Thus in the account, published in the Philosophical Transactions,* from
captain John Waddel, his ship was almost beaten to pieces by the thunder and
lightning : though, as he expresses himself, there were sundry large comazants
over head, some of which settled on the spindles on the topmost heads, and
burnt like very large torches. When this account was written, these phenomena
were only considered as the presages or attendants of a storm, and no sort of in-
ference proposed from them."
But to return to our author. His work closes with a series of experiments,
intended to demonstrate the validity of the conclusions exhibited in it. These
merit the particular attention of those conversant in these matters. It may be
further observed, that some of the experiments are made in vacuo, and are of
the same kind with those which Mr. W. communicated to the Royal Society in
February 1752 ; and which have been since published in the Philosophical
Transactions.-^
On the whole, he thinks this treatise a very valuable one, as it gives us the
still riper thoughts of an able writer on a difficult, and till very lately, an almost
unknown subject ; of one who, besides his inquiries into this part of philosophy,
has a great compass in the knowledge of nature, and is therefore well qualified to
investigate her phenomena.
XXXI [. The Number of Persons in the City of Bristol, calculated from the
Burials for Ten successive Years, and also from the Number of Houses. By
John Browning, Esq. of Barton-hill near Bristol, p. 217.
The certificates were obtained under the hands of the praecentor of the col-
lege, the several ministers of the 1 7 parish-churches, the register keeper of the
several quakers' cemeteries, the several Anabaptists' cemeteries, the Jews' new-
erected cemetery, for 10 years, including the year 1741 and 1750. As some of
the parishes within the liberties of the city extend beyond the liberties into the
counties of Gloucester and Somerset, they are distinguished by the names of the
out-parishes. The inhabitants of the several out-parishes being buried within
• Vol. xlvi. p. 111.
+ Vol. xlvii. p. 363, et seq.
3 C 2
380 VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
the liberties of the city, must of consequence be brought into the city bill of
mortality.
The total number of burials for 10 years was 17317, which is on a medium
1731 in each year.
Now the latest and most accurate observations demonstrate, that in great cities
a 23 th part of the people die yearly. Therefore, at this rate, 1731 X 25 =
43275, is the number of the inhabitants, computed on this principle.
The number of houses rated to the land-tax, as appears by the rates in the
council-house, Michaelmas, 1751, is 4866.
But as the rates are not always accurately made, and as it is the usual custom
not to rate houses, which are untenanted, nor hospitals, nor alms-houses, it will
be necessary to make a very large allowance for these deficiencies, especially as
many houses are rated in gross under the denomination of several tenements,
when they belong to the same landlord ; in all the several parishes, an allowance
of 25 percent, will be more than sufficient, which produces 121 6.
Also the number of houses in the out-parishes is 1228.
These 3 numbers collected, make the total number of houses 7282. Now
the usual number of souls allowed to each house is 6. Hence,
7282 X 6 = 43692 number of inhabitants by the houses.
And 43275 number of inhabitants by the burials.
XXXIIl. Of the Eclipse predicted by Thales. By the Rev. IVilliam
Stukely, M.D. p. 221.
The eclipse predicted by Thales the Milesian, happened in the 6o3d year be-
fore the Christian aera. At this time there was a sharp war between the Medes
and Lydians, of which Herodotus gives an account. Halyattes, father of the
famous Croesus, was then king of the Lydians.
After the Medes had conquered all the upper or northern part of Asia, from
the old possessors the Scythians, they again extended their borders to the river
Halys in Lesser Asia, the boundary between Cappadocia and Armenia, or be-
tween the Lydians and Medes. It was not long before a war took place between
these nations, which continued for 5 years together, with various success. In
the 6th year they engaged each other, with the utmost of their strength ; in-
tending to make that battle decisive, but while the fortune of the day seemed to
hang in an equal balance, there happened a total eclipse of the sun, which over-
spread both armies with a horrible darkness ; so that being affrighted at such a
critical judgment of Heaven, as they thought it, both sides put up their swords,
and agreed to refer the controversy between them to two arbitrators. Halyattes,
king of Lydia, chose Siennesis, king of Cilicia ; Cyaxares, the Median monarch,
chose Nebuchadnezzar, now busy in leading the Jews into captivity. Nebu-
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ^ftl
chadiiezzar is by Herodotus called Libynetus. It seems that the letter N, in
the beginning of the word, has, in the ancient copies of Herodotus, been turned
into A ; and then the words, in two different dialects, are not very different.
These great arbitrators compromisetl the matter between the contending
parties, by making a match between the two royal families ; and so restored peace
and friendship. Astyages, the son of Cyaxares, king of Media, married Ariena,
daughter of Halyattes, king of Lydia, of whom, a year after, was born Cyaxares,
whom the prophet Daniel calls Darius the Mede. And in that last-mentioned
year, king Cyaxares gave his daughter Mandane in marriage to Cambyses king
of Persia ; of whom, the next year, was born the great Cyrus, the founder of
the Persian monarchy, whom the prophet Isaiah foretold by name, that he
should restore the polity of the Jews, the city of Jerusalem, and the temple, and
return the sacred vessels of gold and silver, which Nebuchadnezzar had carried
away, and put into his heathen temple at Babylon.
Thus ended this famous quarrel between the Medes and Lydians, through the
timely event of a total solar eclipse, made still the more eminent, that it was
foretold to the lonians by Thales of Miletus, then in the 37th year of his age.
He was born in Phoenicia ; and there doubtless he acquired his knowledge in
astronomy. He was the first who brought this science into Greece, 300 years
after the pretended Chiron of the Argonauts. It is an invincible argument, that
he learned his art ; for a whole life is not sufficient, so to observe the motions of
sun and moon, as to be able to calculate an eclipse.
This, is the first eclipse, which we have recorded in so circumstantial a man-
ner. Notwithstanding all this, it is strange how the learned have erred about
the true year of this memorable affair. Pliny begins the mistake, telling us, that
it was the 4th year of the 48th Olympiad ; whereas it was the 4th year of the
43d. It is not unlikely that the numeral letter V is crept into the original,
Clemens Alexandrinus makes it about the 50th Olympiad. Dr. Prideaux makes
it 5 years too late ; Archbishop Usher 2 years. Sir Isaac Newton gives us the
true month and day, but assigns the 585 year, as Ricciolus.
Of this eclipse. Dr. S. has traced the moon's shade, as it passed over the
earth's surface from 20 to 60 degrees of longitude east from London ; and from
25 to 50 degrees of north latitude, with tlie hours, half-hours., and quarters of
time, where vertical. This was on the 18th of May in the proleptic Julian
style, in the year of the Julian period 41 1 1, the 603d year before the vulgar
aera of Christ. The eclipse was total 4 minutes and a half, where the battle was
fought. The shade entered the desert of Barca in Africa, soon after 9 in the
morning. It traversed the Mediterranean sea, and isle of Cyprus ; entered Asia
Minor at Cilicia, a little before 1 1 ; about half an hour after, it passed the city
now called Erzerum; near which Dr. S. supposes the battle was fought, as being
382 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. , [aNNO 1753.
at the boundary between the two kingdoms. It is between the river Halys, and
the river Melas, on which was the ancient city Melitene. The river Melas runs
eastward into the Euphrates. At half an hour after 12, the shade entered on the
Caspian sea, and at 1 on the Kalmuc Tartary.
We see here an authentic parapegma in ancient history, deduced from astro-
nomy : and we see a remarkable instance of a most furious war terminated by
the intervention of an eclipse.
XXXIV. A further Account of the Giants' Causeway in the County of Antrim
in Ireland. By the Rev. Richard Pocock, LL.D., F.R.S. p. 226.
Dr. P. having taken another, and more particular view of the country about
the causeway, states that he went about 2 miles to a peninsula called Donseverik,
where he saw some tendency in the rock towards this work of nature ; and going
about half a mile farther, came to the beginning of the pillars in the sea cliff,
about 5 miles from the causeway : and the shore and cliffs being shaped mostly
in little semicircular bays, he had many beautiful views of the upper and middle
strata of pillars : in one particularly they had much the appearance of ruined
porticos one over the other ; and turning the little end of a spy-glass, it appeared
something like the ruins of Palmyra, as a view of them is represented in a copper-
plate, published in the Philosophical Transactions. This wonderful work of
nature is continued on in the cliffs for about a quarter of a mile beyond the
Giants' Causeway.
He saw it again in the road to Coleraine, 5 miles to the west of the Cause-
way, in a low hill a furlong to the south of the road, and 2 miles to the south
of the sea. The pillars here are small ; and being about a mile and a half from
Ballimagarry, where the earl of Antrim has a ruined house, lately burnt down
it served as a quarry for building part of that house, in which he saw a great
number of the stones, and particularly one of Q sides. He saw others near 2
miles farther, to the south of the road in a low hill, within 2 miles of Coleraine;
so that the whole extends about 1 1 Irish miles, or 14 English.
Beyond Coleraine, to the east of Magilligan, he saw in the rocks towards the
sea-cliffs, the stones in the hills very regular, appearing at a distance much like
these pillars. This is 6 computed miles beyond Coleraine, and consequently
about 10 English miles from the last pillars. At Fairhead also, a high point of
land, 3 miles to the east of Ballycastle, towards the top of it, the rock appears
as in grand pillars. They say it is not in joints, but it has something of the ap-
pearance of a grand Gothic piece of workmanship. It is a black stone, weighty
and brittle : and he had been informed, that it was tried in a glass-house, and
that it melted with kelp, so as to make the black glass bottles : which experiment
he was told had been made by Mr. Dobbs.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, 383
Mr. Drury found in a stone of the Causeway a rough pebble, in the shape, of
an egg, about } of an inch long, and above an inch thick , and when it was
polished, it proved to be a white cornelian. They are from 3 to Q sides, fre-
quently encompassed with as many stones as there are sides ; but many of them
have a narrow side, which has no stone to it, but is filled up with a piece or
pieces of stone ; which pieces, when the stones are moved, commonly sepai'ate,
and break, off. Some stones have 2 or 3 or more of these sides ; so that it is
possible, a stone that has any number of stones round it, may have double the
number of sides.
XXXV. A Letter on the same Subject from the Rev. Richard Pococh, LL. D.
Archdeacon of Dublin, to the Rev. Tho. Birch, D.D. Seer. R.S. p. 238.
Does not contain any important additions to the preceding and other accounts
of the Giant's Causeway.
XXXVI. A View of the Relation between Dr. Halleys Mortuary Tables, and
the Notions of M. De Buffbn, for establishing a Rule for the Probable Dura-
tion of the Life of Man. By Mr. William Kersseboom, of the Hagu£.
Translated from the French, by James Parsons, M. D., F. R. S. p. 230.
" Man, says M. de BufFon, at the end of the 2d tome, dies at all ages ; and
though it may be said in general, that his life is longer than that of almost any
other animal, it cannot be denied that it is also more variable and uncertain.
Attempts have been of late years made to know the degrees of these variations,
and to establish, by observations, some certainty concerning the mortality of
mankind of different ages. If these observations were sufficiently exact, and a
good number of them made, they would be of great use towards knowing the
number of the people, of their increase, of the consumption of provisions, of the
division of taxes, &c. Many ingenious men have studied this subject ; and
lately M. Deparcieux, of the Academy of Sciences, has given an excellent work,
which serves as a rule with respect to annuities for life : but as his principal view
was to calculate the mortality of annuitants, and that generally annuitants for life
are men in one state, no conclusion can be drawn from it for the mortality of
mankind at large.
" Dr. Halley, Mess. Graunt, Kersseboom, Simpson, &c. have also pub-
lished tables of the mortality of mankind ; and they have founded them on ex-
tracts from the bills of mortality of some parishes of London, Breslaw, &c.
But it appears that their researches, however ample, and the result of loijg study,
can afford only very distant approaches to the knowledge of the mortality of
mankind in general. In order to inake a good table of that kiryl, not only the
registers of the parishes of such cities should be used, where foreigners are daily
384 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
coming in, and natives going out, but also tliose of the country ; that, by
adding together the results of each, the one may compensate for the other. M.
Dupre, de St. Maur, of the French Academy, has begun this on 12 country
parishes, and 3 of those of Paris : these I publish, because they are the only
tables on which the probabilities of the life of mankind in general can be estab-
lished with any certainty."
On this passage M. Kersseboom says he is greatly surprized, that a philoso-
pher should condemn works which he never either saw or read : for it is evident
that M. de BufFon never saw his Essays on Political Arithmetic ; and that all
which he appears to know of it, is indeed very slightly drawn from M. Depar-
cieux's work, who knew no more of it, as he himself makes it appear, than what
he found in the Bibliotheque raisonnee for the first 3 months of the year 1743,
Tom. 30. This extract happens unluckily not to be made by an able hand ;
but, on the contrary, very fit, by its conftision, and the irregularities which run
through it, to lead into errors. The corrections, that were made in the 2nd
part of the same 30th tome, are not even sufficient to secure the reader from
mistakes.
Yet M. de BufFon, without even reading the work, might have known more
of it, though written in a language which he is probably a stranger to ; since
Mr. Eames has given an excellent extract of the first essay in English, printed in
N° 450 of the Philos. Trans.
M. K. would say much the same of that excellent piece of the learned Dr.
Halley, if his surprize did not increase, the more he reflected, that this work
ought to be thoroughly known to a member of the Royal Society of London ;
and yet that this very member makes so careless a judgment on it. This reflec-
tion leads to another kind of defence of that famous deceased author ; which is
to make M. de Buffbn sensible, that " nearly the same degrees of probability of
the duration of the life of man in general" are in the table of Dr. Halley, which
he would have us think are in the extracts of M. Dupre's observations or tables,
which he has published. For this purpose M. K. constructed a table parallel to
that of Dr. Halley, which begins with 1000 lives of one year old, and which he
found, in the reduction of the great general numbers of Dupre's tables, to have
also the smaller numbers analogous; that is, by beginning also with 1000 lives
of a year old. Both tables are laid down as follows :
VOL.
XLVIII.J
PHILOSOPHICAL
TRANSACTIONS.
38«
HaUeyi Table.
Uulley's Table.
Dupre's, reduced.
Dupre's, reduced.
Years of
Age.
Numb
Num. 0
Years of
Age.
Numb
Numb. of
Years
Numb. Numb, of
Years
Numb
. Numb. of
of
Dc-aths f
r
of
Deaths fr
of
of Deaths fr
of
1 of
Deaths fr.
U»es.
Yr. to Yr
Lives.
Yr. to Yr.
Age.
1
Lives. Yr. to Yr
Age.
Lives.
Yr. to Yr.
1
1000
145
43
417
10
lOiO
136
43
406
6
2
855
57
44
407
10
2
864
56
44
400
18
3
798
38
45
397
10
3
808
40
45
382
8
4
760
28
46
387
10
4
768
29
46
374
6
5
732
22
47
3/7
10
5
739
23
47
368
9
6'
710
18
48
367
10
6
716
17
48
359
6
7
692
12
49
357
II
7
699
14
49
353
21
8
680
lO
50
346
11
8
685
9
50
832
5
9
670
9
51
335
11
9
676
6
51
327
9
10
661
8
52
324
u
10
670
5
52
318
5
11
653
7
53
313
11
11
665
6
53
313
7
12
646
6
54
302
10
12
659
4
54
306
4
13
640
6
55
292
10
13
655
4
55
302
19
14
634
6
56
282
10
14
651
5
56
283
7
15
628
6
57
272
10
15
646
6
57
276
11
16'
622
6
58
262
10
16
640
6
58
265
5
17
616
6
59
252
10
17
634
6
59
260
30
18
610
6
60
242
10
18
628
6
60
230
5
19
604
6
61
232
10
19
622
8
61
225
10
20
598
6
62
222
10
20
614
5
62
215
9
21
592
6
63
212
10
21
609
10
63
206
13
22
586
7
64
202
10
22
599
7
64
197
13
23
579
6
65
192
10
23
592
7
65
184
13
24
573
6
66
182
10
24
585
11
66
171
7
2o
567
7
67
172
10
25
574
8
67
164
13
26
560
7
68
162
10
26
566
8
68
151
6
27
553
7
69
152
10
27
558
8
69
145
22
28
546
7
70
142
11
28
550
6
70
123
6
29
539
8
71
131
11
29
544
13
7!
117
15
30
531
8
72
120
11
30
531
5
72
102
7
31
523
8
73
109
11
31
526
10
73
95
9
32
515
8
74
98
10
32
516
8
74
86
15
33
507
8
75
88
10
33
508
7
75
71
6
34
499
9
76
78
10
34
501
16
76
65
7
35
490
9
77
68
10
35
485
10
77
58
9
36
481
9
78
58
9
36
475
9
78
49
3
37
472
9
79
49
8
37
466
9
79
46
14
38
463
9
SO
41
7
38
457
5
80
32
3
39
454
9
81
34
6
39
452
23
81
29
5
40
445
9
82
28
5
40
429
5
82
24
4
41
436
9
83
23
3
41
424
'' \
83
20
3
42 427 1
9
84 1
20
42
413
7 1
84
17
Sum total of Dr. Hallev's table.
34000
Si
im totj
ilo
f M.
Duor
;'s table r
educed
330
11
In the whole matter, all the difference between these two tables consists in
this, that Dr. Halley's is more perfect, more compact, and more conformable to
those observations which conduct us to the idea of a progression nearly arithme-
tical, which the great number of researches enables us to unfold by little and
little, in the representation of the strength of human life, when that strength is
become more uniform.
VOL. X.
3D
386 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
If M. de BiifFon will compare the table given by himself of the probability of
the duration of life, which is founded on that of M. Dupre de St. Maur, with
that given by M. Deparcieux, in his ingenious work constructed on that of Dr.
Halley, he will linda like conformity between them. It is M. Deparcieux's 13th
table which is meant. What follows, in Halley's column, is set down, in order
to compare it with M. de BufFon's table.
Deparcieux onH alley.
De Buffbn on Dupre
of St. Maur.
Deparcieux un Halley.
DeBujff
of St
on on Dupre
Maur.
Y«arsof '
Age.
Jves at a Me-
dium.
Years Mths.
Years of
Age.
Duration of
Life.
Years Mths.
Years of
Age.
Lives at a Me-
dium.
Y ars Mths.
Years of
Age.
Duration of
Life.
Years Mths.
1
33 6
1
33
43
43
20 4
2
38 0
2
38
44
44
19 9
3
39 9
3
40
45
19 8
45
19 3
4
40 9
4
41
46
46
18 9
5
41 3
5
41 6
47
47
18 2
6
6
42
48
48
17 8
7
7
4'-' 3
49
49
17 2
8
8
41 6
50
17 3
50
16 7
9
9
40 10
51
51
l6 0
10
40 5
10
, 40 2
52
52
15 6
11
11
39 6
53
53
15 0
12
12
38 9
54
54
14 6
13
13
88 1
55
14 10
55
14 0
14
14
37 5
56
56
13 5
15
37 6
15
36 9
57
57
12 10
\6
16
36 0
58
58
12 3
17
17
35 4
59
59
11 8
18
18
34 8
60
12 5
60
11 1
19
19
34 0
61
61
10 6
20
3t 2
20
33 5
62
62
10 0
21
21
32 11
63
63
9 6
22
22
32 4
64
64
9 0
23
23
31 10
65
9 11
65
8 6
24
24
31 3
66
66
8 0
25
30 11
25
30 9
67
67
7 6
26
26
30 2
68
68
7 0
27
27
29 7
69
69
6 7
28
28
29 0
70
7 7
70
6 2
29
29
28 6
71
71
5 8
30
27 11
30
28 0
72
72
5 4
31
31
27 6
73
73
5 0
32
33
32
33
26 11
26 3
74
75
74
4 9
4 6
5 7
1 *
75
34
34
25 7
76
76
4 3
35
25 0
35
25 0
77
77
4 1
36
36
24 5
78
78
3 11
37
37
23 10
79
79
3 9
.38
38
23 3
80
4 6
80
3 7
39
39
22 8
81
81
3 5
40
22 4
40
22 1
82
82
3 3
41
41
21 6
83
83
3 2
42
42
20 U
84
3 6
84
3 1
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 387
It is tlierefore sufficiently demonstrated, that Dr. Halley's table ought not, in
M. de Burton's opinion, to be excluded from the class of those which " are the
only tables on which the probabilities of the life of mankind in general can be
established with any certainty ;" far from being comprised, in his severe judgment,
among those of authors, " whose researches, however ample, and the result of
long study, can aiford only distant approaches to the knowledge of the mortality
of mankind in general."
M. de Burton begins his table of the probabilities of life with a term, which
precedes that of a year old, called zero d'age; and from M. Dupre's observa-
tions, assigns to it a duration of 8 years. M. K. first thought it an error of
the press; but there is no room for this doubt, after what M. de Burton says,
" We see by this table, that we may reasonably hope, that is, lay an even wager,
that an infant just born, or who has no age, will live 8 years; that an infant of
a year old, will live 33 years," &c. This little space of 8 years struck Mr. K.
because all the observations, which he knew, are very far from it. He had
therefore recourse to the source, to the observations of M. Dupre himself, and
found it was a mistake of M. de Burton; the mean life of infants of no age
being, according to M. Dupre's tables, 25 years and upwards; and, from the
observations of Justel, which Dr. Halley made use of, the mean life of a child
of no age is above 1^ years.
M. K. thinks the subject not absolutely requires his ortering a word concern-
ing the nature of both Justel's and M. Dupre's observations. The remark has
not escaped the sagacity of Dr. Halley himself: it is, " that they want the essen-
tial; which is, the number of living persons, among whom the observations on
the dead are made." If M. de Burton had made the same reflections on M.
Dupre's tables, he would have found the irreparable defect of them, as well as
Dr. Halley did in Justel's observations; and he would doubtless have attended
more to the method proposed by Mons. Deparcieux.
XXXVll. Abstract of a Letter from Father d' Incarville, of the Society of
Jesus, at Pehin in China, to the late Cromwell Mortimer, M. D., R. S. Seer.
Dated Pekin, Nov. 15, 1751. p. 253.
The leaves and flowers of the varnish- tree, which he sent, came from the
province of Nan King. This tree is difltrent from that he saw in the king's
garden at Paris. The latter is the same with what he saw at Macao; which was
brought from Mississipi into France. There is not in Europe the tree, from
whose fruit the toeng yeou is drawn. It were to be wished they could raise it
there. The toeng yeou is an oil, or natural varnish, drawn by expression from
the fruits, which he sent, of which they make a very great trade in China. It
costs but very little, the pound weight being worth about 7 "i" 8 sols of our
3d 2
388 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
money. It is said, that they sell it at Paris under the name of China varnish.
It is excellent for preserving furniture, giving them a polish not inferior to our
varnishes of Europe, which cost so much money. Perhaps they may make some
attempts to use it in Europe; but they will not succeed, because they know not
how to prepare it. This oil is so common in China, that the greatest part of the
people, in tolerable circumstances, rub over their timber with it, giving it what
colour they please. It i1ot only adorns their houses, but also preserves the wood.
The columns that support their houses, and those of the great room where the
emperor's throne is, are varnished with no other than this oil.
The kou chou is a tree, of the bark of which they make the best paper in
China. The common paper of their books, which looks yellowish, is made of
a particular sj:)ecies of bambou, of which they prepare the young shoots, as we
prepare hemp. They whiten it by boiling it in lime-water : in this manner they
prepare the kou chou. There is no silken paper in China; all the different kinds
of paper here are made either of bark, hemp, or of the straw of corn or rice.
Sometimes they blend with this last the stalks of the typha.* The paper made
of hemp or ntraw serves only for wrapping up goods, or to make pasteboard;
and that made of the bark of the cotton-plant serves for fans, being less apt to
crack than any other white paper.
The white wax, produced by certain insects, is a very curious and profitable
thing. What had been told him by one of their missionaries, who had bred
them himself, is not sufficient to give a proper idea of them. As to the manner
of their depositing this wax, it appears that there is some analogy between it,
and the manner of the gum lac's being deposited by certain ants.-^
In the emperor's palace they verj' rarely use any other candles, than such as
are made of this wax, because it never emits any smoke. The learned therefore
use them only, when they compose an exercise on their examination for degrees;
for then they are confined in very small rooms, where the smoke of tallow candles
would incommode them greatly. The chief consumption of this wax is owing
to their coating tallow candles with it. This wax is procured by boiling the
matter rasped off the branches of the tree, the leaves of which are the proper
nourishment of these insects, in a large vessel of water; the wax swims at the
top, and when cold it is taken off in a cake.
* Typha palustris major of Caspar Bauhin. Cat's-tail. — Orig.
f In order to explain this passage, I take the liberty of making the following remark. The lacca-
tree is the jujuba indica of the great Ray; which produces this gum. The letter writer is misled by
what Garcias ab Horto says about it, that certain large winged ants make this gum out of the juice
sucked from this tree, and deposit it upon the surculi, &c. of the same: but the celebrated Ray and
J. Bauhin say, it is exudated, and by the heat of the sun concreted into the form, in which it is
found on the parts of this tree. There are other trees which produce this gum, as well as this, men-
tioned by Hermannus. — Orig.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 36Q
The berries of the tallow-tree are of great use in the southern provinces,
where there are very few sheep. Almost all the candles, sold there, are made
of the oil ilrawn from these berries. They procure this oil in the same manner
mentioned concerning the wax, and as this oil is not of so good a consistence as
tallow ; for its cohesion, when candles are made of it, they dip them in the white
wax before-mentioned; the external coat, thus made, prevents them from gut-
tering.* At Pekin the same thing is done with tallow candles; nor does he ever
remember to have seen them run down. He imagines that our bee's-wax would
answer the same purposes with this white wax of China.
The seeds of the yen tchi come from a plant which is very particular. From
these seeds or berries, when very ripe, a tincture of a fine red is drawn, as may
be seen in the flakes of cotton charged with this colour, sold here. They
moisten them with a little warm water, and then express the colour, which is
afterwards evaporated to dryness, and serves for water colours.
The persicaria, of which they make indigo in and about Pekin, merits atten-
tion. Indigo is also made of the persicaria maculata, with which the banks of
rivers and streams often abound; but it is of an inferior quality to that made
with the other persicaria, and this even is not of equal value with that made of
the anil, such as is made in the southern provinces here, and in those of
America.
The stones of apricots come from a species of tree, whose fruit is not eatable.
These trees are only cultivated for these stones, from which an excellent oil is
produced for burning; and which, instead of olive oil, they use for sallads.
The hoai tze are the clusters of the flower of a bastard acacia, from which a
most beautiful yellow tincture is drawn, by boiling them with a little alum.
The hoang tchi tze produces yet a finer tincture: but the finest yellow colour
of China comes from the hoang pe pi ; and these three are prepared in the same
manner.
A kind of stuff is made from the cods of the wild silk-worm, called kien
tcheou, excellent for wear, when made for gain. It is scarce, and dear. There
is another kind of kien tcheou, of which they sell a large quantity at Canton:
it is made of the silk drawn from other cods. These cods are capable of being
wound on wheels or spindles. First they must be boiled in a strong lee, made
of the ashes of the stalks of the Sarazin corn, till they are capable of being
pulled asunder with the fingers, in order to turn them inside out, and take out
the fragments of the chrysalis; and as this kind of stuff is worked like other
cloth, the weavers do the rest.
The fruits of the tong yeou, and of the tallow tree, which you should have
• This is applicable to the green wax of Mississippi. — Orig.
390 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1753,
received last year, were fresher than those before sent. This year you will receive
the cods of silk, which makes the silk called kien tcheou, with the butterflies,
which come from them. The other things sent want no explanation.
The empire of China abounds in mines of all sorts, as gokl, silver, copper,
tin, lead, iron, &c. The provinces which ])roduce the greatest quantity are,
Yun nan, and See tchouen. The two greatest rivers of China, Kiang and
Hoang ho, send down quantities of gold sand. The former takes its source in
the province of See tchouen, and the latter from Coconor; but they find mines
of gold and silver in the provinces of Yun nan. See tchouen, Chen si, Chan
tong, Hou kouang, Fou kien, Kouei tcheou, Pe tche si: but, for political rea-
sons, they work but few of them. He believes the principal is, lest the greedi-
ness of gain should excite popular insurrections. They open them sometimes in
one place, sometimes in another; but on the least appearance of a rising, they
immediately shut them up again. We cannot give any account of what is de-
sired, concerning the manner of working the several mines. We are not in a
way of informing ourselves. As to what regards petrifactions, he had only seen
a few crabs, pieces of wood, and some bones, which he takes to be those of
buffaloes.
The Chinese have but a very confused idea of a universal deluge. They only
conclude from things seen on the surface of the earth, that there must formerly
have been some terrible hurricane, ari3 that the sea had covered the face of the
earth. A great mandarin, who had a better understanding than the Chinese
commonly have, being sent into Ho nan, to visit several places, observed, on
the top of a very high mountain, a kind of basin, the circumference of which,
formed by the mountain, was filled with different figures of fishes, shells, and
marine plants, impressed on stones; he said to another mandarin, who accom-
panied him, " Certainly the sea must have been here; these fishes, shells, and
plants are found only in the sea." F. Gaubil says, the Chinese books pretend
that such impressions are found on the highest mountains of Thibet, and See
tchouen.
The greatest part of the cinnabar of China comes from the province of Yun
nan : and it is said there is some also in Kiang si, Hou kouang, and Koui tcheou.
Kang hi, the great grandfather of the present emperor, ordered a general search
to be made through the whole empire for antimony, but found none in any of
the mines.
XXXV III. On the Cause of the Different Refrangibility of the Rays of Light.
By Mr. T. Melville, p. 261.
In order to account for the different refrangibility of the differently-coloured
rays. Sir Isaac Newton (Optics, Query 29), and several of his followers, have
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SQl
supposed that tht'ir particles are of different magnitudes or densities : but if there
be any analogy between the refractive power and gravity, it will produce equal
velocities in all particles, whatever their magnitude or density be ; and so all sorts
of rays would be equally bent from their right-lined direction.
It seems therefoie a more probable opinion, which others have advanced, that
the differently-coloured rays are projected with different velocities from the lumi-
nous body ; the red with the greatest, violet with the least, and the intermediate
colours with intermediate degrees of velocity ; for, on this hypothesis it is mani-
fest, that they will be differently refracted in the prismatic order, according to
observation.
On supposition that the different refrangibility of light arises solely from the
different velocities of the rays before incidence, these velocities must be to each
other nearly as their sines of refraction.
Their velocities in any given medium, suppose air, being once determined,
their velocities in any other may be easily discovered ; for they are to those in air
as the sine of incidence to the sine of refraction, when the ray passes from air
into the other medium.
While the differently-coloured rays are supposed to move with one common
velocity, any pulse?, excited in the aethereai medium, must overtake them at
equal distances : and therefore the intervals of the fits of reflexion and trans-
mission, if they arise in this manner, as Sir Isaac conjectures, would be all equal :
but if the red move swiftest, the violet slowest, and the intermediate colours
with intermediate velocities, it is plain that the same pulses must overtake the
violet soonest, the other colours in their order, and last of all the red ; that is,
the inter\'als of the fits must be least in the violet, and gradually greater in the
prismatic order, agreeably to observation.
Let c denote the velocity of the aethereai pulses, ?; the velocity of red light,
and u that of violet ; / and j the intervals of their fits, and d the distance be-
tween 1 succeeding pulses: it is plain, from the nature of Newton's hypothesis,
that z is to f^ as f to c — v. and again, o( to J as c — m to w : therefore, ex aequo,
/ is to 7, as cii — vu to cu — 7 m, from which we have the equation c = . -•^- v
•^ ' tu—jv
vu. Therefore, as the proportion between the intervals of the fits in red and
violet, can be assigned by experiment, and the proportion of their velocities in
any medium also, the velocity of the aethereai pulses may be easily computed.
The velocities of the red and violet in air are nearly as 78 and TJ. In the ce-
lestial spaces they are less, but almost in the same proportion ; the intervals of
their fits are by experiment as 100 and 63. Whence, by the canon now laid
down, the velocity of the aethereai pulses in the celestial space, is found to be to
that of red light, as 79763 to 7 8000. As light moves from the sun to us, by
39*2 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO J 753.
Dr. Bradley's accurate estimation, in 8"" 12% the pulses of the aethereal fluid
must be propagated through the same space in about 8™ 1*.
Hence also may be determined, in known measures, the distance between two
succeeding aethereal pulses ; for </ = .
On the hypothesis of the different velocities of different colours, we may un-
derstand, at least in general, the reason of the strange analogy, discovered by
Sir Isaac, between the intervals of the fits, and the spaces occupied by the se-
veral colours in the spectrum (a thing hitherto unexplained *) ; since, from the
velocities of the several rays, on which depend the intervals of the fits, as has
been now explained, arise likewise their several degrees of refrangibility.
But, as it is of great consequence in philosophy, to distinguish between facts
and hypotheses, however plausible, the various refrangibility, reflexibility, and
inflexibility, of the different colours, and their alternate dispositions, at equal
intervals, to be reflected and transmitted, which are the whole ground-work of
the Newtonian system, are to be considered as undoubted facts, deduced from
experiment ; but that the velocities of different rays are different in the manner
now described, is no more than probable conjecture : and though this point
should be decided, by a method that we are now to propose, it would still re-
main uncertain, whether the fits of reflexion and transmission consists in an al-
ternate acceleration and retardation of the particles of light, or in something
else. For instance, it might be supposed, that every particle of light has 1 con-
trary poles, like a loadstone ; the one of which is attracted by the parts of bodies,
and the other repelled ; and that, besides their uniform rectilineal motion, the
particles of differently-coloured rays revolve in different periods round their
centres ; for thus their friendly and unfriendly poles being alternately turned
towards the surfaces of bodies, they might be alternately disposed to reflexion
and transmission, and that at different intervals, in proportion to the periods of
their rotation. Lastly, though it were proved, that the fits proceed from an al-
ternate acceleration and retardation of the particles of light, it would still be no
more than probable conjecture, that this is brought about by pulses excited in
the aethereal medium. Nay there are some circumstances in these phenomena,
that seem hardly intelligible by that hypothesis alone : as, why the intervals of
the fits are less in denser mediums ;-|- and why they increase so fast, and in so
intricate a proportion, according to the obliquity of incidence. ^
By Dr. Bradley's beautiful theory of the aberration of light, the stars appear to
be removed from their true place to a certain distance, according to the propor-
tion which the transverse motion of the spectator's eye bears to the velocity of
* Compare Newt. Opt. Book i. part 'i, prop. 3, with Book ii. part 3, prop. l6. — Orig.
t Newt. Opt. Book ii. part 3, prop. 17.— Orig. X P''op- ^5, ibidem. — Orig.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 393
light. It is plain therefore, that on our hypothesis, any star must have a dif-
ferent apparent place for every different colour ; that is, its apparent disk must
be drawn out by the aberration into a longitudinal form, resembling the prismatic
spectrum, having its red extremity nearest its mean place. In the stars situated
about the pole of the ecliptic, its length should continue always the same, though
directed along all the different secondaries of the ecliptic in the course of a year :
but in those which lie in or near the plane of the ecliptic, it should be greatest at
the limits of the eastern and western aberrations, the star recovering its colour
and figure, when the true and mean places coincide. But there is no hope of
discovering, whether our system be true or false, by this consequence of it : for
the greatest length of the dilated disk being to the whole aberration, as the dif-
ference of the velocity of the red and violet to the mean velocity of light, i. e. but
about a 77th part of it, cannot much exceed the 4th part of a second.
The time which the extreme violet light takes in arriving from any distance to
the eye, will be to that which the extreme red takes in coming from the same,
as 78 to TT . If Jupiter be supposed in a quadrate aspect with the sun, in which
position the eclipses of his satellites are most commodiously observed, his distance
from the earth being nearly equal to his distance from the sun, light takes about
41™ in passing from him to the earth ; therefore the last sensible violet-light,
which the satellite reflects before its total immersion into Jupiter's shadow, ought
to continue to affect the eye for a 77th part of 41*" ; that is, about 32» of time
after the last sensible red light is gone. It is therefore a certain consequence of
our hypothesis, that a satellite, seen from the earth, ought to change its colour
about half a minute before its total immersion, from white to a livid greenish
colour ; then into blue, and at last evanish in violet. It need hardly be ob-
served, that the same phenomenon must take place in the time of emersion by a
contrary succession of colours, beginning with red, and ending in white.
If this phenomenon be perceived by astronomers, we shall have a direct proof
of the different velocities of the differently-coloured rays, and consequently a
mechanical account of their different degrees of refrangibility ; for he sees not,
to what other cause such an appearance could be reasonably ascribed. If it be
not, we may conclude, that rays of all colours are emitted from the luminous
body with one common velocity.
Remarks on the Preceding Paper. By Mr. Short, p. 268.
Ever since the above paper was delivered, Mr. S. had carefully attended the
emersions of Jupiter's first satellite through a reflecting telescope of 4 feet focal
length, and with a proper magnifying power ; but he had not [xerceived the least
alteration in the colour of the light reflected by the satellite, except in quantity.
It may indeetl be observed, that these emersions are seen sooner or later through
VOL. X. 3 E
3g4 PHILOSOPHICAL THANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
telesco[)es of different lengths, and by eyes of different goodness : and it may
therefore be alleged, that there is a certain quantity of time elapsed between the
very first emersion of the satellite, and the instant when it is perceived by the
very best eye, assisted by the best telescope ; and that, during this interval, the
succession of colours above-mentioned is performed. But our author, in conse-
quence of his hypothesis, says, that this succession of colours may be perceived
for the space of 3'2' after the first emersion of the satellite ; and Mr. S. was fully
satisfied, from repeated observations, that the quantity of time elapsed from the
very first emersion of the satellite, till it is perceived by a good eye, assisted by a
good telescope, can amount only to a very few seconds. So that, on the whole,
we may conclude, that it does not appear, by the observations of the emersions
of the first satellite of Jupiter, that the rays of different colours move with dif-
ferent degrees of velocity.
But our author's conclusion, that, if the rays of light emitted from Jupiter's
satellites, at the time of their immersion and emersion, should not be found of
different colours, the rays of all colours emitted from luminous bodies will have
one common velocity, seems only to hold good, on a supposition that light i§,
propagated by a continued motion, in the manner of a projectile. )■.>
Dr. Knight, in his treatise on attraction and repulsion, prop. 69, has con-
sidered the propagation of light, as performed by vibrations in an elastic fluid,
in the same manner as sound is produced by vibrations in the air : and he thinks
that it is as easy to conceive how the velocities of the particles of light may be
different, and yet take up equal times in propagating their motions from one to
another through a given space, as to explain how sounds of different tones move
with equal velocities. In accounting for both, he shows, that in a series of par-
ticles, which mutually repel each other, the greater their velocity, the nearer
they will approach each other, in communicating their motions from one to an-
other ; and consequently each of them must move through a greater space in so
doing : therefore the same time may be spent in propagating a successive motion
through a series of particles, whose velocity is greater, if each particle has to
move through a greater space, as is spent where the velocity of each particle is
less but is continued through a less space. The dilemma, to which our author's
reasoning seems to have reduced the doctrine of refrangibility, may therefore be
considered as a probable argument for adopting this hypothesis of the propagation
of light through an elastic medium.
XXXIX. The Case 0/ the Operation for the Empyema, successfully perjormed
by Joseph Warner, F. R. S., and Surgeon to Guys Hospital, p. 270.
John Collier, aged 17, was admitted into Guy's Hospital on the 10th of May,
1753, on account of a complaint in his chest, which he had laboured under for
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 3Q5
3 or 4 weeks. His symptoms were a continual pain in his left side, a difficulty
in breathing, and an inability of lying on his right side, or of sitting upright,
without greatly increasing his complaints. His pulse was quick, and low ; he
had a short cough, was a good deal emaciated, and appeared sallow in his com-
plexion.
On examination, Mr. W. perceived a small tumor, situated on the anterior
part of the thorax obliquely, on the left side of the extremity of the sternum or
breast-bone. There was not the least discoloration of the integuments. On
pressing on the tumor, his pain and difficulty of breathing were increased, and
there appeared something like a fluctuation under the fingers. He had n6ver
any rigor, which is a symptom generally attending the formation of matter ;
but from experience he had found, that the want of this symptom is no proof of
the contrary.
From the foregoing circumstances, and symptoms, he had no doubt of the
propriety of the operation, which he performed in the following manner : The
patient being properly situated and secured, he began with making an incision of
about '2 inches long through the integuments, and tendinous expansion of the
oblique muscles of the abdomen on the most prominent part of the tumor ; then
he proceeded to make a 2d incision, of an equal length with the former, trans-
versely through the upper part of the rectus muscle, which had a perfect healthy
appearance, directing his knife forwards, between the cartilaginous portions of
the 7th and 8th ribs, into the cavity of the thorax; on which a thick clotted
matter, to the quantity of 23 oz. and upwards, was discharged. After the whole
of the matter was discharged, he introduced the fore-finger of his right hand into
the cavity, with which he evidently felt the lungs quite loose, and free from ad-
hesion, the mediastinum, and superior part of the diaphragm ; which last had
been pressed somewhat lower than its natural situation by the weight of the in-
cumbent matter. Hence it undoubtedly appeared, that this great quantity of
matter was contained in the cavity of the thorax.
After the whole of the matter was discharged, he introduced a linen tent, pro-
perly secured, into the cavity ; which was continued to be introduced every day
for about 3 weeks; now and then, as occasion required, making use of the prepared
sponge-tent. The discharge of matter was considerable for the first week ; then
it began to decrease gradually till, at the end of 3 weeks, there was no discharge
at all. From this time, superficial applications only were made use of. At the
end of 5 weeks he was perfectly well, and soon recovered his former plumpness,
and healthy appearance.
He observes, that, about 2 years before, he received a violent blow on his left
side by a fall ; for which he had little or no care taken of him. He had ever
after this accident had some complaints in his side at times, but not constantly ;
3 £ 2
3y0 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1753.
nor have they ever been so bad, as to prevent his acting in his business as a sailor,
till within a few weeks befoje he applied to Mr. W.
XL. On Infinite Series and Logarithms. By Air. James Dodson. p. 273.
The terms of one of the most simple series, for expressing the logarithm of a
given number, is composed of the powers of the excess of that number above
unity, divided by their respective indices; of which the 1st, Sd, 5th, &c. terms
are affirmative, and the 2d, 4th, 6th, &c. terms are negative ; and the differ-
ence between the sums of the affirmative and the negative terms, is the Neperian,
hyperbolic, or as some call it, the natural logarithm of the given number.
Now a mathematician, who understands the nature and management of series,
(though wholly ignorant of fluxions, or what Dr. Halley, in his investigation
of this very series, published in N° 2l6 of the Philos. Trans, calls ratiunculae,
&c.) might arrive at the same conclusion, in the following manner :
Since the logarithm of 1 is universally determined to be nothing ; that of 2,
3, 4, 10, or any other number, considered as a root, is 1; that of 4, Q, l6,
100, &c. considered as the square of that root, is 2, and so on ; it follows, that
in all cases the logarithm of a greater number will exceed that of its less; and each
logarithm will have some relation to the excess of its number above unity, the
number whose logarithm is nothing : the terms of the series therefore which
will represent the logarithm of any number, will consist of the powers of the
excess of that number, above 1, with some, yet unknown, but constant co-
efficients.
That the logarithm of the square of any number is twice the logarithm of its
root, is a well-known property of those artificial numbers ; and therefore the
doubles of the particular terms of the assumed series will constitute a series ex-
pressing the logarithm of the square of the given number. But by prop. 4,
book 2 of Euclid, the square of any quantity is equal the sum of the squares of
its 2 parts, plus a double rectangle of those parts ; which, in this case (where
the given number has been assumed to consist of I and an excess) will be l plus
twice that excess, plus the square of it.
If therefore the several powers of the compound quantity (twice the excess of
the given number above 1 plus its square) be multiplied by the above assumed co
efficients, and afterwards ranged under each other, according to the powers of
the said excess, their sums will again express the logarithm of the square of the
given number.
Now since the logarithm of the square of the given number may be thus ex-
pressed by 2 infinite series, each constituted of its excess above 1 , and its powers ;
it follows, that the co-efficients of the like powers of that excess, in each series,
will be equal between themselves ; and consequently the values of the unknown
VOL. XLVIII,] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 397
co-efficients may be obtained, by simple equations ; and these co-efficients will,
by the process annexed, appear to be the reciprocals of the several indexes of the
powers of that excess, affected alternately with the signs -|- and — , as was before
found, by the quadrature of the hyperbola, and by Dr. Halley in the above-
cite<l Phil. Trans., and by many who have used a fiuxional process.
But there is another logarithmic series, equally simple with the former, con-
sisting of the same terms, but all affirmative. This has been demonstrated to
be the log-arithm of that fraction, whose numerator is unity, and denominator a
number as much less than unity, as the former number exceeded it. Now if an
infinite series be formed from that fraction, by actual division, it will consist of unity
and all the jKDwers of that defect ; and if the several powers of the excess of this
infinite series above unity, be multiplied by the co-efficients above found, and
ranged according to the powers of that defect, their sums will exhibit the above-
described series for the logarithm of that fraction, as appears by the operation
subjoined.
Secondly, the terms of one of the best series, for the rectification of the circle,
are composed of the odd powers of the tangent of any arc, not exceeding 43°,
severally dividetl by their respective Indexes; of which the 1st, 3d, 5th, &c.
terms are affirmative ; and the 2d, 4th, 6th, &c. terms are negative ; and the
difference between the sums of the affirmative and negative terms, is the length
of that arc, of which the tangent and its powers constitute the series.
Now a mathematician, who understands the nature and management of series,
though wholly ignorant of fluxions, might investigate this series in the following
manner: It has been geometrically demonstrated that, the radius of a circle
being unity, if double the tangent of any arc, be divided by the difference be-
tween unity and the square of that tangent, the quotient will be the tangent of
twice the arc. Now if an infinite series be formed by actual division, its terms
will consist of the doubles of the odd powers of" the tangent, and will be all affir-
mative ; which series will express the length of the tangent of the double of that
arc whose tangent and its powers constitute the same.
If a series, consisting of the tangent and its powers, with unknown co-effi-
cients, be assumed, as in the former case, to express the length of the arc ; then
the length of double that arc may be expressed 1 ways ; viz. either by multiplying
each term of the series assumed by the number 2 ; or by finding the powers of
the series above described, which exhibits the length of the tangent of the double
arc, multiplying each power by its proper co-efficient, ranging the products under
each other, according to the powers of the tangent of the single arc, and finding
their sum. Now, since the length of the double arc may be thus expressed by 2
infinite series, each constituted of the tangent of the single arc and its powers ;
therefore the co-efficients of the like powers of that tangent, in each series, will
398 FHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1753.
be equal between themselves ; and consequently the values of the unknown co-
efficients may be obtained by simple equations.
Lastly, since the series, which gives the length of the tangent of the double
arc, consists only of the odd powers of the tangent of the single arc, therefore
none of its even powers can range with it : now these will not occur in the odd
powers of that series ; and therefore the series assumed to express the length of
the single arc, whose double is to be compared with the sum of the former, must
consist only of the odd powers of that tangent ; and then the series first men-
tioned results from the operation, as will appear by examining the same, as
hereto annexed. -
The operation necessary to find the co-efficients of a series, which will express
the logarithm of a given number, is as below.
If the given number be represented by 1 -f- «, thep the following series may
be assumed to represent its logarithm :
viz. n -\- xn^ -\- yn^ -{• zn* -f- wn' ■\- &c.
and In -f Ixri^ ■\- lyn^ + Izn* -\- lurv' -\- &c. will represent the logarithm of
the square of that number ; viz. of 1 -j- 2n -|- nn.
But, because In -\- nn is the excess of 1 -j- 2ra -j- wn above unity, therefore its
logarithm will be also expressed by
(2n -\-nn) -\- X {2n -|- nnf -\- y {in -\- nnf -|- z (2n -j- nn)* &c.
Now (2n -\- nny = Ann -f An^ -\- n*
(2w -I- nnf = 8w' -f- 12n* -f- 6n' + &c.
(2n + nny = l6n* + 32ra' -|- &c.
(2n + nny = ' 32w' + &c.
Therefore,
2n -\- nn = 2n -\- nn
X {in -]- nny = Axnn -f- Axn^ -\- xn*
y{ln + nny= 6yn^ + Xlyn* + Qyn"" -\- he.
2 {In -{■ nny = l6zn* + 32zn' -j- &c.
u (2n -1- nny = 32un' -\- &c.
And the sum of these is equal to the logarithm of the square of 1 -|- n.
If an equation be formed, of the co-efficients of n% in each of these expres-
sions of the logarithm of that square, then 2x = 1 -|- 4ar ; hence — ±. = x.
And, by proceeding in the same manner with the co-efficients of n^, n*, n*, &c.
and supplying the places of x, y, z, &c. as they arise, by the numbers so found,
we shall have
2y= — i + 6yi hence -\-^ = y;
2z = — 4- 4- V' + l6z; hence — ± = z;
2u= i — V + 32m; hence -\- -l. = u;
VOL. XLVIIl.]
PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS.
399
Consequently, the logarithm of 1 -|- n will be expressed by n — -^ n* + ^ n*—
•J- n* + -}- n", &c. as above asserted.
Again, since ~ ^ = 1 -f- n ^ n^ ^ n^ ^ n* -{■ v} -\- &c. as appears by actual
division. And, since the excess of that series above unity, is the series
7J + w'^ + n' + n* &c.
Therefore the logarithm of —— will consist of the sums of the powers of that
series, multiplied by the above-found co-efficients -|-, — ^, -f ^, — -j., + ^, &c.
r^l u. ?? r n' + 1n^ + ^n* + 4n\ &c.
r? -\- 3n* -I- 6n^ &c.
•St \ n* + 4w^ &c.
L5j*- L n', &c.
Now the<^U ^f.^
And,
TT
+^
^
■*
n+ n" -f- w^ -I- n* +
1
— in — -l-n' — fn — 4-n',
+ i"' + fn' + ^n\
&c.
&c.
&c.
— in' — -J-7r, &c.
+ i"', &c.
The sums of which, viz. 71 + in* + -^n^ + ^n" -f -fn', &c. will be the loga-
rithm of- , as above affirmed.
1 — n'
The operation necessary to find the co-eiRcients of a series, which will express
the length of the arc of a circle, by the tangent of that arc, and its powers, is as
follows :
Let a represent the length of the arc, and t its tangent ; then the tangent of
that arc whose length is 2a, will be^-^; which fraction is equal to the infinite
series, 'It -f 2t^ -j- 2t^ + 21^ -{- 2t^, &c. by division. And by performing the
necessary multiplications, or divisions, it will also appear, that
8t^ -I- 24t' + 48<'' + 80^^ &C.
M — tt'
^1 —tt'
i--y=
{---r =
32t'-{- 160 f + 480/^ &C.
I28t' -\- 896/', &c.
512/^ &c.
Now if we assume, for the value of a, the following series, i + ari' -f- y^ -f.
zf + ufi, &c. Then 2t + 2xi^ + 2yt' + 2zf -f 2ut^, &c. = 2a.
And because — — is the tangent of the arc whose length is 2a, therefore
J^J^x l-^^f + y i-^^y + z {-^y &c. = 2a.
400
VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS.
[anno 175s.
Which expression is equivalent to the sum of the following series ; for
it
~-j^ = 2t-\-2e+ ie + 2/' + 2/», &c.
2t
21
z(——y
^1 — tt'
2t
128zt' + 8Q6zt^, &c.
512«<», &c.
And, by making an equation between 2x, the co-efficient of t* in the first
found value of 2a, and 2 -f 8t, the sum of the co-efficients of l^ in the latter,
gives 2ar = 2 -|- 6x; hence — -j- = ar.
And by proceeding in the same manner with the co-efficients of /*, f, t", &c.
and supplying the places of x, y, z, &c. as they arise, by the numbers so found.
u (— — )9 =
we shall have
23,= 2 -V+ 323,;
2^=2-^-|-^-f 128z;
hence y = -)- 4-.
hence z = — \.
2M = 2-V-j-*-|?- 52^-1-5 12m; hence m = -|- i-
Therefore we may conclude that t
i<' +
.f -j- ^<«, &c. = a.
When the arc is just 45 degrees, then < = 1 , and the series becomes t — -r +
4- — -f -|- -^, &c. which converges exceedingly slow ; but, by the assistance of a
method, given in the appendix to M. de Moivre's Miscellanea Analytica, it may
be transformed to another, converging quicker ; which method is applied to this
very series, in folio 362 of the Mathematical Repository, vol. i.
XLI. A Letter from John Lining, M.D. of Charlestown, South-Carolina, con-
cerning the Quantity qf Rain fallen there from Jan. 1738, to Dec. 1752.
p. 284.
As there are thunder-gusts here in the Months, The Means
&c.
hot months, in which a vast quantity of j^^ ' ^
rain falls, the depth of the rain in these
months is greatly increased; for there
is very little rain, excepting in thunder-
showers. Thus, on June 30, 1750, in
a thunder-storm, there fell, in 24 hours,
5.335 inches of rain. On September
16, 1751, there fell, in 24 hours (but the greatest part in 6 hours) 9.955
inches of rain. On Sept. 15, 1752, during the time of the most violent hurri-
cane that was ever felt in this town, the depth of rain which fell, was only 3.740
Feb. . .
March
April .
May . .
June . .
July . .
Aug. .
Sept. . .
326'
3.389
3 024
1.721
3.655
5.000
6.149
7..>30
6'. 343
Months, The Means.
&c.
Oct 3.049
Nov 2.229
Dec 3.684
Spring 8.<68
Summer . . 14.804
Autumn .. 16.913
Winter • •. . H.340
Total Depth 48.023
VOL XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIOKS. 401
inches, and the greatest part of that was the spray of the sea. And the mean
quantity for each month of the aforesaid 13 years, is as in the margin annexed.
XLII. On the Fossil found at Dudley in Staffordshire, and described in the Phil.
Trans. N° 496. Bij Mr. Emanuel Mendez da Costa, F.R.S. p. 286.
The famous fossil, which Dr. Lyttelton showed to the r. s. some time ago from
Dudley, and which is described in N" 496 of the Trans, caused many arguments
as to what class of animals it belonged-^ Dr. Pococke afterwards produced 2 or 3
specimens of it extended, which provdi it to be of the crustaceous tribe of ani-
mals. But none of his specimens being very perfect, M. da Costa here sends
a fair specimen of the said fossil extended, from the iron mines at Colnbrook-dale
in Shropshire, and which determines him to pronounce it to be the remains of a
crustaceous animal, of that kind called pediculi marini, which are scaled all
round, and can at will roll themselves up : and this particular kind may be justly
denominated pediculus marinus major trilobos. See fig. 8, pi. Q.
Though he before thought it not described by any English author, yet he finds
it described and figured, though badly, by Mr. Edw. Lhuyd, in his Lithophy-
lacium Britannicum Ichnographicum, Epist. 1, p. 96, table 22 ; who found them
in plenty in quarries, juxta aedes nob. v. D. Gryfidii Rice de Newton, arm. prope
oppidum Sancti Teilavii, in comitatu Maridunias. He calls it buglossa curta
strigosa. He also gives the figure of it without any description, in the Phil.
Trans. N° 243.
XLJIl. Letters relating to a Theorem of Mr. Euler, of the Royal yfcad. of Sci-
ences at Berlin, and F. R. S. for Correcting the Aberrations in the Object-
Glasses of Refracting Telescopes, p. 287.
Letter L From Mr. James Short, F.R.S. to Peter Daval, Esq. F.R.S. Dated
April Q, 1752. p. 287.
There is published, in the Memoirs of the Royal Acad, at Berlin, for the year
1747, a theorem by Mr. Euler, in which he shows a method of making object-
glasses of telescopes, in such a manner, as not to be aflTected by the aberrations
arising from the different refrangibility of the rays of light ; these object-glasses
consisting of tv/o meniscus lenses, with water between them.
Mr. John Dollond, who is an excellent analyst and optician, has examined
the said theorem, and has discovered a mistake in it, which arises by assuming
an hypothesis contrary to the established principles of optics ; and in consequence
of this Mr. Dollond has sent me the inclosed letter, which contains the disco-
very of the said mistake, and a demonstration of it.
In order to act in the most candid manner with Mr. Euler, I have proposed
VOL. X. 3 F
402 FHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
to Mr. Dollond to write to him, showing him the mistake, and desiring to know
his reasons for that hypothesis ; and therefore I desire, that this letter of Mr.
Dollond's to me may be kept among the Society's papers, till Mr. Eiiler has had
a sufficient time to answer Mr. Dollond's letter to him.
Letter II. From Mr. John Dollond to James Short, A. M., F. R. S. concerning
a Mistake in M, Eulers Theorejii for Correcting the Aberrations in the Object-
glasses of Refracting Telescopes. Dated March \ I, 1752. p. 289.
The famous experiments of the prism, first tried by Sir Isaac Newton, suffi-
ciently convinced that great man, that the perfection of telescopes was impeded
by the different refrangibility of the rays of light, and not by the spherical figure
of the glasses, as the common notion had been till that time ; which put the
philosopher on grinding concave metals, in order to come at that by reflexion,
which he despaired of obtaining by refraction. For, that he was satisfied of the
impossibility of correcting the aberration by a multiplicity of refractions, appears
by his own words, in his treatise of Light and Colours, Book i. part 2, prop. 3.
" I found moreover, that when light goes out of air through several contiguous
mediums, as through water and glass, as often as by contrarj' refractions it is so
corrected, that it emerges in lines parallel to those in which it was incident, con-
tinues ever after to be white. But if the emergent rays be inclined to the inci-
dent, the whiteness of the emerging light will by degrees, in passing on from the
place of emergence, becomes tinged in its edges with colours."
It is therefore somewhat strange, that any person should now attempt to do
that, which so long ago has been demonstrated impossible. But, as so great a
mathematician as Mr. Euler has lately published a theorem * for making object-
glasses, that should be free from the aberration arising from the different refran-
gibility of light, the subject deserves a particular consideration. I have there-
fore carefully examined every step of his algebraic reasoning, which I have found
strictly true in every part. But a certain hypothesis in p. 285 appears to be des-
titute of support either from reason or experiment, though it be there laid down
as the foundation of the whole fabric. This gentleman puts m : 1 for the ratio
of refraction out of air into glass of the mean refrangible rays, and m : 1 for that
of the least refrangible. Also for the ratio of refraction out of air into water of
the mean refrangible rays he puts nil, and for the least refrangible n : 1 . As
to the numbers, he makes m = 4-l, m = x^, and n = 4; which so far answer
well enough to experiments. But the difficulty consists in finding the value of n
in a true proportion to the rest.
Here the author introduces the supposition above-mentioned ; which is, that
• Vide Meraoires of the Royal Acad, of Berlin for the year 1747.— Orig.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 403
m is the same power of m, as m is of* n; and therefore puts n = m', and n — m'.
Whereas, by all the experiments that have hitherto been made, the proportion
will come out thus, m — \ : n — l::m — m:« — n.
The letters fixed on by Mr. Euler, to represent the radii of the 4 refracting
surfaces of his compound object-glass, are_/, g, h, k, and the distance of the
object he expresses by a ; then will the focal distance be =
— y — iYT — 7x — xTI — x\ — i — TTT Now, says he, it is evident, that the different
refrangibility of the rays would make no alteration, either in the place of the
image, or in its magnitude, if it were possible to determine the radii of the four
surfaces, so as to have n (^ — i) + jw ( j- — ;^ -j- f — f ) = n (f — i) -|- m ( j- —
^ -}- X — i)- And this I shall readily grant. But when the surfaces are thus
proportioned, the sum of the refractions will be = O; that is to say, the emer-
gent rays will be parallel to the incident. For, if w (-^ — \) -\- m {f — 7 + i — i)
= N (t - i) + M (^ - t + i - i), then ,2-N(t-i)+m-M(t-t +
■J- — i) = O. Also if ?i — N : m — M :: n — 1 : m—1, then n — 1 {f — i") + w— 1
(^ - t + i - i) = O; or otherwise „{f - i) + m {} - ^ + i - i) - ^ +
■J- = O; which reduces the denominator of the fraction expressing the focal dis-
tance to X. Hence the focal distance will be = a ; or, in other words, the image
will be the object itself. And as, in this case, there will be no refraction, it will
be easy to conceive how there should be no aberration.
And now Sir I think I have demonstrated, that Mr. Euler's theorem is entirely
founded on a new law of refraction of his own ; but that, according to the laws
discovered by experiment, the aberration arising from the different refrangibility
of light at the object-glass, cannot be corrected by any number of refractions
whatever.
Lefter III.* From Mr. Euler to Mr. James Short, F.R.S. Dated Berlin,
June 19, 1752. p. 292.
MoNS.
Vous m'avez fait un tres sensible plaisir, en ayant dispose M. Dollond de re-
mettre la proposition de ses objections contre mes verres objectifs, jusqu' a ceque
j'y aurois repondu, et je vous en suis infiniment oblige. Je prends done la li-
berte de vous addresser ma reponse a lui, en vous priant, apr^s I'avoir dalgnee de
votre examen, de la vouloir bien lui remettre : et en cas que vous jugiez cette
matiere digne de I'attention de la Societe Royale, je vous prierois de lui commu-
niquer les preuves detaillees de ma theorie, que j'ai exposee dans cette lettre.
Cependant j'espere, que M. Dollond en sera satisfait, puisque je tombe d'accord
* As these letiersr are on nice controveri>ial matters, it is considered safer and more satisfactory to
gire them in their original language.
3 F 2
404 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
avee lui du peu de succes, qu'on sauroit se promettre de mes objectifs, en les
travaillant selon la maniere ordinaire.
Letter IF. From M. Euler to Mr. Dollond. Dated Berlin, June 15, 1752.
p. 293.
Etant tres sensible a I'honneur que vous me faites, au siijet des verres objectifs,
que j'avois propose, j'ai celui de vous inarquer d'abord ingenumen, que j'ai ren-
contre aussi ici les plus grands obstacles dans I'execution de ce dessein, vu qu'il
s'agit de quatre faces, qui doivent etre travaillees exactement selon les proportions
que j'avois trouvees: cependant ayant fait les experiences sur quelquesuns, qui
parurent le mieux reussi, nous avons trouve, que rintervalle entre les deux foyers
des rayons rouges et violets etoit beaucoup plus petit, qu'il ne seroit d'un verre
simple de la meme distance focale. Neant-moins je dois avolier, qu'un tel verre,
quand meme il bien seroit parfaitement execute sur mes principes, auroit d'autres
defauts, qui le mettroient au dessous meme des verres ordinaires; c'est qu'un tel
verre n'admet qu'un tres petite ouverture en consequence des grandes courbures,
qu'on doit donner aux faces interieures: desorte que lorsqu'on donne une ouver-
ture ordinaire, I'image devient tres confus.
Ainsi puisque vous vous etes donne la peine, monsieur, d'executer de tels
verres, en en faisant des experiences,* je vous prie de bien distinguer les defauts,
qui peuvent naitre de la diverse refrangibilite des rayons, de ceux, qui viennent
d'une trop grande ouverture : pour cet eftet vous n'aurez qu'a laisser une tres pe-
tite ouverture.
Or si ma theorie etoit juste, dont j'aurai bientot I'honneur de parler, il seroit
moyen de remedier a ce defaut ; il faudroit renoncer a la figure spherique qu'on
donne ordinairement aux faces des verres, et tacher de leur donner une autre
figure, et j'ai remarque que la figure d'une parabole leur procureroit I'avantage,
qu'ils admettroient une ouverture tres considerable. Notre savant M. Lieberkuhn
s'est appliqu^ ^ travailler des verres dont la courbure des faces decroit depuis le
milieu vers le bords, et il s'en est aperqu de tres grands avantages. Par ces rai-
sons je crois, que ma theorie ne soufFre encore rien de ce cote.
Pour la theorie, je conviens avec vous, monsieur, que posant la raport de re-
fraction d'un milieu dans un autre quelconque pour les rayons moyens comme m
^ I, et pour les rayons rouges comme Mai, la raison de m — m a /« — l sera
toujours si a peu pres constant, qu'elle satisfera a toutes les experiences, comme
la grand Newton a remarque. Cette raison ne differe non plus de ma theorie
que presque imperceptiblement; car puisque je soutiens que m = to , et que m
* Mr. Dollond, in his letter to Mr. Euler, here referred to, does not say that he had made any
trials himself, but only he had understood that such had been made by others, without success. — Orig.
VOL. XLVIll.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 405
diftere ordinairement fort pen de I'linite, soit m = 1 + «; et puisque m := wi''=
1 + a Im 'k peu pres, et / ( 1 + w) =. lm=. u, aussi fort a peu pres, j'aurai m -
M = 1 + w - 1 - aw = (1 - a) w, et 7« - 1 =: w, donc la raison -^^^ — sera = l «
^ m — 1 '
oil fort a peu pres constante. Dela je concluds, que les experiences d'ou le grand
Newton a tire son raport, ne sauroient eti-e contraires a ma theorie.
En second lien, je conviens aussi que si la raison "' ~ = constant etoit
m — 1
juste k la rigueur, il n'y auroit plus moyen de remedier au defaut qui resulte de
la diverse refrangibilite des rayons, de quelque maniere qu'on disposeroit divers
milieux transparens, et que I'intervalle entre les divers foyers tiendroit toujours un
raport constant a la distance focale entiere du verre. Mais c'est precisement cette
consideration, qui me fournit le plus fort argument: I'oeil me paroit une telle
machine dioptrique parfaite, qui ne se ressent en aucune maniere de la diverse
refrangibilite des rayons: quelque petite que soit sa distance focale, sa sensibilite
est si grande, que les divers foyers, s'il y en avoit, ne manqueroient pas de troubler
tres considerablcment la vision. Or il est bien certain, qu'un oeil bien constitue
ne sent point I'effet de la diverse refrangibilite.
La structure merveilleux de I'oeil, et les diverses humeurs, dont il est compose,
me confirnie infiniment dans ce sentiment. Car s'il s'agissoit seulement de pro-
duire une representation sur le fond de I'oeil, une seule humeur auroit ete suffi-
sante; et le createur n'y auroit pas surement employe plusieurs. Dela je concluds,
qu'il est possible d' aneantir I'effet de la diverse refrangibilite des rayons par une
juste arrangement de plusieurs milieux transparens, donc puisque cela ne seroit
pas possible, si la formule --^-^ = constant etoit vraye a la rigueur, j'en tire la
conseqvience qu'elle n'est pas parfaitement conforme a la nature.
Mais voila une preuve directe de ma these: je conqois divers milieux trans-
parens, A, B, c, D, E, etc. qui different entr'eux egalement par raport a leur den-
site optique : desorte que la raison de refraction de chacun dans le suivant soit le
meme. Soit donc dans le passage du premier dans le second la raison de refrac-
tion pour les rayons rouges = r : 1 , et pour les violets = v : \ ; qui sera la meme
dans le passage du second dans le troisieme, de celuicy dans le quatrieme, du
quatrieme dans le cinquieme, et ainsi de suite. Del^ il est clair, que dans le
passage du premier dans le troisieme sera = /'- : 1 pour les rayons rouges, et =
v^ : 1 pour les violets : de meme dans le passage du premier dans le quatrieme les
raisons seront r^ : 1 et f^ : 1 .
Donc si dans le passage dans un milieu quelconque la raison de refraction des
rayons rouges est = r" : 1, celle des rayons violets sera = d" : ] ; tout cela est
parfaitement confjnne aux principes du grand Newton. Posons r" = r, et ?;" =
V, desorte que r : 1, et v : 1 expriment les raisons de refraction des rayons rouges
et violets dans un passage quelconque: et ayant nlr = /r, et nlv = /v, nous
406 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO J 753.
/r Ir
aurons Ir: Ir := l\ : Iv, ou -- = -. Ou bien mettes v = r~, et k cause de /v =
»lr, on aura — = -, ou h = alR, et partant v = r .
Voila done le fondement du principe, que j'ai employe dans ma piece, qui me
paroit encore inebranlable; cependant j'en soumets la decision a 1' illustre Societe
Royale, et 4 votre jugement en particulier, ayant I'honneur d'etre avec la plus
parfaite consideration, Monsieur, &c. &c.
XLIF. A remarkable Case of Fragility, Flexibilily, and Dissolution, of the
Bones. By John Pringle, M.D., F. R.S. p. 297.
Mary Hayes, of Stoke-Holy-Cross, near Norwich, gave the following account,
June 21, 1752. That she was born Jan. ] 1, 17 18, and never married, nor was
addicted to any kind of intemperance; that her father was unhealthy a great
part of his life, but she knew not what disease he was subject to; that her mo-
ther died when she was a child; but she did not remember having ever heard of
her being unhealthy; that she herself was always considered as a healthy strong
girl, till about 15 years of age; then fell jnto the green-sickness, and took va-
rious medicines, to no purpose ; that this disease, as far as she could recollect,
was all she had to complain of; doing the ordinary work in a farmer's house, till
October 1748; she then was seized with pain universally, attended with feverish
symptoms. Thus she continued some weeks; after which the pain was chiefly
confined to her thighs and legs, but not increased by external pressure. In Sep-
tember 1 749, she broke her leg, as she was walking from the bed to her chair,
without falling down, and heard the bones snap. The fracture was properly
treated, and regard had to her disposition; but no callus was generated, the
bones growing flexible from the knee to the ancle in a few months, as did those
of her other leg. Soon after, those of her thighs were visibly afl^ected in like
manner. Both legs arid thighs then became very cedematous, and subject to
excoriate, discharging a thin yellow ichor. The winter after breaking her leg,
she had symptoms of the scurvy, and bled much at the gums.
Many eminent physicians, who were of opinion that this disease of the bones
might arise from acidity abounding in the blood, prescribed for her, but without
efiect; unless the regularity of her menstruation for the last 18 jnonths may be
attributed to a chalybeate medicine; though medicines of that nature had no
such effect formerly, when she was in a condition to take exercise, and regularly
persisted in the use of them.
For some considerable time past she had found little alteration in her com-
plaints in general; thought her appetite and digestion rather better, but that the
difficulty of breathing, which she had long laboured under, gradually increased;
and the thorax appeared so much straitened, as necessarily impeded the expan-
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTION8. 407
sion of the lungs. Her spine became much distortetl; any motion of the ver-
tebrae of her loins gave extreme pain; and her thighs and legs were become en-
tirely useless; which wholly confined her to her bed, in a sitting posture: and
the bones she rested on, having lost their solidity, were much spread. Also the
ends of her fingers and thumbs, by frequent endeavours to lift herself up for
ease, became very broad and flat. Then she measured but 4 feet; though, be-
fore this disease came on her, she was about 5^ feet high, and well shaped.
This is the best information that could be obtained from her own mouth, and
what was observed in the case before, and at the first-mentioned time, when she
readily consented to the examination of her body, &c. after death.
From that time to her death, which happened Feb. 6, 1753, the chief thing
she complained of, and what the people about her observed, was a gradual in-
crease of difficulty of breathing; a wasting of her flesh; a cessation of her men-
struation for the last 4 months; a tendency in her legs to mortify, which had
long been anasarcous, and excoriated almost all over; she retaining her senses
perfectly to the last moment of her life, and dying without showing the least
signs of the agonies of death.
Two days after death, her limbs being first well stretched out, she was exactly
measured, and found wanting of her natural stature more than 2 feet 2 inches.
Then the thorax and abdomen were opened, the sternum being entirely removed,
with part of the ribs, in order to gain at once a full view of those cavities, and
discover how the viscera there contained had obstructed each other in their re-
spective functions. The heart and lungs were sound, but flaccid, and much
confined in their motion; to which the enormous size of the liver contributed in
some measure, extending quite across the abdomen, and bearing hard against
the diaphragm. The lungs did not adhere to the pleura : nor was the liver scir-
rhous, but faulty only in its bulk. The mesentery was sound, except only one
large scirrhous gland on it. The spleen extremely small. Nothing else was
found observable in those cavities.
The skull was not opened, to examine the brain, as intended, through want
of time, the minister waiting at church for interment, and the relations becom-
ing impatient; but the operators had no reason to suspect any defect there, from
any previous complaint.
All her bones were more or less affected, and scarcely any would resist the
knife; those of the head, thorax, spine, and pelvis, nearly to the same degree
of softness; those of the lower extremities much more dissolved than those of
the upper, or of any other part. They were cut quite through their whole
length, without turning the edge of the knife, and much less resistance was found,
than firm muscular flesh would have made; being changed into a kind of paren-
408 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
chymous substance, like soft dark coloured liver, only meeting here and there
with bony laminae, thin as an egg-shell.
Those bones were most dissolved which, in their natural state, were most
compact, and contained most marrow in their cavities; and the heads of them
were least dissolved. This perhaps is the more worthy observation, as it held
good throughout, and looks as if the wonderful change they had undergone
might be caused by the marrow having acquired a dissolving quality ; for it was
evident that the dissolution began withinside, from the bony laminae remaining
here and there on the outside, and no where else, and the pain not being in-
creased at first by external pressure.
The periosteum was thicker than ordinary: the cartilages rather thinner; but
no where in a state of dissolution like the bones. The day after this examina-
tion, some of the whole substance of the leg and thigh bones, that was entirely
dissolved into a kind of pulp, was sent to an ingenious chemist; and, by the
experiments which he made, he said he could discover neither acid nor alkali
prevailing in it.
XLV. Astronomical Observations made in Surry-street, London. By J. Bevis,
M. D., and James Short, A. M, F. R. S. p. 301.
Eclipse of Venus by the moon, apparent time, July 26, 1753.
J gh 2"^ 1 7^ Venus totally hid by the moon.
17 5 6. . Her northern cusp emerged ; and, a few seconds after, her
southern one.
5 31.. Venus was totally emerged. All these with a reflector of 2 feet focus.
Then her diameter was found to be 324^*, with a new kind of
micrometer; and also with one of Mr. Graham's sort, in a 2
feet Gregorian reflector.
Eclipse of Mars by the moon, Aug. 20.
17 Q 49^ The moon's consequent limb passed the meridian.
8 4. . Mars's centre passed the meridian.
His diameter then, with both micrometers, 13^.
The moon's diameter 31' 21".
18 6 39t Mars totally hid by the moon with a reflector of 4 feet focus.
Occultation of (3 Capricorni by the moon, Oct. 5.
7 16 50. .The moon's preceding limb passed the meridian.
20 4. . A small star, which preceded (3, passed the meridian.
'20 1 9. (3 passed the meridian.
Presently after, the moon's diameter ^sas found to be ig' 48",
with the new micrometer, applied to a reflector of 2 feet focus.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. AOQ
gh 2i"» 3' The small Star eclipseil by the moon.
28 48. . |3 eclipsed by the moon.
g 48 24. . |3 emerged from the moon.
Eclipse of the sun, Oct. 25.
20 30 10. .The eclipse had been some time begun; but, for clouds, could
not be seen till now ; when the distance between the cusps,
measured with the new micrometer, applied to a 2 feet reflector,
was 12' 264-".
21 15 23. . The distance between the cusps 29' 49''.
18 6. . The distance between the visible limbs of the sun and moon 1 1' 32".
22 18 56. . The distance between the cusps 24' J 2-J-''-
The day before, about 10 in the morning, the sun's horizontal diameter was
32' 17".
These measures were all taken when the sun continued visible but for a few
seconds, through the interstices of flying clouds; and yet from the nature of this
micrometer, they may be very safely relied on : though it would have been im-
possible to have catched any one of them vvith the common micrometer.
The principle on which this most excellent instrument is constructed, was laid
before this Society last May : and it is to be hoped that Mr. Dollond will evince
the certainty of its measurements, from the least to the greatest angle it is capable
of comprehending; and that, under every consideration of reflexion as well as
refraction by spherical surfaces; so as to leave no room for such objections or
cavils, as otherwise may probably be brought against it. For our own parts, we
are fully satisfied of the justness of it, from a great variety of trials and compa-
risons. That which we have hitherto used, is the first that has been made of
the kind: and might perhaps have been better constructed in some respects,
though in nothing material.
Applied to a reflector of only 2 feet, the scale is as large as the common mi-
crometer can have in a 40-foot refractor; and all is done without the help of
screws or wires; so that there is no need of illuminating. In virtue of such a
scale it is, that even fractions of seconds may be depended on : as we have found,
by often repeated trials on the diameters of the planets. These, as well as small
distances of stars, may be measured in all directions, with equal and almost
incredible facility, without a polar axis; as well out of doors, in a rough wind,
as within.
XLVI. Concerning a Ciusttr- Polype,* found in the Sea near the Coast of
Greenland. By Mr. John Ellis, p. 305.
This marine production, sent him by Mr. Collinson, appears to be an animal,
* Vorticella encrinus. Linn. Peiinatula encrinus. Linn. Gmel.
VOL. X. 3 G
410 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
not a vegetable, being a species of cluster-polype, consisting of many bodies
unitfed at one common base. This specimen appears to have 23 distinct ones;
he saw another, tliat was taken at the same time, that had between 30 and 40.
Each body is furnished at the top with 8 arms or tentacula, which expand them-
selves in the fonn of a star. Each arm is again furnished on each side with a
row of small fibres, which seem to do the office of fingers. In the centre of
the 8 arms appears the mouth, surrounded by 6 little semicircular lips standing
upright.
On dissecting one of the bodies lengthwise, it appeared to consist of a strong
muscle, contracted into little waves or wrinkles. In the little cavities of these
are sundry small seed-like particles, perhaps the spawn of the animal: when
magnified, they appeared of a spherical form, a little compressed. To the centre
of the base, where the cluster of polypes unite, and make one body, there
grows a four-square bony stem of 6 feet long, having 4 grooves, one on each
side. At the joining to the fleshy part, the bony stem is very small, and a little
twisted, like the turn of a screw, extending a membrane like a bladder, for
about 2 or 3 inches in length, and nearly an inch in breadth, from the fleshy part
downwards. The membrane then begins to close insensibly, and becomes a cuti-
cular covering to the bony stem, which now increases gradually, till it becomes
a quarter of an inch square. Within 5 or 6 inches of the bottom of the stem
the bony part begins to grow smaller, till it comes to a point; and the cuticular
part becomes cartilaginous, and supplies this tapering part with a quantity of this
elastic substance, equal to the deficiency of the bone. The use of this mem-
brane, or bladder-like skin at the top of the stem, may possibly be intended to
give the animal a power to raise and fall itself in the water at pleasure. It ap-
pears from the twist in one part of the stem, that the stem, when very small,
and not so bony, had met with some violence, that had turned it out of its direc-
tion; the mark of which has still grown on with it: for the stem of the other
specimen, taken at the same time, was quite even.
On cutting it across, they discovered the distinct laminae to each angle, rising
from a small point in the centre, and separated by a cross, that joins the opposite
grooves. On putting a thin shaving of it into vinegar, a strong eftervescence
was immediately raised, which dissolved the gritty or coralline part, and disco-
vered the fine membranes that enclosed it. These two substances seem to com-
pose this bony, ivory, or coral-like stem.
The disposition of the polypes, with regard to each other, is represented by a
cross section in pi. Q, fig. f, where 10 occupy the outward circle, g are in the
next, and 4 are in the centre.
Mr. Ellis learned that it was taken in the latitude of 79° north; which is
within 11° of the pole, and 80 English miles from the coast of Greenland, by
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 411
Captain Adriaanz, commander of the Britannia, wliile he was on the whale
fishery last summer. The captain sounding one day in very deep water 236 fa-
thom, 2 of them clung to his line. He says the arms or tentacula of the polypes
were of a bright yellow colour, and fully extended, when he brought them to
the surface of the water; and made a most agreeable figure, like a fine full-blown
flower, which the captain took them for. Mr. Ellis further observes, that the
encrinos, or the lilium lapideum of the curious in fossils, so little known before,
is thought to be of this class.
Rejtrenct's to the figures in pi. Q. — A, the clustered polype in its natural size,
extending itself; b, the same polype, as it was received, after it had been soaked
in water, and the tentacula laid straight; a, the polype in miniature, with its
stem of bone or ivory ; c, part of the ivory stem twisted ; d, the lower part of
the stem, covered with a cartilage ; e, the cartilage opened, to show the tapering
of the bony part ; f, the cross section, to show the position of the several bodies
of the polype; h, the cross section of the bony stem magnified; g, one of the
bodies cut open, to show its internal muscular form; 1, the eggs or spawn in the
natural size; l, the same magnified; i, the cuticular covering, which is con-
tinued from the bladder at m to the cartilage at e, or from one end of the stem
to the other; n, the indented muscular base, where the bodies of the polype all
unite; k, a figure of the encrinos, or lilium lapideum, from Rosinus.
XLFIL Extracts of two Letters from Father Gaubil, of the Society of Jesus, at '
Pekin in China, translated from the French. Dated Pekin, Nov. 2, 1732.
p. 309. 1 . To the R. S.
The Chinese, without being consummate, or even passable astronomers, might
be capable of obseiTing an eclipse, and of making observations on it, and of
looking on the shadow of the gnomon of a sun-dial. The knowledge, which
they had from time immemorial of the rectangle triangle, and of its principal
properties, might easily teach them a thousand curious things in geometry, with-
out knowing the theory of trigonometry.
The Chinese, from time immemorial, knew the passage of the sun in the
ecliptic ; they knew the stars ; they had globes and hemispheres ; and, by means
of divers practices and precepts, received from their ancients, without any great
knowledge of spherical trigonometry, might be able on the globe itself to resolve
many problems. We ought to conclude, that our ancients were possessed of
several kinds of knowledge, received from the patriarchs, and transmitted to the
Chinese. Without these kinds of knowledge, and these traditions, by mere ob-
servations alone, the Chinese could not perform what they did at first. They
never well understood the stations and retrogressions of the planets. Reflections
3g 2
■4X0, PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTXONS. [aNNO 1753.
on the eclipses of the sun and stars taught them anciently, by practice, some-
thing of the parallaxes of the moon.
Every thing was almost forgotten, about the time of Tsin chi hoam, 240 or 246
years before Christ. But it is evident that, before that time, the Chinese must
have known something of the calculations of the eclipses of the sun and moon,
and of some equations for reducing the mean motion to the true, and for calcu-
lating the solstices. Mengtse, a classical author, who wrote before the burning
of their books, mentions clearly enough, part at least of what is here said. They
certainly knew indifferently well the proper motion of the fixed stars ; which
was afterwards forgotten, for want of examining what was extant written in many
books.
On the 15 th of August, an ambassador from the king of Portugal arrived at
Macao, with presents for the emperor of China- The queen-mother of the king
of Portugal ordered the ambassador to desire, that Father Hallerstein, whom she
personally knew, might come to him to Macao, with a mandarin sent by the
emperor. The emperor consented to this without any difficulty, and dispatched
the mandarin and Father Hallerstein to the ambassador. He will be here again
in May. I am of opinion that the reigning emperor will never permit any mis-
sionaries in the provinces ; and that they will find it very difficult to conceal
themselves. But there is no appearance that we shall be sent away from Pekin ;
on the contrary those who shall be sent thither, will be well received, if they
have but the qualifications requisite.
Letter 2. To Mons. De f Isle of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris. Dated
Pekin, Nov. 18, 1751. p. 313.
I had furnished M. Freret with a quantity of memoirs, as I had likewise done
to others, both seculars, and those of our own society. I digested into order all
that I had collected; and, in 1749, sent a complete treatise on the Chinese
chronology, by two different ways, into France. I directed it to M. Freret, and
to the fathers of our society at Paris. It was in 3 parts. I desired them to
communicate it to you, and to Mons. de Mairan. I have had no account of the
arrival of that treatise, in which I had laboured for more than 22 years past. It
seemed to me necessary, on account of the great number of pieces, either printed
or manuscript, which were sent hither on that subject. If I find that my treatise
is lost, I can easily digest it into order again, from the rough draught which I
have by me.
Besides many astronomical observations, which I have punctually sent you,
I have transmitted to you the treatise of Father Duchamp on the Indian astro-
nomy, a collection of ancient approximations and occultations of the stars and
planets, both by each other, and by the moon, and with the moon ; which I
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 413
had collected and made for determining the longitude and latitude of Pekin,
&c. This year I have sent to Paris, by two different ways, a memoir, which
had been desired of me, concerning the isles of Lequoyo, or Licoukicou, which
Kempfer calls Roukou. It is a pretty long one. I had an opportunity of being
well informed about these isles ; but there are many things yet wanting to be
known. To this memoir I have added some remarks concerning the longitude
of Namgazaki, and other places on the south coast of Japan, and the south coast
of Coree, with its distance from Japan, and the island of Touyma, which, in
the map of Father du Halde, is called Touyla Tao, or Touyla. It should be
called Touy Ma. It is the isle Tsutsima. It depends on Japan. I have spoken
here with several Coreans, who have been in that island.
I have already sent to you observations made here to the close of the year
1750, and during this year. I now send you others of 1750; and others I in-
closed to you at large in 1749 and 1750. I wait for some answer from you;
and especially your opinion concerning the manner, in which I ought to dispose
my memoirs concerning the Chinese astronomy. I am resolved to put my last
hand to that work. But memoirs of that kind ought to be examined by persons
intelligent and zealou^like yourself.
At Petersburgh you must undoubtedly have seen what I wrote to Mr. Bayer
about what the Chinese have said concerning the Huns and Turks. Dr. Morti-
mer has written to me, that he had received from a nephew of Mons. Fourmont,
a small piece on the origin of the Turks and Huns, as drawn from the Chinese
books. I shall speak again of that subject in the memoirs which I have of the
history of the great dynasty of Tang. There are a great number of very in-
teresting things on what the Chinese have delivered at that time concerning the
empire of the Persians, and its destruction by the Mahometans; concerning the
Mahometans, and the assistance which they gave to Chinese emperors against
their rebels; concerning the Christian religion, or the Tatsin, but in very ob-
scure terms, concerning the sects and countries of the Indians, Japan, Coree,
Tartary, and the countries between China and the Caspian sea, Thibet, and its
princes. All these particulars may be of considerable service to unravel the
eastern history from the year 500 of Christ to the year 1000 before him, and even
much higher.
There are here a great number of Lamas and Tartars, who have gone from
Lassa, the capital of Thibet, to the lakes and mountains, where the sources of
the Ganges are, and at Latac, &c. in the country to the north of Thibet and
Latac ; but what they say is extremely confused; and this part of geography is
still very little known to us here.
414 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [ ANNO 1753.
XLVIII. A Lfitter of Mr. IVilliam Sherrington to Benjamin Franklin, Esq.
concerning the Transit of Mercury over the Sun, on the 6th of Maij 1753, as
observed in the Island of Antigua. Communicated by Mr. Peter Collinson,
F.R.S. Dated Antigua, June 10, 1753. p. 318.
Sunday, May 6, at 6" 7™ 31% he observed the western limb of Mercury to
touch the western limb of the sun; and, at 6^ 10"" 37% he touched the same
with his eastern limb, and totally disappeared. Lat. of the place 17° O' n. Lon.
by estimation 6l° 45' w. from London. This was taken by a Graham's watch,
and corrected by two altitudes taken by a most exquisite quadrant; which makes
the true apparent time of the transit at 6^ 6™ 32' 32'".
XLIX. Of the Barometer and the State of the fVeather, at Dublin, from March
7, 1752, to Feb. 1753. By James Simon, Esq. F.R.S. p. 320.
This register contains the daily height of the barometer, with the state of the
weather, as to wind, rain, &c. but is of no manner of consequence now.
L. A Second Account of the Netv Method of Opening the Cornea, for taking away
the Cataract. By Samuel Sharp, Surgeon to Guystiospital, and F.R.S.
p. 322.
Mr. S. here gives a short account of the success of his new method of remov-
ing a cataract, with some observations on the principal phenomena attending
this operation ; to which he adds a description of a further improvement of the
operation itself. For a fuller view of the history of these cases, he has here set down
the ages of the patients, the dates of the days on which they underwent the ope-
ration, and the particular circumstance of its being done on one or both eyes.
This was a list of 1 1 patients, from 48 to JO years of age, on whom the opera-
tion had been performed.
From this catalogue it appears, that the operation had been performed on \Q
eyes ; and, from the most exact information, which he had been able to procure,
the state of the success stood thus : ac, ad, af, ag, al, all whom had the ope-
ration performed on both eyes, had every one of them recovered the sight of
both eyes, to as great a perfection as can be supposed, without the help of the
crystalline humour ; that is, they could read and WTite, with proper spectacles.
The first of them, ac, had found so much benefit, as to be able to carry on the
exercise of his profession, that of a surgeon, ah saw with both eyes, hut not so
well as the other 5. He had received an account from the surgeon, who had
attended her (in a distant country), that her eyes looked well, and her sight im-
proved.* ai, another patient, at a distance froln London, had the operation
done on one eye only ; which he recovered, as his correspondent informs him.
VOL. XLVm.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 415
SO as to see tolerably well, am, on one eye only, with which he already sees
very well, ae had it performed on both ; one of which was lost, and the other
recovered ; but continued inflamed, and could not bear nmch light, ab had it
done on one eye only, which was lost.
Both the eyes, in which the operation failed, were destroyed by the subse-
quent inflammation ; but in the case of ab, the ill success was partly owing to
the imperfection of the instrument ; a disadvantage that must frequently attend
on the execution of new attempts. It was the first operation he had performed,
and he had provided a knife with so thin a blade, that after he had passed through
the cornea into the anterior chamber of the eye, the point was so blunted, that,
on endeavouring to carry it through the cornea out on the other side, the blade
bent, and he was apprehensive it might break : however, withdrawing it a little,
he made 2 or 3 efl^brts, and succeeded in the incision, and the removal of the
cataract. During this operation, the aqueous humour being discliarged, and the
patient struggling, he wounded the iris ; which bled profusely, and continued
for several days to discharge a great quantity of blood, and bloody ichor : and
to this accident was imputetl the miscarriage of the operation ; though Mr. Da-
vid aflirnis, that wounds of the iris had been very seldom followed with bad
eflects in his practice.
He had reserved the mention of ak's history to the last, because of its singu-
laritv. She was altogether as blind as those whose cataracts are ripe ; but her's
had the appearance of a beginning cataract, being of a light blue, and but little
opaque. On making the compression, the crystalline did not advance through
the pupil, as in the other instances : and he found, that if he exerted more
force, he should soon evacuate all the vitreous humour. It was evident, by the
great distance of the cataract behind the iris, that this disappointment did not
arise from an adhesion to the iris : however, he had immediately recourse to the
experiment of cutting through the capsula with the point of his knife ; hoping by
that means to have set free the crystalline, but it gave him no assistance. He
then passed the curette (a little scoop) through the pupil, and turned it several
times round, in expectation of breaking the capsula; but found not the least re-
sistance to his instruments ; so that both operations proved ineffectual ; the cir-
cumstances being exactly the same in each eye. He had, in couching, met with
cataracts of this nature ; but had no apprehension that he could not have dis
charged, by the wound of the cornea, the matter of a cataract, in however fluid
a state it might prove.
* Some weeks after this paper was read, Mr. Sharp received an account, that tlie pupils of both
eyes had contracted so much, as hardly to leave room for the admission of light; and it was appre-
hended the patient would soon become blind. — Orig.
4l6 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1753.
Of all the 19, there was not one that escaped an inflammation; whereas, after
couching, there are great numbers who have neither inflammation nor pain.
But it was to be remarked, that notwithstanding the violent inflammation, which
sometimes ensued after the incision of the cornea, even to an enlargement of the
eyelids, and vesication of the tunica conjunctiva, the patient complained rather
of a tenderness of the eye, on touching it, than of pain ; being generally exempt
from those dreadful dartings m the head, which for the most part accompany an
inflammation after couching. And he believed he might assert, that none suf-
fered very much in that particular, except ae ; who was extremely bad, and lost
the eye on that side where the pain was.
It could not, he presumed, be difficult to conceive how these inflammations
should excite such difi'erent symptoms, on reflecting, that in the incision of the
cornea, the cornea only suffers ; and in couching, the conjunctiva, the sclero-
tica, the choroides, and the tunica retina, are punctured; most of which organs
are either tendinous or nervous ; and every surgeon knows the painfulness and
obstinacy of inflammations, when they follow upon wounds and punctures of
tendinous or nervous parts. He had not mentioned, in this comparison, the
violence done to the vitreous humour; because he believed it did not occasion
the subsequent pain; and because it seemed to be often as much or more injured
in the new operation, without inconvenience.
It had not occurred in any of these cases, that the inflammation had been so
slight, as to disappear entirely in a fortnight, or 3 weeks ; most of them re-
quiring 6 weeks, and some longer, for the total removal of them. The first 10
days, or more, the light was generally very offensive ; and he had observed, in
3 or 4 instances, that on forcibly opening the eyelids during that time, the
patient was only sensible of a glare of light, though the eye then appeareri clear,
and he afterwards recovered his sight. Which he mentioned to obviate the me-
lancholy prognostic one would be disposed to make on a first examination. How-
, ever, this was not to be understood as a constant fact ; some patients distinguish-
ing objects immediately from the time of the operation.
It sometimes happens, after this operation, that the pupil loses its circular
figure ; which he imagines is owing to the great tenderness of the iris, which, on
the least violence, is subject to be ruptured ; and he supposes in this operation,
a slight pressure from the back or the flat of the blade may have produced the
accident in the instances alluded to. Possibly the sudden dilatation of the pupil,
from the rapid passage of the cataract through it, may sometimes occasion it ;
but the following history would induce one rather to ascribe it to the cause which
he first mentioned.
Before he had thought of the knife for opening the cornea, he used the scis-
sars, as Mons. Daviel directs ; and in a certain patient, after he had made the
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRAKSACTIONS. 417
wound of the cornea, and was going to compress tlie eye, for the expulsion of
the cataract, he discovered, that from the disturbance he had given to the hu-
mours by the foregoing process, it was sunk almost as much as if it had been de-
pressed by a couching needle. He therefore left it in that situation, and the man
afterwards saw very well ; though the cataract remained visible something below
the pupil. Now in this instance the cataract had not passed through the pupil ;
and yet it was lacerated, so as to lose its circular form ; but whatever may be the
cause, he did not find, that the accident itself proved prejudicial to the sight.
He adds that when an incomplete gutta serena is complicated with the cataract,
the operation is of no avail.
It remains now to speak of the operation itself. In his former paper, after
having described the manner of making the incision, he directed the operator to
compress the inferior part of the globe of the eye with his thumb gently, till the
cataract should be expelled through the incision of the cornea, on the patient's
cheek; and in this method he had performed it on several subjects. But re-
marking, that though on the evacuation of the aqueous humour, the crystalline
readily advanced through the pupil into the anterior chamber, yet that it required
some force to expel it from its membrane through the wound of the cornea, and
in that action it sometimes suddenly drew after it a portion of the vitreous hu-
mour, he changed his method, and no longer pressed the eye when once the
crystalline was in the anterior chamber, but immediately stuck the point of his
knife into the body of it, and extracted it contained in its capsula, without spilling
any of the vitreous humour.
This new process, he supposes, would be found of considerable advantage, as
it would in a great measure remove the danger of evacuating the whole, or too
much of the vitreous humour : though it might be observed, to the praise of this
operation, that, contrary to expectation, a large quantity of this humour, per-
haps a 3d part, or more, had been sometimes discharged, without any bad con-
sequence.
He supposes, that the great and sole benefit arising from this improvement, is
the easy separation of the crystalline from the bed of the vitreous humour, so
that none of this humour shall be evacuated. But perhaps it would also be ap-
proved of, as it would render unnecessary the measure prescribed by Mons. Da-
viel, of wounding the membrane of the crystalline, before we proceed to the ex-
traction of the crystalline itself: to which purpose he advises the flap of the
cornea to be suspended with a small spatula ; then, with a pointed cutting needle,
to wound the surface of the crystalline; after which, to introduce the same spa>
tula through the pupil, in order to detach the cataract from the iris, and then
proceed to the expulsion.
He had here recited these processes of M. Daviel's operation, which are calcu-
VOL. X. 3 H
418 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
lated mertly to procure an easy separation of the crystalline from the vitreous
humour: but they are difficult to the operator, fatiguing to the patient, and, he
should hope, altogether needless, if the knife be used in the manner which he
has recommended : for whether the capsula of the crystalline be nothing more
than the duplicature of the membrane of the vitreous humour, or whether it be
a proper coat, which is also covered by the membrane of the vitreous humour ;
in either case, since by compression the crystalline advances with so much facility
through the pupil, it will be easily seized by the knife, and removed from the
vitreous humour, with its inveloping membrane : whereas, in making an inci-
sion on the surface of the crystalline, and wounding its capsula, the crystalline
will frequently slip out of the capsula, which will be left behind : and in fact
this has happened to M. Daviel, who advises pincers, and other instruments, to
extract the remaining membrane. But he observes, in regard to the capsula of
the crystalline, that should the humour slip out of it, before it be seized by the
knife, it possibly will waste ; for in milky cataracts, when the fluid is discharged,
the membrane in length of time wastes : whole cataracts, with the inveloping
membrane likewise, sometimes waste : and in one of his patients, the crystalline,
from the mere pressure in the operation, burst out of its capsula, which he left
in the eye ; but in some weeks it entirely wasted. However, if the removing of
the capsula should, by future experience, be found necessary, it may be conve-
niently done by the curette ; one of the instruments M. Daviel recommends for
that purpose/ This instrument may be also used for the extraction of a cata-
ract, which has been broken to pieces by the couching needle in a former opera-
tion, and for the removal of the capsula of a bag-cataract, when the fluid only
has been discharged, and the bag remains behind ; but it will be most eminently
useful in detaching the crystalline from the back part of the iris, when any portion
of it happens to adhere : which circumstance would render the operation fruit-
less, without such a precaution.
It had not happened, in any of the cases treated, that either during the ope-
ration, or after the operation, the iris had been pushed forwards, or insinuated
itself through the wound of the cornea, forming a staphyloma ; but M. Daviel
speaks of it as an occurrence he had met with, and says it may easily be replaced
by the small spatula.
Mr. S. hopes that when this operation is more generally practised, ingenious
men will render it still more perfect : and he should not be surprised, if the use of
a speculum oculi should hereafter be esteemed an improvement : but then it must
be contrived so, as that it shall not compress the globe of the eye ; or, if it does,
the operator must be careful to remove it in the instant the incision is making,
lest, by continuing the pressure after the wound is made, all the humours should
suddenly gush out.
VOL. XLVia.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 419
LI. An Attempt to explain an /Ancient Roman Inscription, cut on a Stone lately
found at Bath. By John JVard, LL.D., F.P.R.S. p. 332.
The stone was discovered on the 2'2d of June last, about 5 feet under ground,
in digging the cellar of a house, rebuilding at the lower end of Stall-street.
Among the rubbish of the old house, when it was pulled down, was a large
quantity of walling stone, which had on it the marks of fire : so that probably
some building had formerly stood there, which was burnt. And in sinking the
ground about 4 or 5 feet lower th^n the stone, they found 2 coins of the em-
peror Carausius, in base metal, and very much defaced. In July 1727 the
beautiful gilt head, which is now preserved in the town house, was dug up at
the other end of this street, not far from the King's bath, about 16 feet below
the surface of the earth, as they were making a common sewer through the
town.
The stone, on which this inscription is cut, has been generally taken for a
pedestal, either of a statue, or some other solid body, which it once supported.
Though from the appearance of the horizontal plane at the top Mr. Prince
Hoare, the ingenious statuary at Bath, is of opinion, that nothing was formerly
placed on it ; and supposes that the sinking in the middle, with the 2 lines
erased, one on each side, might be made merely for ornament. Besides, the
face and 2 sides only are finished ; the back being flat, as if it was designed to
stand against a wall. The height of it, which is very near 3 feet ; as also the
form both of the stone itself, and the plane above mentioned ; appear by the
draughts of them taken by Mr. Hoare. From a careful examination of the
whole inscription, as it appeared in the cast taken by Mr. Hoare, Dr. W. copied
it in the draught of the stone ; and endeavoured to express the several letters in
their proper form and proportional size, with the ligatures, divisions of the
words, and their situations in each line, in the most exact manner he was capable
of doing it. And on considering the whole in this view, he offers the following
reading in words at length, as what appears to him the most probable :
Locum religiosum, per insolentiam erutum,
virtuti et numini Augusti repurgatum
reddidit Caius Severius Emeritus, centurio,
sua pecunia.
Dr. Ward thinks this a monumental stone, brought from some Roman burial
place.
But who the reigning emperor was, at the time this stone was set up, no in-
timation is given in the inscription. Though, if one may be allowed to conjec-
ture, the form of the letters suits very well with some others in the reign of
3 H 2
420 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1753.
Severus. And perhaps no time was more open for such licentious practices, as
might justly merit the name insolentia, than the loose reign of Commodus ;
who though he was not the immediate predecessor of Severus, yet died but a few
months before he came to the empire. Besides, we have two other inscriptions
found in Britain, addressed Numinibus Augustorum ; both which are thought to
relate to Severus and his elder son Caracalla, after he was joined with his father in
the government. Nor can there be any doubt of this, as to one of them at least ;
which is an altar, and has on one side of it the names of both his sons, Caracalla
and Geta, as consuls that year. So that on the whole. Dr. W. can find no other
period of time so probable for fixing the date of this inscription.
LII. On some Electrical Experiments, made at Paris. By Mr. Benjamin
Wilson, F.R.S. p. 347.
Mr. W. being at Paris, M. Mazeas informed him that Dr. le Monnier, some
months ago, h:id read a paper at a meeting of the Royal Acad, of Sciences, in
which he told them, that he had great reason to believe the electric matter did
not come from the earth at all, but from the air. On Mr. W. mentioning this
to the Doctor, he found him still of the same opinion. As there was a conveni-
ent apparatus in his apartment, Mr. W. proposed making the experiments : for he
always thought that the electric matter came from both, but principally from the
earth ; and that probably a difference of 10 to 1 would be perceived, on making
the experiments.
The machine was suspended by silk lines in such a manner, that every part of
it was not less than '2 feet distant from any non-electric. The lines were dried
by a chafing-dish of fire made with charcoal, as was also the glass globe ; and
every other precaution was strictly observed, that seemed necessary for making
the experiments.
The doctor appeared to be well versed in electrical inquiries, and showed great
judgment in conducting the whole. He got upon the suspended apparatus him-
self, and rubbed the globe with both his hands ; while another person, who was
likewise suspended, turned the wheel of the machine. Close to the globe was a
slender slip of lead ; at one end of which was fastened some brass tinsel, to serve as
a collector of the electric matter. The other end of the lead had a communication
with a tin tube, which was supported by silk lines about a foot in length : and as
this tube hung higher than could be reached, another was hooked to it by means
of a wire which hung down to a convenient distance.
As Mr. W. stood on the floor, he took hold of this last tube, while the glass
was rubbed, that the apparatus, and the persons on it, might lose as much of
their natural electricity as possible under such circumstances. On removing his
VOL. XLVm.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 4'21
hand, .nnd afterwards approacliing the tube, sometimes with his finger, and at
Other times with a key, they observed very small explosions, which were little
more than just sensible.
Mr. W. then desired one of the doctor's servants, who also stood upon the
floor, to lay hold of the suspended apparatus on which the doctor was mounted,
while the friction of the globe was continued. Immediately on Mr. W. ap-
proaching the tube as before, with his finger, and then with the key, a very great
difference was observed; for now the explosion was very large compared with the
former trials. Dr. le Monnier desired the experiments might be repeated: which
was done several times, and to all appearance the differences were the same. He
was perfectly satisfied that the experiments were fairly made, and that the explo-
sion was much greater when the apparatus communicated with the earth, than
when it communicated with the air only.
hill. Electrical Experiments, with an Attempt to Account for their Several Phe-
nomena, jitso some Observations on Thunder-clouds. By John Canton, M.A.,
F.R.S. p. 350.
Exp. 1. — From the ceiling, or any convenient part of a room, let 2 cork-
balls, each about the size of a small pea, be suspended by linen threads of 8 or
9 inches in length, so as to be in contact with each other. Bring the excited
glass tube under the balls, and they will be separated by it, when held at the
distance of 3 or 4 feet ; let it be brought nearer, and they will stand farther
apart ; entirely withdraw it, and they will immediately come together. This ex-
periment may be made with very small brass balls hung by silver wire; and it will
succeed as well with sealing-wax made electrical, as with glass.
Exp. 2. — If 2 cork balls be suspended by dry silk threads, the excited tube
must be brought within 18 inches before they will repel each other; which they
will continue to do, for some time, after the tube is taken away.
As the balls in the first experiment are not insulated, they cannot properly be
said to be electrified : but when they hang within the atmosphere of the excited
tube, they may attract and condense the electrical fluid round about them, and
be separated by the repulsion of its particles. It is conjectured also, that the
balls at this time contain less than their common share of the electrical fluid, on
account of the repelling power of that which surrounds them ; though some
perhaps is continually entering and passing through the threads. And if that be
the case, the reason is plain, why the balls hung by silk, in the 2d experiment,
mvist be in a much more dense part of the atmosphere of the tube, before they
will repel each other. At the approacli of an excited stick of wax to the balls, iu
the first experiment, the electrical fire is supposed to come through the threads
into the balls, and be condensed there, in its passage towards the wax : for, ac-
4'2'2 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
cording to Mr. Franklin, excited glass emits the electrical fluid, but excited wax
receives it.
Eip. 3. — Let a tin tube, of 4 or 5 feet in length, and about 2 inches in dia-
meter, be insulated by silk ; and from one end of it let the cork balls be sus-
pended by linen threads. Electrify it, by bringing the excited glass tube near
the other end, so as that the balls may stand an inch and a half, or 1 inches
apart : then, at the approach of the excited tube, they will by degrees lose their
repelling power, and come into contact ; and as the tube is brought still nearer,
they will separate again to as great a distance as before : in the return of the
tube they will approach each other till they touch, and then repel as at first. If
the tin tube be electrified by wax, or the wire of a charged phial, the balls will
be affected in the same manner at the approach of excited wax, or the wire of
the phial.
Exp. 4. — Electrify the balls as in the last experiment by glass ; and at the ap-
proach of an excited stick of wax their repulsion will be increased. The effect
will be the same, if the excited glass be brought towards them, when they have
been electrified by wax.
The bringing the excited glass to the end, or edge of the tin tube, in the 3d
experiment, is supposed to electrify it positively, or to add to the electrical fire it
before contained ; and therefore some will be running off" through the balls, and
they will repel each other. But at the approach of excited glass, which likewise
emits the electrical fluid, the discharge of it from the balls will be diminished ; or
part will be driven back, by a force acting in a contrary direction ; and they will
come nearer together. If the tube be held at such a distance from the balls, that
the excess of the density of the fluid round about them, above the common
quantity in air, be equal to the excess of the density of that within them, above
the common quantity contained in cork : their repulsion will be quite destroyed.
But if the tube be brought nearer ; the fluid without, being more dense than
that within the balls, it will be attracted by them, and they will recede from each
other again.
When the apparatus has lost part of its natural share of this fluid, by the ap-
proach of excited wax to one end of it, or is electrified negatively ; the electrical
fire is attracted and imbibed by the balls to supply the deficiency ; and that more
plentifully at the approach of excited glass, or a body positively electrified, than
before ; whence the distance between the balls will be increased, as the fluid sur-
rounding them is augmented. And in general, whether by the approach or re-
cess of any body; if the difference between the density of the internal and external
fluid be increased, or diminished ; the repulsion of the balls will be increased, or
diminished, accordingly.
Exp. 5. — When the insulated tin tube i» not electrified, bring the excited
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 423
glass tube towards the middle of it, so as to be nearly at right angles with it,
and the balls at the end will repel each other ; and the more so, as the excited
tube is brought nearer. When it has been held a few seconds, at the distance
of about 6 inches, withdraw it, and the balls will approach each other till they
touch ; and thfen separating again, as the tube is moved farther off, will continue
to repel when it is taken quite away. And this repulsion between the balls will
be increased by the approach of excited glass, but diminished by excited wax ;
just as if the apparatus had been electrified by wax, after the manner described in
the 3d experiment.
Exp. 6. — Insulate 2 tin tubes, distinguished by A and b, so as to be in a line
with each other, and about half an inch apart; and at the remote end of each
let a pair of cork balls be suspended. Towards the middle of A, bring the excited
glass tube ; and holding it a short time, at the distance of a few inches, each
pair of balls will be observed to separate ; withdraw the tube, and the balls of A
will come together, and then repel each other again ; but those of b will hardly
be affected. By tbe approach of the excited glass tube, held under the balls of
A, their repulsion will be increased : but if the tube be brought, in the same
manner, towards the balls of b, their repulsion will be diminished.
In the 5th experiment, the common stock of electrical matter in the tin tube
is supposed to be attenuated about the middle, and to be condensed at the ends,
by the repelling power of the atmosphere of the excited glass tube, when held
near it. And perhaps the tin tube may lose some of its natural quantity of the
electrical fluid, before it receives any from the glass ; as that fluid will more
readily run off from the ends or edges of it, than enter at the middle : and ac-
cordingly, when the glass tube is withdrawn, and the fluid is again equally dif-
fused through the apparatus, it is found to be electrified negatively : for excited
glass brought under the balls will increase their repulsion.
In the 6th experiment, part of the fluid driven out of one tin tube enters the
other ; which is found to be electrified positively, by the decreasing of the repul-
sion of its balls, at the approach of excited glass.
Exp. 7- — Let the tin tube, with a pay- of balls at one end, be placed 3 feet at .
least from any part of the room, and the air rendered very dry by means of a fire:
electrify the apparatus to a considerable degree ; then touch the tin tube with a
finger, or any other conductor, and the balls will still continue to repel each
other ; though not at so great a distance as before.
The air surrounding the apparatus to the distance of 2 or 3 feet, is supposed
to contain more or less of the electrical fire, than its common share, as the tin
tube is electrified positively, or negatively ; and when very dry, may not part
with its overplus, or have its deficiency supplied so suddenly, as the tin ; but
may continue to be electrified, after that has been touched, for a considerable time.
424 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753,
Exp. 8. — Having made the Torricellian vacuum about 5 feet long, after the
manner described in the Phil. Trans, vol. xlvii. p. 3/0, or p. 236 of this vol. of
these Abridgments, if the excited tube be brought within a small distance of it, a
light will be seen through more than half its length ; which soon vanishes, if the
tube be not brought nearer ; but will appear again, as that is moved farther oft'.
This may be repeated several times, without exciting the tube afresh.
This experiment may be considered as a kind of ocular demonstration of the
truth of Mr. Franklin's hypothesis ; that when the electrical fluid is condensed
on one side of thin glass, it will be repelled from the other, if it meets with no
resistance. According to which, at the approach of the excited tube, the fire is
supposed to be repelled from the inside of the glass surrounding the vacuum,
and to be carried off" through the columns of mercury , but as the tube is with-
drawn, the fire is supposed to return.
Exp. Q. — ^Let an excited stick of wax, of 24- feet in length, and about an inch
in diameter, be held near its middle. Excite the glass tube, and draw it over
one half of it ; then, turning it a little about its axis, let the tube be excited
again, and drawn over the same half; and let this operation be repeated several
times ; then will that half destroy the repelling power of balls electrified by glass,
and the other half will increase it.
By this experiment it appears that wax also may be electrified positively and
negatively. And it is probable, that all bodies whatever may have the quantity
they contain of the electrical fluid, increased, or diminished. The clouds he has
observed, by a great number of experiments, to be some in a positive, and others
in a negative state of electricity. For the cork balls, electrified by them, will
sometimes close at the approach of excited glass ; and at other times be separated
to a greater distance. And this change he has known to happen 5 or 6 times in
less than half an hour ; the balls coming together each time, and remaining in
contact a few seconds, before they repel each other again. It may likewise easily
be discovered, by a charged phial, whether the electrical fire be drawn out of the
apparatus by a negative cloud, or forced into it by a positive one : and by which-
ever it be electrified, should that cloud either part with its overplus, or have its
deficiency supplied suddenly, the apparatus will lose its electricity : which is fre-
quently observed to be the case, immediately after a flash of lightning. Yet
when the air is very dry, the apparatus will continue to be electrified for 1 0 or
15 minutes, after the clouds have passed the zenith; and sometimes till they
appear more than half-way towards the horizon. Rain, especially when the
drops are large, generally brings down the electrical fire ; and hail, in summer,
he believes never fails. When the apparatus was last electrified, it was by the
fall of thawing snow ; which happened so lately as on the 1 2th of November ;
that being the 26th day, and 6 1st time, it has been electrified, since it was first
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 425
set up; which was about the middle of May. And as Fahrenheit's thermometer
was but 7 degrees above freezing, it is supposed the winter will not entirely put
a stop to observations of this sort. At London, no more than 1 thunder storms
have happened during the whole summer: and the apparatus was sometimes sa
strongly electrified in one of them, that the bells, which have been frequently
rung by the clouds, so loud as to be heard in every room of the house, the
doors being open, were silenced by the almost constant stream of dense electrical
fire, between each bell and the brass ball, which would not suffer it to strike.
Mr. C. concludes this paper with the following queries :
1 . May not air, suddenly rarefied, give electrical fire to, and air suddenly
condensed, receive electrical fire from clouds and vapours passing through it?
2. Is not the aurora borealis, the flashing of electrical fire from positive, to-
wards negative clouds at a great distance, through the upper part of the atmo-
sphere, where the resistance is least?
LIF. Extract of a Letter from Professor Bose. dated Wtttemberg, Aug. J,
1753. JVith Observations on it by Mr. Wm. fVaison, F. R. S. p. 358.
In the beginning of August 1752, after great and continued rains, many of
our rivers overflowed the neighbouring grounds, more or less according to their
level, to a considerable distance; and the quantity of water was so great, that in
some places it was not discharged for more than a week. More particularly the
river Unstrut in the territory of the landgrave of Thuringue required a long time
to empty itself, not only as that river runs over a large tract of country, but also
as between Artern and great Jena, where this river joins the Sales, its bed in
several places is very much confined.
When the inundation was abated, it was observed from the little city Laucha
quite up above Artern, not only on the fields and meadows, but also on the
bushes and trees, that there was a green and very tough viscous slime, which by
the help of a stick could be drawn out to 2 or 3 ells in length. The subsequent
heat of the sun dried this matter, and it appeared like wool on the bushes ; but
the fields, when seen at a distance, seemed as if covered with sand. This matter
had a smooth appearance outwards, but within was like a sheep's skin. Down-
wards next tlie ground it had a sort of wool ; and when the whole was washed
with soap, it whitened, and appeared like a clean fleece of white wool. Of this
substance the country people soon made wicks for their lamps, and several lined
their clothes with it, as they would with fur.
It was further observed, that where this substance was mowed off from the
meadows, the grass under it was quickly dried up; but, where it was not
removed, the grass in the following December was as green and fresh as in the
spring. Thus far Mr. Bose. On which Mr. Watson observes, that the veget-
VOL. X. 3 I
40^ FHILOSOPHICAL TBANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1733.
able substance, which, on the specimen sent over by the professor, he has intitled
" a sort, perhaps, of alcyonium molle," is a species of that genus of plants,
which the more modem botanists call byssus. And it is of that species, or a very
slight variety from it, which is called by Dillenius, in his Historia Muscorum,
byssus tenerrima viridis velutum referens. It is also mentioned and figured by
Micheli in his Nova Plantarum Genera, under the title of byssus terrestris viridis
herbacea et mollissima, filamentis ramosis et non ramosis. This genus of plants,
in the order of nature, comes between the mosses and fungi. The specimen
now sent, being white on one side, arises from its either being washed or
bleached by the sun; for when wet, according to Mr. Bose, it was green; and
this colour is mentioned both by Dillenius and Micheli in their several denomi-
nations. This vegetable is found in England, as well as in many parts of
Europe, in moist meadows, covering the ground like a carpet, and sometimes to
a great extent.
We must be careful, however, how we connect the substance in question, and
others of the same genus with the jSuVo-of of the ancient Greek writers, or the
byssus of the Latin. What that substance was, has been matter of great con-
troversy. This is certain, that garments made of it were the apparel of the rich.
And in the New Testament, St. Luke, in the parable of the rich man and
Lazarus, says of the former, as a mark of his opulence, IviSiSda-niTo Trof<pv^a,v xal
jSuVirov ; this is translated in our English version, " he was clothed in purple and
fine linen." It is more probable, that the byssus of the ancients was a very fine
sort of cotton ; but whoever wishes to examine what has been said on this sub-
ject, may consult Pliny* and Wormius;-j- but, above all, Bodaeus a Stapel,;};
in his Commentary on Theophrastus; who has on this occasion, as well as on
many others, given us an ample testimony of his vast erudition.
LV^. Account of a Memoir read at the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, by
M. de Barros, a Portuguese Gentleman, concerning certain Phenomena ob-
served by him at Paris, in the last Transit of Mercury over the Sun. By J.
Short, A. M., F. R. S. p. 36l.
The author says, he used an excellent Gregorian reflector 4 feet in length,
taking in the eye-piece, and as much of the great tube, as exceeds the focal
lengths of the two eye-glasses; probably it should be the two speculums: that
the focus of the great speculum is 33 Paris inches; that of the small one 4
inches ; the focus of the eye-glass next the eye 1 8 lines ; the focus of the glass
farthest from the eye 5 inches; and, lastly, that the combined power of these 2
glasses is nearly equal to that of a single eye-glass of 3 inches. The telescope
• Plinii lib. xix, c 1 . + Mus. p. 139. % P> 425, et seq.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 42/
therefore, according to Mr. Short's computation, magnified about 130 times.
He was placed in the most commodious situation for observing the egress; his
smoked glass was fixed perpendicular to the axis of his telescope within a close
tube;, and he always used the same part of this glass.
He took, notice, that the interior contact of Mercury's and the sun's limbs,
at lO'' 18'" 41% was very rapid, having observed it with a green-coloured glass
held over the smoked glass: immediately after which, looking through the
smoked glass only, he perceived that a small thread of light was still visible be-
tween the limbs, before what he calls the second contact took place, which was
not till 4 seconds after; that the exterior contact appeared stationary, or seemed
to last 6 or 7 seconds; that having observed the total egress with the coloured
glass on the smoked one, he brought Mercury on the sun's limb again, by re-
moving the coloured glass; and that the second total egress did not happen till
6 or 7 seconds after the first. When he observed him at the distance of about
3 of his diameters from the sun's limb with both the glasses, he remarked that
the same distance seemed diminished, and Mercury's diameter increased. That
the part of the sim's limb where Mercury went off, to the extent of 6 degrees
of circumference, seemed under much the same configuration, as the illumi-
nated limb of the moon about the quadrature, somewhat uneven and undulating.
The same looked also redder than the rest of the disk. This was about 18 or
20 seconds before Mercury disappeared, and was seen through the smoked glass
alone; for when the green glass was applied, the appearance in a manner vanished.
The evening before the transit he viewed the sun with different coloured
glasses, variously combined with each other, and with a smoked glass; and found,
that a green glass before the smoked one did best; the sun appearing of a silvery
hue, like the moon, and the spots and the limb exceedingly well defined.
M. de Barros, having thus described the particular phenomena, ingeniously
attempts to account for them all, from this single supposition ; that the disk of
the sun, and of Mercury seen on it, are environed with a certain corona of light
(like that which Sir Isaac Newton calls the circle of aberration or dissipation in
refracting telescopes) by which the apparent diameter of the sun is enlarged, and
that of Mercury contracted. But as this gentlemen made use of a reflecting
telescope, and as no such circle, from the known principle of reflection, can
take place in such a telescope, if well made, as Sir Isaac has proved long since;
Mr. S. thinks it not worth while to pursue him through all his particular supposi-
tions; but only to show that his hypothesis has really no foundation.
Sir Isaac, as before hinted, remarks, that the images of all objects seen in
refracting telescopes, are surroundeil with a circle of aberration ; which is always
less, the longer the telescopes are. In his optics, tn avoid the indistinctness
arising from this circle, he would propose catadioptric telescopes, in which, if
3 I '2
428 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
the speculums, under limited apertures, be justly figured, no such circle of aber-
ration can confuse the image; but if the speculums are of a spherical figure,
with too large apertures, then a circle of aberration will take place; as it also
will when the figure deviates from the circular towards the hyperbolic, even
under a small aperture, and the same thing will happen, if the spherical figure
be inaccurate.
About 3 days from the change of the moon, her whole body is visible; that
part of the limb, which is directly enlightened by the solar rays appearing to the
naked eye, as an arc of a greater circle than the other, which receives the reflex
light from the earth. Look through a refracting telescope, and you will per
ceive the apparent diiFerence of these circles very much diminished; and if they
be viewed with a good reflector, they will be perfectly reduced to an equality,
even if measured with a micrometer in the focus.
If a reflecting telescope, well constructed, be directed any considerable time
to the sun, such a circle of aberration will be generated, from the little spe-
culums being heated, and thereby its figure altered, from the sun's rays falling
condensed on it from the great one; and if it continues long under this circum-
stance, the image will be rendered utterly indistinct and confused.
This we were thoroughly convinced of at the above-mentioned transit of Mer-
cury; for a good reflector, which we used in taking, with the micrometer, the
differences of right ascension and declination between the planet and the sun's
limb, having been a good while exposed to the direct rays, was found at last to
give a very indistinct image; but was restored to its former degree of perfection,
by turning it from the sun, and screwing off" the eye-piece, so as to admit the
cool air into the great tube, by which the over-heated small speculum soon re-
■ covered its due temper and figure. The last-mentioned effect is scarcely sensible
in the less reflectors of small apertures ; but in those of large ones it is very con-
siderable.
Dr. Bevis, Mr. Canton, and Mr. Bird, who viewed Mercury going off the
sun, with very good reflectors of dififerent lengths, assured him, they saw him
quite distinct, and free from any corona, or circle of aberration, and the sun's
limb perfectly well defined. And he appeared to Mr. S. through a reflector of 4
feet focus, magnifying about 135 times, as truly defined as he could wish to see
a black circle on a white ground. On this occasion however Mr. S. takes notice,
that during the whole time of this transit of Mercury, the air was perfectly calm
with us : but that, in the last two transits of Mercury over the sun, viz. in the
years 1736 and 1743, both the sun's and Mercury's limbs appeared to him indis-
tinct, and surrounded with something like what this gentleman calls a luminous
crown, or circle of aberration ; though Mr. S. at both these times made use of
reflecting telescopes, which he had by former trials esteemed good. But it is to
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 420
be observed that, during both these transits, there was a constant hard gale of
wind ; and as lie had, by other observations, formerly found that the images of
the planets, in the night-time, did not appear so distinct in windy weather as
when it was calm, he therefore imputed the indistinctness of the sun's and Mer-
cury's limbs to the air's being agitated by the wind.* Of this we may be made
sensible by a familiar instance :
Suppose a vessel full of water, having any thing lying at the bottom, as a
shilling, the water being at rest; you will then perceive the image of the shilling
distinctly ; but if you give any commotion to the water, the image of the shilling
will then appear indistinct and confused.
Somewhat analogous to this is this other appearance : if you look through a,
telescope at any of the planets, when the stars appear hazy, dim, and languid,
you will see them distinctly : but look at them again, when the stars appear most
bright and sparkling, you will then find their images less distinct. This may be
accounted for by the just-mentioned instance of the vessel of water, by supposing
air instead of water. And if we consider the infinite number of heterogeneous
particles which continually float in the air, and suppose these to be at rest, or put
into motion, we shall find that it is not at all surprizing, that we see the images
of objects placed beyond the medium of air, more or less distinct. We are not
so sensible of this indistinctness, arising from the agitation of the air, in re
fracting telescopes, as in reflectors : because the errors of reflexion, caused by
any irregularity in their figure, or confusion in the air, are about 5 or 6 times
greater than the same errors in refraction ; even though both telescopes magnify
the same number of times; as has long been demonstrated.
We also took notice of M. de Barro's first phenomenon ; viz. the seeming
greater velocity of Mercury when he was near the egress : which we thus ac-
counted for. When he was at a considerable distance from the limb, there being
nothing near enough to refer his velocity to, he seemed in a manner stationary ;
but being advanced near the sun's edge, we could refer his motion to that with
ease; which thus becoming sensible, it might be esteemed rapid, in comparison
of the former. Mr. S. had often made the same remark on the gradual approach
of two luminous bodies, as the appulse of the moon's lucid limb to a star or
planet.
The expedition with which the author observed his 2d phenomenon, is extra-
ordinary ; viz. that he should first observe what he names the final contact ; 2dly,
that he should take away his green glass ; and thirdly, that he should be able
suddenly to alter the conformation of his eye, so as to see distinctly with a much
greater influx of light, and then take another observation, and all in the short
* Since this paper was read, Mr. Short has been informed by M. le Monnier, the French king's
aitronomer, that, during the last transit at Paris, they had a hard gale of wind fiom the n. £, — Orig^
430 PHILOSOPHICAL TRAKSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
space of 4 seconds ! On the whok, it may be concluded, that the several phe-
nomena, observed by this gentleman, in the transit and egress of Mercury, were
owing to indistinctness of vision, arising either from the eye, the telescope, or
the air; and that this alone may account for them all, without having recourse
to supposed circles of aberration ; which can never possibly exist in a well-con-
structed reflecting telescope.
LVI. An Explanation of an Obscure Passage in Albert GirarcTs Commentary
on Simon Stevin's Works, p. 169, 170. By Mr. Simson, Prof. Math. Glas-
gow. Communicated by Philip, Earl Stanhope, p. 368.
" Puis que je suis entre en la matiere des nombres rationaux, j'adjousteray
encore deux ou trois particularitez, non encor par cy devant practiquees, comme
d'expliquer les radicaux extremement pres, &c."
The first thing Albert Girard gives in this place is a method of expressing the
ratio of the segments of a line cut in extreme and mean proportion, by rational
numbers, that converge to the true ratio. For this purpose he takes the pro-
gression 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, &c. every term of which is equal to the sum
of the two terms that precede it, and he says, any number in this progression
has to the following, the same ratio (nearly) that any other has to that which
follows it. Thus 5 has to 8 nearly the same ratio that 8 has to 13; conse-
quently, any 3 numbers next one another as 8, 13, 21, nearly express the seg-
ments of a line cut in extreme and mean proportion, and the whole line; so that
13, 21, 21, (n. B. 13 is wrong printed for the second number, instead of 21)
constitute near enough an isosceles triangle, having the angle of a pentagon;
i. e. whose angle at the vertex is subtended by the side of a pentagon in the circle
described about the triangle.
Now this will be plain, if it be shown, that the squares of the numbers in
this series are alternately lesser and greater by an unit, than the product of the
two numbers on each side. Thus, in the 4 numbers, 5, 8, 13, 21, the square
of 8 is a unit less than the product of 5 and 1 3 ; but the square of 1 3 that next
follows 8, viz. 169, is a unit greater than 8 times 21, or 168; and so on con-
stantly.
Case 1 . If a, b, c, be such numbers, that a -\- b = c, and ac = bb -\- 1.
Then, if d be taken so that d = b -{- c; then shall bd-\- 1 = cc. For, be-
cause d =■ b + c; bd -{- 1 shall be ^ bb -\- be -\- 1 = ac -\- be, which is =
{a -\- b) X c = cc: ergo bd + 1 = cc.
Case 2. If a, b, c, be such, that a -\- b= c, and ac -{- 1 = bh.
Then, if d be taken so that d-= b -\- c; then shall bd=^ cc -{■ 1, For, be-
cause bd = bb -{- be z= ac -\- be -\- \ = {a + b) X c -j- 1 = cc -f 1.
Problem. Having given the number a, in case 1 ; to find b and c, i. e. having
TOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 431'
given a, to find b such, that t/) + 1 = {ac ^=:.") aa -\- ab \ then is bb — ab ■=. aa
— 1 : and therefore b ■=. \a -\- \ ^ baa — 4. Hence, to make b a rational in-
teger number, baa — 4 must be a square, which it will be, if a =: l ; and then
b will also be 1, and c will be 1: and having continued the series, every number
will have the properties mentioned.
The 2d thing which Alljert Girard mentions, is a way of exhibiting a series of
rational fractions, that converge to the square root of any number proposed, and
that very fast. He tells nothing about the way of forming it, and only gives the
two following examples, viz. He says, ^"2 is equal nearly to ^i^: or, if you
would have it nearer, to ^-^-S-^ .
His other example is of a/ 10, which, he says, is nearly equal to 3^y/,»^,
i. e. to '-jS^jV-s' . And these are the fractions your lordship has turned, at first
sight into continued fractions of the same value.*
The way of making a series of rational fractions, which converge to the square
root of any number proposed, in such a manner, that the square of the nume-
rator of any of them being lessened by a unit, or in some cases increased by a
unit, the remainder or sum, divided by the square of the denominator, shall be
exactly equal to the number proposed, depends on the following propositions.
Prop. 1. Let a be any number proposed, and - be such a fraction, that — ^^—
■= a, i. e. bh = ace + 1 ; then if two other fractions be taken, one of which is
b • * c
-, the first divided by the proposed number a, and the other is y the reciprocal
of the first fraction; then the fraction — —. — , whose numerator is the sum of
the products of the numerators, and of the denominators of the fi-actions
- and — ; and its denominator the sum of the products of the numerators, and
c ac
b c
of the denominators of the fractions and -, shall have the same property
with the fraction -i.e. ^^ — 7Tb )'' ~ ~ "* because bb = ace + 1, therefore
bb — ace := 1 , and squaring
b* — lab-c'' + a''c* = 1 . And adding 4a^'c^ gives
b* + 2a6^c^ + aV = 4ab\'' + 1. Hence £^l±ggl=-L = a.
Prop. 1. If - be such a fraction, that — — = a, i.e. bb -{■ 1 := ace, all
• N. B. That the continued fraction here alluded to, for expressing the square root of 10, waa
i
— TT
__ f
TT
— -^, ice. ad infinitiun. — Orig.
432 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
other things remaining as in prop. 1 ; then shall the fraction
— ^t_fff formed as there described, be such, that - — -r^-:.r^^^ = a.
ibc ' C^bcj^
For because bb -^ I = ace, then ace — bb = 1; and squaring,
b* — 2aiV + aV= 1.
Hence, as in the foregoing, it will follow, that
ebb + accj^ — 1
= a.
C^bcJ"
Prop. 3. Let the fraction - be such, that — ~ — = a, i. e. bb = ace + 1;
also let - be another fraction, having the same property with -, i. e. such, that
dd = aee + 1. Then, if from the fraction -, and the two others mentioned
be
in prop. 1, viz.—, and 7, a new fraction be formed, in the same manner as the
fraction — -7 — was formed from -, and the same two - and 7, which fraction will
2bc c ac b
be , , ; this new fraction shall have the sanie property with the other two
b J d . (bd + ace)'' — 1
-and -,i.e.-^^-5-^_-. = a.
Prop. 4. The same things being supposed as in prop. 3, except that bb, in-
stead of being equal to ace + 1 , as there, is equal to ace — 1 , or bb -{- 1 ^ ace;
it will follow, by the like steps as in prop. 3, that — - "^ = a.
Prop. 5. If likewise cP be equal to aee — 1, as well as b^ = ace — 1, all other
things remaining as in prop. 3, then shall {bd -\- acey = a X {cd -{- bey + 1»
Cbd + ace)* — 1 _
Prop. 6. But if i^ = ace + 1, and d^ =■ aee — 1, all other things remaining as
(bd + acej'^ + 1
'bTJ'
Now, let a be any number proposed, and let the fraction - be such, that
either — '^^— = a, or — — = a, and take the fractions — and-r, before described;
cc cc ac o
then the series of fractions converging to \^ a, will be as follows:
-, —\- = the first term of the series.
b' aci c
*i + ^ = ^the2dterm. 1
, 2oc e Every term is formed from the preceding; and
bd + ace L tV, <kA t b c
Id ^rt7 ~ g term. ^ ^j^^ ^^^ fractions — and - , in the same manner as
J-2L^ = - the 4th term. the second from the first, and these fractions.
cf+bg k
&c. in infinitum, j
And from the foregoing propositions it follows,
1. That if — "Ili = a, then every fraction of the series shall be such, that if
in prop. 3. Then shall {bd + acey + \ = a X (cd + bey, i.e. '^^-^-' = a.
VOL. XLVIII.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 433
To find - such as makes bb — 1 = ace, i. e. ace -\- I = bb, recourse must
be had to Lord Brouncker's method in Dr. Wallis's Commercium Epistolicum.
from the square of its numerator be taken a unit, the remainder, divided by the
square of its denominator, shall be equal to a.
For, by prop. 1, the fraction - shall be such; and by prop. 3, the next frac-
tion- shall likewise be such; and so all the following terms.
Example. Let a = 2 ; then the first fraction, i. e. that in the smallest numbers,
-, that makes ~ = 2, is when 6 = 3, and c =. 2 ; so that
c cc
c b t b ■)
And the terms following the first -|-, are -j4. j-%. 4^-1-. 4 ff^. &c.
2. But if := a, i.e. if the first fraction - of the series have the square
cc c ^
of its numerator a unit less than ace, the multiple of the square of its denomi-
nator by the number a ; the 2d term shall have the square of its numerator a
unit greater than the said multiple of the square of its denominator ; and the 3d
term shall have the said square a unit less, and so on alternately. For, by prop.
2, the second term - shall be such, that — ^^^~ = a: and therefore, by prop. 4,
the 3d term - shall be such, that^^ = a. And by prop. 5, it follows, that
the next term r shall be such, that — -7?- = a ; and so on alternately, by prop.
4 and 5.
Example. Let a = 2: then the first fraction - that makes ^2, is when
Z) = 1 , and c = 1 . So that
^ . y I - are 4-. -1- } -{-. And the following terms are a. -f. -f-J. -fi-. -fA &c.
But if a be 13, then the fractions will be '-/• -rV- w] V • -frl- Wrr • &c.
3. But if the fraction - be such, that — ^^^ = a, and if the fractions -, ^
c ' cc ' ac' b
be taken, from which the series is to be formed, as has been described; then if
the first fraction of the series be made not -, but some fraction -, such that
c e
— — = a; then shall every term of the series be such as the fraction -, i.e. the
square of the numerator being increased by a unit, and the sum divided by the
square of the denominator, the quotient shall be equal to a. For since bb =
ace -^ 1, and dd = aee — 1, by prop. 6 it follows, that the next term
- shall be such, that — = a; and so on for every term.
5 ^^ _
Example. Let a = 2, -~ -; then will — = -, and r- = -, and let - =: -;
' 'c=2' flc4 6 3' el*
then p - } - are -.- } -. And the other terms are -J-. \^. \^. \^^ . &c
• VOL. X. 3 K
434 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
Lf^Il. Observations on the Electricity of tlie Air, made at the Chateau de Main-
tenon, during June, July, and October, 1753 ; being Part of a Letter Jrom
the Abbe Mazeas, F. R. S. to the Rev. S. Hales, D. D., F. R. S. Translated
from the French by James Parsons, M. D., F. R. S. p. 377.
June 14, M. Mazeas accompanied the Marechal de Noailles to his castle of
Maintenon. At his arrival, he set up an apparatus, consisting of an iron wire
370 feet long, raised to 90 feet above the horizon. It came down from a very
high room in the castle, where it was fastened to a silken cord 6 feet long, and
was carried from thence to the steeple of the town ; where it was likewise fastened
to another silken cord of 8 feet long, and sheltered from rain ; and a large key
was suspended by the end of this wire, to receive the electrical fluid.
Observ. 1. From June 17, the time of beginning his experiments, the elec-
tricity of the air was sensibly felt every day, from sun-rise, to 7 or 8 in the
evening: except in moist weather, when he could perceive no signs of electricity.
In dry weather, the wire attracted minute bodies, at no greater distance than 3
or 4 lines. He constantly observed that, in weather void of storms, the electri-
city of a piece of sealing-wax of 2 inches long, was above twice as strong as
that of the air. Hence it would seem that, in weather of equal driness, the
electricity of the air is always equal.
Observ. 1. When he grasped the wire closely in his hand, the electricity ceased
instantly, and did not recover till 3 or 4 minutes after; whereas, during a storm
we could deprive the wire of its electricity only for a moment; for it immediately
returned with the same vigour. Hence it appears that the common electricity of
the air has but a slow motion.
Observ. 3. He endeavoured to increase the electricity of the wire, by the addi-
tion of a 2d, which communicated with an electrical magazine, composed of
pieces of iron, tin plates, gilt paper, and such like, sustained by silken cords;
and he observed, I . That the electrical fluid did not even then act with any more
strength on minute bodies presented to the wire. 2. That in depriving this ma-
gazine of its electricity, it seemed to return the more slowly the more consider-
able the magazine was ; whereas the contrary happens during a storm . This
slowness, with which the common electricity of the air is propagated, made him
despair of finding means capable of rendering its motion sensible.
Obs. 4. — It did not appear that hurricanes and tempests increase the electricity
of the air, when they are not accompanied with thunder : for during 3 days of a
very violent continual wind in the month of July, he was obliged to put the dust
within 4 or 5 lines of the conductor, before any sensible attraction could be per -
ceived. The direction of the winds, whether east, west, north, or south, does
VOL. XLVin.j PHrLOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 435
not make any sensible alteration in the electricity of the air, except when they
are moist. In the most dry nights of that summer, he could observe no signs
of electricity in the air ; but it returned in the morning, as before said, when
the sun began to appear above the horizon, and vanished again in the evening,
about half an hour after sun-set. The strongest common electricity of the at-
mosphere was perceived in the month of July, on a very dry day, the heavens
being very clear, and the sun extremely hot. The distance of 10 or 12 lines was
then sufficient for the approach of the dust to the conductor, in order to see
the particles rise in a vertical direction, like the filings of iron on the application
of a magnet.
OL's. 5. — June 27, at 2 afternoon, he perceived some stormy clouds rising
above the horizon, and immediately went up to his apparatus ; and having ap-
plied the dust to the key, it was attracted with a force which increased in pro-
portion as the clouds reached the zenith. When they had come nearly over the
wire, the dust was so impetuously repelled as to be entirely scattered from the
paper. He drew considerable sparks from it, though there was neither thunder
nor lightning. These sparks were of a very lively red colour when attracted
with the finger : they were white and smaller when he used a wire hafted in a
glass tube : they were bluish, and much extended, when attracted by spirit of
wine in a silver spoon.
Obs. 6. — He applied a piece of resin to the conductor, but could draw no
sparks from it : however, all who were present heard a noise like that of hairs
when burnt. It was the same with sealing-wax, woollen-cloth, linen, &c. He
then took a quicksilvered glass, and applied to the clean side a piece of wire of 6
inches long, while the other end was put to the conductor ; by which he drew a
multitude of small whitish sparks, which soon ceased, but were succeeded by a
noise like that which happened on applying the resin to the conductor.
When he applied the end of the wire to the silvered surface of the glass, while
the other end touched the conductor, the quicksilver affected him so strongly,
that notwithstanding his being so much accustomed to suffer these electrical
shocks, he was not able to bear this. Hence he concludes, that the best me-
thod of increasing the electrical power is to make it fall on some metalline sur-
face, intimately connected with a surface that is an electric per se.
Oi.v. 7. — When the stormy clouds were in the zenith of the wire, the electri-
city was increased to so high a point, that the silken thread attracted light bodies
at the distance of 7 or 8 inches. This cord was 6 feet long, and in the first foot
the electricity was nearly as strong as in the wire, but from thence it diminished
in the rest of the length. He substituted a glass tube for the silken cord, and
3 k2
436 PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACT10N3. [aNNO 1753.
observed the same phenomenon, with this difference, that the electrical fluid
penetrated it with greater difficulty.
Obs. 8. — The stormy clouds before mentioned remained about 2 hours above
the horizon, without either thunder or lightning ; nor did a very heavy rain di-
minish the electricity, except about the end, when the clouds began to be dissi-
pated.
About 6 o'clock, in the evening he was told that there were signs of a new
storm in the air : he went up, and while he was preparing matters, a young man
of the town, 35 years old, subject to an epilepsy, was among the spectators.
He drew sparks on the epileptic person, who was present, from the first thun-
der-clap. At first he bore them ; but in 2 or 3 minutes perceiving his counten-
ance change ; and fearing that an accident should happen to him, M. Mazeas
begged he would retire. He was no sooner returned home than his senses
failed him, and he was seized with a most violent fit. His convulsions were
taken off with spirit of hartshorn ; but his reason did not return in an hour and
a half. He went up and down stairs like one who walks in his sleep, without
speaking or knowing any person, settling his papers, taking snuff, and offering
chairs to all that came in. When he was spoken to, he pronounced inarticulate
and unconnected words. When he recovered his reason, he fell into another
fit. His friends said, that he was more affected with this distemper when it
thundered than at any other time ; and that if it happened that he then escaped,
which it rarely did, his eyes, his countenance, and the confusion of his expres-
sions, sufficiently demonstrated the weakness of his reason. The next day he
learned from the man himself, that the fear of thunder was not the cause of his
disease ; but that however he found a fatal connexion between the phenomenon
and that distemper. He added, that when the fit seized him, he perceived a
vapour rising in his breast, with so much rapidity, that he lost all his senses be-
fore he could call for help.
LVIII. A Treatise on the Precession of the Equinoxes, and in general on the
Motion of the Nodes, and the Alteration of the Inclination oj" the Orbit of a
Planet to the Ecliptic. By M. De St. Jaques Silvabelle. Translated from
the French M.S. by J. Bevis, M. D. p. 385.
If the earth were perfectly spherical, the action of the sun on all the parts
which compose it, would not produce any effect to make it turn round its
centre ; because the moment which would be produced on one side, would be
always counterbalanced by an equal moment on the opposite side of the centre.
It would be the same if the earth were a spheroid flatted at the poles, and the
sun was always in the equator, or in the QOth degree of declination : but in every
otlier degree of declination its action on the excess of matter about the equator
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 437
has a tendency to make the equator approach towards the sun's place, or to di-
minish the angle of the sun's declination, by making the earth's axis to turn
round its centre in the plane of the circle of the sun's declination.
The earth has then, at every instant, 1 motions of rotation ; one about the
axe of the equator, calletl also the earth's axe; and this is the diurnal motion,
whicii is unifomi ; the other motion of rotation is performed about the axe of
the circle of the sun's declination, which is a diameter of the equator ; and this
motion is produced by the action of the sun on the redundant matter about the
equator, and is continually accelerated from the continual application of the
solar action producing it.
The point e, fig. 9, pi. 9, which is the intersection of the circumference of
the equator and the circumference of the circle of declination, has '2 motions,
whose directions are perpendicular to each other. Let ec be the space which it
runs through in an instant, in the circumference of the equator, by the uniform
diurnal motion, and let Et be the space it runs through in the same instant, in
the circumference of the circle of declination, by an accelerated motion, as has
been explained. The point e, in virtue of these 1 motions ec and es, will not
circulate either in the circumference ec ge' q'e of the equator, or in the circum-
ference E:-pe'p'e of the circle of declination ; but, forming the rectangular paral-
lelogram Eee'f, the diagonal ec' will be the elementary arc of the circumference
Ee'qE', in which the point e will circulate, and the angle cec' will be equal to
the angle acq, and equal to the angle p'c'p', which the pole p' runs through in
an instant in the circumference p'p'oqpQ'p', whose plane is perpendicular to the
plane of the circle of declination ; and when the lines Ee, ee are known at every
instant, p'p' will also be known, since the angle cec' is = to the angle acq = to
the angle p'cp'.
The instantaneous motion of the pole, which is p'p', or pp, may be resolved
into two, PR and pm, perpendicular to each other, and both to the earth's axe.
The former causes the pole p to move parallel to the ecliptic T 25 ^ Vy, and
alters the place of the solstice 25, and consequently also that of the equinoc-
tial points y and £i: ; the latter, which is according to pm, alters the inclination
of the earth's axe to the ecliptic.
To have the motion of the pole parallel to the ecliptic, or, which is the sarne^
the motion of the node f, or the precession, in the same time that the sun
passes from the equinox "f to the solstice 25, take the integral of the lines pr,,
supposing PR generally to express the instantaneous precession for any declinatioa
of the sun s.
And to have the alteration of the inclination in the same time that the sun is
passing from "|f to 25, take the sum, or the integral of the lines pm, supposing
438 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754,
PM generally to express the instantaneous alteration of the inclination of the
earth's axe to the ecliptic for any given declination of the sun.
The sum of the lines pr is always the same, and has the same sign, or the
same direction, during every quarter of the sun's revolution, whether he moves
from T to 05, or from 25 to £i, or from £i to Vf, or from VJ to 7"; so that
the precession answering to any one quarter of the sun's revolution about the
earth, or to 3 months, being known, that multiplied by 4 will be the annual pre-
cession ; by 8 will give it for 2 years ; by 1 6 for 4 years, &c.
Likewise the sum of the lines pm is ever the same for every quarter of the solar
revolution ; but it has alternately a contrary sign ; that is, a contrary direction.
During the quarter from 7" to 25, the alteration of the inclination of the earth's
axe to the ecliptic is positive, and the angle of the inclination increases ; but
during the succeeding quarter, or from 25 to ^, the alteration of the inclination
is negative, and the angle of the inclination diminishes: and as the diminution
from 25 to :^ is equal to the augmentation from y to 25, it follows, that at
the end of the semi-revolution the inclination of the earth's axe to the plane of
the ecliptic will become again the same, having undergone an oscillation, which
is completed in a semirevolution. It is the same, when the sun passes from zii:
to T- The angle of the inclination increases from :Ci: to VJ, and decreases from
yy to y, where it becomes again the same as it was at iCb.
And hence the inclination of the earth's axe to the ecliptic may be considered
as constant, though subject to this oscillation, and indeed to several others, they
being all regular, and performed in regular periods. The earth's inclination to
the ecliptic being constant, and the motion of the pole which produces the pre-
cession, being always parallel to the plane of the ecliptic, the earth's pole moves
in a parallel to the ecliptic, about 23-1- degrees distant from the pole of the eclip-
tic, and the terrestrial axe describes a conical surface. To this motion of the
terrestrial axe, or pole, is to be ascribed the apparent motion of the stars about the
pole of the ecliptic.
But hitherto we have not considered, that to the precession, thus caused by
the sun, we are to add likewise that produced by the moon ; and it remains, that
we examine into the motion of the earth's pole, caused by the action of the moon
on the redundant matter about the earth's equator. Now all that has been said
concerning the sun, is alike applicable to the moon, which we may put in the
place of the sun ; the moon's orbit in the place of the ecliptic ; and the time of
the moon's revolution round the earth in the place of the revolution of the sun
round the earth : and we shall find the motion of the earth's pole parallel to the
lunar orbit, which is always the same at every quarter of the time of the revolution
of the moon round the earth, and the oscillation of the earth's axe to the plane
VOL. XLVIII,} PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, 439
of the lunar orbit, which is completed in each semirevolution of the moon round
the earth.
But whereas the plane of the lunar orbit, which is always inclined to the plane
of the ecliptic in an angle of about 5 degrees, never continues in a constant po-
sition, like the plane of the ecliptic, so that its pole describes a small circle paral-
lel to the ecliptic, at the distance of about 5 degrees fham its pole ; it follows,
that the precession, with respect to the lunar orbit, is not the same as with re-
spect to the ecliptic ; and that the motion of the pole parallel to the lunar orbit
should be referred to the plane of the ecliptic : which is done by resolving the
motion of the pole, parallel to the plane of the lunar orbit, into 2 motions, the
one parallel to the plane of the ecliptic, and the other perpendicular to it, and in
the plane of the solsticial colure.
The former of these 1 motions gives the precession with respect to the eclip-
tic, and has its direction always the same way. The hitter motion has 2 opposite
directions, in the 2 semirevolutions of the pole of the lunar orbit round the pole
of the ecliptic, and causes an oscillation of the terrestrial axe on the plane of the
ecliptic, which is completed in a revolution of the pole of the lunar orbit round
the pole of the ecliptic.
From what has been said, it follows, that there are 5 distinct motions of the
pole of the earth ; namely, 2 of precession, which are parallel to the plane of the
ecliptic, and 3 of oscillation on the plane of the ecliptic. The 1 of precession are
caused, the one by the sun, the other by the moon. That which is caused by
the sun is constantly the same, at every quarter of the time of the revolution of
the sun round the earth ; that is, every 3 months : that which is caused by the
moon, is constantly the same at every quarter of the time of the revolution of
the moon round the earth ; that is, about every 7 days.
Of the 3 motions of oscillation, one is caused by the sun, and is completed in
the time of the semirevolution of the sun round the earth, taken from one equi-
nox to the following one ; that is, in 6 months. Another is caused by the moon ;
and each oscillation is completed in the space of a semirevolution of the moon
round the earth ; that is, in 14 days. The third is caused likewise by the moon,
and arises from the plane of her orbit being different from the plane of the eclip-
tic, and from the pole of the lunar orbit making its revolution about the pole of
the ecliptic in about 18-5- years. And this oscillation is completed in the time of
the revolution of the pole of the lunar orbit about the pole of the ecliptic ; that
is, in about 18-| years.
It will appear in the memoir, that there is a relation purely geometrical be-
tween the quantity of the nutation, during the time of the semirevolution of the
pole of the lunar orbit, and the quantity of the precession, caused likewise by the
moon in the same time. This lelation is quite independent of the force of the
440 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
moon, of the quantity of the earth's flatness, of the quantity of the terrestrial
matter, and indeed of every thing of a physical nature that can enter into the
problem.
We are content to examine the motions of the pole of the earth produced by
the sun and the moon. The same method, and the same formulae, will give
likewise the motions of the terrestrial pole arising from any other planet, as Sa-
turn, Jupiter, &c. but these motions are too minute to merit attention.
Whatever has been said of the action of the sun on the redundant matter
about the earth's equator, is also applicable to his action on a simple ring placed
at the ec)uator, without adhering to the terrestrial globe ; and the motion of the
pole of such ring may be determined by the same method, and consequently the
motion of its nodes on the plane of the ecliptic, and the alteration of the incli-
nation of its axe to the same plane. And since these motions are the same,
whether the ring be supposed entire, or a small portion of it only be considered,
or a mere point of it, the motions of the nodes, and the alteration of the incli-
nation of a moon, or a satellite of a planet, may thereby be known. And the
formulae differ in nothing from those of the motion of the nodes of the earth's
equator, and of the alteration of the obliquity of the earth's axe to the plane of
the ecliptic, but in this, that the action of the sun on the ring to make it turn,
is exerted entirely on it ; whereas, in the problem of the precession, this force
must necessarily be distributed throughout the whole mass of the earth, on ac-
eount of the adherence of the ring to the globe of the earth.
As to the division of the work, this memoir is divided into 4 sections. The
1st section treats of the motion of the pole of the terrestrial equator caused by
the sun. The 2d section treats of the motion of the pole of the terrestrial
equator caused by the moon. The 3d section treats of the motion of the pole
of a ring, or of the orbit of a moon, caused by the sun. The 4th section con-
tains the application of the formulae found in the other sections.
But as there are some inaccuracies in this very long and intricate treatise, and as
its objects may be better answered by the first part of Mr. Thomas Simpson's
Miscellaneous Tracts, on the same subject, printed in 1757, it is deemed unne-
cessary to reprint this treatise, which will not admit of abridgment.
LIX. On the Ages of Homer and Hesiod. By George Costard, M. A, in a
Letter to the Earl of Macclesfield, F.R.S. p. 441.
It seems to be an opinion pretty generally received, that Homer and Hesiod
lived much about the same time. What that age was, is indeed not at all agreed
on among writers ; the only thing in which they conspire being, as Mr. C. thinks,
to place both of them much earlier than they ought to have done.
Among the ancients, Velleius Paterculus says, that Homer lived 950 years
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 441
before his time. This author dedicates his history to the consul Vinicius, who
is placed in the fasti consulares a. v. c. 782, which is a. d. 30. So that, ac-
cording to tliis computation, Homer must have flourished about the year before
Christ 920. And with this account agrees pretty nearly the Parian marble.
Herodotus, according to our present copies of him, places Hesiod and Homer
not more than 400 years before his time. Herodotus, according to A. Gellius, "
was 53 years old at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, or the year before
Christ 431. And if to this we add 40O years, we shall have the year before
Christ 831 ; about which time consequently, according to him, both Homer
and Hesiod must have flourished.
Among the moderns, Petavius places Hesiod a. p. j. 3714, or about the
year before Christ 1000: and in his Rationarium Temporum, he says, that
Hesiod was contemporary with him, and that this ex Arcturi ortu, quern poeta
iste describit, eruditi artis illius coUigunt ; and in the margin refers to Longo-
montanus in his Astronomia Danica. With Petavius agrees very nearly Paline-
rius, as cited by Dr. Hyde in his notes on Ulug Beigh, though Sir Isaac Newton,
whose authority with some persons is decisive, tells us, that from the achronical
rising of the same star it follows, that Hesiod flourished about 100 years after
the death of Solomon. This again he places, in his short chronicle, in the year
before Christ 979; from which, if we subtract 100 years, we shall have the
year before Christ 879, when, according to him, both Hesiod and Homer, if
contemporaries, must have flourished. In what manner Sir Isaac Newton com-
puted this, or whether indeed he ever computed it at all himself, is not, at least
publicly, known. It is probable he only followed some one else ; and therefore
without derogating in the least from his authority, or thinking it a failure in re-
spect to the memory of the greatest man that ever lived, I shall consider a little
how far the age of these poets may be determined, with any certainty, from this
achronical rising of Arcturus.
Longomontanus, in his Astron. Danic. supposes Hesiod to have flourished
about the year before Christ 77Q, when he makes the place of Arcturus n^ 12"
l6', the place of the sun's apogee y 20° lO', and his place, 6o days after the
winter solstice ^ 1° 10'. In the year after Christ l6l0, he says the place of
Arcturus was ii 18° 47"; so that from the year before Christ 776, to the year
l6lO, Arcturus had moved through 36° 31' = l3146o"; which divided by 2386
the number of years elapsed, gives the annual motion of the fixed stars 55". But
as he makes the annual motion of the fixed stars 49" 45'", or 1° in 724- years ;
55" will, according to him, require about 2658 years. So that Hesiod, accord-
ing to his computation, must have lived about the year before Christ 1048; un-
less, as he seems to suspect, that poet describes the rising of Arcturus, not as it
VOL. X. 3 L
442 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1754.
was in his own time, but 272 years before. So that from hence we see nothing
certain can be concluded with regard to his age.
Kepler, in his Epitom. Astronom. supposes that from the time of Hesiod to
the year after Christ 1618, are 2400 years, and that the annual motion of the
fixed stars is 51", which, in 2400 years, gives 34°. From which, and several
other assumptions, he concludes, that in Hesiod's time Arcturus rose achroni-
cally March 3, in the Julian year reckoned backward, when the sun was in
^ 5° ir.
Riccioli, in his Almagest, supposes, that Hesiod flourished about the year
before Christ 775, when the place of the sun's apogee was y 20"; and therefore
the sun's true motion for 60 days was 6l° lO', which added to the place of the
winter solstice, or the beginning of VJ, gives the sun's place ^ 1° 10', the point
opposite to that point of the ecliptic which rose along with Arcturus, or It^ 1°
10'. Hence he computes the place of Arcturus to have been r^ 12" 15'. But
at the end of the year 1644, the place of Arcturus, he says, was ih 18° 19';
therefore from the time of Hesiod, before assumed, to the end of the year 1644,
that star had moved through 36° 4'. But this it would do, he says, in 2597
years. From which therefore subtracting 1 644, there remains the year before
Christ 953. He concludes therefore, as Longomontanus suspected before, that
Hesiod speaks of the achronical rising of this star, not as it was in his own time,
but two centuries before. Besides, as the refraction of Arcturus would accelerate
his rising, and the sun's refraction would retard his setting ; and as the time of
the solstice was then known, at best, but in a very gross manner ; he is of opi-
nion, that this method is not much to be depended on ; contrary to what Scaliger
^nd Vossius both thought.
As there are however several errors in this computation, it may not be amiss
perhaps to form another, on supposition, with Sir Isaac Newton, that Hesiod
flourished about the year before Christ 879, or in round numbers the year 880,
and let us see what will be the result of it. At the end of the year 1 68g, the
place of Arcturus, in the British catalogue, was ii 19° 53' 52", or 6' 19" 53'
52": and from the year before Christ 880, to the end of the year 1689, are
2569 years, the precession for which time is 1^ 5° 40' 50'' : this, subtracted from
the place of Arcturus 6' 19" 53' 52", gives his place, in the year before Christ
880, = 5' 14° 13' 2". The latitude of this star is, in the same catalogue, =
30° 57'- Hence is computed the declination of Arcturus = 34° 22' 40", and his
right ascension 180° 37' 10".
Where this observation on Arcturus was made, is not said ; we may suppose
it to have been at Ascra, where Hesiod's father lived, as he tells us himself. But
as the situation of this place is not very well known, we may, without any sen-
vbi.. xLvrri.^ philosophical transactions. 443
sible error, take Athens, whose latitude is made, by the best modem geogra-
phers, 38° 5' north. Hence is computed the oblique ascension 148° 12'.
In the year before Christ 880, the time of the winter solstice was December
29, at 15 minutes past 6 o'clock in the morning, according to the vulgar reck-
oning; or, in the astronomical account, 28'' 18*^ 15"; and 60 days after this
brings us to Feb. 27, when the sun's place was IV 0° 6' 23"; his declination
south 11° 27' 18*; his right ascension 332° 11' 56"; whence we have his ascen-
sional difference := 9° 8' 1 5". Hence is computed the time of Arcturus's rising,
viz. 5'' 42™ 47'. By this it appears, that at Athens, in the year before Christ
880, and 60 days after the winter tropic, the star Arcturus rose at 19™ 20' after
sun-setting.
But if we would inquire the time when it rose achronically, in the proper
sense of the word, we shall find it to be that year March the 3d. But though
this is what is properly meant by achronical rising; yet as a star at that time is
invisible, and consequently can be no rule for husbandmen, for whose use these
observations were intended; there is another achronical rising, called the appa-
rent one : this is when a star first appears above the eastern horizon after sun-
set; which therefore requires some certain depression of the sun in the opposite
part of the heavens, more or less according to the magnitude of the star required,
to become visible.
It was said before, that in the year before Christ 880, Feb. 27, Arcturus rose
at Athens 19" 20^ after sun-set; but whether this, though a bright star of the
first magnitude, could be seen there so soon in the eastern horizon as even at
30 min. past sun-set, may well be questioned : and therefore Feb. 27, or the 6oth
day after the winter solstice, could not be there esteemed the day of the apparent
achronical rising of Arcturus.
I have hitherto, says Mr. C, called it the star Arcturus , but it is not im-
probable that Hesiod meant the whole constellation Bootes. He calls it indeed
AITHP, and that word, according to Macrobius, signifies only a single star.
But whatever it might do in his time, it seems evident, that among the ancients,
and especially the poets, that distinction was not always nicely observed. If this
therefore should be the case with respect to Hesiod, the time of this rising of
Arcturus will be something more indeterminate, as a constellation cannot rise all
at once, nor is it now known how many stars this constellation in particular was,
in those early times, supposed to consist of.
But further ; it has been hitherto taken for granted, that Hesiod is to be un-
derstood as speaking of Ascra, or some place in the neighbourhood of it ; but
this also is uncertain : for it was no unusual thing with the ancients to set down
in calendars, of this sort, observations on the risings and settings of the stars
made in very distant times and countries ; the latitudes of places being unattendetl
3L2
A44 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
to, and the slow motion of the tixed stars about the poles of the ecliptic un-
known, and indeed unsuspected, or disregarded afterwards, when it became sus-
pected. But though we should grant the place of observation to have been at,
or near Ascra, yet there will still remain a difficulty with respect to the time.
In the computation before given, it has been supposed, that Arcturus rose there
achronically on the 6oth day from the solstice, exclusive of the solstitial day it-
self; but as the particle jaitx is sometimes taken inclusively, we may reckon the
day of the solstice itself one of the number, which, consequently, will bring us
only to Feb. 26. Besides, what has been said, has been built on the suppo-
sition that the day of the solstice was then precisely known ; a thing however
not hastily to be granted. The inaccuracy of observations, and the want of
proper instruments, in times much later than this we are here speaking of, would
incline us not to attribute too much to them, in a case of so much nicety.
Since then we find the solstice fell out so early in the morning ; either Decem-
ber the 28th or 2gth might have been taken for the solstitial day ; and accord-
ingly 60 days after will be either February the 26th or 27th. But as the sun's
change of declination, at that season of the year, is very slow ; an error of a day
or two, or more, either forward or backward, (a thing by no means impossible)
will bring us to February 25 or 28, which is a difference of no less than 4 days.
But if such mistakes could be committed at this time, how little must we sup-
pose the true time of the solstice known, so early as the year before Christ 880.
Not however to assume too much, let us suppose a mistake of 2 days only, in
the rising of Arcturus. By calculating as before, we shall find that a. c. 168Q,
the point of the ecliptic rising along with Arcturus, in the latitude of Athens, was
:Ch 10° 35' 55", the point opposite to which is y 10° 35' 55". But this point
the sun entered that year March 20, when consequently Arcturus rose there
achronically : but in the year before Christ 880, as before observed, Arcturus
might be said to rise achronically there March 2 : this gives a difference of 18
days in 2569 years ; whence a difference of 2 days will give 285 years, which
subtracted from the year before Christ 880, will give the year before Christ 595,
for the time of Hesiod, and consequently of Homer too, if contemporary with
him, for any thing that can be gathered to the contrary from the achronical
rising of Arcturus.
Having now shown, in this manner, what little precision there is in this ar-
gument, I might, as I at first intended, take my leave of the subject, and refer
the settling the age of these two poets to authorities of another nature. But as
the favourers of their high antiquity may be startled to hear that their age may
be brought down so low as the year before Christ 595, I shall add something in
confirmation of this date to show that it is not so unreasonable as at first sight it
may appear. . '
YOL XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 445
[Mr. C. then quotes a number of passages from the ancient poets, alluding to
astronomical observations, which he thinks renders the last-mentioned date not
improbable.]
As a further confirmation that we are not very wrong in placing the age of
these two poets as we have done, it may be remarked, that in the description
given by Hesiod of lucky and unlucky days, he tells us, rfinxaSx lum-o? apia-TJii/.
But the first person, among the Greeks, that called the last day of the month
by that name, or that used the word TPOriAI, if we believe Laertius, was Thales.
Neither Homer nor Hesiod therefore, if this observation be true, can be older
than Olymp. 35, 1 , or the year before Christ 637, when that philosopher was born.
But as it must have been some time before he could apply himself to astronomi-
cal studies, and probably not till the middle part of his life, or about the year
before Christ 600, the Odyssey could not well have been composed before.
But Pisistratus, as we are informed by Tully, first collected Homer's verses,
and digested them in the manner we now have them. And Solon, according to
Laertius, proved the right of the Athenians to the island Salamis, from these
lines of the Iliad :
Ata; i IX. JlxXxiMivof a,yiv JuoxAi^Exa vrtx^,
St^ktj i aycoK, !► A^rivxtuov \tna.yTO (pxXxyyii;.
Solon, according to Laertius, flourished about Olymp. 46, and in the 3d year
of it was archon, and published his laws. This was the year before Christ 5gO.
What his age was at that time, he does not tell us, but that he was 80 at his
death; which by Plutarch, in his life of that lawgiver, is placed Olymp. liii. 3,
or the year before Christ 562. If so, he must have been about 52 the year that
he was archon. And that he could not have been very young then, is plain,
from the post and credit he was in. On the expiration of his archonship, as we
are informed by Plutarch, he travelled for 10 years, and returned an old man,
as indeed he was, being now about 62 years of age : this was the year before
Christ 580. During this interval, it is highly probable, he had his intervie\y
with Croesus, and brought back with him to Athens, Homer's poems, which he
might meet with at Smyrna, or some other of the Ionian cities. On his return,
he found his country torn with factions, and that Pisistratus had formed the de-
sign of making himself master of the state, which he soon afterwards effected.
What year this was in is uncertain. The Oxford marble places it, as does Plu-
tarch, in the archonship of Corneas, which is supposed to concur with Olymp.
liv. 4, or the year before Christ 557. But Tatian, Clemens Alexandrinus, and
Scaliger, among the moderns, fix the government of Pisistratus to Olymp. 1. or
577 years before Christ. And this indeed agrees best with Plutarch ; who says
that Pisistratus, after seizing the administration, ' honoured and esteemed Solon,,
and often sent for him, and advised with him.'
446 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
In what year Pisistratus digested Homer's poems, is not said ; but it was pro-
bably some time while he was in credit; and therefore it is likely about this
very year 557 before Christ.
On the whole, says Mr. C. I think it may be concluded, with a good degree
of probability, from what has been here laid down, that the Iliad and Od)'ssey
were both composed about the time of Cyrus, or the year before Christ 558, if,
as the ancients generally do, we make his reign to commence from his taking of
Babylon. And since those that make Hesiod the elder of the two poets, place
him but a few years earlier than Homer, not enough however to cause any ob-
servable change in the rising of the fixed stars ; we may take the difference, at a
medium, at 20 or 22 years ; which will bring us to the year before Christ 580,
for the time when Hesiod flourished.
The only difficulty that I think can be made to this, is, how to reconcile it
with the express testimony of Herodotus to the contrary. In his life of Homer,
he places him 622 years before the expedition of Xerxes into Europe ; but in his
history he says, both Homer and Hesiod were not more than 400 years before
his time ; that is, since there were but 50 years between the Peloponnesian war
and the battle at Salamis, little more than 450 years before the same expedition.
Scaliger, in his notes on Eusebius, corrects the former passage of Herodotus by
the latter; and, instead of Igaitocria, reads TsVpajcoffia ; which will place Homer
about the year before Christ 002, consistent enough with Paterculus and the
marble, but different from his history by 7 1 years. Whether this correction of
Scaliger's be right, or not, I shall not here stand to inquire ; but I am apt to
think the word T£Tpa>co(n'oio-i itself, in Herodotus, is corrupt.
The Greek chronology, like that of other nations, has been generally carried
up too high ; the natural consequence of ignorance, and a defect of memoirs.
This is only now to be corrected by persons of learning and abilities, capable of
examining and comparing things with each other.
LX. An Additional Remark to one of Mr. JV. Walson, F.R.S. in his Account
of the Abbe Nonet's Letter on Electricity. By T. Birch,* D.D. Sec. U.S.
Mr. Watson, in a note upon his account of the ninth letter of the Abbe
Nollet concerning electricity, read before this Society on the 17 th of May 1753,
* Dr. Tho. Birch was born at Loudon in 1705. His parents were quakers, and they intended
him for trade ; but the love of learning prevailed, in which he was permitted to pursue his inclination,
on condition that he should provide for himself. Hence he became usher successively in three schools
kept by quakers. Having quitted the Society of the Friends, however, in 1730 he was ordained
deacon, and the next year priest ; about which time he obtained a living in Gloucestershire, and
afterwards that of Ulting in Essex. In 1734 he became domestic chaplain to Lord Kilmarnock, who
was executed in 1746 for his share in the rebellion. In 1735 Dr. Birch was elected f. r. s. and f. a. s.
VOL. XLVni.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRAKSACTlbNS. 447
takes notice, that as the electrical attraction has been observed so early, as to be
mentioned by Theophrastus ; so its luminous appearance, though only considered
as a meteor, is mentioned by Plutarch in his life of Lysander, Pliny, and other
ancient as well as some modern authors. Seneca particularly affirms, that Gy-
lyppo Syracusas petenti visa est Stella super ipsam lancem constitisse : and that in
Romanorum castris visa sunt ardere pila, ignibus scilicet in ilia delapsis. Caesar,
in his history of the African war, says, in a violent stormy night, Legionis pi-
lorum cacumina Sua sponte arserunt : and Livy mentions two similar facts. To
these may now be added one from Mr. Fynes Moryson, who in his Itinerary,
observes, that at the siege of Kingsale by the lord deputy Montjoy, where Mr.
Moryson attended him in the camp, on the 23d of December 1601, all the
night was clear, with lightning, as in the former nights were great lightnings
with thunder, to the astonishment of many, in respect of the season of the year,
' that this night our horsemen set to watch, to their seeming, did see lam^
burn at the points of their staves, or spears, in the midst of these lightning
flashes.'
LXI. Extract of a Letter of the Rev. Joseph Spence, Prof, of Modern History
in the University of Oxford, to Dr. Mead, F.R.S. Dated By fleet near fVey-
bridge, Surrey, Decemb. 7, 1733. p. 486.
I have lately received a letter from Signor Pademi at Portici ; in which, speak-
and at the same time obtained the degree of m. a. from Aberdeen. In 1744 he was presented to the
rectory of St. Michael, Wood-street ; and about 2 years after, to that of St. Margaret Fattens. In
1752 he was elected Secretary to the r. s. ; and the next year had the degree of d. d. conferred on
him by the Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1761 he was presented to the rectory of Depden in Essex,
But in 176(5 he died suddenly by a fall from his horse.
Dr. Birch was moderately learned, and of rather slow parts; but he was an exceedingly industri-
ous and indefatigable compiler, and a very useful secretary to the r.s. He had a considerable share
in compiling the General Dictionary, historical and critical, 10 vols, folio : and he published the lives
of Mr. Boyle, Archbishop Tillotson, Henry Prince of Wales, and other works of a similar kind. He
also wrote an Inquiry into the Share which Charles the 1st had in the Transactions of the earl of Gla-
morgan, 8vo, 1747. But by far his most useful work, was the History of the Royal Society, in 4
vols. 4to, 1756, &c. This work he was enabled to compile by his situation of Secretary to the r. s.,
which gave him access to the archives of that learned body, whence he extracted and published what
may be deemed the real Transactions of the Society, being the minutes and records from the books
kept by the committee, by whom all the real business of the Society is, or ought to be, conducted.
Thus we have in this work a curious and useful detail of the Society's concerns, from the beginning
of the institution to the end of the year l687 ; and probably would have been continued to his own
time had his life been longer spared. And it would be a most useful and meritorious service, if that
curious work were continued to the present times, by some other secretary of the Society ; for no
person can execute that task, but such as can have access to the minute books of the committee.
Dr. B. bequeathed his books, Mss., and a legacy of sSoOO to ihe British Museum, the money to
go towards increasing the stipend of the two assistant librarians.
448 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
ing of the publication of the antiquities found at Herculaneum, he says, Spero
che il primo tomo non tarder^ molto tempo ad uscire ; and then mentions some
particular things that had been lately discovered among the ruins ; a little brass
bust of some unknown philosopher, of the manner excellent, and is perfectly
well preserved : a statue of an orator, in marble ; and another brass bust, on a
term, of a youth, with very beautiful hair, and the whole excellent. The artist
has put his name to the latter, AnOAAilNIOI APXIOT AQHNAIOi; EnoiHIE.
He says, that the workmen were then just entering on some nobleman's house,
as appeared by the rich Mosaic pavements, &c. and that they were in hopes it
would prove a very good new mine.
LJCII. On the Value ofanAnnuilyforLife, and the Probability of Survivor-
ship. By Mr. James Dodson. p. 487.
• The writers on the subject of annuities on lives have justly distinguished them
into 2 kinds : in the first, the annuitant is entitled to receive a payment, if he
be alive on the day on which it becomes due ; but if he dies on the preceding
day, or sooner, his heirs have no claim to any part of the payment, so to have
become due ; but in the second, if the annuitant dies at any intermediate time
between the days of payment, his heirs are to receive a part of the annuity, pro-
portional to the time elapsed between the preceding day of payment and the an-
nuitant's decease. This latter kind of annuities have been distinguished from the
former, by the words, secured by a grant of lands ; because, where lands are
leased for lives, the conditions are generally such as are above described.
The values of the first kind of annuities have been investigated on principles
purely arithmetical ; but in order to perform the latter, fluxions have been used,
Mr. D. conceives, without any necessity : but as the investigation of the former
may be usefully made a part of the latter, he first recites the method of perform-
ing that, and then proceeds to attempt the other on the same principles.
If, with De Moivre, we suppose the decrements of life to be equal (viz.
that out of a number of persons, alive at a given age, equal to the number of
years that a person of that age has a possibility of living, there will die one in each
year, till they are all extinct) ; then, out of a number of chances equal to that
number of persons, which may, for instance, be 36, all but one are favourable,
in the first year, to any individual ; and consequently it is 35 to 1 that he receives
one payment of the annuity, by living till it becomes due ; that is, the probability
of his receiving it, is -§4, and of not receiving it, ^V-
Again ; since, by supposition, there dies but 1 person in the first year, and 1
in the lA ; there are but 1 chances, in the 36, against his receiving the 2d pay-
ment, by living till it becomes due ; and consequently f-i will be the probability
of his receiving that also ; the probability of his dying in that year being -j?^-, as
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 449
before. Thus too it may be proved, that the probability of his receiving the 3d,
4th, 5th, &c. payment, will be 4-|-, f|-, -§-^, &c. and therefore, if the annual
payments were each ll. and if the interest of money was not to be considered,
we might conceive these several probabilities, as the present worths of the several
payments, and the sum of them would be the value of an annuity of the first kind.
But since the interest of money necessarily enters the process, and since the
payments become due at the end of the 1st, 2d, 3d, &c. year, the first of these
payments must be discounted for 1 year, the 2d for 2 years, the 3d for 3 years,.
&c. and the sum of their present worths will be the value of an annuity of the
first kind, to continue during the life of a person who may possibly live 36
years ; and this sum may be found by an easy and well-known process, from the
common tables of compound interest and annuities, which need not be inserted
here.
The annuity secured by land must necessarily be of greater value than the
above; because, though the annuitant dies before the payment becomes due,
yet his heirs are to receive a part of it ; the atniuitant therefore, in this case, has
not only the probability 4-^ of receiving the first payment, but he has also an ex-
pectation on part of the probability -^y which in the first case was wholly against
him. Now it may be esteemed an equal chance, supposing him to die in the
first year, whether that decease happens before the expiration of half that year,
or after it ; and if it happens before, he is to receive less than half the annual
payment ; but if after it, more.
The annuitant may therefore be supposed to have an equal chance, if he fails
of receiving the whole first payment, yet of receiving half of it; and consequently
half of the probability, ^, which was before totally against him, will in this case
be favourable to him ; and his expectation of receiving either the whole, or at
least half of the first payment, will be -y- + ^. So since the probability of
his dying in the 2d year, is also -3-'^; we may in the same manner prove, that
one half of it will in this case become favourable to him ; and consequently that
■§-|- -j- ^ will be the probability of his receiving the whole, or at least half, of
the 2d payment. It appears therefore that for every year which he has the pos-
sibility of living, he will in this case have the probability y^, or half of ^, in his
fevour, more than he had in the former case; and therefore, if the present
worths of the constant sum ^vl- (supposed to be due at the end of 1, 2, 3, &c.
years) be found, and added to the value of the annuity, according to the former
case, the sum will be the value of an annuity, secured by land, to continue
during the life of a person who may possibly live 36 years.
Now since the sums by which the former annuity is to be increased, consist
of the present worths of that fraction of a pound sterling, whose numerator is
unity, and denominator twice the number of years that the annuitant can pos-
VOL. X. 3 M
450 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754..
sibly live, supposed to be due at the end of each of ] , 2, 3, &c. years ; it will
follow that their amount, or the difference between the values of the 1 annuities,
will be equal to the quotient found by dividing the value of an anuity of ll.
certain, for as many years as the annuitant can possibly live, by twice that num-
ber of years : and therefore, if to the value of an annuity for life, of the first
kind, we add the quotient so found, the sum will be the value of an annuity of
the second kind, for the same life.
When Mr. D. had thus investigated the value of this annuity, he compared
the result with that M. de Moivre had deduced from fluxions, and published in
N" 473 of the Phil. Trans.; and found that they agree to more than a sufficient
exactness, for computations of this nature. He then annexes this comparison.
The probability of any order of survivorship, that can happen among 3 per-
sons, and consequently that of one person's surviving 2 others, may likewise be
investigated on similar principles, without the assistance of fluxions ; but as this
problem admits of 6 cases, and the algebraic process is of a length too great for
the designed limits of this essay, Mr. D. omits it.
LXITI. On the Pheasant of Pennsylvania,* and the Otis Minor. By Mr. George
Edwards. •\- p. 499.
What is called the pheasant in Pennsylvania, and other provinces of North
America, belongs to that genus of birds, which in England we call heathcocks,
* This bird is the Tetrao Umbellm of Linneus, and is extremely well figured iti the 1st volume of
Edwards's Gleanings of Natural History, pi. 248.
t From the Memoirs of his Life, published in 1776, it appears that Mr. George Edwards was bom at
Stratford, a hamlet belonging to Westham in Essex, on the 3d of April 1694. He passed some of his
early years under the tuition of a clergyman named Hewit, who was then master of a public school
at Layton-Stone, a few miles distant from the village where he was born. After quitting the school
he was placed with another minister of the established church at Brentwood; and being designed by
his parents for business, was put apprentice to a tradesman in Fenchurch-street.
On the expiration however of his apprenticeship, he declined entering into business, and conceived
a design of travelling, in order to improve his taste, and enlarge his mind. He first visited Holland
and afterwards Norway, and having gratified his curiosity with the view of these regions, returned
and passed some time in his native place. He then went to France, where, on visiting Versailles
he experienced great disappointment at finding that the Menagerie, once so celebrated, had at that
time no living creature in it, having been totally neglected since the death of Louis the 14th. On
his return to England Mr. Edwards closely pursued his favourite study of Natural History, employing
himself in making drawings of such animals as happened to fall under his notice; and the accuracy
and elegance of his delineations was such as to make them highly interesting to those who cultivated
similar pursuits. He therefore was induced to turn to advantage what was begun only for amuse-
ment, and obtained a sufficient subsistence by the sale of his drawings. In December 1733, by the
recommendation of Sir Hans Sloane, he was chosen librarian of the College of Physicians ; an office
peculiarly suited to his taste, as it gave him constant access to many works on the subject of Natural
History, which he might otherwise have found a difficulty of inspecting. In 1743 the first volume
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 451
moor-game, or grouse. It is nearly as large as a pheasant, is of a brownish
colour on the head and upper side, and white on the breast and belly ; it is beau-
tifully variegated with lighter and darker colours on the back, and spots of black
on the under side. Its legs are feathered down to the feet. This bird is wholly
unknown to the curious of our country. It was sent to England, a year or two
ago, by Mr. John Bartram, with a letter giving some account of it, and other
matters ; out of which letter is extracted what follows : ' our pheasant was wholly
unknown to Catesby, it being more northern than Carolina. They have been
common in Pennsylvania, but now most of them are destroyed in the lower set-
tlements, though the back Indian inhabitants bring them to market. When
living, they erect their tails like turkey-cocks, and raise a ring of feathers round
their necks, and walk very stately, making a noise a little like a turkey, when
the hunter should fire. They thump in a very remarkable manner, by clapping
their wings against their sides, as is supposed, standing on a fallen tree. They
begin their strokes at about 2 seconds of time distant from each other, and re-
peat them quicker and quicker, till they sound like thunder at a distance, which
lasts about a minute, then ceases for 6 or 8 minutes, and begins again. They
may be heard near half a mile, by which the hunters find them. They exercise
their thumping in a morning and evening in the spring and fid! of the year.
Their food is berries and seeds. Their flesh is white, and good. I believe they
breed but once a year in the spring, and hatch 12 or 14 at a sitting ; and these
of his History of Birds was published ; the reception of which was so highly favourable as to induce
him to continue it in a similar manner, till in 1751 the fourth volume came from the press, accom-
panied by a dedication to the Creator of the universe, in devout gratitude for all the good things he
received in this world.
In 1758 he continued his labours under a new title, viz. Gleanings of Natural History, containint^,
as before, various kinds of rare birds, quadrupeds, and other animals : a 2d volume appeared in 1760,
and the 3d and last in 1764. The whole work therefore consists of seven volumes in 4to, containing
engravings and descriptions of no less than 6OO subjects in Natural History. To the work, thus com-
pleted, Linneus added a list of his own trivial names. Linneus indeed appears to have entertained a
very high esteem for Mr. Edwards, and to have considered his work as of the highest importance in
Natural History, and, in the Systema Naturae, publicly declares its superiority over other production*
of a similar kind.
By the time Mr. Edwards had finished his Natural History, the decay of his sight, together with
other infirmities of age, induced him to resign all further employment, and to retire to a small house
which he purchased at Plaistow, Essex, where he continued to pass the remainder of his life, and
died on the ^23d of July, 1773, having completed the 80th year of his age.
Mr. Edwards, we are informed, was of middle stature, rather inclined to corpulence ; of a liberal
disposition and a cheerful conversation. All his acquaintance experienced his benevolent temper, and
his poor neighbours frequently partodk of his bounty.
In consequence of the merits of his publications in Natural History, Mr. Edwards was elected a
r.ii.s. He was also a f.a.s., as well as a member of several Academies in different parts of
Europe.
3 M '2
45'2 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1754.
keep together till the following spring. They cannot be made tame. Many
have, to their disappointment, attempted it by raising them under hens; but, as
soon as hatched, they escaped into the woods, where they either provide for
themselves, or perish.'
Mr. Brooke, surgeon of Maryland, says, ' They breed in all parts of Mary-
land, except near the eastern shores. They lay their eggs in nests made of dry
leaves by the side of a fallen tree, or at the root of a standing one; they lay
from 1 2 to 1 6 eggs, and hatch in the spring. I have found their nests, when I
was a boy, and have endeavoured to take the old one, but never could: she
would let me put my hand almost on her before she quitted her nest; then she
would flutter just before me for 100 yards, or more, to draw me off from her
nest, which could not afterwards be easily found. The young ones leave the nest
as soon as hatched, and, I believe, live at first on ants and worms; when they
are a few days old, they hide themselves among the leaves, that it is hard to find
them. When they are grown up, they feed on the berries, fruits, and grain, of
the country. Though the pheasant hatches many young at a sitting, and often
sits twice a year, the great number and variety of hawks among us, feeding on
them, prevents their increasing fast. The beating of the pheasant, as we term
it, is a noise chiefly made in the spring by the cock birds. It may be distinctly
heard a mile in calm weather. They swell their breasts like a pouting pigeon,
and beat with their wings, which sounds not unlike a drum. They shorten each
sound in a stroke, till they run into one another undistinguished.'
Lahontan, in his voyage to North America, vol. i, p. 67, speaking of the
fowls about the lakes of Canada, mentions this same pheasant as follows:
" Their flapping makes a noise like a drum, all about, for the space of a minute;
then the noise ceases for half a quarter of an hour, after which it begins again.
By this noise we were directed to the place, where the unfortunate moor-hens
sat, and found them on rotten mossy trees. By flapping one wing against the
other, they mean to call their mates, and the humming noise, thus made, may
be heard a quarter of a league off. This they do only in the months of April,
May, September, and October; and, which is very remarkable, a moor-hen
never flaps in this manner but on one tree. It begins at break of day, and gives
over at 9 in the morning, beginning again an hour before sun-set, and flaps its
wings till night." This is all tlie light I could gather, relating to the pheasant
of North America.
The Otis minor,* anas campestris, canne petiere, or the field-duck, was taken
in the west of England, and laid before the Royal Society about 3 years ago:
and as no gentleman present knew the bird, Mr. Hauksbee sent it to Mr. E.
• This bird is the otis tetrax of Linneus, and is figured in the first volume of Edwards's Glean-
ings, pi. 251.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 453
who accordingly gave in what account of it he could collect from ornithologists,
having never seen the bird till then. He found figures of it in Bellon, Gesner,
Aldrovand, Willoughby, Johnson, and others, with descriptions under the various
names here given. Modern authors agree that this bird was unknown to the
ancients.
LXIF. On a Particular Species of Coralline. By Mr. J. Ellis, F.R.S. p. 504.
Among the observations lately made on the marine productions, Mr. E. finds
that many corallines, as well as corals, are composed of a great number of tubes,
which proceed from animals; and as these tubes are made of different materials
in different species, so are they disposed in a variety of different forms. Some
are united compactly together, as in the red coral, see pi. 10, letter A; and in
some species of the white, as at letter b ; in both of which they appear com-
bined together, forming irregular ramifications, like trees: others rise in tufts,
like groupes of the tubular stalks of plants, distinct from each other. Two
sorts of these the fishermen frequently take up at sea in their nets, particularly
near the buoy of the Nore, at the opening of the river Thames ; when these
are first taken out of the sea, and immediately put into a basin of sea-water,
you may observe, that each tube has its proper polype sitting on it, of a most
beautiful crimson colour. Letter d,* gives the figure of the largest kind,
called (in Ray's Synopsis, ed. 3, p. 31) adianti aurei minimi facie planta marina;
and letter c is a smaller kind, called (in Ray's Synopsis, ed. 3, p. 39) fucus dea-
lensis fistulosus laringae similis. He calls this species corallina tubularia meli-
tensis, cum scolopendris suis, tentaculis duobus duplicato-pinnatis, instructis.-|-
On taking the tubes and animals of this curious Maltese coralline out of the
spirits of wine, where they had been preserved, he perceived a small slimy bag,
in which they seemed to be inserted, and to take their rise from, as may be ob-
served at letter d. What has been the use of this bag is uncertain, unless it was
the matrix of several of these scolopendras in their embryo state. The tubes,
which are built by the inclosed animals, as they rise in height, gently increase in
diameter; the texture of their outside coat is formed of an ash-coloured earthy
matter, of different shades in different strata, and closely united to an inner coat,
which is of a tough, horny, transparent, and very smooth substance ; the cavity,
or inside, of the tube, is perfectly round, though the animal is of a long com-
pressed figure, like a leech extended It appears, from the marks of its feet on
• The species referred to at letter d is the tubularia incUvisa of Linneus. That referred to at letter
c is the tubularia muscoides, Linn.
t This is the sabella penicillus of Linneus. It is however more properly referred to the genus
amphitnte, and is the amjihilrite ventHabntm of the Gnnelinian edition of the Systema Naturae.
454 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
the inside of the tube, that it can turn itself freely about, and move up and
down, the better to attack and secure its prey.
This scolopendra has two very curious and remarkable tentacula, or arms, the
left much larger than the right; these are doubly feathered, as may be seen, in
the magnified part, at c ; the number of feet on each side of the botly of this
animal exceeds 150.
Plate 10, will best explain the rest; where b is the belly part of the animal,
in its natural size, hanging out of its tube, i is the same side of the whole
animal a little magnified, a is the back part of the head of the animal, sitting
in its tube, h is the back part of the whole animal a little magnified, e shows
the inside of the tube with the strata, or rings, seen through the horny inner
coat.
The coralline called (in Ray's Synops. ed. 2, p. 2, and ed. 3, p. 36, N° 15)
fruticulus marinus, cauliculis crassiusculis teretibus rigidis, pennatus,* which I
have named the herring-bone coralline, and which is very common on oysters
all the winter season, shows remarkably, by the help of a common magnifying
glass, the tubulary structure, not only of some of the corals and corallines, but
of the keratophytons, or sea feather; only with this difference, that the tubes
of the herring-bone coralline are of a spongy elastic nature, and always remain
open; whereas the others, being of a more soft and viscid nature, by time, and
the heat of the climate, are compressed together, and harden, some into stone,
and some into horn or wood.
At E is the natural appearance of the herring-bone coralline; and f and g the
root, and one of the upper branches, are magnified, to show the tubes.
LXJ^. Observations on the late severe Cold Weather. By William Arderoii,
F.R.S. p. 507.
The observations were taken by thermometers exposed to the open air, in the
garden, which varied sometimes 40 or 50 degrees in 24 hours; the cold coming
as it were by fits, in an unusual manner.
Dec. 30, at 1 1 o'clock at night. — All the spirits in Hauksbee's thermometer
retired into the ball, and Fahrenheit's stood at 20 degrees: at this time he let
down a Fahrenheit's thermometer into the river, to the depth of 4 feet, during
12 minutes, and when taken up it stood at 33 degrees.
This same evening he exposed an open glass jar full of water, in the garden,
to be frozen; and in the morning it was all solid ice, rising in the middle, in fi-
gure like the frustum of a cone. He exposed also, in the same place, an open
glass of ale, which froze even to the bottom, in a very odd manner; for the
• Sertularia haUcina. Linn.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 455
watery or weaker parts were frozen into plates of ice, sticking to each other by
their edges, the more spirituous parts remaining between them, in their inter-
stices, unfrozen ; which being drained off into another glass, the taste was almost
as strong as brandy, with a high flavour of the hop.
Dec. 3 1 . This evening the cold was the most intense observed this season ; for
at 10 o'clock Fahrenheit's thermometer stood at 15 degrees.
Jan. 1. This afternoon it began to thaw, and in the night froze again, by
which, next morning, the buildings in general appeared as if they had been
white-washed on the outside, being cased all over with ice; and the insides of
garrets and outhouses were covered in the same manner.
Jan. 31, He exposed a glass of proof spirits, impregnated with the essence,
or oil extracted from the peel of oranges, at 10 in the evening, in the garden,
when Hauksbee's thermometer stood at g3°; at 8 next morning, he found it no
way affected by the frost ; nor did there seem any difference either in taste or
smell. Feb. 6. At 8 o'clock, he exposed in the garden a drinking glass of water,
which was completely frozen over in one minute's time ; and in 1 5 minutes the
ice was above -^ of an inch in thickness. Fahrenheit's thermometer then stood
at 21 degrees. A coarse grey thread, 2 feet in length, being dipped in water,
froze in 4 seconds, so stiff, that he took it by one end, and held it upright, as
if it had been a piece of wire.
If any part of the human skin, the finger, for instance, was wet with spittle,
and immediately pressed on a piece of iron, in the open air, it would be frozen
so fast, as to stick to it; and, if plucked away hastily, would endanger the tear-
ing off the skin from the flesh. He tried the same experiment on lead, but the
sticking was much less; and to wood the finger did not stick at all. In some
places the ice was -i- of an inch thick, for several days together, within-side of
the windows, and that even in rooms where fire was kept; and when the weather
became warmer, it did not fall in drops, but vanished imperceptibly into the air, by
which it had been brought thither. These plates or cases of ice were sometimes
an assemblage of an infinite number of particles not much unlike the scales of
fishes; sometimes they resembled small spines, or the crystal shootings of various
kinds of salts ; and sometimes they represented a variety of landscapes with trees
and plants, from 1 to 3 or 4 inches in length, in so beautiful a manner, as nei-
ther pen nor pencil can express.
LXFI. A Letler from M. de Ulsle, of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris, to the Rev. James Bradley, D.D. Dated Paris, Nov. 30, 1752.
Translated fro7n the French, p. 312.
This letter contains a comparison of Dr. Bradley's observations of the planet
Mars, with some corresponding observations made at the Cape of Good Hope
456 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
by Mens, de la Caille; from which he concludes, that the horizontal parallax of
that planet, at the time of its opposition to the sun, is 1T\".
And according to the ratio of the distance of the sun and Mars from the earth
at that time, he concluded the horizontal parallax of the sun to be about 10^".
This is what he had been able to conclude from Dr. B.'s observations of Mars,
with respect to the parallax of the sun. Having made the same calculations
from his own observations, and those of other astronomers, which he could col-
lect; he found very nearly the same parallax of the sun, by taking a medium
among all the observations of each astronomer,
^LXVIL Description of a Piece oj" Mechanism contrived by James Ferguson,
for exhibiting the Time, Duration, and Quantity, of Solar Eclipses, in all
Places of the Earth, p. 520.
This machine may be seen described in Mr. Ferguson's Astronomy, art. 405,
where he calls the machine an eclipsareon, the figure of which is exhibited in
pi. ] 3 of that book.
LXFIII. On the late Hard Weather. By the Rev. H. Miles, D. D., F. R. S.
p. 525.
This paper contains a few remarks on the very cold weather in Feb, 1754.
The coldest day was on the 6th, about 7 in the morning, when the thermometer
was at 15°. He observes that the time of the greatest cold, is usually from an
hour to an hour and a half before sun-rise.
LXIX. A Catalogue of the 50 Plants from Chelsea Garden, presented to the
Royal Society by the Company of Apothecaries, for the Year 1753, pursuant
to the Direction of Sir Hans Sloane. p. 528.
This is the 32d presentation of this kind, completing to the number of l6oo
different plants.
LXX. An Account of some Experiments on a Machine for Measuring the Way
of a Ship at Sea. By Mr. J. Smeaton, F. R. S. p. 532.
In the Philos. Trans. N° 39 1 , Mr. Henry de Saumarez gives an account of a
machine for measuring a ship's way more exactly than by the log. This machine
consists of a first mover, in the form of the letter y. On the 2 arms of the
Y are fastened 2 vanes, inclined in such a manner that when the y is hauled
through the water by a rope, fastened to its stem or tail, it may turn round, and
of consequence endeavour to turn the rope round. The other end of the rope,
being fastened to the end of a spindle capable of moving freely round, will be
made to do so by the rotations of the y, communicated to the rope. A motion
VOL. XLVIIi:j PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 457
being thus cominunicated to a spindle within the ship, this spindle may be made
to drive a set of wheel-work, which will register the turns of the y ; and the
value of a certain number of these turns being once found, by proper experi-
ments, they are easily reducible into leagues and degrees, &c. The only diffi-
culty then is, whether this y will make the same number of rotations in going
the same space, when it is carried through the water fast, as when it is carried
slow. On this head Mr. de Saumarez, as well in the paper above-cited, as in a
subsequent one published in Philos. Trans. N° 408, has given an account of
several trials, which he has made of it, from which it appears, that this machine
in part answers the end proposed, and is in part defective; the errors of which
he supposes to proceed from the sinking down of the y into the water on a slow
motion ; the axis of its rotation being then more oblique to the horizon, than in
a quick one.
In a machine constructed like this, it is evident that the end of the spindle, to
which the rope is fastened, must be of sufficient strength and thickness, not only
to bear the force or stress, that the hauling of the y through the water will lay
on it, in the greatest motion of a ship; but also to bear the accidental jerks of
the waves. The thickness of the spindle then being determined by these con-
ditions; it is also manifest, that to prevent the spindle from being pulled out of
its place by the draft of the rope, there must be a shoulder formed on it, which
must be greater than the part of the spindle before described, for the spindle to
bear against. The size that Mr. Saumarez proposes to give to his y, is 1^ inches
tfie whole length; 15 inches for the length of the arms, which are to be opened
to a right angle; 8 inches for the length of each vane; A\ inches broad, and^
the stems and shank to be \ of an inch thick. According to these dimensions,
the resistance that this part of the machine will meet with, in passing through
the water, will, in the swift motions of the ship, be very considerable; conse-
quently the necessary bulk of the pivot-end of the spindle, and its shoulder, will
occasion a considerable friction in its turning, and retardation to the rotation of
the machine.
To cure these defects, as much as possible, instead of the y before described,
Mr. S. made trial of a single plate of brass, of about 10 inches long, 2-J- broad,
-^ of an inch thick, and cut into an oval shape. This plate being set a little
atwist, and fastened by one end to a small cord, in the manner of the y, is like-
wise capable of making a rotation, in being drawn through the water; but with
this diffiirence, that as this is but a small thin plate drawn edgewise through the
water, its resistance, in passing through it, is much less; of consequence, a
much smaller line is sufficient to hold it, which again considerably diminishes
the resistance; and this of course proves a double diminution of friction in the
spindle; first, as the pressure upon it is less; and, secondly, as it allows the
VOL. X. 3 N
438 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
spindle aiul shoulder to be of a less diameter. To break the jerks of the waves,
next to the end of the spindle he fixed a spiral spring of wire, to which the cord
was fastened; which, by this means, was capable of playing backwards and for-
wards, and giving way to the irregularities of the sea: and lest the plate should
lay fast hold of any thing, or any extraordinary jerk should damage the spindle
or spring, a knob or button was fastened on the cord, at a small distance from
the spring, which stopped on a hole in a piece of wood, and prevented the spring
from being pulled out to above a certain length ; so that all addition of force,
beyond this, could only tend to break the cord, and carry away the plate. The
spindle, being thus guarded from accidents, will allow of a still further diminution
of its size; so that, at last, he ventured to make the spindle-pivot no more than
-jV of an inch diameter, and that of the shoulder J-, being of tempered steel,
and sufficiently smooth. The hole, in which the pivot, and against which the
shoulder worked, was of agate likewise, well polished.
Being thus provided, in May 1751} he procured a boat, on the serpentine
river in Hyde-park, to try how far the turns of the machine would be consistent
with themselves, when the same space was measured over with different velocities.
The course was determined at each end, by observing the coincidence of two
trees, in a line nearly at right angles to the river. We however rowed beyond
the mark, that the machine might be in full play when the course was begun:
the spindle was stopped at the beginning and end; the numbers read off were as
follow :
The space between the marks was, by estimation, about half a mile.
1st rowing up the river, in 11 min. the plate made 6l5 revol.
2d down 14 645
3d up 18i 6l2
4th down Q-J- 603
5th up 18 620
6th down 10 600
It is observable, that the greatest difference among the above observations, is
between the 2d and 6th, being 645 and 60O; the difference being about a 4th
part of the whole; the times being 14 minutes and 10, both in going down the
river; whereas those observations, which differ most in point of time, viz. the
3d and 4th, being performed in I8-1- minutes, and 9-r minutes, have their revo-
lutions more nearly alike, being 6l2 and 603; which differ only by a 68th of
the whole. From these observations he was led to think, that the different ve-
locities, with which a vessel moves forwards, would make no material difference
in the number of rotations of the plate; or at least that those differences would
be less than the irregularities arising from other causes, even in trials nearly
similar.
VOL. XLVIII.^ PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 459
The next trial of this machine was on board a small sailing vessel, in company
with Dr. Knight, and Mr. William Hutchinson, an experienced seaman. The
expedition was on the river Thames, and some leagues below the Nore. The
intention of the trial here, was to find in general, how far it agreed with the
log, and how it would behave in the swell of the sea; a comparison with the
measure of a real distance being here impracticable, on account of the tides and
currents. The method of trial was this: the whole log-line was suffered to run
out, being 357 feet between the first knot and the end. The person who hove
the log gave notice, at the extremes of this measure, that the person who at-
tended the dial of the machine might stop the spindle at the beginning and end;
while a third observed, by a second's-watch, the time taken up in running these
357 feet. By these means, we were enabled to ascertain the comparative velocity
moved, and the number of turns of the plate at each trial, corresponding to 357
feet by the log ; which, if the machine and log were both accurate, ought to
have been always the same. The particulars of these experiments are contained
in the following table.
Turns of the Seconds of time during the run- Turns of the Seconds of time during the run-
pUte. ning out of 357 feet oflog-line. plate. ningoutofss? feetof loj-line
83 In the river at anchor by the tidel24 70 Before the wind at sea .... 56
82 The sarae rei)eated 134 70 The same 52
81 Sailing in the river 98 66" Before the wind in the river 55
79 In the river at anchor by the tidel35 6i The same 53
76 Sailing in the river 115 64 The same 60
74 At sea upon a wind 64 64 The sarae 43
74 The same repeated ... 69 63 At sea upon a wind 53
71 Sailing in the river 71 62 The same ....•• 52
70 The same 66 62 Sailing in the river 45
70 Before the wind at sea 77
It appears from these trials, made in diflferent positions of the vessel with
regard to the wind, both in the river and at sea, as well by the tides at anchor,
as in sailing, that the turns of the plate corresponding with the space of 357 feet
by the log, were from 62 to 83 ; and the times in which this space was run, were
from 45 to 135 seconds, the greater number of revolutions answering to the
greater number of seconds, or slower movement of the vessel. On finding this
considerable disagreement between the log and plate, when swift and slow mo-
tions are compared, Mr. S. did not suppose that they proceeded from a retarda-
tion of the plate in swift motions, but from the hauling home of the log in slow
ones. For instance, the log, to do its office accurately, ought to remain at rest
in the water, whatever be the motion of the vessel. But even the keeping the
line straight, and much more the suffering the log to haul the line off the reel,
as practised by many, will make the log in some measure follow the vessel, and
3 N 2
4()0 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO J 754.
will be greater in proportion as the time of continuance of this action is greater;
and therefore the log will follow the ship twice as far in going one knot, when the
ship is twice as long in running it. The consequence of this is, that a vessel always
runs over a greater space than is shown by the log-line ; but that this error is
greater, in [)roportion as the vessel moves slower. It is this reason probably that
has induced the practical seamen to continue the distance between their knots
shorter than they are directed by the theory.
Afterwards, in the same summer, Mr. S. made such another expedition, in a
sailing vessel, along with Capt. Campbell of the Mary yacht, and Dr. Knight.
Having prepared two of these machines as near alike as possible, he determined
to try, how far they were capable of agreement, when exposed to the same in
conveniencies, and used together. During the trial of these machines, one
made 86,716 revolutions, and the other made 88,184. During this space, they
were compared at 10 several intervals. The revolutions between each interval
differed from the proportion of these numbers, in the first comparison, -rV of the
whole interval. The errors of each interval, in the other comparisons, were,
in order, vVj tVj -sV) Vt, tt, ^, tt> -tt, tV; the greatest errors being where
the spaces were the shortest. In other respects, the plates seemed to perform
their duty in the water well enough, though the sea was as rough in this voyage
as our small vessel could well bear.
Lastly, being for some time on board the Fortune sloop of war, commanded
by Alexander Campbell, Esq. in company with Dr. Knight, for the purpose of
making trial of his new invented sea-compasses, I had frequent opportunities of
making use of these machines, by comparing them with each other, with the
log, and with real distances; and having, by repeated trials, pretty well ascer-
tained the number of turns of the plate, equal to a given space, by the help of
the log, in the manner before described, when the ship was on a middle velocity,
he found the spaces, so measured, nearly consistent with themselves, and with
the truth; but all this while the winds and weather were very moderate. It
afterwards happened, that they ran 18 leagues in a brisk gale of wind, which
drove them sometimes at the rate of 8 knots an hour, as appeared by heaving
the log. During this run he observed, that the resistance of the water to the
line and plate, was very considerable, and increased the friction of the spindle so
much, as to prevent it from beginning to turn, till the plate had twisted the line
to such a degree, that when it did set a-going, it would frequently run 150 or
200 turns at once. He also observed, that the wind coming across the course
of the ship, blew the cord a good deal out of the direction of the spindle, and
caused the line to i-ub against the safeguard hole, for the button to stop against,
as above described; which undoubtedly occasioned considerable friction in that
place. But the most untoward circumstance was, that being in a rough, but
TOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 46I
short chopping sea, and sailing obliquely across the waves, the plate would fre-
quently be drawn from one wave to another through the air, without touching
the water; and would jump from one wave to another; the unevenness of the
surface, joined to the quickness of the motion, not permitting the plate to follow
the depression of the water. This evil he endeavoured to remedy, by placing on
the line, at a small distance before the plate, some hollow bullets, such as are
made for nets, in order to keep the plate so low down in the water, as to be
below the bottom of the waves. This, in part, he found they did; but at the
same time they added so much resistance, in their passing through the water,
that the inconvenience was as great one way as the other.
On making up the account of this run, the number of rotations were less, by
full one-third, than they ought to have been, compared with former observations,
which afforded a convincing proof, that this instrument was considerably retarded
in quick motions. The length of the line made use of was about 20 fathoms,
which he found necessary, that the water, disturbed by the body of the ship,
might be tolerably settled before the plate was drawn through it ; but this length
of line was also an inconvenience, as it met with greater resistance in the water.
On the whole, it seemed that such an instrument is capable of measuring the
way of a ship at sea, when its velocity does not exceed 5 sea miles an hour, to a
degree of exactness exceeding the log. It therefore may be useful in the mensu-
ration of the velocities of tides, currents, &c. and also in measuring distances
at sea in taking surveys of coasts, harbours, &c. Thus far it seems capable of
performing, on the supposition that it cannot be brought to a greater degree of
perfection. But this he was very far from supposing: on the contrary, he thinks
that it may be brought to answer the end of measuring the way of a ship at sea
universally.
LXXI. Observations of some Eclipses of Jupiter s Satellites at Lisbon in 1753.
By J. Chevalier, p. 546.
LXXII. Observation of a Solar Eclipse at Lisbon, Oct.^Q, 1753. By J.
Chevalier, p. 546.
An account of the above two articles is contained in the following.
LXXIIL An Account of some Astronomical Observations taken at Lisbon by M.
J. Chevalier in the Year 1753. By J. Short, M.A., F.R.S. p. 548.
This gentleman mentions two emersions of the satellites of Jupiter, viz. one
of the first, and another of the third, both observed, in a very clear air, with a
Gregorian telescope 6 feet long. Dr. Bevis, from a great number of observations,
has computed formulae of tables for the times of the immersions and emersions
462 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ' [aNNO J 754.
of the first satellite of Jupiter, and which times we have seldom found to differ
from the observations above lO': by comparing therefore the time of the emer-
sion of the first satellite observed by this gentleman, with the time computed
from these formulae, the difference of longitude between London, at St. Paul's,
and the place of observation at Lisbon, comes out to be 36"" 6^ ; and by several
former corresponding observations the difference had been found to be 36™ lO'.
M. Chevalier further mentions the observation of the eclipse of the sun last
October, through a telescope of 1 5 palms. He saw both the beginning and
end, in a very clear air ; and says that the greatest quantity of the eclipse was 1 1
digits and 5', which he measured with a micrometer ; but unluckily he has not
given us either the diameter of the sun, or that of the moon, which he might
have measured, (for the eclipse was annular) though he was at the pains of mea-
suring all the digits, both in the increase and decrease of the eclipse. He further
takes notice, that at the time of the greatest obscuration, the light of the sun
was remarkably diminished ; and that they were able to see Jupiter, Venus, and
some stars of the first and 2d magnitude ; but he could not see Mercury, on
account of his proximity to the sun : and that a reflecting speculum, of 3 palms
in diameter, which could melt lead, when placed in its focus, and instantly set
wood in a flame, produced the same effects, even when the sun was 7 digits
eclipsed ; but that, about the time of the greatest obscuration it was not able to
burn wood, though held in its focus for some time : and that at the same time
the air became very cold, the wind blowing hard from the north ; and that some
vapours, or fog, were seen to rise out of the river and adjacent harbour.
LXXIf^. Of an Instrument for Measuring Small Angles, the first Account of
which was read before the Royal Society, May 10, 1733. By Mr. John
Dollond. Dated April A, 1754. p. 551.
Before entering on particulars relating to this micrometer, it will be proper to
make a few preparatory observations on the nature of spherical glasses, so far as
may be necessary to render the following explanation more easily understood.
Obs. 1 . — It is a property of all convex spherical glasses, to refract the rays of
light which are transmitted through them, in such a manner, as to collect all
those that proceed diverging from any one point of a luminous object, to some
other point ; whose distance from the glass depends chiefly on its convexity, and
the distance of the object from it.
Obs. 2. — The point where the rays are thus collected, may be considered as
the image of that point from which they diverge. For if we conceive several
radiant points thus emitting rays, which, by the refractive quality of the glass,
are made to converge to as many other points ; it will be an easy matter to under-
stand how every part of the object will be truly represented. As this property of
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 463
spherical glasses is explained and demonstrated by all the writers on optics, it
being the very foundation of the science, the bare mention of it is sufficient for
the present purpose.
Obs. 3. — It will be necessary however to observe further, that the lines con-
necting every point in the object with its corresponding points in the image, do
all intersect in a certain point of the axis or line passing through the poles of the
glass, where its two surfaces are parallel, and may be properly called its centre.
Whence it appears, that the angles subtended by the object and its image, from
that point, must be equal : and therefore their diameters will be in the same
ratio as their distances from that point.
Ohs. 4. — As the formation of the image by the glass depends entirely on the
property above mentioned, viz. its collecting all the light, incident on it from
the several points of the object, into as many other points at its focus ; it follows,
that any segment of such a glass will also form an image equal, and every way
similar, to that exhibited by the whole glass ; with this difference only, that it
will be so much darker, as the area of the segment is less than that of the
whole glass.
Obs. 5. — ^The axis of a spherical glass, is a line connecting the centres of the
spheres, to which the two surfaces are ground ; and wherever this line passes
through the glass, there the surfaces are parallel. But if it happens that this
line does not go through the substance of the glass, such a glass is said to have
no internal centre ; but it is conceived to be in its plane produced till it meets the
axis : and this imaginary point, though external to the glass, is as truly its centre,
and is as fixed in its position to it, as if it were actually within its substance.
Obs. 6. — If a spherical glass, having its centre or pole near its middle or centre
of its circumference, should be divided by a straight line through the middle ;
the centre will be in one of the segments only. For how exact soever a person
may be supposed to be in cutting it through the centre , yet it is hard to con-
ceive how a mathematical point should be divided in two : therefore the centre
will be internal to one of the segments, and external to the other. But if a small
matter be ground away from the straight edge of each segment, both tlieir
centres will become external ; and so they will more easily be brought to a cc
incidence.
Obs. 7. — If these two segments should be held together, so as to make their
centres coincide ; the images, which they give of any object, will likewise coin-
cide, and become a single one. This will be the case when their straight edges
are joined to make the glass, as it were, whole again: but let the centres be
any-how separated, their images will also separate, and each segment will give a
separate and distinct image of any object to which they may be exposecl.
464 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
Obs. 8. — ^Though tlie centres of the segments may be drawn from their coin-
cidence, by removing the segments in any direction whatever ; yet the most con-
venient way for this purpose is, to slide their straight edges one along the other,
till they are removed, as the figure in the margin represents them :
for thus they may be moved without suffering any false light to
come in between them. And by this way of removing them, the
distance between their centres may be very conveniently measured,
viz. by having a Vernier's division fixed to the brass work, that
holds one segment, so as to slide along a scale on the plate to
which the other part of the glass is fitted.
Obs. Q. — As the images of the same object are separated by the motion of the
segments; so those of different objects, or different parts of the same object,
may be made to coincide. Suppose the sun, moon, or any planet, to be the
object ; their two images may, by this contrivance, be removed till their oppo-
site edges are in contact : in which case the distance between the centres of the
two images will be equal to the diameter of either ; and so of any other object
whatever.
Obs. 10. — This divided glass may be used as a micrometer, 3 different ways.
In the first place, it may be fixed at the end of a tube, of a suitable length to
its focal distance, as an object glass ; the other end of the tube having an eye-
glass fitted as usual in astronomical telescopes. 2dly, It may be applied to the
end of a tube much shorter than its focal distance, by having another convex
glass within the tube, to shorten the focal distance of that which is cut in two.
Lastly, it may be applied to the open end of a reflecting telescope ; either of the
Newtonian, Gregorian, or Cassegrain construction. And though this last me-
thod is much the best, and most convenient, of the three ; yet as the first is the
most natural, as well as the easiest to be understood, it will be proper to explain
it fully, and to demonstrate the principles on which this micrometer is con-
structed, by supposing it made use of in the first way : which being done, the
application of it to other methods will be readily understood.
Having thus, by the foregoing observations, given a general idea of the nature
and effects of this divided object-glass, Mr. D. proceeds to demonstrate the prin-
ciples from which the measures of the angles are to be obtained by this instru-
ment, by the following propositions.
■ Prop. I. Suppose a divided object-glass fixed at the end of a tube, according to
the first method, and the tube directed to the object intended to be measured ;
and suppose also the segments removed from their original position, as directed
under Obs. 8, till the opposite edges of the two images are seen in contact at the
focus of the eye-glass : then the angle subtended by the distance between the
VOL. XLVril.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 405
centres of the segments, from the focus of the eye-glass, where the edges are
seen in contact, is equal to the angle subtended by the diameter of the object
from that same point.
Demons. Let the line ab, fig. 7> ph 8, represent the diameter of the object to
be measured ; and the points c, d the centres of the two glass segments : also g
the focus where the images of the extremities of the object coincide. It is evi-
dent, from Obs. 3, that ag and bg are straight lines, that pass through the
centres of the segments, and connect the extreme points of the object with their
corresponding points in the images; and therefore, as the diameter of the object
and the distance between the centres of the segments, are both inscribed between
these two lines, they must needs subtend the same angle from the point where
those lines meet ; which is at g.
The focal distance cg, or dg, is variable, according to the distance of the
object from the glass : so that it decreases as the distance of the object from the
glass increases ; and when the object is so far off, that the focal length of the
glass bears no proportion to its distance, then will it be least of all ; as cf or df;
and the point f is called the focus of parallel rays. Any other focus, as g, being
the focus of a near object, is called a respective focus ; as it respects a particular
distance : but the focus of parallel rays respects all objects that are at a very great
distance; such as is that of all the heavenly bodies.
Prop. 2. — ^The distance he of the object from the glass, is to ef, the focal
distance of parallel rays, as the distance hg of the object from its image, is to
EG, the distance of the image from the glass : that is, he : ff :: hg : eg.
The demonstration of this proposition may be gathered from any ireatise of
dioptrics ; it being a general rule for finding the respective focus to any given
distance, when the focus of parallel rays is known.
Prop. 3. — ^The angle subtended by the diameter of the object, from the glass,
is equal to that subtended by the opening of the centres of the segments, from
the focus of parallel rays. That is, the angle aeb equal to the angle cfd.
Demons. — It appears, by inspection of the figure, that ab : cd :: hg : eg.
And by the last prop, he : ef :: hg : eg. Then, as the two last terms of tliese
two analogies are alike ; the two first terms of one will be in the same proportion
as the two first terms of the other ; which gives the following proportion : ab :
CD :: HE : ef. Whence the truth of the proposition is evident.
From this proposition it appears, that the angle subtended by the diameter of
the object from the glass, is found without any regard to the distance of the
object, or to the distance of the respective focus, where the image is seen ; as
the measure depends entirely on the focus of parallel rays, and the opening of
the segments. We may hence also derive a rule for the quantity of the angle,
without considering the length of the glass. Let an object, whose diameter is
VOL. X. 3 O
466 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
known, be set up at some known distance ; the angle it will subtend from the
glass may then be found by trigonometry : then let it be measured by this mi-
crometer, and the distance between the centres of the segments, found on the
scale already mentioned, will be the constant measure of the same angle, in all
other cases ; because the distance of the object makes no alteration in the mea-
sure of the angle, as has been demonstrated : and thus having obtained the dis-
tance between the centres of the segments, which answers to any one angle, all
other distances may be computed by the rule of three.
All that has been hitherto said relates to the first method of using this micro-
meter ; that is, by fitting it to the end of a tube suited to its focal length, and
by viewing the images with a proper eye-glass, in the manner of an astronomi-
cal telescope. But the length of the tube, in this way, would be very trouble-
some ; and therefore it will be proper to consider other methods for an easier
management. He therefore proceeds to the 2d method, mentioned in Obs. 10,
which is, by using another object-glass to shorten the focus of that which serves
for the micrometer. To facilitate the understanding of this method, it will be
necessary to premise the following observation.
Obs. 1 1. — Rays of light, which are brought to such convergency as to form
the image of an object, proceed, after that, diverging in the manner they did
when they issued from the object before they were transmitted through the glass ,
and therefore they may be again collected by another spherical glass, so as to
form a 2d representation of the same object ; which may again be repeated by a
3d glass, &c. So that the first image may be considered as an object to the 2d
glass, and the 2d image will be an object to the 3d, and so on. Though these
images may be very different in respect to their magnitudes, yet they will be all
similar; being true representations of the same object: this will hold good,
though the 2d glass should be put so near the first, as to receive the rays before
the image is formed : for as the rays are tending to meet at a certain distance, the
2d will receive them in that degree of convergency, and, by an additional refrac-
tion, bring them to a nearer focus ; but the image will still be similar to that
which would have been made by the first glass, if the 2d had not been there.
On this principle all refracting telescopes are made ; some of which are a com-
bination of 4, 3, or 6 glasses. The first glass forms an image of the object ;
the 2d repeats the image, which it receives from the first ; and so on, till the last
glass brings a true representation of the object to the eye. The same may be
said of reflecting telescopes : for a spherical mirror acts in the same manner, in
that respect, as a spherical glass.
Now let this be applied to the subject in hand. Suppose the focal distance of
the divided object-glass to be about 40 feet ; and suppose the segments to be
opened wide enough to bring the opposite edges of an object in contact : then
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 467
let another object-glass, uncut, be fixed within the tube, of a proper degree of
convexity, to shorten the focus of the other as much as may be required ; sup
pose to 12 feet: by what has been just now observed, this glass will represent the
two images in the same form which would have been exhibited by the divided
glass, if this other glass had not been there. For though the images are not
yet formed, when the 2d glass receives the rays ; yet, as those rays are converg-
ing towards it, the 2d glass must represent those images in the same position,
and form, as the tendency of the rays requires. For while the segments are
fixed in their position to each other, their images will also be fixed in their po-
sition ; and let them be repeated ever so many times, by refraction through sphe-
rical glasses, or by reflexion from spherical mirrors, they can suffer no alteration
in their position to each other. By this means the telescope may be shortened at
pleasure, though the scale for the measure of the angles will remain the same.
The only inconvenience which the shortness of the telescope introduces, is a want
of sufficient distinctness ; which will so far hinder the exactness of the observa-
tion, as the contact of the edges cannot be so accurately determined, as they
might be with longer telescopes.
This difficulty is entirely removed by fixing the divided glass at the end of a
reflecting telescope : for the reflections and refractions, which the rays must un-
dergo in passing through the telescope, will no way alter the position of the
images which the rays, that have passed through the segments, are tending to :
for, as has been already observed, a number of reflections and refractions may
repeat the images, and alter their magnitudes ; but can make no alteration in
their proportions.
Therefore this way of fixing the divided glass to a reflecting telescope, which
was the 3d method proposed, is by far the best ; as such telescopes of moderate
and manageable lengths, when well made, are capable of magnifying conside-
rably, and showing objects to great advantage. This micrometer's being appli-
cable to the reflecting telescope with so much certainty, is no inconsiderable ad-
vantage : for any one will easily understand, that to measure the diameter of a
planet exactly, it is necessary that the planet be magnified, and shown distinctly,
which could not be obtained in the common way without very great lengths ;
such as rendered it very difficult, not to say impracticable, to take exact mea-
sures. Besides, the common micrometer is limited in this respect on another
account ; viz. because the diameter of the planet cannoi be measured without
having the whole planet within the field of the telescope, which confines the
magnifying power within very narrow bounds ; whereas, by this method, nothing
more is required, than to see the contact of the edges, which allows the magni-
fying power to be increased at pleasure.
In the common micrometer, the object is to be taken between 1 wires, so
3 o2
468 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [annO 1754.
that the contact of its edges with those wires cannot be observed at one view ;
and the least motion of the telescope, while the observer is turning his eye from
one wire to the other, must oblige him to repeat the observation ; whereas, by
this method the contact of the edges of the images is not at all affected by the
motion of the telescope. Whence the comparison of this micrometer with the
common sort, in this respect, stands thus : the one requires great steadiness in
the telescope, but yet it is applicable to none but such as are very difficult to
keep steady ; the other does not require such steadiness, though it is applicable
to short telescopes, which are easily managed. These advantages not only add
to the certainty of the observation, but assist vastly in the expedition ; for an
observer may make 20 observations in this way, where he could scarcely, with
much fatigue, be sure of one with the common micrometer. Expedition in
making observations must be allowed a very great advantage, in this climate,
where the uncertainty of the weather renders astronomical observations so pre-
carious, that no opportunities, even the most transient, should be let slip. An
instance of this was given in to the r. s., in an account of the eclipse of the sun
last October. As the motion of the telescope gives the observer no great incon-
venience in this method ; neither does the motion of the object at all disturb his
observation, such a motion as that of the heavens is. This gives him leave to
take the diameter of a planet in any direction ; or the distance between two stars
or planets, let their situation be how it will ; in which respect the common mi-
crometer is absolutely defective ; as it can give no angles, but su'^h as are per-
pendicular to the line of their motion ; though the diameters of the planets, in
other directions, is very much wanted ; it being highly probable, from the laws
of motion, and what we see in Jupiter, that such planets as revolve round their
axes, have their polar diameters shorter than their equatorial ones.
The distances of Jupiter's satellites from each other, or from Jupiter's body,
cannot be measured, with any certainty, in the common way, as their position
is always very far from being at right angles with the line of their motion : nei-
ther can the moon's diameter, which must be taken from horn to horn, scarcely
ever be obtained that way, because it very rarely happens, that the diameter to
be measured lies at right angles to the line of her motion. The same may be
said of the distance between two stars, But this micrometer gives angles, in
every direction, with equal ease and certainty ; the observation being also finished
in an instant, without any trouble or fatigue to the observer. For as there are
no wires made use of this way in the field of the telescope ; so the observer has
no concern about any illumination. The largeness of the scale deserves also to
be taken notice of, as it may, in this micrometer, be increased almost at plea-
sure, according as the smallness of the object requires. Another inconvenience
attending the common micrometer is, the variation of the scale, according to the
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 469
distance of the object. As the telescope must be lengthened, or drawn out far-
ther, for short distances ; the scale, which depends on that length, is thereby in-
creased ; which renders the measure of the angle very uncertain : whereas, in
this micrometer, the scale is the same at all distances : so that the angle may be
measured with the utmost certainty, without any regard to the distance of the
objects.
On the whole, it may be concluded, that this micrometer is a complete instru-
ment in its kind ; having many advantages above the common sort, without any
of their disadvantages : and there is no doubt but, when brought into practice,
it will tend much to the advancement of astronomy.
LXXF. Of an Earthquake felt at York, ^pril IQ, 1754. By Mr. David
Erskine Baker, p. 564.
This small shock felt by Mr. B. at York, lasted about 3 seconds. It gave an
undulating motion to the buildings, made the windows, &c. rattle, and was pre-
ceded by a rumbling noise, like a carriage over a pavement. Its direction seemed
to be from s.w. to n.e., and it was felt at several other places, at many miles
distance.
LXXVI. An Investigation of some Theorems which suggest some Remarkable
Properties of the Circle, and are of Use in Resolving Fractions, whose Denomi-
nators are certain Multinomials, into more Simple ones. By Mr. John Lan-
den.* p. 566.
That the principal theorems, below investigated, will be of considerable use in
the doctrine of fluxions, by rendering, in many cases, the business of computing
* Mr. Landen, who was born at Peakirk near Peterborough, in Northamptonshire, in I719» was
in a great measure a self-taught mathematician, a branch of learning in which he rose to the first
rank of eminence. He became a respectable contributor to the mathematical part of the Ladies*
Diary so early as the year 1744 ; to which work he continued his contributions, either in his own
name, or under various fictitious ones, till within a very few years of his death. His first paper in
the Phil. Trans, above printed for the year 1754, is no mean specimen of his taste and skill in that
line. Besides this, and several other valuable papers printed at different times in these Transactions,
he published some curious and separate works himself. As, 1. Mathematical Lucubrations in 1755;
containing a variety of tracts relating to the rectification of curve lines, the summation of series, the
finding of fluents, 8lC. 2 A Discourse on the Residual Analysis, 1758; being a new branch of the
algebraic art, of very extensive use, both in pure mathematics and natural philosophy. 3. The 1st
book of the same Residual Analysis, in 1704 ; explaining the principles, and applying them in a number
of curious speculations. 4. Animadversions on Dr. Stewart's Computation of the Sun's Distance from
the Earth, 1771. 5. Mathematical Memoirs, 17S0, vol. i. ; on a variety of subjects; with an ap-
pendix containing a very extensive collection of forms for finding fluents. 6". Several Observations on
converging Series, in 1781, 1782, 1783. 7. And lastly the 2d vol, of the Mathematical Memoirs,
in the latter end of 1789 ; containing, besides a solution of the general nroblem concerning rotatory
470 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
fluents more easy, will, on perusal, be obvious, Mr. L. says, to every one ac-
quainted with that branch of science.
Art. 1 . — Supposine '^=- = — » where x and y denote the fluxions of
the variable quantities x and y respectively, and n an invariable quantity ; it is
proposed to find, in terms of^ and z, the equation of which z is a root, and z^
— 2.rz + 1 = O, a divisor.
Taking the fluents of the given fluxionary equation, we have, supposing x = 1
when y is = 1, hyp. log. of {x + y^x^ — l)" = hyp. log. of y + \/y^ — i, or
(ar + Vx^ — \y =y + '^y'^ — 1 : whence, by substituting for x its value— -^^
(found by the equation z' — 2xz +1=0), we have z" = y -\- ^ y~Iir\ •_ there-
fore z" — yis = ^y"^ — 1 ; and, squaring both sides, z^" — lyz' + ^^ = ^' _ i.
Consequently z^' — lyz' + 1 is = O; which, supposing n a positive integer, is
the equation sought.
Now it is obvious, n being such an integer, that this equation will have as
many trinomial divisors, of the form z' — Ixz -|- 1, as there are values of x corres-
ponding to a given value oiy: which values of .r, when y is not greater than 1,
nor less than — 1 (the only case I propose to consider), will not be readily ob-
tained from the equation {x -\- »/ x^ — Xf ■=y -\- V y- — 1 found above: but,
if we multiply the given fluxionary equation by , we get — -— — = — ^ — ;
of which the equation of the fluents is n X circ. arc rad. 1, cosine x = circ. arc
rad. 1 . cosine y ; where a; is := 1 when y is = 1 , agreeable to the supposition
made above, when we took the fluents of the given fluxionary equation by loga-
rithms. Therefore if a be put for the least arc whose cosine is y, and c for the
whole circumference, radius being 1 ; y being the cosine of a, a -j- c, a -j- 2c,
A + 3c. &c. X will be the cosine of ^, ^t_E, L+_2£ &c to Lti^JZ^JiS,
Consequently, expressing the last-mentioned cosines, or the several values of
motion, an investigation of the naotion of the equinoxes, in which Mr. L. has, first of any one,
pointed out the cause of Sir Isaac Newton's mistalie in his solution of this celeb; ated problem. Mr.
L. as he had chiefly completed this work during some intervals from the stone, with which disorder
he was severely afflicted in the latter part of his life, so he just lived to see it printed, and received a
copy of it the day before his death, which happened Jan. 15, 17i)0, at Milton, near Peterborough,
being 7 1 years of age.
About the year 1762, Mr. L. became agent and land-steward to Earl Fitzwilliam; an employment
which he resigned only 2 years before his death. And in 1766 he was elected f. u. s. Though Mr. L.
was doubtless one of the greatest mathematicians that this or any country has produced ; his merit in
this respect was not more conspicuous than his moral virtues. As his compositions were profound, and
elegantly clear and simple ; so his manners and deportment were manly, dignified, genteel, and be-
nevolent. The strict integrity of his conduct, his great humanity, and readiness to serve every one to
the utmost of his power, procured him respect and esteem from all his acquaintance.
TOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 471
X, by f), q, r, s, &c. z"" — 2i/z" + I will be = {z" — 2pz + \) X (z' — 2^2
-\- 1) X {z' — 2rz + l)> &c. («), when n is a positive integer, (as we shall al-
ways suppose it to be), let z be what it will.
Hence may be easily deduced a demonstration of that remarkable property of
the circle first discovered by Mr. Cotes : but as that property has already been
demonstrated by several mathematicians, Mr. L. omits taking any further notice
of it, and proceeds in the investigation of soiiie other useful theorems which had
never been published.
^rt. 2. — If j/ be = 1 ; then, a being = 0; p, q, r, &c. will be the cosines of
?-, -, --, — , &c. (n) respectively : therefore /> will be = 1 ; and, if n be an even
number, one of the cosines q, r, s, &c. will be := — 1 , one of the arcs
£ £L — &c. being then = ^.
y/r/. 3. — If?/ be = — 1 ; then, a being = r 5 P) ?' ^^ *> &^- will be the co-
sines of—, — , -T-, &c. (n) respectively: therefore, if n be an odd number, one
c
of those arcs will be ^ , whose cosine is — 1 .
yJrt. 4. — If, in the equations z'" — 2yz" +1=0, and z^ — Ixz -\- 1=0,
we substitute « — 1 for z, they become {v — xY"" — 1y X {v — l)" -\- 1 =0,
and {v — \y — 1x X (f — l) + 1 = v" — (2 + 2jr) X v + 1 + 1x = Q.
Consequently
On 1 ~
i;'" — inv"-"-' + + -In X — — - v" — Inv +1
. . . . -f- 2yn X — -— v^ + 2ynv -f- 1y
(y'' — 2 + ip X V + 1 + 1 p) X {v" — 1 -\- 1q X V + 1-\- 1q) X {v" — 2 +2r
X y -|- 2 + 2 + 2r) X &c. (n) ; where, of the two signs prefixed to the terms
where ^ is a factor, the upper or lower takes place, according as n is an even or
an odd number. Whence, by the nature of equations, it follows, that (2 + 2p)
(2 + 2q) X (2 + 2r), &c. is = 2 + 2y. But this equation vanishing when y
is = 1 and n an even number, or when 3/ is = — 1 and n an odd number, it will
be proper to consider those two cases more particularly.
Jrt. 5. — First, let us suppose 7/ = ], and n an even number: then p being
= 1, and one of the other cosines q, r, s, &c. = — 1 (Jrt. 2) ; we shall have ,
D^" — 2wt;'"-' + + w' i;^ = (v' + O) X (v'' — 4i; + 4) X {v'' — 2r+2q)
X {v + 2+ 2q) X {v'—2 + 2r X V + 2 + 2r), &c. Therefore dividing by v'',
v"^-" — 2m/'^M- +n' ={v^ — 4v +4) X {v^— 2 + 2q X v + 2 + 2g
X (u'^ — 2 + 2r X V -\- 2 -\- 2r), &c. that factor in which the value of the co-
sine q, or r, &c. is — 1, being expunged.
472 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. {[anNO 1754.
Consequently n' is = 4 x (2 + Iq) X (2 + 2/) X (2 + 2*), &c. when the
factor, whose value is nothing, is expunged.
^rt. 6. — Let us now suppose y = — 1, and n an odd number: then one of
the cosines p, q, r, &c. being = — 1 {Art. 3),
^2n _ m^_^ + w'li' will be = {v" + 0) X [v" — 1 + 1p X v + 2p)
X (t^' — 2 + 1q X t^ + 2 + 29) &c. Therefore, dividing by v^,
'■ — 2to''"-' + -\- n^ will be = (t;* — 2 + 2j& y. v + 1 -\- ip) X {v^—
2 + 2q X V + 2 + 2q), &c. and consequently n^ = (2 + 2p) X (2 + 2q) X
(2 + 2r), &c. when the factor, whose value is nothing, is expunged.
Art. 7. — Substituting in the equations z'-" — 2j/z" 4-1=0, and 2^ — 2xz +
1=0, (— — ) instead of 2, we have
^O — u'
and
(^-^—Y—lx X — 1- i = (" + ")'- ^■^ X (" + ") + ("-'") + (" - ■")'
^ a — «' a — « (a — »)*
1 — J'
= ■ r i-^ — = O. Consequently,
(a — «)* ^ -^
(a + 0,)'" - 23/ X (a + o))" X (« - ")" + (a-«r will be = (2 + 2p) X (2 + 2^)
X (2 + 2;), &c. X (^.^ + —^ a') X («' + ~f a^) X (o,^ + —^ a^), &c.
But, by Art. 4, (2 + 2p) X (2 + 2q) X (2 + 2r), &c. is = 2 + 2j/, the
upper or lower of the two signs prefixed to y taking place, according as n is an
even or an odd number.
Therefore (a -f «)'" — 2y X (a + «)" X (a — u)" + {a — w)" is = (2 + 2i/)
X ("' + ^-f-«^) X (<-♦ +~^- «^)X {.' + — ->^), &c.
Now/) being the cosine of any number of degrees, radius being 1, a^ will
be the square of the tangent of half so many degrees, radius being a : therefore,
denoting that tangent by b ; and the tangents of half the arcs described with the
radius a, whose cosines, when the radius is 1, are q, r, s, &c. being denoted by
c, d, e, &c. respectively ; we have (a + u)" — 2j/ X (a + w)" + (a — u)" +
(n - 6,)'^" = (2 + 2y) X (<o^ + b') X (=0^ + c') X (o.^ + cP), &c. But when y
is =: I, and n an even number ; or_y = — 1, and n an odd number; 2 + 2y
being = O ; nothing can be determined from that equation : therefore, in those
cases, recourse must be had to what is done above.
^rt. 8. — Let us suppose j/ = i , and n an even number : then the equation
(^a + <.)'"-27/X{a+^yx{a-coy+{a-^y"={2+2p)X{2+2q)X{2+2r),kc.
X (c,^ + i^-^ a') X i'^' + ~f a^) X (c-^ + \~ a^), &c. becomes (a + .y
Vol. XliVIII.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 473
— 2 X (a + w)" X (a — «)' + (a —«)*■= 4 X (2 + 2q) X (2 + 1r), &c. X
■-' X ("'+ rrj «') X ('-* + 7^^a'), &c.jbbeing=l(art.2)and|^a'(=i') = 0.
Moreover, one of the other cosines q, r, s, &c. being = — 1 (art. 2) some one
of the factors 2 + 29, 2 + 2r, 2 + Is, &c. will vanish ; which factor being ex-
punged from the product 4 X (2 + 2q) + (^ + 2r), &c. and restored to the
divisor w* + — ^^ a^, or u^ + —^ a^, &c. from which it was taken, that divisor
will become Aa^; and the product 4 X (2 + 2^) X (2 + 2r), &c. will then (by
art. 5) be = 'rp.
Consequently (a + w)^" — 2 X (a + w)" + (a — w)" + (a — ^y, will be =
n^ X u^ X 4a"^ X (w^ + c'O X (m^ + rf^), &c. where the factor Aa^ takes place in-
stead of (0^ 4* sq. of the tang, of 90°.
If 3/ be = 1, and n an odd number, p will be = 1, and i = O; but no one
of the cosines q, r, s, &c. will be = — 1 , as when n is an even number. There-
fore, in this case, the equation (a -f- w)** — 2y X (a + u)" X (a — u)" -|-
(a - u)"" = (2 -f 2y) X (=-' + b') X («' + c"), &c. becomes (a -f- a.)*" - 2 X
(a -I- 0,)" X (o - «)" + (a - a,)'" = 4 X 0," X (a,' + c") X (o.^ + c/'O, &c.
^rt. Q. By taking the square root of (a + uY" — 2 X (a + «)" X (a — «)-
-(-(« — w)'", and of its two values just now found, we have, when n is an even
number, (a -\- u)' — (a — w)" =: 2ania X ^ 1/ -\- c- X Vm^ + <^^ &c. 2a taking
place instead of v^ u'^ -\- sq. of the tang, of 90".
And, when n is an odd number, {a -{- u) — (a — u) = 2u X ^w'^ -|- c' X
v' u'^ 4- d.^^ &c. Whence the following construction is inferred.
^rt. 10. Describe, about the centre c (pi. 11, fig. 1 and 2), with the radius
a, the circle pa' a' a'", &c.; draw the diameter pca, and the tangent b"'pb*;
divide the semicircumference pa'g into as many equal parts pa', a'a", a"a"', &c.
as there are units in the integer n; draw the secants ca'b', ca"b", &c. and,
taking on ca any point o, draw k"'ok* parallel to b'"pb*; likewise draw b'k',
b"k", b"'k"', &c. parallel to pq, and call co, a.
Then will q be the cosine of twice the angle pca', r the cosine of twice pca",
i the cosine of twice pca"', &c. if the radius be 1 .
Therefore pb' := ok' will be = c, pb" ^ ok" = d, &c. and ok' = V^^ Hh~?,
ck" = ^ u^ -^ d-, &c. Consequently op" — oq" being = (a -j- w)" — (a — u)",
and n X pa X CO X ck' X ck", &c. = 2anu X /IF+~? X /w^-f d\ &c.
when n is an even number; op" — oa" will then be = n X Pa X co X ck' X
ck", &c. where the diameter pa takes place instead of the infinite quantity ck*'.
But if n be an odd number, op" — oa" will be = 2 X co X ck' X ck" x
ck", &c.
^ri. 11. It is evident that, of the factors ck', ck", ck"', &c. the first and
last, the second and last but one, &c. are resj)ectively equal to each other.
VOL. X. 3P
474 VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, [aNNO 1754,
Therefore, omitting the squares of the factors below pa, and the squares of their
values, OP" — oa" is = w X pa X co X ck'* X ck"^ X ck'"^ &c. and {a + «)"
— (a — «)" = 2anu X (w' + c^) X (w^ + dr), &c. when n is an even number;
or OP" — oa" is = 2 X CO X ck" X ck"' X ck"", &c, and (a + oi)" — (a — w)"
= 2w X (w'^ + c^) X (u^ + d,'^), &c. when n is an odd number.
^rt. 12. If we suppose y = — I, and n an odd number, it will appear, by
proceeding much in the same manner as in art. 8, that {a -\- u)*" + 2 x (a + w)"
X{a- «)- + (a - u,T is = n^ X 4a^ X (co" + /-') X (o'-* + c^) X i<^' + d') &c.
where the factor 4a' takes place instead of w' + sq. of the tang, of 90°.
If 3/ be = — 1, and n an even number, (a + uif" + 2 X (a + w)" X (a — «)"
+ (a - w)*» is = 4 X («" + i') X («' + c-"), &c.
Whence, by extracting the square root of both sides of those equations, we
have, when n is an odd number, (a + u) -\- {a — a>)" = Ian X ^ u^ -\- b" X
V u^ -\- c% &c. la taking place instead of ■v/j^^ -f. sq. of the tang, of QO"; and,
when n is an even number, {a + w)" + (a — w)" = 2 X ^^I^b"- X V^w^ -f ^,
&c. Hence we infer this construction.
Art. 13, Having described about the centre c (lig, 3 and 4) with the radius a,
the circle va'K'a"x", &c. draw the diameter pca, and the tangent b"¥h*; divide
the semicircumference pa'a into as many equal parts va', a k, x'a", &c. as there
are units in In; draw the secants ca'b', ca"b", &c. and, through any point (o) in
ca, draw k"oh* parallel to b"sb*; likewise draw b'k', b"k", &c. parallel to pa; and
call CO, u.
Then, if the radius be 1, /> will be the cosine of twice the angle pca', q the
cosine of twice Pca", &c. therefore vb' = ok' will be = b, vb" = ok" = c, &c.
and ck' = -^^J+l-^ ck''= ^ u,'' +7=, &c.
Consequently op" + pa" being =_(«_+ ")" + (« — ")"j and ?2 X Pa X ck' X
ck", &c. = 2an X V''^'^ -\- b"^ X /w' + c*, &c. when n is an odd number; op"+
oa" will then be = ra X pa X c/4' x ck", &c. where the diameter pa takes place
instead of the infinite quantity cA^""*"*-
But if n be an even number, op" + oa" will be = 2 X c^' X ck'\ &c.
Art. 14, It is obvious that, of the factors ck', ck", &c. the first and last, the
second and last but one, &c. are respectively equal to each other: therefore the
squares of the factors below pa, and the squares of their values, being omitted,
OP" + oa" is = n X pa X ck'^ X ck"\ &c. and (a + «)" + (a — «)" = 2an X
(a« _|- /,«) X (u" + c^), &c. when n is an odd number; or op" -|- oa" is = 2 X
ck' X ck'\ &c. and (a + «)'" + (a - i.)" = 2 X (co' + Z-') X (<.' + c'), &c. when
n is an even number.
Art. 15. Writing, in the equation (a + wf — 1y X {a ->{- w)" X (a — «)" +
(o — !o)'" = (2 + 2y) X («* + i') X («* + c»), &c. (found by art. 7) a — m for
u, the same becomes (2a — «)*" — 2j^m" X (2a — u)" + w'" =. (2 T 2y) x
VOL. TLVIII.] PHILOSOPHrCAL TRANSACTIONS. 475
(u — 2au + a* + b') X («' — lau + a* + c»), &c. = (2 + 2y) X (u* — 2ciu
+ (3") X ("' — 2au -f y") X (?i — 2rtw + i*), &c. if instead of Vq' + 6%
t/a* + t'j ^f^- (tlie secants of the arcs of which b, c, d, &c. are tangents) we
put p, y, S, &c.
And, by a like substitution in the equations in art. 1 1 and 14 it appears, that
(2a — w)" — u" is = 2an X {a — u) X (u' — 2au + y'') X (u' — 2au + ^), &c.
or 2 (a — w) X («' — 2au + y') X (?«' — 2au -^ i''), &c. according as n is an
even or an odd number: and that (2a — u)" + m" is = 2a« X (m' — 2au + (3*)
X («' — 2aM + y"), &c. or 2 X (n' — 2au + (3*) X (m' — 2aM + y ), &c. ac-
cording as n is an odd or an even number.
LXXFII. An Extraordinary Disease of the Shin, and its Cure. Extracted
from the Italian of Carlo Crusio. By Rob. Watson, M.D., F.R.S. p. 579.
A young woman of 17, the daughter of a citizen of Naples, was brought to
the royal hospital June 22, 1732, and was placed in one of the wards assigned
to the care of Dr. Crusio; who was informed by her, that her complaint was an
excessive tension and hardness of the skin over all her body, by which she found
herself so bound and straitened, that she could hardly move her limbs. He
found her skin hard to the touch, like wood, or a dry hide; however, he ob-
served some difference in the degrees of the hardness; for in some places it was
greater; as in the neck, forehead, and particularly in the eye-lids; so that she
could neither raise nor entirely shut them. It was also very great in the lips,
tongue, and on each side of her body ; but the muscles under the skin seemed
not to be affected, because the joints could be bent; and if in any place there
was any difficulty in moving the limbs, this arose not from any defect in the
muscles, but from the hardness and tension of the skin and cellular membrane,
which did not yield to their contraction and relaxation. Her skin had lost its
natural warmth, but was sensible, when it was pressed by the nails, or a pin;
the patient then saying, that she felt a pain, as if the skin were tearing. Her
pulse was deep, and obscure; but equal, and regular. Her respiration was free,
and uninterrupted; her digestion good, and she found no inconvenience after eat-
ing, except a greater constriction round the belly. The alvine excretions were
easy and proper; but the urinary sometimes exceeded the quantity of what she
drank, and appeared loaded with salts ; both which circumstances perhaps pro-
ceeded from the sensible and insensible perspiration being entirely wanting. For '
she never sweated, though ever so much exercised. Her sleep was natural; she
had never had the menstrual evacuation. Her disorder began first in her neck,
when she could not move it as usual ; then she found the skin of her face and
forehead grow hard ; and so successively, she found all the external parts of her
3p2
476 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
body grow hard, and tense. She never had had any other disease, except a little
fever sonic years before.
Respecting the indication of cure of this extraordinary disease, as the skin
was observed to have lost its natural softness and flexibility ; and to have become
, hard, contracted, and imperspirable ; it was concluded that the immediate cause
of such a morbid change was a preternatural contraction of the nervous or
fibrous parts of the skin, by which its excretory ducts and exhaling vessels were
constringed, and did not supply a due quantity of the oily and aqueous fluids
necessary to soften and lubricate the parts. Hence it was thought fit to put the
patient into a bath of warm milk and water, and to direct her to stay in it a con-
siderable time, that the warmth and moisture might relax and soften the hard-
ness of her skin : but she could not bear to continue in the bath, on account of
the great oppression which it occasioned, and because the troublesome constric-
tion of her skin was much increased by it. She was therefore put to bed, and
well covered with clothes, in hopes to promote a sweat , but all was in vain ;
for her skin remained as hard and dry as before. However, this treatment was
repeated for 6 days ; but, on going into the bath for the 7 th time, she was seized
with convulsions in the muscles of her legs and arms. This was very unex
pected, and made it necessary to discontinue this method of cure. But as it
was imagined that it was the weight and pressure of the water which gave her so
much uneasiness, a method was thought of to avoid this inconvenience, and at
the same time to procure for the patient the benefit, that might arise from the
relaxation and softening of the skin and pores by the absorption of an external
humidity, which was judged to be necessary to the cure. Now the vapour of
warm water has a great power of insinuating itself into the pores, and between
the fibres of bodies ; and, by that means, of relaxing and softening the hardest
substances, as is observed in dry leather ; which, suspended in the steam of
boiling water, becomes much more soft and pliable, than if it had been im-
mersed for a longer time in the hot water itself. A vapour bath was therefore
ordered, and contrived in such a manner, that the steam of the boiling water
might entirely surround the body of the patient, or be directed to any particular
part, as occasion should require. She bore the vapour without any inconveni-
ence, and was constantly kept in bed in the intervals between the several appli-
cations of it. The 6th time of using this kind of bath, she began to perspire a
little, and from day to day the perspiration became more general, and at last
universal : then the skin began to be less rough, but not less hard ; and the
urine was more thin and diluted than before. Her diet was prescribed to be of
the most soft and relaxing nature, and principally consisted of whey. As she
was judged to be of too full a habit, and as she had not the regular menstrual
discharge, she was ordered to lose 12 oz of blood fi-om the foot; and it was
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 477
thought that this evacuation might contribute to produce a general relaxation,
and by consequence make the circulation of the blood, and other fluids, more
free tlirough their respective canals. It was surprising to see what difficulty the
surgeon found in opening the vein, on account of the hardness of the skin ; in-
somuch that, in the operation, the lancet yielded, and bent. However, at last it
pierced the skin and the vein, but not without much pain. The blood issued
forth with impetuosity, and the wound was some time before it healed; but at
length it formed an elevated and hard scar.
By continuing the emollient diet and vapour bath, in about 40 days the skin
of her legs, where the hardness appeared the latest, began to soften. But as often
as she exposed herself to the fresh and cool air, the skin, which had begun to be
soft and flexible, was observed to become hard again, and imperspirable. It was
therefore thought proper, towards the end of September, to place her in a warm
room, where the air was kept of an equal degree of heat. This had the desired
effect: for by staying in her room, and from time to time repeating the vapour
bath, and by drinking, at her meals, a decoction of the woods, the perspiration
was constant and moderate; and the softness of the skin, which began in the
legs, extended itself upwards, and was in some degree perceptible in the arms.
Five months had elapsed since the beginning of this treatment, when it was
believed that, without some more efficacious medicine, capable, by its motion,
weight, figure, and divisibility, of circulating with the blood, and of penetrating
into the most remote and subtil recesses of the vessels, it would be impossible to
open the obstructions, which were formed in the vascular structure of the skin,
and which, by hindering the fluids from circulating through their respective
canals, had deprived them of that humidity, which nature has made necessary for
their flexibility and softness. It was therefore thought proper to make her take
small doses of pure quicksilver; and that the mercury might the more easily be
determined to the skin, the patient was ordered to be constantly kept in a warm
air, to have the surface of her body rubbed with a flannel, and to continue the
use of the vapour bath. But, by way of preparation for this mercurial course,
she was gently purged, and blooded a second time, that the plenitude being
diminished, the mercury might better circulate through the finest vessels.
Here it is to be observed, that the surgeon, in this 2d blood-letting, did not
meet with that resistance, in piercing the skin, which he had experienced in the
first. The patient, thus prepared, began in December, 1752, to take daily 6,
and afterwards 12 grs. of pure quicksilver, in a drachm of cassia, drinking after it
half a pint of a decoction of sarsaparilla. In this course she continued 4 months
with chearfulness, and without any inconvenience; and within 2 months from
the beginning of it there appeared a somewhat viscid sweat, and the skin grew
more flexible, and yielding. About the end of March, 1753, she had an eflSo-
478 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
rescence over all her skin, which by degrees became pustular, and was very
troublesome by its heat and itching. The use of mercury was then discontinued,
and she took no medicine but half a pint of an infusion of sarsaparilia in the
morning, and an emulsion of melon and poppy-seeds in the evening. Then the
heat and itching abated, and the pustules suppurated. Signor Crusio says, that
he had the pleasure to see many small globules or particles of mercury separated
in the ripe pustules. This is something so unusual and surprising, that we shall
scarcely be inclined to give our assent till we are forced to it by further experience
and observation ; especially as we know that the most careful and sensible men
are often mistaken ; but that it is very rare that any thing happens out of the
ordinary course of nature.*
About the middle of May following, her skin was quite clear of pustules, and
was become perfectly soft and flexible, being capable of being moved, raised,
extended, and of performing all its natural functions. This softness and flexibi-
lity of the skin was general, except in the forehead and lips; which however
afterwards recovered their natural state. But there still remained an unusual
degree of tension in some of the muscles, which lie immediately under the skin,
particularly in those of the hand and radius; on which account, a milk diet was
prescribed, to supply the blood with a proper matter for filling the cells of the
adipose membrane; which membrane, by having sustained a long pressure
between the diseased skin and muscles, was become deprived of its proper muci-
laginous and oily juices, designed by nature to keep the parts soft and flexible,
and to facilitate the motion of the muscles.
LXXVIII. Experiments on the Use of the Agaric of Oak in Stopping Hemor-
rhages. I. The Event of Experiments made by Agaric on the imputation
of the Legs of 2 Women in Guy's Hospital. By Mr. Samuel Sharp, Surgeon
of that Hospital, and F.R.S. p. 588.
The styptic powers of the agaric were tried on 2 women, whose legs were
amputated below the knee. One of them was 62 years of age, and had been
very much impaired by a long illness, and continual pain. During the operation
she bled with great impetuosity; and it was with difficulty, that the hgemorrhage
was stopped, notwithstanding Mr. S. pressed the agaric, with all his force, against
the extremities of the tibialis antica, and tibialis postica, the 2 largest arteries.
The tendency to bleed, after the operation was such, that Mr. S. found it
necessary to apply the tourniquet, and keep a tight stricture on the femoral
artery. She complained grievously of the pain arising from the stricture; on
which it was a little loosened, and soon after a haemorrhage ensued from one of
* This remark seems to have been introduced into the text by the editor of the original Transactions.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 479
the 2 large arteries, which was immediately taken up, and tied with a needle and
ligature. In order to discover this vessel, the agaric was removed; and though
the tourniquet was quite slack, the other large artery did not bleed one drop.
This happened about \'^ hour after the operation. After the vessel was tied, the
same agaric was again laid on the same part, without screwing the tourniquet,
and the patient became much easier; but, in about 84- hours, the other large
vessel burst open; and though assistance was on the spot, and it was immediately
tied up, she was so exhausted by the sudden loss of blood, that she died in about
twenty minutes. It is conjectured, that, by the 3 haemorrhages, viz. the first
during the operation, and the 2 after the operation, she lost between 20 and 30
oz. of blood. Mr. S. examined the limb after death, but found no singular ap-
pearance in the vessels, or the adjacent parts.
The other woman was 24 years of age. She lost very little blood in the
operation, and had continued extremely well ever after. The agaric seemed in
this instance, to have answered the most sanguine expectations. The following
are the particulars of this case, as related by Mr. Warner:
II. The History of a Case relating to the Effects of the Agaric of Oak in Stopping
HiEmorrkages. By Joseph JVarner, Surgeon to Gui/s Hospital, and F.R.S.
p. 590.
Saturday, December 9, 1752, Catharine Spong, aged 24, had her leg ampu-
tated, about 4 inches below the knee, at 12 o'clock to-day, on account of an
incurable ulcer, with which she had been afflicted for 13 years. She lost very
little blood by the operation. Immediately after the amputation, a piece of
agaric, of a proper size was applied to the mouths of the principal arteries. Two
other pieces of agaric were applied to the mouths of 2 smaller arteries, which ap-
peared at some distance from the principal ones. On the pieces of agaric, dossils
of lint were applied, and over all a pledgit of tow spread with the common
digestive ; all which were kept on by the common bandages made use of in the
like cases, and ajjplied with the same degree of tightness as usual.
For an hour and a quarter after the operation, the ligature and tourniquet
were kept on moderately tight, at a convenient distance above the knee, at the
end of which time it was slackened, so as to have no degree of pressure on the
femoral artery, as the dressings and rollers appeared very little tinged with
blood. The patient was much easier than Mr. W. had ever observed, after the
use of the needle and ligatures. Her pulse appeared very little disturbed till
about 4 o'clock this afternoon, when the symptomatic fever began to come on,
attended now and then with convulsive twitches of the stump, and thigh; for
which reasons, the ligature was somewhat tightened. At 7 o'clock this evening
the ligature and tourniquet were quite loosened ; soon after which, the convulsive
480 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [ANNO 1754.
twitches became less frequent, and less severe. These convulsive twitches she had
been long used to, and, by her own account, they were more severe before the
operation, than they have been since. She had but little rest to night.
Sunday morning, at 4- after 10 o'clock, she appeared as well as could be
expected, her pulse was calm, and she had no particular complaints. At 12
o'clock at night she fell asleep, and so continued till after 7 o'clock the. next
morning.
Monday morning she appeared well, her pulse was calm, and she had no par-
ticular pain. Monday night she slept but little, but was very easy the whole
night.
Tuesday morning she appeared well, her pulse quiet. That morning at 1 1
o'clock, she was dressed in the usual manner: the wound had a very good as-
pect; she had suffered no particular pain in the parts where the agaric was
applied, and was, in all respects, as well as could be expected. At 7 o'clock in the
evening she was perfectly easy ; the convulsive twitches, which she at first com-
plained of, were then quite removed.
Wednesday morning, she continued well, and perfectly easy ; had no return of
her convulsive twitches, nor was there any appearance of blood through the
rollers, or dressings.
Thursday, Dec. 14, she continued very well. Her wound was dressed that
morning, at -l after 1 1 o'clock, when there appeared a very proper discharge of
matter, not in the least tinged with blood. The whole of the agaric, with the
rest of the dressings came off, without giving pain. She had the day before 2
or 3 convulsive twitches of the stump, and thigh, but they were slight. Her
pulse was good.
II. A short History of -the Effects of the Agaric of the Oak in Stopping Bleedings
after some of the most capital Operations in Surgery; with an Account of the
Manner of its acting on the Vessels. By Joseph fVarner, F.R.S. and Surgeon
to Guys Hospital, p. 593.
The success which attended the application of the agaric in the instance of the
young woman, the particulars of whose case have been stated in the preceding
paper, induced Mr. Warner to try its effects in 4 other cases, the histories of
which are as follows:
Case 1 . — ^Jonathan Lee, aged 5 1 , had his leg cut off, below the knee, on the
7th of May, 1754. He was extremely reduced, in consequence of the disease;
and the whole mass of blood was become so much impoverished, and altered
from its natural state, as to appear like serum, both in texture and colour.
During the operation, the screw-tourniquet was applied to the thigh with a de-
gree of tightness sufficient to prevent the course of the blood.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 481
Immediately after the amputation, bits of agaric were applied to the mouths of
the vessels, and on them soft layers of lint ; all of which were covered with a
pledgit of tow spread with digestive, and were properly secured on by the com-
mon bandage. About 3 or 4 minutes after he was rolled up, and put to bed, Mr,
W. discovered the blood to discharge freely through the dressings; on which, he
tightened the tourniquet, in expectation of stopping the bleeding, but it ap-
peared evidently to increase it. Seeing this uncommon effect, Mr. W. quite
slackened the tourniquet; on which, the bleeding immediately ceased. This he
was led to from a supposition, that the veins had probably suffered so great
a compression from the instrument, as to be incapable of returning that blood,
which was carried to the neighbouring parts by the collateral arteries arising from
the principal trunk, above the ligature. But whether this was the true reason, or
not, he would not take upon him to determine : however the fact was, that the
bleeding immediately ceased, and did not return again.
The patient was dressed on the 4th day after the operation, and the whole of
the agaric was removed. Since that time he had been treated in the common
method, without any further use of the agaric. The patient had very little fever,
or pain, after the operation. He had a fair prospect of doing well.
Case 1. — Elizabeth Hillier, a very lusty woman, 38 years of age, had her
breast cut ofFon the 7th of May, 1754. The wound was large, and bled freely
from several considerable arteries. Mr. W. made use of no other method to
stop the bleeding, than the application of pieces of agaric to the mouths of the
vessels, which were properly secured on by a flannel roller, after being first co-
vered with lint, and a pledgit of tow spread with digestive. The symptomatic
fever was very slight • she had been quite free from those painful spasms which
constantly arise from ^e use of the ligature : there had not been the smallest
loss of blood since the operation.
Her wound was dressed on the 4th day, when the whole of the agaric came
away: it was afterwards treated in the common method. She was in a very fair
way of recovery.
Case 3. — George Whitmore, aged 12 years, had his leg cut off, below the
knee, on the 13th of May, 1754. The agaric and dressings were applied as in
the preceding cases, which has answered perfectly well in all respects. The tour.p
niquet was quite removed in 10 minutes after the operation ; he had very little
fever, restlessness, or pain. His wound was dressed on the 5th day, and the
whole of the agaric was removed. He was as well as could be expected.
Case 4. — Richard Barnat, aged 54, had his leg cut off, below the knee, on
the 21st of May, 1754. Mr. W. made use of no other methods to stop the
bleeding than the agaric, which was applied as in the preceding cases. Imme-
diately after the operation, the patient was put to bed, antl the tourniquet let
VOL. X. 3 Q
48'2 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
quite loose. He has not sustained the smallest loss of blood since the opera-
tion. The pain and fever had been very inconsiderable, and he seemed to be in
a very fair way of doing well.
LXXIX. Of a new Pyrometer, with a Table of Experiments made with it.
By Mr. J. Smeaton, F. R. S. p. 5Q8.
This instrument is capable of receiving a bar 2 feet 4 inches long, and might
be made capable of receiving bars of a much greater length, of some kinds of
materials, but not of others, on account of the flexibility brought on them by a
degree of heat not greater than boiling water.
The measures taken by this instrument are determined by the contact of a
piece of metal with the point of a micrometer-screw. The observation is the
best judged of by the hearing, rather than that of the sight or feeling. By this
method Mr. S. found it very practicable, to repeat the same measurement several
times, without differing from itself above -j-o-Fo-r P^rt of an inch. This principle
of determining measures by contact is not wholly new, but has been employed
on several occasions, as he was informed by the late Mr. Graham ; but the pre-
sent manner of applying it he believes is so: and the degree of sensibility arising
from it exceeds any thing he had met with. As the method will easily appear by
the draught (see pi. g, fig. 10 and 11) he avoids a further description of it in
this place.*
As no substance has hitherto been discovered in nature, that is perfectly free
from expansion by heat, I chose to construct this instrument in such a manner,
that the bar, which makes the basis of the instrument, shall in each experiment
suffer the same degree of heat, as the bar to be measured: of consequence, the
measures taken by the micrometer are the differences of their expansion. The
expansion then of the basis between two given degrees of heat being once found,
the absolute expansion of any other body, by adding or subtracting the difference
to or from the expansion of the basis, according as the body to be measured ex-
pands more or less than the basis, will also be determined.
When the instrument is used, it is immerged, together with the bar to be
measured, in a cistern of water; which water, by means of lamps applied under-
neath, is made to receive any intended degree of heat, not greater than that of
boiling, and so communicates the same degree of heat to the instrument, the
bar, and to a mercurial thermometer immerged in it, for the purpose of ascer-
• I have lately seen an instrument at Mr. Short's, made by the late Mr. Graham, for measuring
the minute alterations, in length, of metal bars; which were determined by advancing the point of
a micrometer- screw, till it sensibly stopped against the end of the bar to be measured. This screw
being small, and very lightly hung, was capable of agreement within the 3 or 4000th part of an
inch. — Orig.
VOL. XLVIII."! PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 483
taining that degree. That this may be truly tlie case, the water should be tre-
quently stirred, that there may be no difterence of heat in the different parts of
the water: this being tlone, the height of the quicksilver appearing stationary,
the contact with the screw of the micrometer also remaining the same, for a
space of time, it is to be supposed, that the heat of the 3 bodies will be the same
as the heat of the water, however different they may be in specific gravit}', &c.
The whole difficulty is now reduced to this problem, viz.
To find the absolute expansion of the basis between any two given degrees of
heat, not greater than that of boiling water.
For this pui-pose, let there be prepared a bar of straight-grained white deal,
or cedar, which, it is well known, are much less expansible by heat than any
metal hitherto discovered: let the bar be adapted to the instrument in like manner
as the other bars intended to be measured; but that the softness of the wood
may not hinder the justness of its bearings, let its ends be guarded with a bit of
brass let into the wood at the points of contact: to prevent, as much as may be,
the moisture or steam of the water from affecting the wood; let it first be well
varnished, and then, being wrapped round with coarse fiax from end to end, this
will in a great measure imbibe the vapour, before it arrives at the wood. Let
the cistern also be so contrived, that the instrument being supported at a proper
height in it, the bar to be measured may on occasion be above the cover, while
the basis remains in the water: thus will the cover also be a defence against the
moisture. Let the water in the cistern be now brought to its lower degree of
heat, suppose at or near the freezing point, the basis having continued long
enough in the water to receive the same degree of heat, and the wooden bar
having been previously kept in an adjacent room, not subject to sudden altera-
tions of temperature by fire, or other causes; let the bar be applied to the in-
strument, and the degrees of the micrometer and the thermometer read off, and
set down : let the wooden bar be then restored to its former place, till the water
is heated to the greater degree intended, suppose at or near that of boiling water;
the lid being now shut down, and the chinks stopped with coarse fiax, to pre-
vent the issuing of the steam as much as possible, let the wooden bar be again
brought forth, applied to the instrument, and the degrees of the micrometer and
thermometer read off, as before: the difference of degrees of the micrometer,
corresponding to the difference of degrees of the thermometer, will express the
expansion of the basis between those degrees of heat ; that is, on the supposition
that the wooden bar was of the same length, at the time of taking the second
measure, as at the first; indeed a measure can hardly be taken without any loss of
time, as the whole of the instrument, when the hot measure is to be taken,
is considerably hotter than the wooden bar; and, in case of boiling water, the
3 a 2
484 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
steam being very repellent and active, the bar is liable to be sensibly affected in
its length, before the measure can be taken, both by heat and moisture, which
both tend to expand the bar; but as the quantity is small, and capable of being
nearly ascertained, a wooden bar, thus applied, will answer the same end as if it
was unalterable by heat or moisture. To know therefore the quantity of this
alteration, let the time elapsed between the first approach of the bar to the instru-
ment, and the taking of the measure, be observed by a second-watch, or other-
wise; after another equal interval of time, let a second measure be taken ; and
after a third interval, a third; and a fourth; the three differences of these four
measures will be found nearly to tally with three terms of a geometrical progres-
sion, from which the preceding term may be known, and will be the correction,
which, if applied to the measure first taken, reduces it to what it would have
been if the wooden bar had not expanded during the taking of it. From a few
observations of this kind, carefully repeated, the expansion of the basis may be
settled; and this once done, the making experiments on other bars will become
very easy and compendious.
The basis of this instrument, as well as other parts of it, is brass. He chose
this substance, rather than any other whose expansion was greater or less; because
he found, from some gross experiments previously made, that the expansion of
brass was nearly a medium between those bodies which differ most in their ex-
pansion: a considerable convenience arises from this circumstance; because as
the measures, taken in common experiments, are their difference from brass, the
dependence on the thermometer will be less, as these differences are less.
The bar of brass which compose the basis, is an inch broad by half an inch
thick, and stands edgewise upwards ; one end is continued of the same piece at
right angles, to the height of 3-i- inches, and makes a firm support for the end of
the bar to be experimented ; and the other end acts on the middle of a lever of
the second kind, whose fulcrum is in the basis; therefore the motion of the ex-
tremity of the lever is double the difference between the expansion of the bar,
and the basis. This upper part of the lever rises above the lid of the cistern, so
that it and the micrometer-screw are at all times clear of the water. The top of
the lever is furnished with an appendage which he calls the feeler: it is the extre-
mity of this piece which comes in contact with the micrometer-screw. It hence
appears, that having the length of the lever from its fulcrum to the point of
suspension of the feeler, the distance between the fulcrum and the point of con-
tact with the bar, the inches and parts that correspond to a certain number of
threads of the micrometer, and the number of divisions in the circumference of
the index-plate; the fraction of an inch expressed by one division of the plate
may be deduced; those measures are as follows.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 485
From the fulcrum of the lever to the feeler 5.875 inches.
From the fulcrum to the place of contact 2.895
Length of 70 threads of the screw 2.455
Divisions in the circumference of the index-plate. ... 100
Hence the value of one division will be the ^ ,\% ^ part of an inch ; but if the
screw be altereil ^ of one of these divisions, when the contact between the screw
and feeler is well adjusted, the difference of contact (if he may so call it) will be
very perceivable to the slightest observer; and consequently -g.-3-i-, ^ part of an inch
is perceivable in this instrument.
There is one thing still remains to be noticed, and that is, the verification of
the micrometer-screw, which is the only part of this instrument that requires
exactness in the execution ; and how difficult these are to make, perfectly good,
is well known to every person of experience in these matters; that is, that the
threads of the screw may not only be equidistant, in different places, but that the
threads shall be equally inclined to the axis in every part of the circumference.
The result of the experiments made with this instrument, agrees very well
with the proportions of expansion of several metals given by Mr. Ellicott; which
were deduced from his pyrometer published in the Philosophical Transactions:
and, considering the very different construction of the two instruments, they
abundantly tend to confirm each other.
Referencti to the Figures.
Fig. 10, pi. 9. represents the instruinent independent of the cistern in which it is used, abcd,
is the main bar or basis of the instrument, ef, is the bar to be measured, lying in 2 notches; one
fixed to the upright standard ab, the other to the principal lever hi. The end e of the bar bf, bears
against the point of g, a screw of use in examining the micrometer-screw. The other end of tlie
bar F bears against a small spherically protuberant bit of hard metal fixed at the same height as o, in
the principal lever hi. k, is an arbor fixed in the basis, which receives at each end the points of the
screws hl, on which the lever hl turns, and serve as a fulcrum to it. o, is a slender spring, to
keep the lever in a bearing state against the bar; and p, is a check, to prevent the lever from falling
forward when the bar is taken out. n, is the feeler, something in the shape of a t, suspended, and
moveable up and down on the points of the screws im, which, as well as lh, are so adjusted, as
to leave the motion free, but without shake, qr, is the handle of the feeler, moveable on a loose
joint at R; so that, laying hold of it at q, the feeler is moved up and down without being affected
by the irregular pressure of the hand. The extremity s of the feeler is also furnished with a bit of
protuberant hard melal, to render its contact with the point of the micrometer-screw more perfect.
T, is the micrometer-screw ; v is the divided index-plate, and w a knob for the handle. The micro-
meter-screw passes through two solid screwed holes at d and y. The piece yz is made a little
springy, and endeavours to pull the screw backwards from the hole at d ; of consequence keeps the
micrometer-screw constantly bearing against its threads the same way, and so renders its motion
perfectly steady and gentle, x, is the index, having divisions on it, answering to the turns of the
screw. This piece points out tlie divisions of the plate, as the face of the plate points out the divi-
sors on the index. When the instrument is used, lay hold of the knob at q with one hand, and,
moving the feeler up and down, with the other move forward the screw i, till its point comes in con-
tact with the feeler; then will the plate and index v and x show the turns, and parts.
486 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
Fig. U, represents the instrument immerged in its cistern of water, ready for use. ab, is the
cistern; c, tlie cover; which, when the instrument fig. 10 is raised on blocks, goes on between the
bar EF and the basis bc. d, a handle to take otF the cover, when hot; k, the mercurial thermo-
meter; F, the cock to let out the water, gh, a hollow piece of tin, which supports seven spirit
lamps, which are raised higher or lower by the screws l and k, in order to give the water in the cis-
tern a proper degree of heat.
A Table of the expansion of metals; showing how much a foot in length of
each grows longer by an increase of heat corresponding to 180 degrees of Fahren-
heit's thermometer, or to the difference between freezing and boiling water,
expressed in such parts of which the unit is equal to the lOOOOth part of an inch.
1 White glass barometer tube 100 1 1 Brass wire 232
2 Martial regulus of antimony 130 12 Speculum metal 232
3 Blistered steel 138 13 Spelter solder, viz. brass 2 parts, zink 1 247
4 Hard steel 147 14 Fine pewter 274
5 Iron 151 15 Grain tin 298
6 Bismuth l6'7 l6' Soft solder, viz. lead 2, tin 1 301
7 Copper hammered 204 17 Zink 8 parts, with tin 1, alittle hammered 323
8 Copper 8 parts, mixed with tin 1 218 18 Lead 344
9 Cast brass 225 19 Zink or spelter 353
10 Brass l6 parts, with tin 1 229 20 Zink hammered half an inch per foot . . 373
It is now several years, says Mr. S. since I first observed the very considerable
expansion of the semi-metallic substance called zink, spelter, ortootanag; and
proposed it tis more fit for the purpose of making compound pendulums, and
metalline thermometers, than brass ; as its expansion seemed considerably greater,
and its consistence, when gently hammered, not much inferior. With the same
view I have made trial of several other metallic compositions, besides what is
above set down; but they all proved much inferior to zink in expansion, and
most of them in consistence.
It seems, that metals observe a quite different proportion of expansion in a
fluid, from what they do in a solid state; for regulus of antimony seemed to
shrink in fixing, after being melted, considerably more than zink.
LXXX. On the Sex of Holly. By Mr. John Martyn, F. R. S. Professor of
Botany in the Universiti/ of Cambridge, p. 6 13.
The holly, agrifolium, or aquifolium, is described by all authors as bearing
hermaphrodite flowers ; but Mr. M. thinks that this tree is male and female in
different plants. He had in his garden at Streatham in Surry, 6 pretty large
plants, with differently variegated leaves, in full flower, 3 males, and 3 lemales,
growing in pairs, and a male growing by itself, in another part of the garden.
The female is that which has been described by authors, and he did not know
that any one had described, or even taken the least notice of the nsale.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 487
The male flower, as well as the female, is monopetalous, cut deeply into 4
segments, with a very small empalement, divided also into 4 parts. It has 4
conspicuous chives, which sustain yellow summits, in which is great plenty of
farina; but it has nothing like either stile, or ovary. The female flower has,
besides its essential pait, the ovary, 4 snort filaments, which have hitherto been
taken for chives, or male organs of generation ; but as he could not perceive that
they bear any summit, or yield any farina or fecundating dust, he rather believes
that they are tubes, which assist in conveying the impregnating particles to the
seeds; which opinion seems in some measure confirmed by the germ being placed
in the lower part of the seed, according to Caesalpinus, who ranges this tree
among those quarum semina cor in inferiore parte habent.
Ray has placed it among the arbores flore, fructui contiguo; but Mr. M.
thinks it ought to be removed to the arbores flore a fructu remote. It must also
be removed from the tetrandria tetragynia of Linneus to the dioecia tetrandria.
But if the 4 filaments in the female flower should be found, on a more accurate
observation by better eyes, to be real chives, and to contain a fecundating dust,
it will belong to the polygamia. But whether the tree, which he verily believes
to be purely female, is really so, or hermaphrodite, he is certain that the other
is purely male; and even in this case his observation is new.
Mr. IV. JVatsons Opinion on Mr. Martyns Paper on the Sex of the Holly, p. 6 15.
I first examined, in company with Mr. Miller, the holly trees in the botanical
garden at Chelsea. We there found, as Mr. Martyn had, that the flowers were
of different sexes; but not as those in the Dr.'s garden, male and female on dif-
ferent plants, but female and hermaphrodite on different plants. I afterwards,
both at Hampstead, and at the duke of Argyll's at Whitton, observed several
trees bearing male flowers, others female flowers. Hence it appears, that not
only Mr. Martyn's obser\'ation of the holly being male and female in different
trees is well founded, but also that it is male, female, and hermaphrodite, on
diflferent trees; and I should not wonder, if on a still further examination, as in
the mulberry, that the male and female flowers of the holly should be found, not
only on different, but on the same tree: or even, as in the empetrum, or berry-
bearing heath, that some holly-trees should be found bearing only male flowers,
others bearing only female flowers, others only hermaphrodite flowers, others
both male and female, others both male and hermaphrodite, others female and
hermaphrodite, others still bearing flowers male, female, and hermaphrodite oa
the same tree. The holly therefore, as Dr. Martyn has justly observed, should
be removed, in the system of Linni'us, from the tetrandria tetragynia; but
not to the dioecia tetrandria, but ratlier to the class polygamia, and to the order
trioicia.
488 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
LXXXI. A Continuation of ihe Account of the JVecither in Madeira. By Dr.
Thomas Heberden. p. 617.
This paper contains first a medium of the greatest, least, and mean height of
the barometer and thermometer, at Funchal in Madeira, for each month of the
years 1751, 1752, 1753, which have but very small differences and changes.
By collecting the respective sums of the daily heights of the instruments
throughout the year, and extracting the mean altitude, it is found that the mean
altitude of the barometer for each day, is 29.9 15 inches, and of the thermo-
meter, 68°.918. The greatest barometrical variation, during 4 years and 4
months, has been -^ of an inch only, viz. from 29.3 to 30.2. The greatest
thermometrical variation, during the said time, has been 20", viz. from 60° to
80°; but it may be observed, that it never rose so high but once; occasioned by
a very strong leste or levant wind ; the extreme height, without such an accident,
being never more than 78°.
The quantity of rain which fell in the 7 years, from 1747 to 1753, inclusive,
amounts to 214.346 inches. Therefore the mean quantity for each year is
30.62 +.
LXXXII. On Father Kircher's Opinion concerning the Burning of the Fleet of
Marcellus by Archimedes. By James Parsons, M. D., F. R. S. p. 62 1.
Dr. P. says, that though the machines invented by Archimedes when Mar-
cellus besieged the city of Syracuse, as described by Livy, Plutarch, and Poly-
bius, were wonders, surpassing the comprehensions of the generality of mankind,
yet what was most discredited, was Archimedes's setting fire to the ships, by a
burning speculum. Indeed so distinguished a genius, if he could not destroy
them in that manner, must know, that he might have thrown combustible matter,
sufficient to burn the galleys, from his projectile machines; for we cannot ima-
gine that he was ignorant of every kind of these, and not even of the wildfire
of the Greeks. But, however, to account for his burning the fleet, by a spe-
culum, was the difficult point.
When philosophers began to increase their catoptrical experiments, which they
did very early, they found the focus, of every speculum that was concave, so
short, that they were easily inclined to conclude that Archimedes could not set
fire to the fleet by a speculum ; and hence the fact became entirely discredited,
till Kircher, and his pupil Schottus, whose characters and works the learned
world is well acquainted with, resolved to consider not only the story of Archi-
medes, but also that of Proclus, who is said to have destroyed a fleet at Con-
" stantinople in the same manner. Kircher however, notwithstanding the incre-
dulity of the learned of his time, was not deterred from giving attention to the
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 489
matter himself; which led him to make innumerable experiments, to see whether
it were possible to be done or not, before he would give any opinion about it ;
and at length, when he had commended the parabolical speculum, which he and
others were inclined to think the most likely to succeed in such an enterprize ;
he was inclined to think that Archimedes made use of such a speculum.
But soon afterwards he became dissatisfied with this notion, and beginning to
make new attempts, he fell upon one which lessened his former good opinion of
the parabolical speculum, and made him more sensible of the inconveniencies
attending it, or those of any other form, that had any great degree of concavity ;
and in short engaged him entirely in favour of his new thought, which was put
in execution in the following manner :
He erected a frame, on which he placed 5 plane specula, of equal given di-
mensions, with such inclinations as made them all throw their reflected rays on
the same place, at more than 100 feet distance. When he had set the first spe-
culum, he went and laid his hand on the place where he caused the rays to fall,
and found it warm ; when he added those of the 2d, the heat was doubled ; the
3d increased the heat in the same proportion ; and the 4th being added, the heat
was scarcely to be borne ; but the 5th made it intolerable. Whence he con-
cludes, that, by multiplying those specula, the heat might be so increased, as
to set fire to combustible matter at greater distances, according to the number
applied.
Schottus gives the same account of Kircher's experiment. He accompanied
him in all his trials, as well as in his journey to Syracuse, after he had brought
his plane mirrors to answer his purpose ; and, on viewing the place, they both
concluded, that the galleys of Marcellus could not be farther than 30 paces from
Archimedes. And yet Schottus declared, that if a concave speculum could be
constructed, as large as the rotunda, it could not have a sufficient focus to effect
what both Archimedes and Proclus are said to have done.
Thus we see Kircher had scientifically established the problem, for the con-
struction of a burning machine, consisting of any number of plane specula ;
which was afterwards further confirmed by BufFon, as appears in 2 letters ;
printed in these Trans.* If so, we cannot suppose he could have seen what
either Kircher or Schottus had written about it.
LXXXIII. On several Bones of an Elephant found at Leysdoivn in the Island
of Sheppey. By Mr. Jacob, Surgeon al Feversliain. p. 626.
Three or 4 years before Mr. J. had sent the acetabulum of an elephant, which
was discovered sticking in the clay, which was partly washed away from the clifti
i
• See page 344 of the 9th vol. of these Abridgments,
VOL. X. 3 R
490 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
at Leysdown, in the isle of Sheppey, a mile eastward of the cliffs of Minster.
This, with other parts, as one of the spinal vertebrae, a thigh-bone 4 feet long
and numberless other fragments, too rotten to be then taken up entire, he saw ;
all which lay below high-water mark : and as the place, and some adjacent land,
soon after, became his property by a purchase he made, he went, attended by
workmen, in search of more, and found an elephant's tusk; and, as it lay entire
to appearance, took its dimensions ; which were, in length, 8 feet ; and in cir-
cumference, in the middle, 12 inches: but it fell all to pieces, when they en-
deavoured to raise it. He found also part of a scapula, its sinus almost entire,
and 3 inches diameter. He found also some pieces of grinders. The pyrites
however abounds so much in the clay where this animal was embedded, that he
despaired of finding any whole bones : but he thinks these fragments are suf-
ficient to show, that the elephant was as large as that mentioned by Tentzelius,
in these Transactions.
The apex of the tusk, which Mr. J. preserved, together with the acetabulum,
were both found within 20 feet of the other bones mentioned, and were, as Mr.
J. apprehended, in better condition then than at the above date, from their
being taken up immediately on being discovered, and not left to be exposed to the
injury of the weather, and violence of the tides ; which soon affects bodies so ex-
posed, after having lain under ground for ages.
LXXXIF. On the Animal Life of those Corallines, that look like Minute Trees,
and grow upon Oysters and Fucuses all round the Sea-coast of this Kingdom.
By Mr. John Ellis, p. 627.
The doubts still remaining on the minds of many learned men, of the animal
nature of corallines, on account of their beautiful ramifications, and regular plant-
like appearances, determined Mr. E. to persuade Mr. Ehret to accompany him
to the sea-side, that he might there be an eye-witness of what he had advanced,
and to make exact drawings of the several different objects, as they appeared to
him through the microscope.
Accordingly, June 3, 1734, they set out, and arrived at Lewes in Sussex that
evening, and the next morning at Brighthelmstone. The weather being very
calm, and few fucuses or corallines being thrown ashore on the beach, they hired
a fisherman, the next day, to take up some, oysters from an old oyster-ground,
that had been long disused, lying about 3 or 4 leagues off to sea, and where, by
his description, the shells were covered with great varieties of these minute tree-
like corallines ; with directions that, as soon as he took them out of the sea, he
should immetliately put them into a bucket of sea-water ; but unfortunately he
put the oysters into a fisherman's basket ; by which means many varieties were
dead, though they received them 2 hours after they were taken out of the sea.
VOL. XtVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 49I
and had tliem put immediately into sea- water: however, by the oysters lying on
each other, some of the corallines were kept so moist, as to be perfectly alive
and brisk. In order to distinguish them more easily, they plucked them off the
oysters, and placed them in white earthen plates, and poured as much sea-water
over them as would just cover them. After letting them rest for a little while,
to recover themselves, they could easily discover, with a magnifying glass of an
inch focus, which were alive, and which not: accordingly, Mr. E. cut off" small
pieces of several of the liveliest, and placed them in watch-glasses filled with sea-
water ; these, after resting a little while, he placed, one after another, on the
stage of the microscope. The unusual sight so amazed his friend (who had his
doubts), that he could scarcely believe his own eyes ; for he had hitherto ima-
gined, with many others, that these corallines were vegetables, and only the re-
ceptacles of animals, as many other plants are, and not the proper cases, skins,
or coverings, of their bodies.
The first coralline* that offered itself to their view, was N° 1, pi. 12, where it
is represented, in its natural appearance, climbing on the podded fucus a, with
irregular thread-like ramifications, as at b; one of which is exhibited magnified
at A, in which is observed a broad dark line in the middle of the transparent stem
and branches. This is part of the tender body of the animal, and seems as a
support for its several heads and stomachs, with the many hands or claws be-
longing to each : for at the top of each of the branches we may observe a polype
with 20 tentacula, or claws, which do the office of hands, its mouth being in the
centre of them, and its stomach underneath, inclosed in a fine transparent cup.
The fine outlines represent the horny skin, or outer coat, that serves this com-
pound animal as a defence, in the same manner as the shells of testaceous or
crustaceous sea-fish. The skin or covering of the arms, that support the cups,
is formed in small rings, which gives the animals the more freedom to move
about dextrously in seizing their prey. ""^
At letter b is the microscopical representation of a still smaller coralline -j- than
the former; the size of it a little reduced is expressed at fig. 2. This creeps up, and
twines round other corallines by small vermicular tubes, and sends out its curious
slender anus itregularly : these arms, in the microscope, look like rows of the
smallest beads of a necklace : to the top of each of these is fixed a cup, for the
reception of the polypes, the brim of which is curiously indented. These thej
saw alive, and extending themselves about in various directions.
Fig. N° 3, represents part of another coralline,;}: just as it appeared expanded in
a plate of sea-water. It is called, in Ray's Synopsis, ed. 3, corallina ramosa cirris ob-
* Sertularia geniculata, Linn. f Sertularia volubilis. Linn. Gmel.
I Sertularia antennina. Linn.
3 r2
492 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
sita; and by Doody, in Ray's Synopsis, ed. 2, fruticulus elegans geniculatus
cirris obsitus. Letter c expresses a branch of this coraUine magnified ; where
you may observe, on each capillary side-branch, rows of small polypes, each
with 8 tentacula, or claws, rising out of little sockets. The upper division or
tube of these little branches, as at b, appears full of joints, one to each polype ;
but they could easily perceive that all the polypes were connected together, and
communicate with the principal stem, or body, which is inclosed in the middle
tube. The under small tube of the capillary side-branch at c, which runs pa-
rallel with the upper one b, and adheres to it, appeared clear, hollow, and
jointed.
This coralline arises from a tuft of small irregularly-matted tubes, like a sponge
growing to an oyster-shell, as at g; the smaller branches e are inserted in circles
round the larger branch f, at equal distances, like the plant called horsetail, or
equisetum. As they were observing these corallines, they perceived, on one of
them, a different-shaped polype, which pushed itself out of a small funnel-shaped
pipe : this was inserted in a cell, whose brim or border was surrounded by little
spines. These cells composed that spongy rough matter, which incrusts almost
all marine substances, but chiefly fucuses. Fig. 4 represents these cells on a
fucus ; letter d expresses the cells and polypes, with 1 1 tentacula to each, as
they appear magnified ; where the animals are seen raising and expanding them-
selves. When they are disturbed, they draw themselves within their sheath or
pipe, which closes on them, and sink together into their cells.
The curious denticulated coralline* at N" 5, has very much the appearance of a
plant, at first view, even when it is magnified, as at e. This gave a further
corroborating proof, that these extraordinary species of beings are animals : for
they observed that the smaller polypes, that extend themselves out at the open-
ing of every opposite denticle, or little projecting tube, are united at the bottom,
or lower part, to the fleshy substance of the main body, that passes through the
middle of each branch, or stem, and are so many dififerent bodies united in one ;
acting like so many sets of hands, placed in form of a circle, collecting food,
each for a mouth in the centre, to convey nourishment to so many stomachs,
which are fixed in the swelling part, or bottom, of each denticle. This great
supply of nourishment from all sides, gives that great increase, and variety of
ramifications, to this wonderful class of many-bodied animals.
Besides these small polypes, which compose the branches, these corallines send
forth, from several parts, many vesicles, of different shapes, at certain seasons
of the year, according to their different species. These vesicles are protruded
from the outer skin or horny covering of these branched polypes, and from the
* Serlularia rosacea. Linn.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 493
inner or fleshy part arises a large polype ; one of which occupies each of these
vesicles.
Thus a coralline full of vesicles looks like a plant full of blossoms, which, after
they have arrived at their perfect state, fall ofF, with their capsules or vesicles,
and become new-detached animals, to provide for themselves ; in the same man-
ner as the falling seeds produce other plants.
On examining this coralline, they found that the animals in the vesicles were
dead ; but immediately afterwards they had an opportunity of discovering the
vesicular polypes alive, in another coralline ; * which are described at fig. 6, and
at letter p as they appeared magnified. This species Mr. E. called the sea-oak
coralline, from its being most frequently found creeping on, and adhering to the
largest species of the quercus marinus, or sea-oak fucus.
The vesicles of the denticulated coralline, letter e, are described as they ap-
peared full of spines at the top, and closed up, as at letter g. The vesicles of
the same species are more frequently found as described at i, where the spines
are not unfolded : from this appearance, he called it the pomegranate-flowering
coralline, because they nearly resemble the opening blossom of the balaustine,
or double flower of the pomegranate.
The branches of this coralline are often observed to end in vermicular tubuli,
as at H, which are much of the same form with those it begins with ; so that
these animals can, and do, change their shapes, for the several ends and pur-
poses of their being ; and this in a most surprising manner.
He had further an opportunity of examining some of those kind of corallines,
which he called celleferous, from their having rows of cells disposed in plant-
like ramifications. The small black spots in each cell^ which he had conjectured
before to be the embryo of a future testaceous animal, (Vid. Phil. Trans, vol.
48, tab. 6, p. 115) he found now to be the contracted bodies of dead polypes;
for they here saw some of these polypes -|- alive, and extending themselves out of
their cells, as at k, fig. 7 ; and on reviewing them, when they were dead, found
they made the appearance of blackish spots in each cell, as at l, fig. 7. So that
they had reason to suppose that this species of polypes that form these corallines,
do change into testaceous bodies.
LXXXF. Extract of a Letter from Camillo Paderni, fCeeper of the Museum
Herculaneum, to Tho. Holies, Esq. Dated at Naples, ^pril 27, 1754.
p. 634.
The place where they are digging at present, is under II Bosco di Sant' Agos-
tino, but a little distant from the royal palace at Portici. Its depth is 125 Nea-
* Sertularia putnila. Linn. t Sertularia scruposa. Linn.
494 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1754.
politan palms,* one of which is more than the mercantile canna of Rome. All
the buildings discovered in this site are noble : many of the pavements are of
mosaic, variously and finely made ; others are of different-coloured marbles, dis-
posed vi^ith a beautiful symmetry ; and most of them are already taken up. In
one of these buildings there has been found an entire library, composed of
volumes of the Egyptian Papyrus, of which 250 have been taken out ; and the
place is not yet cleared or emptied, it having been deemed necessary to erect
props first, to keep the earth, which lies above it, from falling in upon it.
These volumes of Papyrus consist of Latin and Greek manuscripts ; but from their
brittleness, occasioned by the fire and time, it is not possible to unroll them, being
now decayed and rotten. There have been found some of those small tables,
which they covered with wax and the palimpseston, and then wrote on them with
the stylus : but all these are become a kind of cinder ; and have also suffered by
the damps ; from both which circumstances they are now so tender, that they
break with the touch.
In the same place there have been found 3 small busts ; one of Epicurus, an-
other of Zeno, and the third of Humachus ; with the names of each inscribed
on the basis, in Greek letters. A little distant from the preceding site has been
discovered another noble building, with a square court belonging to it ; the inside
of which alone has been hitherto examined. This square is formed with fluted
columns made of brick stuccoed. In the angles were 4 terms of marble, with
busts on them, in bronze, of the finest manner, having the name of the Greek
workman on one of them. In the centre, between the terms, was a small foun-
tain, formed by a vase shaped like a cockle-shel), and supported by a small fluted
column. There have been also found 3 other busts, large, and in bronze, likewise
of the most excellent workmanship. Within these few days the following things
have been taken out of the same site ; viz. a female statue, 6 palms high, per-
haps a goddess, though without any attribute, and but of middling workmanship;
2 most beautiful candlesticks, S-J- palms high, exquisitely wrought in chased
work ; other candlesticks, much damaged by the fire and time ; many fragments
in bronze, which, not having any particular merit, it is needless to describe,
except two small figures of fawns, that are finely executed. In the same place
was discovered a large fountain, lined throughout with lead : round it were 1 1
heads of lionesses, out of which the water flowed. Pipes of lead are very often
met with ; and scarcely a day passes but something is brought.
LXXXVl. Experimental Examination of a White Metallic Substance said to be
found in the Gold Mines of the Spanish West-Indies, and there known by the
* A Neapolitan palm is said to be 11-| inches English. — Orig.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, 495
A[ypellations qfPlatina. Platina di Pinto, Juan Blanca. By fVilliam Lewis *
M.B., F.R.S. p. 638.
PAPER I.
Expcr. ] . — The substance brought into England under the name of platina
appears a mixture of dissimilar particles. The most conspicuous, and by far the
largest part of the mixture, are white shining grains, of seemingly smooth sur-
faces, irregular figures, generally planes with the edges rounded oiF. On exa-
mining these with a microscope, the surface appeared in some parts irregular,
tlie prominencies smooth, bright, and shining ; the cavities dark-coloured and
roughish. A few of them were attracted, though weakly, by a magnetic bar.
These grains are the true platina. The heterogeneous matters intermixed among
them, in the several parcels, were,
1. A blackish dust, separable by a fine sieve. This was further divided, by
a magnetic bar, into 1 different substances : the part attracted was of a fine
sparkling black colour, much resembling the black sand from Virginia : the part
not attracted was of a dark brownish hue, with several bright molecuL-e, which
appeared to be fragments of the grains of platina. 2. Among the larger grains,
separated by a coarse sieve, were sundry irregular dark-coloured particles, some
blackish, others with a cast of brownish red, in appearance resembling frag-
ments of emery or loadstone. Several were attracted weakly by the magnet.
3. There j\'ere a few rough yellow particles, resembling gold, which on further
examination they were found to be, though probably not entirely free from pla-
tina. 4. A few globules of quicksilver, containing gold, with some particles of
platina intermixed and pretty strongly adhering. 3. Some fine transparent par-
ticles, probably spar. 6. A very few irregular particles, of a jet black colour.
These broke easily, and looked like the finer kinds of pit-coal. Laid on a red-
hot iron, they emitted a yellowish smoke, and smelt like burning coal. -|-
• Tills memoir, with its continuations in the 50th vol. of the Phil. Trans, is one of the most va-
luable chemical papers which had hitherto been presented to the u. s. Some years afterwards, these
papers were reprinted by Dr. Lewis, accompanied with an account of all that was then known re-
specting platina, in his Commercium Philosophico-Technicum, a work containing much useful infor-
mation, and, at the same time, suggesting various improvements in the arts connected with chemistry.
Beside these. Dr. L. published a Course of Practical Chemistry j a translation, with notes, ot"
Neumann's Chemistry ; a New Dispensatory ; and an Experimental History of the Materia Medica.
The last 2 works are of the highest merit in their kind, exhibiting (to use the words of an able critic
on this subject) correct descriptions of drugs, with useful experiments in their treatment by different
menstruums, while the author is very chaste in ascribing virtues, and in repeating from former
writers. And from his own experience, as well as that of the most skilful London practitioners, he
gives a sounder judgment of the real virtues of medicinal substances than had been given before.
When Dr. Lewis died, or what was his age, at the time of his decease, or any other particulars
concerning his life, we have not been able to learn.
\ From the experiments of later chemists, it appears that the ores of platina contain several distinct
496 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
Remarks. — 1. It appears from the foregoing observations, that this mineral
has not come to us in its native form ; being probably taken out of the mines in
large masses, which have been broken, and treated with mercury, to extract the
gold, of which possibly it at first contained a considerable quantity. The quan-
tity left by the workmen is extremely small ; some pounds of the mixture having
yielded only a few grains. A moderate fire renders more of these golden particles
discoverable, than can be seen at first ; the mercury evaporating, by which se-
veral of them were concealed. 2. Some part of the brownish powder is probably
adventitious, as well as the mercury ; being worn off from the stampers and
mills employed for comminuting the mineral, and triturating it with the mer-
curv. 3. The roughness and dark colour of the cavities of the grains of platina,
seem to proceed from a substance similar to the black dust adhering in them. It
is probably owing also to this heterogeneous magnetic matter, that some of them
are attracted by the loadstone.
Exper. 1. — Some of the purer grains of platina, by gentle strokes of a flat
hammer, on a smooth anvil, bore to be considerably flattened, without breaking
or cracking about the edges : some quickly cracked, and discovered internally a
close granulated texture. All are reducible, by rude strokes in an iron mortar,
though with difficulty, into powder. They seemed to be rather more brittle
when ignited, than when cold.
Exper. 3. — The specific gravity of platina, with its heterogeneous admixtures,
as brought to us, was found to be to that of water, as 16.995 to 1.000. The
quantity weighed for this purpose was no less than 2000 Troy grains.
The larger grains of platina, separated as much as possible from the other
matters by the sieve, and cleansed by heating, boiling in aqua fortis, mixing
them with sal ammoniac, and forcing off" the salt by fire, and afterwards washing
them; weighed in air 642, in water 606.75 : whence their gravity turns out
18.213. The microscope still discovered a considerable portion of blackish mat-
ter in their cavities. These trials were several times repeated on different parcels
of platina : the result was nearly the same in all.
Remark. — The gravity of this mineral, great as it appears to be from the fore-
going experiments, would probably turn out still greater on a further purifica-
tion of the platina, since it is manifestly mixed with some of the lighter hetero-
geneous matters.
Exper. A. — A quantity of platina, containing its usual admixture of magnetic
dust, was kept for some time of a moderate red heat in an iron ladle. The
bright particles became somewhat duller coloured ; the magnetic ones were no
metallic substances. See Wollaston in Phil. Trans, for 1804 and 1805, as before quoted at p. 103
of this vol. of these Abridgments.
VOL. XLVm.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. -197
longer attracted. In other respects there was no sensible alteration. 2. An oz. of
platina was urged with a strong sea coal fire, in a blast-furnace, for above an
hour : the heat was so vehement, that the black-lead crucible vitrified, and the slip
of Windsor brick, which covered it, melted and ran down. The grains of platina
were found superficially cohering into a lump, of the figure of the bottom oi the
crucible, of a brighter colour than at first. On a slight blow, they readily fell
asunder again, and seemed not to have altered their shape. 3. In several repe-
titions of the experiment, the platina began to cohere in a moderate white heat :
the grains were at this time very easily separable, and seemed to cohere the more
strongly in proportion as the heat was raised. In the most intense fires, which
the common vessels could not long support, the platina did not melt, or soften,
or alter its figure, or lose sensibly of its weight. The colour was constantly
brightened by a strong heat, and generally rendered dusky by a small one : on
quenching it, when violently heated, in cold water, the grains, which composed
the internal part of the lump, acquired a violet or purple colour.
Exper. 3. — 1 . As the power of fire on metallic, as well as earthy substances, is
remarkably promoted by the immediate contact of fuel, and the impulse of air on
the subject ; platina was exposed to its action in those circumstances. A cru-
cible, having a bed of charcoal in it, was laid on its side, in a good blast-lur-
nace, with its mouth towards the nose of the bellows ; and 4 ounces of platina
spread on the charcoal. The fire was vehemently urged for above an hour,
during which an intense white flame passed through the crucible, and issued at
an aperture made for that purpose. The crucible was vitrified : the grains of
platina only superficially cohered, and became brighter, as in the preceding ex-
periment, without seeming to have softened or altered their shape. 2. The ex-
periment was several times repeated, and varied : once, common salt was thrown
on the fuel before the crucible, and its fumes strongly impelled on the platina :
some platina was likewise placed before the nose of the bellows in violently-ex-
cited sea-coal fires, so strong as almost instantly to melt off a piece of the end of
a forged iron rod, without effect ; except that once there were a very few globu-
lar drops, about the size of very small shot : these broke easily on the anvil, and
looked, both internally and externally, like platina.
Remark. — It is probable, that the fusion here was owing to sotne accidental
admixture, possibly iron : for the unmelted grains, exposed afterwards to a fire
rather more intense, suffered no sensible alteration.
Exper. Q. — Platina was likewise exposed to the fire in conjunction with se-
veral substances, which are found to promote the fusion of other bodies, or to
occasion considerable alterations in them. 1. Platina mingled with powdered
charcoal, with compositions of charcoal, soot, common salt, and wood ashes,
substances employed for changing iron into steel ; suffered no change in weight
VOL. X. 3 S
4QQ PHILOSOPHICAL TEANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
or appearance, whether urged with an intense fire, or cemented for many hours
in a weaker one. '2. Platina was injected into melted borax, and urged with an
intense fire for several hours, without undergoing any alteration. Nor had
black, flux, common salt, pure fixed alkaline salts, or caustic alkalies, any sen-
sible effect. 3. Vitreous matters were no more powerful than the saline. Pla-
tina was kept in strong fires, for several hours, with common green glass, with
glass of antimony, and with glass of lead, without seeming to be in the least
acted on by either. 4. Platina was likewise stratified with plaster of Paris, a
powerful flux for the most difficultly-fusible metallic body hitherto known,
forged iron ; as also with quicklime, and with calcined flint ; with as little effect
as in the former trials.
Exper. 7. — Nitre, which reduces all the known metallic bodies, except gold
and silver, into a calx, was mixed with an equal weight of platina, the mixture
injected into a strongly ignited crucible, and the fire kept up for a considerable
time ; no deflagration happened ; and the platina, freed from the salt by re-
peated ablutions with water, proved of the same weight and appearance as
at first.*
Exper. 8. — 1. An ounce of platina was spread on twice its weight of sulphur,
with which some powdered charcoal had been previously mixed to prevent its
becoming fluid in the fire so as to suffer the platina to subside. The crucible,
having another with a hole in the bottom inverted into its mouth, was kept in a
cementing furnace for several hours ; when the sulphur was found to have en-
tirely exhaled, leaving the platina separable from the charcoal by washing, with-
out alteration or diminution. '2. We likewise varied the experiment, injecting
repeatedly pieces of sulphur on platina strongly heated ; and constantly found
that pure sulphur had no more effect on this mineral, than on gold itself. 3.
As fixed alkaline salts enable sulphur to dissolve gold ; platina was exposed to the
fire with a mixture of sulphur and alkali, called hepar sulphuris. After a consi-
derable heat had been continued for some time, and the matter occasionally
stirred, very little of the platina was found remaining in its proper form ; the
greatest part being taken up by the sulphureo-saline mixture, so as to dissolve
along with it in water.
General Remarks. — It appears, from the foregoing experiments and observa-
tions, 1 . That probably this mineral is originally found in large, hard masses,
composed of true platina, a substance similar to the black Virginia sand, and an-
other ferruginous matter of the emery kind, some spar, and particles of gold.
1. That these masses are, not without great labour, reduced into small grains,
which are afterwards ground with mercury, in order to extract the gold. 3.
* SeeTenuant on the Action of Nitre on Gold and Platina in the Phil. Trans, for 1797.
VOL. XlVIir.]| PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 499
That the pure platina is a white metallic substance, in some small degree mal-
leable ; that it is nearly* as ponderous as gold, equally fixed and permanent in
the fire, equally indestructible by nitre, unaffected by sulphur, dissoluble by
hepar sulphuris. That it is not to be brought into fusion by the greatest degree
of fire procurable in the ordinary furnaces, whether exposed to its action in close
vessels, or in contact with the fiiel ; by itself, or with the addition of inflam-
mable, saline, vitreous or earthy fluxes. -)-
PAPER II.
The more obvious properties of this extraordinary mineral, and its habitus to
fire, singly, and in conjunction with the various substances called by the che-
mists fluxes, made the object of the first paper. In this, it is proposed to exa-
mine the effect of acid spirits, simple and compound, applied after various
manners ; in order to determine not only its relation or habitus to them, but
likewise its less obvious agreement or disagreement with the metallic bodies,
whose history is more known.
The platina employed in the following experiments was previously freed from
its fine dust by a sieve ; from the mercury, by ignition ; and from the golden
and some of the other heterogeneous particles, by the eye assisted with glasses.
Exper. 1 . — Platina with the FitrioUc Acid. 1 . Several parcels of platina
were digested for some hours, in a gentle heat, with spirit of vitriol, both con-
centrated, and diluted with different proportions of water. No solution hap-
pened, nor any sensible alteration, either in the liquors or the platina. 2. Three
ounces of well-dephlegmated spirit of vitriol were boiled with one ounce of pla-
tina, in a tall, narrow-necked glass, for some hours. The liquor remained
nearly of the same quantity as at first ; and no change could be perceived either
in it, or in the platina. 3. The glass being cut off a little above the liquid, the,
heat was gradually increased, till the liquor, which now began to evaporate, had,
in 5 or 6 hours, totally exhaled, and the platina become dry, and red-hot.
When cooled, washed with water, and exsiccated, it was found exactly of the
sam^ weight as at first, and its grains not divided, or apparently altered.
Remark. — Platina appears therefore entirely to resist the vitriolic acid ; which,
by one or other of the above processes, dissolves or corrodes every other known
metallic body, except gold.
Exper. 1. — Platina with the Marine Acid. 1. Weak and strong spirits of
salt being digested, separately, with -^ their weight of platina, in a gentle
• More ponderous than gold when duly purified, its specific grarity being then 23.000; wherea*
that of gold is only 19.3.
+ White arsenic excepted ; for on exposure to a sufficient degree of heat, with such an addition, it
may be brought into fusion.
3s2
300 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
heat, for several hours, the liquors remained uncoloured, the platina unaltered,
and undiminished. The heat was afterwards increased, and the liquors kept
strongly boiling till they had totally exhaled, without occasioning any sensible
change in the platina. 2. Three ounces of a mixture of 2 parts decrepitated
sea-salt, and 3 parts of vitriol highly calcined, were pressed smooth into a cru-
cible ; an ounce of platina spread evenly on the surface, and covered with some
more of the mixture ; the crucible closely luted, and kept in a moderate red
heat for several hours. On examining it when cold, the saline mixture was
found to have melted, and formed a smooth, uniform lump. The platina, which
had sunk to the bottom, being separated from the mixture by washing, proved
of the same appearance as at first, though a little deficient in weight. 3. The
experiment was repeated with what is called the regal cement, a less fusible
mixture, composed of common salt and colcothar each one part, and 4 parts of
powdered red bricks. An oz. of platina, surrounded, as above, with 6 oz. of
this composition, and cemented in a close-luted crucible with a red heat, for 20
hourSj'was still found unaltered in appearance, though there was some deficiency,
as before, in the weight.
Remark. — The marine acid, when thus detained in the fire by the combina-
tion of other bodies, till strongly heated, and then set at liberty in the form of
fume, dissolves or corrodes all the known metallic substances, gold alone ex-
cepted. As the platina, in these experiments, retained its original polished
surface, without any mark of corrosion ; it was presumed, that this mineral
likewise had resisted the marine fumes ; and that the deficiency was owing to
some of the smaller grains having been washed oft', along with the ponderous
colcothar or metallic matter of the vitriol ; an accident not easily avoided.
4. Platina was therefore treated with mercury-sublimate, a combination of the
highly-concentrated marine acid with a volatile substance, which in a proper de-
gree of heat it readily forsakes, to unite with other metallic bodies. An oz. of
platina was spread on 3 oz. of powdered sublimate ; the glass covered, and set in
sand : after a moderate fire for some hours, the sublimate was found to have
entirely arisen, Jeaving the platina of its original weight, as well as appearance.
5. Fifty grains of a mixture of one part of platina and 2 of gold, well nealed,
and cautiously hammered into a thin plate, were surrounded with regal cement,
the vessel covered, closely luted, and kept for a considerable time in a red heat.
On examining the metal, it was found to retain the whiteness and brittleness,
which gold constantly receives from so large a proportion of platina ; and to have
lost in weight about 4- gr. or -i^j- part.
Remark. — The loss here appears to have proceeded, not from the platina, but
from alloy in the gold employed, which was above standard, but not perfectly
fine : for the metal cemented a second time, with fresh mixture, sufitred no
VOL. XLVm.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 501
further diminution. If the marine acid were capable of dissolving platina, in-
stead of -rh-s-^ nearly ^ would have been exeded. This experiment therefore
determines, with certainty, the resistance of platina to the marine fumes ; and
that the regal cement, so called from its being supposed to purify gold from all
heterogeneous metallic matters, is incapable of separating platina from it.* •'
Exper. 3. — Platina ivilh the Nitrous Acid. 1. Spirit of nitre diluted with
water, proof aqua fortis, and the strong nitrous spirit, were digested separately,
with -J- their weight of platina, in a gentle heat, for several hours. During the
digestion, some bubbles were observed, as if a solution was beginning ; but the
liquors acquired no colour ; and the platina, washed and dried, was found to
have neither altered its appearance, nor lost of its weight. The fire being after-
wards increased, and the acid spirits kept strongly boiling till they had entirely
evaporated, no change could be observed in the platina. 2. Platina was like-
wise treated with nitrous mixtures, by processes similar to those in which it had
been exposed to the marine fumes. After cementation for many hours, in a red
heat, with a mixture of 3 parts calcined vitriol, and 2 of melted nitre, the grains
were recovered not only unaltered, but without any deficiency in weight.
Remark. — From these experiments it is plain, that platina, equally with gold, re-
sists the force of the vitriolic, marine, and nitrous acids, though applied in such a
manner, as to be capable of perfectly dissolving all other known metallic bodies.
Exper. A. — Platina ivith Aqua Regia. 1. Aqua regia,-}- which perfectly dis-
solved gold, poured on platina, began to act on it in the cold, and, by the as-
sistance of a moderate heat, slowly dissolved it ; acquiring at first a yellow
colour, which deepened by degrees, as the menstruum became more saturated,
into a dark brownish red. A few drops of the saturated solution tinged a large
quantity of water of a fine golden colour. 2. The experiment was several times
repeated with different aqua; regiae, made by dissolving sea-salt and sal ammoniac,
separately, in 4 times their weight of aqua fortis ; and by abstracting the nitrous
spirit from the same proportion of each of the salts. With all these menstrua
the solution seemed to succeed equally.
3. In order to determine the quantity of menstruum necessary for the solu-
tion ; 3 oz. of an extremely strong aqua regia, diluted with water, were poured
on one oz. of platina, in a retort, to which was adapted a recipient. A gentle
heat being applied, the menstruum acted violently, and red fumes arose in abun-
dance. When about \ of the liquor had come over, the action was scarcely, if
at all, sensible, though the fire was considerably raised. The distilled liquor,
which appeared of a light redish colour, being poured back again into the retort,
• When these experiments were made, the marine acid in its oxygenized state (oxymuriatic acid)
was unknown. The metal of platina, called phtinum, is soluble in that preparation of the marine
acid. t Termed in the New Chemical Nomenclature, nitromuriatic acid.
502 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
the solution began afresh ; the vapour, which now came over, appeared pale,
compared with the first. The cohobation was repeated 4 times, the distilled
liquor proving paler and paler every time. At length, both the fumes and action
ceased, though the fire was raised, and a considerable part of the platina remained
undissolved. The solution was therefore poured off, some more of the men-
struum added, the distillation and cohobation renewed, and this occasionally
repeated, till the whole was taken up, excepting a little blackish matter, of which
hereafter. The quantity of strong aqua regia, employed for dissolving the oz. of
platina, was 5 oz. ; but the last parcels appeared from their yellow colour not to
be fully saturated, and on trial were found to take up near 50 grs. of fresh platina.
Remark. It appeared, that by this method of managing the process, 1 part
of platina was soluble in about 4i of aqua regia : but that when the digestion
was performed in open vessels in the common manner, and the fumes, which
arise copiously during all metallic solutions, suffered to exhale, more than half
as much again of the menstruum was requisite. This process might therefore
possibly be applicable to advantage, in making solutions of metals in the way of
business.
Examination of Solution of Platina.
Exper. ] . — As the vitriolic acid carries down metallic bodies, gold not ex-
cepted, from their solutions in other menstrua ; this acid was mixed with solu-
tions of platina.
1. When the solution of platina was previously diluted with water; the addition
of dephlegmated spirit of vitriol occasioned no precipitation, or change of colour,
though a large quantity of the acid was, at different times, dropped in, and the
mixture suffered to stand for several days.
2. Dephlegmated spirit of vitriol, added to an undiluted solution of platina,
immediately rendered it turbid, and threw down a dusky-coloured precipitate.
The precipitate was not re-dissolved on the affusion of water ; nor was the pre-
cipitation prevented by adding water immediately after the acid had been
dropped in.
Exper. 2. — Solutions of platina, evaporated by a gentle warmth, to a proper
pitch, and then set to shoot, yielded crystals, of a dark, almost opaqvie, red
colour, in form of leaves, like flowers of benzoin, but thicker. The crystals,
washed with proof spirit, became somewhat paler, but still remained of a high
colour, resembling the deeper chives of saffron. Exposed to the fire, they seemed
to melt, emitted white fumes, and at length fell into a dusky ash-coloured calx.
Exper. 3. — Solutions of platina, dropped on hot marble, immediately cor-
roded it ; but did not, like solutions of gold and some other metals, communi-
cate any colour. Nor did they give any stain to the skin, to feathers, ivory, or
other like animal substances, which liquors containing gold tinge purple.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 503
Exper. A. — As a minute proportion of gold contained in liquors is discoverable
by their striking a purple colour with tin,
1 . Some bright plates of pure tin were put into a solution of platina diluted
with water. The plates, in a little time, looked of a dark olive colour, and
soon after were covered with a reddish brown matter : the liquor became at first
darker coloured, and afterwards by degrees, as the precipitate fell, nearly colour-
less ; without exhibiting the least appearance of a purplish hue.
2. Platina was digested in a quantity of aqua regia insufficient to dissolve the
whole ; and the residuum dissolved in a fresh parcel of the menstruum. The
two solutions, treated as above, yielded somewhat different phenomena, but no
tendency to a purplish cast could be perceived in either. The latter, which
looked yellow from not being fully saturated, was, when diluted with water,
almost colourless. Yet, on the addition of the tin, it became yellow again,
then red, and at length of a dark brownish red considerably deeper than the
other more saturated solution. On standing for some time, it grew perfectly
clear, depositing a paler, yellowish precipitate.
3. To determine whether platina was capable of preventing a small proportion
of gold from discovering itself on this trial, one drop of a solution of gold was
let fall into several ounces of a solution of platina diluted with water. On add-
ing some plates of tin, the whole became immediately of a fine purple.
Remark. It may be proper to observe, that in these kinds of experiments,
plates of tin are far more eligible than the solutions of tin usually employed :
for the solutions fail of striking a purple colour with solution of pure gold,
unless certain circumstances are observed, which are not easily hit upon ; but
tin in substance constantly succeeds, and requires no particular precaution.
Exper. 5. As gold is revived from its solutions by inflammable spirits, the
metal gradually arising to the surface, in form of a bright yellow cuticle ;
1. A solution of platina was mixed with a large proportion of highly-rectified
spirit of wine, and exposed for many days to the sun, in a wide-mouthed glass,
slightly covered with paper, so as to keep out dust. There was no appearance
of any yellow skin ; nor any other alteration, than that the platina had begun
to crystallize from the evaporation of the fluid.
2. A drop or two of a solution of gold being added to a large quantity of a
mixture of solution of platina and spirit of wine, and the whole exposed as
above to the sun ; a goklen film was in a few days observed on the surface.
Remark. It follows from this experiment, and the foregoing one with tin,,
that platina contains no gold ; and that it cannot, any more than the common
metallic or other soluble substances, prevent a small proportion of gold mixed
with it from being discoverable.
504 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
Exper. 6. — 1 . The spirits of sal ammoniac, prepared both by quicklime and by
fixed alkaline salts, added to solutions of platina diluted with distilled water,
precipitated a fine red sparkling powder ; which, exsiccated, and exposed to the
fire in an iron ladle, became blackish ; without at all fulminating, which calces
of gold, prepared in the same manner, do violently. On washing some of this
precipitate on a filter, by repeated affusions of water, the greatest part of it dis-
solved ; only a small quantity of a blackish matter remaining, and the liquor
passing through of a deep, bright, golden colour. A very large quantity of the
fluid was tinged of this colour by a small one of the powder.
1. Salt of wormwood, fixed nitre, the lixivium saponarium of the Lond.
Pharmacopceia, precipitated a powder similar to the foregoing, except that its
colour was less brilliant.
3. Sal ammoniac likewise, one of the ingredients, to which the menstruum
owed its power of dissolving the platina at first, precipitated great part of it in
form of a similar powder.
4. The liquors remaining after all these precipitations with saline substances,
appeared of a yellow colour, almost as deep as before the precipitation. Fixed
and volatile alkalies being added alternately, the liquor still continued yellow :
but either of them, added after sal ammoniac had performed its office, threw
down a fresh precipitate, which left the liquor colourless.
5. The addition of tin likewise, after either of the salts separately had thrown
down all they were capable of doing, occasioned a fresh and complete precipita-
tion ; provided a little more of the menstruum was dropt in, to enable the liquor
to act on the metal.
Exper. 7 • As gold is totally precipitated by alkaline salts, but platina only in
part ; and as a minute portion of platina, remaining dissolved, tinges a surpri-
singly large quantity of the fluid of a yellow colour ; it was presumed, that a
small admixture of platina with gold might by this means be readily discoverable.
A few drops of a solution of platina were therefore mixed with above 100 times
the quantity of a solution of gold ; the whole diluted with water ; and a pure
alkaline salt gradually added, as long as it occasioned any effervescence or preci-
pitation. The remaining liquor was of so deep a yellow colour, that it was
judged the platina would have discovered itself, though its proportion had been
less than 1000th part of that of the gold.
Exper. 8. — 1. Zinc, which totally precipitates all the other known metallic bodies,
put into a diluted solution of platina, was very quickly acted on, and threw
down a blackish calx. The liquor in good measure preserved its yellow colour ;
a n ark that part of the platina remained suspended.
2. Iron, wnicn precipitates all the metals from their solutions, except zinc.
▼OL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 505'
threw down a similar calx. It could not be judged by the eye, whether the pre-
cipitation was complete, the solutions of iron and platina nearly agreeing with
each other in colour.
3. Copper, the precipitant of mercury and gold, readily threw down platina
from its solution, in form of a greyish calx, which was found on trial to retain
a notable quantity of the copper. The liquor remaining after the platina had
fallen, was of a more dusky green than solutions of pure copper, probably from
its retaining some of the platina.
4. Mercury, which precipitates gold alone from aqua regia, put into a diluted
solution of platina, seemed in a little time to be divided, and did not run freely.
Soon after, it appeared covered with a greyish matter, which at first was appre-
hended to be a precipitate, but was found afterwards to be a part of the mer-
cury corroded. On applying a moderate heat, the whole of the quicksilver, the
quantity of which was very considerable, was dissolved, without any precipitation.
The experiment was repeated with a larger quantity of mercury than the solu-
tion was capable of taking up. The platina now gradually fell down among the
undissolved quicksilver, in form of a dark brownish powder ; leaving the liquor
nearly colourless.
5. A solution of gold mingled uniformly with a solution of platina, without
occasioning any turbidness or precipitation. The mixture, diluted with water,
and sufFerwl to stand for some time, threw up a bright golden pellicle to the
surface.
Exper. g. — 1. A solution of platina, super-impregnated with as much mer-
cury as it was capable of taking up, on being evaporated a little, so as to dis-
pose it to shoot, yielded crystals not at all like those of platina, but in form of
spicula, externally of a yellowish hue. These, slightly washed with proof spirit,
became colourless. Exposed to the fire, they emitted copious white fumes, with
a hissing or crackling noise ; and left a very small quantity of a reddish powder.
2. A mixture of solutions of gold and platina, being treated in the same
manner, ruby-coloured crystals were obtained, which appeared to be chiefly gold,
with very little of the platina.
Remark. It seems therefore, that mercury and gold crystallize from their
solutions before platina, leaving the greatest part of that mineral dissolved. This
affair, particularly with regard to gold, deserves further inquiry.
Exper. 10. — As the calces of metals, obtained by precipitation from acids, or
by other means, vitrify along with frit or glass, and tinge them of various
colours ; and as this process is recommended by some for investigating the nature
of unknown metallic bodies ; the following trials were made with precipitates of
platina.
1 . Half an ounce of a precipitate thrown down from solution of platina by>
VOL. X. 3 T
506 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
plates of pure tin, was triturated an an iron mortar with 8 times its quantity of
common white glass, the mixture put into a crucible, which was closely luted,
and placeid in a wind furnace. The fire was gradually raised, and kept up ex-
tremely strong for about 10 hours; when, the crucible being taken out and
broken, the matter appeared of a dark blackish colour, untransparent, easily
friable; interspersed with a bright whitish matter, apparently metallic.
Remark. It is probable, that this metallic matter was the platina; and that
the glass owed its opacity and dark colour, not to this mineral, but to the tin
in the precipitate, some particles of iron abraded from the mortar, or other ac-
cidental causes.
2. A quarter of an ounce of a precipitate of platina, made by alkaline salt,
was ground in a glass mortar with 12 times its weight of white glass; and com-
mitted to the same fire as the foregoing. The result was a compact, cloudy
glass, pretty transparent in thin pieces, covered in part with a thin whitish coat.
Towards the upper part, and all round the sides, were observed several particles
of metal; which appeared to the eye like bright platina, and proved hard to the
point of a knife.
Remark. Nor does the glass here seem to have received any thing from the
platina; the change being no other than what white glass is found to undergo
from a slight impregnation with inflammable matter.
General Remarks. It appears from the experiments related in this paper, that
platina, like gold, is not acted on by the simple acids,* which dissolve every
known metallic body besides; that aquae regiae, the solvents of gold, prove like-
wise menstrua for platina; and that consequently the common methods of assay-
ing or purifying gold by aquafortis, aqua regis, or the regal cement, can no
longer be depended on; that it differs from gold, in giving no stain to the solid
parts of animals, not striking a purple colour with tin, not being revived from
its solutions by inflammable spirits, not being totally precipitable by alkaline salts;
that in certain circumstances it throws out gold from its solutions; that these
properties afford means of distinguishing a small proportion of gold mixed with
a large one of platina, or a small proportion of platina with a large one of gold;
and that platina contains no gold, excepting the few particles distinguished by
the eye; that platina is precipitated from its solutions by the vitriolic acid, and
by the metallic substances, which precipitated gold, though scarcely totally by
any; and that its precipitates resist vitrification, and this perhaps in a more per-
fect manner than precipitates of gold itself.
PAPER III.
The two former papers have given an account of the habitus or relation
• As mentioned in a former note, it is soluble in the oxyrauriatic acid.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 507
of platina to the principal substances which act on metallic bodies; and
shown that it is a simple metal, of a particular kind, essentially distinct from all
those hitherto known, though possessed of some properties generally supposed
peculiar to gold. Many of its distinguishing characters have been already pointed
out; others will result from combining it with the several metals; with each of
which, notwithstanding its resistance to the most intense fires by itself, or with
unmetallic additions, it melts perfectly; occasioning remarkable alterations in
their colour, texture, and hardness.
Art. 1. — Platina with Tin. 1 . Equal parts of platina and pure tin were injected
into a mixture of black flux and common salt in strong fusion ; and urged with
a quick fire, in a good blast furnace. After a few minutes the whole appeared
perfectly melted; and on being instantly poured out, ran freely along a narrow
mould, forming a smooth ingot, nearly of the same weight with the platina and
tin employed. The compound proved extremely brittle, breaking easily from a
fall; internally it appeared of a close and smooth, though uneven surface; and
of a dark grey colour. By the file, or a knife, it was readily scraped into a
blackish dust.
2. One part of platina and two of tin, covered with a black flux, borax, and
common salt, were melted in a wind furnace : the platina appeared perfectly
taken up by the tin, soon after the fire had been raised to a light white heat.
The ingot was found deficient in weight about Vf- It greatly resembled the
foregoing, being only a little less brittle, and of a somewhat lighter colour.
3. One ounce of platina and 4 of tin, covered with black flux and common
salt, and urged with a quick fire, melted together without loss. This compound
yielded a little to gentle strokes of a flat hammer, but was by no means tough.
It broke in pieces from a rude blow, and was still readily scraped into dust by a
knife. The surface of the fracture was rough and granulated.
4. One part of platina and 8 of tin, injected into a fluid mixture of black flux
and common salt, united, without loss, into a pretty tough compound; which
bore to be considerably flattened under the hammer without breaking, cut
smooth with a thin chissel, and shaved with a knife. Broken, it appeared of a
sparkling, dark coloured, coarse grained texture.
5. One part of platina and 12 of tin, treated in the same manner, formed a
mixture tolerably ductile; but still of a dull, dark hue, and a rough coarse grain,
though somewhat less so than the preceding.
6. A mixture of 1 part of platina and 24 of tin, proved not much stifl^er
than tin. The colour was whiter, and the grain finer and evener than those of
the preceding compositions ; though in both respects it fell considerably short of
pure tin.
7. Several of these compositions, covered with black flux, vvhicli hiid been
3x2
Platina.
Platina 1,
tin
1
Platina 1,
tin
2. . . .
Platina 1,
tin
4
Platina 1,
tin
8
Platina 1,
tin
12
Platina 1,
tin 24. . . .
Tin
By calculation.
DiflFerence.
. . 12.090
. 1.263
. 10.354
. . 1.481
.. 9.144....
. . 1.350
. . 8.271
. . 0.566
. . 7.935
. . 0.322
. . 7.573..,.
.0.102
508 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
previously melted, were exposed in crucibles closely luted, to a strong fire in a
wind furnace, which was steadily kept up for 8 hours. When taken out, they
were all found to have suffered some diminution, amounting to about -^ of the
tin. In appearance and quality, there was no sensible alteration, except that the
mixture seemed more uniform, and the grain a little finer.
8. The remarkable gravity of platina induced us to examine the several mix-
tures hydrostatically. Here it was found, that the specific weight of the com-
pound constantly turned out less than the medium of the gravities of the two
ingredients; and generally the more so, as the proportion of the platina was the
greater.
Specific graTity.
By experiment.
17.000
10.827. ..
8.972...
7.794...
7.705. . .
7.613..,
7.471...
7.180.
Remarkn. It appears from the foregoing experiments, that platina melts with
at least equal its weight of tin ; that it destroys the malleability of near 4 times
its weight: that with larger proportions it forms compounds tolerably ductile, but
renders the texture of the tin coarser, and debases its colour. The difference in
colour of these compositions was much less conspicuous on the touchstone, than
when the fractures of the ingots were examined; though, on close inspection,
they appeared all sensibly duller and darker than pure tin, and the more so, in
proportion as the platina prevailed. They all tarnished in the air; those least,
which had a very small or a very large proportion of platina.
It is remarkable, that though tin is a metal very readily destructible by fire,
yet in most of the preceding fusions, there was scarcely any sensible loss of
weight. This is to be attributed not solely to the admixture of the platina, but
also to the flux made use of, and more particularly to the celerity and short con-
tinuance of the heat. In N° 2 and 7, the only ones in which the loss was at all
considerable, the fire was slowly raised, and long continued.
jirt. 2. — Patina with Lead. 1 . Equal parts of platina and lead were injected
-into a mixture of black flux and common salt, previously melted together; and
the fire hastily raised by bellows. A much stronger heat was requisite than for
the fusion of platina with an equal quantity of tin; and the loss was considerably
greater, amounting to about -^. The metal yielded difficultly to the file; broke.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SOQ
by a moderate blow, of a close texture, uneven surface, and rough jagged edges;
tlie colour was very dark, with a faint purplish cast.
2. One part of platina and 2 of lead, covered with borax and black flux, and
exposed to a gradual fire, in a wind furnace, did not come into fusion till the fire
had been raised to a strong white heat : from the continuance of heat in this ex-
periment the loss was great, being nearly -^ of the mixture. The ingot proved
hard and brittle, like the preceding, but broke with a striated surface.
3. One ounce of platina and 3 of lead, treated in the same manner, required
still a very strong fire for their perfect fusion: and lost about Vt* The metal
broke less easily than either of the preceding, and in some measure yielded to the
hammer: the colour was somewhat darker, and inclined more to purplish.
4. One part of platina and 4 of lead, being covered with black flux and com-
mon salt, and committed to a wind furnace, the platina was not perfectly taken
up, till the fire had been raised to a considerably strong white heat; the loss was
-,1^. The same proportions of the metals, injected into a fluid mixture of the
flux and salt, previously brought to the above degree of heat, almost instantly
melted, and lost only -tb-o- The ingot was much tougher than the foregoing,
filed well, and cut tolerably smooth with a knife. On breaking, the upper part
appeared composed of bright plates, the lower of dark purplish grains.
5. One part of platina and 8 of lead united easily in a quick fire, and lost little
or nothing. The metal worked and looked like very bad lead; on breaking,
the texture appeared partly composed of transverse fibres, and partly of grains;
the colour dull and purplish.
6. One part of platina and 12 of lead united, without loss, into a compound
very little difl^erent from the foregoing. On breaking, its texture was somewhat
finer, and composed chiefly of fibres, with very few grains.
7. A mixture of 1 part of platina and 24 of lead proved not very much harder
than lead of a middling quality. The colour was still somewhat purplish, and
the texture fibrous ; but the fibres were remarkably finer than where the platina
was in larger proportion.
8. The foregoing compositions, when newly polished, appeared in general of
a dark iron colour; which, on exposure to the air, quickly tarnished to a brownish
yellow, a deep purplish, and at length a blackish. They all filed freely, without
sticking in the teeth of the file, as lead does by itself.
9. On returning these compounds to the fire a second time, it was constantly
observed, that after they had come into perfect fusion, if the heat was slackened
a little, great part of the platina subsided; that ne\ertheless, the lead decanted
off^, even in a heat below ignition, retained so much of the platina, as rendered
it of a fine fibrous texture, and purplish colour.
The several mixtures, covered with black flux, and kept in strong fusion, in
510 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
crucibles closely luted, for 8 hours, suffered a diminution in weight, amounting
to about -jV of the lead. On breaking, those with a large proportion of platina
appeared of a leafy, and those with a smaller, of a fine fibrous texture, which
seemed in general to be characteristics of the perfect union of the platina and
lead. They all looked whiter and brighter than at first, but tarnished sooner in
the air. One mixture in particular, of 4 oz. of platina and 12 of lead, broke
into large, white, bright, shining, talc-like flakes; which, on exposure to the
air, changed in a little time to a reddish, a purple, and a deep blue; and at
length turned slowly to a dark blackish colour.
10. On examining these compounds hydrostatically, their gravities turned out
less than they ought to have been according to their calculation, but not so much
less as those of the compositions of platina and tin.
Specific gravity.
By experiment. By calculatiou. Difference.
Platina 17.OOO
Platina 1, lead 1 14.029 14.193 O.164
Platina 1, lead 2 1 2.925 13.257 0.332
Platina 1, lead 4 12.404 12.509 0.105
Platina 1, lead 8 1 1-947 12.OO9 O.062
Platina 1, lead 12 11.774 11.818 0.044
Platina 1, lead 24 11.575 II.610. .... .0.035
Lead 11.386.
Remark. It appears, that a small proportion of platina is taken up and kept
suspended by lead, in a very gentle heat ; but that a large proportion is not taken
up near so easily as by tin ; and if united by a strong fire, subsides in part on its
abatement. A little quantity stiffens and hardens lead more than it does tin ; but
a large one does not near so much diminish its malleability. A leafy or fibrous
texture, a purplish colour, or disposition to acquire this colour in the air are
peculiar to the mixtures with lead.
yirt. 3. — Platina with Silver. 1. Equal parts of platina and of pure silver
revived from luna cornea, covered with a borax, and urged with a strong fire in
a blast furnace, melted perfectly together, and without loss, but did not run
freely along the mould. The ingot was hard to the file, and broke by a rude
blow; though by gentle strokes it bore to be considerably flattened. Internally
it appeared of a much duller and darker colour than silver, and of a coarser
texture.
2. One part of platina and 2 of silver, covered with nitre and common salt
did not flow thin till the fire was raised to a very strong white heat. The com-
pound proved less brittle than the foregoing, and not so hard to the file: the
texture was composed of smaller grains, and the colour whiter.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 511
3. One part of platina and 3 of silver still required a very strong fire for their
perfect fusion ; the metal was hard and brittle, though less so than the preceding:
when well and repeatedly nealed, it bore to be hammered, or flattened between
steel rollers, into thin plates.
4. One part of platina and 7 of silver melted together with ease. This com-
pound hammered tolerably well, proved much harder than silver, and not so
white, or of so fine a grain.
5. These compositions, weighed hydrostatically, turned out like the others, a
little lighter than by calculation; but the difference, which before seemed to in-
crease with the platina, was here greatest when the platina was in least pro-
portion.
Specific gravity.
By experiment. By calculation. Difference.
Platina 17.OOO
Platina 1, silver 1 13,535 IS.ggO 0.455
Platina 1, silver 1 12.452 12.987 0.535
Platina 1, silver 3 11.790 12.485 O.695
Platina 1, silver 7 IO.867 11 .732 0.865
Silver IO.98O. ,
Remark. Platina appears to unite more difficultly with silver than with either
of the foregoing metals. Even when the proportion of the platina is small, the
greatest part of it subsides on an abatement of the heat, by which the union had
been effected. This was prevented by pouring out the metal, when perfectly
fluid, at one jet, into a broad mould: in which the compound began to congeal
before the platina could separate.
Platina diminishes the malleability of silver far less than that of tin or lead;
and does not, in whatever proportion employed, so much debase its colour, or
dispose it to tarnish in the air.
Art. 4. — Platina ivith Gold. 1 . Equal parts of platina and gold, exposed to
an intense fire, melted perfectly together, and ran thin into a long mould, with-
out loss. The metal was of a white colour, hard to the file, broke by a rude
blow, but when well nealed, yielded considerably to the hammer.
2. One part of platina and 4 of gold came into fusion in a moderate fire, but
still required a very strong one for their perfect union. This compound appeared
but a little paler than standard gold with silver alloy; and proved so tough, as
to be beaten, with proper care, into thin plates, without breaking or cracking
about the edges. On melting it a second time with nitre and borax, it became
very pale, and was not without great difficulty made to recover its colour.
yirt. 5. — Platina wit/i Copper. 1. Equal parts of platina and copper, exposed,
without addition, to a strong fire hastily excited by bellows, soon became fluid
6ia PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
but not thin; and lost about ^. The metal proved extremely hard to the file;
broke difficultly on the anvil ; flew asunder on endeavouring to cut it with a
chissel ; and appeared internally of a coarse grained texture and white colour.
2. One ounce of platina and 2 of copper, urged with a quick fire in a blast
furnace, without addition, flowed sufficiently thin, and scarcely suffered any
sensible loss. The metal was still very hard, and yielded but little to the hammer.
It looked darker coloured than the foregoing, with a slight reddish cast.
3. One ounce of platina and 4 of copper, treated in the same manner, united,
without loss, into a pretty tough compound ; which bore to be considerably flat-
tened, cut with a chissel, and bent almost double before it cracked. Internally,
it looked of a fine texture, and a very pale copper colour.
4. A mixture of 1 oz. of platina and 5 of copper, stretched somewhat more
easily under the hammer than the preceding; and appeared of a redder colour.
5. On increasing the copper to 8 times the quantity of the platina, the com-
pound proved sufficiently tough, broke difficultly, and hammered well. It was
much harder than copper, and of a paler colour.
6. A mixture of 1 part of platina and 12 of copper was somewhat more easily
extended under the hammer than the foregoing, and proved softer to the file.
It stuck a little in the teeth of the file, which the compositions with a larger
proportion of platina did not.
7. A mixture of 1 part of platina and 25 of copper was still a little paler co-
loured than pure copper, and considerably harder and stiffer, though very malle-
able. On increasing the copper a little further, the mixture retained a degree of
hardness, and appeared of a fine rose colour.
8. On weighing the foregoing compositions hydrostatically, the diminution of
gravity was found more regular than in the mixtures with other metals, being
constantly greater in proportion as the quantity of platina was larger.
Specific gravity.
By experiment. By calculation. DifFerenc©.
Platina 1,
iia ....
copper
1.. . .
1 / .\j\j\j
11.400. ..
.. . 12.915 ..
, ,. 1.515
Platina 1,
copper
2
10.410. . .
... 11.553., .
... 1.143
Platina 1,
copper
4
9-908. . .
. . . 10,464. . .
. ..0.556
Platina 1,
copper
5
9,693. . .
... 10.191,,.
. . . 0.498
Platina 1,
copper
8
9.300. . .
... 9.738.,.
. . , 0.438
Platina 1,
copper
12
9.251...
. . . 9,458. . .
0.207
Platina 1,
copper
25
8.970. . .
.,, 9.144.,,
...0,174
Copper . .
8.830.
Remark. In the i
foregoing fusions, though
in general no
i flux was made use
of, there was scarcely any j
sensible
loss of weight, unless
in N° 1, where the
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 513
large proportion of platina required the fire to be raised to a violent degree. Thig
seems owing, in good measure, to the platina preventing the scorification of the
cop})er; for on melting pure copper a great number of times, both with and
without fluxes, there was constantly a little loss. A small proportion of platina
appears to improve the hardness of copper, without injuring its colour, or, so
far as could be judged, its malleability. The mixtures with a large proportion
of platina are difficultly extended under the hammer when cold; and while red-
hot, fiy in pieces. They all bear a good polish, and do not tarnish in the air so
much, or so soon, as pure copper.
Art. 6. — Platina with Iron. Iron, the last of the metals in point of fusibility,
was several times attempted to be united with platina, in its perfect malleable
state. But as the fluxes necessary for rendering forged iron fusible corroded the
crucibles, before the metal flowed thin enough to dissolve the platina, pure cast
iron was substituted.
1 . Cast iron and platina, of each 3 oz. exposed without addition to a strong
fire, united into a thick fluid; which, on adding an ounce more of iron, flowed
thin, the compound suffered to cool in the crucible (which had become too soft
from the heat to admit of its being poured out) was found, on breaking the
vessel, in one lump, not convex, the form, which the iron usually assumes, but
of a very concave surface ; the weight about -gV less than that of the metals em-
ployed. It proved excessively hard, so as not to be touched by the file; and so
tough, as not to be broken by repeated blows of a sledge hammer, from which it
received some impression. Heated red, it broke easily, and looked internally of
a uniform texture, composed not of bright plates like the iron at first, but of
very dark-coloured grains.
1. One ounce of platina being injected on 4 of cast iron beginning to melt,
and the fire kept up strong, the whole came quickly into fusion, and on cooling,
formed an equable compound, which like the former proved extremely hard, and
seemed to stretch a little under the great hammer without breaking. The colour
was still very dark, though less so than when the platina was in larger proportion.
3. One part of platina and 12 of iron melted without difficulty, and with little
or no loss. This compound was still much harder than the iron at first, and
had a very considerable degi'ee of toughness. Like the others, it could not be
broken while cold, without extreme violence; but proved very brittle when
heated red.
4. The foregoing compositions, especially those in which the proportion of
platina was large, received a fine polish ; and did not rust or tarnish on being
exposed to the air in a dry room for several months.
5. A composition of 1 part of platina and 4 of iron was treated with sub-
stances, which produce notable alterations in pure iron. Surrounded with
VOL. X. 3 U
514 PHILOSOPHICA.L TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
Reaumur's steel making mixture (composed of charcoal powder, soot, wood-
ashes, and common salt) and cemented in a close luted crucible for 12 hours, it
gained an increase of -j'^ its weight, yielded to the file more easily than at first,
seemed to receive no additional hardness on being ignited and quenched in water,
and discovered none of the qualities of steel. A piece broken off from the same
ingot, treated in the same manner, with the powder for softening cast iron (viz.
bone-ash, with a small proportion of charcoal) was found increased in weight
about -jVj proved less hard to the file than at first, but manifestly harder than
the part cemented with the steel-making mixture.
Specific gravity.
By experiment. By calculation. Difference.
Platina 1 7-000
PlatinaS, iron 4 9-917 11.343 1.426
Platina 3, iron 12 8. 700 9.O8O 0.380
PlatinaS, iron 16 8.202 8.663 O.461
Platina 3, iron 36 7. 800 7.862 O.062
Iron 7.100.
General Remarks. — Platina melts with equal its weight of each of the metals;
with one more readily than with another. With some it becomes fluid, if the
proportion of the platina is not large, in a moderate fire; but a strong one is
constantly requisite for its perfect solution. Compositions of silver, copper, lead,
with about ^ their weight of platina which had flowed thin enough to run freely
into the mould, and appeared to the eye perfectly mixed, on being digested in
aquafortis till the menstruum ceased to act, left several grains of platina in their
original form. On viewing these with a microscope, some appeared to have suf-
fered no alteration ; others exhibited an infinite number of minute bright globular
protuberances, as if they had just begun to melt. '
Platina hardens and stiffens all the metals ; one more than another, lead the
most. In a moderate quantity it diminishes, and in a large one destroys, the
toughness of all the malleable metals; but communicates some degree of this
quality to cast iron. Tin bears much the least, and gold and silver the greatest
quantity, without the loss of their malleability.
A very small proportion of platina scarcely injures the colour of copper and
gold: a larger renders both pale; a far less quantity has this effect on copper
than on gold. It debases and darkens, in proportion to its quantity, the colour
of the white metals; that of silver much the least, and of lead the most. It
in good measure preserves iron and copper from tarnishing in the air; scarcely
alters gold or silver in this respect; makes tin tarnish soon, and lead exceeding
quickly.
PAPER IV. — Platina mixed with Semimetals. 1. With mercury. 1, An
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 615
ounce of platina and 6 oz. of pure quicksilver were rubbed together, with a little
common salt and water, and a few drops of spirit of salt, in an iron mortar.
After some hours trituration, the grains of platina became coated with the quick-
silver, so as to cohere into an imperfect amalgam. A part of the fluid quicksilver
poured off, ami evaporated in an iron ladle, left a considerable quantity of a dark
coloured powder, intermingled with bright shining moleculae: a part strained
through leather, left a smaller proportion of a similar powder. The platina,
which had been thus attenuated by the mercury, so as to pass with it through
the pores of leather, proved as refractory in the fire as at first. Exposed to a
very vehement heat, by itself, with borax, with white glass, it neither melted,
nor suffered any sensible alteration; nor did it communicate any colour to either
of the fluxes.
2. One part of platina and about 4 of lead were melted perfectly together;
and after the heat had somewhat abated, poured gently into 3 times the quantity
of quicksilver, heated so as to fume. A blackish powder was immediately
thrown to the surface: this appeared to be chiefly platina. On grinding them
together, a fresh powder gradually separated; which, being occasionally washed
off, in appearance greatly resembled the foregoing, but was found, on proper
trials, to participate much more largely of the mercury and lead than of platina.
The amalgam, which was of a very dull colour, on exposure to the fire swelled
and leaped about, though the heat was scarcely sufficient to evaporate the quick-
silver. After constant and rapid agitation with water, occasionally renewed, in
an iron mill, for a week, it looked bright and uniform, and suffered the mercury
to exhale freely. A dark coloured calx remained, which proved, on examination,
to be platina, with a very little lead.
Remark. Mercury is supposed to have a greater aflinity with lead than any
other metallic body, gold and silver excepted. In this experiment, it had a
greater affinity with platina than with lead, since it retained most of the platina,
after the lead, which was in much larger proportion, had been almost entirely
thrown out. The part of the platina, which the mercury rejected at first, and
that which it retained to the last, did not appear dissimilar to each other, or
difterent in quality from the platina employed.*
3. A mixture of 1 part of platina and 2 of gold, which proved very white and
brittle, after being repeatedly nealed, was cautiously flattened into thin plates,
and thrown red-hot into boiling quicksilver. On trituration and ablution with
water, a powder separated, copiously at first, and by degrees more sparingly.
After the process had been contiimed about 24 hours, there was no further sepa-
ration, except of a very little blackish matter, into which a part of the mercury
• Concerning the action of mercury on platina [platinum] and the compound thence formed, see
the interesting experiments of Mr. Chencvix in the Phil. Trans, for 1805.
3 u 2
5l6 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
is always changed in these kinds of operations. The amalgam, which looked
very bright, left, on evaporation, a spongy mass, of a high colour, which being
melted, and poured into an ingot, proved very soft, extremely malleable, and in
all respects resembled the pure gold made use of, without the least appearance
of platina.
Remark. — It is greatly to be wished that this method of purifying gold from
platina may prove sufficiently accurate to exactly determine the quantity of each
in the mixture. The experiments hitherto made do not sufficiently clear up this
point ; a great number are still necessary before it can be fully ascertained.
. 2. ff^ith Bismuth. — Equal parts of platina and bismuth, injected into a mix-
ture of black flux and common salt, previously brought into fusion, and urged
with a quick fire, strongly excited by bellows, melted perfectly in a few minutes,
and suffered very little loss. Without these precautions, the bismuth could
scarcely be made to take up above 4- its weight; great part of which, on an abate-
ment of the heat, subsided.
Mixtures of platina with different proportions of bismuth proved all, like the
bismuth itself, extremely brittle : one was not remarkably more so than another.
To the file, they were scarcely harder than pure bismuth. They broke of an
irregular surface, composed chiefly of striae, with some plates. When newly
broken, they looked bright and sparkling ; except the compositions with a large
proportion of platina, which were of a dull greyish colour, without any bright-
ness. They all tarnished slowly in the air, to a dark yellowish, purplish or bluish
colour. Several acquired in part a fine deep blue, which has suffered no change
in above a 12-month ; some parts of the masses still remaining white as at first,
and others inclining to purple.
3. IVith Zinc. — On J oz. of platina, covered with borax, and heated in a blast
furnace to a strong white heat, was injected an equal quantity of zinc. A violent
deflagration arose, and the platina was almost instantly dissolved : the matter,
immediately poured out, was found to have lost near half an ounce
On several times repeating this experiment with different proportions of the 2
metals, both in a quick fire, and in 1 more gradually raised in a wind furnace,
the zinc was constantly found a powerful menstruum for platina, but suffered
great loss from the heat requisite for rendering the mixture sufficiently fluid. When
so much of the zinc had been dissipated, that the remainder amounted to no
more than -l of the platina, the compound still continued fluid enough to run
freely into a long mould.
Compositions of platina and zinc differed little in appearance from zinc itself;
except that where the quantity of platina was large, they were of a closer texture,
and a duller hue, with rather more of a bluish cast. They did not tarnish, or
change their colour, on being exposed for several months to the air, in a dry
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 517
room. They were harder to the file than the zinc at first, and fell in pieces
under the hammer ; without at all stretching ; which pure zinc does in a consi-
derable degree.
4. TFith, Regulus of Antimony. — Regulus of antimony, the most difficultly
flisible of the semimetals, dissolved, in a strong fire, equal its weight of platina.
The compound looked of a much duller colour than the regulus at first ; and
broke of a close and uniform, though uneven, surface. It proved considerably
harder to the file, but not remarkably more or less brittle.
On increasing the quantity of the regulus, the compound proved brighter, and
of a leafy texture, little different from that of the pure regulus.
Platina mixed ivilh Compound Metals.
fVilh Brass. — 1. Equal parts of platina and brass, covered with borax, and
Hrged with a quick fire in a blast furnace, melted perfectly together, and scarcely
suffered any loss. The mixture was of a greyish white colour, filed hard like
bell-metal, broken from a blow of the hammer, without stretching or receiving
any impression, and flew asunder on endeavouring to cut it with a chissel. In-
ternally, it appeared of a uniform fine grain, a close texture, and a darker colour
than on the outside. It bore a very fine polish, and did not tarnish on being
exposed to the air in a dry room for many months.
1. One part of platina and 1 of brass, melted in a slow fire, lost about -^.
The ingot was of a duller colour than the foregoing, with a faint yellowish cast :
it filed softer, broke less readily from the chissel, but cracked and fell in pieces
under the hammer.
3. One part of platina, and 4 of brass, covered as before with borax, and ex-
posed to a quick fire, melted without loss. This compound proved yellower
than the preceding, filed softer, bore to be cut some depth with a chissel before
it broke, and received some impression from the hammer, stretching a little, but
soon cracking in various directions.
4. On increasing the brass to 6 times the weight of the platina, the compound
appeared yellower, though still very pale. It proved softer to the file ; and re-
ceived a greater impression from the hammer, and a deeper one from the chissel,
before it broke.
5. A mixture of 1 part of platina and 12 of brass was considerably paler, and
much harder, than brass. It broke from the chissel ; and cracked, before it had
extended much, under the hammer. It bore a good polish, and was less apt to
tarnish than brass ; though in both respects it fell short of the compositions with
larger proportions of platina.
IVith Copper and Tin. — 1. One hundred parts of platina, 34 of copper, and
12 of tin, covered with borax, became fluid in a strong fire, and suffered no
considerable loss. The ingot proved extremely hard, so as scarcely to be touched
518 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
by the file ; and very brittle, breaking from a moderate blow, of a rough sur-
face, and dull bell-metal colour. It bore a good polish, and did not tarnish in
the air.
2. Platina and copper, of each 1 oz., and 4 oz. of tin, melted perfectly to-
gether, and without loss. This compound filed freely and easily, bore to be cut
with a knife, but broke readily on the anvil, of an irregular surface, and dull
whitish colour. Polished, it looked like polished iron. The fracture soon tar-
nished to a yellow; the polished part grew dull, but retained its colour.
3. A mixture of platina and copper, of each 1 part, and 8 of tin, proved
softer than the foregoing ; and bore to be flattened a little under the hammer.
It broke of a very irregular surface, composed of a great number of bright white
plates. The fracture soon tarnished ; the polished part retained its colour.
Remark. It is observable, that in the first of these experiments, platina was
perfectly taken up by less than half its weight of a mixture of copper and tin ;
though it could scarcely be made to melt with less than its own weight of either
of them separately, in a fire equally, or rather more, intense.
The specific gravity of these mixtures turned out, on exjjeriment, a little less
than by calculation ; though the copper and tin, melted together without platina,
formed a compound specifically heavier than even the copper by itself.
The several mixtures with zinc, bismuth, regulus of antimony and brass, were
likewise weighed hydrostatically, and found all somewhat lighter than they ought
to have been by calculation. As few hydrostatical experiments seem to have been
made on zinc and bismuth, it may be proper to mention, that the gravity of pure
zinc turned out 7-050, and that of bismuth 9.733.
Hitherto we have considered the miscibility of platina with metallic bodies,
and the alterations which different proportions of it produce in their appearance
and qualities : employing the necessary precautions for preventing the scorifica-
tion and dissipation, which most of the metals suffer in the fire ; and which some
remarkably promote in those which by themselves are more difficultly, or not at
all, destructible. We shall now examine the relation of platina, in this respect,
to those metallic substances, which are the most destructive.
1. Cupellation and Scorification of Lead with Platina.
1. A mixture of platina and lead was cupelled, under a muffie, in an assay-
furnace. For some time the process went on well ; the lead gradually changing
into scoriae, which were thrown off to the sides, and absorbed by the cupel, or
dissipated in fume. In proportion as the lead worked off, the matter required a
stronger fire to keep it fluid ; and at length, collecting into a dull flat lump,
could no longer be made to flow in the greatest degree of heat which the fur-
nace was capable of giving. The lump broke verj' easily, appeared of a dull grey
VOL. XLVIIl.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 51Q
colour both internally and externally, and of a porous texture. It weighed about
-}- more than the quantity of platina employed.
'2. This experiment was many times repeated and varied : the lead attempted
to be worked off on bone-ash, pressed into the bottoms of crucibles, scorified in
assay-crucibles, by intense fires, in a blast furnace, and blown off on tests before
the nose of a bellows, with the same event ; the platina not only perfectly resist-
ing the power of lead, which by these operations destroys every other known me-
tallic body, except gold and silver, but likewise retaining and preventing the
scorification of a part of the lead itself.
3. In the history of the fusion of platina with lead, it has been observed, that
this metal deposites in a gentle heat great part of the platina, which had been
united with it by a strong one. As the part, which remained suspended, might
be presumed to differ from that which subsided ; a quantity of lead was decanted
off from fresh parcels of platina, and both the decanted metal and the residuum
submitted to tlie preceding operations separately. The event was still the same;
the matter becoming consistent when the lead had been worked off to a certain
point, and refusing further scorification.
4. A mixture of platina and lead, which had been cupelled in an assay-furnace
as long as it could be kept fluid, was exposed in a crucible to a fire vehemently
excited, by itself, with powdered charcoal, with black fiux, borax, nitre, com-
mon salt. The matter neither melted nor suffered any considerable alteration,
becoming only somewhat more porous ; probably from a little of the lead having
exsuded without the liquefaction of the mass. The immediate contact of burn-
ing fuel, agitated by bellows, made some of these mixtures flow, after they had
refused to melt in vessels acted on by intense fires. Very little of the lead was
dissipated by this means.
On examining the cupelled matters hydrostatically, those which appeared most
spongy were found nearly as ponderous as the crude platina. Among the more
compact, the gravity of one turned out 19.083 ; of another IQ.136, and of a
third 19.240.
Remark. It appears from these experiments, that platina, like gold and silverii
is entirely indestructible by lead ; that probably the purer grains, or fragments,
have some heterogeneous admixtures, which are separated in these operations ;
and that, perfectly pure, it is more ponderous than gold, since, when mixed
with a considerable proportion of a lighter metal, it fell very little short of the
gravity of pure gold. There is no reason to suspect any increase of its specific
gravity from the mixture ; since in all the compositions with platina hitherto
examined, there was constantly a diminution of the specific gravity ; 'whether the
proportion of the platina was large or small, the matter melted with a quick fire,
or kept in fusion for many hours. '
520 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
6. A mixture of 1 part of platina and 3 of gold was cupelled with lead, under
a muffle. The matter drove well for a considerable time ; at length it collected
into a bright hemispherical lump, which by degrees became flatter, dull, and
rough. The button, on being weighed, was found to retain a considerable
portion of lead.
The experiment being repeated with a mixture of 1 part of platina and 6 of
gold, some part of the lead was still retained. The bead proved rounder and
brighter than the foregoing, and of a good golden colour on the outside : it
broke easily under the hammer, and appeared inteinally greyish : some of the
fragments hung together by the outer golden coat.
7. Mixtures of platina and silver, submitted to cupellation, retained likewise a
considerable quantity of the lead. These, in becoming consistent, formed, not
a hemispherical bead, but a flat mass, very rough, and brittle, and of a dull
grey colour both internally and externally.
Cupellation and Scorification of Bismuth with Platina.
Mixtures of platina with bismuth, a metallic substance, in some respects more
active than lead, were cupelled under a muffle, scorified in assay -crucibles,
tested before the nose of a bellows. In numerous repetitions of these experi-
ments, the event was the same as when lead was made use of. ' The mixtures,
which at first flowed easily, became less and less fusible, in proportion as the
bismuth was driven off; and at length could not be kept fluid in an intense white
heat, though they appeared, on weighing, to retain a considerable proportion of
the bismuth. Nor could this semimetal, any more than lead, be entirely sepa-
rated, by cupellation, from mixtures of platina with either gold or silver.
Platina cupelled with bismuth, differed little in appearance from that which
had been treated in the same manner with lead. The button was more spongy,
and specifically lighter.
3. Difflation of Regulus of Antimony with Platina,
A mixture of platina and regulus of antimony was melted, by a strong fire, in
a shallow wide crucible, and the nose of a bellows directed obliquely on the sur-
face. The matter continued to flow, and fume copiously, for some hours ; at
length it became consistent in an intense white heat, and scarcely emitted any
more fumes, though strongly blown on. The mass, when become cold, broke
easily, appeared very porous, blebby, of a dull grey colour, and weighed consi-
derably more than the quantity of platina employed.
Platina was likewise treated with crude antimony : and the regulus obtained
from this mixture, difflated as the foregoing, with the same event ; the platina
■not only resisting the antimonial semimetal, but likewise defending a part of it
from the action of the fire and air, and refusing to melt, after a certain quantity
had been dissipated.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 521
4. Deflagration of Zinc with Ptatina.
A mixture of platina and zinc, exposed to a strong fire, deflagrated, and ap-
peared in violent agitation. This continued but a little time ; the matter quickly
became solid, and could no longer be made to flow; or the zinc, of which a
considerable proportion remained in it, to flame. The mass was very brittle,
dull-coloured, spongy, and of no specific gravity.
General Remarks.
This extraordinary mineral, on which the most active fluxes, assisted by the
most intense fires, have no effect, melts perfectly with all the known metallic
bodies ; unless arsenic, a substance impatient of a degree of heat sufficient to
render itself fluid, is an exception.* All the metals take up equal their own
weight ; some metallic compositions more than twice their weight.
Platina appears in general to have no remarkable affinity with one metal more
than with another. Lead and iron, which do not mingle together, and of which
the former will take up some bodies from the latter, and the latter some from
the former, seem both indifferent to platina; which, if combined with either, is
not separated by the other.
Yet some substances have greater or less degrees of affinity with platina, than
with other metallic bodies. Thus, from aqua regia, in certain circumstances, it
throws out gold ; and is itself precipitated by the other metals, which dissolve in
that menstruum. From quicksilver it throws out lead ; and is itself thrown out
by gold.
The changes which platina occasions in the perfect metals, were examined in
a former paper : its effects on the semi-metals are less I'cmarkable. The princi-
pal are, that it increases the hardness of zinc, and the antimonial semimetal,
but not of bismuth ; and disposes this last to change its colour in the air, but not
the others.
Its effects on the compound metals, are similar to those which it produces on
the simple ones. Brass it renders white, hard, brittle, susceptible of a fine
polish, and not liable to tarnish in the air, as it does the copper, and in Some
degree the zinc, of which this metal is composed. Mixtures of it with copper
and tin are more apt to tarnish than with copper only, and less than with tin only.
All metallic substances, except gold, are exeded from platina by the simple
acids : mercury is the only one separable by fire. The platina remaining after
the separation of the metals, proves unfusible as at first.
Platina perfectly resists the destructive power of lead and bismuth, and the
* As mentioned in a former note, it may be brought into fusion when subjected to a suflScicnt
degree of heat, with white arsenic, .^ , .,
VOL. X. 3 X
522 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 175-J.
rapacious antimonial semimetal ; which last has been hitherto esteemed the
severest test of gold, so as to have received the appellation of balneum solius
solis, the bath which gold alone can sustain, and in which it is washed from all
kinds of impurities.
Since therefore platina mixed with gold is not discoverable by any of the ope-
rations by which that metal is usually assayed or refined, nor by the hydrostatic
balance ; Mr. L. hoped that these papers, which contain part of the history of
this extraordinary and till then unknown mineral, and the methods of distin-
guishing any sophistications of gold made by its means, which might otherwise
have passed undiscovered, would be candidly received by the r. s. as a means of
promoting that kind of knowledge, for which that illustrious body had been ever
eminent,*
LXXXVll, An Explication of all the Inscriptions in t/ie Pahnyrene Language
and Character hitherto published. By the Rev. John Stvinton, M. A. of Christ-
Church. Oxford, and F. R. S. p. 690.
Mr. S. states in this learned dissertation, that on examining the plates ex-
hibited in the magnificent work entitled the Ruins of Palmyra, he had, by the
help of the Greek inscriptions, corresponding with those in thePalmyrene charac-
ter, been able to make out the Palmyrene alphabet, which he makes appear from
the accompanying tables, to which is added the alphabet of the same language, as
given by Spon and Gruter. For the Palmyrene inscriptions themselves, with the
interpretations and the comments on them, the philological and antiquarian reader
is referred to the original Transactions, as they would not admit of abridgment,
and would have occupied too much space had they been retained entire. See
these alphabets and numerals engraven in pi. 14.
LXXXVIIl. Extract of a Letter from John Lining, M.D. of Charlestown, in
South Carolina, to Charles Pinckney, Esq. in London : with his Answers to
several Queries sent to him concerning his Experiment of Electricity with a
Kite. Dated Charlestown, Jan. i4, 1754. p. 757-
Inclosed are answers to the queries sent me concerning the experiment with
the kite. Since making that experiment last May, I have not had an opportu-
nity of making any more, having been confined all the summer and autumn
with the gout, which perhaps prevented my meeting with the same unhappy fate
with Professor Richman of Petersburg. It appears that the professor had a wire,
which came down from the iron rod, erected on his house, through the gallery-
ceiling, to an iron bar, which stood in a glass vessel, filled with water and filings
of brass ; and that the professor stood so near that iron rod, that his face was
TOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 523
within a foot of it. Now if there was no wire that went from that iron rod, or
from any part of the wire above it, into the earth, it is no great wonder that the
professor was killed. I should be extremely glad to be informed, whether the
iron rod on his house, at the time the experiment was made, had any comnmni-
cation, by means of metal, with the earth. For if it had, there is then more
danger attending these experiments than I imagined. It is likewise said in the
account, that from the electrical needle, which he observed, there was no danger.
I am at a loss to know what that electrical needle was, and should be glad to be
informed. I know that a magnetic needle placed on a sharp point on the prime
conductor, as soon as the conductor is sufficiently electrified, will move round
with so great rapidity, that in the dark the electricity, thrown off from both
poles of the needle, will appear like a circle of fire.
Answers of Dr. Lining to the Queries sent to him.
Query 1. In what manner, and of what materials, was your kite, and the
string by which you flew it, made? and to what height did it rise above the
earth ?
Answer. The kite, which I used, was made in the common way; only, instead
of paper, I covered it with a silk, called alamode. The line was a common small
hempen one of 3 strands. A silk line, except it had been kept continually wet,
would not conduct the electricity; and a wire, besides other inconveniencies,
would have been too heavy. I had not any instrument, to take the height
of the kite; but believe it was at least 250 feet high. It was flown in the
day-time.
Query 1. — You say also, " All the electrical fluid, or lightning, was drawn
from the cloud, and discharged in the air; and a greater degree of serenity suc-
ceeded, and no more of the awful noise of thunder, before expected, was heard."
Now I should be glad you would inform us, whether the serenity in the air was
such, as generally follows, after the clouds in the summer thunder-storms have
discharged several loud thunder-claps ; and whether any flashes of lightning ap-
peared in the skies, after you had discharged the cloud of its lightning by the
kite, as commonly do after a thunder-storm is over in a summer's night ? for if
there were no appearance of such flashes, then I think your assertion, that all
the electric fluid or, lightning, was drawn from the cloud, stands fully proved ;
but if there were such flashes after, I conceive there must have been some of the
electrical matter left behind.
Answer. — During the time of my drawing the lightning from the cloud, and
for some little time afterwards, it rained; by which means, the body of the cloud
being diminished, a greater degree of serenity necessarily succeeded ; and the
quantity of lightning extracted from the cloud, or rather its atmosplicre, proveri
3x2
524 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1754.
sufficient to prevent any thunder in town that afternoon ; though there was a
great appearance of thunder before the kite was raised. But whether the same
serenity succeeded, as frequently happens after a thunder-storm, and whether
there were any flashes of lightning seen in the evening, I cannot now recollect.
If such flashes had afterwards been seen in the skies, as is common in a sum-
mer's evening, especially after a thunder-storm, those might proceed from other
clouds, which had passed the town, at too great a distance to be acted on by
the kite.
Electrified clouds have an electrical atmosphere, as well as the prime conduc-
tor, when it is electrified ; and the diameter of that atmosphere, caeteris paribus,
will. bear some proportion to the size of the cloud. My smallest prime conductor
is 2-i- inches in diameter ; and when it is fully charged, its atmosphere extends to
the distance of about 3 feet from the surface of the conductor. How great then
must the extent be of the atmosphere, which surrounds a large cloud fully elec-
trified ? It perhaps may extend to many hundreds of feet round the cloud, and
may even reach so low as to touch the surface of the earth : and when that is the
case, a man, or a rod of metal, placed on a cake of resin on the ground, may
be electrified, and yield sparks of fire. When a sharp point is presented to
that atmosphere, it cannot deprive the cloud of its whole quantity of electri-
city, except the sharp point be so near, that the cloud may explode upon
it ; and in that case the cloud must have a communication with the ground, by
means of some non-electric body. Suppose an electrified cloud to have an at-
mosphere, which extends round it to the distance of QO feet from its surface ;
and let that atmosphere be divided into 3 parts, a, b, and c, each 30 feet in dia-
meter: now if a sharp metalline point erected on a kite, or otherwise, be placed
either vertically or horizontally in the most interior part of the atmosphere c,
that point will continue to act till a quantity of the lightning is drawn ofF, equal
to the quantity contained in that atmosphere, arid no longer. For then the
semidiameter of the atmosphere being reduced to 6o feet, every part of it is
above, and not in contact with, the sharp point, and consequently beyond its
sphere of action. But let the sharp point be then advanced into the atmosphere
B, and it will act as before, &c.
The truth of this, however contradictory it may be, to the general opinion of
the action of sharp points, in drawing oft" the electricity or lightning,* may be
illustrated by the following experiments on the prime conductor. Electrify the
prime conductor in a dark room, and draw back the globe to a sufficient distance
from the prime-conductor, to prevent its being supplied with any more electri-
* Mr. Franklin says, speaking of sharp points, " At whatever distance you see the light, you may
draw off the electrical fire." page 2. — Orig.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 525
city from the globe, while you are taking ofF the electrical atmosphere with a
sharp point. Bring then a sharp point, either vertically or horizontally, or in
any other direction, within 1 feet of the prime conductor ; and the point, foi-
some time, will appear luminous. After that light disappears, advance the point
3 or 4 inches nearer to the conductor, and you will observe the same phenomena
as before ; and by advancing the point gradually in this manner, as the light on
it disappears, the point will be alternately luminous and dark, till you have taken
off the whole atmosphere in different laminae. As the point appears more and
more luminous, the nearer that it approaches the prime-conductor, the electrical
atmosphere may have different degrees of density, being perhaps denser near the
prime-conductor, and rarer at a greater distance from it. If a phial be charged
on the prime-conductor, when this experiment is made, the light on the sharp
point will be much greater, and continue longer.
Query 3. — Did you make any trial, at what distance you could kill an animal
with a discharge of the electrical fluid from the key or the bottle suspended to it ?
Answer. — I have not hitherto had an opportunity of making any such experi-
ment with the kite. But as to the first, I apprehend, that no animal could be
killed bv the discharge of any quantity of electricity accumulated on the key ; as
the key in that experiment answers the same end as the prime-conductor, and,
like it, is capable of receiving only a certain charge of electricity, except the
lightning flows down the line too fast, or the kite be so near the cloud that it
may explode, when one standing on the ground approaches the key to draw
sparks from it : but such an explosion would probably be fatal to the operator.
When a phial is suspended to the key, after it has received its charge, if you let
it continue hanging on the key, the surcharge will fly off from the hook of the
phial, and the phial, when charged in that manner, will not give a greater shock
than if it had been charged in the common way with, the globe.
LXXXIX. An Answer to Dr. Linings Query relating to the Death of Pro
fessor Richman. By Mr. William, /Vatson, F. R. S. p. 7^5.
Dr. Lining's letter of the 14th of January 1/54, being communicated to the
Royal Society by Charles Pinckney, Esq. that learned body referred it to Mr.
Watson, one of their members, in order that the best information, that could
be procured on this subject, should be transmitted to Dr. Lining, for whose cor-
respondence the Society had for many years had a very particular attention. Mr.
Watson imagined, that it would be agreeable to Dr. Lining, as his abode is so
remote from Petersburg, where the accident happened, to have transmitted to
him not only the answer to what he more particularly requests, but also as
general an account of every thing relating to so nncommon an accident, as could
be procured.
526 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
The description of Professor Richman's apparatus, as sent by himself to Pro-
fessor Heinsius of Leipsic, he called an electrical gnomon. To the construction
of this gnomon were necessary a rod of metal, a glass jar, a linen thread of a
foot and half in length, to one end of which was fastened half a grain of lead,
and a quadrant. The rod of metal' cd, fig. 3, pi. 11, was placed in the glass
vessel E, which contained filings of metal. The linen thread cg was fastened to
the rod at c, and, when the apparatus is not electrized, hangs perpendicularly
down. The radius of the quadrant, which was divided into degrees, was 2 lines
more than a foot and half in length. And here must be added an account of
the other part of the apparatus, which was to communicate the electricity to the
gnomon during a thunder storm. Through a glass bottle, the bottom of which
was perforated, passed an iron rod, which was kept in its place by means of a
cork fitted to the mouth of this bottle, through which cork likewise was inserted
the iron rod. A tile was removed from the top of the house ; and on this open-
ing was placed the bottle, supported by the neighbouring tiles, in such manner
that one end of the iron rod was not only 4 or 5 feet above the top of the house;
but the other end, which came through the bottom of the bottle, did no where
touch the tiles, or any other part of the house. To this end of the iron rod was
fastened an iron chain, which was conducted into the chamber of Professor
Richman, on electrics per se, so as no where to touch the building. The en-
trance to this chamber faced the north ; and at the south end of it there was a
window, near which stood a table 4 feet in height. On this the Professor placed
his electrical gnomon, and connected it with the chain, which was brought under
the ceiling of the room over this table, and communicated with the apparatus on
the top of the house, by means of a wire bc, which hung from the chain, and
was joined there to ab, by the little ring b, and communicated with the rod do
at c. When the iron rod at the top of the house was affected by the thunder,
or othei-wise suitable condition of the atmosphere, the thread before- mentioned
deviated from the perpendicular; as it would also do, if artificially electrized.
The Professor always observed a greater ascent of the thread from artificial elec-
tricity than by that from the atmosphere. By the former, he had seen it on the
quadrant describe an angle of above 55", but never above 30 by the latter. In
the year 1752, Aug. Q, the apparatus acquired so great a degree of electricity
from the atmosphere, that from the end of the rod the electrical flashes might
be heard at several feet distance. Under these circumstances, if any one touched
the apparatus, they felt a sharp stroke in their hand and arm.
Professor Richman sometimes added to this apparatus a glass bottle of water,
after the manner of Professor Muschenbroek hi, adapted to a vessel of metal ik,
olaced on glass. The wire from the mouth of the bottle of water hl, during
ihe time of the thunder, he caused to communicate with bc. From this addi-
VOL. XLVIII.] I'HILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 527
tion he found the electricity from the atmosphere more vehement than it was
without it. This he first observed on May 31, 1753, when the electrical fire
exploded with such a force, that it might be heard at the distance of 3 rooms
from the apparatus. On the left hand of the bottle was placed a 2d electrical
gnomon. When this was made use of, the wire of metal bo, and the wire hl,
were connected with mbl, a prime conductor from an apparatus for artificial
electricity, viz. a glass globe, &c. At the same time also, from the chain ab
was fastened a piece of wire bk, in contact with the vessel ik. By these means,
when the electrical machine was put in motion, both the electrical gnomons were
electrized: but this went off^ in a great measure, as soon as the motion of the
machine ceased. By this whole apparatus taken together, Professor Richman
observed a kind of reciprocation in the effects of electricity ; for at first, when
the electrical machine was put in motion, both the linen threads cg and cg arose
with the degrees of their respective quadrants. If then the wire bc of the right
gnomon was touched, the thread cg collapsed to the rod cd; but the thread on
the left side continued diverging as before the touch. Also, if the wire bc of
the left gnomon was touched, then in its turn the thread cg at the rod cd of the
right gnomon collapsed, and the thread of the right gnomon ascended again.
This reciprocation of the ascending and descending of the thread, might be
repeated 3 or 4 times without exciting the machine anew.
The ingenious and industrious Professor Richman lost his life on the 6th of
August 1753, as he was observing, with Mr. Sokolow, engraver to the Royal
Academy at Petersburg, the effects of electricity on his gnomon, during 3
thunder storm. As soon as his death was publicly known, it was imagined that
the lightning was more particularly directed into his room by the means of his
before-mentioned apparatus. And when this affair was more inquired into, this
opinion appeared to be not ill-founded; for Mr. Sokolow saw that a globe of
blue fire, as large as his fist, jumped from the rod of the right gnomon cd, to-
wards the forehead of Professor Richman, who at that instant was at about a
foot distance from the rod, observing the electrical index. This globe of firej
which struck Professor Richman, was attended with a report as loud as that of
a pistol. The metal wire bc was broken in pieces, and its fragments thrown on
Mr. Sokolow's clothes, from their heat burnt marks of their dimensions on
them. Half of the glass vessel e was broken off, and the filings of metal in it
were thrown about the room. Hence it is plain, that the force of the lightning
was collected on the right rod cd, which touched the filings of metal in the glass
vessel E. On examining the effects of lightning in the Professor's chamber, they
found the door-case split half through, and the door torn off, and thrown into
the chamber. The lightning therefore seems to have continual its course along
the chain, conducted under the ceiling of the room ; but tliat it came from the
528 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
apparatus at the top of the house to the door, and then into the chamber, does
not, as far as can be collected, appear.
If indeed it could be ascertained, that the lightning, which was the death of
Professor Richman, was collected on the apparatus, for this reason, because these
bodies, at the instant of the lightning, were capable of attracting and retaining
the electricity, it would then be in our power sometimes to divert the effects of
lightning. But of this fact, more time and longer experience must acquaint us
with the truth.
Hence Mr. Pinckney may acquaint Dr. Lining, that in Mr. Watson's opinion,
at the time Professor Richman was killed, his apparatus was perfectly insulated,
and had no communication with the earth, by the means of metallic or other
substances, readily conducting electricity, and that the great quantity of electri-
city, with which, from the vastness of the cause, the apparatus was replete, dis-
charged itself through the Professor's body, being the nearest non-electric sub-
stance in contact with the floor, and was unfortunately the cause of his death.
This, it is presumed, would not have happened, had the chain, or any other part
of the ap})aratus, touched the floor, by which the electricity would have been
readily communicated to the earth.
Since the reading of the above to the Royal Society, a treatise in Latin, inti-
tled, Oratio de Meteoris vi Electrica Ortis, by Mr. Lomonosow, of the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Petersburg, has been transmitted to the Society. By
this, among many other curious facts, we have been informed of certain parti-
culars in regard to the death of Professor Richman ; of which the following may
not be improper to be inserted here.
Mr. Lomonosow observes, that with regard to the sudden death of the gen-
tleman before-mentioned, the accounts, communicated to the public, contained
some circumstances not fairly stated, and others of some importance were en-
tirely omitted. With regard to the first, it is incontestably true, that the win-
dow, in the room where Professor Richman was, (a) fig. 6, had continued shut,
that the wind might have no effect on his electrometer; but that the window in
the next room (efdg) was open, and the door (d), between these two rooms, was
half open; so that the draught of air might justly be suspected to have followed
the direction of the iron conductor of the Professors apparatus; that this con-
ductor came from the top of the house at (i), and was continued to (h) and (b).
2dly. That this conductor was not placed far from that door-case, part of which
was torn off". 3dly. That at this time no use was made of the Leyden bottle,
mentioned in the preceding account; but the iron was inserted into a glass stand,
to prevent the dissipation of the electrical power, and that the gnomon should
show its real strength.
With regard to the 2d, there has as yet been no mention, that Professor
VOL. XLViri.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 529
Richinan, at the time of his death, had 70 rubles (a silver coin) in his left coat-
pocket, which by this accident were not in the least altered. 2dly. That his
clock, which stood at (f), in the corner of the next room, between the open
window and the door, was stopped ; and that the ashes from the hearth (g) were
thrown about the room. 3dly. That many persons without doors declared their
having actually seen the lightning shoot from the cloud to the Professor's appa-
ratus at the top of his house. A view is likewise added of the chamber, (fig. 7)
where the Professor was struck by the lightning: who stood at (h), with his
head projecting towards (g) his electrometer; at (m) stood Mr. Sokolow the en-
graver; from the door (c) a piece was torn off, and carried to (d); (ab) part of
the door-case rent.
In this treatise Mr. Lomonosow, among other phenomena of electricity, takes
notice, that he once saw, in a storm of thunder and lightning, brushes of elec-
trical fire with a hissing noise, communicate between the iron rod of his appa-
ratus and the side of his window; and that these were 3 feet in length, and a
foot in breadth. Effects like these no one but himself has had the opportunity
of observing.
XC. Extract of a Letter from John Henry fVinhler, Professor of Natural Phi-
losophy at Leipsic, and F. R. S. relating to two Electrical Experiments. Dated
Leipsic, May 22, 1754. p. 772.
On January 8, he sprinkled a plate of metal with the seeds of club-moss.*
To this plate he connected a chain, which communicated with the coating of the
Leyden bottle of water. He afterwards sufficiently electrized this water, to make
the artificial thunder, of which he gave an account in his treatise De Avertendi
Fulminis Artificio, p. 10 and 1 1. Having drawn these seeds together on a heap
on the plate, he brought over them the sphere of metal, the size of which is"
arbitrary, impregnated with this electricity. On bringing this sphere near the
plate, the electricity exploded, by which the seeds were set all on fire. These
seeds were dry, and had no inflammable spirit mixed with them. The flame
which arose from these seeds was true fire, as it lighted some flax, which lay on.
the seeds, and extended itself beyond the metal.
Jan. 13 he put some aurum fulminans on a circular piece of parchment: this
parchment he cemented to a plate of metal, and caused the bottle replete with
electricity to be discharged on it. Immediately the aurum fulminans exploded
with a very loud report, and the circle of parchment was torn all to pieces.
• Lycopodium, club-moss, wolf's-claw. — Orig.
VOL. Xw S Y
530 I'HILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
XCl. Of a Fire-ball, seen at Hornsey. By H^tlliam Hirst, F. R.S. p. 773.
This phenomenon Mr. H. saw on Feb. l6, \75A, about 5 minutes before 11
at night. He was then going down the hill adjoining to the south side of
Hornsey church, and was not a little surprised to find himself suddenly sur-
rounded with a light equal to that of the full moon, though the moon, which
was theji 4 days old, had been set about 30 minutes. He had a distinct, though
short, view of a ball of fire, which at first appeared to be about 15° high, w.
by N. Its descent was not exactly perpendicular, but made an angle of about 80°
with the s. s. w. part of the horizon, moving from left to right, so that when it
went below the horizon, its bearing from him was w. n. w. It moved with great
velocity, not continuing visible much longer than 2 seconds; though he did not
lose sight of it till it descended below the horizon. But short as this duration
was, its shape might be well discerned. The diameter of the nucleus, or head
pf the meteor, appeared to be equal to the semidiameter of the meridional full
moon, and the tail, which terminated in a point, seemed not longer than twice
the diameter of the nucleus. And its track in descending seemed to be but
about 10° from the vertical; as the position in fig. 8, pi. 11. This meteor was
not attended with any noise, nor left any luminous stream after its descent below
the horizon. The appearance of such meteors at that cold season of the year is
the more extraordinary, as their generation is attributed to exhalations caused
by heat, or the action of the sun ; for which reason they are generally seen after
hot sultry weather.
By the distinctness and red fiery colour of this phenomenon, he imagined that
it was not very high in the atmosphere; but should be induced to think other-
wise, if credit is given to an account from Dublin, which states that a like meteor
was seen there between 10 and 11 that night, which illuminated the whole
hemisphere, and continued about 4 seconds. The near agreement in these two
accounts, as to the situation and time (allowing for the difl^erence between the
meridians of Dublin and Hornsey), it being nearly half an hour past 10 at
Dublin when 1 1 here, makes it very probable that it was one and the same me-
teor; which, if so, is a proof that its height in the atmosphere must be very
considerable.
XCII. A Comparison between the Notions of M. de Courtivron and Mr. Melvil,
concerning the Difference of Rcfrangibility of the Rays of Light. By Mons.
Clairaut, Memb. of the R. Acad, of Sciences at Paris, and F.R.S. p. 776.
M. Clairaut observes that both the above-named gentlemen, Mr. Melvil and
Mr. de Courtivron (the former in a paper lately printed in these Transactions,
and the latter in a book published by him in 1752) had thought of accounting
vol,. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 531
for the difference of refrangibility, by the difference of velocity in the rays of
light; which, if it really agreed with the observations, would give a great sim-
plicity to the theory of refraction, as reducing it under the same laws as the
theory of gravity; whereas on the hypothesis, in which the particles of light are
endowed with tendencies different from each other, we are obliged to multiply
the properties of matter.
Messieurs de Courtivron and Melvil went so far the same ways, as to examine,
whether the immersions and emersions of Jupiter's satellites could not afford the
means of distinguishing the difference of velocities between the rays of several
colours. In fact, if", according to that hypothesis, the red rays were swifter than
the others, it possibly might happen that the satellite would appear of a reddish
colour in the beginning of the emersion ; viz. before the full time required for
the whole transmission of light from the satellite to us. As to the examination
of the number of seconds between the propagation of the red and violet rays,
the two authors differ widely; and M. Clairaut thinks, that Mr. de Courtivron's
calculations are more surely grounded than the others.
Mr. Melvil supposes, that the difference of velocity between two sorts of rays
must be very nearly as the difference of their sines of refraction, when their sines
of incidence are the same. Whence he concludes that, as the sine of refraction
of the red rays is about y^ greater than the sine of refraction of the violet ones,
the velocity of the first rays must also exceed the velocity of the second by about
-Jy. He indeed gives those proportions as only being nearly the same; for, says
he further, to know exactly the ratio of the velocities from the sines of refiac-
tion, the following problem should be resolved, which he proposes to the learned:
" If two bodies fall, in equal angles of incidence, on a space terminated by
parallel planes, in which any power acts perpendicularly to the planes (according
to the hypothesis in prop. Q4, lib. 1, of the Principia), the ratio of the sines of
the emergence to the common sine of incidence, and consequently to each other,
being given, to determine the proportion of their velocities at the time of their
incidence on the first plane."
But as the investigation of the curve described by the rays of light, in any
hypothesis of attractive power, has been published long ago (at least by M.
Claraut in 1738), and by such a method as leads to the solution of Mr. Mclvil's
problem, he doubts not but if he had seen that method, he would have resolved
the problem which he proposes, and perceived what a considerable difference there
is between the proportion of the velocities, and that of the sines of refraction.
M. de Courtivron, who has made use of M. Claraut's solution, arrive*! at the
following result: If /; denote the ratio of the sines of incidence to the sine of
refraction for one of the colours, and q the same ratio for any other, then
y I — qq to \/ 1 — pp will express the ratio which the velocity of the first rays
3 Y 2
532 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
bears to t!ie velocity of the others. Now, to make use of such a theorem, if
p and q be made equal to 4^ and -l-s., which are the proportions between the sines
of incidence and refraction for the red and violet rays, the ratio of the velocities
sought will come out in even numbers, that of 45 to 44, which differs entirely
from Mr. Melvil's.
Thus, if Mr. Short's observations have led him to conclude, from Mr. Melvil's
principles, that the difference of refrangibility cannot be caused by the difference
of velocities, when the motion of light is performed in the manner of a projectile,
how surer may not his assertion be according to M. de Courtivron's calculation,
since they give a difference of time considerably greater?
XCIII. On some New Electrical Experiments. By John Canton, M. A.,
F.R.S. p. 780.
The resinous and vitreous electricity of Mr. Du Fay, which arose from his
observing bodies of the one class to attract, what those of the other would repel,
when each were excited by attrition , received no light till the publication of the
second part of Mr. Franklin's experiments ; where it appears, that the one kind
of bodies electrify positively, and the other negatively; that excited glass throws
out the electric fire, and excited sulphur drinks it in. But no reason has yet
been assigned, why vitreous bodies should receive, and resinous bodies part with
this file, by rubbing them. Some persons indeed, of considerable knowledge in
these matters, have supposed the expansion of glass, when heated by friction, t©
be the cause of its receiving more of the electric fluid than its natural share ;
but this supposition cannot be made with regard to bodies of the other sort, such
as sulphur, sealing-wax, &c. which part with it when treated in the same man-
ner. The following experiments, first made at the latter end of December 1 753,
and often repeated since, may perhaps cast new light on this difficult subject.
Having rubbed a glass tube with a piece of thin sheet-lead and flower of
emery mixed with water, till its transparency was entirely destroyed; after making
it perfectly clean and dry, Mr. C. excited it with new flannel, and found it act
in all respects like excited sulphur or sealing-wax. The electric fire seems to
issue from the knuckle, or end of the finger, and to spread itself on the surface
of this tube, in the beautiful manner represented at a and b in fig. 1, pi. 14.
If this rough or unpolished tube, be excited by a piece of dry oiled silk, espe-
cially when rubbed over with a little chalk or whiting, it will act like a glass
tube with its natural polish. And in this case, the fire a}3pears only at the
knuckle, or end of the finger; where it is very much condensed before it enters;
as at A and b in fig. 2.
But if the rough tube be greased all over with tallow from a candle, and as
much as possible of it wiped off with a napkin, then the oiled silk will receive a
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 533
kind of polisli by rubbing it, and after a few strokes, will make the tube act in
the same manner as when excited at first by flannel.
The oiled silk, when covered with chalk or whiting, will make the greased
rough tube act again like a polished one: but if the friction be continued till the
rubber is become very smooth, the electric power will be changed to that of sul-
phur, sealing-wax, &c.
Thus may the positive and negative powers of electricity be produced at plea-
sure, by altering the surfaces of the tube and rubber; according as the one or
the other is most affected by the friction between them ; for if the polish be taken
otf one half of the tube, the difterent powers may be excited with the same
rubber at a single stroke. And the rubber is found to move much easier over
the rough, than over the polished part of it.
That polished glass electrizes positively, and rough glass rubbed with flannel
negatively, seems plain, from the appearance of the light between the knuckle,
or end of the finger, and the respective tubes; but yet may be further confirmed
by observing that a polished glass tube, when excited by smooth oiled silk, if
the hand be kept at least 3 inches from the top of the rubber, will at every
stroke appear to throw out a great number of diverging pencils of electric fire,
as in fig. 3 ; but not one was ever seen to accompany the rubbing of sulphur,
sealing- wax, &c. nor was Mr. C. ever able to make any sensible alteration in the
air of a room, merely by the friction of those bodies; whereas the glass tube,
when excited so as to emit pencils, will, in a few minutes, electrify the air to
such a degree that, after the tube is carried away, a pair of balls, about the size
of the smallest peas, turned out of cork, or the pith of elder, and hung to a
wire by linen threads of 6 inches long, will repel each other to the distance of
14^ inch, when held at arm's length in the middle of the room. But their repul-
sion will decrejise as they are moved toward the floor, wainscot, or any of the
furniture; and they will touch each other when brought within a small distance
of any conductor. Some degree of this electric power sometimes continues in
the air above an hour after the rubbing of the tube, when the weather is
very dry.
The electricity from the clouds, in the open air, may be discovered in the
same manner, if the balls be held at a sufficient distance from buildings, trees,
&c. as he had several times experienced, by a pair which he carried in a small
narrow box with a sliding cover, fig. 4, so contrived as to keep their threads
straight, and that they may be properly suspended, when let fall out of it ; and
these balls will easily determine whether the electricity of the clouds or air be
positive, by the decrease, or negative, by the increase of their repulsion, at the
approach of excited amber or sealing-wax.
To electrify the air, or moisture contained in it, negatively ; he supported by
034 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
silk, between two chairs placed back to back, at the distance of about 3 feet, a
tin tube with a fine sewing needle at one end of it; and rubbed sulphur, sealing-
wax, or the rough glass tube, as near as can be to the other end, for 3 or 4
minutes. Then will the air be found to be negatively electrical; and will con-
tinue so a considerable time after the apparatus is removed into another room.
The air without-doors is sometimes found to be electrical in clear weather ; but
never at night, except when there has appeared an aurora borealis, and then but
to a small degree. How far positive and negative electricity in the air. with a
proper quantity of moisture between, to serve as a conductor, will account for
this, and other meteors sometimes seen in a serene sky, he leaves to the curious
in this part of natural philosophy to determine. That dry air at a great distance
from the earth, if in an electric state, will continue so till it meets with such a
conductor, seems probable from this experiment: an excited glass tube with its
natural polish, being placed upright in the middle of a room, by putting one
end of it in a hole made for that purpose in a block of wood, will generally lose
its electricity in less than 6 minutes, by attracting to it a sufficient quantity of
moisture, to conduct the electric fluid from all parts of its surface to the floor.
But if, immediately after it is excited, it be placed in the same manner before a
good fire, at the distance of about 2 feet, where no moisture will adhere to its
surface, it will continue electrical a whole day, and how much longer he knows
not. It may not be improper to mention here, that if a solid cylinder of glass
be set before the fire till quite dry, it may as easily be excited as a glass tube, and
will act like one in every respect; the first stroke will make it strongly electrical.
XCIV. On the Ejects of Electricity in the County Hospital at Shrewsbury. By
Cheney Hart, M.D. p. 786.
They tried the effects of electricity in many different cases, though with little
success, except in the case of one woman, whose left arm had been paralytic
some years, and remained so, notwithstanding all the endeavours used to remedy
it, so that it was absolutely motionless, and senseless of heat, cold, or pain. This
patient had her arm electrized frequently, and the sparks were drawn from it, and
the greatest blows given to it, for many days successively, by which in about 8
or 9 days time her arm grew sensible of pain and warmth, &c. and she had some
little motion of her fingers, being able to grasp any thing with her arm down,
or before her ; but she could not lift it up to her head any better. This encou-
raged them to continue the electrizing 3 or 4 weeks longer; in which time she
had got some little strength in her arm, could open and shut her fingers, and
lift it half way to her head : but the pain she had from the electrizing, and the
fear that increased continually of new shocks, made her obstinately resist using
it any longer; and she chose, she said, rather to remain paralytic, than undergo
VOL. XLVni.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 535
such operations any more : so that she was discharged out of the Infirmary, with
such little relief as above mentioned, and Dr. H. never has heard more of her.
He wished she had tried it a while longer, as it bid so fair to do her service ; and
this was the only case, which gave any reasonable hopes from its use.
Another young girl, about l6, whose right arm was paralytic, on being elec-
trized the 2d time, became universally paralytic, and remained so about a fort-
night ; when the increased palsy was removed indeed by the medicines which
her case indicated ; but the first diseased arm remained as before. However,
notwithstanding the former bad accident, he had a mind to try the electricity on
her again, which he renewed, and after about 3 or 4 days use, she became the
2d time universally paralytic, and even lost her voice and tongue, and with dif-
ficulty could swallow : this confirmed him in opinion, that the electric shocks
had occasioned these symptoms. He therefore omitted it, and the girl, though
she got better of her additional palsy, remained as bad as before of her first ; and
after about 4 months repeated course of medicines of different kinds on her, she
was discharged incurable.
These were the only 2 cases worth noticing, that had occurred, in which it
could be said to have produced any remarkable eflTects at all : for on numbers of
others, that had experienced it, Dr. H. observed nothing happen, except that
when the affected palsied limb was touched with the electrical conductor, a con-
vulsive motion was produced immediately ; but this was over very soon, and they
had all remained as motionless and bad as before.
XCV. On the Number of Inhabitants within the London Bills of Mortality.
By the Rev. IVm. Brakenridge, D. D., F. R. S. p. 788.
Dr. B. consulted the yearly bills of mortality for the last 50 years, viz. from
1704 to 1753, which he imagines sufficient for the purpose; and from them he
extracted all the numbers of the baptisms and burials, both within the walls of
London, and at large within the bills of mortality. And because it may be surer
to compute from a number of years taken at an average, than from the numbers
in any one year as they stand in the bills; he took the sums of the numbers, for
each 3 years of the 50, and then the 5 th part of each of these sums : which will
at a medium be the number for any particular year. And in like manner, he
took the sums of the numbers for each 10 years, and the 10th part of each of
the sums will be the number for any year, at an average. And the numbers so
found appeared thus :
536
PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS.
[anno 1754
In the whole Bills of
In the C
ty only.
Mortality.
Years.
Baptisms.
Burials.
Baptisms.
Burials.
1704 to 8
1870
2553
15867
22103 ■
1709—13
1805
2551
15288
21701
>
1714—18
1890
2706
17586
24641
;;
1719—23
1871
2719
J 8360
26978
ci
1724—28
1829
2727
18442
27670
1729—33
1578
2532
17452
26267
1734—38
1406
2242
16762
26165
01
2
1739 — 43
1221
2397
15034
28219
1744—48
1062
1989
14402
23884
P
1749—53
1087
1790
14850
22006 .
>
1703—13
1837
2552
15577
21602 "
1714 — 23
1880
2712
18073
25809
0
<
1724—33
1703
2647
17920
27168
3
3
1734 — 43
1313
2320
15898
27192
"S
1744—53
1074
1890
14626
22945
s.
Where the numbers are ranged in 5 columns. The first denotes the years,
the 2d and 3d the baptisms and burials within the city walls, and the 4th and
5th show the baptisms and burials at large within the bills. Thus, for instance,
22945 is the number of burials, at a medium, for any of the 10 years within the
bills from 1744 to 1753 inclusive. And, in like manner, 1221 is the number
of baptisms for any year, at an average for 5 years, from 1739 to 1743 inclusive,
and so of others. The numbers above the line are computed for 5 years, and
those below are for 10.
In the burials, it is always to be considered, that there are perhaps 2000 more
than what the bills represent them. For there are burying-grounds belonging
to the Protestant Dissenters, the Quakers, and the Jews, that are very consi-
derable, of which there is no account taken. In the first of which, in Bunyan-
fields, he was informed there are about 400 burials in the year, and in the others
together there may be about 400 more , which sum of 800 we may suppose comes
from all parts within the bills. But Dr. B. thinks the one-half, viz. 400, must
at least come from within the city, where there are most Protestant Dissenters
and Jews. So that 400 may always be added to the burials, within the city.
Also both from within and without the city, a great many burials go out into
the country, of which no notice is taken. But if we were to suppose that there
are 1200 in the whole, carried out into the country, over and above the 800
mentioned above, in the burying-grounds, he thinks that to be the outmost.
And therefore in the calculations he supposes 2000 burials yearly, more than in
the bills at large.
It is next to be observed, that in the bills the baptisms are always about two-
fifth parts, at least, less than the burials, with the numbers added to them above-
mentioned ; and that this difference within the city seems continually to increase.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 53/
SO that it is much greater now, than it was some years ago ; which appears
plainly to arise from two causes; the number of Dissenters of various denomina-
tions, and the multitude of people that live unmarried. But he thinks it is rather
owing to the last : for, in London and Westminster, the one-half of the people
at least live single, that are above 2 1 years of age : which must prevent almost
as many more births, that might be reasonably expected. And this is not mere
conjecture; for he had some proof from a particular detail of one parish within
the city ; where the greater part of those that are above that age are single. In
the natural state of mankind, it seems plain that the number of births should be
greater than the burials, and he believes that in many parishes in the country
they are nearly double. He found it so in the Isle of Wight, where he lived
some time, and had an opportunity to see their registers ; for there the births
were generally nearly double. And even in London, b,efore the great fire in
1666, it appears, from some parish registers, that the baptisms were nearly
about equal to the burials, but never afterwards : the reason of which he does
not understand, unless it be that more people were then married, and that from
that time there was a greater confluence of strangers : for there certainly were
more dissenters at that time than ever after.
It is further to be observed, that in the bills from the year 1704 to the year
1728, without the city, both the numbers of christenings and burials continually
increased; and that from that time to 1743, they continued nearly the same;
but that after 1743 they gradually decreased till this time ; which plainly shows,
that the inhabitants were increasing till about the year 1728 ; and that from
thence to 1743, they remained in the same state nearly ; but that afterwards,
during the last 10 years, till 1753, they were constantly diminishing. For it is
evident, that the number of inhabitants must always be in proportion, to the
number of births, and burials considered together. And hence it appears, that
the cities of London and Westminster were in the most flourishing state, with
regard to numbers, from 1728 to 1743, and that they are now past their height,
and in the same state they were in the year 17OS: and the first decrease seems
to have been at the beginning of the last French war, which was in ] 744.
Within the city walls the number of the inhabitants do not seem to fluctuate, in
the same periods of time, as without ; for the most numerous state of the city,
appears to have been from the year J 7 18, to the year 1728, and then after that
they have been continually decreasing : so that when they were most numerous
within the walls, they were not then arrived at the height without ; and when
they were in the highest state without, they were diminishing in the city. Per-
haps the vast number of new buildings, within the liberties of Westminster, may
have in part caused this diminution. And as from the year 17 18, within the
city, the christenings have been so remarkably decreasing, that they are now
VOL. X. 3 Z
538 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1754.
but three-fifths of what they were at that time, and the burials are likewise di-
minished above one-fourth in the last 5 years ; this seems to show, that the in-
habitants within the city walls must be nearly one-fourth fewer, than they were
in the year 17 18.
Now, in order to calculate the number of inhabitants, it will be necessary to
observe, that in a year in London there generally dies one person in 30. This
Sir Wm. Petty has long ago observed ; and Dr. B. found it to be near the truth,
on consulting his parish register. For in the parish of Bassishaw, London, there
are not above 800 people, as appears from an account lately given him : and the
burials for the last 10 years in the whole amount to 262 ; which at a medium
gives 26 for one year, which is the 30th part of 800 nearly. In some parishes
in London there die more than in this proportion, as in St. Giles's Cripplegate ;
and in others in the out parts of the town there die fewer; but in general it will
hold true, in and about the city. In the town of Breslaw in Germany, from
which Dr. Halley formed his table for the probabilities of life, there die about 2
in 69, that is less than 1 in 34 ; as is plain from an easy computation. But
there certainly die more than in that proportion, within the London bills ; for
it appears that one-third at least of the children die under 2 years of age ; whereas
at Breslaw there die under that age, only one-fifth ; and therefore the difference
being two-fifteenths, or four-thirtieths, there die 4 in 30 more at London than
at Breslaw, imder 2 years of age.
In the country the case is very different ; for there does not die above 1 in 50,
in healthy places. Sir Wm. Petty has also observed this. For in the parish of
Newchurch in the Isle of Wight, where Dr. B. resided some time, there are
about 900 people, and there does not die, at a medium, above 18 yearly ; which
is one in 50 exactly. And he believes this will be found to be nearly the same
in most of the counties in Britain, where the people do not live in great towns;
which shows the great difference between the effects of the air in London and
the country.
K then it be allowed, that in London and Westminster there dies one in 30,
it will be very easy to make a calculation of the whole number of the people
nearly, that are within the bills. For if we take the number of burials at an
average for some years, and multiply that by 30, the product must be the num-
ber of the people. Thus if we take the number of the burials, at large within
the bills, for any one of the last 10 years, at a medium, from 1744 to 1753 in-
clusive, to be 22945, and add to this 2000, for those burials omitted in the
bills, as is supposed above, the total will be 24g45, all the burials within the
limits of the bills, for one year at 1753; and then multiply this by 30, the pro-
duct 748350 will be the whole number of the people nearly, at present. But if
we take 27 192, the number of the burials, at a medium, for any one of the ten
VOL. XLVIII.3 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SSQ
years preceding 1 743 inclusive, anci add to this 2000, as above ; the whole of
the burials at that time within the bills will be 29 192, which being multiplied
by 30 gives 875760, for the number of the people at the year 1743. And
therefore tiie inhabitants are fewer now than they were in 1743, by 127000.
If we were to try the same calculation, by taking the burials, at a medium,
only for .5 years to 1753, and also for 5 years to 1743 inclusive, the difference
will be greater. For the numbers at these two times will be 720180, and
906570, of which the difference is I8639O; so that the people would appear
fewer at 1753 than they were in 1743, by I86000. But this is not so much to
be depended on as the numbers above ; because there were two extraordinary
bills at 1740 and 1741. Or if we should imagine that there might not more
die at London than at Breslaw, that is 1 in 34, still the difference would be
greater than we found at first. For taking the burials at an average for ten
years, at 1753 and 1743, as above, the numbers would at these two times be
848130 and 992528, of which the difference is 144398 ; so that it seems plain,
if the bills are to be depended on, that there is a decrease of the people since
1743 of above an hundred thousand, and that at present the number is about
740000. And this ^decrease has been annually continued : for if we try the
thing further, at the distance of 5 years, and take at a medium for 5 years,
the burials for 1753 and 1748, the numbers will come out 720180 and 776520 ;
of which the difference is 56340, the number decreased for the last 5 years.
There is another way of computing, from the number of houses ; but he
thinks this not so certain as the other. For here are two difficulties ; to ascer-
tain the number of houses, and to fix on the number of persons for each house.
As to the last. Sir Wm. Petty thought we might allow 8 persons to a house:
which Dr. B. found to be a mistake. He made an experiment of it, and got an
exact account of the numbers in each house in a certain parish in London ; and
he found that they exactly come to 6 in a house, empty and full together, for
there is seldom above one in 20 empty. And as in that parish the people are in
a middle condition, and some of them have a number of servants ; it may be
presumed they are in a middle state with regard to numbers, between the very
great families, and those in the lowest rank This is also confirmed, if we
allow, as above, 1 in 30 to die yearly in London. For within the city walls
there were 11857 houses in the 97 parishes, as appears from Mr. Smart's ac-
count, which was supposed to be very accurate at that time: but since he published
that in 1741, there are not so many houses within the city walls; for in many
parishes there are houses greatly enlarged, some rebuilt instead of 2 or 3 ; and
warehouses made of others. In some parishes there is 1 in 20 fewer than in his
time. In others perhaps there is no alteration. But he thinks they must, at an
average, be diminished 3 in 100 at least; and consequently there are about 354
3 z2
540 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
fewer, and the number of houses within the city walls is about 1 1 503 ; which
being multiplied by 6, gives 690I8, for the number of inhabitants; which is
nearly equal to the burials 22Q0 multiplied by 30, or 68700 ; taking the burials
at a medium for 10 years, and adding 400 as above.
The number of houses within the bills may then be nearly come at, from the
number of burials. For if we take the number of burials for the last 10 years,
at an average within the city, to be 1 8g0, and add 400, which makes 22Q0, we
may say, if 229O comes from 11503 houses, then the whole number 24g45 of
burials within the bills, having allowed 2000 as above, must come from 125302
houses. And there cannot be fewer ; for there are more burials within the city,
in proportion to the baptisms, than in the out-parishes ; and therefore more
burials in proportion to the number of houses ; which shows that the number of
houses cannot be less than 125302; which being multiplied by 6, will give
75 18 12, for the number of people for this present time; and it is nearly equal
to the number 748350 found above. So that the numbers produced from these
2 methods being almost equal, this is some further proof that our supposition,
of 6 persons to a house, empty and full, is near the truth. But if we suppose,
that the number of houses within the walls is now the same, as in Mr. Smart's
time, 11857; then all the houses within the bills will be 129158, and the
number of people 774948, greater than 748350, found above, by 26598; which
is not much in such calculations.
Sir Wm. Petty also says, that he was informed there were 84000 houses te-
nanted within the bills, in the year l682, in which he wrote, and if so, the
number of houses seem to be increased near one-third since that time. And,
according to our way of computing, to suppose 6 to a house, empty and full,
there could not be more than 504000 people at that time ; which is less than
the number we found above, for the present time, 748350, by 244350. But
now, instead of increasing, we are decreasing; for since the year 1743 the in-
habitants have been annually diminished; by which it appears that this great city
is past its height, and is rather on the decline with regard to numbers. And
hence we see how far Sir William was mistaken, who imagined that it might
increase continually till the year 1800; when the number of people would be 5
millions, that is near 7 times as much as they are at present.
Now, to account for this decrease, there may be various conjectures : Dr. B.
thinks 3 causes may be assigned, that may all operate jointly. One may be the
vicious custom that has prevailed of late years, among the lower people, of drink-
ing spirituous liquors ; another the fashionable humour of living single that
daily increases ; and a third may be the great increase of trade in the northern
parts of Britain, that keeps the people there employed at home, that they have
no occasion, as formerly, to come hither for business ; and it were to be wished
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 541
that this cause was the most prevailing. But whatever be the cause, it seems
plain, that it could not be the late French war, as some imagine. For, by what
was shown above, there has been a decrease of 56000 since the year 1749, after
the peace ; but if the war had been the cause, there ought rather to have been
an increase after it. And as in the whole, we could not have lost more than
150000 in the war, by land and sea, of which there was not one-fifth, or 30000,
taken from about the city ; this can never account for 64000, the decrease before
the year 1748. In the former war, between 1702 and 1711, the city never de-
creased, but continually increased : from which one would imagine that the last
war could not diminish its numbers.
Nor can this decrease in the bills be accounted for, from a greater number
than formerly leaving the town in summer ; because it does not appear that
there is a greater number of such, than was 1 0 years ago. And if it could be
allowed that the number was greater, it can never be thought that it can amount
to 120000 more than in the year 1743. •
It is true, this decrease may appear surprizing to some, when they see the
number of new buildings in Westminster, continually increasing ; but then, on
the other hand, it is likewise to be considered, that there are a great number of
houses enlarged, or rebuilt, instead of 2 or 3 others, as mentioned above ; and
others falling in and empty, about the eastern parts of the city : so that for the
last 20 years the inhabitants seem only to be moving, from the eastern to the
western parts of the town, and not increasing.
XCVI. On a large Calculus found in a Mare. By Mr. JVm. Watson, F, R. S.
p. 800.
This stone was composed of different laminae, and its figure is that of an ob-
late spheroid, whose greatest diameter is 84- inches ; its lesser 8 inches. Its
surface is extremely regular, but it appears in several of its parts, as though it
had been corroded by some acrid menstruum ; and in a place or two, where the
external lamina is quite worn away, and the lamina immediately underneath it
polished during its continuance in the mare, the calculus has great resemblance
in colour to occidental bezoar.
It weighed in air 15 lb. 12 oz. Avoirdupois ; in water 6 lb. : so that its specific
gravity to that of water was nearly as 8 to 5. So that it is not only considerably
lighter than any fossil petrifaction, but much more so than many animal ; some
human calculi, when fresh extracted, being to water as 2 to 1.
With regard to its bulk, it is the largest he remembered to have been ob-
served, except one presented to the r. s. in the year 1737, which was taken out
of the stomach of a dray-horse, belonging to Sir Henry Hickes, Knt. at Dept-
ford, and which weighed 1 9 lb. Avoirdupois, exclusive of the outward shell or
543 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
crust, which was broken off in several pieces. Both these stones were in ap-
pearance like a pebble, and formed of different laminae. The greatest circum-
ference of the stone taken from this mare was somewhat more than 26 inches ;
that of Sir Henry Hickes's 28.
Sir Henry Hickes's horse was 22 years old ; and, for 11 or 12 years before he
died, frequently was observed to be in vio'ent pain ; but the mare, the subject
of the present letter, though 1 6 years old, gave no signs of being in pain till
about 3 months before her death, when she would frequently lie down, and roll
about. And it is the more extraordinary that, large as the stone was, it did not
disable the mare from doing her usual work for a more considerable time before
her death ; which did not seem to be occasioned by the stone, she dying near
her foaling time ; nor so far disturb her economy, as to prevent her propagating
her species.
In 1746, the Duke of Richmond presented to the Society a stone found in
the colon of a horse, the circumference of which was 16 inches. His Grace at
the same time presented some other stones, found in the intestines of a mare,
which were polished like bezoar. It was very remarkable, that 2 of these stones,
when sawed asunder, were found to have been formed each on an iron nail, as a
nucleus.
XCFII. On the Belemnites* By Mr. Guslavm Blander, F.R.S. p. 803.
The belemnites is a fossil, that has hitherto perplexed the naturalists of all
countries : it has been treated of by various authors, and differently ascribed to
all the 3 kingdoms of nature ; but Mr. B. delivers it as his opinion, that it be-
longs to the testaceous part of the animal kingdom, and to the family of the
nautili. The nautilus, or sailor, is a concamerated shell, with a syphunculus
running through every cell, see pi. 14, fig. 5. The syphunculus, and the
concamerations, are the generical character of this tribe, and are supposed to
serve the animal to buoy up its shell, by which means it can swim or sink at
pleasure.
Those that are curved are very common, both in the recent and fossil state ;
the straight ones have hitherto only been met with fossil, and are common in
Sweden, Livonia, and several parts of Germany ; and have, by naturalists, been
called orthoceratitae ; and Mr. B had seen some in Dr. Mason's private collec-
tion at Cambridge, which he said were found at Whitby in England ; the cha-
* The belemnites is in all probability a species of nautilus, and its inhabitant may be allied to that
of other nautili ; and consequently resemble in some degree a sepia or cuttle, which by the older
writers was often called a polypus. Linneus imagined it a petrifaction of the Alcyonium Lyncurium.
Mr. Brander's notion of the testaceous tribe in general having proceeded from polypes, can only have
Arisen from bis want of zoological information.
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 543
racter of which being exactly the same with the nautili, Mr. B. makes no scruple
to class them together.
Whoever will examine nicely bodies of any genera, will have a difficulty to
say, where they begin, and where they end ; the gradation is so insensible that
they must be bewildered. From the orthoceratitfe, which is doubtless a species
of nautilus, we gradually proceed to the belemnites. The orthoceratites is
a straight concamerated shell, ending in a point ; some of which are seen
in stone 18 inches long. See fig. 6, 7, 8, Q, and l6. The nucleus, or al-
veolus of the belemnites, is likewise a straight concamerated shell or body,
exactly resembling the other in shape and structure, but of a smaller species,
fig. 10 and 14 ; and, from the very great analogy, may reasonably be deemed to
be of the same family. In the conic cavity of the belemnites, fig. 1 1 , that con-
tains the nucleus, it is very common to observe visible marks of a shelly sub-
stance, as a further confirmation that the nucleus was a testaceous body.
And now a word as to the belemnites itself, the counter part to the other.
It has indeed been truly matter of speculation, how that huge solid substance
called the belemnites, exclusive of the nucleus, could be formed ; and how it
happens that some should have the nucleus within them, others not ; the cavity
to contain the same in some very small, in others scarcely or not at all visible.
These are the main difliculties, all which Mr. B. endeavours to elucidate; but
first acknowledges his obligation to Mons. de Peysoimel, and particularly to Mr.
John Ellis, f.r.s. for their curious observations on the nature of coral, on which
this latter part of Mr. B.'s hypothesis is founded. They have plainly demon-
strated, that many bodies which we always took to be vegetable from their ap-
pearance, are really animal, and constructed by the polype ; and that several co-
ralline substances, hitherto reputed marine plants, are thick beset with a prodi-
gious quantity of seedling-shells, too small for the naked eye to see, close by
each other, as diamonds in a bodkin, ready to come forth in due time out of their
several nests or cellules ; see Phil. Trans, vol. xlvii, p. 445, and vol. xlviii. p.
115. Hence he submits, if it is not highly probable that the testaceous tribe in
general are generated like butterflies, and flies of all kinds, the one from a mag-
got, the other from a polype } Nay, it appears presumptive, that it must be so
with a great many. On which circumstance he proceeds, that as corals in ge-
neral, from late observation, seem to be constructed by polypi, what inconsistency
then to believe them to be the primary state of all or most of the testaceous
tribe? If so, it is almost beyond a conjecture, that the body called a bclenmites
(which, on being put into acids, is found to ferment in like manner as coral,
and other cretaceous bodies), is formed likewise by a polype, I'rom which tlie
nucleus seems to be the ultimate state.
544 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
And he further submits, whether this concamerated shell, or body, of which
the belemnites is only the habitation, does not appear a strong voucher for this
new hypothesis, by more immediately leading us into the connexion and manner
of generation (perhaps particular to the testaceous tribe) by remaining within its
nidus all its life ; whereas they generally quit them as soon as they are able to
shift for themselves.
The polype is an animal of the vermicular kind ; the bodies of some are long
and slender, like a fine sinew or fibre, extremely tender ; and from the head
proceeds a variety of claws, or arms, with which it catches its food, and prepares
its habitation or chrysalis. They are without doubt of various shapes and tex-
tures, according, as he supposes, to the species of the animal that is hereafter to
proceed from them ; and very wonderful it is, how so small, so delicate an ani-
mal, should be capable of forming so large a body as the belemnites ! but is not
every particular performance of nature equally the same to a diligent inquirer ?
Some animals in the terrestrial part of the creation, naturally associate and herd
together. Others again seek solitude. The same dispositions we find impressed
on those of the aquatic system : then why not among the polypi ? as is evidently
seen by the prodigious variety of coral bodies, where it seems in some as if thou-
sands acted in concert together; in others, where each acts for itself; of which
latter is the belemnites.
The shape of the belemnites is generally more or less conical, terminating in
a point, and of various colours, according to the juices of the stratum in which
it lay : it has usually a seam or fissure, running down the whole length of it,
sometimes filled with a cretaceous substance. In some it is in the middle or axis
of the body ; in others on one side. Its interior constitution seems composed of
several conoid cortices, or crusts, which, when broken transversely, appear to
proceed in striae or rays from the seam or centre ; which seam he takes to have
been the habitation or cell of the animal in its polype state, and in which the
body was affixed ; or perhaps serving as a syphunculus, in which was a ligament
that proceeded from the nucleus in its perfect state.
The crusts it is composed of probably denote certain periods in the age of the
animal; as the annual rings in a piece of timber, its age: but what those periods
are, we are not acquainted with ; see fig. 11, 12, 13, 15. The animals of the
testaceous tribe in general, as they increase in age, increase their shell in thickness
till they have lived their stated time, or attained to good old age ; and that is
done by adding a new crust or lamina to it, as several, if not all the tubuli, the
oysters, and the nautili, witness ; after which they become inactive and dull, the
effect of extreme old age, suffering other marine bodies, as worms, oysters, &c.
to penetrate and affix themselves to their outer coat. The like appearances we
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 345
frequently meet with on belemnitae, when the animal within was perhaps either
waxed old, or was dead ; and is an additional proof that the body is of marine
origin.
Every one, who has made this part of natural history his study, must have
observed, that the minutiae, or exceedingly small fossil shells, very frequently
occur, and in the greatest abundance, especially in fine loam or clay proper to
presei-ve them : which shows that it was spring or spawning-time when the de-
luge overwhelmed the country they were natives of. And that diminishes one of
the difficulties concerning the belemnites, why some have the cavity, others not,
or but very small : for may we not attribute these several appearances to the dif-
ferent ages of the animal ; as in the spring or spawning-time, and some time
after, a thousand small fish appear in the water to one grown to maturity, or
seedlings on the shores of shell-fish, to one at full growth ? and, from a parity
of reasoning, is there not great likelihood to believe that every belemnites would
have had a nucleus, if it had lived ; and to suppose that deficiency to be caused
by the deluge coming on, in the early part of the season, in that spot where
they are natives, before they had attained perfection ?
The country of the belemnitae is unknown to us ; but there is great probability
it is the same with that of the conchae anomiae in general, and ammonitae; since
they are usually found together, and are well supposed to be the inhabitants of
deep or unknown seas, beyond human reach.
Having had so frequent occasion to mention the orthoceratitae in the course of
this subject, they being here rare and uncommon fossils, Mr. B. has given the
figures of some (ew species of them, which perhaps may not be unacceptable,
N" 6, 7, 8, 9, 1 6. If it should be asked, whether they proceed likewise from
a belemnites ? he answers, that he supposes them to proceed from a polype like
the rest, but whether their parent polype formed itself a belemnites-like chrysalis
or habitation, being a stouter animal, is more than he can affirm, though very
probable, as the terminating point in them is as sharp and fine as the nucleus of
the belemnites ; and it is observed, that all the turbinated shells increase their
circumvolutions from the point or apex ; but that is not the immediate business
of the present purpose, as nature has many ways to compass her ends. His de-
sign will be answered, if it shall only be thought, that he has evinced the be-
lemnites to be an animal production, formed by a polype, as other coralline
bodies ; and its nucleus to be a concamerated testaceous bcxly, of the nautili
genus, proceeding from it.
Description of the Plate 14.
Fig. 5. A section of a common nautilus. 6, 7, 9. l6, Sections of ortho-
ceratitae. 8. An orthoceratites entire. 10. A section of a belemnites, with the
nucleus. 11. Ditto, without the nucleus. 12. An oblique section of a belem-
VOL. X, 4 A
346 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
nites, to show the inner structure. 1 3. A belemnites without a cavity, only a small
perforation. ]4. A nucleus of a belemnites. 15. A belemnites, with a very
small cavity.
XCnil. On the Jgaric, applied after imputations, with Regard to deter-
mining its Species. By Mr. William Watson, F. R.S. p. 811.
The agaric applied as a styptic after amputations, and which had been
brought from France, Mr. W. did not believe to be the common agaric of the
oak, as had been imagined by the French surgeons. What is called the com-
mon agaric is a parasitical plant, found growing on the oak, and on several other
trees; and is denominated by Caspar Bauhin, fungus in caudicibus nascens,
unguis equini figura ; of which touchwood or spunk, and the amadoue ordinaire
of the French, is usually prepared. He 'thought it impossible, by any process,
to prepare from the common agaric a substance perfectly similar to the French
agaric, which should exactly answer the description, which Breynius (Ephem,
Nat. Curios. Ann. 45, obs. 130) gives of the fungus coriaceus quercinus
haematodes.
Mr. Ray, in his Synopsis Stirpium Britann. on the authority of the late Dr.
Sherard, says, that this fungus coriaceus quercinus haematodes is found on putrid
oaks in Ireland, where it is called oak-leather; and that the country people there
collect and preserve \\. to dress ulcers with. Dr. S. makes no doubt but that it
may be found in England; and Mr. Ray had some sent him from the late Dr.
Eales in Hertfordshire. Dr. Richardson, in Yorkshire, found it growing on the
ash ; and Dr. Dillenius observes, that in Virginia it is used as leather, to spread
plasters on; and that, besides its being a soft substance, sitting easy on the af-
flicted part, it has a healing property.
XCIX. Ttvo Letters concerning the Use of y^garic, as a Styptic. Letter 1. —
From Mr. J. Warner, F. R. S. and Surgeon to Guy's Hospital, p. 813.
In the first of these letters Mr. W. states that he had received from Mr.
Fellowes, an account of the styptic effects of the agaric, in a case under the
<^re of Mr. Gooch, and that he (Mr. Warner) had contiimed to use the same
application with the greatest success.
Letter 2. — Addressed to Mr. Warner by Mr. B. Gooch. — After returning
thanks for the agaric of the oak, which he had received by Mr. Fellowes, the
writer of this letter proceeds to give an account of the effects he had observed
from it. Two or 3 days after Mr. G. received it, he was desired by an ingenious
surgeon to be with him on business. He carried some of the agaric with him,
and he was pleased with the opportunity of trying it in an amputation below the
knee of a boy of about 10 years old. They applied it according to the direc-
YOL. XLVIII.] , PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 347
tioiis given by Mr. Warner in his book, and the haemorrhage was entirely
stopped in 6 minutes. He informed him that, on the 5th day inchisive, the
dressings and agaric came all off without force, and left the stump in a good
digested state, without the least appearance of blood; and that the pain, in con-
sequence of the operation, did not require an anodyne. He cut a boy for the
stone the same day, and a vessel bleeding rather more than is thought allowable,
he applied a very small piece of the agaric, and a soft dossil of lint over it,
which, with gentle pressure of the finger, restrained the bleeding in less than a
minute. His own patient, aged near 70, on whom he made trial of it, in am-
putating his leg below the knee, appeared as proper a subject to establish the
credit of this new styptic as could be produced, if it failed not in its efficacy ;
there being in him a great depravation of the fluids, and a general relaxation of
the solids; and he had an ulcer on his leg, of the phagedagnic kind, of many
years standing, attended with carious bones. Under these discouraging circum-
stances he applied to Mr. G. about a month before, and begged of him to take
off his leg; the pain, he said, being so violent and continual, that he knew not
how to live with it; and though he thought him a very bad subject for the
operation, yet he did not care to deny his most earnest request, seeing no other
possible means left of affording relief in his miserable condition. Considering
the rigidity of the fibres in an old person, and that their natural contractile
power, evident in the division of an artery, must be greatly weakened in this
case, Mr. G. was afraid, that the agaric, if it should answer, would not act so
expeditiously as it did in the other, and that probably they might meet with
much more difficulty in restraining the haemorrhage. Therefore, to assist it all
he could, he tacked it to thick compresses of lint with pieces of card in the
middle, thinking by that means he could apply it more readily, and keep it in
stronger and closer contact with the mouths of the vessels, if he should find it
necessary; for he was very solicitous for the support of its credit and reputation,
his own being connected in some measure with it, and the patient's welfare also
depending on it. He applied most of the pieces without being under a necessity
of having the tourniquet-ligature slackened, to show the mouths of the vessels;
then covered the stump thick with lint, applied a pledget of tow spread with
common digestive over it, and over that a circular piece of stiff paper, to make
the pressure of the palm of the hand more equal. This done, after 3 or 4 mi-
nutes he desired his assistant to slacken the tourniquet-ligature; on which it
bled at a great rate, and made some of his brethren soon imagine, and declare,
they thought it would not do in this case. Mr. G. was not without the same
fears; but went on with resolution, and every thing was conducted without hurry
or confusion. He desired to have the tourniquet-ligature let quite loose, in
order to remove, as much as possible, all impediment to the reflux of the blood,
4 a2
548 PHILOSOPHICAL TilANSACTlONS. [aNNO 1754.
and made a strong compression at the end of the stump, on which the bleeding
ahnost intantly abated, which was totally stopped in about half an hour after;
and, in the whole, he believed he did not lose more than 12 oz. of blood. Now,
apprehending that the circular structure of the common bandage, as usually
applied, might produce the same inconvenience, which he observed arose from
the tourniquet-ligature before it was quite loose, if no other attended it, having
strong suspicions of tight bandage doing much mischief, he therefore only put
several strips of common plaster, about an inch broad, over the piece cf stiff
paper at the end of the stump, to meet and lap over at the top of the knee
when bent, and then slipped on a barber's woollen cap; which method seemed
to answer the purpose very well in this, as he had found it do in some other
amputations. A physician, and 4 surgeons of eminence, who were desirous of
seeing the effect of the agaric, were present at the operation. Four days after
he opened the stump, but took, away no more of the dressings than what were
loosej among which were '2 or 3 pieces of the agaric, without any signs of fresh
bleeding, or visible pulsation at the ends of the arteries. Two days after he
dressed it again; the stump then appeared well digested all over, and had a much
better aspect than could reasonably be expected in such an unpromising subject;
and appearances were so favourable as to give hopes -of his recovery, though he
was not without distant fears, which he was guarding against as much as possible.
C Extract of a Letter from Mons. Bonnet, F. R. S. of Geneva, to John Cle-
phane, M. D., F. R. S. Translated from the French. Dated Geneva, June 3,
1754. p.818.
The inoculation of the small-pox continues to be attended with the greatest
success in our city. Of 70, who were inoculated, there was not one in any
danger. Lausanne has been as it were forced to imitate us; and we hope, that
this excellent method, which we received from England, will spread itself from
one place to another, for the good of mankind. Mons. de la Condamine has
read to the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris a dissertation on this subject,
which was greatly applauded. But I presume, that the French will be a long
time in adopting the practice of inoculation. The clergy there throw a terrible
obstacle in its way.
CI. Extract of a Letter from Constantinople, of the iQth September, 1754,
from Murd. Mackenzie, M. D. concerning the late Earthquake there, p. 81 9.
On the 2d instant we had a terrible shock of an earthquake, about ^ after 9
at night, which moved from east to west, and has done a great deal of mischief
here, and in the neighbourhood. I shall only mention what I have seen.
Four of the 7 towers are much hurt ; one of them, which is an octagon, has
VOL. XLViri.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. S40
2 of its sides thrown down from top to bottom. It is said several of the Jani-
saries, who were on guard there, are killed. The 3 other of the 4 are much
shattered, and part of the walls fallen down. All the turrets, on the city wall,
from the 7 towers to the Adrianople-gate, are much shattered, though none
fallen ; all the cupolas of the portico of Sultan Mahomet the lid's mosque are
thrown down ; the Sickergee Han, a strong stone building near the above mosque,
is quite destroyed: some part of the wall of the Cara Han is thrown down; one
bagnio is quite fallen, and many people said to be destroyed in it. The Cautir-
ligee Han is quite down; and the Vizir Han much shattered; 7 minarets (co-
lumns from whence the people are called to prayers) of small mosques are thrown
down; the mosque called Little Santa Sophia is much damaged, and the prison
of Galata is quite down, and all the prisoners buried in its ruins. There has
been much damage done at Balat, a large suburb, Scutari, and on the canal;
and there are bad accounts from Nicomedia, but none well avouched. There
have been several small shocks felt since, but none have done any harm. Some
say there were 2000 people destroyed by this calamity, in the town and suburbs;
some QOO ; and others reduce them to about 6o, who, by what I have seen, are
nearer the truth.
The shock at Smyrna, in the year 1739, which I also felt, was much stronger.
On the 6th, about 9 at night, there appeared a cloud due west, when it began
to lighten and thunder, and the thunder continued, without any interval, till
half an hour past 10, moving gradually to north-east, where it ceased, and the
night was very serene and calm after it. About 10, when the thunder was north
of us, it rained for a quarter of an hour very heavily, then became clear, and
all the stars appeared. Such a peal of thunder I never heard in any country;
for I can aver, that it did not stop a minute in an hour and a halfs time.
Another letter, dated Oct. 1, says, that a Tartar was arrived express from
Armenia, in 10 days, with advice, that the city of Sivas, one of the Sebastias
of the ancients, was quite destroyed by an earthquake, on the same night, ih
which that was felt at Constantinople; and that a lake of fresh water is risen
where the town sunk. The earthquake was felt at Angora and Smyrna, but
there was no notice that they had felt any thing of it at Aleppo, though there
were letters from it about that time.
CII. Extract of a Letter from Camillo Paderni, Keeper of the Herculaneum
Museum, to Thomas Hollis, Esq. relating to the late Discoveries at Hercula-
neum. Dated Naples, Oct. 18, 1754. p. 821.
The first thing here discovered was a garden, in which were found several
marble statues of excellent Greek artists. This route led towards a palace,
which lay near the garden. But before arriving at the palace, they came to a
550 PHILOSOPHICA.L TKANSACTIONS. | ANNO 1754.
long sqnare, which formed a kind of forum, and was adorned throughout with
columns of stucco; in the middle of which was a bath. At the several ano-les
of the square was a terminus of marble, and on every one of those stood a bust
of bronze, of Greek workmanship, one of which had on it the name of the
artist, AnOAAfiNlOI APXIOT AeHNAICI. A small fountain was placed before
each terminus, which was constructed in the following manner: level with the
pavement was a vase to receive the water, which fell from above; in the middle
of this vase was a stand of balustrade work, to support another marble vase.
This 2d vase was square on the outside, and circular within, where it had the
appearance of a scallop-shell ; in its centre was the spout, which threw up the
water, that was supplied by leaden pipes inclosed within the balustrades. Among
the columns, which adorned the bath, were alternately placed a statue of bronze,
and a bust of the same metal, at the equal distance of a certain number of palms.
Seven statues were taken out from April 15 to September 30, near the height of
6 Neapolitan palms, except one of them, which is much larger, and of an ex-
cellent expression. This represents a fawn lying down, which appears to be
drunk, resting on the goat-skin, in which they anciently put wine. Two other
of these statues are of young men, and 3 of nymphs, all of middling work-
manship. September 27, I went myself to take out a head in bronze, which
proved to be that of Seneca, and the finest that has hitherto appeared, being as
excellent a performance as can well be conceived. Our greatest hopes are from
the palace itself, which is of a very large extent. As yet we have only entered
into one room, the floor of which is formed of mosaic work, not inelegant.
It appears to have been a library, adorned with presses, inlaid with different sorts
of wood, disposed in rows; at the top of which were cornices, as in our own
times. I was buried in this spot more than 12 days, to carry off the volumes
found there; many of which were so perished, that it was impossible to remove
them. Those, which I took away, amounted to the number of 337, all of
them at present incapable of being opened. These are all written in Greek
characters. While I was busy in this work, I observed a large bundle, which
from the size, I imagined must contain more than a single volume. I tried with
the utmost care to get it out, but could not, from the damp and weight of it.
However I perceived, that it consisted of about 1 8 volumes, each of which was
in length a palm and 3 Neapolitan inches ; being the longest hitherto discovered.
They were wrapped about with the bark of a tree, and covered at each end with
a piece of wood. All these were written in Latin, as appears by a few words,
which broke ofF from them. I was in hopes to have got something out of them,
but they are in a worse condition than the Greek. From the latter the public
will see some entire columns, having myself had the good fortune to extract 2,
and many other fine fragments. Of all these an account is drawing up, which
VOL. XLVIII.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 551
will be published together with the other Greek characters, now engraving on
copper-plates, and afterwards make a separate work by themselves. At present
the monk, who was sent for from Rome, to try to open the former manuscripts,
has begun to give us some hopes in respect to one of them. Those which I
have opened, are philosophical tracts, the subject of which are known to me;
but I am not at liberty to be more explicit.
Cllf. Extract of a Letter from Sir James Gray, Bart, his Majesty's Envoy to
the King of Naples, relating to the same Discoveries at Herculaneum. Dated-
Naples, Oct. 29, 175-1. p. 825.
Several curious and valuable things are daily found in the mine of antiquities
at Portici. They have lately met with more rolls of papyri of different lengths
and sizes, some with the umbilicus remaining in them ; the greater part are,
Greek in small capitals. The Canonico Mazocchi, who is much esteemed for
his learning and knowledge of antiquity, is employed in copying and explaining
5 entire columns, that have been lately unrolled off^ one of the papyri, which
gives some hopes of further discoveries. This manuscript treats of music and
poetry. The Epicurean philosophy is the subject of another fragment, a small
bust of Epicurus, with his name in Greek characters, was found in the same
room, and was possibly the ornament of that part of the library, where the
writings in favour of his principles were kept; and it may also be supposed, that
some other heads of philosophers, found in the same room, were placed with the
same taste and propriety.
Last week were found 1 fine bronze heads, of excellent workmanship, one of
Seneca, and another of a captive king. The king spares no expence in reco-
vering and preserving these valuable remains. In order to satisfy the curiosity of
the public, he has ordered a catalogue to be printed, with some designs of the
principal statues and paintings, which will be published soon. A more exact ac-
count of these discoveries will some time or other be given by Monsignor Baiardi,
who, in 3 large 4to volumes already printed, has not finished his introduction.
CIF. Of some Trials to keep IVater and Fish stveet, tvith Lime-water. By
Stephen Hales, D. D., F. R. S. p. 826.
Dr. Alston, of Edinburgh, had found, that the small proportion of a pound
of slacked lime to a hogshead of water, stirring it, effectually preserved the water
sweet, not only in a glass or earthen vessels, but also in a new oaken vessel.
April 9, Dr. Hales put into a 7 gallon cask of water, in the proportion of a
pound to a hogshead, some white marble lime; which was what they call sweated,
that is wrapped in dung, without which sweating, it is said, that it will not be
reduced to lime. — April 26. It had some taste of the wood, and a small degree
552 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
of ill smell, which being something more so on July 27, it was then poured
away.
July 15, He put into an 18 gallon cask 18 ounces of unslacked stone-lime,
made of very hard stone of the Clee-hills in Shropshire; that is, in the propor-
tion of 44- lb. of lime to a hogshead of 72 gallons. — June 25, the water was
sweet, but had a disagreeable taste of the cask, and continued the same Aug.
24; but Oct. 17 the taste was something worse. And, Nov. 12, there seemed
to be a very small degree of a putrid smell and taste. But the prevailing; dis-
agreeable taste was from the wood of the cask, which discoloured the water in
some degree.
He put also into a 9 gallon cask 1 ounces of the same unslacked stone-lime to
a gallon ; which was in the proportion of 9 pounds to the hogshead, and found
it much the same all along as the former.
With chalk-lime, in the proportion of 2 lb. to a hogshead, it soon stunk
much, and continued so to do for 4 months. This was Thames water, taken
up below London-bridge, which is well known to grow sweet again, after having
stunk for some time. So that chalk-lime (almost the only sort in use here), will
not preserve water from putrefaction; though stone-lime, as Dr. Alston has
happily discovered, does preserve water in a great measure from the great de-
grees of putrefaction it is subject to, and therefore may be very serviceable
at sea.
Being informed, by one who had been in the East Indies, that native mineral
sulphur had been found to keep water sweet there in earthen jars, at land, and
also at sea. April 2, he put into a kilderkin, or 18 gallons of pure pond water,
a pound of native mineral sulphur, in 7 lumps. April 26, sweet. May 3, be-
gan manifestly to stink. May J, stunk much, and was poured away.
May 8, the kilderkin being scalded, and made sweet, it was filled again with
the same pond water, and 6 lb. of native mineral sulphur put into it. July 27,
it was sweet. Oct. \7 , '\t was discoloured, and somewhat in a small degree fetid.
Nov. 12, the same. Hence native mineral sulphur may be of service to preserve
water from great degrees of putrefaction at sea.
Dr. Alston having written that he found fish would continue sweet in lime-
water for 7 weeks and more. April ig, Dr. H. put 4 gudgeons into white
marble lime-water. May 10, they were sweet; but on boiling one of them, the
flesh, though sweet, was reduced to be soft pap.
And Mons. Clairaut, who was at Lapland, to measure a degree of the earth,
told Dr. H. on this occasion, that the fish, which they there kept long dried,
were thus pappy when boiled, but not unwholsome. May 22, they smelled
sweet, and were firm to the feeling; but on boiling one of them, it dissolved
away like anchovy. June 12, another of the gudgeons, though sweet and firm
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 553
to the touch, being put into new-made stone hme-water, which was only milk-
warm, dissolved also, and the bones of the head were rotten and brittle.
June 18, two small eels, skinned, were put into stone lime-water. June 22,
one of them, which was firm to handle, when boiled was soft and pappy. June
25, the other eel was the same when boiled.
In order to try whether the lime, which adhered to, or had soaked into, the
flesh of the fish, which had lain in lime-water, had the quality of thus dissolving
the texture of the flesh in boiling, Dr. H. boiled a small eel, and a morsel of
mutton, for 10 minutes, in stone lime-water, when they were boiled enough,
and were of a due degree of firmness, and not pappy. A like eel, boiled in well-
water, was boiled enough in 5 mirmtes. Hence it appears, that the lime does
not, in boiling so short a time, dissolve the texture of the flesh into a pap,
which must therefore be the effect of unfetid putrefaction.
But lime-water made of chalk lime has very little of an antiseptic quality.
For last year, in the month of May, he put some gudgeons, and an eel, into
our common lime-water, and in 7 days boiled one of the gudgeons, but found it
too putrid to eat. After 28 days he boiled another, and it dissolved almost into
insensible parts; which shows, that it was much putrefied.
Dr. Alston likewise informed him, that he put a piece of veal in pounded or
slacked stone-lime, which in a week became tough and dry. Dr. H. put a piece
of veal, from half to three-quarters of an inch thick, into chalk-lime, on May
the 10th, and on the 31st of the same month it had a putrid smell, and was in
the middle red and raw, with a thin hard outside.
Having communicated these experiments to Dr. Pringle (whose trials having
been made with chalk lime-water, which is in common use here, agreed with
the last of mine), he observed, that the difference between stone lime-water and
chalk lime-water, might probably consist in this : the chalk, before calcination,
being a highly septic substance,* if some of its particles were not fully calcined,
these, by mixing with the water, would impart to it some degree of a putre-
fying quality, contrary to that virtue the water receives from such parts as are
sufliciently burnt. That the same would be the case of shells, also septics; and
therefore that the lime-water, made either of chalk or shells, would prove more
or less antiseptic, or even continue septic, according to the degree of calcination.
He added, that as all his experiments, relating to the antiseptic quality of lime-
water, were made in a furnace heated to the degree of human blood, a circum-
stance which he had marked in his Observations,-f- the uncalcined parts of the
• Observ. on »he Diseases of the Army, 1st ed. p. 390. — Orig.
t To one of the experiments preceding that on the lime-water, the author subjoins the following
note: " All the following experiments, whether made in the lamp furnace, or by the fire, were in
a degree of heat equal to that of the human blood, viz. 100° of Fahrenheit's scale." p. 383.— Orig.
VOL. X. 4 B
654 I-HILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754.
lime would in that state become more active in promoting putrefaction, than
when the trials were made in cold water.
And indeed it must be owned, that when any experiments are made on medi-
cinal substances out of the body, the nearer we can make them to the heat of
the blood, and to other circumstances those substances must undergo in the first
passages, the more just the inferences will be, that are drawn from those ex-
periments.
In regard to that quality of lime-water, in preserving fish longer sweet than
flesh. Dr. Pringle took notice, that he doubted it was a common mistake to ac-
count fish a more corruptible substance than the flesh of land animals. For
though fish might become sooner stale for eating than most flesh meats, yet
that fish did not so soon rise to a rank degree of putrefaction as flesh; and there-
fore that the former would be kept longer tolerably sweet than the latter by any
kind of antiseptic.
CV. Medical and Chemical Observations on Antimony. By John Huxham,
M. D., F. R. S. p. 832.
In the present advanced state of pharmaceutical chemistry, it is deemed unne-
cessary to reprint this long paper on the different preparations of antimony. Dr.
H. particularly recommends his so called essence of antimony, or vinum anti-
moniale, prepared by infusing either the glass of antimony or regulus of anti-
mony in white wine. This he preferred to every other antimonial medicine.
CFl. Of Mr. Samuel TiilVs Method of Castrating Fish. Communicated by W.
Watson, F.R.S. p. 870.
Several years since, Mr. TuU of Edmonton performed the operation of cas-
trating fishes, before Sir Hans Sloane, Bart, and several members of the Royal
Society, who met at Sir Hans house for that purpose. About 5 or 6 years ago
he performed the same operation in presence of our late president Mr. Folkes,
and others.
In England, where in many parts sea-fish are in great plenty, the fish of
rivers and ponds are less esteemed ; and improvements, either with regard to
their bulk or increase, are less attended to; but in Germany, remote from the
sea, where pond-fish are a great article of traffic, Mr. Tull's method may be of
great use.
Mr. Tull says that he castrates both the male and female fish; and that,
although almost any time is proper for the operation, the least so is just after they
have spawned, as the fish then are too weak and languid to bear, with success,
so severe an operation. The most eligible time however is when the ovaries of
the female have their ova in them, and when the vessels of the male, analogous
VOL. XLVZII.3 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 565
to these, have their seminal matter in them ; inasmuch as at this time these
vessels are more easily distinguished from the ureters, which convey the urine
from the kidneys into the bladder, and are situated near the seminal vessels on
each side of the spine. These may, without sufficient attention, be taken for
the ovaries ; and the more so, when these last are empty. When fishes have
spawned a few weeks, they are fit for the operation ; for, like hens, they have
small eggs in their ovaries as soon as they have laid their former clutch of eggs.
When a fish is intended to be castrated, it must be held in a wet cloth, with
its belly upwards ; then with a sharp pen-knife, with its point bent backwards,
or other well-adapted instrument, the operator cuts through the integuments
of the rim of the belly, and in doing this he carefully avoids wounding any of
the intestines. As soon as a small aperture is made, he carefully inserts a hooked
pen-knife, and with this he dilates this aperture from between the two fore-fins,
almost to the anus. From the back of this instrument, being blunt, the danger
of wounding the intestines is avoided. He then, with two small blunt silver
hooks, of 5 or () inches long, by the help of an assistant, holds open the belly of
the fish ; and, with a spoon or spatula, removes carefully the intestines from one
side. When these are removed, you see the ureter, a small vessel, nearly in
the direction of the spine ; and at the same time the ovary, a larger vessel, lying
before it, that is, nearer the integuments of the belly. This last vessel you take
up with a hook of the same kind with those before mentioned, and detaching it
from the side far enough for the purpose, divide * it transversely with a pair of
sharp scissars ; remembering always, that great care is taken in not wounding,
or otherwise injuring, the intestines. After one of the ovaries has been divided,
proceed in the like manner to divide the other ; and then sew up the divided in-
teguments of the belly with silk, inserting the stitches at a very small distance
one from the other.
Mr. Tull first put this method into practice, in order to prevent the excessive
increase of fish in some of his ponds, where the numbers did not permit any of
them to grow to an advantageous size. But from castration the increase was not
only prevented, but the castrated fish, as Mr. Tull asserts, grew much larger
than their usual size, were more fat, and, which is no trifling consideration,
were always in season.
He observes further, that the spawning time is very various : that trouts, for
instance, are full about Christmas , perch in February ; pikes in March ; and
carp and tench in May. You must always, however, make some allowance for
climate and situation, with regard to the spawning of fish. And, from a very
* Mr. Tull has frequently, to prevent the re-union of the divided cvaries, by which the eflect of
the oiieration might be defeated, taken out part of them, and yet the fish have survived. — Orig.
4 B 2
556 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1754,
diligent attention, he assures that he has been able to settle a point much contro-
verted by naturalists, in regard to the copulation of fishes. The most generally
received opinion has been, that they did not copulate ; but that the female did
cast her spawn in the water, and that then it was fecundated by the spermatic
matter of the male. Mr. Tull, in contradiction to this hypothesis, asserts, that
he has frequently seen fishes in actual copulation ; and that this is generally done
before the ova arrive at maturity.
After Mr. Tull has castrated his fish, they are put into the water where they
are intended to continue. He makes no particular appropriation, neither with
regard to the ponds into which they are put, nor does he give them any particu-
lar nourishment ; but they take their chance in common with other fish, as
though they were not castrated. And he remarks further, that if tolerable care
is taken, very few fish die of the operation, when performed in the manner
here described; though heretofore, when, instead of the belly, he made the
opening in the sides of the fish, numbers died, from his wounding the intestines,
and frequently dividing the ureters.
evil. An Attempt to point out, in a concise Manner, the Advantages which
will accrue from a Periodic Review of the Variation of the Magnetic Needle,
throughout the knoivn IVorld; addressed to the Royal Society, by Wm. Moun-
taine and James Dodson, Fellows, and requesting their Contribution thereto,
by Communicating such Observations concerning it, as they have lately made,
or can procure from their Correspondents in Foreign Parts, p. 875.
About the year I700, Dr. Halley having collected together many observations
on the variation of the needle, in several parts of the world, drew (on a mercator
chart) certain lines, showing the quantity of that variation, in those parts of the
world, over the representation of which those lines were drawn ; but as the quan-
tity of this variation is in a perpetual state of fluctuation, in perhaps every part
of the world, it had been so much changed in the space of about 40 years, that
when the writers of this paper endeavoured, about the year 1744, to draw on it
other lines to answer the purposes above mentioned, they found that those laid
down by Dr. Halley were grown entirely useless ; and that a system of such
lines, or something analogous, should be performed once in every 10 or lj2
years at least, m order to answer the purposes intended by that gentleman.
In the reconstruction of them, the writers received the assistance of the com-
missioners of the navy, and of the directors of the East-India and African com-
panies, having leave to peruse the journals of those mariners which were under
the direction of each respective body ; from these, and a few private communica-
tions, they were enabled to draw the proper lines over the most frequented seas.
and to make some attempts toward doing the same in those least so ; a copy 01
VOL. XLVIII.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 557
the chart, thus again rendered useful, they presented to the r. s. with an account
of the methods used in performing the same.
Though the most beneficial use of these lines belongs to the sea, yet if they
could be extended over the land likewise, the advantages arising would more than
compensate the trouble, as will appear by taking a short view of each.
And first, the use of these lines at sea may be considered either as common to
the art of navigating in all large bodies of water; or as particular in some such :
the general use being that of steering the true course designed, and finding the
ship's true place, as near as may be, by what the mariners call the dead reckoning.
The particular uses will be best explained by examples : for instance, in the
southern parts of the great Atlantic ocean, beginning with the coast of Brazil
and Patagonia, and proceeding to the south of the Cape of Good Hope into
the Indian ocean, as far as the common tracks of our East-India ships extend,
the variation lines have appeared to be, for the most part, directed northward
and southward : whence, in most places of that great body of waters, if the lati-
tude and variation be found by celestial obsei-vations, the longitude will be ob-
tained by the lines on the chart ; the great usefulness of which has been attested
to the writers, by many persons who have, successfully to themselves, practically
applied the last constructed chart, to correct their dead-reckoning on that long
passage.
Indeed, where the variation lines run nearly eastward and westward, as has
appeared in the Atlantic ocean, from the west coast of Europe to the east coast
of North America, no assistance toward obtaining the longitude can be derived
from them ; but as it frequently happens, within those limits, that meridian ob-
servations, for determining the latitude, cannot be obtained, especially about
Newfoundland ; then, if a good observation of the variation can be taken, at
any time of the day, the latitude may be nearly ascertained by the lines on the
chart.
Secondly, the advantages that will arise by extending the variation lines over
the land, as well as sea, will be the confirmation of those drawn over the waters ;
the continuation of which, from sea to sea, will be thus conspicuous, and we
hall be enabled to judge better of their nature, properties and causes; and if the
same can be extended over all the parts of the known world, the eye will be
presented, at one view, with the different degrees of attraction, with which all
the parts of this great magnet are endued, at the time when such lines are
drawn ; this the writers would have attempted to do, in the year 1 744, if they
could have procured a sufl^cient number of observations for that purpose ; but
though they frequently advertised their request, in the public papers, no assist-
ance was obtained.
As the writers have by experience found, that the proper period for re-examin-
558 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1755.
ing the state of the variation, is now at hand, without which the above-men-
tioned valuable advantages of the chart will be lost to the mariner ; they have
determined to collect and compare all the observations that can be procured by
them, in the space of a year from this time, or so long after as the return of the
East-India ships then next following ; if such delay should become necessary, by
the arising of any doubt in consequence of such comparison ; and then to publish
the result of their process, in such a manner as shall seem most convenient.
Several of the learned and ingenious have endeavoured to account for this
phenomenon of the variation of the magnetic needle, and its continual mutation ;
whence different methods of computation have been proposed, by which they
have endeavoured to determine what the quantity of the variation, according tq
their several hypotheses, will be at any given place and time: the above propo-
sition therefore will, if carried into execution, bring these severally to the test,
and enable the judicious either to approve or reject them ; the writers being de-
termined to publish nothing which shall not be warranted by the real observa-
tions, which shall come into their hands, and shall leave the application to others:
if any of them should be so far confirmed, by this examination and comparison,
as to give just ground for a calculation, their labour will be at an end ; but if
not, they humbly recommend the continuance of such a periodic operation, as
they now propose to undertake, being the only means of attaining such a desirable
event, and of supplying the defect till it can be obtained.
END OF THE PORTY-EIGHTH VOLUME OF THE ORIGINAL.
Art. I. On the Pressure of Weights on Moving Machines. By Christian Hee,
Professor of Mathematics and Experimental Philosophy in the Marine Insti-
tution of Copenhagen. From the Latin. Vol. XLIX. p. \.
Let fig. 9, pi. 11, represent an axe-in-peritrochio. Let a be the moving power ;
its distance fi-om the centre of motion a ; also b the weight, h its distance from
the centre ; and c the radius of the axis where the friction is. Further, let m
denote the weight of the machine, and d the distance of the centre of the forces
from the centre of gravity. It is required to find the pressure on the axis, when
the descending power a actuates the machine.
If now the pressure arising from the descending power a, or that by which
the thread is stretched at the side a, be called %; then, by the equality of action
and re-action, the pressure or tension at the other side j3 will be = -7 ; hence the
whole pressure, exclusive of the weight of the machine and cord, will be = tt +
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 55Q
-r = (^ "'" i") '^' ^* "^^^ ^^^ constant ratio of the pressure to the friction be
that of 1 to /* ; then the friction will be ( 1 + -) ttjw, ; and the momentum of this
friction = (1 + r) CTTj/. : but the momentum of the friction from the weight of
the machine is = mc;u ; which added to the former momentum, gives ((1 + ^)
» + m) Cf* : hence the momentum of the moving power is=Aa — sb — ((j
+ i) TT + m) c/x. But since the momentum of inertia is aoj'* + si* + mcP;
Aa— Kb— ((1 -(- -) T + M) Cfo
therefore the accelerating force will be = — — j-—, — tt ; and for
the acceleration of the point a, or of the moving power a, it will be, by the
Aa* — sab — ((1 + ^) »' + m) «Cj*
principles of mechanics, T^-TlW+Md^ X / = c; where/ denotes
the element of the time, and c the element of the velocity. But if a should fall
freely, it would be - / = /. And since the increments or decrements of velo-
cities, generated in the same particles of time in the same body, are as the ge-
nerating forces, therefore >' : / — <■:: a : the force generating the decrement of
celerity '/ — c, which is the same force that retards the fall of the body, stretches
the string, and presses on the side « ; hence, substituting for the values, we
Afl' — Ba6 — ((1 + ^) » + m) ac/b
have the following analogy 1:1 ^^ + bA' + mI^ :: a : tt ; there-
ab6* + AMd* + ABOA + ((1 +^)'f + m) Aac/*
fore IT = gi 4, b6» + Mrf* ' ^^°^ which equation is found
abA^ + AM(f* + ABaA + A Mac/* 1
Afl* + bA» 4- Mrf» — (1 + T)*OCIb
wa
ABaA +AMO' J- + ABO* + AM -j-
— , and the whole pressure
* Aa» + bA" + mcP - (1 + f-) AOC(i*
AB (a + A)' + am («P + ac/i.) • ( 1 + f )
-l'" —
* Aa« + bA« + Md* - (1 + A ) Aflc,*
If now we should exclude the friction and the weight of the machine, we
should have the whole pressure = ^^^^- And if, as is the case in the
.,, , AB (a + A)* 4ab
pulley, we suppose a= b, the whole pressure will be = -^^-qrjj-^ = j:^^'
500 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
//, Investigation of a General Rule for the Resolution of Isoperimetrical Pro-
blems of all Orders. By Mr. Thomas Simpson, F.R.S. p. 4.
The different species of problems comprehended under the name of Isoperi-
metrical ones, are of much greater extent than the name imports; since, not
only the determination of the greatest areas and solids, under equal perimeters
or bounds, whence the name is derived, but whatever relates to the maxima and
minima of quantities depending on a line, space, or body, of which the figure
is unknown, is by mathematicians included under that denomination. But not-
withstanding the usefulness and great extent of this subject, nothing had been
done in it further than the resolution of certain particular cases (such as finding
the line of the swiftest descent, and the solid of the least resistance), till the ce-
lebrated mathematician Mac Laurin, in his treatise effluxions, gave the investi-
gation of an elegant and very easy method, by which the principal problems
belonging to the first order may be resolved.
The paper Mr. S. now lays before the Society contains further improvements
on this subject ; as it is by far more general than any thing yet offered, and is
drawn up with a view to obviate the difficulties attending the resolution of a very
intricate kind of problems, and thus to open an easy way to some very interest-
ing inquiries in natural philosophy. But instead of reprinting the calculations,
it will be better to refer to p. 98, &c. of the author's Miscellaneous Tracts in
4to, published 1757» where the same paper is given in a more extended and im-
proved state.
///. On the Effects of Lightning at Plymouth. By John Huxham, M.D.,
F. R. S. p. 16.
Sunday, December 15, 1754, 25 minutes after one p.m. a vast body of light-
ning fell on the great hulk at Plymouth-dock, which serves to hoist in and fix
the masts of the men of war. It burst out about a mile or two to the westward
of the hulk, and rushed with incredible velocity towards it. The piece of the
Derrick cut out was at least 1 8 inches diameter, and about 15 or 1 6 feet long :
this particular piece was in 3 or 4 places begirt with iron hoops about 2 inches
broad, and half an inch thick, which were completely cut in two by the light-
ning, as if done by the nicest hand and instrument. The lightning was imme-
diately succeeded by a dreadful peal of thunder, and that by the most violent
snower of hail, which fell only in and about this town, for a mile or two : there
was very little of it at the dock, though only 1 miles distant. The hail-stones
were as large as small nutmegs, all very nearly of the same size and shape. They
measured, immediately after they fell, near 2 inches round.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 3(jl
ly. A Remarkable Case of a Morbid Eye. By Mr. Edward Spry, Surgeon,
at Plymouth, in Devonshire, p. 18.
The wife of Thos. Smaldridge, a mariner of Plymouth, complained to Mr. S.
of a violent pain in her left eye, and sometimes of very acute pains in the temple
of the same side, with some defect in her sight. She also imagined that her eye
was larger than ordinary ; but on inspection it did not appear so. The cornea
however became less transparent, and the pupil greatly dilated : but though the
pain of her eye was so great, yet the blood-vessels of the conjunctiva were uo way
enlarged, nor in the least redder than that and the sclerotica were before ; and,
from its whiteness, it appeared no more morbid than the other.
Having resorted to bleeding, blistering, mercurial purges, &c. without any
good effect. Dr. Martyne of Plymouth was consulted, but with no better success,
her pain increasing, rather than diminishing. And as the pupil became enlarged,
and the cornea more opaque, with great inflammation of the conjunctiva and
sclerotica, and an apparent prominence of the whole eye, when every thing
hitherto failed, Mr. S. tried '2 or 3 drastic purges; but these disagreeing very
much, he was forced to return to his former method. He then cut a seton in
her neck, which run very much ; but all to no purpose, and she became still
more miserable. The conjunctiva became greatly inflamed, with an eversion of
the upper lid, attended with great pain. He often made incisions with his lancet
on this coat, which bled plentifully, and gave her ease for a day or two, and
even took 8 oz. of blood from the temporal artery. But the eye being greatly
enlarged, and of so terrible an appearance, after all endeavours for 8 or 10
months, he judged her disease to be a carcinoma, and therefore proposed cutting
out the whole eye as the only remedy.
Several skilful surgeons were consulted, and it was agreed to defer the opera-
tion, and trust to nature ; though she was in that miserable condition ; but at
length her eye becoming much greater, and her pain being increased, he re
solved on the operation, lest the bones of the orbit might become carious.
Thus, having called in Dr. Huxham, with some of the most skilful surgeons
of Plymouth, he performed the operation in the following manner ; viz. the tu-
mor was so very large, and the upper lid so distended, that he was obliged first
to divide the orbicular muscle at the inner canthus ; and there began the incision
round the upper part of the tumor, for the more convenient use of the knife.
He had not cut deep when a great quantity of pus, like lymph, flowed out with
great force, like a fountain, and the tumor subsided a good deal; but pursuing
the operation, he found a large cist, which filled the whole orbit behind the eye ;
and so part of the cist was left to slough oft' with the dressings. The whole eye
VOL. X. 4 C
562 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
being cut out, he filled the wound with lint, 8cc. and in 3 days removed the
dressings, with a great quantity of sanies, which were daily renewed, and tlie
part of the cist, which was left behind, sloughed off the id day. The cure went
on with success, and, in a month from the operation, was completed ; and she
remained free from pain from that time to the above date.
Having examined the diseased eye after its excision, they found the humours
very much confused : the aqueous humour was not so clear as usual, the crystal-
line less solid and transparent, and the vitreous almost reduced to a liquid state.
The cist was very strong and elastic, and had a cavity large enough to contain a
hen's egg.
V. A Supplement to the Account of a Distempered Skin, published in the A2Aih
iV" of the Phil. Trans.* Bjj Mr. Henry Baker, F.R.S. p, 21.
In 1731, a lad, 14 years of age, was brought by his father from Euston-Hall,
in Suffolk, and shown to the r.s. on account of his having a cuticular disorder,
of a different kind from any noticed in the histories of diseases, as mentioned in
the aforesaid N° of the Phil. Trans.
More than 24 years from the date of that account, he was living, and shown at
London by the name of the porcupine-man. His name was Edward Lambert.
He was then 40 years of age, a good-looking, well-shaped man, of a florid coun-
tenance ; and when his body and hands were covered, seemed nothing different
from other people. But except his head and face, the palms of his hands, and
bottoms of his feet, his skin was all over covered in the same manner as in 1731.
This covering seemed to Mr. B. most nearly to resemble an innumerable com-
pany of warts, of a dark-brown colour, and a cylindric figure, rising to a like
height, and growing as close as possible to each other ; but so stiff and elastic,
then when the hand was drawn over them, they made a rustling noise.
When he saw this man, in September 1755, they were shedding off in several
places, and young ones, of a paler brown, succeeding in their stead, which, he
said, happened annually in some bf the autumn or winter months : and then he
commonly was let blood, to prevent some little sickness, which he else was sub-
ject to while they were falling off. At other times he was incommoded by them
no otherwise, than by the fretting out his linen, which, he said, they did very
quickly : and when they came to their full growth, being then in many places
near an inch in height, the pressure of his clothes was troublesome.
He had had the small-pox, and been twice salivated, in hopes of getting rid of
this disagreeable covering : during which disorders the warting came off, and his
•Vol. vii, p. SW, of these Abridgments.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 563
skin appeared white and smooth, like that of other people ; but on his recovery,
it soon became as it was before. His health at other times had been very good
during his whole life.
But the most extraordinary circumstance of this man's story was, that he had
had 6 children, all with the same rugged covering as himself: the first appearance
in them, as well as in him, came on in about g weeks after the birth. Only one
of them was then living, a very pretty boy, 8 years of age, whom Mr. B. saw,
and examined, with his father, and who was exactly in the same condition,
which he thought needless to repeat. He also had had the small-pox, and during
that time was free from this disorder.
f^I. Chi the lale Eruption of Mount Fesnvius. By Isaac Jamineau, Esq. his
Majesty's Consul at Naples, p. 24.
In April 1754, the fire issued from one end of a hillock, in the shape of a
crescent, within the crater. On his 2d visit, in September, the crescent was
turned to a cone, but much higher than before, being increased in proportion to
the fire, that now discharged, by frequent explosions, thousands of stones on
fire. On a 3d visit, in the middle of October, the cone seemed lower, which
was owing to the rising of the bottom of the cup, whose depth from 80 feet was
decreased to 50. The lava was actually running in many places ; and where it
was not, the fire was universally visible within a foot or two of the surface.
The running of the lava within the crater increased daily, so that in a month's
time the cup was filled within 25 feet. On Tuesday, December 3, at night,
after a little shaking, which was not felt above 2 or 3 miles ofl^", an opening burst
on the eastern side of the mountain.
Notwithstanding its slowness, it drives the strongest stone fences before it,
and from lighting the trees, like torches, affords a most extraordinary, though
dismal and pitiful spectacle.
But the lesser stream which I saw before, is a small trout-stream compared to
this, which sets off in a cascade of a mile's length, and, though rather with a
less declivity, is equally rapid, from the greater quantity of matter rushing down
it. The breadth about 60 feet at the top ; but by having melted down an
island, that divided its stream about 200 yards in the fall, the breadth in that
place must be above 1 00 yards.
FII. An Account of the Species of Plant, from ivhich the Agaric, used as a
Styptic, is prepared. Bij Mr. JVm. JVatson, F. R. S. p. 28.
Mr. W. having written to M. Clairaut of Paris, requesting him to put some
questions to Messrs. de Jussieu and Morand, concerning the species of agaric
used as a styptic, he received for answer that it is the
4c 2
564 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO J 755.
" Agaricus pedis equini figurd. Inst. Rei Herbar.
" Fungus in caudicibus nascens, pedis equini figurS. C. B. Pin.
" Fungus durus arborum, sive igniarius. Park. Theat.
" Fungi arborei ad ellychnia. I. B.
" Fungi igniarii, Caesalpini et Tragi.
" Boletus acaulis pulvinatus laevis, poris tenuissimis. Linn. Flor, Suec.
It is the agaric employed for the amadoue ; and Mr. Brossart, who first
brought this preparation into practice, conceives that that which grows on old
oaks, which have been lopped, is the most valuable ; that it should be gathered
in August or September, and be kept in a dry room.
The way of preparing it, is to take off with a knife the white and hard part,
till you find a substance so soft, as to yield under the finger, like shammoy
leather. This is to be divided into pieces of different sizes and thickness : beat
these with a hammer, to give them a still greater degree of softness, so that they
may be easily torn with the finger.
Mr. Morand thinks, that the agaric, which when growing is of a greyish
colour on the outside, is better than that which is white.*
VJII. Of a Mountain of Iron Ore, at Taberg in Sweden. By Peter ^scanius,
M. D. Translated from the Latin by Mr. Emanuel Mendes de Costa, F.R.S.
p. 30.
The mines of Sweden are justly esteemed superior to the mines of most other
countries; and those of iron are the most famed. Among the most curious of
the latter, is that of Taberg, if, with propriety, it can be called a mine. The
Swedish iron is, and has always been, carried to most parts of Europe, and is
preferred to all other iron.
This mountain is situated in a sandy tract of land, of which the sand is ex-
tremely fine. The whole mountain is one mass of rich iron ore, and even in
some parts is mixed with particles of native iron. About 200 years ago (for so
long have they worked on this mountain) they blew up the masses of ore ; yet
the mountain appears very little diminished, except in the laves or hollow places,
which are at the foot of the mountain, opposite to the valley. In the interior
fissures of the mountain, bones of animals, as of stags and other kinds, are fre-
quently found imbedded in the sand. No ore is found beyond the foot of the
mountain, nor on the neighbouring plain ; so that it appears, as if the mountain
Jbad been artificially laid on the sand, for it has no roots, or, like other moun-
tains, its substance does not penetrate the ground. The ore breaks easily, and
what is broken from the sides of the mountain readily falls to the foot of it ; while
* The plant here mentioned is the boletus igniarius, Linn.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. SSS
in other mines the ore, with great trouble and cost, is dug from the bowels of
the earth. The only inconveniency which happens here is, that the sand, which
is digged in very great quantities in the fissures, when the ore is blown up, falls
with it to the foot of the mountain, and buries or covers it, which they are forced
to dig away again ; on which account they always blow up the ore from the
bottom of the mountain upwards, for the greater ease of the miners, and to
hinder the heaping of the sand at the bottom. They then carry the ore to the
neighbouring furnaces, where being roasted, and broken small, they mix it with
lime-stone and powdered coal, and smelt it into iron.
IX. An Extraordinary Case of a Child. By Mr. Richard Guy, Surgeon, p. 34.
A child near 7 years of age, having languished, for near 12 months past, of a
supposed dropsy, and undergone the most skilful treatment of several eminent
physicians unsuccessfully, died in an emaciated state. By desire of the parent,
Mr. G. opened the body, expecting to find water, but to his great surprize,
there appeared as follows : a large round solid substance, shaped in the form of
an egg, weighing 14 lb. 24. oz. of the adipose cellular consistence; some parts
of it being more brawny than others. On dividing it through the centre, were
found several little cists, containing a meliceratous fluid ; the whole seemed en-
veloped in a membrane, which he apprehended to be the omentum, but the ex-
tension, from so large a body contained in it, had made it almost lose its reti-
cular appearance. It was surrounded with many small blood-vessels, but no
considerable ones. It adhered to the peritoneum, the back-bone, and almost all
the internal cavity of the abdomen, resting the large end in the pelvis, and
greatly compressing the bladder and ureters. The intestines were all crouded
together on the right side, in as small a compass as could possibly contain them.
The intestine colon passed round the lower part, in the form of an S, which
adhered likewise : it also inveloped the right kidney, which appeared something
larger than the other ; and on dividing it, he found small stones, not exceeding
the size of a large pin's head. The other kidney did not adhere to this sub-
stance. The small end pressed upwards against the diaphragm, so hard, as to
force the heart close under the left clavicula : the lungs were so confined, as to
render only one lobe capable of respiration ; the others appeared as in a still-born
child. The liver, gall-bladder, and spleen, were as in health ; the intestines the
same ; the mesentery was much extended with blood ; the matrix and ovaria as
in their natural state ; and no other parts, that he could discover, affected. He
could not discover, on dissection, any nuclei, that might particularly supply, or
give rise to, this enormous substance.
566 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
X. Extracts of two Letters from Mr. James Latterman, Student in Physic and
Surgery, to Dr. Schlosser, concerning the Effects of the Jgaric of the Oak,
To which are added some rt-marhahle Experiments made on the Arteries of
Horses, with the Powder of the Lycoperdon, or Lupi Crepitus. Bij M. La
Fosse, Farrier to the King of France. Communicated by Mr. Joseph IVarner,
F. R. S. Surgeon of Guys Hospital, p. 36.
[In these letters some additional cases are given of the successful application
of iigaric as a styptic after surgical operations. Also, of the application of the
lycoperdon, with similar success. After the several cases of this kind, related in
the preceding numbers of these Transactions, it is deemed suj^erfluous to reprint
the detail of these additional experiments, especially as the surgical practitioners
of the present day are agreed, that for stopping haemorrhages from the larger
arteries, the ligature alone is to be relied on.J
Respecting the manner in which these vegetable styptics act on the mouths
of the bleeding vessels, Mr. La Fosse observes First, that when applied to the
mouths of the divided arteries, the bleeding has ceased in a few minutes, and
that the mouths of the divided arteries have healed up without any further dis-
charge. Secondly, that in 24 hours after the application of this powder, a thin
pellicle or skin is formed on the mouths of the divided arteries, and that within
the vessels is found a small plug of congealed blood. Thirdly, that the pulsation
of the artery is to be seen in a very distinct manner at the extremities of the
vessels. Fourthly, that the coagulated blood is of a conical figure, whose basis
is at the mouth of the vessel, and its apex in an opposite direction.
XL On the Use of Lycoperdon, in Stopping Blood after Amputations.* By
James Parsons, M. D., F. R. S. p. 38.
XIL The State of the Thermometer, Feb. 8 and g, 1755. By Henry Miles,
D. D., F. R. S. p. 43.
The cold on the 8th, especially at midnight, was extraordinary, if it be con-
sidered in how short a space of time it increased to that degree. The lowest
state of the thermometer, was on the 8th day, at 7^ a. m. when it had fallen
to in-
XHL Some Cases of Dropsies, cured by Sweet Oil. By Wm. Oliver, M. D.,
F. R. S. p. 46.
Mr. Pierce took from Miss 1 1 pints of water. As soon as the bandage
could be loosened, Dr. Hartley and Dr. O. examined the state of her belly. The
• Not reprinted for the reason assigned in the remark affixed to the preceding paper.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 56/
epigastric region was quite emptied; but they found a great fullness, which
extended itself on each side the inguen, towards the back. They put her on a
very spare dry diet, and gllowed her but a quarter of a pint of liquids in the 24
hours. But though her urine much exceeded in quantity what she drank, the
swelling increased, and they feared the belly would soon fill again. A lady, who
was with her, said that, just before she left London, she had heard that two
persons had been cured of confirmed dropsies by being anointed, morning and
evening, with common sallad oil, which was rubbed into the whole abdomen,
for an hour at a time, with a warm hand. They could not refuse the trial of so
innocent a method. The idtraleiptae began their operation. About the 3d day
of anointing, the urine was considerably increased, and continued to be so. The
fullness gradually decreased, and in a fortnight's time was quite gone. Her
appetite, digestion, and sleep, grew natural, and she recovered flesh, strength,
and spirits. About 6 weeks after her first anointing, her menses appeared, and
at the end of the next month she had a regular return of good colour, and in
sufficient quantity. Dr. O. saw her at the public room a week befoie, in as good
health as she ever enjoyed.
This recovery was much talked of, and set all the hydropics on rubbing. A
man, aged 35, from hard drinking, and many wrong methods of cure, had
been cachectic 1 5 years, and had often the symptoms of jaundice and dropsy.
Half a year before, his belly, legs, and thighs, swelled to an enormous size. He
was with difficulty moved from his bed to his chair, and was given over, as a
person in an incurable dropsy. About 3 weeks before, he began to anoint. After
3 or 4 days rubbing, his urine was greatly increased; and in a fortnight, his
belly, thighs, and legs, were wonderfully decreased; and Dr. O. saw him after-
wards walking about the town, though before he could not move a joint.
A woman 70 years of age, of a thin habit, who got a livelihood by carry-
ing cakes about the town, fell into an ascites. Her belly was so greatly dis-
tended, that she was obliged to quit her business, to confine herself to her house,
and for the most part to her bed. She anointed. Her urine soon increased in
quantity, and continued to do so.
XIV. Observations of the Eclipses of Jupiter s Satellites at Lisbon. By John
Chevalier, F. R. S. p. 48.
Jan. 1 1, 1754, he observed the immersion of the 2d satellite at Q^ 4"' 3\ —
Jan. 15, the 1st satellite immerged at 11*' 23™ 58'. — Jan. 18, the 2d satellite
immerged at ll'' SS"" 30'.
*£5"
XV. Of those Malignant Fevers, that raged at Rouen, at the End of the Year
1753, and the Beginning of 1754. By Mons. Le Cat, M. D. p. 49.
About the end of Nov. 1753, a malignant distemper broke out in Rouen;
568 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
the ravages of which continued during the subsequent months of Dec. Jan. and
part of Feb. But before he enters on the history of this epidemic, he gives
an account of the diseases which prevailed during some of the preceding years.
The medical gentlemen, who had practised in Rouen from the beginning of
the 18th century, state, that, for the last 30 years, that country had been more
subject to malignant fevers than it had ever been before; and that the greatest
part of them had been accompanied with miliary eruptions. M. le Cat fixes this
epocha in 1723 and 1724, because the first of these years was excessively dry,
the rain at Paris amounting to no more than 7 inches 8 lines, while the mean
year comes to IQ, and the year 1724 had only 12; while the year 1725 pro-
duced more than 17-J- inches, which should cause a temperature nearly approach-
ing to the mean quantity, which may be considered as the most healthy.
He observed in 1736 and 1737 certain gangrenous sore throats, which chiefly
attacked children; they appeared again in 1748, in young persons of the first
distinction, not only at Rouen, but also at St. Cyr, near Versailles, and at Paris.
Persons of a certain age were also seized with it, not only in town, but in the
country; and in some the tongue alone was the seat of the gangrenous eschar.
In the same years 1737 and 1738, there was a great number of malignant perip-
neumonies, of that kind called pituitous. The lungs of these subjects, many
of which he opened, were become schirrous; and the patients perished for want
of being able to admit air into them, as if they had been strangled. Some of
them most earnestly begged him to open their breasts, imagining that a new vent
would give them breath.
In 1739 they had, at the Hotel Dieu, continual fevers, with frequent faintings:
and the patients, without any violent symptom, died in 6 or 7 days. He found
small abscesses in the substance of their hearts, near the auricles. Nothing
remarkable happened from 1739 to 1743, but that the finest, longest, and
driest summer he ever knew in Normandy, produced epidemical bloody-fluxes,
which grievously afflicted both Rouen and the whole country round about.
These fluxes were preceded by great lowness of spirits, attended with violent
colics, and a sharp fever: the pulse small, the mouth and tongue foul, a nasty
taste in the mouth, and frequent nausea; and whenever a hiccup came on,
death was not far off.
The principal seat of this distemper was in the large intestines ; though some-
times the small guts and stomach had their share. In one, who voided pure
blood a little before his death, he found a great portion of the intestinal canal
full of blood, the villous coat being much swelled, and greatly inflamed; and,
putting it in water, one might easily discern, with a magnifying glass, a great
number of red points, which appeared to be the mouths of the vessels, which
poured out the blood found in the intestines. Another had blood discharged
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. Sfig
even up to the stomach ; and the inner membrane of this organ, towards the
pylorus, was in the same condition with that of the great intestines of the fore-
going patient. The duodenum, jejunum, and the beginning of the ileum,
were sound; the end of the ileum was inflamed, and the large intestines were
gangrened. In another, the same intestines were all mortified; the caecum,
and half the colon, were as large as a stomach distended with wind. Their
canals were full of a bloody matter, and their inner membrane separated very
easily. The gangrene seemed particularly to affect this coat. The stomach and
small guts were sound; yet his death was preceded by the hiccough. In some
others, the gangrene had seized all the coats of the intestines; and sometimes
these canals were so far pierced by the eschars, as to let the faeces pass through
into the cavity of the belly. And in some the bladder itself partook of the dis-
orders observed in the great intestines.
A few bleedings at first, cooling liquors, as whey, chicken-water made into
an emulsion, emollient clysters often repeated, and paregorics given properly,
and in small quantities, were the most sovereign remedies for this disease. Pur-
gatives were generally hurtful. Ipecacuanha succeeded with some; and an Eng-
lish pupil, Mr. Greorge Ross, made very successful trials with boluses of vitrum
antimonii ceratum. Whenever blood was taken away in an over great quantity,
the patient in 3 or 4 days fell into the agonies of death. Anodyne drops given
too fi-eely, instead of quieting, occasioned restlessness, and increased the fever
and inflammation.
M. le Cat was himself struck with this disease, as if with lightning, and
passed, in a few hours, from a good state of health into a sinking and insensi-
bility, which indicated a gangrene coming on, and the utmost danger. Two
bleedings, close on each other, brought him to himself; but his insensibility was
succeeded by the usual colic and flux, which was the principal distemper: then
14- oz. of diacodium freed him from this painful and dangerous condition, as
speedily as the infected air had thrown it on him.
In the following season, and even in the year 1744, when this distemper pre-
vailed no longer epidemically, there happened some very extraordinary circum-
stances. A woman, the 30th of November 1743, being of a robust habit of
body, and in perfect health, was suddenly seized with a violent colic in her sto-
mach, and died in 3 hours, He found 3 gangrenous places at the upper orifice
of the stomach. He doubted whether ever any distemper could have deserved
the name of a plague more than this, if it had been epidemical.
In the course of the year 1 744, they had a great number of gouty rheumatisms,
with fevers. The patients were deprived of the use of their limbs; the miliary
eruption often came on, and seemed to relieve them by restoring their limbs.
In some, their pains went off by forming phlegmons and erysipelases on the ex-
VOL. X. 4 D
570 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1735.
tremities; some of which seized the arm and fore-arm, and were considerable
enough to bring on the death of the patients; others were attended with large
gangrenous eschars, which also frequently proved fatal. Of all the remedies,
that did service in these disorders, decoctions of the bark, and the sudorific
woods, as also that of scorsonera, were most effectual. But if a plentiful mi-
liary eruption came on, notwithstanding the relief it seemed at first to procure,
the event seldom turned out well.
The years 1745, 46, and 47, proved tolerably healthy; some disorders of the
throat, becoming more common about the end of the last of these 3 years, were
the fore-runners of the gangrenous sore throats of 1748. In these cruel dis-
tempers, the throat was in the same state with that of the larger intestines in
1743. Great and frequent bleedings made the patients go off the sooner.
There were also this year malignant fevers, that began with rigors, fixed pain
in the head, pain about the heart, the fever in appearance very small, yet at-
tended with delirium, and often with a miliary eruption. Those who died had
the villous coat of the stomach spread over with inflammatory spots, which
swelled its substance, and gave it a brownish purple-colour. These spots were
in greatest number about the upper orifice of the stomach. The small guts had
also some of these spots. Sometimes the glands of the mesentery were found
obstructed, where the larger intestines, and other viscera, were in a sound state.
He cured, or rather stopped the progress of, these distempers, by giving, on
the first coming on of the rigors, a cordial and febrifuge electuary.* When
the distemper did not yield to this remedy, he had recourse to small bleedings,
and gentle physic. Such as were seized naturally with a slight flux, got well
with the help of diluting liquors, made a little detersive, such as lemonade; but
some of them lasted 40 days, and more. The years 1749, 50, and 51, had the
like malignant fevers, some of which were accompanied with violent colics in
the beginning, followed with fluxes, which it was found necessary to moderate.
He succeeded with 1 or 2 blealings, after which he gave the decoctum album. -^
Some of these diseases had the appearance at first, of a slight peripneumony,
or cold, with perpetual faint sweats: then followed a drowsiness and stupor, a
rambling for some moments at night, the belly puffed up, and uneasy, little or
no urine, then a miliary eruption and delirium ; and the patient was carried off
in a few days. The stomach in these subjects was inflamed, as also the small
guts, by patches. In some there were ulcers, which almost penetrated the sub-
* Kinkina, 1 oz, ; Venice treacle and rhubarb, of each 4 oz. ; salt of centaury and wormwood, of
each 1 dr. ; syr. of mercurialis, q. s. — Orig.
+ Crumb of bread, 2oz. ; hartshorn-shavings, * oz. ; root of the greater comfrey, cut in slices,
1 oz. ; to be boiled in a quart of water for a .J of an hourj strain, and add 1 oz. of diacodiura.
—Orig.
\
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRAX'SACTIONS. 571'
stance of the intestines. Their lungs were full of blood, and in the back part
adhering to the pleura. Those, who had a slight looseness only in the morning,
which did not check the sweats, recovered. Some of the malignant fevers,
which were at the H6tel Dieu in J 750, were reported to be caused by infection
conveyed in bales of horse-hair, to which was left some of the animals' flesh,
that was become putrefied; and yet these fevers did not differ from others which
we have already described.
A girl about 20 years of age, who died of this fever, had the mesentery filled
with obstructed glands, and the intestines mortified in different places. A man
had, besides these symptoms, almost the whole mesentery mortified, and an an-
thrax or carbuncle at the upper and fore-part of the arm-pit, and the whole body
of a livid colour. This carbuncle proves, that these malignant fevers were some-
thing pestilential.
M. le Cat makes no mention of the small-pox, which hardly ever leaves this
climate in any season of the year, but which is more common towards the end
of summer, and in autumn, and for the most part is accompanied with the mi-
liary eruptions, which he had already observed to be joined to all these diseases,
and which seldom failed to render them mortal. He opened several of these
variolous bodies, and in the greater nuniber found superficial ulcers on the ner-
vous coat of the stomach, towards its upper orifice, with livid and inflammatory
spots on the other parts of the same, as also on the intestines (though in a small
number) and the glands of the mesentery enlarged, and hardened.
In the year 1752, and beginning of 53, these malignant fevers, that put on
the appearance of peripneumonies, became mortal in 7 days, and they discovered,
that they were occasioned by a suppurative inflammation of the pericardium.
Laxative medicines, quickened by an emetic, were most successful against these
inflammations.
About the end of the year 1753, and beginning of 34, these malignant fevers,
which had their seat in the stomach, small guts, and partly in the lungs, ap-
peared again, and seized a great number of persons of distinction. This cir-
cumstance made them be considered as a new distemper by those who did not
attend to it sooner; and the havock they had usually made, being rendered more
remarkable by the quality of those who were the unhappy victims, gave the
suspicion throughout Europe of having the plague. These reasons redoubled
the diligence of the gentlemen of the faculty. The physicians met together, at
their college, several times, to communicate their observations on these diseases.
M. le Cat thinks they may be divided into 3 degrees.
The patients of the first degree felt, at the beginning, a lassitude, and pain in
the joints, attended with some fever, the fits of which went off by sweats.
4d2
573 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
They perfectly resembled those malignant, wandering, gouty rheumatisms of
1744. But these symptoms were of no long duration; they left the patients
long interxals, in which they were able to rise out of bed. There was no great
danger attending; and all that was terrible in them was this, that they were of
long continuance. The disease of the 2d degree had, besides the foregoing
symptoms, a continual fever, with exacerbations, and a pain in the head, that
increased as the fever increased. That of the 3d degree began with the symptoms
of the first, for 4, 5, and sometimes 8 days; after which it passed to those of
the 2d, and was besides accompanied, in the exacerbations, with a cough, sore
throat, nausea, a dry, black, and foul tongue; a delirium, or a tendency to it,
in the height of the fits, followed by sweats ; a remarkable stupidity in the remis-
sions ; in some a sinall oppression of the breast, with spitting of blood ; in others
a swelled belly, which was slow in every evacuation, especially that of urine.
Afterwards there often appeared the miliary eruption; some had a small flux, and
blood was perceived in the stools. A great number were affected with a dejec-
tion of spirits, and were struck with a sort of terror, as made them tremble at
the sound of a common voice.
These diseases ran through a course of 30 or 40 days, which he thinks may
be divided into 4 periods. The first, or first 7 days, were passed with the
symptoms of the first degree: the next 7 days with those of the 2d degree. In
the 3d period, which consisted of about the same number of days, the patient
laboured under all the symptoms of the complete disease. Towards the 21st the
miliary eruption came on, which led the patient either to death on the 25th, or
to recovery about the 30th or 40th day. Some patients, who were attacked with
more violence, ran through all the stages in 7 days, as was remarked in 1752;
and this short space brought some persons of the most vigorous constitutions to
their graves. Many of their bodies were opened, on which they made the fol-
lowing observations :
In some, part of the villous coat of the stomach, and of the small guts, was
inflamed; and the rest of these organs were filled with an eruption of the miliary
crystalline kind, except that it was larger; and there was likewise an obstruction
in the glands of the mesentery. In others, a strong inflammation had seized
the whole stomach, and a small portion of the oesophagus ; but the intestines
were free. These were filled with wind in those subjects whose bellies had been
swelled. In those cases, wheie the delirium had continued long and violent, they
found either ulceration on the stomach, or its villous coat separated, with a great
inflammation, and even some gangrenous spots on the other coats of that organ.
Nothing extraordinary was ever found in the brain.
The most successful method of treating these disorders, was as follows: A
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 573
bleeding or two, at first, was directly followed by a * vomit. M. le Cat had
seen this remedy produce a small flux of 5 or 6 stools a day, which, with the
addition of lemonade, was generally sufficient to effect a cure. But when this
success did not follow, the patient was bled first in the arm, then in the foot,
and every 2 or 3 days there was given some cassia, quickened by an emetic, and
dissolved in a decoction of tamarinds. They prescribed ptisans of strawberry-
leaves, adding some nitre; lemonades, clarified whey, pure water by itself, a
good many simple clysters ; draughts of the distilled water of borage and bugloss,
sweetened with syrup of lemons and water-lily. Many did well with a simple
julep of sugar and water, and a little wine. There were some, who, when they
were just sinking, were raised again by cordials of the warmest kind, such as
Venice treacle, given in large doses, and the preparation, called vinegar of the 4
thieves,-|* by spoonfuls, in broth. These medicines brought out a most plen-
tiful miliary eruption, by which they were cured.
The manner of recovery from this disease deserves a place in the history of it.
There were but few, who recovered of it in the usual way, that is to say, who
only wanted the restoration of their strength, exhausted as well by sickness as
the medicines. Almost all of them, even those who had it in the first and se-
cond degree, still felt some remains of the symptoms of the disease. Such pa-
tients, as had any critical abscesses, were saved by this tribute only; but others,
who escaped the mortality of this dangerous poison, carried about with them for \
several months, and still feel, its terrible effects; for to the usual weakness of
convalescents were joined palpitations of the heart; a little of the painful lassi-
tude in the joints, which was a sign of the first attacks of the disease; a slight
pain in the head, but almost constant; an uncertain pulse; and, on the lessening
or cessation of these complaints, they were replaced by wandering pains in the
hypochondria, swimmings in the head, melancholy, and a remarkable disposi-
tion to fear, being the remains of what constituted one of the characteristics of
the disease.
• It is called in the originalj I'emetique en lavage, which signifies an emetic well diluted with
water; the formula of which is, 4-gr. of emetic tartar, dissolved in a quart of water; the 4th part of
which is given at a time. After this has worked either by vomit or stool, another 4th is taken, and
so on, till the patient is supposed to have vomited or purged enough. — Orig.
+ This is an infusion of several aromatic plants in vinegar. The reason of its being called vinaigre
des quatre voleurs, is this :
When the plague raged at Marseilles, 4 rogues broke into the houses of the sick, and carried off
what they pleased, retiring to a secret place with iheir booty, and returned to the same business at
different times, till they had amassed great riches ; but were at last apprehended, and hanged. Being
asked, how they durst venture into the pestilential houses ? they said, they preserved themselves by
drinking a glass of their vinegar twice or thrice a day, sprinkling their handkerchiefs and clothes with
the same, and were not afraid. The French retain this name for it, though it is not in their dispen-
satories, and use it as a high cordial. — Orig.
574 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1755.
XFI. An Account of the Death of Mr. George fVilliam Richman, Professor of
Experimental Philosophy, a Member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at
Petersburg. Translated from the High Dutch, p. 6l.
In order to demonstrate what Mr. R. might advance in an intended discourse
with the greater certainty, he neglected no opportunity on the appearance of a
thunder-cloud, diligently to discover its strength. Bars were standing for this
purpose always on the roof of the house. These received the electrical power
of the clouds, and imparted it to certain chains fastened to them ; by which it
was conducted into one of his rooms, where his apparatus was. He was at-
tending the usual meeting of the Academy the 26th of July 1753, a little before
noon, when it thundered at a pretty distance, the sky being clear, and the sun
shining. On this he hastened home, in hopes of confirming his former obser-
vations, or possibly enabling himself to make new ones. The engraver So-
kolow, who had the care of his future treatise, accompanied him, to make him-
self the better acquainted with the chief circumstances of the electrical experi-
ment, in order to be enabled to represent it more justly on a copper-plate. Mr.
Richman carried the engraver immediately to his apparatus, taking notice of the
degree of electricity on his bar, which was then only 4; and by which it appeared,
that his bar had received very little from the thunder. He described to Mr. So-
kolow the dangerous consequences which would attend the electrical power
being increased to the 45th, or more degrees of his expositor. In the mean
time the misfortune happened, about half an hour after noon, which cost Pro-
fessor Richman his life. A thick cloud, that came from the north-east, and
seemed to float very low in the air, was taken notice of by people walking in the
street ; and these affirm, that they could plainly see, on the subsequent flash of
lightning, and peal of thunder, a quantity of vaporous matter issue from it,
which diffused itself in the circumjacent space. It was such a thunder-clap as
has hardly been remembered at Petersburg. The serene weather continued af-
terwards just as before. An English captain observed, that as the wind had been
till then easterly, not long before the thunder it veered about to westward, but
immediately after the stroke it returned to its former point, east. By this it ap-
pears in what manner the inflammation of the electrical particles followed so
quickly, the wind driving it against another cloud, not so pregnant with that
combustible matter. The neighbours declare, that they saw through their \yin-
dowsa vapour, in different rays, dart along the whole extent of the street ; and
that wherever it touched the ground, it emitted every where sparks ; which is not
incredible ; for there were people who, walking along between these rays of
vapour, were quite stunned, and some beaten to the ground, though they speedily
recovered
agam.
VOL. XLIX.3 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 5/5
A centinel in the Great Perspective*, not far from Mr. Richman's house,
which stands at the corner of the said Perspective, was thrown some paces from
his centry-box, but without receiving any injury. It is not therefore to be
doubted but that this very thunder-cloud, or its electrical discharge, must have
struck, the iron bars, which were on Mr. Richman's house-top ; by which a great
part of the electric force was conducted, by means of the chains, to his electrical
expositor; and thus it could not fail of having the melancholy effect, the parallel
of which has not been known. According to the account of the engraver
Sokolow, Mr. Richman inclined his head towards the expositor, to observe what
degree of force it would have; and while he stood in that bent posture, a great
white and bluish fire appeared between the electrical expositor and Mr. Rich-
man's head. At the same time arose a sort of stream, or vapour, which entirely
numbed the engraver, and made him sink down on the ground ; so that he can-
not remember to have heard the loud thunder-clap. The iron ruler belonging to
the expositor, which hung perpendicular, as it received all the force from the
bars and chains, cast from it a thread, which was fixed to its top, and drove it up-
ward towards the expositor. That this ruler might point out the degrees of
strength, that for its more powerfiil operation, it stood with its lower end in a
glass vessel, filled with brass filings. This ruler hanging right, a globular flame
has been always produced, as well by artificial electricity as that of the clouds,
which may be denominated natural electricity. This being now stopped, by the
filings and glass vessel, from taking its direction aownwards, seems to have ex-
panded itself round about the ruler, and by those bodies, incapable of electricity,
to have been carried on towards Mr. Richman. And this is further confirmed,
because they afterwards found the vessel broken in pieces, and the filings scat-
tered about. The particulars, which happened to Mr. Richman, Mr. Sokolow
is ignorant of. As soon as he had recovered his senses, he got up, and ran out
•f the house, acquainting every one whom he met in the street, that the thun-
der had struck into Mr. Richman's house. On the other side, as soon as Mrs.
Richman heard the very loud stroke of thunder, she came hastening into the
chamber, in which she conjectured she should see the bad consequences. She
found her husband past sensation, sitting upon a chest, which happened to be
placed behind him, and leaning against the wall ; which situation must have been
occasioned by his falling back on receiving the electrical blow. He was no
sooner struck than killed. There was not the least appearance of life. A sul-
phureous smell, not unlike that which is caused by the explosion of gun-powder,,
diffused itself through the whole house. Some servants, who were hard by in the
kitchen, felt its effects, being quite stupified. The electrical expositor stood on
* Probably a street so called.
576 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755,
a low beaufet, upon which was likewise placed a China bowl that was cracked ;
and there was such a shaking in the house, that the shock even stopped the
movement of an English clock, or pendulum, which was in an adjoining room.
There was no other inflammation happened in the house. But we have found
another effect of the force of electricity, or of thunder-bolts, discoverable by the
door-posts of the house ; for they were rent asunder length-wise, and the door,
with that part of the posts, so torn away, twirled into the porch. The reason of
which appears to be, because one of the above-mentioned chains, that were
carried from the bars at the house-top to the expositor, passed very near them :
and the kitchen door, being at a little distance off, had a splinter torn out, and
dashed against a stair-case, that went towards the top of the house ; so that part
of the elecrical matter seems to have taken its course this way, but without doing
any more damage. They opened a vein of the breathless body twice, but no
blood followed. They endeavoured to recover sensation by violent chafing, but
in vain. On turning the corpse topsy-turvy, during the rubbing, an inconsi-
derable quantity of blood fell out of the mouth. There appeared a red spot on
the forehead, from which spirted some drops of blood through the pores, without
wounding the skin. The shoe belonging to the left foot was burst open. Un-
covering the foot at that place, they found a blue mark, by which it is concluded,
that the electrical force of the thunder having forced into the head, made its way
out again at the foot. On the body, particularly on the left side, were several
red and blue spots, resembling leather shrunk by being burnt. Many more blue
spots were afterwards visible over the whole body, and in particular on the back.
That on the forehead changed to a brownish red. The hair of the head was not
singed, though the spot touched some of it. In the place where the shoe was
unripped, the stocking was entire; as was his coat every where, the waistcoat
being only singed on the fore-flap, where it joined the hinder. But there ap-
peared on the back of the engraver's coat long narrow streaks, as if red-hot wires
had burnt off the nap.
When the body was opened the next day, 24 hours afterwards, the cranium
was very entire, having no fissure or cross-opening ; the brain as sound as pos-
sibly it could ; the transparent pellicles of the wind-pipe were excessively tender,
gave way, and rent easily. There was some extravasated blood in it, and in the
cavities below the lungs ; those by the breast being quite sound, and not da-
maged, but those towards the back of a brownish black colour, and filled with
more of the above blood ; otherwise none of the entrails were touched ; the
throat, glands, and the thin intestines, were all inflamed. The singed leather-
coloured spots penetrated the skin only. In short, though one could trace out
all the consequences of an instantaneous stroke throughout the whole body, yet
many of them have not appeared to happen to others struck by thunder, when
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 577
they have been examined. Should not one therefore be led to conclude, that
the electrical force, that occasioned Mr. Richman's death, must have been of a
different substance from the common thunder-bolt ? That it was much more
subtile, is obvious, because it left so few visible traces in the body, which it pe-
netrated. Twice 24 hours being elapsed, the body was so far corrupted, that it
was with difficulty they got it into a coffin.
Mr. R. was born the 1 1th of July, 17 J 1, at Pernau, after the decease of his
father, Mr. Wm. Richman, treasurer of the king of Sweden, who was carried
off" by the plague, at the close of the year 1 7 1 0. Having laid the foundation of
his learning at the Gymnasium at Revel, he prosecuted his studies at the uni-
versities of Halle and lena, where he always made the mathematics and philo-
sophy his principal objects. He was made a member of the Imperial Academy in
the year 1735 ; extraordinary professor in 1741; and at last, in 1745, ordinary
professor of experimental philosophy.
XPII. Of a Roman Inscriptio7i found at Malton in Yorkshire, in the Year 1753.
By John Ward, LL.D. Rhet. Prof Gresh. and P'.P.R.S. p. 69.
This inscription was dug up in the Pye Pits, opposite the lodge at Malton, a
town situated on the river Derwent, in the North Riding of Yorkshire. And
the inscription, in words at length, may be read in the following manner :
Diis Manibus. Aurelitis Macrinus, ex equitibus singutaribus Augusti.
The peculiarity of this inscription, and what renders it remarkable, is the
character of the person, to whose memory it was erected. These equites singu-
lares are often mentioned in Gruter, Fabretti, and other collectors of ancient
monuments ; but this is the first instance of them, which has ever occurred in
any of our British inscriptions. Modern writers have differed very much in their
sentiments, concerning the particular office and duty of this part of the Roman
cavalry ; but Dr. W. thinks it most probable that these equites singulares made
part of the emperor's body guards. Reinesius was of opinion, that they not only
attended the emperors themselves, but also the governors of the Roman pro-
vinces, in the like station ; though Fabretti, who has given a large collection of
these inscriptions, declares that he had met with no sufficient evidence of this,
either from ancient writers or inscriptions. Schelius, in his notes on this passage
of Hyginus, thinks that they were first instituted by Augustus. And there is
an inscription in Gruter, which mentions one of these equites singulares as
having served under Augustus in several of his wars, and been rewarded by him.
This account of the origin and station of that body of Roman horse may
afford some light in settling the time, when this funeral monument of Aurelius
Macrinus was erected. For if they always attended on the emjjeror himself,
some one of the Roman emperors must then have been resident in Britain. And
VOL. X. 4 E
578 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
as Severus resided here for about 3 of his last years, and died at York ; it seems
most probable that this monument was set up within that time. And to this
both the form of the letters on the inscription very well agree, and the ligature of
the two letters G and A at the end of it. Fabretti observes, that these equites
singulares had a burying-place allotted them at Rome, in the Via Labicana, not
far from the sepulchre of the empress Helena. Several of their monuments have
been found in that cemetery, adorned at the top with a human figure, lying on
a couch ; and below the inscription, a horse with trappings, and a boy holding
a whip. And if any such are met with elsewhere, they have, as he supposes,
been removed from thence. Montfaucon has given a draught of one of those
monuments, which contains the inscription recited above, and answers to this
description of Fabretti, both as to the human figure, and that of the horse ;
the former of which has a patera in the left hand, and a mask is suspended at
each end of the couch ; and the boy, who is there wanting, he found on an-
other. Those ornaments might very probably be omitted on such monuments,
when erected in the provinces ; and it is plain there could not be room for the
human figure above the inscription in this of Mai ton. At which place, as Mr.
Borwick says in his letter, many urns, coins, and other remains of antiquity,
have been found, in and about the Pye Pits ; whence he supposes it to have been
a cemetery for some Roman garrison.
In one inscription the emperor Commodus is himself called eques singularis,
for the explication of which character recourse must be had to the accounts given
by historians of his life and actions. And among other instances of his base and
infamous conduct, he is said to have demeaned himself to that degree, as to act
a part in most of the public games that were celebrated at Rome. Thus, one
of his diversions was to attack wild animals in the amphitheatre ; at which ex-
ercise he was so expert, as never to miss his aim in killing them, either with a
javelin or an arrow. He would often combat with the gladiators, and was so
fond of that character, that he assumed the name of one of them, who had been
very famous. At other times he would act as a charioteer in the Circus. He
joined also in the athletic exercises, and was at last strangled by a champion,
with whom he had formerly engaged. Dr. W. does not find indeed, that he is ever
mentioned by historians as a racer on a single horse, which is the character given
him in the inscription ; as appears from Isidore, who calls them equites singu-
lares, as distinguished from the desultores. But that horse-racing was also one of his
recreations, we learn from a passage in Dion Cassius ; who says that Commodus
came once to Rome on a sudden, when he was not expected, and exhibited a race of
30 horses in the space of 2 hours. It is not improbable therefore, that he might
sometimes take a part in that exercise, as well as in those above mentioned. And
as he affected to have all his actions, however shameful or ridiculous, publicly
I
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 579
recorded, this inscription might have been erected in compliment to him under
that character.
A Catalogue of the Fifty Plants from Chelsea Garden, presented to the Royal
Society, by the Company of Apothecaries for the Year 1745, Pursuant to the
Direction of Sir Hans Sloane, Bart. &c. p. 78.
[This is the 33d presentation of this kind, completing to the number of l650
different plants.]
XIX. On the Advantage of taking the Mean of a Number of Observations, in
Practical Astronomy. By T. Simpson, F. R. S. p. 82.
It is well known that the method practised by astronomers, to diminish the
errors arising from the imperfections of instruments, and of the organs of sense,
by taking the mean of several observations, has not been so generally received,
but that some persons of note have publicly maintained, that one single obser-
vation, taken with due care, was as much to be relied on, as the mean of a great
number. As this appeared to be a matter of much importance, Mr. S. was in-
clined to try whether, by the application of mathematical principles, it might
not receive some new light ; whence the utility and advantage of the method in
practice might appear with a greater degree of evidence.
But the rest of this paper will be better consulted in Mr. Simpson's Miscel-
laneous Tracts, published in 1757, where the paper is much improved. From a
particular example which Mr. S. calculates, he infers that the chance, for an
error exceeding 2 seconds, is not -^ part so great from the mean of 6, as from
one single observation. And it will be found, in the same manner, that the
chance for an error exceeding 3 seconds, will not be t-bVo P^rt so great from the
mean of 6, as from one single observation. On the whole of which it appears,
that the taking of the mean of a number of observations, greatly diminishes the
chances for all the smaller errors, and cuts off" almost all possibility of any great
ones : which last consideration alone seems sufficient to recommend the use of
the method, not only to astronomers, but to all others concerned in making ex-
periments of any kind, to which the above reasoning is equally applicable. And
the more observations or experiments there are made, the less will the conclusion
be liable to err, provided they admit of being repeated under the same circum-
stances.
XX. Of the Success of Agaric, and the Fungus Finosus, in Amputations. By
Mr. James Ford, Surgeon, of Bristol, p. 93.
Mr. F. here gives an account of 2 cases of amputation, in which the agaric
was successfully employed as a styptic.
4 £ 2
580 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1735.
XXL Queries sent to a Friend in Constantinople. By Dr. Maty, F. R. S. and
answered by James Porter, Esq. F.R.S. Embassador there, p. 96.
1 . Whether we may know with any certainty, how many people are generally
carried off by the plague at Constantinople ? 2. Whether the number of in-
habitants in that capital maybe ascertained? 3. Whether what has been ad-
vanced by some travellers, and from them assumed by writers on politics, be
true, that there are more women than men born in the east? 4. Whether
plurality of wives is, in fact, as it was confidently afHrmed to be, in the order of
nature, favourable to the increase of mankind? 5. What is the actual state of
inoculation in the East? 6. What is become of the printing-house at Con-
stantinople ? and are there any original maps of the Turkish dominions, drawn
from actual surveys ? 7 • What sort of learning is cultivated among the Greeks,
and among the Turks ?
To these 7 queries Mr. Porter made the following answer :
1 . The only plague, which he observed at Constantinople, in the course of 7
years, was that of the year 1751 : there are almost annually dispersed accidents,
some perhaps real, some suggested by trick and design, to serve sinister purposes.
'2. The Turks have no register, no bills of mortality : they are prohibited, by
their law, from enumerating the people. He applied to the Reis Effendi, and
other ministers of the Porte, to know what probable calculation they could make
concerning the number of dead; but they all concurred in one general answer,
that they had no other but what was founded on the decrease of the consumption
of the quantity of corn, or bread ; and in general talked of about 1 50000. Corn
is delivered out by an officer of consideration, and an exact register kept. Be-
fore the commencement of the plague, in March and April 1751, the consump-
tion of corn was IQOOO measures, called khilos. On its continuance and decrease
it diminished to 170OO, and on its total cessation, it was found not to amount
to above 14000. A khilo weighs 22 okes. It is ground to 18 okes of flour.
The bakers have generally the secret to make out of this last quantity 27 okes of
bread. They add to an oke of flour one of water, besides some salt ; and as
their bread is almost dough, few of the watery particles are exhaled ; and it is
esteemed good if it is not doubled in quantity, when taken out of the oven.
The people live principally on bread ; the poorer with onion, garlick, fruits,
or pulse, according to the seasons ; the others with very small portions of flesh,
or fish. The more laborious professions, as labouring men, stone-cutters, car-
penters, &c. eat from 2 to 2^ okes a day ; the other, according to the common
run of families, composed of men, women, and children, half an oke each ; so
that the lowest calculation, on a medium, may be about an oke and a quarter
daily, eaten by each person at Constantinople. But should it be thought too
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 58 I
much, an oke, which is 1^ lb. English, he supposes nearer truth : the following
conclusions then will result : That therefore on the highest number of 19OOO X
27, we have 513000, the quantity of okes of bread consumed, and consequently
the number of souls at Constantinople. That on the decrease of the plague to
17000, 54000 persons were either dead or missing. That when the quantity
was reduced to 14000 on the cessation, those either fled or dead amounted to
135000.
It is said by some, that Constantinople contains near 3 millions of inhabitants ;
but on whatever supposition we take the consumption of the quantity of bread,
that quantity will be found erroneous. On a gross calculation made by some of
the principal men, and particularly the Chiorbachees, or colonels of Janizaries,
who had their stations at the most noted and only places where the funerals pass,
they reckoned for 6 weeks, while the plague was at its height, and in its crisis,
from 900 to 1 000 per diem ; and that the whole amount of the dead in that
time might be about 40000: and from the time it wis in its increase and decline,
they added 1 5 to 20000 more. If therefore we admit 60000 in the whole, it
will be as that sum to 513000, or as 1 to 8±-l.
There is a remarkable coincidence between this proportion, and the number
of dead which was carried out of the Adrianople-gate, during 1 2 days, the same
season of the year 1752; and of the like number of days in 1 75 1 .
Hence the number of dead, at least through that gate, in time of common
health, was to those in that of sickness, as 59 to 489, o^ ^s 1 to 8^, nearly.
The Adrianople gate is reckoned the greatest passage for the dead, on account
of its vicinity to the most extensive burial-places. A great deduction must be
made for the vast decrease of the consumption of wheat towards the cessation of
the plague, from the considerable numbers, who fled into Asia, the islands of
the Archipelago, ^nd Romelia.
It is extremely difiicult, if not impossible, to come at any other computus of
the number of inhabitants, much more so of houses, at Constantinople. The
city is divided somewhat in the manner it was under the Grecian empire, that
is, into different quarters, called Mahales, and each under the special direction
of an Imaum. As far as it extends to their immediate advantage, they are in-
formed of the number of families in their district ; but whoever would dare to
collect from them, might not only risk the censure of the government, but his
head. Besides, if the inquiry is general concerning houses, it is impossible to
fix a determined idea ; they confound palace, seraglio^ shop, room, and call
them indiscriminately houses. The Jews say, that they have lOOOO houses at
Constautmople : but in what we call a house, there are perhaps 10 families, and
the distinct number of the latter they dare not mention.. Mr. P. endeavoured
with persuasion, and all his weightj to induce the Greek and Armenian patri-
582 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755,
archs, to obtain for him a register of the births and burials of their respective
communities; but at length they acknowledged it impossible. Their parishes
are farmed to curates, by the diocesan bishops ; the income arises from births and
burials; so that to conceal the former, they must likewise the latter; and they
never exhibit a faithful register.
3. That there are more women than men born in the east, seems a figment of
travellers, rather than founded in truth ; it is scarcely to be known where poly-
gamy is lawful. The apparent conclusion may seem natural, because many of
the harems of the opulent, especially in the great cities, are numerous : but these
are not composed of the natives of those cities, but are brought from countries where
the Christian rites are observed ; in time of peace, from Georgia, and in war
from Hungary and Russia, &c. so that if more women are found in such fa-
milies than men, they must be considered as an extraneous production annually
or daily imported.
4. Mr. P. affirms it as a truth, that in general, Mahometans, notwithstand-
ing their law^ procreate less than Christians. The rich, who are the only persons
that can maintain concubines, have seldom 4 or 5 children. Few exceed 2 or 3;
many of the former, and most of the middling and poorer sort, have generally
but one wife. The latter indeed exchange them with facility ; but yet we do
not perceive they have a numerous progeny. He thinks this arises from a cause
different from that which is commonly assigned, not from their being enervated
by variety, but rather from their law. The frequent ablutions, required by the
doctrine of purity and impurity, perhaps may check the natural passion ; or when
it is at its height, they find themselves prohibited enjoyment.
5. Inoculation is practised at present among the Greeks, and, notwithstand-
ing religious scruples, among the Romanists : with the few he had known, it
generally succeeded ; but the numbers will not admit of comparison. There
are not perhaps 20 in a year inoculated. The Timoni family pretend, that a
daughter had been inoculated at 6 months old, but afterwards acquired the small-
pox in the natural way, and diet! at 23 years. The evidence is doubtful. Ti-
moni's account is incorrect ; his facts are not to be depended on. Pylarini's is
more exact. It was neither Circassians, Georgians, nor Asiatics, who introduced
the practice. The first woman was of the Morea ; her successor was a Bosniac;
they brought it from Thessaly, or the Peloponnesus, now Morea. They pro-
perly scarified the patient, commonly on many parts, sometimes on the forehead,
under the hair, sometimes on the cheeks, and on the radius of the arm. A
father told Mr. P., that the old woman not being able, through age, to make
the incision on his daughter, with the razor, he performed that operation. The
needle has also been used. The Turks never inoculate : they trust to their
fatum. Whence the method had its origin seems here unknown. A Capuchin
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 583
friar was on a mission in Georgia for above l6 years ; he has returned about 2
years ; he is a grave sober man, who gives an historical account of the virtues
and vices, good and evil, of that country, with plainness and candour. The
usual introduction and security of these missionaries is the pretence to the
practice of physic, that in destroying bodies they may save souls : so that this
honest man, who is extremely ignorant, was in high reputation both as physi-
cian and confessor. It was therefore impossible, as he himself observes, that
either the public or private practice of inoculation could be concealed from him ;
but he has most solemnly declared to Mr. P. repeatedly, that he never heard
one word about it at Akalsike, Imirette, or Tifflis ; he is persuaded, that it has
never been known among them. He has often and frequently attended the
small-pox, which is almost certain death there ; and generally, if not always, of
the confluent kind.
6. Printing was introduced by an Hungarian renegado, who called himself
Ibrahim EfFendi : it had no long continuance. The copies are not many, and
are now very dear and scarce ; few even to be bought. The maps did not exceed
3 or 4; one of Persia, one of the Bosphorus, and one of the Euxinus, or Black-
sea ; they are not to be found but in private hands. All our maps of these
countries are extremely imperfect and incorrect. The jealousy and superstition
of the people, though the government should permit Christians to raise any
printing-house, would be an irresistible impediment ; and they are too ignorant
themselves to be ever capable of doing it. The adoptive son of this Ibrahim
EfFendi, who bears the same name, is secretary under the interpreter of the
Porte ; he has all the materials for printing, but never could find, since his
father's death, and during Sultan Mahmud's reign, money to carry it on. The
question is now, whether Sultan Osman is not too strict a mussulman to continue
the permission.
7. The progress of arts and sciences, and literature, seems travelling on, gra-
datim, to the westward, from Egypt to Greece, from Greece to Rome, thence
to the west of Europe, and he supposes at last to America. We find few traces
in the east : the Greeks, who should be the depositaries of them, are the same
Greeks they ever were. Homines contentionis cupidiores quam veritatis. They
have retained all the vices, imperfections, ill habitudes, of their ancestors ; but
have lost all their public spirit, and public virtues. The clergy, who should
support the whole machine of learning, are themselves the source of ignorance;
all their talents and acquisitions consist in bribing among the Turks, and sollicit-
ing to destroy one patriarch, in order to make another ; to raise from a curacy
to a bishoprick, and to exchange from an indifferent one to a better. They
endeavour to cultivate literal Greek, and some study it, but advance no further.
There are neither grammarians, critics, historians, nor philosophers, among
584 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
them; nor have they proper preceptors or masters to instruct. They have formed
a sort of an academy at Mount Athos, for their youth, which will scarcely sur-
vive the person who has undertaken it : he has himself but the mere elements of
science. However, his desire of knowing may improve him ; and he may per-
haps lay the foundations in some youth with success.
The Turks have many books among them, though exceedingly dear ; folios
he had seen cost 100 to 2 and 300 dollars each; i.e. from 15l. to 45l. The
few printed folios, some of which he picked up some years before, cost 5l. to 61.
sterling. Their scribes spend many years about a few copies. Their learning
consists principally in abstruse metaphysics : some few touch the surface of
science. He had looked out with great industry for old Arabian manu-
scripts in the mathematical way : what they brought him were translations of
some propositions of Euclid, Theodosius, Archimedes, and ApoUonius. They
have some parts of Aristotle ; but their favourite philosophy is the atomical or
Epicurean, which with them is called the Democritical, from Democritus.
Many of their speculative men have adopted that system, and conform to it in
their secret practice. The institutes and practice of physic are taken from Galen.
Eben Zyna, or Avicena, is a principal guide : Mathiolus is known. But with
all this, as the sole drift and end of their study is gain, there does not seem the
least emulation towards true knowledge : so that the state of letters may be said to
remain deplorable, without the least glimmering or remote prospect of a recovery.,
P. S. Mr. P. corrects the report of the Capuchin concerning inocula-
tion in Georgia. One of their physicians, a most ignorant fellow, who
lives by his profession here, avers that, among those who follow the true
Greorgian rites, not Romanists, the practice is common. It has its rise from
mere superstition. He tells us, " That the tradition and religious belief of
that people is, that an angel presides over that distemper ; that therefore, to
show their confidence in him, and to invite him to be propitious, they take a
pock from the sick person, and, by a scarification, they insert it in one in health,
generally between the fore-finger and thumb. It never misses its effect, and the
patient always recovers. To attract the angel's good-will more effectually, they
hang the patient's bed with red cloth or stuff, as a colour most agreeable to him.
He has been assistant to this practice, and declares it to be common." The
Capuchin acknowledges, that it might be among the Georgians the Doctor men-
tions, and not have fallen under his knowledge.
XXII. Extracts of Two Letters to Thomas Mollis, Esq. concerning the late
Discoveries at Herculaneum. p, lOQ.
Near the royal palace at Portici, has been discovered a large garden, with a
palace belonging to it. In one room of this palace was found a mosaic pavement.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 585
made up of different coloured stones. It represents a city surrounded with walls,
having 4 towers, one at each corner ; and has since been taken up, to be placed
with other beautiful antique pavements in the king's galleiy.
Extract of a Letter Jrom Camillo Paderni, dated at Naples, Jan. 1755.
October '22, 1754, was found a bust in bronze, larger than the life, and of
excellent Greek workmanship ; which from some circumstances may be thought
to be a Syrian king. It has eyes of white marble, like many other busts, which
have been met with. November 27, was discovered the figure of an old fawn,
or rather a Silenus, represented as sitting on a bank ; with a tyger lying on his
left side, on which his hand rested. Both these figures served to adorn a foun-
tain, and fi-om the mouth of the tyger had flowed the water. This Silenus was
of bronze, and of good workmanship. The head was crowned with ivy, the
body all over hairy, and the thighs covered with a drapery.
From the same spot were taken out, November 29, three little boys of bronze,
of a good manner. Two of these are young fawns, having the horns and ears
of a goat. They have silver eyes, and each a goat-skin on his shoulder, in
which they anciently put wine, and through which here the water issued. The
third boy is also of bronze, has silver eyes, is of the same size with the two for-
mer, and in a standing posture like them, but is not a fawn. On one side of
this last stood a small column, on the top of which was a comic mass, that
served as a capital to it, and discharged water from its mouth. All the figures
before described are two palms in height without their bases.
• December 16, in the same place were discovered another boy, with another
mask, and 3 other fawns ; in all respects like those which were found the 27 th
and 29th of November, except that there was no tyger. Besides these, they
met with 2 little boys in bronze, somewhat less than the former. These like-
wise were in a standing posture, had silver eyes, and held each of them a vase,
with handles, on his shoulder ; hence the water flowed. They also dug out an
old fawn, crowned with ivy, having a long beard, a hairy body, and sandals on
his feet. He sat astride on a large goat skin, holding it at the feet with both
his hands, from which had issued a larger quantity of water than from the
others ; though the fawn himself is of the same size with the former.
All the above-mentioned figures were taken out of a place not exceeding 8
palms square, and were covered with the ruins of the building ; for they were
not in a garden, but in a room paved with mosaic work, the remaining part of
which we are now going on to examine. We have likewise found a large
quantity of household furniture, made of earthen and iron ware, and some glass.
vox.. X. 4 F
586 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
XXIll, On the Boohs and Ancient Writings dug out of the Ruins of an Edifice
near the Scite of the old City of Herculaneum. Translated by John Locke,
Esq.F.R.S. p. 112.
Within 1 years last past, in a chamber of a house, or more properly speaking,
of an ancient villa, in the middle of a garden, has been found a great quantity
of rolls, about a palm long, and round; which appeared like roots of wood, all
black, and seeming to be only of one piece. One of them falling on the ground,
it broke in the middle, and many letters were observed, by which it was first
known, that the rolls were of papyrus. The number of these rolls, were about
150, of different sizes. They were in wooden cases, which are so much burnt,
as are all the things made of wood, that they cannot be recovered. The rolls
however are hard, though each appears like one piece. The king has caused in-
finite pains to be taken to unroll them, and read them ; but all attempts were in
vain; only by slitting some of them, some words were observed. At length
Sig. Assemani, being come a second time to Naples, proposed to the king to
send for one Father Antonio, a writer at the Vatican, as the only man in the
world, who could undertake this difficult affair. It is incredible to imagine what
this man contrived and executed. He made a machine, with which, by the
means of certain threads, which being gummed, stuck to the back part of the
papyrus, where there was no writing, he begins, by degrees, to pull, while with
a sort of engraver's instrument he loosens one leaf from the other, which is the
most difficult part of all, and then makes a sort of lining to the back of the
papyrus, with exceedingly thin leaves of onion, if I mistake not, and with some
spirituous liquor, with which he wets the papyrus, by little and little as he un-
folds it. All this labour cannot be well comprehended without seeing. With
patience superior to what a man can imagine, this good father has unrolled a
pretty large piece of papyrus, the worst preserved, by way of trial. It is found
to be the work of a Greek writer, and is a small philosophic tract, in Plutarch's
manner, on music; blaming it as pernicious to society, and productive of soft-
ness and effeminacy. It does not discourse of the art of music. The beginning
is wanting, but it is to be hoped, that the author's name may be found at the
end ; it seems however to be the work of a stoic philosopher ; because Zeno is
much commended. The papyrus is written across in so many columns, every
one of about 20 lines, and every line is the 3d of a palm long. Between co-
lumn and column is a void space of more than an inch. There are now unrolled
about 30 coiumns; which is about a half of the whole; this roll being one of
the smallest; the letters are distinguishable enough. Father Antonio, after he
has loosened a piece, takes it olF where there are no letters ; and places it be-
tween two crystals for the better observation; and then, having an admirable
talent in imitating characters, he copies it with all the lacunae, which are very
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 587
numerous in this scorched papyrus, and gives this copy to the Canon Mazzocchi,
who tries to supply the loss, and explain it. The letters are capital ones, and
almost without any abbreviation. The worst is, the work takes up so much
time, that a small quantity of writing requires 5 or 6 days to unroll, so that a
whole year is already consumed about half this roll. The lacunae, for the most
part, are of one or two words, that may be supplied by the context. As soon as
this roll is finished, they will begin a Latin one. There are some so voluminous,
and the papyrus so fine, that unrolled they would take up 100 palms space.
XXIV. On the several Earthquakes lately felt at Constantinople. By James
Porter, Esq. p. 115.
This paper is quite unimportant, containing only some trite remarks on the
wind and weather, and accounts of some very trifling earthquakes that lately
happened, with no circumstances of any consequence.
XXV. Letters of Henry Eeles, Esq. concerning the Cause of the Ascent of
Vapour and Exhalation, and those of Winds; and of the general Phenomena
of the fVeather and Barometer, p. 124.
It is agreed, that the ascent of vapour and exhalation through the air may be
effected in two ways, by impulse, and an alteration of their specific gravity.
That vapour does not generally ascend by impulse, may be proved by many fami-
liar experiments, viz. put boiling water into a vessel; then empty it, and hold
the vessel with the aperture downwards; the vapour, which is afterwards expelled
from the vessel, must be in a direction downward; but we find, that as soon as
it has got but a very little below the rim of the vessel, it has its direction altered,
and ascends by the laws of specific gravity. The same thing may be observed in
all boiling vessels, where the vapour is emitted in a direction downward; or, in
cold weather, when the vapour of a man's breath may be seen, let him breathe
downward, and the direction of his breath will be presently altered, as in the
former case. Since then vapour ascends without any other impulse than that
which is incident on all bodies ascending by the laws of specific gravity; it is
necessary to inquire, how the specific gravity of vapour is altered, to cause its
ascent. This is generally supposed to be done by filling vesicles of water with
rarefied air, till the diameter of the vesicle be 10 or more times the diameter of
a drop of water, composed of the same constituent particles ; and that the vesicle,
by this means, becomes specifically lighter than air. But Mr. E. thinks that this
cannot be done so easily as it has been generally imagined; and when done, it
will not be sufficient for the purpose; which he infers from the following consi-
derations. First, the great difficulty in forming those vesicles, especially of the
particles of dry bodies carried off by exhalation, and filling them with rarefied
4f 2
588 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1755.
air, while the exterior air remains condensed. Secondly, that there is not any
allowance made for the weight of the included air. Thirdly, the constituent
particles of water are but very little, if at all altered in their specific gravity.
Fourthly, that this thin vesicle can never be a sufficient boundary between the
exterior condensed air and the interior air, so exceedinglv rarefied.
Rejecting these popular opinions, as to the cause of the ascent of vapours and
exhalations, Mr. E. observes that it now remains to inquire, by what means this
may be done ; since neither impulse, rarefaction of the air, nor any formation of
their parts by expansion, seem sufficient for the purpose. There appears to him
but one way of altering the specific gravity of the particles of vapour and exha-
lation, to render them lighter than air, which is by adding to each particle a suf-
ficient quantity of some fluid, whose elasticity and rarity are exceedingly greater
than that of the air. That the fluid or fire of electricity is such, will be easily
granted; but how far it is adapted to this purpose, we must inquire from expe-
riments. For the purpose is great; no less than all vegetation and animal life
depending on the ascent and descent of vapour and exhalation.
Mr. E. says he has made some experiments, by which it appears that all fumes
arising from fire, whether blazing or otherwise, and all steams rising from boiling
or warm waters, and from all other fluids, and the breath of man, and of all
other animals, and all the effluvia thrown oft' by perspiration, are strongly elec-
trified. But he now only mentions a few. First, that desultory motion, by
which it flies ofl^ from an electrified body to any number of non-electrics, which
are brought within the sphere of its activity and affection, till it be equally dif-
fused through all. Secondly, that the sphere of its activity is increased by heat.
Thirdly, that this fire does not mix with air. Fourthly, that it intimately per-
vades water, and many other bodies, covering their superficies to a certain dis-
tance; which distance is not in proportion to the bulk, of the body electrified,
but in proportion to the state of activity of the electrical fluid. Fifthly, this
electrical fluid readily joins with any fire which fumes, or rather with the blaze
or fumes of, any fire; but will not mix or fly oflT with the fire of red-hot iron,
or any other metal, which does not fume.
Now, to show that this electrical fire or fluid is the principal cause of the as-
cent of vapour and exhalation, we need only prove that it attends all vapour and
exhalation, and that in such quantity, as is necessary to render them specifically
lighter than the lower part of the atmosphere. He does not undertake to deter-
mine, by what cause vapour and exhalation are detached from their masses,
whether by the solar or culinary fire, or by the vibrations of the electrical fluid
rendered more active by those fires; though he thinks the latter. But it is evi-
dent, that they are emitted in exceedingly minute distinct particles, and that
these particles must pass through that electrical fluid; which surrounds the sur-
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 589
face of the mass; and that, by that means they must be equally electrified with
the mass, that is, they must be covered with the electrical fluid to as great a
distance from their superficies as the mass is covered ; which must always be in
proportion to the state of activity of the electrical fluid. In which state, when
they have passed the surrounding fluid, they must be repelled by it; and also
repel each other; and if each particle of vapour, and its surrounding fluid, oc-
cupy a greater space than the same weight of air, they must be fitted to ascend
till they come in equilibrium with the upper and rarer part of the atmosphere;
where they must float, till their specific gravity is altered. As it is very difficult
to assign the magnitude of each particle of vapour and exhalation, and that of
the surrounding fluid; and to show that both, taken together, occupy a greater
portion of space than the same weight of air; we can only apply to experiment,
to show that it is possible that it may be so; and that will show, that in all pro-
bability it is so; since it is evident, that every particle must be endued with a
portion of this electrical fire or fluid; and that there is not any other sufficient
cause assigned for their ascending.
It is evident, that on electrifying any light matter, such as down, or the
downy parts of feathers, their specific gravity is much lessened; and that, by
holding another electrified body under them, .they may be driven upwards at
pleasure. It is also evident, from experiment, that the more you divide the parts
of such bodies, the more of their specific gravity they will lose by being elec-
trified ; and by dividing them into very minute parts, that they ascend to a con-
siderable height after they are electrified. Hence he thinks it highly probable,
that the exceedingly small particles of vapour and exhalation may be, and are,
sufficiently electrified, to render them specifically lighter than the lower air; and
that they do ascend by that means. And that they will ascend proportionally
higher, as the surrounding fluid is proportionally greater than the particle which
is carried up.
Mr. E. then endeavours to show that the ascent and descent of vapour and
exhalation, attended by this fire, is the principal cause of all our winds. It
being admitted that wind is only air put into motion, many have been the con-
jectures how that motion is caused. Among which, the motion of the earth,
and the air's being rarefied by the sun, seem to stand first. The trade winds
being most regular, and occupying a considerable part of the globe, it has been
thought proper first to account for them, from the afore-mentioned causes. But
he thinks that these causes, by themselves, are not sufficient for the motion of
those winds, and much less so for the irregular motion of all the other winds.
If the apparent motion of the air was occasioned by the diurnal revolution of
the earth from west to east, by the air's being left behind, the motion must be
found more regular, and very different from what it is; for in that case the
SQO ■ PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
greatest motion must be at the equator, and from thence lessen gradually to the
poles; and must be continued always equally one way, both day and night, and
at all seasons. But we find quite the contrary: the most gentle gales blowing
at the equator and between the tropics pretty steadily, one way all day long, and
dying away at night; while high winds and storms, blowing all manner of ways,
are found in the higher latitudes. Neither does he think that the sun's rarefying
air can simply be the cause of all the regular and irregular motions found in the
atmosphere; but he thinks the cause is the ascent and descent of vapour and
exhalation, attended by the electrical fire, or fluid.
Now, all the vapour and exhalation, raised in the torrid zone, being buoyed
up by the electrical fire, must add a column to the air, though of a different
matter, at least 1000 times greater than the vapour and exhalation taken up;
which column must necessarily force the adjacent part of the incumbent air up-
wards, and must as necessarily be reacted on by the incumbent air, to restore
the equilibrium of the whole air. And as it cannot be readily forced down again,
it must float off, at that altitude, toward those parts where little or no addition
has been made to the atmosphere ; and by that means must propel the air on the
horizontal level with it, and that below it, as it is itself propelled by the weight
of the incumbent air. And that motion must be from the equator, where the
greatest quantity of vapour, &c. is raised, toward the poles, and partly to the
west; as the column of vapour is always rising from east to west, as the earth
turns toward the sun. For here we must confess, that the sun is the great agent
in detaching vapour and exhalation from their masses; whether he acts immedi-
ately by himself, or by his rendering the electric fire more active in its vibrations;
but their subsequent ascent Mr. E. attributes entirely to their being rendered
specifically lighter than the lower air, by their conjunction with this electrical
fire. The fire, which surrounds the vapour, beginning to condense, and the
vapour to subside, in passing the tropics, becomes a greater pressure on the air
beneath, and by that means forces some part back into the tropics, in the place
of that air protruded by the ascent of the vapour, &c. and the remainder in a
direction toward the poles. The common rotation of the air in coming in below,
to supply the place of that part carried up by any fire, may explain this motion.
To show how this motion must tend to the west, we must consider, that the
column of air, raised by the ascending vapour, &c. is at its greatest altitude to
the east, and therefore must press that air to the westward, which is continually
protruded by the vapours, &c. beginning to ascend from east to west; and the
compressed air at the tropics must tend to the westward, till their forces meeting
make the motion entirely to the west. The air itself being rarefied, and carried
up by the reflection of the intense heat of the sun, may be a considerable addi-
tional cause of these trade winds; but never can be the sole cause of all the
r
yOL. XUX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SQl
erratic winds. To account for all the irregular winds within the tropics, he
says, that where such happen, it must be by means of some tracts of land, which
rise to a greater height above the horizontal level, than vapours generally do; by
which the motion of the vapours is stopped, and the vapour accumulated by
succeeding vapour, and the air, on which they float, is of consequence pressed
into a new direction. And from hence may also be explained the cause of the
rains, particularly so called in the sea language.
He next considers what becomes of the vapour, &c. floating from over the
tropics toward the poles; which being less affected by the heat of the sun, re-
flected from the surface of the globe, the surrounding electrical fire begins to
condense more and more as it moves toward the poles, and the vapours of course
to descend; and that part most, which is most remote from, or is farthest left
behind by the sun; and of consequence the higher column of air must tend
that way to restore the equilibrium ; which motion, at this side the equator, must
be to the north-east; and as the vapour, &c, fall again to the earth, the motion
must be more to the east. Hence our south-west and westerly winds, which
blow a considerable part of the year.
But as this system is too regular to account for the phenomena of the erratic
winds, he considers whence they arise. He had before observed, that tracts of
land rising into the atmosphere will stop the regular motion of the vapour, &c.
and that the vapour being accumulated by succeeding vapour, the subjacent air
must be pressed into new directions Now this cause, added to the daily dilata-
tion of the electrical fire, and the contraction at night, and the coalition of the
vapours, to occasion their total descent, will be sufficient to produce a very great
variety of winds on this side the tropic.
It now remains to show, how the general phenomena of the weather and baro-
meter arise from this system. First, Why it generally rains in winter, while
the wind is south, south-west, and westerly. Secondly, Why north-west winds
are generally attended by showers in the beginning, and become more dry, as
they are of longer continuance. Thirdly, Why north and north-east winds are
generally dry. Fourthly, Why the east wind continues dry and dark for a con-
siderable time together. Fifthly, Why squalls precede heavy and distinct
showers; and why a calm ensues for some little time after they are passed.
Sixthly, Why storms and high winds seldom happen in a serene sky without
clouds. Seventhly, Why the vapours, in warm seasons, coalesce to form those
distinct dense clouds, which produce thunder and heavy showers. Eighthly,
Why the barometer falls lowest in long continued rains, attended by winds; ana
why it rises highest in long continued fair weather; and why the intermaliate
changes happen. Ninthly, Of land-breezes and sea-breezes, and water-spouts.
First, the vapours passing the tropics into colder regions, have their sur-
592 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755,
rounding fire condensed by degrees ; which must increase their specific gravity,
and lessen their repulsive power : by which means they must both descend and
approach each other, till at last they form dense visible clouds ; and these clouds
are also accumulated by other succeeding vapours, of like specific gravity, till
they form clouds, which are often several hundied yards in depth, as is often seen
in passing through them up the sides of very high mountains. In clouds of such
depth, he thinks the coalition of their particles to form drops, may arise from
their motion, and the order of specific gravity. Hence he thinks the excess of
electrical fluid will run off among the other particles; by which means the en-
larged particles have their specific gravity increased, and are enabled to descend
to a lower region of the air. And the more particles they impinge on, in their
descent, the more their specific gravity and velocity will be increased ; and the
more their velocity is increased, the more particles will they impinge on, till they
fall from the clouds in drops; whose size will be according to the depth and den-
sity of the cloud they have passed through.
Having remarked on several of the other particulars above enumerated, in a
diffuse and uninteresting manner, Mr. E. then adverts to something of land-
breezes and sea-breezes, a phenomenon which sometimes happens in fair settled
weather, when the wind blows out from the land at night, and in from the sea at
day-time. The land-breeze is occasioned by the descent of the clouds, and the
particular formation of the land; for if the land rise into a hilly country from
the sea, when the clouds and vapours ascend at night, which they often do by
the electrical fluid being condensed, they must press the air down the land to-
ward the sea in their fall; as may appear from the smoke of any fire running
down the side of a hill, in the evening of a damp day, when the clouds are on
the descent. And the sea-breeze is occasioned by the clouds ascending in the
day-time, which must impel the incumbent air upwards, and make room for the
sea-breeze to flow in ; but, beside the mere ascent of clouds, there is an exceed-
ingly greater quantity of vapour raised from the land than from the sea. For the
same extent of land has an exceedingly greater surface than the same extent of sea ;
which may appear from the various forms of vegetables and animals, &c. and
the greater the surface, the greater will be the evaporation. Beside, the more
irregular these surfaces are, the greater will be the reflection and refraction of
the sun's beams, which will increase their power. And it is also necessary that
the evaporation should be much greater from vegetable and animal fluids, than
from fluids in a quiescent state, to carry on a circulation for the great work of
nutrition. Now the ascent of these vapours must beget a circulation of the air
inward from the sea ; in the same manner as the ascent of vapours fi-om any fire
brings in the air below to that fire.
As to water-spouts, he says they are oddly described by the learned, as being
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 5g3
great columns of water sucked up from the sea by the clouds. But he says he
never saw any such; nor could he find, on inquiry from many honest men, who
have sailed almost all the known seas, that they ever met any such; and there-
fore he does not believe that there are any such. There is indeed an appearance
something like their description, which may have given rise to their conjectures;
but this is no more than a very heavy shower from a very dense cloud, which is
drawn into a conical form, and a very narrow compass at bottom, before it arrives
at the sea, which it dashes with great violence in its fall.
Dr. Birch, the secretary, by order of the Society, having desired to know the
experiments, by which Mr. E. found all ascending vapours and exhalations to be
electrified; answers, at first he only supposed they must be so, according to the
reasonings in his letter; but on trial, with a very simple apparatus, he convinced
himself that they were so. He extended a fine string of silk, 8 feet horizon-
tally, and from the middle suspended 2 pieces of such down as grows on the
turf-bogs, by 2 pieces of fine silk, about 1 2 inches each in length ; and then,
by rubbing a piece of sealing-wax on his waistcoat, he electrified the pieces of
down; and then brought sundry burning things under them, so as to let the
smoke pass in great plenty through and about them, to try whether the electric
fluid would run off with the smoke; but he observed that the down was but a
little affected by the passage of the smoke, and still remained electrified. He
then brought sundry steams from the spout of a boiling tea-kettle, and other-
wise, in the same manner, and still found that the down remained electrified.
He then breathed on them in great plenty, but found that the down still remained
electrified. He then joined the palms of his hands together, with the fingers
extended perpendicularly under the down, which still remained electrified ; though
the subtile effluvia, thrown off by perspiration, passed in great plenty through
the down; as may appear by holding one or both the hands in the same manner
under any light matter floating in the air, which will be driven upward, with as
great velocity as an electrified feather is by any electrified body held under it.
The electricity remaining in the electri fied down after these experiments, made
it appear that the smoke and steams must be either electrics, or non-electrics
electrified. It was easy to suppose them non-electrics, as they arise from non-
electric bodies; and the more, because the highest electrics by a discontinuity
and comminution of their parts, long before they come to be as minute as the
particles of ascending vapour, become non-electrics, or conductors of electricity.
For glass, resin, wax, &c. all become non-electric, even in fusion. But to try
whether the steams, &c. were non-electrics, he only bedewed the wax and glass
with his breath, steams, &c. from his hand to the end of the wax and glass ;
and then touching the electrified down with the end of the wax or glass, he found
that the electrical fire immediately passed from the down into his hand, through
VOL. X. 4 G
594 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1735.
the steams, &c. which rested on the wax and glass. Which he thinks suffici-
ently proves the steams, &c. to be non-electric; and he thinks that it as plainly
appears, that they are all electrified while ascending, because the electrical fire in
the down does not join with them in their passage through it; which otherwise
it would do with them, or any non-electric not electrified.
XXVI. Remarks on a Petrified Echinus of a singular kind. By Ja. Parsons,
M.D., F.R.S. p. 155.
This echinus was found on Bunnan's-Land, in the parish of Bovingdon in
Hertfordshire, which is a clay, and supposed to have been brought with the
chalk, dug out of a pit in the field. The round echinites are for the most part
found in chalk-pits, and they are in general, when recent, the most tender in
their shells; so that the chalk is the most favourable bed for them to be preserved
in long enough to be petrified; whereas in other kinds of matter, these would be
mouldered and destroyed before the petrification could commence; and it is very
singular, that almost all those in the chalk are filled with flint, or partly chalk
and partly flint, and sometimes with crystal. Now, as all flints and agates are
nothing else but crystal debased by earth, and as it is in beds of chalk that these
as well as multitudes of large stones are found, one would be almost induced to
believe, that chalk degenerated into flint; or, in other words, that flint was pro-
duced by chalk originally. And Dr. P. says he had many specimens, that seem
to prove it; in some of which they seem to show the gradual change from the
one to the other, not at all like a sudden apposition of chalk to flint.
Other kinds of echinites, such as the echini cordati, or heart-shaped echinite,
the pileati or conic, the galeati or helmet- shaped, with several other kinds, are
often formed of other species of stony particles. But the present fossil, being
one of the oval kind, with large papillae, is the echinometra digitata secunda
rotunda vel cidaris mauri of Rumphius, which, with the other oval echinites, are
very rarely found out of chalk; and it is remarkable, that whether they are filled
with chalk, flint, or crystal, their shells break with a selenitical appearance, just
as the lapides judaici, and all other species of echinites found in chalk-pits, do.
XXVII. On Toxicodendron. By the Abbe Mazeas, F.R.S. From the French.
p. 157.*
The Abbe Sauvages, of the Royal Acad, of Montpellier, communicated a
discovery of a plant, the juice of which adheres, without the least acrimony, to
a cloth, with more force than any other known preparation. The colour is black,
* The vegetables mentioned in this paper, as well as in tlie following letter by Mr. Miller, belong
to the Linnean genus rkui.
i
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 5Q5
and the plant, vvhicli produces it, is the toxicodendron carolinianum foliis pin-
natis, floribus minimis herbaceis. Abbe M. found also a plant of the same
growing in a garden at St. Germain, then only about 2 feet high. This tree is
remarkable for its leaves, which are continued like wings the whole length of the
twigs. He pulled off' one of the leaves, the juice of which produced a brownish
colour on his ruffle, but did not change black in less than 2 or 3 hours.
He examined all the plants of the same class. Near this was the toxicoden-
dron triphyllum folio sinuato pubescente, T. 6ll. Hederae trifoliae Canadensi
affinis planta peregrina, arbor venenata quorundam, H. R. par. 84. Arbor tri-
folia venenata Virginiana folio hirsuto, Raii. hist. 1799- This plant was not yet
above 3 feet high; its leaves are hairy; their pedicles, ribs, and fibres, are red;
a leaf being pulled ofF, a milky juice issued from the pedicle, which being put
on linen, became a finer black than the former, in less than half an hour.
In this botanical garden he saw another species of toxicodendron ; this how-
ever was only a shrub, and appeared to be at its full growth. It is the toxico-
dendron triphyllum glabrum, T. 6l 1. Hedera trifolia Canadensis Com. q6, vitis
sylvestris trifolia. Park. Theat. 1556. This plant is remarkable for having an
infinite number of black points scattered on the surface of its leaves, which
seemed to be a juice extravasated through the punctures of insects. A leaf
being pulled off, a milky juice flowed out, which, the instant it was exposed to
the sun, became the finest and deepest black he had ever seen.
The Abbe thinks that if these two trees of Carolina were of their proper
height, they would produce as fine a colour as this last shrub. He put the linen
marked with the three black spots into a boil of soap, and it came out without
the least diminution of the colour of the spots. When this linen was dried, he
threw it into a strong lye of the ashes of green wood; and again it came out
without the least alteration of the 3 shades of the spots, produced by the 3
plants. He took a handful of the leaves of the toxicodendron glabrum, to try
if it might be of use in dying; and made a very strong decoction of it; and
while boiling he dipped linen in it: it was tinged green, but, besides its not being
a good green, the whole surface was unequally coloured; for several places took
a fine black: whence he concluded, that the resinous juice of the internal parts
of the plant was the only part capable of producing the desired effect. He was
confirmed in this notion, after having let the decoction settle; it first let fall a
black resinous juice in small quantity, like the opium of the shops: then a
large quantity of a white sediment like a salt, which was quite tasteless on the
tongue. The water appeared greenish above, and blackish towards the bottom
of the vessel.
He would have tried some experiments on the roots of this plant; but, as
there was only one in the garden, he was afraid of injuring it. Perhaps the
4 G 2
5g6 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
fruit or seeds might produce some kind of dye. Probably in making incisions
in the bark, a juice might be obtained which might be turned to some use; for
tlie blacks of our painted cloths, which are preparations of iron with nut-galls,
after a certain number of >vashings, are quite spoiled, and only leave a rusty co-
lour behind. But it is not so with the toxicodendron foliis pinnatis, since the
Abbe Sauvages assures, that it was 5 years since his linen, marked with the juice
of this plant, has retained the black spots, notwithstanding the great number of
washings in lye it had gone through.
On the Same. By Mr. Philip Miller, F.R.S. p. l6l.
That the above communication of the Abbe Mazeas might not appear in the
Transactions of the r. s. as a new discovery, Mr. Miller gives the following brief
account of what has been written on this subject.
Dr. Kaempfer, in his Fasciculus Amaenitatum exoticarum, has given a figure
and description of this plant, which are so accurate, as to leave no doubt of its
being the same plant as the Carolina toxicodendron. His book was printed at
Lemgow, in 1712. His title of the plant is arbor vernicifera legitima, folio
pinnato juglandis, fructu racemoso ciceris facie. And by the inhabitants of
Japan it is called sitz vel sitz dsju, as also urus seu urus no ki. In the same
book there is a figure and description of the wild varnish-tree, which he calls,
arbor vernicifera spuria sylvestris angustifolia ; and the inhabitants, fasi no ki ;
but the varnish which comes from this tree is of little esteem.
The seeds which were sent to the b. s. some years ago, for those of the true
varnish-tree, by the Jesuits at China, prove to be of this wild sort ; and the
account which those fathers sent of the manner in which the varnish is procured,
being so very different from that which is mentioned by Dr. Kaempfer, that
he here transcribes it, as follows. They first slit the bark of the branches of
the shrub, in different places, with a knife : from these wounds there flows out
a white clammy juice, which soon turns black when exposed to the air : the
same juice is contained in the leaves and stalks of the plant. This juice has no
other tasteable quality but that of heating without turning sour, but it is dan-
gerous to handle, being of a poisonous nature. When they make these incisions
in the branches of the trees, they place wooden vessels under them, to receive
the juice as it drops from the wounds ; and when these become dry, and will
afibrd no more juice, they make fresh wounds in the stems of the shrubs, near
their roots, so that all the juice is drawn out of them. They then cut down
the shrubs to the ground, and from their roots new stems arise, which in 3 years
is fit to tap again. This native varnish scarcely wants any preparation ; but if
any dirt should happen to mix with it, the Japonese strain it through a coarse
gause, to cleanse it ; then put it into wooden vessels, covering it with a little of
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 597
the oil called toi, and stretching a skin over it to prevent its evaporating. The
varnish exhales a poisonous vapour, which occasions great pains in the head,
and causes the lips of those who handle it to swell : on which account the arti-
ficers, when they use it, are obliged to tie a handkerchief over their nose and
mouth, to prevent these effects.
The shrub is chiefly cultivated in the provinces of Tsi, Kocko, and Figo : and
the best varnish in the world, he says, is produced about the city Jassino : but
there are many other sorts of vaniish, which are collected in Siam, Corsama,
and other provinces, which are much inferior in their quality to this, and are
produced by different plants : but one of the best among those, he says, is pro-
duced from the Anacardium, or Cashew-nut-tree. This is procured by perforat-
ing the bodies of the trees, and placing a hollow tube into the hole, under
which is put a wooden vessel, to receive the liquor, as it flows through the tube;
and when they have obtained as much of the juice as will flow out, they stop the
holes made in the trees. This juice is white when it proceeds from the wounds,
but changes black when exposed to the air. This varnish is used, without any
mixture, for staining black ; but the Chinese mix with it native cinnabar, or a
red. kind of earth, to make a different colour.
The plant, which the Abbe de Sauvages mentions, is also figured and described
by Dr. Dillenius, in the Hortus Elthamensis, p. 3C)0, by the title of Toxicoden-
dron (bliis alatis, f'ructu rhomboide, where he also quotes the description from
Dr. Kaempfer, with the account as above mentioned ; and he has added all the
synonyms from the different authors, who have mentioned the plant, and makes
no doubt of its being the same with that of Japan, which, he says, should not
seem strange, that a varnish-tree should be fovuid in America, near the same
latitude with Japan ; since the Genseng, the Bignonia, commonly called Catalpa,
with many other plants, are found to be natives of both these countries. And
he questions, if the tea-tree might not be discovered in America, if persons of
skill were there to search for it. And he is surprised, that the inhabitants of
the English colonies in America have not attempted to procure the varnish, by
which a considerable profit may arise to them, as the plant grows naturally in so
great plenty there. ■ yj,>ii Ml v.t ii-iurrr
Mr. Catesby, in his Natural History of Carolina, vol. i. p. 40y has given a
very good figure and description of this plant : he calls it toxicodendron foliis
alatis, fructu purpureo pyriformi sparso. And he says the inhabitants of Carolina
and the Bahama islands call it, poison-tree, and poison-ash, as the other 2 sorts
of toxicodendron are called poison-oak in Virginia and New England. Mr.
Catesby takes notice, that from the trunk of these trees is distilled a liquid, black
as ink, which the inhabitants say is poison ; but does not mention its being used
there. There are two accounts of tlie poisonous quality of this tree, printed in
598 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
the Phil. Trans of the r. s. N" 367. The first was sent by the Hon. Paul Dud-
ley, F.R.s. from New England, and the other was communicated by Dr. Wm.
Sherrard, f.r.s. By both these accounts it is very plain, that this species of
toxicodendron grows naturally in Virginia and New England, in as great plenty
as Carolina, where all the species are the most common under-wood, in the lands
which have not been cleared. He adds, that as these shrubs are so very com-
mon in our northern colonies, and the anacardium, or cashew nut-tree, is also
common in our southern colonies of America ; it were to be wished that the
inhabitants of both would make some experiments to collect this varnish, which
may not only produce much profit to themselves, but also become a national
advantage.
XX Fill. On the Method of Constructing a Table for the Probabilities of Life
at London. By the Rev. ff'llliam Brakenridge, D.D., F.R.S. p. 167.
The great Dr. Halley, who had a singular faculty of applying his mathema-
tical knowledge to the purposes of life, was the first who particularly attended to
this subject. In the year 1692, from the bills of mortality at Breslau, he reduced
it into a sort of science ; and gave a table of the probabilities of life, that hitherto
has been justly esteemed the most exact of any thing of the kind ; from which
he and others have deduced many propositions, that are highly useful. But a
doubt having arisen, whether that could properly, or with any accuracy, be used
by us at London, as we are in a different country, and perhaps in a different way
of life. Dr. B. has been at some pains to inquire into this, and satisfy himself
about the objections. And he imagines that he can now show how that table
may be altered, to suit our case with sufficient exactness.
In the London bills of mortality, for the last 30 years, there is always added
an account yearly of the number of burials under each age, at the distance of
10 years, and of children more particularly under 2 years, between 2 and 5, and
between 5 and 10 ; which numbers are curious and useful. And though there
may sometimes be some inaccuracies and omissions, these numbers are as exactly
given as in our case can be expected : and what may be objected, is not so
much to the incorrectness of them, as to what arises from our circumstances,
that will not allow them to be proper to show the probabilities of life in all its
periods.
But if we compare the numbers of the dead, in the several periods at Breslau,
with those at London, we shall plainly see that the former show the decrements
of life in a natural and regular way, and free from the difficulties and objections
. found in those of London. In the infant state, under 2 years of age, there is a
5th lost by death ; but afterwards, as they gather strength, the deaths are di-
minished till between 10 and 20 ; and from that age the mortality gradually
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 699
increases, till after the age of 40 ; when the number of the dead continues nearly
the same, though the probability of life continually decreases till the age of 80 ;
and then at length, the living being almost all exhausted, the burials are greatly
diminished, AU which seems to be agreeable to the course of nature ; but con
trary to what we see in the London bills, especially after 50 years of age. How-
ever, they both agree in thi?, that the most healthy age is between 10 and 20,
and the infant state under 5 years of age the most uncertain for life.
Indeed it must be acknowledged, that in computing the Breslau table. Dr.
Halley had great advantages, which have made it so perfect. He had the num-
ber of births given, besides the burials at the different ages, in an inland town,
where there is no great concourse of strangers. But with us at London, the
number of births is not known ; because of the number of Dissenters of various
denominations, both foreigners and natives, of whose baptisms there is no ac-
count taken ; which makes our bills at psesent very imperfect. For none are
put into our bills but those wiio are baptized according to the form of our esta-
blished church. And therefore there are some thousands omitted, and yet many,
perhaps the one- half of them, ^vho are not baptized with us, bury with us; which
greatly perplexes our bills. And under this disadvantage it appears very difficult to
make an accurate computation of the decrements of life through the different
ages ; though this defect he imagines he shall be able nearly to supply. floulw
-')-iThere have indeed been some ingenious men who have thouight, that our
London bills are correct enough to form a table from them, which may better
agree with our circumstances than that which Dr. Halley has given us. And
Mr. Smart was the first who endeavoured to do something in this way, from our
bills only, about 18 years ago. But, in the table made by him, he seems to
have been greatly mistaken ; for he has made no allowance for the accession of
strangers, but considered the numbers of the dead, in all the periods of life, as
all come from those born here ; whereas it is evident that the strangers, above
20 years of age, are at least equal to them. And this has brought this paradox
into his table, that young people between 12 and 18, at London, are much
more healthy than at Breslau, or in any country place in England. For accord-
ing to him, in the 13th year, 2 die only out of 479 5 but at Breslau there die 6
out of 634; that is, there is double the number die more at Breslau than at
London ; which appears impossible. But between 30 and 40, he makes them
much more unhealthy than they are ; for at 40 he supposes one to die in 29 ;
whereas there does not die above one in 30, all ages taken together, with infants
included. Another ingenious gentleman, having seen this inconsistency, has
endeavoured to correct it, by supposing that the number of strangers that come
to settle in town, after 25 years of age, is inconsiderable ; and that above that
age, the numbers of burials may be considered, as arising from the natural de-
(JOO PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS, [aNNO 1755.
grees of mortality ; and then by proportion, increasing the numbers of the
living corresponding to all ages below 25 ; so that the table, altered in this
manner, is the same with Mr. Smart's above that age. And it must be con-
fessed, that this correction is very proper, and worthy of its author. But still
the table is greatly defective, as he has made no allowances for the recess of
great numbers who, after they have been a number of years in town, leave it,
if they survive ; and of many others who, after the age of 50, retire from busi-
ness into the country. And which is so very obvious, that our burials are fewer
than by proportion they ought to be after 50 years of age, as mentioned above,
and by consequence the people appear more healthy after that age ; so that after
70 they seem more healthy than at Breslau. For at 75 there appears from this
table to die 4 out of 45, whereas at Breslau there die 10 out of 88.
And that a great number retire from the town, after the age of 50, or before,
is further evident, if we suppose, even according to this corrected table, that
one in 25 die at the age of 50. For then the number of people alive, between
40 and 50, will be greater than 2604 multiplied by 25, or 65100: which ought
to be exhausted by all the deaths in the subsequent period. But all the deaths
which ought to arise from that number of living, in the following years to go,
according to the bills in the 3d column, is 5315 multiplied by jO, or 53150;
which is less than the people that were alive between 40 and 50, by 1 1950, or
rpore. And therefore above 1 1000, of those between 40 and 50, must have re-
tired from town. : 1; .K' J
h,.3ut now, as our bills are defective, it is next to be considered, what we at
London are to do at present, and what method of computation we are to follow?
And Dr. B. imagines it is very obvious what may be done. Our bills may be used
so far as 14 or 20 years ; for there is certainly no increase of our people till the
age of 14; because few young people come to town till they are fit to be appren-
tices or servants. And between 14 and 20, though many come at that time,
yet there is an emigration of a great number from hence to sea, to other coun-
tries, the universities, and country academies, that nearly balances the accession
of strangers. And then, after 20 years of age, the Breslau bills will be suffi-
ciently correct, to show the probability of life within and about the city. And
if so, a table may be made from both bills, that will agree with our case here
with sufficient exactness. For he cannot find that there is any difference in
the bills, above the age of 20, that can be depended on.
And from all considerations, he thinks it may be allowed, till it is otherwise
demonstrated, by bills formed in a different manner from what they are at pre-
sent, that the probabilities of life are much the same at London as at Breslau, at
the age of 20 or after 14. And if we take this for granted, we shall from thence
be able to form a useful table, for those within our bills, by accommodating and
■VOL. XLIX.]
PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS.
601
joining the bills of both places together. And we may also nearly determine the
number of infants born here, which hitherto has not been considered.
Now, from the births, which are found = I9561, and the numbers of the
dead in the different periods known by our bills, it will be easy to form a table
of the decrements of life ; because the dead in the intermediate years may be
found by proportion from the Breslau table. And accordingly Dr. B. computed
the following, which is constructed from the London and Breslau bills together;
which he thinks is a surer method of computing for us at London, than from
either of them alone. The first part to the 21st year, is done from our bills,
and the other part from the Breslau ; but it is formed in such a manner, that it
goes on as if from the bills of one place only. For, after the age of 20, it is
continued by proportion, by making the dead at London in the decennial periods,
to have the same ratio to each other, as the dead at Breslau. It supposes lOOO
persons bom in one year, and shows the annual decrease of them by death till
87 years of age, which may be considered as the utmost period of life. The in-
termediate numbers, marked d, show the dead in each year. The use of this
table is well known to all who can compute the value of annuities for lives.
Age. Pen.
Age. Pers.
Age
. Pers.
Age
. Ptrs.
Age. Pers.
Age. Pers.
Age.
Pers.
1 Age.
Pers.
1 1000
12 403
23
361
34
311
45
248
56 176
67
99 \ 78
28
323 d
4d
4d
5d
6d
6d
7d
6d
2 677
13 399
4d
24
357
4d
35
306
6d
46
242
6d
57 170
6d
68
92
79
22
127 d
6d
5d
3 550
14 395
25
353
36
300
47
236
58 164
69
86
80
17
45 d
4 d
4d
6d
6d
6d
6d
4d
4 505
15 391
26
349
37
294
48
230
59 158
70
80
81
13
32 d
4d
4d 1
5d
7d
6d
7d
4d
5 473
16 387
27
345 ! 38
289
49
223
60 142
71
73
82
9
26 d
3d
4d :
6d
7d
6d
7d
3d
6 447
17 384
28
341 39
283
50
216
61 136
72
66
83
6
13 d
4d
5d
5d
7d
6d
7 A
2d
7 434
18 380
29
336
40
278
51
209
62 130
73
59
84
4
9d
4d
5d
6d
7d
7d
7d
Id
8 425
19 SIS
30
331
41
272
52
202
63 123
74
52
85
3
7d
3d
5d
6d
7d
6d
6d
Id
9 419
20 373
31
326
42
266
53
195
64 1 17
75
46
86
2
6d
4d
5d
6d
7d
6d
6d
Id
10 413
21 369
32
321
43
260
54
188
65 111
76
40
87
I
6d
4d
5d
6d
6d
6d
6d
u 407
22 365
33
316
44
254
55
182
66 105
77
34
4d
4d
5d
6d
6d
6d
6d
XXIX. Of a Sheep, shoived alive to the Royal Society, in November I754,
having a Monstrous Horn growing from his Throat ; the stuffed Skin of which,
with the Horn in situ, was placed in the Museum of the Society. By James
Parsons, M.D., F. R. S. p. 183.
This animal was bred in Devonshire, with the preternatural horn appearing at
VOL. X. 4 H
602 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
its birth. The novelty of the thing made the farmer spare the life of the lamb,
and bring it up till it grew to the size of a well-grown sheep, pretty large of its
kind, and about 3 or 4 years old. When it was brought before the Society, the
owner said the horn weighed 26 lb. ; and the creature swung it about, and raised
it up with amazing strength. When he was fed, he moved forwards, letting
the horn drag between his fore-legs, by which he was enabled to lay his nose to
the ground ; for the skin, by which it hung, was flexible, and though reduced
to a neck, with respect to the circumference of the horn, yet it was hollow as
well as flexible, leaving an open passage from the flesh of the neck to the cavity
of the horn, and its contents. Sometimes the horn would come into such a
position, as to twist the skin, which gave the sheep great uneasiness ; but from
. experience he knew how to relieve himself, and from custom became ready at
that, as well as bringing it between his legs to favour his feeding. It was in
length along the convex or anterior surface, '2 feet 7 inches ; and on the concave
side 2 feet 1 inch ; its greatest circumference 2 feet 2 inches, middle circum-
ference I foot 6 inches; and near the apex 1 foot; and its weight is now 15 lb.
though emptied of its contents.
It was said that on opening him there was found, in the top of the horn next
the throat, which was hollow half-way down, a skull of a contracted round form,
with blood-vessels running on it, and a bag filled with grumous blood, among
which was a substance like a sheep's liver and lungs ; and a perfect sound kidney,
like that of a fresh loin of mutton. And this was attested by the names of 3
house-keepers of credit, who were present when the animal was opened, and
who, if required, were ready to make oath of it.
AJTA'. ^ Dissertation on the Cancer of the Eye-lids, Nose, Great Angle of the
Eye, and its neighbouring Parts, commonly called the Noli-me-tangere,
deemed hitherto Incurable by both Ancients and Moderns, but now shown to be
as curable as other Distempers. Addressed to the R. S. of London by Mons.
Daviel, Surgeon and Oculist to the King of France, &c. Translated from the
French by James Parsons, M.D., F.R.S. p. 186.
The examinations M. D. had made in these kinds of tumors had informed
him, that cancers of the lids, nose, and adjacent parts, have all their seat in the
periosteum, and perichondrium ; and that a cure cannot be expected without
taking them entirely oft": for the vessels that go from the cancerous tumor are
so strongly connected with the periosteum and perichondrium, that they seem
but one body, which becomes at length so greatly swelled, that the very bone is
often affected. When a wen or wart (which is often the beginning of a cancer)
begins to appear, and it is attempted to be pulled off", it becomes irritated, and
spreads so that the edges are reversed, and become callous and livid, accompanied
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 603
with a pain, and all other symptoms which characterize the cancer. These
kinds of wens, warts, and tubercles, which are situated in the great angle
of the eye, or on the lids, or the nose, often shoot out their roots on the
cartilages, that is, on the very membranes which cover them, and the roots
sink in sometimes to the substance of the cartilage itself, which they swell and
tear in the end.
The more that cancers are touched with caustics, the more they are irritated;
therefore there is but one method, but it is a sure one, of curing them, and
hindering their progress ; which is, to take them off with a cutting instrument,
destroying the periosteum and perichondrium, or even the lids, if the cancer
has penetrated them in their substance, with their cartilages : which the follow-
ing observations will prove :
Observ. 1. — On a cancerous upper-lid. August 11, 1736, M. Daviel was
called to Madame de la Fague, a nun, at Bourdeaux, 45 years old ; for a tumor
on the upper lid of the right eye, which she had for 20 years : it began by a
small wen, and increased by degrees, so as very much to incommode her. She
applied to a surgeon, who began by applying some drops of a liquid caustic,
which enraged the tumor still more ; which he appeased again by anodyne me-
dicines ; and then the tumor remained a long time without any sensible increase;
though she felt a continual sharp pain in it. But, as even the least disorders
are impatiently borne, she was willing to be relieved, and consulted another
surgeon, who took off the tumor with a cutting instrument, and who, seeing
that the ulcer, which was the result of the operation, did not heal, but on the
contrary made great progress in its erosion, and became callous, he touched it
with lapis infemalis ; and sometimes with a liquid caustic : which so much the
more increased the evil, and made her resolve to suffer no more applications,
because all that had been tried made her worse and worse. She was now a long
time in this state, when M. D. was called to consult with several other practi-
tioners, who, having examined the case, agreed with him that there was no other
method to be taken but the operation, not only to save the eye, but to prevent
an incurable cancer, which threatened her life. Therefore he proposed the total
extirpation of the lid : which proposal being approved of by all, as the only me-
thod of saving the eye, the operation was performed in the following manner :
He passed a crooked needle, with a waxed thread, under the lid, by which
he suspended and drew up the lid and tumor, which he cut oft' with the crooked
scissars, as much as he could under the orbit, separating the whole to the divi-
sion of the lids; a small haemorrhage ensued, but which was soon stopped with
dry lint, and a dry compress and bandage.
She remained 24 hours without being dressed ; was bled twice in the arm,
after the operation : he then dressed her up with light dossils, armed with the
4 h2
()04 VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1735.
linimentum Arcaei, and she had not the least accident from the day of the opera-
tion to the 25th of the same month, when she was perfectly cured, without any
deformity in her eye : and though the lid was cut away very high, the eye re-
mained very neat and well, performing its several functions properly when he
left Bounleaux; and the 13th of August 1742, having had an opportunity of
taking a journey to that town, he saw the patient again, whom he found ex-
tremely well, seeing perfectly with that eye : but what he found very singular
was, that the skm of the lid descended pretty low, to the cornea, which it al-
most covered ; so that the whole globe was in a manner hid. He onlv observed
that this resembleii a lid without hairs.
Observ. 1. — On another cancerous tumor in the great angle of the eye. July
2, 1736, Margaret Combaucaut, of Carcastone in Languedoc, 60 years old,
had a cancerous tumour, for 16 years, in the great angle of the right eye: it
began by a little wart, which itched violently, and made her scratch it very often,
which so irritated the tumor, that in a little time it became as large as a dried
fig flatted, with its edges turned outward and callous. It reached from the
commissure of the lower lid, an inch and half below it, even to the right ala of
the nose, which proved extremely troublesome to her. He found, after a strict
examination, that it adhered to the bone. She said she tried all the remedies
that she imagined would do her any good ; but that, far from relieving her, they
rather made her worse, and her disease became the moi-e insupportable , and that
she had taken a resolution to undergo any thing to be freed from a disorder
which had afflicted her for 1 6 years.
Having consulted Mr. Fabre, an able physician of that place, they were both
of opinion, that she could not be cured without an operation, which he accord-
ingly proceeded to as follows : he took off" the tumor entirely to the periosteum,
but did not lay the bone bare ; for he thought it sufficient for a complete cure to
take away all the callosities; but he was mistaken ; for instead of the prospect of
a succeeding cure, he was unhappy enough to see the swelling increase, and the
wound seem larger than before. He used in vain all the remedies commonly
thought of in such cases ; he scarified the edges of the ulcer, to bring it to sup-
puration ; but it became more hard and callous than before the operation, and
much more painful. He therefore resolved to cut away all that remained of the
tumor, with the periosteum, which appeared very much swelled. This second
operation had so much success, that the swelling, and every other bad symptom,
disappeared almost suddenly; and in 3 days the wound looked red and very well,
without any pain, and the cicatrix was perfectly formed on the 15 th day from
the operation, without any sensible exfoliation of the bone, or the least deformity
or staring of the eye. She had remained very well ever after ; for he saw her the
10th of August 1741, at Carcastone, in perfect health ; and the cicatrix of the
VOL. XLIX.3 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 605
part very even. He observes, that he laid the entire bone bare, wherever the
tumour touched, even down to the ala of the nose of that side.
Observ. the 3d was on a cancerous tumor of the same nature, and in the same
situation, and the treatment just the same ; it was as large as a filbert, and the
officer was afflicted with it 20 years. It differed from the former only in this,
that the year before the officer came to Marseilles, to put himself under Mons.
Daviel's cure, the tumor broke, and discharged a very fetid acrimonious matter,
which, running into the eye, brought on a troublesome ophthalmia, and the
edges were livid, and had a very terrible aspect. As to his operation, it consisted,
as before, of a total extirpation of the cancer, periosteum and all, to the bare
bone. He dressed the bone with dry lint only, and his digestive was a mixture
of the linimentum Arcaei, with the unguentum styracis : and in about 1 9 days he
was so perfectly cured, that when he returned to his friends, several of them
asked him, on which eye the operation had been made ?
Observ. 4, differed in nothing from the former. '1
Observ. 5, On a cancerous tumour on the nose, which reached from the root
of the nose down to the middle of the cartilage. He treated it in the same
manner, taking off the whole with the periosteum ; and, as it was partly upon
the cartilage, he also cut away the perichondrium, laying that, as well as the
bone, bare : and the cure was completed, without leaving any deformity behind,
in 18 days.
Observ. 6. Of a cancerous tumor on the great angle of the right eye of a
woman at Marseilles, of 70 years old. This he treated exactly in the same
manner, and she was cured in 20 days.
The 7 th observation mentioned another cancerous tumor on the nose, and its
cartilage, of a gentleman, which was circumstantially the same with the former :
it was cured in 5 days. After this case he makes this conclusion : that from all
that has been already said, it is plain, that the seat of the cancers of the eye lids,
nose, and other neighbouring parts, is absolutely in the periosteum and peri-
chondrium, as well as the fat ; and that there can be no hopes of a cure without
taking off these membranes, with the fat, and even any parts of the very carti-
lages that may be contaminated : but that in this manner they are as curable as
cancers on other parts of the body, notwithstanding what all oculists have said to
the contrary.
The 8th observation was on a cancer on the lower eye-lid of a woman, cured
in the same manner.
The gth observation treats on a cancer,as large as a large filbert, in the angle,
and on the lower lid of the eye of a gentleman; which began by a small tu-
bercle in the angle, and was pulled off, and grew again several times. Mons.
Daviel was consulted, in the presence of another surgeon, Mons. Maillot, and
60fi THILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
declared for taking the tumor and eye-lid entirely off; making this prognostic,
that if any part was left behind, the eye would be deformed and staring ; but the
other surgeon thought, that half the lid with the tumor would be sufficient for
the cure: Mons. Daviel therefore only cut away half the lid with the tumor ; with
which he also took off a large quantity of hard white fat, and dressed up the part
as usual ; but in the progress the lid was turned outward, and then they resolved
on the total extirpation of the lid ; which, being obliged to depart from thence,
he left to Mons. Maillot, who performed it with such success, that his cure was
complete in 15 days, without the least deforniity whatever.
. The 10th Observation is a case of the same nature with the former, with this
difference, that when he had taken off the tumor and under lid in the same
manner as usual ; the patient continued getting well till the Qth day from the
operation ; when Mons. Daviel perceived a small fungus in the middle of the
tumor, which he touched with the lapis infernalis, which produced very ill effects:
the eye grew painful, the conjunctive swelled very much, the wound, which was
half healed up, opened afresh, and became ragged. This made him set about
cutting away all the bad flesh he could perceive, with the inequalities of the
conjunctive, which was much swelled : he scarified the cornea, and in the inner
surface of the upper lid, which was also greatly tumefied, and even opened it on
tlie upper surface. Thus, after having emptied the vessels well, he fomented the
whole with a decoction of marshmallows, mullein, violet- leaves, camomile-flowers,
melilot, leaves and flowers of rosemary, thyme, lavender, rue, and marjoram,
of each half a handful, in a sufficient quantity of water; to a quart of which he
put a bit of camphor the size of a nut. The frequent application of this that
day produced so good an effect, that all her pain ceased : he also bled her in the
arm and foot, ordering emollient clysters. She was purged some days after, with
manna and cassia, which did very well ; and she was perfectly cured, without
the least deformity, and could see better than before the operation.
XXXI. Of Four Roman Inscriptions, cut on Three Large Stones. By John
Ward, LL.D., F.P.R.S. p. 196.
The stones were found in a field near a mile from Wroxeter, formerly a Roman
station called Uriconium,* in the months of September and October 1752. The
first of them was discovered by a plough striking against it ; and by spitting the
ground the other two were discovered, not far from the first, in the like situ-
ation. The first and last lay separate from their bases, which being taken up,
• In the year 1701, a Roman sudatory was discovered at this place, a draught of which, with some
account of it, was published in the Phil. Trans. N" 306, which seems to have escaped the observa-
tion ol Horsley, Brit. Rom. p. 419. — Orig.
r
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 607
several broken pieces of urns, and dust of a greyish colour, ^were found with
them, which seemed to have the appearance of ashes.
N^ 1, is by the scale 6 feet 8 inches high, and about 2 feet 3 inches wide
above the base. It has a pediment top, with a pine apple rising from the middle
of the cornice, on each side of which is a lion, and in the area of the pediment
a kind of rose. The inscription, which is cut in the plane of the stone, may be
thus read; Caius Mannius, Caii filius, Pollia tribu, Secundus PoUentinus, miles
legionis vicesimae, annorum lii, stipendiorum xxxi, beneficiarius legati prin-
cipalis, hie situs est.
N" 2 contains two inscriptions, and is in height 2 feet 7-i- inches, by 2 feet 4-f-
inches in breadth. It is not flat, as the former, but gently convex crosswise,
the lower part being divided into 3 pannels; on the first two of which are the in-
scriptions, but the other seems never to have had any on it. The upper part is
ornamented with a pediment, in the area of which are the remains of a face with
curled locks, and 2 snakes under it; and on the cornice 2 figures like dolphins.
The first inscription may be read thus: Diis Manibus. Placida annorum lv,
curam agente conjuge annorum xxx. And the other in this manner: Diis Ma-
nibus. Deuccus annorum xv, curam agente patre.
N° 3 is 6 feet 1 1 inches high, and about 2 feet broad above the base. It has
also a pediment at the top, the area of which is filled with a large flower. The
inscription, it exhibits, may be read in the following manner; Marcus Petronius,
Lucii filius, Menenia tribu, vixit annos xxxviii, miles legionis xiiii geminae,
militavit annos xviii, signifer fuit, hie sepultus est.
XXXI 1. On an American Wasp's West,* shoivn to the Royal Society. By Mr.
Israel Mauduit, F. R. S. p. 205.
M. de Reaumur distinguishes wasps into three classes, from the difl^erent situa-
tions in which they place their nests; some choosing unfrequented parts of
houses, some little cavities in the earth, and others the branches of trees for that
purpose. The first of these is the largest sort, or hornet ; the second is the
common sort herein England; and the last is more frequent in America.
The nest, then shown to the Society, was sent from Maryland, where they
are found on the lower kinds of trees, in the thickest parts of the woods. This
was built on a dogwood-tree, or the comus mas Virginiana; and hung quite de-
tached from the rest of the tree by an extreme branch, of little more than an inch
circumference: which, with its smaller divisions running through the substance
of the nest, answered the purpose of pillars, to unite and support the several floors
• This wasp's nest, which is not described with sufficient accuracy, is probably that of the vespa
nidulans of Fabricius.
608 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
of the fabric. The figure was a conoid, or an acuminated oval; its longer dia-
meter 20 inches, the shorter near the base 12. It was perforated on 2 opposite
sides, for the wasps to enter and go out at. The shell was composed of paper; the
sheets of which at its upper end were larger and more distinct. They were of an
ash-colour, of different shades, and streaked or marbled, and, being lightly laid
on each other, formed a wall of from 1-J^ to 4 inches thickness in the several parts
of it. The lax hollow manner, in which they were joined to each other, ren-
dered them a more effectual security from rain; as they attracted water in com-
mon with all other substances, made of the same materials; and would have been
more easily soaked through, if they had been closer compressed together. For
the same reason the apex of the cone was of the greatest thickness, and the base
of a stiffer and more cellulose texture. This substance appeared to be a true
paper; but, by the exact economy of nature, wrought to that degree of perfec-
tion only, which was necessary to serve the single purpose it was intended for.
Being examined by the microscope, it appeared to be of a coarser grain, a shorter
staple, and of a much looser texture; and was a rare, though not a singular in-
stance, of a natural production falling far short of the artificial one of the same
kind. The inside structure of these nests, is well described by M. de Reaumur.
XXXIII. Abstract of a Letter from the Magistrates of the City of Mascali,
in Sicily, concerning a late Eruption of Mount Etna. From the Italian, p. 209.
On Sunday, March 9, 1755, about noon, mount Etna began to emit a great
quantity of flame and smoke, with a most horrible noise. At 4 o'clock the air
became totally dark, and covered with black clouds ; and at 6 a shower of stones,
each of which weighed about 3 oz. began to fall, not only all over the city of
Mascali, and its territory, but all over the neighbourhood. This shower con-
tinued till a quarter after 7, that by the darkness of the air, the fall of stones,
and the horrible eructations of the mountain, the day of judgment seemed to
some to be at hand. After the stones had ceased falling, there succeeded a
shower of black sand, which continued all the remainder of the night. The
next morning, at 8 o'clock there sprung from the bottom of the mountain, as it
were, a river of hot water, which in the space of half a quarter of an hour, not
only overflowed to a considerable distance the rugged land, near the foot of the
hill, but, on the waters suddenly going off, levelled all the roughness and ine-
qualities of the surface, and made the whole a large plain of sand. The stones
and sand, which remain where-ever the inundation of the water reached, differ
in nothing from the stones and the sand of the sea, and have even the same
saltness. After the water had ceased flowing, there sprung from the same open-
ing 9. small stream of fire, which lasted for 24 hours. On Tuesday, about a
mile below this opening, there arose another stream of fire, in breadth about
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 60Q
400 feet, like a river, which overflowed the adjoining fields, and actually con-
tinues with the same course, having extended itself about 2 miles, and seeming
to threaten the neiglibourhood.
XXXir. Of the Ckarr Fish in North Wales. By the Rev. Mr. Farringlon,
cf Dinas, near Caernarvon, p. 210.
This species they call torgoch, or red belly. This redness in the female, paler
or deef)er according to the season, resembles that of the fins of a roach, a fish
very common in many rivers of England, though we have none of them in this
country. The male is not adorned with that beautiful hue, yet he is finely
shaded, and marbled on the back and sides with black streaks, on a kind of pel-
lucid light sky-coloured ground. The shape is like a trout, but much more
elegant and delicate. Three lakes or large pools, at the foot of Snowden, afford
being and subsistence to this remarkable finny race. There is a communication
between them. About a fortnight in December the charrs make their appear-
ance; never wandering far from the verge of these lakes, or the mouths of the
rivers issuing from them ; but traverse from one end to the other, and from shore
to shore indifferently, or perchance as the wind sits, in great bodies; so that it
is a common thing to take in one net, 20 or 30 dozen in a night, at this place;
though not above 10 or a dozen fish in all at any other. Thus in winter frosts
and rigours, they sport and play near the margins of the flood, and probably de-
posit their spawn ; but in the summer heats they keep to the deep and centre of
the water, abounding in mud and large stones, as the shoaler parts do with gravel.
After Christmas they are seen no more till the following year.
XXXV. A Method proposed to restore the Hearing, when injured by an Ob-
struction of the luba Eustachiana. By Mr. J. fVathen, Surgeon, p. 213.
Whatever obstructs that passage leading from the ear into the nose, called
tuba eustachiana, so as to hinder the ingress of the air through it into the cavity
of the tympanum, is universally deemed destructive to the sense of hearing.
Hippocrates observed, that in a quinsy of the fauces, the patient became deaf,
by its compressing and closing up this tube.* Many practical writers assert the
same to have happened from adjacent ulcers, &c.;-^ and Mr. W. had known a
swelled tonsil occasion deafness. This canal opens into the lateral and anterior
• Coac. 1 1 . n. 35.
t Haller in Boerhav. de audita, p. 380, and 4l6. Tulpius 1. n. 35, a tumore palati. Valsalva,
cap. V, p. go, a polypo. et ulcere (viz. a certain yeoman had an ulcer above the uvula, on the left
side, which communicated with, and corroded part of, the orifice of the left tuba eustachiana;
which, when he stopped with a tent dipped in medicine, he immediately lost bis bearing in that ear,
but recovered it as soon as the tent was taken out). — Orig.
VOL. X. 4 I
6lO . PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1755.
part of the cavity of the tympanum ; is so shaped that it first decreases, as it
descends towards the posterior parts of the nose, becoming very narrow; then
suddenly diverging, is much enlarged, opening into the posterior part of the
nose by an elliptic orifice, a little prominent, turning inwards and forward, placed
laterally, and just above the velum pendulum palati. This canal then is com-
posed of two distinct cones, the extremities of which unite together, but their
bases diverge differently; it is likewise lined with a porous membrane, full of
cryptae and mucous cells, continued from and like to the membrane of the
nares.*
When therefore we consider the structure of the eustachian tube, and its free
communication with the atmosphere, we may reasonably suppose it subject to
inflammation of its membrane, and concretion of its mucus, from cold, &c.
like the external meatus ; and though its mucus is of a very different nature, it
is nevertheless liable to inspissate by heat, when its thinner parts are exhaled.-^
And from the form cf this passage we may easily conceive, that an obstruction,
pretty far advanced, is not to be removed without difficulty, and that in propor-
tion, as it is more or less complete, the hearing will be more or less injured.
Why then may not this be suspected as sometimes the cause of deafness? per-
haps it is not unfrequently so; e. g. When a patient is somewhat deaf from cold,
and the outer ear has been examined, and found clear of hardened wax, &c. it
is yet not uncommon to find himself suddenly relieved by a great noise in his
ear. This is probably owing to the breaking away of the congealed mucus, and
the instantaneous rushing of the air into the tympanum ; so that when this dis-
order is but slight and recent, nature seems frequently to relieve herself; but
when more confirmed, her efibrts are ineffectual for its removal. These consi-
derations inclined him strongly to think the hearing might suffer from that cause,
and he was much confirmed in it by the following very remarkable case.
Richard Evans, aged 35, was very deaf in both his ears, yet no visible disorder
in the external meatus. It arose from cold, and had subsisted several years,
during which time no art or means could procure him the least relief. In
August, 1/55, he died of the small-pox, at the hospital in Cold-bath-fields.
Mr. W. took that opportunity to examine the eustachian tube of each ear, and
found them both stuffed quite full of congealed mucus. This was the only visi-
ble cause of his deafness, the other parts appearing in their natural state. As
* Haller in Boerh. de Auditu, p. 378. Not. e Physiologia. Haller. de Audita, § 485. Valsalva,
cap. 2, p. 32. idem fig. xiv.— Orig.
+ Morganni and others tell us, that they constantly find the cavity of the tympanum in infants
always much clogged with mucus ; and Mr. Douglas has often observed the same in adults, and is
of opinion that it is concomitant with an obstructed tube in general, and that the injection is equally
as effectual as if the tube only was obstructed.— Orig.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 6ll
all these concurring circumstances strengthened him in his opinion, they likewise
incited him to make trial of an operation that was some time before proposed to
the Academy of Sciences, by Mons. Guyot; but the author having never prac-
tised it, he wanted the recommendation of facts to support and enforce it ; it was
therefore rejected by them as impracticable.*
Mr. W. first introduced his probe, a little bent at the end, through the nose
into the tubes of several dead subjects; and, having thereby acquired a facility,
he did the same on a person that was very deaf, and on whom all other means
had proved ineffectual ; no sooner had he withdrawn the probe, than he said, he
could hear much better. This success excited his further endeavours, so that he
had pipes of different sizes adapted to a syringe, and he had since injected the
meatus intemus in the following manner, with success. The pipe is made of
silver, about the size and length of a common probe, and a little bent at the
end: this being fixed to an ivory syringe, full of liquor (viz. a little mel rosarum
in warm water), is introduced between the ala and septum of the nose, with its
convexity towards the upper part of the aperture of the nares, and thus conti-
nued backwards, and a little downwards, till it comes near the elliptic orifice;
then its convexity is turned toward the septum, by which the inflected extremity
enters the tuba eustachiana with ease; the liquor is then impelled through it into
the tube, by which the sordes, if any, being diluted, is washed out, and regur-
gitates through the nose, or mouth, or both, with the injection ; and, if the
quantity be large, may be seen.
[Then follows an account of 6 different cases, in which the operation was
successfully performed.]
After the detail of these cases Mr. W. remarks, that he had endeavoured to
ascertain the symptoms that indicate an obstructed tube, but had not been able to
do it with any degree of certainty; nor could he see the great utility of it, could^
it be done; for the only disorders of the ear, that at present admit of surgical
helps, are those of the external meatus, ulcerated and swelled tonsils, &c. all of
which are generally visible ; and when they are not the cause of deafness, little
or nothing is ever attempted, the patient being left to shift for himself. But
now another probable chance at least is given to the unhappy sufferer, and being
the only one (e. g. the others either improper, or tried before without success),
• Hist, de I'Acad. 1724, p. 53. Besides, Mons. Guyot proposed doing it by the mouth, which ii
quite impossible, as evidently appears to any one that will give himself the trouble to examine into it.
Convinced of this, Mons. Petit (who has lately published a new edition of Palfin's anatomy) pro-
posed, and that learned and skilful anatomist Mr. John Douglas first demonstrated the possibility of,
passing the probe, &c. through the nose into the eustachian tubej and this he has constantly shown
to those who have attended his public lectures; and to him Mr. W. freely acknowledged himself in-i
debted for tlio hint, by which he was incited to make trial on the living, of an operation of so much
importance to mankind. — Orig.
4i 2
6l2 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO l/So.
may be made use of without delay, or attendance to accompanying symptoms, at
least till they render themselves more conspicuous and certain than he had hitherto
been able to find them ; and as the operation is not at all dangerous, it neither
has, nor will, he believed be thought painful by those who desire to recover
their hearing.
XXXVI. A Chemical Essay on the Action of Quicklime on the Volatile Alka-
line Salt. By I. A. Schlosser, M. D. of Utrecht, p. 222.
As the true nature of quicklime was unknown at the date (1755*) of this
essay, the theory which Dr. S. has offered concerning the different phenomena
produced by the action of burnt lime on the volatile alkali, is wholly erroneous.
It is therefore deemed unnecessary to be more particular in the notice of this
paper.
XXXVII. An Account of a very remarkable Case of a Boy, who, nottoith-
standing that a considerable Part of his Intestines was forced out by the Fall
of a Cart upon him, and afterwards cut off, recovered, and continued well.
By Mr. John Needham. p. 238.
On the 3d of January 1755, Mr. N. was called to the son of Lancelot Watts
(a day-labourer, living at Brunsted) a servant boy to Mr. Pile, a farmer at West-
wick, near North-Walsham, Norfolk, aged 13 years. He was overturned in a
cart, and thrown flat on his face, with the round, or edge of one side of the
cart, bottom upwards, whelmed across his loins, the upper part of the body
lying beyond the wheel at right angles. In this helpless condition he continued
some time, and was found with a very large portion of the intestines forced out
at the anus, with part of the mesentery, and some loose pieces of fat, which
Mr. N. took to be part of the omentum, hanging down below the hams, double,
like the reins of a bridle, very much distended and inflamed. He had a conti-
nual nausea, and violent retchings to vomit, and threw up every thing he took.
The pain of the stomach and bowels was exquisite, attended with convulsions;
his pulse low and quick; and frequently he fell into cold sweats. After using an
emollient and spirituous fomentation, Mr. N. reduced the parts, though to no
purpose; the vomiting immediately returned, and forced them out again. Next
day the fever increased, the nausea and retchings to vomit continued, the parts
appeared livid and black, with all the signs of a mortification. On the 3d day
the mortification increasing, he cut off the intestine, with the mesentery, close
• It was about a year after the above date that Dr. Black's experiments on quick-lime, which de-
monstrated so cleariy the difference between mild and caustic calcareous earth, mild and caustic
alkalis, &c. and which laid open so vast a field of discovery in gaseous chemistry, were first commu-
nicated to the world.
VOL. XLIX.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 6l3
to the anus, being 57 inches in length. He had had no stool from the time of
the accident, but soon after the operation there was a very large discharge of
blackish and extremely offensive faeces, which continued several days, lessening
by degrees. He soon became easy, and the nausea and vomiting abated. Mr.
N. gave him tinct. cort. Peruv. simpl. twice a day; and, as he complained at
times of griping pains, he took now and then tinct. rhabarb. vinos, and had re-
covered a good state of health. For some time he had 6 or T , or more stools in
a day; afterwards commonly 3 or 4, all loose, which come soon after eating; and
frequently he was obliged to hurry out to ease himself, during his meals.
Mr. N. 3 times tried to discover a passage through the coats of the rectum,
with his finger, aiitl he thought he always felt an opening, just above the sphincter,
towards the spine; the circumference of which was full, and protuberated, seem-
ingly as large as his finger, the lower edge of which was harder than the rest;
the patient complained of pain, when the upper part was pressed.
On the 7th of May the boy walked from Brunsted to North-Walsham, 7
miles, was jierfectly well, and walked back again that afternoon.
XXXVIII. Experiments on the Sensibility and Irritability of the several Parts
of Animals. By Richard Brocklesby, M. D., F. R. S. p. 240.
After apologizing for the cruelty exercised in these experiments, which Dr. B.
made for the purpose of ascertaining the validity of Haller's doctrine, respecting
the irritability of animal fibres, Dr. B. proceeds to state, that his first experiment
was made by cutting 4 inches of a young lamb's skin, which covered the great
tendon of the hinder leg, known to anatomists by the name of the tendo achillis.
This of course caused violent struggles, and other marks of the injury felt; and
on touching the extremity of the skin, while united to other parts of the animal,
it cried loud, urined, and voided its excrement, when he poured diluted spirit of
vitriol on the edges of the skin that were fixed to the contiguous parts; but did
not express much pain by irritating the raised skin, at the farthest extremity of
its separation, by an infusion of diluted spirit of vitriol. Nearer however to the
fixed parts underneath, the sensation in the raised part of the skin continued
much longer.
He then made the butcher cut into the tendon half way, and divide it upwards
more than 2 inches, and attentively stood over the animal, to watch his motions,
and discover if there was any apparent pain ; but while that was doing, he could
discern none, nor any marks of sensation in the animal, while he handled and
pulled the cut tendon, nor yet any on touching it with dulcified spirit of nitre,
and sharp acid spirit of vitriol; and what yet surprised him more, was to find
the creature as insensible on the tendon, as if it was a mere piece of glue, when
he put a strong muria of sea-salt and nitre all over it; and after a very few mi-
6l4 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
nutes he laid the raised part of" the tendon in its natural direction, on the cor-
respondent fixed part, and they were both exactly congruous; so that the loose
part had not contracted itself, nor was at all shorter, after these repeated trials,
than its correspondent fixed part. He then put the creature on its legs, to see
whether it had suffered so much, that it could not use the leg; but it was found
to walk, though favouring greatly that side where so much had been done ; how-
ever, it walked fairly on all its legs. After about 5 minutes tonnent, the but-
cher ended all its pains, and he performed the same processes on a sheep just
destined to be slaughtered, in which the Dr. found all the appearances as above-
mentioned.
He was induced to make 2 other very cruel experiments on different animals,
by laying bare their patella's of the knees; having cut off' all the skin round
about, he then pricked and touched with the afore-mentioned escharotics the
capsular ligaments of these joints, without discovering any tokens of pain ; but
as soon as the sharp fluids had spread over the surface, so as to reach the extre-
mity of the skin, the creature underwent as much pain as cutting before had
caused.
He desired the butcher to take off as much skin from the forehead, as was
necessary to perform the operation of the trepan; and before he began to apply
the instrument to the sheep's forehead, he vellicated the pericranium with the
end of a knife, but could not observe the membrane sensible, or thrown into
contractions; and when the operation was over, and the bone taken from the
subjacent dura mater, he poured on this membrane dulcified spirit of nitre, and
diluted spirit of vitriol, and powdered common salt, but without perceiving any
agitations whatever, brought on by these substances acting on these living parts ;
though in some creatures he was dubious, whether sea-salt and nitre in powder
did not create some sense, though no manifest contractions of the dura mater.
But every muscular part, which he cut while the animals were alive, discovered
little sensibility of pain, though great propensity to irregular spasms of the
fibres : and the muscles on the thorax, and especially the carneae columnae of the
heart, retained irritability last of all other muscular parts, even till long after the
animal's expiration.
He laid the pungent liquors and salts, as above, on various parts of the animal,
yet alive; as on the fat, cellular membrane of the neck, leg, and other parts
within the skin, the liver, pancreas and spleen, and could not find them endowed
either with remarkable sensibility or irritability; nor had the bladder any remark-
able symptoms of irritability, further than might be occasioned by its muscular
fibres; though the well-known symptoms of the calculus show its great sen-
sibility. ^
He tried the effects of a strong aqueous solution of opium on the irritated
VOL. Xr.IX.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 6l5
parts of muscular fibres, but could not perceive an opiate manifestly to compose
these spastic motions of the parts, as Haller alleges they do, though in some
trials he fancied there were grounds for such a conclusion. However this is no
argument against the internal use of opiates, where the solids are greatly irritated.
He adds one more experiment, made on the intestines of a lamb: after he had
taken them from the carcase, he poured diluted spirit of vitriol on them, as well
as several other pungent substances; and on the touch of all of them, the intes-
tines renewed their contraction, which before had totally ceased, and surprised
him with a motion almost as strong as is found in the process of chylification ;
and this continued till the external cold had indurated and stiffened the fatty
membrane of the omentum.
These were some of many experiments of a like nature, which the importance
of these facts in daily practice of medicine required to ascertain, or reject ; and,
from the result of his repeated trials, he was induced to coincide with most
of the conclusions drawn by Drs. Haller, Castell, and Zimmerman; that no
part is sensible but the nerves only, and that some parts are irritable without
sensibility, accompanying them in any great degree; while others are altogether
without sense, at the same time that they are incapable of being irritated at all.
Dr. B. adds, that he had thus communicated to the Royal Society the result
of his experiments on this subject. Whether he should, by prosecuting the
subject still farther, be able fairly to make out, that irritability, as it is distin-
guished from sensibility, depends on a series of nerves different from such as
serve either for voluntary motion and sensation, he could not then say. But
whatever might be his future conclusions, he would establish nothing hypothe-
tical, but endeavour by fair deductions to approach towards truth, as near as the
abstruse nature of the subject would permit; and as he thought he had actuaHy
found some variation from the common practice in rheumatisms, built on the
established fact of great irritability in the muscular fibres, succeed, to the relief
of suffering patients, he could not dismiss this subject, without relating, that
only with gentle and continued frictions on the pained rheumatic parts with com-
mon sallad oil, 2 poor patients, who lately applied for his advice in obstinate
rheumatisms, were, by thus relaxing the crispation of the solids, surprisingly
relieved, without any further medicine. So that after bleeding, where it is indi-
cated, which above all things he found to abate irritability, it might deserve to
be tried, how far animal oils, applied by friction long continued to the aggrieved
parts, both in the gout, rheumatism, and other painful diseases, would ease the
tortures, without repelling or obstructing the matter, which nature is labouring
to throw off. But he forbore to enlarge, as the experiments he had hitherto
made on the subject of irritability, were scarcely sufficient to obtain what Lord
Bacon calls the vindemiatio prima in this science. When he should receive suf-
d\6 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
ficient information to be convinced within himself, he should not be wanting to
communicate what might tend to advance this branch of natural knowledge, and
to promote a true theory of diseases, on which all rational practice must be
established.
XXXIX. Of Worms in Jnimnl Bodies. By Frank NichoUs, M. D. Med. Reg.
and F. R. S. p. 246.
Fish are, to appearance, more subject to worms* than other animals; the cod
often shows small slender worms, coiled up like snakes, on the surface of its
liver; and the bley in the Thames, about the month of July, is often distressed
by a long flat worm, which, by possessing and eating its liver, prevents the fish
from compressing itself to that specific gravity, which is necessary for its quiet
continuance under the water; so that it is obliged to skip about on the surface of
the water, till it becomes a prey to its foes, or dies suffocated, by being so often
out of water, and deprived of that action of the water which is analogous to the
force of the air to us in breathing.
Among the many cases, which Dr. N. had seen, two seem to deserve parti-
cular attention, as well because they are greatly prejudicial to the farmej, as be-
cause, when generally known, they may possibly lead to a method of successful
cure. The first of these is a species of dropsy, incident to bullocks and sheep.
On opening these animals, when dead of this rot, the liver is always found affected.
A small fiat worm,-|- resembling a sole, and often many of them, is found in
the gall-duct, by the butchers termed fiooks [flukes]. It is the property of this
worm, that it always builds a wall of stone for its defence; which wall is ramified
like the gall-duct, within which it is formed. This stony tube, when completed,
blocks up the gall-duct, and stops the passage of the gall ; which thereby sur-
charging the duct, and dilating the orifice of the lymphatics, returns again into
the blood, and gives the yellow teint to the eyes, which is the first symptom of
this disease, and generally precedes the loss of flesh, and the swelling of the
belly. It seems probable, that whatever can increase the acrimony of the bile,
must be useful in preventing this disease; but when the stony pipe is formed, no
method seems capable of promoting its discharge, or dissolution.
The other case is termed the husk, and is a disease to which bullocks are very
subject, while young; for it rarely afTects those of more than a year old. The
creature is seized with a short dry cough, by which it is perpetually teized ; in
consequence of which he wastes in flesh, and grows weaker and weaker till he
dies. On opening the lungs of a calf dead of this distemper, he found the wind-
* The worm here alluded to, is the ligula abdomiiialis. Linn. Goiel.
+ This worm is thefoiciola hepatica. Linn.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TBANSACTIONS. 6l7
pipe, and its branches, loaded with small taper worms* of about 2 inches long,
which were crawling about, though the animal had been dead many hours ; and
the farmer assured him that they always found these worms in this distemper,
and knew of no method of cure. Dr. N. had great hopes however, that fumi-
gations, either with mercurials, as cinnabar, or with fetids, as tobacco, properly
used, might prove of great service.
XL. On some Remarkable Insects of the Polype Kind, found in the Water ; near
Brussels in Flanders. By T. Brady, M.D. p. 248.
The draught of the plant sent is found in summer-time, in all sorts of ditch
or stagnant waters : its colour is white, and its transparent body, when seen with
the naked eye, is in length between one and a half and two lines ; but when
viewed with a good microscope, whose focus is about 8 lines, it appears as in
pi. 15, tig. 1, with leaves,-^- branches, and fruit, and indued with such sensibility
that at the least noise made in the room, or on any thing touching the table
where the microscope stands, or the water in which it lies, it contracts itself
with such activity and swiftness that the eye cannot follow it in that motion,
till it reduces itself into the shape in fig. 2. The extension or dilation goes
slower, and requires about half a minute before it comes to the form in fig. 5.
It can live in its own standing-water for 8 or 10 days, and then looks as in fig. 6,
as most trees do in winter-time. It is remarkable that the leaves, which are
like bells, live some time after they fall, and retain that faculty of contraction
and dilatation ; and when viewed with the great magnifier, whose focus is about
2 lines, it appears as in fig. 4. The trunk is as in fig. 3. The number of its
branches are undetermined, but commonly found to be between Q and 1 2. He
had not tried if it did not regenerate, when cut like polypes : but he could
see a vast difference between it and the polype a bouquet, mentioned by Trem-
bley.;}: The other curious insect, represented in fig. 7, is found in the same
standing-waters with the plant, and is seen with the naked eye, like a little fiat
round leaf, whose diameter is about one line and a half ; but when put in a
microscope, it shows a circle surrounded with crowned heads, tied by small thin
tails to a common centre, whence they advance towards the circumference,
where they turn like a wheel, with a great deal of vivacity and swiftness, till
they cause a kind of a vortex, in which are seen all smaller insects or bodies
either attracted or driven, which probably serve as nourishment for those little
crowned things, which in all appearance are, as well as the plant, a sort of
insects of prey, that live on smaller creatures. When one of those little heads
* These worms belong probably to the species of ascaris called ascaris vituli. Linn. Gu el.
+ Vorticella anasiatica. Linn. t Vorticella socialis. Linn. Gmel,
VOL. X. 4 K
6l8 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
has wheeled a while, it rests, and another turns out ; and sometimes 3 or 4 are
seen wheeling at a time. He had seen last year some much more regular, that
formed an orderly circle, with their crowns to the circumference, and their thin
bodies like so many radii joined to the centre. Their motion is all straight
towards the edge of the circle, and never to the right and left, as if every head
had its proper limits to act on.
The fruit of the plant, which resembles an orange, has a kind of chain about
it, that turns as the crown does in the other insect. The trunk or stock of the
plant is its gut, or stomach ; for he saw, that something descended through it,
as it were through a gut. Besides it has no support of any fixed point, but is
always swimming in the ditch-water, but shows no great local motion. Other
insects were seen preying on it, which resemble small hogs, and are very busy in
eating its leaves, which are probably the cause of its looking so bleak and
withered when dead.
XLI. New Astronomical and Physical Observations made in Asia ; and commu-
nicated by Mr. Porter, Ambassador at Constantinople, and F.R.S. p. 251.
Observed Latitudes of the following places.
Aleppo. Lat. North 36'' 12' Antioch 36" 10'
Mount Cassius 36 4 Diarbekir 37 54
Seleucia in Syria 36 3 Bagdad 33 1 9 54"
Immersion of u Virginis under the Moon, observed June 10, 1753, at Diarbekir,
, near the Seraglio of the Bachaw.
The Immersion of the Star at night 9** 48™ 4'
The Emersion 9 39 47
The nitre is produced by a combination of the universal acid with the natrum
of the ancients, as appears by observations. The asafoetida is drawn from a
ferulaceous plant of the thapsia kind, which is very common in Media, &c.
I have had the good luck to find the small nardus Indica: It is a gramineous
plant, of which some bear spicaceous flowers, both male and female, and others
only female ones. It is a valuable thing to botanists, as they are hitherto igno-
rant of the true genus of this plant, though the root has been in use ever since
the age of Dioscorides. This country is so dry, that electrical experiments often
succeed without any stand of bitumen, pitch, silk, glass, &c. Our carpets and
beavers are mostly sufficient to retain the electrical virtue, and prevent its spread-
ing to the floor. Ten men standing upright, one before the other, have been
made electrical, and, being touched, have produced sparks.
VOL. XLIX.j PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 6\g
XLIL Some Observations, proving that the Fetus is in Part Nourished by the
Liquor Amnii. By Malcolm Fleming, of Brigg, M.D. p. 254.
July 25, 1753, being informed that a calF, come to full maturity, was just
then brought forth dead in this town (Brigg, in Lincolnshire,) which had been
alive, and appeared strong a very short time before its birth ; Dr. F. begged it of
the owner, such instances being rare. The skin being of value, for it was an
extraordinary large calf, it was sent to his house flayed. He first examined the
thorax, which was his chief motive for begging it. He here adverts to the ex-
periment of the lungs of a new-born animal sinking in water. After cutting
out the lungs and heart, he clipped off a piece of the former with sharp
scissars, about an oz. weight, or more, and threw it into a basin full of water.
It quickly sunk to the bottom, and settled there. Immediately after, he blew
into the remaining part of the lungs, through the trachea ; and though he could
by that means distend them but very little, because the air flowed out readily
through the cut bronchia, and therefore acted but faintly on the other parts ; yet
a piece about the same size as the first, clipped off in the same manner, and
thrown into the same basin, constantly kept at the top. This might seem foreign
to his present purpose ; but he thought proper briefly to mention it here, not
only on the account of the importance of the experiment, but likewise to show,
that he was not misinformed in the account of the calf's being brought forth
dead, and that it had not even respired ; much less taken any nourishment after
exclusion, to influence the appearances described below.
Having opened the abdomen, he observed the thick intestines, especially the
rectum, extremely distended with an incredible quantity of meconium ; which
for several inches above the anus was formed into distinct scybala or balls. He
made an incision in the rectum, where it was very turgid, about 2 inches from
the anus, and let out about 25 or 30 of these scybala ; which he laid on clean
paper to dry, that he might examine them at his leisure. About 3 or 4 days
after, when they were dry and brittle, and of the colour and consistence of aloes,
he was surprised to find, on examination, every ball stuck full of tough, thick,
white hairs, some of which were an inch long, or more. There seemed to be
some scores in each, though, being shrunk with drying, they scarcely exceeded
the bulk of an ordinary pea. This unexpected appearance set him oti consider-
ing, whence these hairs had come; how got they there? and he could think on
no other tolerable solution of the difficulty than to conclude that they belonged
originally to the calfs skin; and, being loosened by maceration in the liquor
amnii, were propelled into the stomach and intestines ; till they were at length
entangled in the meconium. He was confirmed in the belief of this by being
informed, on inquiry, that the calfs skin was white ; a circumstance unknown
4k 2
620 - PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO J 755.
to him before, it having been sent flayed. From this persuasion it was natural to
infer that if hairs loosened from the skin of the fetus, and floating in the liquor
amnii, can find a way into the intestines, and get entangled in the meconium, it
is impossible but the liquor amnii must enter and pass through the whole alimen-
tary passage along with them ; as a fluid may certainly penetrate where hairs
cannot : but no good reason can be assigned, or even conceived, why hairs should
be admitted where the fluid is excluded.
The only reasonable scruple that remained to be got over was, that this being
but a single instance, a general conclusion was not to be too hastily drawn from
it ; that it was possible there might be some morbid concretions in the meconium
of this particular calf, resembling hairs, which concretions in a common and na-
tural way might be wanting ; or some preternatural communication between the
primae viae in this subject, and the liquor amnii, not to be found in the gene-
rality of other fetuses. But he afterwards received some of the first dung of
other calves, in which he also found a great number of strong hairs all over; so
as to leave no room for doubting but that this appearance is general in the me-
conium of calves, in a natural way.
The reader will please to observe that in neither of these instances he could
be deceived, if he had ever so little reason to trust to the judgment and fidelity
of those who supplied him with what he wanted. The colour and consistence
of the meconium of a fetus is so very peculiar, and so widely difi^erent from that
of faeces formed out of ingested aliments, that none, who have any knowledge
in these matters, can mistake the one for the other. In the mean time he
omitted not to open the embryos of the cow-kind, such as he could procure in
the shambles of the market-town he lived in, and to examine their meconium.
The 2 most advanced towards maturity, which he met with, had stiff long hairs
about the mouth, the eye-brows, the ears, and navel, and a good many on the
end of the tail ; but none on their skins. In neither of these, any more than in
the younger embryos which he examined, was there so much as a single hair to
be found in the meconium ; for this plain reason, if he judged right, because
they had not got hairs on their bodies of long enough continuance to become
loose, and float in the liquor amnii.
But as opportunities of coming at fetuses of this species, especially such as are
remarkably nearer to maturity than those 2 just now mentioned, are rare, he
tried to supply that defect by opening those of other animals. Accordingly he
procured 6 puppies, of the butcher-dog kind, brought forth at the full time at
one litter. Having taken out the whole meconium of every one of them, after
the strictest search he could find no hairs in any part of it. He had likewise an
opportunity of opening a colt that died either in the birth, at the full time, or
immediately after, before its meconium was discharged ; which he found in great
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 621
quantities in its rectum and colon. But neither here could he spy a single hair,
though he examined whole pounds of it, and that portion most carefully which
was lodged in the rectum, near the anus.
These observations might seem at first view to clash with and contradict those
he had related : but, on closer consideration, they would be found in reality to
confirm them, for this reason, that puppies and colts, when brought forth, have
no loose hairs on their bodies; but calves have in great numbers. In the
puppies and colt, which he examined, the hairs were so firmly rooted on their
skins, that he could scarcely pull any off with his thumb and fingers ; whereas in
a mature calf, new brought forth, many are found quite loosened at their roots,
and only adhering to their skin by the moisture on it. Therefore in the latter
species hairs from the surface may be, and actually are, incorporated with the
liquor amnii, and along with it enter the mouth and alimentary canal, which
cannot be the case in the former. From these facts Dr. F. infers that the liquor
amnii is in a constant natural way received into the mouth, stomach, and in-
testines, and therefore must contribute to the nutrition of the fetus.
XLIIL On the Success of Agaric in Amputations, &c. By Mr. William Thorn-
hill, late Surgeon to the Infirmary at Bristol, p. 264.
Mr. T. here states that he had employed the agaric successfully in 4 cases of
amputation.
XLIF. A Lunar Eclipse observed at Elbing, March 27 and 28, 1/55. By
John Mendes Sachetlo Barbosa, F. R. S., and Prof, of Philos. and Physic.
p. 265.
27^ lO** 51™ 15' the beginning was certain.
28 1 27 40 the end of the real eclipse.
131 30 the peimmbra certainly ended,
XLV. On the Number of People in England. By the Rev. tVm. Brahenridge,
D. D., Rector of St. Michael Bassishaw, London, and F.R.S. p. 268.
There seems to be only two ways of discovering the number of people in
England, where at present there are no capitation taxes ; either by the number
of houses, or the quantity of bread consumed. As to the first, it is evident that
if the number of houses could be determined, it would then be very easy to
compute nearly the number of people. For it might be ejisily known by trial
what number, at an average, could be allowed to each house, and from thence
the whole number of people deduced. In a former letter Dr. B. assigned 6 to a
house in town, which he found to be the nearest number, in some parishes, by
an account taken ; but he thinks it is still more plain in the country that 6 is
522 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
the number to be fixed on, where people do not go so much into single life, and
where there are not so many lodgers. For if we consider that for every marriage
there are four births, on an average, as Dr. Derham, Major Graunt, and others
have shown, and which Dr. B. found to be true from the registers both in the
town and country ; consequently, allowing for deaths, there cannot be 3 children
that survive from every marriage to mature age, and indeed not much above 2,
as appears from Dr. Halley's table of the probability of life. Therefore every
family, where there are children, one with another, cannot consist of more than
between 4 and 5 persons, besides servants or inmates : which shows plainly that
families, where there are children, cannot be estimated at more than 6 to a
house, and where there are no children they cannot be reckoned more at an
average.
The number then being 6 to be assumed, let us next consider what number
of houses is to be supposed. That Dr. B. might come at some certainty in this,
he applied to one of the public offices, where he thought they could very
likely give an account of them ; and he there found, that before the year ] 7 10. and
near about that time, an account had been taken of all the houses throughout
England and Wales, in order for some assessment upon them ; and the number
then amounted to 7290'18. In which it may be supposed that a number of
cottages were omitted that might be improper for that assessment ; but he thinks
there could not possibly be above a 4th part of that number more : for surely the
surveyors, if they had any care of the public revenue, would never omit above
one in 5. Let us therefore suppose, that there might be a 4th part of that
number more; and then those omitted will be about 182262, and the whole
number of houses could not exceed 91 1310.
If now we take Q11310 for the number, it is evident, if we allow 6 persons
to a house at an average, the number of persons in England and Wales, before
the year 17 10, could not be above 5467860. And since that time, 45 years
ago, by a method of computing which he shows below, the increase could not be
above 789558; and so the whole number of people now must be about 6257418 ;
or six millions, all ages included ; for it must be remembered that in our wars,
since 17 10, there could not be fewer lost than 200000, which is to be deducted
from that number.
As to the other way of determining this, by considering the quantity of bread
consumed, it may perhaps at first view appear more uncertain ; but it will, he
thinks, from some things that may be observed, at least help to ascertain the
above number. For it is plain, if the quantity of wheat that is produced in
England could be known, it would then be very easy to make the computation,
as it might be nearly discovered, by a little observation, what each person at an
average might consume. But the great difficulty is to find out nearly the quan-
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS^. 623
tity of wheat ; and there seems to be no way at present of knowing it, but by
considering what proportion it may have to the barley ; for the quantity of that
is nearly known from the malt-tax. Now, if we compare the quantity of the
wheat in England, it is evident, that there is at least as much ground sowed
with the one as with the other. For there are vast tracts of land that will not
bear good wheat, but are frequently sowed with barley; and even those lands
that will produce good wheat, they are often alternately sowed with it : the land
that is rich and well manured, after one crop of wheat it is usual to sow it with
barley. And if this be admitted that the quantity of land sowed with the one
is equal to that sowed with the other, there must then be a much greater quan-
tity of barley; because the same number of acres will produce much more of it,
and generally in a greater proportion than 3 to 2.
If then we assume that the barley used in malt is to the wheat used in food
at home, as 3 to 2, we shall then be able to compute the quantity of each of
them in this manner: the malt- tax from the year J 747 to the year 1753 inclu-
sive, amounted to the sum of 4,254,8131. of which the 7 th part, the tax for one
year, is607830l. and as the tax is 4 shillings on every quarter of barley, it
follows that there are 303gi30 quarters of barley consumed yearly in malt;
and therefore there must be 2026100 quarters of wheat consumed at home.
Now, as it is known, that labouring healthy people at an average consume
about one quarter of wheat in the year, which is about 5 12 lb. of flour, or lib.
6oz. in a day, we may allow that healthy and unhealthy, grown people and
children, do not consume the half of that quantity, one with another. And
therefore, that we may make the consumption of each person at an average as
small as can reasonably be imagined, we will suppose that 3 people, children in-
cluded, do not consume more than one hearty labouring person, that is one
quarter in the year, or each person about 7 oz. in a day ; and by this supposition
the above number of quarters of wheat 2026 100, consumed at home, will be
sufficient for 6078300, or six millions of people. And this quantity of a quarter
to 3 persons, though it appears too little, may be admitted, as in some of the
northern countries they use some oat-bread and rye-bread; and every healthy
person may, one with another, be allowed to consume this quantity at least.
From this calculation it seems that there cannot be above 6 millions of people in
England. And as, from the other method of computing from houses, we found
the number to be about 6,257400, from which at least 200,000 is to be taken
for those lost in the wars since 1710, or near that time; it appears that both
these calculations confirm each other, and that the number of people may be
considered at about 6 millions, or rather less. In which, according to Dr.
Halley's nile, there will be about 1 5 hundred thousand men able to carry arms.
Dr. Derham, from the computations of Mr. King, supposes there is about 5+
624 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO J 755.
millions of people in England ; to which, if we add the increase that may be since
that time, the number will be near about what we have made them. But Sir
William Petty has endeavoured to make them, in his time, no less than 7369000,
by supposing them to be in proportion to the assessment, then 1 1 times greater
than that in the city of London. In which, with regard to the city, he was
certainly mistaken, as Dr. B. showed last year ; for the number at that time, in
l682, was not much above 504000, and therefose 11 times that, viz. 5544000
must, according to his own hypothesis, be the number of people in England.
And if we allow 1355000 to be the increase in about 73 years since that time,
the number could not be now, according to that assessment, above Sspgooo.
From which we ought at least to subtract 400000, which may be justly allowed
for loss in our wars since 169O; and the remainder 6499000 is not half a mil-
lion more than we have made them. The people then being computed at 6
millions, or rather less, it appears that Englanrl is but thinly peopled. For not
only the exportation of at least 400,000 quarters of wheat annually shows
plainly that we want people to consume it at home, and that we maintain in
bread about a million of foreigners abroad : but if we examine more particularly,
we shall find that the country is capable of supporting one-half more inhabitants,
or 9 millions.
But in Ireland the case is still worse: for if there is but a million of people,
as is commonly supposed, and according to Mr. Templeman 27400 square miles,
which is 17,536,000 acres, and a 4th or more be supposed waste; then there
will be at least 12,000,000 good acres. And consequently if 4 acres in that
country be allowed sufficient, at an average, for the maintenance of one person,
Ireland, if duly cultivated, could maintain 2 millions more people than it has
now, or 3 times its present number of inhabitants. And in Scotland, if there
be, as is said, but a million and a half of people, for at present I know no way
to compute them, and 27700 square miles, or 17,728,000 acres, and -f be sup-
posed waste, which isv'tiot too much in that country, then there will be 1 1,000,000
good acres; of which, if we suppose that 5 acres of that soil is not more than
sufficient for each person, then there may be provision for 2,200,0000 people,
or more, with the advantages of fishing, that is 7OOOOO more than there are at
present. From all which it is plain, that if the land in both the British isles was
duly cultivated, they might sustain about 6 millions more people than they do
now; that is as many more people as England now contains. And here, by the
way, it may be observed, if we extend our thoughts to the whole globe of the
earth, and compare the quantity of land with the number of people, we shall
find that it will maintain above 26 times the present number of mankind.
The proportion being given of the living to the dead in one year, and also the
proportion of the births to the dead, the number of the people being unknown;
VOL. XLIX.3 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 625
to find in what time the people shall be in any given proportion, to what they are
at present. Suppose n to be the unknown number of the people at present, and
let the living be to the dead, in one year, as / to ], and the dead to the births
as 1 to b, the proportion given to what their number is at present as p to 1 , and
the number of years required to be y. It is plain then, that the dead at the end
of the first year will be - , and the births y, and the whole number of people
must hen -\- j. In like manner, at the end of the 2d year, the dead will
be v-^ , and the births — r" ~ " , and the whole number of people
. I , bn n , Ibn + hbn — nb , n — In — bn J + 6 — 1, ., . ,
must be n + y — y -j ~ 1 ^ = {-^ yn. And so at
the end of the 3d year the number of people will be ( -^^— )^«. From which
at length it is evident by induction, that the number of people at the end of the
required number of years will be ( ■,-^^) n. . But as the proportion is then to
beas j& to 1, we shall have ( — j^^-Yn = pn, and thence (/ + b — \y = pi".
And because the logarithms of equal quantities must be equal, we shall have
y X log. (/ + i - 1) = log.p + 7/ X log. /, and alsoy = _^^-J°liL_-_.
And therefore the number of years y is determined by the logarithms of known
quantities, when the people shall be in the given proportion of /> to 1 .
It may be observed that the quantity ( j-^^)*/j may be considered as the or-
dinate of the logarithmic curve, whose abscisse is the index y, and that the ordi-
nate passing through the beginning of the abscisse, where y = o, must be
equal to n.
If now it be required to know when the people shall be doubled; let us sub-
stitute in the above formula, instead of b, I, p, the respective numbers 1.12, 40,
2. and it will be w = , — -^f^ — rr ; — —; and then the logarithms being
•^ log. (40 + 1.12 — 1) — log. 40 o o
taken we shall have y = ' — = 231; which shows that, according to the
present state of births and burials, the people could not be doubled in less than
231 years. And by the same method it appears, changing the signs o( b — 1,
that 230 years ago, in the time of Henry the 8th, the number could not be
above -^ of what it is now, that is about 3 millions.
And so if we were to find, when the number of people in England would be
increased to Q millions, which, by what has been said above, is near about the
outmost that can be maintained, from the natural produce of the country; we
should then have/) = -J- = 1.5, because Q millions is to the present number as
o* „ J 1 log. 1.5 ,' 0,17609!3 ,„^ ...
3 to 2, and also y = ^--^-^^--—^— = -^^^^ = 135; which
VOL. X. 4L
626 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
shows that, at the present rate of births and burials, it must be 135 years before
England can be fully peopled.
If we suppose, as Sir William Petty does, that the burials are to the births as
9 to 10, that is 1 to 1.11 1, which is something less than that of Dr. Derham's
proportion, and that 1 dies in 40 in a year; if we substitute these numbers in
the formula, we shall then find the time of doubling to be 250 years. For then
.. ■•! , log 2 0,3010300 , . ,
itwill be^ = ,^^^— — -■--^— — ^= — j^^-- = 250; which shows
how far Sir William was mistaken in his method of calculation, when he made
the time to be 36o years.
After the same manner, the number of years being given, it will be easy to
find the proportional increase. Suppose after 45 years. For then we should
have 45 x log. (/ + i — 1) — 45 X log. / = log. p; which will give 45 X
O.OOiaoOQ = log./), and therefore p = 1.1443, from which if n be equal to
5,467,860, we have pn = 6,256,872. So that it appears if there was 5,467,860
people in England at the year 17 10, when the above-mentioned survey was made,
there is now 6,250,000; if none were to be deducted on account of our wars,
and emigrations to our colonies since that time.
From what has been found above, that {I -\- b — \y = ply, it is evident, that
the ratio of the increase in any number of years may be determined, without the
number of people being known, or their proportion to the annual increase ; and
also that any one of the quantities /, b, y, p, may be found, the others being
known. But if the ratio of the number of people to the annual increase be
known; and consequently the proportion, of the number in any one year, to
the number next year known, we shall then have a very simple equation. For
if we suppose the number of people in any one year, to be to that number with
the increase added in the next year, as 1 to r, we shall then have nr' = vp, or
r' = /;. And, in like manner, if the proportion of the number of people to
their increase, in a given cycle of years, had only been known, and that cycle
y y
be c, we should then have nic = np, or n = p. From which formula it would
be easy to calculate the numbers of mankind, in all ages through the world, if
we suppose them to arise from a given number, and the rate of increase known,
in any period of years. And this may sometimes be of use to discover the
number in any age, that might be possible to reason on, and to find out the truth
of any hypothesis.
XLVI. An Attempt to Explain Tivo Roman Inscriptions, cut on tivo Altars,
which were dug up some time since at Bath. By John tVard, LL.D- and
V. P. R. S. p. 285.
These two inscriptions were found near the same time and place, with that
VOL. XLIX.] rHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 62/
which has been already published in the 48th vol. of the Philos. Trans. The
altars, which contain them, are in the possession of Dr. William Oliver, physi-
cian at Bath, who has placed them in his garden, and who transmitted draughts
of them, with their inscriptions, taken by the Rev. Mr. Borlase, f.r.s. And
after that, Mr. Prince Hoare sent casts of the inscriptions in plaster of Paris.
The inscTiption on the higher altar may, Dr. W. thinks, be thus read in words
at length:
Peregrinus Secundijilius, civis Trever, Jovi Cetio, Marti, et Nemetona, votum
solvit libens merito.
The person, who dedicated this altar, calls himself Peregrinvs Secvndi
FiLivs ; each of which names occurs several times in Gruter, as a cognomen,
which often stands alone, when the person named is sufficiently distinguished by
it. Having given us his own name, and that of his father, he proceeds to ac-
quaint us with his country, and stiles himself Civis Trever, a people who in-
habited that part of Belgic Gaul between the Maese and the Rhine, which is
now the electorate of Triers; and were conquered by Caesar, with the rest of
the Gallic nations. Their chief city, which was situated on the Moselle, being
made a Roman colony in the reign of Augustus, is by Tacitus called Colonia
Treverorum, but by others more frec^uently Augusta Treverorum, and now
Triers.
The 3 following lines of the inscription contain the names of 3 deities, to
whom this altar was dedicated. The first of these is here called Ivpiter Cetivs.
Ptolemy makes mention of a large mountain in Germany, which he calls Kino?,
and describes as the eastern boundary of Noricum, by which it was separated
from Pannonia, now Hungary. From this mountain it seems highly probable,
that the name Cetius might be given to Jupiter, as its tutelar deity.
The 3d and last name here mentioned, is Nemetona, which Dr. W. had no
where else met with ; but as it stands connected with the two former by the par-
ticle ET, it must, he thinks, denote some deity, and by the termination a god-
dess. The last line of the inscription acquaints us with the cause of erecting
this altar, which was the performance of some vow, formerly made by Peregrinus.
And it is not improbable, that he had laboured under some bodily disorder,
which occasioned his going to Bath for the benefit of the waters, which in the
time of the Romans were in so high esteem. And the good success which he
met with by the use of them, may be concluded from the tenor of the inscrip-
tion, wherein he makes his acknowledgement to the deities above-mentioned,
for the benefit he had received through their favour, in consequence of his ad-
dresses to them for that purpose. For as it was a common notion of the ancient
pagans, that all human affairs were under the direction of their deities; so in
any danger or misfortune they used to solicit them for relief, with vows and pro-
4l'2
628 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
mises of erecting altars and other buildings to their honour, in case of a favour-
able answer. Which, when performed, they were said votum solvere, as the
letters v. s. here imply.
The other inscription, on the lower altar, when expressed in words at length,
may be read in the following manner:
Sulevis Sulinus Scultor, Bruce li Jilius, sacrum fecit libens merito.
That the first word Svlevis denotes a name given to certain rural goddesses,
called Sulevae, is plain from an inscription found on a stone at Rome, and pub-
lished by Fabretti, in which they are joined with Campestris. The 2 next words,
SvLiNvs ScvLTOR, must, he thinks, stand for the names of the person who
dedicated this altar; as the 2 following, Brvceti f. acquaint us with that of
his father. The words Sacrvm fecit, in the last line, are of the same import
with dedicavit; in which sense likewise sacrum alone is often used. And some
times the reason of the dedication is added, as, sacrum, voto suscepto, fecit, in
Gruter. But that not being mentioned here, must remain unknown.
There is nothing said in either of these inscriptions, which can afford any light
towards settling the time, when they were erected. But so far as appears from
the form of the letters, they may not improbably be supposed of somewhat a
later date, than that mentioned before, as found near the same place.
XLVII. Of a remarkable Echinus. By Gust. Brander, Esq. F.R.S. p. 295.
. This echinus was of a very singular species. It appeared to be of a middle nature
between the echinus and the star-fish. It came from the island of Bourbon in
the East Indies, and he could not learn that it was any where described. See fig.
10, pi. xi.
XLFIII. Of an Impression on a Stone dug up in the Island of Antigua, and
the Quantity of Rain fallen there for 4 Years. By the Rev. Francis Byam.
p. 295.
This stone was brought from a quarry for a building in the town of An-
tigua: the quarry is in the side of a mountain, and is about 300 yards higher
than high-water mark, and about 2 miles from the sea. When the mason struck
it with his hammer it split in two, and discovered the exact figure of a fish, on
each stone, called an old wife.
The quantity of rain that fell in Antigua, was in 1751, 51.8 inches; in 1752,
43.3 inches; in 1753, 32.8 inches; in 1754, 75.2 inches.
XLIX. On the Stones mentioned in the Preceding Article. By Mr. Arthur
Pond, F. R. S. p. 297.
The impression of this fish is in a chalky kind of stone, of a pale ochrey co-
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. . 62Q
lour ; some parts, when scraped, are white, and all the impression is of a yellow-
ish brown, nearly the colour of brown ochre. The impressions of the bones
and iins are verj' perfect; and the cavity, that contained the back-bone, ex-
tremely sharp and delicate. When Mr. P. first saw it, '2 or 3 of the vertebrae
were in it. All the cavities of the bones are now sufficiently open to contain
them, and it is probable that most, if not all of them, were in the stone, when
it was first split. Between the rib-bones and the two long fins, which come
down from the head, which parts were only fleshy, there is no impression, the
stone having united quite through ; and on the upper part of the fin, by the
side of the cheek, is a deep impression of a very small cockle-shell. The im-
pression on the counter-part of the stone is much the same, except that the
tail is wanting.
L. On the Ejects of Lightning in the Danish Church, in JVellclose-square. By
Gustavus Brander, Esq., F. R. S. p. 298.
On Monday, Nov. 17, between 6 and 7 o'clock, there was, among many
others, one most amazing flash, accompanied with a clap of thunder, that
equalled in report the largest cannon. The next morning, the minister observ-
ing the church clock to be silent, they went into the belfry, and found the wire
and chain, that communicated from the clock in the belfry, to the clapper
in the turret, where the bells hang, were melted ; and that the small bar of iron
from the clock, that gives motion to the chain and wire, just where the chain
was fastened, was melted half through, the bar being about -f- of an inch broad,
and half an inch thick. By several links of the chain, and of the wire, it is ob-
served, that the lightning took effect only in the joints. But whether it entered
by communication, from the wire exposed to the air in the small turret, through
the roof of the belfry, or at the windows, there being several panes broken in the
south and west corners, is uncertain ; though Mr. B. presumes rather the first
way, as it is very possible, that the bare report of the thunder might have oc-
casioned the latter.
The pieces of the wire and chain were scattered over the whole belfry, nor
could it be discerned, that the wood-work, or ought else, had suffered.
LI. Electrical Experiments, made in Pursuance of those hy Mr. Canton, dated
Dec. 3, 1753; with Explanations. By Mr. Benjamin Franklin, F.R.S.
Dated Philadelphia, March \ A, 1755. p. 300.
Principles. — 1. Electric atmospheres, that flow round non-electric bodies,
being brought near each other, do not readily mix and unite into one atmosphere.
630 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
but remain separate, and repel each other. This is plainly seen in suspended
cork balls, and other bodies electrified.
2. An electric atmosphere not only repels another electric atmosphere, but
will also repel the electric matter contained in the substance of a body approach-
ing it ; and, without joining or mixing with it, force it to other parts of the
body, that contained it. This is shown by some of the following experiments.
3. Bodies electrified negatively, or deprived of their natural quantity of elec-
tricity, repel each other, (or at least appear to do so, by a mutual receding) as
well as those electrified positively, or which have electric atmospheres. This is
shown by applying the negatively charged wire of a phial to two cork balls, sus-
pended by silk threads, and by many other experiments.
Preparation. — Fix a tassel of 15 or 20 threads, 3 inches long, at one end of
a tin prime conductor ; (mine is about 5 feet long, and 4 inches diameter) sup-
ported by silk lines. Let the threads be a little damp, but not wet.
Exper. 1 . — Pass an excited glass tube near the other end of the prime con-
ductor, so as to give it some sparks, and the threads will diverge. — Because each
thread, as well as the prime conductor, has acquired an elastic atmosphere, which
repels, and is repelled by, the atmospheres of the other threads : if those several
atmospheres would readily mix, the threads might unite, and hang in the middle
of one atmosphere, common to them all.
Rub the tube afresh, and approach the prime conductor with it, crossways,
near that end, but nigh enough to give sparks ; and the threads will diverge a
little more. Because the atmosphere of the prime conductor is pressed by the
atmosphere of the excited tube, and driven towards the end where the threads
are, by which each thread acquires more atmosphere.
Withdraw the tube, and they will close as much. — They close as much, and
no more, because the atmosphere of the glass tube, not having mixed with the
atmosphere of the prime conductor, is withdrawn entire, having made no addition
to, or diminution from, it.
Bring the excited tube under the tuft of threads, and they will close a little.
— They close, because the atmosphere of the glass tube repels their atmospheres,
and drives part of them back on the prime conductor.
Withdraw it, and they will diverge as much. — For the portion of atmosphere,
which they had lost, returns to them again.
* Exper. 2. — Excite the glass tube, and approach the prime conductor with it,
holding it across, near the opposite end, to that on which the threads hang, at
the distance of 5 or 6 inches. Keep it there a few seconds, and the threads of
the tassels will diverge. Withdraw it, and they will close. — They diverge, be-
cause they have received electric atmospheres from the electric matter befor6
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 631
contained in the substance of the prime conductor ; but which is now repelled
and driven away, by the atmosphere of the glass tube, from the parts of the
prime conductor, opposite and nearest to that atmosphere, and forced out upon
the surface of the prime conductor at its other end, and on the threads hanging
to it. Were it any part of the atmosphere of the glass tube, that flowed over
and along the prime conductor to the threads, and gave them atmospheres (as in
the case when a spark is given to the prime conductor, from the glass tube),
such part of the tube's atmosphere would have remained, and the threads con-
tinue to diverge; but they close on withdrawing the tube, because the tube takes
with it all its own atmosphere, and the electric matter, which had been driven
out of the substance of the prime conductor, and formed atmospheres round the
threads, is thereby permitted to return to its place.
Take a spark from the prime conductor, near the threads, when they are di-
verged as before, and they will close. — J'or by so doing you take away their at-
mospheres, composed of the electric matter driven out of the substance of the
prime conductor, as aforesaid, by the rejiellency of the atmosphere of the glass
tube. By taking this spark, you rob the prime conductor of part of its natural
quantity of the electric matter ; which part so taken is not supplied by the glass
tube; for when that is afterwards withdrawn, it takes with it its whole atmo-
sphere, and leaves the prime conductor electrized negatively, as appears by the
next operation.
Then withdraw the tube, and they will open again. — For now the electric
matter in the prime conductor, returning to its equilibrium, or equal diffusion,
in all parts of its substance, and the prime conductor having lost some of its na-
tural quantity, the threads connected with it lose part of theirs, and so are elec-
trized negatively, and therefore repel each other, by Pr. 3.
Approach the prime conductor with the tube near the same place as at first,
and they will close again. — Because the part of their natural quantity of electric
fluid, which they had lost, is now restored to them again, by the repulsion of
the glass tube forcing that fluid to them from other parts of the prime conduc-
tor : so they are now again in their natural state.
Withdraw it, and they will open again. — For what had been restored to them
is now taken from them again, flowing back into the prime conductor, and
leaving them once more electrized negatively.
Bring the excited tube under the threads, and they will diverge more. — Be-
cause more of their natural quantity is driven from them into the prime conduc-
tor, and so their negative electricity increased.
Exper. 3. — The prime conductor not being electrified, bring the excited tube
under the tassel, and the threads will diverge. — Part of their natural quantity is
63a PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1755.
thus driven out of them into the prime conductor, and they become negatively
electrized, and therefore repel each other.
Keeping the tube in the same place with one hand, attempt to touch the
threads with the finger of the other hand, and they will recede from the finger. —
Because the finger being plunged into the atmosphere of the glass tube, as well
as the threads, part of its natural quantity is driven back through the hand and
body, by that atmosphere, and the finger becomes, as well as the threads, nega-
tively electrized, and so repels, and is repelled by them. To confirm this, hold
a slender light lock of cotton, 2 or 3 inches long, near a prime conductor, that
is electrified by a glass globe, or tube. You will see the cotton stretch itself out
towards the prime conductor. Attempt to touch it with the finger of the other
hand, and it will be repelled by the finger. Approach it with a positively charged
wire of a bottle, and it will fly to the wire. Bring near it a negatively charged
wire of a bottle, it will recede from that wire in the same manner, that it did
from the finger ; which demonstrates the finger to be negatively electrized, as
well as the lock of cotton so situated.
LII. Extract of a Letter concerning Electricity, from Mr. B. Franklin to
Mons. Delibard, inclosed in a Letter to Mr. Peter Collinson, F. R. S. Dated
Philadelphia, June 29, 1755. p. 305.
You desire my opinion of Pere Beccaria's Italian book. I have read it with
much pleasure, and think it one of the best pieces on the subject, that I have
seen in any language. Yet as to the article of water-spouts, I am not at present
of his sentiments ; though I must own with you, that he has handled it very
ingeniously. Mr. Collinson has my opinion of whirlwinds and waterspouts at
large, written some time since. I know not whether they will be published ; if
not, I well get them transcribed for your perusal. It does not appear to me,
that Pere Beccaria doubts of the absolute impermeability of glass in the sense I
mean it ; for the instances he gives of holes made through glass by the electric
stroke, are such as we have all experienced, and only show that the electric
fluid could not pass without making a hole. In the same manner we say, glass
is impermeable to water, and yet a stream from a fire-engine will force through
the strongest panes of a window. As to the eft'ect of points in drawing the elec-
tric matter from clouds, and thereby securing buildings, &c. which, you say, he
seems to doubt, I must own I think he only speaks modestly and judiciously.
I find I have been but partly understood in that matter. I have mentioned it in
several of my letters, and except once, alwavs in the alternative, viz. that pointed
rods erected on buildings, and communicating with the moist earth, would either
prevent a stroke, or, if not prevented, would conduct it, so as that the building
TOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 633
should suffer no damage. Yet whenever my opinion is examined in Europe,
nothing is considered but the probability of those ro<ls preventing a stroke, or
explosion ; which is only a part of the use I proposed from them ; and the other
part, their conducting a stroke, which they may happen not to prevent, seems
to be totally forgotten, though of equal importance and advantage.
I thank you for communicating M. de Button's relation of the effect of light-
ning at Dijon, on the 7th of June last. In return give me leave to relate an
instance I lately saw of the same kind. Being in the town of Newbury in New-
England, in November last, I was shown the effect of lightning on their church,
which had been struck a few months before. The steeple was a square tower of
wood, reaching 70 feet up from the ground to the place where the bell hung,
over which rose a taper spire, of wood likewise, reaching 70 feet higher, to the
vane or weather-cock. Near the bell was fixed an iron hammer to strike the
hours ; and from the tail of the hammer a wire went down through a small
gimblet hole in the floor that the bell stood upon, and through a second floor in
like manner ; then horizontally under and near the plastered ceiling of that se-
cond floor, till it came near a plastered wall ; then down by the side of that wall
to a clock, which stood about 20 feet below the bell. The wire was not thicker
than a common knitting needle. The spire was split all to pieces by the light-
ning, and the parts flung in all directions over the square in which the church
stood, so that nothing remained above the bell.
The lightning passed between the hammer and the clock in the above-men-
tioned wire, without hurting either of the floors, or having any effect upon
them, except making the gimblet-holes, through which the wire passed, a little
larger, and without hurting the plastered wall, or any part of the building, so
far as the aforesaid wire and the pendulum wire of the clock extended ; which
latter wire was about the thickness of a goose-quill. From the end of the pen-
dulum, down quite to the ground, the building was exceedingly rent and da-
maged, and some stones in the foundation-wall torn out, and thrown to the
distance of 20 or 30 feet. No part of the afore-mentioned long small wire, be-
tween the clock and the hammer, could be found except about 2 inches, that
hung to the tail of the hammer, and about as much that was fastened to the
clock ; the rest being exploded, and its particles dissipated in smoke and air, as
gunpowder is by common fire, and had only left a black smutty track on the
plastering, 3 or 4 inches broad, darkest in the middle, and fainter towards the
edges, all along the ceiling, under which it passed, and down the wall. These
were the effects and appearances: on which I would only make the few following
remarks ; viz.
1 . That lightning, in its passage through a building, will leave wood, to pass
as far as it can in metal, and not enter the wood again till the conductor of metal
VOL. X. 4 M
634 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755,
ceases. And the same I have observed in other instances, as to walls of brick or
stone. 2. The quantity of lightning, that passed through this steeple, must
have been very great, by its effects on the lofty spire above the bell, and on the
square tower all below the end of the clock, pendulum. 3. Great as this quan-
tity was, it was conducted by a small wire and a clock pendulum, without the
least damage to the building, so far as they extended. 4. The pendulum rod
being of a sufficient thickness, conducted the lightning without damage to itself;
but the small wire was utterly destroyed. 5. Though the small wire was itself
destroyed, yet it had conducted the lightning with safety to the building. 6.
And from the whole it seems probable, that if ever such a small wire had been
extended from the spindle of the vane to the earth, before the storm, no damage
would have been done to the steeple by that stroke of lightning, though the wire
itself had been destroyed.
LIll. On the Effects of Lightning at Dorkin in Surrey. By Mr. William Child.
p. 309.
Monday, July 16, 1750, a storm arose about 7 o'clock in the evening.
During the preceding part of the day the air was of a very red fiery appearance,
accompanied with frequent thunderings. About 6 o'clock the wind rose, and
blew exceedingly strong, and in a very short time the hemisphere became un-
commonly dark ; the flashes of lightning were much stronger, and came in very
short intervals of time, and the thunder-claps long and loud, attended with a
very hard rain for near half an hour, in which time came the strongest flash of
lightning he ever saw, and instantly with it the most terrible burst of thunder.
Several persons, who were near, saw, at the same time, in different places about
Mr. Worsfold's house, large balls of fire, which, as they fell on the houses or
ground, divided into innumerable directions.
The lightning entered Mr. Worsfold's house on the south side of the roof,
close in a small angle of a stack of chimneys, that stand out several feet above
the tiling, and falling perpendicular through the roof, met with a small crank,
which was in a passage between the north and south chambers : to which crank
hung a bell, and from the crank went a wire both ways into the two chambers.
It ran along the wire that went into the back or south chamber, melting it to
the end, and when it left it split the post of a bed, that stood in the chamber, as
if it had been cleft with wedges. It followed the course of the other wire into
the north chamber, which turned towards the east, and went partly round the
room, following its direction in every angle where the wire went,* till it reached
* These wires conducting the lightning, as far as they went, confirms Mr. Franklin's opinion, that
if they had been extended to the earth, the great damage that ensued might have been prevented.
— Otig.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 635
the end, which was joined by a string, to which hung a handle for ringing the
bell, it being close by the side of the bed : but the greatest force of the lightning
seemed to fall perpendiculaily down the side of a wall in the chamber. Against
the chimney were hung several barometers, the glasses of which were all shat-
tered to pieces, and forcing away the plastering of the wall, entered the shop,
piercing through the two upper shelves, and the parcels of nails, &c. that were
on them. And here it is observable, that from the perpendicular course it took
the same direction in the shop, as in the chamber over it, but in almost as many
lines as there were shelves, leaving very visible marks of its course. Near its
perpendicular course in the shop, on one of the shelves, it pierced through 7
box irons, making a small hole about the size of common shot on one side, and
leaving a roughness on the opposite side of each box where it came out. The
several parcels of nails, tacks, hinges, &c. that lay in the course it took, were
very plainly affected by it : some of the small tacks in particular were soldered
together, 6, 7, 8, or 10 in a clump, as if scalding metal had run over them.
The papers of the parcels were burnt in small holes. At one end of the shelves
hung several long pendulums, the springs of which were melted so that they fell
to the ground ; and the lightning spreading its remaining force to some littered
straw and packing paper, that lay about the shop, set fire to them, which was
happily extinguished without doing any further damage. Mr. Worsfold was in
his shop the whole time, but received no hurt.
LIF^. On the great Benefit of Blowing Showers of Fresh Air up through Distil-
ling Liquors. By Stephen Hales, D. D; F. R. S. p. 3 J 2.
The great importance of having a sufficient supply of fresh water in ships, has
been the occasion of many laudable attempts to make sea-water fresh and whole-
some : but all the attempts and discoveries hitherto made have laboured under this
great and material objection, viz. the great quantity of fuel that was necessary to
distil, with a slow progress, a small quantity of water, by any methods of distilla-
tion hitherto known. But Dr. H. had discovered an easy and effectual method
to distil great quantities of water with little fuel ; which he was led to by the fol-
lowing incidents; viz. Mr. Shipley, secretary of the society for the encouragement
of arts, manufactures and commerce, brought him acquainted with Mr. William
Baily of Salisbury-court, the author of many ingenious contrivances ; who
showed him, in a small model of a tin vessel, a method, by which he has happily
increased the force of the engine to raise water by fire, viz. by lifting up some of
the boiling water, at every stroke, by means of a conical vessel, with small holes
in it, full of tow ; by which the quantity gf the ascending steam was consitlerably
increased. This led him to think, that a greater quantity of liquor might also by
this means be distilled ; but on trial he found the increase to be only a twelfth
4 M 'i
636 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
part, though considerable in the expanded form of a steam. Hence he was led to
try what would be the effect of causing an incessant shower of air to ascend
through the boiling liquor in a still ; and this he found on trial to be very consi-
derable. There was another circumstance also, which probably conduced to lead
him to this thought, viz. About six months before, Mr. Littlewood, a ship-
wright at Chatham, came to communicate to him an ingenious contrivance, soon
to sweeten stinking water, by blowing a shower of fresh air through a tin pipe
full of small holes, laid at the bottom of the water. By this means he said he
had sweetened the stinking bilge water in the well of some ships ; and also a butt
of stinking water in an hour, in the same manner as Dr. H. blew up air through
corn and gunpowder, as mentioned in the book on Ventilators.
The method which he used to blow showers of air up through the distilling
water, was by means of a flat round tin box, 6 inches diameter, and an inch and
half deep ; placed at the bottom of the still, on 4 knobs or feet half inch high,
to make room for the liquor to spread over the whole bottom of the still, that
the heat of the fire may come at it. In larger stills this box must be propor-
tionably larger, and have higher feet. And as the mouth of the still is too narrow
for the tin box to enter, which box ought to be within 2 inches as wide as the
bottom of the still; therefore the box may be divided into 2 parts, with a hinge
at one edge or side, and a clasp at the other, to fix it together, when in the still.
This box must be of copper for distilling sea-water. The air-pipe, which passes
through the head of the still, will help to keep the air-box from moving to and fro
by the motion of the ship ; or, if that should not be found sufficient, 3 or
4 small struts may be fixed to the sides of the air-box. They must reach to
the sides of the still. The cover and sides of the air-box were punched full of
very small holes, a 4th of an inch distant from each other, and about the
'20th part of an inch in diameter. On the middle of the cover or lid of this
air-box, was fixed a nosil more than half inch wide, fitted to receive, to put on,
and take off the lower end of a tin pipe, 20 inches long, and passed through
a hole in the head of the still : 4 inches of the upper end of this pipe., were
bent to a crook, almost at a right angle to the upright stem, to unite the crook to
the widened nose of a pair of kitchen double bellows, by means of a short leathern
pipe of calves-skin. See pi. 15, fiig. 8.
The double bellows were bound fast to a frame, at the upper part of the iron
nose, and at the lower handle, the more commodiously to work them. And that
the upper half of the double bellows may duly rise and fall, to cause a constant
stream of air (besides the usual contracting spiral springs withinside), several flat
weights of lead must be laid on the upper part of the bellows, near the handle,
with a hole in their middle, to fix them on an upright iron pin fastened on the bel-
lows ; that by this means the weights may the more commodiously be put on or
VOL. XHX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 637
taken oft". For, according to the different depths of the liquor in the still, so
will the force of the included air, against the upper board of the bellows, be more
or less. Wherever the stills are tixed in ships, the air may be conveyed to them
from the bellows, either through a small leathern pipe, distended with spiral coils
of wire, or through Bamboo canes, or broad small wooden pipes, like hollow
fishing rods. In several distillations of a quart at a time. Dr. H. found the
quantity distilled by ventilation to be more than the double of that in the usual
way. So that the quantity by ventilation may, at a medium, be estimated the
double of the usual distillation. It is the well-known property of moving air, to
carry along with it a considerable quantity of adjoining vapour, as also of falling
water to carry much air down along with it. ■ It is to be hoped therefore, that so
considerable an increase in the quantity distilled will be of great benefit to navi-
gation, as it may be done in less time, and with less fire.
In the account of Mr. Appleby's process, for making sea-water fresh, pub- .
lished by order of the lords of the admiralty, in the Gazette of Jan. '22, 1754, it
is said that a still, which contains 20 gallons of water, will distil 6o gallons in
10 hours, with little more than one bushel of coals ; and therefore 120 gallons
in 20 hours, with little more than 2 bushels of coals. And by ventilation 240
gallons, or a tun ; and 24 gallons may be distilled in 20 hours, making an al-
lowance for the times of heating those stills full of cold water; and still a larger
and wider will distil a tun in 24 hours ; which will more than suffice for a sixty
gun ship, with 400 men, whose provision of water for 4 months is about 110
tuns. And larger ships may either have proportionably larger stills, or else two
of them. As for merchant ships with few men, a small still will be sufficient.
There are holes in the feet of the iron frame or stove of these stills, to screw
them down to the deck. They were fixed at the fore-castle before the mast, in
King Charles the 2d's time, when they thought they had discovered the way to
distil sea-water, free from the noxious spirit of salt, and from the nauseous bitter
taste. Or, if it be thought proper, one part of the ship's boiler may be made use
of, by adapting a still-head to it.
Doctor Butler, in his lately published method of procuring fresh water at sea,
proposes the pouring in more sea-water into the still, through a funnel fixed in a
small hole in the head or upper part of the still, when more than half the former
water is distilled off"; by which means the water in the still will soon acquire a dis-
tilling heat ; and this to be repeated several times ; but then it will be requisite to
add each time more chalk, in such proportion as shall be found requisite. It will
be well to try this method in hopes to increase the quantity of water distilled. The
hole in the head, or upper part of the still, is to be stopped with a small plate of
copper, so fixed as to turn to and from over the hole. Doctor Butler used capital
6oap-lees, in the proportion of a wine quart to 15 gallons of sea-water; which
638 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO J755.
sufficed for 4 or 5 times repeate<] pourings-in of more sea-water into the still. But
as a small quantity of chalk has the same good effect, and is cheaper, and more
easily to be had, it is therefore preferable to soap-lees.
When there is a fire in the cook-room, the sea-water might be ready heated to
put into the still, without any additional expence of fuel, in the following manner :
about the year 17 18, Mr. Schmetou, a German gentleman, got a patent here for
heating great quantities of water, with little expence of fuel. Having fixed a
spiral iron worm-pipe, in such a brick stove or chimney as women heat their irons
in, thus causing the water to run from a vessel, through the worm-pipe, several
feet length round, in the fire. About 30 years after, Dr. H. acquainted Mr.
Cramond of Twickenham with this, hoping it might be of benefit in distilling sea-
water. On which he procured such a spiral iron worm-pipe, about 20 feet
long, and -^^ inch diameter; the diameter of the spiral coil was about 14 inches.
This Dr. H. fixed in a brick stove in his garden, with its upper end fixed to a
vessel, which contained 45 gallons of water. He found the event of this first
trial to be as follows, viz. When the water ran full bore, at the rate of a gallon in
17 seconds, the heat of the water was found, by a mercurial thermometer held in
the stream, at the lower end of the pipe, to be 80 degrees above the freezing
point, 180 degrees being the heat of boiling water. When, by means of a turn-
cock, a gallon of water was 2 miimtes in running, then the heat was 140. At
vyhich rate the 45 gallons would be an hour and half in running through the iron
pipe ; at which rate 25 gallons will run through in 50 minutes, with so consi-
derable a degree of heat; and if it was an hour running, the heat would approach
still nearer to a boiling heat, when first put into the still, which would forward
the distillation, if wanted.
He pumped the heated water up again into the upper vessel ; and thus conti-
nued to circulate the heating water, till its heat was l6o degrees in the upper
vessel, viz. within 20 degrees, or -^ of boiling, the heat requisite for plentiful dis-
tillation. He was in hopes, that if the water in the upper vessel could have been
brought to a due degree of heat, and a still-head were fixed on it, with its cool-
ing worm-tub, then water might have been distilled in ships, by having the iron
worm-pipe fixed in the chimney of the cook-room : but he found, that when the
heat of the water in the upper vessel was 1 60 degrees ; then, in running through
the iron worm-pipe again, it was so over-heated as to expand in the pipe, into an
explosive vapour, which hindered the running of the water. However he thought
it not improper to give an account of this attempt, though it failed.
Now that several effectual means are discovered, to make distillerl sea-water
wholesome, and also to distil it in much greater quantity in the same still, in the
same time, and with nearly the same quantity of fuel ; it is reasonable to believe,
that it will be of great benefit to navigation, not only in saving much stowage-
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 63Q
room, for other important purposes ; but also in procuring fresh sweet wholesome
water, instead of stinking putrid water, hitherto used ; which must needs have a
tendency to promote that putrid distemper, the scurvy. And if due care be taken
to exchange for fresh air, the putrid close confined air of ships, which has occa-
sioned the death of millions of mankind ; then navigation will become more
healthy, and with little more danger to health and life than at land, except from
storms.
Dr. H. distilled 3 gallons of sea-water, with the proportion of 6 oz. of Mr.
Appleby's lapis infernalis, and 6 oz. of calcined bones to 20 gallons of sea-
water, as he directs. This water lathered well with soap, and boiled peas well.
He distilled also some sea-water with half an ounce of stone-lime to a gallon, from
the Clee hills in Herefordshire, which having been preserved 10 months in a
firkin, had slackened to dry powder. This distilled water also lathered well with
soap, and boiled peas well ; which proves that the lime, which is a fixed body,
does not distil over with the water. Afterwards General Oglethorpe informed
him, that his father. Sir Theophilus, told him, that lime was one of the ingre-
dients, which he and the rest of the patentees, in Charles the second's time, called
the cement, with which they made distilled sea-water wholesome. He distilled
also some sea-water with the like proportion of powdered chalk, which boiled peas
well, and was better tasted than the waters distilled with lapis infernalis, or lime.
He distilled also some sea-water with an ounce of chalk to a gallon, but found no
difference in the taste of this, and that which had but half an ounce of chalk to a
gallon: so that half an ounce of chalk to a gallon of water will be sufficient; but
where the sea-water is Salter, or more bituminous, more chalk may be added if
needful.
Dr. Alston, of Edinburgh, in the preface to the 2d edition of his Dissertation
en Quick-lime and Lime-water, says. That " the like effect was found in distill-
ing sea- water with lime; that it neither precipitated a solution of silver in aqua-
fortis, nor a solution of corrosive sublimate in water, nor did it form a pellicle of
various colours on its surface, as did the water distilled by Mr. Appleby's process."
And indeed lime of oyster-shells had the same good effect, but required two dis-
tillations, perhaps by using it in loo small a proportion. Hence it is probable, that
the chalk, the lime, the lime in the lapis infernalis, and the lime in Dr. Butler's
soap-lees, seize on and fix not only the bittern salt, but also the bitumen of the
sea-water, as we learn from the like effect in the purification of the salt of harts-
horn. That the saline spirit arises chiefly from the bittern salt, and not from
the more perfect sea-salt, is probable from hence, viz. That in distilled 3 gallons
of common water, made as salt as sea-water with common salt; no spirit of salt
arose, even though the distillation was carried so far as to leave the salt, though
very damp, to lie in heaps, and it was incrusted on the sides of the still, for about
3 inches from the bottom.
640 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1755.
It is also a considerable advantage, that water thus distilled by ventilation, being
thus replete and freshened with air, has for present use a more agreeable taste than
water distilled without ventilation, which requires the standing a longer time to
have its more disagreeable adust taste go off. And as the volatile oil of pepper-
mint arises on the wings of the ventilating air during the distillation ; so also may
that part of the bitumen, which is volatilized by heat ; as also the volatile urinous
salts of the sea-water, which arise from animal substances, be sublimed in the
same manner. It was observable, that the water distilled fast, even though the
water in the still was belowthe surface of the tin airy box, through which the great-
est part of the ascending shower of air rushed. Hence the ventilating air, in as-
cending among the vapours, carries them off fast. Hence it is to be suspected,
that this method of ventilation will not do well for simple waters, or fermented
vinous spirits ; because they being very volatile, much of them may be carried off
in waste. It was also observable, that in these distillations of sea-water, no
whitish clouds appeared on dropping in solution of corrosive mercury, not even
when considerably more than 4 parts in 5 of the water had been distilled over.
And it was the same with the mixture of lapis infernalis, lime, and chalk ; whence
it is probable, that the lime and chalk seize on and fix the more volatile
bittern salt, as does also the lime in the lapis infernalis. And it is well known,
that sugar, that sweet salt, cannot be made without lime, on which, as its
centre of union, it fixes and granulates. And whereas with a solution of silver
in aqua-fortis, which was much weakened and diluted with water, there appeared
a faint degree of whitish cloud, in all the above-mentioned distillations, though
not with the stronger solution of mercury, till the distillation was carried on
much beyond 4 parts in 5 of the water in the still ; when both solutions caused
remarkably white clouds, especially the solution of mercury ; which indicates the
quantity of the spirit of salt which was raised during the former part of the dis-
tillation to be exceedingly small, since it could not seize on, nor disengage the
aqua-fortis from the stronger solution of mercury, though it did in a very small
degree in the weak solution of silver, so as to let loose a very little of the silver,
which thus caused the faint clouds. When a drop of the solution of mercury
was dropped into the distilled water, after a drop of the solution of silver, it re-
sorbed the silver cloud, and made the water clear, by means of the great propor-
tion of acid aqua-fortis that was in it.
Now in order to make some estimate of the very small quantity of spirit
of salt in these several distilled waters. Dr. H. dropped a drop of the solution
of silver into an ounce, or 480 grains of pure rain water, which gave no
clouds ; but on dropping in a drop of sea-water, which weighed a grain, the
white clouds were strong. And since sea-water can dissolve Q times more salt
than it has in it ; therefore, supposing the drop to be so fully impregnated with
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 641
salt, then the salt would be the 480th part of the ounce of water. But as there
is 9 times less salt, therefore the proportion ofthe quantity of spirit of salt will
be but the 4320th part. And how much less must be the proportion of salt in
these distilled waters, which is not sufficient to make a sensible impression on
solution of mercury, and but a faint one on much diluted solution of silver ?
Such distilled sea-water will not therefore probably be unwholesome ; almost all
spring-waters have some degree of salt in them : but if there were more of the
spirit of salt, a very small quantity of pot-ash, or pearl-ashes, or salt of tartar,
combined with it, will turn it into common salt, the quantity of which would be
extremely little.
Since double the usual quantity of vapour may by way of ventilation be carried
off, common salt may thus be made much sooner, cheaper, and better ; because,
as there is much less fire used, so proportionably, less of the fine acid spirit of
the salt, in which its virtue consists, will be evaporated away : for it is well
known that the salt is best, which has undergone the least action of fire in
making. This more speedy method of evaporating will also be useful, in making
many other evaporations ; as in making pot-ash, &c.
LJ^. On the Great Benefit of Fentilators in many Instances, in Preserving the
Health and Lives of People, in Slave and other Transport Ships. By Stephen
Hales, D.D., F.R.S. p. 332.
Captain Thomson, of the Success frigate, in a letter to Dr. Hales, dated
London, Sept. 25, 1749, says, " that during the ventilation, the lower deck
hatches were commonly kept close shut ; by which means the air was drawn
down into the hold, from between the decks, through the seams of the ceiling,
along the timbers of the ship ; by which means they found the foul air soon
drawn off from between decks. Their rule for ventilating was for half an hour
every 4 hours : but when the ventilating was sometimes neglected for 8 hours
together, then they could perceive, especially in hot weather, a very sensible
difference by that short neglect of it ; for it would then take a longer time to
draw off the foul air. Their general rule was, to work the ventilators till they
found the air from them sweet. All agreed that they were of great service ; the
men being so sensible of the benefit of them, that they required no driving
to work that, which they received so much benefit by. They found this good
effect from verrtilation, that though there were near 200 men on board, for al-
most a year, yet he landed them all well in Georgia, notwithstanding they were
pressed men, and drawn out of jails, with distempers upon them. This is what
he believes but few transports, or any other ships, can boast of; which he im-
putes to the benefit received by the ventilators. It is to be remarked, that the
crew of this ship, which lay wind-bound for 4 months, with the expedition fleet
VOL. X. 4 N
642 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
which soon after invaded France, were very healthy all the time, when they
were very sickly in all the ships of that expedition. This certainly occasioned all
kinds of grain provisions to keep better and longer from weevels than otherwise
they wonld have done ; and other kinds of provisions received lienefit from the
coolness and freshness in the air of the ship, which was caused by ventilation."
Mr. Cramond also informed Dr. H. that he found the good effects of venti-
lators on board a slave ship of his with 392 slaves, 12 of which were taken on
board, just before they sailed from Guinea, ill of a flux, which 12 all died ; but
the rest, with all the Europeans in the ship, arrived well at Buenos Ayres. And
a similar letter, on the good effects of ventilation, &c. was also sent by Captain
Henry Ellis, who mentions particularly that in one voyage in the year 1755, not
one of 3 1 2 slaves died ; and all his 36 sailors arrived alive and well at Bristol. Also
the Earl of Halifax often informed Dr. H. of the great benefit they found by the
use of ventilators, in several Nova Scotia transport-ships, 1 2 to one more have
been found to die in unventilated than in ventilated ships. It is indeed a self-
evident thing, that the changing the foul air frequently in ships, in which there
are many persons, will be a means of keeping them in better health than not
doing it. It is the high degree of putrefaction (that most subtile dissolvent in
nature), which a foul air acquires in long stagnating, which gives it that pesti-
lential quality, which causes what is called the jail distemper. And a very small
quantity, or even vapour of this highly attenuated venom, like the infection or
inoculation for the small-pox, soon spreads its deadly infection.
LVl. Of Some Trials to cure the 111 Taste of Milk, which is occasioned by the
Food of Cows, either from Turnips, Cabbages, or Autumnal Leaves, &c.
Also to Sweeten Stinking ff'^ater, &c. By Ste. Hales, D.D., F.R.S. p. 339.
The above method of blowing showers of air up through liquors, will be of con-
siderable use in several other respects, as well as in distillation, as appears by the
following trials, viz.
Dr. H. had been informed, that it is a common practice to cure the ill taste of
cream from the food of cows, by setting it in broad pans over hot embers or
charcoal, and continually stirring it, till scalding hot, and till cool again. But
when he attempted to do this much sooner, and more effectually, by blowing
showers of air up through it, he soon found it to be impracticable, by reason of
its great degree of frothing up. The ill taste must therefore be got out of the
milk, before it is set for cream ; which he was told had been practised, and that
'vith some benefit, by giving the milk a scalding heat, without stirring it.
May 22, He ventilated some ill-tasted new unhealed milk of a cow, which
was purposely fed with crow-garlic mixed with cut grass. After 15 minutes ven-
tilation the taste was a little mended ; in half an hour's blowing it was something
TOL. XLIX.] ! PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 643
better. At the hour's end it had the same taste, but was sensibly better than the
unventilated milk.
August 23, 4 quarts of ill-tasted new milk, from a cow, which had fed 84
hours on cabbage-leaves only, and drank during that time very little water, were
put into a leaden vessel, 8 inches in diameter, and 30 inches deep. The leaden
vessel was heated in a large boiler, and set into a vessel of hot water ; to give the
milk a scalding heat, and also keep it hot. In 10 minutes ventilation it was
perfectly cured of its ill taste; and after standing 24 hours in a broad pan, there
was a thick scum, which was half cream and half butter, free from any ill taste;
the skimmed milk was not sheer or thin : so here is a method to make good
butter from ill-tasted milk. The froth of the milk was so great, by reason of
a too brisk ventilation, as to make it froth over the vessel, which was 30 inches
deep; if it had not been kept down, by constantly lading and breaking the very
large bubbles of froth. But when the ventilation is more gentle, the froth has
risen but 3 inches from 6 quarts of milk, which was Q inches deep. The
cabbage milk was but 6 inches deep. He repeated the like operation the same
day, with the evening milk of the same cow ; but giving it only a heat, that he
could bear his fingers in, for a little time ; with this degree of heat, after 45
minutes ventilation, the milk, though much better tasted, yet was not so com-
pletely cured as the former milk. Hence we see how necessary heat is to vola-
tilize the rancid oil (which gives the ill taste) to such a degree as to cause it to
fly off by ventilation. It was observed, that what was milked from this cow a
week after she had done eating the cabbage, had an ill taste. He had not as
yet had an opportunity to try to cure, in the same manner, the ill taste of milk,
which is occasioned by cows feeding on autumnal leaves, or turnips.
He ventilated 3 gallons of stinking Jessops well purging water. On first blow-
ing, the smell of the ascending vapour was very offensive, which oftensiveness
abated much in 5 minutes : in 1 1 minutes the smell was much better : in 20
minutes the water seemed sweet both in smell and taste ; and not sweeter at the
end of 45 minutes: 15 or 20 minutes will probably suffice.
July 20th, 3 gallons of stinking sea-water were ventilated ; in 5 minutes it
was much sweetened, and no ill smell in the ascending air, though at first it was
very offensive: at the end of 10 minutes it had a small degree of ill taste; after
20 minutes no ill taste or smell. It frothed near a foot high during part of the
ventilation : this from the bitumen, &c.
Some sea-water, which was made to stink with flesh and isinglass being put
into it, was not made perfectly sweet, not even by a ventilated distillation, and
an hour's more ventilation after it was distilled ; so that the putrefaction with
animal substances is not easily completely cured by ventilation. When the water
was 27 inches deep in the leaden vessel, no air could be blown up through it by
4 N a ■■ " '' ' "
644 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755,
the force of the bellows. But at 18 inches depth the air could freely be blown up
in showers, through the water ; therefore when it is requisite to blow up through
great depths of water, the bellows may be worked with a lever, as smiths' bellows.
As it is foimd by experience, that the milk and butter of cows, which drink
stinking water, has a very bad taste, this plainly shows that the water retains its
putrid quality when mixed with the blood. Whence it is much to be suspected,
that the stinking water, which is drank in ships, by retaining its putrid quality,
even when mixed with the blood, may thereby promote that putrid distemper the
scurvy, as well as some other distempers. And much more does the putrid close
air in ships, which is mixed with the blood from the lungs, promote putrid and
other disorders. By the same means also pestilential infections are taken in : for
as the salutary properties of good air are conveyed by the lungs, so are also the
malignant qualities of bad air. Thus also the putrid water in marshy aguish coun-
tries, may be a cause of agues, as well as the putrid air, which they breathe ;
which, as well as the putrid water, may probably carry some of its putrid quality
into the blood through the lungs. This method therefore of sweetening stinking
water, by blowing showers of air up through the stinking water of some aguish
places, may be beneficial.*
Live fish may well be carried several miles, by blowing now and then fresh
air up through the water, without the trouble of changing the water: for this
ventilation will not only keep the water sweet, but also enrich it with air, which
is necessary for the life of fishes ; with which air they supply their blood, by
breathing the water, thin spread, between their gills; but stinking water will
kill fish. He also found that much of the heating oil may be got out of tar-water,
by blowing showers of air up through it when scalding hot, for 15 or 30 minutes,
the longer the better ; the less volatile and more salutary acid remaining.
Explanation of the Figures. — PI. 15, fig. 8, (oopr) a tin or copper air-box, 6
inches diameter, and an inch and a half deep from (o to p).
The lid of the box full of holes, one 20th inch diameter, and about a quarter
of an inch distant from each other, (gikl) a nozel soldered to the lid of the air-
box, into which the tin pipe (agikl) is fixed so as to take in and out ; this pipe
to be 2 feet long, and -^V inch diameter, (ab) a bend in the pipe 5 inches long,
to which is fastened the leathern pipe (ccdt) 6 inches long ; to which the nose of
the bellows is fixed at (df) .
Fig. 9, (giklooxx) the lid of the box, whose rim (oxox), is a quarter of an inch
deeper than the box (op fig. 8), that the air-holes (o) may be pierced in its upper
part ; and the lower part is scolloped with wide scollops, for the air to pass
through the holes (pp fig. 8.)
• It has been shown of late years by Mr. Lowitz of Petersburgh, that putrid water may be rendered
gweet and wholesome by filtration through pulverized charcoal.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 645
Fig. 10, (ab) the milk-boiler, with the broad rim (cd), and perpendicular rim
(cedf) soldered to the horizontal rim ; the perpendicular rim to enter the circular
groove (ef) 4 inches deep full of sand, to prevent the ascent of the smoke from
the fire-stove.
LFII. On the Return of the Comet, expected in 1757, or 1758. By T. Barker,*
Esq. Dated Lyndon, near Uppingham, Rutland, Dec. 17, 1754. p. 347,
As we expect the comet of 1531, 1607, and l682, to return in 1757 or 1758,
it is proper to be aware where to look for it. But that will be very different,
according to the time of the year it comes ; and its period is not sufficiently
known to fix the month of its next perihelion, which should be July 25, 1757,
according to its last period ; but the length of that before would make it Oct.
25, 1758. Mr. B. has therefore, in 12 short tables, given the apparent path
of the comet, supposing its perihelion any month in the year, with its curtate
distance from the earth ; and the first 2 articles of each are the places which it
would probably begin to appear in. These will show in general the course of the
comet, especially at its first appearance, which is most wanted ; but cannot be
depended on where its motion is swift, and may be 40° in a day, the beginning
of May, or middle of October. From these tables, compared with the scheme, he
made another, where the comet would begin to be seen any month in the year.
To construct the places, on a large sheet of pasteboard, he divided the cir-
cumference of a circle, of 10 inches radius, into degrees, for the magnus orbis.
On the right point of the ecliptic and focal length he drew a parabola like that
observed in 1 682, round the sun, the centre of the circle, and marked every 4th
day's motion from the perihelion, and the line of its nodes. The co-sine of the
comet's inclination set off on perpendiculars to this, towards the several points of
the parabola, forms the projection of it, or points in the plane of the ecliptic over
which the comet is at any time perpendicular.
To find the comet's place at any time, count how long it is before or after its
perihelion, and mark the place in the projection of the parabola : lay one edge
of a parallel-ruler through that point, and the place the earth is then in, and the
other edge passing through the sun, will cut the magnus orbis at the geocentric
longitude of the comet : the tangent of the comet's inclination making the per-
pendicular from the comet's projected place to the line of nodes, the radius is the
tangent of its apparent latitude, making the curtate distance of the comet from
• Mr. Barker died at Lyndon, in May 1803, at an advanced age. He was of an ancient and re-
ipectable family in Rutland. His father was a celebrated Hebrew scholar, and his mother wa»
daughter of the pious and learned Wm. Whiston, in whose Memoirs may be seen frequent notices of
the family. Besides Mr. B.'s regular Annual Registers of the Weather since the year 1771 j and se-
veral other papers, in the Phil. Trans., he was author ot some other separate publications, both on
astronomy and theology.
646 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1755.
the earth the radius. For expedition thus ; draw two lines, making an angle of
17° 56': on one of them set ofF the perpendicular from the comet's projected
place, and raise a perpendicular to the other ; or, which is the same, from the
comet's real place in the parabola ; and let fall a perpendicular, that is the tan-
gent of the geocentric latitude.
One observation of a known comet will, on such a scheme, determine in some
measure its whole course; for, from the earth's place, draw the observed longi-
tude of the comet, where that cuts the projection of the parabola is the comet's
place ; to which if the observed latitude agrees, it confirms it : then the other
data being already known, and one place given, its whole course may be traced.
Such a scheme may be also of use to find the periods of comets, where the de-
scription of one is not good enough to find its orbit by ; for if an old comet was
seen in August, in ^XX", or in 25, with south latitude, or very bright in January,
it cannot be the comet of l682 ; but if in November in y , near the ecliptic, it
may. It then remains to see, whether the rest of the description will agree
with the course it would in that case take ; if it does, then, as the account is
more or less perfect, there is a greater or less probability of its being the same.
r
A Table showing where the Comet may be expected to begin to appear
any Month.
January . .
February. .
March . . . .
April ,
May .
June .
July.
. . end
begin
end
begin
end
begin
end
begin
end
begin
end
August . .
September .
October .
Novem. . .
Decern. . .
begin
. mid.
end
begin
end
Scarcely to be »een
Retr. between 30° and 15" f
30 and 1 5 W
30 and 0 «
15 and OK
Stat. 10 r and 20 K
.... middle T
Dir. begin. Q
begin. Q
end 0
.... begin, n
.... middle n
.... end n
Stat. 25 and 30 n
Retr. end n
begin, n
5 n and 20 O . .
.... begin. 0
begin. 0 end T . .
.... begin. T
Lat.
Small increasing S. .
Small N. or S
Small N. decreasing.
Small N. decreasing.
Small N
N
7 weeks after perihelion.
\ a month after perihelion.
> 2 or 3 weeks after.
about perihelion.
1, 2, or 3 weeks.
■ N. increasing 2 to 5 weeks before.
}■
Small increasing N.
Small S. or N
Small S
1 Small S. or N.
/ very faint .
5 to 8 weeks before.
2 months before perihel.
2 or 3 months.
3 months before perihel.
11 to 14 weeks.
LVIII. An Extraordinary and Surprising Agitation of the tVaters, though *
without any perceptible Motion of the Earth, having been observed in various
Parts of this Island, both Maritime and Inland, on the same Day, and chiefly
about the Time that the more Ftolent Commotions of both Earth and IVaters
* See the note on the letter from R. Philips. — Orig.
TOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 647
SO extensively/ affected many very distant Parts of the Globe',* the folloiviw
Accounts, relating to the former, were transmitted to the Society ; in which
are specified the Times and Places when and where they happened.
J. At Portsmouth, in Hampshire. By Mr. John Robertson, F. R. S. p. 351.
On Saturday, Nov. 1, 1755, about 35 minutes after 10 in the morning,
there was observed in the dock-yard at Portsmouth, an extraordinary motion of
the waters in the north dock, and in the basin, and at two of the jetty-heads.
In the north dock, whose length is about 229 feet, breadth 74 feet, and at that
time about 1 7-r '^et depth of water, shut in by a pair of strong gates, well se-
cured, his majesty's ship the Gosport of 40 guns, was just let in to be docked,
and well stayed by guys and hawsers. On a sudden the ship ran backwards near
3 feet, and then forwards as much, and at the same time she alternately pitched
with her stem and head to the depth of near 3 feet ; and by the libration of
the water, the gates alternately opened and shut, receding from each other near
4 inches.
In the basin, whose length is about 240 feet, breadth 220 feet, and at that
time about 17 feet depth of water, shut in by two pair of gates, lay the Berwick
of 70 guns, the Dover of 40 guns, both in a direction nearly parallel to the
Grosport ; and a merchant ship of about 600 tons, unloading tar, lying in an
oblique direction to the others. These ships were observed to be agitated in like
manner with the Gosport, and the tar-ship to roll from side to side : the swell of
the water against the sides of the basin was observed to be 9 inches ; one of the
workmen measured it between the librations.
The Nassau, a 70-gun ship, lying along side a jetty head, between the north
dock and the basin ; also the Duke, a QO-gun ship, lying against the next jetty-
head, to the southward, both in a direction nearly at right angles to the others,
were observed to be rocked in the same manner, but not quite so violently : these
2 ships lay in the harbour. The dock and basin lie nearly east and west, on the
west side of the harbour.
2. In Sussex, and the Southern Parts of Surrey. By Philip Carteret JVebb,
Esq., F. R. S. p. 353.
In his garden at Busbridge, near Godalmin in Surrey, on Saturday the first of
November 1755, at half an hour after 10 in the forenoon, Philip Smith, John
Street, and John Johnson, the gardeners, were alarmed by a very unusual noise
in the water, at the east end of the long canal, near which John Street and John
Johnson were then at work. On looking that way, they observed the water,
in that part of the canal, in great agitation, attended with a considerable
• This agitation of the waters, observed in various'parts of Great Britain, happened on the very
satne day with the memorable earthquake at Lisbon.
6j8 philosophical transactions. [anno 1755i
noise. The water soon raised itself in a heap or ridge, extending lengthwise
about 30 yards, and between 1 and 3 feet above the usual level of the water ;
after which the heap or ridge heeled or vibrated towards the north, or left side of
the canal, with great force, and flowed about 8 feet over the grass walk on that
side of the canal, quite up to the arch. On the water's returning back into the
canal, it again raised itself into a heap or ridge in the middle; after which the
heap or ridge heeled or vibrated with greater force towards the south, or right
hand side of the canal, and flowed over the grass walk, and through the rustic
arch on that side ; and drove a small stream of water, which runs through it,
36 feet back upwards, towards its source. During this latter motion, the bot-
tom of the canal, on the north side, for several feet in width, was quite bare of
water. The water being returned into the canal, the vibrations became less and
less, but so strong as to make the water flow several times over the south bank
of the canal, which is not so high as the north bank. In about a quarter of an
hour from the first appearance the water became quiet and smooth as before."
The motion of the water was, during the whole time, attended with a great per-
turbation of the sand from the bottom of the canal, and with a great noise,
likened by the gardeners to that of water turning a mill. During the whole time
the weather was remarkably still, there not being the least wind ; and there was
no tremor or motion of the earth felt on the sides of the canal.
The canal is near 700 feet long from west to east, and is about 58 wide : there
is a small spring, which constantly runs through it. The water at the east end,
where this appearance was observed, usually pens from 2 to 4 feet, being gradu-
ally deeper to the west end, where it pens to about 10 feet. No motion was
taken notice of in the water at the west end of the canal, the first vibration,
which drove the water over the grass walks, was from south to north. The grass
walk on the north side of the east end of the canal is 14 inches, and that on
the south side about 10 inches higher than the usual level of the water: the
highest part of the walk, over which the water flowed, is about 20 inches above
the water-level.
Mr. W. was informed, that the water was affected about the same time in
the following places. In a mill-pond, at Medhurst in Sussex, the sudden agita-
tion and swell of the water rolling toward the mill was so remarkable, that the
miller imagined a sluice had been opened at the upper end of the pond, and had
let a back-water into it ; but on search it was found to be shut as usual. Below
the mill the swell of the water was so great, as to drive the stream upwards, back
into the conduit of the mill. At Lee, in the parish of Whitley, in Surrey, about
5 miles from Busbridge, between Busbridge and Medhurst; the water in a canal
or pond belonging to Mr. Luff was so violently agitated, that the gardener, on
the first appearance, ran for help, thinking a number of otters were under the
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 649
water, destroying the fish. In a mill-pond, near Guildford in Surrey, a like
swell and agitation of the water was observed by several persons, one of whom
stood all the time on a bridge of wood, over the pond. Not the least tremor or
motion of the earth was felt in any of these places, or at the bridge at Guildford.
3. In the Parish of Cobham. By Sivithin Adee, of Guildford, M.D., F.R.S.
p. 357.
A man, in the parish of Cobham, was watering a horse in hand, at a pond
close by the house, which is fed by springs, and had no current. The time he
fixes was about 10 in the morning, but their clock goes too slow. While the
horse was drinking, the water ran away from the horse, and moved towards the
south with swiftness, and in such a quantity, as left the bottom of the pond
bare ; then returned with such impetuosity, as made the man leap backwards, to
secure himself from the sudden approach of the water. It went back again to
the south, with a great swell, and returned agiiiii. On inspecting the place,
Dr. A. found the water must have risen above 1 foot. The ducks were alarmed
at the first agitation, and flew all instantly out of the pond. The man observed,
that there was a particular calm at this time of day. You will observe here were
tw.o fluxes and two refluxes seen distinctly.
4. At Medhursl. By Mr. John Hodgson, p. 358.
As to the ponds near Medhurst, every body agrees, that there was an extra-
ordinary swelling of the water. The water was thrown several feet above its
banks, both at north-mill, at south-pond, and the pond in Lord Montacute's
park; and at the first of these, on its retreat, left some fishes on dry land.
5. At Cranbrook in Kent. By Wm. Tempest, Esq. F.R.S. p. 36o.
The people here are very much alarmed on account of an earthquake, which
happened last Saturday (Nov. the 1st). I felt nothing of it, but some people
fancied they did. I do not hear that the earth moved ; only the waters of several
ponds, in this and the adjacent parishes, were in such motion, that they over-
flowed their banks, then returned back, and overflowed the other side.
6. Near Tunbridge. By John Pringle, M. D., F. R. S. p. 36o.
The pond at Eaton-bridge, near Tunbridge, is about an acre in size, and across
it is a post and rail, which is almost quite covered by the water. Some people
heard a noise in the water, and imagining something had tumbled in, ran to see
what was the matter; when, to their surprise, they saw the water open in the
middle, so as that they could see the post and rail a good way down, almost to
the bottom, and the water dashing up over a bank about 2 feet high, and per-
pendicular to the pond. This it did several times, making a grejit noise. They
did not feel the least motion on the shore, nor wa.s there any wind, but a dead
calm.
VOL. X. * 4 O
«»
650 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1753.
7. In the River Thames, near Rotherhiihe. By Mr. Henry Mills, p. 36 1.
Being in one of his barges, unloading some timber, between 11 and 12
o'clock, he was surprised by a sudden heaving up of the barge from a swell of
the water, not unlike what happens when a ship is launched from any of the
builders' yards in the neighbourhood. After the barge had alternately risen and
sunk 3 or 4 times, with a motion gradually decreasing, the water became quiet
again.
8. In Peerless Pool, near Old-street, London. By Tho. Birch, D. D. Secret.
R. S. p. 362.
On the reports, received from several gentlemen, that the agitation of the
waters observed in many parts of England, Scotland, Ireland, Holland, &c. on
Saturday Nov. 1, 1755, had been likewise noticed in Peerless Pool, near Old-
street road, being curious to have as authentic and circumstantial an account as
possible of a fact, which he had not heard to have been remarked in any other
part of London, or its suburbs, Dr. B. went thither on Saturday Dec. 6, 1755,
and took down the following particulars relating to it, from the mouth of one of
the two waiters there, who were eye-witnesses of it. He being engaged between
the hours of 10 and 11 in the morning, with his fellow-waiter, in some business
near the wall inclosing the ground, which contains the fish-pond, and acci-
dentally casting his eye on the water, was surprised to see it greatly moved with-
out the least apparent cause, as the air was quite calm. This occasioned him to
call to his companion to take notice of it, who at first neglected it, till being
urged to attend to so extraordinary an appearance, he was equally struck with
the sight of it. Large waves rolled slowly to and from the bank near them, at
the east end, for some time, and at last left the bed of the pond dry for several
feet, and in their reflux overflowed the bank 10 or 12 feet, as they did the oppo-
site one, which was evident from the wetness of the ground about it. This mo-
tion having continued 3 or 6 minutes, the two waiters stepped to the cold bath
near the fish pond, to see what passed there; but no motion was observed in it
by them, or by a gentleman who had been in it, and was then dressing himself,
and who, on being told of the agitation in the fish pond, went directly thither,
with the waiters, and was a third witness of it. On the ceasing of it, they all 3
went to the pleasure bath, between which and the fish pond the cold bath is situ-
ated; but they found the said pleasure bath then motionless, but to have been
agitated in the same manner with the fish pond, the water having left plain marks
of its having overflowed the banks, and risen to the bushes on their sides. The
motion in the fish pond had been also observed by some persons in a house be-
longing to Mr. Kemp, the master of Peerless Pool, situated at a small distance
from that pond, and commanding a full view of it.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 651
9. j4t Rochford in Essex. By the Rev. Mr. T/iomlinson. p. 364.
At a pond in a close of Mr. Sly's, adjoining to the church-yard, the water was
observed to flow a considerable way up the mouth of the pond, and then return-
ing, to flow up the opposite side, repeating this sort of motion for about a quarter
of an hour. The motion of the water in the pond was only from east to west,
and from west to east, alternately.
10. In Berkshire, near Reading. By Mr. Rd. Philips, p. 365.
On the 1 St of November last, at about 1 1 o'clock in the morning, as Mr.
Pauncefort's gardener was standing by a fish pond in the garden, he felt a most
violent* trembling of the earth, directly under his feet, which lasted upwards of 50
seconds; immediately after which he observed that the water in the pond was in a
very unusual motion, and suddenly thrown on the opposite side, leaving that on
which he stood quite dry, for the space of 1 yards, and continued in that state
for about 1 minutes, when it returned as before, and collecting in or near the
middle of the pond, rose about 20 inches above the level of the water on each
side, and continued so for 2 minutes in violent agitation, which the gardener
described to be like the boiling of a pot.
At the same time Capt. Clarke, at Caversham in Oxfordshire, a mile distant
from Reading, was alarmed with a very great noise, as if part of the house had
been falling down; on examination however it did not appear that the house was
at all damaged ; but a vine, which grew against it, was broken off, and 2 dwarf
trees, such as are used in espalier hedges, were split by the shock.
11. Near Reading in Berkshire. By the Rev. J. Blair, LL.D., F.R.S. p. 36/.
At Earley-court, near Reading in Berkshire, in a small fish pond near the
house of Edward Pauncefort, Esq. the water was observed, about 1 1 o'clock in
the forenoon, to be in a strong agitation, like that of the tide coming in. The
first motion of the water was from the south end of the pond to the north end,
leaving the ground or bottom of the fish pond on the south end without water,
for the space of 6 feet. It then returned, and flowed at the south end, so as to
rise 3 feet up the banks, and immediately went back again to the north, where
it likewise flowed 3 feet up the banks; and in the time between the flux and
reflux, the water swelled up in the middle of the pond like a ridge, or rising part
of the land. This motion or agitation of the water, from south to north, and
from north to south alternately, backwards and forwards, lasted about the space
of 4 minutes of time; and there seemed to be little or no motion in the direction
of east and west, the weather being perfectly calm during the whole time.
* This is the only account that mentions any tremor of the earth to have accotnpanied the agita-
tion of the waters in this island j and the next account of the very same matter docs uot take I lie
least notice of any. — Orig.
4 o 2
()5'2 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO J 755,
12. In Oxfordshire, at Shirburn Castle, the Seat of the Earl of Macclesfield,
Pres. R. S. Communicated by his Son, the Lord discount Parker, F. R. S.
then on the Spot. p. 368.
On Saturday November 1, a little after 10 o'clock in the forenoon, walking in
the garden at Shirburn castle, he perceived the gardener, who was coming to-
wards him by the end of the moat, on a sudden stop short, and look earnestly into
the water. He went towards him, and perceived immediately a very strange mo-
tion in the water. There was a pretty thick fog, not a breath of air, and the
surface of the water all over the moat was as smooth as a looking-glass; yet in
that comer of the moat near which he stood, the water flowed into the shore,
and retired again successively, in a surprising manner. The flux and reflux were
quite regular. Every flood began gently; its velocity increased by degrees, till
at last, with great impetuosity, it rushed in till it had reached its full height, at
which it remained for a little while, and then again retired, at first gently ebb-
ng, at last sinking away with such quickness, that it left a considerable quantity
of water entangled among the pebbles, laid to defend the bank, which run
thence in little streams over the shore, now deserted by the water, which at other
times always covers it. As the slope of the sides of the moat is very gentle, the
space left by the water at its reflux was considerable, though the difference be-
tween the highest flood and lowest ebb of these little tides, was but about 4-i-
inches perpendicular height; the whole body of water seeming to be violently
thrown against the bank, and then retiring again, while the surface of the whole
moat all the time continued quite smooth, without even the least wrinkle of a
wave. He sent persons to several other ponds, in all which the agitation was
very considerable. The swells, that succeeded each other, were not equal, nor
did they increase or diminish gradually; for sometimes, after a very great swdl,
the next 2 or 3 would be small, and then again would come a very large one,
followed by 1 or 2 more as large, and then less again.
13. In Devonshire and Cornwall, at Plymouth, Mounts-Bay, Penzance, &c.
By John Huxham, M. D., F. R. S. p. 371.
Saturday, November 1, about 4 p.m. we had (just about high water) an ex-
traordinary boar, as the sailors call it. The sea seemed disturbed about 20 mi-
nutes before, though there was very little wind that day, or for some days before.
One of our surgeons, who had then just crossed the ferry at Creston, a mile to
the south-east of Plymouth, said, that the tide had made a very extraordinary
out (or recess) almost immediately after high water (about 4 p. m.) left both the
passage-boats, with some horses, and several persons, at once quite dry in the
mud, though the minute or two before, in 4 or 5 feet water; in less than 8
•minutes the tide returned with the utmost rapidity, and floated both the boats
again, so that they had near 6 feet water. The sea sunk and swelled, though in
VOL, XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 653
a much less degree, for near half an hour longer. It was said, that at the next
morning's tide there were several very large surges. This boar drove several ships
from their moorings, and broke some of the hawsers, and twirled the ships and
vessels round in a very odd manner. At Crunill-passage, over another arm of
the sea, about 2 miles west of Plymouth, the same phenomena were obser\'ed;
and in Stone-house lake, that communicates with that arm of the sea, the boar
came in with such impetuosity, that it drove every thing before it, tearing up the
mud, sand, and banks, in a very shocking manner, and broke a large cable, by
which the foot passage boat is drawn from side to side of the lake.
You will please to observe, that it happened not here till about 4 p.m.; at
Portsmouth, about 1 J a. m.; in Holland about 11 a. m.; at Kinsale, &c. in Ire-
land not till 3 or 4 p. m.
14. On the Coast of Cornwall. By the Rev. fVilliam Borlase, of Ludgvan,
A.M.,F.R.S. p. 373.
A little after 1 o'clock in the afternoon, about half an hour after ebb, the sea
was observed at the Mounts-bay pier to advance suddenly from the eastward. It
continued to swell and rise for the space of 10 minutes; it then began to retire,
running to the west and south-west, with a rapidity equal to that of a mill-
stream descending to an undershot-wheel ; it ran so for about 1 0 minutes, till
the water was 6 feet lower than when it began to retire. The sea then began to
return, and in 10 minutes it was at the before-mentioned extraordinary height;
in 10 minutes more it was sunk as before; and so it continued alternately to rise
and fall between 5 and 6 feet, in the same space of time. The 1st and 2d fluxes
and refluxes were not so violent at the Mount pier as the 3d and 4th, when the
sea was rapid beyond expression, and the alterations continued in their full fury
for 2 hours ; they then grew fainter gradually, and the whole commotion ceased
about low water, 5\ hours after it began.
Penzance pier lies 3 miles west of the Mount, and the reflux was first observed
there 45 minutes after 2; the influx came on from the south-east, and south-
south-east. Here the greatest rise was 8 feet, and the greatest violence of the
agitation about 3 o'clock. Newlyn pier lies a mile west of Penzance. Here the
flux was observed first, ss at the Mount, and came in from the southward (the
eastern current being quite spent) nearly at the same time as at the Mount and
Penzance, but in a manner somewhat different; it came on like a surge, or high
crested wave, with a surprising noise. The first agitations were as violent as any ;
and after a few advances and retreats at their greatest violence, in the same space
of time as at the Mount, the sea became gradually quiet, after it had risen 10
feet perpendicular at least. This is near 6 feet more than at the Mount pier,
and 2 feet more than at Penzance. The agitations of the sea at Moushole, an-
other pier in this bay, did not materially differ from those at Newlyn.
654 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO J 755.
In the little harbour of Heyle, about 4 miles north of the Mount on the
Severn sea, the agitation did not make its appearance till an hour and a little
more after the ebb began, which must be full an hour later than with us. In
this inland half-tide harbour it continued visible but an hour and half; the greatest
flux was about the middle of that time, the surge being at that time 7 feet high;
but in general it rose and fell but 2 feet only, owing probably to the force and
quantity of water being broken in its advances into so retired a creek. At Swan-
sea, in Wales, farther up in St. George's channel, where their ebb is later still
than in Heyle, the agitation was proportionably later, and was not observed till
after 1 hours ebb, near 3 quarters after 6. At Kingsale, in Ireland, more in-
deed to the north of us, but more open to the Atlantic cx:ean than Swansea, and
farther to the west, the agitation reached not a full hour after us, but above 1
hours sooner than at Swansea; all tending to show, that the force came from the
south and south-west.
What relations these little palpitations, or tremulous rebounds of the sea, had
to the dreadful convulsions on the coasts of Spain and Portugal, whether they
were the fainter parts of that deplorable shock at Lisbon, or the expiring efforts
of some similar subterraneous strugglings of nature farther to the west, under
the Atlantic ocean, will remain uncertain, till more facts and dates appear; but
by the accounts from abroad, this first of November seems to have been a day
of universal tremor to all the sea-coasts of the western parts of Europe.
I would not be thought to suggest, sir, that a shock so far ofF as the coast
of Spain could be so immense, as to propagate a motion of the water quite home
to our shores. I should rather imagine, that there were several shocks, and
some much nearer to us, but all perhaps from one and the same cause diffused
in different portions, and permeating more contracted or dilated, but still com-
municating passages; I should imagine, that this cause affected the seas and land,
in proportion to its own force, and the superior or weaker resistance of the in-
cumbent pressure ; that where it found the least resistance of all, there it found
its vent, and the swell its cure.
Many other similar accounts were also given, as observed both in the sea and
inland lakes: as at Swansea, on the coasts of Norfolk and Lincolnshire, &c.;
the lakes in Cumberland; a pond near Durham, at half past 10 o'clock; at Loch
Ness, Loch Lomond, &c. in the north of Scotland, about 1 0 o'clock.
It appears also, by communications sent from abroad, that the like agitations
of the water were observed at the Hague, Ley den, Harlem, Amsterdam,
Utrecht, Gouda, and Rotterdam, and also at Bois-le-Duc ; about 1 1 o'clock on
the 1st of November; and likewise at Kingsale and Cork, in Ireland, between 2
and 3 o'clock.
VOL. XLIX.] VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 655
15. Of an Extraordinary Alteration in the Baths of Toplitz in Bohemia, on
the \ St of November, 1755. By Father Joseph Steplin, of Prague, p. 3C)5.
A report being brought that at Toplitz, a village famous for its baths, and Q
Bohemian miles north-west from Prague, the source of these baths had under-
gone some change, in order to know the truth of this. Father Steplin requested
the president of the Supreme Royal Council to send him an exact account of it,
in answer to the several questions which he proposed to him. By this means he
procured the following: that in the year 762 those baths were discovered; from
which time the principal spring had constantly thrown out the hot waters in the
same quantity, and of the same quality. On the 1st of November, 1755, be-
tween 11 and 12 in the morning, the chief spring cast forth such a quantity of
water, that in the space of half an hour all the baths ran over. About half an
hour before this vast increase of the water, the spring became turbid, and flowed
muddy; and, having stopped entirely near a minute, broke forth again with pro-
digious violence, driving before it a considerable quantity of a reddish oker,
crocus martialis. After which it became clear, and flowed as pure as before;
and continues still to do so; but it supplies more water than usual, and that
hotter, and more impregnated with its medicinal quality.
16. Concerning the Agitation of the Waters, Nov. 1, 1755. By Mr. De
Hondt, of the Hague, p. 396.
We had at 1 1 o'clock a phenomenon, which astonished every body. In ab-
solutely calm weather there was observed of a sudden so violent a motion in the
water, that the ships were struck against each other, and broke the cables which
fastened them. It was felt ^t the same time at the Hague, Leyden, Harlem,
Amsterdam, Gouda, Utrecht, Rotterdam, and Bois-le-duc. At the Hague it
was but slight; and no motion was felt in the ground.
17. On the same. By M. AUamond, Projessor of Philosophy at Leyden, and
F.R.S. p. 397.
Between half an hour after 10 and 11 in the morning, in some of the canals
of this city, the water rose suddenly on the quay, situated on the south. It
returned afterwards to its bed, and made several very sensible undulations, so
that the boats were strongly agitated. The same kind of motion was perceived
here in the tuns of water of 2 brewhouses, and in those of 3 brewhouses at
Harlem. The branches of the Roman Catholic church at Rotterdam, which
hung from long iron rods, made several oscillations. A tallow-chandler at the
Hague was surprised to hear the clashing noise made by all the candles hung up
in his shop.
The accounts brought from Norway inform us, that the same observations
were made there, almost at the same time.
656 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1755.
LIX, An Account of the Earthquake, Nov. 1, 1755, as fell in the Lead Mines
in Derbyshire. Bij the Rev. Mr. Bullock, p. SQS.
The following is an account of the earthquake, which happened at the lead
mines on Eyam-edge in the peak of Derbyshire, on Saturday the 1st of Nov.
1755, about 11 o'clock in the forenoon.
Francis Mason, the overseer, says, That he sat in a little room, about 40
yards from the mouth of one of the engine shafts. He felt one shock, which
very sensibly raised him up in his chair, and caused several pieces of lime or
plaster to drop from the sides of the room. In a field about 300 yards from the
mines, there had happened a chasm or cleft on the surface of the earth, which
was supposed to be made at the same time he felt the shock; its continuation
from one end to the other, was near 150 yards, being parallel to the range of the
vein on the north side: the depth of it was about 8 or 9 inches, and its dia-
meter 4.
Two miners say, that at the aforesaid time they were employed in carting, or
drawing along the drifts the ore and other minerals to be raised up the shafts.
The drift where they were working, is about 60 fathoms, or 120 yards deep, and
the space of it from one end to the other upwards of 50 yards. They were
suddenly surprised by a shock, which greatly terrified them. They durst not at-
tempt to climb the shaft, lest that should be running in on them, but consulted
what means to take for their safety. While they were thinking of some place of
refuge, they were alarmed by a shock much more violent than the former ; which
put them in such a consternation, that they both ran precipitately to the other
end of the drift. Soon after they were again alarmed by a third shock; which,
after an interval of about 4 or 5 minutes, was succeeded by a fourth ; and about
the same space of time after, by a fifth ; none of which were so violent as the
second. They heard after every shock a loud rymbling in the bowels of the
earth, which continued for about half a minute, gradually decreasing, or appear-
ing at a greater distance. They imagined, that the whole space of time, from
the first shock to the last, was about 10 minutes. They remained about 10 mi-
nutes in the mine after the last shock; when they thought it advisable to exa-
mine the passages, and to get out of the mine, if possible. As they went along
the drifts, they observed, that several pieces of minerals had dropped from the
sides and roof, but all the shafts remained entire, without the least discomposure.
The space of ground at the mines, wherein it was felt, was 960 yards, being all
that was at that time in work.
1. Account of the Earthquake at Lisbon,* Nov. 1, 1755, in Ttvo Letters from
Mr. JVolfall, Surgeon, p. 402.
Since the beginning of the year 1750, we have had much less rain than has
• This city suffered greatly by an earthquake in 1531. — Orig.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 657
ever been known in the memory of man, excepting the last spring : the summer
has been cooler than usual, and for the last 40 clays, fine clear weather, but not
remarkably so. On the first instant (Nov. 1 755,) about 40 minutes past g in the
morning, was felt a most violent shock of an earthquake : it seemed to last
about the 10th part of a minute, and then came down every church and con-
vent in town, together with the King's palace, the magnificent opera-house,
joining to it ; in short, there was not a large building in town that escaped. Of
the dwelling houses, there might be about one-fourth of them that tumbled, which,
at a very moderate computation, occasioned the loss of thirty thousand lives.
The shocking sight of the dead bodies, with the shrieks and cries of those who
were half buried in the ruins, are only known to those who were eye-witnesses.
It far exceeds all description, for the fear and consternation was so great, that the
most resolute person durst not stay a moment to remove a few stones off the
friend he loved most, though many might have been saved by so doing : but
nothing was thought of but self-preservation; getting into open places, and
into the middle of streets, was the mot probable security. Such as were in the
upper stories of houses, were in general more fortunate than those that at-
tempted to escape by the doors ; for these were buried under the ruins with the
greatest part of the foot-passengers : such as were in equipages escaped best,
though their cattle and drivers suffered severely ; but those lost in houses and
the streets, are very unequal in number to those that were buried in the ruins
of churches ; for as it was a day of great devotion, and the time of celebrating
mass, all the churches in the city were vastly crowded, and the number of
churches here exceeds that of both London and Westminster; and as the
steeples are built high, they mostly fell with the roof of the church, and the
•tones are so large, that few escaped.
Had the misery ended here, it might in some degree have admitted of re-
dress ; for though lives could not be restored, yet the immense riches that were
in the ruins, might in some part have been digged out : but the hopes of this
are almost gone, for in about 2 hours after the shock, fires broke out in 3
different parts of the city, occasioned by the goods and the kitchen-fires being
all jumbled together. About this time also the wind, from being perfectly calm,
sprung up a fresh gale, which made the fire rage with such fury, that at the end
of 3 days all the city was reduced to cinders. Indeed every element seemed to
conspire to our destruction ; for soon after the shock, which was near high
water, the tide rose 40 feet higher in an instant than was ever known, and as
suddenly subsided. Had it not so done, the whole city must have been laid
under water. As soon as we had time for recollection, nothing but death was
present to our imaginations. For 1st, the apprehensions of a pestilence from
the number of dead bodies, and the general confusion, and want of people t(»
VOL. X. 4P .
658 ' PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ■ [aNNO 1755.
bury them, were very alarming : but the fire consumed them, and prevented
that evil. 2d. The fears of a famine were very great ; for Lisbon is the store-
house for corn to all the country, for 50 miles round : however, some of the
corn- houses were happily saved, and though the 3 succeeding days to the earth-
quake an ounce of bread was worth a pound of gold, yet afterwards bread became
moderately plenty, and we were all happily relieved from our starving condition.
The 3d great dread was, that the low villainous part of the people would take
an advantage of the confusion, and murder and plunder those few who had
saved any thing. This in some degree happened ; on which the King gave
orders for gallows immediately to be placed all round the city ; and after about a
hundred executions, among which were some English sailors, the evil stopped.
We are still in a state of the greatest uncertainty and confusion, for we have
had in all 22 different shocks since the first, but none so violent as to bring any
houses down in the out-skirts of the town, that escaped the first shock ; but
nobody yet ventures to lie in houses ; and though we are in general exposed to
the open sky for want of materials to make tents, and though rain has fallen
several nights past, yet the most delicate tender people suffer their difficulties
with as little inconvenience as the most robust and healthy. Every thing is yet
with us in the greatest confusion imaginable : we have neither clothes nor con-
veniences, nor money to send for them to other countries. All Europe is
deeply concerned in the immense riches and merchandises that are lost, but none
so much as our own nation, who have lost every thing they had here. Few English
lives have been lost in comparison of other nations, but great numbers wounded ;
and though we have 3 English surgeons here, but unfortunately without either
instruments, bandages, or dressings, to relieve them. Two days after the first
shock, orders were given to dig for the bodies, and a great many have been
taken up and recovered. Mr. W. lodged in a house where there were 38 in-
habitants, and only 4 saved. In the city prison 800 were lost. 1200 in the ge-
neral hospital,' a great number of convents of 400 in each lost ; the Spanish
ambassador with 35 servants. It fortunately happened, that the King and the
Royal Family were at Belime, a palace about a league out of town. The palace
in town tumbled the first shock, but the natives insist that the inquisition was
the first building that fell down. The shock has been felt all over the kingdom,
but along the se -side more particularly. Faro, St. Ubals, and some of the
large trading towns are, if possible, in worse situation than here ; though the
city of Porto has quite escaped.
It is possible, that the cause of all these misfortunes came from under the
western ocean ; for a captain of a ship, a very sensible man, told him that he
was 50 leagues off at at sea ; that the shock was there so violent as greatly to
injure the deck of his ship ; it occasioned him to think that he had mistaken
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. Q^g
his reckoning, and struck, upon a rock, and they instantly hawled out their long-
boat to save themselves, but happily brought the ship, though much injured,
into this harbour.
The shocks lasted between 5 and 7 minutes. The very first shock was ex-
tremely short, but then it was as quick as lightning succeeded by two others,
which, in the general way of speaking, are mentioned all together as only one
shock. About 12 o'clock we had a second shock. Mr. W. was then in the
Terra do Paqo, or King's palace-yard, and had an opportunity of seeing the
walls of several houses that were standing, open from top to bottom, more
than a quarter of a }ard, yet close again so exactly as to leave no sio-ns of
injury.
3. Abstract of Two Letters, by John Mendes Saccheli, M.D., F.R.S. dated
from the Fields of Lisbon, on the T th of November, and the \st of Decem-
ber, 1755. p. 409.
The day before the fatal earthquake the atmosphere, and light of the sun,
had the appearance of clouds and notable ofl'uscation, and more strong and vi-
sible at the actual time of the great shock, which was by undulation, and lasted
from 6 to 8 minutes. It ruined not only this populous city, but all the southern
part of the country of Estremadura, and a great part of the kingdom of Al-
garve. The earth opened in fissures in several parts, but neither fire nor visible
smoke came out of it. The water in the sea rose several times, and in a few
minutes made 3 fluxes and refluxes, rising above the greatest spring-tides 2
spawns, or 1 5 English feet.
4. Abstract of a Letter from Mr. J. Latham, dated at Zsu-queira, Dec. 11
1755, to his Uncle in London, p. 411.
I was on the river on Saturday the 1 st of November, with a gentleman going
to a village 3 miles off. In a quarter of an hour the boat made a noise as if on
the shore or landing. About 4 or 5 minutes after, the boat made a noise as
before, which was another shake. We saw the houses tumble down on both
sides of the river. In Lisbon, a convent on a high hill fronting the river, the
most part of it came down, a great many were killed and buried in the
ruins ; many tumbled neck and heels in the water, others ran down to the river,
up to their middle and necks. A strong northerly wind blew from shore, which
covered the water with dust, and in our boat we could scarcely see one another \
and it entirely hid the sun from us for some time. The wind soon dispersed the
dust, the shaking seemed over. In about three quarters of an hour we came to
the village, where we were called ashore, and met several gentlemen, who came,
out of the city on horse-back, but so frighted, that they did not know what was
the matter. In a quarter of an hour after our landing, the village was alarmed
with another shake. We got down to our boat ; in a moment the river rose so
4p2
GQO PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
high as obliged us to take to our heels, and run for our lives into the fields and
high ground, the water flowing across the road, which, from the low tide, was
above a quarter of a mile ; the ships were whirled about, and several people
taken into the water, others driven ashore and dashed to pieces. From the
high grounds we could see the sea at about a mile's distance come rushing in
like a torrent, though against wind and tide. A fine new stone quay in Lisbon,
where the merchants land their goods, where at that time about 3 thousand
people were got out for safety, was turned bottom upwards, and every one lost ;
nor did so much as a single body appear afterwards. It being a holy-day, great
numbers of the natives being at their devotion in convents and churches, whose
large buildings suffered most, it is computed about 6o thousand souls, and a
hundred and odd of the foreigners, and all sorts of cattle perished. The reli
gious houses being illuminated with wax-lights, and the images dressed, by the
shakes were set on fire by night, in several places, and by Monday morning en-
tirely consumed, with the rich furniture of convents, nuimeries, and nobility's
houses, and all the merchants and tradesmen's goods, besides jewels, gold, plate,
and coined money. There have been a great many shakes by nights and days :
even on the 8th of December was felt a strong one : it was much more violent
in some places than others. The ground was opened ; in some places you
might put your hand down broad-ways, and not feel the bottom with a long
stick. A sea port, called St. Ubal's, was entirely swallowed up, people and all.
5. Observations made at Colares,* on the Earthquake at Lisbon, of the 1st oj"
November 1755, by Mr. Stoqueler, Consul of Hamburg, p. 413.
The 1st of November, the day broke with a serene sky, the wind continuing
at east; but about Q o'clock the sun became dim, and about half an hour after
we began to hear a rumbling noise, like that of carriages, which increased to
such a degree as to equal the noise of the loudest cannon ; and immediately we
felt the first shock, which was succeeded by a 2d and 3d ; on which, as also on
the fourth, were seen several light flames of fire issuing from the sides of the
mountains, resembling what is observed on the kindling of charcoal. In the
spot on which he remained till the 3d shock was over, he observed the walls to
move from east to west.
In the afternoon of the 3 1 st of October, the water of a fountain was greatly
decreased : on the morning of the 1 st of November it ran very muddy, and
after the earthquake it returned to its usual state, both in quantity and clear-
ness. Some fountains, after the earthquake, ran muddy, some decreased,
others increased, others were dried up; and one, that with the earthquake was
• It is about 20 miles from Lisbon, and lies behind the rock, about 2 miles from the
0ea. — Orig.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 66l
dried up entirely, returned 2 days after to its usual state. In some places where
there was no water, springs burst forth, which continued to run. On the spot
of Varge, and river of Macaas, at the time of the earthquake, many springs of
water burst forth, and some spouted to the height of 25 palms,* throwing up
sand of various colours, which remained on the ground. On the hills, numbers
of rocks were split, and there were several rents in the ground, but none con-
siderable. On the coast pieces of rock fell, some of them very large, and in
the sea sundry rocks were broken : the most noted are those called by the sailors
Sarithoes, or Biturecras, of which one was only broken off at the summit, the
other all to pieces.
Between these rocks and the main, the coasting vessels sailed at low water ;
and now you may go to them at low water, without wetting your feet. From
the rock called Pedra de Alvidrar, a kind of parapet was broke off, which issued
from its foundation in the sea. In a swamp or lake, which received a good deal
of water in winter, and was not dry in summer, the earth rose ; for there is now
scarcely the appearance of a hollow, which was before to the depth of six or
seven palms ; it now remains even with the adjacent ground. In other places,
by the change of the currents it appears that the earth was moved, so that some
spots are more elevated, others more depressed than before.
6. Concerning ihe Earthquake at Oporto in Portugal, Nov. 1, 1755. By a
Letter Jrom that Place, p. 418.
Saturday Nov. 1st, we had such a terrible earthquake here, that we were
afraid of being swallowed up alive, though it has done but very little damage. It
began about half an hour past Q o'clock in the morning, like thunder, or rather
the rattling of a coach over stones , and my own house, as well as most other
people's, during the first shock, which was a very terrible one indeed, was just
as if in a convulsion, which lasted 7 or 8 minutes, and every thing shook and
rattled in it all the time, as if it was coming down ; which frightened people so
much, that a great many ran into the streets, where I plainly saw the earth
heave up. At 6 o'clock at night there was another great shock. The river
also rose and fell surprizingly every quarter of an hour, for upwards of 4 hours
at least, 4 or 5 feet, and sometimes more ; and some saw the river in some
places open, and throw out a vast deal of wind, which was very terrifying.
Abstract of Two Letters to Mr. Plummer, Merchant in London, from Oporto,
concerning the Earlhquakefelt there, p. 419.
This morning, Nov. 1, 1755, between 9 and 10 o'clock, this city was alarmed
with the terrible shock of an earthquake, which continued violently for 5 or 6
minutes, but has done no further damage than the overturning some pedestals
* The Portuguese palm is about 9 inches. — Orig.
602 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
from the tops of some churches, and splitting the walls of some old houses.
The shock was perceived in the river, among the shipping, by a sudden flux
and reflux of the tide, but no damage was done. During the time of the
earthquake, and indeed preceding it, was heard a hollow dreadful noise.
Abstract of a Letter from Madrid to the Spanish Consul in London, p. 423.
Nov. I, soon after 10 o'clock, there was very sensibly felt a great earthquake:
according to the common opinion, it lasted 5 or 6 minutes. Every one at first
thought that they were seized with a swimming in their heads ; and afterwards
that their houses were falling. The same happened in the churches, so that the
people trod each other under foot in getting out ; and those who observed it in
the towers were very much frightened, thinking that they were tumbling to the
ground. It was not felt by those who were in their coaches, and very little by
those who walked on foot.
Of the Earthquake at Cadiz, Nov. 1, 1755, in a Letter from Mr. Benjamin
Betvich, Merchant there, p. 424.
Nov. 1, just before 10, the whole town was shaken with a violent earthquake,
which lasted above 3-i- minutes. The water in the cisterns, which are under-
ground, washed backward and forward, so as to make a great froth upon it.
Every body ran out of the houses and churches, in a terrible consternation, but
no damage was done, as all the buildings here are excessively strong. An hour
after, looking out to sea, we saw a wave coming at 8 miles distance, which was
at least 6o feet higher than common. Every body began to tremble ; the cen-
tinels left their posts, and well they did : it came against the west part of the
town, which is very rocky ; the rocks abated a great deal of its force. At last it
came upon the walls, and beat in the breast-work, and carried pieces of 8 or 1 0
tons weight, 40 and 50 yards from the wall, and carried away the sand and walls,
but left the houses standing, so that only 2 or 3 persons were drowned. Every
one now thought the town would be swallowed up ; for though this was run off^,
yet with glasses we saw more coming. When the wave was gone, some parts,
that are deep at low water, were quite dry, for the water retired with the same
violence that it came with. These waves came in this manner 4 or 5 times, but
with less force each time ; and about one the sea became more calm, but was
still in a boiling motion. Every thing was washed off" the mole. The bay was
full of barrels, and boats, and timber ; but no damage was done to the shipping.
The walls have suffered very much. Some of the towns about us have suffered
a great deal more than we, by the falling of houses and towers.
Of the Earthquake at Cadiz. By Don Antonio d'Ulloa, F.R.S. p. 427.
Nov. 1 , we had here an earthquake, the violence of which was not inferior to
that which swallowed up Lima and Callao, in Peru, towards the end of October
1746. It happened in very fine weather, at 3 minutes after Q in the morning.
VOL. XHX.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 66H,
and continued 5 minutes, and consequently near twice as long as that of Peru,
the duration of which was only 3 minutes. If every thing was not destroyed
here, it seems particularly owing to the solidity of the buildings. The inhabit-
ants had scarcely begun to recover from their first terror, when they saw them-
selves plunged into new alarms. At 10 minutes after 1 1 they saw rolling towards
the city a tide of the sea, which passed over the parapet of 6o feet above the
ordinary level of the water. At 30 minutes after 1 1 came a 2d tide ; and these
2 were followed by 4 others of the same kind, at 50 minutes after 11, at 12.
o'clock 30 minutes; 1 o'clock 10 minutes; and 1 o'clock 50 minutes. The
tides continued, with some intervals, till the evening, but lessening. They have
ruined 100 toises of the rampart; part of which of 3 toises length, and of their
whole thickness, were carried by the torrent above 50 paces. A great number
of persons perished on the causey, which leads to the isle of Lesu. Seville has
been greatly damaged. St. Lucar and Cheres have likewise suffered much ; and
Conel is said to be entirely destroyed.
jin Account of the Earthquakes that happened in Barbary, inclosed in a Letter
from General Fowke, Governor of Gibraltar. Communicated by Philip Lord
Viscount Royston, F.R.S. p. 428.
AtTetuan the earthquake began, the 1 st of November, at 10 in the morn-
ing, and lasted between 7 .and 8 minutes ; during which space the shock was
repeated 3 different times, with such violence, that it was feared the. whole city
would fall down ; but the only damage that resulted was the opening or parting
of some of the walls of sundry houses. It was likewise observed that the waters
of the river Chico, on the other side of the city, and those of a fountain, ap-
peared very red.
At Tangier, the earthquake began about the same time, but lasted longer
than at Tetuan ; the trembling of the houses, mosques, &c. was great, and a
large promontory of an old building near the city gate, after 3 shocks, fell down
to the ground, by which 5 shops were demolished ; the sea came up to the very
walls, a thing never seen before, and went down directly with the same rapidity
as it came up, as far as the place where the large vessels anchor in the bay, leav-
ing upon the mole a great quantity of sand and fish. These commotions of the
sea were repeated 18 times, and continued till 6 in the evening, though not with
such violence as at the first time. The fountains were dried up, so that there
was no water to be had till night : and as to the shore-side, the waters came up
half a league inland.
At Arzila, it happened about the same time, but the damage was not great.
At the coming up of the sea 7 Moors, who were out of the town walls, were
drowned ; and the waters came in through one of the city gates very far. The
water came up with such impetuosity, that it lifted up a vessel in the bay
■©(it PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
which, at the water s falling down to its centre again, fell down with such a force
upon the land, that it was broke to pieces ; and a boat was found at the distance
of 2 musket-shots within land from the sea.
At Salle, there happened very great damage, several houses having fallen
down. The waters came up with such rapidity, that they came into the city,
and at their falling down, great quantities of fish were found in the streets, and
many persons were drowned: 2 ferry-boats overset in the river, and all the people
on board were also drowned; and a great number of camels, that were just then
going for Morocco, were carried away by the waters.
At Fez, vast numbers of houses fell down, and a great many people were
buried under the ruins. At the Scloges, a place where the Barbai-ians live, not
far from Fez, a mountain broke open, and a stream issued out as red as blood.
At Mequinez, a vast number of houses fell down, and a great many people of
both sexes were buried under their ruins ; the convent of the Franciscan friars
fell down to the ground, but the friars were saved.
At SafFe, several houses fell down, and the sea came up as far as the great
mosque, which is at a great distance from the sea.
At Morocco, by the falling down of a great number of houses many people
lost their lives ; and about 8 leagues from this city, the earth opened, and swal-
lowed up a village, with all the inhabitants, (who were known by the name of
the sons of Busunba) to the number of about 8 or 10,000 persons, with their
cattle of all sorts, as camels, horses, horned cattle, &c. and soon after the earth
was closed again, in the same manner as it was before.
At Fez and Mequinez, on the 18th of November there happened another
earthquake, which was more violent than the first, and lasted till break of day
the 19th; during which time great numbers of houses fell down at Fez; many
people of both sexes were buried under their ruins ; and as to Mequinez, there
are but few houses left standing. The people killed by the falling of the houses,
besides the wounded, are numberless ; and in the part of the town called the
Jews' Habitation, only 8 persons were saved.
At Saijon Hills, one of the hills was rent in two ; one side of which fell on a
large town, where there was the famous sanctuary of their prophet, known by
the name of Mulay Teris ; and the other side of the said hill fell down on an-
other large town, and both towns and the inhabitants were all buried under it.
The famous city of Tasso was wholly swallowed up ; no remains left.
This last earthquake was likewise felt at Tetuan and Tangier, but without
any other damage than that the fountains of Tangier were dried up for 24 hours.
Of the Earthquake in t/ie Island of Madeira, Nov. 1, 1755, in a Letter from
Dr. Tho. Heberden, to his Brother Dr. Wm. Heberden, F.R.S. p. 432.
Nov. 1, 1755, in the city of Funchai, on the island of Madeira, at half an
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 605
hour past Q o'clock in the morning, was perceived a shock of an earthquake.
The first notice was a rumbling noise in the air, like that of empty carriages
passing hastily over a stone pavement ; immediately the floor moved with a tre-
mulous motion, vibrating very quickly; the windows rattled, and the whole
house seemed to shake. The shock lasted a full minute ; during which the vi-
brations, though continual, abated and increased twice very sensibly, in point of
force. The noise in the air, which had preceded the shock, continued to ac-
company it ; and lasted some seconds after the motion of the earth had entirely
ceased ; dying away like a peal of distant thunder rolling through the air. The
direction of the shock seemed to be from east to west.
About an hour and half after the shock had ceased, the sea, which was quite
calm, was observed to retire suddenly some paces, anrl rising with a great swell,
without the least noise, as suddenly advancing, overflowed the shore, and en-
tered into the city. It rose full 1 5 feet perpendicular above high water mark,
though the tide, which ebbs and flows here 7 feet, was then at half ebb. The
water immediately receded again, and after having fluctuated 4 or 5 times be-
tween high and low water mark, the undulations continually decreasing, it sub-
sided, and the sea remained calm.
In the northern part of this island the inundation has been more violent, the
sea there retiring at first above 100 paces, and suddenly returning, overflowed
the shore, destroying or damaging several houses and cottages, forcing open
doors, and breaking down the walls of several stores or magazines, and carrying
away in its recess a considerable quantity of grain, &c. Great quantities of fish
were left on the shore, and in the streets of the village of Machico. All this has
been the effect of one sole undulation of the sea, it never flowing afterward so
high as high water mark ; though it continued fluctuating much longer there,
before it subsided, than here at Funchal,, as the fluctuation and swell was much
greater here than it had been farther to the westward, where in some places it
has been hardly, if at all, perceptible.
yinother Account of the same Earthquake at Madeira. By Mr. Charles
Chambers, p. 435.
This account contains no other particulars than the foregoing.
Of the late Earthquakes of Nov. 1, and Dec. Q, 1755, as felt at Neufchalel in
Swisserland. By Mans. De Paulravers, F. R. S. p. 436.
The dreadful earthquake of the 1st of November last has been perceived even
in this country, though very faintly. It turned some of our rivers suddenly
muddy, without any rain, and swelled our lake of Neufchatel to the height of
near 2 feet above its natural level, for the space of a few hours.
The Qth of this month (Dec.) we felt a much more severe sliock of an earth-
quake. It happened a little before 3 o'clock in the afternoon,, with a vibratory
VOL. X. 4 Q
66(5 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
motion from west to east ; another from east to west, and a third from west to
east again. Some chimnies fell in at Cudrefin ; the bell in the tower at Morat
rung 2 strokes. The shock was severer in lofty places than it was in low grounds.
The lake of Morat, immediately after the earthquake, sunk 3 inches, and re-
mains still in the same depression. The same earthquake was felt the same day,
at the same hour, at Basil, Berne, Fribourg, Geneva, and all over Swisserland ;
as likewise at Besanqon in France.
Of the Earthquake felt at Geneva, Dec. Q, 1755. Bij Mons. Trembley. p. 438.
The earthquake of Nov. 1, was felt at Lyons. It is said that the waters re-
tired for some moments at the end of the lake of Geneva ; and that a motion
was observed in those of the lake of Zurich. On the Qth of this month, (Dec.)
a little before half an hour after 2 in the afternoon, in very fine and very calm
weather, there was felt here in all the houses in general a very great shock of an
earthquake; but it did no damage. The motion was particularly i-emarked in
looking-glasses and windows. Those who were sitting perceived that their chairs
shook; and many thought that they were going to fall. The sick felt the motion
in their beds. The bells in the rooms of several houses rang. The bell of the
clock in the tower of the isle of Rhone rung several times. The motion was felt
even on the ground floor of houses. It was felt at Nion, Morges, Lausanne,
Berne, Zurich, and perhaps more strongly than here. Three shocks were in
fact felt within the space of about a minute. During the first a noise was heard
like that of a cart passing over a pavement.
Of the Earthquake felt at Boston in New- England, Nov. 18, 1755. Communi-
caied by John Hyde, Esq. F. R. S. p. 439.
Tuesday, Nov, 18, 1755, about half an hour past 4 in the morning, Mr. H.
was awaked by the shaking of his bed and the house ; the cause of which he im
mediately concluded could be nothing but an earthquake, having experienced one
before. The trembling continued about 2 minutes. Near 100 chimnies are
levelled with the roofs of the houses : many more, probably not fewer than 1 2 or
or 1500 are shattered, and thrown down in part; so that in some places, espe-
cially on the low loose ground, made by encroachments on the harbour, the
streets are almost covered with the bricks that have fallen. Some chimnies,
though not thrown down, are dislocated, or broken several feet from the top,
and partly turned round, as on a swivel; some are shoved on one side horizon-
tally, jutting over, and just nodding to their fall : the gable ends of several brick
buildings, perhaps of 12 or 15, are thrown down, and the roofs of some houses
are quite broken in by the fall of the chimnies : some pumps suddenly dried up ;
the convulsions of the earth having choaked the springs that supplied them, or
altered their course. Many clocks were also stopped by being so violently
agitated.
VOL. XLIX."] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. (5^7
Of the Earthquake felt in New York, November 18, 1735, in a Letter from
Cadwallader Colden, Esq. p. 443.
A few minutes past 4 in the morning, Mr. C. was awaked with the shock of
the earthquake. He plainly heard the noise like that of carts on pavements,
going to the eastward, with now and then a noise like the explosion of a great
gun at a distance. It was felt about 4 o'clock at Philadelphia, and half after 4
at Boston, and was more violent to the eastward than the westward) and there
was an eruption at a place called Scituate, about 20 or 30 miles to the south-
ward of Boston. The summer and autumn had been unusually dry for some
days before the earthquake, though the sky was perfectly calm and serene, the
air was so light, that the smoke of the town by falling down was offensive to our
eyes, as we walked the streets. In the last remarkable earthquake, which hap-
pened about 17 years before, and nearly at the same time of the year, the wea-
ther preceding it was much the same as now, attended with the falling of the
smoke in the towni.
Of the Earthquake felt in Pennsylvania, Nov. 18, 1755, in a Letter to Mr.
Peter Coilinson, F. R. S. p. 444.
Abour 4 o'clock this province was pretty generally alarmed with the shock of
an earthquake. It gradually increased for 1 minute to such a degree as to open
the chamber door, by drawing the bolt of the lock out of the staple. Some
people thought they felt its continuance 5 or 6 minutes, but the writer thinks it
did not exceed 1, nor was it less. He felt the shock of the 1 earthquakes in
England ; but they were little in comparison to this.
LX. Of Four Undescribed Fishes of Aleppo. By Alex. Russel, * M. D. p. 445.
Of these fishes Dr. Russel brought the drawings and descriptions from Aleppo.
•Alexander Russel, m.d. was born in the city of Edinburgh about the year IZl*; where hi»
father practised the profession of the law with great reputation. After the usual course of grammati-
cal study in the High School at Edinburgh, and afterwards in the University, he was placed with
his uncle, an eminent physician in the same city. In the years 1732, 3, and 4, he attended the
lectures of the various professors, and having finished his studies, he settled about the year 1740, at
the city of Aleppo, where he was greatly esteemed by the Englisli factory. He acquired great cele-
brity in his profession, and was frequently consulted, not only by the Greek, Armenian, and Jewish
inhabitants of that region, but even by the Turks themselves, who are said to have held him in high
esteem, and to have placed great confidence in his opinion.
In 1755 he returned to Britiin, and settled in London, where he composed his well-known work the
History of Aleppo, of which a second edition has lately been published under the care of his brother
the late Dr. Patrick Russel, author of the splendid work on Indian Serpents and Fishes. To Dr.
Alexander Russel we owe the introduction of the true scammony, as well as tliat liighly elegant
shrub the arbutus andrachne into the Botanic Gardens of England. About 1739 he was chosen
physician to St. Thomas's Hospital, and was also elected a F.a.8. He attained a verj- considerable
degree of eminence in his profession, and maintained a great integrity of character. He died Nov.
28, in the year 176"8.
4Q 2
()QS PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO J 755.
Fig. 11 and 14, pi. 15, seem to be quite new genera; and 12 and 13, though
they belong to the same genus with the mystus, described by Gronovius in his
Mus. Ichthyologic. p. 34, N° 83, and p. 35, N° 84, yet are species of that
fish which has not hitherto been described.
The fish, fig. 11,* resembles much in shape the Silurus Rondeletii, and has no
scales. Its length, from the nose to the tip of the tail, is 20 inches ; weight 20
oz. ; but they are of different sizes. The head and back are of a black, colour.
The lateral line runs quite from the head to the tail, on the middle of the side ;
below which, to the belly, the colour gradually changes into a dark purple ; of
the same colour is the under part of the head. The head is flat, and near 5
inches in length. The body roundish, till within a few inches of the tail, where
it grows flat. The mouth is not so large in proportion as that of the Silurus; it
has no tongue, and the structure of the mouth and palate agree exactly with the
description of that fish. From the edge of the nostril on each side arises a small
cirrus; and from the angles of the mouth 2 others, that are stronger, and twice
as long. On the lower lip are 4 more, the 2 external being the longest. The
eyes are situated near the corner of the mouth, close on the edge of the upper
jaw. The branchiae are 4 on each side, and all of them have a double row of
sharp points, like the teeth of a comb. It has 2 fins, situated near the bran-
chiae, consisting of 7 radii, to the interior part of which is joined a pretty strong
prickly bone : about an inch above the anus are 2 smaller fins. A long fin ex-
tends from a little way under the anus to the tail, as another of the same kind
does from the neck all along the back : neither of these fins join with the tail,
which is round at the tip, and composed of about 22 feathers. It is found in
the river Orontes, and in some stagnant waters near it. The markets of Aleppo
are plentifully supplied with it, from the month of November till the beginning
of March. The flesh is red like beef, and of a rank taste ; and, though for
want of better, eaten much by the people, yet is esteemed unwholesome. The
name it usually goes by is semack al aswad, which signifies the black fish. Its
proper name however among the natives is siloor.
The fish fig. 12,-|- is about 4 inches long. The head is large and flat, the
body oblong and compressedr Its colour is mostly of a dark silver. The eyes
are large and protuberant. From the lower jaw arise 4 cirri ; the longer measure
one inch, the shorter 2 thirds of an inch. From the upper jaw arise 2 longer,
each measuring 2-i- inches, of a firmer texture than either those of the lower jaw,
or 2 other small ones placed just by the nostrils. Between the 2 long cirri are 2
small tubuli. The whole of the cirri are of a white colour, excepting the 2
longest, which are of a darkish colour, like the upper part of the head. The
• Stiurus anguilkrit. Lion. + Silurus com. Lien.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 66Q
fins are 8 in number. Tsvo by the gills, each furnished with a strong saw-like
bone. Two small ones near the anus. One of 8 radii, situated half-way be-
tween the anus and the tail. One consisting of 7 radii on the back. Another
fin, of a membranous and fleshy texture, arises from the middle of the back,
and is continued all along to the tail. The tail is forked. It is found in the
river Coic at Aleppo, where the fish in general are extremely small, in propor-
tion to those of the same kinds found in other rivers, probably owing to the assi-
duity of the fishermen. It is called by the natives, zakzuk.
Fig. 13 represents a fish, which in its general form somewhat resembles the
above. It is in length 3 inches. The head is rather flatter ; the mouth has a
more inferior situation, and is in proportion larger than that of the former fish ;
the eyes much smaller. The cirri, situated as in the other, are 8 in number,
but much shorter those that rise from the upper jaw (being the longest) mea-
suring only one inch ; they are also flatter at their origin. They both agree in
the number of their fins ; neither has the saw-like bone in the fin of the back,
but only in those near the gills. The fleshy fin of the back is much smallei"
than in the zakzuk, and rises at a much greater distance from the back fin.
The colour is a pale silver marbled with grey ; particularly the lower part of the
fins and tail. The 2 larger cirri likewise marbled, the others white. These 2
fishes (fig. 12, 13) have no scales, and the palate and other structure of the in-
side of the mouth is like that of the silurus. This fish is also from the river Coic.
The fish fig. 14* has, on a slight view, so much the appearance of an eel, and,
except its not being so fat, eats so like that fish, that though it is much oftener
brought to the tables of the Europeans at Aleppo than any other fish found in
the river Coic, it has never been suspected of being any ways different from the
common eel ; and yet on examination it will be found of quite another genus.
The head is long and small. The extremity of the upper jaw runs out to a
narrow point, like the bill of a bird ; on each side of which, a little distant from
the extreme point, are 2 tubuli, or processes. As in the common eel, there
are 2 fins at the gills. From the occiput, all along the ridge of the back, small
prickles are placed at little distances, resembling the teeth of a saw ; these termi-
nate at the origin of a membranous fin, rising about 4 inches from the tail, and
is continued, as in the eel, along the lower part of the belly to the anus, at
which place are also found 2 or 3 prickles. The colour of the head and back is
blackish, variegated with dark yellow spots. The lower belly white, changing
gradually into a yellowish cast. The fin of the lower belly, near the anus, is
yellow: the other half spotted with black. The length of the fish describetl was
11 inches.
• Ophidium Maslacembalus, (Gen. Zool.)
670 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1/55.
LXI. Of a Curimis, Fleshy, Coral-like Substance.* By Dr. John jllbert
Schlosser, M.D., F.R.S. ffith some Observations on it, by Mr. John Ellis,
F.R.S. p. 449.
Having hired some fishermen to dredge, to examine the small English coral,
or corallium nostras of Ray's Synopsis, recent in the microscope ; the first time
they hauled in the dredge, the Dr. discovered a most extraordinary sea-produc
tion surrounding the stem of an old fucus teres : it was of a hardish, but fleshy
substance, and more than an inch thick, of a light brown or ash-colour, the
whole surface covered over with bright yellow shining and star-like bodies, which
induced him to believe it to be an undescribed species of alcyonium. He put it
immediately into a bucket of sea-water, expecting every moment that the polypes,
which he thought lodged in those little stars, would extend and show themselves,
like those of the alcyonium, N" 2 of Ray's Synopsis, commonly called dead
man's hand , but after more than half an hour's fixed attention, the vessel lying
very quiet all the time, he did not perceive the least appearance of any polypes :
on which he brought them to shore in the sea-water, and then, by means of the
microscope, discovered every one of those stars to be a true animal, and much
more beautiful than any polype, but quite of a different structure. Every one .
of those stars is composed of many thin hollow radii, of a pear-shape form, from
5 to 12 or more in number, all united intimately at their smaller end : every
radius appears broad at the extreme part from the centre, and a little convex in
the middle of this raised broad part. When the animal is alive, there appears
a small circular hole, which contracts and opens frequently. All the i-adii are of
this structure ; but their common centre, which is formed by a combination of
all the small converging extremities, exhibits an opening of a circular, oval, or
oblong figure, forming a kind of rising rim like a cup, which, when the animal
is alive and at rest, contracts and expands itself to many different degrees, with
great alertness and velocity, though sometimes it remains a great while expanded,
or contracted. In all these holes, the central large one, as well as the smaller
ones, which last he takes to be the mouths of the animal, he could not perceive
any ten taenia or claws on the outside ; but by looking into them very narrowly,
he saw something like very tender little fibres moving at the bottom of their in-
sides. By comparing and examining all the various pieces he had collected of
this fleshy substance, with its shining stars, he observed that the size and colour,
as well as the very figure of these stars, varied greatly ; but the structure of the
leaf-like radii, and that of their mouths, and their motions, were perfectly the
same in every one individual. Many of these bodies he found so thick and large,
* The substance here described belongs to the genus alcyonium, and is the Alcyonium Schlosseri of
Linneus.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. §7 1
as to resemble the great branched madrepora coral, especially as they are gene-
rally to be met with covering and inclosing the stem and branches of this stiff,
ramose fucus. Thus far Dr. Schlosser.
Mr. John Ellis adds the following :
Fig. A, pi. 16, expresses this alcyonium, surrounding the stem and branches
of a fucus. I have called it alcyonium carnosum asteriscis, radiis obtusis,
ornatum. Fig. b, part of a leaf of the common alga, or sea-grass, with 4 of
these starry figures on it. Fig. c, one of the stars magnified. Fig. d repre-
sents the fucus, on which it grows, which I cannot find any where de-
scribed. I have entitled it, in my collection of English fucuses, by the follow-
ing descriptive name, fucus teres frutescens, germinibus arborum gemmas
fructiferas referentibus.
I have had an opportunity lately of examining this curious, fleshy, coral-like
figure in the microscope, and find that all the interstices between the stars are
filled with eggs of different sizes, each adhering by one end to a very fine capil-
lary filament. The smallest eggs are globular, and as they advance in size, they
change to an oval figure ; whence they assume the shape of one of the radii of
the stars. In several of these stars I have observed a smaller radius, as it were,
endeavouring to get into the circle ; and notwithstanding their seeming connec-
tion in the centre as one animal, I believe I shall soon be able to show you,
in a drawing from the microscope, that each radius is a distinct animal by itself.
t
LXII. Two Singular Cases of Diseased Knee-joints Successfolly Treated. The
first by Topical Applications ; the second by Operation. By Mr. Joseph
Warner, F.R.S. p. 452.
The species of tumors here meant, are those which are distinguished by the
name of hydrops articuli, or the dropsy of the joint; of which Mr. W, observes,
there are 2 different kinds. The one where the disease is situated in the mem-
brana adiposa, and neighbouring parts on this side the capsular ligament. The
other is that species of disease, where the fluid is contained within the capsular
ligament, between the extremities of the thigh-bone, and the largest bone of
the leg. The first species of tumor may be distinguished from the 2d by the
touch ; from the appearance of the tumor of the first kind, which is pale and
uniform ; from a want of fluctuation, and from the little or no pain attending
it. The repeated use, for some weeks, of emollient fomentations, mercurial
frictions, and gentle purges, has often been known to remove this disorder. At
other times it has been found, that these applications have had little or no effect,
but that the disease has given way to, and been totally removed by the use of
perpetual blisters to the part affected ; which should, in most instances, be con-
tinued for several weeks. At other times Mr. W. has known the Pisselaeon In-
6/4 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
dicum, in English called the Barbadoes tar, to have so good an effect, by being
applied every day to the joint for some weeks, even after every other remedy had
failed, as to cure such a disorder of the kee-joint, as had hitherto been judged
desperate : in which case there plainly appeared to be an enlargement of the
bones, as well as a very considerable one of the integuments, and of the ten-
dinous and ligamentous parts, but without any apparent inflammation. In this
instance no extravasated fluid could be discovered ; however, there was an im-
mobility of the joint, and a considerable contraction of the hamstrings. The
pain was extremely great, which the patient described as shooting through the
ligaments of the joint, the knee-pan, the extremities of the thigh-bone, and
those of the leg. He had a severe symptomatic fever, which had been of many
weeks continuance, by which he was become greatly emaciated. The reason for
Mr. W.'s giving so particular an account of the circumstances attending this
fact, proceeded from his desire of recommending a trial of the same remedy, in
the like cases ; which, as far as he could judge from his own experience, might
always be safely done where there was no degree of inflammation already formed
on the integuments.
The 2d species of hydrops articuli, or that where the extravasated fluid is con-
tained within the capsular ligament, may be distinguished from the first, from
its deep situation ; from the fluctuation which is felt on patting the knee on one
side, while the other hand is held immoveably on the opposite side ; from the
degree of pain arising from the distension, which the capsular ligament suffers
in consequence of its contents ; from the incapacity of bending the joint ; and
from the circumstance of its being attended with no general complaints of body
^s well as from the sudden enlargement of the tumor ; on the increase of which
depends the degree of uneasiness in the part. This is very far from being the
case in that kind of disease called the spina ventosa, which arises originally from
the medulla and bone itself being diseased ; whence proceed grievous pricking
and throbbing pains, that usually come on previously to any visible enlargement
of the part affected, or any discoverable quantity of fluid deposited in the joint ;
the difference of which symptoms resulting from the different diseases, is seen
from the case which he describes, when it was judged necessary to cut more than
once through the capsular ligament, in order to evacuate its contained extra-
vasated fluid ; which, contrary to the commonly received opinion of wounds of
the ligaments being attended with certain destruction to the limb, should always
be done under the like bad circumstances, in reasonable expectation of removing
a complaint, which totally disables the patient, and too frequently terminates in
the loss of the limb when neglected. And Mr. W. was the more inclined to
recommend this practice, as he was convinced that this disease is out of the
reach of such applications, as are of service in other diseases of these parts,
VOL. XLIX.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 673
whose situation is more superficial ; that is, on this side the ligament, in which
is contained the synovia.
[Then follows a detail of the case, the insertion of which in these Abridge-
ments was deemed unnecessary, after the preceding observations, and account
of the successful result of the operation of cutting through the capsular li-
gament.]
LXIIL Extract of a Letter from Mr. William Pye, dated Manilla, Oct. 1st,
1754, giving some Account of that Place, p. 458.
Manilla is one of the largest of the Philippine islands, and the city is much
larger than Oxford ; it has 2 universities in it, and is inhabited only by Spa-
niards. The houses are large, and built very strong ; the ground-floor is stone ;
the walls of a prodigious thickness ; all above is wood, and so contrived, that
every piece of timber has a connection with each other, all over the house :
they are let into one another, and joined together, that the earthquakes, which
are very terrible and frequent, may not throw them down. The convents are
likewise very strong and handsome. The suburbs are very extensive, and well
inhabited.
In the year 1750 there was an earthquake here, which lasted 3 months, with
almost continual tremblings, which at last broke out in an eruption, in a small
island in the middle of a large lake, all round which the bottom is unfathomable.
The third day after the commencing of the eruption, there arose 4 more small
islands in the lake, all burning ; and about a mile distance from one there is a
continual fire, which comes out of the water, where there is no ground, for
upwards of 100 fathoms deep. This happened but 4 years ago.
LXIF. An Essay on the fVaters of the Holy Well at Malvern, Worcestershire.
By J. Wall, M. D. p. 459.
[Reprinted in this Author's Medical Works, with some important additions
relative to the chemical analysis of the Malvern-water, by his son Dr. Martin
Wall, of Oxford.]
LXV. On the Case of a Man who Died of the Effects of the Fire at Eddystone
Lighthouse. By Mr. Edward Spry, Surgeon at Plymouth, p. 477-
On the 4th of Dec. 1755, at 3 in the afternoon, Henry Hall, of East-stone-
house, near Plymouth, aged g4 years, of a good constitution, and extremely
active for one of that age, being one of the 3 unfortunate men, who suflered
by the fire of the lighthouse at Eddystone, Q miles from Plymouth, having been
greatly hurt by that accident, with much difficulty returned to his own house.
Mr. S. being sent for found him in his bed, complaining of extreme pains all
VOL. X. 4 R
674 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
over his body ; especially in his left side, below the short ribs, in the breast,
mouth, and throat. He said likewise, as well as he could, with a hoarse
voice, scarcely to be heard, that melted lead had run down his throat into
his body.
Having taken the proper care of his right leg, which was much bruised and
cut on the tibia, Mr. S. examined his body, and found it all covered with livid
spots and blisters; and the left side of the head and face, with the eye extremely
burnt; which having washed with linen dipped in an emollient fomentation, and
having applied things used in cases of burning, he then inspected his throat, the
root of his tongue, and the parts contiguous, as the uvula, tonsils, &c. which
were greatly scorched by the melted lead. He ordered him to drink frequently
of water-gruel or some such draught ; and returning to his own house, sent him
the oily mixture, of which he took often 2 or 3 spoonfuls.
The next day he was much worse, all the symptoms of his case being height-
ened, with a weak pulse ; and he could now scarcely swallow at all. The day fol
lowing there was no change, except that, on account of his too great costive-
ness, he took 6 drs. of manna dissolved in 1^ oz. of infusion of senna, which
had no effect till the day following ; when just as a clyster was going to be ad-
ministered, he had a very fetid discharge by stool. That day he was better till
night, when he became very feverish. The next day, having slept well the pre-
ceding night, and thrown up by coughing a little matter, he was much better.
He began now to speak with less difficulty, and for 3 or 4 days to recover gra-
dually ; but then suddenly got worse ; his pulse being very weak : his sides
which grew worse daily from the first, now reddened a little and swelled; to
which Mr. S. applied the gum-plaster. But all methods proved ineffectual, for
the next day, being seized with cold sweats and spasms in the tendons, he
soon expired.
Examining the body, and making an incision through the left abdomen, Mr.
S. found the diaphragmatic upper mouth of the stomach greatly inflamed and
ulcerated, and the tunica in the lower part of the stomach burnt ; and from the
gi-eat cavity of it he took out a large piece of lead of the weight of 7 oz. 3 drs.
18 grs. and of the shape of the bottom of the stomach.
It will perhaps be thought difficult to explain the manner, by which the lead
entered the stomach : but the account which the deceased gave, was, that as he
was endeavouring to extinguish the flames, which were at a considerable height
over his head, the lead of the lantern being melted dropped down, before he
was aware of it, with great force into his mouth, then lifted up and open ; and
that in such a quantity, as to cover not only his face, but all his clothes.
ji Further Accoimt of the Preceding Case. By Mr. Spry. p. 480.
Some persons having suspected the accuracy of Mr. S.'s statement in the pre-
»
TOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 675
ceding case, from imagining that the degree of heat in melted lead was too
great to be borne in the stomach, without immediate death, or at least much
more sudden than happened in this case; Mr. S. asserts the fact, not onlv by
his own, and, if requisite, the oaths of others, but also by the following experi-
ments, which from similarity of circumstances must not only render that pro-
bable, but in the most convincing manner the absolute possibility of his as-
sertion.
He extracted in 3 pieces, from the stomach of a small dog, 6 drs. 1 scr. of
lead, which he had poured down his throat the day before. The mucous lining
of the cesophagus seemed very viscid, and the stomach much corrugated, though
its internal coat was no-ways excoriated. The dog had nothing to eat or drink
after; nor for 24 hours before the experiment, when, being very brisk, he
killed him.
He also took from the stomach of a large dog, in several pieces, 6 oz. 2 drs.
of lead, 3 days after thrown in. The pharynx and cardia of the stomach were
a little inflamed and excoriated ; but the cesophagus and stomach seemed in no
manner affected. He gave this dog half a pint of milk just before he poured
down the lead ; very soon after which also he eat of it freely, as if nothing
ailed him ; which he daily continued to do, being very lively at the time he
killed him. /
From the crop of a full grown fowl, he in company with Dr. Huxham, f. k. s.
extracted of lead one solid piece, weighing 2-^ oz. with Q other small portions,
weighing 4^ oz. which lead was thrown down the fowl's throat 25 hours before.
The fowl was kept without meat for 24 hours, before and after the experiment,
eating (being very lively just before they killed him) dry barley, as fast, and
with the same ease as before. The mucus on the larynx and oesophagus was
somewhat hardened. The external coat of the crop appeared in a very small
degree livid ; and the internal somewhat corrugated. The barley was partly in
the oesophagus, though mostly in the craw, which was almost full with the lead.
He took 2 oz. 1 scr. from the crop of another fowl, 3 days after the experi-
ment, which fowl was very brisk to the last.
Allowing, for a further satisfaction, that the experiment be tried, it is re-
quisite in making it, that the melted lead be poured into a funnel, whose spout
being as large as the throat of the animal (whose neck must be kept firmly
erect) will conveniently admit of, must be forced down the oesophagus, some-
what below the larynx, lest any of the lead might fall in it; and according to the
quantity, either by totally, or partly obstructing the aspera arteria, cause imme-
diate, or a lingering death ; which accidents happening in his first experiments
on 2 dogs, directed him to proceed in the above manner.
4li2
676 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
He had a dog with lead in his stomach, which he intended to keep, to prove
how long he could live.
On the same Case of the Man, who Swalloiued Melted Lead. By John Hux-
havi, M. D., F. R. S. p. 483.
Our worthy commissioner, Fred. Rogers, Esq. sent the lead here mentioned,
to Dr. H. 3 days after it was said to be taken out of the man (Hall) who was
said to have swallowed it. He immediately sent for Mr. Edward Spry, an in
genious young surgeon, of Plymouth, who attended this Hall during his illness,
and extracted the lead from his stomach (as was reported) when dead. Mr.
Spry solemnly assured Dr. H. that he did actually take the lead, that was sent
him, out of the man's stomach, and offered to make oath of it. This Hall lived
12 days after the accident happened, and swallowed several things, solid and li-
quid during that time ; and he spoke tolerably plain, though his voice was very
hoarse. And he constantly affirmed, that he had swallowed melted lead.
However, as the story seemed very extraordinary, and not a little improbable,
Dr. H. did not chuse to transmit any account of it to the r. s. as he could have
wished for more unexceptionable evidence ; for Mr. Spry had no one with him,
when he extracted the lead, but one woman, Philips, the daughter of Hall, and
another woman, who were also in the house, not being able, as said, to see the
operation, but immediately called in after it, and Mr. Spry showed them the
lead. He sent a very sensible gentleman to inquire into this affair, and he had
this account for them.
Mr. Spry was, to the best of his knowledge, a person of veracity, and he
thought would not utter an untruth. But, what was more, on Wednesday he
brought him a live young cock, into the crop or craw of which, he had the day
before poured somewhat more than 3 oz. of melted lead. The cock indeed
seemed dull, but very readily pecked and swallowed several barley-corns, that
were thrown to him. He had the cock killed and opened in his view, and in
the crop they found a lump of lead weighing 3 oz. and some other little bits of
lead. He made no doubt the cock would have lived several days longer, if it had
not been then killed. There seemed a slight eschar in the cock's mouth, occa-
sioned by the melted lead, and the crop seemed as if parboiled. This experiment
is very easily made, and seems to confirm the probability of Mr. Spry's
account.
LXFI. A Further Account of the Success of some Experiments of Injecting
, Claret, &c. into the Abdomen, after Tapping. By Mr Christopher War-
rich, p. 485.
The first case in which this experiment was tried, was that of the poor wo-
man at Cubartj mentioned in the Transactions, N° 473, who was injected with
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 677
claret and Bristol water, and about a week after the operation died suddenly.'
She was upwards of 30 years of age. >
Tlie '2d instance was that of a young woman of St. Kivern, who was about 25,'
and had been 3 times tapped in the common way. Here they made use of 2
punctures, according to Dr. Hales's method, as recommended in the Transac-
tions, N° 478, and claret and tar-water for the injection ; which was conveyed
into the abdomen through one canula, while the dropsical lymph passed off
through the other. A few hours after she complained of much pain in her
bowels, and on drawing off* the whole contents at once, she fell into a syncope,
in which she remained till about 12 o'clock, the next day, when she died.
It may not be amiss to mention, that her breath was immediately affected by the
tar-water, and the smell of it continued to her death.
The 3d instance being somewhat singular, Mr. W. thought proper to relate
it in all its particulars. March, 1752, he was called to Flushing, a small town
opposite Falmouth, to attend the tapping of a poor woman, who was about 40
years of age, and laboured, as was imagined, under an ascitical dropsy, occa-
sioned by 3 suppression of her menses, that happened about a year before. She
had been told of his successes with Jane Roman, and desired his assistance,
together with Mr. Rice, Mr. Cudlip, and Mr. Lillicrap, of the same profes-
sion. She was a married woman, of a chearful temper, had never had a child,
and to all appearance was a proper subject for the operation, she being never
thirsty, and her extreme parts being of the natural size : the abdomen was like-
wise evenly and equally distended, and of a great magnitude ; but the fluctua-
tion was not altogether so manifest as might have been expected. From these
circumstances they made no difficulty to resolve on the operation, and determined
to try, at the same time, the efficacy of a subastringent injection. A sufficient
quantity therefore of claret and Bristol water being got ready, Mr. Rice made
the puncture ; but on withdrawing the perforator, instead of lymph, nothing
but a thick, ropy, gelatinous fluid came through the canula, in colour resemb-
ling red port wine, or rather grumous blood. The singularity of this did not
however alter their measures. Two gallons of it were immediately drawn ofl^,
and half that quantity of claret and Bristol water injected in its stead. This
they proposed to have repeated the next day, and as the circumstances of the
patient would admit ; and to continue daily, till the whole contents should be
gradually discharged ; fearing that a total discharge in the ordinary way would
have brought on a syncope. But when they attended her again on the day
following, not one drop of any fluid came through the canula ; and a 2d and a
3d puncture was attended with no better success. Soon after this, the whole
abdomen became painful and distended, frequent rigors came on, and a delirium,
in about 12 hours, carried her off. On opening the body the day following, not
678 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
one drop of any fluid was found in the cavity of the abdomen ; an enormous
cystis, which might have contained, when full, about 6 gallons, having com-
pletely filled the whole extent of it. There were likewise attached to the coats
of it 5 large bodies of fungus flesh, the least of them larger than a man's fist.
Each of these, when cut open, appeared to be divided into cells, full of white
glutinous pus. This extraordinary mass adhered only to the fund of the uterus,
and together with it, the fungus substances, and vagina, when taken out, en-
tirely covered a middle sized pillar and claw tea-table. They now found, that
in the night the canula had accidentally slipped out of the cystis ; and that the
operator, in making the 2d or 3d puncture, had fallen upon one of these fungous
bodies, which gave occasion to the above-mentioned disappointment. On pro-
ceeding to a further examination of the abdomen and thorax, they found every
thing sound, and in its proper state, excepting the posterior part of the right
lobe of the lungs, which was full of purulent matter, and adhered to the pleura.
Mr. W. adds, that the ovaria did not distinctly show themselves, so as to satisfy
any inquiry about them ; but this perhaps might be owing to the hurry or in-
accuracy of the dissector.
Whether these miscarriages are sufficient to discredit a method of practice,
which has the appearance of being the most rational one yet found out for
managing a dropsy, Mr. W. leaves to the determination of better judges. The
frequent miscarriages that happen in the ordinary way, seem suflScient to justify
every attempt to render the success of it less precarious. If any further trials of
it be made, he would beg leave to recommend its being done before the viscera
are too much injured by the dropsical lymph; and if the evacuation be made at
different times, with a view of preventing a syncope, that brandy, or some such
liquor, properly diluted, be made use of instead of claret, which, as he -apprehends
by the heat of the body, may be apt to turn sour. It may be likewise proper
that the head of the patient, during the evacuation, lies lower than any other
part of the body.
As in the 2d instance above-mentioned, tar-water had been recommended by
some gentlemen of the profession, then preseot, instead of Bristol-water, Mr.
W. some time after the death of his patient, injected a pint of it warm into the
belly of a small cur, to see how far the effect of it differed from that of claret
and Bristol-water. The dog immediately fell into great agonies, and in about 2
hours died. The abdomen being opened, all the intestines were found greatly
inflamed. He then tried claret and Bristol-water, also port wine and fountain
water, on other dogs, after the same manner. Each of these injections was re-
tained with little or no inconvenience, except intoxications : and in 48 hours
the dogs became well again, the injection being entirely absorbed. . It occurred
to him in making these experiments, when the power of absorption seemed very
TOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 679
considerable, how far it might answer in preventing a syncope, or for other pur-
poses, that a fit quantity of a properly adapted injection be left undischarged,
after tapping, which might be either absorbed or drawn off at proper intervals,
as the strength of the patient might admit.
LXVII. On the late Discoveries of Antiquities at Herculaneum, ^c. in Two
Letters from Camillo Paderni, Keeper of the Museum Herculanei. Trans-
lated from the Italian by Robert fVatson, M. D.^ F, R. S- Letter Isl, Dated
at Naples, Ju7ie 28, 1755. p. 49O.
In April last, a little beyond La Torre della Nunziata, where stood the an-
cient Pompeii, in digging near the amphitheatre, there was discovered a marble
capital of the Corinthian order. On making further trials, there were found 2
pilasters of white marble, about ]0 feet high, fluted on every side, with capitals
and bases of the Corinthian order. On one side of these pilasters have been
found a series of 9 other pilasters, about 7 feet high, equally wrought Nyith the
larger : there were likewise 5 other pilasters on the side of the other great one,
making in all 16; which are all of one piece, exclusive of the capital and the
base, except one, which is composed of 1 pieces. They were all excellently
preserved, and were standing ; forming a portico before a building. All the
buildings, which are in Pompeii, are of the same constitution with those of
Herculaneum and Stabiae ; that is, of one story. The portico is continued on
the sides, but the pilasters are not of marble, but of brick covered with stucco,
and coloured with green, and are not fluted like those of marble. One only of
the sides is yet undiscovered, and we must wait to see the side opposite to the
front, and the rooms within, to be able to speak decisively.
The front was all painted in the grotesque manner ; but little, and that ill
preserved, remains. There were no ornaments of stucco, or marble ; the walls
indeed were coloured, and there were some small* niches formed in the walls,
each of which corresponded to one of the pilasters, and consequently there were
18 in number. In several of them were found certain figures, some of earth,
others of marble, in this order ; first was placed one of marble, then one of
earth : those of marble were 9 small Hermae, among which there is a Hercules
crowned with oak, some satyrs, fawns and Bacchantes. Two of them are of
the old red, and the other of the old yellow marble, and are of an indifferent
style. Those of the baked earth consist of 4 figures. The first is a Barbarian
king, who stands erect with his right hand under his chin in a pensive manner,
and wears his chlamys clasped with a fibula on his right shoulder. But what
makes this figure the more curious is, that the whole body forms a vase, on the
back of which there is a handle to hold it by. Behind the head there is a little
tube, through which water or some other liquor was poured in, and the mouth
68b PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
of the figure is open, through which the hquor was poured out. The height of it
is ahout 10 inches, and the style rather low.
The 2d figure is of the same height and character, as to the workmanship ;
but what it represents, renders it singular. This, figure seems sitting, with its
legs stretched out, which are distorted like those of some dwarfs. It has a great
head ; the mouth, eyes, and nose, of which are extremely overcharged. It is
dressed in the praetexta. On the breast is the bulla aurea, the string of which
surrounds its neck, and is held with the right hand ; with the left it holds the
tablettes called pugillares, on which the ancients placed wax, and wrote on it with
a style. These pugillares are exactly like those dug up at Herculaneum, and
which are preserved in that museum. Besides, it bears a great priapus, and be-
hind is seen the breech. This was made for a vessel, such as that described
above, except that besides that the mouth of this figure is pierced, the liquor
can also be poured from the priapus.
The third figiu'e is entirely like the preceding, except in its dress, which is
rustic, and bound round the waist with a cord, to which is fastened somewhat
that cannot be made out, but which appears to be a little case to hold some-
thing : the rest is not overcharged, but is rustic. It holds in its right hand a
loaf, and its left hand is covered with its dress, and, like the other, it shows its
breech and priapus. Probably such vessels were used for drinking the liquor
coming out of the priapus, this being not unusual with the ancients, as Ju-
venal in his second satire, gives us to understand ; Vetreo bibit ille priapo.
The last figure represents the Roman Charity. She is sitting, and with her
left hand embraces her father, and with her right presses the breast which her
father sucks ; who is expressed in this figure totally emaciated. This does not,
like the others, form a vessel, but simply exhibits the story. The style is mo-
derate, its height near the same as that of the others. This last groupe is co-
vered with a varnish of glazing, like that which covers earthen plates and
things of that kind. There were found, in the before-mentioned niches, 2
little busts of baked earth, of the same height ; one wants the head. This
is all that is found in that part of the building, which is supposed to be
the front.
to In a little closet, the dimensions of which are about 6 feet in length, and 4 in
breadth, discovered the 13th of last month, was found a very fine tripod, about
3 feet high, extremely well preserved. In short, it is one of the most beautiful
pieces of antiquity in the whole world. It is formed of 3 satyrs, young, and all
exactly alike. Their heads are most beautiful, with a cheerful countenance, and
the hair well disposed with a ribband, that surrounds the head. On the forehead
stand 2 small horns, which are united. The right hand rests on the side of the
body, and the left is open, with the arm somewhat extended. They have a great
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 681
satyresque priapus. The legs are united, and they place their feet on round
bases, which have been turned in a lathe, and then covered with leaf silver.
Their tails are twisted round a ring, by which they are suspended. The 3 satyrs
support with their heads the hearth of the tripod, which is of excellent work-
manship, and has 3 moveable rings, which serve to remove the tripod from one
place to another. One of these rings is wanting, and could not possibly be
found. Whence we may suppose, that originally it was likewise wanting. On
the hearth is another ornament united to its circumference, and forming a kind
of radiated crown, which crown has also 2 handles, but not moveable. These
serve to place the crown on the hearth. The bottom of the hearth is not of
brass, like the rest of the tripod, but of baked earth. The above-mentioned
closet, where this tripod was found, is all painted, and entire, with the ceiling
unhurt. In the walls of it was a table of white marble, fastened in the wall
itself, which might be called a side-board, and which was extended along the
sweep of the room. On this table was found a crescent of silver, about 5 inches
in diameter, and on the edge of its middle are 2 small holes to receive a string
to support it. Perhaps this was an amulet, for we have another of the same
metal, but smaller, with its supporter of silver, which has been long found.
On the same table was another amulet of silver, about an inch in height, which
represents Harpocrates. This figure has its finger near its mouth, the lotus on
its head, and wings on its shoulders. On the right shoulder hangs a quiver,
and its left arm holds a horn of plenty, and leans on the trunk of a tree, round
which is a serpent, and at the foot of the trunk stands an owl. There was found
a kind of fibula, which is of gold, and is extremely well preserved. Its form is
round, and made like a large button. On the back there is a gold wire fastened
to one side ; the other end of which is fastened in a small piece of gold, soldered
into the fibula. The whole is little more than an inch in diameter. There were
found also 2 other figures ; one is of marble, about a foot high, representing a
woman ; it is of no great value ; the other is of ivory, but there remains nothing
but the name, and a part of the face, by which may be perceived, that it is the
work of an excellent Greek hand. All the rest consists as it were of minute
leaves, which are so brittle that they cannot be united. Its height is about
a foot.
There was also found in the same closet, on the same marble table, one of
the most beautiful statues ever seen, and so admirable, that I know not how to
begin to describe it. Its height is little more than 3 inches, by which you may
conceive what pains have been taken with it. It stands on its feet, and is quite
naked, and presents a priapus, which is not satyresque, with a most jx^rfect con-
trast of attitude. One observes through the whole figure a most perfect skill in
anatomy, where the smallest muscle is not lost, aiul at the same time it seems
VOL. X. 4 S
662 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. ["aNNO 1755,
not dry or hard, but palpable flesh. It is of a noble and excellent stile. Its
head is somewhat rustic, with a goat's beard and ears. It has a laughing coun-
tenance, turning its head with much grace, and brings its first finger of the left
hand to its face. It extends and raises its right arm, which terminates in a manus
impudica. Our Neapolitans, and I have seen the same in our peasants about
Rome, frequently wear in their hair a pin, the head of which consists of
such a hand; and they say, that they wear this against an evil eye; and in Naples
some of these pins are worn by children. "We have found several of these small
hands at Herculaneum. It is observable, that these Priapi frequently had this
hand; for among the many which remain under my care, there is one with
human ears, and with this hand, which together with the whole arm forms a
priapus. The head of the figure is covered with a cap, which is folded down
behind; and its base is low and round, and well fitted. In fine this may be called
one of the most excellent curiosities. In one of the other rooms there was a
fine pair of scales, in which there are some remains of the strings made of a
kind of fine coral, and the strings remain in some of the rings. There were
found also many vessels of earth and fragments of metal.
In the ancient Stabiae they go on digging; but it is long since any thing of
value has been found there, except that in the beginning of this month 2 small
statues of brass were discovered. One represents a Venus, but of no value. The
other a Panthea with a rudder, horn of plenty, lotus, modius, and sickle. It is
but of ordinary workmanship. Many vases of earth, some of glass, have been
found. A great vessel of copper with a handle, a singular funnel, a beautifiil
little vase of rock crystal with its cover, andasimpulum or ewer; divers medals
as well silver as copper, well preserved, but common, and various pieces of leaden
pipes, have also been fonnd there.
The same may be said of Herculaneum ; for since the month of March, after
the colossal bust of brass was found, they have discovered nothing of value, ex-
cept one thing, which ought to make much noise among the learned, and which
I believe to be the only one of its kind in the world. This is a little leg and
thigh of metal covered with silver, and which is 5 inches long. On the external
part of it is described a sun-dial formed on a quadrant, and as the thigh forms
a quarter of a circle, the workman has taken the centre of this quadrant from the
extremity or leg of the ham or gammon, and hence has drawn hour lines, which,
with the lines that mark the months, form the usual compartments, some larger
and others smaller, which are divided 6 by 6, as well in height as length. Below
the inferior compartments, which are the less, are read the names of the months
placed in 2 lines in a retrograde order, so that the month of January is the last
in the first line, which bears the other 5 following months. In the 2d line are
described the 6 other months in their natural order; so that the month of De-
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TKANSACTIONS. 683
cember is under January, and so the months shorter and longer, 2 and 2, liave
one common compartment for each couple. Almost on the edge of the right
side, there is the tail of the animal somewhat bent, and this performs the office
of the gnomon. On the extremity of the bone, that is, of the leg, or centre
of the quadrant, there is a ring to hold the dial in an equipoise; and it is sup-
posed that in that place was fastened its plummet, such as in the like dials is to
fall on the present month, to determine the shadow of the gnomon on the horary
lines. It is observable also, that as these dials were described on a plain surface,
according to a fixed rule, the surface of this metal ham being in one plane con-
cave, in another convex, one cannot easily guess what rule the woikman used to
describe a dial of so difficult a kind, on a surface so irregular.
I must not neglect to acquaint you with what has been found in a trial made
at Cuma, where were situated some sepulchres, which afforded many curious
things. In May last, our miners opened a tomb of the family Pavilia, which
formed a small chamber. On the floor were 3 corses, or rather their bones,
which were included in 4 pieces of the piperine stone. These 4 stones formed
fbr each corse an oblong case. The engineer, who was present at the discovery*
told me, that one of these bodies was all covered by a substance unknown to
him ; but from his account I comprehended what it was. The corse was covered
with a cloth of amianthus, which, as it was large, remained in this situation all
on a heap, but calcined by the salts of the earth, for which reason it was neces-
sarj' to take it up in pieces, it being become extremely brittle. However, to be
more sure of my opinion, I had a mind to try it in the fire, where it remained
unchanged; whence there is no doubt but that it is amianthus. There were
found a great many little pieces of paste as large as beans, which were taken by
the miners for comfits but are the confection, which used to be put on dead
bodies. They are composed of myrrh and other spices, and even now retain a
verj' strong smell. There was found some cloth reduced almost to nothing,
which had some ornament of gold embroidered on it, or rather wove into it, as
is more probable from the gold thread. On the above-mentioned body were
found some pieces of paper, for I have great reason to think it such from the
trials, which I have made on the old papyrus, of which we have about 800 vo-
lumes. This paper on one side is coloured with red minium, on the other it is
black.
Besides this paper, there were found a mirror of metal, and 3 tesserae, or dice.
Under the corse, or bones, was found a padlock, through which were passed 3
iron strigils, and another that w^as broken. It is remarkable, that in all the
other sepulchres, that were opened at Cuma in the month of May, there were
found a mirror, 3 tesserae, strigils, and some very small fibulae of bone. In the
above-mentioned sepulchre was found a small lectisternium, or rather pulvinar
4 s 2
081 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
deoriim, which was very much decayed. It is mounted in iron. The ornaments
which compose it being of ivory, the rust of the iron has as it were destroyed
the whole. So that there were collected but a few remains of the 4 pillars,
some pieces of the bands, which went round the frame, 8 pieces of ivory, of
an oblong form, in each of which was engraved a figure of some unknown deity,
all of the same design, but in a bad style; and two heads of a horse, which are
fellows, and belong to the lectisternium, not unlike that great one of brass,
which is now in the Royal Museum. There were found also several little vases of
earthen ware, whose forni is this : they have a long neck, with a mouth propor-
tionably straight; the body is oval, which towards the bottom is so small, that
they cannot stand upright. The misfortune is, that 1 of these vases, which are
of oriental alabaster, and of the most excellent workmanship, are both broken
in the middle.
Near this sepulchre there was opened another, belonging to the freed men of
the Pavillia family. There we found many glasses and pieces of earthen ware,
and two most beautiful earthen lamps. On one of them is a Hercules going to
slay a serpent with his club, which he holds in his left hand. On the other is a
priestess of Bacchus, which in one hand holds the sacrifical knife, and in the
other the half of a victim. There are also 2 very small wine-glasses, which
contain, the one a liquor of the colour of red wine, the other a liquor more
limpid than white wine, but without any smell. In this tomb were found also
the usual dice, strigils, mirrors, and fibulae. The bones and ashes were in urns
made of earth.
Four other sepulchres also have been opened, in all of which were found the
usual strigils, mirrors, tesserae and fibulae. In one of them was found a little
earthen urn with its cover. Within the same tomb was a small urn of glass
elegantly made, containing the ashes of a child. Near the said urn were found
several httle things, which probably were the playthings of the child; these were
two very small goblets of baked earth glazed, with a handle to each ; two small
water ewers, of the same materials, with ornaments; these also are extremely
small; another vase of common earth, which forms a recumbent ox, on the back
of which is a hole to receive the water, which was poured out through the mouth;
and there is a handle on one side of the body. In this same sepulchre was
found a monstrous priapus of red earth. This figure has wings, and is much
overcharged. All these things, which I have described, are preserved by me in
the Royal Museum, in a separate apartment from that in which is preserved what
has been found at Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae. I have already filled 8
chambers with antiquities ; and because those are not sufficient, I shall begin to
place many other things, which hitherto I have been forced to keep in confusion
in other chambers, which are on the same floor. A single volume of the Papyrus
rOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 685
is unfolded, being that which treats of music. At length the name of the au-
thor, who was called Philodemus, is found written twice, at the end of the
piece. The name is written once in a small, and a second time in a large hand,
and in a good Greek character. They are now beginning to open, or rather to
unroll another manuscript; but hitherto without much success; from some frag-
ments we may collect that it treats of rhetoric.
Dr. fVatson makes the following Observations on the preceding.
I think it probable, that Philodemus, the author of this treatise on music, was
the Epicurean philosopher of that name, who was, as Strabo informs us, a native
of Gadara in Syria. He wrote many pieces in prose and verse, and his ]Oth
book, TTfpi ruv (f)iXo(ro(puv trmrx^iu;, is quoted by Diogenes Laertius. Indeed his
sect, time, and abode, will allow of the supposition of his writings on music
being at Herculaneum at the time of its destruction. He resided at Rome, and
was the acquaintance of Tully, and the preceptor of Lucius Piso the consul. We
learn from Asconius Pediaims, that it is Philodemus the Epicurean, of whom
Cicero speaks with that admirable mixture of praise, and invective, and excuse,
in his oration against Piso; where he says, that he knew him to be a man of
elegance and polite literature; tliat it was from him that Piso learned his philo-
sophy; which was, that pleasure ought to be the end of all our pursuits; that
indeed the philosopher did at first divide, and distinguish the sense in which that
maxim was to be understood; but the young Roman perverted every thing to
make it favour his inclinations and pleasures; and the Greek was too polite and
well-bred to resist too obstinately a senator of Rome. He then tells us that
Philodemus was highly accomplished in philosophy, as well as polite literature,
which other Epicureans were apt to neglect; that he wrote verses, which were so
sweet, so elegant, and so charming, that nothing could exceed them; that he
was betrayed into a too hasty friendship with Piso, from which he could not dis-
engage himself without the imputation of inconstancy, and that, rogatus, invi-
tatus, coactus, ita multa ad istum de isto scripsit, ut omnes libidines, omnia
stupra, omnia caenarum conviviorumque genera, adulteria denique ejus, delica-
tissimis versibus expressit.
I have met with some epigrams of Philodemus yet extant, some of which are,
in my opinion, most facetious, and elegant. We might have had many more,
had not Planudes, as the scholia inform us, rejected such out of his collection,
as he thought too loose and voluptuous. Horace seems to have had some of
these epigrams in his eye more than once, when he wrote his 2d satire of the first
book; particularly where he says,
banc Philodemus ait; sibi, quae neque magno
Stet pretio, neque cunctetur, cum est jussa venire.
Is not this almost a translation of the
686" rniLosoPHicAL transactions. [anno 1755.
TlavTx, xai airna'ai TroXXaiti ipsiJ'oju.Ei'ri.
I will give the whole epigram, as a specimen of the style and manner of Phi-
lodemus ; but must beg, that in reading the third verse you would recollect what
Homer says of the girdle or cestus of Venus, that it contained all kind of de-
lights and blandishments, love, persuasion, and desire.
4>i>.oJ'nft!s nrtyfo.jJ.jj.K.
MiXiC)) x«> litXavHd-a ^iXxiviov, aWa, (riXmuv
OuX0T£f», K ajMm p^pura TjaiiKOTipTi,
Kai xto-Tu ^uvtvfo. jotaywrtpa, xai TrajEj^aira;
Ylomra, xai aiTno-ai iroAAaxi tpuSofAfvr,.
ToiauTWk (rTipyoi|M.i 4>iAaii'io)', *X.P'^ "" '''P'''
AXXtii', ft) xfuirtn Kuirpi, riXttoriftw.*
Extract of the second Letter from Camillo Paderni, dated at Naples, July 1Q,
1755. p. 307.
A cameo of great excellence was found the 9th of this month. This cameo
is in alto relievo. It is about an inch and a half long, and almost as much in
breadth. It represents a half length of Ceres. The head is in profile, and has
a noble and beautiful air. It is turned, together with the body, a little to the
left. The left arm is a little raised, and holds in the hand some ears of com.
The right arm is lower, and close to the body. The right hand takes hold of
part of a fine garment, or shift, with which the figure is in part covered. The
head is adorned with a diadem; and the hair, which is of excellent workmanship,
flows on her shoulders, tied with a single ribband, which rests on her neck.
The stone, of which the head is composed, is pellucid, and the rest of the figure
is cut out of a chalcedony by a Greek master; it was found at Stabiae, where
they continue to dig. In the same place were found also buried several vases of
metal and glass very well preserved.
At Pompeii within these few days was found a most beautiful wine-strainer,
small, but finely pierced, in a better taste than those already found, which are
of brass. In this same place was dug up an ink-standish, with some of the ink,
which I likewise preserved. There has been met with also an iron ax. There
have been found, and they go on daily to find, many pictures. If the ancients
had not dug in this place, we should have discovered many more things; for we
find that they have taken away even some of the pictures.
* Since the death of the learned Dr. Watson, which happened March 2, 1756, soon after his
translation of these two letters of Camillo Paderni, and his observations on the former, were read
at the Royal Society, another epigram of Philodemns has been taken notice of, published at Leipsic
in 1754, by the celebrated Mr. Reiske, which ajjpears likewise to have been alluded to by Horace in
the passage in part cited above from his second satire of the first book, ver. 120.— Orig. • '
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 687
JjXFII. Of the Earthquake felt at Glasgow and Dumbarton; also of a Shower
of Dust Jailing on a Ship bettveen Shetland and Iceland; in a Letter from Dr.
Robert ^Fhytt, Prof, of Medicine in the Univ. of Edinburgh, p. 509.
The earthquake at Glasgow and Greenock happened in the night between the
30th and 31st of December, nearly at the same time. It was felt at Glasgow by
almost every person that was awake, and out of bed, and also by some in bed, and
who were not fast asleep. There were 3 successive shocks, or risings as it were of
the earth. It was felt not only at Glasgow and Greenock, but also at many other
places in the neighbouring country ; particularly at Dumbarton.
By letters from a passenger on board a ship bound from Leith for Charles-
town in South Carolina, it appears that on the night of the 23d or 24th of Oc-
tober last, when the weather was quite calm, a shower of dust fell on the decks,
tops and sails of the ship, so that next morning they were covered thick with it.
The ship at this time was between Shetland and Iceland, about 25 leagues distant
from the former, and which was the nearest land. This shower was probably
owing to the great eruption, which happened at mount Hecla in Iceland, in
October.
LXVIII. Extract of a Letter from Mans. Bonnet, F. R. S. Dated at Geneva,
Jan. 30, 1756, concerning the Earthquake on the \Ath of November, 1755,
in Fialais in Swisserland. Translated from the French, p. 511.
Valais is thought to have been more shaken by the earthquake than our city
and its neighbourhood. The earthquake felt here, happened Nov. 14, at 3
in the afternoon. It proceeded from the north, and lasted a minute. The earth
opened on the mountain ; and the opening was large enough to thrust one's
hand in, and no bottom can be found. In another part of the mountain the
earthquake opened a spring sufficient to turn 2 mills. The earth has been opened
in another place. The opening is round, and no bottom can be discovered.
The eartVi continues to shake almost every day, but these shocks are much gentler
than the first.
LXIX. Extract of a Letter from Mons. Allemand, F. R. S. Translated from
the French. Dated Leyden, Jan. 27 , 1756. p. 512.
On the night between the 26th and 27th of the last month, December 1755,
between 1 1 and 12 o'clock at night, there was a considerable earthquake on the
frontiers of this country. It was felt at Liege, Maestricht, Nimeguen, Arnheim,
and Breda. There were 3 different shocks, the last of which happened at about
4 in the morning, but without any noise or accident. I have been informed by
letters from Swisserland, that several shocks were felt there, and that the salt-
688 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
springs of Bevieux have been rendered more salt. At Amersfort, in the province
of Utrecht, on the 1 5th of this month, was felt a shock of an earthquake, which
occasioned great consternation, but no damage.
LXX. Of some Fungitce and other Curious Coralloid Fossil Bodies. By Thomas
Pennant,* Esq. p. 513.
Fig. 1, pi. l6, was found in the lime-stone quarries in Coalbrooke-dale,
Shropshire, the greatest magazine of coralloid fossils that I am acquainted with.
The length of this elegant body is equal to that drawn, and its greatest diame-
ter, which is near the top, is about an inch and a half. It is exactly of the form
of a pear, with a small portion of stalk remaining ; and its whole surface is
• Thomas Pennant, Esq. was bora in Flintshire in the year 1726. His father was a gentleman of
good family and independent fortune.
Mr. Pennant has himself given us the chief particulars of his life in a small work which he plea-
santly chose to write in the character of his own shade : it is entitled " The Literary Life of the
late Thomas Pennant, Esq." In this publication he informs us that his zeal in the pursuit of Natural
History was first excited by a present of Willughby's Ornithology, which was made to him by a re-
lation, when he was about 12 years of age. In 1754 he was elected a Fellow of the Antiquarian
Society, and in 1767 a f.r.s.; having distinguished himself by his ingenious and useful work the
British Zoology, and other scientific publications. The British Zoology was at first undertaken for
the benefit of a Welsh school, but the splendid nature of the work in its folio form seems to have
operated to its disadvantage as an affair of profit, and it was never continued on a similar scale, but
was republished in 4to, in which state it is too well known and esteemed to require particular de-
scription. In 1757 Mr. Pennant was, at the instance of Linnaeus himself, made a member of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Upsal, and he continued to correspond with Linnaeus till the age and
infirmities of that illustrious naturalist obliged him to desist. In 1765 Mr. Pennant travelled into
France, where he passed some time with the celebrated Count de BufFon. He went into Switzerland,
where he commenced an acquaintance with Haller, and at Zurich with the Gesners, one of whom
was the descendant of the famous Conrad Gesner. He then visited Holland, and at the Hague
found the celebrated Dr. Pallas, with whom he ever after maintained a constant correspondence on
subjects of natural history. In the midst of these his reigning pursuits he never neglected the com-
pany of convivial friends, or shunned the society of the gay world. Mr. Pennant lived some years
after the publication of his Literary Life, during which time he still pursued, with as much assiduity as
his increasing infirmities would permit, his usual course of study, and died at his seat at Downing in
Flintshire in the year 1798. It remains to add, that Mr. Pennant's person was elegaut, his manners
in the highest degree polished, and what is of infinitely more importance, tliat his character was
equally estimable.
The publications of Mr. Pennant are numerous, and are remarkable for variety of information,
which is generally detailed in a very entertaining manner. His tours in Scotland, Wales, &c. are
held in great esteem. His Indian Zoology contains descriptions, accompanied by plates, of a {ey/
of the rarer Indian animals, but was never continued to any farther extent. His " Outlines of the
Globe," a vast work, has as yet been only published in part : of this the " Arctic Zoology" can
hardly be too much commended : the parts relative to India, New-Holland, and some other regions
have also appeared ; and it is greatly to be wished that the whole of a work so much abounding in
general as well as zoological and geographical information should at length be presented to the public.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 689
covered with small shallow polygonal cells, the stalk excepted, which is perfectly
smooth.
Fig. 2 is a small fungites from the same place, of the same size with the
figure ; the top is convex, and thick set with minute circular cavities ; the stalk
tends to a conoid form, and is coarsely striated lengthways.
Fig. 3 has a very deep cup-like cavity in it, the bottom of which is very finely
radiated ; the remaining part covered with small tubera, not unlike those that
sometimes are seen in the insides of flints and pebbles. Externally it is irregu-
larly cellular, but the stalk is striated.
Fig. 4 is a very singular body, and the most remarkably shaped fungites I evar
saw, being exactly oval on one side, and flat on the other, without the least appear-
ance of stalk. The oval or lower part is reticulated with polygonal cells, like
fig. 1. The flat or upper part is striated semicircularly, the striae passing from
one side to the other, and then reverting.
Fig. 5 he received out of Italy, under the name of lapis subluteus Veronensis
stellis majoribus. The surface is finely marked with star-like cells, which are
elegantly striated from their centre ; and their edges rise a little prominent. The
lower part of this stone is of a conoid shape, and irregularly indented with coarse
circular rugae.
Fig. 6 was found at Coalbrooke-dale ; is of a white colour, and very smooth
both on the sides and top, without any appearance of striae : but what renders
this very singular, is the remarkable thinness, its greatest diameter not exceed-
ing the 8th of an inch.
Fig. 7 was found at the top of one of the highest mountains in this county,
near Caer-gwrle, in a reddish loamy soil, with various other diluvian remains.
It is of a conoid shape, but considerably incurvated ; the sides are striated
lengthways, and likewise circularly, but the circular striae are much less frequent
than the others. At the thicker end there appears to have been a deep cup-like
cavity, the greatest part of which had by some accident been destroyed, but what
remains is radiated with thin and very prominent ridges placed at equal distances
from each other. On one side is a small flat fungites.
Fig. 8 is a fungites from Coalbrooke-dale, seemingly formed of 3 or 4 smaller,
inserted one into the other. It has the same cavity on the top as the former,
with a minute striated concha anomia in it. Fig. Q. This fungites is almost
straight ; has a small cup-like striated cavity on the upper end ; is encompassed
with prominent ridges on the sides ; and is striated lengthways. Fig. 10. This
species came from Piedmont, and differs fi-om all the rest. It may be called an
echinated fungites, having 6 orders of sharp-pointed studs running lengthways
from top to bottom, and between each order appear some very minute longitudi-
nal striae. The upper part, instead of a cavity, is composed of several thin la-
VOL. X. 4 T
figO PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
TTiellae rising above the sides. Fig. 1 1 is a Coalbrooke-dale production, and is a
cluster of fungitae, though only 2 appear in the figure. This varies from some
of the foregoing in the shape of its head, in the middle of which is a shallow
circular cavity, its sides rising a little prominent, and the striae, which commence
the inside, pass over the ridge, and are continued to the edges. Fig. 12 is from
the same place. The cup-like cavity in this is pretty deep, and radiated with
deep strigse : and the sides are marked with very distinct ridges running length-
ways, though sometimes interrupted by circular furrows.
LXXl. An Account of Inoculation, by Sir Hans Sloane, Bart, given to Mr.
Ranhy to be published. Anno 1736. p. 31 6.
Sir H. S. had heard by several reports from China and Guinea, but especially
from Turkey, of the inoculation of the small-pox ; and took an opportunity,
when Dr. Wm. Sherrard was English consul at Smyrna, to desire the favour of
him to inform him of the truth and success of it. In answer to which he told him,
that the consul from Venice residing there, a physician. Dr. Pylarini, had taken
particular notice of that practice, and had promised to satisfy him about it ;
which he did by a letter, which was printed in the Phil. Trans, in 17^6, and he
believed at Venice.
This notice lay dormant till Mr. Wortely Montague, (then ambassador from
England at the Porte) and the Lady Mary had inoculated their son at Constanti-
nople, and wrote about this practice, and the advantages of it, to the court and
their acquaintance here, and afterwards brought into England their inoculated
son, in perfect health.
The princess Anne, then princess royal of Orange, falling ill of the small-pox in
such a dangerous way that her life was doubtful, the late Queen Caroline, when
princess of Wales, begged the lives of (3 condemned criminals, who had not had
the small-pox, in order to try the experiment of inoculation upon them. But
Mr. Maitland, who had inoculated at Constantinople, declining for some reasons
to perform the operation, lest it should be lost. Sir H. wrote to Dr. Terry at
Enfield, who had practised physic in Turkey, to know his opinion and observa-
tions about it ; who returned him this answer, that he had seen the practice
there by the Greeks encouraged by their patriarchs ; and th^t not 1 in 800 had
died of the operation. On his speaking to Mr. Maitland, he undertook the
operation, which succeeded in all but one, who had the matter of the small-pox
put up her nose, which produced no distemper, but gave great uneasiness to the
poor woman. After their recovery, in order to obviate the objection made by
the enemies of this practice, that the distemper produced by it was only the
chicken-pox, swine-pox, or petite verole volagere, which did not secure persons
against having the true small-pox, Dr. Steagertahl, phvsician to the late king,
VOL. XLIX.J PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 6qI
and Sir H. joined their purses to pay one of those who had it by inoculation in
Newgate, who was sent to Hertford, where the disease in the natural way was
epidemical and very mortal, and where this person nursed and lay in bed with
one, who had it, without receiving any new infection.
To make a further trial, the late queen Caroline procured half a dozen of the
charity children belonging to St. James's parish, who were inoculated, and all of
them, except one (who had had the small-pox before, though she pretended not,
for the sake of the reward) went through it with the symptoms of a favourable
kind of that distemper.
On these trials, and several others in private families, the late queen, then
princess of Wales, (who with the king always took most extraordinary, exemplary,
prudent and wise care of the health and education of their children) sent for Sir
H. to ask his opinion of the inoculation of the princesses. He told her royal
highness, that by what appeared in the several essays, it seemed to be a method
to secure people from the great dangers attending that distemper in the natural
way. That the preparations by diet, and necessary precautions taken, made that
practice very desirable ; but that not being certain of the consequences which
might happen, he would not persuade nor advise the making trials on patients of
such importance to the public. The princess then asked him, if he would dis-
suade her from it : to which he made answer, that he would not, in a matter so
likely to be of such advantage. Her reply was, that she was then resolved^ it*
should be done, and ordered him to go to the late King George the first, who
had commanded him to wait upon him on that occasion. He told his majesty
his opinion, that it was impossible to be certain but that raising such a commo-
tion in the blood, there might happen dangerous accidents not foreseen : to
which he replied, that such might and had happened to persons, who had lost
their lives by bleeding in a pleurisy, and taking physic in any distemper, let
ever so much care be taken. Sir H. told his majesty he thought this to be the
same case, and the matter was concluded on, and succeeded as usual, without
any danger during the operation, or the least ill symptom or disorder since.
Sir H. had been consulted with on the like occasion by many, and was of opi-
nion, that since it is reckoned, that scarcely 1 in ] 000 misses having it some
time in their life, the sooner it is given them the better, notwithstanding the
heat of summer, or cold of winter; the danger being greater from falling into
the distemper naturally, than from the heat or cold of either.
What he had observed, which he thought material, is not to inoculate such as
have any breakings out on their faces, soon after the measles, or any other oc-
casion, by which the small-pox were likely to be invited, and come in the face in
greater number, and so make the distemper more dangerous. Bleeding in ple-
thoras, or gentle clearing of the stomach and inte4>tines, are necessary; and ab-
4 T '2
692 VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aKWO 1755.
stinence from any thing heating, about a week, before : and nothing else needful
by way of preparation ; and very little physic during the course of it, unless acci-
dents happen.
[Then follows a description of the operation of inoculation, which at that
time was very rude, and consisted in making an incision into the skin of the arm
about 1 inch long, and afterwards applying a dossil dipped in the variolous mat-
ter, and keeping it on for 24 hours, covered with a plaster, &c.]
Of above 200 that he had advised before the operation, and looked after during
it and its consequences, but one had miscarried, a son of the duke of Bridge-
water, in whose family this distemper had been fatal, where the eruption of the
small-pox was desperate, notwithstanding it was perfectly safe in his sister, who
had undergone the same preparations, and was inoculated the same day, and with
the same matter used for her brother.
On the whole it is wonderful, he observes, that this operation, which seems
so plainly for the public good, should, through dread of other distempers being
inoculated with it, and other unreasonable prejudices, be stopped from procuring
it. One thing he had observed, that though the persons inoculated were ad-
vanced in years, it was equally successful as in younger persons.
LXXII. Of (in Extraordinary Agitation of the Water in a small Lake at Close-
burn, in the Shire of Dumfries. By Sir T. Kilpatrich of Ctoseburn, Bart. p. 52 1 .
About a quarter before Q on Sunday morning, Feb. 1, 1756, we were alarmed
with an unusual motion in the waters of Closebum-loch. There was first a
strong convulsion and agitation of the waters from the west side of the loch to-
wards the middle, where they tossed and wheeled about in a strange manner.
Thence proceeded 2 large currents formed like rivers, which ran with rapidity
beyond all description, nearly contrary ways, one from the middle to the south-
east, and the other to the north-east points of the loch. There they were
stopped short, as the banks are pretty high, and obliged to turn, which occa-
sioned a prodigious tumbling and agitation at both ends of this body of water.
There was likewise a current, which rose sometimes considerably above the sur-
face near the west side, that frequently ran with great velocity 1 00 yards to the
southward, and returning in a moment with as great velocity the other way. In
the next place, there was a tossing of the waters in the ponds, which were more
or less moved as the agitations of the loch came nearer this side, or kept at a
greater distance from it. These agitations and currents continued, without inter-
mission, for about 3 or 4 hours, when they began to abate a little in their violence,
though they were not quite over at sun-set. This strange phenomenon was
renewed on Monday morning a little before Q, and lasted for an hour and a half;
but the motion of the water was not near so violent as the day before. There
was no wind all the time.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. GQS
LXXIII. Letlsrs on the Irregularities of the Tides at Chatham, Sheemess, Wool-
wich and Deptford, in Feb. 1756, communicated by George Lord Anson,* F.R.S.
Letter L From Mr. M. Godden. Dated Chatham-yard, Feb. 23, 1756. p. 323.
Mr. G. remarks on the irregularity of the tides, having taken particular notice
of them by the Lys, a French ship, having broken from her moorings 3 times in
that week. The first time was on Thursday the 12th instant, at about lO in
the morning, it being then about high water, or rather ebb ; so that they could
not get her off that tide, but attended and hove her off the next, at about Q at
night, which was sooner than expected by an hour and a half. They then put
her to another mooring, and about half past 1 1 the same night, she broke from
them also, and came on shore near the dock, it being then a small matter ebb,
so that they could not get her off that tide, but attended her the next, till half past
1 1 on Friday morning to do it, it then being about the time of high water, but
could not ; the tide being not so high by 5 or 6 feet as it was the tide before,
though it should have been higher, as they were increasing. And he further
took notice at the same time, that the tide was at a stand several minutes, and
then flowed again near a foot in height before it ebbed, and the next tide, at
half past 9 at night, they got the ship off, though they did not expect she woulcf
have floated till near 1 2 : and again in transporting her up to her moorings,
there was little or no tide ran from 10 to 12, which was about the time of high
water ; which they greatly wondered at, as it was quite calm. All which irregu-
larities he imagined to be owing to the wind, having had very hard gales for
most part of that week.
Letter 2, from Mr. Mic. Monasty, dated Sheerness, Feb. 23, 1756. p. 525.
The day tide on the 13th instant was ver)' remarkable ; for it ebbed no more
than 2 feet and a half for 4 hours after high water, when it was observed to
flow again for a few minutes ; then ebbed again, but so little, that at low water,
we had 7 feet water at the stern of the dock, which is 5 feet more than was
ever known to be. It blew very hard in the morning on the flood, with the
wind to the southward of the west, and on the ebb in the afternoon the wind
abated and veered to the north-west, to which he then, in part, attributed this
phenomenon, as a northerly wind forces water into this river, and always makes
high tides, and a southerly wind the contrary.
* The celebrated circumnavigator; he commanded the Channel fleet in 1747, when he captured
6" French men of war and 4 East Indiameii ; for which and other services he was created a peer by
George II. He was afterwards appointed first Lord of tlie Admiralty, and admiral and commander
in chief of his majesty's fleets. He died in 1762, aged 65. The interesting narrative of his voyage
round the world was composed under his own inspection, not by his chaplain as was long believed,
but by Mr. Benj. Robins. The title, which became extinct on the death of big lordship, has beea
lately revived in the person of Thomas Lord Anson of Shugborough.
694 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO J 755,
Letter 3, from Mr. Walter Taylor, dated Woolwich Yard, Feb. 25, 1756. p. 526.
The tides the last week, and even for some days this week, have been very
irregular and unusual.
Feb. 9, winds, tides very irregular. Feb. 10 and 11, the same. The 12th,
the night tide flowed about 2 feet 10 inches higher than the morning tide. The
13th, the night tide flowed about 3 feet higher than the morning tide. The 14th,
15th, 16th, 17th, the tides more regular. The 18th, the flood came in much
sooner than usual, and seemed to flow gradually at first, but between 1 and 2
p. m. the tide flowed several feet, as on a sudden, and continued flowing till \
past 3, being some time longer than it was expected it would, and they had a
high tide. The 19th, this day's flood did not hold so long by a quarter of an
hour as yesterday's, and not so much water by several feet. The wind being to
the westward, and a frost, greatly checked the tide. Since which, the tides
have been very regular.
In a 4th letter from Deptford-yard, similar irregularities were observed.
LXXIV. And the same in the River, near London, by a Letter from Robert
Dingley, Esq. F, R. S., dated London, March 8, 1756. p. 530.
LXXV. Thoughts on the Rev. Dr. Hales's New Method of Distillation, by the
United Force of Air and Fire. By William Brownrigg, M. D., F. R. S.
Dated Whitehaven, Dec. 3, 1755. p. 534.
In the process of distilling sea water, as described by Dr. Hales, the great in-
crease of vapour raised by his method, above what is raised by the common
method of distillation, may be attributed chiefly to the violent agitation of the
water contained in the body of the still, by the motion of the air continually
pressed through it. Though the air, by attracting the watry particles, may also
contribute to produce this effect. It is however certain, that a simple mecha-
nical agitation of warm water will greatly promote its evaporation, by increasing
its surface, from which the vapours arise, and by putting its heated particles in
a brisker motion, thus exciting between them actions and reactions, and so dis-
posing them to fly off in elastic vapours. Of this we have instances in warm
water, when simply stirred about in vessels, or poured out of one vessel into
another ; from which the vapours visibly arise in larger quantities, than from
the same water when it is not moved by such mechanical agitation.
This excellent invention of Dr. Hales may probably be applied to other pur-
poses, besides that which he had principally in view, viz. the distilling of sea-
water with greater ease and expedition, with less fuel, and in smaller vessels,
than has hitherto been practised, for the benefit of navigators. It might be of
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 6Q5
singular use, if it could be applied in the fire-engine. The great expence of
large boilers in the construction of that machine, and the vast consumption of
fuel in the working of it, render its uses much less extensive than they would
be, could those expences be contracted. But air cannot be applied in this en-
gine, to increase the quantity of the elastic steam, since it would pass with the
steam from the boiler into the cylinder, and prevent a vacuum from being there
produced, and hinder the piston from moving in it.
A mechanical agitation of the water in the boiler of the fire-engine mav how-
ever be produced by other means, so as that a larger quantity of steam may pro
bably be raised, than can be effected in engines as commonly now constructed ;
by which means the expences of constructing and working those useful machines
may perhaps be greatly lessened.
If, for example, the boiling water, instead of being agitated by air, as in Dr.
Hales's method, was briskly stirred about by a wheel placed in the boiler of the
fire-engine ; it is probable, that by this means the quantity of elastic vapour
raised might be considerably increased, and less fuel and a less boiler might then
serve the purpose. The wheel might be turned round by the water drawn up
by the engine ; or might receive its motion fi-om the beam of the engine by
means of a crank ; or a labourer might be employed in turning it round with
the hand.
But the desired effect might, in all probability, be better produced by means
of elastic steam driven briskly through the boiling water. The steam of water,
as an elastic fluid, possesses many of the properties of common air. Like air,
when driven briskly from the aeolipile, it is observed to blow up fire ; and when
forcibly driven through water, will doubtless produce the same agitation, as is
done by common air in Dr. Hales's experiment ; and may probably have the
like effect with air, in elevating a larger quantity of elastic vapours. In order to
excite an agitation in the boiling water of a fire-engine, by means of elastic steam.
Dr. B. then proposes various means for this end. He also shows how the steam
from the boiler of such an engine may be greatly increased in its strength, by
heating it, by causing some part of the pipe that conveys it from the boiler to
the cylinder, to be kept red hot, by making it pass through a fire.
LXXVI. Of an Extraordinary Motion in the fVaters in the Lake Ontario in
North- America. From Governor Belcher's Lady; dated Elizabeth-town,
New-Jersey, Oct. 12, 1755. p. 544.
I take this opportunity to acquaint you with a strange phenomenon of the
lake Ontario, where general Shirley has posted himself with 2000 men, at fort
Oswego. A person lately come from the camp reports, that about a fortnight
696 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
since, that lake rose and fell 3 feet and half, 3 several times, in the space of half
an hour.
LXXFII. Of an Earthquake felt at the Hague, on Wednesday the \Qth of Feb.
175S. By Mom. Grovestins, Master of the Horse to his R. H. the Prince of
Orange, p. 544.
On Wednesday morning, 12 minutes after 8, there was a shock of an earth-
quake. His chair received 5 successive shakes. The sconces in the chamber
were also moved. Ten or 1 2 minutes after, he perceived a 2d shock, but not
so strong as the former. The wind was s.w. Immediately after the earthquake
it turned n.e. It was also felt at Maestricht and Utrecht.
LXXVIII. Of the Same Earthquake felt in Holland, Feb. 18, 1756, In a
Letter from Mons. Allemand, Professor of Natural Philosophy at Leyden, and
F. R. S. p. 545,
This article contains observations similar to the preceding one, and also re-
marks that the earthquake was felt throughout the whole territories of the
republic.
LXXIX. Of the Earthquakes felt at Brussels; in a Letter from John Pringle,
M.D., F.R.S. p. 546.
By a letter, which Dr. P. received from Dr. Brady, physician to the court at
Brussels, he finds they felt in that city this winter 3 several shocks of an earth-
quake. The first was on the 26th of December; the 2d on the day following;
and the 3d on the 1 8th of February ; being the same day it was said to be felt
on our coast, between Margate and Dover ; but the hour is not mentioned. All
these shocks he says greatly alarmed the inhabitants; but were otherwise attended
with no bad consequences. Dr. Brady adds, that he was told by a gentleman
from Liege, that the men who were at work in the coal-pits, and particularly in
some of the deepest near that city, had assured him, that they heard the rumb-
ling noise preceding the shock as over their heads ; while those who were above-
ground heard the same kind of noise as under their feet.
LXXX. On the Sinking of a River near Pontypool in Monmouthshire. By Air,
Edivard Matthews, p. 547.
The 1st day of January 1756, a poor woman, living near the mouth of the
river, sent her daughter for water, a great flood appearing in the river just before,
who returned in surprise with the account, that it was dry. The river is called
by the name of Frooyd, running between two steep hills, or woods, but not very
high; "t proceeds from water from the adjacent mountains, and seems penned up
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SQ?
for the most part parallel and correspondent to those of the rocks, islands, and
neighbouring continents. They contain stones of different sorts, minerals,
metals, various petrified bodies, pumice-stone, lavas formed by volcanos. Istria,
Morlachia, Dalmatia, Albania, and some other adjacent countries, as well as
the rocks, the islands, and the correspondent bottom of the Adriatic sea, consist
of a mass of a whitish marble, of a uniform grain, and of almost an equal hard-
ness. It is that kind of marble called by the Italians marmo di Rovigno, and
known to the ancients by the name of marmor Traguriense. This vast bed of
marble, in many places under both the earth and the sea, is interrupted by se- '
veral other kinds of marble, and covered by a great variety of bodies. There
are discovered there, for instance, gravel, sand, and earth, more or less fat.
The variety of these soils under the sea is remarkable. It is to this that Dr.
Donati ascribes the varieties observed with respect to the nature and quantity of
plants and animals found at the bottom of the sea. Some places are inhabited
by a great number of different species of plants and animals ; in others, only some
and let out precipitately, to cleanse the iron ore lying near the surface on the
sides of these mountains, which greatly discolours the water, which at those
times, and after heaN-y rains, is so rapid and violent, as to carry down prodigious
quantities of large stones into another river called Avon Looyd. Mr. M. walked
up the Frooyd on the bottom of the river, it being quite dry, up to the chasm,
that now receives the water; it is about 20 feet wide; and when its banks are
full, about 8 or 10 feet deep; but now filled up to 15 feet with stones carried in
by the water. There is a lime-stone rock near the surface, about 2 feet thick,
lying in large beds 2 or 3 feet square, more or less in some places, joined close
in others. On one side of the river near this hole, are 3 pits sunk at the same
time, the one within 10 yards, of which there was no appearance before; the
other two at about 30 yards up the side of the hill, which have been observed,
for many years, though nobody knew the cause of them, are now sunk some
yards deeper, and some trees and shrubs, that were round the edge of the pits,
with the ground on which they grew, are sunk down near the bottom. These
pits at top are about 1 2 yards diameter, gradually narrowing to a centre, in shape
of a funnel or tun-dish. Under, it is supposed, is this cavity, through which
the river now runs, extending itself in one place under the river Avon Looyd, at
about a mile distance, where it broke out a few days after, in several places, on
the opposite side of it, where were 3 small springs. The reason for this conjec-
ture is, these springs were observed to be always clear till a few days after the
sinking of this rock, but now continue to send forth large quantities of this
water, which varies in colour like the water received in at the hole.
VOL. X. 4 U
698 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
LXXXI. On the Agitation of the /Voters, Nov. 1, 1755, in Scotland and at
Hamburgh. Communicated by John Pringle, M.D.,F.R.S. p. 550.
About 10 o'clock of the forenoon of Nov. 1, a gentleman at Queen's-ferry,
a sea-port town on the Frith of Forth, about 7 miles higher up than Leith, ob-
served the water rise very suddenly, and return again with the same motion,
which he judged to be about 12 or 18 inches perpendicular, which made the
barks and boats then afloat run forwards and backwards on their ropes with great
rapidity; and this continued for 3 or 4 minutes, it being then calm; but after
the 2d or 3d rush of water it was always less.
The following phenomena are well vouched to have happened at Hamburgh,
the 1st of November 1755. In one of the churches many persons, that were
present, observed an agitation of the branched candlesticks hanging from the
roof, about 1 in the afternoon. In another church, the cover of the baptistery
hanging from the roof was also remarked to be agitated ; and the like motions
are said to have happened in other churches. Also the water in the canal
through the town, and in the river Alster, was agitated the same day. It is de-
scribed first to have formed several gentle whirlpools, thence to have risen more
and more imjjetuously, throwing about mud brought up from the bottom, and
at last to have subsided with a copious white froth. The Elbe rose in some
places still more violently.
LXXXI I. Microscopical Observations : in a Letter from Edivard Wright, Esq.
dated at Paris, Dec. l6, 1755. p. 553.
It appears from the experiments of M. de BufFon and Mr. Needham, that
animal and vegetable substances infused in boiling water, put into bottles com-
pletely filled, and so closely stopped that no air -can enter, and even kept for
'some time in hot ashes, that in case there should be any latent ova of insects
they may effectually be destroyed; yet it appears from the said experiments, that
such substances, notwithstanding such precautions, afford microscopical animal-
cules of various kinds, and that sooner or later, according to the greater or less
degree of exaltation in the substances. Hence they conclude, that there is a
real productive force in nature, by which these animalcula are formed.
Having read the accounts of these experiments, Mr. W. was desirous to make
some of the same kind, which he accordingly did, in the summer of the year
1752. Though the greatest part of the animal substances, on which he made
any experiments, treated in the manner above-mentioned, yielded, sooner or
later, great numbers of microscopical animalcules; yet most of the vegetable
substances, whether from the coldness of the season, which was not very favour-
able that year, or through some fault in preparing the infusion, entirely failed,
and underwent a fermentation, without ever giving the smallest signs of any
thing endowed with life.
VOL. XLIX.] VHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 6qQ
May 1, 1752, at 11 o clock forenoon, Mr. W. made an infusion of dried
millepedes, or wood-lice, such as are commonly kept in the apothecaries' shops.
These he put unhruised into a small phial, so as to make it half full; then poured
on them as much boiling water as filled it neck and all, stopped it with a well
masticated cork, and put it into a pocket, where it was kept in a mild degree of
warmth. He let it remain till 10 o'clock the same evening, when he examined
a drop of the infusion with the highest magnifier of a very good microscope
made by Mr. Clarke of Edinburgh. He found the whole swarming with oblong,
slender, flatfish pellucid animalcules, pretty nearly of the same breadth through-
out the whole length of their bodies, and without any appearance of a tail, fig.
13, pi. 16, all evidently of the same kind, though not all of the same length
and^dimensions, extremely vivid, and, as appeared, spontaneous in their motions,
which they performed in all directions in an undulatory, vermicular way.
Observing the speedy appearance of these animalcules, he wished to know, in
how short a time they might be produced; for which pui-pose. May 3d, he made
just such another infusion, putting it into his pocket, as before, and an hour
afterwards laid a drop of it before the microscope, while it was as yet milk warm.
He observed a very few of these minute bodies moving about briskly in the fluid.
An hour after this more of them appeared ; and before the end of the 3d hour,
the infusion contained a great number of them. They continued however to
increase in numbers for an hour or two afterwards, when the infusion seemed to
have produced all that it was capable of.
June 3d, he made an infusion in the same way of unbruised cantharides, and in
much about the same time found the whole swarming with animalcules of the
same kind as those of the infusion of millepedes. These bodies, which at first
appeared larger than those in semine masculino, were very soon decomposed into
smaller ones, to speak according to the doctrine of Messrs. Needham and BufFon,
or, as others would rather incline to express it, succeeded by smaller ones, these
again by others still smaller, and so on, until in a few days, the highest magni-
fier of the microscope could exhibit nothing distinct to the eye. The same sub-
stances infused in rectified spirits of wine, or other spirits, showed none of
these bodies; and a few drops of such liquors, or of a solution of fixed or volatile
alkaline salts, poured into the infusions, instantly destroyed the animalcules.
Mr. W. declines inquiring, whether these animalcules are produced by the
decomposition of the substances in which we observe them, which, according to
Mons. de BufFon contain a number of living organic particles, or, according to
Mr. Needham, a vegetating force in every microscopical point, capable of form-
ing secondary combinations, microscopical plants, zoophytes or animalcules,
according to the greater or less degree of exaltation, which the several substances
have attained. Or whether they proceed from ova formerly existing in the sub-
4 u 2
700 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [anNO 1755.
stances, and capable of enduring a great degree of heat, without being destroyed,
the germs of which are sooner or later developed according to the fitness of the
nidus, as is the opinion of the learned and ingenious Dr. Parsons, in his treatise
on the analogy between the propagation of animals and that of vegetables : as by
entering into a discussion of these different sentiments, a large volume might
be written without perhaps going to the bottom of the matter. Mr. W. there-
fore only observes, that whichever of these opinions we embrace, thus far seems
to be certain, that the earlier or later appearance of microscopical animalcules,
is always in proportion to the degree of tendency to putrefaction in such sub-
stances as afford them. This is the case not only with them, but likewise with
maggots in meat, which every body knows are produced from the eggs of flies.
The two substances millepedes and cantharides, on which the above observations
were made, are very putrescent, and the infusions of them soon stunk abominably.
Castor, though an animal substance, and seemingly very much exalted,
treated in the same manner as the above-mentioned substances, viewed by the
microscope every day, and kept for several months, afforded no animalcules, nor
seemed to have undergone the smallest change ; which confirms what the inge-
nious Dr. Pringle has observed, that it is antiseptic ; and adds weight to the ob-
servation made above, that the appearance of such animalcules denotes a tendency
to putrefaction. Hence Mr. W. thinks that such microscopical observations,
made with accuracy, might be usefully applied in the investigation of the septic and
antiseptic qualities of animal and vegetable substances ; since in this way the first
motion of putrefaction may be discovered, before it manifests itself otherwise.
Mr. W. subjoins a few remarks concerning exaltation, which seem to deserve
attention. All exaltation, he observes, appears to be a certain modification of
the salts and oils of bodies : a proper degree of it favours growth and vegetation,
and sustains animal life : a greater degree of it, which he calls the putrefactive
exaltation, and to which all organized bodies tend more or less, decomposes all
such bodies, and favours the production of microscopical animalcules, or the de-
velopement of the ova from which they may be hatched. A still higher degree of
exaltation puts a stop to this process, as also to vegetation, and in certain cir-
cumstances even to animal life, as happens with regard to all acrid chemical pre-
parations, &c. whether of the animal or vegetable kingdom.
Those who imagine that all salts and oils hurt the vegetating force of matter,
have fallen into a great error ; for whence can such a vegetating force proceed,
but from a due mixture and modification of the salts and oils with the earthy
principle, which every one allows to be of itself inert ? It is true indeed, that a
very large portion of salts or oils renders substances antiseptic, or very slow either
of vegetation or putrefaction, as is well known with regard to sea-salt, a large
quantity of which preserves substances from putrefaction ; though, as Dr. Pringle
observes, a smaller one rather forwards that process, as it does likewise vegeta-
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 701
tion. Castor, which as Mr. W. formerly observed, is antiseptic, seems to owe
this quality only to a large quantity of a sluggish fetid oil, which it contains.
LXXXIIL On the Cure of a Paralytic Arm, by Electricity ; by Cheney Hart,
M. D. p. 558.
[This was a case of paralysis rheumatica, cured by electricity used conjointly
with other remedies.]
LXXXIV. Observations made at Guadaloupe on the Brimstone-hill, in French
La Soiiffriere, in that Island. By John And. Peyssonel, M. D. Member of the
R. A. of Sciences of Paris, &c. and F.R.S. Translated by Dr. Maty. p. 564.
Tlie Island of Guadeloupe is not the only one of the American Antilles, that
has volcanos and mines of brimstone ; few are without them ; they are found in
Martinico, Dominica, St. Christopher's, St. Lucia ; all which islands produce
sulphur, pumice-stones, and other substances usually found in volcanos. The
mountain, on which M. P. made his observations, is called La SoufFriere, or
Brimstone-hill, because it contains ores of sulphur; and its summit constantly
emits smoke, and sometimes flames. It is very high, and forms a kind of trun-
cated cone. It rises above the chain of mountains that occupy the centre of the
island, and run through all its length from north to south. This conical moun-
tain is about 3 leagues from the sea-shore, east, west, and south, and therefore
almost in the middle of the southern part of the island. In ascending, it is soon
observed that the woods differ in kind ; the trees are smaller, and are no more
than shrubs at the top, that is, on a level with the other mountains. Here you
meet with none but mountain-mangles, whose wood is crooked and bends down-
wards, and their bark is a true Jesuit's bark. Having arrived at the spring-head
of the river of galleons, south of the brimstone-hill, at the place called the Three
Springs, the waters were so hot as not to be borne. The neighbouring ground
smokes, and is full of brown earth like the dross of iron. In other places the
earth is red like colcothar, and even dyes the fingers ; but these earths are taste-
less. Near these 3 burning hot springs are some others, that are lukewarm, and
some very cold. They put some eggs into the hot ones, and they were boiled
in 3 minutes, and hard in 7-
Gk)ing on, about the length of 400 paces, they began to get sight of the
windward, or of the eastern coast of the island. Having passed this moun-
tain of the 3 rivers, and the valley between it and the Brimstone-hill, they began
to ascend the latter, where they were obliged to help themselves with their hands,
feet, elbows, and knees, and to hold by the fern, aloes, and other plants, some
of which were prickly, and very troublesome. They were about an hour and a
half getting up to the height of about 500 feet, when they reached the gulf, at
the place whence the smoke issues. This place is at the foot of a steep bank.
702; PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1/55.
and may be about 25 toises in breadth : there is no grass to be seen, nothing but
sulphur and calcined earth ; the ground is full of crevices, which emit smoke or
vapours ; these cracks are deep, and you hear the sulphur boil. Its vapours
rising yield very fine chemical flowers, or a pure and refined sulphur. It is
chiefly found in those places where the earth lies hollow, and on the chinks or
funnels you see the spirit of sulphur run down like fair water, and you breathe an
intolerable smell of brimstone The ground is loose, so that they could thrust
their canes up to the head, and when drawn out they were as hot as if they had
been plunged into lime when slacking. Hastening out of this dangerous situ-
ation, they continued climbing to the top of the mountain, keeping to the east,
or windward. When at the summit, they discovered another gulf or funnel,
that opened some years since, and emits nothing but smoke. The top of the
mountain is a very uneven plain, covered with heaps of burnt and calcined earth
of various sizes ; the ground smokes only at the new funnel, but appears to have
formerly burnt in many places : for they observed abundance of these crevices,
and even gutters, and very large and deep chinks, which must have burnt in
former times. In the middle of this flat is a very deep abyss, or precipice. It is
said, there was once a great earthquake in this island, and that the Brimstone-
hill took fire, and vomited ashes on all sides, and this mountain cleft in two ;
when probably this abyss or precipice opened. Perhaps the volcano having
been fired by lightning, the salts of the earth joined with the sulphur produced
the effect of gunpowder, and occasioned this dreadful earthquake. The moun-
tain having split, cast forth ashes and sulphureous matters all around, and from
that time no earthquake has been felt in the island. This abyss, in the middle
of the flat, is behind two crags or points, that rise above the mountain, and on
the north side answers to the great cleft, which goes down above a thousand feet
perpendicular, and penetrates above a hundred paces into the flat, and is more
than 20 feet broad ; so that in this place the mountain is fairly split, from the
top down to the basis of the cone.
From the top of this mountain there is a most delightful prospect. You dis-
cover below the islands of Martinique, Dominica, Marigalante, and the whole
extent of Guadeloupe. Those of St. Vincent, St. Kits, and even St. Martin,
are said to have been seen from the top of this mountain. Montser'-at, Antigua,
Nevis, Radonde, and several other islands were very distinctly observed. The
air at top is bleak and sharp, but the cold not very intense. Here the party had
only time to examine the great cavern and the great cleft above it, and then with-
draw to the habitation whence they came, being very weary ; for in coming down
they were often obliged to slide, sometimes sitting, sometimes lying on their
backs, and holding by the fern. They were often almost buried by tumbling into
holes. They met with abundance of nests of black devils, a kind of sea-birds,
that come from the north, and hatch their young on this mountain.
TOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 703
Any quantity of brimstone might be fetched from this mountain, even ship-
loads. It might be refined on the spot, or made up into lumps to be sold^ and
shippetl in the ore, if necessary ; but it is too cheap a commodity to be worth
gathering up in a country, where the price of labour is so high from the scarcity
of hands. Bright yellow brimstone with a greenish cast might be gathered round
the vent-holes of the burning gulf, also large quantities of fine natural flowers,
or very pure sulphur. What passes in this mountain may be called a natural
analysis and distillation. The brimstone takes fire in the centre of the earth, as
in chemical operations, when the mixture of spirit of nitre and oil of turpentine
suddenly produces a surprising heat and flame : in like manner an oily and sul-
phureous exhalation inflames and sends forth fires, which the ignorant vulgar
take for shooting or falling stars. The flowers rise with the acid spirit, which
being condensed by the cool air, falls down in drops. By fixing bell-glasses to
the apertures of the funnels, one might collect a spirit, that rises naturally. One
of them having thrust his cane too far into one of the funnels, and not being
able to pull it out again, helped himself with the blade of his sword to catch hold
of it. In an instant they saw the hilt quite wet, and the water dropping off, and
when he drew it out, they were surprised to find the blade extremely hot.
LXXXFI. Of the Earthquake, felt Feb. 18, 1756, along the Coast of Eng-
land, betiveen Margate and Dover, in a Letter from Mr. Samuel Warren.
Communicated by John Pringle, M.D., F.K.S. p. 579-
This earthquake happened a little before 8 in the morning. Many persons
felt it by the shaking of their beds, &c. at Margate, Deal, Dover, Sandwich, gcc.}
LXXXP^II. On the Stones in the Country of Nassau, and the Territories of
Treves and Cologn, resembling those of the Giants-Causey, in Ireland. By
Abralmm Trembley , F.R.S. From the French, p. 581.
These stones were in a quarry, near Weilbourg in the country of Nassau, on
the declivity of a hill; it had not been dug into above 20 feet deep, and 40 long.
This quarry consists of a mass of stones of an almost regular form. He could
not discover at what depth these stones extended under-ground. They appeared
very near the surface of the earth, where the quarry lies. And there was a pretty
considerable space of ground, in which the top of the stones appeared, and where
it was easy to examine the shape of their upper ends. It is very far from being
the same in all of them :, but when a number of them are comjjared with one
another, we find reason to conclude, that the hexagonal form is the most com-
mon. The more regular the figure of these extremities is, the more it approaches
to that of a hexagon. The two ends of every stone appeared, for the most part,
to have the same shape. The sides of the stone are of the same form with the
ends, and are plain. Every stone is therefore a prism of a certain rjumber pf
704 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
sides. They are from 3 to 8 sides, and of all the intermediate numbers. The
length of the prisms is unequal, from 2 to 5 feet long. The thickness of them
is not at all more equal : it is of 9 inches and under. Many of them form a
pillar by lying one upon another; all their ends and joints plain. The pillars,
formed by several of those stones, are placed exactly one against the other, with-
out having any void between them. They are in a situation almost perpendi-
cular. On breaking these stones, their colour appears clearly to be black. It is
a kind of pretty hard basaltes. It strikes fire with steel ; and it appears to be very
like that of the Giants Causey in Ireland.
This stone must be very common in the country of Nassau. At some leagues
distant from Weilbourg, is an old castle almost entirely built of it. In going
from Weilbourg to Coblentz in the electorate of Treves, he observed on the
road thither, in the towns and villages through which he passed, that this ba-
saltes was made use of in the buildings and pavements. He made the same re-
mark in his journey from Coblentz to Cologn through Bonne. He found a
pretty large heap of it in a village 3 leagues from Bonne. In continuing his
journey along the Rhine, in his way to Bonne, he saw in the river, the waters
being pretty low, a rock, which stood a foot or two out of the water, which was
a mass of those prisms of basaltes, the heads of which appeared ; and which he
concluded was the top of a natural mass of the stone. Hence he was convinced
that there were quarries of it along the Rhine. In coming near Bonne, the
parapet-walls along both sides of the high road, are found built of these basaltes
stones. There are many of them in the old walls of the ramparts of Bonne and
Cologn, and in the pavements of those cities. Some authors mention quarries
of this basaltes in Upper and Lower Saxony, and in Silesia.
Those who have made observations on salts, and inquiries into stones, mine-
rals, and metals, know how common crystallizations are in nature. A very
great variety are found in searching mountains, visiting caverns, and descending
into mines. There are few of the naturalists, accustomed to these researches,
who shall observe the basaltes above mentioned, but will be inclined to consider
them as so many crystallizations.
LXXXFIII. Account of a Work published in Ilalian by Fitaliano Donati, M.D.
containing, An Essay towards a Natural History of the Adriatic Sea. By Mr.
Abraham Trembley, F.R.S. From the French, p. 585.
In this work. Dr. Donati examines both the earth and the sea, and even the
soil under the sea, to discover their fossils and other productions. His inquiries
have enabled him to determine, that there is very little difference between the
bottom of the Adriatic sea and the surface of the neighbouring countries. There
are at the bottom of the water, mountains, plains, vallies, and caverns, just as
on the land. The soil consists of different strata placed one upon another ; and
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 705
particular species are found ; and lastly, there are other places, in which neither
plants nor animals are to be met with. These observations not only point out
the affinity and resemblance between the surface of the earth and the bottom of
the sea ; but may likewise contribute to discover one cause of the varieties which
are observed in the distribution of the marine fossils found in the earth. Dr.
Donati remarked in that vast mass of marble, which is common to the bottom of
one part of the Adriatic sea, and to the neighbouring provinces towards the
east, a multitude of marine bodies petrified ; some of which are so united to the
stony substance, that they are scarcely to be distinguished. He found in some
places human bones petrified, which form one mass with a mixture of marble,
red earth, and stalactites.
One of the objects, which most excited the attention of our author, was a
crust, which he discovered under the water in divers places, and for a great ex-
tent. It is a composition of crustaceous and testaceous bodies and beds of polypes
of different kinds, confusedly blended with earth, sand, and gravel. They are
found at the depth of a foot or more, entirely petrified and reduced to marble.
At less than a foot deep they approach nearer to their natural state. And at the
surface of this crust, they are either dead, though extremely well preserved, or
still living. This observation demonstrates, that stones or petrifactions may be
formed, and actually are formed, in great quantities under the water.
It is to be remarked, that these crustaceous and testaceous bodies and beds of
polypes, are every where mingled in the utmost confusion with each other :
which shows a striking resemblance between the crust discovered at the bottom
of the sea, and those of the marine bodies petrified, found in many parts under
the earth, and especially in Italy. If these marine bodies petrified are naturally
in that confusion in the sea ; if they were born and die ; and if they have been
petrified in that state ; it is highly probable, that those which are found under-
ground in the strata in such confusion, are likewise placed naturally in the same
manner under the sea, when it covers them, and not by means of extraordinary
events, such as volcanos and earthquakes, as has been conjectured.
The more these bodies and beds of polypes multiply, the more their exuviae
and skeletons contribute to enlarge this crust discovered at the bottom of the sea.
Dr. Donati remarked, that in several parts it formed very considerable banks,
and of a very great thickness. Hence it follows that the bottom of the sea is
constantly rising higher and higher. Divers other causes contribute to it. Snow
and rain-waters bring down from the neighbouring mountains, into the sea, a
great quantity of earth and stones. The waves, beating against the shores of
the continent and islands, detach many masses, which are spread upon the bot-
tom of the sea. The rivers carry the mud with their waters into the sea, at the
bottom of which that mud deposits itself. From the rising of the bottom of the
VOL. X. 4 X
706 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
sea, that of the level of the water naturally follows. Dr. Donati furnishes us
with a great number of facts in proof of this. He observed, that at Venice, in
Istria, and in Dahnatia, the level of the waters is several feet higher than it was
formerly. This elevation of the waters is observed only on the northern and
eastern coasts of the Adriatic. The sea seems on the contrary, to abandon the
western coast, that of Italy. This Dr. Donati has showed by many very inte-
resting facts.
He proceeds then to the observations, which he made upon the plants and
animals of the Adriatic sea. He begins with some general reflections on the
nature of both. On this occasion he treats of the question concerning the re-
semblance between plants and animals, and in general of the chain, which these
different organised bodies form by the affinity between them established by na-
ture. In mentioning the facts, which show this imperceptible transition from
the class of animals to that of plants, he seems inclined to believe, that these
facts are most frequently to be met with in the waters.
After having given a description of several very curious marine plants, he pro-
ceeds to the beds of polypes. He gives this name to all those organized bodies,
known under the name of coralline bodies ; and which were, for a long time,
ranged under the class of plants. He then mentions different bodies, which he
calls plant-animals, and animal-plants, according to the characters which he
found belonging to them, and which bring them more or less near to one or
other of these general classes. dini I
LXXXIX. On a Parihian Coin, with Characters on the Reverse resembling
those of the Palmy renes. By the Rev. John Swinton, M- A. of Christ-Churchy
Oxon, F. R. S. p. 593.
Some years before, Mr. S. met with a small brass medal, in but indifferent
conservation ; which he discovered, he thinks, by comparing it with others, to be
a Parthian coin. This medal, he apprehends, exhibits the head of Vologeses the
3d, adorned with a beard and a tiara, after the Parthian manner, with a beta be-
hind it, which seems to point out the place in which it was struck. The reverse
presents a strange sort of instrument or machine, which perhaps may be imagined
to represent a key, besides some traces of characters in a great measure defaced,
and which he thinks are 4 entire Palmyrene letters.
XC. A Catalogue of the Fifty Plants from Chelsea Garden, presented to the
Royal Society, by the Company of yfpothecaries, for the Year 17 55, pur-
suant to the Direction Sir Hans Sloane, Baronet, by John Wilmer,
M,D., &c. p. 607.
This is the 34th annual presentation of this kind, completing to the number
of 1 700 different plants.
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 707
XCI. On the Earthquakes felt at lurin, Dec. Q, 1755, and March8, 1756. Bij
Dr. Fital. Dovuti, Prof, of Botany at Turin. From the Italian, p. 6l2.
The cause of earthquakes is unknown to me. The ancients have observed,
that earthquakes were accompanied witli some particular meteor, and some re-
markable alteration in the air. Such alterations have been observed at the time
of the late earthquakes. Who knows, whether an electrical force be not ca-
pable of moving more than a quarter of our globe ? I have communicated
this notion to father Beccaria, and I found him almost entirely convinced of it.
On the 9th of December, at half an hour after 2 in the afternoon, a shock
of an earthquake was felt here at Turin ; but not a considerable one, so that a
great number of persons did not perceive it. For my own part I felt it very
sensibly, being then in the Universitj-pulpit raised very high. The chair, on
which I sat, was thrown by the shock from one side of the pulpit to the other,
in the direction of south to north. This shock lasted between 4 and 6 seconds.
Some minutes after came another shock, but it was extremely slight. Its di-
rection was likewise from south to north. I have been informed from Milan,
that about the same hour, and on the same day, a shock of an earthquake had
been felt. The waters did not rise, and yet a good deal of motion was observed
in those of the lakes. For 3 days the waters rose from underground in the lower
apartments of the houses situated near the east gate. The springs that water
the lands in the country, became more copious.
On the 28th of December at 6 o'clock, according to the Italian way of reck-
oning, a slight earthquake was felt at Padua.
On the 8th of March, at half after 1 1 in the morning, in the French way of reck-
oning, I felt 2 shocks directed from above downwards, but they were very slight.
CII. Of a Continued Succession of Earthquakes at Brigue in Calais. Written by
the Rector of the College of Jesuits at Brigue. From the Latin, p. 6l6.
Valais, and especially Brigue, have almost every 1 0 years felt earthquakes, but
never any so considerable as in 1735. For in that year, on the 1st of No-
vember, which was so fatal to Portugal, we felt Brigue several times shaken,
and particularly on that very day. And from that time, especially in the night,
the walls were perceived by many persons to tremble ; whence they justly ap-
prehended still greater shocks of an earthquake. On the gth of December,
about 2 in the afternoon, the earth at first made a great noise, and seemed, as it
were, to give a signal for immediately retiring. This was, not long after, fol-
lowed by repeated, but sliglit motions. At a quarter after 2, the earth was again
shaken, and a much louder noise heard : at last, a little before half an hour
after 2, all Valais seemed on the point of destruction ; for the earth began not
only to tremble, but to send forth a horrible noise, and to shake all the buildings
with so violent a motion in the space of 2 pater nosters, that the houses inclined
4x2
708 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
on each side alternately, and rocked like a cradle : almost all the chimnies were
thrown down ; all the churches suffered very great damage ; the towers gaped ;
a considerable number of walls fell down ; and stones of all sizes poured down
from all the buildings, so that no house at Brigue escaped some injury.
The whole neighbourhood suffered the same calamity, especially Glisa and
Natria. In th« latter, the roof of the parish church fell at the same moment ;
and at Glisa, the large church, and especially the tower, were greatly damaged.
For a great part of the wall of the tower being removed out of its place, fell on
the roof of the church, and broke it, and demolished the side altar under it.
At Brigue both the church and college of the Jesuits suffered very considerably.
Part of the roof of the former fell down ; and all the walls of the college were
much cracked. In some places the earth opened and immediately closed again ;
and water rose from the ground several feet high. Some fountains also ceased
running ; and not a few, never seen before, have flowed from that time.
From the Qth of December to the 2 1 st, the shocks were repeated every day,
but still fewer and less violent. On the 21st, at 4 in the morning, Brigue was
«o much shaken, that every body was justly frightened : but no damage was done,
except the falling down of some stones. From the 21st to the 27 th, we felt
the earth moved twice or thrice every day at different times. On the 27 th, at
half after 2 in the afternoon, Brigue suffered a shock almost equal to that on
the Qth, but of a shorter duration, and attended with scarcely any damage. On
the 28th, about 6, a. m. there were 2 slighter motions. The 29th was the first
day free from disturbance. On the 30th, at one in the night, the houses were
greatly shaken, so' that some chimnies, which had been before damaged, now fell.
On the 2d of January, 1 7 56, at half after 9 at night, there was a slight
shock. On the 3d, a little before 10 in the morning, there was another gentle
one ; but none till the 6th, before 8 at night, when a pretty considerable shock
happened. On the 7th, about 5 in the evening, were two more, as also on the
8th at half after 8 at night. For the 3 following days all things were quiet.
On the 1 1th, at 3 in the morning, and again about 8, and on the 12th and 13th
were some few shocks, but slight. On the 14th, at half an hour after 2 in the
morning, every thing was put into such an agitation, as is inexpressible ; but the
damage was but small, as the motion lasted but 3 or 4 seconds. On the 15th,
at half an hour after 5 in the morning, there was a slight shock. It is obser-
vable, that on this day, and generally for 3 or 4 hours before the earthquake, we
observed a gentle trembling to precede, and the winds which were before violent,
to subside of a sudden : and that the motion seemed always to be propagated
from the south to the north. It is fact, that all the books in our library,
though of a square form, were all thrown down from the south towards the
north. I observed the same in the chasms of the ground, which were nearly pa-
rallel with the meridian. I often remarked likewise, that the Rhone grew turbid
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. yOQ
a little before the earthquakes ; and I frequently took notice, in the evening
after sun-set, very long clouds stretched out like a straight line, without any
breadth, and extended from the south to the north. The earth in some places
was broken into fissures, but not large ones.
The writer then goes on to state, that repeated shocks were felt, but gradually
less violent, from the 1 8th of January till the end of the month ; that on the
6th and 1 8th of February violent shocks were experienced, with slight interme-
diate ones; «nd that they were repeated slightly till the 26th, when they ceased.
cm. Extract of a Letter of Mans, la Condamine, F. R. S. to Dr. Maty,
F. R. S. Translated from the French. Dated Rome, March 11, 1756. p. 6'22.
The Abbe Barthelemi, who is here, has been at Naples. In the manner of
going on with the manuscripts there, it will require above a century to open and
paste them all. However it is done with great dexterity. But there is only one
person employed in it. The Canonico Mazzocchi, who copies them, is very
capableof that task. An academy of antiquaries is just founded at Naples, for
explaining all the antiquities dug up at Herculaneum ; but according to their
method of discussing things in their assemblies, they will not explain 2 dozen
antiquities in a year. They will alter their method, and find, that such kinds of
works, and perhaps all others, are not to be done by a company. The Abbe
Barthelemi has read very well a page, except a few words, which he had not
time to study. The account of the manuscript on music is true.
The measures of the Abbe de la Caille, and those of Father Maire and
Father Boscovich do not agree with the elliptical curve of the meridian, or with
the circularity of the parallels. And the earthquakes felt on the same day on all
the coasts of Europe, and in Africa and America, at Ancona, Morocco, Boston,
and in the Baltic, may contribute to convince those who should doubt of it,
that the earth has immense cavities, and that it is very heterogeneous, or rather
of a very unequal density. Consequently its figure is a little irregular ; or, if the
curvature be such as the laws of statics seem to require in the hypothesis of ho-
mogeneity, that figure must be altered by changes happening in the internal
parts of the mass. It was at first supposed to be spherical, and the orbits of
the planets were considered as circular. It was afterwards found that they were
elliptical, and the earth an elliptoid. Every step made in the study of natural
philosophy has discovered some apparent irregularity, according to our manner
of conception. The refractions, the aberration of light, the nutation of the
earth's axis have all been reduced to a calculation. Afterwards was found out
the irregularity of the refractions on small eminences, which perplex astrono-
mers. The heterogeneity of our globe will puzzle the mathematicians ; and
earthquakes will perhaps do so more than all the rest. I have probably observed
to you before, that I am convinced, that Italy was a chain of volcanos, of which
710 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
we know only some of the links. I have found lavas exactly like that of Ve-
suvius in the whole way from Florence to Naples, and in places where there was
no suspicion of volcanos. All the lakes of Italy, which I have seen hitherto,
exhibit traces, not to say evidences, of this.
I begin to think that the whole earth is perhaps in the same case with its
surface, and was thrown into the utmost disorder at some period of time, of
which no remembrance has been preserved. Lazzaro Moro, a Venetian, has
gone much further than I do : all the mountains, isles, and continents arose,
according to him, from the bottom of the sea, by means of subterraneous fires.
I never heard of his opinion till after I had formed my own conjecture, or rather
verified the fact in part of the Apennine which I have passed through. I have
had time only to run over the titles of his chapters.
CIK. On the Currents of Sea at the Antilles. By Dr. Peyssonnel, F.R.S. p. 624.
The coasts of these American islands are subject to counter-tides, or extraor-
dinary currents, which render it very dangerous to chaloupes and other small
craft to land ; while at the same time the boats and ships in the roads are
scarcely ever sensible of them, and seldom incommoded by them ; nor do those
which are out at sea appear to be affected by them. It is however certain that
a regular wind constantly blows, in these parts of the torrid zone, from the tropic
of Cancer, to the equinoctial line, from the east ; inclining sometimes northward,
and sometimes southward. This wind is called alize, or trade-wind, for reasons
admitted by philosophers, and it draws the water westward, giving a total and uni-
form course to that immense quantity, which comes from the great river of the
Amazons, and from an infinite number of other rivers, which discharge them-
selves into the ocean. These currents passing to the westward, go up to the
American islands, then to the coasts of Jucatan and Mexico, and running round
in the gulf, return Into the great ocean, by the straits of Bahama, along the
coasts of Florida, in order to pursue, in the north, the course ordained them by
the Supreme Being. It is in this course the waters are known to nm with an
extraordinary rapidity ; they pass between the great and little islands of America,
in the great deeps, by an almost even and imperceptible motion ; but against the
shores and coasts of these islands, which form this archipelago, these currents
are very sensible and dangerous; they interrupt the navigation, insomuch that it
is scarcely possible to stem these tides to get to the eastward.
It often happens, that vessels steering from St. Domingo, or the other Lee-
ward islands, to the windward ones, cannot absolutely accomplish it, and are
therefore obliged to get out of the channel, and steer away to the northward, in
order to tack up to the windward isles. These are daily observations, and well
known to all navigators of America.
Besides these regular currents, there are others, called counter-tides, which
VOL. XLIX.] PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. 711
are observable on the sea-coasts and shores. In places where these flow, the sea
rises in an extraordinary manner, becoming very furious without any apparent
cause, and without being moved by any wind ; the waves rise and open very
high, and break against the shore, with such violence, that it is impossible for
vessels to land. These he thinks are chiefly caused by the pressure of heavy
black clouds sometimes seen hanging over an island or the sea. As to other
currents in the main seas, or in other particular situations, as the gut and the
coasts of the Mediterranean, Dr. P. ascribes them to the action of the winds, &c.
Hurricanes are foreseen by a calm, and a frequent shifting of breezes from all
points; the setting sun of a blood-red; little clouds moving with great rapidity;
the sea-birds, called frigates, and many other kinds, quit the air, and seek the
shore. By these signs, together with the season in which these happen the
hurricanes are expected; proper precautions are then taken to avoid the fury of
the winds; the houses are propped, the windows and doors are barred up, and
papers and other valuable moveables are secured in chests. Soon after, a north
breeze springs up, which comes to the north-east, and from south to south-east;
the air is darkened by one continued thick cloud, which increases the horrors of
the night ; for it often happens, that these tempests come in the night, and con-
tinue all the next day. In the last hurricane he saw, the wind stood at north-
east, and blew with such violence, that the largest trees were torn up by the
roots, their trunks broken to pieces, and not a leaf left on those other trees which
yielded to the fury of the winds , the houses were thrown down, and the tops of
the sugar-mills, which are conical, and less susceptible of being thrown down,
were crushed to pieces ; scarcely any thing remained standing on the ground.
These ftirious winds were accompanied with a violent rain, which resembled the
mist made by the agitation of waves, or like waters kept up by the wind. The
tempest lasts till day-light, and sometimes continues pretty far in the day. In
that in 1740, towards 8 o'clock in the morning, it grew suddenly calm for a
quarter of an hour, and then returned again blowing from the south, with such
violence, that the buildings and trees, which were destroyed by the north wind
before, were blown about, and moved by the first blast of that from the south.
At the end of these there appears lightning, and we hear the noise of thunder :
these are the signs of the tempest's being at an end ; for the wind softens gra-
dually, and all becomes quiet.
After these hurricanes the forests appeared only like a parcel of ship-masts or
poles standing ; all the trees being stripped of their leaves', and their branches
broken off^ made a dreadful appearance, especially in these countries, where a
perpetual verdure adorns the trees and fields. Every one is employed in repair-
ing his losses, and mending the dismal remains of the frightful wreck.
712 PHILOSOPHIC AL TRANSACTIONS. [aNNO 1755.
XCV. Of the Lacerta (Crocodilm) ventre marsupio donato, faucibm Merganseris
rostrum cemulantibus.* By Mr. George Edwards, p. 639.
What is most extraordinary in this species, and distinguishes it from all other
crocodiles, is the narrowness of the beak or chaps, which appears like the bill
of the bird called a goosander (merganser). It has small sharp teeth, of which
he says no more, as he has given 3 very exact views of the head and beak ; see
fig. 14, pi. 16. Another particularity is a pouch or open purse in the middle of
the under side of the belly, which seems to be naturally formed, with round lips
and a hollow within, perhaps to receive its young in times of danger; as we find
it in the American opossum. The opinion of Dr. Parsons too was, that the
opening in the belly was really natural, it having no appearance of having been
cut or torn open. In other respects it has all the marks common to alligators
and crocodiles, viz. a particular strong square scaliness on the back, which in
the young ones appear distinct and regular, but in the older ones lose their dis-
tinct form, and become knobbed and rough, like the bark of an old tree; and
in having small, round, and oval scales on their sides, which in the young ones
are no larger than rape seeds; and the belly is scaled, to appearance a little like
the laying of bricks in a building. It has fins on the outsides of its fore and
hinder legs, as other crocodiles have. It has also a great distinguishing mark of
the crocodile kind, viz. two rows of fins on the upperside of the tail, which be-
gin insensibly small at the setting on of the tail, and increase gradually as they
advance toward the middle of it, where they become one row, and so continue
to the end. The tail is roundish at its beginning, but from the middle, where
the two rows of fins become one, it is flat like an oar. The fore feet have each
5 toes, the hinder feet only 4; which is also a mark of the crocodile; all the
lesser lizards having 5 toes on each of their hinder feet. In the fore and hinder
feet, the 3d and 4th toes only are webbed together. The eyes are very promi-
nent. The head is covered with several large scales. The beak is finely creased
transversely. As I have been very exact, says Mr. E. in my figure, which was
worked on the copper-plate immediately from nature by my own hand, and in
several different views, it will express more than can easily be conveyed by words.
It appeared in the spirits all over of a yellowish olive colour, the underside lighter
than the upper ; the upperside having some dusky marks and spots, as repre-
sented in the print. This species Mr. E. believes, when at full growth, to be
near, if not quite, as large as the common crocodile.
* This species is the lacerta gangetica, Linn. Gmel. It grows to a larger size than the Nilotic
crocodile, and exclusive of the long and narrow form of the snout, it has nearly double the number
of teeth : the specimen here described was so young as to have the opening of the umbilical vessels
still remaining : otherwise it has no particular ventral cavity, as erroneously imagined by the author.
END OF VOLUxME TENTH.
C. and R. Baldwin, Printer*,
New Bridge-itreet, London , 1
Vol.X.
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