Phrasis: a treatise on the history and structure of the different languages of the world, with a comparative view of the forms of their words, and the style of their expressions

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PHRASIS:

TREATISE ON THE HISTORY AND STRUCTURE

§iiUx«nt ^m^Mpfi at tU ^nUf

CX)MPARATIVE VIEW OF THE FORMS OP THEIR WORDS,

STYLE OF THEIR EXPRESSIONS.

BY

JiT WILSON, A. M.,

▲UTHOE or IBSOBS OV OBAMKAE AlTD NATUBJt » li^QVAGM,

ALBANY:

J. MUNSELL, 78 STATE STREET.
1864.

/

Entered aooording to Act of CongreeB, in the year 1864,

BT JACOB WILSON,

In the Clerk's OfiEice of the District Court of the United States for the
Northern District of New York.

TO

TAYLER LEWIS, LL. D.,

THAT

EMINENT LINGUIST AND PROFOUND SCHOLAR,

THIS WORK

IS MOST REVERENTLY INSCRIBED,

BY

HIS ADMIRING PUPIL,

THE AUTHOR.

PREFACE.

We shall hardly be contradicted, when we say that the study
of language, as a science in itself, has attracted, so far, but very
little attention in this country. Indeed, it would be quite im-
possible for the student, however great his interest in the subject
might be, to find the means with which to prosecute his inquiries.
The study of philology, at the present time, prestipposes the
ability to read, at least, French and German works. There are
very few works published in this country which are devoted
exclusively to this subject — we know of not a single general
or comprehensive work similar to the one before the reader;
nor do the works of English authors present us with anything
like a complete view of the subject.

There is, then, a want, which is every day felt, of a work
which shall give a fair view of the present state of philological
science, which shall initiate the inquiring student into the mys-
teries of language, and inform him of its wonders and its beauties,
of a work which shall be complete in itself, and which shall not
imply anything else than a knowledge of the English and a dis-
position on the part of the learner to study and reflect, a work
which shall be simple and plain enough for anybody to read,
and yet thorough and philosophical enough for even the experi-
enced philologist to study with advantage. It is to be hoped
that this may be found the work desired.

No effort, no expense, has been spared by the author to render
this work deserving of the attention and confidence of the student,
and to make it complete, accurate, and intelligible. To name the

VI PREFACE.

number of years, long, weary years, that the author has spent
in slavish toil upon this book, or to tell the number of books he
had pored upon in order to render him familiar with the subject,
and, especially, with the character and structure of the different
languages of the world, or to state the amount it had cost him
in collecting those books, nearly all of which were imported,
many being rare and costly, would seem more boasting; and
hence the silence upon that point. Suffice it, for the present, to
say that he never suffered this work to go to press, until he felt
that he had mastered the subject, and was able to take the
responsibility.

Some credit is claimed for the general plan and conception of
the work — one which i^ entirely new. It remains to be seen
whether there is a better design for imparting a thorough know-
ledge of the nature of language. How well the work has been
executed, we leave the reader to judge.

To make the work complete in itself, a brief sketch of English
Grammar is given ; this is followed by a sketch of the Latin, a
very different language and grammar. This is given to enable
the student to understand or recognize the new features which
he will continually meet with in the languages he is about to
consider. This is followed by a critical examination of the
nature of nouns, adjectives, cases, numbers, genders, comparisons.
Much light is thrown upon the nature of pronouns, prepositions,
adverbs, and conjunctions — showing what they are, and the forms
they have in other languages. There is a thorough review of
the forms of the participle, and a consideration of its develop-
ment — the more particularly, because it is the basis of the verb.
The nature of the verb, and the growth of moods and tenses,
will be well illustrated in the comparative view that is given of it.

The most important part of the whole work is the comparative
view of the history and idioms of the principal languages of the
world. It is believed that nothing can so well instruct us in
the true nature of language, as the manner in which the differ-
ent classes of people, or nations, express their ideas. Here, the
selections have been very copious, and no pains have been spared
to render their character and meaning easily understood. The

PREFACE. Vll

subject of Etymology has, also, been tboronglily treated of, and
tlie rules by which we may trace the connexion of words, have
been carefully set forth. The large lists of words under this
Head must prove very instructive to any one who carefully
examines them.

The main object of the work has been to present a compara-
tive view of the different idioms of the world, and, besides, such
facts as would best instruct the student in the nature of language.
But, to make the work complete, we have sometimes felt it
necessary to discuss, philosophically, some of the questions in
philology. These discussions, however, occupy but a small space
in the treatise, and are not expected to be particularly interesting
to the general reader.

It will be noticed that there are no references in the work,
and it is for the reason that it is in no sense a compilation ; the
only instances in which we are willing to admit that we have
extracted from other works, are in the occasional selection of
words and sentences for illustration. We have considered
them as common property, and have always felt at liberty to
take them when we had nothing better at command. But there
are several works to which we are greatly indebted for our
instruction in this science ; we have made constant use of many
of them — but only as instructors. It may not be amiss to name
them, partly to acknowledge our obligation, and partly to suggest
to the student the names of desirable works. They are as follows :
Bopp's Comparative Gram. (3 vols.) ; Prichard's Eastern Origin
of Celtic Nations; Grarnett's Philological Essays; Latham's
Ethnographic Essays — and Handbook of English Language;
Wm. Humboldt on the Kawi (3 vols. Germ.) ; Kapp's Physi-
ology of Language (4 vols. Germ.) ; Eichhoff's Comparison of
Languages (Germ.) ; Sulzer's Origin and Nature of different
Languages (Ital.) ; Grimm's German Gram. (5 vols. Germ.) ;
Grimm's Hist, of Germ. Languages (2 vols. Germ.); Tooke's
Diversions of Purley (2 vols.) ; Harris' Hermes ; Dobrowsky's
Slavic Etymol. ; MtLller's Survey of Languages ; Dictionnaire
Linguistique (Fr.); Bock on the Structure of Languages (Germ.) ;
Arndt on the Origin of Europ. Lang's.; Jameson's Hermes

VUl PRBFACB.

Sytbicus; Diefenbaoh's Celtica (2 vols. Germ.); Latham's
Eussian Races; Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man (2 vols.); Adelung's
Mithridates (4 vols. Germ.); Pott's Etymological Inquiries
(2 vols, (jrerm.); Schleicher's Compendium (Germ.); Donald-
son's New Cratylus — and Varronianus; Michel on the Argot
(French) ; Bemhardy's Sprachlehre (2 vols. Germ.); Diefenbach
on the Roman Lang's. (Germ.); Julien on Chinese Syntax
(French); Rask's Researches (Dan.); Drival's Comp. Gram.
Sem. Lang's (Fr.) ; Benfey on the Egyptian Language (Germ.) ;
Portal's Symbols of the Egyptians (Fr.); Grotefend's Rudiments
UmbricsB (Lat.); E. Renan on Sem. Lang's.; Huschke's Osk.
and Sabel Language-monuments ; Spohn on the Language and
Letters of Ancient Egyptians (Lat.) ; Jenisch Comparison of
Lang's of Europe, — besides other minor works, of which little
use has been made. To enumerate the grammars, treatises, and
specimens of text, which represent nearly every language treated
of in this work, besides the lexicons for a large share of them,
all of which have been examined by the author and studied by
him for years, would require more space than we have to spare
here.

We have, as said before, taken great pains to make the work
plain, as well as complete and accurate; but yet no one, we hope,
will expect to find it so easy that he is to learn the science of
language from it without effort, without earnest and unceasing
study; no such book has eVeryet been printed — none ever will
be. We must add, finally, that the author's little work, published
in 1858, on the Errors of Grammar and Nature of Language^
must be taken in connexion with this. It contains an explana-
tion of many theories which lie at the foundation of this work ;
it will show, too, the road which the author has traveled to
arrive at his present position.

To Dr. Lewis, of Union College, who has spent several weeks,
even while in declining health, in carefully examining, criticising,
and improving, the manuscript of this work, the author is under
the greatest obligations, and he knows not how to express the
gratitude which he feels for a service which so few could
perform, and which has been so kindly offered and so ably done.

PHRASIS.

PART L
THE ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE.

CHAPTER I.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

1. In discourse or composition, the first and leading divisions
are sentences. It is merely the sum of these sentences, perfect
and distinct individuals in themselves, that constitutes all that
is spoken or written. Grammar, at least, has nothing to do
with anything but sentences, either simple or compound.

2. If we regard language as the medium by which we express
or indicate thoughts, feelings, and facts, we may denominate a
sentence the simplest and most elementary form of language.
Every sentence is an expression indicating that something
exists or is, or was or will be. It may have more than two
parts, but it cannot have less. It must contain not only the
word indicating the doing, or being, or existing, but the name,
also, of the person or thing which does, or is, or exists; as,
nten walk, the moon shines, Cicero spoke, the town is old, the
hose was broad,

3. In every sentence, then, besides the word which indicates
what is done, or what is or was or will be, i. e. the verb, as it is
called, there is found the name of some person, or thing, or
place, or of some property or quality. We call these names
Nouns; as, men, moon, Cicero, town, base, in the examples just
given. Two divisions of nouns are usually recognized, those
which are common, and those which Sive proper ; common names
are such as apply equally to all of a large class, as man, tree,
book, while proper names are applied to some individual of a
class to distinguish that one from the others, as Joseph, j^lban^,

10 PHRASIS.

Europe — or, in other words, one is a family, and the other is
an individual name. It is impossible to draw any nice line of
distinction between common and proper names, but the above
will answer in practice. Collective nouns are also sometimes
spoken of; they are names of bodies or collections, as array ^
assembly^ company^ nation. There are also abstract nouns,
names of qualities, as lengthy wisdom^ goodness; and verbal nouns,
names of acting, doing, being, as the speaking, the seeing , the
becoming.

4. To a certain extent, nouns have different forms according to
the sex they represent; they are said to be of different Genders;
as, lion and lioness, poet ^pd poetess, emperor and empress, hero
and heroine, testator and testatrix. But a very large class of
names are applied to individuals without marking the distinc-
tion of either sex ; as, friend, sheep, servant, worker, lover. In
some instances, the male of a class is known by a name very
different from that which applies to the female of the same
class; as, brother, sister ; lord, lady ; son, daughter ; boy, girl;
gander, goose ; drake, duck. In some of these instances, as in
that of goose and drake, the words are clearly related in origin,
and in none of these cases were the words, as boy and girl, ori-
ginally used for gender distinction.

5. Persons and animals alone, with us, have gender — things
are neuter (the Germans call it the sdchlich, thing-ly gender). In
Latin and Greek, gender is conceived to extend to things, on
the basis of their possessing masculine or feminine qualities,
and, hence, they speak of them, often, as he and she, while we
would say it — just as we, again, say of the ship, she sails, the
moon casts her shadow, the sun sends his rays.

6. Nou^s denoting males are said to be of the masculine gender,
and those denoting females of the feminine gender. Nouns de-
noting things which are lifeless, or which we do not speak of
as having sex, as book, box, tree, rock, crowd, time, water, are
said to be of the neuter gender. We should prefer to apply the
term gender only to nouns which distinguish it by their form,
but, in grammar, the practice is to call all nouns masculine
which denote males, and all feminine which denote females.
In other languages, as the Latin, gender is much better marked.

7. The variation of forms of nouns to indicate unity or plu-
rality, is much more common ; thus, we use the term books for
more than one, and book when a single one is referred to, and
so boxes and box, trees and tree, affection and affections, valley,
valleys, sky, skies. We call plural the form indicating more
than one, and singular the form indicating only one. The
plural form is generally made by adding s or es to the singular,
but not always; 'as, in oXj oxen ; child, children; brother, breth-

ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 11

ren ; man, men ; foot, feet; goose, geese; woman, women. There
are some nouns which have no plural ; as, ten sheep, ten cattle,
ten deer. In many cases, where we adopt the word of some
other language, we adopt also its plural; as, datum (from Lat.),
and plural data^ chervh (from Sem.), plur. cherubim; so, too,
the above plural in en is rather after the German manner, en
being for s or es. The forms foot and feet, man and men, etc.,
will stand as proof that the plural is only a variation of the sin-
gular and contains nothing foreign or in addition to it.

8. Case. In the words which are called pronouns, as, I,
thou, he, and she, we notice two different forms, according aa
they come before the word expressing doing or being, and
hence are subjects, or follow this word, and are objects ; thus,
we say I strike, but not strike I, rather, strike me) so, he strikes,
but not strike Ac, rather, strike him; also thou strilcest, and strike
thee, 'she strikes, and strike her. When these pronouns are
placed before nouns to indicate whose or for whom, that is,
possession or origin, they assume still another form ; as, (for i)
m^ hook, (for he) his hook, (for thou) thy hook, (for she) her
hook; so, again, we say his language, i. e. language coming from
bim.

9. These different forms are called case forms, and the form
before the verb is called the Nominative ; that after the verb
is called the Objective. (Not only is this form taken when
following such verbs as strike, but also after prepositions, such
words as to, hy, before, with, etc. ; as, to him, with her, hefore
^e, hy me). The third forms, as, his, her, thy, my, are called
JPossessives, In other languages, as in the Latin, they carry out
this system of varied forms for cases not only in the pronouns,
but also in the nouns; they havener, boy, for the ^om., pueri,
boy's, for the Poss., and puerum, boy, after verbs or preposi-
tions. (They have even other case-forms, which we will notice
elsewhere). The German, in this matter, holds a sort of middle
place between us and the Latin. They have endings peculiar
to certain case-forms in very many instances where they have
long since disappeared with us, thus, they say der Sohn, the son;
des Sohnes, the son's, or (of) the son; dem Sohne, (to) the son;
den Sohn, the son (objective). Notice that the article has four
forms, while our the has but one (the Germ, der is more like
our three case-forms of pronouns ; as, he, his, him ; they, theirs,
them.,). Even the Anglo Saxon, or old English, had more of
these forms than we; thus, thaet word, the word (Nom.); thaes
wordes, the word's, (of) the word (Poss.) ; thaet word, the word
(Obj.); and besides these, they had a peguliar form for our
objectives when found after the prepositions to and /or; as, tham
worde, (to) the word, and in the plural, tham wordum, (to) the

12 PHRASIS.

words (this case-form is called the Dative). All their nouns
did not vary in this manner, or to this extent; thus, mnu^ son
(N.) ; swwa, son^s (Poss.) ; «wwa, (to) son (D.) ; sunu^ son (Obj.) ;
«wnewa, (of) sons (Poss. plur.) ; so mann, man (N.) ; mannes,
man^s (P.); men, (to) man (1).); mann, man (Ob.); syn, sin;
synne, sin's; synne, (to) sin; synne, stn (0.); syn/ia, siws (pi.);
synnum, (to) sins (plur.).

10. In English nouns, there cannot be said to be more than
one case-form, or two, if we count the nominative, and that is
the possessive ; as, man's authority, hoy's book, hand's effort —
regularly formed by adding 's, s and apostrophe. Plural forms,
which already end in s, add only the apostrophe to form the
possessive; thus, hoys' hooks, i. e. books of the boys. Still, it is
the practice of grammarians to treat the noun as having three
case-forms, adding, only, that the nominative differs from the
objecti^ form simply in the place it occupies — the nominative
being the doer or subject of the verb, and the objective repre-
senting the object of the verb or preposition. Sometimes the
order of words is inverted, and the objective comes before the
verb; thus, Mm they slew (him object of slew); so, the nominative
often follows ; as, there stood the man (the man stood, man nom-
inative).

11. Such verbs as is, was, are, will he, hecome, may have a
nominative after as well as before; as, he is the man — man ie
called predicate nominative.

ADJIICTIVHS.

12. Nouns are not always used as names of things spoken of,
that is, as subject or object; they are often placed before other
nouns to indicate the kind of thing; as, trooc^-car, Aouse-work,
tron-mine, ybres<-tree. Such words as wood, house, iron, and
forest, are joined to the nouns to tell what kind, or to form with
the noun a new name, that of a subdivision of cars, mines, trees.
Nouns so used, or any other words so placed, are called adjectives.
Speaking generally, adjectives are words joined to the noun to
tell what kind, how many, or what thing. In our language,
and more generally in German, nouns are joined as adjectives
to other nouns without change of form, and this on the principle
that the noun may be used in one and the same form both as
subject and object. But, more commonly, a new form has
grown up for the noun used as adjective; as, joyful mdin, joyous
mirth, humane map, tolerahle success, amusing story. In many
instances, the original noun on which the adjective has grown up
is entirely lost sight of, or is to be found in some other language;

ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 13

as, in genuine logic, wicked men, happy men, shrewd men,
great men, mortal men, (from Latin mors^ death), corporal
punishment (from L. corpus^ l>ody), physical powers (Grreek
phusis, nature).

13. It is very common to find these adjectives used not only
before the noun as above shown, but following the verb and
closely connected with it, — especially after is, was, be, been;
thus, he is happy, this seems excellent, some men are great, he
becomes a soldier. It is common to call these words adjectives,
and to say they belong to the subjects of the verbs which they
follow. But, in the opinion of the author, this is a very unnat-
ural way of disposing of them ; they are certainly adjectives in
form and nature, but they have not the place of the adjectives.
They are no more adjectives than one noun placed before another
noun, without varying its form, is a noun. They certainly do
not belong to the noun or pronoun before the verb, but, if at all,
to some noun following them, and implied ; as, he is happy, i. e.
a happy one, or person. Our preference is to treat them as
adjectives whi6h belong to the verb and unite with it to form a
new verb.

14. But it must be borne in mind that every adjective has
the nature of a verb (or, at least, of that form of a verb called a
participle), and that in many languages the adjectives are treated
as real verbs, that in such expressions aa is walking, is 'wise, is
pevalent, is excellent, is here, is black, is a man, the very essence
of a verb lies in these adjectives — so much so, that is, being a
mere auxiliary, is left out entirely, in many languages, by which
suppression the whole verb is seen to lie in these adjectives; or,
in other words, the adjective holds the place and performs the
office of a real verb. It is true, that every adjective is a noun
in its origin, but it is that form of the noun, the objective, which
is found following the verb and connected with it, either
directly or by means of prepositions, and uniting with it so
closely as to form with it a new verb — at the same time ceasing
to have any of the real characteristics of a noun, which is known
a» being the name of a person or thing. {See Errors of
Grammar on objectives and adjectives) t

15. Adjectives have different forms to indicate degrees of
quality ; as, hard, harder,^ hardest ; or hard, more hard, most
hard, — or, taking the descending order, hard, less hard, least
hard. The first or simplest form . is called the positive ; the
second, made by adding er or prefixing more or less, is called
comparative; the last form, made by adding est or prefixing
most or least, is called the superlative, or highest degree. Some
adjectives are compared irregularly; as, bad, worse, worst; little,
l€8S, least ; mtich, more, most ; good, better, best.

14 PHRASI8»

16. A particular kind of adjectives are'numhers, as, ten men,
Jive books ; they are called numerals^ and are again divided into
cardinals^ as one, two^ three, etc., and ordinals, as Jirgt, second,
third, etc.

17. Adjectives of very frequent occurrence, and wliich may
be regarded as marks of the noun, are the ^ords a, an, and the.
They are called the articles — a and an being called indefinite,
and the being the definite article.

PRONOUNS,

18. The oft occurring words I, thou, he, she, and it, are called
the personal ]^Tonomia, or the personals . The first, /, represents
the speaker, and is said to be of the first person ; thou is used to
denote the person spoken to, and is called the pronoun of the
second person ; he, she, and it, are personals of the third person,
and they always stand in the place of the name of the person or
thing spoken of.

19. The first personal has, for the three case-forms of the
sing., respectively, /, my or min^, me (Nom. Poss. Ob.), and for
the plural, we, our or ours, im ; in the same way, thou, thy or
thine, thee, and plural, ye or you, your or yours, you ; and for
the three personals of the third person, he, his, him (masc), sh^,
her or hers, her (fem.), it, its^ it (neut); the plural is the same
for these three, they, their or theirs, them,

20. What is called a compound personal is formed by adding •
self to the objectives of these pronouns; as himself, herself, itself,
themselves, except that in the case of /and thou, the possessive
form is taken ; as, myself, thyself.

21. The words who, which, what, and that, are called the
relatives, as referring back to some person or thing already
spoken of. They have no peculiar forms when they represent
plurals. The first has the case-forms who, whose, whom; whose
is also used as the possessive of which; beyond this, there is
no variation in the forms of relatives.

22. To all of them, except that, the word ever may be joined
to form what are knoi/fn as compound relatives ; as, whatever,
whichever, whoever, besides whatsoever, whomsoever,

23. Who, which, and what, are used in questions, and are
called interrogatives — or, if we may judge from some other
tongues, it is rather the interrogative that is used as relative.
All pronouns are adjective in their nature, and become independ-
ent individuals by the suppression of the noun to which they
should belong. Every adjective used without its noun is, p'rop-
Cfly, a pronoun; as, this is so, all walked, each spoke, none spoke,
o^ic said, som^ said.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15

24. Our own relatives, which ^ what, and that, are used as
adjectives, as, which man, as well as relatives, as, in the man
which said. And in other languages, as in Latin, the personals of
the third person are used as adjectives too, just as if we said
he mail, she girl, it thing, as we do say this man, this girl, that
thing.

VERBS.

25. We have already anticipated, necessarily, to some extent,
the office and meaning of a verb, and we have only to repeat,
here, that verbs are used to tell \f hat is done, or what some one
or some thing does, or what exists or is (in time either past,
]^es€7U, OT future); as, he walks, he is struck, he seems, he becomes.
Bearing these characteristics in view, verbs are easily distin-
guished from other words.

26. Verbs fall readily into two very important classes, or
divisions, those which take objectives immediately after them

• '^ and are transitive, as, James struck him, aiid, on the other
hand, those which cannot have an objective attached to them,
except through the connexion of a preposition, and are hence
vntransitive; that is, the action is not looked upon as passing
over to an object ; thus, James is writing, James speaks, James
hoJcedfor him. Transitives are regularly followed by nouns or
pronouns in the objective case ; no other verbs are transitive,
save, if you will, those cases where it is assumed that the object
precedes; as, him he slew. » But, even here, it may be questioned
whether or not him. is not thrown out independently, and another
tei, the real object, suppressed.

27. The nouns that follow is or be in its different forms, are
said to be nominatives ; as, he is a man, he will be an ojfficer,
hut they are certainly not subjects like other nominatives, other-
wise the verb would have two subjects, one before and one after
(In Arabic, among others, we find ace. after be.). As before
intimated, such nouns are pure adjectives, and adjectives are
lllied to objectives. There are other cases where verbs are
followed by nouns which are not properly objects, and the verbs
are hence not transitive; thus, he seems a man, {to be implied),
he became a m,an (came to be), he was elected prince (to be prince).

28. Bat, it is well to bear in mind that intransitives taken
with the preposition are as much transitive as any other verb,
that is, they may and do have objects. We understand transi-
tives to differ from intransitives only in the suppression of the
preposition ; so, to write you is transitive, but to write to you is
intransitive; flee the land is trans., but flee from the land is

16 * PHRASIS.

intrans.; we may say %eek Mm or seek for Aim r— the same verb
being transitive or intransitive according as we use or do not
use the preposition for. The verbs, in many instances, which
we must use with a preposition, we find in other languages used
without them. Verbs which may have objects, but yet do not
have them in the particular case in question, are called intran-
sitive; thus, the expression he writes is intran., but he writes a
letter is transitive. i^See Errors of Gram, on reflexive verbs.)

29. Another important division is into regular and irregular
verbs; thus, those that form their past tense and past participle
(that form of verb which follows have and had) by adding
d or ed to the verb, are regular, and those which do not are
irregular. Thus, the verb walk, past, I walked, and part., have
walked; the verb love, past, 1 loved, part., have or had loved ;
but not 80 with the verb see, past, I saw, part., have seen (not
seed) ; so of speak, spoke, and spoken, of be, was, been, of make,
made, made, of go, went, gone, do, did, done, come, came, com,e,
strike, struck, struck. This last or irregular form, which, does
not need the new element ed to form pasts, is sometimes called
the strong^ and the other is called the weak tense.

30. There are still two other forms of the verb, of rather of
the transitive verb, which are uniformly recognized and are of
great importance, the active, and the passive form. When we
say John strikes James, or John loves James, we use the active
form of strike and love, since John, the subject of remark, is the
actor or doer ; when, however, we use another form, and say
James is, or was, struck by John, or is, or was, loved by John,
there the subject, James, is not the striker, the lover, but the
one struck, or loved, the object, the one who suffers. The com-
pound form is struck, was struck, and the like, is called the
passive of strike, etc. But, really, as to form, is struck is no
more passive than is happy or is striking, for both expressions
denote simply a condition, or state, without reference to the
action which produced that state, but it so happens that, in the
passive form, the is, was, wiU be, have been, etc., are practically
suppressed, and the whole force is thrown upon the participle,
now become a verb, as in the case of struck. Every transitive
expression may thus be reversed and put in the passive form,
with the object as subject. (/See Errors of Gram, on passives.)

31. Every passive expression is intransitive in its character,
and we shall continually find it difficult to distinguish it from
other intransitive forms, whenever is, was, etc., are used ; thus,
he is celebrated is passive, if you understand that some one cele-
brates him, but it is intransitive, if he is simply a celebrated man.
All that is passive in the form lies in the participle after is, was,
etc. ; has struck, in form, is as much passive as is struck, but
struck is, in sense, active in the former and passive in the latter.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17

32 Tenses. Verbs have different forms, or marks, by which
they indicate whether an action or being is present, past, or
future. These forms are called tenses or tense forms.

33. The j)resent ten^e denotes a present or continuing doing
or being, as walks, speaks, reads, is reading, are saying, is struck,

34. The 'past tense denotes a doing or being that is finished,
or one continuing in past time \ as, walked, read, spoke, was
reading, was saying, was struck. The future tense indicates
'what is to take place, or what will be taking place, and the
mark of it is shaU or wiU; as, shall read, will read, will speak,
will he reading, will be struck. A second future, or future

j^fect, is made by using have after shall or will; as, shaU have

read, will have been spoken.

85. By the perfect it is indicated that something is just now
or recently completed, and it is known by the mark have or has;
as, has read, have spoken, have been reading, has been read.
And, lastly, the pluperfect is known by the sign had, and it
indicates a completion some time since ; as, had spoken, had
read, had been reading, had been read.

36. Moods. There are certain other forms, or combinations
of forms, to indicate some condition or circumstance about the
doing or being. These forms are called the moods. The simple
form of the verb, which has no condition or qualification attached
to it, is called the indicative; all those tense forms above given
are of this mood. If we place before them if, though, unless, or
other words indicating doubt or condition, we have what is
called the svhjunctive form; as, if he walk, unless he walks, though
he laugh, if he walked, that he speaks. Whenever we use the
signs may, can, must, might, could, and should, before the bare
verb, as, may go, might go, must go, we have what is called the
potential mood — indicating that something is possible or neces-
sary. In orders or requests, we use the bare verb ; as, go away,
return now, see him, give me ; verbs used in this manner are
called imperatives. That form of the verb which is uniformly
found with the preposition to before it, is called the infinitive ;
as, to vyrite, to speak — in a few instances the to is omitted, after
teCj hear, feel, need, help, let, make, bid, dare, may, can, will ;
as, may (to) go, hear him {to) speak, I saw him (to) go.

37. Person. There is a variation also in the ending of the
verb according to the person of the subject ; thus, we say /
tpeak, thou speakest, he speaks, we speak ; so, / am, thou art,
he is, we are, and we call these different forms the persons of
the verb. Verbs in English can hardly be said to vary for
number, since the three persons of the plural are regularly like
the first singular ] as, I write, we, you, they write ; I, you, we,
they turote. The verb be, as it is called j however, seems an

3

18 PHBASI8.

exception ; thus, (sing.) / amy thou art, he is ; (plur.) we are,
you are, they are; past tense, I was, tJwuwast, he was; we were,
you were, they were; the other tenses are regular, as fut., vriU be,
2d. fut. will have been, perfect, have been, pluperfect, or past
perfect, had been.

38. Participles : Every verb has three other forms, known
as participles; one in -ing, as, walking, speaking, reading, being
(called the present participle) ; another ending in ed, as has
walked, and for irregular verbs having various endings ; as, has
struck, has gone, is hit, is bent, has been, a man seen there (called
the perfect, past, or passive participle). There is a third, called
the compound perfect, made by prefixing having to the perfect
just noticed; as, having read, having gone, having seen,

39. These participles are never connected directly with sub-
jects, or nominatives, but through some form of the verb be (is,
was, will be, etc.), or by h^ve, has, had ; thus, he is walking,
he is struck, he has walked, has gone, has seen, has heard, wiU
be known. These connective verbs, as well as may, can, etc.,
signs of the potential mood (besides do, did), are called auxili-
aries.

40. The present and past, or perfect, participles are often used
as pure adjectives ; as, a walking giant, a broken reed, a cele-
brated man. They, as well as the compound, often stand as if
independently; thus, the man walking by the sea heard the
roaring; the man impressed with this, said; the man having
heard it, said. The present part, in ing is often used as a noun ;
thus, the walking. Participles and infinitives, besides other
derived forms of the verb, are called verbals. A verb not of
the infinitive mood is said to be finite.

ADVERBS.

41. Of the different kinds or classes of words which go to
make up a sentence, there remain three others usually named in
grammar; namely. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions.
These three are not well separated from each other, and we often
term them, taken together, Particles. They are generally small
words, and often play the part of simple connectives.

42. Speaking generally, adverbs may be termed adjectives
which have ceased to belong to nouns, or, in other cases, as
nouns in the objective case which stand independently in the
sentence. They are found either referring to the expression of
the whole sentence; as, then the torrent rushed with terrible
roarings, or to the verb alone ; as, to speak fluently, or to an
adjective ; as, extremely great, or to another adverb ; as, very

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19

violently. Generally, tbey tell the how^ when, or where, of a fact
or doing, or they tell how much. Many of them are of pronom-
inal origin (that is, adjective without noun), as, how, here^ there,
now, etc., etc.

CONJUNCTIONS.

43. It is often hard to distinguish the conjunction from the
adverb, since there is no real difference in their origin ; they are
that kind of adverb which never belongs to any word in the
sentence, but they stand .independently, or they connect one
sentence, word, or phrase, with another. There are several
words which you may oaII, indifferently, either adverb or con-
junction ; ai9 this is so, there/ore that is so ; he did as I ordered
him to do.

44. There are so few conjunctions that we give the following
list, by^ which they may be known : and, also, if, or, either,
neither, though, although, hut, nor, that, for, cw, because, unless,
whether ,f yet, than, lest.

PRMP08ITI0NS.

45. They are easily distinguished from the other two classes
of particles, not in their origin, for they, too, are adverbs, pro-
nouns, or nouns, but in their Use. A preposition is such a
particle (not being a verb) as is always followed by an objective
noun or pronoun ; as, to him, with us, along the shore, behind
the car, instead of that. All, olr nearly all, prepositions may be
found without an objective following ; as, he was spoken to, he
ran along, he fell behind, and they become adverbs, just as
adverbs used with an objective become and should be called
prepositions ; as, near lis, down the road, up the hill. Wee me.

46. Here we give a list of prepositions : at, in, on, of, from,
f<yr, by, with, among, against, before, behind, tiU, during, toward,
about, up, dovm, out of, upon, along, under, between, after,
ahove, over, round, through, to, across, below, without.

47. The classes of words which we have now named are
called the parts of speech — they are usually reckoned at ten
(counting in participles^ articles, and those exclamatory words,
called interjections),

48. Let the learner be cautioned that the rules given for the
distinction of parts of speech are not infallible — no such rules
can be given in grammar more than elsewhere. Nature has put
no landmarks to separate one class from another.

20 PHRASIS.

49. We have given all that the student of language will need,
but, of course, we cannot pretend to have written a complete
grammar. Let it be borne in mind that the main object of
this grammatical sketch was to enable the common student to
understand the meaning of grammatical terms, without being
compelled to refer to any other work.

CHAPTER II.
LATIN GRAMMAR.

50. The English language is a modern language, and it
possesses the usual features of modern languages; but the Latin,
as well as the Greek and the Sanscrit, represents a class of ancient
languages that presents many features which differ from those
of modefn idioms. We will take a brief survey, here, of those
features in Latin.

51. The first thing that we remark as strange in Latin, is the
six case-forms. Here, the endings of the noun and of the
adjective (which is a form of the noun), have developed them-
selves into the representatives of our prepositions, or prepositions
with the article ; as, of the^ to the, hy the ; thus, puer^ a boy,
but jmeri, of the boy, puero, to the boy, or with the boy.

52. But it is not only in these prepositional cases, that we
find an ending distinct from the base of the noun ; the nomina-
tives, too, have common endings. There is a large class With
the common ending a; as, al-a, wing, cur-a, care, silv-a, wood,
a large class in us, and um; aa, vent-us^ wind, man-vs, hand,
regn-um, kingdom, mal-um, evil, don-um, gift — besides other
endings. In the adjective, they have, for their ofl&ce, to distin-
guish gender; thus, take the three nominative forms hon-us,
bon^a, hon-um (for which we have the single, unvarying, form
gootT), Of these, we use bonus, when we say good man (a male),
bona, for good woman (a female), and bonum, for good thing
(a neuter). And, in the noun, too, these endings vary with
the gender; so, a is for them' generally a /em., us a masc, and.
um a neuter ending. Further, we may remark, that there is no
doubt that this us, a, urti., is the equivalent of our a and the,
suffixed (i. e., joined to the noun at the end). The Latins have
no other article. Besides, this us and um are clear variations of
one ending — and a is a weaker form of the same.

53. We have certainly the germ of this common ending of
Latin, in our final e, and perhaps in d, and others; thus, for the
Latin caus-a, we have caus-e; tub-a, tub-e. There is but a slight

LATIN GRAMMAR. 21

difference between e and a. We might compare also son-us and
s(mn-d^ jug-um and yok-e^ tot-iLs and tot-al^ riv-us and riv-er^ hort-
us and gard-en^ corv-us and rav-en, man-us and han-d. The
German endings cw, ?, cr, es, belong to this family. Besides
these remnants of endings, it may be said, in many cases, that
the change of vowel in the body of the word compensates for
the gender endings lost; thus, soil, for L. sol-um, vel-um, sail,
hor-a, hour, turb-a, troop, bon-uSy good, mit-is, meek, pac-e,
peace, can-is^ hound.

54. The cases found in Latin, are the Nominative, Genitive
(sign o/j our poss.). Dative (sign to, for). Accusative, (our ob-
jective). Vocative (the person addressed), and Ablative (sign
with, from, by, in). The endings of these cases are by no
means uniform for all nouns. The changes in the original
endings of the nominative must produce a corresponding change
in the other cases. Thus, the nouns which have the nominative
in a, have their cases, in the sing., in this vfn'^ : penn-a, penn-x,
penn-ee, penn-am, penn-a, penn-a; and for the plural, penn-se,'
penn-arum, penn-is, pe(in-as, penn-8e,' penn-is. (The cases just
given, correspond in order with the names above given). In
English, those forms would be expressed (in the sing.) by pen,
of the pen, for the pen, the pen (obj.), the pen (voc), with the
pen ; so, in the plur., pens, of pens, etc.

55. Vent'US, vent-i, vent-o, vent-um, vent-e, vent-o, (plural)
vent't, vent-orum, vent-is, vent-os, vent-i, vent-is, — wind, of wind,
etc.; plur., winds, of winds, etc. don-um, don-i, don-o, don-um,
don-um, don^o; plur., don-a, don-ornm, don-is, don-a, don-a,
don-is, — gift, of gift, etc.; plur., gifts, of gifts, for gifts, etc.
rup-es, rup-is, rup-i, rup-em, rup-es, rup-e; plur., rup-es, rup-ium,
rup-ibus, rup-es, rup-es, rup-ibus, — rock, of rock, for rock, etc.;
plur., rocks, of rocks, etc.

56. In many cases, the nominative ending is entirely lost;
as, puer, puer-i, puer-o, boy, of boy, to boy. In other instances,
this ending is not lost, but blunted; thus, pars (for parts, partes),
g^n. part-is, a part; so, dens, (for dents, dentes), tooth; serm-o
(for serm-on, serm-ones), gen., serm-onis, of speech.

57. A moderate inspection renders it very evident that all
these case-forms are variations of those forms with gender
endings. We find is oft«n in the genitive, but it occurs also in
the nominative in the place of us ; as, classis, a fleet. In the
plural, we have the ending es or i combined with the gender
ending us, a, um, or, existing as a mere variation of it. Those
case-forms which end in i and o, are plainly shortenings of this
is and tis. The uniform endings of the accusative are um, am,
em, which are forms of the neuter um.

58. The changes of these noun and adjective endings are not

22 PHRASIS.

SO much prepositions as forms to correspond with the nature of
the verb, or verbal, which governs them; thus, caret omni cvJpa^
he wants (in) all blame (culpa) ; caret is followed by an abla-
tive, or in case, because it means wanting in; ortus regthus^ risen
(from) kings; or«Ms= risen from, and, hence, has with it the
from case, or abl ; natura animalibus tribuit, nature (to) ani-
mals has given (tribuit ^ has "given to — hence the dat. case
with it) ; curis vacuus, (from) Cares free (vacuus, free from-—
hence the abL case) ; hostis virtutibus, (an) enemy (to) virtues
(hostis, opposed to, inimical) ; amor nummi, love (of) money
(amor, love, to be fond of) ; memor fragilitatis, mindful (o^
weakness. No principle seems better established, in all lan-
guages, than that the preposition is a growth of the verb and
belongs to it. Whenever found, it always belongs with some
verb, or verbal, expressed or implied. When standing alone,
it represents the verb and its participle.

59. In concluding our remarks upon the cases of Latin nouns,
"We may observe that all the cases following the nominative are
known as oblique cases. It is to be observed, also, that the ace.
(obj.) case, in neuter nouns, is always like the nom. ; and that
the ablative plural of all nouns is like the dative.

ADJECTIVES^

60. The Latin adjective has nothing peculiar in its character,
save its varying form to correspond with the gender, number,
and case, of its noun. Thus there is, as said before, a form
bonus for mas., as bonus vir, good man, a form bona for fern's^
as bona jilia, good daughter, and bonum, neut., as in bonum
telum, good dart. (In short, the form of the adj. is a repetition
of that of the noun). And these three, bonus, bona, bonum,
have each their six case-forms in each number, like so many
independent nouns; thus, (sing.) bonus, boni, bono, bonum, bone^
bono ; and (fem. sing.) bona, bonse, bonse, bonam, bona, bona ;
and (neut. sing.) bonum, boni, bono, bonum, bonum, bono (bonus^
like the noun ventv^, bona, like penna, and bonum, like donum)^
Thus, we have boni viri (of good of man), of a good man— »•
treating the two as a unit, a compound ; borne filiee. (of good of
daughter), of* a good daughter; bonarum Jiliarum, of good
daughters ; bonis donis, for good (for) gifts. It is clear you
must consider the adjective as lost in the one compound, or,
that the two are individuals unconnected. The requirements of
science seem to be, that each is independent ; that good, in any
of these cases, does not so much belong to the noun, as, for
instance, man, -afi, rather, to some general term, as, one, thing,
included in the adjective itself; so, a good man, a good one a

LATIN GRAMMAR. 23

man, i. e. a good person or thing of the man class. There is
much proof to sustain this position, which will be given, some
of it, elsewhere.

61. The comparative in Latin generally ends in lor, ius, our
er^ and the superlative, inissim-us (us is an adj. ending), our
est; as, dur-uSy dur-iOTj dur-issimuSy — hard, hard-er, hard-est.
We look upon these endings as^ growth of the ending us. It
strikes us as somewhat peculiar, to find in Latin that the com-
parative is followed by the ablative (the with case) ; as, dulcior
melle, sweeter than honey (in Lat., sweeter with honei/), i. e. the
comparative is a real positive ; and we also have sweet hy tJie
side of honey y or compared with honey.

PRONOUNS.

62. All the Latin pronouns are real adjectives, (of a particu-
lar kind, it is true) sometimes used with a noun and sometimes
alone — we have only to except ego-l^ <w-thou, and se-self ;
these latter ones do not vary for gender, and they have only one
set of case-forms. The other pronouns, like adjectives, have each
three sets of forms and cases, for the three genders ; as, hie-
this (mas.), Aaec-this (fem.), Aoc-this (thing, neut.); so, ille-
that (mas.), t7Za-that (fem.), i/7Mc?-that (neut.) -, is-that (m.),
ea-that (f.), tc?-that (n.). These three pronouns, A/c, ille^ is,
mean this, that, when used with the noun, as thaf man, but they
mean he, she, it, when used without the noun, as, ille dixit-he
said (that (one) said). There is also ipse -himself, i]psa- herself,
tpmm-itself ; so, qui-who, quse-Yfho {{.), quod - which (n.) ;
and idem^he the same, eadem-she the same, idem-it the same.

VBUBS.

63. The Latin verb furnishes us with many peculiarities.
The first we notice, is the growth of endings representing nom.
personal pronouns ; as, I, thou, he ; thus, am-o, I love, am-as,
thou lovest, am^at, he loves; am-amus, we love, am-atis, ye love,
omrant, they love. This is precisely as if we should use hve^
for he loves, lovest for thou lovest — loves being the form proper
forAe, she, it, and lovest the form for thou; so,* we might use
om for I am, and is for he is, art for thou art. These few cases
we about the only instances of verb forms in English to corre-
spond with the personal pronoun, and these we never use as
^uivalent to the verb and pronoun, i. e. without the nominative.
Those Latin person endings extend, in slightly varying forms,
*o all the tenses and moods (not inf.).

24 PHRASIS.

64. In English, we have only one tense, the past, ending in
ec?, which shows the tense hy the ending, and we use the auxil-
iaries have^ had, and will, to supply the place of endings. But
in Latin, save in exceptional cases, the tenses are all after the
manner of our past in ed ; as, walk-ed lov-ed.

65. The mark of the Latin past is ah, eh, corresponding
exactly to our ed in lov-ed, lov-edst (2d. per.), and to which ah
IS joined the ordinary person endings already shown in the
present, thus : am-aham, am-ahas, -ahat ; -abamus, -abatis,
'dbant.

66. The mark of the perfect is av, iv; thus, am-avi, am-avisti,
am-avit ; -avimus, -avistis, -averunt. This tense, in meaning,
and perhaps in construction, corresponds more with our past
than with our perfect. But amaham is usually translated I
loved, while amavi is put down as I have loved, amavit, he has
loved.

67. The pluperfect, / had loved, runs thus : am-averam,
-averas, -averat ; -averamtis, -averatis, -averant The future, /
will love, is am-aho, -ahis, -ahit ; -ahimus, -ahitis, -ahunt

68. The 2d. future is amavero amave-ris, -rit, etc. The
present subjunctive (potential) is am-em, I may love, and has
no tense element besides em : ama-rem, -res, -ret, etc., I might
love (past subj.); amave-rim, -ris -rit, etc., I may have love4
(perf. sub,) ; amavissem, -isses, -isset, etc., I might have loved
(p. perf.).

69. We thussee that in the subj. (pot.) mpod there are not
those auxiliaries which we find in English. The infinitive has
a common ending are, ere, ire, for one form ,our to, and avisse^
isse, for another form, our to have; as, amare, to love,, and
amavisse, to have loved.

70. If we use the present participle as a noun, as th^ walking,
we use the simple participle form which is found also in the
different application, a man walking by the sea. But, in Latin,
we have a distinct form (both grown up from one form, however)
for each case ; thus, we would have amhulandum in the first
instance, and amhulans in the next. The forms amhulans,
ambling, amans, loving, are pure adjectives, with very little
variation, however, in the oases of the three genders; thus, viro
amhulante, to a man walking (dat. form, to agree with viro^.
These are called present participles.

71. The form in andum is a true noun, and has its case forms
andi (gen.), ando (dat.), andum (ace), like other nouns, while
we would have one and the same form, of walking, to walking.
This is known as the gerund.

72. There is still another form, grown on the same base as the
others, to which we have nothing in English that precisely

LATIN GRAMMAR. 25

corresponds. We refer to those forms, known as supines, which
end in turn and tu ; as, ama-tum, to love, ama-tu, to be loved.
It answers most nearly to our infinitive ; it is not often used.

73. The passive in Latin presents us with a new set of endings
and combinations. Our. own passive is regularly made by using
some tense of the verb be (is, was, will be), and joining to it
the perfect or passive participle of a transitive verb.

74. We use is loved for our present passive, but the Latin
amatus sum, loved I am, is a perfect, and is translated have been
loved ; and amatus erat, loved he^was, is a pluperfect, had been
loved,

75. The present is a simple form, thus : amor, amaris, ama-
tur ; amamur, amamini, amantur — I am loved, thou art loved,
etc.

76. The past passive is also a simple form : ama-bar, -baris,
'batur; -bamur, -bamini, -bantur — I was loved, thou wast
loved, etc. The future is amabor, I will be loved. The 2d
future, amatus fuero, shall have been loved. Prest. subj., amer,
I may be loved. Past., amarer, I might be loved. Amatus sim
(loved may be), I may have been loved; amatus essem (loved
might be) I might have been loved. These two tenses are the
perf. and pluperf.

77. The participle in tus, amatus, lov-ed, corresponds to our
regular past participles. It has, as it is a true adj., nfem^ and
neut. form, as well as mas. ; thus, amatus, amata, amatum.

78. Another participle, called the future pass., as, amandus=
to be loved, must be loved, is a variation of the gerund already
noticed.

79. But the peculiarities of the Latin idiom will be best
understood and appreciated by means of some selections from
its composition, to which we now turn our attention.

80. Tenner e (held) tamen arcem (fort) Sabini — they-held
still (the) castle, (the) Sabines (did). It is generally claimed
that words placed like Sabini, are nominative to the verb, as,
tenuere, but it strikes the author differently ; Sabini is thrown
in, as we often find in Latin, parenthetically, as a sort of adverb
or explanatory term. Jupiter inquit, tuisjussus avibus hie (here)
m PalaMo prima urhifundamenta jeci — Jupiter, he-says,
by-thy-own (Juis) being-commanded, by-birds (avibus), here in
Palatium first to-the^city (of the city) (the) foundations I-have-
laid (jeci) (i. e. here first I laid). Here tuis=thj, and avibus=z
birds, are words which are claimed to belong together, though
we find them separated hjjussus ; they certainly agree in num-
ber and case. Still we do not think they properly belong
together, i. e. not as the adjective belongs to the noun when it

9 joined to it as iu tuis avibus ; we thinly every word belongs
4

26 PHRASIS.

where it is found. The point here lies in the question hy whose
or by whom he had been ordered — by thy own (and this comes
first, as being the most prominent) ; farther on, he puts in av%-
bus as explanatory, or as if in apposition with tuts ; prima, too,
in form agrees with fundamenta (both neut. ace. plur.), but yet
it is clear that prima is an adverb ==^rs^, and quite independent
of the noun.

81. Arcem jam (now) scelere emptam, Sabini habent — the
castle now, by-treachery gained (as it was) the Sabines have
(it) — emptam (got) is a part, (adj.) agreeing with arcem, and
yet it is in every way isolated from it. Quite generally, the
Latin ace, or obj., and everything used as objective and belong-
ing to it, comes before the verb; but there are frequent instances
where the object follows the verb also : tuum est, Servi, si vir
(man) es, regnum — thine (it) is, Servius, if (a) man (thou) art
(es), (the) kingdom (thine is the kingdom) :. regnum is usually
taken as the subject of est, but, in its place, it is independent
of the verb — kingdom (regnum^ is emphatic.

82. Ea qusR ad (to) aures suas (his) pervenissent — those
(things) which to (the) ears, his own, had come — ears his,
aiires suas, for his ears ; f rater Antigoni, regis Macedonise —
brother (of) Antigonus, king (the king) (of) Macedonia ; here,
regis agrees with Antigoni, but yet no one calls it an adjective,
rather, a noun in apposition, i. e. separate from the other noun
and distinct, yet agreeing with it and denoting the same indi-
vidual; ora modis attollens pallida miris — (her) countenance
(in) manner bearing, pale wonderfully >i. e. having a countenance
pale in a wonderful manner, or wonderfully pale; pallida agrees
with ora, but it is evidently connected with the participle which
it follows — she was pale as to countenance, not necessarily pale
countenance ; so miris agrees with modis, but hardly, in this
sentence, belongs to it — it is used in the sense of an adverb,
she bore a countenance pale in a manner that was wonderful
(miris).

83. Ignotum argentipondus (weight) et auri — unknown (the)
silver's weight and (the) golas (gen. sing.); ignotum agrees
yf'iih. pondus ; fugam Dido sociosque parabat — flight Dido and
(que) companions (she) prepared; the meaning is that Dido
prepared for flight (fugam is ace), but it is not so expressed ;
Bido stands independently, she is nom. of parabat, or it has
none ; -que is the suffix and, and -bat is the past ending, 3d
sing. Imoqiie trahens a (from) pectore vocem — (from) lowest,
also (imo2'we=and from the deep) drawing from breast (a) voice,
i. e. drawing from depths of (his) breast a voice; itno (que=
and) agrees with pectore (abl.), but it is used adverbially or
independent; and drawing /rom below a voice.

LATIN GRAMMAR. 27

84. St vestras forte per aures — if (to) yours perhaps to ears
(it has come), i.e. if perhaps (it has come) to your ears; vestras
agrees with aures, but it is not so placed as to belong to it
directly; it is parenthetical — if perchance to ears (that is to
yours) .

85. The Latin preposition uniformly governs what follows
and not what precedes it.

86. Italiam qusero patriam — Italy (I) seek (it) (my) coun-
try (my native country) ; here Italiam ku^ patriam agree, and
yet, one is not an adjective belonging to the other; vani docv,ere
parentes — vain (they have) taught, (the) parents (have).
Here vani, adj., agrees with parentes, but it does not belong to
it — it is an adverb in force, meaning in vain, vainly, as we also
so often use the adjective without change of form in the place
of an adverb; et vera (true) incessu patuit dea — and true (in
her) gait was-manifested (the) goddess (dea), i.e. she was
plainly a goddess by her walk ; vera agrees with dea, as if it
were true goddess, but it has the force of triUy, and does not
belong to dea,

. 87. At Venus ohscuro gradientes (the walkers) sere sepsit —
but Venus, (in) obscure, (them) walking (in the) air (she)
buried, i.e. she concealed them walking, the walkers, in the s^ir;
ohimro agrees with sere, but it is an adverb belonging to what
follows ; Obscurely she buried the walkers in the air; gradientes
ispresent part., in the plur., the walking (ones); ac veniendi
poicere causas — and (of) coming to-ask (inf.) (the) causes; to
ask the cause, here, is one verb, and coming (the gerund), in
the genitive, is its object, i. e. to ask the cause (of) coming;
hum in urbe fuit (was) mc<7ia— ^(a) grove in (the) city was
(in the) middle (of it) : media agrees with urbe in the abl., but
is independent of it.

88. Quern si fata virum servant — whom if (the) fates (the)
man preserve, i. e. if the fates preserve him, this man ; quern
agrees, as an adj. pron., with virum (ace.) but cannot be joined
to it (rather, standing independent) ; totum vulgata per orbem —
whole (wholly) published through (the) world, i. e. through
all the world ; totum agrees with orbem, yet it is an adverb, in
the sense of wholly, belonging to published, with which it is
found; so, too, in clara-que in luce refulsit — clear also in light
(he) shone, i. e. and clearly shone (clara, an adj., but in place
of adv.). /

89. We have given these examples chiefly to prove that
Latin words, especially the adjective, belong where they are
found, that, at least for the Latins themselves, the order of
words was a natural one, and needed no transposition, that it
does not follow that every adjective must have a noun to which

28 PHRASIS.

it may belong; that it neither follows that every verb must have
a nominative outside of it, and every nominative a verb, or
every objective a transitive or preposition to govern it.

90. Farther examples will illustrate other features : MuUu
cum (with) lacrymis vicinos or are coepit — (with) much with
tears (his) neighbors to-beg (he) began (obj. before the verb,
as we usually find it) ; multis agrees with lacrymis, but it has
the force of much, i. e. much with tears he begged ; venatum
iverant — to hunt (they) had gone (supine = inf. ) ; leo asinum
(ace.) illam (acc.j partiri juhet — y^the) lion (the) ass that
(i. e. it) to divide (he) commands; to divide it, the lion the ass
orders (orders the ass) : first, we have divide that as a verb, and,
nej^t, we have ass divide that, as another verb, depending on
commands, of which leo is the nominative, and having, hence,
its place before the real verb, i. e. all that follows it ; asinum is
ace, as the subject of infin. always i^] partes poneret 8&quales —
(the) parts (he) placed equal (or equally); aeg^a^es agrees with

partes, but belongs to the verb.

91. Sihi vix minimam reservans particulam — (for) self
scarcely (the) least reserving, (a mere) particle {particulam is
independent) ; hujus me calamitas docuit — his me (the) calam-
ity (has) taught (me) ; either his me is independent of the rest,
or his is subject of the verb, and calamity is parenthetical; his
has taught me, i. e. the calamity has ; effusa mellis copia est —
poured (of) honey (an) abundance (there) has (is); poured,
effusa, a past participle, is used here as the verb, and est, is, is
simply added at the end, i.e. it poured, the honey did (est) ;
Grseci autem (but) quum audivissent — (the) Greeks, but when
(they) had-heard, i. e. when the Greeks had heard. Yet
Grseci ia not, most clearly, the nom. of the verb — it is inde-
pendent; eum ibioccultari (pass, inf.) — (they heard) him there
to be concealed, that he was there concealed (they heard that).

92. In eodem quondam prato pascebantur grues, in same, once,
(in a) meadow were-feeding cranes (were). Not in the same
meadow, necessarily, though eodem agrees with prato; in eodem,
= together, an adverb; legendum est mihi — reading is to me,
i.e. I must read; est mihi voluptati — (it) is to me (for a)
delight, while we would say it is a delight to me : peritus belli —
skilled of war (skilled in war) ; dignus honore — worthy in
honor (of honor) ; Csesar misit suos — C. sent his-own (or his),
i. e. sent his soldiers (one case surely where an adjective has no
noun to which it may belong). Such a use of the pronoun and
adjective is very common in Latin ; the point lies in the whose,
or the which, the what, and the thing or person need not be
named ; is homo erat ut — he (a) man was (so) that, he was a
man that, such a man.

LATIN GBAMMAB. 29

93. The use of adjectives, especially adj. pronouns, as adverbs
having no noun to which to belong, is very common in Latin ;
thus, eo jpervenit ut — to-this (there) he came that, i. e. so far
(co) he came that; sunt quos juvat — (there) are whom (it)
delights (those whom) ] ex doctoris imperitia — from (the)
teachers unskillfulness ; earum ope — (by) their help (ope is
abl., but earum= of them, is gen. plur., and yet, earum has the
force of an adj. belonging to and agreeing with ope; quod quurri
iUe cerneret — which when he saw (it) ; quod is another inde-
pendent word, and not, as is often said, the object of the verb ;
so, too, quam quum duceret — whom (fem.) when (he) lead (her) j
i. e. when he led her.

94. Nuntiatum est classem (fleet) devinci — announced (it)
is (the) fleet to be beaten, i. e. that it was beaten (pass* inf*) ^-^
aD infin. pass, being used where we put a subj. or indie, with
Hwbt, Caesar venitj vidit, et vicit — Caesar came, saw, and con-
quered ; neither in the Latin nor the English form, has vidit
and i;ic2< any nominative ; quis fecit — who did (it); objective
pronouns are often implied, like it, in the verb^ as the article
and pronouns are often implied in the noun; vtWes-ne, seest thou
not, i. e. see thou? we is a mere interrogative mark (not) suf-
fixed or added (see interrog.= negative); so, too, num venit^^
(has he) come, or came he? riwm==non, whether, not, a mere
question sign; ea cum ita (so) «in<^- those (things) since so
they are ; j?a^er amat liheros et tamen castigat — (the) father
(he) loves (his) children and still (he) chastises (them) (see
the pronouns included in the verb and noun).

95. Caesar in Asiam profectus est — C. into Asia gone (he)
has (is), i. e. has gone to Asia; the noun with the preposition^
as m Asiam, is treated in Latin as the true object of the verbj
and hence comes before it; quo mihi hanc rem — (for) what to-
me this thing, i.e. of what use, quo used as adverb, one of those
many cases of pronouns, as well as adj's, without the noun ; si
fMaliudnisi — if nothing other unless, i.e. if nothing else
than; maxima minima — greatest least, i. e.*greatest and least.

96. Many prepositions here, as in English, are used as
adverbs, that is, have no objectives following them.

97. Eoc est preceptoris — this is preceptor's (genitive), i. e.
It belongs to the preceptor ; j9os^ .dSSieaB (gen.) mortem — : after
-Eneas' death; eum secutus est (is) Silvius — him followed (he)
^as Silvius (has) ; ut civium (gen.) numerum auxjeret — that
(the) citizens' number (he might) increase (it) ; Marius consul
cwws (est) — M. consul made (was), i. e. was made consul;
w cornu tauri parvidus quondam (once) culex consedit — on
(the) horn (of a) bull (a) little (one), once, (a) gnat sat, i. e.
a little gnat sat; Hanihal navali prcdio victus — H. (in a) naval

30 PHRASIS.

battle (being) beaten ; ut ex Europa recederet — that from
Europe (he) should-depart ; Europa, is treated aa object of the
verb, though governed by ex the preposition.

98« Uanc (hence) oh causam is usually considered as if written
oh hanc causam^ for this cause, but it is clear that hanc does not
belong to caiisam, with which it agrees, but it is rather an
adverb like the others we have noticed; or, we may take hanc-
o6=here-of, in which case causam would stand absolute or
independent' — at least ob cuts off causam from hanc ; so hac
in re — (in) this in (the) thing, i.e. here in the thing; secundo
quo-que anno — (in the) second also (in the) year, i.e. also in
the second year.

99. Scipio dicer e solehat — S. to say used, i. e. used to say;
ea quoque res — that also (the) thing, i.e. this thing also; Alhx
ruinis^ (of) Alba (from) ruins, from Alba's ruins. Thales in-
tcrrogatus an facta honiinumdeos laterent — Thales (being) asked
if (the) deeds (of) men (the) gods (ace.) escaped, i. e. were
hidden from the gods. Fythagorse philosophi tanta fuit apud
discipulos suos auctoritas — (of) P. (the) philosopher such was,
among (the) disciples his (own), (the) authority; such was P's
authority among disciples, his own. JSchoenus Atalantam (ace.)
filiam formos-issimam dicitur (said) hahuisse — S. Atlanta (a)
daughter most-beautiful is-said to-have-had (one), to have had a
most beautiful daughter, Atalanta ; qusecursu viros (ace.) super-
ahat — who (in) running (even) men (she) surpassed; ut ejus
(his) voluntate id (it) sibifacere Uceat—ihdit (by) his will (abl.)
that (thing) (to) selves to-do (it) may-be-permitted, i. e. to
permif (license) them to do that; sihi is object o^facere liceat^
and id is the object of both together. ( See Errors of Gram,
on objectives.).

100. llle petiit ut quidquid tetigerat aurum fieret — he asked
that whatever (he) had-touched gold (it) might become (past,
subj.); Csesari quum id nunciatum esset — to C. when it told
might be (esset) ^ i. e. when it was told to C. ; qui dicerent sibi
esse in animo — who should say (that) to selves (it) was in
mind, i.e. they intended; esse = inf., to be, butinfin's after verbs
are treated as subjunctives or indicatives; obsides-que uti . {that)
inter sese dent — hostages-also (^que) that between themselves
(they) may-give (them), that they may give hostages between
them ; obsides is ace, plur., independent ; hac oratione ah Di-
vitiaco habita, mittit — (with) this oration of D. (being) had,
(he) sends. This form of expression is very common in Latin,
where we find the abl., generally with a participle, but some-
times alone or with nouns, used entirely independent. We
observe that the independence of the parts of the Latin sentence
is its prevailing feature.

LATIN GRAMMAR. 31

101. Caesar Gallorum (gen. plur.) animos verbis confirmavity
C. (the) Galls' minds (with) words (he) strengthened (them);
his responsis ad Caesarem relatis mittit — (with) these answers
to C. (they heing) related, (he) sends; so, his rebus yestls —
these things (abl.) done, being done.

102. The examples thus far given, illustrate most of the
peculiarities of the Latin idiom. In order to prepare the student
for what he will meet with elsewhere, we have given this large
number of examples; thej will illustrate features which we shall
continually meet with in other languages, and which seem strange
to us, because not found in our own. We find the order of words
often far different from ours, but we see that it is a natural or
reasonable one after all. We find, among other things, a
beautiful illustration of the truth, that all the parts of the
sentence are complete in themselves, and that they do not really
lean upon or belong to others ; we find the verb, here, contain-
ing its own nominative, and its own objective pronoun, and that
the noun implies its own adjective, its own verb.

103. To carry the principle to extremes, each word contains
the point, the expression, of the whole sentence, this being
made up of repetitions of like terms. We may add, besides,
that it can be shown that identity or similarity of forms of
words does not prove common origin or connexion, since, viewed
through a proper glass, all words have a common form and like
marks.

104. Upon the Greek, it is unnecessary to dwell here, so
little there is in it that is not English, or German, or, especially,
Xiatin. Among the variations from Latin, we notice the devel-
opment of a true article, *o, *e, to (three forms to correspond
^^ith the genders). It has, besides the plural and singular forms,
one that is called dual^ a form peculiar to nouns where two
things are intended. The Lat. ablative case is absent, its place
feeing supplied by the genitive and dative — there are, hence,
tut five case-forms in Greek. There are in Greek several new
tense-forms, especially new forms of the past, called aorists,
lesides an abundant growth of participle and infinitive forms,
besides the active and passive forms of Latin, there is in Greek
^hat is called the middle form of the verb, one in appearance
substantially the same as the passive ; but in meaning it is cou-
fined to cases where self is concerned ; as, love myself^ strike
*elf^ act for self. In other languages, this application of the
verb is known as the reflexive. Beyond these, the Greek
grammar is chiefly Latin.

105. But the idiom, while it has much in it that is Latin,
bas some in it, too, which is German, even English. The object
we find, often, as in Latin, before the verb. The independence

32 PHBASIS.

of the adjective from the noun, is far clearer here than in Latin.
The use of those long adjectives which so much distinguish
German,. is found here to some extent; as, a mark (of) the for
you friendship^ while we would say of my friendship for you ;
(a) token {of) the (my) for Hipponicus friendship, i. e. my
friendship for Hipponicus; the for the gods (things), i. e. the
(things) of the gods. The genitive is often a pure adjective
before the noun. In Latin, we have hie munitissimtis habendi
senatum locus — this most fortified (for) holding (the) senate
place, i. e. this holding senate place, most fortified ; all the
words before locus constitute one adjective, and they belong
where they are found.

106. We must notice, finally, on this branch of the subject,
the constant occurrence of participles and infinitives, in Latin
and Greek, which hold the independent place of pure verbs —
always, however, depending upon some verb, or verbal, as a sort
of object; thus, vi coacturos — by force (they) would compel
(them by force) (dependent upon the idea they thought that) ;
coacturos J in form a future part., ace. mas. plur., meaning aboiU
to compel, is so much a verb, as to include in it sub. and obj.
pronouns; it is generally assumed in such cases that esse = be,
is, was, is implied, but this is simply unnecessary; se (self) pa-
trihus suis didicisse — themselves (from) fathers, theirs, had
learned, {they said) that they had learned; didicisse= to have
learned, perf. inf.

107. Some languages, as the Sanscrit and Finnish, have more
than six cases, i. e. they have varied the forms more than the
Latin has. In Sanscrit, there is a Locative case form, by which
place is indicated, and an Instrumental form, denoting the cause,
or means, or instrument — they may both be called variations of
the ablative, which again is a form of the dative,

108. It may be necessary to define the term root or base,
which we shall often meet with. It is used to designate that
imaginary, undefined, part of a word which remains af'ter divest-
ing it of its prefixes and suffixes, its initial and its ^inane tters —
precisely, as if we should speak of what was left of a stick after
cutting the ends off. That part of a word which is common to
a class of words, is called its ending, as the ing of walk-ing,
speak-ing, the es of Lat. rup-es, sermon-es — what is left after
striking off this ending is the root.

109. Prefixes are sometimes called preformatives ; prefixes
less individualized are called augments^ as the ge of Germ.
ge-sehen==seen, ge-sicht= sight, g of g-lilck=\\ick, our a of
a-live, a-rise, the e of Greek e-lip^ = left. Prefixes and suffixes
taken together may be called the^xes of a word.

HISTORY OP NOUNS. 33

CHAPTER III.

HISTORY OF NOUNS.

110. Of nouns as a class, we have little that may be said in
addition to what has already bepn stated under the head of En-
glish Grammar. They are, of course, intimately connected with
the adjective first, and the verb afterward. Nouns are, appar-
ently, unmeaning names of things, but, on close inspection, wo
find them rather names of qualities and actions, which distin-
guish things; and, hence, they readily identify themselves with
the two classes named, ^ouns, adjectives, and verbs, are alike
in each having shoots grown out of them, which we call endings,
and which are not so much marks of those classes, as represent-
atives of whole words that seem thus to adhere, as parasites, to
the main stem. It is the philosophy of these endings bf nouns
which we propose to consider, and it is their comparative view
which we intend to present — beginning with those of case.

Oase Endiwjs.

111. The farther back we go, in the history of the German lan-
guages, the more we see of case and person ending ; thus, in
Gothic cases, we find the broad us and a of Latin ; as, su7i-ii8, a
^on'j Jlod-us, flood; /ot-us, foot; liand-us^ hand; arm-Sj arm;
gard-s, yard ; mats, meat ; hveil-a, while, hour ; saurg-a, care,
sorrow ; band-i, bond ; ded-s, d^ed ; knod-s, kind, kin ; hlom-a,
bloom ; fauh-o, fox ; vard-Oj ward ; tugg-o, tongue ; rath-jo^ L.
'•a^w, reason ; faurht-ei^ fear. These all have reference to the
Greek and Latin nominative endings ms, a, wm, os.

112. In old German, we again find these endings, but, gener-
ally, not so long and full; thus, s«7i-w, son; ah-a, L. aqua, water;
inrnd-a, L. mundus, Germ, welt, world; mur-a, L. murus, wall;
«to-a, Germ, stund, time; tual-a, L. nrwra, dwell, delay; war-a,
I^- cwra, care ; red-a, L. ratio, Germ, rath, reason ; kilouh-a,
Wief (ki=ge of Germ.) ; sel-a, soul ; erd-a, L. terra, earth ;
ninn^a, mind (love) ; heil-i, L. salus, health ; Jiert-i, hardness ;
chvro, L. vacca, cow; tub-a, L. columba, dove (clb=tb)', wis-a,
^se, way ; avar-a, image (after) ; witaw-a, L. vidua, widow ;
f^z-a, L. cord-e, heart; oug-a. Germ, auge, eye; sam-o, seed.

118. Old Saxon erth-a, earth ; forth-a, fear ; fold-a field ;

. ^-tt, gift ; rast-a, rest ; Jcunn-i, kin ; gi-wirk-i, work ; gi-siun-i,

vision, sight; rik-i,Jj. regnum; gum-o, L. homo, man (jgm=hm

=wi); Ttian-o, moon; tog-o, L. dux, duke. There is, we observe,

*gf eat resemblance between Gothic, old German, and old Saxon.

5

34 PHRASIS.

114. Anglo Saxon luf-u^ love; sac-w, Germ, ^(^ih^ case; stig-u^
stage, step ; vraJc-u^ weak ; cynn-c^ L. genus, kind ; nett-e, net ;
gum-a, L. homo, man; fleg-a, play; eordh-e, earth ;/o^-e, fold,
field. Thus, in Ang Sax., we find these endings less prominent,
and yet, much stronger and more common than in the present
English. The old Friesic is much like the A. S. in this respect

115. But, in place of these, the old North, and its descendants,
shows the prevailing r (==8=U8); us^Jisk-r, fish; hest-r, horse,
"hoss''; hring-r, ring; laekn-ir, doctor {lz=d) ] end-ir, end
(Germ, -c?*); hiort-r, hart; lim-r, limb. Germ, lied, leg; kiol-ry
keel; sef-i, L. sevum, age; and-i, L. animus, mind; hog-i^ bow;
daudh-i, death; man-i, L. luna, moon; ux-i, ox; skugg-i, shade,
shadow; thank-i, thought, mind; nagl-i {i^^^ir), L. clavuSy nail,
claw; asJc-a, ask; vind-r, wind (-r=a=e).

116. In middle German, these endings are less and lighter,
in many instances, the final e appearing, as in A. S., where we
and modern German have left it out — this e, like ours, being ■
the a of Latin ; thus, und-e, L. xind-a, wave ; mur-e, L. mur-v^,
wall ; sag-e, say ; reis-e, ride ; wiind-e, wound ; bett-e, bed.

117. The''modern German shows these endings in the adjective
very prominently; thus, the mas., fem., and neut. forms of blind,
in Germ., are blind-er, blind-e, blind-es, as in Lat., bon-us,-a,-ufn,
good. These endings, er=es=:e, are changed, in the other
cases, into en, em; er, in different Germ, dialects, we find as re,
aro, earo,jaro (L. turns, ture, turn), rar, rer, and el. The
Swedish adj. bliiul is (m.) blind-er, (i.)blind% (n.) blind-t — this
t, which we see at the end of the neuter, is for en, et, which
appears at the end of nouns ; as, pris-et, the price, arh-et, the
bow (L. arcus), ed-en, the oath. Nothing is clearer, than that
this suffixed article (so called), is a development of the very
endings we have all along been considering, and that the L. us,
a, um, is just such a suffixed article; also Wall, suffixed il, lu, le,
a, i, and the Alb. i, e, Bask a — proof that the article is a devel-
opment of an ending. That neut. t, et, of Swedish, appears in
Gothic as ata (blind-ata), Sindjata; this is the same as L. atum,
just as ands equals andum. It is the same, too, as the suffixed
Per. ra of ace. case, Marathi la.

118. No truth is easier to demonstrate, "than that the endings
of all cases, and of both numbers, are simple variations of one
and the same type, and nowhere is that truth more evident, than
in the German languages. In Gothic, as we have seen, the
nom. sing, had an ending s, is, us, like the us of Lat., and th©
er, en, es, of Germ, adjectives. This nominative ending contin-
ually tends to disappear, in the modern Germ, languages, by'
withering away ; yet, its roots are never lost, but always lie
hidden in the body of the word. In these languages, sornf^

HISTORY OF NOUNS. 35

nouns have one form through all the cases, and, over and over
again, do we find the ending of one case common to the others.
The ending am^ em, may be taken as the base for all noun end-
ings; in that form it is dat. in Germ., and ace. in Lat. ; in the
form of ew, wm, it prevails as dat. plural ; er, «r, cs, are other
forms of this em, and are found prevailing in the gen. and nom.
plural — though other endings for them are common. It is
common to find these endings soften down to mere vowels; as, an
=a, um==u; en, es, er=e — the L. am, ace. end., is known to
be merely a developed a {^=^e). This is the case almost wholly
in English, where we have tub-e for all cases in which the Latin
would have tuh-a, tuh-ie, tub-am; and, in the plural, we have
tuh-^s^lt. tub-se, tub-arum, tub-as, tub-is — observe ^wfe-ac (tub-e)
= tub-es, i. e. a sing, form for the plural.

119. It is hardly necessary to say that the Lat. and Gr'k cases
can all easily be identified with those of Germ.; the L. gen. aB=
our c, gen, i=is, ir ; gen. is=^es is also nominative; and we
have often met with them in Germv ; the ace. am we have
already noticed, and the abl. a, e {ad), is only a modification of
this am^ em — the dat. belonging with the gen. (=rnom.); the
w, in the plural of the 1st declension, is simply the es of our
plur. speech-es. The um of L. gen. plur., we have often found
in Germ. ; orum (gen. plur.) is a development of this um, and
is properly double — its correspondent being the old North ar,
old Sax. gen. aro, ero,jero, old Friesic era; ibus, dat. plur., is
also a development, of is, es, and double — the b in it pointing
to the m (dat.) of Germ. ; it is not different from the Gothic
(nom. and gen.) plural eis (G'k ees), gis (^=e), gos, Jus {j=
g=d=:h).

120. The Greek cases are much nearer English ; in the 3d
decl., gen. os (L. v^, es, is), dat. i, ace. a (our e) ; nom. plur. es
(cures), dat. st=is, es, gen. on=um, ace. ds=^es. In the 2d
^ecl., nom. plur. ai=i, dat. plur. ois=^oi-es, ace. plur. ou8=oi-es^
L. 0%, us — ois=is, is another form of the L. ibv>s.

121. Another positive proof of the identity of these L. cases
with each other, is the fa'ct that, in the modern Latin languages,
those variations found in the old tongue wholly disappear, i. e,
one ending is found in all cases, as is the case with us.

122. The Slavic languages will furnish us with some instruct-
ive features in this connexion ; om, em,^ is a common ending in
Kussian, instrum. in the sing, and plur., and dat. in the plural
also— in the adjective, it is found in the dat. sing., as well as in
the instr. and prep, cases. In some instances, it is reduced to a
Diere vowel; it is precisely the L. am, Germ. em. In the plur.
prep, case, we find ach or ak, for the ending of nouns — it is
found also in the gen. plur. of adjectives. For animate beings,

36 PHRASIS.

the ace. sing., here, is like the gen., and for inanimate beings,
it is like the nominative. Russ. adj's have gen. sing, in ago ;
this is no doubt the prepo. ending ak — and both are identical
with the old Lat. abl. ad (Hung. ace. at^ and plur. ale), just as
in some of the Slavic we find ccA, e/c, in the perfect tense, while
we have ed,

123. In Pol., we find substantially the same endings — adding
that here, as in Buss., they are often reduced to mere vowels.
We find in the dat. sing, owi, gen. plur. ow, lluss. gen. plur. ov
(06), L. hi of ihl, sibi, and biis of the plural; but aw, oh, is
evidently = am. To give the full forms of Pol. cases, we have,
for the name John : N. Jan, G. Jaii-a, D. Jan-owi, A. Jan-a
V. Jan-ie, In. Jan-em, Loc. Jan-ic; plural cases are Jan-owicj
Jan-ow, Jan-om, Jan-ow, Jan-owie, Jan-ami, Jan-ach.

124. In the Bohemian nouns and adjectives, we shall find
similar endings; the ago is iho (g=zh), which may be reduced
to a, e; and the owi, ov, appears here as u (uv), i {owi^. In
the adj., the dat. sing, is imii, emu, while in the noun it is ovi,
showing imu^^ovi. In Illyrian, we find nothing particularly
new. The g, h, j, and cli, which we find running through the
Slavic languages, is the ch of Germ. dat. mi-ch, di-ch, si-ch, as
the em is that of d-em, ein-em, welch-em.

125. From the fact, which we think is now made evident
enough, that the case forms are produced by a simple change in
one and the same ending, and from the fact, too, that one case
form, under certain conditions and in certain cases, may be used
to perform the office of any other, we infer that the expression
of case does not lie in the ending, but that it lies, rather, in tbe
body of the word, or in the context. Those endings are indeed
growths to represent the prepositions, which may be considered
as developments of just such suffixes, but they have only grown
out to represent what was already a force in the word, given to
it by virtue of the context. They add nothing to the word, for
they have grown out of it. A noun in the dat. case was dative
always, dative long before it ever developed its proper ending,
dat. long before it was governed by a preposition. Words with
endings, all words with prefixes and suffixes, are not compound,
they are simple, single. Nor does the preposition put a noun
in the dat. case, for example, (as said before, it was dative
always) ; it adds nothing to the word ; if it was not already
dative, it could not take the preposition which belongs with
datives. So, again, we see the dative may be considered as
having its force all reserved in itself, or, as getting that force
from the whole sentence — it is immaterial which view we take.

126. Let us not be surprised to find, the apparent inconsist-
ency, that the word and the ending, or the word and preposition.

HISTORY OF NOUNS. 37

both express the same thing ; the whole sentence, when critic-
ally examined, is found to be only a multitude of repetitions.
Do we not continually find such repetitions as these — a son of
his^ extract itfrom^ to which he was directed tOy a senatu, by the
senate, (wherein we find his=of him, extract=dTa.w from,
senatu=hy the sens^te).

127. So, we see plainly that the prepositions add nothing,
that it is a simple case of duplication ; and yet, these are simply
illustrations of a principle that is at work in all languages, and
in all parts of them. Every time the Latin ist says ego amo, or
pv£r amat, I love, the boy loves, he uses nominatives which are
already represented in the verb by o and at (for, amo means I
love, and amat, he loves) ; and it is really as if said / love-I, the
hey loves-he — and to go still further, those endings indicate
only what must be contained in am\ the root. You never can
put the preposition ah in Lat., or from in Eng., before a word
which is not ablative, which does not contain from or ah already;
so, it is not man that is good, it is only the good man that is
good — good can only be applied to that class of men who are
good men (if it properly applied to other men, they would be
good tod), and the word man must be used, to represent that
class of good men. We see, thus, what must be the result of
all philosophizing, the part expresses as much as the whole, is
equal to the whole,

128. We notice here a principle which we shall have occasion
to advert to more than once; any oblique case (one not nom.)^
in fact, any form that appears in language, may be taken as the
base of some new form. Any case form may, under suitable
conditions, perform the office of another ; thus, in Latin, caput
means head, and capitis (gen.), of the head, and this form cap-
itis, still gen., becomes, as an adjective, capital; it is now treated
as a new base, and as such receives the adjective ending is, as
capit-al-is ; as such new form, it may now go through all the list
of cases as if it were a noun — we find, among other forms, cap-
it-al-ih-us, dat. plur., which we might treat as a noun meaning
to-capital (ones), or to-the-capitals. So, every genitive may go
through a new set of cases as the base of an adjective "; every
adjective becomes, thus, merely a genitive run through the
cases as a new noun. We, too, take the L. capital, and, forget-
ting to observe that it was ever gen., forgetting, that it is any-
thing else but a nom., or base form, we treat it as such, and we
get the adjective (called adverb) capital-ly ; we do more, we
treat it as a verb == to (have) capital, and get the derivative
capital'ist (a pres. part, for a noun, like serv-ant); and,
again, we take it as equaling to (be) capital, and we get the
other participial form capital-ncss (called noun). If capitalists

38 PHRASIS.

were like fish to be caught, we might then say again capital-ist-
ing^ wherein the same ending, somewhat varied, occurs three
times. Behold the origin and mode of all repeated endings.

129. Further, we may notice that case endings are to be
identified with the personal endings of verbs. Thus, it is
noticed that at of the Latin supine amatuw,^ is allied to at^ ad,
endings of old ablatives, and this is the at that appears in the
3d person sing., as am-at. It is well understood, that the case
endings are varied articles or demonstratives ; the person end-
ings must be such also, for they represent pronouns, and hence,
the two classes are related. Again, we shall show, hereafter,
that the verbal and part, endings are to be classed with those
of the persons, but the identity of those verbal endings with the
noun and adj. endings of Germ., for example, has already been
hinted at, and can easily be proved. Not only these, but all
adj. and' adverb endings, such as L. -tim, -ter, G'k -then, nhy
-tht, belong with the endings of case.

130. We see, then, the same class of endings applied to several
very different purposes ; this is not alone a law of language, but
a law of the creation. In the animal and plant kingdoms, we
everywhere see this working of one thing into very different
results ; thus the nose of the elephant becomes his trunk, and
his tusks are only teeth ; the shell of the turtle, and its protect-
ion, is the internal skeleton of other animals; the beautiftil rose
flower is only a bundle of leaves ; we might go on thus to infin-
ity — everywhere one thing only differs from another in being
more or less transformed.

131. In the Finn, and Tart, languages particularly, we have
the case endings developed into full suffix prepositions ; as,
Hung. /a, tree, /«-&€>/, out of the tree- — showing the origin of
prepositions following the noun.

Plurals.

132. The identity of the plural with the genitive singular
has be^n noticed elsewhere {^Err. of Gram?)] just as much as
the genitive is a form of the nominative, so much, again, is the
plural a form of it also. Both the gen. and the plur. have, often,
endings where the nom. has not, and are in so far different
from it, but we often find them both either like the nominative,
or varying from it by only an internal vowel change (as m,an
and mew), proving that in fact the three are not essentially
different, and are only apparently so by developing, in some
cases one more than the other, elements which all have alike.

133. In many languages, the plural scarcely differs from the
sing., at least, only as our this and these^ goose and geese, and in

f

HISTORY OF NOUNS. 39

all tongues there are numerous instances of the identity of the
two; as we say, ten sAeep, ten Jish, ten head. The Gr'k and L.
noin. plural, {-es) has no element not found in the gen. sing.,
(-is). In G'k, neut. plurals are treated as singulars, mere
collectives. Every gen. really indicates a plural; there can be
no of a thing unless it has parts — 'it must be a minuend which
contains the subtrahend and the remainder. Such words as
money (much (of) money), as water (a pint of water), as land
(an acre of land), are as much plural as hoys^ ten (of ) boys — 'ten
indicates simply a certain quantity of the class denoted by hoya^
the words rrmch^ pint, acre, do no less. They are plurals which
have no singulars.

134. But the plural has other connexions besides this ; its
agreement in different languages with the features of the fem-
inine, is too striking to be passed by as unmeaning. In Latin
and Grreek, the fem. ending is a, but a is the ending also of the
neut. plur. ; as, bon-a, good, both fem. sing., and neut. plur. ;
es, is, a fuller form of this a, is also a fuller form of the plurals
a, i, ai, oi. Our ess, as in lion-ess (fem.) is clearly a variation
of that plural ending es, as we see in the L. leon-es =^\ioTi8, and
the fem. ending ina, Gr'k aina, San. ani, Germ, in, A. S. en,
is the same as the Germ. plur. ending en, Per. an. The Slavic
languages, and indeed many others, could furnish us proof in
the same direction. The plural ending of Arabic and Persian,
at, Ethiop. at, an, is also a fem. ending slightly varied. The
Syr. tha, ta, is both a plural and a fem. ending. But it is
unnecessary to go further to prove a truth so manifest.

135. [It is tvv^Q*oth, at, ta, are supposed to be endings pecu-
liar to the plur. of nouns which are feminine, but it is true, too,
that some masc's (and in Per., neut's also) have this fem. plur.
ending. Note th^t, in Sem., to the plur. in oth {at), im (the
mas. end.), is also added — and we have the plur. of a plur.,
precisely like ox-en-s for oxeu].

Genders,

136. One thing is at least certain; in the earlier stages of
language gender-forms were not used to distinguish sex. What
the precise meaning of the variation in forms for gender was, is
not so plain. There are uncultivated languages, we know,
where the distinction is simply of the animate from the inani-
mate, and many others again, where no gender-forms arc devel-
oped at all. To go back even no farther than the Greek and
Latin, and the modern languages of Europe, we find the gender-
forms do not indicate sex, and seem to have no reference to it

40 PHRASIS.

at all. Thus, in L., sermo^ a speech, and liher^ a book, are mas.,
but pars, a part, and rvpes, a rock, are fern.; and in Russ., d^rni,
a house, is mas., also korabl^ a ship, but kniga^ a book is fern. —
while in Germ., hook (buoh) and house (haus) are neuter.

137. In Russ., as well as in Lat., and elsewhere, fern, nouns
have (for inanimate objects, abstracts) a common ending a, ia^
and for the mas. e and y mute. But that all gender endings
are modifications of one and the same thing (and that the ordi-
nary ending) is clear enough. There is no ending of any
gender but which appears in some form or case f f another
gender; thus, L. hoii-uni is nom. neut., but it is ace. mas. also;
a is fern., but neut. plural also, and, in Greek, it is ace. sing. —
having in Germ, languages even other offices. The difference
in gender-forms is even less in the oblique cases than in the
nom. — after the nom., the neuter commonly runs parallel with
the masculine.

138. The neuter seems to be objective in its nature; it
certainly often agrees in form with the mas. ace. — in German,
es is neut. adj. ending, but also mas. gen. The common Slavic
neut. ending o is undeniably a condensed ego, eJio, eo, o, of the
gen. mas. The conclusion to be arrived at, is that the neuter
is, in its origin, an oblique case of the masculine, taken as the
base of a new form — it is in this fact, that we find the explana-
tion of that universal phenomenon, the neuter nom. never
difiering from the neuter ace. — i.e. its nominative is already
accusative. Neuters, referring as they do, to inanimate objects,
can hardly be regarded as subjective, as acting, thinking — they
can be objects alone. They are now assuming a nom. or sub-
jective character, just as the infin. and subj. moods, known to be
objective and dependent, get to be independent, i. e. indicative.

139. The coincidence between the fem. and the plural has
already been noticed. The coincidence, too, between fem. nouns
and abstracts, such as goodness, harmony, Justice, is equally
striking and general. It is a uniform feature in language, to
find abstracts feminine. The nouns of the Latin 1st declension
end in a and are fem. ; as, vita, life, h^ra, hour. There is a
class of fem. nouns in Lat. which end in ia (a Russ. fem. end.);
BBjjvstit'ia, justice, concord-ia, concord. There is a class of L.
fem's allied to these, those in tas (our ty, the ta of so many, the
heit of Germ., our ness, n=t) ; as, hrevitas, briefness, celeritas,
celerity. The real ending here may be taken as as (the original
of fem. end. a) ; the Hs a developed element latent or suppressed
in the adjectives brevis, celer, but appearing in the abstract noun
based on it — just as we have t grown up in verbs. Indeed, it
appears before ia also, as tristitia. There lire feminines in tuido]
as, magmtudoj magnitude, from magnus — where the real ending

HISTORY OP ADJECTIVES. 41

is o, the t being repeated in d. (Is not magnitud a pure ablative ?
that is its form). In the Semitic languages, we find strongly
this coincidence between the marks of fern's and abstracts, it
being t and a in both cases.

140. We find also Latin prudentia, prudence, and audacia,
boldness; but they are precisely the neuter plural forms of the
adjectives jprt^(^ews and avdax, i.e. they denote prudent (things),
bold (things). There can be no doubt that such nouns are
neuter plural adj's, and that they are nothing else — save that
they are feminines also. In brief, we should call the fern, a
neut. plural taken as the base of a new form — it is an adjective
Tised as a noun in this case.

141. The agreement of the pron. 2nd person with the fern,
marked words, must not pass unobserved. In almost all lan-
guages, the letters that mark the fem., also mark the 2d person.
In Semitic, we find t used both for fem. and for thou; so, in L.,
<u=thou, and tas is fem. ending; as, es, is, are the marks of
the 2nd person sing, of verbs, but also of fem. nouns. Our est
of wdkest, Euss. esh, is the same as our she. TJwu is properly
a feminine pronoun.

CHAPTER IV.
HISTORY OF ADJECTIVES.

142. This subject we have already considered in some of its
phases {Err. of Gram.) ; there are other points of view to be taten,
and these we will proceed to consider here. Not only is every
adjective in origin a noun in the genitive case, it is equally true,
that every noun in an oblique case may be considered an adjec-
tive or adverb. Again, every case of an adjective with its noun
18 a real compound of two nouns, just such a compound as wood-

' ^we, where wood, though a noun, performs the part of a true
adjective. When the union is close, as we find it in the Indian
and Tartar languages, then the adjective does not vary to agree
with the noun. When it has gained more independence, it has
case and number endings, and it becomes an independent word,
a case like nouns in apposition ; the more it assumes the char-
acter and form of a noun, the greater its individuality.

143. The Latin and Greek adjectives have far more individ-
^% than those in German and English. Our adjectives must
stick close to the noun, like a true parasite ; their adjectives are
Jiot subject to such unvarying conditions ; they are often found

6

42 PHBASIS.

remote from the noun, playing a part on their own responsibility;
we say good marCs^ but they say good's man's; we say of good'
men, they say of good of men, i. e. they use forms which make
it equivalent to such an expression.

144. We are prepared to advance still another idea with
regard to the rise of adjectives, one which goes still farther
back into their origin ; it is this, that in principle, adjectives
are growths or developments of nmin endings ; it is certain that
a large class of them, namely, pr(mouns, articles, dem^onstraiives,
have such a source ; and that adjectives are developments o^
these elements (pronouns, etc.), we do not doubt. The class oP"
nouns called diminutives are important in this connexion — such
as the Germ. Lottchen, little Lott, fraulein, a little woman, chen-
and lein having the force of little. There are abundant instances
in all, or nearly all, languages } in the Italian, they exist in.
great variety, so also in Persian. So, in Ital. we find Ubr-oney
large book (Jihro), and lihr-accio, a large ugly book, uccell-ettOy
poor, dear, little bird (uccelh). This proves two things ; first,
that endings may be developed, in nouns, to represent two, and
even three, adjectives; and, second, since those suffixes are
evidently variations of other noun endings, that the noun alone
embodies the idea of the same noun with the adjective.

145. In regard to the compound that arises out of the adj-
and noun, wc mark, here, that all compounds are cases of dupli-
cates — nothing can be black except black things, nothing shady
except shadi/ things. We find, in the Indian languages, abun-
dant instances of these doubles, sometimes identical, as going-
going, sometimes slightly varying, as issuing-going. Whenever
we say he came running, he went going, he ran leaping, we have
cases of repetition. (It is just such participles, we think, that
give rise to adverbs ; in Euss., such participles, or gerunds, axe
treated as adverbs). There are several absurdities arising from
the assumed connexion of the noun with the adj., but we must
omit to notice them here ; suffice it to say, there are no things .
without qualities, there are no mere men, mere books ; they
must be bad men, good men, white men, new books, good books,
these books, blue books.

Comparison,

146. Comparison is by no means peculiar to adjectives ; to
say more (of a) bridge, more (of a) citi/, mostly men, Tfiostly
wheat, these are comparative expressions, just as more black,
most black; thus, we see in the Bask language, gizon, man,
gizon-ago, more man.

HISTORY OF ADJECTIVES. 48

147. Nor are those comparative endings, as our er, L. «w,
Gt'k ter (and idn), Slav, efsi, si, peculiar or anomalous; er we
have often met with before, and si=is, es, is a form of er; the
G'k ter^ Pers. tar, is also a development of er — it is the L. tur,
tor. That the comparative is simply a form of the positive, is
seen by the frequent use, in all languages, of the positive as a
comparative ; thus, speaking of two boys, we call John the tall
(one), the taller; again, many of our comparatives are formed by
associating the positive with more, less, but we must observe
that the adj. is, in this case, (as more beautiful,) comparative
aside from the more — for, if more-beautiful alone was compar-
ative, then, beautiful could not be so, and we should be reduced
to the dilemma of having no comparatives but those in er, an
absurdity which cannot be admitted for a moment ; once more,
every expression treating the adjective as having a degree, is
comparative ; such as so great as, so small, round like a ball, it
was white as snow. So, it is clear that adjectives are compared
without the adverb; it is clear, too, that it is compared without
the ending er — so many instances occurring where it is such
without that suffix. Besides, to show the identity of pos. and
comp., we have many comparatives which are used as positives;
as, the latter one, the former one, the better man, the senior
editor, i. e. they are relative, comparative terms, but not more
80 than many or all adjectives.

148. We might say with truth, that every adjective is a com-
parative term — nothing is good, or white, or black, by itself
alone. A thing is sweet only by something which is not sweet,
or which is sour. There are no absolute qualities ; A may be
tall by jB (a very common form of comparative in many
langiu^s), i. e. taller than B, but short by G who is very tall
(a common superlative), i. e. tallest by A and B. It is on this
principle that we so often find the ablative, or the bi/-CBse,
following the comparative, as in Latin, for example. The
gradation of these three degrees into each other, is one of the
commonest things in language.

149. Besides, if we think, we shall see that there are really
no degrees in qualities ; a thing is more round, or square, or
black, or crooked, only as one bridge is more bridge than another,
or as one boy is more boy than another. We might say, too,
that all qualities are really superlatives, for when a thing is
really black, or really square, or really crooked, is not that the
extreme, can it ever become blacker, or squarer, or crookeder f
No more than when a thing becomes a house, can it ever become
***<>»•« a house, or be the most house,

160. Again, we must see that there can be no degrees beyond
a comparative. In no way can the mind compare more than

44 PHBASIS.

two things, that is, one thing with another. When we say A
is the best of the three, or the good or better one, we mean the
best of the group three (a unit). All we mean is, that he is
better than the rest, which reduces it to a comparison. The
history of the comparative in all languages, fully sustains the
above doctrines ; it is only by remembering them that we can
understand the form in which we often find it.

151. Our superlative ending is es^, plainly a form of cr, the
Lat. tim^ ssim^ Gr'k ist and tat. In lUyr. and Boh., we find the
superlative existing as a compa-rative prefixed hjnej\ na (=the);
as, Illyr. holji, better, najbolji, best, the better — in Russ., it is
also expressed by the compar., and sometimes na is prefixed;
so, in French and ItaL, we say the more beautiful for the most
beautiful; in Hebrew, we find the good for best, i. e. the good
one of the group, the best.

152. Adjectives, we must add too, are very much in the
nature of verbs ; a noun never becomes a verb, until it first
becomes an adjective. One of the forms of the adjective (the
adverb) is always joined to the verb, directly or indirectly. In
the more uncultivated languages, the adjective scarcely ever
differs in form from the noun, and in character from the verb.
The adjective belongs to the noun just as much as the verb
belongs to its nominative, but not more, and as, in principle,
every verb has its own pronominal nom. (as, the man he-reads),
so, the adj., too, belongs not to its noun but to its pronoun; as,
the good (one) man, the being-good man, the man the one (who is)
good,

153. In those other languages where the adj. uniformly
follows the noun, as the man (the) great= great man, it is clearly
the representative of a complete, though dependent, sentence;
thus, man wise (as in Fr.) = the man (being) wise, who-is-wise
(=wise), i. e. wise takes the place of a full sentence. The
adjective following the noun is more of an adverb, and is far
less closely connected with the noun, than when placed before.

154. All the agreement that lies between the noun and adj.,
arises from both representing the same thing in the same manner;
both are adj's or nouns, and complete in themselves; as, to the
good man, (as in Lat.) to the good (one) icy the man.

155. [As well here as elsewhere, we may, by way of note,
defend ourselves against the critic who will be sure to see that
by the theory of this work everything is reduced to nothing,
all dividing lines are destroyed, etc., etc. We confess that our
main effort through all the work is to show that things which,
heretofore, have been thought to have nothing in common, we
now find to be really much alike, perhaps even identical in
character ; but still, we should by no means deny that they are

HISTORY OF PRONOUNS. 45

yet distinct. Thus, we show that adj's are, in origin, nouns,
and that pronouns are adjectives — but they are nouns and adj's
of a peculiar kind ; they hold places and develop forms foreign
to ordinary nouns and adj's. Their connexion with the parent
stock is obscured — it requires such an effort as we have been
making, to render that latent connexion evident. In practice,
the classes are very different, and we so treat them. Things
may have the same origin, the same elements of character, and
still belong to very different classes. When we say that two
classes usually considered distinct are not different, we mean, be
it always understood, only as to their origin, only when we
examine them philosophically; just as jorice, jpraise, prize, Lat.
pretium, known to be forms of one word, are not different, so
(and in no other sense,) all things are not different.]

CHAPTEK V.

HISTORY OF PRONOUNS.

156. Pronouns, in their connexions, extend through eveiy
department of language ; they may, with propriety be regarded
918 affording the basis of all the forms which we find developed
as adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions; they are, undoubtedly,
"the original of a large class of primitive verbs, as, indeed, they
are represented in all verbs by the personal endings ; in many
languages, they are grown as possessives at the end of nouns,
in others, they appear as the suffixed article, while the endings
of all nouns, in all languages, must, in the end, identify them-
selves with pronouns. It is a favorite idea of the author, that
pronouns have arisen as a growth of these noun and verb
endings thrown off, and it may be well for the student to keep
this idea in view. We shall learn much of the pronoun in
every class of words of which we treat, and to give its history
in ftill here, would involve much which we should have to
repeat under other heads, and, hence, we will omit so much as
would properly come elsewhere. We shall content ourselves,
principally, with presenting the new and various forms in which
tbesame pronoun appears in different languages. We shall
tbus discover to the learner, relationships which will often sur-
prise, and always interest him ; it is by tracing the connexions
of words, that we shall most successfully learn their nature and
iise.

46 Pl^BASIS.

167. We may observe, by way of note, that we tise the
following abbreviations to denote the different languages : Germ.
German; G'k^ Greek; Dan.^ Danish; Sio.^ Swedish; Du,^
Dutch; Slav,, Slavic, i.e. Kussian, Polish, Bohemian etc., Rtu,^
Pol., Boh.; Sem., Semitic, i. e. Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, and
Ethiopic, Ar., Heh., Sj/r., and Eih. ; Cel, Celtic, i. e. Webh,
Irish, Gaalic, Cornish and Celt-Breton, Wd., Ir,, Cor., and C-B.;
L. Latin ; Sp., Spanish ; It., Italian; Fr., French; Per., Persian;
San., Sanscrit; Go., Gothic; Lith,, Lithuanian; A. S*, Anglo
Saxon, and others which will need no explanation; In compar-
ing the forms of pronouns and particles, the student should have
constantly in view, the sections under the head of Etymology —
Especially those on letters.

Personal Pronouns.

158. I: our personal of the first person is reduced to a single
vowel, while in Latin it is ego, in Germ, ik, ich, and ih. It is
clear that our simple 1 arises from the quiescence, or vanishing,
of the g and ch into a silent h, thus ich={h=zi. In Dan., this
pronoun is^e^ (L. ego); Yv.je; Sp./o; Slav, ia and^a; Lith.
asz, and San. ah : but in Celtic, it is mi (Fr. moi). Per. mew,
Hungarian en, Semitic ana and ank.

159. Bear in mind, that the forms above given are nomina-
tives, and that even in those languages which are characterized,
in this pronoun, by g, ch, k, j, and z, we still find in the
accusative (obj.) the mark m, as in our own me. Germ, vnichj
Slav, me and mne ; and we thus see clearly that all the various
forms of /, above given, readily identify themselves with each
other, g, k,j, and z, being not only equal to each other, but to
n and m also. In Sem., we find those two apparently unrelated
letters, n and ^, united in ank (or anok), just as we see in the
Germ, mich (mk), our me. It only proves that n (and m)^=g
is also=A;=cA, h; we may look upon anJc (nk) and m£ch (mk)
as doubled, or as a case of elements repeated (nk, kk).

160. The plural of this pronoun, which with us is marked by
w (in we), in Slav, is mi and m^, Wei. ni. Per. ma. The es of
the Lith. form mes, the « of L. nos, the eis of Go. weis and G'k
^imeis, the s of our its (ws), the an of San. vayan, are all, sub-
stantially, marks of the plural, for these forms. We easily see
how this plural is only a variation of some of the cases of /;
thus, me=^we (m=w). Germ, mir (me)=i^tr (we), and G'k
m^ (me)=n^i (we), and the like. The difference between we
and me, when it exists, consists chiefly in the former develop-
ing a plural sign.

HISTORY OF PRONOUNS. 47

161. Our is another form of we^ showing the r lost in our we
but appearing in the Germ, wir; we find these forma of our; viz.,
Dan. vor; Go. uns-ar; Du.o?is (Germ, mu^ our us)] h.nost-erj Fr.
not-re, and Port, nosso. The r, or, er, are clearly growths of
adjective endings ; the -erer of Germ, uns-erer, and also -eros of
Gr^k ^imet-eroSy are cases of double endings, or, they are adjec-
tives formed upon an old one as a base, the Germ, form being
grown upon unser, the genitive of we (our); our mine (my-en),
and theirs (their-s) are of the same kind, and, no doubt, also L.
nos-t-er (noster and ^Smeteros are, also, clear comparatives — 'ter,
eter, other).

162. We have only to remark on this pronoun /in conclusion,
that the w, w, and especially s and z, which we find the base of
it, are clearly demonstrative letters, and its origin may thus be
traced back to the pronoun this, or its cognate adverb here ; /
denotes the owe here^ or this, as opposed to that person there, thou
or he,

163. Thou : this pronoun has very little that is peculiar or
striking in the forms it presents ; its leading letter is either t,
as in Lat. and Per. tu, or 8, as in Gr'k su, d in Germ, du, th in
our ihouy or nt, as in Sem. ant — all showing that thou is a clear
demonstrative, like that or there,

164. But the forms which we find this pronoun assume when
it appears in the plural, are decidedly curious and interesting;
thus, our own thou (th) becomes with us, you (y), in Go.^,
Iceland ther, Dan. i (=y), A. S. ge (=ye). Germ, ihr and ir,
Slav, fcy, Wei. chwi, Per. shuma, ^. vos, San. yuyan. The er
of th&r, r of ihr, s of vos, and un of Sem. chun, are clearly plural
endings. The letters which mark all these forms given, are
unquestionably alike ; in the Germ, ihr, the th of thou and ther
has softened into th or h; in Dan., the plural mark r disappears,
and th becomes i, which again departs little from y, g,j; the w
of Slav., and v of L., are forms only ofy(==u aqd v) which we
find in ye and you — The Wei. and Sem. ch is a variation of the
ih and g sound, seen above.

165. Four presents also some peculiar forms ; thus, G^. izv-ar;

Icel. yd^r; Sw. ed-er; old Sax. iuw-er ; old Germ, iw-ar;

Germ, euer ; the d of eder has the place of y (=y), as we see

by the Dan. form yer (yer); so Go. izv=ivy iw, ju, you. The

d of eder also represents the h of German ihr, which is always a

softening of th, in these pronouns; both point to the th of thov..

That eder=:%hr, we see by the other Sw. form er, for eder. The

I^h has uw and uwe (you) for your and thy, i. e. the adjective

pwt er is not developed; the Slavic your is wasz and wass

(La*in vos), Latin vos-ter, French vo-tre.

166. The pronouns of the '^d person are, unquestionably, in

48 PHBASIS.

origin, the same as those of the 3rd ; the Germ. lAr, yon, is the
same as Ihr-er, their, and ihr her; Germ, sie, they, is also nsed
for 1/oic — indeed, the use of tJie^ for ^ou is common the world
over; the th of our tJiou is the th of the, that, them. The student
will also notice, that not only are the different pronouns alike,
but also, that the different cases of the same pronoun are iden-
tical, one having no element which the other has not; thus,
Germ, ihr, you, corresponds to our your, and to the form iwar^
iuwar, and we have already noticed how the Dutch u^e %ls for
our ; so, again. Germ, wir, Icel. ver, is our our, though used by
them for we; our scarcely differs from your, as also L. vor, you,
from lis; again, the Dan. han, he (Slav, on) is our him — indeed,
there is no end to such comparisons if we choose to pursue them.

167. The personals of the 3d person are far more' extensive
in their connexions, and in the variety of their forms, and we
shall have to proceed with less regard to order than we observed
in treating of the others ; let it suffice that we give a complete
and comprehensive view of them. And, first, take JSe; our
form is equal to thej as we see by its plural they, th softening to
h; in Gr'k, we find only e, acccompanied with a mark partially
representing our h; in the Latin tongues, s, as in se (self),
takes the place ofh — the German shows this « in its scwi, his,
and sie, they, sich, self; in short sm (=him) runs clear througli
the German languages for his.

168. In German, the s, th, and h, entirely disappear, and we
find er (ir in old Germ.) for he ; all we have here is that com-
mon ending noticed above. It is the same as German der^ the,
and ihr, their and your, the d and th vanishing in h, and thus
becoming silent ; our here, Germ, her, is also a near relative of
this er. There is a Gothic form gains, or Jains, equal to Danish
hans (his), Gr'k ekein-os, Germ, jener (that), Slavic on, Fr. son
(his), Welsh hon, Semitic hun, ain, Persian an (this), our him.

169. The Latin has more than one form to represent he^ she,
and it (or what is the same, this and that); in the form iUe, Fr.
le and il, Sp. el, Sem. el, (the), the I, always equal to d, th, has
taken the place of the usual t sound, so that iUe=le, de, the;
in hie the c, no doubt, is for the common Lat. ending -que, and
related also to the Germ, ch in ich, dich, sich, so that we have
hi= he, they ; indeed, hi (these) is the plural form used for
they — the other cases of hi-c, the gen. hujus and ace. htm-^,
easily identify with his and him; is, ea, id, (he, she, it), another
form, is a variation of this hie, the h=th quite disappearing,
and the s, a, and d, being adjective endings; we have, in this
form, ejus for hujus (his), eum for hunc (him), ii for hi (they);
that there is a suppressed s=th=h here, is abundantly proved
by its derivative suus (his), by the old Lat. sum for eum, sam

HISTORY OP PRONOUNS. 49

for eam,^ and Go. si (she), and ^a (the); id is plainly our it^ and
ea is our sAe with sh suppressed; the corresponding Greek is o,
e, /o, (o and e with A breathing), the chafacteristic alone appear-
ing in the neuter to — this is the Greek the,

170. She and It^ it is hardly necessary to add, are only vari-
ations of lie and tJie; in A.. S., heo is she, and %e is the; in Germ.,
sie is she. In A. S., it is Mt^ in Sw.^ det (Germ, daz)^ showing
that t is not radical, but belongs to the ending as the d in Lat.
id and ULud, In Danish, Ae ajid sA^ differ only as Aan and At^Ti
(L. ewm and earn) ; in Slav., he, she, it, is on, o«a, ono, and in
most languages the change is no greater.

171. Of the plurals ^Acyand TAetr little need be said; The
former, in Latin, is Jii and ii; Dan. c?e, Germ, die (our they and
/Ac); Germ. «ie; Icel. ^ActV, thaug^ and ^Ac^^a (the forms of our
their and <Aa<); Slav, oni {Germ, jener)] Welsh hwy^ Ir. siod,
C-B. At; Sem. Aem and hum (our <Aem, in form). The other
Lat. form illi^ they, Fr. ih and elks, It. eglino^ has the t^ to re-
present the usual th, or A, and i final for plural mark, i.e. illi=
li, di, thiy they ; so, we see illorum (of- them, their), in Fr., leur
(their V Sp. les, It. loro. Besides these forms of their just given,
there is yet to be noticed the A. Sax. hira; Dan. deres, Germ.
ihrer and ir; L. eorum. The Welsh affords the form eu for
their J Cornish aga (also agan, our, and agas, your) ; when we
take in connexion the Welsh forms eicA, your, em, our, ych, you,
«i, his, her, him. we can readily see that this eu and aga (g=ch')
are to be referred back to the Germ, euch, you.

172. For the articl(3, we will simply give some of its different
cases, as found elsewhere, to show what various applications
haye been made of them in English. In the Ang. Sax. nomi-
native, we find mas. se (the), fem. seo (she), neut. thaet (that,
it) ; gen. mas. thaes (these and this), gen. fem. thaere (their,
there); dat. tham (them, him); in Germ., nom. mas. der (their),
fem. die (the, they) and neut. das (that) ; gen. des (these) ;
dat. dem (them). In Welsh, the article is yr (and y), Germ.
€r, he. In Latin, the nearest corresponding pronoun to our the,
is iUe, Fr. le.

Demonstratives.

173. The usual demonstrative letters are th, d, s, and the
li^te, but I is often met with in such pronouns, (as we saw in ille),
and we shall find m and n common letters for a like office. Our
own this and that may be regarded, we need hardly observe, as
naodifications of tJte, The plurals these and those are only slight
variations of this ; the Germ, dieser, this, is in form our these,

174. In Slavic, we find these forms : Boh. ten, this ; Pol. on

.7

50 PHRASIS.

(Boh. owen), that (German jener^ our one) ; there is also the
doubled Pol. ten-to^ this-here (Greek tou-tos) ; Illyr. ti, these ;
Hung, ez, this, and az, Jihat, and emez {em-ez, double) this-here,
ez-az, this (the-that) ; Alban. ata (also ai, agio), it and this;
Sem. ze, dJiu, d; Go. sa and thana, and San. saSy sa, tan, tat;
all these forms are easily placed in one and the same class.

175. Another class is one which apparently departs from this,
but which still is undeniafcly only a variation of it — it is the
class marked by m, and the like ; thus, in Welsh, hvm, Tion,
hyn^ are used for this (h^n= these also), and ht/ni/, hono, hwnw,
for that; this is identical with the Dan. han and Slav, on (he);
C-B. hen (he) and ann (the); Sem. hon or hun, and ain; Per.
an and shan (them); Ir. sin, Dan. hin (that), and Go. gains (he).

176. In Hung., erne'* and ama* are used for this and that;
in Cornish, ma and na are used as suffixes at the end of nouns,
in place of this and that (besides horn, this, and hon, that). In
Manchu, cre=this (Germ, er), and <cre=that (Germ, der)} in
Mongolian, cn6= this, and ^e?ie=that.

177. In French, this, and that, is ce {the, Sem. ze, Pol. ci) ;
we find also ces (these), cet (that) ; it has also ceUe and ce-fo,
for this and that (L. ille and qualis. Wall, a-quel). For cet and
cc«e, the Ital. has questo (L. is^e with q prefix), and forced, it
has quello (L. t7^c) ; Fr. cc=It. che.

Relatives.

178. That the relatives are simply a development of the per-
sonals and demonstratives, as who of he, and what of that^ is
proved beyond a doubt ; in other languages, the Latin for
example, they are used as adjectives (demonstratives), as our
own which, what, and that, so often are. In Germ., wer, who, is
a form of er, he ; wekher, which, is a variation of Fr. ceUe^ Lat.
ille, Ital. queUo, (our which is the same word, I suppressed, see
Scotch quhilk {qu, vv, w) — so L. quod, wod, wot)} the Q^rm.
der, the, is very commonly used as a relative, and our own that
is a pure article Csee Anglo Saxon se, the, thaet),

179. The Fr. and Sp. qvs (which, what) is the It. che {q=kj
c), and this readily leads us back to Fr. ce, our th^, that; this
que ia our who (Ang. S. hwa), qu=kv, hv, hw. The Wallach.
has, for who, the forms qiMzre (where), quare-le (suffix article),
and quine (him, whom).

180. The Pol. kto, who, agrees nearly with our what (Latin
quid, kid, kt), while co, what, is more like who; komu whom
(him) ; in Bus., in place of kto, we find often ko, for who, and
chto, or tchto, for what; in Boh., koho and cheho; for whose
(L. cujus, Germ, wessen). The Latin qui, who, easily identifies

HISTORY OF PRONOUNS. 51

itself with our who^ qu being equal to qw, hw, and, hence, to
A. S. hwa ; ci«;'mss= whose, 5'wcm=whom, c and q=>^k, h; bo
qjiod ^wh&t, San. kim. Alb. ke, kous, Mong. ken, Turk kim,

181. In the Irish, we find cia, ce, ci, for who (It. che, Fr. que),
dad, cad, what, (L. qv4>d) ] there is also Ir. da, (that), and this
is reduced again to a, who, what. In Welsh is pwy, who, and
whom, {p being used for L. q) ] the form yr hyn, the-this, is
also used as relative. In Cor., also, py, pa, who and what ;
also nep {pen). In C-B., piow, who, and pe, -what (Fr. que),
Greek pos^ (and 1cos\ ti8\ tos*).

182. In Semitic, we find ma and min, for what and who ; in
Heb., we have a^her, shortened she, (Gro.and San. demon, sa) ; in
Arab., the form the-this is used for relative. Hungarian has mi
and mtk, what, me%, which (Germ, welcher) — besides Hand
kik, who. In Manchu, this mis w, sa we, who (German wer) ;
what is at, Celtic a,

183. In Dan. and Swed., som is used for who, that; it is our
«<?m€and same, so, as, such, Greek ^oi-men (some).

184. Other languages have developed a class of pronouns
from these relatives which we have not; thus, there is the L.
taMs, such. Germ, solch-er. Go. swaleiks (so-like), Kuss. tolik
and Lith. toley, G'k t^Uk-os, Pol. tak-i, Welsh sawl, Arfg. Sax.
svnlc, Hung. oUy-an', all connected with that, L. iUe, Fr. ceV,
This is demonstrative, and the relative form is L. qualis, what,
or whai-Mnd, G'k kilikos, Euss. kolik, Go. hweleiks (how-like),
Du. toelk {which) Hung, milly-en. This pronoun is identical
with Germ, welch-er, and hence our which ; it is, too, the L.
quis, who, with the I of iUe appearing. Quanttis, how great,
and qvot, how many, in Latin, are other variations of quis;
leave ofius, the adjective ending, and quaiU^^quot, quod, our
what; there is, also, L. tot, so many, our that ; Hung, quot, and
qwxnt, is hany (our many).

We might observe that our like. Germ, gldch, G'k €lik-os, is
identical with qua-lis (what-like), the q, lost with us, appearing
in the Germ, g, — the Ang. Sax. yh, same, and hw-ylc, which,
belonging to the same order.

186. The student may learn from this relative class, how
easily p, q, k, t, ch, c, h, w, and m, change for each other.

Interrogatives are identical with relatives, and hence need no
separate consideration..

. Indefinite Pronouns,

1S6. Our every is in Danish, hver, showing that it is the same
M Vihere, with which we often find it, as, in every-where ; in

1

52 PHRASIS.

Gothic it is wazuh (was, what). The identity of this every with
the relative, is proved by the frequency with which we find ever
= even/ following it, as, who-ever, what-ever ; this ever in L. is
cun, or doubled, cun-que (quern, whom), as in qui-cun-quey who-
ever ; the L. quis is often used for some, ani/, and hence » aU,
every. The German every is jeder, in form our either ^ but
also whether, and hence which; we use either for hoth^ which
refers us back to aU^ every. In Pol. it is kazdy, the k pointing^
to kto, who; in Hung., minden, every, each {melly, which) ; in
Welsh, poh is every, hxxtpioy is who ; Cor. mym, all, ever, but
ma = that, pup, all, and py, who.

187. Each and any must be taken as variations of every ; th^
three easily replace each other; each, in Ang. Sax., is aelc, (Du.
welk, which) ; in Fr. it is chaque; cAa. is ce, that, and que is
suffix; the Asiatic eka, one^ is also equal to each; so we oftea
find each-one,

188. Any is the same as our an, one, a, and many belongs
with it also; so do aU, and some. In Italian, qualche {qual^he,
which-that) is used for some, as quis is in Latin. The Latin
aliquis, some-one, is simply else-who, other-who, which-who^ iUe-
who. The Spanish cada, each, any, is the Latin quot, quanta and
Germ, jeder ; it is also the Slav, jeden, one.

189. Many, in German, is viele (full), which refers back to
welcher, which — the L. multus, our much, belongs to the same
family. That many is the same as any, an, one, is seen by the
Germ, man^ Fr. rni (old Fr. hom)^ for our one, and by the G'k
mia, one.

190. The word other may also be classed with these pronouns ;
in Latin, it is alius and alter, Gr'k aUos, our else, Fr. autre; it
is plainly, in form, connected with ille (and aU), as the ther of
o-ther, and der of Germ, o-der, point to the article the, Either
is identical with other. That some is a relative in origin, is seen
by the use of Danish som for who ; some is equal to sam^, and
both refer to Germ, article dem, and L. i-dem, same, Fr. meme,

191. In concluding our chapter on pronouns, we may dwell
briefly upon their component parts. We notice particularly. in
pronouns, what is observable also in all classes of words, the
repetition of one element in the same word, as in Lat. quis-quis
(who-who) some one, Greek tou-tos. But, most commonly, the
elements slightly vary from each other, yet never so much as to
leave their identity questionable; thus, Fr. le-quel, which (the-
which), Fr. ce-la, that (the-that) ; L. ille, he {the-that) ; Fr.
quel-qvs, some (which-that) ; It. qual-cuno,, some {which-which),
and qu^esto, this {which-that) ; Wall, a-qu-est, that {the-which-
that), and in-sami, the-same (L. i-dem)) Dan. hvord-an, how
(where-then) ; Pol. tam-ten, this (the-this), and k-to, who {wlio-

HISTORY OF PARTICLES. 53

thai) ; Ang. Sax. aeg-hwa, whoever (each-who)^ and hwae-ther^
whether (who-ihere) ; G'k ^os-tiSj and ^o-tij who, what {who-
who) ; Germ, den-selbe, the-self, same, and der-jenige^ he {the-
that) 'j Ari el-la-dziy which {the-the-this) ,

192. It is hardly necessary to multiply examples where they
are found so numerous ; not only may we separate these words
into elements, as we have, but those elements again, and so on
indefinitely; thus, our that is plainly double, and our what also,
as we see by its Gr'k equal o-ti, L. w^-^in brief, we may say
that every consonant, every letter, represents this element which is
repeated in the word. It may be noted, too, that every case of
one pronoun following another, as he wlw, that which, this here,
which one, is one of double pronouns.

CHAPTER VI.
HISTOtlY OF PARTICLES.

193. Under the head of Particles are included what is usually
known in grammar as Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions;
particles we will again divide into two classes, putting adverbs
and conjunctions together, as there is no real difference between
them, when properly considered. (We every where find the
purest conjunction replaced by the common adverb).

194. In investigating particles, we must constantly bear in
mind one very important rule ; that two or more words which
come together in text, belong together, that they are parts of
one compound, just as much as there are such in any Compound ;
and that, as such elements, they are duplicates, repetitions, and
the one may be considered as a form of the other, or both as
forms of one type; it is a matter of no importance, that in some
cases we find the elements separated, and in others printed
together.

195. [We may mention here; by way of note, that in com-
{)aring words together, as we do under the head of Particles,
equality, denoted by the sign = , or by words, generally has re-
ference to the meaning; it will be easy to separate the words
which are mere definitions from those which are considered to
be etymological forms of the particle in question.]

We will consider first the class of adverbs, which includes
also conjunctions.

64 PHRASIS*

Adverbs,

196. All adverbs are more or less connected, in their origin,
with pronouns (except those which are cases of nouns, and they
are not particles, i. e. they are not small words whose original
form and moaning have become obscured) ; but a certain class
of adverbs are more decidedly pronominal in form, that is, differ
less from pronouns, than others; such adverbs, and indeed
others, may be looked upon as presenting new forms of the pro-
nouns. Thus, we have where, when, whence, whither, whether^
from relatives, what, which; and there, then, thence, thither, de-
monstratives, from this, that, besides the other forms, how, why,
while ; in many instances, we can find these very forms ais pro-
nouns ; so, when, Germ, wann, is Go. wana, ace. of who, and
tha7ia (then) is ace. of the, this; ibhere, in Icel., is huer, who, old
Germ, wer and huer ; so, Go. watliar (whether), is who. Germ.
wer ; hither, Germ, hin (be-hind), is Go. ace. hina, of his, hita,
this; while is A. S. hwilc, who. Germ, well, old Germ, huilan,
A. S. da-hwile (the while); old Germ, wanan, whence, and its
equal wenan, is whom ; th^re is German der, the, and eta, there,
Ang. Sax. thaer^r^of the; how (our who), A. S. hu. Germ, une,
old Germ, wie and wis (wise), hus, wiose ; why (which), A. 8.
dy (the), Gr'k ti, Lat. quia, Ang. Sax. hwi, Lat. quid (what),
Germ, warum (was-um) — Latin quare, wherefore, why, is our
where, L. cur, Illyr.jer; now is also demon., like how, but in it
is used the n (so often found) for t, as Lat. nunc=^tuncy in Gro.^
gu (L.jam, earn), A. S. iu and geo (he, the,) (our ye^), besides
mi (g=n) — it is after the form of old North inn (Germ.^encr)
that, it.

197. In Latin (and Greek), the pronominal form and char-
acter of these adverbs is unmistakable; thus, quo (by-what),
whether, wherefore; qv^d (what), that, as, since; quu, where,
how (by-what) ; quam (ace. of which), how, and quum, a form
of same, when, since; hie (he), here, then; dum, while, and
turn, then (like forms), point to the Greek ton, the, an article
lost in Latin — jam, now, then, is a variation of turn, but more
nearly agreeing with the pron. earn ; nun and nunc (nov, new,
L. nov-us), is a modification of dum r tunc, then, thence, corre-
sponds in character with htin^ (ace. of ne) ; utrum, whether
(either), a form of uter, which, points also Uyuti, that, Lat. id;
an, also, whether, is the inn of old North, and related to when,
Germ, wann — that an is related to nun, now, is seen by num,
used like an, also by ne, not, and whether; uhi, where, there,
is the dat. case ihi, to-that; ita, so, is a form of id, so is ut, nti,
that; ideo, therefore, is made up of two parts, this-that, or
this-for-that.

HISTORY OF PARTICLES. 65

198. By the way, the student, in looking over the list of par-
ticles, in any language, cannot but be struck with the numerous
cases of doubling or repetition, a subject we have spoken of
before ; and these instances where the repetition is evident, are
only very few compared with those where it is latent — it gives
UB the secret of the growth of all words. So, we find qtiO'que=?
also (where-as, which-what) ; nunc-nunc, now-now= sometimes;
qfd^€m= indeed (whicb-the) ; nam-g'i^^for (for-that) ; vel-ut,
like (which-that, or-that).

199. In the German languages, we can see it in an even
stronger light; as, Gothic this-quaruh-theiia where-e'veT (this-
where-that) ; 9wa^swe== ao as, L. sic-ut (so-so) ; A. S. tha-th(i=
then (then-then, the-the); on'this-heal/e=hj-ihia (L. hac, Germ.
des-halh) ; S2ca-^waer-si(?a =where-so-ever (so-where-so) ; for-
hwy^ wherefore, why (for- why) ; swa-gelice^ like (so-like) ; and
all our own cases where two or more particles come together; as,
now-then, as-wellros, so-that, never-the-less.

200. We might go farther and find? the same state of facts
existing in all languages ; that this class, at least, of adverbs
presents new forms of pronouns, is as true in Asia as it is in
Europe — it is true, too, in Africa. But we have done enough
fully to illustrate the law; we will now proceed to consider some
of the leading adverbs and conjunctions more in detail.

201. And; this an equals a relative, just as ne equals whether;
and equals ad^ at, hence, also, that. In Latin, and is et, Greek
kai; judging by kai, et may be a transformed te; L. 2'we=and
(but que is which); Fr. que (ke) = how, that, what, but; et has
another form, L. ac {t—q, c) ; what is another form of c^, that;
80 we find A. S. hwaet (what) for et, and, Lat. aut-em, ita-que;
Germ, av/ch, Lat. ac, Fr. que ; in old German ge, gie,ja {jam,
^»i, L.) Icel. og, Celt, ag, agus, A. S. eac, and, and kai, but;
inAng. S., ge—c-um, t-um (g=ic); Go. ak, akei^hnt. Germ.
oher, so h'tU is et; Goth, ith, Lat. auttm (if, L. si), et, Greek de
(tlie)=:but; old Germ.jtoAiM (b-et)=but and et, and; so hut
we^, with h; Fr. car iwir), for Latin quare, henee hai, et ;
Ulyr. t and a==but, and (V^A=z, ac — a)) gar is found in the
Tart, languages, slightly varied, meaning hut; C-B. e-get^^r,
?«e, et, yet.

202. As; as is clearly a transposed sa, A. S. se (the). Go.
w; it is same as so (and that) ; in Germ., as is wie (how, who) ;
it is the same as Fr. que, L. ac, also L. w<=that; in Germ., ah
(else, L. alius) is cw; Fr. comme (L. quum)=how as; Welsh
c(m(Fr. comme. Per. chun)—s8 — also/e^,/e% (Germ, welcher)
Cor. Orvel (/=jp, Cor. pa = what), Lat. avec, with — Cor. ma
war,inck7a=as, that {mia is demonstrative).
208. &} has a variety of forms also ; thus, old Germ, stts, is

56 PHBASI8.

one of them, L. «i-c, si-c-ut, ita, and our same; we find al-io^
hence so equals al, als^ all: C-B. kerU^ ker^ ken (Fr. comme)^
so, L. tant {k^t) ; Cor. ages (Irish a^'w«=and, Welsh ag^sA^
with),c«=so, than; Fr. ain-si^BO (this-so).

204. That is another form of as and sOy and it is oflben used
in connexion with them ; that it is a form, too, of what^ is seen
by L. qttod, what and that; Gro. 6t, thi, theiy thatei, unte^ (and)
mean that^ German dass^ and well; Swedish at (to, too, two)=«
th-at, Latin lU.

205. Again : the idea of this particle is based on that of
repetition, hence we find it connected with other , and, (Irish
a^us) ; in Germ., it is wieder (whether) L, iterum^ G'k eteros,
other ; the a is prefix, as we see by A. S. on-gean, Du. te-gen
{to-gen), Germ, ge-gen, so that gain, gen^ is the true form, equal
to Go. gai7is, (G'k ekeinos), Celt, gan, as, and with, (Lat. cun^,
quum, quern) ; also Latin yam= now, Gothic j^'m, Germ.jfe, ever,
Latin coji, with.

206. A/fer is intimately connected with again; it is often
pronounced ater, a form found in other tongues, and as such,
we see it related to other, L. iterum=&gBm, Du. agter ; Grerm.
n^ach is near, next, and after, Dutch echter^jet, German tioch
(after) — so, we saj i/et-again ; L. infra {inf, ifr), Fr. apres;
ItSit. post is after, It poi. Ft. puis. It. do-po i^p^f). Cor. wone^
woge; G-B. arre, yet, after; IWyr. polag, near (below), l^.poit,
Slay, prez, our -proach.

207. Back is related to^os^ and again (b-ack), San.o^a^,
a-back, a-fter, old North aptr and eptri, after, posterior ; Slavic
pa^M= again, G'k jpaZiVi, Illyr. A;a=>near, to, also ^(m2 » aQder;
Greek apo, after and away, back, by — we say near-by, hence
7icar = by, and 5y = back; Greek epi, epei,

208. But: this we have already seen equal to et (and), tUy
and yet; Dutch maar (more, o-ver), French mais, Per. magar
(L. magis) = but — this is also Cor. ma, mar {ma is that, what) ;
but, yet, German doch^noch, and nciaky F^* done {dum-queS;
Germ, sond-em, Lat. sed, our sunder, mwis but — we use but m
the sense of except; but may be taken as b-oiU, wUhovt, in old
Germ., uzan being equal to but, sed (out); Go. o^a^ but, G'k
alia, L. alius, other; Germ. a6er=«but (over, after), old Germ.
afur, fiMor (o'er); in Illyr.; a=>but (Germ.' a6er, auer, a), also
al (Greek alia), our else^ German als; Ital. rnaix- never (but,
more) ; Corn. m6«= but, Gr'k men , Euss. no (Gr'k mm=«him,
that) ; Welsh 07idf«=but (German sondern, our and) ; so, A. S.
awdf=: but, L. autem; also Wei. pe,ped=T\f, is L. sed^ our hut^
as well as what (pe =wh^t).

209. Uven, ever : even is same as ever, like, as, equal {v*=q^
Cor. avel^ C-B. evel, ^, like, equal, even-as, level; Cor. kepar*^

HISTORY OF PARTICLES. 57

as, like, and kett^ ^lewery (Cornish relative wcj?, also, = any,
every; also relative kemmys^ Latin quantus).

210. Ever (every), Germ, imnier, Du. immers, L. s-emper and
hno ; L. ibij uM {ether) ^ uhi-que (where-as)« everywhere, and
w6i^w6i = wher-ever; Mod. Gc^eek po/e=:ever (relative); Latin
un-quam (two pron's) = ever, and WMJ^-^wam = never (two
pron*s), L. sevum, Ot'k aidn, ever, age; G'k pas, all, every, is a
relative like^o«', hence pantes-^osoi, all-such, all-who (who who) ;
Grerm. ye (the)=ever; Cor. a2;ar=carly — ever, cer, ere, early;
Grerm. sehr, very, ever, Per. har, old Germ, sar, Tart, (jfar, old
German war, Latin verc, German wahr, true.

211. If: It. ove (where, L. ubiy ihi), Germ, oh (whether, or).
Germ, wenn (when), all show how if^ Goth, iha, Ang. 8ax. <///*,
old Germ. oJ\ oh^ jof^ are relatives in origin; Lat. si = if (the,
this, Latin is), Sanscrit diet, Greek ci, Gothic ith (Lat. vt) and
iliau; Gothic ga^l, g-ahai (Greek A;ai) ===if, Latin s-ive (that-
which) s= whether, if; Welsh o, os, od (Latin si, and iit) =z\fy
also ^6, pedssi'ii ( but pa = what) ; in Russ., esli is if, German
als^ else, Kussian It} in Russian, hude equals if and he — we
find the same form used for if and he in many languages ; thus,
we say be this so, for if this is so — so, Fr. soi^=:may it be, or
be it, is used also for either, or, whether, as, indirectly if. (It
only shows, among other things, that be is pronominal also).

212. Or : Fr. ou is or and where; It. ovvero is or, and ove is
where; Germ, oder is or (other), L. vel, ve=OT, Germ, welcher);
the Greek g, S-pou, or, are also relatives; Icel. eda, edur, (either),
and ella (else) = or; A. S. aegther and outher, or, A. S. hwae-
ther, either, Go. aith-thau, L. aut {alter, other), or, old Germ.
eftha, or, aut ( after = other, or), also Go. other = or; see what
compounds we find — who-else, else-where, A. S. elleshva (Lat.
aUquis) ; Germ, et-was, et-lich (et, what); old Germ, aegh-wider
(either-whether) — and, remember that words with which we
find else = or, eithei^, associated, are like it; Cor. py is or, hvitpy
is also a relative.

213. Nor is a form of or ; it is or with n prefixed ; in Latin,
Tie-que (nee) =nor (not-which), 'i. e. it is a form of que, which;
in Germ?, nochz=doch, yet, now, is used for nor — Germ, weder
(whether and neither) also = nor; it is plain that nor is a form
of «€i<Aer = either; in Welsh na is nor and than, words which
are alike — the vulgar say, better nor that (Swed. end (and) =
than) ; so, in Greek, g (which, that, as) = or and than — as wo
hear, better as that^

214. Not, in the form in which we have it, is identical with
neither, though generally it is an ordinary demonstrative; as,
the G'k mg {men, but), L. ne; L. nun is now, and non is not, so
our now is like not) Ang. S. ne, noht and n^cht (Germ, noch is

8

58 PHRASIS.

yet)=not; Gothic nithau ( neither) = not, Germ, nicht; in old
German, els (else, German afo, as) and noMes mean not — naUa
develops, with us, into 9W)we-/e«s, not-che; the Greek has a form
ouk (ouy or), Icel. ecke, Danish ikke, for not; and Danish ingen
(any) means none, Germ, kein (Goth, gainsy Greek e-keinoi) —
German einigen, Greek enioi (some), Danish tn^en.

215. Soon : Du. haast is soon (haste) ; Germ bald (bold) is
quick, short, soon (Icel. ballr) ; old Germ, san and san^y Goth.
suns, mean soon, quick (then, than) — it is often found as suffix,
as hera-sun, here-soon ; Celt. B. kent (Lat. tant) is sooner j Cor.
whare is soon (where) — soon is, like the rest, clearly pronom-
inal. Rather, though connected with soon, seems more imme-
diately identified with ready.

216. Often: this word is connected first, in form, with after;
it is the Ital. s-ovente, Fr. souvent, Lat. sse/pe ; old Germ, thicco
(our thick) means often, so in Dutch, dik-wils (thick-whiles) is
often,

217. Our only, in form, is on^, but in other languages, it is
more clearly pronominal; so, in Lat., tantum (80-much)is only;
so, Kussian tolko (Latin talis), German nur (Latin nun\ Gothic
that-ainei (that-on e) .

218. Since is connected, in form, most intimately with soon
and then, and is clearly pronominal ; in Lat., and in many other
languages, it takes the form of as and when (a relative) ; A. S.
sith-than, since, Germ, seit-dem (since-then) — A. S. sith, means
late; L. pos^g^wam (after- which). It poi-che, ¥t. puis-que and
de-puis. It. do-po, L. post-ea (after those) ; G'k epij epei (after)
= since — so that since, here, is a form of post, sSter, which is a
relative like Greek pds, pote, meaning when,

219. Yet: Germ, noch means ye^and nor; Du. nochfe means
neither; thus, we^ee y€t=znor; It. an-che, Fr. am-«t (German
au-ch and no-ch), this-that, yet, (jterm.jedoch; L. tamen (so),
G'k toi, our though, tho\ Germ, doch, Lat. qt^m-quam (whioh-
which)=al-though, G'k kan for kai-an (and-ifj. (Such words
as kan, which we may properly consider as the union of kav-a^,
but which is still equal to our Latin quam, prove what we have
claimed, that two words coming together, as and-ift are really
elements of one compound); Ital. has pur = jet, even, German
a-her z=h\xt old Germ, a-ftir, a-hur ; Welsh eto is yet (Latin et^
Germ, doch)) Goth, thauh^aba iayet (that-if), old Germ, thoh-
thoh (tho-tho, that- that), and tho-widar (tho- whether).

220. Though has the form chotia (It. che). Germ, s-chon. It.
gia, Latin tarn (then, German demi), Cornish ken (Com. ytho
(tho) is now, then) ; Welsh er is tho, and yr is the.

Till : this is identical with our to, too, two (so) ; German his
is till, to, and L. bis is twice, C-B. beta ; Go. unte, our unto and

HISTORY OF PARTICLES. 59

!m^(6erm. wnd^ and, as, so) — again, we see that what we call
two words, as un-to, corresponds with our and, which we now
see has its elements too — witness also u-t, that, Greek ^o-ti
(whieh-that), our what; in L., tlU is ad (to) and ante (ad, and,
as), also us-que (so-that, ut-qrie), ante-quam (to-which), do-nec,
drum, quo-ail, 2iXi6. prius-quam (fore-that), Gr'k *^s (as, so) and
'eff« (what, that). StlU is till with s prefixed; Lat. clam is our

221. Together has the forms : GTerm. zusammen, It. in-sieme,
Ang. Saxon oMgaedere (at-gather) — all identical with the-same
(Lat simvl), to-same; in together, to is of course prep., and gc is
a common prefix ; and thet^ is the pronominal part, with which
wme often identifies; Grreek ^ofnou (same), Persian hem.

Prepositions,

222. We can identify prepositions with pronouns as easily as
we have adverbs, indeed, the line between prep's and adv'bs is
by no means strongly drawn, the one being often used to perform
the office of the other . Prepositions are a growth out of pr on ouns,
and, through pronouns, a growth out of the endings of nouns
and verbs also. The case endings, it will be remembered, repre-
sent not the prepositions only, but the preposition and the article,
or the preposition and demonstratives, which are articles. But
pronouns are all clearly developments of the endings of nouns
and verbs, proof of which is found in the fact, among others,
that in almost, if not all, languages, they are found in some of
tlieir forms, inseparably connected with nouns or verbs, or both.
In many languages, in the Semitic and Celtic, for example, the
preposition and the pronoun, and article, readily unite into one
v<Mxl, as German heim for hex dem, which proves the intimate
connexion of the two classes. It is well known, too, that a large
class of prefixes to verbs, in the various languages of the world,
are nnmistakably prepositions — some of these have been thrown
J>ff, as the ah of the L. ab-sitract, while others exist only in the
inseparable state.

223^. We find so many of our prepositions identify themselves
with each other, after we proceed a short distance in tracing
4eir origin, that it is almost impossible to make any just division
among them ; we will use, however, a few leading prepositions as
heads, under which, with very little regard to order, we will
include all the most interesting and instructive forms of preposi-
tions. Nor do we confine ourself solely to prepositions, but
we notice, incidentally, the origin of certain other words which
come in the connexion, thereby showing what remarkable van-

60 PHRASIS.

ations some words haye, and what unexpected applications they
are found in.

224. With: We find the following forms; Germ. m/V, G'k
meta and meth^ Sem. miw=in, Dan. mod and i-mod, meaniDg
against, Germ, wider, and Go. withra, against (whither), A. S.
tO'ioeardj (toward) and L. versus, against, A. S. with, against,
Sw. vid, by (L. 2'i//(/ = what), Corn, worth, meaning to and
against, Hung, vel (l=d, Germ, welcher) and ve, Russ. bez and
Pcrs. hi, for without ; it has its forms in middle, medium, m>ean
(Per. miyan and der-miyan, amidst, between), com-mon {com
is prefix) = mean. Germ, r/e-mein, low, a-mong, San. madya,
Zend, mat; there is another class of forms, as the G'k sun,
sum (8==w), Lith. m, Russ. so and su, San. sa and sam, Pers.
ham, L. cum (quum), *with and when, Lat. con, co (c= s), Welsh
can (and (/an) =as and with, Fr. chez, at and with (Italian che
equals when), our a-gainst, Germ, ge-gen {gen is rel. like Celt.
can, Pers. chun, how and as) — L. contra., G'k ka-ta) as without
is only one of the forms of with, the following connect with sttn,
con; as, Fr. sans (and dans, in and with), G'k aneu, Russ. tmya,
Germ, ohne. Go. V?m, old Germ, ana, aane, and awo (in, on),
Germ, sondem meaning but, L. sed (with equals but).

225. The branch headed by sun has very extensive connexions
outside of the list of prepositions; our same is identical with
San. sam, with, Pers. ham, our sim-ilar, G'k *amrt = (German
zu-sammen, L. tc/em (= with), to-gether (geth equals with);
from the sense of icith and together, taken with the etymology,
we connect ]j. omnis equal to all,Illyr. vas, sva, Lith. wissas,
Boh. «;.<?«« (with) =all, whole, full, G'k *olos, Oskish soUos, our
sole, solid; San. sarva is every, whole, Latin salvus (/=r), our
safe, sound, Per. har, Germ, jedcr. Germ. ^aw2;=:all {g=Cy «),
our even — all these point to San. sa (ha) = with; (in Lat., we
found qui=zSiiij, all, and, and que=zB\-so (both relatives); so,
now, we find with, related to qui, also connected with words
denoting all, whole, safe ; there is also L. semi and hernia half,
which point to San. sam (halves are equals, same) — and many
other cases which we cannot notice here.

226. With, as we hinted above, is. connected with hetwixt
(G'k meta-xu) and between, being identical with midst, t-wixt,
L. inter (a form of iw) = between, and German unter (a form of
m^er)^bc-neath and amid, and German hinter (a form of wifer,
inner) =: behind and down, under; we have the connexions
toith-out and with-in, and in A. Sax., with-aeften equals behind,

. after, and loithforan equals be-fore, and hence with equals out,
in, after, fore, since it unites with these words.

227. Out: Germ, axis, ausscr (out-er). Per. az=of, lAth.uz,
Lett, is, G'k eis for in, Gk). ut (L. ut= that). Per. ez, Lat. e and

HISTORY OF PARTICLES. 61

ex, OUT of, off (we say om^o/), San. ut, old German o/and aue;
this preposition is plainly the same as to, so, that, the letters
being transposed.

228. Up and under : San. ^ipar and upa, G'k ^tipo and \vper
meaning under and a-bove, Lat. super vin^ suhter meaning over
and under, San. upari, our upper (outer), Germ, iiher, Fr. sur,
Cor. war) Per. bar {u-par) is on, and upon ; L. supra is abovd
and up-on; old German u-har (German aher for but, bout) and
uffd, upha for ab-ove, ab-out; A. S. hufan (butan, hui)= super
and a-bove, o-ver {aher, other, oder)) A. Sax. up and uppan =
super, de-super ; Gr'kpera?! meaning above and beyond; Gr^k-
para, onr from; G'k peri, our /or; Dan. ^)aa is up-on; Russ.
jpo means a-bout, a-fter (L. post) ; Illyr. pak, our back ; Germ.
au/ia up, on, of and off; Greek apo and ept=of, up, and on;
Alb. mpi (hsitm ambi, Gerni. ^im-bei), Siudj^er^su-per ; Alb.
a-pher (after), by; Ituh/ra (from) equals in-fra, in-ter, in-tra,
our by; Cornish dre (un-der), through (Latin ^raws), and a-dre
meaning around, Celtic Breton tro, French tour, our thro'.

229. There is no end to the connexions of such words. The
student will particularly notice here, what he will observe in
every branch of language, that, from the full form Lat. su-per,
for example, some languages use wer and vary it as her, har, ter;
others use uper, upper, up, while the Fr. throw out thep, and
have sur ; this shows that it is as true in words as it is with
animals, that every part is complete in itself, and has the
capacity, under certain conditions, observable chiefly in the
lower orders of life, of becoming itself a whole ; and we observe,
too, that a word may be divided, as to its elements, very differ-
ently; thus, in-ter (in and ter, per, sur) or int-er (t?i^=and, ad),
and ab-ove (over, of out), or a-bove (bout, but, by). So that
we find representatives for parts of words, or for two words
uniting together, in other simple (so considered) and complete
words. These points, well kept in view, will enable the student
to proceed much easier in tracing the lineage of words.

230 Bi/ ; G'k e-pt. Germ, hei, Lat. oh (over), Lith. pi, San.
ahhi and api^ Ck opisd (= a-fter), our back, Gothic bi, in and
around, A. S. be, in and to, Fr. de, L. de, e equals of (our to) ;
A. S. emb (em), em-be, ym-hutan, Gr*k am-phi, Lat. amb (and
L. am-bo meaning both, as Germ, bei-de equals both; by equals
and, and both), Euss. o-b, o, oh-o, old Germ, um-hi, Welsh am,
Irish im-m, Latin circ-um,

231. (We see by this am-bi, um-bi, the growth of a preposition
by doubling, while the elements am and by are both used alone,
with the sense of the full form um-bi; and observe, too, those
elements um and bi (m-bi) may themselves be .conceived of, as
made up of elements again like themselves ; Kuss. oh is clearly

62 PHBASIS.

double, as mucb as amh^ and evon the o eqnal to oh has lis
parts, undistiDguishable, as o-o. Such facts as these, in language,
we find patent everywhere.) The L. a-pud meaning cU and witk^
belongs with epi ; among is to be classed with ambi; to and at
are other forms of Z>y, pi (p=05 ^ t^^J *r® ^^so of the, that

232. ^or ; the connexions of this particle are very extensive;
the identity of orthography proves its relation with the follow-
ing : fore, be-fore, former, forth, ere (fore), early, Latin prius,
first. Germ. fruh==earli/ &ud fore, Sa.n. puras, G'k prm, Lith.
pirm (all denoting fore, first, and marked by fr, pr, er) ; far
and from {Go.fruma for first, Germ, erst), further (Germ, vor-
der, fore) — our word prince, G^qtvh, f first, belongs with for, fore
(a fore-man) ; there is the German frau, froh, fromm, and our
force, frost, fresh, and very many others which we might name,
also connected with fore, first, for.

233. These are the variations /or undergoes: Gr'k pro, pros
and proti (=for), Latin prae meaning for, and before, Rns. pra
andprct^ (= before), Rus. pro for of, and about, and pre for
beyond, and pri for near ; Goi faura and faurth, L. prseter for
before, and above, Fr. pour, Fr. proclie for near, L. prope, Bus;
protiv, against, Illyr. pored, near, and potlam, after, Welsh ger
meaning near, and er, for, and er-hyn, against. Com. rag, (gar)
equal to for, and from, and a-rak, before, Cornish re (rag and
er), by.

234. Of and off; of (ov) is thus connected : L. ah^ and, L.
c and ex (=from and o/), G'k apo and aph (off), San. apa for
off, away, and far, our afar, San. ava, away, off, Goth, af, Pers.
az, Rus. ov, ot, and o=of, against, and from, Illyr. od and oda
(our to), and van (German von, of, from) = outer, extra, (the
Hebrew min meaning from, is to be compared with the German
von, of) ) The Germ, v-on, of, shows the on equal of; Welsh o
and odd (same as a and ay, with) equal of, and from-=— it is a,
meaning of, in C-B. ; e, which in L. equals of, from, in C-B., is
seen with the forms enn, el, er, for in, Fr. d-ans. If we bear in
mind the G'k apo, we shall easily connect after and its family
with of. In Alb., nte and mpe (into) is in, and of, and mpi is
by ; in Fr. and L., dels of (to) ; in Wal., de and dela (?a = the);
in Hung., it is tol, while nel (t=n) is by; old Germ, ir (is, aus,
out) means of, from ; Slavic iz (aus) means out, Latin ex, of.

235. To, at, m, and on : to equal to at, shows easily how the
letters of a word transpose; Lat. ad, Wal. la (l^d) — showing
to equal the; Sem. I and d, Fr. a and de (^at and to). Germ. »«,
Rus. do and za, Gaelic do, Goth, and is in, and und is to, till;
A. S. oth, old Germ, ant (at), at, and ana, an, in (hence in-to);
also nah (ana) means to tina from, and v-a7i, f-ona (Germ, von
— on with v) is used ion from and of; Lat. ante, French avant

HISTORY OF PARTICLES. 63

•
(on-to, in-to) meaning before, is a form of at, ad, and; so is L.
ap«J, with, and G'k ana, on. The pronominal natilrc of these
four particles is very evident.

236. Through and across : through is thus represented : Lat.
tram for over, across and beyond, Gaelic thar and trid, Welsh
troihx over, Sans. tiraSy Knssian cherez, Illyrian srez (8=ch),
sez, kroz (cross), all meaning through (cross is tros, trans), old
Germ, thurg, thuru (thorough), Germ, durch, A. S. thurh, Goth.
thdrh, Per. dar^ in, G'k dia, h.per (p = t), G'kper* for about,
above, around, beyond, and hence over and across, through;
Polish przez equals through (p = t) and przi/ equals by, j^f'ocz
equals out, outer ; and for outer, out, out of, we find Pol. krom
and o-^om (a-cross), krom for trom (k=t); the cr of cross is
the <r of irarw, and the^r of per; so, too, it is the vr, pr, of
o-ver, su-per, the ar of around (ard, dar), Germ henim ^Polish
krom), (Door and all its class connect with through, German
durch.)

237. We may, as well here as elsewhere, state definitely,
what we have before only touched upon, viz., the following law :
Every case-form, tense-form, person-form, or form of any kind,
is just as much a proper representative of the word, as that
which we call the word itself, and which, as amo or ama, \^e
erroneously conceive to be the root, the hase, the original.
Every abbreviation of a word is one of its forms, every combina-
tion of it with some other element is also a form of the same.
And all this arises from the fact that one form may be more
condensed or more developed than another ; to illustrate, amor
^t (past tense) is one of the forms of amo, (it is amo in one
of it8 developments, not amo of the present, but that imaginary
*kiiig which we call the verb am^, that thing which is made
nutnifest by its forms) ; whom is a form of who, lovest is a form
yffo»«, lowngvA another form; before is a form of fore, attract
M a form of troA^t, pretend is one of the phases of tend,

238. It is only by remembering this law, that we shall under-
stand how it occurs, that what we find used in one case, in one
Dumber, or in one tense, is found, in another language, in
Another case, number, tense, or application ; as, what we have
for <Ae«e, the Germans have for this (dies-er, dees).

239. We may remark, farther, that verbs are named from
the 1st person, sipg. prest., but there is no reason why the verb
should not be named as well from any other person, or tense, or
mood — BO the verb amo we might call amare (inf.), or amahat;
and 80 the noun may be called from any of its case or number
forms, as well as by its usual name, the nominative. The verb
or noun itself is an imaginary thing, and is only represented by
the forms, called words, from which it is itself distipct, a3 the

64 PHBASIS.

Boul is from the body. So amo is as much one of the forms of
what we cStll the verb amo (but which might be called amare
'as well) as amat or amavi is. We discard the idea of any form,
or word, being the root or original of a class — we may use the
term for convenience, but it can never stand testing. Where
are the root or base-forms of the human race ?

CHAPTER V];i.
HISTORY OF NUMERALS.

240. That at least three of the numerals, the first three, are
pronouns, is beyond all doubt. In almost all languages, the
numeral one is used as an article, or as a sort of demonstrative
pronoun — it belongs to the family of our a, aw, awy, noiie, some.
We have seen under the head of pronouns, that an is demon-
strative as well as the. The Fr. on^ German man (Russ. ow, he,
o^ii, they, Sw. han^ he), is used as we employ one^ in one asks,
one sa^Sj and as thet/, in thei/ ask, tliey say. In Dan., we find
eet (it) as well as een^ for one. The Germ, man, one, the Gr'k
monos, al-one, only, and mia, one, shows many=one.

241. The related forms of 07ie differ from it very materially
in form. Even its own adjective ^rs^. Germ, erst, Gr'kprotos^
L. primus, Rus. pervi, is apparently far removed from it ; but,
that these superlative forms are in the end identical with one,
is seen by the Turkish hir, one, and Per. bar, once. The Lat.
semel, is once, our simple, single, similar (same, even), L. send,
demi (half), (middle, with, G'k sun), sole. Our each, Per. ek
or yek, one, Gr*k ^apax, once (^p=ky) and Gr'k eka-teros, each
(San. eka, one), is another form of one — either, wJiether, Lith.
Jcatras, San. kataras, G'k poteros, is also a remote form (G*k ek
(from, apart, alone) is eka, each, one (al-one), Latin ex).

242. We will now dwell briefly on some additional forms of
one as they appear in different languages. 'Thus, in Slavic, we
find such forms as, jeden, eden, yheden ; this d does not appear
in our one, L. un-us, Gr'k hen, but it is clearly the r of protos,
first — strike out this d, and eden becomes een, one; other Slavic
forms are ains, weens, wienas, our one. The Semitic has echad
or ehad (San. eka, Slav, gheden), also had, and, ante — the Per.

. class, besides jek, yek, has also ju, yuo. The Finnish class has
egy (eka), aku, akt, ogy=^ot, it (Danish cet), wait (w-one), ykss
and odyk (Slav, eden, d=k). Old Germ, has eyn for egen, een

HISTORY OF NUMERALS, 65

(Qt'k 'cis), Alb. gna equal to una — so, we Bee we have suppressed
the g, /b, d, y, t, which appears in other languages, or we have
only n to represent it.

243. Two : The identity existing between sonifj.of the forms
of OTie and two, is easy to be observed ; thus, the Turt. hir, our
Jirst, is the Latin his, twice, and the either, each, and whether,
which we have just connected with one, are also connected with
other ^second, two ; so, too, the k and d marks of one, seen in
so many languages, are not diflPerent frona the t and d of two.

244. The numeral two is plainly identical with the demon-
strative element ta, Gr'k to, our the, as well as with the adverb
too, prep, to. In Latin, alter, other , is often used for second —
in short, it is a prevailing feature in language, to find other equal
to second. We can easily connect our two with L. his (bs, bt),
by taking tw equal to th, reversed ht, hs.

245. We will now give some of the forms of two. In Germ,
class, we have twei, zwa, zween {een, ein, eins, one), zuene, tu,
tov, and hais (Gr'k heta, L. his). Ii^ Slavic, two is dva, doua,
du, diwe; Sem. dent, ith, aeth (leaving off some of the -endings)
— there is also chl, quil, kill, haul, and ter (less the endings of
the plural), where chl, ql, kl, and hi identify with kl, tl, tr, and
point to our three, Lat. tres (See the forms of Sem. three). The
Heb. form for two is sena-im (aim, im, is plural ending) ; this
reminds us of the Malay forms for one, sa, sat, sar, isa, do, taha,
tika. Of the Tartar languages, those whicji have emu, omin,
for one, have also djm, djur, dsur, chojur (chj=dj), for two —
and those which have hir equal to one, have iki, oke (k==t), for
two. In Finn., two is kak,kyk, kit, kwektQc^t, w), in Malay,
lor, kcU, dua, row, nou {I, d, k, r, and n=t, and tw, du) — lr=tr.

246. Three : That three is not essentially different from two,
must be evident on the sligl^test reflection — they are as nearly
identical as this and that, or as here and there, here and the;
Oerm. der, the, three.

In the Gr'k, Slav., Germ., Cjelt., and Lat. class of languages,
tr is the prevailing mark for three. In Sem., it is sel, tel, toul,
d, se (all=<r, tl); in Malay, we have this same tal, tel, but also
tig-a, tor-ho; Finnish kor, kor' {k==zt), also kwiu, huim, kolm,
like our two (Jc=t)) \x^ Tart., it is iU (Sem. t-el), also gur (g=
d, t) — and for such dialects as have hir for one, we find utsch,
MM, wisse, for three (this we n^ay divide thus, ut-sch).

247. Four : The variations which the number four exhibits,
in the different languages, ar^e thpse :

Tartar ; duin, digin, dort, dorV.
Sem.; arV , har\ uV , arr' (arh=^har, f-our),
Slav. ; chetyr, seter, chtir\ zetter (ch=z).
Per.; tchetr, djahar^ zippar^^zittar, tsulor (ls=:d, t).
9

66 PHRASIS.

Finn. ; neV^ 'f^^gy^ njul,

Malay ; papat^ ampat, pat, opat, wutu, haa, ra, fa, e/ar,
hpat, watt (w=py

Gr'k; kat$f,tessar,pes8ar, catre, quatr, hator (b=q,/).
Germ. ; Jiar% vier, JidwoVj feower {dw=w,u),
Celt. ; ceithir, pedwar, pevar, peder (p=f),

248. That all these forms can easily be connected, is a matter
that does not admit of question ; in Tartar., du equals dg, dr,
which is the tr, ter of G'k and Slav, four ; the Slav, cheti/r, L.
quatvor, our quarter (fourth), Greek ^a^^r, catre, qiuxtr, Persian
tchetr, djahar, have all developed an internal t which does not
appear in our /our, but which does appear in the German form
JidwoTy and in the Celtic pedwar for pevar (=fevar, feower,
/our) — those letters t, k, q, c, tch, dj, 6, are all equals of our
f=p. In Finn., ne?, ?ie<7, ?y7 equal nr,wr,fr. In Malay, we
see how forms reduce; thus, papat, opat, efat, pat, wat, /a,,
haa, ra; these easily go with peder, pessar, four,

249. That this numeral might, as a matter of etymology, be
identified with" any one of the three which precede it, is some-
thing quite evident. The Tartar points clearly, in its duin, to
the L. duo and its own dj'uo, two; the Finn, negi/ points to the
San. eka and its own egt/, aha, one, while the tr, dr, prevailing
in the Slavic, Greek, and German classes, indicates tres, three.
There is indeed little question, that the different numerals are
all allied, and are merely the different application and develop-
ment of one element. But about the precise history of this /owr
further than this, there is nothing demonstrable — though some-
thing may be said as probable.

250. It has been supposed by some, that four, in such forms
as Celt, peder, Gr'k pessar, Slavic chetyr, our quarter, is a com-
pound of one and three, the pe, qua, ch, representing eka, one,
and ter, three, yet we cannot say that we have found any evi-
dence sustaining this theory. The resemblance between four,
in its different forms, in the course of languages, and two, is
greater than that between four and any other numeral. The
strongest evidence in this direction, is found in the Tartar class,
already noticed, and in the Caucasian class which we may notice
here ; thus, we find, there, the forms di and tchor equal to four,
and tu, schi,jer (^^cher) equal to two. Besides, the ch, t, and
p, so common as the initial element of four in the European
languages, also points to the two, as does the dw of fidwor.

251. It is supposed, again, but without any positive proof that
we know of, that four is a compound = 2x2, or the 2d two.
We can only take this proposition as nearly certain, that four stands
in a closet relation with two than with any other numeral, in a
word, that two is the element:, or fi^ndamental element, of four;

HISTORY OP NUMERALS. 67

taking etymology alone for evidence. There is no history on
this point. There is, besides this, another theory, of which we
can only say that it presents what is barely possible^ that four
equals one from five, on the Horn, system of notation, iv; f(mr
and jive^ it must be said, often resemble each other in form.

252. There is some evidence to show that four has at times
been treated as the base of the number system, being designated
by a word signifying whole^ all, end. Taking this as true, and
Temembering that/owr is probably a form of two, we should be
finally brought to the conclusion that two is the base of the
numerical system. In our opinion, two is the beginning and
the end of all numbering-— beyond this and that, here and there,
we have no numbers — ^all must come under the category of one
or the other. To number is to compare, but we can compare
only two things, or one with one.

. 263» jFVvc ; There seems to be not so much doubt about the
number ^ve. It is a fact not to be questioned, that numeration,
in the earlier stages of society, was carried on with reference to the
fingers, and we still find the child involuntarily resorting to the
fingers in his first lessons in counting and calculation. It seems
to be well established, that there are tribes who in their system
not only count in the fingers of both hands, but after this count
also their toes. — for instance, some of the Am. Indians. The
Greenlanders can count with their numbers only to five, one
hand, and when they go beyond that they must repeat, as we
do when we get beyond ten — thus, six is one-on-2d-hand, eight
is on-2nd>-hand-three. After ten, the toes of both feet are
counted also; thus, for 13 they have onjirst/oot three. When
they have twenty, they have, in their terms, "a whole man'*,
and to get beyond twenty, -they must use a 2d man.

254. In several languages, is easily discernible the identity
between the term for^t?eand that for hand; thus. Per. panchan
means Jive and pentsha means hand, and there are several
instances of the like in the Malay class of languages. In some
of the African tongues, not only is hand equal to Jive, but seven
is expressed by hand and two, and fifteen by three hands. Alex.
Humboldt tells of American tribes where four is used as such a
base, six being four with two, and eight being ^i?c with three,

255. Some of the forms of Jive are the following :

Tart.; tunf, ton\ taU (<=rGr'kp); many of the Tart, tongues
have hash, hesch, equal to five, but this is precisely the word
for head, while hand is kal, gal, gar.

Slav. ; pett,peiit,pin](^ piatt. (G'kpente, L. quinq\ GeTm.fUnf),

Per.; pendj, pinz. Ions (in Ossete) (l^^p)*

Finn. ; wiss, wjet, wit^ uet, at, ot (w=p, at=:p-at, p-ent).

Malay; lima, rima, dimi (l=f, p) — lima, rima=hand.

\

68 PHRASIS.

Gr'k; pea^ peiid, quinq, ainq, cinq — p, q, 8 = f of Jive.

We notice in many instances, that hand and foot agree in
form; notice in Gr*k aho pes, jyend equals fiye, and pes, pod ^
foot.

Germ.; fiinf, fyf, fimm, five ; Celt. cMig^pemp ic=q,p,/),

Sem. ; kham/ {p^k, M), ham\ am/ (for Team, pam, liam).

256. Six : Wo can ascertain nothing decisive about the his-
tory of SIX. The Greek *ex is practically equal to ex, out of,
beyond, over, and we notice something of this coincidence in
some of the Tartar languages; moreover, ex^eks may be iden-
tified with the eka, one, and we might thus take six sls one after
or over (taking 6 as the basis or end), i. e. 6 and one more, or
one in the 2d hand, or series. There are many instances of a
coincidence between six and one, also between six and two=one;
notice also L. sex=^seks, sequor, secutus, secutive (the one after
or following). Some, again, have supposed six to be 2X3, two
threes.

257. We may notice these forms : *

Tart. ; nirvg\ njun\ dmrg\ surg (ng, njf^dj, ds, s of six} }
many Tart, tongues have alt, alty {cdt^at, as, sa, six).

Slav.; chest, se, sest (eh=»s).

Sem. ; sis', seth\ schash, sedest, soas, sita (six).

Eers. ; shess, shescK , achs\ spuz (sp=sh, «).

Finn, ; kuss, hot, hud, kwet, hut (^«s).

Malay; sad,\daou, anom^ ono, nel, ol, houn, elen — nam, atiam,
appears in many of the Malay tongues ; it resembles the Tartar
six and our nine.

G'k; giast (^i*=si), ex, hex, sex,fiess (/=«), sie, seje, cheie.

Germ. ; sex, sechs, segs, zies, sess, seks, saihs, six.

The Tart, alti/ is connected with* our all, whole, heap.

258. Seven : There is often a remarkable coincidence between
six and seven; we even see it in the Lat. sex (6) and sept* (7) —
but this is perhaps the very coincidence of one and two, this and
that, a and the. It is quite possible, even probable, that six and
seven are 1-f 5, 2 + 5, just as 11 = 1 + 10, 12 = 2 + 10; in
one case 5 being the base, and in the other 10. We know the
Roman numerals are made after that manner, as vi and vii.
The forms of feeven are these :

Tart.; nad, dol,jedi, edi, sett (n, d, j=s).

Slav. ; sedm, sem, sept,

Sem. ; sib', tah\ suh', ^aft.

Pers. ; hapt, heft, "^aaft, ^awd, *owu {aaft—saft, sept).

Finn.; kjet', ssis, ssat, het, la-but, locssat, ja-get.

Malay ; pit', tudj, het, fil, it, fit, pitt, (see s-ept).

Gr'k; state, hept, sept, set, siet, cheapt {set =M.ti\3iy fit).

Germ. ; sebn, sibn, simm, sojn, san, sio, sov (sev-en).

HISTORY OF NUMERALS. 69

Celt. ; seachd) saitky seih.

All these forms are easily identified.

259. Eight: This is another number about whose history
there is much that is dotlbtful. It has been maintained that
with 8 and 9 we enter upon a subtracting method of notation,
that 8 is two from 10, and 9 one from 10. Considering the
great resemblance, often found, between the forms for eight and
two, and between nine and one, the proposition is plausible.
Indeed in the Eom. method, 9 is ix, one from ten. It is, we
think, more probable, however, that the system applies to the
nifie than to eight, as we find the fact in Koman.

260. It has been claimed, again, that eight is two fours, as
we imagined fowr to be two twos, and, considering the oft recur-
ring coincidence of eight with two and septem (-which we believe
to be accented on two, vfith Jive for a base), we regard this the-
ory as the most probable. In Tartar and Finn., we find eight
pointing most undoubtedly to two,

261. Here follow the different forms of eight :

Tart.; djak, djapk, naim' (nm = dj)), ssek, ss-egis (dk, 8k=^st).

Slav.; osm, ossam, vossom, aszt, aM {sm==st, ct).

Sem. ; semoun, tem-on, sem-ent (snn^stn, st).

Pers. ; hasht, hasch, ast, utu (eight, ate, oct).

Finn. ; kadekssan, kattesa, hyhwmyss, nilonou, nuvl, nillach,
'9^'iglach (kdk, ktt'^oct, ott, Slav^^^, kyk=^nul').

Malay ] wolu, halu^ qual, arrou, a/a, de-lapan, salapan (wl,
&Z, gl=:ior, ar; af^akt, oct),

Greek ; tete, okto, oict, uit, vot, ott, vuit, huit, opt.

Germ. ; acto, acht, ahtan, atta, eight,

Celt; ; ochd, wyth, eiz, eith.

Behold the variations ihat^«, kt, tt, ct, ch, ck, undergoes. In
^Aifal., lua, rua, dalua equal two, and papat, apat, ampat equal
^f<)Ur, hence de-lapan equals two fours,

262. Nine : very little is to be said of nine, save what was
^laientioned in treating of eight. In Tamil, nine is clearly one

jfrom ten. The initial of Malay nine agrees with one ; the end-
ings of all Finn, nin^s are like ten. It will be observed, also,
"that some forms of nines equal novus, new, and it has been
claimed that those words have the same origin.

263. The following are the forms :

Tart. ; ujun, jegin, jissun, Jessu, dokus {jeg == dok = nv) .
Slav. ; devett (Tart, dok, nov, n^d).
Sem. ; tisch, tis, tasa, nouh, zet, tse {ts:=ds, dv, nv),
Pers.; nxyuh, nah (71= Slav, and Sem. d, t).
Finn. ; ydekssan, ygoksse, uttesa, ykmyss, ontolon. Here we
\2kY^ydek=ygok,ykmy, utt, ont (=dev, nov, dok).
'Malay . songo, nawa, siwa (s=w), sir a, ea, tiva (s=^, n).

70 PHRASIS.

Gr^k; 7iande, eniiea, enar, egnia, nou, nef^ nov {nd^diiy dv).
Germ. : neun^ onun, iiegen {ng — (jr^^ dn), nio, ni (et7i=»one)l
Celt.; naoidh, naw, nao {ndtt^dn, nw = wn, dn).
We may notice here, without difficulty, great resemblance
between some forms for nine and those for one and ten,

264. T}en : We will lastly give the forms for ten ;
Tart, 'j djan, men, arb, on.

Slav. ; dessett, desymt, desmith, zassech,

Sem. ; asro, gasrh, assir, ascher (asr^^das, deoem).

Pers. ; desme, deh, des, lus {l^d, des=d-es).

Malay; dasa^pulu, rouru {rr—pl), seik.

Gr'k; djett, thiet, deka, dez, deu, de, des, diXy dfici.

Finn.; kmn, {km^^dm), das, lu,jon (^j=^d).

Germ. ; tehan; zehn, tern, tigen, taihun, ti, ten,

Celt.; deich, deg.

Behold the forms into which do, dg, dt, dk, develops itself.

265. That the basis o^ ten is two, is evident enough— refer-
ring, without doubt, to two hands, or fives. It is even possible
that cem, in L. decern, represents j^ye, quinq, cinq. Ten, Greek
deka, is no doubt, too, connected with dexter, the right, which
again connects with deilmumi (Greek), to show, and with digit,
finger or pointer, shower; toe belongs to the same family, as
well as Germ, zahl, number, tell, count, show, say, in-dicate. Not
only does the right agree witl^ ten, but in some languages also
left agrees with^ve.

We will notice briefly some of the numbers after ten.

266. The uniform practice in the different languages, is to go
on, after ten, adding to ten, as 13 « three and ten (thirteen).
This position is clear for all except eleven and twelve, which
differ considerably in character, so far as appearance goes, from
the other combinations. That the initial part of twelve might
be two is possible, but the Iv has little to do with teni

267. The following forms will illustrate eleven;
Fries.; andlova, alvene, elleva,

A. S. ; endlufon.

Icel.; ellifu.

Goth.; aiVi-^^/* (one left).

Fries. ; twelve is twiliva, tolva, tolef.

Old Sax. ; twelif.

Icel. ; tolf,

Goth.; ^va-^i/* (two left).

268. That this Iv, If, lif represents our leave, left, Go. leiban,
G'k leipd, admits of little doubt; so that 11 would be one-left, one-
over, or one-more ; and tioelve equals two-left, ttco-over. The use
of this over, or its equivalents, in numbering in this way, is com-
mon with us and elsewhere. In Wall., 11 is one over 10, or one

HISTORY OF NUMERALS. 71

and ten, as unu-spre-dece (this sprc equals sup^a, over, and) — so,
twelve is two-over-ten. In Lithuanian, 11 is wieno-Uka^ and 12 is
dwylika — and with the same lika up to 20. This like, can, it
is true, be identified with deka, ten, as ten is remotely connected,
again, with and, over, one, but that lika, in Lith., represents
directly ten or deka, does not seem probable. It seems prefer-
able to refer it to lif, Iv, which we have been considering, or to
mper, over, and besides to the ly of only, thirdly,

269. By the way, in French, 11 and 12 are reduced to onze
■ and douze, not difierent from our once and twice — and even in

our eleven and twelve, the one and two, being accented, prevail
almost to the exclusion of the other element; this calls to mind,
too, the form of some of those numbers which we have before
been considering, simple in appearance, while in fact we know
them to be compound (as eight) — the accented element prevail-
ing to the exclusion of the other.

270. But we do not find such irregularity or ambiguity, in
these numbers, in many other languages. Thus, in Persian, 11
is yazdah, 12 is duwazdah {yak — 1, du^=2, dah=10). The
dah is plain, and i^ found so in all the rest of the teens, but the
z, which is found in no others, save 19, seems to be a third ele-
ment equal to az, by, with, and. In Gael., we find deaz in all
the teens and in 11 and 12, without connexion, as aon-deaz, do-
deaz. This system prevails in Celtic, It is the one of L. and
Grreek, un-dedm, duo-decim, tre-decim. The connective is not
developed in the Latin languages generally, though we do find
y ^^»and in Spanish. In Polish, commencing with 11, the num-
boxsare connected substantially as in Latin — the copulative is
scarcely developed — though in Rubs., we see it appearing in a
str-ong light ; .as, 7Mi=on,.over, and; thus, odin-na-dzat, one-
a.nd-ten, eleven.

271. The number twelve is often represented by dozen (same

as-San. dasan^ten) — dozen (Germ, duzend) is connected also

'^vith thousand. Germ, tausend. So that thousand is only a ten,

^tid hind (-red) is not perhaps difierent. Gothic tai-htm is ten

C2 fives ?), our teen, teh-en — here we see the hund. It is easy

to see that Fr. douze (12) is our dozen ; Lat. cent (-um), hund^

equals Fr. cinq, five ; in some of the Tartar dialects, the same

'Word is used for 3 and 100. Twenty is a developed two (Latin

■^nti, twenty, is not far from quinque,five').

272. In Goth., we find for 20, 30, 40, tvai-tigus, thrija-tigus,
fidwiT'tigus — ft^'!** another form of ten. In Lat., for these they
^!^ viginii (bi^ginti), tri-ginta, quadra-ginta — the ginti here
plainly representing ten, and yet agreeing in form more with
c«»i(w» (100), and with five {quinq) — furnishing more proof of
^^^hund, five (200 is du-centi). I« Irish, the case is still

72 PHRASIS.

plainer, as 30 is trio-cad, and cead=100 (cead also is^r*^); in
Cor., i-ganz =20 J and ca7is=100. In San., t?iVi-«a^t >^ 20, sata!
==100, and pa7icha-sat=^b0.

273. In Celtic, by the way, we do not find the same regular
system of twenty, thirty, forty, as we do in other European lan-
guages, but 30 is ten and twenty, 40 is two times twenty, 80 is
4 X 20, 60 is 10 and 40, 300 is 16X20. We notice in Pers.,
that these numbers have scarcely developed enough to render
the latter elepient distinguishable ; thus, 30 is si (and siA=3),
gJia^t equals 60 and 6.

274. In Latin, besides the forms decern et octo, and decern et
fiovem, there are also duo-de-viginti (2 from 20), un-de-viginti^
for 18 and 19 — so the usual forms for 28 and 29 are two-froni-
thirty, one-from-thirty. This lends credibility to the position
that 8, as well as 9, is made by subtracting one from 10, two
from ten. In the teens of Mod. Grqek, we find dekatreis (ten
(and) three), but 11 and 12 are en-deka, dS-deka, In Alban.,
the connecting mpe == of, and, over, is developed, commencing
with 11; as, nie-mpe-dgiete (11), tre-mpe-dgiete (13). We notice
also in Alb., 20 is nie-dzet, 40 is di-dzet, while 10 is dget — so
that they stand one-ten, two-ten, so far as form goes, making ten
equal twenty, as it really is. The Greek eikosi (20) points the
same way (deka = 10).

276. In some of the dialects of Samoid, we find that 8 is' 2
from 10, and 9 is one from 10. It is claimed that in others,
however, it is difierent, that 8 is 2 X 4. It is true in this case
that det, the last element, is like det==/our, but it is also not
unlike (Jurak) kot and hied = ten. It is probable, we think,
that 8 is formed in the Jurak dialect as in the Ostjak ; in «mc,
tliLeju=ten is plain. In these dialects, 11. and 12 are formed
just as 8 and 9, with only over in place of fro7n. It is clear
that these two sets of numbers are really the same on different
sides of the zero mark. It is worthy of note also that in Jurak,
9 is called Samoidish-ten ; by the way, we find the very same
word used for 10 as for 9-:T-in other cases, 9 is called Ostfak-
ten; twenty is called two-tens.

276. Mille, in Latin, is the same as our million in form, but
is used for thousand. It may be remarked that many words
denoting numbers, such as Gr'k muroi, chiUoi, are simply indefi-
nite terms, as our heap, lot, Jtost, multitude — and even Jive,
hundred, and tliousand, may be proved to have connexion with
such terms.

277. It is well known that in many languages, letters are
used to indicate numbers. There is at least one language
("Rothwclche'') where names of letters of the alphabet are used
to denote numbers also. The first 9 letters of the G'k alphabet

HISTORY OP NUMERALS. 73

denote units ((counting in, for 6 ,an ancient letter not found at

present), and the next 9 represent the tens (including an ancient

one not used now, representing 90) — the last 9 being used for

t^lie hundreds (with an extra one for 900). In Hebrew, the first

■fcen letters are used to denote the 10 numerals, units ; 20, 30,

etc., up to 100, are denoted by the next nine in order — the

:remaining four being used for 100, 200, 300, 400. The same

in Syr. and Arm. There is evidently a close relationship be-

-*ween the names of letters and the names of numbers.

278. It is clear to any one who inquires into the nature of
3Diumbers, that they are only marks of order; so, we found the
:first two numbers denoting only former and latter, and that
^hree was allied to them, and four to be the one before five, or
-the latter or second two ; we found 8 and 9 to be either the 2d
^nd 1st (latter and former) before ten, or the 8 to be the latter
or second ybwr; we found 11 and 12 to be the one or the two
^rfter ten — ten being the former or first, the basis. This is the
secret of the system ; twenty is only the latter or 2d ten, thirty
the ten after 20, forty the latter or 2d twenty. So we find them
proceed by steps, by comparisons. There can be no doubt hang-
ing around this position. So much, at least, is certain about
tlie nature of numbers; and it is by virtue of this system of
crier, that, in Semitic and European languages, the alphabet is
tis'ed to denote numbers. We repeat it, number is based on
order; every number is a mere relative mark, or mark of relation,

279. Twenty, for example, denotes only one, it is the latter
or 2d ten — it is still only one thing, one ten — so, ten is the 2d
fifth. Hence, we frequently hear it said, he has reached his
twentieth year (=20 years). Observe that all ordinals, as 25th,
point -only to one thing, the 25th — the same must be true, too,
of cardinals, as 25. It is on this principle that the German
(and others) says third-a-half (the 3d one being a half), for the
number 2 J, showing that in numbering, regard is had alone for
^ last thing numbered.

280. The Arabic characters, or figures, can, without doubt,
be identified in their forms with letters. Of these, we notice
particularly that 2 and 3 resemble each other, while 7 and 8
lave precisely the same character (v), only diiFerently placed.

281. We notice in many languages, that the numerals are
made to apply to things in the singular, and that where they do
belong to the plural apparently, it is really to the genitive sing.;
Au8, 20 men is twenty of the quantity or class men. Every
number, bear in mind, is a unit. Hence, too, a coeffiofent, a
number or a name, never belongs to a thing, but to something
of it, as 20 (heads of) men, as we say head of horses, 20 pieces
ofalver, for 20 silvers -^5 is always 5 one, 5ab is 5 ones of the

74 PHRASIS.

ab kind. Every plural is a collective noun in the genitive case,
it is the quantity, the denomination and the denominator. And
as the denominator of a fraction never has reference to number,
so it is with the plurals. We must repeat it, no number is plu-
ral ; all, many, every, each, used with a plural application, are
yet singular, and are properly followed by a genitive. It is cer-
tain that every nominative plural is a genitive, for it is the
quantity. We can hav6 no number, unless it be a number or
quantity of sornething.

282. Six of a thing, or number, is the same as six from it,
but every subtraction implies a remainder ; hence, you never
can take the whole of a thing, or from a thing, or, if you do,
something must still be left. You have a heap of 12 apples, a
. pile, a quantity; you may take from the pile until the last one —
when you come to the last, there will be no taking from or o/,
but simply a taking. Hence, there is no such thing as one of a
thing or from it, if it be the last or the whole ; one and whole

CHAPTER VIII.
HISTORY OF PARTICIPLES.

283. The participle, and under this head we will include all
kinds of verbal nouns and verbal adjectives, may, with propriety,
be taken as the basis of the verb, and as such its forms will first
come under consideration. We will give a full comparative
view of the participles of different languages, that the student
may learn how they are marked, and may observe, also, the
curious changes which is undergone by the final syllable which
thus characterizes them.

284. We will commence with the participles and verbals of
the German languages. The Swed. infinitive is lind-a, Danish
bind-e, A. S. hindran, Germ, hind-en, our bind ; so, the endings
all reduce to e, and that, even, with us, disappears. The Gr'k
ein, L. ere, er, belongs with them. That the Dan. e represents
the L. er, is seen by the pres't ind., where the er appears; as,
hind-er,

286. The present participle has the following forms ; Gothic
hind-ands; old Germ, hint-anter; Icel. hind-andi; Germ, hind-
end ;.^n^, hind-ing; Dan. hind-ende; ant, and, end, ing (g=d),
are all modifications of one form, as, again, they are all a
strengthening of the infin. en. The final s,- er, i, e, noticed in
these forms, are adjective marks.

HISTORY OP PATICIPLBS. 76

286. The corresponding past participles, of these languages,
are as follows; Go. bund-ans; old Germ, hunt-aner; Icel. huTidr
inn ; A. S. bund-en ; Du. bond-en ; this participle, it will be
seen, tends to identify itself with the infinitive, marking the
tense rather by the body of the word than by the ending. We
have, for this participle, both bound and bound-en. The en of
this part, often appears as ec?, e<, ^, as in our own lov-ed, brov^h-t^
G«rm. ge-lieb-t (from Ueben^ love) — the e^^ showing the identity
of this part, with that in end. The Gothic has a form of this
part, in tks; as, scdb-ondsy sav-ing, salb-oths, sav-ed — the oth is
our edy with the adjective mark s.

287. With these German participles, those of Latin readily
compare ; the present ends in ans {ants) ; as, am-ans^ loving
(Gothic bind-ands) } the past ends in atu^ ; as, am-atus, lov-ed
(Gothic salb-oths, -ots), the Go. « corresponding to the Lat. vs.
The Anglo Saxon has a gerund in anne (with prefix to), from
ande ; afl vrnt-ende^ writing, gerund writ-anne^ L. scrib-endum^
writing — the e of tha one and um of the other, being the noun
ending.

288. It should also be remarked, that the German past parti-
ciple has the prefix ge (varying in some of the family, and dis-
appearing in others) ] as, schreibenj to write, and ge-schrteben,
written.

289. The French, Italian, and Spanish participles afford little
that is peculiar, when compared with those already given ; in
French, however, th^ e<, it^ of the past part, is reduced to e, i;
BSypari-er^ to speak, parl-e^ sppk-en (for parl-et) — but in olu
French, tlus t appears; as, done-it, given (French donn-e), ost-et
for ot-e,

290. Celtic Pakticiples : The Celtic languages have not
developed the part, endings so strongly as the Germ, and Latin
have, still; such as do exist are easily ranged along-side of those
already noticed.

291. The Welsh has no uniform infinitive mark, yet the
ordinary endings od, ed, yll^ u, i, o, aw, may be taken as the
representatives of it. In Gaelic, we find the more regular adh
(Welsh ad) ; as, leagTi-adh, lav-ing ; it takes, also, the form, in
Irish, of amh, ail. In Irish, the infin. has prefix do, the to of
ours; as, buail, strike thou, do bualadh, to strike; the infin., in
Irish, differs from the imperative not only by adding inf. mark,
but also by a change in the body of the word ; as, righ, reach,
inf. do-rochtain. This adh of Gaelic is the at of Latin supine
am-atum, and the tas of brevitas.

292. In Celtic, the present participle agrees more with the
infinitive. In Irish, this part, has the prefix a, ag (our a in
go a walking, also German ge of past part.), thus, teidh, go, do

76 PHRASIS.

dhul (infin.), and ag dnl (part.) ; tahhair, give, do thabhairt
(infin.), ag tahhairt (part.). In Cor., this ag is ou ; as, care
(inf.), ou care (part.), loving; in Celt. Bret., it is o; a£, kana,
to sing, o kana, singing (French chant-ant),

293. The past participle in Celtic is marked by the usnal t;
thus, in Irish, struck is Iniml-te; dean, do, dean-ta, done. In
Cornish, this t appears as s; thus, care, love, hyr-ys, lov-ed; ry,
give, re-ys, given. The Welsh uses its passive part, only for
the persons of the verb ; thus, car-ir^ (he) is loved ; cerid, (he)
was loved; cer-ir, (he) will be loved; car-wyd, (he) has been
loved; car-asid, (he) had been loved — all these forms going
through all the persons of the tense without change. The inf
is here also used for this participle, and it shows well how the
two are equal ; thus, I am wedi-dysgu^ I am after-learning, i. e.
have learned. It has, too, another adj. form for this piu:t., in
edrig ; as, car-edtg, loved, the ig being an adject, development;
dysg-edig^ learned (teaiched). In C.B., dalea (and dalemtt), to
delay; dale-et^ delayed; kana, to sing, kan-et, sung; kavout, to
find, kav-et, found — from which we see how this part, and the
infin. agree. It is seen most clearly, in Celtic, that all the par-
ticiples are based on the infinitive.

294. Slavic Participles : The Polish infinitive is marked
by c=s, z, lluss. t; as, pis-ac, to write. The part's and verbals
of Polish are as follows :

Imper. pisz, write. P. Part, pis-an-y, written.

Part. Pr. pisz-ansy writing. Past T. pis-'al, wrote, written.
Ger'd j»w-anic, the writing. Past. act. na-pis-awszy, hav. written.

Pisz-ans has also the declinable form jrisz-an^-y, Grerm. schretb-
end-e, L. scrih-ent-e, from scribens {ans = ens) ; pis-an-y is like
scrip-t-us, Lat., our writt-en : it is the precise form of Go. hund-
ans; pis-an-ie is the A. S. writ-anne, L. andum; pis-alsspis-an;
the past active has the common prefix na. All these forms of
Polish verbals show very prettily how such forms may gradate
into each other.

295. The Russsan imperative is palt, burn ; infinitive paJrit,
to burn ; the other forms are as follows :

Pr. Part, paly-^ish-i, burniiig. Past act. pal-ivsh-i^ hav. burned.
Pr. Pass, pal-im-if being burned. Pr. gerd. paly-otch-iy in burning.
Past Pass, pal-enn-i, been burned. Past gerd. pal-iv («A-t), hav. burned.

296. The Pr. Part, dsh-i is Pol. ans-i; im-i is Pol. any (Gr'k
pot-im-os, to be drunk) ; enn-i is a variation of this imi (as we
find anne=ande in A. S.) — other forms of this participle are
given in t-i (L. t-us, our ed); as, ter-ti, rubb-ed, kalo-ti, pricked;
-ivshri is P. -awsz-y. The gerunds are simply the present and
past part's, differently applied; thus, while the part's are

HISTORY OP PARTICIPLES. 77

aflj's belonging to the nonn, the ger'ds are used iftdependently;
as, (while) walking on the banks of the river, I mused, (in)
serving our country, we -do our duty, having received your letter,
I answered ; otchi is found shortened to a, la, and ivsJii to iv.
There is, too, the past tense palril^ identical with palim, and inf.
paMt,

297. The Bohemian infin. is jnti, to drink, imper. piy (pij^,
drink, volorti, to call, volej, call.

pif-ici {pife)y drinking (R. ^ashi). volaj-id^ calling.
piv'shiy hav. drunk TR. -ivshi), vola-vshi^ hav. called.
voJr-ijtni, the calling (ger'd). volan^ being called (Pass.).

As we saw in Russian, so here pivshi has the form piv, which
again equals pil, drank, hav. drank ; so, also, volav equals volal^
volan,

298. The Slovensh has little that is noticeable ; del-atiy to do,
del^t (supine), del-ajoc, doing, and ger'd del-aje (Polish ans),
and det-anfcy the doing (A. S. anne, Lat. andum) Serb. Wend.
pal-ic, to burn, ^aZ-acy, burning, ^a^i7 (pal-iwsi), hav. burned,
jMi^ewy, burned (pass.) ; there is also a condensed ger'd, pal-o,
ilussian^aZi^a.

299. The lUyr. is almost identical with those already noticed ;
vid^U (videt) to see, vid-es, seeing, vid-evshi^ hav. seen, also
vid-elj vid-jeUj seen (Pass. L. vis-urn), vid-jenje, the seeing (Pol-
ish ante) — just so in Latin, andum is gerund mark, and andus
passive participle.

300. It remanis yet briefly to consider that past active part,
in itDsi, ivshi, awszy. In origin, it is plainly only a growth of
the pres't part, ans, yashi, ici; its identity, too, with the past
in t7, al, is seen by its common reduction to iv^il. With its
prefix na, as in Polish, it corresponds exactly with German ge-
schrieben. But, in form, the ending is double, and it is as a
present based on the past part. ; as, Russ. paliv-shi on palU; it
IS like the L. die-to from dic-o^ the t representing the ending of
ail infin. ; this v, w, at?, is used very generally, in Rus., to rep-
resent the infin. ending in these forms Upon forms ; thus, we
find, there, a pluperf. tense of pali^ pali-v-al^ which is the past
of a new form of pali, paliv for palit^ it is the av of am-av-ere^
the base of am-av-eram (Lat.) ; the G-'k perf. part, tetu^h-ot-os,
may, no doubt, be compared with it.

301. The old Prussian infinitive ends in int, it, pres. part, in
uns, ons (Go. ands), and the past or pass. part, in its, int-s (Go.
tths). The Lith. has a pres. and fut. pass, in mas (R. imi), and a
past act. in d-amas {dams), Russ. iv-shi, Sans, t-avan, also a
future s-es (serw), G'k s'as, s-dn, Sans, s-t/an.

302. HuNaARiAN Part's : In Hung., the infinitive ends in
ni, as var-ni, to wait; var-o, waiting (short as in Boh.); var't'

78 PHRASIS.

(paat part.) waited, (active and passive) ; var-and-o, a part, in-
dicating one who will wait, or one to be waited for, and corre>
sponding exactly to the Ger. zu lobendy to be praised (to prais-
ing), and the Lat. a-mand-us^ (one) to be loved. The paxaUel
between these part's and those of Latin is unmistakable — tiie
present in o being a condensed form, as the Ban. c, infin. for L,
are. Not only are the past and fut. part's used with both an
active and a passive force, even the present part, is often used
passively also.

It has also a gerund var-van, shorter var-va, corresponding
in form with the Slavic, and used like it. It is to be compared
with Euss. short ger'd iv, Lith. dams^ Sanscrit van.

There is also a pass, infin. var-alrni^ to be waited (for), va/r-
at'O, pres. part, denoting ^Ae waited {for). Here is another
case of a verb formed upon a new base — at^i is a double inf.
ending. With varat as the base, it takes the full set of part's^
besides var-ato^ there is the past var-atot^ fut. vaflr-a/tamdo, gei^d
var-atvan.

803. Finnish Part's : The verbals of the different dialects
of the Finn, family, present some interesting forms; thus, in
Suomi, ole-man, the being (Gr'k men) ; olrcva^ being (part.) ;
oUrU^ been ; san-ova^ saying (va=ing) ; san-onu, said (past, act.),
san^itUj been said.

Syrian, inf. ending wy (Hun. ni) ; as, y^ty-ny^ to send, send-
ing ) yst-an, the sending ] yst-yg, sending (our ing) ; ^Mtroma,
sent (G'k, -omen, 'men) ; as, m^ em yst^ma, I am sent.

Wotjak inf. ends also in ny; as> kary-ny, to do ; ka/r, (imper.)
do; kar-en, do-ing (em, Germ, en) and do-ne ; kar-ysf, doing
(see Illyr.) ; also kar-yku, the doing ; in the latter we find the
usual endings change into k, a letter which we will see again in
the Turk, infin. -mek; we find also kao'-on and kar-ono^ doing
(Pol. ante.)

In Sheremis, we find for coming these variations, tol^m, tol-cu,
tol-sa (sa=as) } tol-ema^ hav. come (^e-komm,en, G^rm.), also
tot-mynga, (-muka), pointing to Turk. -m^k.

In Ostjak, for ver (kar), make, we find ver-6?at (-end), t?cr-db,
ver-m^n, making, and ver-em^ made.

In the Lapp, form, we find et as inf. ending ; as, a^eU-etj to
live; aeUem, living, and having lived.

304. Turkish Participle : Following the Finn, and Hung.
we may properly speak of the Turkish verbals. The infin. here
ends in mek, mak, and ma, me — pointing to the men and ma
of Greek verbals, and the m^ of Finn. ; for the verb love, we
find inf. sev-mek, sev-mich (-mish) and sev-duk, hav. loved —
the former being a form of infin., and the latter to be referred to
the past act. of Slavic ; sev-er and sev-en, lov-ing, the er com-

HISTORY OF PABTICIPLBS. 79

paring with Alban. arcs=ing (that er is used for en, is seen by
L. inf. arc = Germ, en). There is a far longer list of verbals
in this tongue, but it will not be of use to review them here.

306. Albanish Participle : The present participle ends in «,
se (L. ana) ; aa, mount-es, conquering; pene-se, making; divio-Sj
hearing; divion^arej heard; dasovrre, loved — the past ending
are, re (Latin -uruSy -art) ; we find also de-ne, given, and thene,
said.

306. Persian Participle : The Persian offers the following;
perest is the imperative form, meaning adore,

jfere9t-ende, the adorer. inf. peresUiden^ to adore.

j7ere«^-an, adoring. perest-ide, hav. adored.

perest-a, (shorter form). perett-ide buderij to hav. adored.

It is easily seen that ende=^an, a; even this a is also sometimes
dropped, making part.=imper. The form in ide is identical
with inf. iden, also with Turkish form in duk. The inf. in d-en,
Uan, oft^n, is double, and to be compared with Turkish mek, if
not with Latin supine -atum,

307. In this connexion, we might briefly refer to the Hin-
dostani part's ; for the verb mar, strike, we have mar-na, to
strike; mar-ta, -striking; ma/r-a, struck; mar, m^r-kar, hav.
struck. The inf. mark na is Hung, ni and am, Grerm. en; the
ta is our past sign, a is a shortened na ; kar is genitive sign.

308. And here we may also introduce the Bengali verbals.
The inf. and preset part, have the same form, and 'end in ite
(Rus. it) I as, kar-ite, making and to make; past act. kar-iya,
hav. done (Hind, a, Rus. iv) ; there is the verbal noun kar-an,
JSar-nay kar-ana (Pol. anie), doing; there is, too, a form, like
Slavic gerund, kar-Ue, on doing, being done (the precise Slavic
past il; and like Slavic it is also found in the past tense), and
another gerund kar-iha, doing, to do (Russ. iv, Hungarian,t?a),
besides a passive in ta (Latin tus),

309. Manohu Participle : The infinitive of this tongue ends
in me (G'k men, T. m^k, me) ; as, khoach-ame, to nourish ; the
participle ends in ra, re (L. are, T. er) ; as, khoach-ara, nourish-
ing (used also for present and future tense) ; there is the form
khoach-afi (Greek sas, Turkish tser).

In MongoliiEin, the infinitive ends in cJio, ku (Turk, meic) ; as,
ahvncho, to take ; there is a gerund ahu-m, taking (Man. afi)^ a
supine abu-ra, to take (Manchu re).

We might here present some of the Thibet verbals; infinitive
hyed-par (var), to make ; hya-rou, hy-ar, to make (gerund) ;
h/ed-pa (va), making; hyas-pa (va, ta), made (past part.); hya^
va, to make, Jj.facturtis. The endings ar, rou, re, va, are such
as we have often met with.

310. Semitic Participle : In Semitic, the participle endings.

80 . PHRASIS.

have not developed so strongly as we have seen in the languages
so far treated of. It will be observed that such endings keep
pace, in growth, with common noun and adjective endings.
With us, as in Semitic, the us, a, wm, of Latin adjectives and
nouns almost wholly disappears ; we have lost, too, as in Semitic,
the ending of the infinitive, using with it only a prefix; we have
only the ending ing for all the part's and verbals found in Lat,
for such irregular verbs as run, set, strike. The Semitic parti-
ciples are formed after the manner, principally, of the Grerman
ge-schriehen, from schrdhen, ih write, and our strike and struck;
that is, they do not develop new endings, but rely upon changes
in the body of the word, adopting more or less generally^ such
prefixes as m, a, I (Germ, ge, Celt, a, our he, to). But all the
Semitic languages show this last participle ending very strongly
as a development in the personal endings, which are variations
of the verbal endings. The Syriac shows it, too, very clearly
in the common noun or verbal ending ath, an (Latin tas. Germ
en, Greek ma, Ethiopic ot, o, t).

311. Thus, in Hebrew, we have :

qatel-ah\ she kills. Part. act. qotel, killing.

qatal-etta (eth), thou killest. Part. pass, qattdy killed.

qatal-ettif I kill. me-qattel, ma-qetil, killing.
qetol (inf.). to kill.

And in Arabic :

qatal-atf she kills. inf. qatal-un, to kill.

qatal-ta (t), thou killest. Part. act. qatil-un^ killing.

qatal-tu (t), I kill. Pass. part, ma-qtul-unf killed,

imper. a^qtuly kill (root, qtl), •

So the verb a-nsur, aid (imper.), also Irinsur; naser-un, aiding,
fem. form naser-atun ; na^r-an, aiding, ger'd and inf. ; md-nsvTy
aided (part, pass.), (root is nsr; a, I, ma, are prefixes).

We notice here very plainly, in the persons, the t of our lov-
eth, L. am-at and am-atum,am^ant; and the scarcely developed
un of Arabic, points to the Latin ending um.

312. Here we may introduce the Malay participles; they too,
like the Semitic, are marked by prefixes. For diahat^ touch,
we find men^diahat, to touch; ada-diahat, touching and touched;
telah-diabat, having touched; tur-diahat (and te-), touched
(pass.). The prefix men is very common; it is the Semitic ma,
and it has the form also of pew; as, pen-diabat (verbal noun);
ada and telah have also, as separate words, the value of is and
being.

313. Geeek Participle: We will first consider the infinitives
and participles of the Greek active, bringing into the comparison
those of Sanscrit and Latin as occasion may require The ordi-
nary Greek infinitive ending is ein, as leijpein, to leave (our ing,

HISTORY OF PARTICIPLES. 81

leaving, Germ, en, hleihen, to leave); in modem Grreek, this cm
becomes ei (Dan. e); as, graph-ein^ G-'k, graph-eij mod. Gr'k, to
write. It has, also, the forms occasionally, of men, mein, also s,
is, a growth or form of cm; there is the infin. ending at, (mod.
G'k ct), peculiar to one of the past tenses (aorist) ; as, eleips-at,
to have left, and a form enai, peculiar to the perfect tense, le-
leiph-enai, to have left. This enai is a growth of ein, so as to
become double ; it is practically an infin. of an infinitive, such
as we saw in treating- of the Russian participle; it is like the isse
of am-av-isse, to have loved, and the t-are of can-Uare, to chant.
As it is past and double, it is also passive, and equal to -om-en
of G-reek participle ending -omen-os.

314. The regular passive infin. ending of Greek (also ending
of middle, i. e. active) is esth-ai. We do not regard this as es-
sentially different from enai, indeed, we find Snai also used for
passive; esth equals est, eth, en, ein, et. The Latin passive infin.
ending ar-i, ar-ier, is also double, it is hardly necessary to add.

315. It might be matter of interest to the student to point out
the connexion between Greek and Latin (especially old Latin)
infin. endings and those of cases, but we must pass the subject
by, simply reminding him that all verbal endings are to be iden-
tified with case and noun endings.

There is also the Latin supine ending turn, Greek ton, which,
in Sanscrit tun, marks the ordinary infinitive; in old Latin, the
infinitive ends in um, and tud is an old supine ending.

316. The Greek ending for the present participle is dn, cms-a,
on ; San. an, ati, an; Lat. ans; Lith. as, anti; as, G'k leip-dn,
leav-ing; it is the same as infin. ein, our m^. In the gen. case,
it developes into ont-os; as leip-ontos, of leaving. In the aorist,
it assumes the form of as, asa, an (mas., fem., neut.), gen. ant-
es (Polish ans, as) ; the full form of this participle is hip-s-as
(leaving off augment of the tense), i. e. it is an ordinary partici-
ple on the new b?^ Mp-s, itself representing an inf. or verbal.
This sas is precisely the Slavic past act. part. In the perf. part.
dn becomes ds, and ontos (gen.) becomes otos. In San., ds, uia,
OS, is van, tisi, vas — sas, sasa, san, is tavan, tavati, tavat.

317. For the passive and middle participles, om-en-os is the
usual ending in Greek ; as, leip-omenos, leaving self, or being
left. Leaving off the os (fem. I, neut. on) as the adj. ending,
we have omen, men — in Sanscrit, an-as, and aman-as; so we
see by San., that men = an, German en, t, Lith. am-as. Buss, mi,
cm/,. Greek mxi. There is no more doubt that omen, men, is a
growth of inf. em, than there is that Lat. atus (am-atus, lov-ed)
is a form of supine turn, which is active. We find, in the aorist,
eis, ent'Os, an active ending, in place of omen-os.

318. The student will not fail to observe in the Gr'k parties

11

82 PHBASIS.

pie forms, how beautifully they illustrate that feature of lan-
guage by which new forms arise out of old ones, and how the
endings become thus repeated. It is one of the most interesting
phenomena of language, and it affords us one of its most import-
ant laws. To illustrate the nature of it, we might refer to such
forms as these, common among the illiterate ; bestest (superL of
a superl.) } less-er (compar. of a compar.) ; worstest (sup. of sup.);
lec'tur-ing (a part, on a part.) — the tur is itself a part, ending;
so thru-st-ing — the st being a past participle mark.

319. Participle in Urus : We will use this as a general
head, under which to bring, in a manner somewhat disconnected,
many leading and important points in the history of the partici-
ple ; this participle is connected with all other verbal forms, and
we can hardly say anything of those forms which will not, direct-
ly or indirectly, have a bearing upon the character of the one in
urus. While we have in Latin am-ans, loving, amor-tus, loved,
ama-ndus, to be loved (fut.), ama-ndum, the loving, afna'4um,
(and -tu), to love, the loving (supine), we have also atna-turuSy
about to love (future), and what we wish principally to show is,
that this participle is a development of the forms just given,
containing no element that they do not, that it is an adj. with
infin. or part, as basis; and, again, that it is identical with the
passive form ama-tur, he is loved.

320. In old German, bind-ing is hint-anter, Germ, bind^nde;
and in German, this same participle -end, -ingy is used for just
such a participle as that in urus (and endus)^ i.e. both are future
(with the difference however that urus is active, while the other
is pass.) ; thus, er ist zu lob-end^ he is for praising, to be praised,
while we would use, iQ a similar ca^e, the infin. or ger'd ; as, so
mu^ch there is to praise^ to be praised. In Hung., the ^ture in
ando (Lat. andus), a form of Germ, end, is used both for future
pass, and fut. act. ; thus, we find ir-ando level, Germ, ztt-^chreib-
ender brief, to-be-written letter, a letter which will be written
(pass.); one about-to-write (a letter) is also designated as tVanc2o,
the precise L. scripturus. Still further, in Hung., the common
preset part, is used precisely as this fut. ando; thus, elad-o bor
(o ^ ing) ss elad-ando bor {ando^turvs). Germ. zU'Verkaufender
wein, for-selling wine, selling wine, wine to-be-sold.

321. In the Vedas, this same form tar is used both as prQs't
part, and present indicative. The Lat. forms do-nor (n =«tj and
da-tor (G'k do-t^r, Sans, da-tar), our giver, belong to the same
class ; so, rap-tor, rob-ber (from rapio), scrip-tor, writ-er (from
scribo). That these forms tor, ter, are the Lat. turus, is seen by
the fuller forms scrip-tura, a writ-ing ; fao-tura, the mak-ing ;
rwp-tura, a breaking. These forms, it will be seen, are purdy
active; the or is precisely the er of giv-er, serv-er, speah-ery and

HISTORY OF PARTICIPLES. 83

this er we know is identical with ing (speak-er=the speaking
one), as we see by the corresponding L. forms ten-ant^ serv-ant^
prud-erU (a?i<=s Latin ans^ ens, ing), and we have two ways of
regarding this tor, both amounting to the same thing, namely,
either from turns, tura, or as a present part, form (as serv-ant,
serv-er=L.«en;-a7is) of a new verb, as scriptor from scrvpto, or
scriptere, just as we see do-nor from the new form dono, from
do, to give. This ending tor, ter, of nouns, is seen in many
languages, and assumes a great variety of forms ; thus, in our
murder (a killing); blun-der, tim-ber, thun-der; junc-ture, frac-
ture; sepul-crum (-trum), mira-culum (-tulum, -turum), /w^crwm,
mons-trum, spec-trmn, Gr'k hak-tron (-trum), and lektron) mas-
ter, fa-ther, laugh-ter; nee-dle (dl=4tr), hal-ter, — and so on
without limit.

322. In the Wallachian, lauda-toriu (as well as laud-andu,
L. andus) equals Lat. laud-ans, praising (i. e. <orms«ans, ing),
while to express the Lat. t&rus they need this form, a fi lauda-
toriu, td be "pxiihmig^laudratwrus, about to praise. To be more
precise about it, toriu rather equals tor than turus, and the above
form is properly he is to-he-prais-er, i. e. he will praise, exactly
as we saw in German and English.

And we must observe, too, that in none of the modern Latin
languages do we find a ftiture part, in urtis (if we count not the
above tor-iu), but we do find Span, canto-dor, Rhat, Bom. canto-
twr, Fr. chan-teur, Wall, conta-toriu, Eng. chont-er or sing-er;
so, we are left to infer that those languages supply the place of
this urus by using the pres't in ens (as we saw above, a compound
to-be-praising (praiser) for about to praise, laudaturUs), (By
way of note, we may remark that the t of chanteur, chanter, be-
longs with the root as well as with the ending t-er; er here—tur'),

323. If we bear in mind, in connexion with the above, that
Turk, lir^ans, ing, pres't part., we shall find it proved beyond
question that turibs is only a modification, an application, of the
present ans, and hence of infinitive are, or. We may prove its
identity with inf. are by a stronger Way than such an inference.
In Latin, the imperative has not only the form am-a, love, but
also the longer form am-ato, showing that a at the end of verbs
is a condensed ato, ao, as in Danish a= are, or. So that we
miglit expect the infin. am-are to be really amo-tre (-<wr). Now
in French, we find these very endings for infs ; as, e-tre, to be
(old Fren. es-ire), also repai-tre, sui-vre (v =**<)? nai-tre, join-dre
(dr==:t), ven-dre,

324. It only remains now to be shown that turus is passive as
well as active, since we have already shown that it is present as
well as future. In old North, we find the past (and pass.) part's
fall-inn, fall-en ; tel-dr, tol-d; hren-der, burn-ed. Here we find

84 PHBASIS.

dr (==^mn in some verbs, German infin. cw), which becomes <?«•,
hren-dlr^ in some of the persons of past tense, as the mark of
past (and pass.) part. ; it is hardly necessary to say this is tur
of Latin. In Icelandic, wo find eUha-dur^ lik-ed, loved, Latin
crnia-tus^ and we find the same form -ader in the past active^ but
shorter in the compound tense; as, hefe elskad, have liked.
(We find also thier ehked, you like (pres't indicative), but hcum
elskar, he likes, so that ar^ed^ edr). So, we find here, clear
enough, that dr^ dur, Fr. trCy Lat. turns, is used in the passive

325. Besides reminding the student of the precise L. amatury
he is loved, let us refer more particularly to the Lat. iura^ our
tu7'e. We find tura constantly used in Latin as an equivalent
of tu8 and turn, noun endings, which are applications of the
passive participles ; thus, we find posi-tura ^^pod-tus, position,
which is identical in form with the pass. part. ; so, scriptwra =
in-scription, something written, and /ac^ra=/acft« (pass), the
making. We can easily see how our part, (or ger'd) in ing is
used passively in similar cases; to strike a man is simply to
make him he struck, which converts it into a passive idea; that
which is spoken is a speech, a speaking, the being loved by God
is called the hviny of God ; a man desires a hearing, i. e. to &e
heard, he expects a scolding, i.Q,tohe scolded. We continually
see our gerund in ing thus used as a passive : everything that
is finished becomes passive, becomes something done; a ^xas%
itself when finished becomes done (passive) ; so, all our verbal
nouns, such as fight, thrust, draught, speech, depth, remty wreck,
bond, song, and scores of like forms, are true passives. The
endings t, th, k, d, g, ch, and the like, are the very t of L. pass.
tus, our ed.

826. We have certainly gone far enough in this discassion to
enable the student to fully comprehend now the nature of this
participle in urus. We find it simply a gerund, infin., or verbal
noun, used just as we use our gerund in ing, and our inf., and
getting its future force, and passive also, only by its expressed
or implied connexion with the verb be; thus, just as we say he
is to come to day, he is coming to day, i. e. will come, should
come, just so the Latins constantly use urus for a future verb,
suppressing he ; as, he 'promised that he would come, is to come,
se venturum. The Danish afibrds the best illustration of the
gerund in ing used aa pass. ; as, hkes-endc instmmeni&r, blow
instruments, blowing ones, and den udgiv-ende Bog, the outgiv-
ing book, book given out ; these forms are based on the more
original form of expression the instruments are for blowing,
where blowing is exactly equal to a Latin verbal noun in Para,

327. There are other points of importance than those so far
noticed, in the .history of verbals of the German languages, and

HlStORt OF MRTICIl^LBS. 85

we may b& well consider them under this head, as they have a
bearing more or less direct upon the verbal in turus. In Ice-
landic, we find ad dska, to like, and (past tense) eg var ad elska,
I was to like, a liking, liking-^ inf. used as ger'd and part. In
Swedish, we have vt ha/va kaU-at, we have called (Perf. act.)^
and vi hafva kail-ats, we have (been) called (Passive), also vi
varda (German werden, are) kaM-ade, we are called. We see,
here, three different applications of one form, having a corre-
sponding change in appearance which is unknown to us, as we
use caUed for all the cases. In the first place, it is very evident
that kaUat equals kaUad\ evident from the fact that we, and
others, use their equivalents without distinction of form ; the
identity of kalUaU with them will become evident too, after a
little consideration. In Danish, so nearly equal to Sw., those
three applications of the past part, have no change in form to
mark them ; thus, V8ere skrev-et, be written ; ha/t skrev-et, had
written ; Aave vmret gjore-ty have been done (chor-ed) ; erfund-
et, is found, has been found.

328. So, it is already proved, clearly enough, that kaU-at
(act.) is the same as kalta/ts (pass.). This is enough to convince
us also that the whole Dan.-Swed. passive system is not different
from the active. In the Swed. infin, this katt-ats above takes
the form kaU-as (ats-^as), to be called; so, too, kall-as is used
iA five of the persons of the pres't; as, du Ara^/as, thou art called,
but alsoy kaUens^ ye are called (this is the Latin. e7w«=a^s, cw).
If we bear in mind that kaU-ar (ar being L. passive ending) is
used in the persons of pres't active, as han kall-ar, he calls, we
sball have further reason to beli«(q|.a8»ar to be identical with
active. y.

Again, in the Icel. ad elskast, to be lik-ed, the ast (Sw. ats,
and as) is our active est of lov-est, as Dan. pass, es is our act. es
of giv-es, i. e. what we use for lik-esty they use for to be liked
(inf. pass..), and what we have for gives, they take for is given.

We are thus brought to the conclusion that the Dan.-Swed.
passive in its different persons is based on the passive participle
(which we have often found to be equal to the act.), that indeed
it is that part, varying in the different persons of the sing, and
plur., often but slightly, and sometimes not at all.

329. Verbal Endings : We come now to consider some of
the forms which these participle endings assume when marking
certain kinds of nouns and adjectives.

We often find several of these iendings joined to one root, but
by no means all of them ; thus, in Grreek po-tos^ a drinking, a
draught, {tos is L. tus past part.) — it means also drinkable, to
be drank, and potimos has the same meaning ; po-tikos^ pertain-
ing to drink; po-tSs^ a drinker (es=er); po-tisma^ a drink;

86 PHRASIS.

po-ti8is, giving to dnuk',pO'tons=potos, potion] po-tamos, drink-
able water, river. For neariy all these forms we may use the
simple term drink, even drink-water (as Germans would say) «
drinkable water, showing, thus, that endings are equal, or do
not vary the meaning of the base word. The ending ikos, «=i^o«,
t08, our ic of graphic ; ros, mos, inos Q^men, omen, Sans, cm),
are also found as variations of tos ; as, zul-inos, woo<J-en (in =*
en),pot-{mo8, drinkable, troph-imos, nourishing; nose-ros, sickly,
pJuhone-roe, envious — tos is precisely the equal of mos; thus,
lek'tos equals not only spoken, but also speakable, that may be
spoken. So, we must consider our able, ful, Lat. ilu, hilis, and
the like, as variations of this tos, L. tus, and in the end of ing,
(Note, once for all, that the os, us, a, is, are mfere adjective end-
ings, which may be left out of consideration).

830. It can hardly be said that such endings have any force
at all, if for no other reason for .this, that one is so often used
for the others; thus, joyful == joyous, joy-ingj i. e. having joy}
hurtful = hurting, that which is hurting, and flexible » bending,
that which bends; bl, fl=tl, tr, turns.

331. The ending men, ma (men-os, tus), is very common in
Latin and Greek (besides Slavic, and elsewhere). It is equal
to ing ; as, certa-men, striving, regimen, ruling, Sans, dha-m^an,
a building, a thing built ; it often, too, denotes passives (just as
we use build-ing to denote the action and building ^housej pas-
sive); so car-men, a po-em, a work, (a thing) done; Sans, jan-
man, a bearing, a birth, passive ; Greek ma, pra^gma, an act,
something done, and gramma, a writing, something written. It
has another development in <nur ment, L. mentum; as, our gov-
ernment = governing, teg-m^lUum, a cover, covering, that by
which we are covered ; in Ffen., it equals our l^ of adverbs, as
intensive-ment, intensive-ly, as well as our ing, as etonnement,
stunn-ing (stun-ment). There is, also, the wide prevailing ta,
tos, our ence, ness, th ; thus, Rus. teplo-ta, warm-th, tepid-ness;
L. brevi'tas, brevi-ty, brief-ness. We have scarcely yet made a
beginning in that long list of Greek and Latin verbal endings,
but we have given all that it is proper to give here.

332. We will conclude this part of the subject by noticing
some of the endings of Pers. The adjectives here are derived
from nouns by the suffix ane (cw of silken) ; as, merd, man,
merd-ane, man-like, -ly; also by in; ahen, iron, ahen-in, of iron;
there is the mend, as devht, happiness, devht-mend, happy, derd,
grief, derdi-mend, grievous (Fr. mcn« =ly) ; tebaJi, corruption,
tebah'Mar, corrupt-er {tor of scrip-tor) ; nam, name, nam^dar,
named, renowned, garan, heavy (L. gravis), garan-bar, loaded,
heavy (bar of Germ, denkbar, thinkable), (dar=tar, turns) —
bar takes the form, too, of var, yar, as baht, fortune, baht-yar,

HISTORY OF VERBS. 87

fortun-ate, dU^ heart, dU-dar^ loved {dar^^har)) purdde^ de-
manded, jpwrmA, a demand (id=ish); giriftan^ to take, girift-
ar, one taken, a prisoner {ar^ pass.) — ar is properly ^itnw with
a passive application.

CHAPTEE IX.
HISTORY OP VERBS.

333. If we take merely a surface view of language, it will be very

easy for us to divide words into two leading classes, — nouns, and

such as belong to nouns, and verbs, together with such as belong

to verbs. If we rely wholly upon the appearance of these two

classes, and inquire nothing about their origin and history, we

shall find little which they have in common, and come to regard

them as radically distinct. However, none but a superficial

view could bring us to such a conclusion ) these classes when

critically examined are found, in fact, to have everything in

oonnnon.' All nouns are based upon a verbal idea; and, again,

tlie basis of all verbs are nouns, that class of nouns called verbals.

334. It is generally imagined that verbs have that peculiarity,
in comparison with all other pa^ of speech, by which they ex-
X>Tess and affirm. And yet it must be observed, that it is not
SLlone im the simpler and less cultivated languages, that we find
other parts of speech used in the place of verbs and having a
^alue equal to Uieirs. In all tongues, we find abundant exam-
ples where the noun and the verb (as, I wcdk, the walh) do not

differ in form. In Tamil, nouns and adjectives are treated as
verbs. In Japanese, the adjective is used as verb or adjective,
according to where it is placed ; as, yoJdfito^ good man (or yoi
fitd)^ fito yo9i^ man (is) good (or fiU) yoi) — so, a child would
say tnan good^ for the man is good. In this language, the basis
of every verb is clearly a kind of noun or adjective.

335. In the Thibetan, among others, person endings are not
developed, and the verb is simply a participle or verbal, scarcely
differing in character from the noun. In all languages, the in-
finitive, gerund, and participles, constitute an important portion
of the forms of the verb. And yet, verbs as they are, they are
also as certainly nouns and adjectives; they have all the cases
and qualities that belong to nouns and adjectives. Even the
Infinitive and Imperative are known to be only mere case forms.

336. In Latin and Greek, we are particularly struck with the
number of participles used as verbs ; they not only perform the

88 PHRASIS.

office of verbs, they are verbs in fact. Whenever we use ex-
pressions like these, / saw a man walking^ hear hint 9peak^ hear
his speech, we use walking, speaJc, and speech, precisely as verbs.
Every word used as a predicate, that is following ^, is a verb
also ; as, he is there, he was wise, he is a writer ; in some lan-
guages, as the Eussian, the is is left out, of so little force is this
auxiliary; in particular cases, we also leave out the, auxiliary,
and thus the predicate performs the part of a true verb ; thus,
the one was here and the other there^ he becomes noisy, and I
quiet. Indeed, to be precise about the matter, we may say that
all objectives, or other words following verbs, bear the main
weight of the verbal expression, and may, hence, be called verbs;
thus, we say he catches Jlsh, i. e. he fishes, he trims with iron,
i. e. he irons, he feeds grain to the horse, i. e. he grains the
horse.

Personal Endings.

337. We have already pointed out the identity between all
case endings and the endings of verbals and participles. We
shall observe hereafter, when we come to treat of tenses, that
those endings of verbs which mark the persons, are modifications
only of the endings which mark the participles. But what we
wish now first to turn our attention to, is the parallel between
the personal endings and those endings which in other languages
mark the possessive pronouns.

338. In Hungarian, we have var-tam, I have waited, vart-^,
thou hast, and vart-a, he has waited, or expected. To compare
with this, we have lov-am, my horse, lov-acl., thy horse, lov^,
his horse. In Semitic, the parallel is quite as certain, but more
remote. In the Finnish, we find the identity exhibited in a
still stronger light. But it is the Samoidish that we find most
instructive in this matter.

339. We will state the whole case as we find it in SamoidiBh;
it will surely be no harm that we note some things which have
a more direct bearing on points discussed under other heads.
Here, we find sawajale, (a) good day, hut jale-^a sawa^ day-the
(the day) (is) good; sawa, (it is) good — precisely as we say -
good for him; jah, (it is) day. Such expressions as the fore-
going are often heard by us, but we regard them as only childish
or savage. As we said before, eitery predicate is a real verb;
in Samoidish, this fact is so well recognized, that the noun and
adjective, when performing the office of predicate, develop end-
ings equal to personal endings, and thus stand independent as
true verbs ; thus, sawa, good, sawa-m, good-I, good-my, i. e. I
(am) good; wwea, fia.ther, niseorm, father-my, father-I, i. e. I (am)

HISTORY OP VERBS. 89

father. Not this alone, that personal ending, by a slight vari-
ation, may also indicate past time, or even future ; as, nisea-rnSy
I (was) father, nisef-um, I (will be) father. To show the iden-
tity of passive endings with personals, in Samoid., we give the
following: Ayr = cow, %r-m, my cow, h^r4 thy cow, h^r-t, his
cow; so, also, m?=hand, vd-ou (my), ud-ol^thj^, ud-et, (his)
hand; and loga= fox, loga-u, loga-l, loga-t, his fox — for logau,
we find also logam (ams=au), and logad equal to logal. To
compare with this, we find the verb mada-u, mada-r, mada-day
I, thou, he cut. So that the verb, here, may be conceived to be
■what we see it is in all simple languages, a participle base,* or
verbal, developing possessive pronouns, and the expression, / cut
the wood, would be, in principle, the wood (is) ray-cutting (cut-
ting-my). We see this clearly when we come to the verbal noun,
which may receive these endings and become a true verb ; as,
madawy, cut, hewing, becomes, with the personal ending, mad-
awae-m=zl was (at) cutting, or was cutting (also is cutting).
This is with the ending for predicates, and if we use possessive
endings (a form only of the other), we get madawae-u =:mj
cutting [(i. e. it is or was my), having a power equal to I have
cut,

340. Not only do we have, here, possessives belonging to the
noun, but the new form (noun with ending) may be carried
through all the cases, as tea-u (my), tea-r (thy), and tea^da,
(his) deer; and genitive, tea-n (of my), ^ea-w<^ (of thy), tea-nda,
(of his) deer (reindeer).

341. There is a slight difference, as we saw above, in two
classes of pronoun endings, those called predicative, which
grow upon predicates, as we saw in sawam, and those subjective
(possessive) endings, which we saw in madau, madar, hgau,
logal; but both are one and the same thing. The difference in
their use is very slight ; thus, nan mu&-m, (the) bread took-I,
the bread (was) my taking, and nan mue-u, I took bread.

342. As a noun in Samoidish can be treated as a verb, can
receive endings, and even tense marks, so does the verb, again,
come to be treated as a noun and develop the different case end-
ings. We see this in all languages where that portion of the
verb embraced by participles and verbals, is declined precisely
as the noun is, and with the same number of cases. But, in
Samoidish, it extends to other forms of the verb. So it is in
Tamil ; there, the verb is declined like nouns also ; thus, the
verb denoting he walked, or he the walker, by a slight variation
takes a case form, and means through him the walker, or hy the
walk (one).

343. There is a remarkable and significant coincidence, in
this language (Samoid.), between th^ endings of case and those

12

90 PHBASIS.

endings of verbs denoting pronouns or persons — ; thus, mis
the sign of ace, it is the sign, too, of the 1st person ; rf, ad^ (io,
are marks of dat. and abl., so they are marks, too, of the 2d and
3d persons. We have long before this identified the case end-
ings with the suffix article or pronoun.

344. We find in many languages, incorporated as endrngs
with the verb, not only such as we have, already noticed, and
which denote the subject or the possessor, but also such as denote
the object. So, in Hebrew, qatal-tay thou-hast-killed, and
qatalta-ni, thou-hast-killed-me (<a=thott, and nissme); sOj in
Italian, difendi-amo^, we defend selves (ct=self),procMra-<^,
procure-thou-it (fo=it,), procurar-se-lo, to procure-self-it j so,
in English, called-m, for called them, heard-er, for heard her;
also we say, there killed-he-him, there gave-he-him-it, i. e. gave
it to him. There is, theoretically at least, no limit to this devel-
oping a new pronoun on a new base (for it is that and no more).

345. It is true, it may be said of these pronoun endings denot-
ing subject and object in other languages, that they do not
exist separately. But not less may be said of the separate pro-
nouns, for they, though printed separate, can only oe said to
exist in connexion with the verb. In truth, all words are as
little independent as suffixes — no word, more than any living
thing, can exist hy itself ahne, can he separate. The separation
of words from the base with which they are connected, is rather
apparent than real.

346. Having given now some general ideas of the original
nature of the verb, and having considered also, sufficiently for
present purposes, the matter of personal endings, we will now
consider more in detail the different person, tense, and mood
forms of the verb, as we find them in other languages — selecting
only such for this comparative view as we find presenting some
new or instructive features, and keeping all the while in sight
this main object, the explanation of the growth and structure of
verbs. And, for this purpose, we will begin with the Turkish,
a language which possesses a verb more fully developed, and a
system more complete in its parts, than any other we could select.

Turkish Verbs,

347. We will take the verb deug (imper.), strike, tap (Chreek
tup') 5 we will arrange the verb in Turkish, and the same under
the other heads, by placing the singular persons at the left, and
the plural at the right; we will sometimes, also, perhaps, point
ofl* the ending separate from the body or base of the word, but
in this case we may give the student the caution, here, which
we might have given in many other places, that t^e separatiiig

HISTORY OF VERBS. 91

of a word thus into parts, that is, drawing such a certain line
between them, is always more or less arbitrary ; it is just like
drawing such a marking line between head and neck, and arm
and hand, or leaf and stem, or creek and river ; it is clear no
such Kne can truthfully be drawn, and yet the distinction be-
tween such things is indispensable ; and so in language, such
marks are always serviceable, though always, also, open to
objection. ,

348. JP^enent Tense.

detiffur-um, I strike. deuffur-uz, we strike.

deuffur^seriy thou strikest. deugur-^aiz, ye strike.

det^r^, he strikes. deugur-ler, they strike.

The verb fee, present tense, runs thus :

tf», I am. izj we are.

tenj thou art. «t>, ye are.

dur, he is. durler, they are.

We must add, too, that hen=l, sew = thou, 6i2J=we, si;5=ye>
you — and ler is the usual plural sign; the present participle is
deugur = striking.

349. We conclude with regard to the forms of this tense, that
the present participle is plainly the basis here, as we shall find
it, also, in other languages. The endings of the 1st and 2nd
persons, both numbers, may be taken as the representatives of
personal pronouns, or of the verb he, or of both. If we take the
analogy of the past tense, where was is clearly the element (9s
it is separate), the pres't part, being the base, we might decide
that it is the verb Se, thus bringing back to us the combination
well known to us, in place of the prs'nt, «m striking, is striking.
But, in most other languages, the endings have vanished down
to a mere mark of the persons — though in principle, he is every-
where a part of the form. Th« impossibility of deciding the
point, arises from the fact that the verb he is, at best, only a
pronoun, and so often has a form not to be distinguished from
pronouns.

350. But we do not in either case look upon the form deugur-
wi, for instance, as a compound, but rather consider that some
verbal or part, ending has grown up into such representatives
as we have just been speaking of.

351. Imperfect,

deugur idumzsz I struck (striking was-I).
deugur idi=}vQ struck (striking was-he).

Here the elements are separate — idum being past of he (was).
In the 3d plur., we find the elements together, as well as sepa-
rate; as, deugur idi-ler, and deugur-ler'idi,=ttliej struck — j-so
we find for 1st sing., deugur-dum.

92 PHRASIS.

There is a second imperfect (or past), formed with the sai^c:
deuger and iminhem (anotlier past of he) — the two being separate
as, deugur tmishiz, (we) striking were.
352. Preterit.

deuffdurrif I struck. deugduk, we struck.

deuffdun, thou struck. deugdunuz, ye struck.

deugdif he struck. deugdiler, they struck.

This can be regarded as representing two main elements, deug^j
a base only existing in the imperative, and the tdurrv = I was,
noticed above. But there is the past act. part, deugduk (having
struck) ; we may take this devgduk as the basis of these forms,
and as having simply developed person endings (indeed it is the
identical form in the 1st plural). This would be after the
known principles of German, and other languages, where the
past participle does constitute the past tense. The d^ here, is the
representative of our past ed, t, but none the less may it be taken
as the mark of was, verb he.

353. There is another form, the 2d preterit, deugmishem = 1
have struck, which is clearly pn the base of the past part, cteug-
misA=hav. struck. Or, as in the case before, we can consider
that it has the element mishem, one of the tenses of 6c, and
meaning 1 have heen. All this proves at least one thing, that
one element, if no more, of participles, represents the verb. he.

354. Then follow other combinations, but containing no new
principle. The preset and the past participles, above given, are
the common bases, and they combine with new forms of the
verb he, of which Turkish has more than one for the same
tense.

The future is either like the present in form, or it makes a
new combination of the fut. part, deugjek with am, is; as, devg"
jekim, I will strike (also devgjegirn), and deugjektwr (c?Mr=is),
he will strike.

355. In the optative, there is the form deugem, I would strike
(also deugeh irn). This may be looked upon as made on the
base deug, with the verb he as element, or as a variation of some
part, or verbal, as devgv^n (which we find) equal, to striking.
It is precisely like the Latin amem, 1 may be. Then there is
also the imperf. optative, as deugidum (or separate, deugeh idum),
with the base as before, and idum=wsi8. These tenses are
accompanied by the prefix that.

356. The preset and fut. subjunctive has the following form,
deugur sem, I may strike (also deugur isem) — present part, and
tsem, 1 may be. There is, besides, the imperfect deugsem, I
might strike, which we may consider as on the base of the part.
deugiser ^ shout striking, or as deiig and isem, I may be (the
deugeh which we saw before).

HISTORY OF VERBS. 98

357. The Finnish languages, a class related to the Turkish,
furnish abundant proof in the same direction. Thus, in the
Suomi dialect, we find the six persons of the verb come^ tulen,
tvlety ttdee (or tidevi) } tulemmey tulette, ttilevat, they come. These
are all variations of verbal or participle forms, such as tuleva,
coming, tulema, the coming. In the Esthnish present of verb
love, we have armasta, armastat, armastap ; armastame, arm"
astate, armastawad; armasta is imper.=love, arma8tada=±:z
the loving, also armastama, and armdstaw, and armastaw(is=
loving (part.). In Wotjak, the pres't of do, is karo, karod, kar-
oz (kara) ; karom (Jcaromy), karody, karozy (Jcaro), they do ;
the past is kary, karyd, karyz ; karym, karydy, karyzy. And
we find ^arem= doing, deed, karyny, karon, karysa,^ doing,
karysf, doer, karem, done. In the past, we observe yd, ym,
which is Turk, idum, Greek ema, ama. In another dialect, we
find for come, preset tense, tolam, tolat, toles ] tolena, toleda, to-
lat (jtolebes) ; and past, tolenam (tolesam), tolena t, tolen (totes) ;
tolenna (Jtolemd), tolenda, tohnet (tolebe), they came. With
these compare the verbals tolem, tolas, and tolsas, coming, the
coming, tolsa, the comer, tolema (G-'k -ama), come (past part.).

368. In Mongolian, another relative of the Turk., we find for
ahu-cho, to take, imper. ah, in the pres't bi abun amui, I taking
am, am taking {amui, I am) ; in the past, we have bi abubai, I
taking-was, I took {abai, I was). The whole Mongol, verb is
very plainly built up on the same plan as the Turkish, but we
have not time to dwell on it here. We must observe that the
inf. endings are acho, ucho, and the inf. of be is acho, showing
the identity of verbal endings with be. The Persian verb may
easily be placed parallel with the Turkish, and we will now
examine this more in detail.

Persian Verbs,

359. We will take nush, drink, imperative and root.

Present tense.

ntuk-am, I drink, may drink. nush-im, we drink, may drink.

nuah'i, thou drinkest. nuah-id, ye drink.

mL8h-ad^ he drinkSi nush-and^ they drink.

With these, we must take in connexion the isolated forms of
verb be; as, em, am, i, art, est, is, im, we are, id, ye are, end,
they are. We see the unmistakable identity between the end-
ings of this tense and the verb be. It must be noted with
regard to est, 3d sing., that we find d for the same in Turkish,
so we find d in the Per. 2d plur., which generally is intimately
connected with the 3d sing. So, we may look upon this tense as

94 PHRASIS.

the root nusih and am, is; or, we can look upon it as a msrizr
variation of the short inf. rnuhtd, or the part, mishan^ nushanc^^

360. The present, so called, is the same as this, together yrMt3
the prefix mi; as, nt'Mmshcm, I am drinking. This element n^-^
which sometimes follows, and again is separate, may bd taken a^
the mark of our be, and we consider it as the equal of Germ, ^e^
and the Semitic m of part's ; nusham is precisely like L. amem.
The future has the same form, save that mi is replaced by bi.

361. Perfect.

nuskidami I drank.* ntuhidim, we drank.

nushidi. ntuhidid,

nuskid, fiushidand.

In this connexion, we want to b^ar in mind that nushtd is the
short future, and nushidah is part. «= having drunk ; it ifl prO'
cisely the Turkish deugdum. So, we can speak of nushi^m,
aa formed on the base of the part, above, with endings to mark
the verb 6e, or, on the basis of the short infin., for they do'not
Essentially differ (so amatvm and amatus, inf. and part, in L.).
But the former is the method. in the German languages. We
may suppose, still further, that it is on the base nush^ as in Turk.,
with idarrij a lost form equal to Turk, idum, was (we .find Pers.
btuiam=he). Again, we find the part, endings agreeing with
be in form. There is besides all these, a part, adjective mutha^
shortened nush,

362. Oonditional.

nushidamu I might drink. nushidimif we might drink.

hiMhidi, nushididi.

nuahidu nushidandi.

In this connexion, we may mark nushid^ the short itd&n., and
and the past part, nushidah; either maybe taken as the base —
but the former will be found best to agree with the usual form-
ation.

363. Compound PreterU,

nushidah-aniy I have drank. mubidahAm, we have drunk.

nuahidah-i. nushidah-id.

. nuahidak-ast. , nuahidah-and.

This is the past part, and be ; we find nushidah the base of
several compound tenses, on the foregoing plan.

364 In Afghan, related to the Per., bi is the fut. prefix, u or
w for the past, ki before the optative, or conditional tense — di
is also used as a prefix here, as well as in Malay. As in Persian,
the past part, is found used in the place of the perfect tense; so
the simple infinitive is often used for past tense (as we have
found it the basis of the past in other languages), changing the
infinitive endings into personals.

HISTORY OF VERBS. 96

Hungarian Verbs,

865. The present tense is as follows :

varohj I wait. varunk, we wait.

vartz, vartok,

var, vamak.

Imperfect

varekj I waited.

varank, we waited.

varel.

varatok.

vara.

varanak»

It is easy to see, at the first glance, how nearly identical in
form these two tenses are. The base of the present varok is
Tar=zvaro, the present part., and the endings representing the
verb he, in harmony with the system of the related Turkish.
And it is a question whether the imperfect is essentially differ-
. ent. Whatever in principle may be the elements, they are in
feet only the present part., with its endincs grown to represent
the person endings of the verb he, • We shaJl, in other languages,
find plenty of like examples. It is well to bear in mind another
form of imperfect, a compound of the present tense, with all its
endings, and vala, was ; thus, dicserek vala, I praised, dicserz
vala, ttiou praisedst, dicser vala, he praised {dicser =s he praises).
This leads us to believe that the past, in Hung., differs from the
present only by the implied vala equal to was.

366. Perfect,

vartam, I have waited. vartunk, we have waited.

vartal, vartatok,

varU vartanak (yartak).

The past part, is vart ; so, we may consider the perfect as a
variation of the past part., corresponding with th^ Persian nushr-
tdam, Turkish deug-dum.

The pluperfect is made by taking the perfect in all its per-
sonSj and adding to each the same vala or vaU=wsiB} SiS, vartam
vala, vart vala^ I had waited, he had waited.

367. Future,

varandok, I will wait. varandunk, we will wait.

varandaez, varandatok,

varand, varandanak.

This is merely a development of the fut. part, varando, An^
other future is made by placing the infin. varni, to wait, before
each of the persons offogoky I will; as, vamifogok, I will wait,
vamifoq, he will wait — fog being no doubt a variation of vag^
yon or van=^]&.

06 PHBAS18.

368. I^'esent Suhjunctive.

varfak, I waited. varjunk^ we wait.

vary. ' varyatok,

varyon. vatyanak.

This is substantially the same as the first indicatiye } it is im-
perative also.

Past Subjunctive,

vamek, I waited. vamankf we waited.

varnal, vamatok,

vama. vamanak.

This clearly corresponds with the same tense in Latin, ama-
rem. It is plainly a development of the infinitive vami, with
personal endings.

369. Th^ forms of tenses which we have so far given, belong
to what is called the {indefinite side. By a slight variation in
the endings, these same tenses assume what is called the definite
form. Thus, in place of the present already giv^n, we have, for
the definite, varom^ varod^ varja ; varjuk^ varjatok^ varjaJc ;*
and, for the imperfect, varam^ varad, vara; varok^ varatoky
varak. This is precisely the case of Samoidish predicative and
subjective endings, noticed under the head of personal endings,
and which are used substantially to point out deflniteness or in-
definiteness. So, in Hung., latom az erdot, (I) see the wood ;
latok erdot, (I) see (a) wood. If we mark the possessive pro-
nouns joined as endings to nouns, om, od, a, and Ja, unk, atok^
okj and Jok (my, thy, his, etc.), we shall see that they are al-
most identical with these definite endings. We find the infin.
confessedly receiving these very possessives = personals ; thus,
vam-om keU, waiting-my must, it must my waiting, i. e. I must
wait; and so vam-od kell and vam-ia keUy thou, he must wait
(A;6Z?=«must, there must).

370. It is to be observed also that this difference of form does
not extend to part's and verbals, which do not denote person.

Slavic Verbs,

371. The system of tenses in the different Slavic idioms is
substantially the same. We take first, as an example, the Bo-
hemian.

JPresent.

volanif I call. volame^ we call.

voids, volate,

vola, (for volat), volafi,

372. The Polish, Serb.-Wend., Slovenish, and old Prussian,

HISTORY OP VERBS. 97

present nothing different. The endings of the Lith. sing, are
a little shorter, as we see by the present lej-u, lej-t, lej-a; lej-ame,
lefate, lej-a (loose). The Russ. varies from the above as follows :
Present,

dala-iOf I make. dala-emy we make.

dala-esh, dala-^ete.

dala-et. dala-iot {-ut).

The Russ. 3d sing, (and the 2d plur., which equals 3d sing.)
shows that a in Bohemian is shortened for at.

373. It is clear in the forms already given, that the same
system prevails in Slavic that we have found in other languages.
These presents may be taken as the growth of some present
participle or infinitive, or, with equal propriety, as tho base vol,
a shortened infinitive or participle, joined to the element am, is.
We might call attention to the agreement between the Slavic
endings and the Latin o, as, at ; amiis, atis, ant (an').

374. Perfect.

The perfect in Slavic is compounded of precisely the same
elements as in the languages before spoken of. We will take
first the Slovensh.

9im delcU, I have made. smo delalij we have made,

si delal. sie delali.

je delal. so delali.

This is precisely the Latin amatus sum=l have been loved,
save that here amatus would be used as equal to having loved,
while iji Latin it is being loved — besides, also, the verb be in
Latin follows, as it does also in the Bohemian perfect, as we see
by the following :

volaljsenif I have called. volalijsme, we have called.

volaljsi. volalijste.

volal (jest s= is, left out). vola^ (y«ow= are, left out).

375. The Serb.-Wend. has the form of Slovensh. The Rus.
is based on the formation of the Boh., but the element is, are,
which we find slighted but retained in tHe others generally, is
entirely dropped here, and all we have is the past act. part, with
personal pronoun before, thus:

ja dalal, I (have) ma^e. mi dalali, we (have) made.

• te dalal. vi dalali.

on dalal. oni dalali.

376. The Polish presents still another variation :

ezytalem, I (have) read. cxytalismyy we (have) read.

czytalea. czytaliscie.

czytal. czytali.

In the 1st and 2d persons of this form, we have the element
om, is, represented by mere person endings, joined to the part.
13

98 PHRASIS.

It is the transition between Rus. and Boh. — the 3d persons are
the participles, exactly as in Rus. This explains to us the Slav,
present, showing that it differs from the perfect only in the ele-
ment t (infin.) or I (part.), and that the endings are for avn^ w,
are. We must remark, too, that the Russ. perfect corresponds
entirely with our German past, walked^ el=ed.

377. Let us turn next to the pluperfect, and first the Slovensli.
Pluperfect

sim Ml delal, I had done.
tmo bili delalif we had done.

This has the same elements as the perfect, and one more, hil
=was, or have been ; and the form is literally Lam been done.

378. And next the Bohemian.
bi/ljsem volalf I had called.
bylijsme volali^ we had called.

This is the same as the Slovensh, with a different arrange-
ment — been Lam called. In Serb.-Wend., this element am^ w,
are, is suppressed, and we have hech wuhnyl^ I had learned (6ecA
equals I was, I had).

379. And next, the Polish pluperfect.

czytalem byl^ I had read. czytalismy byli, we had read.

We have here the bi/l=WQ8 following the perfect.

380. The Rus. does not seem to have anything to correspond
precisely with any of these pluperfects. Though there is the
form ia hivalo vertal, I had turned (hival^vfaay or have been,
and vertal, a perfect part.). The ordinary pluperfect is vertival,
had turned — on the base of an infin. vertivat, from the ordinary
inf. vertetj or from the gerund vertev. It is one of those cases
of an infin. on an infinitive — but we may quite as well look
upon that val as identical with the vil or 5i7 (was) of the other
languages. We have even another infin., vernut, and a perfect
on that base; as, la vernvl^ I (have) turned; there is even
another pluperfect, ia hivalo vertival — both part's being double.
We must, in conclusion, call the attention of the student to the
/fact that the Slavic participle used as perfect or past tense,
varies in gender and nunaber to agree with the subject. We
will next turn our attention to the Slovensh future.

381. Future.

bom delalf I will do. bomo delalif we will do (make).

bos delal. bote delali.

bo delal. bodo delali.

Bom is for hodem (Per. hudam), 1 will be, I am; we have the
part, delal in place of an inf. In Serb.-Wend., the inf. is used,
as hudiipalic, 1 will burn (Imdu=zwi\\ be, and paZzc = to burn)

HISTORY OF VERBS. ^

Polish is like Slovensb ; Eussian is like Serb .-Wend., in one
of its futures ; another is a future = present, on the base of a
xaew infin., as la vernu, I will-turn, from the infinitive vernutyoa
opposed to the regular infinitive vertat.

382. Our attention will next be directed to the Svhjunctive,
Xn Slovensb it is hi delal^ I, thou, he, might do; and plural, hi
^delcUi^ we, ye, they might do. This is the infin. (or part., if
^ou prefer) with the prefix hi, one that is common in Slavic,
£ind said to be equal to the conjunction that; it is really a prefix,
like Per. li, mi. The past subjunctive inserts a 6e?ai= was, been;
-fthus, bi, hil, delal, I might have done. In Polish, which makes
its subjunctive after the same manner, the particle ah (=6/)
:«receives the person endings ; as, ah-ym czytal, that-I read (may
:vead). Polish has another form, a sort of past subj. ; as, czytal-
^jym,, I would read, czytali-hysmy, we might read. This hym
:ms the hi noticed above and here suffixed ' — it is identical, too,
^^^ith he. In Russ., it is -clearly seen that the subj. is only an
:mnfin. or past part. ; as, m zhelal hi yachat, I wished that to-
-^epart, i. e. I would wish to depart; ia hi ne dumal^ I not
■thought, i. e. I should not have thought — hi is a mere prefix,
^nd as such not to be translated. So we say, 1 had wished, for
.should have wished,

383. In Boh., We find volal hych, volaZ hys, volal hy, I, thou,
^e might call — the Pol. hym, separate, and pointing clearly to
^e. In Serb.-Wend., hech=l was, hese^ihou wast; hych pculil,
^J. would h\ixii)=hech palU (I had burned) — again we see hi=
^e, if^ that,

BeTvgallsh Verbs.

384. The first or indefinite present only diflfers from the root
1)y the addition, for the persons of the singular, of i, is, e, and

for the plural, of i, a, en. The definite present is composed of
the present participle and an element is, am {-chhi, -chhe).

The indefinite past adds Ham, Hi, ilek, (for the persons of the
sing.) to the root. It is the precise counterpart of the Turkish
tense in idum, and may be looked upon as was joined to the
root, or as the development of a participle. There is an adverbial
part, in He, and ita of the preset part, is not essentially different.

The imperfect tense is formed of present part, followed by
was. The perfect tense is made by using the past part, of the
verb and joining to the end am, is, are- — and ia pluperfect by
joining was to the same. There is a future made by placing
iba, the, ibek, after the root (as har-iha, I will do). This is the
same as the Lat. future am-aho, and is no doubt a variation of
the infinitive in ita.

100 PHRASIS.

The conditional, I did or wovM do, is a variation of the infia.,
like the Latin amare-m, I would love.

Hindustani Verbs,

385. This language does not vary its verb to distinguish the
persons. The present tense is simply the present participle used
with the personal pron's; as, I (am) speaking, he (is) speaking.
Another form of present is the same participle followed by hun
as am, I speaking am. The imperfect id I speaking was (tha or
<a= was). Another past is made by simply using the past part.,
as, I spoken (-* spoke). The perfect 1 have spoken, is 1 spoken
am (have); the pluperfect is I spoken was (had). To express
the subjunctive, I may speak, the form hulun is used — ZtuZsr
speak, and un no doubt is for 7m7i=am. The future bulunga is
equal to bul, speak, and unga for hunga, I shall or will be.

Celtic Verbs,

386. The tenses of these languages have generally corre-
spondents, the one in the other. We will start with the Welsh.
Present,

carwyf, I love. carym, we love.

carwyt. carych.

caryw, carynt.

Cornish present — same verb.

carafy I love. keryUy we' love.

keryth. carough.

car, . carons.

Celtic Breton present of kana (for kanat), to sing.

kanann, I sing. kanomp^ we sing.

kanez, kanit,

kan, kanont.

Irish present.

buailimy I strike.

huailimid, we strike.

buaiUr.

huailti.

buailid.

bualid.

Compared with the languages already examined, we find in
the Celtic nothing peculiar. We have the root, as car, repre-
senting the infinitive, or participle, to which is joined the mark
of the element am, is, are.

387. In Irish, these endings are not so developed as to dis-
tinguish, so strongly as in the other languages, the ending of

HISTORY OF VERBS. 101

the infinitive or part, (which is adj adh) from the element he,
JBuailid, the 3rd sing., is not materially different from hualad,
the infin.y as Latin a/matum=amat. In the other languages,
infin. endings are much lighter, so much so that the 3rd sing.,
which best corresponds with infin., often has no ending at all—
but, in the other persons, the endings, which represent the inf.
and part., are better developed. In Gaelic, the inf. is continued
pretty uniformly through the persons of the tenses without vari-
ation, followed by the personal pronouns separate — an excellent
proof that the tenses in their persons are only forms of the inf.
and participle.

388. The Welsh present was not formerly used by good
writers, its place being supplied by the future, as car a/ for
carvyyf^ or by this better, 1 am in loving (I love), using am^ is,
with the infin., or gerund, governed by a prep. The perfect is
formed after the same principle ; as, / am after loving) differing
from the other only in the preposition used.

389. In Celtic Breton, verbs have besides the personal form,
already given, an impersonal form, one which has no variation
of ending for the persons, using the separate pronouns before a
form like the shortened inf., or part.; as, me a gan=^l sing, te
a ^an«»thou singest — a being a mere augment of participle for
infin. So, in Cornish, mi/ a gar=l love, ti/ a ^ar= thou lovest
(using the forin of the 3rd sing.). The verb do is sometimes
inserted; as, my a wra care, I do lovei(i(?ra=do).

It may not be amiss to give the present tense of the verb he
in Cornish ; as, of, os, yu, (am, art, is) ; on, ough^ yns and ens
(are). These are plainly the same as the endings of verbs.

390. Celtic Past

eareUf cares, care (cava)} caren, careugh, car ens, (loved).
car-wn, car-it, car-ai; car em, carech, carent (loved).
han-enn, kan^ez, kan-e; kanemp, kan-ech, kan-ent (sung).

The first line is Cornish, the second Welsh, and the third
C.-B. In this connexion we may notice the C.-B. past of he,

oenn, oez, oe; oemp, oech, oent.
So, with these kept in view, we can, with propriety, consider
the car-en, car-wn, and han-enn, as car and han representing
the gerund or part., and en, wn, enn, =was. If we compare the
Celtic Breton kanemt of the past with kanann of the present,
we shall find a close resemblance between them. We noticed
such a resemblance in other languages. There should be the
same identity between these two tenses that there is between the
Lat. supine (inf.) amatum, and the part, amatus, or the same
identity which we find between the inf., or gerund, and the past
participle, in the German and Scandinavian languages.

102 FHBASIS.

391. We may observe, too, that, from another point of view,
caren, Ist person Cornish, and caret (for care)^ 3rd person, are
identical with the past part. — the ending of the part, being <,
in Irish, and en and et^ in Celtic Breton. So that we find this
tense identical with the deugdwn of Turkish, and the nushid of
Persian.

392. The Irish past is for do hualadj to strike, as follows :

do buaile-as, do huail-is^ do buail se, 1, thou, he struck.

do huaile-^amar^ do httaile-abarf do huaileadctTy wrc, ye, they strnck.

The prefix do which we find in the infin. and part., shows very
well that this tense is based on them ; and the endings, leaving
ofi* the ar of the plural, point very clearly to acZ, adh^ of the inf.
This do is identical with all the numerous prefixes found in
Celtic, such as ro, re, o, a. It is the Slavic da^ and it is found
also in the old German dialects ; the prefix r is found also in
old French, as r-avolr (to have), for avoir.

There is another form in Celtic for the past, which we will
now consider.

393. Second Past

keryt, kerst/s, ear as; kerayn, carsouffhy earsons (loved)*
cerdi8f ceraist, carodd ; carasorif carasochy carasant (loved).
kaniZt kanzoud, kanaz ; kamomp, kanzot, kanzont (sung).
buailinn^ buaUtea^ buailead ; huailimis, buailti, buailidis (struck).

The first is Corn., the 2d Welsh, the 3d Celt.-Bret., and the
4th Irish (and it has the prefix do before all persons). In this
connexion, we must bear in mind the Cor. past of he, esen, eses,
ese; esen, esough, ens (was, were). So, we may regard thesd
forms of the past as was or has been joined to the present part.,
or, which is preferable, as a development of a past participle,
personal endings being added. The Irish 2d persons give very
nearly the past part, huailte ; the 3rd persons present the part,
ending as it appears in the gerund, or infin. The first persons
give the Cornish form of past participle.

We regard this tense as a regular Latin perfect, or as a Greek
first aorist (mark the s in ker-s-ys^.

394. Here we will give the pluperfect

car sen, caraes, carae {{) ; carsen, caraeugh, carsens (would love).
caraswn, carasit, carasai; cdrasem, carasechy carasent (had loved).
kanaenn, kanaez, kanae; kanaempt kanaech, Aran^en^ (would sing).
buailfinn, buailfeay buailfead; buailfimisy buailfidy buai^dia (would
strike).

In kansenn (Celtic Breton), we have substituted s for/*, as it
really should be; we find also kanzenn and kanjenn, and so
through all the persons. This tense in form is not essentially
diflfereut from the perfect, just as in Latin, amaverunt (perf.)

HISTORY OF VERBS. 103

equals amaverant (pluperf.). .You can divide car-sen^ or cars-en
— using .se7i=had been, or C7i=was {cars, caras, for pcrf. part
carat, or caret, as in Cornish and Celtic Breton). The student
will observe here, as well as elsewhere, how the pluperf. indie.
identifies with the subjunctive or conditional. Next we will
consider the future.

394. Future,

In Welsh, the future runs thus, caraf, cert, car a {car'); car^
vm, carwch, carant ; caraf {f=s) and car ant plainly show the
inf. ending — the tense is not different from the present. There
is, in Welsh, a second future, carof, carych, caro ; carom, car-
och, carontj which is plainly only a form of the other.

The Irish presents a future where the mark is /, Lat. ho, G'k
8, Rus. V of pluperfect ; thus, huailfead, huailfir, buailjid, buail-
fimid, huailfid, huailfid (will strike) — we have here (see the
id= infin. ad) nothing but the infin. of a new base, such as we
have so often met with. This puts us in mind of remarking,
that every tense is really a form of its own, and not derived
from some other — indeed, so is every person form also.

396. One single example out of several in Welsh, will show
that the principle is unmistakably in the Celtic languages of
representing he as a suffix at the end of verbs ; thus, we have

^wyhod, to know. gwyhuaswn^ I had known.

gwn, I know. gwybyddaf, I will know,

gwyhyddwUf I knew. gwyhyddof^ I will havfe known.
gwybum, I have known.

Bod (Per. hudan) is inf. of verb he ; huaswn = l had been;
hyddwn=l was, hyddaf^l shall be; hum=I have been. It is
in the Celtic languages that we find most convincing proof that
the auxiliaries, such as do, he, have, are practically developments
of the endings of verbs ; it is there that we find them following
the verb, either attached or separate.

397. There are some other combinations which we must yet
notice in Corn. ; thus, kared em euz, loved I have, i. e. I have
loved : me em-euz Jcaret, I I-have loved, i. e. I have loved —
me and em are both forms of /, but the em is so closely incorpo-
rated with euz (have) as to cease to be an independent proiioun,
and we have here, as in ego am^o, a pronoun separate and one
in the verb ; so, in the 1st plural, ni hon-euz karet, we we-have
loved. We find also karond a rarm, to-love (I) do, i. e. I do
love, I love (a is an unmeaning prefix) ; so karond a reomp,
love we-do, we love; there is also the heza em euz, to-be I have,
meaning simply I have.

104 PHRASIS.

GrceJc and Latin Verhs,

398. We will next consider, in some detail, the elaborate sys-
tem of the Greek and Latin verb. What we have already said

^ of other languages will aid us much in obtaining a clear under-
standing of the system now before us. ^

399. Present

Lat. ; amoy amas, amat. amamuSf amatisy amant (love).

G'k ; leipd, leipeit, leipei. leipomen, leipete, leipousi (leave).

Span. ; amo^ amas^ ama (t). amamos, amaiSf aman (love).

Germ. ; backe, backestf backet^ backen, backet, backen (bake).

Dan. ; bager, bager, bager. bage, bage, bage (bake).

Go. ; skaida, skaidis, skaidiih. skaidaniy tkaidith, skaiaand (Ger. sehdde).

A. S. ; gife, gifast, gifath. gifath, gifath, gifath (give).

Eng. ; give, givesty giveih. give, give, give (give).

A mere glance at the above comparative view, will show the
identity between those forms and the part, or infin. ; amat is
the supine, less the um, and amant is the present part., or a
form of amat. the amo is short, for amam or amaty as we
see by Span. ama=L. amat; Gr'k leipei =leipet, as we see by
the 2d plural ; leipomen is identical with the middle participle
letpomen-os.

400. In Germ., we find et and en, known participle endings;
in Dan. and Swed., er is equal to L. are of inf. The A. S. ath,
adhj is the same as Gaelic inf. ending. That those endings are
not properly pronouns added, is seen by the number of instances
where the same ending occurs in more than one person, and, as
in A. S., in more than one number. There is no doubt but that
in many languages, as the Lat. and Gr'k, the developments are
so strong that they may be considered, from their differentia-
tion, as representing the persons, or, more properly, the different
persons of the verb be — but the condition must be borne in
mind that they are only developments of the one and same verb-
al ending en, et, ar.

401. The Fast.

There are in the indicative mood of Latin, three forms which
perform the part of past tenses. They are, for amare, to love,
the imperfect (or past proper) ama-bam, the perfect ama-vi,
and the pluperfect ama-veram; the endings of the past and
perfect, after leaving the 1st person, have forms like the present,
i. e. -am, -as, -at, -amus, -atis, -ant. It is one of the features
of the Latin, as it is of others, that the 1st person sing, of the
past tenses differs from that of the present, it being am for the
former, and o for the latter. We observed this, even more

HISTORY OF VERBS. 105

strikingly, in Hung, and Samoid., where one denoted possessive
endings and the other nominative. And so it is in Latin, the
past tenses have accusative endings, such as we should find with
an infin., while present tenses have nominative endings. The
past tenses are everywhere objective, dependent.

402. The form ama-ham corresponds exactly with Turkish
deitg-dum, Persian nusM-dam, that is, we have the base am or
ama, for the inf. or part, of the original verb, and ham or abam
representing was. There is no form of he in Latin which cor-
responds with h(xm (Germ, hin, Eng. beeri), unless we take it as
a variation of eram= was (or of fui); it is clearly identical with
Turk, dum^ tdum, Welsh hum, Slav, hechj hyl, our was (fe=i^);
hain is in form a verb of itself, with base h and regular ending.
We can, with equal propriety regard it as amah-am,, taking am-
ah as a base, some infinitive as amare, or amat^um), receiving
person endings. In this light, it is the Russ. v of pluperf. and
other forms. There is no question that h of ham is the t of
-atum (supine), and of can-to.

403. But ham taken in connexion with the other endings
aver am and avi, points more strictly to Lat. Tiaheo, have. It is
very clear that have, which is so common as an auxiliary, in
Germ., and in other languages which are conceded to be directly
descended from Latin (as Fr., It., Span.), and which appears in
later years in Latin itself as an auxiliary for these tenses, may
be taken as corresponding with this ham and averam. It is
equally clear that have is only a development of the endings of
the verb, such as we have in Latin, and which has at last been
thrown off or separated.

404. Nearly all writers have treated these elements of Latin
verbs as representing tenses of the verb he, but this is only true
so far as he is have ; and if have is not he, then this ending
under consideration is not he. The difficulty arises from the
fact that in many languages, perhaps most, he is used in place
of have — so it is in Fr. and Germ., among others. The truth
is, they are identical in origin, and we so treat them; have is
simply later in appearance than he. Not only have, but do, own,
mean, may, shall, wiU (Slav, hyl), and perhaps all other auxili-
aries, are identical with he. The proof of have equal to he is
abundant, and beyond all question ] their use in common is of
itself evidence enough ; etymologically considered, they are not
different in most languages.

405. Greek Past.

e-'leipon, e-leipes, e-leipe ; eleipomen, eleipete, eleipon (left).
The Sanscrit formation is the same. The augment e and a
(Celtic do, ro, a, aq) shows the part., or infin., character of the
14

106 .PHRASIS.

base, as we find augments in other languages uniformly befop^^
infs and part's. Tire forms e-leipon^ eleipes^ eleipe (for deipe^^ "^
are not materially diflferent from German ge-hliehen (left).

406. There is another past, called the Ionic or iterative past;
it ends in skon, skes, ske (sing.) ; as, e-tupteskon^ for e-tuptan —
the augment in this form is generally omitted. This s^=8 ifl
the « which we shall find in the aorist, the h of Latin past;
taking sJc—Jc, it is also the k of the G'k perfect; it is the G'k
z in aitizein (for axtein)^ to ask often, and the sk in methuskSj
I become drunk. So, in Rus., we find v (=G'k sk) as the mark
of the iterative; as, kidat, to cast, kidivat, to throw often; and,
again, we have seen it as the mark of the pluperfect.

407. We can regard eleipon just as we have the past of other
languages already noticed — either as the variation of the end-
ings of a participle, or the on, es, e (for et) as the past of he.
Though the usual form of w?as, in Greek, is somewhat different,
there are dialectic forms which often occur, enabling us to
assume a form for the persons of ««7a8 ; thus, ecm, ce», ee; eomen
eete, eon.

The Celtic presents us with an exact counterpart of these
pasts in Greek and Sanscrit. In none is the final element so
strongly developed as we find it in Latin, and the cognate lan-
guages.

408. The Greek has another form of the past, called 2d aorist,
which we will next proceed to notice. It runs thus :

elipoUf elipeSf elipe ; elipomen, elipetey elipon (left).

This is not essentially different from the foregoing in meaning,
and it is identical with it in endings. It varies from the past
in having the root or base lip^ in place of leip. Just such vari-
ations in the body of the word prevail in the German class, and
in other languages, in the past tenses ; as, German ich schlage,
1 strike, ich schlug, I struck ; so, our write and wrote, sing and
sang. This form compares well with the Germ. part, ge-borg-
en, from hergen^ to bury, conceal. When we bear in mind that
the prefix e is not an essential part of the tense, and is often left
off, we will the more readily see how it agrees with our leave
and left^ see and saw^ Latin capio and cepi (perf.), frango and
fregi.

409. These changes in the base, and of which we shall find
more in Greek, seem to be as if in compensation for the short-
ness or lightness of the ending, as in taught for teached, where
t (for ec?) is almost silent ; so, in the plural, we have men for
mans. It might be remarked, further, that these irregular
forms, having lost their tense marks, are reduced to the form of
mere presents ; as, give, gave, Goth, giba, gab, stila, stal, Latin

HISTORY OF VERBS. 107

capio^ cepi, ago, egii There can be no doubt that all such forms
as these were originally, and are now, in principle, augmented
like this aorist of Greek ] so, in Goth., we have sai^slep, the
preterit of «/epa, to sleep, and hlai-hlaup, preterit of hlaupa
(German lau/en,Tnn).

Many verbs have no 2d aorist — it is a n^w form, wanting in
all verbs ending in azO, ainQ, eu6.

410. Aorist \st.

Besides those pasts already noticed, there is a longer and
fuller form, the 1st aorist, running thus :

e-leip'ta, eleip-taa^ eleip-se; eleip-samen, eleip-sate, eleip»san (left).

The Sans, endings to correspond with these are saw, sis, sit ;
sma, std, stis; and if, in this connexion, we bear in mind the
Sahs. asan, asis, asit; asma, asta, asan, the past of be (was or
has been), the Greek esan, and Latin esam for eram, we shall
have no doubt about what the aorist endings represent. This
tense is also a faithful counterpart of the Latin am-aham, Pers.
nush-idam. The San. san, 1st per., shows that Gfeek sa^sam,
and Sans, sit, 3rd sing., shows Greek se^set or sat; so that in
every respect this tense agrees with the Latin -ham, -has, -bat.
In meaning, however, it answers better to our perfect.

411. As we regard this tense in its parts as identical with such
tenses as the Lat. amabam, it is hardly necessary to repeat here
what was said of that form. That this s in Greek and Sanscrit,
which appears as b, v, in Latin, is the same as the v of Slavic
vertivat, the new infinitive on the old infinitive vertet, as well as
the t of Lat. rogitare from rogare, the z of Greek JcomizO from
komeS, admits of no doubt.

412. As we have said of the others we say of this, that what-
ever may have been its origin, it has developed an ending which
represents an auxiliary verb, have or was. There are some verbs
which have the aorist in ka for sa, that is, with the augment of
the aorist they end in ka, like a perfect — being a transition form
of the latter.

413. Though the 2d aorist is not so full, it represents the
same elements — the ending is shorter, less developed, but this
is compensated by the vowel change of the root. There is a
striking identity, which we must notice before closing this tense,
the 1st aorist, between its endings and those of the participle ;
as, as, asa, an (mas. fem. and neut.). Indeed, we find in mod.
Greek imperf. sing., etimousa, etimouses, etimouse (I, thou, he
honored) ; but ousa is the regular fem. participle ending in G'k.
This not only shows the tense equal to a participle, but that the
aorbt s is the same as that of ousa.

We will next consider the perfect.

108 PHRASIS.

414. Perfect.

Closely related to the past of Latin and the aorists of Greek,
is the perfect. Its fullest form in Latin is vi, as in ama-vi^ I
have loved, from the verb amo ; a shorter, but nearly identical
form, is that of the 2d conjugation; as, mon-ui (from moneo)^ I
have advised. Neither the %l nor the v, we may remark, is
peculiar to the perfect ; we find a whole class of verbs with the
base ending in w, as aciu>, ruo^ metuo, and in v, as moveo, caveo,
solvo, lavo. It is hardly necessary to remind the student that
this V, M, is the very t which we have so often met before in
many places.

415. There is in Latin still another and much larger class
which includes those that scarcely differ in their base from the
present — regarding i as the ending of the perfect and o that of
the present. They are such as follow :

juvo^ juvi ; moveOf movi ; capiOy cepi ; faciOy feci,
fugio, fugi ; farcio, farsi ; haurio, hausi; video, vidi.
rumpOf rupi ; linquo, liqui; lego, legi; fundo, fudi.

There are instances where a final letter of the base is repre-
sented in the perf. by one of its cognates; such as augeo^ auoci;
torqueo, torsi; indulgeo^ indulsi ; ardeo, arsi; juheo^ jusii;
vivo J vixi; gero^ gessi; spicio, spexi; coalesco, coalui ; fingo^
finxi\ tergOj tersi ; cedo, cessi ; sino, sivi. It is clear here that
g of the present is represented by x of the perfect, dhy s, b by
ss, V and chy x, g by s, sc by u.

416. In more languages than one, we have already found the
past participle thfe base of the perfect tense, with sometimes
nothing but personal endings developed, and in some cases even
these omitted. It is very natural then that we should consider
it the base in Latin also. We have observed this v mark of the
perf., in Latin, having a strong tendency to disappear as t« in a
large class of verbs, and vanishing entirely in a class still larger.
Even in that class of Latin verbs where we should uniformly
expect it, often it cannot be found ; thus, for amavisti we have
amasti, for petivi we have pefii, and deleram for deleveram. In
the Ital., Fr., and Span, languages, whose tenses are farmed on
the same principle as those of Latin, these short forms are the
prevailing ones, that is, the v ceases to be a consonant, as in
petii, and is lost by harmony with the accompanying vowel.
So, in Ital., we*find cant-ai, cant-asti, cant-o, French chant-ai,
chant-as, chant-ait), both for the Lat. cantavi, cantavisti (can-
tasti), cantavit. In Fr. forms, such as vendis, vendis, vendtt (I,
thou, he has sold), we especially see the identity of the perfect
with the old Fr. participle ; so, too, in servis, servis, servit (has
served) — part, servi, for servit. Such* perfects become identical
with the German pasts.

HISTORY OF VERBS. 109

417- In L., we find a strong tendency of the perf. to identify
with the pass, part., and hence with the supine also; thus, pres.
Jubeo, -perfect Jussi, paxticiple jusms (to order); rideOj Wsi, runs
(laugh) ; parcOj parsi, parsus (spare) ; scribo, scripsiy sm'pttis
(ps=:pt) ; ducOy duxiy ductus (x=ck=ct). And there is little
doubt that the v seen in amavi is the t of amcUum j^o that,
seen from this stand point, it is a mere part, developing endings,
and we have amavi for amavim (as we see by amavim-us^ 1st
plural), amavisti for amaviti, a double development often found
in the 2nd person.

The 3rd plural, amaverunt^ presents us with an unexpected
growth ; we have here not only the W7i^=*they, and the av seen
in the other persons, but also the inf. mark er. In mod. Latin,
the V disappearing, we have this form reduced to a mere infin.
with personal endings ; thus, Fr. chanter-ent, Spanish cantaron
(they have sung), and the infin. chanteVy cantar. This growth
of amavunt (amatunt) into amaverunt (^amatunint}y is precisely
the growth of amaturus out of amare^ amatus, amandus. The
Wallach. carries the r through all the persons plur., as laudar-
amuy laudaratiy laudaro (for laudarunt)^ we, ye, they have
praised — while in Latin we should have lavdavimus, l^udavis-
ti8, laudaverunt (laudarunt). In Tuscan, we find poetic forms
for the perf. 3d plural where the person ending is entirely lost,
and we have the bare inf. = part.; as, creder^ lor creder-o^cre-
der-ono. In the Goth, past («=perf.), we find the same doubling
in the plural that we- do in Latin 3(i plural perfect ; thus, salbo-
dtty salhodeSy salboda; salbo-dedum, salbo-deduth, salbo-dedun
(saved) — the double d^d being found in the three persons plur.
That this d^d is equal to the Latin av-er, is very evident from
the identity of the tenses in which those elements are found.
Both languages have a corresponding tense in the subjunctive,
and in both this double element appears in all the persons ; as,
salbfh-dedjaUy -dedeiSy -dedi; -dedeimay -dedeithy -dedeina ; Latin
am-averimy -verUy -verit; -verimuSy -veritisy -verint (might have
loved, may have loved).

418^ If we would consider the Latin perfect as composed of
parte, we may say it has the auxiliary have (avi) and the perf.
or past part., a composition such as we find everywhere; aver-
ufU of the 3rd plural has grown to represent the infinitive, avere
(habere) and the person ending. The past in German is made
by suppressing have and using the participle alone, even going
still farther and suppressing the mark of the participle, as in
the irregular verbs (so as to bring it still nearer the present).
The same thing precisely seems to have occurred in Latin in a
large portion of its perfeqtB.

419. There are in Latin, also, a few scattered remnants of

y

110 PHEASIS.*

reduplicated perfects, such as we find prevailing in Greek and
in a portion of the Gothic pasts; such as mordeo^ mo-mordi
(bite), pendo, pe-pendi (hang), tandeo, to-tondi (shear). In
sdme of these reduplicated perfects, the root vowel is also
changed, as in our irregular verbs ; as, parco^ peperci, tango,
tetigi, parioj peperiy cano^ cecinij /alio, /efelli. In that large
class of Jjat. verbs where the root is changed and the reduplica-
tion is not apparent, we may consider it as latent, and they are
easily placed parallel with our irregular verbs; as, crescOy crSvi
(grow, grew), mitto, misi (send, sent), sto, steti (stand, stood),
sido, sidi (sit, sat), lego, legi (read, read, past), frango^ fi'^(/i
(break, broke), ago, €gi (do, did), capio, dpi (take, took).

420. There is also in Latin the pluperfect amaveram, amav-
eras, amaverat (I, thou, he had loved); the 2d future amavero,
-ris, -rit (I, thou, he will have loved) ; and the perf. subjunc. «
amaverim, -ris, rit (I, thou, he may have loved). These are
all identical with the perfect as it appears in the 3rd plural —
ram and rim mark the ace. pron., and ro marks the nominative.
They stand as if made of averam, which is the infinitive habere
(avere) with endings, and the root am} in the a^am of the past,
the endings are joined to the root instead of to the infinitive.

421. *The perfect of Greek will next engage our attention.
Of the reduplication we have already found traces in Latin and
Gothic ; in the Greek, it is a feature more constant, it is one of
the most prominent marks of the perfect in that tongue — thus,
preset leipo, perf. le-leipha (levLwe), pleko, pe-pleka, k^ch (fold).
But this manner of regular reduplication is not found in all
verbs by any means. In a large class of verbs, namely, those
which begin with two consonants (with some exceptions), the
augment is 6, the same as in the aorist and past tenses ; thus,
zeloOj e-z€loka {z^^dz); speiro, e-sparka; psallo, e-psalka.
The reason of this variation from what we are wont to regard as
the regular mode of reduplication is, that this reduplication is
really a case of double letters, leleipa^Ueipa, pepleka^ppleka,
and where two consonants come together, as ds, ps, sp, they
being alike, as we have elsewhere shown, they are, also, already/
double. In such cases as grapho, ge-grapha, krind, kekrika,
pneo, pepneuka^ Mad, tethlaka, where we have one of the two
initial consonants Z, n, r, (some exceptions), the augment is
regular, because such letters are little more than vowels. It
hardly needs from us the hint that the perfect, in its formation,
is precisely that of the aorists and the imperfect, that the aug-
ment e, of those tenses, is only one of the forms of this very
reduplication.

422. Having already suggested that all double letters and all
cases where two consonants come together are augments, just like

HISTORY OF VERBS. Ill

this one of the perfect, we must remind the student that even
this Greek reduplication is by no means confined to this tense ;
it is often found in the present, as ti-trdskdy I wound, pi-praskd,
I sell ; it is often found in parts of speech not verbs (as gi-gas,
a giant, toutOy this), and in other languages much more clearly
than in G-'k. This augment has a history identical with that of
the Germ, ge; this ge^ too, is a mark not of participles alone.

423. Having considered the initial part of the Greek perfect,
let us next consider that which marks its ending. The regular
endings which mark the perfect are ka and j^ha (ya) ; as, peitliQ
pepeika, tupto, tetupha. Remembering how often ^=^, we find
no trouble in seeing in this k the t of Latin amatus, and the et^
ed, of Germ, pasts. In some forms of Slav., we have found the
usual past sign Z«< appearing as ch—k; as, b^ch, bech, in place

.of hyly was; so, we find wuknich (nik')^ I learned, and wuknyl
(part.) learned — it is only a form of the infin. ending ic (is) for
ity which we often find. The pha (vd) is only a form of ka ;
the form v=»t also appears in the Lat. perf s. We need hardly
mention that this k and v is the s of the aorist and of the future.

424. We must observe here, too, that this ka and va ap-
pearing in Greek perfects, is not some new element added to
the verb, but simply, as we saw in the Latin perfect and supine
a development of what was already in it, a growth of cognate
letters from the end of the base or root of the verb. Thus, we
have tuptd, (te)tupha (pt=ph); plekO, {pe)pleka ; legd, (le)-
leka (cf^k)) ^aliskd, ^SlOka {sk::^k); ktizd, (e)ktika (z ==k') ]
orussd, druka (ss=z=k)} ^amartand, ^SmartSka (n^g=k).

425. But verbs ending in 6o, ao, 0(5, and the like, really seem
to have an additional k ; as, phileOj (pe)philSka; timao, (te)-
timika. But there is no doubt that there is an undeveloped n,
8 or z, in this co, ad, just as we find it appearing in anOy izo,
isko ; ad may be taken as a transition of and to o. So, chrao is
for chravo (our grave, German graben), chad for chavd (gape.
Germ, gaffen), kleo (Germ, klaffen) \ thad for thapo, brud for
brisphd.

There are also such perfects as (e)stalka from stelld, and (e)-
sparka from speird. These are related to the above in their
vowel character, and what is said of one will apply to the other.
We want to bear in mind that k though apparently a hard con-
sonant is really equal to g=j=i, and associates well with v=u.

We have thus found the Greek perfect to be the exact coun-
terpart of the Latin perfect. As v represents habeo in Latin, so
k represents echd, have, in Greek (for ekd).

426. The perfects in G'k assume another form, a form exactly
corresponding with our irregular or strong verbs. It is called
the 2d Perfect, and is treated as distinct from the perfect proper.

112 PHRASIS.

but it is clearly a mere form of it. They are evidently different
in age, and one is meant to replace the other. That tBey both
exist together, is no strange phenomenon in nature. Old fashions
and ne^ ones are always coeval — but one or the other predom-
inates. Degenerated forms which are represented in nature by
others, are only suppressed, they are never extirpated. The
forms we speak of are such as pepoitha from peitho, leloipa, from
leipo, pleko^ pephka (porf. pepleka). It is a matter of history
in Greek, in the Attic particularly, that the short forms are the
older, and that hence the longer ones are the result of growth;
so, the k and ph (v) are dropped in the more ancient Greek, and
we have the ending aa or a, the s of the future does not appear,
and we have alo for alesO^ kalo for kaleso, besides, kao replaces
kaio^ and alein is for alUhein.

427. In modern Gr'k, there is no simple perfect tense, unless
we consider the 1st aorist as its representative; the aorist, having
a form precisely that of ancient Greek, is used for the perfect,
and also for the pluperfect and future. The modern Greek has
not as many forms for past tenses as ancient Gr'k, for this plain
reason, that the elements by age and growth had got to be so
strongly developed that the auxiliaries, as have, have been cast
off from the parent stem, and have become themselves individual
verbs. There are as many tenses in Ijiter Greek as in the older,
but in the later the elements are more frequently separate. Thus,
echo^ grapsei, 1 have written, echeis grapsei, thou hast written;
literally it is, / have (^to) have written^ as grapsei is the aorist
(or perfect) infinitive ; this is not the only place where we may
find the infin. in place of a part, past; so, in Polish, bede czytai^
will read (past part, where we use infin.) — so in old German, ut
cuman (int.), is come, has come. We find siiso echo grammenon
(perf. part.) corresponding in form to out I have written, though
not precisely in meaning. In Greek the use of have following
the aorist (perf.) part, in place of perfect tense, is very common;
as, thaumasas echo, wondered I-have (having wondered I-have).
The perfect participle followed by be is also very common; as,
gegraphos esomaij (having) written I-shall-be, i. e. I shall have
written ; tetumenoi eisi, struck (being struck) they-are, i. e. they
have been struck.

428. The Greek pluperfects, as e'le-leipein, e-pe-plekein, e-te-
tuphein, are only imperfects on the base of the perf. The plu-
perf., here, is a true infin. ; it is just such a form as the Latin
amaveram^ amaverim. The developed person endings at the
end of an infinitive we have by this time become familiar with.
There is, besides, a 2nd pluperfect, based on the 2nd perfect, as
e-pe-poithein, on pepoitha. (We may mention here, by way of
note, that the Gr'k aorist inf. as leip-sai, is in form the same as

HISTORY OF VERBS. 113

a7na-vere, which in Latin, however, we find only in the past
tenses with endings added).

429. In Albanian, we find a compound perfect thus, kam
dijiouare, he dijiouare^ ha difiouare^ I, thou, he, has heard ; ham
hapourcj I-have opened. Here we have the G'k perfect ending
ha existing^eparate. It has also a simple perfect, ending in ha
(G*k pha, Lat. ham)) as, dijio-ha, I have heard, scro-ha, I have
written. This ha is often reduced to a, and has the forms ze,
tze, fe-^showing after all that it is the Eng. past ed, Germ. te.
There is a past tense, ending in ona. ana^ na (Gr'k past ending
on, Germ, en of part.) ; as, difi-ona, I heard, chap-naj I opened,
pe-na, I made.

430. Future.

The regular future mark in Lat., is -ho, -5ts, "hity-himus, -hit is,
"hunt, differing from the past -ham, -has, 'hat\ etc., in having
nominative person endings. But, in the 3d and 4th conjugations,
this mark 6 is suppressed, and we have the future identical
(practically) with the present subjunctive, as regam is both fut.
and pres't subj., I will ride, or I may rule) reget, he will rule,
ftgat^ he may rule. There is, besides, a 2d future, which differs
irom the perf. subj. only in being amavero, in place of amaverim,,
in the 1st person sing.; its identity, too, with the pluperfect
umaveram also necessarily follows. This identity of futures
with pasts is by no means confined to the Latin. In Greek, too,
s is both the mark of the fut. and of the 1st aorist, and leip-s-6
(fut.) differs from {e)leip-s-a (aorist) only as ama-h-am from
ama-b-o. This mark is often suppressed in the future, as we
find it in Latin. To compare all the persons of these two tenses,
we have leips-o, -eis,.-ei; -omen, -ete, -oun (will leave), and
(e)leip8-a, -as, -e; -amen, -ate, -an (left, have left).

431. Here we may introduce the Pol. fut., hede pisal, I will

write, hedzie pisal, he will write, hedziemy pisali, we will write.

This hede (Per. ?>mJam, Wei. hod, Rus. hit) is the fut. of he, and we

have wiU he equal to will — insal\& the part, in place of inf. We

have, in Pol., another arrangement, pisa.s hede, (to-write I wiW), I

will write, where the inf. is followed by (will) he. The Slovensh

has, for the 3rd persons sing, of will, hom, has, ho (Welsh hod),

which approaches still nearer the future ending ho, his, hit, of

Latin. In Bohemian, we have ie=will be, will, preceding the

infin. ; as, hudeme piti, we-will (to) drink. Persian has also a

compound future composed of will or wish and the infin. ; as,

^hiham nushid, Lshall drink ; hhahad mishid, he-shall drink.

The lUyr. uses the auxiliary Jiosu (or sw)=will, with the inf. ;

a8,ja mpitati, I will (to) ask; tises piti, thou wilt (to) drink —

and sometimes the m is suffixed, as sitat su ((to) read I-will), I

15

114 PHEASIS.

will read; pit su, I will drink (sounded jp^-w). We have, here,
the Greek s, and see what it represents. The Servian has this
sanie auxiliary, in the form of odsh^i (old Slavic choshtu), our
wish, Persian khash. •

432. The Wallachian presents the following combination :

(Jo) voiu laudOf (I) will praise. vomu laudaf (wej will praise.
vei lauda. viti lauda.

va lauda. voru lauda.

Laxida is without doubt a shortened infin. We are reminded
by this of the identity of future ending ho, his, hit, and Latin
volo, vis, vult (will), of which the Wallachian presents a shorter
form. The voru is our were) so the German uses werde, were,
for will, and the Slavic uses hil (will) for wxis.

433. In Albanish, we have this for the future :

do te difoiffj (I) will hear. do te difiogeme, (we) will hear.

do te difiotz. do te difioni.

do te difioge. do te difiogene.

The te mark is an augment, sign of infin. ; do stands for wiU.
The modern Greek form is precisely the same ; as, iha qrapsO,
I will write, tJui grapsgs, thou wilt write, tha grapsB, he will
write, i. e. we have tha unchanged and the endings joined to
the main verb. This tJia is to be compared with the do, for
dona, of Alban., with the va of Wall. (v=0> ^^® Greek theld =
volo, and the Irish ^a=be. The form grapsO used with it, is
called aorist subj., but it is properly an aorist infin. receiving
endings, as we saw in Albanian, and elsewhere. This language
(modern G'k) forms a future also by using thel6 (==*volo, will)
with aorist infin. ; as, theld grapsei, I-will write, thelei grapsei,
he-will write — and sometimes the present inf. is used in place
of aorist ; and, again, we find na replacing ta.

434. Having gone thus far in showing the various forms
which the future assumes, in different languages, and now
remarking, incidentally, that the pres't indie, pres't subj., and
the future are tenses that everywhere identify themselves, we
will now consider more in detail the relatives of our auxiliary
willyf so as to give a still better idea of the future tense. The
connexion of he with will has been already sufficiently discussed.
Next to this have is one of the most constant representatives of
will. We have already seen the future placing itself parj(Jlel
with the past tenses (marked by have), and the s of the Greek
future identical with the h and v (for have) of the past tenses of
Latin. It is a constant feature in Slav, to find have joined with
an infin. to supply the place of the future, as we say, lam to do,
or, / have to do, for will do. So, Gothic has taujan haha (to-do
I-have)=I will do, and Latin dicere haheo (to-say I-have) = I
will say, also Polish mam szytas (I-have to-read) = I shall read.

HISTORY OF VERBS. 115

435. In (xothic, munan, mun, is used for will; so we say, I
mean (same word as mun) tO'do\ \, e. I shall do it, will do it.
This rmn relates to Gr'k mellein^ also used for will^ and identical
with it. Our owe^ oiight^ is also related to will, as we see better
by the Greek form for it, o-pheild (Jil, will) — and Latin dsbeo^
ought, is a form of Aafteo=^ shall : must, wiay, mighty are related
to owe^ ought, aud in form to mean, Go. mxm; shall. Germ, soil,
is of course a form of m?^. The Danish has ftor=orfght, and
related to de-heo^ to Wall, voru, German toerde, our loere. We
haye noticed so far only a portion of the relatives of will, but
perhaps the most important portion.

436. It is in the Illyr. and Serb. Wend, that we notice this
important fact, that an augment in the shape of a prefix preposi-
tion, is the sign of the future; as, prepisem, I will prescribe
(fore-write), za-pisem, I will record, write up (pisem, write) ;
so, also, njesu, I carry, po-njesu, 1 will carry (and so in other
forms of Slavic).

437. The futures in the modern L. languages are marked by r,
as Span, ama-re, a/ma-ras, ama-remos, ama-reis, ama-ran, will
love. When we bear in mind that the perfect 3d plural is am^-
f^^ntyn, which we know is for L. amaverunt, we are led to believe
that this Span, future is the Lat. 2d future amavero=^amaro. -
So, in French, sentv-rai, -ras, -ra; -rons, rez, ront (will smell).
-^iiere is no 2nd future in these languages.

438. Pasnve.

We will first introduce the passive of Latin, present tense.
Ifc runs tlius :

avnoTy I am loved.

amamur, we are loved.

amarit.

amamini.

amatur.

amantur.

The 3d sing, is identical with the future participle, amaturus,
living off the adj. ending us, a, um; amantur differs from this
form only in the t strengthened by n; amamur has m used for
* as often occurs ; amor is for amatr, as amo is for amam, am-
, dt; another form, common for the 2(1 sing., is amare (for ama-
tre) which is identical with preset inf. active — amar-is=amor,
dniar, with an extra person ending common in this person;
and, again, we find in the imperative, which should agree with
this 2nd person, the form am^tor (as well as amare). So, five
of the six person forms above given, are, unquestionably, iden-
tical with amaturus, and the 6th is not less so, as we shall see
on closer inspection. The form amamini has long been recog-
nized as a participle similar to the -mcfnoi of the Gr'k pass, and
middle ; {his.emen-oi is not only middle (a kind of active), but
it is active in itself, ag we see in the infin. ending emen (active).

116 PURASIS.

There is no doubt about emcn^atur^ and hence amin-i=aiur^L
Again, in the imperative, we find hortamini for hortatory and
jprse/ammo for prse/ator, and hence we are led to believe that
they arc equivalent forms.

439. We must also remember how very plastic we found the
part, in urus, when treating of its character. We found it used
as pass, as well as act., and that it gave birth to a verbal noun
in tura corresponding to our part, in I'nffy which is used passively
as well as actively. And we shall find plenty of examples, indeed
we have already under other heads, where the verbal noun is
plainly the basis of the passive ; as, in Celtic, Slavic, and Scan-
dinavian. We must remember, too, that or=er, .r, is by no
means a constant mark of the passive ; it is the ending of infin.
in other languages, as Fr. ; it marks the active person endings in
Swed. and Dan. ; it is the er of our speak-er^ and the or of Lat.
8cnpt-or, writer. We have noticed, elsewhere, the frequent use
of the part, in urus as a verb in Latin, as amaturum esse, was
about to love, and amaturas est, is about to love. We find am-
a^^rMm= would love, but amarenij a purely past tense, is used-
with the same force, and the two are perhaps not essentially
different. And then we must bear in mind that all the perfect
subjunctives are future in their character, as well as form, and
we shall see see how the future equals the past, and hence the
passive.

440. And there is, besides all this, a large class of verbs whict
have this pass, ending -or, -aris, -atur, but they are still in every
respect active in meaning ; as, miror^ I admire, miraris, thou
admirest, miratur, he admires. It is true, they are called depo^
nents, as if they were not a form of the active, but they are act.
nevertheless. They are just such actives as those verbs which
have the middle form in Greek ; there, every verb is conceived
of as having one form which is identical with the passive, and
which yet, in meaning, is a true active ; as, hipomai, I leave,
and I am left, Icipetai, he leaves, and is left.

441. But the strongest proof on this point lies in the present
passive of Icelandic :

eff er elskadur, I am loted.

thu ert elskaduTy thou art loTed.

hann er elskadur, he is Icnred.

Strike out the «m, t«, which may be easily suppressed, and
we have only elsk-adur^ precisely the Latin mn-atur. But this
language has another form for pass. ; as, eg brennest, thu hr&nnest,
hann hrennest (in form hurnest\ I, thou, he, is burned. This is
a sort of middle or reflexive form, and is identical with the Dan.
and Swedish passive, ending regularly in cs, as — ; as, de tagas
(Swed.), they (are) taken, chkes (Danish), is loved. We have

/ HISTORY OF VERBS. 117

already shown, under the head of the participle in urns, how
evidently identical this form of passive is with the past part;,
with the pres't infin., with the er marking the Dan. presH act.
442. There are several interesting facts in Gothic, which we
may notice, having a bearing on the eonnexioti between the
passive and active. Thus, we find drobgan^h. turbarc (active
infin.), and drohian ==Jjiitin turbari (pass, inf.), to be troubled,
and lisluhan^Jjdit. aperirc (open), and usluknam^aperiri (7i=«
Ati), and fraquistan^perderc^ fraquistnan^perdi (to be lost),
(jst^=8tii) — we thus see what a slight difference there is between
the active and passive forms of infin. in Goth., as well as in Lat.
We might refer here to our own wliiten =io be white, thicken=
to become thick, where we have the real German infin. ending
used for passive infin. So, we find in Gothic, too, manna hait-
ans Jaisus, (a) man (who is) called Jesus — where haitans^
voctitus (participle) is used for vacatur (is called). It is hardly
necessary to say that whenever we use a past part, independently,
as the man captured = the man who was captured , we use a part.
as a passive. We find other instances in Gothic of participle fot
passive; aid, sa reiks this faihrhwaus us-wair-poda^ the prince
(Lat. rex) (of) this world (is) thrown-out (e-jected) ; all bagme
usmaitadct, gah infon atlagada, every tree (shall be) cut-down
(part.), and into fire (shall be) cast (participle) ; tharel sdiada
(sowed) thata waurd, where (is) sowed the word ; gah ahmins
weihis ga-fullgada (filled), and (with) ghost holy (shall be) filled
(Lat. replebitur). It will be observed that this pass. part, alone
is used not only for the present passive but for other tenses.

443. The conclusion we thus far arrive at is, that the past
(or pass.) participle is the basis of the passive ; but the past part.
is intimately connected with the infinitive, as the infinitive is
with the participle in urus.

444. Slavic Passive.

In Bohemian, for example, we ^nd jest hledan, he-is sought;
Jsme hledani^ we-are sought. It will be remembered that this
pass. part, hledan (sought) is not different from the verbal noun
seeking (ending also in ani).

445. The Polish presents the sanie history ; as, jestem koch-
amy, I-am loved. The reflexive form is used for passive in
Polish, as it is in so many other languages ; as, slowo pisze sie,
(the) word writes self (is written). The impersonal form is
also used as with us ; thus, one divides (they divide) the booty,
i. e. the booty ?'.s* divided. And it is worthy of note that the
form used impersonally in this way, in the sense of one dividra^
differs from the passive part, divided only as ano from rf;/y, or
as szyt-ano from szyt-any, or podziel-ono from podziel-ony.

118 PHRASIS.

446. In Russian, we have another instance of a langttagd
having a passive part, in place of present passive, as We see by
the following :

ia dvizem, I (^m) moved* mi dvizemiy we (are) moved.

ti dvizem. vi dvizemie,

on dvizem, oni dvizemi.

The Russian infinitive ends in at^ the past active ends in o^,
and this ends in em — see the identity of the three.

447. ItuTKjarian Passive,

The present passive of varrti, to wait, runs thus :

varatom, I am waited (for) • varatunk, we are waited (for).
vdrtitol. varattok.

varatik. varatnak.

Here, we have a new base varaty in place of var, and probably
identical with vart, past part., to which are joined person end-
ings. It is not different) in its passive infin. var-atni (at-ni),
from Latin am-aver (^av-er), or the Greek leip-sai («-ai), or the
Latin am-atur (at-ur). It is the H found in Turkish deug-iler
{iJrur=^at-ur)y he is struck. It must readily suggest itself to
the student, that this so called insertion of an element, as t7, is
only such an insertion as we have found the s mark of the fut.
to be, and the k and v mark of the perfect, and no more.

448. Alhamsh Passive,

In this language, we find difioU'em, I am heard; pen-emj
I am made ; chap-em, I am opened, and the 3d sing, for these
forms is digion-ete, pen-ete, chap-ete. In this connexion, we
Want to bear in mind that dfi^ow=he hears, and difionai^l
heard; so that Alban. -em, -et^ur of atur, Greek mat and tai.
The passive is unquestionably here, as elsewhere, the growth of
a passive participle. In the past passive, we find diflon-esa,
pen-esa, chap-esa. It is clear that the endings em andcsa have
come to represent ^ia?yi = am, and tec == was. The pass, tense,
called the definite past, differs (in the plural) from the same
tense active only by augment ou preceding; as, diJiouaTne, we
have heard, ou dijiouame, we have been heard.

449. In Wallachian, we may add here, the passive takes the
reflexive form, as jo me laudu, I me praise, i. e. I am praised,
noine laudamu, we us praise, i. e. we are praised; but the form
of sum amatus, I-am loved, is also used.

450. Celtic Passive,

The Irish passive present for hiiail, strike, is huailtear^ through
all the persons, followed by the personal pronouns; as, huailtear
me^ T am struck — huailtc, it will be remembered, is the passive

HISTORY OP VERBS. 119

part, equal to Latin amatus, in form ; and, hence, we infer that
buailtear = amatur. The past passive has an unvarying base for
all the persons; as, do huaileadh me, I was struck, do huaileadh
tu, thou wast struck. The form huaileadh corresponds exactly
with the Slrd person imperative active ; do la an infin. or part,
prefix. Hence, we conclude that this is a pure infin., followed
by the separate personal pronouns, but as the infinitive is so
completely identical with the participles, in Celtic, we may call
it the participle also. We have only to call to mind the identity
of the present infinitive and the past active participle in Slavic,
and of amatum (infinitive) with amatus^ past or passive part.,
in order to understand this phenomenon. A 2nd past passive
is do buailti, fot all persons. This is plainly and simply the
pass. part, huailte. The corresponding active tense has the same
basis. The future passive is for all persons huailfear^ which
differs from the present only in / for t. We think them really
one and the same. The 1st person future active is huailfeadh:^
and we doubt not adh=ar ; feadh— fear = tear. There is, in
Irish, a conditional for the passive as well as for the active, but
we can see in it only a form of the future.

451. In Welsh, the present pass, ends in ir for all persons ;
as cdrir e/, he is loved, carir ni^ we are loved. This ir of Welsh
is the or of Lat. amor. It will be observed that the correspond-
ing Irish is tear=^tur-us. In this *V, we have, too, the ad^ adh
of Gaelic ; the Welsh cared, let him love, is not different from
carer ef (he), let him be loved. The Cornish form is carer.
The Welsh past pass., for all persons, is cerid. This, if we are
to judge by the Celt.-Bret., kared (loved), past part., as well as
pass., besides the Irish past just treated of, is simply a past part.,
or if you prefer, an infin. In Cornish, ca7'as=was loved, is the
identical form which we find in the past active; as, caras=^he
loved. The two futures of Welsh passive, namely cerir, carer,
cannot be mistaken. The perfect carwyd, and the pluperfect
carotid can be seen to be substantially the same as the corre-
sponding active tenses, carodd (3d sing.) and carasit (2d sing.);
carwyd can scarcely be said to have developed any element more
than cerid.

452. The Welsh may say also, mi a garir, I (am) in loving
(being loved), for I am loved ; efe a garir, he (is) a loved.
There is, besides, an impersonal form yr ydys yn fy negharu, it
is in my loving, i. e. I am loved ; yr ydys yn ei garti, it is in
his loving, he is loved.

It is important to bear in mind that the C.-Bret. uses harer
(or harewr) ipa personally for one loves, and kared, foronejoved,
karor, one will love, forms which are called passive in Welsh
and Cornish.

120 PHRASIS.

The common passive in Cornish is a compound, the usual one,
of be and passive participle.

453. Having given so much of other languages to illustrate
the Latin passive, we have now only to add that its past pass, is
amahar, -baris, -batur ; -bamuVy -bamini^ -bantur, thatfis, it is
a present passive on the basis of past active ; we have amahor,
future, on the basis of the amabo; so, we have amer from am-
em, and amarer from amarem, present and past subjunctive.
The other tenses are compound ; thus, amatus sum (loved am),
I have been loved; amati erant (loved were), they have been
loved; amati fuerimus (loved will-have-been), we will have been
loved ; amatus sim (loved may be), I may have been loved ;
amatus essem (loved might be), I might have been loved.

454. Greek Passive.

The present has the following forms :

leipomai, I am left. leipometha, we are left,

letpo (-esai). leipesthe.

leipetai, leipontai.

Making due allowance for insignificant letter changes, we have
simply the element ai added to the preset act., which (repeated)
is levpO {om), eis (e^), ei (c^) : omen, ete, otisi, or onti. And we
find ur or r acting the same part in Latin, which leads us to
infer that they are one and the same element. This ai, in a
form sometimes disguised, extends to the other tenses, as the r
in Latin. We may say, too, that these six persons seem to be
merely a variation of leipomen(os)\ the pass. part. ; but leipomen
is middle (or active) as well, and little doubt is left that ieipom-
en{os) =^amatur(us'), in form. The ending mat, and its variation
mi, and ma, men, is in Greek a well recognized active ending.
Besides, we must remind the student of the form amamini =
amatur in Latin ; and we may add, too, that while in Latin the
2d plural has the ending amin-i of a part., the 2d plur. in G'k
leipesthe is identical with the pass, infin. leipesthai (unquestion-
ably the same as leipomen{os)). So, the Greek imperative 3rd
singular, which should be same as indicative, is leipesthO, like
the infinitive.

455. Here we give the past or imperfect.

eleipomeUf I was left. eleipometha, we are left.

eleipou (^-eso). eleipesthe,

eleipeto, eleiponto.

The only real difference between this and the present, is, as
in the active, only the augment e. The first and second plurals
are precisely the same, and the 3d persons, sing, and plur.,- dif-
fer only in o for ai. The reason of this likeness in tenses in
Greek, which differ in Latin, is the same for the passive as for

HISTORY OF VERBS. 121

tlie active, namely, that the past iu Greek has not developed the
i mark as in Latin. If the past in Greek really was a tense
distinct from the present, it would have, what it now has not,
an infinitive and participle of its own.

Viewing these tenses as composed of parts, we might say ai
equals be, m, and g/i«=iwas, having for the base a participle. It
is certain these tenses have a tendency to develop such elements.
456. We will next notice the perfect passive :

Ideimmai, I have been left. leleimmetha^ we have been left.

Ideipsai. leleiphthe,

Ideiptai, leleimmenoi eisi.

There is no doubt that all these persons are variations of the
perf. pass. part, appearing in the 3d plural, and if we find such
forms as levpsai (leaving off the augment), identical with the aor.
inf. act., and levptai not different from leipetai (3d sing, preset),
, this only shows that the part. (le)leipmeno8, having the form
(k)le{mmeno8, is not different from the verbal form leiptos,
"which corresponds in form with amatus. Hence, we may either
regard the first five persons as the simple passive part, used for
the passive, with he suppressed, or the ending ai as represent-
ing Se, which becomes separate in the 3d plural. It is worthy
of note in this connexion, that in the subj. and opt. moods of
this tense, this form in men-os appears in all the persons followed
^J he J as tetummenos eiSn, (struck might-be) I might have been
struck. In modern Greek, this same participle without the
*Qgment, as grammenos for gegrammenos^ is used thus unchang-
ed through all persons with he; eimai grammenos, I have been
""Written (literally, I-am written), etsai grammAios, thou art (have
*^n) written, SmSn grammenos, I was (had been) written, Sm-
^ha grammenoi, we were (had been) written.

457. And next the Greek pluperfect passive :

eleleimmen. I had been left.
eleleipso, thou hadst been left.
eleleipto, he had been left.
eleleimmenoi esan, they had been left.

This tense, evidently, has the same relation to the perfect
that the imperfect has to the present. The part, which is at the
"asis of it is the same as that of the perfect — am being an ele-
ment represented in the latter, and was in the former.

458. The future passive is leiphthSsomai, with pres't endings
^li all persons, and the 1st aorist passive is eleiphthSn, thSSj th€ ;
fh^men, thSte, thSsan. The element leiph, which is common to
toth, is, it seems probable, for leiptos, with the element €somai
*«will be added in the future, and in— was, in the aorist, i. e.
these tenses are real participles which have developed their parts
BO as to represent such elements.

16

122 PHRASIS.

t
There is a 2d futuife tupisomaiy and a 2d aorist etupin* We
regard these forms as substantially the same as the former, with
the parts less strongly developed, or a portion of them latent.

459. The modern Greek varies the 1st and 2nd aorist passive
thus, egraphthika, for G'k egraphthin, and egraphlka^ for G'k
egraphln — using A;a =«have, while Greek uses £na»was. We
have only to add, to complete the survey, that the G'k has a fut.
middle, leipsomai, based on the future leipso, and a first aorist,
eletpsamirif based on the aorist active, eleipsa,

460. It may not be amiss to- notice briefly here the Bengal .
mode of forming the passive. There are two ways, one peculiar
to verbs of Sans, origin, where be is joined to the past, or pass.,
part, in to, as is done in Germ., and elsewhere ; another, the
more usual one, where a sort of gerund or verbal noun is used
as the base, and the verb go follows it as an auxiliary; as, it
goes to see, or seeing, i. e. to be seen — like our it goes to ruin,
is being ruined, goes to destruction, is being destroyed; get ,is
used in like manner ; as, get ruin, for be ruined, get hatred, for
be hated. The Hindustani passive is made in the same way,
save that go follows as an auxiliary in all the tenses. Just as
the German says gone lost, for is lost, so the Hind, says lost go,
struck go, for is lost, is struck {go lost, go struck}.

461. That we may leave nothing unsaid that may tend to il-
lustrate the connexion between the passive and the active, we
will notice a point or two more, before we close the subject.
The Greeks use briao in the sense both of to be strong (passive)
and to make strong (act.) ; so, when we say the rope is long, we
use long passively, but when we use lengthen, the verb form of
long, and say lengthen the rope, we use long actively. And, too,
the most imperfect scholar in Germ, and Fr. knows well how
common there the passive form is for the active ; as, is gone for
has gone, is come for has come, is fallen for has fallen, is frozen
for has frozen, is disappeared for has disappeared — to say no-
thing of our sells for is sold, and burns for is burned. The
connexion between passives and ordinary intransitives is very
close, indeed, it may well be said that the passive is a pure
intransitive. It is in the Finn, dialects that we see most plainly
the identity of Passives, Reflexives, Causatives, and all other
derivative forms,* with each other. They all have the same
formation, and their characteristic mark, moreover, is t=d, n,
which in its variations is the t and d of German and Koman
participles.

462. Subjunctive.

The Latin subjunctive, so called, answers to what is usually
called the potential in English, and includes the Greek optative

HISTORY OF VERBS. 128

and subjunctive. All t^ose Latin subj. tenses (of wbicli there
are four) are very properly so named, being all dependent or
subjoined, in fact or in principle, to some finite verb. More
than this, at least three of the subj. tenses, the past amarem,
the perf. amaverim, the pluperf. amavissem, are based on infin's
(idways known to be dependent); the first on amare, the second
on the theoretical amavercj and the third on the perfect infini-
tive amavisse.

463. All the subjunc. tenses, the three named above and the
present amem, have endings like past tenses. Their close con-
nexion with the infinitive may be shown by its frequent use for
all of them. Thus, / desired him to do it, i. e. that he should
do it, that he may do it j I expected him at that time to do it,
i. e. that he may have done it, that he should have done it. Here,
in these two examples, using the same infin. to do, we have the
four tenses subj., may do, might do, may have done, might have
done. And we shall bear in mind, too, that all our futures and
subj's (potential) are based on infin's, that is, they are simply
infin's with auxiliary will, may, Tnight, should. Again, the
subj. very often identifies itself with the imperative, but this is
known to be only an infinitive.

464. As compared with the Latin, the subjunctives of Ital.,
French, and Spanish; have considerably changed their form.
The Spanish has a tense called 1st conditional, thus :

amar-ia, -ias, -ia ; -iamos^ -iais, -tan (should love)

The corresponding Italian is :

amer-ei, ■'■esti, -ebbe; -emmo, -estCf -ebbero (should love).

The corresponding French is :

aentir-ois, -ois, -oit ; -ions, -iez, -oient (would have smelt).

All these forms correspond very nearly with the future ; it is
evident they are identical with the form amaverim, as the fut.
is with amavero.

There is another form which corresponds, without doubt, to .
the Latin amavissem. It is in Italian thus :

am-asaif -assif -asae; -aasimo, •^aste, -assero (should love).
. And in Spanish :

am-cue, -ases, -ase; 'asemoSf ^aseisy -asen (should love).
And in French :.
sent'isse, -isses, -it; issions, -issiez, -issent (might have smelt).

The past subjunctive of Gothic is also formed after the same
principles as amaverim. The present subjunctive of this, as
well as that of the other languages just named, is substantially
the «ame as the present indicative.

124 PHRASIS.

465. Under the head of the Slavic Verb, we have already
seen the infinitiye, in the form of past participle, the basis ^and
substance of the Slav, subjunctive, accompanied only, or marKed,
by the prefix hi sometimes equal to ?/, sometimes to that, but
always in fact identical with he.

466. But the Celtic subjunctive, under the head of the Celtic
verb, was noticed only incidentally, and by far too superficially
to permit it to be passed by here.

In Celtic Breton, the present subjunctive is formed thus, ra
ganinn^ ra gam, ra gano (that I, thou, he, may or shall sing).
This ganinrij gani, gano, is precisely the future indicative, ex-
cept g for k by reason of the preceding ra (Jcaninn), This
ra is the augment that appears, in different forms, everywhere
in Celtic. It is the do of Irish, the a, ag, of Welsh, €he hi of
Slavic — it is identical also with the Celt.-Breton ra«=do, make.
This is the common augment for the tenses of the Celtic Breton
subjunctive, and it may be said to take the place of our that,
French que. While we observe here that the subjunctive tenses
are all futures, we may add that the subj's of L. are all futures
also, that is, amem, the present, has the same form as the futures
in the 3rd and 4th conjugations;, amarem, thiB past, is in form
the French future ; amavemm, the perfect, is the same as the
2d future, and amavissem, the pluperfect, is not different from
amaverim. The Welsh subjunctive is made by the infinitive
with the help of ma^, covM, would, precisely as with us. In
Cornish, the subj. tenses are the same as those of the indicative,
some of them having the prefix re s= Celt.-Bret. ra. In Irish,
as everywhere, the conditional, or subj., is the same as the fut.,
or it is based on it.

467. Greek optative and subjunctive.

The Gr'k subjunctive corresponds in form through its tenses
with those of the indicative, save that the personal endings are
uniformly 6, Ss, S ; omen, Ste, osi. There is every probability
that there exists the same relation between leipo^ Ss, € (subj.)
and leipo, eis, ei (ind.), that there is between Lat. amem (subj.)
and amo (indie). All the tenses of the Greek subjunctive are
present tenses, present on the basis of the different tenses of the
indicative.

468. We find the indicative tenses taken as bases for the op-
tative tenses also, but with the endings oimi, ois, oi; oimen,
oite, oien, for all the tenses except the first aorist, which has
aimi, ais, ai ; aimen, aite, aien. That this optative ending is
a development of the indicative is probable, but it has so devel-
oped that oi stands forth as a new element. These facts we
should bear in mind ; that verbs ending in mi are in their very

HISTORY OF VERBS. 125

nature past tenses ; that for oiW, oi«, oi, the Attic, dialect has
oiin^ cne«, oie ; oiemen, oiete, oiisan ; also, eta, ems' eic, for ai-
Tm\ ats, ai (of the aorist) ; bearing these things in mind, and
taking in connexion the undoubtedly related forms of the Latin
past subjunctive, we are induced to believe that the Greek opta-
tive endings are all past endings, and the tenses all past tenses,
corresponding in form, as well as in meaning, with the Latin
amarem, amaverim^ amavwsem,

469. But what is this element oi? In Sanscrit it hi/a; but
i/a is used there for other purposes too — it is the passive mark;
a class of verbs is formed there distinguished by this element.
Our impression is, that oi corresponds to the infin. ending, that
it is the re in amarem, amaverim. The ai of middle and pass.
tenses ifepresents an inf. ending ; so does the ai of the aorist inf.
= ein ; mod. Greek inf. ends regularly in ei for ein. We may
identify it, too, with the s and b mark of the fut. In the Finn,
languages, we find «/, the well known fut. sign, as the sign of
the subjunctive, coming, as the future s in Greek, before the
person endings. We find ka in these languages representing
the Greek oi; this is same as st, as ^a=s in Greek ; it is also
the t of past participle — ka is the mark of denominatives, and
of desideratives ; it is the mark, too, of imperatives ; they are
identical with subjunctive, here as well as elsewhere.

470. German subjunctive.

In the verb be, in German, the apparent difference between
the present subjunctive and present indicative is greater than
the real one. The present indicative is bin, bist, ist (singular),
while the subjunctive is sei, seist, sei — but the plurals are more
alike, sind, seid, sind (indie); seien, seiet, seien (subj.). The
b of ind.=s of subj., as we see by the plural, where s replaces
it, also by the 8umz=bin in Latin. The subj. best represents
the inf. sein. In English| we find this be, as we should expect
it, in the pres't subj. ; but it is infin. and in place of seien.

471. In the ordinary and regular verbs of German, the preset
subj. is like present indie. — except the 3rd sing, which differs
thus; singet (ind.), singe (subj.), liebt, for liebet (ind.), and Hebe
(subj.). There are other unimportant changes in the vowel of
the base that occur in some verbs which we will pass over here.

472. The imperfect subj. is also to be identified with the im-
perfect indicative ; war, warst, war is sing. (ind. past), and the
subj. is ware, warest, ware (our were') ; of have, (indie.) hatte,
hattest, hatte, (subj.) hatte, hattest, h&tte; so kam, kamst, ham,
is past ind. (came), but kame, kamest, kame, is past subjunctive
(might come). In lieben, to love, and regular verbs generally,
past indicative = past subjunctive. It is very clear that in the

126 PHRA8IS.

German languages, as in other tongues, the very essence of the
subj. lies in the particles i/, when^ thaty expressed or implied
(the base being like the ind.). The particle tJuit may be called
the article of the subj., as to is the article of the infinitive. The
German uses the interrogative form very commonly for subj.,
saying is this «o, for if this is so, comes he here, for if he comes
here, struck he that, for i/ he struck that ; so, we say does he
speak, all listen, i. e. if he speaks.

The Verb Be.

473. We propose now to give a general survey of this most
important verb as we find it in the different languages. No
comparative view can be more interesting to the student, or
more useful. It will be especially important from its showing
the surprising changes which the same word, be, may assume in
passing through the different persons, numbers, and tenses,
forms which are again varied as they appear in other languages.
.It will be our aim to show how these forms gradate into each
other. It will give to the student, too, the general plan or out-
line of one of the most important verbs in the language where
it is found, one which you may call the basis of all verbs, or
which enters into their composition as an important element.
It will show, too, the tense-forms and person-forms in an entirely
new light, one which will serve well to illustrate the character
of the forms which we have so far been examining.

And first we will introduce the Gothic.

474. Gothic Be.

In the present, im, is, ist; sijum, si/uth, sind; tm= German
bin, Latin sum, our am ; sijum for Lat. sumus, is only sum (am
for are) — sind, Latin sunt (are). The. past is vas, vast, vas ;
vesum, vesuth, vesun. In the pluraf, ves is for ver, our were —
the um, uth, un, are only plur. endings. As our were (and are)
is a pure infin., so is i;e«wm=Goth. visan (infin.). Germ, wesen
(our essence).

The subjunctive is sijau, sijais^-syai; sijaima, sijaith, sijai-
ma. Call this^ an i, as it is, and we easily locate it with Germ.
sei, seist, sind, Lat. sum and sim, our be — it has the form of the
Gothic present plural carried through the singular as well. It
reminds us of Latin sim, sis, sit; simus, sitis, sint (may be).

476. There is a form for may be, thus, visan (wisan), visads,
visai; visaima, visaith, visaina. This is the Latin essem, esses,
esset ; essemus, essetis, essent (might be) ; and it is based on the
form visan (Germ, wesen) ^ to be; while the s^'ai is based on

HISTORY OF VERBS. 127

the other infinitive djan (sigan), Germ. «em. The form vesjau
(westfari), veseis, ved; vesevna, veseith, veseina, is only a slight
yariation of visan (vtsau), and means migJit he (past subj.).
Here we see Lat. esse equals be equals was, and the subj. again
based on the infinitive.

476. Anglo Saxon Be.

The Ang.-Sax. has three forms for present ; as,

eom, eart, ya / synd, synd, synd.

beoy byst, byth; beothj beoth, beotk.

weorthe, wyrstj wyrth ; weorthath, weorthath, weorthath.

In the 2nd form, the h which we find in hin^ our fecm, is car-
ried through all the persons. The form wyrth is the German
warden, another form of were — the ending ath of the plural has
come to be a mere plural mark ; it is the eth of speak-eth, and is
not different from the infin. ending. There- are two forms for
the past, both equal to were} as, waes, waere, woes; waeron, wae-
ran, waeron, and waerth, wurde, waerth; wurdon^ wurdon, wur*
don. Both are forms of the wyrth above — so, we see the pres't
==past; the form wurde, whi<?h we find also in Germ., reminds
us oi would — indeed, it is used in German for would, as werde
(were) is used for will (see he = will).

477. With slight variations, those three presents above given
are also subjunctive, thus :

«y> *y> «y/ «y«» fyn^ syn (Germ, sein =^io be), Lat. sim.
heoj beOf beo ; beon, beoriy beon (been), Lat. «im, 6 8 «.

The other form is weorthe (sing.), and weorthon (plur.).
The past subjunctive is waere and wurde.

wes, beo, weorthf are equal forms for imperative.
wesaTiy beon (been), weorthan, equal forms for infin.
wesende, beonde, weorthende, for present participle.
wesen and wordefi^for past participle.

See wesen =we8an, infinitive = participle.

478. Looking over the imperative, and comparing ioe-s (w-er)
and we-or-th with its equal, our he, we may observe that w-er
has developed one infin. element and we-or-th two ; we-or-th-an

■ has three, and we-or-th-end-e, at least four — see how elements
are repeated ; the Lat. fiv-t-ur-us has three like Germ, w-er-dren.
We may add that the 2d form of the present, heo, heoth, is used
for future (L. ero). There is also an-weard^ (Lat. prae-sens) »
being, and to-waerd (to-ward)s?B about to he {IttXmfutur-us, less
the ending, 2i& fu-t-ur). These are merely Germ, werden, with
augments (or prep's) cm and to. If we transpose, as often hap-
pens, the letters oifutur, thus, furt, we shall see how it equals
werd. Indeed, we can regard our were as equal to futur, the t
being suppressed, as in Latin fuero (will have been, or will be)

128 PHRASIS.

iorfutero or fuvero. The Latin ,/im (to be) is another form of
futur^ where t is dropped, or otherwise represented.

479. Old German Be,

" There are few forms here that are new, compared with what
we have already seen. In the present plural, however, besides
the forms sm, sun^ sind, sit, already met with, we find hirumes,
we are, hiruf, ye are (but sindun is they are). This bir is clearly
were, which again equals are ; hirumes is identical with Latin
eramus, we were (bir^wir, uh\ eer, cr); sind also equals werey
for si7id is sid, sir, were (a=B/and w),.

In the imperative, we find sus, sis, wis, wes (yes), all variations
for he, L. sis, esto — sis, wes, is for si, we,^he, as German infin
weS'en=»s-ein, L. esse. Swed. has vara mf.=wesen, i. e. r^s.

The forms ves, var, ver, are common through the German and
Scandinavian tongues for the imperative, showing that impera-
tive equals infin. and the past, and, besides, what development
be is capable of.

480. French Be.

The infin. etre equals hhtiu /iitur (us). Germ, werde, our were
(^fut^uut, eet, et^ ; e^aw^** being (part.) is same as Germ, wesen
(t=s); ete (been) is same as was {t=s). The present indie,
is as follows :

suisy esy est ; sommes, etes^ sont (am, are).
The suis=^uuis, was, is; in es and est, the «=6, 7(7,/, disappears;
the 2d plural, etes, Lat. estis (Germ, seid, our are)^ shows what
the part, ete must have been. And the past tense etais, etait,
for Latin eram, erat, shows t equal r. We find also :

/w«, /w«, fut ; f limes, futes^furent.
(Lat.) /wj, fuistij fuit; fuimtis, fuistis, fuerunt [fuere).

This is clearly seen to be our was, werif German wesen. It is

exactly the same as the present, only /for s ; fates equal etes;

one of the plurals of Latin (fuere) shows the were very clearly

(^fuere=zvueri, uuere, were). It is the same also as etais, only
fn for et. The future sing, is serai, sera^, sera, Latin ero, eris,

erit; the s suppressed in Latin appears in French — it is were

with endings.

The Fr. imperative is sois, same as suis, am, and taking s=:Wy

it is our was, the ves found in some Germ, imperatives, the Lat.

es. The preset subj. is sois, soit (may be). There is a past subj.
fusse VLndfut (Lv^i. fuissem, fuisset), I might be, he might bo —

this again is our was.

481. The Italian presents few things of much importance.
The infinitive is essere (for sesere). Span, ser, German sein, Fr.
etre, Latin esse. The part, been is sta-to {to being Lat. tas, part.

HISTORY OP VERBS. 129

ending), Fr. ete (et^=8ta) Span, sido; the imperative is m, sia
(,=«?, 6).

The present indicative is as follows :

tono, setose), e; aiamo, siete, so no (are).

era, eri^era; eravamOy eravate, erano (were).

This past is plainly the Latin eram^ erat, but it is important to
observe the v appearing in the 1st and 2d plur. It shows that
the b appearing in ordinary plist tenses in Latin, is suppressed
in eram. The Italian present participle ess-endo is the A. Sax.
wes-^nde, Spanish si-endo,

482. Celtic Be.

Of the Celtic class, we will first turn to the Welsh. The
present is thus : wi//, wyt^ yw ; ym^ ych^ ynt — also the same
forms with prefix yd; as, ydwyf. We want to bear in mind,
in this connexion, the imperative forms hwyf, hydd^ hoed^ and
inf. hod, and we shall see that wyf is for hwyf, relating to Germ.
hin, hist; the plurals, by replacing the lost «, as sym, sych, refer
alec to Germ, sind^ seid, Latin sum.

The past singular, hyddwn, hyddit, hyddai, besides oeddwn,
oeddit, oedd, refers to our was {hi=iw). It is based on inf. hod,
imperative hydd, Slavic hiti, hede.

483. The perfect tense is :

buTTiy buostj bu; buom, buochy buant^ also
buaiSf buaisty bues ; buasom, buasoch, buasant.

The hum, hu, is our heen, he, French fus, fum^s (h =/). The
second form, huais, is our was, Latin fuisse, French fusse. In
elements, it is like Italian era-vamo (s=va).
The pluperfect is not materially different,

buaswn, buaait, buasai; buasem, buaseeh, buasent.

The future is :

byddof, byddif bydd; byddwity byddwch, byddant.

It is easy to see in this only the development of the infinitive
hod, imperative hydd (1st plural, here, like hyddwn of past).

484. Cornish.

The Cornish does not vary materially from the Welsh he.
The present is of, os, yu; on, ough, yns or ens — which will
easily compare with the Welsh. These make a new form by
prefixing as, ys (the yd of Welsh), giving us assof yssof, ytho/,
esof, sof, thof, (for 1st person) — pointing to is, was, Latin es,
French sois.

The past is esen, eses, ese ; esen, esough, ens — we easily see
how this inentifies with Cornish present, our is and was (eas).
17

130 PHEASIS.

There is a future =8ubj. (should be); thus, hef^ hes^ hethe;
hen, heugh, hens — and a past tense (was) not different from it;
thus, h2{f (hiie/), hus, hue (be) ; huen, heugh, hoiis. Here we
see repeated again and again heen, Germ. 6aw, he, and 5ws=was.
Both are based on the inf., that which we always find at the base
of the past and of the fut.=subj. The imperative is hyth,

485. Celtic-Breton.

In this form of Celtic, the infinitive is heza, German wesen,
French etre (t=z). The participle heen is het, the French ete
less the h — or you may divide h-et, for et is part, ending. The
imperative is hez, Anglo Saxon hi/th, French sots (fe=s); the
form heZ'et=¥Tench. soy-ez (be-ye). The tenses are as follows :

OMTiw, oudy eo f omp, ochj int (present).
oenn, oez, ocf oemp, oechy oent (past).
beziiriy beziy bezo ,• bezimpf bezotf bezint (future).
benn, bez, ^cj bempy bechy bent (would be).

In the present, the h and s, seen in other languages, as hin^
sum, are lost in vowels; the past is not differ^jit from it — oes=
was, uas, and oe=wa-s. The future is a form of infin., but it
agrees with was. The last form is like it, but has the z sup-
pressed, and it becomes our he, heen. The Celtic-Breton weza
is Welsh hues, huais, .

486. Irish Be,

The Irish imperative is hi, hiod. The present is as follows :
bidim, bidir, bideann (bion) ; bimid, biti, bid.

This hidh Germ, hist, Celt.-Breton heza (z:=d, s/). The form
hidim is the French etant, the e=hi. The past is:

bideas, bidis, bi^ biomar, biobar, biodar.
So we see by the 3d sing, hi, that it is all a development of fte,
the inf. ; hidis, leaving off h, is the Fr. ete^ etois; hiod, hiom, is
our heen. There is another past, hidinn, hidtea, hidead (hiod) ;
himis, hiti, hidis — hid-ead is a double infin., like German wer-
den, Italian ess-ere. See how the plural agrees with the present
plural. The fut. is heidead, not different from the second past.
The infinitive is heit, having the prefix do (our to), showing its
identity with the pasts, which also put do before all the persons.

487. The participle with the prefix ar, is mheit — where we
see the participle mark m of Semitic.

We find simpler forms for he, as follows: is, as, for our is;
had, ha for our was (h=w) ; hud, Welsh hod, =will be (hud=
ha^, ha, he).

We also find taim, tair, ta ; tamaoid, tataoi, taid, for am, is,
etc. — this ta is the French ete.

HISTORY OP VERBS.* 131

488. Slavic Be.

In lUyrian, the present tense is :

jesam, Jest, Jest ; JesvMy jeste, jesu.
This ye is a prefix like the as, yc?, of Celt., e of Latin esum^ and
as such it is often left off; as, sam, si, (but jest becomes ye) ;
then we see the Latin sum^ sumus, sunt.
The future is :

budem, budes, bude ,* budemo, budete, budu.
This is the imperative budi, infin. hiti, with person endings —
it is, too, a development of he.

There are two pasts, the first have been, and the next was,
thus:

bih, bif bi (be) ; bismo, biste, bise (bese).
biah, biasCf biase /. biasmo, biaste, biahu.

We easily see the identity of the former with our &e, Germ.
hist; in the latter, we see was, Celtic-Breton 6e2;a. The forms
hiv^ hil, hit, are all participial forms, and all variations merely
of hiti, to be (t?=»?, 0-

489. Serh.'Wend,

The present is like the Illyrian, less the prefix ye. The past
is :

bech^ bese (be), bese (be) ; bechmy, besce, bechu.

This is precisely the Illyrian hiah, hiase.

The future develops an extra z; as, plural hudzemy, hudzese,
hvdza — this z is the s found elsewhere in the future ; but even
the imperative is hvdz, while infinitive is hi/s (hyc), 6y?=been,
hywsi (hav. been), Latin /wisse.

The present subjunctive is hych hyl (I may-be been), I may
be — also hudzich hyl (shall-be been), I should be. There is a
pass. part, hyty =heen, which is same as infinitive, and like Fr.
etc; there is the form siicy, B.udjso (so), German seiend, being.

490. SlovenshBe.

The present is like that of Serb .-Wend. The perfect is com-
pound, Sim hil (I-am been), have been; and pluperfect, hil sim
hil (been I-am been), had been — this tense subjunctive is hil-hi-
hUXsee the elements repeated).

The sing. fut. ia hodem, hodes, bode (shortened, bom, bos, bo).
We find for would he, the form hesim, bese, he ; hesmo, heste,
heso — strike off the he, and you have the ordinary pres't. We
may regard the be as a, prefix, or the whole as a form such as we
often meet with.

491. Bohemian Be,

There are few things of interest here, after having already

132 PHRASIS.

given so much of the Slavic he. The present isy«€m, y«i, jest;
jsme, jste, jsou — showing very clearly that the^s (jes) is only a
kind of s. We find in the subjunctive, such repetitions as, 6y^
hych-hyl (been-may-be-been), I would have been. The partici-
ples are (preset) ysa,y.sowc (Germ, seiend), and (past) hg/v, hymi
(fyl), h./uisse, our been. There is also a fut. part., buda, budouc,
JjB.tm futurus, Germ, werden, Persian, infin budan and skudan.

492. The Polish presents scarcely anything different from the
others noticed. The conditional, or subj., is bylhymr-bylabym'
bylohym (I would be), and hylbys-ht/labys-hylobys (thou wooldst
be) — in which byl^ or Z>e, is repeated, or appears, twice.

493. In the Russian pres't, the former prefix y and yc appears
as simple e; thus, esm^ €Si\ est (am, art, is) — showing also that
the e of Latin est may be taken as prefix, making e-st=!mnt {$£).
There is another style of Z;e in Russ., as bivao (am), bivaet (is), ^^

where we have hi as a prefix, or we may regard it as a mere re-

petition of he. There are partes on this basis, bivat (inf.), bivi- Z3-

vat (to have been), hivaioshi (being), hicavshi (been) — notioe^^» se
that os^i and vslii are pres't and past part, endings respectively. «.

We may as well notice after this the Albanish.

494. Albanish Be,

This appears in the present thus :

gianiy ge, este / gemij gini, giani.

kesey ke, ke ; kemi, kete, kene (past, was).

In the giam, we may take gi as prefix and compare with otlt^mzm' tt
am, or take g=s and compare with sum, Russ. esm, BohemiaK-^ES ^
jsem — the plurals compare with sumus, German sind {g^sjCZ'^^^
When we bear in mind how near </ is to A;, we see how near tb» -•r^-h
Alban. past is to the present, especially in the plural. Taking .■^■^li
k=w, icese is our was, German wesen, Celtic beza. It is relates ^^^^
to G'k givomai, Arab, kan, been. In the future, we find cfo t^ ^

giam, do te gemi, do te gene (I, we, they, will be). The do-V^ ^

may be translated will-that — but, in power, they are no mor»*^*^ ^^^
than augments, the whole verb lying in the present for future^^*^^*^'
The Alb. shows other forms for the verb be ; we find a sort o*:^^ ^^
past subjunctive ; as, gese, gesem, gesete (1st sing, and Ist an^ -^^"
2nd plural) — it is really a past indicative, where the k ha ^"^^^
changed to g, corresponding better with the present.

495. Wallachian Be.

There are some things to notice in Wallachian. The presen^^***
is as follows (two forms) :

sum [sunt), es, e; suntemu, sunteti, sunt.
escUf esci, este;

In the second form (sing, only), we find e as a prefix.

HISTORY OF VERBS. 133

Tlie perfect, Latin /wi, is as follows (two forms) :

/«t, fush fu ; furamu, furati, furo.
ftuei, fmeaiy fuse ; ftisemUy fuseti, fusero.

■^he plural of the first form, Vi'&furo^ corresponds with Latin /«-
^'UTit (from fui) ; but the fusero of the second form is more
like the theoretical fuverunt^ Latin amaveruntj the s represent-
lOg ?; as usual.

So the pluperfect (Latin fueram, fuerat) is :

fusesemf fusesesiy fusese ; fusesemu, fuseseti, fitsese.
riiis fusesem^ /usese, corresponds with fuveram (v=s=r), for
/u€ram,/uverat-^OT with fuvissem, for /uissem. Infinitive is
fi' (be), or fire — part./os^w, been, Jiendu, being (Germ, seiend).

496. Hungarian.

The present, past, and perfect, in order are : •

vagyok^ vagy, vagyon {van) ; vagyunk, vagytok, vagynak.
valek, valal, vala ; valank^ valatokj valanak.
voltarriy voltal, volt; voltunk, voltatok^ voltanak.

Tlie participles are, valo (being), volt (been), leendo {fiiturus).
The vagy or van is our was, been (va*w^=b). The vol of the
Perfect, is the Slavic hi/l.

The Hung, has two forms for he, as we find also in so many
other languages^ instead of beginning with v, the second form
Commences with I; as, for the past, levek, level ^ leve; levenk,
^Gvetek, levenek — the infinitive is lenni (len = henj bin),

497. Finnish Be,

The be of the Finnish dialects will somewhat illustrate the
oharacter ef the Hungarian, besides furnishing us with some
interesting forms.

The Wotjak be has imperative ?w, ul ; infinitive vyl (Slavic
^j/V) ; present vanj (Hungarian van)] past vylem; luiny (noun),
feeing, (Hungarian lenni).

The Suomi be is, for the present, olen^ olet^ on (been) ; olem-
9ne^ alette, ovat (was) ; the past is olin, olit, oli ; olimme, olitte,
^Dlivat — in the subjunctive, we find the forms lienen, lien, lie.
TZThc ol, lie, which we see clear through; is the Slav, by I, our will;
"fcearing in mind how often in Slavic the l^^v and to, b, we can
jsee that le = be, we, was. In the imper., we find olkan, olkaat

that k we have noticed already in Albanish. In Lapp., we

:find infinitive ^= be, and Zem = am, lek^^ri, lae =is. Syrian
-»^, vol=he (infin.), voly=W2ia, volan, being.

498. Mongolian.

This language presents some interesting forms of be. The
iforms for the persons here are invariable, as they are, too, in

134 PHRASIS.

Finnish. The infinitive is huku (be); present is hui (be, biri);
past is holai (Slavic hi/l) ; perfect holuge (Slavic hyl) ; subj . ho-
kessu (infin. ouku) ; the gerund being, having been, is horun
(our were, Dan. var, Swed. vara). There is another form of be
thus, acho (infin.), amui (am), ahat (was), asu (being).

499. Persian Be,

The infinitive, here, is hudan (German werden, he^were),
and the past tense is budam, bvdXl was, he was) — change d
to ?, and we have Slavic bul, byl. The imperative is 6a«A, i. e.
we have here the two elements together, be and «, sh (ba-sK),
which we find be alone representing in other languages ; it is
also our was ; the preset tense sing., is basham, bashi, bashad.

Then there is the second form shav {sha-v), imperative, and
sfiavam, I am, shavad, he is. Here, again, we find double ele-
ments, sh =s (of sum, set, sind), and v^b,w (of be, was, wesen).

500. In the Hindustani, the root of be is hu, infinitive hu-na,
pres't part, huta, past part, hua^ past act. part, hu, hukar. This
hu is somewhat like Greek ei for be, and the u represents our b
and w of be and was.

501. In Japanese, are equals am, be, is, and atta (French e^c)
equals was.

502. In Arabic, we have already noticed that be is kan, G'k
gin-omai, our can, Q^enm. kennen ; in Syrian and Hebrew, it is
ith and is.

503. Greek Be.

The present and past tenses are :

iimi, ei8 (ei), esti ; esmen, este^ eisi,
eUf es, e ; emen, ete, isan.

The present is easily connected with forms already met with ;
6iW=am; in esmen, the e is a prefix, as in Slavic. The en of
the past refers to our b-een, Celtic o-en ; the es and esan point
to our w and was. The imperative is eso, esto, inf. einai (b-een,
b-eing) ; present part, on, (b-eing), and ousa (German wesen).

504. In the Greek, we see the initial b and s disappearing in
vowels, but in Sanscrit, which is very much* like Greek, the s
again, appears; as, the present asmi, asi, asti; smas, stha, santi.
So, in the optative (subj.), we find, San. syan, syas, syat (sing.),
but Greek elen, exes, ete (might be) ; San. infin. is as-tun. So,
too, in place of Greek past, we have, San. asan, asis, asit; asma,
asta, asan — the a is an augment here, but no more so than the
a of present asmi. This past is not at all different in character
from the present. There is another form of the past, known as
the perfect; thus, asa, asitha, asa ; asima, asa, asus — our wa^
and is — this has another form, made by the prefix uv ; as, uv-

HISTORY OF VERBS. 135

asa^ uvasitha, tmma (for uvasima). Here, as we have noticed so
many times before, there are two forms, at least, of he; besides
the infin., as, as-tun, and vas^ vas-tun (Germ, wesen^ Go. wisari),
there is, also, hhu, hhavitun (be, hait. /ui^ fuisse). To this form
belongs the present part, form, hhavant (being, seiend), contrast-
ing with the other forms sant (Lith. esant) and vasant (Gothic
wisands). With the usual augment a, we find this aorist or
past form, a-bhuvan, a-hhus, a-hhut (sing.). In the past, which
is reduplicated, so called, the doubling is just such as we have
found over and over again in the forms of other languages; they
are such as, ba-hhuva, ba-bhuvus.

Impersonal Verbs.

506. To complete the survey of the verb, we notice yet cer-
tain other forms and applications, in addition to the mood, tense,
and person forms, which have so far engaged our attention. And
first of these, we will notice impersonals.

606. In Latin, as we find more or less in all languages, the
3rd person sing, is used without a nominative, or subject ; as,
pluit, it rains, tonat, it thunders, accidit, it happens ; so, also,
in the passive, as curritur, it is run (there is running), vivitur,
it is lived, they live, ventum est (coming is), it is come. All
these forms are clearly the same as verbal nouns, and they have
none of that expression which is conceived to be peculiar to verbs;
so, jp?mY= raining, the raining (is), and vivitur is simply living,
the living (is). But after all, these are as much verbs as any
we find, and it only proves again what we have seen long before
tfcis, that the verb is, after all, nothing but a pure noun (of the
verb kind). And we may say, also, that in our own imperson-
als, as it rainSy it hails, the pronoun it, so called^ is nothing but
an article of the verb ; we may go still farther, and say that all
pronouns used thus before the verb, as we walk, are only a de-
velopment of this article it. The Latins, also, use such verbs
transitively, as decet me, it becomes me,pudet me, it shames me
(I am ashamed), miseret me, it pities me (I pity) ; we may see
by the two last examples, how what we consider a nominative
may be conceived to be objective (ace).

507. That these impersonals are in fact nothing but partici-
ples or gerunds, is shown in Greek, where the participle and
infinitive are used in the place of just such impersonals as wa
met with above ; thus, salpizontos, it sounding, or being sounded
(by the trumpeter) — genitive participle; eiremenon, it being
notified — accusative part. } prostachthen, it being commanded —
accusative neuter participle; tuchon, it happening — neuter par-

136 PHRASIS.

ticiple; mikrou dein, a-little it-wants — dein, infinitive, to want;
emoi dokeiTij to-me it-seem — dokei7i=:to seem, inf., i.e. seeming
(is) to me.

508. This shows how such forms may be nsed in place of
verb with nominative ; all our cases such as these, to speak pro-
perly this is so, turning this over we shall observe, are instances
where part's and infin's are used in place of verbs and without
subjects, and still beinjj; as true verbs as any we can find. More
than this, all our expressions, as they say, it appears, German
man sagt (one says, they say), German es gieht (it gives), there
reigns, are cases where there is really no nominative or subject,
the pronouns it, they, man, there (adverb), being scarcely more
than articles ; it is simply meant to be said that there is a say-
ing, appearing, giving, reigning^ without indicating wlio — so
those verbs, so called, are mere gerunds, or verbal nouns, with a
pronoun for article.

509. In Hebrew, the 3d sing. mas. is often used impersonally,
as qara (he called) =they called, there was calling; so the pas-
sive is used impersonally also, here as well as in Sanscrit, as it
is thoitglit by me, for I think. In Georgian, such impersonals
are very common. And in Russian, with others of the family,
ye find many cases of impersonals, and some which are for us
rafher peculiar. So, we have the neuter passive participle (as
in Greek) used impersonally ; as, skazano, it (is) said, belyano^
it (is) commanded {is being suppressed) ; so the adjective is also
used impersonally, as legko (it is) light, easy, ne mozhno (it is)
not possible — so, again, emu dolzhno pisat, to-him(it) must to-
write, i. e. he must write.

Frequentatives.

510. This kind of verbs, more or less strongly marked, is
found, perhaps, in all languages. In Lat., they are found based
on the supine ; thus, clamo, to call, clamito, to call often or"
quickly; so rogo and rogito, volo and volito — the supines being*
clamatnm, rogatum, volatum. Other forms occur which ar&
made by taking the supine of a supine as a base, as lectito (ori^
ginal supine ledum), dictito (supine dictum). Some Lat. verb»
have two frequentatives ; as, for curro, we find curso and cursito^
for defendo there is defenso, defensito — showing, thus, very^
clearly that these new forms are not essentially diffierent from,
the ordinary verb, as well as that a verb may alone express what>
we might think could be expressed only by the verb in connex-
ion with auxiliaries and adverbs, or, in other words, that on^
word expresses as much as several taken in the same connexion^

HISTORY OF VERBS. 137

511. In Greek, what we use as a causative mark, the z or ize,
as in legalize, .to make legal, is the frequentative mark } thus,
^rijptazem (from ^riptein), to cast here and there, stenazein (from
steneiri), to sigh much and deeply (one word sit/h = itself and
adverbs). There is no supine in G k which corresponds clearly
with the Latin supine in turn, but the z mark here observed,
has its representative in the t of the verbals ; as, poteon, potos,
strepteos and strepfos (of Greek). So we must give the same
history to the z of Greek that we did to the t of Latin frequent-
atives — here in Greek, as in Latin, we find this class of verbs
to be only infinitives of infinitives.

612. But we may as well observe here, that neither in the t of
Latin, nor the z in Greek, do we find an exclusive frequentative
mark. In many instances, the derivatives in t and z do not
differ in meaning from the simple form to which we refer them ;
and, in other cases, verbs with this mark have anything but a
frequentative meaning; as, Latin ^o^o (on sup. potum), 1 drink,
canto (on cantum from cano)^ I sing. This is especially true of
the Greek verb ending z6^ as dikazo, j^^^ge? distnzd, doubt,
erizo, stY'we — verbs with a frequentative form without a fre-
quentative meaning.

513. The Bohemian uses va for the frequentative mark (and
80 does the Slavic generally) ; as, dclati^ to do, and dclavati, to
do often. But in Slavic, as in Greek and Latin, this va or wa is
used for other purposes besides a frequentative mark — it is
identical with the G'k z and L. t, and has a history in common
with them. In the Slov., we find freq's with infinitive ending
the same as the common verb has; as, letati, to run often,
lamatiy to break often — ati being one of the ordinary infinitive
endings ; we find also in Slovcnsh, padem, I fall, and padam, 1
fall often — showing how slightly the one differs from the other ;
there is, besides, streltm, I shoot, streljam (inf. streljati), I shoot
often — here, we havejati for vati, showing that the Slav, va is
the Sans, t/a, found in so many different kinds of words.

514. We should not pass over, in this connexion, that class of
verbs in L. which is rather the opposite of those already noticed ;
tliey end in illo, and denote that the thing is done slightly or
little; as, canto, to sing, and cantillo, to sing low, cofiscribtllo,
to write little, to scribble. That this I is the tund z seen before,
is little to be doubted. Such verbs are also found in other lan-
guages.

Inchoatives.

515. There is a class of verbs in Latin, similar to those found
elsewhere, marked by sc — as, calesroj to become hot {caleo, to

18

138 PHRASIS.

be hot), piterasco, to become a boy, to act the child (^puer, a
boy), maturescoy to become mature (maturus, ripe). In general,
we may observe that an adjective or noun lies at the base of
these verbs in sco, and we find the usual verbal endings develop-
ing so as to represent he. It is not, in principle, in the least
different from the frequentatives ; thus, in form calesco=caUto^
labascoz=lahato — the latter being an assumed frequentative;
s = sc, sk, st, t. It must be observed, too, that this sc mark is
not peculiar to such verbs ; it occurs in verbs whose meaning is
distinguished by nothing peculiar ; thus, cresco, perf. crevi, sup.
crefum (grow) ; pasco^ pavi, pastum (feed) ; nosco, novi^ notum
(know) ; scisco, scivi, scitiim (ordain). Compare with these,
amo, amavi, amatum^ and moneo, monui^ Tnonitum^ and we shall
see that these presents in sco have merely developed the t
which is latent in amo^ and which appears as e in moneo ; so we
observe that novi and notum, in their v and t, mark the sc appa-
rent in noscOy while amavr, amatum, represent the sc = ^,- sup-
pressed in amo. In our own verbs of this kind, we entirely
discard this sc, and adopt the form of the ordinary Germ.^ inf. ;
as redden, to become red, whiten, to grow white, or we leaVe off'
also the ending en, as to cool (become cold), to warm (become
warm), to polish (become polished), to rise (become raised),
enlarge (become large), to improve (grow better), to mend (be-
come mended), melt (become melted). (See how near such
verbs are to true passives).

616. The Greek has the mark sk. exactly corresponding with
the Lat. inchoative sc, but we rarely meet with any signification,
in verbs thus marked, which particularly distinguishes them
from verbs not marked with sk ; generally the difference is of^
this nature ; didraskd, I run away, and drao, I run ; or it is
such as cannot be perceived at all. Thus, we see that the Gr'k
sk belongs more precisely with the sc of those Lat. verbs which
have lost, or have never had, any inchoative meaning, instances
of which we have already given. Many of the verbs in s7cd, in
Lat. as well as Greek, are also marked by the reduplication ; as,
bi'brdsko, gi-gnosko, mi-mnesko, pi-prasko, and in Latin (more
rarely) disco, perfect di-dici, posco, perfect po-posci.

517. This sk is conceded to be the identical sk in the skon
which marks some Greek imperfects. This shows that the im-*
perfects of this kind are made, precisely as frequentatives, by
taking a supine as a new base, and that they are, beyond that,
exactly like other imperfects, such as have not the sk. Just as,
in Latin, we saw the sc identical with the v of perfect, and t of
supine, so in Gr'k, we find this sk the same as the s of fut., and
hence the same also as the s of aor., and k of perf. } thus, aresko,
fut. areso {sk = s'), hi-hrosko, fut. hroso. It should have been

HISTOEY OF VERBS. 1*39

remarked, of the pasts in skon^ that they have, also, a meaning
of continuance or repetition, thus showing how past tenses are
allied wit If such forms as frequentatives, inchoatives, and the
like.

518. The mark wa or va, which we have noticed hefore as
occurring in frequentatives, in the Slavic languages, is found
also in verbs which are purely inchoative ) thus, chory^ sick,
chorowas, to be, or to become sick {as being ordinary infin. end-
ing), piln^y diligent, pilnowas^ to be, or to become diligent; so
alsojjiscrs, to write, pisywas^ to be busy writing, his^ to strike,
beat, hijas^ to be busy beating, mowis, to speak, mawias, to be
busy speaking (ja and ia = wa). But we find other inchoatives
"where this wa is not so clearly developed ; as, siu?y, gray, and
siwies, to become gray (es being infinitive ending), hiali/j white,
and bieles^ to become white. We have only to add, that the
term denominative might be used, and often is used, in place of
inchoative.

619. There is still another class of verbs which we may briefly
notice in this connexion, and that is Desideratives. In Latin,
they seem to be based on the participle in urus^ or rather to be
that part, used as a verb ; so, we find the verb dicturio (dico^ to
speak, fut. part, dicturus), to desire to speak; so also empturto,
from empiurus (verb emo), esuriOj from esurus, to desire to eat.
These verbs express a wish, but a wish is a will; so, we see
these verbs are pure futures, and no more. In Greek, we also
find the desiderative form corresponding with the future ; as,
gelaso (future), I will laugh, gelaseio, I wish to laugh (I would
laugh) Another class of Greek desideratives end in ao and iao
(in the present), and seem to be based on nouns ; as, strategian,
to desire to be a general, thanatan, to desire death. It is hard-
ly necessary to remind the student, that ad and iao equal the azo,
izo, seen often before this. Desideratives in Sanscrit, are marked
by sya, Greek future sign s.

Causatives,

' 520. In Gr'k, the marks sk and z are not only used in forms
such as we have before considered, but also as marks of the
causative ; thus, methuo^ to be drunk, methusko^ to make drunk,
jnno. to drink, pipisko^ to give to drink ; kathizo^ to make sit,
polemizo, to make war, thaumazo, to make or have wonder (to
.admire), elpizo^ to have hope (be hopeful), nomizd, to make as
a law, erizo^ to have a strife (to strive). (We are constantly
reminded how near make good, he good, and have goodness, are
to each other — we find all of them marked by this z, and by
the sk^.

140 PHRASIS.

521. We have such causa tivcs as harden^ to make hard (aa
well as become hard}, sharpen, to make sharp ; those in ize^ as
harmonize^ to have harmony, or to make harmonioiA, leijalize,
to make legal, ciUoglze^ to give eulogy on, aggrandize, to make
great; those '\T\fy, as magnify, to make great, terrify ^ to make
terrified, or give terror, amplify, to make ample. The ize, it is
easily seen, is the Greek causative, while the^ is the Lat. Jico,
faxiio (=make or do"), which we find in such words as tumefacio,
to make swelled, satisfacio^ to make enough, amplifco, to make
ample, magnifico, to magnify — facto = Jico, fo, fy. This^ is
a common causative mark also in French. The Greek tzo, azoy
is quite identical with this^o,^, (as both are sk, 2), and may
be taken as representing ago^ to do, act. We are to learn from
this, principally, how the ordinary t and s mark of supine and
tenses grows into the representation and. form of ordinary aux-
iliary verbs.

522. But we have also many causatives which are not marked
by any ending at all ; as, to lay (cause to- lie), to 8c^. (cause to sit),
to stand (cause to stand), raise (cause to rise) ) and all such
verbs as to tVon, to trim, to dress one, to paint, to indenty to
shape — - indeed, all transitiDes gradate into causatives. But, it
is not alone in English that we find the causative form identical
with the ordinary verb ; this fact is patent in all languages ;
thus, in Latin injlammo (the causative mark^ if any, being the
en, in, prefix), hco, to place, give place to, termino, to end, to
to cause to end, terreo, to terrify, to cause to be frightene'd, Jig^
uro, to figure, shape— and perhaps all other transitives which
have a uoun as the base ; precisely so we find in Greek ; as, elpo
(from elpis, hope), to raise hopes, jmrgoO, to erect into a tower
(from purgos, a tower), timao, to honor (from time, honor).
All this proves to us again, that ao, eo, azo, izOy isko^ are all
variations of o alone, that the causative, and all related forms^
has no element not comm,on to all verbs.

523. Our own /wTww/a^c, navigate^ castigate^ mitigate, termi-
nate^ dictate, celebrate^ separate^ and the like, are all causatives,
and yet they are only L. supinas, in form, used as a new base.

524. The Sanscrit causative mark is ay a or ya (the^a which
is found in so many other places), as karayami,^ I cause to
make. This aya is the eo, ao, of Greek; in Goth., too, we find
it ; as, satya, I place (sita, I sit), lagya, I lay (Jiga, I lie),
lausya, I loosen {liusa, I lose). In Lithuanian, the causative
mark is in (our en of harden) ; as, ilginu, I make long (length-
en). This in, e?i, is the same also as inO, and, of so many Gr'k
verbs, and the nu of Slavic.

525. In I'ersian, we fiad rasidan^ to arrive, and ra^artidan
(marked an), to cause to arrive; imricardaji^ t^o educate, and

HISTORY OF VERBS. 141

parwarandan, to make educate. The causative mark in Finn,
is t (as well as denominative). The case of the German verbs
is precisely that of English. The Semitic languages are inter-
esting in this connexion, as showing these derivatives without
the apparent addition of an clement ; thus, we have qatal, to
kill, and qottel (^double t), to cause to kill — a change in the
body of the word precisely as the German wachen^ to wake, be
awake, and wecken (loekken) to wake, awake. (This form, mid-
dle letter doubled, is not only causative in Semitic, but also
denominative, frequentative, and the like). In Arabic and
Syriac, causatives are made by assuming the prefix a, as qatal
and a-qtalj our wake and awake — in Syriac, sometimes by the
prefix 5, as in our s-lay, to cause to lie, or lay. (In Arabic it is
ast),

Derivatwes*

526. Having treated thus far of some special verbal forms
with special meanings, we will now consider, briefly, the accu-
mulation of new forms of verbs which are not marked by any
. particular application. In G'k ao, eo^ io^ o6^ mo, eud, azo, oskoj
and, aino, uno, airo, eiro, besides others, all forms of one and
the same thing, are common endings of verbs — - but mark also,
they are not only seen in verbs, but they occur as well in other
parts of speech ; as, oreinos^ mountainous {dii), Athenaios, Ath-
enian (aio), noseros, sickly (er), graphikos, relating to painting
{\k), paidikos, juvenile (ik), patdiskos, a little boy (isk).

527. In Latin, we have also co, to, uoi These vowels e, i, u,

are only representatives of consonants which we find appearing

in a large share of verbs ; as ^ in Jiigo, d in dedo, g in lego, d

in vado, ng in jungo, nd in Jindo, r in gero, n in sino, v in juvo,

h in vejio, ct in pecto, U in pello, rp in serpo, m in premo, h in

icTxho. Observe, here, what different forms the t, the same as

we find in dicto from dico, and in datum from do, assumes in

the different verbs , and observe, too, how it doubles in ct, nd,

ng^ rp — the gi in fugio is a double of the same kind, so the ci

^^ facia, de in ardeo, ce in doceo. We find the same history in

Greek, and indeed in all languages ; for instance, in our own

language, the final letters of verbs are properly this same t; as,

the k in gpeak, y in say, e in see, nd in ^cnd, ng in muj, I in

^^al^ II in sell, w in draw, tch in catch, rv in starve, t in icritc,

wi in come, ft in lift, Id, in yield. That these final letters do not

belong to the base of the verb, is seen by their entire absence in

different languages ; thus, the French dire, for Lat. d.icerc, oitir

for Latin audire; old North fra, Germ, fragen, Latin frango ;

old North /tf, German yt/?i^c?i ; French a, Kynx have ; i)au. />c^',

142 PHRASIS.

our abide, abode — to say nothing of the African and Polynesian
languages, where one consonant, with a vowel, represents our
longest verbs.

CHAPTER X.
ETYMOLOGY.

528. In the science of separating words into parts, or, rather,
of discovering new parts of words, etymology has lately made
great advances. It is the course taken by all science ; the more
intimately we become acquainted with the object of our study,
the more points and parts about it we successively discover. It
was first learned that sentences were made of parts, or, rather, it
was assumed to consider certain parts of the sentence as distinct
individuals — just as we are wont to look at the man as made up
of head, hands, feet, while to the child or savage, perhaps, he
appears as one whole, single and simple.

529. But philology did not rest satisfied with dividing sen-
tences into words ; it has divided compound words into their
elements, and those elements again into syllables. Not content
with that, syllables have again been separated into letters ; and
there philology apparently halted — but halted only to renew
the undertaking. Words have not only been divided into syl-
lables, and syllables again into letters, but it was often observed
that one letter is equal to or represents two or more letters; as,
e = ie in field, i = ei in Germ, theil, or ai in Greek pais^j=dg
in brldye, short u=oo in Jiood, s = st in listen, m = /m in calm,
n = gn in sign, s = ss in hiss. So that these single letters
which are representatives of the two combined, may be con-
sidered as equal to the two, and as practically coptaining
the two within themselves — latent though it be; just so the
bud contains the leaf and the flower, and as this bud de-
velops itself into the leaf and the flower, or the branch, so may
we say, in language, that one letter develops itself into two or
more of its own cognates — as s into st, m into Im, n into gn, k
into ck, r into rr, e into ai (in said), o into an (in song).

530. Nothing is more common in language, than for one
letter to be the representative of two or more ; and though we
may not see so much of it in the same language, we shall find
more instances where a single character in one language is re-
presented by two or more letters in some other language, as our
till for one of the Russian letters, ds for one in Greek, dsli for
one in Armenian, dschha for a San. character, sclia for another
and gha for another.

ETYMOLOGY. 143

531. It is clear that we may regard these as actual equivalents,
and one letter may thus represent several others; and, we may
either consider the combination of letters, as tcji^ the growth or
development of the single letter, as c, or that the single letter is
really made up of the (invisible) parts represented in the devel-
oped combination, and as including in itself, as the whole includes
its parts, those different elements, in a latent, unappreciable
state. This is no new thing, it is the universal phenomenon of
nature. All the different instruments of a band of players,
sounding in perfect harmony, produce one single strain, in which
the single instruments lose their individuality and become un-
distinguishable ; besides, any one of them may represent the
elements of the whole combined, as one letter represents a com-
bination of letters. (It is the leading law of nature, that the part
is as great as the whole, contains as much^ and (binder suitable
circumstances), can do as much. Every whole is hut an accumu-
lation of equivalent . parts, parts which only apparently differ ;
every whole is but the repetition of one and the same part. No-
where is this law better exemplified, than in language).

The blending of colors furnishes us with another apt illustra-
tion ) thus, any number of colors mingle and produce a new
color. — mark, but a single color. So, as we found that every
letter may be an equivalent of several other letters, again, every
color may be conceived of as made of two or more other colors ;
and reversed, as every two or more letters combined produce
some one sound, which is or may be represented by some one
letter or character, so, too, in colors, any number of (?olors
blended will produce some new color, one only, which we do
represent, or may, by some new or other name.

But where sounds or colors mingle and produce one, they
are by no means lost or destroyed ; this new color, this new
sound, is really those old colors, those old sounds, acting in
harmony, in /joncert, and so losing their individuality. Two
forces acting in concert produce a new force, or new direction —
which is only new so far as we have two forces acting instead
of one; one force never destroys another, and its own direction
is never affected or varied.

532. It is. with letters as it is with numbers, every one is
part of some combination of numbers, as 2 is part of 4, 6,
30, and it is itself made up of J, J. So we can divide a
thing to infinity, with this difference, that for 28 and 2 we have
a name 30, and for the parts of 2, as J, \, but not for the com-
bination of letters str, or for the unnamed elements that go to
make the sound s, or t, or h. That they, too, have their equiv-
alent parts, is just as certfiin as that the sound hook, or str, has
parts. It is the point of philology, now, having divided speech

144 PHRASIS.

into sentences, sentences into words, words into syllables, a i». _^
these again into letters, also to establish the value of the el- _
ments which unite to produce the effect of a letter ; — thuis, w^^k?
may take the elements of o to be certain values of a and u (^ "~r^
00, spoken quickly), of e |to be a in ale and i in it (sa-tdy sed^'^

Letters,

633. Words are not represented in all languages by a coi
bination of separate letters, a« in our own. In the old Egyptisi.ii
inscriptions, we find the figures of men and animals, and oth. or
objects besides, wrought up into symbols, hieroglyphics, whicjli
have no connexion with letters, or, at least, only a remote one ;
this part of the subject is too intricate and extensive to be treated
of here with any degree of fairness, and we will pass it t>y.
Next is the Chinese system, which we will dwell on briefly
under the head of Chinese language. Here, the signs which
stand for words appear, at first view, to be single; though macKe
up by a combination, or interlacing, of strokes or lines, the whole
presents to the uninitiated only the appearance of one idea.
And, lastly, there is what is called the syllabic mode, one mi^i-
way between our single letters and the Chinese word-signs»
This we are now about to consider.

534. In the Sanscrit and Thibetan languages, among others,
every consonant is assumed to have within itself the force of
the vowel a. Thus, their b has the force of ba, and I of Z'-c*;
other vowels are denoted by affixing some mark to this 6, Z, or
ba, la — sometimes above or below (after the Semitic manno^i^)*
and again after or before the consonant, as in Europe. In tkfese
cases, the original a sound inherent in the consonant seems '^
be suppressed — ba-i becomes bi. These alphabets are call^^
syllabic.

635. That our modern alphabets, and especially the Semi'i>i<'»
are syllabic too, though perhaps not in the same degree, can \^
easily demonstrated. One of the Semitic class, the Ethiopia? ^ *®
syllabic in the highest degree. The same letter there, as ^'
slightly marked, is ba, be, bi, bo, bu. But, are the forms in '^^^ j
other Semitics, the Hebrew for instance, the b with its dots a»-^^
marks above it and below it, for ba, be, etc., anything else, *^
reality, than just such marked b^s as we have in Ethiop5- ^
It is of no moment that in Hebrew the marks are separate fr^^^^
the consonant, and in Ethiopic attached to it. In both cae^^^'
the vowel mark and the consonant constitute one single elem^ ^*^
Besides this, the vowel marks in Semitic are of comparatir -^^ -^
late origin, and, even yet, they are very commonly left out ^

ETYMOLOGY. 145

the text ; now, in all such cases the consonants act as syllables,
for they, even unmarked, represent an element composed of
vowel and consonant, as h for ha, mlk for mdek.

536. In all our cases where consonants come together, there
is no doubt that we may conceive of an undeveloped vowel be-
tween them — so drive is hardly distinguished from derive
(^der = dr)j slect from select, fl from ful, ^pretend and i^erteml,
claim and cullaim. We may see large numbers of instances in
Slavic and elsewhere, where they insert a vowel, or leave it out,
when we do not — showftig that if it is not expressed, it is only
implied, and if it is expressed, it is merely not implied. Again,
it is well understood that you cannot pronounce a consonant
without uttering it with a vowel, showing thus the inseparable
connexion of the two.

537. We notice in most of the syllabic alphabets, that there
is simply some mark accompanying the consonant, or attached
to it, to denote the vowel, but in some instances, for example,
the Mongolian and Ethiopic, there is considerable change in
the form of the consonant itself, when different vowels are
denoted. All this, too, shows the intimate union between the
vowel and consonant; it shows too, that the vowels are not
only all derivatives from the same base, but that the consonant
with the vowel, as ha, he, etc., is a mere variation of one and
the same thing — just as letters in Semitic vary according as
they are initial, middle, or final, — and still remain the same
letter.

538. It is evident, too, that these different forms of letters to
indicate consonants with vowels, with or without marks, depend
entirely upon the consonant they are associated with, and that
their assuming the new form, or taking the particular vowel
marks, is simply a matter of harmony between them and the ac-
companying consonant. But it must be borne in mind that there
is nothing in these vowel marks, or representatives of vowels,
that distinguish them from some or all of the consonants. So,
we have hridge, where g may be considered a mark to denote a
particular sound of d, exactly as if it were a vowel mark, or
vowel ; also laugh and myth, where h is used with g and t in the
same way, and / and r in ahle, centre.

539. In all these instances, and many more might be given,
the following consonant is merely a mark to indicate a sound of
the consonant to which it is attached ] it adds nothing to the
sound of the fundamental consonant, but merely expresses or
shows what force that consonant has ; and, in all these cases,
we can find, somewhere, instances where the consonant has the
same value alone that it has with the consonant attached. Thus
d is often dj\ dg, th is often t, so i^ hi, h, and tr, t (in French).

19

146 PHRASIS.

Let it be said, once for all, that adding letters to a word, in the
coarse of its development, gives it no sound that was not in it
hefore, hut it is a mark only to indicate a new force discovered
or developed. Thus, in our spelling books, we find certain
sounds of letters distinguished by certain marks, as $ =z, and
they are precisely in the nature of those vowel marks we have
been speaking of. No one thinks those marks give that sound
to the letter, but rather that they indicate the sound which the
letter has, even without the mark (so s has the sound of z in
rise, mark it or not, as you like) ; so it is, exactly, with vowel
marks, and with consonants joined to consonants.

540. The Sanscrit family of alphabets, and the Manchu, show
all the features of the Chinese and related alphabets ; several
letters are here united into one character, or, rather, one char-
acter possesses the marks of two or more letters ; this principle
is at work in the Semitic, where letters are varied in form ac-
cording to their place in the word. In all alphabets, more or
less, we find one character representing two or more letters, as
the German ss, tz, Greek st — and particularly in the Irish and
Slavic alphabets. In the Manchu, the top part of the character
is the consonant, and the bottom grows into the representative
of the vowel, varying according as that is a, c, t, etc.

641. The Thibetan alphabet, though it does not appear so at
first sight, is yet clearly related to the Sanscrit, and both are
evidently built on the same basis. They are both equally, as it
is called, syllabic, that is each consonant has a as its base. And
we think it may be discovered that there is a fixed part of this
consonant to represent that a. Th^ point is clearest in the San-
scrit; here, the consonants, with very few exceptions, have a
perpendicular line, like our 1, as a basis, and the characteristic
portion of the letter is fixed to that stroke. There are, too,
leading facts having an influence on this question ; first, this
perpendicular stroke is used separately as the vowel a, and second,
when two letters, as ka and la, unite to form a single character,
as kla or kl, the a sound is lost, and with it, also, this stroke in
question. Besides, for the other vowels we find appropriate
signs fixed to the consonant in some way — indeed it is the
prevailing feature, in Asia, to find vowels attached to consonants.
We have noticed this as a striking appearance in the Manchu.
In Sanscrit, there are a few letters as t, th, d, dh, and r, where
this base stroke is not so clear } but that these are vowels, and
even variations of this a mark, is certainly undoubted; the first
four are forms of i; r (and A) a form of a, related to i,

542. But this base stroke of consonantsis not confined to Asia;
it is found in our own, and in perhaps all others; we see it in
our B, D, b, d, 1, m, n, t, E, F — it is still plainer in Rus., where

ETYMOLOGY. 147

some letters, as sA, are formed by the repetition of this I mark
(like Greek 11). We need not be surprised that it disappears
in some letters, when we remember how capital B, with its angles,
changes for the rounded small e, and how A is changed into its
related 0. So it is, we see, in the nature of letters, as well as
of words, to be made up of elements. You caw find no element
80 smallj that it has not also elements^ and as many as the origi-
nal.

543. So, we are left to understand, from what has been taught
under the head of letters, that words are merely a sign made up
of signs, and hence that we do not in principle differ from the
Chinese. Their signs of words are made up of parts as well as
our own ; it is already admitted that most of these have two or
three elements and contain a base character or key, just as we
have found our alphabets to have a key in their consonants.
That they have not developed their word-signs into as many
elements as we have, is in perfect harmony with their evident
want of consciousness of the division of sentences into words.
That their alphabet is built up on the same system as the Euro-
pean, or other Asiatic alphabets, is one of the clearest things in
the world. It exists only in a particular stage of advancement,
while the Eoman, the Semitic, the Sanscrit, represent each an-
other stage of the same performance. The hieroglyphic system
of word representation, in its different degrees of development,
takes another place and presents still another phase. The
Japanese system of characters is interesting as affording the
transition between the Chinese and the syllabic arrangement.

544. Marked and Double Letters : There are two sources
from which the number of characters in an alphabet are in-
creased : one, by marking old letters when they get a new force,
and the other by doubling or combining two like letters. Really,
all our letters which have two or more powers should be marked
to distinguish them, and, thus, our alphabet would be greatly
enlarged. This is done to a far greater extent in other lan-
guages than in our own. The marks used are unmeaning, and
are simply dots, or other marks above or below the letter, or a
stroke across it — our own i with its dot above it, is a marked
letter, so is Q a marked O ; the G'k d and cp are both a marked
o = u, V and t ; our k is only a marked c or ^, the perpendicu-
lar line being often found separate from the c or g part, i. e.
from the two lines meeting at an angle.

545. The number of letters which arise from the union of
two, like our w=uu, in the different alphabets, is considerable,
and it includes some we would hardly expect. Our B is a
double o, V ; when placed on its back ( bd) its identity with W
is plain, being crossed by a line at the top (as K is on the side),

148 PHRASIS.

and rounded at the angles ; one of the Gr'k forms of ^ = h (71
is this precise form j these resemblances are all not unexpecte^^
for b we know equals p, v, /, w. If we invert our M (w) 1^^
have W 5 m is clearly a modification of h and ic, and hen -^c
double ) this is not unexpected, for m e([uals b and is oft-^:^,
found for w ; n, which is half m, is often hardly diatinguishatz^Ie
from u, V (as Greek v).

546. Our s (S) is another double letter, and not only that^ it
is double o, v, and identical with the b and m; the Greek s CL^)
is only our W placed on its side. In Syriac, s is two o's ( or^^ \
Heb. ayin (=0, v) is identical in form with its z, s ; old H ^3b.
8 (shin) was precisely our W, and B on its back unmarked (t-^i^))
in ancient Greek, s was precisely M, also in Phenician; it is- an
important fact that in Hebrew (and Greek) an s follows the «*.
7i, group ; in the Copt, alphabet, sh^ ch, is marked o (Greek c^--')i
8 and sh we found in Russian based on i = u, o, v ; it has Ic^-^c
been known that /and « were equal, but/= v, m, o.

We may remark while on this subject of o's, that it is to ^
observed that the base part of^, b, q, cZ, is o — this is not .^ac-
cidental, they are marked 0*8. In Russian, we find many cafiJ^s
of united letters, sometimes side by side, sometimes one o\r er
the other, sometimes one on the other ; in G'k, many instance-*
are found of two or more letters united into one character, ex-
actly as in Sanscrit.

647. Assimilation of Letters : There is a tendency,
which we observe, more or less, in all languages, for words (or
syllables) and letters coming together to change so as to assume
like forms, and thus coalesce so as to produce a single element.
So, what would be tetapmai^ in Gr'k, is tctummai {j^m^mm)^
somatsi becomes somad {ts = i's), delknuntsi becomes deiknud
(mits^miss), to Jieteron becomes thateron (to-he =the, tha)) so
in Lat., we find effero where we might expect cxfero^ and assisto
for adsisto (ads = ass). In Celt., the change of words or letters
according to what they are associated with, is carried on very
extensively and systematically.

548. As an explanation of this phenomenon, we repeat here
what we have often touched on already, that it is only like letters
that come together^ that all the letters of a word are as&imilated,
made like each other — and not alone the letters of the same
word, but, also, the letters of two words which are associated
together, and hence their tendency to unite and form a single
word ; as, the Greek katheudo from kata heudo.

The old North byggja^ to build (bide), will illustrate the case
of like letters ; the y = (/, and y =y and /7, hence, the word is
byyyya ; but b also equals v, u, y^ hence we have vyyyya, or
yyyyya. • It is by this aj^similation of letters, that long words

ETYMOLOGY. 149

may be reduced to single letters; thus, our have is, in French,
a, for have equals aave, aaue, aauu^ aaaa, so that the French
a equal to have^ contains, or is, four undistinguishable a's. We
need not be surprised that the letters of a word should be like
letters, really repeated letters, and still have such different
powers apparently; the two ^'s in swjgest^ and the c's in accent^
are double, and yet what could differ more than the former g
or c from the latter g or c- Indeed, we may say that every case
of double letters presents tioo letters of different powers ; thus,
we have adjective, and the Italian has aggettivo — its gg must
differ as our dj or dg^ and its tt as our ct ; so, the Dutch has
hoek where we have booh, oe^=oo. In conclusion, we may say
that since the words of the most undeveloped languages are
very short, as no, na, ba, they really contain latent as many
letters as our words, but they are so much in unison, so little
differentiated, that they cannot be distinguished by our ^ars,
though they might be by others more refined.

The Form and Valiie of Letters*

649. A — In the Samaritan, a=^t (we shall use the sign of
equality, or the words, to denote that the two letters, both of the
same alphabet, are alike in form) ; in Eth. and Arabic, a- = Z,
indeed, our A is no doubt a modification of the Greek A (and
perhaps A) : in Copt., A can hardly be distinguished from its
D, as our a=^d.

550. B — In Hebrew, B equals P; in Samaritan, B equals 11,
and D is only a marked B or K; in Arabic, B equals F (p); in
Ar. and old Hebrew, B = N; in Syriac, B equals K and P, so
Ethiopic B equals K, also Hebrew ; Sanscrit B and M equal S.
B must be'like / and r, for we find U, br, very often, as in blach,
breaJc ; b and g are related, as we see by our go, Greek baino,
and Latin bous (bos), our cow (^gau) ; we also find gladius (L.),
our blade, and Lat. rabies, our rage (b^=g). B for be, is iden-
tical with German prefix ge, as bleiben (for gehiben), our leave.
B equal to m and w we have noticed before.

551* C — This letter, as we have already noticed, is identical
with g. We often use it for s, and that is the only value it has
in Russian and Copt. Eth. c is a double k. C is equal to h,
as we have chop equal to hack ; c is equal to Z, as Span, llatnar
for L. clamare (and llama for Jiama, 11= Ji). Our chore (work)
is Danish gpr, Sanscrit knr, Heb. bara, our crc-ate. C is like
d and b, for our cut equals biff*, Greek dakno. In German, c
identifies with h, as sch equals sh ; carry equals Latin /cto, our
bear (c=f, b) ; c for t, as Latin capio (our catch), take. Germ.

150 PHRASIS.

fangen. Observe that the different sounds of ch are also sounds
of c.

552. /) — The Heb. D has the form of Gr'k G, turned (n);
I and R (Hebrew) are only variations of this D; Syrian D=R;
Arabian I) = R, Z; Ar. D = N; Copt. D equals Eoman A. D
equals u and «?, for we have L. duo^ and our dwells also Welsh
dwfr ; we find also devour, define, digest, decamp (^dev for dv,
dig for dg). D equals t and b, as we see in Greek deo equal to
our tie and iiW. There is a great resemblance between the
character of our d and that of our e; thus, mile is often pro-
nounced mild ; the Danish uses d at the end of words (also t)
much as our c, a sort of mute vowel ; as, man^ for m^n, langt
for fow^, f/ofZ* for good^ frit ioT free. Again, d is often identical
in sound with /, t, hence d=^i. D equals |j and t, as we observe
in German denken^ Latin pensare, our ^AtwA; ; €? equals r, as in
Gr^k dike = right, just (cZ ===;*); <^=Z, as in Greek dakru, our
fear, Latin lachri/ma; d=f as Latin viduus^ French veil/", our
widower.

553. -^, /, F, and O — It is well known that our E is the
same as G'k H (eta) ; it must be equal, also, to the letters con-
nected with h in history, as /, g, d, a, o. Our F is a form of
E, as it is of Greek r and D (n). As e is equal to ^, so it is
equal to y and g, as we see again in holy^ sounded hol-e, E is a
form of c, as we see by small e=c.

The identity of i with y and ?*, is so often seen that it hardly
needs any illustration here. I is the same as j, but j besides
being often y, as in German, is in French z,zh — hence, we see
how i^z ; i being equal toy, is also equal to g (and d), a form
of y, as we see by Greek y for g. I is identical with H, indeed
H is really a double I connected. The Sans. i=c, w, d; t =
lz=d, hence i equals d in power.

Of y little need now be said ; it is w, as we see in-Kussian; it
is i,y, g, and e; in Goth., y has power of to. In Eth., y (y) has
the form of c? and precedes it. As is well known, o = w, v, tb ;
it is h also, as we see by Eth. ^ = ayin (o) — in Eth., h has the
form of U and y. is identical with Q= P, B.

554. F — The identity of /with p, ph, is very common —
one character is often used for both ; / is same as v, u, w ; f
also equals (, for we often see the same sign used for th widph
(/). The German fangen equals our taJce, Lat. capio, seize, so
f=t,c,8. F equals d, for L.ferio, our strike, French /rorpper,
is in old North drepa (Germ, treffen) ) /equals g, as in furnish
equal to garnish, and firid, German fangen, get, gain ; / equals
r, 2& foot equals root — Heb. regel is foot, Latin radius (root).

555. G — That g equals k, c, ch, is well known; that it equals
n, I, d, and r, we shall find very common; it equals y, and hence

ETYMOLOGY. 151

z also ; its identity with w, t;, w^ is seen by gu for lo, as guard
equal to ward, Fr. guerre, war, and Gwil for -Si7Z, }Fi7/. Its
identity with h is seen by its so often harmonizing with it and
becoming silent, as in sight, night; see our mix, San. mih, Lat.
mingo, Greek micho, Lith. meziu (x, h, ng, ch, z) ; ^ equals z
and A, as we see by Lith. asz, Sans, ahan, Zend. a2;em, for our
I, Grerm. ich, Lat. ego', g is for/, v, as in laugh, tough; g=h,
as Lat. hoediis (kid), our goat, GTerm. Ziege ; g = w, sls in go=
went, drag and drato, A-Sax. swelgan and swallow ; g equals p
and V, as in sage, Latin* sapiens ; sergeant, Latin serviens. . Our
beam, Grerm. baum (tree), old North badm-r, Go. bagm, bajms,
shows that g,j, of Goth., takes the place of d, u, and e; Germ.
and Sax. ge,je, ye, equals our the; g with n is very common, as
in gnaw, and the two letters are often found to agree in forjn in
other alphabets ; in Greek, gg equals ng.

556. H — This letter has very extensive connexions, but most
of them will be noticed under other heads ; its most immediate
relatives are those with which we find it associated ; as, th, ch,
gh, sh, ph, wh, ah, oh — that h gives birth to such letters, is
most evident in Semitic. The Greek e, Russian e, i, has the

* form of H ; th takes the place of our h in the Greek alphabet.

557. K — The nearest relatives of h are c, g, h, p, q, and t.
It equals t because c, one of its forms, equals t; and g, another
form, equals d. It is naturally like q, which is really a k sound,
as in French ; and since it is like q, it is also like p, a form of
q, Arabian k (q) equals /; k (or ch) in Eth. equals n, also in
Hebrew. French ch=sh, but ch=k, hence k=s. Take the
relative pron. forms, and they will show the family to which k
belongs; as, ki (Hung.), qui (L.), ti (G'k), Osc. ^i, (jt'kpote,
Celt, and Sans, ma, German wer, our who and that, Gothic hwo
(Fr. ce, L. se). It. che; k = r, for Latin rex is our king ; Sans.
srut-as, Gr'k klut-os, Lat. clutus, our heard (sr, kl (kr), cl {cr),
hr, all equal); k = w; as, Germ, krieg, Fr. guerre, our war ; it
often, in German, takes the place of the prefix ge; as, k-lein,
little, k'lotz, log, k'lump, lump — it is here a mere vowel equal
to 6, h ; k, in some forms pf German, is in such cases replaced
by h; as, hlachen, Germ, lachen, laugh; Gr'k kudn, Lat. canis,
Fr. chien, Lith. szu, German hund, our dog — shows k^=d, as g
equals k, d.

558. L — This is most nearly related to m, w, r, d,g, and the
vowels. Ital. bi equals our bl, as bianco = blank; French / has
the power of i, y ; we find also oud for old, gaud for gold — in
Slav., l^=^w, u ; L. lect-us is our bed, I for b; look == see, like =
seem, 1 =s. French le is our he, the (she) ; Germ, schhiss, our
close, loose, schl, cl=^l; Dan. alt for all. It for II.

559. M — The connexion of m and n with I, with b, w, $, and

152 PHRASIS.

the vowels, we have already noticed. The Osc. m shows itself
to be a double H, or two 7i's; the Greek m is a marked u (/x);
Eth. 7>i is B on its back ( bd) ; w equals /i, as L. mamis equals
hand ; our make, too, is San. kfw, Yi. facia, Crerm. thmi, do, m,
k, f, th, d ; mar = err, where m becomes a vowel and vanishes;
so, make is ago, act, and mars equals war.

560. N — The identity, in form, of w with H, is too frequent ia
the different alphabets to pass by unnoticed, or to be considered
unmeauintr — thus, llus. N is our capital H, and the G'k small c
(h) is 11 (rj). This only shows in a particular way, what has loag"
been recognized, the vowel tendencies of m and n. Being so
nearly like vowels, these letters have a very extensive connexion;
but we most frequently find and, in<j, ent, ence, ens, hi, m, hi,
whicjb point out the relatives of n, i. e. those associated with it.

561. i^and Q — The identity of ^ and q has been long known,
and that of r with p and g, is not more doubtful. In Samaritan,
q has the form of our P, the Greek K (P) — so, also, .in Heb.;
q is only found in a few alphabets. Go. q is u, and its relation
to u, V, w^ we might expect by its always occurring with u. Eth.
p is our T ; Eth. u, w, is a crossed 0, varying so that it identi-
lies with our Q, Greek *; Eth. q proper is this same marked o,.
Greek tf) ; Eth. / and c? have the form of our P. As ^^ = ?) ^'
g, we can see how the form r, 1, and F (without the middle
mark) occurs in the Gr'k alphabets for P — -'that is, it identifies
with g and/, as we might expect. In Bussian, small p is w of
our letters ; P (see Gr'k n) is, ^like N, (Buss. H), a character
of double ?*'s connected at top (n) ; <2'=s, as in Lat. quse;ro, our
search ; p = w, as L. penria, our Jin, wing ; San.jp==;, y. P ^
a late letter in alphabets.

562. R — This letter has already received, under other heads,
most of the attention that is due to it. We will remind t^®
student that its relatives are s, t, d, I, besides p and q. T*^^
Chinese had no r, but / for it, (and the old Per. had no I). i*^
as well as 7n, n, d, and /, is closely identified with vowels, &^^
is easily replaced by them.

563. S — The true character of this letter has already b^p^
shown under the head of double letters. Its changes are pn^'
cipally with r, t, h, w, f. It often plays the part of a pre^^
like German ge and h, as Greek smxkros for mikros.

564. T — The connexion of this letter with p, k, s, r, t^y '^
w, a, i, h, and others, has already been noticed. In (Jliristi^^^
t=ch ; in mention, t=sh. The connexions of t may be ^^^
seen by taking the article the, that, and tracing the diffet"^
forms it assumes as it appears in different languages, and in ^^
ferent kinds of pronouns. In Bus., we find a form of t exa.^^
as if the points at the ends of the cross line of T should ext>^^

ETYMOLOGY. 153

down to an equal length with the middle line, making three
parallel lines or i's, connected at top like m (m); this makes t
a double jp (G-'k IT); our T is not different from E, except that
it is placed differently, and the middle line is extended instead
of the end lines; there are other reasons, which we will omit
here, that go to prove T equal to c, i, and u, besides H, as a
consequence.

565. U, Vy W — These letters, all forms of one and the same
thing, as i is of j, n of m, or p of q, r, need but few remarks
here. The pronouns will best show their connexions. They
are beautiful illustrations of vowels which become consonants.
In Russian, u, y, and i, are represented by a letter like our H,
another case of double i — we knew that y = i, and that u=i/ ;
our own u is an illustration of parallel I's (n) connected at bot-
tom. W equals d, as German wer and der, our will and Gaelic
toil; MJ=^, G-'k kalos, well, and kakos^ wicked; wind = round,
tarn, w, -r, t. We have seen w=g ; it is also equal to cA, k;
as, German dich, Lith. tawe, Buss, tehm, Sanscrit tva, our thee.

566. X, Yj Z — We have already spoken of X as a form of
. K; it is nearly related to Z ; y, too, has been sufficiently noticed

already, and z needs but a few words. As we consider Z a form
of G'k G- (r), and hence of D also, we do not find it surprising
that it often changes with d^ g^j^ v, y — hence, we find (J*k zao
equal to San. yi'yam/, Lat. vwo^ our live; also G^r'k zcugon^ Lat.
J'ugum, OUT Join, union^ yoke. The striking identity oi z with i
and h we will again recall to the mind of the student.

567. Order op Letters : The number and order of letters
^D the different alphabets vary. It is said that the original
'Jumber of letters in the Gr'k alphabet was sixteen, while later
^reek, the one of which our own is a modification, has twenty-
ft>ur. \V''e have great doubts about the number sixteen having
anything more to do with the precise limit of fundamental letters
than the number twenty-four or thirty. All letters in all lan-
guages are closely related to each other ; it is very easy to see
*n letters which appear very remote, that one is only a modifica-
tion of the other. The number of characters, no doubt, increased
itt olden times* as we know it to have done in later ones, by a
fetter gradually assuming a new force in particular words, and,
in the end, being marked, or in some way taking a new form to
correspond with the place it holds; so with our marked s for z
*($) the marked h's and d's of Arabic; and, again, by uniting
"WO letters into one character, doubling, as it is admitted to be
the case with our w (two w's), of which feature we find so many
illustrations in Slavic and others.

568. The Ileb. alphabet has twenty-two letters, corresponding
substantially with the Greek and Roman, and in the following
20

154 PHRASIS.

order; a, b, g, d, e (h), f (u, v), z, ch (h), t, y (Gr'k iota), ch
(k), 1, m, n, 8 (G'k xi), o (a), p, s or z (not in G'k), q (G'k r),
r (not in G'k), s, t.

This order is almost identical with that of Gr'k, and it differs
from Eoman chiefly as the G'k differs from it. The third letter
in both is g ; this not only has the place of our c, but is identi-
cal with it; one of the sounds of c is >fc=^, and by tracing the
G'k g (r) through the various forms which it has assumed, we
find the angle made by the perpendicular and cross line, become
rounded so as to resemble C. The /is the Greek F, digamma
(a form of r), now lost. The Hebrew e has the value of A and
corresponds Setter with the Gr'k eta which has the form of H.
The Heb. «, G'k dz (zeta) is plainly a form of ^ and indirectly
of c?; Heb. z scarcely differs in form from Heb. d or v; in old
G'k^ this z has the form of I, and in Phenician it is N placed on
its side ( Izj), a form which shows its connexion with eta (H) —
. in Russian, it Is s reversed (s) ; in Eth., it has the form of H,
which is also the form of^; hence z=j\ g, again — Fr. g often
has the sound of 2, zh. The Heb. ch after 2;, is the Hebrew c,
G'k eta; t is the Gr'k theta — in both cases derivatives of h=
e, z {t equals z in them, pronounced by foreigners zem) ; the
Heb. ch=^k is our c, G'k k ; the s after n does not correspond
in place or origin with our S; it is the Greek chi=zi; in old
G'k, it has, like 2, the form of capital I ; the Heb. and Rabbinic
forms evidently tend to identify with m of the same alphabet
(again we see the connexion of m and n with «) ; the Heb. ayin
(0) is almost identical in form with the s ox z following it — in
Arab., one of its powers is that of ^, and in Syr. it has the form
of Syr. g and I; the s or sh is in form a double ayin or o (also
double z) ] the th or ^ is a form slightly varying from h and ch.

569. The Gr'k adds to these a u and a v, and w in the char-
acter ((p) phi (ph, f, v) ; it is really a marked o or v, w^ and it
is not different from theta (th), which in Russian has the sound
of/, 1; — it corresponds to our v and w ; the next Greek letter
is our a:, called chi, and having the force of h — indeed, it is
evidently only a modified k, as small k, in G'k, and x are exactly
alike in form ; the next letter psi (^^ has the place of our z, and
the value of ps equal to s, 2; ; in Russian, it loses its right arm,
and has a form mostly like small y, and a value like tch, sh; it
may be considered as a marked c (on its back), or s; it is clearly,
too, identical with the Hebrew sh, or s (shin), which letter in
Ethiopic (one of its forms) has the precise form of T. Howj?
should be associated with s or «, as in this psi, need not appear
strange, when we bear in mind what the Russian teaches us ;
there, ^ and z have the same form, that of Greek 11, (save that
the z is connected at the bottom instead of the top, as in p);

ETYMOLOGY. 156

again, p=t, and t=s and z ; in Sanscrit, p equals j and often
becomes «, zh.

570. We have, as stated before, the c, a converted g, and we
have the k besides, while Greek had only the latter. Slightly
varying the t, we havey, not known in Gr'k — comparing i and
/, see what different powers the same letter may assume ; we
havep, q^ r (three nearly related), while G'k has only^ and r;
we have w^ which was formerly written two «'s, and then vv,
and so w. In Rus., two &'s are developed, the latter having the
value of i;, w; after 6, in place of Gr'k zeta, Euss. has two sj's,
one already noticed as s inverted (3); it is evidently connected,
in history, with the Greek chi, a;, ch; there are two t's, one of
which is merely double, like G'k 11; its r is our P ; its « and z
is our C; its w is oury; after u comes/, v, in form of Gr'k *,
and then K, being our X, and having its form ; and next come
four letters, all related, and having the value of z (ts), ch and
sh, sh, and sh — they are, the first two, two 1^9 repeated, and
hence the same as n(connected at bottom) ; and the next two
are three parallel t's (LU) connected at bottom, that is, they are
made by repeating one of the two first and uniting the two mid-
dle lines ; they are related to the Hebrew ch (cheth) and th
(tav) — the latter two are identical with the Hebrew sh (shin).
The old Heb. furnishes a parallel in its 2, identical with i, y ;
so, in Ethiopic, the sh, and t, is a double H, which equals i.

571. Making allowance for the introduction of additional let-
ters in the Armenian alphabet, and the considerable variation
in the name and form of the characters, we may say that it is
substantially the same as the G'k. The Arab, has added several
letters to the Semitic as it exists in Hebrew and Syriac, making
much change in the form and name of the characters, and yet
the identity of the two classes is unquestioned. The h has de-
veloped into a <, and th, besides a p in Pers., (marked only by
dots and without change of form) ; three letters, not differing in
form, arey (dg), A, and k, kh (this group includes the ^ which
here identifies with A) ; two 2's or 5'S) from Heb. d; an « and
d, 2, from Heb. z (tsadhe); a t, and a c?, z, from Heb. t (teth);
an a, A and g, gh, from Hebrew ayin.

Vowels.

572. This subdivision of letters demands still further consid-
eration; we will treat principally of the connexion of vowels
with each other. That a, e, i, o, u, amd w and y, are intimately
related to each other, will not be questioned ; we will, however,
give the following illustrations. Our a in late is precisely the
European long e ;♦ a in ah equals in not, a in all equals in

156 PHJIASIS.

hmg^ cost ; mefal, in sound, would not differ if it was w?, il, ol,
elf yl^ instead of ul; pahii^ at a distance, can hardly be distin-
guished from pine; French i \on^ is our e in steel ; and it can
hardly be distinguished from et ; hence, we hear yis for yes^ mm
for men, thim for them. The Greek u becomes our y, and the
Germ, u our t in it ; but hardly differs from Let, and hur not at
all from ber, bir — and wc hear fur in place o£ for, hum for
home, i. e. home=hom=hum.

578. From the diphthongs we have much to learn in relation
to vowels, as well as in regard to the union of letters generally.
It is hardly necessary to remark that such letters as readily unit€
into diphthongs are closely related — but all the vowels unite
in this way. We notice in regard to these unions of vowels,
that they, as well as with consonants, do not arise from the de-
struction of one of the vowels, but from the two harmonizing
together, or from the one preponderating over the other ; in no
case is the new sound, the diphthong, anything more than the
ordinary sound of the two vowels following in quick succession ;
so, boil is baU'ily the o of song, and the i disappearing in il; so,
in said, sa-id, sa-d, sed — when the id preponderates, we get
S'id, sid ; so, lo-af, lo-ef, loaf, and re-ad, re-ed, read; we get
break by breh-ake, short e in met and long a in make, and bread
by breh-ed, short e and short a ; in view, the i and e are both
short (i ip mit, e in met), and w q& u preponderates; in field j
fih-eeld, the i is short and e long ; in their, theh-ir, there, the e
and i are both short; in sound, we have o in not and u=oo, or
u in full — Germ, aw = this ou, ah-oo, and is the simple union
of the ordinary German a and u; German ei=long i, and /em
sounds as fine — here, the e is short, and it makes the i long,
just as our e in fine does; Gr'k ai*=our long i, so pais, pah-is,
sounds as pice; another German au is very much like this
Greek ai, and arises from the use of German accented ii, like
our i in mill (nearly) j German eu has same sound and on same
principle.

574. The following list of words, taken chiefly from the Ger-
man languages, will better illustrate the connexion and change
of vowels.

OldGer

. English.

Latin. Old Ger. Eng.

Latin.

durh

through

per, trans heim home

domus

hunt

dog

canis feim foam

spuma

sahan

sow

Go. saian dheoda kin

gens, Ger. leute

hrao

raw, rough

crudus houbit head

caput, Ger. haupt

fo

few

paucus troum dream

somnium

keanc

gone

Ger. gang guat good

bonus

feal

fell

ce-cidit

ETYMOLOGY.

15

^R^d. German.

English.

Latin.

stranc
kol

string
coal

funis
carbo

bourn

beam

arbor, Germ, baum

toum

ruo

tuot

steam

rest

deed

vapor, " dampf
quies, " ruhe
egi, " that

Mid. Nether.

• English.

Latin.

haer

hair

crinis

scaep
clet

sheep, ewe
cloth

^ ovis
vestis, Germ, kleid

ghet
wiel

goat, kid
wheel

capra, " ziege
A-S. hveol

moude

world

mundus, Germ, welt

hout

wood

lign-um, " holz

man

moon

luna . " mond

There is also Go. dails^ Eng. deal^ Germ, theil, It, pars; Go.
taiknSj Eng. token. Germ. Zeigen, Lat. signum ; Go. mats, Lat-
vnagis, Eng. more, Germ, mehr ; Go. dauths, Eng. dead, Germ.
todt ; Go. skeirs, Lat. clarus, Eng. shine, Germ, schein ; Goth.
stiurs, Eng steer, Latin taunts; Goth, giuta, Eng. gush. Germ-
giessen ; Germ, siegel, Eng. seal, Lat. sigillum.

German Etymology,

676.

Ah'halten, hold-off (a62=off).
^L-legen, lay-off, lay-by.
-4cAte7i, 1-ook, Gr'k agad, San.

ac, Gr'k osso, este6m
■^hnlich, even-like, like.
■^7i7ien, ancestors, anticipate; it

is the Lat. a7ite,
-4/sj al-so, as, else.
-^nit, office, m, v, f.
■^itgst, anxious.
-<^^w, poor, as branch = arm.
■^^ten, (take-) after (imitate).
"^r^j arch, arrant.
-^them, br-eath, Greek asthma,

Lat. anima, Russ. dnch

Auf-ruhr, up-roar.

Auge, eye, 1-ook.

Aus-hruch, e-rupt, out-break.

Aus-dehnen, ex-tend.

Aus-fuhr, ex-port.

Aus-ruf, out-cry.

Bauer, ^ boor, far-mer, 'bode.

Bach, brook, G'k 'pege,

Be-fehl, (order), fail, want — •
the idea of words of com-
mand seems based on wish^
want, not on authority ; so
bid = beg. Germ, heten.

Be-giehr, desire, crave, be-g.

Be-qucm, be-come, comely, con-
venient, Swiss hummllch.

^ Note that u is nearer i in it than u ; so, 6 is nearer a in ale — an is
yV.e ou in our ; e is not silent at the end of words, but is sounded uk
(w in up) ; as, habe = hah*buh (asx^ah uniformly) — See Germ. Lan.

158

PHKASIS.

JBe-sitz, pos-session.

BecSuch.Yisit) (be-seek),be = v.

Be-zahl, tell, pay, count, say.

Bild, (shape), build.

Billig, (fair), belle, L. meli-or,

B-lattj leaf (b is com. prefix).

Blasen, blow, s, w.

B-leihen, leave, (b-leave).

B'lick, look, blink.

'BIoss, (bare), plain, bleak.

Bosey (ill), bad, base. •

Brdien^ roast, br, r.

Brauchen^ (want), br^k, Lat.
frui^ use, re-quire.

Bfechen, break, San. c?ar, cut,
G'k dero, strip, bare, but
ge-hrechen = want, frail.

Briefs (letter), write, chart.

Briicke, bridge, breach.

Briinnen, (well), spring.

Brennen, burn, Ger. dorren.

Burg, fort, Gr'k purgos, polis.

Bund, bunch, bundle, band.

Dach, (roof), deck, L. tectum.

Damp, steam, dew.

Ddmmem, dim.

Degen, (sword), dagger.

Dchnen,^ ex-ten d»

Dicht, tight, think.

Dienen, serve, tend.

Dolch, dagger, dirk.

Druck, thring, throng, press,
drive, d, p, t.

Dunkel, dim, dunn.

DvMeti, dure, L. tolh, our in-
dulgence.

Durfen, dare, durst.

Durr, torrid, dry, burn.

Ecke, nook, edge, corner.

Edel, noble, d, b.

EiUn, hurry, G'k elao, hie.

Eifer, ire, ardor.

Eivzeln, single, once.

Els, ice, It. giaccio, Fr. glace,
glass, smooth, Ger. glatt.

Eisem^ iron; ei sounds C^

formly as i in ice.
Endltch, final, end.
Eng^ near, narrowj Sans, c^

G'kago, eggus^
Erhe, heir.
Er-fahren, ex-pert.
Erlauhm, allow.
Enoerh, (gain), ac-quirlft.
Er-zeugt, be-got, L. sa^tm,
Essig, acid (vinegar).
Fahren, fare, ferry, go.
Fang, catch, finger, f, c, k.
Fassen, fast, catch.
Feder, feather, pen, Gr'k pter-

on, wing, bird.

Fertig, ready, pre-pared.

Fessel, fetter, fast.

Finster, dim.

Flach, flat. i

Fkissig, fleet, ap-ply.

FUessen, flow.

Flugel, (wing), fly.

Fragen, ask, fraction, break,

G'k ag, L. rogo.
Frau, (woman) , L. virgo (herr)'
Fremd, foreign, strange.
Freude, mirth, joy ; eu sotuadfl

between t and oi.
Friede, peace, rest.
Froh, cheer-ful, joy-ful.
Friih, early, fore.
Furcht, fright, fear,
(rafee?, (fork), pierce, gore ; C5 ^^*

gaval=get, hold, fia<l*
Gahnen, yawn, gape.
Ganz, all (g pref.), whole-
Gar, ready, Jj. paro, very-
Gattung, (sort), cast, class- ^--q
Ge-hiet, (district), beat, bi^-^
Ge-falUn, please, fall.
Ge-fahr, (danger), peril,

risk, ex-periment.
Gehen, go, m-ove, San. a&-
Gheisf, ghost, gas.

1 Those endings C7i are of the infin., and may drop.

ETYMOLOGY.

159

GeR)^ yellow.

Ge-lenh, pliant, link, limber.

Ge-mein, common, mean.

Ge-prdge^ im-pression.

Ge-seU^ fellow, se-lect.

Ge-schlect, sect, class. ^

Ge-sichf.j sight, visage.

Ge^alt, (power), pre-vail.

Gewinn, gain, win.

Ge-wolbe^ vault.

Ge-ioohneny wont.

GiesseTij gush, pour, G'k cheO,

Glatt, sleek.

Gnade, grace, kind.

GrabeUj (dig), grave.

Grei/en, grab, gripe.

Cfreis, (old), G'k geraios, San.
jar at y Russ. stary:

Grimm y grim, wrath.

(rroi, coarse, great, gross.

Gunsty (favor), kind.

Gurgely gorge. It. gola,

Ma/ten, take, cleave.

J?afo, (neck), collar, L. collumy
hill, G'k gualon,

JSagely hail.

HandelUy (act), handle.

HarreUy tarry.

Haschen, catch.

Hauhey hood.

Hauchy whiff, puff, mouth.

Haupty head, top, Fr. ^e^e. It.
ca;po, Fr. cA<?/, t, c, h.

5att^, hid^coat, skin.

Heissehy hight, L. voco.

HeeVy host, army, crowd.

Heldy hero, 1, r.

Helly clear, light (hi, cl), bril-
liant.

Hehthy helve, handle.

JELerTy sir, lord. Sans, cwr, Gr'k
kariosy karl, Lat. vir.

Hemdy (shirt), Fr. chemise,

HerZy heart, breast.

Heatey L. hodiey Sp. hoi/.

Himmely heaven, Fr. ciely Go.
himinSy hell.

^im, brain, cran-ium.
Ilirschy hart.
Ilohely level, heaver.
Ilochy high, L. a?^ = auu, G'k

akros^ Go. r/w7is, wax.
^oA^, hollow, hole.
EoleUy haul.
JZo^^j, wood, L. s^Zva.
Hulle, veil, husk, case.
HuUey hull, husk, shell.
Hundy dog, L. ccm/s, G'k 7in/(5».
EurtiQy hurry.
Husten, cough, husky,
Rilty heed, guard.
Jo gen y chase.

Jammery lament, whimper,
Jungey young, boy.
Jugendy youth, h.juve7iis,
Kaldy callow, bald.
KamiUy chimney, channel.
Kampfy combat.
Kargy chary, spare.
Xastcn, chest.
KauCy coop, cage.
Kaueiiy chew.
Kaucheiiy squat, crouch.
Kaufy (buy), chap-man, get.
Kehhy (throat), channel.
Kehry turn, veer, k, t.
Kciny no, none, G'k oxdi.
KauTthy scarce, rare, sick.
Kecky (daring), quick.
Keicheriy gasp, cough.
KeifeUy chide, f, d.
Kdchy calyx, cup.
Kenneiiy know, can, 'quaint.
Kenschy chaste.
Kiefcy jaw, chap.
Kiesely pebble.
Kindy child, kin, young.
Kippey tip, edge.
KlagCy com-plaint, wail, clamor.
KlappCy flap.

Kleidy (dress), cloth, G'k khio,
Klein y lean, little.
Khgy skill, sly, 'look.
Klumpy lump, clod.

160

PHRASIS.

Knabcy (boy), knave, L. natus.
Knechty new, young, G*k gin.
Knall^ clap, knell.
Knapp^ tight, nip, pinch.
Knochen^ bone, knuckle.
Knopf, knob, bud, button.
Knorz^ knob, snob.
Knospe, knot, knob.
Konig, king, zarr, reg-e.
Kolhe, club.
Kopf head, L. caput, top, cap,

G'k kar, kephale,
Korh, (basket), curb.
KorUy grain, kernel.
Korpter, body, corpse.
Kraft, force, strong, L. vires,
Krdhe, crow, rook, raven.
Kralle, claw, craple.
Krank, (sick), grieve, L. segre,

Fr. en-ferm, Swiss A;wm=

kaum.
Kranz, wreath, crown.
Kratzen, scratch.
Kraut, herb, k, h.
Kriegen, reach, ac-quire.
Krieg, war, French guerre, cry,

jar,' quarrel, kr,wr.
Krippe^ crib.
Kmig, crock, jug.
Kuche, kitchen.
Kugehi, roll, hill.
Kuhn, (bold), keen, 0. Germ.

kuene,
Kummer, grief, trouble.
Kunft, (arrival), come.
Kund, ac-quaint, cunning.
Kunst, (art), know, kennen,
Kuppe, top, cap.
Kurz, short, curt.
Lappe, flap.
Lassen, let, leave.
Ldsslg, lazy. Go. lats, li.fiacco.
Laster, (vice), load, charge.
Last, load.
Lauh, leaf.
Lauern, lurk.

Lauf, (run), loafer, elope, Swiss
lope, San. ray, Lat. ruo.

Laut, (sound), sound, loud.

Ledig, idle, clear.

Leer, void, clear.

Lejgien, lean, lie.

Leiclie, flesh, 1, fl.

Lesen, read, lesson, 1, r.

Lesen, col-lect, glean.

Liefern, de-liver.

Lied, (song)j lid, limb, mel-on.

Loh, praise, laud, San. lap, lesen

Loch, hole, loop.

Lbcken, al-lure, e-licit.

L'offel, ladle.

Lohn, (wages), lend.

Lobcn, L. laudo and lego.

Los, loose, slack,

Luft, (air), loft.

LUgen, lie.

Lust, (pleasure), de-light.

Mangel, want, m, w.

Mandeln, mangle.

Mark, marrow, k, w.

Masse, measure.

Mauer, (wall), L. murus, mort.

Maul, muzzle, mouth.

Menge, many ,mix, men.

Messer, (knife), mace.

Mucke, midge.

Miihe, pains.

Mund, mouth.

Muth, (courage), mood, mind.

Nach-ahmen, take#tfter, (imi-
tate).

Nacken, neck, nape.

Nlihren, nourish.

Narr, (fool), L. ignarus,marg€,

Mass, wet, moist.

Natter, adder, as we say Ned
for Ed.

Nebel, (mist), veil, L. nvhes.

Nehmen, (take), L. emo.

Neigen, bend, kneel.

Neid, strife, need, San. nid.

Netzen, wet, n, w.

ETYMOLOGY.

161

Nlltss, use, need.
Oh^zoaUen, pre-vail.
Orey (place), corner.
Otter ^ otter, adder.
^faffe^ pope, parson, papa.
Pfandj pawn.

P/eilj dart, bolt, pile, b, d.
Pflegen^ (tend), ap-ply.
Pflicht, plight, o-blige.
lyrop/j cork, graft.
Pfund, pound, pf, p.
Plump, blunt, clumsy.
PocTien, knock, beat, p, kn.
Pracht, pride, bright.
Prahlen, brag, brawl.
Predigen, preach, dig, dg.
Prii/en, try, prove, p, t.
PidveTj powder.
Punkt, point.
Putzen, polish, re-buke.
Rack, wrath, wreak. •
Rad, (wheel), L. rota, radius,
Rahm, cream.
Rand, rim, rind, brim.
Rosen, (sod), grass.
Rosen, rave, rant, rage.
Reden=lesen, speak, L. lego.
Roth, (counsel), ratio, reason,

L. ratus, Ger. reden,
Rouch, rough.
Rouchen, reek, quaff.
Redlich, (honest), reasonable.
R^ihe, row.
Rein, pure, se-rene. Sax. hren,

kran, Q-oth. hrain,
R^send, rapid, rash.
R^sen, tear, rent, rip.
R^z, grace, ir-ritation.
-^^len, rid, rescue.
Riss, rent, crack, gap.
Ritz, rift, crack, gap.
Rock, (coat), robe, f-rook.
Rodel, roll, scroll.
Roh, raw, rough.
^ohr, reed, crane.
^otte, rout, troop, herd.
21

Rilcken, ridge, back.
Rufen, call,, voco, shriek.
Euhm, renown, rumor.
Ruhe, rest, quiet, Sanscrit, ci,

G'k keio.
Riihren, stir, roar.
Rupf, pluck.
Runzel, rumple, wrinkle.
Rustig, lusty, robust.
Riisten, dress, arm.
Sache, (thing), from sage =

say, as L. res, reason, from

reo= speak, San. ah, G'k

ad, ask.
Saal, saloon, hall.
Sa^cht, soft, ch, f.
Satz, sentence, set.
Schaar, (troop), herd.
Schade, damage, scath, the

same as schande, shame.
Schaffen, (do), shape, make.
Schalig, shelly, scaly.
Schatz, treasure, tax, ex-che-
quer.
Schauen, shudder.
Schaum, scum, foam.
Scheibe, sheaf, slip.
Scheiden, cut, di-vide.
ScheUe,^he\\, peal.
Schelm, villain, scoundrel.
Schick-lich, (fit), becoming,

suitable, con-venient; in

all these, come, go, is the

base.
SchicJcen, send, San. cac, Gr'k

kekid, go ; ging (jgick) is

past ofgehen, go.
Schimmer, glimmer.
Schinden, skin.
Schirm, screen.
Schdker, joker.
Schlagen, slay, slew.
Schlange, long, Latin anguis,

serpent, snake.
Sch-lecht, (bad), light, low, as

8c^^an^=slank.

162

vajUL9m.

Schlussy coQolusioB) close, looae^

key, Celt, chi,
Schmuck, (dress), neat, from

8chmack=a taste, tasty.
Schnabel, nozzle.
Schnau, nose, snout.
Schnell, L. celus, It. meUo,
Schnitt, cut, S. ci, G'k keid,
Schnur, string; the n here and

above is inserted, or schn

equal to sck,
Schbn, (fine), shine, belle, bril-
liant, bright.
Schreien, cry, It. gridare,
Schreck, fright, crack.
Schrift, writ, sch, w.
Schritty step, stride.
Schuld, guild, fault, L. scehia,
Schurf, scrape, cut, San. Jmuv,

Q'k zurady shear.
Schutz, shed, shelter.
Schwachy weak. It. ehete,,
Schwinden, vanish, dwindle;

sch is often a mere prefix.
Schwefel, sulphur, .Fr. sou/re.
Schwer, severe, heavy, hard.
Schwingy wing, sweep.
SeheUj see, show, g, h.
Sehr, very, true. .
Segel, sail.
S^ne, sinew.
Seide, silk, d, 1.
Seicht, shallo)i7.
Set/e, soap.
Selig, holy, s, h.
Seltsam, seldom.
Sicker, secure, sure.
Sichterij sift, sight.
Seufzen, sigh.
Sieg, victory. Sax. aig-or.
Sinn, sense.
Sitte, (custom), seat.
SoUen, shall, s, sh.
Sonder, sever, nd, v.
Sorg^fihy sorrow, care, s, e,
Spalten^ split, cleft, chop.

Span, bend, bent; a span is a

connexion, team, bridge.
Speise, food, sp, f.
Sperr, pinch, poor, press.
Sperren, bar, sp, b.
Spiegel, (mirror), spectU'um,
Spiel, play, sport.
Spiess, spit, spear.
Spitz, peak, top, piquant
Spinne, spider, spinner.
Spliss, cleft, split.
Spott, scoff, mock, Bpert.
Sprechen, speak, preach. Sans.

vak, L. voco, spr^ v.
Spur, trace, step, spur.
Stadt, town, city.
Starke, starch, stiff.
Stark, strong, sturdy.
Stange, stake, stick.
Starr, stiff, stare.
Stauh, dust.
Stauch, toss.
Staude, stalk, bush.
Steil, steep, 1, p.
Steigen, stage, step, San. 9tigh,

stair, Q-'k steicho.
Stellen, place, put, sil,^ pi.
Stemmen, dam, cut.
AS'ter5e,(death), de-stroy, starve.
Stern, star, rn, r.
Stick, prick, bite.
SOel, stalk, 1, Ik.
Sti/t, tack, peg.
Stiften, found, fix, stiff.
Stimme, (voice), tune, say, G'k

stoma, San. stu.
Stirn, front, stern.
Stock, stick, stop, staff.
/S^^ofo, (proud), L. stvitus.
Storen, di-sturb.
Stoss, thrust, jog, stut.
Stossen, push, stave.
Strafen, (punish), straighten.
Straklen, ray, San. ul, G. died.
Strack, strait.
Straff, strait, tight.

ETTM<>LOaY.

16S

Strang^ string, trace.
Strasse, road, street.
Strauh^ shrub, hmih,
Strechj tract, stretch.
StHckj siring, cord, str, r.
StreiteUj strife, struggle.
Streng, strict, strong.
Strich^ stroke, strike.
Strumpf, (stocking), trunk,

stem, stump.
Stuhe, (room), step, stoop.
StUckj piece, stick, bit.
Stumm, dumb, st, d.
Stump/j (dull), stupid and

stumpy;
Stundej time, st, t.
Sturtzen^ throw, hurl.
. StutZj shock, stab.
Svchen^ seek, ch, k.
^Timpf^ swamp.
Siinde, sin.

^ttM, sweet. Sax. suot,
^t/lbe, syllable.
^adel, chide.
^% day, g, y.
^0^, tallow, g, w*
^dnd, toy, dandle.
^dsche, pocket, sack.
^ler, deer, L. /era, wild.
^(iften, taste, touch.
^(inchen, duck, dip. -
•^<^umel, tumult, (recline).
^(iugen, (fit), from which is

iugend, tuch.
^U8ch, trick, cheat.
*j2icA, tank, (pond).
-^ipich, tapestry.
*2^a<, deed, act, did.
2^7, deal, share, cut, part,

San. da J kar, vil.
*^rdne, (tear), run, drop.
-^rdnen, running, train.
^nrmy tower.
. 'VZgrcn, ex-tinguish.
Ktten, dig, till.
iVnte, inl^ tint.

Tisch, table, dine, dish.

ToU, dull, fool, (mad).

Ton, tone, sound, strain.

Top/, tub, pot.

Trachtf draft, dress.

Tragen, (carry), drag, bear.

Trauen, trust, true.

Traube, grape.

Trauer, sorrow.

Treffen, strike, touch. L. tracto,
¥r. /rapper, San. r/orp.

Trennen, sever, separo,

Treten=reden — path, in San.,
equals 'read and tread,

Tri/t, drove, drive.

Tritt, tread, track.

Trocken^ dry, torrid.

Trodeln, dawdle.

Trost, (hope), trust.

Trotz, (dare), scorn.

Triihe, trouble.

Trug, fraud, trick.

Trumm, (wreck), ruins, our
thrum.

Tuch, (cloth), towel, Fr. drap,
t, tr = dr.

Tucke, trick, t, tr.

Tugend, (virtue), from Tiichtig,
fit, tight, also good, strong,
equal to virtue.

Tummeln, bustle, tumble, hurry

Umr-kehren, re-turn, turn-a-
round, t«m = around, c.iV-
cum.

Uebel, (ill), evil.

Uebung, use, (practice).

Uhr, (clock), hour.

Urn-stand, circum-stance.

Un-gar, not-done, San. kar,

Un-gern, un-willing, not-grain,
against-grain.

Un-gliick, ill-luck.

Un-kr a/tig, (in-effectual), in-
firm, kra/t^s^kar, form.

Uw-tchfuM, (in-noc^nce), not-
hurt, not-guilt.

164

PHBA8IS.

Unter-haltungy sus-tenance, en-
ter-tain, {sub = under),
ten, tain = halt, bold.

Unter-schri/ty sub-script.

UrhaVy arable.

Ur-lauh, fur-lough.

Ur-sachej principle-both words
are developments of ere,
fore, or-igin, cause.

Uppigy (luxurious), up-y, heap-

Urtheil, (judgment), or-deal,

fore-part.
Vr-weseriy fore-being, or-igin.
Veilcherij violet.
Ver-ha/ty caption, take.
Ver-kehvy inter-course, run or

turn-around, -among.
Ver-lassen, let.
Ver-loren, lose, for-lorn.
Ver-2u8tj lost.

Ver-nehmen, perceive, take-be-
fore, or take-through.
Ver-standy under-stand.
Ver-wer/en, re-ject, re = ver.
Vieh, beast.
Vtely full, very, much.
Vogel, (bird), fowl, falcon.
Vor-fahr, pre-cessor, go-fore.
Vor-geheriy fore-go, pre-cede.

vor-gang = pre-cedenoe.
Vor-haben, fore-have, in-tent,

design.
Vor-nehmeny pre-eminent, emt-

neo = 'L, emoy take.
Vor-redey pre-face, fore-read.
Vor-spiel, pre-lude,fore-play.
Vor-theily pro-fit, for-part.
Vor-trageny fore-carry, pro-po-

sal, for-place.
Wacky awake.
Wachseny wax.
WachelTiy waver, wabble.
Fo^e, balance, weigh.
Wageriy (risk), wage, hazard.
WahUfiy (choose), cull, pohl,

S. valy G'k eloy will, pull.

Wdhfiy fancy.

Wahry true, L. verus.

Waly battle.

Waldy wood, L. si/lva.

Walleuy wallow, walk, G-'k po-

leOy San. paly pad,
Wandy wall.
WappeUy weapon.
Wankeny waver.
Wanne, fan, van.
Warteuy wait.
Weber, weaver, L. apero.
Wechsel, change, L. vtcia.
Wegy way, L. via,
WegeUy move, Greek agd, wag,

shake.
Weg-stecken, stick-away.
Weg-schereriy shear-away.
Weichy weak, It, Jiacco,
Weide, food, L. victus.
Weiserty (show), wissen,
Welky wilt.

Wenig, few, many, L. mtntu,
WerdeUy (become), turn, the
same as wenden=gqy wend.
Weseny essence, being.
Wichtigy weighty.
Wickeln, wind, wick.
Wider-sprachy contra-diet.
Wiesey mead ; Wiey why, wi,
Wimmehiy swarm.
Winseluy whimper, whine.

WinkUy angle, corner.

Wirklichy (actual), from wirk-
en = work, as ef-feotual,
from facto = do, and act-
tual, from ago = do.

Wisseuy wit, L. vidiy wisdom,
San. cudhy cvidh.

Wittwey widow.

WoUy well.

Wolkey cloud, welkin.

Wuchevy usury.

WuMeriy wallow.

WUnsch, wish, will, S. av.

Wurde, worth, honor.

Wurfy throw, warp, wreck.

BTTMOLOGY. 165

Wurtz, root, wurzel. Ziege^ goat, L. hoediis,

Wust, waste. Ziegel. title.

Wuth^ fury, fume, muth. Ziehen^ draw, tow, tug, S. du,

ZaJdy (number), tell, say. Ziem-en^ seem, come, suit.

Zagen^ shake, z, sh. Zier^ grace, a-dorn.

Zank, wrangle, z, wr. Zimmer, chamber. It. camera^

Zapfen, stopple. room.

Zart, tender, rt, d. 2^nn, tin, Fr. etain, It. stagno.

ZaUher, charm. Zmse^ interest, rent.

Zatisen, touse, tug. Zorn^ thorn, wrath.

Zehcy toe. Zilchten, e-ducate.

ZetcheUj token, sign, be-to-ken ZUchtig, chaste, chastise.

= kennen, know. Zwecken^ peg, tack.

Zeichnung, design. Zwangen, pinch, press.

ZeUcj (li*i6)> file- Zweifeln^ doubt, double, doubt
Zeit, tide, time, L. sevum^ diem^ = think = L. volvo^ turn,

age, «to<, ewig, so re-flect = re-turn ; med-

Zelt^ tent. . itate equals middle, doubt,

' Zer-storen, de-stroy. double.

Zer-reissen, tear, rend.

The parallels we have selected are the most difficult we could
find. A vast majority of German words differ far less from En-
glish than those do which we have selected. Nothing can be
plainer than that Germ, has a representative for every Eng. word.
Even in the present state of philology, scarce a word can be
found that cannot be traced by plain rules to some like word
with us. Not only are the simple words made like ours, but
their compounds also — and often when least expected. Thus,
German ver-nehmen is per-take, precisely as per-ceive (ceive =
capio, take), ge-walt, pre-vail (<7e=pre), g4auben, be-lieve (^=
be), un-schuld, in-nocence, ob-ject, vor-werp, {ject and werp
both equal throw).

Dutch Etymology,

576. The Dutch has most of its words practically identical
with German, making allowance &r the replacement of some
letters by their nearest relatives. There are, however, many
words which bear a greater resemblance for English. Aside
from the words which in their form are plainly Germ, or Eng.,
very few indeed can be found — and even those few can be
brought near us by close examination.

We select only a few Dutch words, enough merely to give an
idea of the manner in which the Dutch orthography compares
with English and German.

1(*>6

** * i.kiiii -irinu.
II (. « . Uh.

H » «. 1 i

tt * . ii .. :. \»!huM,

H . »*.-. U ■. IM.

M ^, ti.

I -•■»(» • -. rnm, tikir.

It, ..^

I ' . . !\'n\ (i 'ii'irfw.

r.i.. 1 1 •!' •*». llivl.

I.. . c ■ ». Ml^V.l.
I . ■ I . • .« |V»- \l*ll.
I I ' .»■ *: ill »;\«. J'U*'*^.
I .I..-. :. I II- 1 .:':•. ••, tllko, vat,
\^••.^^•|. lli'lil \iis{.

\ it^, \ar.-tni'\ .

/ if /.>.'/•< /(, oil I li>|to, olo|)t>.

y't Ac /(, >i,mt, (uLrii.

Sti'Ot, pllMll, i«. Afl'M, ttip.
iNV«i/r, .stiMul, <«. i(Kt\tt.

Sfni(nif\ il. j(/'(ir, Into.
iS\7*fy»/*f'/i, hliaito, I*. Mhitjfrn,
/h>(>A', (i. /'(fi/r/4, hiiuiko.
/V/y, (I. f>fii\/t,
Sint, (J. »rhf(tsn, liK'k.

Z'M'Z. 8WeCl. ii. fUA.

.S'7f*'W«vi. ail. ■
.Va^ measn
A'"/-, liiuk. ibttui-.
Schuir. RhoTe. diair. k i

if //'(/.. dhiuej. blink, ink;

Zarr/. Icuve. let.

Sfhif/m, Hhell. pare. pEn. »

paratc. de-cide.
T>fy. wijie. fiweep.
T7/<f/. flv, fled.
Ge-uiif. < enjcrr ]. me. aoei.
Brand, roast.
B^ziy. buFT. 'use.
Kwaad. bad. woxse.
/i/*-/« iVi. be-lead. ocm-dvBL
Rogfff. rye.
A'lWi. ask.

AV, there, G. ^a. door.
0/t-hoogcn. np-bigli. xaae.
J/oot, ( fioej, prenr vJibor).
Be-ioop. be-mn. conxse.
Bt'-l/even. p-leaee.
JJoutj wood. G. ilioZr.
AVy, irk, grieve, w-orafc, <

(iryern^ L. j^ty:.

Pa Utah Eti/mology,

Aahiir^ open.

vlr/y, yoke.

Arif/cr, UHury, frain.

Aand^ C^liost), L. animu.

AarCy artery, car, f^raiii.

Aarsag^ Germ, uhr-narh.

Ad'/aenJj de-port,ya€r(/= fer-
ry, carriage.

Ad-gang^ ac-cess, to-go, gang'^
cess, both = go.

Ad'Skilt, (separate), ad-split.

Ad'VarCf ad-warn, warn.

A/-/ordre, re-quire-
A/'kran-c, 'quire ctxt*.
Af-ragfi, shave, raie.
A/-Htige, step-up. \(2/ « cr\ .
A/-tt'gney de-sign.
Agt, thought, act.
AgteUcy esteem.
Ai-mrt^Hy common,
il//, all J Aldhriy^ (neTcr).
An-give, in-dicate.
An-ledning^ in-ducement, M
equals duce, had.

ETYMOLOGY.

16T

^n-namme, re-ceive, take.
^f»-raa56, call-to, (German

ruf).
JLr, scar, seam.
JLrheidey work, operate.
jirt, sort, race.
£ange, 'fraid, anxious.
JBanke, beat, spank.
JBare, bare, mere, pure, but,

only, fore.-
Sarin, breast.
' Bam, (child), bom, boy, babe.
i?c-5o6,i (dwell), L. vivo, Ger.

wohnen, a-bode.
Be-breide, re-proaoh, up-braid.
Bede, beg, Germ, beten,
Be-drag, fraud, be-tray.

Be-domme, deem, esteem.

Beesk, bitter. ,

Be-fatte, contain, vat.
Be-gave, en-dow, g, d.

Be-^egne, meet, engage.

Be-giaere, desire, 'grudge.

Be-^rihe, ap-prebend, grab.

Be-greb, Ger. be-griff, com-pre-
hend, grasp, (idea).

Be-graede, re-gret, grieve.

Be-Jior, depend, co-here.

Be-kiende, own, know.

Be-klaede, clothe.

Be-Iee, laugh-at.

Be-moie, molest, move.

Be-qvem, be-come, con-venient.

Be-rette, (advise), G. rath.

Be-sked, share, de-cide.

Be-skue, view, a-skew,

Be-slutte, conclude.

Be^iene, at-tend, 6€ = at.

Be-troe, intrust.

Be-tjp/k, press, t, p.

Be-tyde, be- tide, be-token.

Be-undre, wonder-at.

Be-vant, usual, w6nt.

Be-vare, pre-serve, guard.

Be-vi%8, show, device.

^ We notice prefix be in Danish,

Bi-kuhe, hive, coop.
B-lik, look, bl, 1.
B-Uve, leave.
B'lok, log, block.
Bht, but, bare.
Bo, a-bode, house.
Bolle, bowl, swell.
Borge, borrow.
Brage, crack, crash.
B-rase, roast.

Brede, broad, spread, strew.
Brev, letter, card, G. brief.
Bro, bridge.

Brug, use, G. branch, bru, u.
Bruse, roar.
Bryn, brim, brow.
Braende, burnt.
Brok, break, fraction.
Bulder, bustle.
Bund, bottom, soil.
By tie, (change), L. muto.
Baekken, basin, beaker.
Baelg, hull, shell, peel.
Bode, patch.
B'dlge, billow.
Bor, barrow.
Bosse, 'buss, box.
Daad, deed.
JDaare, (fool), G. narr.
Danne, (form), do, G. thun.
Deel, G. iheil, deal.
Digt, fiction.
Diaerv, hard, rude.
Drage, drag, draw.
Dragt, draught.
Dreie, turn.
Dukke, duck, dip.
Dulme, slumber.
Dyd, virtue, good.
Dyrt, dearly.
Dblge, con-ceal.
Dbmrae, deem.
Eensome, on-ly, lonensome.
Eg, edge; Egen, own.
Enig, united, one.
not appearing sometimes with us.

168

PHBASIS.

Er-fare^ ex-periment, prove,

ex-pert, erfahren,
Ermdre, warn, wonder.
Faae, G. /angen, get, aa, an.
Faa, few, It.paucvs.
Fad J dish, vat.
Falde, fall.
Falky falcon.
Fahk, false.
Fare, peril, fare, go.
Fatte, fasten, fetch.
Favn, fathom.
Fegte, fight, fence.
Fell, fault, fail.
Finde, (think), feel, find.
Fiaele, veil, con-ceal.
Flere, more, L. plure, pi, m.
Flig, fly, flap.
Flid, ap-ply.
Flyde, flow, fly, fleet.
For-andre, other, alter,
Forske, search, in-quire.
For-staae, under-stand.
For-syn, fore-sight.
F-red, rest, Q^ffriede,
Fremmed, foreign, Gr, fremd,

strange, from.
FuldJuW,- Id, 11.
Fynd, force, nd, r, ( under = '

over = ver = for).
Gal, wild.
Gavn, gain.
Gide, like, choose.
Gierde, hurdle, yard.
Gigt, gout.
Gior, do, kar, chore, 'pare; old

North gera^fa£ andpar'.
Glimre, glitter.
Gloe, gaze, look, glore.
Green, branch, Gr. Grenz,
Griin, grin, L. rideo.
Grue, dread.
Grov, gross, coarse.
Guul, Gr, gelb, yellow.
Hah, (neck), hall, channel.
Han, (male), he, one.

Handle, deal, handle.

Hede, (call), G. hem, quot

Heelt, wholly.

Heft, hilt, handle.

Hegn, hedge, fence.

Hegte, hook.

Hekkc, hatch.

Hemme, stop, hem.

Hen-syn, re-spect, seen.

Hevn, avenge. •

Hex, witch.

Hidme, comer, horn.

Hivl, wheel, Sw. hjul.

Hoved, head.

Hoppe, hop. skip, jump.

Hoveri, average.

Hugge, hew, haggle.

Hoi, hill, high.

Hdvl, level, heaver.

Jdel, only, eet a one, etlich,

Ilde, ill.

lid, (fire), zeal.

lie, hurry, G. eilen, 1, r.

Jage, chase.

Jorde, bury, earth.

Kaahe, cloak, cape.

JTaa*, course.

j^a^, calling.

J^aZA;, cup, chalice.

Karm, frame, form.

Karrig, chary, spare.

Kielder, cellar, cell.

Kiende, known, 'quaint.

Kind, cheek, chin.

Kiaede, chain, G. kette.

Kibh, buy, kaufen, k, b.

Klavre, clamber, climb.

Klogt, wit, look, klug.

Knap, close, narrow, tight.

Knuh, knob, stump. |

Koge, cook.

KogU, juggle, k, j.

Kone, wife, queen.

Knegt, (servant), knave.

Krog, corner, crook, hook.

Krum, curved.

ETYMOLOGY.

169

JE^^itty (biit), on-ly, Ger. tchon.
JSZcLempery champion, combat,

camp.
JLtddt^ let, al-low.
JOtCLd^ lazy.
^ JLtahe^ lick, lap.
JOedy (gate), lead.
JLtedig^ lazy, leisure.
JOee^ Iflugh, L. rw', 1,. r.
-Erie, (bed), L. lect\ lay.
jLtide^ (suffer), lot, L. latum,
lyigge, lie.
JLov^ (praise), laud.
Lue^ flame, 1, fl. «»
Lure^ lufk, lure.
LuJeke^ c-lose, lock.
Lj/de^ (sound), loud, lute.
•Lys^, de-light, lust.
Laene^ (prop), lean.
Lbhe^ flow, run.
Jdaal, mete, mark.
^fige, matcli, make.
J^agt, might.
Jdandbar, (marriageable), i e.

man-able.
Mangel^ want.
^at, faint, G. miide.
Max&r^ meager.
J^edlem^ member, with, med,

mete, end.
^eierei, dairy, G. MeiereL
^eldm^ mention.
-^cnwc«A;«, man, G. fnensch.
^^gel, marl.
-^<[n</c, memory, mind.
-^w-Aoye, dis-gust.
-^'^^y (spirit), mind, mood.
-^o</m€, mature.
j^o>, mellow, 1, r.
•^Oflf/e, (grace), kind.
j^«a^, needle, nail.
"^«e, near, 1 each.
v^^f^, name, renown.
^<^i7<e, de-ny, L. tie^^o.
^^mc, memory, from ne^men,
take. t

22

Nidsk^ niggard.
iN^ysc, sneeze.
Naeb, beak, nib.
Naere, nourish.
Naes, cape, (point), nose.
iVo/e, nice.
iVo/e, de-lay.
iVbVZe, urge, force, need.
Om-hytte^ per-mute.
Om-hylle, en-velop.
Ondy ill, bad.
Op'Stille, set-up, still.
Ordj word ; Orm, worm.
Pant, pawn.
Passe, fit, suit, pass.
jPcen, fine.
Penge, coin, penny.
Perse, press.
PiV^, pick, cull, pillage.
Pindy pin, peg.
Plads, place.
P/cie, (care), ap-ply.
P/e^, blot.

Pose, bag, budget, purse.
Prale, brag, brawL
Prm, price, praise.
Prygl, club, cudgel, drub.
Pd7, pool, puddle.
'Past, blow, brush.
Raa, raw, crude.
Raage, rook, raven.
i?af/e, shave.
Rank, right, e-rect.
Ramme, frame.
Ra>sk, quick, rash, brisk.
Reen, neat, clean.
Regne, reckon.
Ret, right, reason, G. rath.
Rette, correct, straight.
Rfft, rent, cleft.
Binge, poor, cringe, G. ge-nngy

little.
Roes, praise, r, pr.
Rude, rue.
Ruge, brood,
.fiitu, rude, raw.

ITO

PfiRlgXB.

i?y, rumor.
Rydde^ void, rid.
Ri/g^ back, ridge.
Ri/ge^ smoke, reek.
Ryk, tug.
Ryste^ toss, rush.
Red^ af-raid.
RaehJce^ reacli, stretch.
Rbre^ stir, brisk.
R'or^ reed, seed.
Rove^ rob.
Rost^ voice, roar.
JSaare, hurt, wound.
&'a^^e, soft.
iSai^, sale ; Sal, hall.
jSaZt;6, volley.
Sandj sure, sound, safe.
Sunds, sense.
Sandt, sound, certainly.
Si'ge, say,

SiJcJce, sure, secure.
£izne^, sense, mind.
Sinke, hinder.
Skadcy hurt, scath.
Skaffe, get, G. schafftn.
Skandse, sconce.*
£i^a^, tax.

Skiende, chide, scold.
Skifte^ part, shift.
Skin, shine.
Skiaere, carve.
Skiaerpe, sharpen.
Skiaev, (crooked), skew.
Skion, (fair), shine. •
Skov, wood, grove.
Skose, scoff, s, f.
Skraa, skew.
Skride, stride.
Skrigj cry, shriek.
Skrive, write.
Skud, shoot.
Skvffe, (cheat), shuffle.
Skugge, shade.
Slag, blow, slay.
Slet, little, slight, light, Germ.
schlecht.

Sh'g, like, such.

Slikke, lick, sleek.

iS%, gulph.

Slutte, close, shut.

Slaegt, class, sect.

Smaa, small.

Snabel, snout.

Snappe, snatch, map.

iSwar, rapid, smart.

£i7itV, cut, slice, slit.

Snu, sly, cunning.

Snyder, cutter, cheat, <fiss«

and cA.
fiior^, scwow.
Sove, sleep, L. iomnia.
Sparke, spurn.
Spedenc, dis-patoh.
Speide, spy.
Sperre, bar, em-bar.
Spidse, peak, speck.
iSpi?, play, sport.
Sprog, speech, G'k log(A,
Spaende, span.
Sted, step, spot.
Stemmc, tune, G. thtfRflie.
/S^t'A;, stitch, stick.
Stille, still, place.
Stoppe, stop, stuff.
Straal, ray, str, r.
Storme, rage, roar.
/S^nfcf, strife.
Stunde, tend.
Sturte, hurl, start,
^^oc?, stab, thrust, shock.
iS'uA;, sigh, sob, k, g, b.
Stoi, stir.

S-vag, weak, faint, sv, w.
Svare, an-swer, (s)word.
Svamp, sponge.
Svaere, move, hover,
Synes, seem, seen.
Saert, strange, forth.
Sod, sweet, G. sUss,
S'Sge, seek, search, ask.
S'olv, silver.
Somme, seam, hem, s, h.

BTnwj.oaT.

ITl

SSrge^ grieve, <»re.
Taage, fog, t, f.
Taam, tower.
2'ah^ damage.
Tag, thatch.
Tapper, hrave, stout.
TarVf (need), dare, dearth.
Teguj sign, token.
Tigger, beggar, t, b.
^'(/aeZc^e, ac-cident, bothss

fall, fall-to.
Til-rette, a-right, to-right.
IHrre, stir, irritate.
Tot, ton, t, n.
Tour, turn.
Frane, crane, t, o.
Trang, strait, narrow.
Traeffe, hit, strike, f, k.
Tra^ge^ press^ throng,
^ro^^, tired.
Traette, strife, tr, str.
Taekke,XQOYex), deck.

JZW^, tight, thick.
TorkCf drought.
Ud-drag, out-draw, ex-tract.
Undrtage, ex-ccpt.
Urt, wort, herb.
Vakker, vigorous.
Vakle, wiggle, totter.
Vanke, wander.
Ven, friend, Vj fr.
to- Verden, world, earth.
Vente, wait, want.
Vide, (know), see, L. vid^,
Vinde, win, gain.
Vise, see, show, v, s.
Void, force, G. toalt,
Vred, wrath.
Vride, wreath, wring.
Vaelge, cull, pull, pohl.
Vaen, fine.
Vaev, web, wf ave.
Tde, yield.

Yngel, (brood), young, en-gen-
der.

Tj/sse, quiet, q, t.

In Banish, as in German, we have selected for comparison
words which vary most from their corresponding English or
German ; a vast majority of Danish words are* either identical
with English or German, or they diflFer from them by unimpor-
tant variations. What words cannot be identified with one or
the other of these two languages, constitute an extremely small
class.

The general oast of the Danish, as of the Swedbh orthogr*-
phy, is far more English than German.

Latin Etymology.

578.

Acies, ax, adz, sharp.

JBg-er, sick, grief.

^stimo, esteem.

jEta^, age, state, (^JEkale),

jEvum, age, v, g.

Ager, (field), acre.

Ag-gero, heap, herd, crowd.

Ago, do, act, g, d.

Aio^ say.

Albu^, white, blank, pale

Ala, fly, wing, fl, w.

A'les, light.

Alius, other, else.

Alter, other, alter.

Alte, (high), loft.

Amo, love, friend, m, 1, v.

Ant-plus, ample, full.

Ango, strangle, anguish.

Anma, mind, nm, mn.

172

PHRASI8.

Annus, year, ring, n, r, — a
or an, am, usually prefix.

Aperio, open, cover. •

A'pex, point, peak.

A'pes, bee.

Ap-paro, appear.

Ap'pello, peal, call.

Apt-U8, fit, apt.

A-qua, water.

Aquila, eagle, q, g.

Arb'Or, tree, rb, tr.

Arceo, keep, guard, bar.

Ard-ens, burn-ing.

Ard-uu8, hard, high.

Argen-tum, silver, ore.

A-ries, ram.

Aro, ear, till, r, 1.

Ars, art, virtue, force.

Arvum, plow (r, 1), com.

Arx, ridge.

Artus, joint, part.

J[«per, harsh, hard, sharp, se-
vere; At T=hut.

Ater, black, fatal, dark.

Atr-ox, dark, cruel, dire.

Aud-eo, dare.

Aud-io, hear, ear, d, r.

Aitgeo, wax, make (ago).

Aula, hall.

Auris, ear.

-^Mr-MWi, gold, ore, l^T, also
yellow.

Barba, beard, b, d.

Beat-US, bless-ed, b, bl.

Belle, pretty, well, bl, pr.

BeU-um, war, bl, wr.

Bene, well, very.

Benign-US, kind.

Bon-um, good, bn, gd.

Bov-e, cow, b, c.

Brev-is, brief, short

Boo, bellow, low.

Brach-ium, branch, arm.

Bulla, babble.

Ca-do, shed, fall, go.

Csecus, se-cret, close, (blind).

Csel-um, (heaven), hell, Fr.

ciel, wclk-in, cli-mate.
Cal-amus, stalk, quill.
Cal-co, (tread), walk.
Calid-us, scald, bold.
Calix, cup, hollow.
Calror, warmth, scald, el, wr.
CaU-us, hard, cl, hr.
Calx, heel, cl, h.
Candeo, shine, c, sh.
Can-is, Gr. hund, dog, hound,

as bon' tst good.
Can-o, sing, sound, sink, chant,

sang.
Can-US, (white), shine.
Cap-ax, keep, hold, i. e. large,

wide.
Capijo, take, catch; haheo^=

capio,VisOt.haupt=scaptU,
Caput, head. Go. haubith, A-S.

hea/od (heap, high).
Capra, goat, Fr. chevr.
Car^bo, coal, r, 1.
Car-cer, (prison), bar, capio.
Car-eo, (lack), scarce, spare.
Car-men, poem, work.
Carpo = capio, carve.
Car-US, dear, c, d.
Casa, house, case.
Caste, chaste.
Castigo, chastize.
Casus, case.
Cauda, tail, d, 1.
Caveo, heed, care, v, d.
Caulis, stalk.

Cavo, scoop, cage, coop, v, p.
Cavus, hollow, cave, v, 1.
Cedo, go, yield.
Cekr, fleet, Ger. schneUj Celt.

kell.
Cel-sus, tall, (altus),
Cen-seo, think.
Cera, wax, seal.
Cer-no, see, cut.
Certe, sure, rt, r.
CertOf try.

BTTMOLOOT.

178

CervuSy hart.
CeS'So, cease, go.
Cieo, in-cite, stir.
CivitaSy (civitate), state.
Cla-mo, call, SaDS. kal, kirad^

Sans. A;/rflrp = sound, rap,

strike, clap, (club), cling.
Claudo, close.
Clavi8y 'lock, key, close.
Cle-po, con-ceal.
Cognit'USy 'quaint, known.
Colo, till, c, t.
Co'lumba, dove, 1, d.
CoUum, (neck), G. Aafo, hill.
Co-mis y meek, mild.
Con-oTj can, S. can, G'k kon-eo,
Com-^ij horn.
Corona, crown.
Corpus, corpse, (body).
Cortex, bark, rind.
Cor, heart, cour-age.
Cremo, burn, (wro).
Crco, grow, form, S. kar,
Crepo, crack, creak, rattle,

jingle, rustle, etc.
Cruor, hlood, stream, gore,

flow.
Crudwtj raw, Sax. hreaw.
Cudo, beat, cuff.
Culpa, fault, Ger. schuld,
Oupio, wish, hope, San. kup.
Cuprum, copper.
Curro, run, hurry. Sans, dra,

Germ, tragen, Gr'k drad,

(draw).
Currus, carriage, chariot, car,

cart, coach.
Cursus := currus, (course).
Cygn^-uB, swan.
Demo, take, Ger. nehmen.
Dens, tooth, (dent).
De7is-us, thick, dense.

Dexter, right, d, r.

Di'Co, say, show, do.

Dign-ns, deign.

Dts, rich, d, r.

Do, give, dah-at, gave.

Doceo, teach.

Domr-us, home, d, h.

i>o«, dowry, gift.

jDw^ro, lead, d, 1.

Dukis, sweet, Ic, s, G. «ite«,

(duce), dear, 1, r.
Dur-us, hard, d, h.
Ebur, ivory.
jE^o, go, walk, be.
Equus, horse, q, h.
Erro, rove, err, roam.
Esca, eat, meat.
E'Veho, con-vey
E-vul-sum, pull, pluck.
Ex-piro,^ breathe, ex-pire-
Fa-cio, do, make, fashion.
jPaZ^o, gull, slide.
jPar, corn.

Ferio, strike, Fr. f rapper*
Fero, carry, bear, brood.
Ferrum, iron, f, i.
Ferus, wild, fierce, r, L
Fides, faith.
Filrum, thread, 1, r.
Fin-is, end, bound, f, e.
Flagrum, flog, lash, flame.
Fko, be-wail, flow.
Flo, blow.
Flos, (flor), flower.
Forts, door.
Fortis, hardy, strong.
Frango, (fract), hreak.
Fremo. roar, fr, r.
Frigidus, fresh, rigid.
Fuga, flight, f, fl.
Fugo, c\iVi^Q,Q[,jagen,
Fundus, land, ground.

^Tbe prefix z is a form of « or f«; tbu8, ezpiro := spiro, or espiro, ex*
punge K 'spunge, extent =r stent, s-tretch, «a;-^0r = 8-trange, ez-vde=s
8-weat. So, we may redace other prefixes to mere ordinary initial
letters.

1T4

PHRAfUB.

Funus, pomp, f, p.
Futilis, foolish, ftl, fl.
GaUina, hen, Hi, i.
Gannio, whine, moan.
Gaudium^ioj^ d,j, and glad,

gl» g- .
Gemini, twins.
Gemo, groan, moan.
Gens, kindred, gent.
Genus, a kind.
Gero =/ero, wear.
GeMos=(/ero,

Gigno, en-gender, gain, get.
GUba, clod, lump.
Glutino, glue.
Gradus, de*gree, grade.
Gramen^ grass.
Gravis, heavy, S. gur, gr, h,

grave, dear, bear.
Grex, herd, crowd, g, h.
Hsed-u$, kid, goat.
Hah, in-hale, blow.
Haurio, draw, hr, dr.
Helix, coil.

HUaris, glad, (hlar, hlad).
JUio, gape, yawn.
Homo, man, hm, m.
Ilumilis, mean, small.
Jaceo, lie. Sans, yic^, Grennan

Jffc/o, SB jaceo, (throw, cast).

Iro, str-ike, sm-ite.

Ignis, 1-ight, fire.

Iter, route, road.

Inanis, vain.

Juheo, bid, jb, b.

Jmficium^ (Jhhih), Saxon d<h

mo. doom, judg-ment.
Jugrrumy acre.
Jugum^ yoke, unite.
Jungo, join, yoke.
Jiirw, right, jur, r.
JiirrNi$« voung, jv, yu.
*/»r-o, aid, V, d.
X(i&or« slip, 1, si.
Xo4or, o-pera, work.

Lapis, (lapid), G'k 2aa«, sUmB,
lpd=ls=s8l, fitjlapssax-
um, rock.

Lacer, tear, rent.

Lac, milk, lo, mlk.

Lev-is, light, sleek.

Lat'us, wide, broad, as to
from /ero = &U'.

Lat-us, side, coast, waist.

Lav-o, wash, la, wa.

Xc^o, read, G'k log\ Ig, rf.

Lenis, gentle, 1, g.

Zf^vo, lift, help, light

Lex, (leg), law, lay.

Liber, free.

ii&cr, book, G'k hiblm, Ib-
bl, br, fr.

Lxbo, lick, slip.

Libra, (weigh), bear; K, 7, oft-
en takes place of a prefix.

Lign-um, (ignis), log^ wood.

Ligo, tie, bind, Ig, t, b.

Lingua, tongue, 1, d, t.

Linum, linen, flax.

Loco, place, 1, pL

Lo-quor, quoth, (speak).

Luceo, light, shine.

LuJo, p-lay.

L%imen, light.

Lupus, wolf, Ip, If.

Luna, moon, month, 1, m.

Lutum, loam, t, a.

Mac-ula, spot, speck.

Msd-eo, mobt, G. noit.

Hag-nus, much, major.

Maje^asy G'k mcyecAM, migla^^>
majesty.

JUale, ill, m, L

Malum, apple, melon.

.^an-iw, hand.

ifor^, water, r, tr.

Margo, border.

Jierces^ hire, re-ward.

Mcreo, earn, merit

JKefo, mow.

Jdi-^ro^ more.

ETtllOLO«r.

1T6

Mlt'is^ meek, sweet, m, 0.

Mitto, 8eod.

Molesy bulk, mass.

Mollis, mild, plain*

Mora, delay, tarry.

M08, mode, way.

Moveo, G'k moged, Sflns. mo^,

Ger. wegen, much,
ii^to, change, tarn.
Mun-u» SB c^oniint.
Morior,^ murder, S. mar.
NidtLs, nest.
Niger, (ater), dark.
JVbo?, night, {nocte),
Nudus, naked.
Nuhes, cloud, G. }fo2%^.
JVttTtten, nod, (ntUci),
Oleo, smell.
Omn-is, all, mn, 11.
O'pera, work, S. ifear.
0-p€«, power.
Or6, circle.
Orior=»9UTgo, rise.
Oro, preach, (speak).
Otium, ease.
Oi;.ww, egg, V, g.
Os, mouth, oral.
JPab-tUum, food.
Pango, strike, spank.
Par, (even), pair.
Par-cuB, spare.
Pti,rlo, bring, bear.
Partus, birth, (brought).
jPar-vi/s, spare, short.
Pa-SCO, feed.
jPateo, open ] Pauci, few.
jRoroeo, fear; Pax, peace.
Pect-us, chest, breast.
Pejor, worse, p, w.
PeUis, felt, pelt,
^e^o, drive, pi, dr.

Pendo, weigh, hang.
Pen-na, pen, feather, fin, wing,

G*k ptenos:^
Penso, ponder, think.
Pet'O, seek, beg, beat, bid.
Pign-vs, pawn.
Pingo, paint, picture.
Pinguis, fat.
Pisc-is, fish.
Plaga, blow, flog.
P/e68, folk, people.
P/iM, more, pi, pi, r.
Pono, put, place, lay, set.
Porta, door, p, d.
Pot-ens, power, t, w.
Premo, press, San. pare, Gr'k

prassorra do, form.
Prendo, grab, pr, gr.
Pretium, price, worth.
Pro-cul, far.
JVer, boy, born, as na/i«9 (born)

means son.
Pug-no, fight.
Pulso, beat.
Pukher, Fr. 5«S«, ^a«, jolly,

beautiful.
Qumro, search.
Quatio, shake, jog, quash.
Radix, root.
Rado, scrape, razor.
Rapio, take, (capio), rob, grab,

Ger. rawft. It. ra«o, rap^

tus, ravished.
Ratio, reason, cause, occasion.

It. cagione sa cause, from

reor = say, reckon.
Rego, rule, g, 1.
Res, (thing), reason, read.
Rete, net, snare.
Rege, king, (r, k), G'k archos,

San. ra/, Per. sha, queen.

>-In some of these words, m is a mere silent prefix for us, in others it
exuals A, w, t.

'We must here remind the student that the parts of words are like
the parts of animals, so intimately oonnected together, that cut as
you will, you are sure to take more or less than belongs to the part.

176

PHBASIS.

Rigor, cold, hard, rg, rd.

RCdeo^ laugh, r, 1.

Rite, right, rect-us.

Rixa, strife.

Robur, power.

Rogo, crave, ask.

Rota, Fr. roue, wheel, r. w.

Ruber, red, ruddy,

Rudls, rude, fresh.

Ruga, c-raniple, w-rinkle.

Ruo, rush, run.

Ruptus. broken, burst, and rip,

rend.
Ssevio, rage, fierce.
Sngitta, sbaflb, gt, ft.
Sag-um, sack, frock, jacket.
Sagus, wise, w, s.
Sulio, leap, skip, si, hi, 1.
Saliva, slaver, spit.
Salve, hail, s, h. *

Salm, health, sound.
Salvus, safe, heal, holy.
Sanguis, blood, sap.
Sano, heal, whole, sound.
Sapio, savor, taste.
Sax-um, rock,' s, r.
Scalpo, scratch, carve, claw,

rake.
Scopus, shank, shaft.
Scelus, villainy, sc, v.
Scio, (know), sage, see.
Sci-tus, skill, civil.
Scribo, write, sc, w.
Sculpo, scalp, carve.
Seco, (sco), cut, gnaw, saw, S.

sagh, G'k ago,
Sella, seat, saddle.
Semen, seed, m, d.
Sero, sow, strew, r, w.
Serp-o, creep, spread.
Servo, save, guard, care.
Severus, serious, sober.
Sider'y star.

Signum, sign, token.
Silex, flint, s, f.
Silva, holt, G. holz,
SoUd'Us, It. sodo, soand.
SoUvo, loose, b1, Is.
Somnus, (sleep), dream.
Son-o, sound, ring.
Sop'Or, sleep, s, si.
Sors, lot, fortune.
Spar-go, stre-w, spr-ead.
Species, shape, fashion.
Spes, hope, s, h.
Spero, hope, trust.
Spiro, breathe, savor, Sanscrit

spar, live, spread.
SptS'Sus, thick, sp, th.
Splendid*, hxight, liQhtf spa=

b, spl = 1.
Spum-a, foam, sp, f.
Stat'uo, stand,. set, sit.
Stern-o, strew, spread.
Stipula, stubble.
Stirps, stalk, st^m, root.
Strideo, crack, roar.
Stult-us, fool, silly, sot.
Surgo, rise, grow.
Sus,^ swine, sow.
TabeUa, tablet.
Tact-US, touch, S. tag^ thigd.
Tardus, slack, slow.
Tect-us, hid, deck-ed.
Tectum, house, G. dach, Gr'k

stegos, thatch, deck.
Tehim, dart, 1, r.
Temp-US, time, mp, m.
Tendo, stretch, spread.
Teneo, hold, keep, t, k, find,

bind.
Tento, tempt, try.
Tener, tender, thin, fine, nice,

young.
Tero, rub, break, thrash, bray,

wear, waste.

^ The main point to be kept in view in -regard to t, is that it equals h,
and often disappears entirely — that, besides, it is allied with c, e.

ETTMOLOaY.

177

Tefra^ earth. < =3 vowel often,

or disappears.
Tergum, ridge, G. riick,
Tepeo^ hot, tp, ht.
Testis^ G. Zeichniss, evidence,

show, de-sign.
Texoj weave, knit, net, (t, w),

web, make.
TimeOj fear, dread, t, f, v.
Tollo, lift, S. ttd, G'k talao,
Tond-eo, S. tud, cut, shear.
Tono, sound, thunder.
Torqueo, twist, turn, writhe, S,

dhurv, curve.
Torreo, toast, roast, parch.
Trahs^ beam, tree, G. haum,
TracUOi treat, touch, tact,
Tradoj (=do), give, trd, d.
Trahoj draw, drag, bring, force,

stretch, wrest, drink*
Trepidiu, tremble.
Tristisj harsh, cruel, dark, sor-
ry, Go. gaurs.
Trudo, thrust, push.
Tueor, see, look, view.
Tutus^ safe, total, whole, sound.

Vacuum^ void.

Val^ns, able, force, 'vail.

Veho, (ve-^o), carry, draw, drag,

(go, cause- to-go).
Velloy pull, pluck, tug.
VeniOf come, go, went, 7, c.
Venor, hunt, v, h.
Verto, turn, borrow.
VestiSy G'k esthoSj ge-wand.
VetuSy past, old.
Video, see, view, vision.
Vigil, waking, watch, see.
Vincio, bind, tie, v, b.
Violo, force, vl, fr.
Vir, (man), first, former, fore,

as man «= one, hero.
Vireo, fresh, green, strong.
Virtus, virtue, force, courage,

heart, value.
Vith, life, V, 1.
Vivo, live, dwell, v, dw.
Unguis, nail, claw, ng, nl.
Volo, will, fly, wish.
Uro, burn, grieve, tease, Sans.

MS, pr-ns.
Vuitus, look, face.

We have selected from among the most difficult words for
comparison, and we have taken a large share, but by no means
all of them. Few words can be found in Latin which are not
Represented in the English and German languages. In most
instances, the variation is very slight, often notfe at all. Of in-
stances where the differences are greatest, illustrations have just
*>een given in our parallel columns. It is worthy of note that
*^J, or nearly all, of the endings, case, personal, adjective, verb-
5|j and noun, are generally the same in Latin, German, and
^nglish ; so, too, are the compound verbs, as they are called
(really those which have developed representatives of preposi-
tions in their initial letters), made of like elements.' Even
^here the difference between two words is great, yet having the
sanje meaning, as ignis and fire, somnus and sleep, audio and
^«»*, peUo and drive, ago and do, those words have still, in
""^•^glish, forms like them in some other parts of speech, as som-
T^^^^nt, audience, compel, igneous, act. These latter words have
^^eu claimed to be Latin words, but they are no more Latin
^^rcis than nine tenths of the English — they are English
^'or^g as much as there are such. We hence deduce the infer-
23

178

PHRASIS.

ence, that though we may not often find the parallel so clear in
the precise equivalent^of the Latin, we will generally find it in
some related word.

Greek Etymology,

AiniUy hlood, L. sanguis, flow,

str-eam, criior.
Aimulos, mild, (at prefix).
Aine^ fame, 1-aud.
Ainos, {deinos), dire.
Alx, goat, hsed'Us.
Aiolos, fleet.
Aiposy"^ height, d-eep.
'Aireoy g-ripe, rob, take, kill,

r, 1, de-stroy, G. sterben,

{airo),
Aisso, rush, w-az.
Aiskos, shame, (at prefix).
Aiskune, shame, ab-ash.
Aiteo, s-eek, ask.
AitWy c-ause, c-ase, Lat. ratio,

Ger. r-ath,
Aion, L. evum, time.
A'kan-os, thorn, pin, spin.
Ake,^ point, edge.
Ake, silence, L. t-aceo.
A'koue, sound, still, k, s.
A-koud, L. audio, hear.
Aktin, light, fl-ash.
Alale, howl, yell.
Ala-OS^ b-lind, 'look.
Ala-omai, walk, Fr. otter.
Algos, ache, anguish.
A-lego, reckon, read, 1, r.
Alio, ro-11.
Alke, strength, 1, r, valor,

force.
Alla-sso, alter.

1 Note that a is in Greek a very common prefix, or augment, without
force.

'Note that o«, on, a, 6, mai, and others, are endings that with us are
generally suppressed.

^AkiSf akte, akon, akron, akone, akoke, akmi, aichme, are forms of
this Ake, and they give a good idea of the manner in which derivative
forms arise generally.

579.

A'holos, foal, colt.

Aga-mai, awe, adm-ire.

A-gath-os, good, (kales').

A-gallo, brilliant, light.

A-geiro, crowd, herd.

Ageli, herd, flock, g, h.

Age^ awe, 1-ook.

Age, b-reak, wave, g, v.

Agkale, (elbow), ankle, arm,
branch, crook, break.

Agk-os, cr-ack, cleft.

Agkur, h-ook, anchor.

A-glaos, {agallo), gleam, bril-
liant, Ger. glanz.

Ag-mos, br-eak, bank.

Agn-os, G. rein, cl-ean.

A-greo, grab, (aired),

Aguia, way.

Angko, squeeze, strangle.

Ago, lead, go, Latin veho, go,
br-ing.

A'difios, dense, thick, thin.

^Ados, joy, L. gaudium,

Adros, mature, ripe.

Aeiro, raise, b-ear, c-arry, air
= high.

Aze, heat.

A'Zelos,^ zealous, jealous.

Athl-os, battle.

Aideo-mai, awe.

Aitho, heat, (burn).

Ailrinos, ail, wail-ing.

ETYMOLOGY.

179

^Allo-mat, leap, L. salio.

Aluke, trouble, anxiety.

AlukroSj luke-wann.

Alasso, walk, (escape).

Amaxaj wagon, w, m.

Amuo, heap, cumu-late.

Ama-uros, dim.

A-mhlus^ blunt, mbl, bl.

A-melgo, milk.

A-mergo, press, urge.

A-milla, mill, battle.

AmnoSy lamb, Fr. agneau,

Amos, sand.
^A-munOy de-fend, L. ntunio.

A'fiagke, need, anxious.

Aner, man, one.

An-^Oy finish, end.

Ara, prayer, curse.

Arkedy ward, care.

Ar-ma, car, chariot.

Am-o8y ram, lamb.

*Arpazd, rob, ravish.

Arrat'08, hard, harsh.

Arritiy brave, (male).

Arties, right, ready.

Archi, origin, first, Sans, arh,
power, L. rex,

AuUy hall, yard, fold.

Avlos, flute, hollow.

Auxd, wax, grow, augment.

Achros, ache, pain.

Bath-US, deep, bt, dp.

Baino, (Bad), go, pass.

Ballo, fling, kill. fall.

Barus, grievous, heavy, br, gr,
force, strong, harsh, grave.

Baptd, dip, b, d.

Basis, .pace, base, gait, foot,
beat, tread, (G'k bema),

Belos, dart, L. telum, (ballo)

BeUion, better. Sax. bet-ra.

Blax, flaccid, loose, lax, slug-
gish, dull, silly.

Blapto, stop, dam-age.

B'lepo, look, live, light.

Batio, bubble, swell.

Boe, roar, shout, bawl.

Bombed, bombast, hum, rum-
ble, grumble, buzz.

Bo'sko, feed, fodder.

Baton, cattle, beast.

Boun-os, mound, mount.

Bradics, tardy, heavy.

Bra-sso, stir.

Brach-tts, short, crash, break,
rattle, clash.

Br echo, wet, sprink-le. ^'

Britho, burden, press.

Brime, rage, force, br, fr.

Bronte, thunder, roar.

Bruo, bubble, bud, bloom,
flower, (bluzo, bluo, Jluo),

Buthos, deep, bottom.

Bolos, ball, lump, globe, clod.

Gaid, rejoice, L. gaudiam, •

Gamed, marry, woman.

Gan-os, shine, sheen.

G auras, proud, gr, pr.

Gad, be, bear, born.

Gelad, laugh, smile.

Gen-OS, birth, be-gin, (been).
Sans, yaw, young, family,
nation, race, g, r.

GemO, stem, hem,, hold, Sans.

Geneian, chin, jaw. [i/am,

Geran-os, crane, bird.

Geud, taste, gustable, chew.

Ge-phura, bridge. (Notice that
g, ge, is often a prefix as

Gi-gnd-skd, know, [in Ger.)

Glax, (glak), milk, L. lac,

Glauk'Os, blue, yolk, yellow.

Glassd, glance, shine.

Gluk-iLS, sweet, Latin dulc-is,
gluk = duk, dulc, G. siiss,

Gluphd, hollow, scalp, carve,
grave, G'k graphd.

Gldssa, tongue, L. lingua,

Gnesios, native, L. natus.

Goes, cheater, 'chanter.

Graphd, write, L. scribo, grave,
carve, score, sketeh.

180

PHRASIS.

G-ripho8, riddle.
Grup-osj stoop-ed, curv-ed.
Gual-on^ hollow, vault.
Or one ^ grotto, rock.
Guion, hand, knee.
Gur-os, circle, gyre.
Goniay nook, angle, corner.
Baizoy cut, tear, divide.
Bato, burn, torch, ar-deo^ dah.
Dak-no^ sting, stick, bite.
Dalchiron^ tear.
Dap-to^ hack, dev-our.
Bas-os, thicket, dense.
Beido, dread, awe.
Deiko^ show, say.
De-ma^ string, tie.
Beleo, deal, split, kill.
Demo^ build, timber.
Del-OS, plain, dl, pi.
Deris^ (cm), strife, quarrel.
Dik-aios, just, right, d, j.
I>ip8-0Sj thirst, dry.
Dmao, tame.
Bok-eo, think, seem.
Don-eo, wind, bend.
Dora, tree, spear, dart, trunk.
Drao, do, serve, S. trag,
Drepo, break, tear, strip.
Dro-mos, run, course.
Doma, house, a-bode.
Do-ron, gift, dower.
Dos, gift, dow-ry.
Deo-mai, need, want.
Deroy strip, bare.
Deuter, t-other, other.
Deiid, dew, wet, soak.
Dexios, right, just, d, r.
Egeiro, arouse, stir.
Edra, seat, throne, chair.
Eikos, like, just.
Eilo, roll, whirl.
Eirgo, ward, guard.
Ela-runOj im-pel, drive.
E'lachtbs, little, k, t.
^EUco, pull, haul, draw.
EnrtimoSy es-teemed.

En-tonos, tend, strain.

Epeigo, push, quicken.

Ep-oSj speech, word, S. ab.

Erao, lovCy friend, de-sire.

*Erpd, creep, S. sarp, 8€rp\

Erg-on, work, task.

Ereiko, break, split, bruise.

Ereuna, search, track.

Eruo^ draw, tug.

Esthes, L. vestis, dress.

Eur-us, broad, wide, far.

E-phedra, sitting, seat.

Echur-os, secure, firm.

E'pseo, seethe, boil.

Zao, live, blow, L. vivo.

Zeug-08, yoke.

Zel-os, zeal, jeal-ous.

Zemia, damage.

Zeteo, seek, search.

Zone^ girdle, z, g.

Zoros, pure.

Ege-omaiy head, lead.

Ed'Omai, pl-ease, glad.

Edus, sweet, delight,

Eko, come, go.

ElakaU, stalk.

El'OSy nail.

^Epar, liver.

Epiao, appease, soothe.

Er, spring, early, fore.

^Esson, less, weak.

Thakos, seat, chair, th, b^

Thalassa, Qah), sea, salt

Thallo, bloom, th, b.
Thamh-os, awe, dumb.
Tham-nos, stump, stem.
Tha-omai, see, (wonder).
Thapo, stup-ified.
Tharros, courage, dare.
Thau-mazo, es-teem, seaiT'*

see, seem.
Therm-OS, warm, ardent, n»^
fresh, tepid, hot, Sa. t^
Greek tupho, warm, eft-
burn, (thero),
Theo, run, go, L. itu.

ETYMOLOGY.

181

Thegoj whet, edge,

ThigOy touch.

Thlao, {thratto, klao, trad),

thrash, bruise.
Thrasm, brave, hardy, dare,

courage, rash.
Throeo.^ up-roar, dis-turb, ter-
rify.
sThusan-os^ tassel.
laUo, (hallo) ^ fling, roll.
la-omai, heal.
lapto, It.jactOj throw.
lacheOj shout, ch, t.
Idios, fit ; Idio, sweat.
Idnoo, bend, do, ud.
*Idrudy sit, seat.
*Ieros, holy, r, 1.
^Ik-anos, fit, equal.
^Ikano, come.
Ikmios, wet, moist.
Ikria, deck.
*lkd, come, go.

*Ilao8y mild.

Iliy troop, group, 1, r, ball,
roll.

llm, filth, dirt, 1, r.

Ipn^os, oven.

^IppoSy L. eqwASy horse, p, r.

Icfithus, fish.

Ichnos, track, foot ; i often =
/, or some similar conso-
nant in English.

Kaio, burn, cook.

Kak'08, bad, wick-ed.

Kal'08, well, belle.

Kampto, bend, cramp.

Kardia, heart, L. corde.

Karp-oSy kernel, fruit.

Karter-oSy strong, force.

Keiroj shear, bore.

Keimaiy lie, rest.

KdeuOy im-pel, mp, k.

Ken-oSy empty, vain.

Kent-roriy point, thorn.

Kendy pin, pick, k, p.

Keutho, hide, coat, S. kiU,

KephaUy head, L. caput,
Ked-osy care, sad, d, r, dear,

trouble.
KeleOy calm, heal, charm.
KeUy swelling, coil, boil.
Kevy scarce, want, dearth.
Keruxy herald, crier.
Ket'OSy (whale), fish.
Kik'USy vigor, k, v.
Kiiharay harp, thr, rp ; ^ is

often A, Vy w,
Ki-neOy in-cite, stir.
Kmd'UnoSy danger, k, d.
Kichoy catch, reach, fetch, at-
tain, find. (cA in G'k has

the power of k).
Kisy weevil, worm.
Klaggiy clang, clatter.
Klaioy wail, weep, de-plore.
Klaoy clip„ break.
Kleioy close, lock, key.
KUnOy lean, bend, kneel.
KluOy hear, listen, S. slu,
Kogchiy concave, shell, conch.
KoiloSy hollow, coil.
KoinoSy common, n, m.
Kolltty glue*

Kopisy dagger, knife, cut.
KoptOy cut, kpt, ct.
KoraXy crow, raven, croak.
Kor-oSy boy, puery born.
KotuUy hollow.
KrainOy reign, rule, kr, r.
Krater'y hard, cruel, strong,

brave, force, Ger. krajty

gripe.
KrauroSy dry, hard, brittle.
Krekoy strike, knock, crack.
Krenty (well), spring.
Krizoy creak, shriek, sqk, cry,

squall, bawl, shrill.
Krino, part, cut, kr, pr.
KrouOy crush, strike.
KruptOy hide, coop, kr, h.
Krvrerosy cold, fresh, freeze.
Kta-omotiy get, ob-tain. ^

182

PHRASIS.

KteinOj kill, cut, S. han.
KuklrOSj coil J circle.
Kull'Os^ coil, circle.
Kupe^ hollow, cup, goblet.
Kupto, stoop, bend.
Kur-ioSj sir, Gr. herr, k, h.
Kut'OSj cavity, cup, hump.
Kuan, dog, canis^ G. hund,
Lagaros^ laggard, slack, lank,

lean, thin, flaccid.
Laios^ left.
Lakeo^ rack, rend, lacerate,

tear, tatter.
Lakk-os^ tank, pit.
Laleo^ talk, prate, prattle.
Lampo^ ligbt, shine.
LaoH^ folk, Gr. leute.
Lasios, bushy, leafy.
Lad, see, look.
Le-go, 82ijj spea-k, tell.
LeipOj leave, left, rest.
Lept'Os, sleek, lank, thin.
Lep-os, peel, hull, husk, strip,

rind.
Letho, hide, (keutho).
Liar-OS, warm, clear, bright,

{ch-liaros).
Lith-os, rock, L. lapid\
Litos, little, fine, thin.
Log-oSj ta-lk, word, speak.
Luk'Os, wolf, SI. vvlk.
Lupe, grief, Ip, rf.
Lusis, loose, free.
Mak-ros, long, much.
Malak-os, L. mollis,
Mall-OS, wool, m, w.
Math\ (mantK), teach, L. 6?o-

ceo, (m prefix).
Maraino; burn, parch,
Marpo, grasp.
Afasso, touch, mash.
Mast-euo, wish.
Me-gairo, grudge.
Me-gas, great, m-uch.
Melos, verse, member.
M^n-os, might, mettle.

Mer-os, part, turn.

Mesos, middle, mean.

Mig-numi, mix, join, yoke.

Melon, (sheep), wool.

Mik-ros, small, little.

Mneme, mind, memory.

Molos, toil, mill.

Mogos, misery, toil.

Moth-OS, battle, tumult.

Naio, dwell, live, stay.

Neatos, next, last, new.

Neikeo, bicker.

Nemo, deem, G. imhrnefn,,

Ned, go, move, swim, spin, i_ -let.

Neros, wet, G*. tiom.

-/Vi'Are, victory, n, v.

JVoeo, know, see.

Nipto, wet, wash, dip.

Nusso, push, spur.

Zeo, shave, scrape.

Zeros, torrid, arid, dry, p«r^ -^^j

sober.
Ziphos, sword, cut, shave.
Zuron, razor.
0-gkos, hump, bulk, hunk.
O'dazo, stick, pick, bite.
O'dous, tooth, Ipdazd).
Od'Os, road, way.
Odune, pain, sad, d, p
0-zos, shoot, sprout, shrub, «

ast, R. suk.
Oikos, house, tent.
Old, see, think, v
O-kazo, squat, crouch.
O-ligos, little, small.
* Omilos, family.

Onnx, nail, hoof, Fr. angle. — ^
O'Xus, sharp, a-cute, cut.
O'piso, post, back, (o prefix

it often is).
Ope, hole, open, hollow.
O-ptao, roast, bake, parch.
Opo, look, (or ad),
Orge^ ire, anger.
O-rego, reach, stretch.
O-rthos, right, straight.

ETYMOLOay.

183

Ormady urge, rouse.

0-7'oSy rock.

'Oro8, goal, mark, shore.

Ossa, voice, (ops).

Oudy n-ot.

Oura, tail, roar.

Ouros, guard, ward.

Ochos^ L. veho, wagon, coach.

Pagios, fixed, bind, S. pac,

PaiSy boy, L. puer.

PateOj beat, tread, path.*

PauOy pause, cease.

PachuSy thick, fat, {(achus),

Peithoj obey, faith.

Peira^ try, proof, peril.

Pempo, bend, p, .s.

Peno, pains, do, penury.

PeptOy cook, bake.

Petad, spread, e-xpand.

Pikros, bitter, piercing.

Pmax, plank.

Pi'pto, fall, (L. cado), pitch.

Plax, plank, plate, table.

Plains y fl^t, broad, wide.

PWco, plait, fold.

PUssOy flogy Strike.

Phoy fly, ply, S. plu, sail.

jPrteo, blow, breathe, wind.

Polla, (many), full.

Por-osy ford, ferry , /aAren.

Pole, flight.

Prasso, do, form, practice.

Praos, friend, philos^ San. A^r,

L. paro.
Ptaio, strike, beat, fall.
Pter-on, plume, bird.
Ptiix, tuck, pucker, fold.
Pugmiy fist, fight, box.
Puthmerij bottom.
Pule, door, port, pi, dr.
Pirgos, tower, p, t.
'BabdoSy rod.
'Ragos, crack, cleft, flaw, rent,

crevice, chink.
'Baino, rain, wet, drop.
*Rai6^ break, ruin.

'Rakos, ('ragos),

'Rachisj ridge, back,

'Rach-os^ crag, rock.

^RetoSy said, G. reden,

^Rinos, rind, skin.

^RiptOy throw, rip.

'Roe, stream, current.

'Ruma, stream, run.

'Rome, force, robust.

'Rox, rock, c-rag.

Sagma, saddle.

SairO, grin.

Sagis, sack, pocket.

Saos, safe, sound, whole.

Satto, saddle, seat,

Seid, shake, toss.

Selene, moon, L. luna,

Selas, light, lustre.

Sema, sign, omen.

Sigad, silent, g, 1.

Sitos, wheat,

Skairo, skirt, leap, skip.

Skallo, scratch, scrape, rake,

grub, hoe, scull.
Skapto, dig, scoop, shave.
Skaphe, scoop, trough.
Skello, wilt, wither. .
Skepo, cover, pro-tect.
Skene, tent, shed, hut.
Skirtao, skirt, skip, leap.
Skotos, shade.
Skul'On, spoil, peel, shell.
Skuph-os, cup, bowl, scoop.
Soheo, shove, move.
Sophos, sage, wise, sp, sw.
Span-OS, scant, scarce, span,

spare, rare.
Spendo, spend, pour.
Stegos, deck, cover, tectiis,
Steiho, step, tread,- track.
Stenos, narrow, Gr. eng, want,

penury.
Stereos, strong, hard, firm.
Stereo, strip, rob, de-prive.
Stele, pillar, prop, Ger. stuM,

(stell6)y style.

184

PHBASIS.

Stonux = onux,

Strepho^ {trepho)^ turn, twist,

torture, G. treffen,
Stupos^ stub, stock, club.
Sphen, wedge, spj'Jw.
Schema, shape, form.
Tago, take, stretch.
Taker-OS, soft, tender.
Talant-on, balance.
Talao, en-durfe, dare, Lat. titli,

G. dulden, bear, child.
Tarhos, terror.
Tarasso, stir, disturb.
Tophus j'^qnick, swift.
Teggo, tinge, stain.
Telno, strain, stretch.
Teiro, rub, wear.
Teh-mar, token, sign.
TeJc'Os, chick, child.
Teuch-08, (jr. Zeug, tool.
Tlkto, be-get, chick.
Tillo, pull, pluck, tug.
Ti6, ^2Lj, atone.
lolmao, L. tollo, bold, dare.
Topos, space, spot.
Toreud, bore, pierce.
Treo, tremble, terror.
Truge, fruit.
Truo, rub, bore, wear.
Tuko, do, make, fact.
Tuche, luck, chance.
Ugros, watery, weak.

' C^feo, howl, yell.

' Ule, wood, L. «^^2;a, G. holz,

' Q?sc, weaving, woof.

' Up8-08, high, up, heap.

' Uo, wet, rain.

Phaino, view, show, fancy.

Phalar-os, clear, flare.

Phan-o8, clean, G. rein.

Phaos, day, light, see.

Phao, say, show, shine.

Phaul-os, small, foul, bad.

Phend, kill, wound.

Phtheir-d, de-stroy.

Phthogge, tone, sound.

Phial'Os, vial; bowl.

Phil'Os, friend, kind, phr, fr,

S. pa/, Ger. pflegen^ Lat.

placeo,
Phleo, flow, pour, boil.
Phlego, flame, blaze.
Phloio, flay, strip.
Phra-zo, pray, say, phrase.
i7m/<?, file, tribe, folk.
Chalkos, copper, Ik, pp.
Chaos, chasm, gap, yawn. •
Charts, grace.
Cheir, (hand), arm, grasp,

force.
CheU, claWj (hand).
0-kus, swift, quick.
0-lene, elbow, ulna,
0-ritd, roar.

This list, like the others, is selected from the most difficult
words. When we keep constantly in view the particular laws
which the Greek follows in orthography, the different letters
with which many of our own are represented there, besides the
peculiar combinations which they sometimes make, we shall not
find the Greek etymology doubtful or difficult. We must keep
constantly in mind, also, that any single letter or combination
of letters gives character to, or decides the whole word ; that if
we find a particular letter, or combination of letters, at the
beginning of a word, for example, that letter may be taken as
the basis of the whole, since all the remaining letters must be
cognate with it. Occasionally we have brought together the
like letters at the end of the line, with a comma between them ;
but generally we leave the learner to bear in mind that when

ETYMOLOGY. 185

^e Iring a word which is Greek along side of one or more
which is English, it is because the letters of the two words are
alike or cognate, and that they may be replaced, the one by
those of the other; thus,pa<eo, beat, tread; — 'pat and heat are
easy; pat Ka^ tread are also easy, when we remember that p=
ty and t=^tr. It is a safe rule, one which is important and uni-
versal, that, in etymology, a letter is always equal to those with
which it is found combined, or it is equal also to the combina-
tion of which it forms a part; thus, that str=:r, or t, or.s, or
9t; that mp==nd, because n=m,p=d, or m=h=p; that k=
9qy because k=q; that jo/==/, because p==/; that pt=^pl, be-
cause p=p, and t=l, both t and / being combined with the
same letter p. Take also kiipto =8tooj^ — k==t, also st, pt==p^
since j?==p; and ^^eo=rack, because Z = r, also rend^ since k
(of lak€o)s=^d and t, also tear, because I (oflak') = t, and k=r;
and kt£md=\ii\ly since kt=k and n=/; thermos ='wskTm, since
^=tt7, and the same equals ardent, since th may be dropped,
and r=:rd, or rm=rdy — arc?«o= burn, where the b again re-
presents the w of warm, th of therm; ^arp-o«= fruit, since k=
fy and rp=rt. Understanding these things, we shall find Greek
etymology easy. Then, we have to remind the student again,
that many of the Greek words have their initial letters, which,
compared to those of our own words, are mere prefixes or aug-
ments. Taking the basis we have just established, the Greek
can be easily made familiar. Very many words, and those the
most common and characteristic ones, are alike in Greek, Eng.,
*nd German ; and in those where the difference is greater, . we
ean, in most instances, easily explain it, and trace the connexion.
Itt conclusion, we may remark that the orthography of Greek is
much more German than is usually conceded.

French Etymology,
580.

^--heiHe, bee, It. ape, Aout, August.
•^•^hord-er, to board, (er is inf. Appui, prop, help.

• ending). A-rhre, tree, L. arbor, br, tr.

•^-•cheter, buy, get, kauf, A-rene, sand, gravel, r, s.

•^gneauy It. agnmo, lamb. Atre, hearth.

■^'igre, sour, severe, acrid. Aune, elder, au, el.

■4^j wing, fly, L. ala, Aussi, so, as, also, G'k ds,

-AUer^ walk, dley. It. ando, Baiser, buss, kiss.

-A-maSy heap, mass. Balai, broom, 1, r.

Arne, L. ontma, mind. Baisser, bow, a-base.

Atniy L. amiciUj friend. Balayer, sweep, balance.

Amiee, year, n, r. Bas, base, low, bottom.
24

186

PHRASIS.

Basgin, basin, pan, vase.
Bateau, boat.
Batir, build, baste.
Baton, stick, beat, bat.
Beau, L. bonus, good.
Beche, spade.
Benet, ninny.
Berceau, cradle, bower.
Bete, beast, cattle.
Beurre, butte#
Bien, well, L. bonus.
Bile, choler, gall.
Blanc, clean, white, alho,
Boire, drink, b, d.
Bois, wood, b, w.
Bon, good, kind, b, k.
Bourru, morose, cross.
Bout, button, tip, end.
BriUant, bright.
BrtUer, shine, sparkle.
Briser, break, bruise.
Br%8, wreck, break, b, w.
Broult, gruel.
Bruire, roar.
Brider, broil, boil, flask.
Brute, rough, brute.

Cachet, cover, hide, c, h.

Carr-eau, square.

Cayer, quire.

Caveau, cave, cellar, vault.

Caver, hollow, hole.

Chancre, cancer, sore.

Chateau, castle, seat.

Chaud, hot, warm.

Chauve ,Ital. calvo, Ger. kahl,
bare, bald.

Cheminee, chimney.

Chef, head, chief, f, d.

Cher, dear, L. carus,

Cheveu, fibre, hair.

Chez, with, L. cum, que.

Chien, dog, L. cams.

Chose, thing, L. res, cause.

Ciel, sky, shine, clear. Germ.
himmel, hell, Lat. celum,
Greek helios.

Cire, seal, (wax).

Cite, city, L. civita^s, state.

Cle and Clef, Lat. clevis, Ger.

schlussel, It. chiave, key.
Cceur, heart, core.
Coi, quiet; Coin, corner.
Co/, neck, G. Aa&.
Compter, count.
Colder, flow, melt.
Coup, cuff", blow, fit.
Courbe, curve, crooked.
Courir, run, L. cwrro,
Cout, cost.

Couture, suture, seam.
Crainte, fear, cringe.
Cramoisi, crimson.
Crete, crest, t, st.
Crepu, crisped, p, sp.
Crevac, crucible, grave.
Croc, crook, hook.
Croire^ credit, trust.
Croit, in-crease, growth.
Croupe, crop, top.
Cruche, crucible, mug. Germ.

krug, crock.
Cru, grow, ground.
Cueillir, cull, collect, gather.
Cuire, cook, bake.
Cuisse, thigh.
Cuve, cup, tub, coop.
De-hat, de-bate, battle.
Dehile, feeble.
Dedain, disdain, Ital. sdegno,

deign.
De-border, leap, board.
De-lit, fault, L. delict*.
Devoir, duty, debt, need.
Di-re, say, tell, L. dicer e.
Doigt, toe, L. digit.
Doit, ought, should.
Dol, fraud, Latin dolus, cheat,

dl, fr.
Dos, back, ridge.
Douce, sweet, li. dulcis.
Dress-er, straight, dress, Fren.

drop ; De, (of), the, to.

BTYMOLOGY.

187

Droit, sfcraight, right, just, It.

jure, eretto, direct.
Duit, lead, L. ductus,
Eau, water, L. aqua,
E-carter, s-catter.
Ej-cheUe, s-cale, shell.
E'clat^ clap, lustre, splendid.
E-coTce, bark, L. cortex,
E'couter, hear, G'k a-koud,
E-crit, w-rit, L. script;
E'cu, shield.
E-cueil, shoal.
Effet^ fact, deed.
Egare, error, wild.
Eglise^ church, gl, ohr.
E'lan^ leap, rapture.
E-leve, raise, lever, Lat. alius ,

lift, tread, (pupil).
-Ktre, elect, L. e-legere.
E-loge, eulogy, laud, lob,
^i», elect, chosen.
Email, enamel.
Emoi, anxiety, Q-. muhe,
Ern^echer, push, stop.
E-mu, moved, angry.
EnrceifU, fence, close.
En-cre, ink.

Erirdroit, place, part, region.
E-pais, thick, L. spissus.
^fpingle, pile, pin. It. ^iUo.
■%>oquey epoch, era, p, r.
^squisse, sketch.
^tage, stage, de-gree, story.
-Etient, extinct, quench.
-^teule, stalk, stubble.
-^toUe, star, L. stella, e=s.
•Etmner, astonish, stun.
^trier, stirrup.

-^troit, straight, strict, ex-act.
^^KrUyrquer, ex-tort, wrest, turn,

twist
-^Jacife, easy, free.
^^<xcher^ vex, anger,
-^ct-irc, do, make, L. fa-cere,
-^at^, fact, feat, deed, act.

Faut, fault, want, defect.
Fer, iron, sworn, L. ferrum.
Feu, fire, G'kpwr, It, focus.
FeuiUe, leaf, foliage, foil, Ital.

foglia.
Fief, fee, feud.
Fier, trust, faith.
Fierte, pride, fierce.
Filet, thread, string.
Fin, end, aim. •
Fih, child, son, L.Jilius,
Flot, wave, L. fluctus, flow.
Forain, foreign, alien.
Forer, bore, drill, pierce.
Fort, stout, strong, firm.
Fosse, pit, dig, grave.
Foule, throng, troop, many.
Fouler, tread, follow, fall.
Foumir, furnish, afford.
Foyer, focus, fine. %

Fragile, frail, feeble.
Frere, h.frater, brother.
F-ripon, rogue.
Froid, frigid, fresh^ cold.
Frotter, rub, friction.
Fuir, flee, L. fugere, g, i.
Fut^ie, fury, passion, bear.
Gage, pawn, pledge.
Gager, en-gage, hire, wages.
Gagner, gain, win, earn.
Gant, glove, gantlet
Gateau, cake.
Geler, freeze, 'geal.
Genou, knee.

Gorge, throat, gullet, guUey.
Guere, s-carce, spare.
Gorge, G. hals, channel.
Goutte, jot, drop.
Crras, fat, greasy, G. gross,
Chrave, serious, severe.
Grele, shrill, slim.
Griffe, claw, grab, paw.
Gris, gray, brown.
Havi, height, tall, aUas.
Heurter, hurt, hit, butt.
lie, island, isle.

188

FHBASIS.

Jamhe^ limb, leg, G'k kampi,

knee, j, 1.
Jaune^ yellow,
i/eii, game, jest.
Jet, cast, It.jacto.
Joie, joy, de-light, j, 1.
JoUj pretty, belle.
Jour, day, L. dies, clear.
Jurer, swear, j, sw.
Lever, lift, raise.
Libre, free, bold, loose.
Lier, league, tie, bind, join,
ligature.

Lievre, L. l^piu, G'k lagos.

Lit, bed, L. lect-us.

Lievre, book, L. liber.

Macule, spot, stain.

Maison, mansion, main.
^ Jl/aZ, ill, e-vil, barm.

Jlfart,«(husband), marry.

Mauvais, bad, (mal).

Mat, mast.

Meche^ match, wick.

Meier, mix, blend.

Mer, sea, water, a^ua.

Mettre, put, set, m, p.

Moeurs, manners, ways, mode.

Moins, less, more.

Moitie, half, middle, meson.

Montr e, show, monitor.

Mordre, bite, carp, cut.

Jlfor^, death, murder, kill.

Mot, word, note, speak, say,
verb, Gr. melden,

Moudre, mill, mould, grind.

Mu, moved, stirred.

Mur, mature, ripe.

Mur, wall, G. mauer*

Moudre, mill, mould.

Muge, mullet.
. Naitre, born, spring, natus,

Noir, black, niger.

Nuage, mist, L. nubes.

Obeir, obey, bend.

Oeil, eye, L. ocul-us, auge.

Oisif, lazy, idle, L. otium, easy.

Oiseau, It. uccello, fowl, bird,
G. vo^eZ.

On^fe, nail, claw.

Or, ore, gold, old = or*

OreiUe, ear, auris.

Orme, elm.

0-ser, dare, bold.

Owft/i, oblivion.

Ours, bear, L. t^rsiM.

Ouvert, open, free, (Uber),

Ouvrer, work, operate.

Pats, patria. It. paese.

Paitre, feed, pasture, graze;

Paon, peacock, 'L,pavo,

Pareil, pair, e-qual, like.

Parer, parry, ward.

Parler, parley, prattle, talk*

Purtir, depart, start, go.

Pattc, foot, paw, flap.

Peler, peel, pare, bald.

Pencher, bend, pinch, ^cline.

JPe«er, weigh, ponder, thinks

Peu, few, little, L. paucus*

Peur, fear, dread, terror.

Perte, ruin.

Pe<i«, petty, little, few.

Peuple, folk, L. vtdgtis,

Pierre, drain, L. lapis, stone^
L. rupes, rock, s-par.

Poids, load, weight, L. pondus^
ponder.

Poisson, fish.

Poivre, pepper.

Poli, gloss, polish, glass.

Pour-voir, pro-vide, fore-see.

Puce, flee. It. pulice.

Pousse, shoot, push.

Prendre, take, grab, prize.

PrierCf prayer, Itpreco.

Racine, root, radix.

i?aie, ray, streak, stroke.

Roide, stiff, rigid, steep, stub-
born, rapid.

Rouge, red, ruddy. It. rubro.

Rouler, roll, rumble, rove, reel.
Sa-voir, see, know, sage.

ETYMOLOGY.

189

Sage^ L. sagtiSy Q*k saphis, G-.

sehen, S. sue.
Saut, leap, jump, salio,
Semhle, seeni) re-semble.
Soie, silk, Ger. seide,
Soifj thirst, wish.
Soldcj pay, L. solvo, soldier.
Sutvre, Lat. seqitor^ seek, San.

saiky see, go.
Songer, dream, think.
S-ouventy often.
^atTfe, tally, cut, tailor, S. dal^

split, deal, divide.
^einty taint, dye, tinot.
^*ewn)«. time, L. tompt^s.

Trait, trace, dart, draught,

treat, touch.
Troupe, troop, herd, crowd.
Troublfi, thick, dull.
TVer, kill, slay, die.
Tuyau, tube, pipe, tunnel.
Val, valley, vale, dale.
Valoir, worth, value, 1, r.
^YeilUr, wake, watch.
Yendre, sell, vend.
Venir, come, go, went.
Verge, rod, yard, wand.
Verser, turn, pour, fill.
Viand, food, meat.
Vetu, clad, vest.
T^, alive, active, quick.
Vil, vile, mean, low.
Voeu, vow, vote.
Voie, way, means.
FoZfec, flight, volley, brood.
Voute, vault, arch.
Vrai, true, right, Q-er. t^aAr,

very, mere, L. verus,
Verre, It. giara, jar, vessel.

^eikfre, tend, ex-tend, go.

^eu, top, L. tectum, head, sense,
^j^e, s-tock, stalk.
^mbre, stamp.
^rer, draw, pull, tug.
^cmher, tumble, fall, drop, ex-
tract, re-quire.
^€)ndre, cut, tome, shear.
^our, tower, rock, turn.

The foregoing list constitutes a large share of such French
"^ords as diner very materially in their form from English and
Oerman. The great body of the French scarcely differs from
tlxose languages in orthography. It has strong hold, it is true,
pix the Latin, but its general appearance is decidedly German,
^ for no other reason, for the total absence of case, gender, per-
sonal and other endings, or at least their existence in a blunted
fbim.

The French orthography is particularly useful in showing^
How one letter is equal to any development of that letter into
t^^ro or more; as, d for Id, t for st, fiorjl; t for ext, ege for i, in
^^^ere=lire. Even many letters, following the principle of one
*^tter equal to several like letters, which appear in print, are
^ot sounded in speaking; thus, temps is pronounced as if writ-
^^B tern (even m is reduced to a mere vowel), and so it identifies
^t;self with our time, much nearer than the Latin tempus. This.
is all because mps is a development of m, otp, or s, and quite
^<lTial to either one of them ; so hris=hri, i^is; depot =depo,
^^ =0, just as we in so many instances do, as in blow (w silent),
2cxan6 (h silent), calm (I silent), psalm (p silent), delt (h silent),

Ixjuk (c silent), receipt {p silent), charm (r nearly silent), gist

C» silent), ohligue (ue silent).

190

PHBA8IS.

The principle is the same in all languages; no letter is entire-
ly silent, but some letters become so like others that they can-
not be distinguished by the ear, any more than one double letter
can from another. In fact, there is a perfect identity between
the double letters, i. e. the vowel united with consonant, or the
consonant with consonant; Am, hiis^ hist; the two s's are as
much distinct as i from «, or as s from t in hist — and we con-
stantly find different consonants, as st^ becoming double, as m,
or one becoming a vowel, as is. We see this in taU for taU^
full for fuMy evil for iU, writt for script.

We notice, again, that only like letters come together, and
vowels are equal to the consonants with which they are found.
Letters are never dropped, they are only merged with others,
a^ sounds are lost in sounds which are in harmony with them.

Russian Etymology.

581.1
Agnez, lamb, Fr. agneau.
BagoTj purple, g, r.
Bazan\ wash.
Bania^ Or. hdhen, bath.
BayOj say, Q-'k phao.
Beregu, be- ware, G. spar en.
Bereg, border, shore.
Beru, brat, bear, carry, tra^gen^

brought.
Blazhuy 'plaud, praise.
Blyad, bleach, hlass, hleich.
Bleskj look, hlick, glance.
Bliacha, hlech^ plate.
Bohr^ biber, beaver.
yBiene, beating.
Boby bohnCy bean.
Bog, God, Bo. BuJi, b, q.
Bogatch, rich.
Bodu, stick, pick, beat.
BozhUy beg, aiv-beten.
Bo, battle, war.
Boltayo, beat, plaudem^
Bol, pain, smart, L. dolor.
Bormotchu, grumble, brum-
men. trommeln.

Boroda, brada, beard, barts

Botaio, beat, strike.

Boyo, fear, bange.

Brat, brother, friend.

Brov, eye-brow.

Brayo, shear, barber.

Briatchuy rattle.

Buj fool.

Burtchuj rush, roar, German

brausen.
Butchuy bucking, bev^ih.
Bulk, buck, ox.
Byo, bet, beat, strike.
Byagu, flee, L. fuga.
Byada^ pity.
Byalenie, bleach, bleich,
Byas, base, wicked.
Vaga, hazard, wage.
Vakshu, wax, wichsen.
Valki, wag, wankend.
Val-ios, fall.
ValiayOy roll, walken.
Vanna, fan, wanne.
VaryOy brew, boil.
Vaiayo, hew, dig.
Wergayo, throw, wer/en.

^ Let it be understood that words not English and not ^otherwise
marked are German.

ETYMOLOGY.

191

Tgonia^o, hunt, vg, w.

Vgrebai/o, dig, grahen.

Vdovaj widow, wittwe.

Vedu^ lead, head, guide.

Velitchu, 'plaud, flatter.

VelffOy be-feMen, fail, will.

Verbuyo, earn, werben,

Vertchuy turn, L. verto^ bore.

Vetchi, old, L. vetvs.

Vetcher, vesper, evening.

Vesh, thing, L. res, sache,

Vzd, view, see, L. video,

Vzvalj throw, wdlzen, Greek
balloj vzv=vw=w.

VilM, fork.

VzTio, wine.

Vxshuj hang, wave, hover.

V~kratchia, short, kwrtz,

V'Jmihayo^ kost, cost.

V'-lagai/o, lay, place, vl, pi.

Vleku, drag, schleppen,

Vrnalia, small, bald.

^^t', new, (y is prefix).

^^mA, ankle.

^oda, water.

V^gliad, look, bUck, vzgl=
vvvl, wly bl, as G. schreib-
. cw equals reiben,
. ^«Aw, boss,^A»'en.

^^^fnoffj might, t;o2;ms!S}V9n'.

^%, wolf, L. vuljpea,

.^^na, wool, wog/'e.
^^ia, will.
^^^on, raven, crow.

^^pros, ask, Lat. ro^o, frage^
.^^ vopr ■» vpr, vr, fr, r.
^^^ota, port, door.
.^^^niia, time, L. ^empt£«.
-|-^«4, wax, wachs.
^OLd\ fall, Lat. cado, Greek
^jp0, vp, p, c, pp.

Vyadayo, know, L. video.

Vper\ brings vp, p.

Vyas, weight.

Yi-dyao^ give, L. c?o, vd, d.

T^asAw, wage, w'dgen,

Vya-zhayo^ say, vy^, s.

Viazhu^ bind, press, fast.

Gadayo^ aoj, rathen.

Gas, gauze, gaze.

Gvardia, guard, gard.

Gir, weight, L. gravis.

Grasni^ red, scarlet.

Gero, hero, held.

Glaba, Bo. hlava, head, chap-r

ter, G'k kephale.
Glagolj word, L. lego, gl, 1,
Glazh, flat, ^/oYi.
(rZaa;, (eye), glance, gaze.
Glas, voice, call, loud.
Glub, deep, gl, gi, d.
Gluchi, deaf, hear, gl, h,
G-liazhu, look, see.
Crnetu, bind, press, kpi|b.
(rWM, bend, knej?.
Gnyzado^^ nest.
Goboryo, say, sprechen / gobor,

gbr, br, pr, pray.
(toc?, year, L. annus, d, v.
(rofo, bald, Icahl.
Golos=glas.
Golub, dove, L. columV.
Gora, rock, 6er^.
Gordo, proud.
Gorh, gurgel.
Gorki^ sour, bitter.
Gorod, (grad), state, de-gree,

burg, dorf.
Gorge, warm, burn, g, w.
Grabezh, rob, grab.
Gradar, gardner.
Grradus, grade, grad.

t ^he Eussian shows most clearly the transition from initial letters
^ Pirefixes ; in such eases as vi-dayo, we have a prefix without force,
^^ the word is not different fronf dayo.

^^^ee how often ^55? A is a mere prefix, or is lost in the following

192

PHBASIS.

Grady hail, Lat. grando, Fr.

grele,
Crranitckuy fence, granzen
Grran, grey, grau,
Grran, corner.
Grehloy rudder, oar, row.
Grreza, dream.
Grrohy grave.
Crroza, threat, drohung,
Crrozd, grape, traitbe.
Gromko, strong, loud.
Groniy roar, rumble, thunder.
Grruda, group.
Grrud, breast, bosom.
Gnibi, hard, coarse, ^ro5, rude,

rough, derb,
Gruzkij L. gravis, hard, heavy,

schwer.
Grunt, ground, grand,
Grusha, pear.
Grushu, grieve, sorry, trUhen,

trauem, gloomy.
Gtdiayo, walk, go.
Gryaduy go, L. gredior.
Grunia, lumpen, trumpery.
Grurt, herd.

Gvsar, hussar. *

Grusto, tight, thick.
Ghus,^ goose.
DaZ, far, long, dl, fr.
Dayo, giye, L. do, dabo.
Dver, door, port.
Dvigayo, move, he-wegen.
Dvor, court, ho/.
Dek, deck, cover.
Den, dna, day, L. dies,
Derehnia, town, dor/.
Derevo, tree.
Derzayo, dare.
Deru, tear, zerreissen.
Dlan, palm, hand.
£>'lin, long, far, Fr. loin.
Dob-ro, good, d, g.
Dolgo = dlin,
DoJg, p/licht, guilt.

i>oZ, deal, iheil, part.

Doma, home, house.

Doroga, road, way, dr, w.

Dorogo, dear.

Dosha, desk, ^ucA, table.

Dotch, daughter, tochter, BolK::F«h.

Dragi==i dorogo.
Drug, friend, dear. •

Droft, scarf, scherben.

Drotchu, thresh.

Duga, bow, d, b.

Dumayo, deem, think.

Dura, fool, thorin.

Dumo, bad, worse.

2>2^A, ghost, gas, (^tnu^, ruc^

G'k ^uo8.
Duyo, blow, Aauc^, dunst.
Ddier=Dol€h.
Duim, steam, damp/.
Dyalo, deal, done, deed.
Delayo, do, deal, make. Bo" ^ >^'

e^t^, equals done, work.^-* -
Dyayo, equals delayo, do,
Edinyo, unite, t;eretni9Fen.
Emez, man, menscA.
Emlyo, take, L. cmo, ne&»«^^»^'
^c«, heresy, ^ef^perei.
Eshe, yet, scAon.
Zhar, warm, fire.
Zhgu, stick, bite, bam.
ZkaJko, kldglich, clamor.
Zhal, harm, schade.
Zhdu, wait, dure.
Zhezl, stick, stab.
Zhelayo, wish, will.
Z^&, yellow.
Zhena, woman, queen, zh— ^'

-g,G'k(7ttn^.
ZMbu, live, L. t;tt7o.
^ic^A^', thin, shad, GF. 9chUxr=^^'
Zhmu, press, L. premo,
^hilo, dwelling, live.
2%rM, greedy, /rewcn.

^ (7, in Russian, has principally the force of a strong A.

BTYMOLOaY.

198

^thti^o, chew, kauen,

Zarmk^ lock, castle.
Zima^ winter, L. htems.

Zvon, sound, schaU, hlang.

2tvnkf shout, schaU,

Zvyar^ deer, L. fera^ thUr.

Zdo^ dachy thatch.

Zelen^ yellow, green.

JZfemlia, I/, terra, earth.

JZizMuj build, sH/ten.

Zloy ill, acMecht,

JZnahy sign, mark, zn, 6.

ZaayOy know, Gr'k gno, Z, g.

Zohh, ball, rufen, L. voco,

Zlui^ slim, schlimm,

Zol—zluL

•Zoloto, gold, yellow, z, g.

Zraky look, WtcA.

-^»^o, see, &'k orao,

^ug, tooth, 2faAw, z, t,

Zitchu, hiss, sigh.

^iah, very, fiu:^ «eAr,

-^o, yoke.

-^yo, play, sport,

•^K, go, L. itum, it,

•foia, iment, name.

•^w^^, monk, monc^.

-^s-chod, out-going, ez-odus.

J^s-Uyotch, ex-clude. '

•^^M, seek, wish.

J^ere^ priest, Q-'k Meros,

^cizanie, sign.

^oreta, coach, chariot.

-^ot?, cot, coop, ku/e,

^Orzhuy say, show.

^^yoy glue.

•^pTti-enj stone, km, stn.

•^3»iera, chamber, room.

•^ndU, candle.

'j^payoy drop, trickle.
"^^pralf corporal.
j^/^^a, correction, strafe,
j£^i whale, L. coe^.
■^/oc^a, log, Ajfoto.
"^^^di*,! lay, place, load.

^ f in Bossian, is for us generally a prefix,
25

Klady load, last.
Klas=holos.
Klegtchu, call, screech.
Klik, call, clang.
XifoA;, lock. '
Kniaa, prince, king.
Kntga, book, Sem. Mtab,
Knutj peitschey whip.
Koza-y goat.
EhUsOy wheel, rad,
Kozha, coat, skin, hide.
Koloy circle, wheel.
iTo^, pale, p/ahL
Kom, heap, clump.
KoneZy finish, end, point.
Koriy pony, horse, ro««.
Kopa, heap, cumulate.
KopayOy scoop, ditch,
j^ora, bark, L. cortex,
Korerty root, radix,
Korga, crow, L. corvus,
Korzina, korh,
Kormay stern.

Korova, krava, cow, kr, k.
Koroly (JcarT)y king, Latin rca;,

Bo. kral {^k-rege),
Kortchagy cup, At^.
Kotely kittle, kessd.
Kosha, korhj curb.
Koshka, cat, katze,
Kraduy steal, G'k A;fepo.
JTra, rind, brim.
KrapayOy drop. "
iTrtA;, creak, shriek.
Kritchuj screech.
Krob, roof, cover.
KroTna, crumb.
KroyOy cover, bury..
Krug, round, circle.
Krupa, grit, gravpe,
Krupno, grob, coarse.
Krut\ strong, gross.
Kryapy force, krafU
Krothiy kind, soft.
Kwpa, heap.

194

PHBASI9.

Kupuyo^ buy, Jcaufen,

Kusayo^ kiss, bite.

Kuknia, kitchen.

Layo, yell, bellow, low.

LgUj lie, liigen.

Lev, Hon, L. leo.

Leghi, light, leicht

Legkoe, lungs.

Led, ice.

LadnOj one, (^ is prefix).

Lezhu, lie, L. Zoci(«.

i/en, linen.

iy6^, flow, flight.

Liver, lever, (hever), heaver,

raiser.
Lizhu, lick, lecken.
List, leaf, 5?a<<.
Xi2?c, look, gaze, face.
Lovl, claw.
Lozhe, lay, lodge, Latin fec^vs,

place, bed.
Lokon, lure, Zoc^e.
Losk, look, glance.
Luna, moon, L. luna,
Lyavo, left.
Lyas, wood, L. ?wcws,
Lyohh, love, liehen, like, long,
S. ?wA, (lyobov).

Lyod, leute, folk. Bo. ?ic?.

Jfa^o, small, little.

Manyo, wink, mahnen.

Mash, butter, si, tr.

Mat, mother.

Mayo, ermilden, ah-matten.

Mgla, nebel, veil, L. wutes.

Med, honey, L. TweZ.

Melyo, mill, mahlen.

Mezh, with, miY, twixt, mid,

Metch, sword*, messer, mace.

Merknu, murky, dark,

Mir, /riede, /roh, peace,

Mir, world, L. mundus.

Mleko, milk, L. lac.

Mnogo, much, many.

Mnu, kneten, knead.

Mnyo, mean, believe.

Mogu, may, might.
Mokro, moist, mucky,
Moloko =5= m leko .
More, see, meer.
Moroz, mraz, frost.
Motchu, moisten.
Motch, might.
Mrak, dark.
Mru, murder, die.
Mucha, fly, Fr. mouche^
Myalkiy small, khin,
Myasto, spot, place, state,
Myaryo, measure.
Mias\ meat, flesh.
Muzh, man, niensch,
Na-chozhy, in-go, in-vent,
Nag, naked, bare.
Nizki, be-neath, deep.
Novo, new.

Noga, hoof, foot, Fr. ongh^
Nozh, knife, messer,
Nora, hole, gruhe,
Nos, nose.

Noshu, L. -yeAa, bring, push*
Nuzhu, need, press.

Obost, obst,

Ovza, L. ove, sheep, ewe,

0(7o», o^«, L. ignis, fire.

Or^a, horde.

OreZ, eagle, adler.

Oryo, L, aro, harrow.

Okno, window, look^ see,

Ostrui, sharp, L. acer^

Padu, fall, Gr'kp^^o.

Pa, part.

Parad, pracht, parade,

Paryo, burn, parch.

Pashu, wehen, wind..

Piita, poet, dichten,

Pishu, paint, write.

PiYie, drink, L. jpiTW.

Plam, flame.

P!?oc^, fruit, pi, fr.

PZi/^, plow.

Pluivu, swim, sail,2>feo.

Polnoe, full ; pulia, ball.

MtMOLOaY^

19S

i^abih, law, irttle, straight,
line, true ; law ^lex^^t
rex.

Fetch, stove, bake.

Ptiza, bird, Boh. ptak^ Greek
petomaiy fly.

Pravo, right, de-praved.

Rahot, work, arbeiL

Baby serve, slave.

Rvu, tear, nip/en^l

Raztim, reason.

Rdyayos^ red.

Rebro, rib, rippe,

Rad, joy, yroA.

i?ov, grave*

Rod, kind, art, way, (road).

Rog, bom, rock.

i^oto, oath.

Ryatch, word, rccfe.

Rvhez, riefe^ furrow.

Rvka, hand, arm, G'k cAeir.

.^tfta, fish, rb, f

Ryaka^ river, run.

Riad, row, rank.

^i«Z, rudder, helm.

Sazhayo, set, place.

^a/o, tallow.

Svinid, swine.

Solnze, sun. Bo. slunce,

Svara, quarrel, streit

Svishu, whizz, whistle.

JS'dayo, give-up, (s prefix).

S'doryo, strive, streiten,

JS'dirayo, tear-off.

SlddJd, sweet, G^k, glukus.

JShiroki, broad, spread*

Semia, family.

Serdze, heart, s, h.

Sizhu, sit.

Sila, strong, si, str.

Sito, sieve.

Siayo, shine, light.

Skatchu, skip, spring*

Skoro, short, hurry.

Skrbu, scrape, shave.

SlaM, slack, schlaff,

Slava, glory, laud. ^

S'lagayo,^ lay-up*

Slifoa, plum.

fS'lovo,'^ word, G'k hgos^ sylhe,

syllable. ,
tSluch, hear, ear, geruchi, S*

srUj G'k khw.
S-mert, death, murder.
S-myah, bold, m, b.
S-myachj s-mile, laugh*
S-nimayo, ab-nehmen^
tSo'bak, dog, bk, dg*
Sotchu, catch, take*
Sol, salt.

tStari, old, strong. •
Stebel, stalk, Stengel,
Strogi, strict, straight*
Son, sleep, Lat. somniis, Fren^

songe.
Spat, splyo, sleep.
Stablyo, stable, steUen, stall^

stand, stay.
Stan, stand, station.
#5^2;', stop, step, path*
Stol, table, s^AZ*
Stop, foot, step.
Stoyo, stand, L. s<o.
Stroenie, structure.
Strvyo, stream, pour.
StvJcy stick, strike, 8t088\.
Svzhu, judge.
SiiJc, coin, twig.
Su'Tovi, rough, coarse.
Suchi, dry, L. siccus,
Sv^shi, sure, certain.
Sir ana, tract, stretch, strtchf

land « tract, as line =»

rule, rect,
Schod', go, scud, scatter.
Syaku, hack, cut.

1 Through all Russian, strike off the ending i/o as a. mere person
ending.

2 5 is a prefix identical with ffy h.

196

I»HBASIS.

SyayOy sow, spread.

Sad^ garden.

Tvoryo^ work, tragen, born*

Telia, calf-

TemnOy dim^ dark.

Temie, thorn.

Tkan, web, tissue-

2W, dim, darkness.

Tb^a, troop, L. turba.

Torg, trade, handle.

TonkiCf thin, fine, tiny.

To'Vare^ wares.

Truba, trumpet, L. tuba*

Trudy tiredj trouble.

TVm^cAw, press, driicken*

Tupo, dumb, stump.

lyaloy body, corpus, tl, or*

Tyo^, pack, ball.

Tianu, ex-tend, dehnen.

U-bozk^ poor, pov-erty.

^•^0^, angle, winkd.

U-goly cojJ.

U-met, mist.

U-tchu, teach, L. €ife>c6a.

Chvala, praise, 7o2».
Chozhy, go, walk, seek.
Cholodno, cold.
Chotchuy wish.
C%t^, bad, worse,
^a?, heal, whole.
I'chadOf child, A:wm?.
Tchad, vapor, steam.
Tchemie, black, «cAtcarte,dark,

tawny.
Tcherta, stroke, chart.
Tchislo, cipher, zaM.
Tchisto, just, chaste.
Tchitayo, read, re-cite.
TcMen, member, glied,
Tchudo, wonder, awe.
Tchuyo, hear, L. audio^
Tcherv, worm, L. ver.
TchoA, time, zeit,
TcMn, rank. (TcA is on^

letter).
lazuik, tongue.
UzM, narrow, tng.
Urn, wise, d-eem.

To this we will add only a limited number of Bohemift**
words, such only as present important forms, since the great
mass of Bohemian words, as well as the rest of Slavic, aresaV
stantially the satne aa in Russian.

Bohemian
682.
Klobouk, hat, cap, head.
Dum, house, home.
Pilny, .diligent, fleissig.
Sely, whole, ganz,
Velke, great, much, viel
Stul, stool, table.
Sin, deed, done, thun,
Vci, learn, teach, L. doceo,
Idou, go, L. itu, it
Pri-sel, came, walk.
Hoch, boy, knabe.
Kosar, coach, carriage.
Mnoho, much, many.
Rod, willing, ready, rather.

Etymology,

Bydli, dwell, a-bide.

Stin, shadow, dim.

Imeno, name.

D'louhe, long.

Kapr, carp.

Muz, man, mensch,

Klis, key, lock, L. devis.

Leto, year. ^

Zivot, life, L. vivo, G-'k zo^^^

la-zyk, tongue.

Miluj, love, &\,ph%los,

Psar, writer, painter.

lehla, R. igla, needle.

Bitva^ battle.

BTYMOLOOT.

197

JK^o-sile, shirt.
Kuze, Hide, eoat.
2^uc, gall.
Xost, bone, L» os.
Celcoti) wait»
Hirati^ sport.
T^Za<i\ call, L. voco.
Loviti, hunt, lau/en*
2>t, sajj L*' ^ico.
Brati^ here, bring, take. .
P«a<i, write, scriypsi.
• Pratt, strike, bring.
C^M, be-gin.
Cfhciy will, choice.
Jft^', have, habeo, (ti, iti^ ati

is the infinitive ending).
Ziti, out; ditij do.
Cfti, read, re-cite.
Strihu, shear, strip.
Rici, say, L. reo^ pr-each.
CJdehy^ (bread), loaf, G. lath,

Go. cMdbs.
Bily, white, bleach, L. albus.
Zeply, warm, tepid, hot.
Vemy, true, L. verus.
Piny, full, L. plenus.
Husty, thick.
Chudy^ poor, bad.

Drah^ dear,
ifa, friend, G'kpAi?,
-ffriw, curve, hrumm,
Mrtev, dead, mort.
Prost, free ; <vrc?, hard.
Znam, known, sign.
Zichu, still ; ^wAy, steif.
Tmavy, dark, dim.
Svaty, holy, saint.
Ruchly, quick, rush, rapid.
Hezky, pretty, hilbsch.
2jimni^ winter, L. hiems,
Zadost, joy, L. gaudium,
Noc^ no8, night.
Kratke, short.
Ouzkost, anxiety, angst,
Lez, lie, luge.
Dluhj debt, schrdd.
Pero, feather, /eder, /er,
Olovo, lead, bled
Pitij drink, im-bibe.
Stribro, silver.
Svire^ steer, thter, Jj. /era*
Neve, heaven, L. tiubes.
Krk, neck, hah.
Pes, dog, bite.
Bor, wood, for-est.
Vlk, wolf, L. wipes*

Slavic Etymology,

583. Enough words have been given as examples ^ to show
the peculiar cast and appearance which Slavic words present,
when brought into comparison with Latin and German words.
The list which has been given is pretty comprehensive, and it
embraces a large share of the most common and leading words
to be found in a language. With all their peculiar dress, the
words of Slavic can with certainty be identified with those of
the Latin, Greek, and German class. It bears, when properly
viewed, a close relationship with each of these languages — few
words being found in Slavic which cannot, even at the present
day, be eiasily identified with those of Greek or Latin, or Ger-
man and English.

We have selected chiefly from the Kussian, with only a few
from the Bohemian, as it was of little use, as a matter of etymo-
logy, to bring more dialects into the comparison. Very few

198 I>HBASIS«

words could be found, in the related dialects, which do not ap-
pear uniform with either those of Russian or Bohemian. There
is indeed a remarkable identity, making allowance for letter
changes, found in the forms of words in the whole Slavic class.
After passing from the Bohemian and Russian, we should find
little that would be particularly new or important in the ortho-
graphy of the words.

The most striking appearance in the forms of words in the
Slavic, is the accumulation of consonants without intervening
vowels. In this respect, it greatly resembles the Semitic class.
We here find letters united which with us are separated by
a vowel. And, in this prevailing character of the Slavic, as
well as of other languages, we find renewed proof that the pre-
fixes, so called, of the verb are not a distinct part of it, but
rather inseparably united with the body of the word at the
beginning, having, as we may say, grown upon it and from it.
We have found in Slavic, as elsewhere, many of these prefixes
existing only as a single letter, not divided from that which
follows by a vowel, but united with it to form one single growth
or element. Our own direct, straight, Fr. droit, right, furnishes
a good illustration of this principle. We are wont to call di a
prefix, because it is separated from r by a vowel, but it is plain
that dir, str, dr, and r, are all equal, and that st, or d, is just
such a prefix as the di, and, again, that they are no more prefixes
than any other initial letter. The Slavic has left out this con-
necting vowel of the prefix so often, that its dependent existence
is clearly proved. We have done the same thing in thousands
of words ; as in w-rong, copapared with right, p'lace with lay, L.
locus, in h-now, k-nee, st-rip, sc-ruh. It need not be answered
that <Aese prefix letters have no meaning, for what meaning has
de in de-light, de-fer, which is acknowledged tib be a genuine
prefix preposition? Most prefix prepositions, and we think all,
have no more of an individual meaning than this de, or the let-
ters p, 8c, k, which have been pointed off.

It cannot be too well borne in mind that those accumulated
consonants, as mn, zv, zvy, dl, vgr, in Slavic, are really to be
taken as one letter, or as repeating elements like our vv^w;
besides, in several instances, we are obliged to represent their
single letter by two or three of ours, as in tch, shtsh, ia, zh.

It must be noted, too, that the prodigious growth of endings
in Russian, and often when we have none at all, tends greatly '
to obscure the real resemblance — instance 6/yac?-m*, German
hlass^ our bleach. We have occasionally left off, or marked off
these endings in the list, and where we have not, they should
always, in etymological comparisons, not only in Russian, but
in all, be struck off or disregarded.

BTYMOLOQY.

199

We may as well remark here as elsewhere, and once for all,
that our lists are only etymological comparisons, and they can-
not by any means be relied on as giving the true definition of
the word, as we have often found it proper to give some related
rather than direct meaning. Besides, considering that a word
never loses its original force by becoming a new part of speech
and developing endings, we have, for instance, used faithful ^si
faith^ wise == wiser ^ amo s= amare^ true = truth.

Gaelic Etymology,

584.1
A'hairt, speech, preach.
Abhar, cause, L. res, G. rath,

from reden, speak.
Abhaist, habit, fashion.
A'bhra, dark, b, d.
Achd, except.
Achd, case, state.
Achiofr, tart, sharp, L. acer,
Acht, deed, statue, act.
Acht, claw ; Ad, water.
Adh, law, s-et.
Adhm, know, L. video,
Aedh^ eye.
Agh, awe, battle.
Aghaisach^ easy.
Aicim, ask, be-seech.
Aid, c-old.
Aigein, ocean.
Aighe, hill, high.
All, will, while.
AiU, place, course.
AiUe, praise, laud.
AiU, house, dwelling.
Ailidh, white, blank.
Aiminn, smooth.
Aimsir, time, season.
Aine, joy.

Ainninjie, anger, ire.
Ainn, ring, L. annus.

Air, arise.

Aire, straight.

Aircann, certain.

Aird, quarter.

Airde, height, arduua.

Aire, servant.

Airghe, herd.

Airg, prince, rex, arch.

Airri, tyrant.

Ais, bashful.

Aisc, ask, re-quest.

Ait, stead.

Aith, quick, active.

Al, stone, flint, G'k kias.

Al, horse, Fr. chevaL

Aladh, malice, skill.

Allaidh, wild.

Ahn, stone.

Alt, brook, valley.

Am, time, season.

Amail, evil.

Amha, man.

Anac, wound.

Anal, breath, L. ammus,

Anam, life, L. anima,

Anachuram, anxiety.

Ang, r-ank, str-ing.

Aoi, island, hill.

Aoide, youth.

Aoil, mouth, Gr. maul, '

1 It will be constantly noticed that the Gaelic, and the other Celtic
words, when compared with ours have the appearance of abbreviations..
The initial letters of our words are for them mere prefixes, and we
may consider them as silent.

200

PHBASIS.

Arad^ strong, brave.

Aran^ bread.

Arc^ dwarf.

Asam^ do, make, L./ocio,

Ata^ hat, cap.

Ba^ good, L. honus,

Ba, death, b, d.

BaCy hook.

Bad, bunch, tuft, bush.

Bagh, bind, bond, tie.

Bail, place, (see aill),

J?ame,.milk, b, m,

Bair, game, battle.

Bais, water.

Balhg, blot.

Ban, wan, pale.

Banna, band, troop.

Bar, bread, Sem. hara.

Bar, son, born.

Barr, top, head, first.

Bata, stick, staff, French 5a-

ton.
Batham, die, faint.
J?e, life, L. vita,
Beali, broom, 1, r.
Beac, bee.

Bean, woman, queen.
Bearg, ire, anger.
Bearr, short, brief.
Bea&, sure, G-. ge-wis's.
Beirt, burden, birth.
Beo, alive, L. vivo.
Beo, cattle, beef.
Bothach, beast, wild.
Bes, custom, way.
Bi, bit, small, piece.
Bian, skin, hide.
Bil, blossom, flower.
BU, good, Fr. heUe.
Big, little, L. paucus, .
Bvd, hedge.
Bill, fool.

Binn, sweet, voice, sound,
Bior, water.
Bir, brief, short.
Bith, being, Q-. w^eft.

-Bi<^, ha-bit, house.

Bla, village.

Bla, pale, yellow, blue.

Bladh, flat, smooth.

Bladh, flattery.

Bladhm, brag.

5^, flavor, taste.

Blath, clean, white, blank.

5o, cow, bull, L. 6o«.

Bocan, hook, crook.

Bochd, poor, want.

5o(7, soft.

Boidhad, beauty, pretty.

jBoi?e, ire, bile.

Bolg, bag, belly, swell.

Bolg, bellows, swell, blow,

gulp, bowl.
Bory pride, swell.
Borh, fierce, cruel.
Bord, board, table.
Bord, border, brim, brink.
Borg, burg, borough.
Borr, boss, burr, knob.
Borral, proud, swell.
Bos, base, low.
Both; booth, house.
Brae, arm, branch.
Bran, poor, black, rock.
Braos, gape, br, g.
Bras, brisk, active.
Brath, betray, treachery.
Breas, prince, reign.
Breisg, brisk, quick.
Breog, weak.
Bri, wrath, word.
Briar, prickle, thorn.
Brin, dream, Fr. reve.
Brog, sorrow, brogan.
Bru, bank, brow, brim.
Brug, burg, borough.
Bruighe, farm, Q-. batter,
Buas, belly, pouch.
Bims, breach, rout.
Builgam, swell, boil.
Bunn, work, done, been.
Bur, swelling, ire, anger.

KtYnohoar,

gOl

^uSf month, fluout, Latin o«,

bnss, kiss.
Ca, honse, L. casa-
€ah, head, cape, gap,
Cahan, cabin, cab.
Cad, high.
CadaU, batth^.
Oaec, blind, L. caBcui,
Cagar, whisper.
Cat, way, road.
Caidh, cha^ite.
Call, shield.
CaiUj call.

Caimis, shirt, Fr. chevr^uHf
Cain, jent.
Cairc, fijr, hair.
Carraic^ crag, rock.
Cairthe, chariot, cart,
(7at^, sort, kind.
(7aZ&, head, SI. glaha.
Cola, hard, callous.
(7a?Z, veil, con-ceal.
Cam, sham, de-ceit.
Canam, sing, L. cano.
Oanaib, hemp.
Caohh, bow, br^pc)^.
Cammh, kind.
(t7ao/, slim, small.
Car aid, friend, near;
Carhh, barge, car,
Ca9, foot, c, f.
Casag^ coat.
Ca^A, battle.
Ce, earth, G'k ^*,
Cca?, heaven, Fr. ciel,
Cealam, eat, Sem. c^u^.
CeaJg, malice, beguile.
Cean, fayor, kind.
CeangaU, bond, L. ciTi^o.
Cearb, silver.
Cearn, man, L. vir.
Ceasna, ne-cessity.
CeUl, sense, will.
Ceilg, de-ceit, L. celo,
Ceirdy trade.
Ceisd^ question.
26

Ciach, fog,

Cia», long, far.

Cine, kind, L. genus,

Cing, strong, bind.

Cior, hand, Gr'k cheir.

Cith, mist; c^&, lip.

Claidamh, sword, L. gladius.

Clarach, clear, bare, bald.

Cleir, clergy.

Clioc, hook, clan.

Cloth, praise, laud.

Cluas, hear, ear, Gr'k kltid.

Cnag, knob, peg, snag.

CneoAih, wound.

Cneas, neck, (c is a prefi:(

equal to g, k).
Cno, nut.

Coi^, wood, L. ^Iva,
Coiinde, custom.
Coin, hound, L. canis.
Coinneal, candle.
Coir, right, correct, crt,
Coire, cauldron.
Cois, foot, hoof.
CoU, rnin, fall.
Colum, dove, cohmba,
pon, sense, dog, cani0.
Cor, twist, turn.
Cor, corner, near.
Cosg, cease, stop.
Corrhham, carve, grave,
Cothi meat, victuals.
Crann, tree, branch.
Craptha, warped, curved,
Creas, narrow, straight.
Criobk, trifle.
Criodh, heart, core.
Criosd, quick, swift.
Crogan, crock, Gr. krug.
Croc, horn, L. comu,
Cromh, worm.
Cron, time, Gr'k chronos,
Cruadh, hard, crude.
Oman, red.

Cruimam, thunder, grumble.
Qruog^ need, press, crush,

aoa

PHRASIS,

Cuala, heard.
Cuirsam,^ tire.
Cuire, throng.
Cuisne, ice, frost.
Cuisorij vise.

Chdj chariot, coach, guard, cus-
tody.
Curriy combat, G. Icamp/,
Oumas, can, strength.
Cur, power.
Outha, rage, G. wuth.
Gusty coat, skin.
Cuth, head, cap.
jDae, man.

Dagham^ singe, burn,
i>ai7, deal, part, lot.
Daithy quick, active.
Daigh, fire, pain, hot.
Dan, work, done, poem.
Daoirse, dearth, scarce.
Dahh, coach, cab.
i>ar<a7i,.herd, drove.
Dath, dye, paint.
J)eachair, follow, after,
J)eadla, dare, bold.
Deaith, wind, L. vew^i^s,
Dealg, thorn, needle.
Deanam, do, done, work.
Dear, daughter.
Dearbham, try, prove,
Dearc, grave, cave.
Deamam ?= deanam^
Deas, right, just.
Deas, neat.
D-eigh, ice.
Deilchead, ill, bad,
Deim, want, dearth.
i>ciV, say, L. cZico, c?iV€,
Z^eo, breath, G'kpweo.
Deolaidh, aid, help.
i>c<, food, victuals.
Di, want, G'k deomat,
Diachair, sorrow, care,
DihecdL dumb, mute.

Difir, difference,

Digham, come, go,

Dile, love, G-'kj?Ai7oa,

Dioliochdadh, delight,

Dimeas, con-tempt.

Dinn, hill, deep.

Dioach, divine, L. deus,

Dtog, dyke, ditch, pit.

Dioghais, high, tall, deep,

Diolas, true, dear.

2)ire, tribute.

J)ith, want, defect.

D'leachd, law, p-lace,

Dluth, near, tight.

Z)o6, stream, flow, go.

i>owZ, hand, Fr. doigt^

Voire, grove, thicket.

J)oite, quick, active.

J)ol, space, distance.

Donn, dun, brown.

Dorr, wrath, L. durus.

Dothar=dob, con-duit.

Drab, spot, stain.

Drabh, draw, cart.

Dragh, trouble.

Dream, tribe, family.

Drean, wren.

Droch, evil, bad, wrong, rig^^»

straight, droit,
Du, just, due.
J9tt, land, G'k gi,
DtLchas, visage, face.
Duille, leaf, fold, /alia,
Dulbhar, doleful, dark, glopi'*^

direful.
Jhir, hard, water, duru^
Each, horse, L. equus.
Each, any, each.
Eacht, feat, act, state.
Eadh, time, season.
J57a^, death, go.
Eagar, order.

Eaglais, church, Fr. egli^*.
Ealang, fault, flaw.

1 That mark s, which we so often elsewhere find as the sigi^
future, is found in many Celtic words.

teTYMOLOaY.

208

Balg^ excellent;
EaUach, load.
Bang, year, L. annus^
Earby offer.
Ear, head, ere, crane.
Earunn, share, portionv
Easha, want, absence.
Earr^ grand, noble.
Ease, water, whiskeji
Etde, cloth, G. kleid,
Eifeacht, effect.
Eight, science, art.
Eirtgh, rising, arise^
EU, flock, herd.
EU, battle.
Er = earr.
Ette = eadh, age.
Eug, death.
Eugas, likeness.
Eun, bird, hen.
JBulogh, escape, flights
Fahhar, favor.
Fachaim, fact, reason^
Fadail, delay.
Faghaim, find, catch.
Faigham, speak, L. for^
Faime, hem, brim, border^
Fair, watch, guard.
Faith, heat, fire.
FaUain, health, whole.
Fan, wander.
Fang, raven, vulture.
FaoU, deceit, Jj.foMo.
Farran, force, anger.
Fa^, void, vase, hollow^
Fas, growth, wax.
Feach. see, view.
Feadhh, widow.
Feal, bad, ill, e-vil.
Feal, treason, villain ^
Fear, man, L. vir,
Fearg, warrior.
Fearh, Word, L. verhunt.
Fee, weak, feeble.
Feaihat, bowl, vessel*
Feis^ pig, swine.

Fen, wain, wftgon.

Fes, mouth, face, L. osv

Fiadh, land.

Fiamh, fear.

Fiar, crooked, warp.

Fine, family, L. genus, natioii.

Fioch, wrath, G. wMh,

Fion, few, small, fine.

Fionach, old, ancient.

Fionn, white, blank.

Fior, true, L. verus,

Fios, science, L. video,

Firsi, power, strength;

Fis, dream, vision.

Fiu, worth.

Flaith, flower.

Man, red, flame, blood.

Flur, flower, blossom.

Flock, lax, soft, flaccid.

Foairn, swarm, herd.

Focal, vowel, word.

Foghar, voice, sound.

Fois, rest, quiet.

Folg, fleet, active.

FoUas, plain, clear.

Fonn, tune, song.

For as, old, R. stary,

Forcam, learn, instructs

For tan, fortune, found.

Fortil, hardy, L, fortis,

Fot, giant.

Frag, woman, G. ftau\

Fraoch, rage, fury.

IVas, ready, active.

Froghim^ wrong.

Fuach, word, vocal, soundi

Fuar, cold, chilly, freeze.

Fuascrmm, fright, fear.

Fuatham, hate.

Fuil, blood, gore.

Fuigam, leave, flee.

Fulla, false, lie.

Furtachd, comfort.

Gabhail, spoil, catch.

Gabhal, fork, G. gahel, gore*

Ga^h^ dart, want.

iU

(ARAfild^

Gag, chink, deft.

Gail, kill.

Gaillian=^gathj L. teJur/t,

Gaid, father, dad.

Gair^ cry, laugh, Fr. rire, re-
joice, L. gaudivm.

Gal, battler, L. heUum.

Garhhy rough, coarse^, grob,

Garam^ warm.

Garg^ rough, fierce, &m.

Gasimj boy^ Fr. gargon,

Ge, geadh^ goose.

Gealj clear, fair, white^*

Gean, favor, G. gunsU

Gearr^ short, curt.

Geilt^ wild, mad.

Gen, wound, knife.

6rion, will.

Gtvlam, follow.

Glacam, take, G'k labj

Glaedhj broad, L. Iatu9i

Glarriy shout, clamor.

Glan, clean, pure.

Glas,^ lock, seMosSi

GlaSj grey, pale, glas^.

Gleann, glen, valley.

Gkire, elect, Fr. dire.

Gleithy clean, pure, neat, white^
G. mn.

6r^a«, order, class.

Glic, wise, G. klug.

Glinn, light, sky, gleam^

GUhy glide, slide.

GloiVy^ glory, take.

G^Zor, noise, speech^ yell.

Geal = ^^.

G^na, mode, way.

Gnae, woman, G'k gurU.

Gneath, born, L. nattta.

Gnic, know.

Gno,^ note, ktidv^, &m«/
GOf sea, water, L. a-^^ua^
Gahhar, goat, G. ^o«o^.
G^oic, joke, scoff.
Goirty sour, bitter, tart
GooTj light, ore.
G^or^, hunger.
Crradti, charity, L. gradw*
Graig, herd, drove.
Grata, gi'^t, noble.
Grian^ ground, G. grundt
Grxnn, garrison^
Grith, skill.
Grothalj gravel, sand.
Guala, shoulder.
Gubha, combat.
Gruin, pain, dart.
Gul, wail, Weeping.
Grus, anger, an-guisb.
Guth, voice, Totrel.
i, island.
lal, light.

lar, dark, black, t>ird.
lath, land ; tM, drink^^
Ic, cure, eek.
icZA, use, L. utor.
Idna, Weapon.
11, well, plenty, much^
Inhear, marble.
Im-lan, full.
In-sMocas, choice.
Ingne, fiail, Fr. ongUd
Inntxn, mind.
lolar, eagle, G. adleri
lomdha, many much.
lomhadh, envy.
tonga, nail, claw, hoof^
lonnraic, upright.
lofin'SamkuU, same,
ir, anger, ire.

^ ^, like other letters m Celtic^ is oftdn for us tf prefix.

2 We shall constantly notice, in Gaelidy the tendency of its ort^
graphy to identify itself with French.

B 6^ is a pretfix precisely as in Greek and German ; we see als9 ^
suffix c = L. quey at the end of the Gaelic words, like Latin hiti'^'
there are other suffixes, or eommon endings } as, am, t-^tm.

f

JSTYHOLOGT.

206

tris^ friend; irr, rear.
ItJieadh, eating.
L-alihairt^^ say, speech.
jjachd, milk, L. lacte,
Ladroti, thief, L. latro.
Lag, weak, lag, lax.
Laibh, clay, liine.
Laith, many, Gr. letUe,
Laftih, hand.
LaogTiar, claW, too.
La, day, 1, d.
Loom, blaze.
Lan, full; ?a«c^-, load*
Lath^ youth, lad.
Ltzbe, bed, L. leetus,
Le-abhamy read, lego.
Le'obhar, book, ^t&cr, (so that

L. Ither is equal to sa^,

tead.)
LeaSy reason, L; res,
Lear, elear^

LeathaUy broad, wide, L. latus.
Letganiy let, lesve, allow.
Ijeiniam, leap, jtimp.
Letts^ light, kK)k.
Zria, stone, Or*k laask
Liach, spoon, ladle.
Liobham, smooth, glib.
ZiiUj follow.
Zioc, place, Fr. IteUi
Z/omj lean, bare.
Lonn, strong, force.
Lot, wool^ L. lana,
Luachy price, G-. John,
LuaUy inoon^ K ^na*
IjtLath, fleet, foot*
Zrw6, loop) hoop*
Jj-uhhray work, opera*
I/uchy mouse.

Luchdy equal to ^atVA.

i^ow^, ship, sail, p-low, G'k

p-loion, pleo equal to sail.
Luthy strehgth, power
MaCy^ son, born, natus^ Go. wa-

^t(8, maid.
J!/ac?,3 hand.
Maiddin, inorning.
Main^ day, G'k ^emera,
Madh, field, mead.
Mai, king, L. re^, Sem. nfiaL
Maoin, love, mind, think*
Maon, mute, dumb.
J[fao?, bald, blunt.
Marbham, murder*
Marc, horse, ioiare.
Meall, ball, blunt.
Meogal, medley, mix*
Mil, honey, L. mel.
Milis,^ sweet) L. mel.
Mio8, mouth, L. mensisi
Mir J part, bit*
Mogh, man.
Moin, mount.
Mois, mode, L. fnos,
Mor, great, much.
Mort, murder.
Mucag, mug, cuj)-.
Muilly delay.

Muinam, teach. !L. moneoi
Jl/w?, multitude.
MwTy wall, L. micfT««.
Ndbadh, neighbor.
Ndoi, ship, L. navis,
Namh, enemy.
Nathj science, note, know»
Nathair, adder, Snake.
Neal, cloud, L. nubes,
Neamh, heaven, nubes.

^ Abhairtf With the prefijt I, corre6t>onding with Gt€t. leaen, read, L.

^ We find also macgim equal to t>ear, carry; so mac has the same
origin as «on, in all languages equal to born, L. natus, L. puer,

* The forms mad, man, and Zam^, are all equal to Latin manus^ out
hand,

* Prefix nUwmmM, and vnesnot, bad, is common ;n GaeliCi

206

PHRASIS<

Neasta, just.
Neipj turnip.
iW, DOt, thing.
Nim, do, make.
NoSj know, modei
Nuall, noble.

Obair, work, opera.

Og, young, twig.

Ogh, whole, ear.

Oir, shore, border.

Olan, wool.

On, gain.

Ong, fire, L* ignis,

Ord, order, sericfs.

Pais, passion.

Paiteog^ butter.

Peall, horse, Fr. cheval.

Phsg, quick, G. pfofe.

■^<^c, pig.

i?ac, king, L; rex, rege.

Paean, noise, racket.

Racht, arose, arrive.

Bag, wrinkle, rugous*

Raith, entrreaty.

Rang, rim, border.

Raon, green.

Read, thing, G. rath^ L. res^

Rad'ham, say, G'k re©.

Readh, rage, fury.

Raith, went, tan.

Reim, troop, band.

2?eo, frost.

^t^A, arm, bracket.

i?o(^i, rotten, shrunk*

Roid, race.

i?o<A, wheel, L. rota,

Ruchd, room.

Rtis, wood, brush, grove*

Sa^ham, at-tack, set.

Saisde, sage.

^Saor, free, s, f.

Sar, very, G. se^r*

Sasat, L. sa<w.

/Sci6, skiff, ship.

Sdaid, state.

Sdair, story.

Sdeud, steedi

/S'ean, ancient, L. seneo;!

Searhh, sour, L. ocd*.

Searg, seared, dry;

Searr, horse, colt.

z&is, skill ; ji^a, sake;

Sgail, shade, sg, sc, shi

Sgaol, scatter.

Sgeil, skill.

Sgille, quick, agile.

Sglata, slate.

Sgroibam, scrape^ scratch,

write j grave.
Sguaham, sweep.
Silam, drop, distil.
Sion, chain; bondj tie*
Slan, sound, healthy.
Sliogam, sleek, smooth*
Smuid, smoke, vapor.
Sochd, silence.
Sodan, joy, L. gaudium,
Spre, sparkle.
Sread^ herd, troop.
Sreamh, stream.
Srian, strain, rein.
Stain, tin, Fr. etain;
SuH, eye, sun;
Sur, search, in-quire.
Tahhair, give, L. daho.
Tai, deaf, silent, L. tac^o*
Tais^ wet, dank.
Talamh, soil, L. terra,
Tarmadh, dwell, tarry.
Teagh, house, sty, tectunim
Teith, hot, toast.
Tiag, sack, G. tasche.
Time, fear, timid.
Tig, go, come, L. it.
Tin, be-gin.
Tioncam, at-tend.
Tir, ground, L. terra*
Tiug, tight, thick.
Toid, whole, total.
Tor, lord, sovereign.
Torg, de-stroy.
Tread, herd, drove.

BTYMOLOGY. 207

Trean, strong, brave. Uidh, care, heed.

Treotam, trot^ come. Uir^ fire.

Tronij heavy, L. gravis. Uisge^ water, whiskey.

TuiUy flood, deluge. Una, hunger.

Tur, dry, bare, torrid. £/r, earth.

Ugh, egg] Uige, wise. Tlachd, delight.

We have noticed, in thi^s reviewing the Gaelic etyn^plogy, a
striking tendency to the French and German forms of words.
The words are very short ; in comparison with the Latin and
Greek languages, there are here but very few of what may be .
called formative syllables or letters. It is not alone the absence
of gender and case endings, of endings to denote the persons of
the verb and the agreement of the adjective ; there are very
few of what in other lp,nguages we understaiid by derivative
forms — that is, forms developed by the appearance of new syl-
lables. Thus, we find borg for borough, bla for yeljow, cearb
for silver, cealg for be-guile, cleir for clergy, fis for vision, ba for
Latin bonus, difir foy difference, duil for delight, fee ^or feeble.
We find, also, ipany instances where one consonant, or vowel, in
Gaelic, represents two or more in our own language, as c-am=5
sh-am, artt=^st-ead, ei-de==clO'th, oir^ash-ore,

The comparison of Gaelic words which we have made with
those which follow them, will easily be understood. The words
which are given as Gaelic equivalents, are equal to each other
as well as to the Gaelic term itself; and the letters of the
Gaelic are supposed to correspond with those of its definitions ;
as, in cail= shield, c=ish, and l=ld; bran == black, br^r=bl, and
an=ack; bordr^brim^ i. e. brd=brm ; bosd^boastir^, d=^
ting — as ting is only a development of t; bearr=^sKort, b=sh^
rr=^rt, (brief = short).

Bearing in mind the peculiar representatives or correspond-
ents of Letters in Gaelic, and Celtic, when compared with other
European languages, we find but very few words there which
cannot readily be placed along side some equivalent in English,
German, Latin, French, or Greek. Indeed, it is almost as easy
to identify Celtic orthography with these, as it is to identify
English with German, provided that we proceed in the right
inanner.

We might add, also, that the number of Celtic words identi-
cal with Semitic, or nearly so, should not escape the notice of
f^ny in(]^uirerj as it is really striking,

208

PHRASIS,

Welsh Etymology,
685.
Ohaledj bard, callous.
Bran, crow, raven, black,
Cwmwl, cloud, L. cumvJ^,
Merchj girld, maid.
Ffenestr, window, finster,
Bryn, hill, brow.
Dyn, man, d, m.
Golwg, look, sight.
JPorsa, pasture.
Adar, birds.
Melyn, mellow, yellow.
Coch, red ; Casglu, gather,
Go'Sodj set, placQ.
Fremiriy king, rex, first.
Gw-lad, land.
C'ry/, strong, G, A;rflR/i5,
Atodl, ode.
Plygiif bend, fold-
Cm?7i, dog, G. Awncf,
Pechod, sin, wicked,
jifiar, briar.

Tf^w, lambs, Fr. agneau,
Pachgen, boy, mac,
Sefyll, stand.
Geffyly horse, Fr. chevah
' Arth, b-ear, L. wr«2*s.
Lly/r, book, L. Ziftcr.
Milwyr, soldier, L. wi^,
Cadpen, captain.
Llythyr, letter.
Ddinas, city, town.
/^e^A, thing, L. re«.
^mser, time.
Ddear, terra, earth.
Plwm, lead, plumb.
Chleddyf, sword, L. gladivA,
Hiechyd, health*
Mehog, hawk.
ffwch, swine, hog.
Jfw7y^Z, muggy.
fosiaw, pose, puzzle.

Troed, foot, tread.
Esgym, bone, L. oa,
Pwmp, bump, lump,
Crim, orimp.
Ctc, foot, kick.
Peled, bullet.
Lhjoyar, ladle.
Gwyfr, wire.
G^M?w, gown, G. ge-wand^
Gwalt, welt, hem.
Cri^<, crust,
jl/u7^, smoke.
JP%, plait, fold,
JJlimp, slim, slender.
Colpo, cuff, Fr. cowp,
Stang, tank.
Chweg, sweet.
Saffwn, shaft, staff.
Swmwl, stimulus.
Gwylt, wild, L. vefoa,
Cwrwf, G. 6ier.
Deter, strong, L. mr.
^awZ, sun, L. so?.
>8fer, star, L. steUa,
LlyUfloke,
Prynu, buy.
Marw, dead, morte.
Chwerw, bitter, sour.
C-fojf, lame. *
Caer, wall, G. mauer^
Enw, name.
Tref, town, G. dbr/.
(ro/r, goat, L. capra,
G-raig, rock, crag.
Ckor, L. mr.
TVa, very, h, verus.
Cnoi, bite, gnaw.
J3ach, little, L. pai*c-t««.
5^w)iyW,^'dim, dark.
Clywe3, hear, G'k A;?mc^.
Chwant, want, wish.

Sufficient has been given of Welsh to show what forms our
words have when they appear there, and, besides, enough tq
jgive some idea of the way in which Welsh compares with Gaelic,

ETYMOLOGY.

209

Semitic Languages.

Our selections will be first and mainly from Hebrew,
We shall notice continually in Semitic, and in Hebrew par-
ticularly, that certain initial letters are pure augments, or pre-
fixes, for us, and if we would compare them with European
words we must cast them off entirely. The letter a in Hebrew
we shall find oflen to be such an augment.

Aoth = aor^ sign, show.
Azad = Azal, Ar. zaL
A-chaz, catch, L. capio,
A-char, after, follow.
A-mal, weak, G'k. amahs —

other forms, malal, malja^

malaq; wilt.
Ametz^ might.

Ae-inesh, night, L. nox^ even-
ing, Gr. abend.
A-mar^ o-mer, word (m, w);

mr, pr, spr, pray, Gael.

abhar equal to speak, say.
A-phalj veil, G. verhUUen;

forms, aphil, a/a/.
Aphen, o/en, time, temps.
Aphesj pause, cease.
A-phar, G./ahren^ fare, form, .

pharar, Ar. /arak, Ger.

sprossen, sprout.
A-qqo, G. bock, goat.
A-rag, string, right, strong,

firm, force.
Arrar^ stick, arrow*
AereZj earth, erde.
Aeshj ash, fire.
Ashur. G. schrttty tread, a^har,

Chal. atar, tread.
Atha, ata, Celt, aeth, L. it, go,

come, went.
Aenosh, eush, G. mensch.
Baar, bury, G. graben.
Beer, G. brunnen, spring.
Baash, Ar. baus, Ger. bose,

base, bad.

A-hir, strong, force, vir.

Ae-hen, stone, SI. Jca-men.

A-hag, bind, ball, wick.

Agcim, ignite, bum.

A-ffan, go, gone, tread, G'k
baino.

A-ssan, ear, hear, aJcoud.

Assal, walk, glide, go.

A-^ar, gather, collect, G'k
ageiro, our herd. We
find the related forms
ye-gar, gur, garar.
A-cJial, eat, chew, San. ^aZ; to
compare with our eat, we
must strike off the I, al^
which is often a suffix,
like several other letters ;
Alb. cha.
^-e^aw, red, Ger. roth. -
At^rmo, bottom, G. boden.

A-^der, Adir, wide, (r suf.)

^^ah, aab, love, G'k agapad,

^^^^l, Or. zeU, folk, od. [L . amo.

-^"^y au, L. vel, wish.

-^W, wood, brand.
A.-val, oval, fool.
Aid, strong, might, as we see
by the form meodh equal
ixi might, — atYisa cognate
form, 1, d; this ail, el,
shows that Aha, AUa,
God, means power, the
Almighty.

Aor, light, aurora, G'k orao
equal to see, stare 'y ore
equal to bright, shine.
27

210

PHRASIS.

Bad^ part; hadal, G. theil,
divide — other fonns are,
had-ad^ bad-aa, had-aq,
had-ar (bdr, brd, spread)
— showing 1, d, a, q, r, to
be equivalent suffix end-
ings. These are letters
which we shall often meet
with as mere endings.

Balal, G'k hallo, pour, throw,
Fr. meler, blend.

Bazar, spread, strew.

Bo, boa, G'k haino, go.

Bm8, tread, foot,/M«s.

Bur, hor, G. forscheny fragen^
break, bury.

Bosh, bash, shame.

Baz, booty.

Baza, Ger. spotten, mock.

Baz-aq, piece (q suf.)

Bata, hatal, hollow, empty,
bottle, hauch.

Biyn^ deem, b, d, L. video,
G'k phaino, mean, medi-
um, think.

Biyra, burg.

Bayith, heth, dwell, house,
a-bode.

Bacha, weep, G. weinen, G'k
daJcru,

Bal-aq, pour, spill; hal-a,
bal-al, hal-ag,

Bal-am, swell.

Bana, build, G. batten.

Bead, a-bout.

Boat, beat, tread, walk.

Baar, burn, brand.

Baal, boil, flow, swell.

Baqa, split, stream, brook, G.
bach, break ; baq, baqaq,
gush, pour.

Boqer, early, morn ; so we use
break in day-break, dawn.

Bar, boy, born, L. ptier.

Bar a, bar ad, baraz, stick,
stab, brad, dart; pare
equal to cut; barach,
" break, is a related form.
Bara forms, S. kar, L. parOy
part, break; barar, cut,
part.

Gad,"^ go, come.

Geeh, high, G. Iwch,

Gav, heave, high, heap, cave,
bow, back, ridge, hollow
— ail founded on the idea
of concave = convex. So
we find the gee, slightly
varying, representing all
those meanings ; forms,
gav, gav-av, gav-ah, gav-
al, gav-oAih^ gav-ar, gav-
ash. We see here one of
the principal means of
multiplying derivatives in
Semitic, that of varying
the final letter, with a
corresponding variation in
signification.

Ge-bor, force, strong, German
ge-walt and kraft.

Ga^bal, belly, G. gauch,

Ge-ber, ge-ver, L. vir, man.

Gadal, allied with gah, gav,
heap, means great; gdl
= gld, grd, grand.

Gadaa, cut, hew. The whole
family of words meaning
cut, pierce, part, shear,
shave, etc., etc., are iden-
tical in Greek, Ger., and
Sem., as a slight inspec-
tion will show.

Gadar, hard, grd, hrd.

Gvhh, guv, hew.

Gur, draw, deer, thier.

Ga-zar, shear, cut, pare.

Ga-cheleth, coal.

^ Gis B. prefix in Hebrew which is very common, identical, too, with
the g of Europe.

BTYMOLOaY.

211

G^:S^l, Ar. hal^ coil, Gr. Iiohl^

cylinder, G'k kuktos,
Gf^^y corner, short, curt.
Gailah^ clip, G-. glatt,
Gctl^al^ gcdal^ roll, wheel;
E.ass. kolo^ G. Ajrew, circa,
GotZah^ walk, wallow.
Gctlach, G. glatty callow.
Gtxm, heap, high, cumu-late,

ang-ment.
Gctr^mdl^ gormar, mass, much,

muUns^ mel.
GcLjph^=gam,
Ga-nabj knab, steal.
Garad, scratch, grate.
G-aphran, heap, curve.
Ga-rahj raise, e-rect.
Gerahj corn.

Gor-ralj rough, raise, ran.
Gor-raph, grave, tear, rent, rip.
Garar, turn, G. kehren, schar-

ren.
Gash-am, harsh, fast.
^ob^ar, speak, pray (==amar),
word, Gaelic lor-hairt =
speak.
^a>gaJi^ dagal, deck, clothe,
^or, dur, tarry, during, [d-gl).
^cichah, stick, tap, beat — all
the family of beat, strike,
press, bind, etc.
^a^, door.

^Kyn, deem, doom, just.
^oM, L. (bUo, bear,
^am, blood, Fr. sang,
I^amah, like, same.
I^apaq = dachah.
^arag, tread, Gr. trecTio.
Darer = darag, turn.
I^arash = darar, thrash,

search, yro^en, break.
Se-hd,^ blow, breath.
Badak^ lead, guide.
Bordar, draw, break.

^•fi^ifl a common prefix.

' C% (one letter) is often a prefix.

Havah, Ar. huachy Ger. hauch,
puflf, breathe.

Se-vah, be, was.

JSTor, G. Jer^, rock, R. gora.

Halaky walk, go.

Halaly Ar. ^a^, clear, Ac??.

Hamas, mass, gather.

Zeban, gain, win.

Ze-hul, dwell.

-^wf, seethe, cook.

^u?, guide; zwr, press.

Zakar, think (r suf.).

Zal-al, eat, feast, ^a?.

Zam-ar, song, sing.

Zem-an, time.

Zaak, squeak.

Zara, strew, spread; zaraq,
zarar, .

Cha-hal,^ bind, ball ; related,
chorhar, cha-hash, cha-had,
cha-bah, (notice 1, b, r, sh,
th, m, q, are the common
suflfix letters).

CTia-bath, bake.

Chad-ad, cut, L. acer, axe.

Chid =» gii/l.

Chomah G. mawcr, wall.

Choph, coast, brim.

Ci^wr, hole, r, 1.

Chorza, see, L. video,

Cha-zon, vision.

Chorzaq, fast, G'k ischtLS.

Chaya, live, G'k zao,

Chaka, wait, watch.

Cha-kam, G. kennen, sage.

Chalal, wound, kill.

Cham, warm.

Cham-ar, scum, foam.

Chen, kind, favor.

Chorsah, shun.

Chatab, cut, hew ; in Ar.,
Aji«a6 = book, piece; writ
= carved, graved, cut.

Chasaph, G'k skapto, shave.

212

PHBASIS.

Ghapha^ cover, cap, deck.
Chaphar (krf), grave, carve.
Cher eh, sword, b, d.
Char ah ^ char, burn.
Charath, G'k karatto, grave.
Char-ashy chore, work, Grer.

arbeitj raa^char-abychar-

at.
Cha-sah, silent, sigad,
Tus, toss, G. stossen,
Tovj tob, good, t, g.
Taphashf fat, G^kpachtis.
Taraph, tear.
Te-or^ river, run.
Faa?, fool.
Ta-al, go, Fr. aZ^r.
Ya-bab, G. rw/ew, babble.
Tabal, G. juheln, L. jvheo,
Yorhal^ stream, flow, go.
Yor-bashy a-bash.
Fa^a,. yoke, bind, press.
Yagabh, G. ackem.
Yoga, L. a^o, act, work
Yagar^ fear, horror.
Yadahj throw, h.jacto.
Yadaa, know, oi(ia, L. vid-eo,
Yom, day, G'k emera, year.
Yach-adhj yoke, eA;a, one.
Yacham = cham, warm.
Fam, wine, G'k oino«.
Yorkol, can, could, Cel. ^/aZ.
Ya-ladh, L. latum^ born.
FeZerf = child, brought, born.
Yasadh, ya-sab, set, place.
Faaw, yearn, G. gierig.
Yorza, go ; Ax.ja = go.
Fa-2;ar, form, S. A;ar, zwr,
Ya-qabh, scoop, cave.
Fa-2'ar, G. schwer^ L. gravis.
Ye-qary worth, dear, Latin

carus.
Yara, throw, wer/en, arrow.
Ya^shar, straight.
Kar.bad, heavy, G. bar-us.

Ka^bash, wash, tread.

Ka-baay bend, bow.

Kabar, great, G. grob, Ger.
hehen^ heave, high ; kabrb,
gahaby gabar.

Kad, G'k kadus.

Kadar^ gather, L. tur-ba.

Kava, G'k kaud, char.

Kid, hold, G. halten.

Kum, high, heap, cumu'..

Kuns=^ kurriy stand-up, raise,
Arab, kan == be, stand.

Kus, ball, cocoon, kvMos.

Kur, roll, turn, ball.

Kush, heap.

Kid, G. keUy dart.

Kokar, circle, G. kreis.

Koly all, whole;

Ka-labhy G'k laby grab.

Keleby whelp, L. vvlpes.

Kalaa, full, complete.

Kelly y fasten, hold.

Kal^imy call, speech ; Ar. kal
=ft say, kid = voice.

Kalaphy kataa, kalabh, grab,
G. greifen, claw, club, G'k
kolapto.

Ken, when.

KemOy L. quomodoy how.

Kau-am, wound.

Kaph, cave, heap, hollow.

Ka-phal, fall, fold.

Kaphaph (kff), G'k kampo,
cumboy bow, bend, cramp,
scoop, hollow ; forms, ka-
pha, qababy ya-kaVy kor
vahy kuy na-qaby gav.

Kaphar, cover, scoop.

Ke-phathy fasten.

Kary L. arieSy G'k kar.

Kory G'k koros.

Karahy grave, carve.

Kereniy garden.

Karar, turn, G. dreheii.

^lor Y (yd) is a common Semitic prefix.
2 ^ is often a prefix.

ETYMOLOGY.

213

Sarath^ cut, part.)
■Keter^ Gr'k Mtaris, crown.
■Katuihy contusus.
£^atal^ chain, G. kette,
KcLt'Wm^ cut, stick.
Kuton-eth^ coat, G'k kiton,
LcLdt^^ L. lateo^ hide,
j&eow, G'k feo«, folk.
LcLczm, L. ligo^ bind, tie.
Lctha, lava, lion, L. feo.
L€xl)-ah, laq, love.
Lct,l)an, white, L. alba.
Lcl^ush, c-loth.
Let ah, flame, lamp, light.
Lczha^ languish, lechen,
Lctatj laab, burn.
LctDa, bind, L. %o, ^o.
Li£cha, light, L. ft^ceo.
LfCLchach,'^ Iqq, G, lecken,
LrcjLch-am, a variation of ZacA-
ocA, lick, and of akal =
eat, showing ^ to be pre-
fixed, and to be divided,
Uich-am, m, am, being
suffix, and ach = eat ; it
equals combat, G. kampf,
ta-chaim,
J^<x^hadh, catch, G'k lab,
J^ci^tash, tap, thump.
J^^xmadh, learn, beat, Greek

math; l-ama-dh,
iaa^, speak, L. lego,
I^Q'pathj wind, pack.
I^d-qach, catch, take.
La-qatj gather, co-llect

La-shon, tongue, L. lingua.
La-shadh, suck, lick.
La-thaa, bite, tooth.
Ma-amar = amar,
Ma-hoa, in-go, entrance.
Me-golla, roll, volume.
Ma-gan, give, geben.
Me-gamma, heap, ^am.
Mo-debar, drift, drive.
Ma-dad, G. denen, stend, tend,

mete, measure.
Mo'deyan, zank, wrangle.
Me-dar, tarry, dwell.
Morhalach, walk, go.
J!/m^, m-ove, go, mog.
M-ora, fear, horror.
JI/m^A, die, mor«.
Mazag, mix.
Ma-zah, Or, saugeii,
Mo-zah, fear, quake.
Me-zomraa, sin.
Mo-zem-or, sing, song.
Me-chiyr, hire, price.
Me-tah, extend.
Malea, fill, whole.
Mo'lla, word, fo^os.
Malach^ salt.
Me-lech, rego, lego (r, 1), Gael.

ma?, king, re^/e.
Ma-lal, speak, talk, ?aZeo.
Maraq, G. amergo, rub.
Marar, turn, press, force, run,

sour.
Marshal, rule, Acrr.
Jfaa^, smooth, ^ZaW.

^ 2/ changes with n, as lachaz and nachaz ; w'lih. r, as a^u ; with J, as
ra^^and ral; it is often introduced — besides being suffixed, as we
have seen before.

>The eha-chf qq^ is one of the many instances of double letters at the
end, showing clearly that as a universal principle in Semitic, words
grow by repeating the final letters. The«e doubles again vary, as
double letters so often do, and instead of ZecAch, Iqq^ we might have
Iqr, Igt, Iqk, Ixm, Iqsh — those qr, qty qk, qm^ qsh, being double as much
as kk,qk, qg.

» if is pretty uniformly a prefix, few words occurring with this ini-
tial where it has not clearly this office.

214

PHRASIS.

Naa^ raw,i n, r.
Naad, wet, G. na^s.
Naam^ G'k muo^ roar.
Na-balj fall, flow, fool.
Na-gady go, gad, R. c^c^.
Nagiyd^ g^ide, prince.
Nag-da^ flog, strike ; forms
nag-on^ nag-aph, nag-ach,
Na-dibhy gvfe, L. c?o. [na^-a«.
Nubhj heave.
iVwa, nod, G'k ncwo.
Num^ sleep, L. 8omn-tM.
iVitr, fire, G. feur»
Na-chal^ hol4, halten.
Ma-zal, glide.
Nu-tal^ L. toZZo, talah,
Na-tar^ na-zar, be-ware, L.
Nasas, sick, nosos, [tueor,

Naar, boy, L. pwcr, new.
Norphach^ Gr./achen.
Nh-qaph, c\iS, Fr. coup.
Na-shakj bite, G'k c^a^.
Na-shal, fall, slide.
Na-tibh, G'k trihos, tread.
Na-zar = L. <W€or.
Northan, gpfe, ffe-than.
J^Orthar, G'k <reo, tremble.
Na-qar, bore, carve.
/Safta, G. zecheUj suck, drink,

Sa-gad, L. ca</o, fall.
Sd-gar, grab, hold.
JSadar, order, rank.
/S'm«, horse, L. c-g^ww*.
Suphy L. swmo, shave.
Sak-achy deck, thick ; forms

sk-r, sk-th, A:-l, sk-n.
Salaa, sileo^ silent.
Salachj walk.
Saman, sign, G'k semain.
Saphar, scrape, scribe; sipher

= book, scrip, bit, — L.

?i6er belongs with it.

Seren, prince, czar.

Abhad,'^ oper-ate, ergoy G. ar-
beit, S. kar,

Adar = sadar, order.

Aeder, herd.

J.wc^, wind, wood.

Aod, again, L. iterum,

Aun, G. wohneriy dwell.

Aez, G'k aia, goat, ^lie^e.

Air, gir, fire, warm.

Auphy guphy cover, fly.

-4Za, high, L. alta,

Alaz, G'k alalazo.

Am, L. ^c?M, G'k d^m-os.

Am-ar^ L. mergo.

Ana, answer*

Amad, stand, qam,

Aphal, gaph, hill, swell.

Aphar = chaphar,

Atsahh, G. schaffen, shape.

^g^aZ, agar J turn, A:eAr.

Aepher, heifer.

Arag, L. rw^to.

J.ra, bare.

A-rach, aram, G. riisten, rich-
ten, -rect, raise.

Araph, strip.

Asahy L. facio, act, a^o.

Atdh, age, L. ae^os.

PeaA, face, mouth, L. os.

Pag a, It.pugna, beat.

Pucha, blow, L. j??i€0, n*cA.

Pwr, part, lot.

Porzar, spread, strew.

PachaVy paar, bake, parch. -

Pala-a, pala-h, pal-adypaJrag^
pa-lach, split.

Peleg, flood, L. y?MS«.

Palrat, pal-az, paki-th == pal-
ad.

Palathj flow, fleet.

Pasas, pause, piece.

Pasach, "ps^s^ pas-ag^pas-al.

1 iVis generally a prefix, and is identical with m; it changes too
pith r, y, *.

* The letter at/in, which we will represent by a, is closely related to

ETYMOLOGY.

215

Paa-Z, G'k poieo, /aciOy kar^

Ar. /aal, gaol,
Pdam, beat, vanish.
Paradj spread j forms, par,
par-as, par-am, par-az,
par-aq, par-a^h, par-at,
par-ah, par-ar, par-ag,
Perachj G. tpross, sprout.
Patk-cU, pask-aa, pash-ash,
pash-ar, are other forms
of parad, where sh == r,
meaning break, split,
spread.
Patah, L. pateo, o-pen.
Paid, battle, beat.
Poar, ap-pear, pareo.
Ts-aba, go, G-'k had, war.
Tie-haa, will, wish.
Tsadh, side.

TiOrdiq, just, G'k to-dikaion ;
in Syr. ada>q = right, j ust.
Tsa-hal, Or. hell, glance.
TiOrhar, G'k oraO, ore.
^iovah, Jj.juheo,
Tidal, yell, G-. schall
TfUT, turn.

Tia-adh, go, tiu, G. steig,
Tsaag, squeak, cry.
Tsaphah, show, Or'kphan,
Tidchaq, joke, laugh.
Qabar, grb, G. he-grahen,
Qadd, cut, G'k kedao,
Qo-va, wish.
Qol, voice, glas^ call.
Qum, raise, be, been.
. Qal-ah, gat, qat-al, cut.
QaUan, little, bit, cut.
Qd, light, G. schneU, a-gile.
Qat'd = gal, L. fei;i«.
Qa-maZ, wilt.
Qop^oA, heap, cover.
Qaraa, call, cry, kraz.
Qonaa,hunt.
Qa-zer, short, kurt, cut.
Qerda, cry, call, read.

^5 is prefix:

Qarebh, G. krieg, war.
Qarobh, proach, near.
Raah, see, G'k o-rao, L. reor,

think.
Resh, res, head, L. rex; in
Com. ruy == rex; in Ar.
ras, res = prince, first,
fore.
Shem, name.
Rabha, gross, G. groh.
Ragal, rd, tread, go.
Regel, foot, tread, Wei. troed,
Radah = re^e/, tread.
Itaat, ruz, run.
Rucha, G. hattch, Ger. ge-ruch,

spirit.
i?wm, raise, a-ram, high, g'wm.
jRiM, riv, strive.
Rakabh, d-rive, ride.
Raphah, rap, G'k rap.
Raq-aq, strike.
Sa-gahh, high, = ^av.
Such, shoot, stock.
/Swrn, set.
Sur, shear, part, cut, strive,

rub, G.^err.
Sachaq, joke, laugh.

tSachah, see, seek, sak-al, hal
= light, look.

>Saar, rough, raw, hair.

Sa-phaq, pick, peck, strike.

Saraph, burn, scorch.

/Sar, sarah, czar, prince, G.
Aerr, ^r, res,

Shaa, see, show.

Shab-ab, cut, saw.

Shebet, staflf, stock, scepter.

Sha-bal, G. wallen.

Sha-bar, break.

JShe-beth, dwell, 6e<A.

/SAir, sing, sang, speak, L. reor,
cry.

Shith, set, lay.

JShakach, seek, wish.

Shalach, G. schicken, stellen.

216

PHBASI6.

Shelet, Gt, scMld,
JShalal, spoil.
Shamat, smooth.
Shamaa, hear, R. du,
Shena, sleep, L. somnus,
Shaar, shudder, fear.

Shaqaa, sink, drink.
Tama, wonder, Gr'k thauma,
Taph-aph, tap, rap, tup.
Tur, turn, ring, drehen.
Tuph. Gr'k tupto^ tap.
Taph-aph = tuph.

587. The style of orthography is essentially the same in
Syriac and Arabic as in Hebrew, and we will content ourselves
with but a few words from these two — taking first the Striae.

Garo^ arrow, dart.
Giido^ crowd, troop.
Acho^ brother,
Athoy go, L. it, Celt, aeih,
Anoshj man, G. mensch.
Apha, face, over.
Gunio, shame.
Galaph, grave, sculp.
Zan, kind, L. genius,
Zaq, call, L. Doco,
GhirOj free.
Chob, debt, owe.
Chado^ joy, L. gaudium,
Chaya^ life, Gr'k zao,
Chor, see, stare, cer-no,
Z'Uro, rock, Gr'k or-os.
Tarn, taste,
Taraph, strike.
I'laph, learn, take.
Ku8, cup.
Karyo, sorrow, sorry.

Laho, liver, heart.

Machor^ morrow.

Ma-tho^ go, come, (m prefix).

Ma-h^ word, G'k logos.

Mazo^ may, might.

Mora^ mister, sir, G. Jterr.

Sar, S. kar, make, schaffen.

Rabo, grow.

Ragam, stone, rock.

Rucho, wind, breath.

Aktho, hate.

Azar, treasury.

Bish, base, bad.

Barukj break, knee, bend.

Gabo^ choose, heap.

Gua^ common.

Da-mar, ad-mire.

Grur, form, fi-gure.

Adar, aid.

Gfiusa, love, ok, k, 1.

Cha-za, saw.

Very few words can be found in the Hebrew list that cannot
be easily recognized in Syriac, as well as in Arabic ; besides,
there are a great many words in Syriac so nearly like Greek,
that they are erroneously thought to be borrowed from that
language.

The following are from Arabic.

A'Zar, power, force. .

A'/ar, fare, go, G. fahren.

A-fal, fall.

A-kil, rex, kar.

A-mar, say, word, mando.

Ansan, man, nas.

Aal, folk, Heb. am.

Awzz, goose.

Aad, hard.

Bag a, begin.

Bar a, form, make, free.

Barad, frigid, freeze.

Bag, back, rest.

Bar J per-ish.

BTTMOLOGT. 217

Croal^ har^ make. Ba-gib, wish, L. cupio,

Cramal, collect, cumulate. Buhj rest, G-. ruhig,

GaZf go, went. Hcui, g-row.

Marr, burn, warm. San, tooth, L. dens.

JBasan, handsome.. ScUl, schall,Ye\\.

MaU, L. M>/vo, Loose. Sanaa, do, G. fAun.

Sahi, L. dulds, Sar, form, A;ar.

J7ar, L. eurro, run. ^a/, long, tall, SI. dal,

J7a^, watch, wait. Alam, ilm, know, teach, learn,

Karajj e»gres8. Heb. lamadh,

Hazir, horror. Ala, high, L. a^.

iTan, sham. ^mm, gani, common.

Kal, false. CW, wood.

Da^i, daga, talk, call. Fana, vanish.

Doll, tell, L. dico. Qadar^ could, val^eo.^

Zara, L. ereo, grow. Qa^sar, short.

Zarai), sharp. Qa^, call, say, (A:aQ.

ZoZ^, vile, ill. Qam » A;an = ^tand.

Ra^gaa^ go, re*turn. KaXaz, collect.

Ra»gaZ, foot, walk. Laqat, L. /e^, -lect.

589. Note. — Liable as we necessarily are, in a work new
and peculiar as this is, to be misunderstood, or not understood
at all, we may with propriety add a few words here to explain
and justify the positions we have taken.

It has been objected, that we pay too much attention to the
growth of words, that we do not sufficiently regard the decay
which always accompanies growth, or follows it — and the
exception is perhaps well taken. It must be confessed that
there is no more universal or important law in language than
this, that words decrease or decline by decay, quite as surely
and constantly as they increase or grow by development. This
is the law of nature everywhere. But we have not thought it
proper, here, to go into an extended discussion, such as would
be necessary to point out the line of distinction between words*
which have become degraded by decay, and those, on the other
hand, which have increased by development. Generally, with
the data so far at the command of philologists, it is almost
impossible to decide whether in a certain form which we find, a
word has become reduced bv decay, like the withering plant, or
is in the first stages of development, as the tender germ. Again,
it is often difficult to decide, in reference to two words, which is
the older ; thus, we have regarded the Greek math and lah as
older than manth and lanib, the latter having grown from the
former by development ; but Dr. Lewis contends, and perhaps
with as good reasons as we could bring to the contrary, that the
^ Sound 9 as A; in Semitie.

21,8 , PE&ASis.

reverse is true, that maih and lah are the later fonnS| arising
by reduction from the others.

But whether it is difficult or easy to draw the lines in ques-
tion, we have found it sufficient for our purpose to show that it
is a law in nature that words, that languages, do live and grow,
as the vegetable and the animal (and hence. must necessarily
decay also), without making the least attempt to show what
words are decaying, and what words, again, are increasing by
growth. And, m very many instances where we have said that
a certain word is a development from some shorter form, if some
one should claim that they have rather arisen by decay from
forms still longer and fuller, we should not object to it.

590. To those who would feel alarmed at the evil tendencies of
some of the doctrines of this work, or, at least, at the gross
absurdities they must inevitably lead to, we have only to call to
mind the fact, or phenomenon, known to every true thinker,
that philosophizing on any subject, when carried to extremes,
will always lead to absurdities ; that, if you would try the great
ocean of thought, you must be content to keep close to the
shore, resting assured that if you venture beyond your depth,
you are certain to go down, and be buried in the depths of its
dark and silent waters. He who has not had this experience,
wherever may have been his path of inquiry, has surely never
pursued thought very far.

591. It is no objection, again, that the reader may know some-
thing to be true which is quite contrary to some proposition in
this work, and that what is found in one part of it may not seem
to be exactly consistent with what is stated in some other part;
a great many very different things may be true of one and the
same subject — counting, mark you, from different stand -points ;
thus, a man six-foot-eight is very tall (high J compared with
common men, but by the side of a respectable liberty pole he
would be called quite the opposite. . The question should be, as
we understand it, whether the proposition is in itself true ; are
the facts such as they are stated to be ; are the conclusions from
them legitimate ? No matter about the consequences, or about
the other things that, no doubt, are likewise true.

592. And, finally, we ask those who complain that we identify
and confound all things in language, to reflect and inquire, and
see if they do not find that the identification of the unknown
(which we exaniine) with the known (with which we are fami-
liar) is the sole business of all inquirers, and if that identifica-
tion is' not all there is of progress in science. He who sets
about showing you that the splendid locomotive is but a devel-
opment of the tea-kettle (on wheels), that the law by which the
planets revolve in their orbits is the same as that by which the

BTYMOLOGY. 219

apple falls to tlie ground, that the pretty flower with all its
variety of sepals, petals, stamens and pistils, is simply a leaf
again and again repeated in all its changes of shape aiid coloring,
busies himself solely with that ideatilcation which constitutes
the basis of this work.

PART n.

HISTORY OF LANGUAGES.

CHAPTER I.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

When we treat of the English, we most also treat of the
Anglo-Saxon, for the English takes its origin from the Anglo-
Saxon, and there is no definite dividing line to distinguish the
one from the other. Somewhere between 450 and 550, we
cannot be precise about the time, England was invaded and
settled by tribes from Germany. The foothold they gained was
never wholly lost; they received accessions from time to time,
and thus became the prevailing and fundamental people of the
British Isles. Who it was that they replaced, what was the
language of these aborigines, are problems that carry us too far
back in the darkness of ages yet to be solved. Whatever was
done, or whatever existed before the arrival of these German
tribes, (Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, as they have been termed),
relates to a people without history and without record ; we must
be content to remain in passive ignorance of these ancient days,
or to amuse ourselves with mere fanciful conjecture.

594. For us, as philologists, we must start with the Anglo or
the English-Saxon. As might be expected for history that
dates back from us at least 1300 years, much of even this is
questionable and uncertain. It is agreed that German is the
basis of the English, that the Anglo-Saxon is German re-formed
add re-wrought, and hence we are certain that German people
are the stock out of which or on which has grown the English
people ; indeed, philology can prove all this without the aid of
history ; but the German people were, like all rustic and aborig-
inal people, a nation of tribes. It is not probable that one tribe
alone made and maintained its settlement in England ; indeed,
we find different dialects in England, and these dialects could
not have had one and a common base.

595. Three names are common in history as denoting those
tribes which, or parte of which, are said thus to have left their
homes to settle iu England, the Jutes, from Jutland, the Saxons,

ENOLISH LANGUAGE. 221

from Saxony, and the Angles, supposed to have heen located in
northern Grermany. But all this is called in question ; it has
been claimed that Jutes and Saxons were not different, and
that such a people as the Angles, from whose name that of the
English is claimed to have come, never existed, or at least never
had a " local habitation/' But all these are points we gladly
pass over ; they afford little amusement, less profit, and infinite
trouble.

596. From about the latter part of the 8th oentury, the Danes
and other Scandinavian people made frequent incursions into
England, often for the mere purpose of plunder, but again with
the apparent desig# of a permanent settlement. Under Canute
and his sons, the Danish was used as the court language ; but
as the Danish or Scandinavian settlement and mastery of the
country was of comparatively short duration, it does not appear
that their language had any material etfect upon the develop-
ment of the Saxon«of-England« The precise, or even Approx-
imate, value of that influence has not as yet been ascertained.

597. A more important, because more lasting, influence was
that of the Norman French. The period of its introduction
usually dates from the victory of William of Normandy, at the
battle of Hastings, in the year one thousand and sixty-six. But
Norman French was introduced, though we may not say fixed,
in Efigland many years before this. Edward the Confessor was
a Frenchman by education^ and, inspired with a love for Nor-
man customs and Norman language, he never ceased in his
endeavor to make them popular and predominant. The effort
to root out -the Saxon and put Norman French in its place was,
however, under William, carried on in a more persistent and
systematic manner. This French was not alone made the court
language and the language of the higher classes of people ; it
was ordered to be taught in the schools ; it was ^he language in
which the laws were written, and in which legal papers were to
be drawn^ Yet with all these efforts, carried on for years, sus-
tained by all the power of kings and their nobles, thoi English
still remained a Saxon,, that is a German language. And thosQ
very kings were compelled themselves to turn from teacher^ of
French to learners of Saxon; so Lard is the way of him who
undertakes to destroy or change the spirit of a language, instead
of being content to cultivate it as it is, or, at most, with changing
its djreQtion.

598. This Norman French has been t)ie n^eans, no doubt, of
initrpducing , many, French term^, but it has qo mpre changed
the true character and inherent spirit of the language than had
the Latin in those European qoun tries where it wfis used as thet
language of soienoe. But we, mmit bear in n^ind^ finally, that

222' PHRASIS.

the Norman French in its native land bordiered on the Crermtti,
and that even there it has much that is identical with German ;
and, if we find the English in the end somewhat assimilated to
it, we must conclude that it was because of the coriginal likeness
in their natures.

599. Some there are who endeavor to give the very jrear
(1356 and 1362 have been named) from which the English,
as opposed to the Anglo-Saxon, is to date. its existence } but we
shall content ourselves with treating the English and the Anglo-
Saxon as one and the same language, wearing different dresses,
and presenting a different appearance in the various periods of
the world and stages of its existence. ^

600. We will illustrate the nature of these two languages, or
two forms of one language, by giving numerous examples, com-
mencing with the Anglo-Saxon, and giving the age, when we
happen to know it,

601. We Will start with the Lord's Prayer in Anglo-Saxon,
of about the Ninth century, (called also Dano-Saxon) :

Fader ure^ thu the earth on Heo/enum
Si thin Nama gehalgod ; To be cume thin Rice
Gewurthe thin willa on Eorthan swa swa on
Heo/num, Ume ge ddgwanlican, Hlaf xyle us
to dUffy And f orgy flux ure gyltas^ swa swa we
forgyfaih urum GyUendum.
. And ne gelddde thu tis on Cosinung, Ac alyse
us of Yfle.
Ure, our ; thu, the, thou, that, or who ; <m, in ; si, be (G^er.
sei;) ge-halgod, is our hallowed, holied ; tarhe-cunte, impera.
come, with prefix to and he ; rice, rick, Lat. regnum ; ge-tourthe,
Ger. werden, be,' become ; sworswa, so-so, so-as ; ume, our, ouren;
ge, every, or as a mere prefix ; ddghwanlican hlaf, daily loaf, or
bread ; syle, send, Ger. steUen ; gyltas, guilt, Ger. schuld, debt,
should ; gyUendwn, owing-ones ; in gelddde, lead, ge is prefix ;
cx)stnung has, in other dialects, the form corung, koring, k being
a prefix, the word being equal to wrong, error, correction, try,
peril, prove ; a^lyse, loose, Lat. liber, a being prefix ; of, from.
In the forms of other dates, we find swih for such, so ; for-
lete, let, let-off ; halyed for hallowed ; ah it in Heaven y do, as
it in heaven is done, y being the Ger. prefix ge ; uch, every,
each. The prayer form of English in 1160 differs scarcely from
the one which we have given. In the form of 1370, we find
come-to for to-be-come, impera. come.

603. The following lines are from the Saxon chronicle : And
thry Scotta^ cwomon to Aelfrede cyninge on anum hate. And
three Scots came ta Alfred king on (or in) a (one) boat Se
hat wa£S ge-workt of thriddan healjre hyde. The boat was

ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 228

wrought of thiid half hide, that is, two and a half hides, a Ger.
ezpreasion. He cwaefh that he bude on thaeni lande northe-
tteoinAm with tha tpest me. He quoth (says) that he bide
^dweil) in the land northward with (against) the west sea.

604. And the following from the laws of Ethelbert; Gif
Cj/img his leode to him ge-hatath^ and heom mon thaer yfel

ffe-do — if king his people (Ger. leiUe^ to him citeth (hight), and
him one (any one) there evil do ; in tne last clause, do is brought
iast, as in German, while we say do him evil,

605. We take the following from an Anglo-Saxon poem :
Iha mec on-gan hreowon — then me 'gan (it) rue,
TlMiet min hand ge-weorc — that my hand work
Qnfeonda ge-^eald — in fiends' power (Ger. ge-waU)
Feran sceolde — should fare (go), (fare should).

606. We find this in another poem, marking the transition
of Anglo-Saxon to English :

He heom leojliche bi-heold — he them lovingly beheld,

Lithe him heo drihten — merciful (to) him be Lord,

Fethenen he nom mid fingre — feather (pen) he took with
fingers,

Andfiede on hoc-fcUe — and wrote (paint) on book-skin.

And iha sothe word — and the true word

Sette Uy-gadere — set together.

The verb pretty uniformly in Anglo-Saxon, as in German,
comes last ; thus, Jawaet do ic thaet ic ece lif age — what (shall)
<]o I that I eternal life have (may have) ; %am hit monnum god
tMnce — whether it (lo) men good seem (think) ; heo hine
^ixode hrta/eg — they (of) him asked loaf; sceolde his Dinhtne
Jhancian thaes leane$ — should liis Lord thank (for) this favor
C^end, loaij, Ger. lohn.)

607. He wUeth and wialdeth alle thing — knoweth, wieldeth.
He i-ucop aUe tfeafte — ^ shapes all (things) shaped.

He wrohtefisc on ther sae — wrought, on the sea.
And/ogeles on thar lefte — fowls, loft (air.)
'I^bese last last lines belong to the language in its later stages.

608. We give the following quotations of English in its
^rlier stages, principally illustrative of the peculiar forms of
certain words, as well as the style of expression :

John highte that oon and Aleyn highte that other ^
Ofoo toun were thei born that highte t^trother^
Ffer in the North, I cannot tellen where,
This Aleyn maketh redy an his gere,
And on an hors the sak he caste auoon.
Bighte^ a common word in old English, is cite, called, and it is
^Te used as part, for pass, verb ; ^t oon, the one ; thei, they ',
ff^y far, over; ready all his gear — gear is apparatus.

224 PHBASIS.

John knewe the weye — hym nedes no gide.

And oMe meUe the tak adovm Tie layth,
HiiD needs no guide — obj. proDonn for nominative, or we may
treat needs as passive ; at the mill down he lays the sack.

Avid therefore is I come and eek (also) Ale^/n,
To grynde oure com, and carye it ham agayne.
What tool (will^ ye done (do) while it is in hande f

lis (am) cw iile (ill) a metier (miller) as are ye.

This John goth out andfint his hors away^
And gan to crie, harrow, and wele away.
Goes out and finds ; began to cry, hallo, and wail.

Whilke way is he goon f Which way ? Ger. welcher.
The foregoing lines are from Chaucer, who was born in 1328,
and died in the year 1400.

Then waxes his herte (heart) herde and hevye,
And his heade grows febiU and dyssie (dizzy),
His gast (soul) tJien waxes sek and sair (sick, sore),
And his face vouches mair and mair (more) — lines from
Northumbrian dialect of 15th century.

The following lines are from the piece " Havelok the Dane'' :
We haven (have), loverd (liord), alle gode (goods),
Hors, and neth (cattle), arid ship onjlod^ (afloat, flood),
Gold ami silver, and mich^l (much) a^ucJUe (else),
That Grim ure (our) fader us bitawchte (betook, gave).

But hise (his) children cdle fyve (all five)

AUe weren (were) yet on live (a-live).
Buleve her (live here), loverd, and all (shall) he thin (thine).
Tho (thou) shalt hen (be) loverd, thou shalt hen syre (sire).
And we sholen serven the and hire (they, your, their),
Ne (nor) wantede (was) there no god mete (meat).

The following is from the York dialect of the 14th century :
In erthe (earth) is treys (trees) and gres (grass) to springe,
Bestis (beasts) andfaulys (fowls) hothegret (great) andsmalle,
FS^sschis (fishes) inflode; all othyr thyng-
Thryffe (thrive) and have my hlyssyng alle.

In hevyn er (are) angels fayre (fair) and brighie,

St ernes (stars) andplanetis yar (their) curssis to ga (go).

Ye mone (the moon) servis on to ye nyght,

The son to lyghte ye day alswa (al-so).

To swylke (so like) a lorde in all ye degre,

Be evirmore lastande lovynge (loving, praising).

Tat tyll (to) us swylke a dyngnite (dignity).

Ha^ gyffyne before aUe othyr thynge (has given).

ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 225

These two lines are Nortliumbrian :

WJia es he (who is the) king o/blisse f Laverd Strang (strong),
And mightand (mighty) to fight, Laverd mightand lang.

Here follow miscellaneous selections :

A. wark ets Jit (work that's fit) /or nin (none) hut parson et
cLea (to do, at do).

Thxm that art to corny nge (to come, a-coming).
Thynges that been to JUen (are to flee, to fly from),
For suche men thai hen vilayns (that are villains),

^e so thei mighten come a-londe — if that they might come
to land (Gower, 14th century).

In Douglas, born in 1475, we find ^cr« = grass, and in Gower
brt/dde = hiTd.

The gvMlIc (which) Juno nowthir lang dayis nor gyeris, nor
nane diuyne sacri/lce may appeis (appease), — neither long days
nor years, nor no (none) divine sacrifice ; and fails war hir
contrare — and fates were (to) her contrary (Douglas). The
is often left out, and u=sv, w,

Quhither thay war Uvand — whether they were living.
And that gye hnaw at gvJiais instance I tuke — ye know at
W^liose instance I took ; gyit ne-the-les 1 aucht louit to he —
yet none-the-less I ought praised to be (Ger. lohen, our laud
Cl^cjuglas.)

Tyl she gan a^ken him howe Hector ferde — till she began
C^K)) ask hiiii how fered (how he did.)

Ful wel I thank it God, sayde Pandarus,
Saue in his arme he hath a lytth wounde.
^"ull well, very well; I thank (for it) God — save, a little
W-ound (Chaucer.)

Gif luf he vertew, than it is lefuL thing — if love be virtue,
^Ixen it is lawful (Douglas.)

Teoven (given) under our signet (sign, seal).
Take'penne in hande and shape him a ful and plaine an-
«-i«7carc — take pen in hand and shape (make, Ger. schaffen) a
iVill answer.

Les sum (lest some) historic, suhteU worde or ryme,
CavMs me (to) mak degressioun sum tyme (some time.)
Withouten (without) noyse or clatteryng of helleSy
Te Dev/m was our songe and nothing elles (else.)
Bim hehotieth serue himselfe that has no swayn.
Or ds he is afole (fool) as clerkes sayn (say) — Chaucer.
^t behooves him to serve, he must serve.
29

226 PHBASIS.

Thah mi tonge were mad of stel (thougli my tongue),
The godness myht y (might I) never telle. 1307

With, face bolde they shullen hem selue (them selve) excuse^
And here (bear) hem doun that wold (would) hem a>ccuse.
But rede (reed) that howeth down for euery (every) hkbste^
Ihd lyghtly cesse Tcease) wynde^ it wol aryse (wUl arise) —
if the wind ceases. (Chaucer.)

That 8che (she) might haue (u = v) t?ie copies of the pretendit
writingis giuen (u = v) in, quhilkis (which) th£y haue diuerse
(u=v) tymes requirit of the Quene's maiestie (i=j) and hir
counsel, suppois (supposing) thay haue not as git (yet) ohtenit
the s'amin (same) (Mary, Queen of Scots.)

From hens to wend (go, went) fullfer into exile^
And ouer (over) the braid sey saylfurth many a myle^ —
From hence to go — far into — the broad sea (Douglas.)
Quhat (what) auenture (u=v) has hrocht the leuand hidder ? —
thee living hither (Douglas.)

Bot athir towart uthir tumis, hut mare
And can hehold his fellow in a stare, —
But other (one) toward the other turns, but more.
If that I spehe after my fantaay (fancy)
As taketh not a grefe (grief) of that I say.
For myn (my) efitent is not hut to play, sitJie (since) ye hen
(am) as gentyl home as L

For neuir syne (never since) with ene (eye) saw I her eft
(after). (Douglas.)

Al shulde I dye — although I should die.
Take rewarde (regard) of thyn ovme valewe (value).
And certayne lie was a good felawe (fellow),
Fvl many a draught of wine had he drawe (drawn.)
Plesance of God (pleasure) ; governance, (government) ; /
wote well, (wot well, know well) ; ouicept Kent, out-take (Ger.
aus-nehm^n), ex-cept ; out-taken one, excepting one ; hie up in
the lyft, high up in the loft, sky, (lyft, luft, is German, and so
we find many German words in old English which do not occur
in the present language.)

For as thefisshe, if it he drie,

Mote (might) in defaute (default) of water die (Gower.)
In the 14th century, we find criand for crying (the aw<?=ung
of German), plesand for pleasing, sayande for saying; and in
1528, makand for making.

609. We find a and on occurring often as a prefix to this
part, or gerund (like the to of our inf., the de of French, and

ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 227

thereof German); as, on hunting , a hunting, in hunting; also,
sound on sleep, asleep. We may notice also that some letters
vbich we unite with a word, as the a in alive, are in old Eng-
fisli separate prepositions — hence, again, we infer the identity
of prepositions with prefixes and initials. To a very late day
we notice, too, the existence of y, i, in place of Grerman prefix
^ of part. ; as yHaught for taught ; in the 15th century, we find
ckild that is i-horyn (born) to us, and a sons i-gevyn us, a son
'given us ; also ge mowe i-leven, ye might believe (be=i, ge, y) ;
in the 14th, we find alle beth {-turned of cristale, all be (were)
turned of crystal.

610. We find also the en, in, of German inf. occurring. very
late in English, as, in a manuscript of 1400, we find, he schal
lovin (love)no man but for Mis (his) owne profyt (own profit).
And still later occurs the final e in the diflferent parts of speech,
which we have lost ; thus, keuerid (kivered, covered) or clothid
toith a cloude (cloud) ; also, unproperlicke sayde, improperly said;
bryddes shall ete (eat) thy bodye (body) ; braste onpeces smale,
burst in pieces small ; the brid is Jiowe, bird is flew, flown ; as
she was bode (bid) to say.

611. The instances where participles differ not from verbs,
(after the Celtic manner), and where the tenses and persons are
not distinguished, are very numerous in old English ; as, the
einUspirytes that ben (been, be, am, are) in the regyon (region) ;
that she must gon (gone, go) ; up is she go (gone) ; so, German
M««=:do is our done.

That char is chared, chore is chored (Sans. Tear, do) ; 1 haue
^d leuer — I have well rather (liever) ; frende steige heiger —
ftiend step (mount) higher; whanne (when) he was dreynt
(pressed, Ger. driicken, throng, drive) with a grievous sleep;
9^lfynge fruyt, seeking fruit; was to takynge, was to take.

612. We proceed next to notice some of the phrases and
expressions of the different dialects of England, of which there
We several. Some would be inclined to pass them by as spuri-
ons or vulgar, and hence unimportant ; but it must be observed
l^t there is nothing spurious in language, that the colloquial
idiom of the peasantry is just as much a form of language, and
j^ as valuable to the philologist, as the more refined expressions
of the court and nobility.

In a Cheshire jpoem we find :

Hym (for him) hade bene (been) better, in good fay e,
Hade (if had) spared oyntmente that date,
For wrocken (wreak) I will be some waie
Of waste that was done thier (there).

613. In Cornwall :

Arrear then, Bessy, ly aloane the backy (leave, tobacco).

228 PHBASIS.

Sty (stay) here a tiny hit, and let us talky (talk).

Ay hut Fve more to say ; this xsiCt ale (all),

You deanc^d wy (with) Mall Rosevear 't a sartin hale;

She toald me so, and lefts me wy a sneare (with sneer).

Ay you, Pengrouse, did dance wy Mail Rosevear.
Hire (hear) me, I says, and thou shat (shall) hire the whoale.
I hires some mizzick at an oald hearne (barn) doore.

614. In Cumberland :

Then TU sit dovm and wail
And greet (weep, re-gret) aneaihe a tree,
And gin (if) a leaf/a* i' my lap,
Ts ca't (rll call it) a word/rae thee, .
Wi' sec (such) thoughts i* my mind.

615. In Derbyshire :

Becoz (cause), mester, 'tis zo cood (cold) Iconner (can't) work
wee the tachin at aw (all). Why dunner (don't) yo mend meh
shoom (my shoen, shoes).

And I said if they were /runted (aflfronted) wee
Hester, they mid (might) he f runted wee mee.
Hester hanner (haint) hin a charrin (choring) there sin (since).

616. In Devonshire :

Let*s tell o'zummet (of something) else; and you warent
(wont) hear me ; iv I say is, if I say yes ; iv thee disnt (doesn't)
zay thee wid (will) ha (have) me.

I he a hit vrightened, hut let us hide yerr (stop here.)

A urning (running) along like a hoss upon wheels.

Us was fools to come yerr and to urn (run) into danger.

617. In Kentish :

And one of theym cam into an hows (house) and axed for
mete (meat), and specyally he aocyd after eggys (eggs) ; and th^
goode wyfiyrifo) answerde that she could speke no JVenshe..
Loo, what sholde a man in thyse dayes now wryte, egges or eyren^
Certaynly it is hard to playse every man, hycause of dyversiie
and chaunge of langage.

618. The following is from an extract of 1340 :

He answer ede thet (that) he com vram (from) the ze (sea) huer
(where) he hedde y-mad (made) manye tempestes, vele (full,
many) ssipes to-hroke (ships break), and moche volk (folk)
adreyct (drown, drink). The maister acsede ine hou (in how)
long time. He zayde, ine zuo (so) moche time hest (hast thou)
ztLO lite (little) y-do (done) ? Manye werren and manye vigtinges
— many wars and many fightings ; thet he hedde grat thing y-do
(Ger. ge-than) — that he had great thing done.

619. In Lancashire :

ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 229

Tlien. I opp'nt (the) dur (door), on whot te dule dust think —
and what the devil dost (thou) think ; I took her for a hoo
(higli) jtistice, hoor (her) so meety (mighty) y?7i€. 1 axt hur of ^
Mr, Justice wur o (at) whoam ; hoo (she, he) could naw (not)
opp*n hur meawth (mouth) t-sey m'gh or now (to say aye or no).

Thirs nawt like thryin (there's not like trying. Dunnos
(dont) be fyert (fraid) ns aw (as I) %ed of ore (before), hut ston
(stand) up for wots reet (right) ; so aw mun lyev awt moor ut
aw av to say — so I must leave out more what I have to say.
Wayn (we've) hdpt Kohdin^ un wayn ^elp yo (you) if yoan
(you'll) set obeawt (about) yur wark gradely,

620. In Somersetshire :

JBem (he, me) war nation aveai d when tha vuss put him in

Ta the grvt ooden box, maust sa big*s a corn binn ;

Thad two gurt large winders, wV *oles vor tha glass ;

Tha locked tha doors, an* there hem were va^s (fast) —
Afeard when they first put him (me) in — To the great wooden
box, most so big — It had two great windows, with holes —
They locked the doors.

Us war glowing right at hem,, ta zeen who hem coudfind,

But avore hem coud look tha icar a. mile behind —
We were staring to see who hiln (me).

Nif Mr. Guy war hirch avaur,
A now war hircher still —

If Mr. Guy was rich before, he now is richer still.

621. In Westmoreland :

Us aw (as I) was a-sa'ing, me sweethart Nanny went ta Lun'
nen ta be a laddies (lady's) made, en aw sud (should) like varra
weel (very well) to see her et times. By gum, if aw tho^it (if I
thought) he* ed been breken t* seals ov my leiturs es (as) aw sent
ta Nanny, first time aw met him aw wad (would) giv him sic
(such) a thumppen es he niver gat in his life befowre.

622. In vulgar Cleveland dialect :

She ommost flyted an* scau*ded me oot o* my wits (almost
blowed (chided) and scolded). She war't t* arrantest scau*d
'at (that) ever I met wi* H my boorn (born) days. She had
sartainly sike (such) a tongue as never war i* ony woman* s head
but her awn (own).

623. The next is Craven-:

Me nepped a lile wee nooken on*t (nipped a little wee corner
(nook) of it), not t* validwm o* my thoum naal (thumb nail),
arC spluttered it out ageean, gloaring (glaring) gon he war
puzzom*d (staring as if he were poisoned).

624. The next, from the Lancashire dialect, is * rather long,
but its amusing character will warrant its insertion here. The
subject is a newly discovered hedgehog :

280 PHRASIS.

He whoavedhis wMsket owr't (hov-ed, heaved his basket over
it), runs whoam (home), an' tells his neighbours he thowt in his
guts 'at he'd fund (found) a thing 'at God newer mede eawt
(never made out) ; /or it had nother head nor iele^ hond nor
hough (hoof), midst nor eend. Loath to believe this, Iwave
(half) a dozen on em woud geaw (go) t' see if they coud'n mey
shift to gawm it (make shift to game it, make it out) ; boh it
cap't em aw (but it oapp'ed them all) ; for they newer a won on
'em e'er saigh (saw) th' like afore. • Then theyd'n a keawnsil
(had a council), an' th' eend on't war, 'at teydn fotch a latvm,
fawse, owdfeUy (they'd fetch a lame, false, old fellow) het
(called) an elder, 'at coud tell oytch (any) thing, for they hok'nt
07i him a>s th' hammd scoance, an' theawt he'r fuller o' leet
(thought he are fuller of light) than a glow-worm's tele. When
they'dn towd (told) him th' kese (case), he stroaked his beard ^
sowghd (sighed), an' order' d th' wheel-barrow wi' th' spon (span)
new trindle (wheel) to be fotch' t. Twur done^ an' they beawld
(bowled) him awey to th' urchon (urchin) in a crack. He
gloated (stared) at 't a good while, droyd (stroked) his beard
down, an' wawted it owr wH his crutch. " Wheel me abeawt
agen o' th' tother side," said he, ^^for it sturs (stirs) and by
that su'd be whick" (should be quick,alive). Then he dons his
spectacles, steared at 't agen, and sowghing said, " Breether, its
summot (something); boh feather Adam nother did nor cou'd
kerson it (christen it). Wheel me whoam agen,"

625. We will conclude our notice of English, by giving a
still further selection of Anglo-Saxon sentences, taken from the
gospels.

Tha com thaer an wif of Samaria wolde water feccan — then
came there a wife (woman) of Samaria, (who) would water
fetch; tha cwaeth se haelend to hyre, gyf me drincan — then
quoth the Lord to her, give me (to) drink.

Tha answer ede se haelend. and cwaeth to hyre (then answered
the Lord and saith to her), gifthu wistes Godes gyfe (if thou
knowest God's gift), and hwaet se ys he cwaeth to the, sele me
drinken (and who (what) that is who says to thee, give (scfe)
me to drink). Witodlice (then) thu bede hyne thaet he sealde
the lyfes weater (thou (would) beg him that he (should) give thee
living water) ; thu hafst nan thing mid to hladene, and thespctt
ys deop — thou hast none thing with (which) to draw (lade),
and this pit is deep.

626. Let us observe, once for all, that all translations given
under this head, as well as under the heads which follow, are,
with very rare exceptions, meant to be word-for-word, follow-
ing the precise order of the text.

GERMAN LANGUAQB. 231

• CHAPTER II.

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

627. On the German language we shall dwell longer than
tipon any other ; it is important, not only by the number of
persons who speak it, and the number of minor languages
which are related to it, but more especially by the extent and
variety of its literature, and the peculiar manner in which its
thought is expressed.

628. The English is, as said before, a German language, and
yet between the English and the German there is a great dif-
ference, one far greater than is generally supposed. The words
in one, it is true, have their undeniable representatives in the
other, and yet we put these German words in a very different
place, and apply them in quite a different manner, from that
which would meet the choice of a true German. The German
thought is different from the thought of any other people^ and
as we might expect, it is clothed in a corresponding garb.
They, the Germans, have the same grammar as we ; it is easy
for us, English as we are, to recognize their moods, their
cases, their nouns, their adjectives, their pronouns, their par-
ticles ; and yet they do, in some way, manage to work up those
very same elements in such a novel yet true German style, that
we fiad it hard to bring it home to us. It takes time to master
the language — let the student bear that in mind. . He may get
a smattering in a far less period, he may learn the meaning of
the words from the lexicon, he may get some little conception
of the import of what he reads ; but, nevertheless, he has not
mastered the idiom, the style^ the thought of the German
people. It takes years for an Englishman to do it, hard labor
and long months with that. But when it is done his toil will
j^e well repaid. He has then mastered, if he be English, all the
idioms of Europe, save the Latin and what belongs with it.
And if, having the English and the German at command, he
also be master of the Latin expression, there is no idiom of
Europe that he will not easily understand. He may study the
Slavic, the Finnish, the Celtic, the Scandinavian languages,
• and he will find little in their style of expression that is peculiar
or strange to him. The idiom is the soul, the essence,. of lan-
guage; when we have mastered that, and not before, all flows
along with us easily and smooth. The following selections will
serve to illustrate the German idiom and peculiarities — with
translations word-for-word.
629. So scheint (shines) wirklich nichu bestandig (standing)

232 PHRASIS.

ewig (ever) und des-namens-princip-wiirdig zu $ein, derm (tlian)
allein die materie — so seems really nothing (nothing seems)
lasting, eternal and of-the (des) name principle worthy to be,
than (save) alone the ma,tter (ofrthe-name-principle-worthy, is
one adjective, referring back to nichts, nothing).

JSs kann eine kraft (power) so wenig ohne eirten (an) staff
existiren, als ein sehen ohne einen seh-apparat — it can a force
so little without a stuff exist, as (als) a seeing (sehen) without
a see-apparatus (a force can so little exist). x

Geht man aw/ (upon, up) den grund^ so erkennt man hold
(soon) dass es weder (neither) kra/te noch (nor) materie gibt —
goes one down to the bottom (ground), so knows (perceives)
one soon (one sQon, sees) that it neither force nor matter gives
(es gibt, there gives, is).

Indem (in-that) der ver-fasser die feder (feathei;) er-greifb
(grasps) — when the author the pen takes; umsich mit einem
vor-wort (fore- word) zu der binnen wenigen (few) monaten nbthig
(needy), ge-wordenen dritten auflage (edition) seiner " ^tudien'*
an (on) das (the) puhlikum zu wenden — for (in-order-to) self
with a preface to the within few months necessary become third
edition (of) his " Studies '' to the public to turi^ (apply to); (for
to turn (sich'Wenden), or go, to the public with a preface to th.e-
witbin-few-months-become-necessary-third edition). The long
adjective belonging to auflage (edition) is one of the striking
peculiarities, very common, in German. The sich, self, often
cannot be rendered in English — often being a mere article.

Geschrieben wird (are) der accent nur zum (for-the) unter-
schied (distinction) verschiedener formen und ah-leitungen (off-
leadings) — written becomes the accent (it is written) only for-
the distinction (of) different forms and derivations.

Was die bis-her (to-here) be-kannten (known) Samoiedischen
^rach'proben (speech-proofs) be-trifft — what the to-here (now)
known Samoidish specimens, concerns (what-concerns, as cqu-
cerns).

Den winter lang werde (will, were) ich fische fangen — the
• winter long (all winter) will I (arn I) fish catch.

Ich weiss (wot, wit), das die menschen zu hause (house) sind
(are) — I know, that the men to hopie are.

Was W, Humboldt, in semen (his) geist-reichen (spirit-
rich) werke iiber die Kauri sprache, gelegentlich iiber die aus.
ur alter (early-age) zeit her-stammende (here-coming) ver-
wandtschaft der Malay isch-Polynesiclien mundarten (dialects)
mit dem Sanscrit merkt hat-— whht W. Humboldt, in his
ingenious work over (on) the Kawi language (speech), oppor-
tunely over the-out-(of)-early-time-originating relationship of
the (der) Malayo-Polynesian dialects with the Sanscrit, re-

GERMAN LAKGUAaS. 233

marked has. (What W. Humboldt has remarked, in his work
on Kawi, incidentally on the relationship of, etc.)

Ware das Gothischefar uns ver-loren ge-gangen — were (if it
were) the Q-othic for us lost gone (go-lost = lost).

Gott ist dasun-ab'hdngige (un-hanging), selhst-stdndige wesen,
welches (which) keines (no) andem wesens (essence) zu seiner
existenz be-dar/, folg-Uch (follow-ly) vwi vmd durch svch-selhst
ist — Qo^ is the independent j self-standing essence, which (of)
no other essence to its existence needs (has need of no other),
con-sequently of (yon) and through itseli (it) is.

Der von (from) der schranke des iheismus jreie Kant^ ist Fichte
— the-fr om-the-limits-(of )-the - theism-free (free - from - theism)
Kant, is Fichte.

TFcw nicht ge-lieht wird (are), nicht, ge-lieht werden (be,
were) kan/n — what not loved is, not loved be can (cannot be
loved).

Wird man sich so-dann (so-then) die /rage zur (to-the) klaren
ent^scheidung (de-ciding) bringen miissen — will one self then
Ihe question to-the clear decision (separation) bring must (if one
will must bring, i. e. if one will bring, the question).

Ich habe deinen bruder diesen morgen ge-sehen — I have thy
l)rother this morning seen (I've seen him).

Ich bin schon zehn yahre in Araerika — I am (have been)
already ten year in Afnerica.; ich muss ihn sprechen — I must
(to) him speak. Mn stein fiel mir (to-me) auf (up) den kopf —
a stone fell (to) me up (on) the head.

Dax buch ist keinen (no) thaler werth — ^the book is no (none)
dollar worth.

Wa^s ist aus ihm geworden — what is out (of) him become ?
Ich sehe dich (thee) als meinen freund an — I see you as my
^end on (look on thee as a friend). The separation of the
*n from s^ is a very common feature in German — and often
^hey are far wider separated.

In emem (one) ta^fe Idsst sich viel thun — in one day lets self
^xich do (may much be done).

Jn zwanzig jahren werde (am) ich ein greis sein (be)— in
**^'enty years will (am) I a gray (old man) be.

Wenn^h nicht sinnen und dichten soil, so ist da^ hben m>ir
(t:o me) kein leben mehr — when (if) I not muse and think
*liall, so is the life (living) to-me no life more (if I should not
^Tise).

Hr wusste nicht, soUte er (he) gehen oder nicht — he wist
Cfcaew) not, should he go or not (whether he should).

Ich schUme mich, dass ich es vergessen habe — I shame me
^a.in ashamed), that I it forgotten have.

Ich habe niemais (no times) in seinem hause mit xhm (him)
30

284 PHRASIS.

wein ge-trunken — I have never in his house with him wine
drunk (drunk wine).

Ein hund stakl dem (from- the) kocJie ein stiick (piece) fieisch
aus der kUche, und ent-fioh damit — a dog stole (from) the cook
a piece meat (flesh) out the kitchen, and away-flew there-with.

Undsprach: ^^den alien sultan (a dog's name) schiess (shoot)
ich mergen todt, der ist zu nichts mehrniltze '/' the old sultan
shoot I (to-) morrow dead, who (the, he) is to nothing more use
(I will shoot him to-morrow, he is of no more use).

Sie nehmeii ihr (their) kleines kind mi<-- they take their little
child with (them).

Alles licht vmerer atmosphdre geht von (from) der sonne aus
— all light (of) our atmosphere goes from the sun out.

Nehmen wir an — take we on (if we take on, claim) ; wenden
wir (we) diese analogie auf das licht an — turn we this analogy
up (on) the light on (we turn it to the light).

630. We may observe here that, in pronunciation, German
te = e«, ei p^ iV, u ^ oo, au = ou in our, a = ah, or as o in on,
i= ee (short), e= a in ate, o mostly as u in up, or long 6, J is
always as our y; e final is always sounded; v=/, w=v, gt
vw, th^= t Thus, (very nearly) die is pronounced dee, W€m =
mine, um = oom, haus = hous, man = mon, mir = meer, nuilir
^=^mayr, kopf^=hap'f, so = so, je = i/e, habe = h^h'bvh, vater
=/ahter, wojS = vwa^, thun = toon, schein = shine (sch =s sh).

Forms of German,

631 . The selections which we have so far given belong to the -
literature of the present standard German. But there are many
forms, branches, and dialects of this language ; that is, the term
German may be applied to a great many varieties of the old
Teutonic idiom, and we must endeavor first of all, to understand
the application of the particular names which these varieties
assume.

632. The first important division is that of High German and
Low German, and alongside of these is usually placed another
parallel class, the Gothic, called also Moeso-Gothic, or the Grothic
of MoBsia.

633. The High German is again divided into sections, corre-
sponding with its age : the old or ancient High German, or the
earliest stage of High German known to us. Middle High Ger-
man, or the same as it appeared in the 12th to 15th centuries,
and the present or modern High German. The old High Ger-
man, in different dialects, was spoken up to about the 11th and
12th centuries in southern Germany, in Switzerland, in Bavaria,
Suabia, and Franconia — the name Francic, or Alemannic, is
also Applied to it, or to ^ particular stage of it.

GERMAN LANGUAGE. 285

634. The present German, or modern High German, is pro-
perly the written language of Germany, dating from the time of
the introduction of Luther's Bible ; as a spoken language, it is
best represented in Saxony, Hanover, and Prussia — but at
present, as well as in past times, the language spoken by the
people greatly varies in the different portions of Germanic
Europe.

635. The Low-German class is large ; besides including the
Anglo-Saxon and the English, the Old Saxon and Old Frisian,
there is also belonging to this class the modern Dutch, and the
Low German proper. The latter term, as a subdivision, applies
to the dialects of the Elbe, Ems, and Weser. Grimm speaks of
old Low German and middle Low German (or Netherlandish).
The old Low German writings are found between the 8th and
the 11th centuries, and the middle Low German between the
11th and 16th. The modern, or new. Low German (also called
Modern Saxon) has ceased to be written as a dialect, since the
16th century, being replaced by the present High German.
The Low German which is now spoken on the shores of the
Baltic, differs very materially in sound from the ordinary
German.

636. The following are early specimens of German (Franoic),
belonging, perhaps, somewhere between the 6th and 8th cen-
turies — these selections also very well represent old Anglo-
Saxon :

Fader ist risa firio barno ; thu hist an them hohen hirailo Hkie ;
Siuuihid si thin namo uuordu gihuUiciL ; cume thin craftiga riki;
uuerthe thin uuiUeo obar uuerold; alia so samo en erduy so thar
yppe ist an them hohon himilo rikie. Crib us dagegihuHices (whole )
^aidy drohtin thie guodo^ thina helaga helpu — Father is our (of us)
lUen bom (sons of men, mortals ; firio^L^i. vir, a man) ; thou art
(be'st) on the (them) high heaven kingdom {rikie, rick) ; blessed
be (si) thy name word all (every word) ; come thy powerful king-
dom ; become (German werden) thy will over world ; all so same
ou earth, so (as) there up is (as it is up there) in the high heaven
lick. Give us day every (each day) bread, Lord the good (one),
tliy holy help. (It must be constantly kept in midd that uu = w).

Thu bist thie uuaro, quat Petrol, uualdendes suno, libbiandes

Grades, the thit lioht gi-schop (shaped), Crist cuning euuig (ever)

-^thou be'st the true (waro), quoth Peter, pre-vailing son (of

the) living G^d, that this light (lioht) made (made this light),

Chnst king eternal (ewig).

EhUtro habis thu an thinan herton gi-lobon — sincere have

thou on thy heart belief (Ger. glauben) ; gi-frumide mid

wuorclim endi mid uuercun — formed (performed) with words

Uid with works ; eTidi (and) mid iro handon scriben an buok —

236 ^ PHRASIS.

and with their (iro) hands (to) write in book ; helagna (heal-
ing) gest (ghost) — holy spirit.

The liudi stuodun unhi — the people (German leute) stood
around (by); hiegi-sah thar after — he saw there after (^t, cAi,

?e, is oiten found with the past tense as a prefix here, while it
elongs to the part, alone in German) ; Me sprak him mid is
uuorden tuo — he spoke (to) him with his words to; ik is engU
heon — I his angel am (been) ; thina dadi sind — thy deeds are ;
thie guodo gumo — the good man (Lat. homo).

So unit an uncro jvguthi — so we (two) in our youth : pe^ "■
uuis (was) thu — hail be (was) thou ; thu sceaUfari allon uuesan
uuihon giuuihid — thou shalt (be-) fore all be (was) wives blessed

(before all wives); htw mag that gi-utterthan so — how m&j

that be-come so ; gi-sahan endi gi-horean — (to) see and (to ^^ •)
hear ; thit ist mahtig thing — this is mighty thing.

DhtLo ir (he) himUo garuuida dhar uuar ih — when he hea ^ i-
ven pre-pared there was I; c^i-cAwWiY^ known, acquainted.^Ed,
chirscaffanes ist = created is (shaped) ; chi-holan istfona mann^^-^^i^
angom — con-cealed is (it is) from men's eyes {chi=ge-^; ckCs^e-^ir
hurt = birth, chi-boran, born ; Got chi-scuof mannan — Gt)<^ ^d
made man; chi-frumida dhen — (he) formed him; chi-^Led^'^Sa
(did) mih — made me.

Gates gheizt ist sprehendi dhurah mih — God's spirit is speal^^Jft-
ing through me; vuip^ ohe thu vuissis — woman (wife) if tho' ^kdvl
wist; vuielih Gotes gift ist — what God's gift is; veiz %h daz <
war (true) segist — know I that thou true sayest.

Unde dir sinemo (his)- boden, vtianda ih sundic Mn, ioh i
ge-dahidon ioh in vuorden — and (to) you his messenger^ sine
I sinning am, both in thoughts and in words; ih chi-sah, I 8 a>^ w ;
ih gi-sahi, gi-herte, I said, heard ; so waz so ih uuidar got ^^'
uuillen gi-tati, so who so (what-so-ever) I against Grod*fi will d _-^id
(widar = Latin iterum, our with = against).

Nil auh huuer mac dhesiu stimna uuesan (be) — now of wE_ 'ho
(whose) may this voice be? ih quhimu — I come; chisen^d^^dU^
sent ; chi-deda, made ; chindh uuirdit uns chi-boran^ sunu uuirc^^ dit
uns chi-gheban — (a) child (Ger. kind) becomes (to) us boi^ci" rn,
(a) son becomes (to) us given ; suueribi Gote — swear by Go^KZ=)d;
dhine daga ar-fullide uuerdhant — thy days fulfilled were ; thet^s^-mo
selueme cide — (at) the same time ; thuruhe salichedi selu s ^^^i n-
eru — through (for) health (safety) (of) soul Kis (his soul).

Aihe vane andem thie theru selvem. vuizzidi leven theru er
selvo levitt — or (other) from others that (thie) (by) the 8a-'"3De
(self) law live (by) which {theru) he (him-)self lives; thaa jr
habe aUicha gi-lauba — that he have all-like (catholic) beKje/'
(^*=*be).

637. Much of what we have now given would be classed wi^^

GERMAN LANGUAGE. ' 287

the old Siaxon, but we must observe that it is difficult to draw a
line between old Saxon and old High German. There is a great
resemblance in the orthography, the words being often identical.
We notice the following differences ; the German person endings
are -t*, -is, -it; -ames, -at, -antj but in Saxon they are -w, -i«,
-id; -ady -ad, -ad ; Ger. inf. ending is -a/i, prest. part, -ant-er,
past part, -an-erj but Saxon inf. -an, part, -and, part, -an^ ; the
case endings do not materially differ.

638. It is worthy of remark, that in both these languages (or
disjects) the endings of nouns and verbs resemble those of Latin
much more than the endings of the present German do, and they
have, besides, more words like Latin, and English, in orthogra-
phy ; thus, in old High German we find hreinij pure, serene ;
kiriy greedy ; reiH, ready (L. pa-ratus) ; lindi, s-lendcr, thin
(L. le-nis) ; peraht, bright ; klao (L. callidus) skillful ; Mat
li. laetus), glad ; vruot (L. prvdetis), prudent ; Itioken, to look ;
rpreitan, to spread; tueljan, dwell, delay; scolan, seal, shall;
icoUa, should; chnahan, to know — and the corresponding Ger-
man words are rein, gierig, he-reit, Mein and schlank (Jclar),
Idxig (/roK), (vorsichtig), (^sehen), hretten, ver-weilen, soUek,
soIUe, kennen,

639. From the old Saxon, we may introduce the following :
scado, shade, Ger. schatien; wac% watch, Ger. wach; hard,
hard, Ger. hart; ward, guard and ward, Ger. wa^he and wehr;
wa^, water, Ger. wasser.

i/dd, acid, L. acet^u/m, Ger. essig ; swehan, L. somnium,
dream and sleep, Ger. traum; heru, sword, L. gladius (gld =
hrd), Ger. schwert; wiht, (some-)thing, L. quid, G^r. et-was.

MikU, much, L. magnus, Ger. manche ; thimm, dim, Ger.
dunkel ; &cip, ship (c=h), Ger. schiff; lith, limb, L. memb-rum,
G-er. g-lied ; worold, world, Ger. welt, L. mundus (m = w) ; toth,
tooth, L. dens, Ger. zahn,

Lud, look (face), Ger. ant-litz ; gumo, man, L. homo, Ger.
^^^%€nsch ; juguth, youth, L. juventus, Juvend (Ger.) ; cumhal,
cymbal, L. signum, Ger. zeichen ; hrastjan, burst, Ger. bersten ;
^n,tith, mouth, Ger. mund; dad, deed, Ger. that, L./act-um.

Wapan, weapon, Ger. waffe; seola, soul, L. (anima), Ger.

«€cfe; wreth, wrath, L. irattts, Ger. wuth; mester, master, L.

^nagister, Ger. meister (e = a = ag = ei) ; suet, sweat, L. sudor,

Q-er. schweiss; hlot, lot, L. fors, Ger. loos; grot, great, Ger.

Qirou; bom, beam (tree), Ger. baum, o = ea, au.

• Hobid, head, L. caput, Ger. haupt (o = ea, a, au, and bid,

ptU,pt a= dd, did, d) ; gruri, horror (g = h), Ger. gravrcn, gray,

i "hoary, (also Ger. schauer, shower, shiver, shudder, dread); hliop,

i Wp, Ger. laufen, L. carro (cr=»hr = h); simnen, ever, L.

\ temper, Ger. immer.

288 PHBASIS.

Wurt, root, L. rad-ix, Orer, wurz-el ; ertha, earth,* L. terray
GtGT, erde; morth, murd-er, Q-er. morden; thiohy thief, Ger.
dieb ; hros, horse, G^r. ross ; her^ d-ear, Ger. hell,

Quic^ quick (q-vick), L. i7ivw«, Ckr. lehen (lb — vv) ; garUy
ready and prepared, L. paratusy G. bereit, gar ; kuthy ao-quainCed,
L. notiis (for gnotus), Ger. kund ; stioty sweet, Ger. siiss ; suavy
severe, L. gravis (sur, svr, vr =3grv, rv, vr), Ger. schwer (s-ch
= s-k, s-g).

Blithiy b-Iithe, L. Imfm, Ger. lustig; crumby crumb and crimp,
L. curvus (cr^v, cr-vm, cr-um, cr-imp), Ger. krumm ; cvic, quick,
L. vivus; suepuy sweep and brush, L. verro ( su « s-v, v), Ger.
/e^en (fg, vg, vp).

Hrojmy call, L. clamo, Ger. ru/en (hrp « clp, chn ; h-rp « rf ) ;
raduy per-suade, L. svxzdeo, Ger. rath; /aru, fare, (go), L.
ybre, were, L. vado; skaku^ shake, L. quatio (skk, shk =kt, kk,
qt), schiltteln; gripu, gripe and grasp, L. arripio (arr=:gr),
Ger. ergreifen,

WritUj write, L. scriboy Ger. schreihen; scridu, L. gradiory
stride, Ger. schreiten ; hniguy kneel, L. tn-cUno (cln = nl, knl),
Gier. knien ; Itikuy lock, close, L. claudo, Ger. schrloss ; tiuhuy
tow, L. traho (tr=* t), Ger. Ziehen ; biddu, beg, bid, L. petOy
Ger. beten, bitten; deljan, deal, L. dividere (dlj i:* dlv, dv), Ger.
iheilen; hlinon, incline (hi =*cl) ; copon, get, Ger. kau/en, .

640. We will next give the following specimens of old Ger-
man poetry. They will afford a fair idea of the way the ancient
Germans, in common with the whole of northern Europe,
expressed their thoughts, and an idea, too, of the pecidiar vein
in which those thoughts are found to run. The lines are taken
from a poem supposed to belong to the 9th century.

Einan kuning uneiz ih * — A king knew Ij

Heizsit her hluduig — called Herr Ludwig,

Ther gemo gode thionot — that willing God tend (served);

Ih uueiz her imos hnot • — I know he him reward ;

Kinduuarth herfaterhs — (while a) child were he fatherless.

Thes uuarth imo sar buoz — this was (to) him soon redressed ;

Holoda inan truhtin — favored him (the) Lord (did),

Magaczogo uuarth her sin — (his) leader became he his;

Gcd) her imo dugidi — gave he him virtue (he gave)

Fronisc githigini — and noble servants (people), *

Stual hier in urankon — (a) throne here in France,

So brv^he her es lango — so use he it long (time) ;

Thaz gideHder ihanne — that divide-he then (he did)

Sar mit karUmanne — soon with Carloman,

Bruoder sinemo — (a) brother (of) his,

Thia czala uuMnniono — the (a) great joy (to both).

GERMAN LANGUAGE. 289

•Xoronuuolda «» God- — try (him) would his God,
t)h her arheidi — whether he labor

jSo iung thohnmahti — so young bear might (could bear it) ;
Jjietz her lieidine man~ (then) let he heathen man
Obar seo lidan — over (the) sea come (lead).
This is considered a specimen of old High German.

641. We add a few extracts from another Old German poem,
called " Der Nibelunge Not/' Its great resemblance to old Eng-
lish will be easily observed ; indeed, its style is not German.

Do vmohs in Niderlanden — there grew (wax) in Nethe):land
Eins richen kUneges kint — a rich king's son (child) ;
De9 vater kiez Sigemunt — the father (was) called Sigemunt.
Sin muoter Sigdint, — (And) his mother Sigelint,
In einen hurye riche — in a (one) burg rich (a rich one),
Witen wol be-kannt — wide, well known (ac-quaint)
Niden hi dem Rine — Down (neath) by the Ehine,
Diuwas ze Santen genant — It was to San ten named.

4( 4c 4c * * 4c *

So bin ich dines wiUen — So am I (of ) thy will
Waerlichen vro — Truly (verily) glad

VndwUdirz helfenenden — and will thee (it) help accomplish
. So itt aUer beste kan^ — So I all best can (the best I can),
Doch hat der kiinic GurUher — Though has the king Gunther
YU manege hoch vertigen man — full many {a) valiant man.

4c4c3ie4c*4c**

Welt ir den kiinic vinden — Will you the king find,

Daz ma^c vil wol geschehen — That may full well happen (be) ;

Injenem sale witen — in that hall wide

Han ich in gesehen — have I him seen,

Bi den sinen helden — By the his heroes ;

Da suit ir hine gan — There shall you (to) him go.

4c 4c He « 4c ♦ ♦ •

" Das tvon ich" sprach Hagne — " That do I,'' said Hague,
Zeinem venster er do gie — (To) his window he then went,
Sin ovgen er da wenken — His eyes he there (let) waver,
Zuo den gesten lie; — To the strangers (he) let (them);
Wol behagte im ir geverte — Well pleased him their trappings,
Dhd oUch ir gewant — And eke their garment (pleased).
Si waren im vU vremde — They were (to) him full strange
In der Burgunden lant — In the Burgundy land.

4i4c4(.4c4e4c4c*4e

Tr ros diu sint schoene — Their horse they are shiny (pretty),
Tr kleider harte guot — Their clothes hard good ;
Von swannen sie koment — From whence they came,
Si tint hdde hoch gemuot — They are heroes (of) high mind.

240 PHRASIS.

Also sprach do Hague — So spoke then Hagne,
^^Ich wil des wol verjehen — I will this well confess,
Swie ich nie mere — So (though) I never more
Sivriden habe gesehen — Sivriden have seen,
So wil ich tool gelouben — Yet (so) will I well believe
Swie ez dar umbe stat — so (that) it there of stands,
Daz ez si der recke — That it is that hero
Der dort so herlichen gat — Who there so lordly goesr."
The words are pure German, but with a tendency in ortho-
graphy to the simplicity of the old English.

642. Friesic. — The old Friesic was spoken a long time
since by the Frisons of the Rhine, extinct since about the 16th
century. It very closely resembles the Anglo-Saxon, and was
intimately related to it, as well as to the Icelandic and old Saxon.

There is the modern Friesic, still the language of a portion of
the German race, in Friesland and elsewhere ; even this is again
divided into different sections or dialects.

643. Under the term Netherlandish, may be included two
forms, varying slightly, of one and the same dialect of the great
German language — the Fleinish, or Flandrish, and the Hol-
landish, or Dutch. They constitute a class running parallel
with the Friesic, and identical with it in almost every essential
point — save variation in orthography. A brief notice of the
Dutch will suffice to give a general idea of the peculiarity of the
whole.

644. Notwithstanding all the similarity between the Dutch
and German in their natures, there is yet considerable difference
in the appearance they present. The Dutch construction and
composition of words is entirely German, but the orthography
is as decidedly English, rather English, however, in its older
days — what of the Dutch is not either German or English, is
a very small portion of it; so that for an English scholar under-
standing German, the task of acquiring the Dutch is very short
and easy, not to say pleasing also.

645. A few examples will illustrate these facts : Voorts meen
ik, insgelijksy ah regel te kunnen stetten — further think (mean)
I, likewise, as (a) rule to can give (that I can give as a rule) ;
ge'lijk-ook de daarvan af-ge-leide (off-lead) naam-woorden —
like also {ook^ eke) the therefrom derived name-words (nouns).
Om het bepalend lidwoord in het Makassaarsch uit te drukken
— for the limiting (be-paling) article (limb-word) in the Mac-
cassar out to press (for, to press out (express) the limiting
article).

DihwijU ook treft men zelfstandige naam-woorden an — thick-
whiles (often) also meets one (one meets, hits) independent
(self-standing) name-words on {treffen-an i= an-treffen^ strike
on, hit).

OBBMAK LANGUAOS. 241

'Bet ondeficheid tuBt-chen heide/ormen — tbe difference (un-
^^r-cat, sever) twixt both (beide) forms ; dat er em zekere na^
^^"tik CfpJiet tooord volt — that there {er^ Ger. gar^ dar) a (an)
Certain (secure)' force (strike, bloyf) up (on) the word falls;
l^etzij door fOLmnhechting van letter-gr^Msn -— it-be (al-beit)
through on-fixing of syll8Jt)les (letter-groups).

Oo% tot heteren ver-stande der oude schryvers is de kennis der
dicUekten hoogU ge-wigtig — and for-the (iot, to, till) bet^r un-
derstanding of-the (d!er) old writers (scribers) is the knowledge
{oi) the dialect^ highest important (weighty).
. I)e mkde consonanten Minken zoo als men ze uit een zuiver
nederZandschen mond hoort — the single consonants sound

^cling) so as one them (ze) out (of) a pure (sure, sober) Nether-
landiBn mouth .hears (sound a^ one hears them from a). Set
Mcheelde wemig of hy was dood ge-weest^^ it wanted (lacked)
little but (or) he was dead been (as we would say, a little more
aad he had been dead, or killed).

Jk aud \t hem doen d^oen— I shall it him make do (do do i~
make do); hyzal hem nooit konnen doen werken — he shall him
nev^r oaa (be able) to-make work (never make him work) ; de
gene die ons kwam^ zien — the ones that (the, which) us came
toHsee (came to see. us) {gene, written geen, is Ger. A;ew = none,
our amy, one — it has the forcp also d£ which).

Zie o/.(if) hy dat ge-daan hebhe — see if (whether) he that
done has (has done that) ; Ik doe het eens-deels am de vriend-
schap te onderhouden, en ander-deels am niet leeg te zitten — I
do it partly (one-parts) for-to the friendship to uphold (under-
hdd), and on-other-hand (other-parts), for-to (om) not idle
(Qer. ledig, void, lazy) to sit (fo^r not to sit idle).

Zo gy my (me).de eer wilt gunnen u alt-emets te zien — so
(if) you (tl^ou) me the honor will grant (give), you alltimes
(sometimes) to, see (to see you sometimes). De ziekte is erger
(worse) dan fnen denkt — the sickness is worse than one thinks.
HUjfs hqog (bow-od) onder onze voeten — the ice bend-ed under
our feet (foots).

One single example (John xx, 2) will suffice to compare the
Bntok and German, as to appearance — and first the German :
Da l&afi «te, vnd kommt zu Simon Petro, wnd zu dem^ andem
fimgety welchen Jesus lieh hatte, vnd spricht zu ihnen : iSie haben
' den Kerm weggenomm,en aus dem grabe ; und wir wissen nicht^
too tie %hn hingelegt haben.

(Dutoh) : Zij liep dan, en kwam tot Simon Fetrus, en tot
clen anderen discipel, dien Jezus lief had, en zeide tot hen : Zij
hebben den Heere weggenomen uit het graf, en wij weten niet,
wa4ir zij hem ge^^legd hebben. (Translated) : She ran (leap)
then, (Ger., then leaped she), and came to Simon Peter, and
81

242 PHBASIS.

to the other disciple, that {dien^ the, which) Jesus dear had
(held dear), and (en) said to them : They have the Lord way-
taken out (of) the grave, and we wot (know) not where they
him laid have (have laid him).''

646. Swiss Idiom. — We will next dwell briefly on the
Swiss form of the German. It is spoken in the greatest part of
Switzerland, and is found in several dialects. It is particularly
interesting from some of the peculiar forms which its words
present. It is evidently German, but German with a ruling
tendency to identify itself in orthography with the English.
The German article ein is here reduced, as with us, to one let-
ter, e, a; liai; em and tm, Ger. ihm, our Mm; e is ace. of
our he ; our, Ger. unser, is here use, eiwe, eus, us / fVom-us is
von-us, prep, united with pronoun, as we often find it elsewhere ;
you, in the oblique cases, is ccA, uch, uwe, G^r. euch — in the
nom. of this pron., we find the forms der, er, ier (i-er^ as if we
said ye-r, Ger. ihr) ; de is for Ger. den and der, our ^ ; also
da, ns da stier won-i g^haufb ha — the (that) steer which-I (wo
s= which) bought have (which I bought); mi, Ger. mein, our
my ; wek, Ger. welcher, L. quaUs and tUe ; de ma toon-i gseh
hah — the man whom-I seen have; — there is a general tend-
ency to slight the final n and m, as in ma for man,

Er hed, he has, Ger. hat; m^er hand, we have, Ger. hahen
and hahend ; % ha g-ha-, I have had (G. ge-haht) ; m^er w, we
are, G. wtr sind; i hi g-si, I be (am) been (G. ge-wesen) ; «,
be, G. sein ; % toiU, or i wolt, 1 will, or would ; give is ga, or
gah, G. gehen; mer gend, we give, G. ge^end; for go, with /,
we find the forms, gan, ga, gah, goh, gange; er gat, and er
gohd, or gett, he goes (he go-ed) ; Ger. kommeUy to-come, is hero
cho=go ; i hi cho, I be gone, have gone (go).

647. We notice, here, many beautiful illustrations of the fact
that every part or person of the verb presetits one of its simple
forms, and that the form which we find with one application in
one language, is found in a very different place in another ; thus,
here, er hit (or lait), he lies, in form equals he laid; er seid
^or said), he says (said) ; i gan (or gange), 1 go (gone, going) ;
t wott, I will (would) ; i hi, I am (be); er loht, he praises
(praised) ; gang, impera. go (going). So we see, again, that
the past t^nse, or any other part of the verb, is quite identioal
with the present.

This language presents, too, many excellent illustrations of
one letter representing two or more condensed, latent ; thus,
chro^ (go) = Ger. k-ommen ; i ligge (G. liegen, lie), and er lit
(li-es), hence lit is for liggit (iggi, iyyi, iiii, i) ; so Ger. haben
is ha (dben, aven^ auen^ aee, a) ; er git, he gives, Ger. giebt (ieb
-i) (give = go).

^BBfliAN LAHaUAGB. 243

648. We will m6zt add a list of a &w of its most peculiar or
instraetiv^ wotds :

A and a4it (brook, riyer), Ger. b-ach^ L. anmis, Icel. aa;
auw, owy L. oviff, our ewe, sh-e^; beta, pa, Grer. vater, father;
diistg, tame, still, L. taceo ; dolen, L. toUo, Icel. dol, Q. dulden^
en-^ure; trant (course, step), train, Du. ^a9i^= pace, tre«4»
tramp, Ger. schritt; dur, through; tvigen, alone, one, Gi^r. eih;
eppis, (something), Ger. etunis; eren, Ger. ackem, acre, ear, L.
oroestill; geU, yell, G. tohaU; glaren, to glare, g-lance, look;
jgfTifpPf crop, top, head, Ger. hopf ; lupfen, lifb, heave, L. lefvo^
Dan. lofte (loft) ; Imtig, lovely, lusty ; lutzel, little, Du. liUtel,
Oo. letiU, Ger. k-lein ; mar and mor, Dan. me^, Fr. meur and
"fTivr, L. maiurus (matur =:maur, mur),

649. There are, besides, many other forms, or dialects, of
Oerman Us it is now spoken in Europe; but to notice fully their
many instructiTe features, would require a moderate-sized vol-
mne. Many of them differ from the present standard German
but slightly, and others vary from it as much, perhaps, as the
Swiss form just noticed. There are, among others, the Bavarian,
Austrian, l^rrolese, Thuringian, Transylvanian, and Jewish.

650. The following is from the dialect of Augsburg : Father
onser, daehr (Ger. der) dvh hucht em, Hemmel; Grehoyligt weard
deih nahm; zua ons kumm daih Raich >* DoAh will g-scha wi em
JHemmel, atz och auf earde; Onsar deklich broad gib ons heint
(Ger. heitle); Ond vergiah ons onsr schvM, als wihr vergaba
onsdm schtddigdrd ; Ond/uhar (G^r. /iihr) on^ nitt ind ver-
sudchong; Sunderan er4oa8 (loosd) ons vom ibel, Denn dain
ischt dds raich, ond did krafft, &nd dia hdrlikoit in ewikoit^'
Father our, who (the) thou be^st (art) in Heaven ; holied were
(be) thy name ; to us come thy kingdom (rick) ; thy will be
?Ger. ge-schehen) as in heaven, as also upon {auf) earth; our
day-ly (daily) bread give us to-day (this) ; and forgive us our
guilt, as we forgive our debtors; and lead us not into (ind)
temptation ; but (Gter, sondem) free us from evil. For thine
is lihe rick, and the power, and glory in eternity (ever).

651. In the Bavarian form, we find, keiligt werd, holy, hal-
lowed, be ; zti-kumme tms, come (to) us ; gihw wns heind, give
us to-day (Aeiete) ; un^e schvUn (our shalls), our debts, guUts ;
von aUn thblamm; from all evil (blame). In Transylvanian :
zau-kom ans demg rehch — to-come (come) us thy kingdom;
deing ueU ge-schey aff (auf) jerden — thy will be on earth;'
hriut;gaffaus heigd — bread give us to-day; auser sckuld, our
debt ; mier fergien — we forgive ; fier ams net — lead us not ;
erlUs aus von dem iiwell — loose us from the ^vil.

These are as great differences (from common German) as we
asually find in tibese dialects, and we easily see they are oonfii^d
to mere orthographic variations.

244 PiLtJLSlB.

652. Gothic. —The Ck)thic is a German langtage, hut Get-
man in a somewhat peculiar form. It may be placed alongside'
with the other two branches of the great German family, the
High German and the Low German, not running parallel and
independent of them, bnt rather in a line converging with them
the farther back we press into the shades of antiquity. Grinmi
takes the Gothic as the base of Grerman, but it is only so because
it is older than the rest, or that we have learlier records of it.
It stands nearer to the High and Low German (with which,
especially the former^ it is easily compared) than to the old
North, or Scandinavian.

653. It was the language spoken by people known in history
as the Visigoths, the Ostrogoths, and the Moesogoths. Gt)thie
is a very indefinite term — fus the Goths are, for us, a very inde-
finite people. Goth was a favorite name with the Romans, to
apply to wild hordes to the north of them. These Goths seem,
too, to have been especially a progressive, a moving people.
They made their settlements not only in the whole soath of
Eutope, but we in time find G^ths in Spain and in Italy. In
later times, they seem to be more particularly located m the
liorth of Europe. Indeed, it is claimed that the Germans and
the Scandinavians belong to the Gothic stock, that they are
descendants, that is, a eontinuation, of the G^ths, or that they
have commingled with them, the Goths. The term Gothic,
finally, is oiten used as a convenient word to denote the Germab
and Scandinavian combined.

654. The Moeso-Goths :have the greatest importance for nsy
they being by far the best known to us by their writings } Moeso-
GoUiic is often (generally) denoted by the' temi Gothic alone^
it being the Gothic with which we are acquainted -r- it has
been considered by some, and with some plausibility, a9 beings
the original of High German.

655. The oldest specimen not only of the Gothic,' bi<t older
also than any other Germanic idiom, is the Gothic translation
of the gbdpels by Ulfilas, the bishop of M oesia, supposed to have
hoten made about the year 370. Some specimens from that
ti^anslation will best illustrate the character of that language, as
eompared with our own and wiih other German tongues.

656. First, the beginning of the 7th chapter of John : m/ah
tbarboda Jesus afar thata m Galeilaia ; ni auk vilda in Jvdaia
\g€Ujigismy unte sohidedun inathai Judaieis m^inan'^ and walked
Jesus after that in Galilee; not for (for not) would (he) in
JudeAgo (^aw^^ going), for (andj) (they) sought him (tna),
the Judeans (did), to-kill (him), (us-qiman^ over-come).

' ThanM^ quelhim dm imma broihrfus ts-^then quoth (said)
to him brotberii his '.(hie brethren); m4eUh ihathra jah ga/gg

aEltMAH LANeUAGEl. 245

(Mh^) — depart (ont-Iead) henoe (thither), and go {gang). (So
^e Scotch say, where are you gangen f)

Ifi mag so mancueths (the world) Jijan izms (you), tth (but)
fntk fy'aith'>^uot may (cannot) the men hate you but me (it)
hateth (men hate me, not you) ; thatuh than qath du im^ visancU
in Galeilata — this when (he had) said to them (im), being
(dwelling, as he did) in Galilee (when he had said these things
to them); tth ik kann ina^ unte fra/m, ink/ma itn^jah, i» mik m-
wandida — but (and) I know (ken^ acquaint) him, for (unte)
from him (I) am, and he me sent (nie).

Few Johanna daupjanda — was John dipping (he was bap^
tiring) ; ai^gibaiis varth — up'given were (were given up) j
qemun than motarjoB dawpjan — came then publicans to-baptize
(to be baptised) (prest. inf. often for pass.)

657. There are, as has been already suggested, strong like-
nesses between the Gothic and High German, as well as between
the Gothic and Low German; and yet, notwithstanding the'
impossibility of measuring quantity in such cases, we feel con-
fitrained to say, in comparing these tongues, that the Gothic is
more like the Low German, the Saxon, the English, than the
High German, the literary German of the present day.

658. First, the style, the expression, is rather Low German
than modem German. From Mark i^ 8, we take the following 3
Aihthan ik davpja izvis in vatin, tth is daupeith izvis in ahmin
veih-amma -^ KnA (for) I dip you in water, but he dip-eth
(dips) you (izvis) m (the) ghost holy (I baptize, but he will
with holy ghost). In German it reads : . I dip you with water,
but he will you with the holy ghost dip (baptize) ; 11th versCj
jah stibna qam us himinam; thu is suntis meins sa liuha^ in thuzei
vceila gcdedbaida — and (a) voice came out (us) heaven : Thou
art (is) son Tof) mine the (be.)loved, in whom (that) well (I
am) delightea. In German : There was (came) a voice from
heaven, tibou art my dear son, on whom I well^pleasing have.

Jah suns sa ahma ina ustauh in authida — and soon the
spirit (Fr; ame) him drove (out-towed, out-lead), into (the)
wilderness (Ger. wuste). In German : and soon drove him thd
spirit (did) into the waste (wilderness).

659. And next we find many words which are more like
English, for example, than German, as the following list will
demonstoate — Ist Goth., 2d G«r., 3d Eng.i a/ta, nach^ after;
aibt, gahej oflfer ; air, fruh, ere ; airtha, erde, earth ; aivSy zeit,
age, L. sBViim; akvUa, adkr, eagle.

Baurd^ bretj broad; beitan, heissen, bite; hugjan^ kaufm^
buy ; dagt, tag, day; deds, that, deed; daUs, theU, deal; divan,
ti^enj.die} dmps, tie/, deep.

Dumbs, ihmm, dumb ; d-vola, naar, fool ; fairra, fern, far }
/ofttt, fvAS, foot ; fod-eins, speise, food*

^46 l»]SAASI6.

Gaits, ziege, goat ; karan, sorgerty care ; haiftOy herz^ heart }
haltSy lahniy halt ; hauhsy hochy high.

Lamhy lamniy lamb ; letariy lasseriy let ; Ubauy leheUy live ;
leiks, gleich, like ; lithv^y gliedy limb ; lukaUy schliesseny look.

Jfan, menschy man ; manageiy mengCy many ; maurthry ntord^
murder ; mikilsy viely much 3 raihtSy rechty right ; rwm*, rauniy
room.

iSair, schmerZy sote ; «i7an, schweigeHy silent ; skadusy schatten^
shade ; s^s, schla/y sleep ; sUuthariy gleiten^ slide ; «uns, 5aZ<^)
soon ; svistaVy schwester^ sister, (suister).

TaiknSy zetchen, token ; ^rtt«, haumy tree ; tungOy zungty tongue ;
tunihusy zahuy tooth ; T;an, mangely want ; vUjany woUeny will )
vo^Ais, 8t^8«, sweet ; ut^, wocAe, week.

We must, of course, strike off the final «, as the representative
of the Latin gender ending, usy a, ufn. To this list we add the
following interesting forms, without any particular reference to
the question in view.

660. Airzisy err, German irre; aitheiy mother; atW, aiwvs
(horse), L. equm ; alevy oil ; anorleikoy Ger. ahnlicky like, one*
like; anda-vaurdiy answer, Ger. ant-wort (on-word) ; anstSy Oter,
gunsty gnade, grace, thank; aray Ger. adter, eagle; augjany
fihow, Ger. zeige-Uy and at«^o = eye,— hence we see eye = see,
look, show ; auknaUy wax, (grow), L. augeo ; aurahiy g-rave 5
aurkeiSy Ger. A:*rtf^, c-rock ; avthsy Ger. t<^{^, waste ; at;t, ewe,
sh-eep ; away w-assevy L. a^t^a.

Baiy both, Ger. fteiifc ; hairaUy Ger. tragedy drag, carry, bear ;
hairhtSy bright; haitrsy bitter.; halvSy evil, base; 6aton (good),
better ; hi-aukdviy wax, in-crease.

Faur-theiy fear, Ger. furckt ; fra-liusany Ger. vcr-Zicrcnj lose
(/ra^ from= ver); frmSy free, fresh ; frij&ndsy friend ; friks
(greedy), L. a-varus.

HnaivSy be*neath, Ger. niedrig; hropiy Ger. ru/y report; tn»
veiteriy an^heten, in*vite; jt*A:=yoke, and /mA:aw e^ fight, con*
quer — so we say to join in battle, to match (G'k maJcomai =
to fight), to equal) and We get the idea of strife, contest, from
that of union, joining ; every union implies two things united,
afi well as contest, fight, does.

KaSy cask, Ger. gefdss; kaurSy Ger. schweTy L» gravWy heavy ;
kavtsfo is the way they spell caution,

Laigaion is their orthography for legion ; laisjany Qer. lekreny
learn, L. doceoy teach, d = l ; leisany learn, lesson ; lubauy (love)
K= hope.

Magus =\ioyy Celt, macy maid ; maisy more, L. majusy magis
(mat/is^ ; meljan = write, Ger. malen = paint ; minsy Ger.
wenig (less); naqatJiSy naked, Ger. nackt; 9i€to=snear, G^r»
nahe.

GERMAN LANGUAGE. 247

Qtmis (oomes), Ger. aiv-hmift (on-come), arrival ; rcifcs, prince,
jCi. regis; sa-wazuh (the-what) = each, S'Was in old Ger., et-was
in Ger. ; siggqan, sinK (gg= ng) ; and siggvan is sing (and read) ;
sUubr, silver ; sinthan (= go), send ; sitts, Ger. sitz, seat, saddle,
Grer. stuM (situhl); sinJcs, sick, Ger. sch-wach^ weak, s = wj
skath, G^r. schaaen, scath; s-kevjan, go, scud; slavan, still,
(sly) ; mivan = go, come ; staiga^ way, st = w ; s-vers, worth.

iSnggvs (triuuvs) true ; thmthy good ; th-^ahan^ wash ; vaihts
(thing), what, Ger. et-was; vair, man, L. mr; vaurd, word,
Ger. rc^, read ; veitan (see), L. video; vitan, wit, know; vi^on,
live, L. vivo ; vo^^an^ whoop (call) ; v-raton, ride (go).

We must not omit to observe that there are also many Gothio
words which are German and not English.

661. Scandinavian: The Scandinavian (or North) language
constitutes a large and important part of the great German or
Gothic family. The three leading branches of this division are
the Icelandic, the Danish, and the Swedish ; indeed, if we count
in the dialects of these, especially of the two latter, we shall
have, substantially, all there is of Scandinavian.

662. These languages did not become individualized until
after the 14th or 16th centuries ; before that time, they were
merged in what is called the Old North ; or, turning to the de-
scending side, the Old North gave birth to these modern dia-
lects. The best representative of that old idiom is the Ice-
landic. Living far away on their distant island, the Icelanders
have been little affected by the culture of the continent, and
have scarcely yet, as makers of language, been warmed ipto life.
It may not be amiss to remind the reader of the great resem-
blance between the Icelandic and our own, especially the old
English, and the parallel which we can draw between it and the
Gothic. It is claimed as a matter of history, and it is certainly
very probably from the location, that the ancestors 6f these
islanders were Norwegian colonists. Certain it is, the Norwe-
gian, or a great portion of it (for it, too, has its varieties), is a
dialect very closely connected with the Icelandic. Taken as a
whole, the Norwegian has a distinct character as compared with
the Danish or Swedish, and differs from them considerably ; yet

that difference lies chiefly in the variation of orthography — the

grammar being the same.

The language of the Faroe Islands is a dialect with some dis-
tinguishing peculiarities.

663. We will treat more fully of the Swedish and Danish,
and after them the Old North, and that will suffice to give a
general idea of the Scandinavian peculiarities.

664. To the student who is acquainted with both English and
German, ihe acquisition of Danish and Swedish is exceedingly

248 PHEASIS.

easy, so little does he find in them that he does not readily rooog-
nize as either English or German. The general appearance, the
cast, of Swedish and Danish, is rather English, rather Saxon,
than modern High German ; the style, the idiom, with some
exceptions, is not German but English. Yet, notwithstanding
the orthography of the language is decidedly English, when
considered generally, there are many words which are as decid-
edly German and not English, as the following forms will
illustrate :

Angendm, angenehm, agreeable (first Swed., next Ger.) ; anlete^
antlitz, countenance; hegdr, hegierde^ desire; ie/a/, he/My
command (befail) ; be-rom, ruhm, renown ; hetcUa, bezcMen^
pay ; bo, wohnen, dwell (bide) ; fara, ge-fahr, peril ; /ogel, vogel,
bird (fowl); fdrdig, fertig, ready; Jmappt, hnappj scarcely
(tight); kropp, korper, body; ogonhlick, atigenblick, moment
(eye-look).

666. A few specimens of the language will give something
of an idea of its character, and we take up first the Swedish :

Jag onskar dig den gladjen, att se dina bam lychliga — I
wish thee the gladness, to {atC\ see thy (thine) children (thy
born) lucky (prosperous) ; — 6am is singular ; one of the
Swedish declensions has singular and plural alike.

Den soldat hogaktar jag, som vdgar (wages) sitt liff for
fddemeslandet — the soldier high-respect I {jag)y who risks his
life for fatherland (I much respect him); Jmu cUskar hofwm
sdsoin sin egenson — he loves (likes) him so-so (so-as) his (gin)
own son.

Det bli/ver fyra dr (year) t morgon sedan (sithen^jag sfuk-
node — it becomes (leaves, is) four year to (i, in) morrow since
I sickened; jag har lemnat dem ett ndjajktigt svar — I have (har)
given (let) them an (the) accurate (satisfactory) answer ; jag
pdr-minner mig den omstdndigheten — I remember me (be-mind
me) the circumstance.

Jag sag henne kommande — I saw her coming; det cLr far a
om lifvet — it are (there is). danger about (the) life; vi siUfa
e/ter vigt — we sell after weight ; jag tror^ att du kaai gora det
— I trust, that you can do (chore) it; han kom gdendes — he
came going (on foot) ; jag bad honom (aityidna mig sin bok —
I bade him (to) lend me his book (in Ger. (to) me his book to
lend, while the Danish is precisely English). Fa personer
ha/va varit (been) begdfvade med sd utmdrkta (out-marked)
sjdJsf&nmgenheter (souls-for-might-hood-er, soul-power), som
(as) Crustaf Adolph — few persons have been endowed (be-
gifted) with so remarkable soul-power as Gustav Adolph ; jag
har kbpt en hdst — I have bought (got) a horse, (in Ger., I have
a horse bought).

GERMAN LANGUAGE. 249

66S. Danish : Det var (were) en toverdag morgen^ og netop
den forUe JSqftemher, da dtn unge Russer meget Hdlig n^ste sig
fra sU lefe, i den hensigt at gaa (to go) ud, for at optage etpar
Mdser a/. AJbaneraoens. meest romantiske partkr — It (det) was
a Saturday morning, and (og) just (neat) the first September,
tiiat the young Enssian much early (timely) raised (him-)self
&om (Jf^) his bed (L. lectus), in the view to go out, for to take
(off«tu») a pair (conple) sketches of Albanersen's most romantic
parts.

■ En hobmamd modtog (with-took) en fem shiUingi-mynt^ der
ikke tynieB ham cU vaere (to be, were) 'a^gte, og spurgde (Ger*
Jragen) der/or en aag/orer, 9om gik (jgajng^ went) forbi hani
(his) buHky hvad han (he) tneente om (of) den — A merchant
(bny^^man) received a five-shilling-piece, that not seemed to»him
to be pure (jxegte\ and asked therefore an attorney, that went
by his shop (booth), what he thought (meant) about it (that).

I mange tu-fa^lde^ hyor der i(in) andre sprogtnlde vaere hrugt
et adjectiv, bruges i Zulu sproget et svhstantiv — in many oases,
where Uiere in other language would (mlde) be used an adjec-
tive, is^used (hrttges, uses) in Zulu language a substantive.

Taelle (tell) med fingrene^ hegyndende fra venstre haand»,

UUe-Jinger^ idet kver finger som er optagen i taellingen, raekkes

iu2 (stretches out) — count (they do) with fingers, beginning

from left hand, little-finger, until (idety every finger which

(some) are (is) up- taken in counting, is-stretched out (ud)', —

medens de ovrige (the overs) forblive knyttede — while the

remaining (ones) leave (are left) knitted (shut) ; ere ogsaa for-

fnede^udaf (out-of) vedkommenae (with-coming) hegyndeher —

(they) are also formed out-of with-coming prefixes (beginners).

SkuUe bruges — should (be) used; ttderne kunne ind-deles

(deal, divide) — ^tenses can be-formed (can form, can form selves) ;

det er naeppe (nip, G^er. hnapp) vaerd at se — it is scarce worth

to see; jeg har et liUe besog at gjore i nabolauget — I have a

little visit to make in (the) neighborhood.

667. To show the great similarity between the Danish and
Swedish, we will give the samiB verse used in German with
Dntch. First Swedish :

Dd, lopp Turn, och Viom tUl Simon Petrus, och till den andra
lUrjungeriy som Jesus dlskade^ och sade till dem; De hafwa tagit
R&rran bort utafgrafwen, och vyi wete icke hwart de hafwa lagt
honom,

Danish : Da Job A«n, og horn til Simon Peder, og tU den
anden discipel^ hviUeen Jesus elskede, og sagde til dem : De have
bort'taget Herren af graven^ og vi vide ikke^ hvor de have lagt
Jiam — Then ran (leaped) she, and came to (till) Simon Peter,
and to the other disciple, which Jesus liked, and said to them,
32

250 PHRASIS.

They (de) have taken Loi*d forth (afvay), (Dan. forth-taken) ont-
of (Dan. off, eaf) (the) grave, and we wot not (jkhe) where they
have laid him.

668. Old North : Speaking approximately, we may say thati
the Old North has the same relation to the modern Scandiuaviau
languages, that the Anglo-Saxon, or' Old English^ has to tha
present English, or that any old language has to its living de-
scendants. The Old North is abundant in its relies, both poetry
and prose. Poetry, in the early centuries, of course predomin^
ates, and it possesses all of that laconic and quaint style whicb
characterizes so preeminently the earliest productions of aO
northern Europe. Its mythological impress is also a striking
fact ; its tales of gods and of the deeds of gods, suffer not, in
beauty and interest, in comparison with the long-admired histoiy
of the divinities of Rome and of G^reece. This impress, which
we have noticed, is one of a hundred forcible evidences that
connect and combine the German of the North with the Glassies
of the South.

669. The oldest monument of the German-North languages, is
the poem entitled " Vauhib-Spa^'* of a date uncertain to history,
but supposed to belong between the 5th and 8th centuries. A few
selections from it will give some idea of the features of composi-
tion in Old North, and some idea, too, of the comparative form
of the words it contains :

Aund than ne attu, oth thau ne ha/do —'mind (L. ammo),
they not had, sense they no had ; lae ne laeti^ ne litu gotha —
motion nor hearing, not face (look) (Ger. aniMtz) good; aundgaf
Othinn^ oth gaf Haenir — mind gave Odin (he gave), sense gave
Haenir ; lae gaf Lothr ok litu gotha — motion gave Loder, and
face (litu) good (also).

Ask veit-ek standa, heittr ygg-thrasM
Har-hathmr, ausinn hvitom auri;
Thathan koma davggvar, thaers i dalifaUa ;
Stendr aei groinn yjir Yrthar-hrunni —
Ash knew-I (to) stand, hight Odins-horse,
Hair-tree, strewed (with) white dust ;
Thence come dew (rain), that in dale fall,
Stands (it) ever green over Urthar-brunni.

7%riivar brendu thrisvar homa^
Opt ok osialthan, tho hon enn lifir
Heithi hana hetUy hvars til husa kom —
' Thrice burned (they) thrice born,
Ofb and unseldom, though she yet live.
Heithi her (they) call, where (whose) to house come (to
whose she came).

QEBMAN LANGUAGE. 251

Bin sat hon tUiy tha hinn aldni kom,

Tggiongr Asa, ok i augu hit;

HverB fregniih mik, hvar freistith min

Alone sat she out, there the old come

(The) king (of) Ases, and in eye (of him) looked ;

What ask (you) me, why try (thou) me (of me ? )

The follemng is a Terse of another style, taken from another
poem:

Fraemr mtm ek seigia — farther will (mean) I say (tell)
EffirdofT theigia — if Tthe) men (L. vtr) (be) silent;
Fragom fleira — (we) learned more
TUframa their a — to (of the) journey (of) theirs ;
AeBtust «nd^»r— (were) made wounds (they were made))
Vilk Jofwrs fundir — by king's arrival;
BrMn hrandir — strike (the) swords (did),
VUh blar randir •— with (against) blue shields.

670. A selection from Freysgode's Saga :

HrafiUcett reid vpp eptir Fl/otsdahheradi^ ok sa hvar eydi-
^Jofr gekk (went) upp af JokaUdcd ; sa dalr syndist (seemed)
•^^frafiikeU hyggUigri^ enn adrir dcdir, their sent hann hafdi adr
^^i; en er Hra/nkeU horn heim, beiddi hann/odur smn^ardciptu^
^>A tagdist hann (he) hustad vilja reisa thar. Thetta veitir fadir
'^^^jnshanum ; ok hann gbrir hoe i dal theim, ok kaUar a Adal-
^^caK. HrafnkeU fekk (took) Oddhjargar^ Skjaldvlfs dottur^ or
^<^\JLt) LaxardaJ; thau atta tva sonu: het (hight) Atnn {the)
^£ir% Thorirj en hinn i/ngri Ashjom,

En tha er HrdfnkeU hafdi land numit at AdalboU^ tha efldi

^coin blot mikit (much) ; Hrafrikell let gbra (make) hofmikit.

■^^rafnkell elskadi ekki dnnat (no other) god meir (more) enn

. C ^iluia) Frey^ ok hanum gaf hann (he) alia hina heztn gripi sina

K^y^) half a vid sik. Hrafnkell byggdi (dwelt, bide) aJlan dalinn^

^^ g^jf fnonnum Wnd, en vildi tho vera yfirmadr theirra^ ok tok

goiord yfir theim, Vid tlietta var lengt nafn hans, ok kaUadr

J^^fy^godi — ok var ujafnadarmadr mikilly en menntr veL

671. (Translated, word-for-word). Hrafnkell rode up through
(after) Fljots-dals-pass, and saw (sa) that (where) (a) wastes
dale went up from Jokulsdale; that (the) dale seemed (to)
Hrafakell (more) dwellable, than {enn) other dales, those that
(which) he had before (ere) seen {set); and when Hrafnkell
csme home, asked (bade) he father (of) his (for) goods-division
(to ^vide the property), and saidest (that) he (his) dwelling-
pW (abode) will move there (would fix his abode there). That
grants (the) &ther his (to) him (the father gives) ; and he made
\S) dwelling (a bye) in dale that (one), and calls (it) to Adal-

252 PHBA6I8.

boli. Hraihkell married Odd., Sk's-daughter, from Lax. ; they
had two son ; called the older Th, and the younger Ash.

And when there Hrafnkell had land taken at Ad, then
(would)^ make he (an) offering (a) great (one). (H. let make
offer-place {hof^ great (one). Hfafnkell loved no other god
more than Frey j and (to) him gave he all the heat property (of)
his half with self. Hri^nkell settled all (the) dales, and gave
men land, and wotdd then be (were) over^man (of) theirs (dieir
governor), and took office-of-overseer (godord) over them.
With that was long name (of) his (from that came his smmanie),
and (i&) called Freysgodi ; find (he) was (an) imfair-man (very)
much, but brave much (very brave, able).

672. A few lines of Danish will show how it compares with
the above : EbrafnkeU red cp qjennefm Fi/oUdcUsherredei^ og ma
at en ode Dcd gik ep fra JokuUdcden ; derme Dal 9ynie$ ham
heboelligere end de ajidre dale, han/or havde seet, Man da han
kom A/em, bcui han sin Fader om at ski/te Godset med dg^ og
sagde, at han vilde opslaa (strike up, move) iin Bolig hist.

673. We conclude the subject of German langiuiges by re-
marking, that to the philologist the most impol-tant members of
the whole class are, besides the German proper, the Dutch,
Danish, and Swedish, as they contain much of valuci, on the
subject of his inquiry, which he will not find translated*

CHAPTER m-

CELTIC LANGUAGBS.

674, The Celtic class of languages readily falls into two lead-
ing divisions : the first composed of the Welsh or Cymric, of
Wales, the Cornish, of Cornwall, now extinct, and the Celt-
Breton (Armorican), of Brittany, a province of France ; and
the second embracing the Scotch, or Gaelic, of the Highlands
of Scotland, the Irish, or Erse, and the Manks language, of the
Isle of Man. The term Cymric, or Welsh, is often used to
denote the whole division to which that language belongs ; so,
Gaelic is used to denote Scotch and Irish together; Erse is
used in the same way by some ; Erse is also applied to Scotch.

676. These two divisions have important features to distin-
guish them, and yet when we become thoroughly acquainted
with them, we readily see that they are simply strongly-devel-
oped dialects of one and the same tongue. The Celtic idiom is,
to the philological student, a subject of great interest. With all

CBLTIC LANGUAGES. 253

the odd dress it wears, and the peculiar lines of direction it is
sometimes found to take, we have only to become thoroughly
acquainted with its true character and spirit, to perceiye that it
is not so strange as we have been wont to conceive it. We find
that there is, i^r all, often cloaked in its own Celtic fashion, a
remarkable identity with the English, French, and German
idioms.

676. The most striking feature which impresses us on our
first acquaintance with Celtic, is the strange orthography into
which it shapes not alone its own but foreign words, and we
have only to master that peculiar fashion which it has, in order
to make the Celtic appear to us a very common and familiar
idiom. The oddities of arrangement in its sentences, when we
keep French as well as English in view, are by no means great
We find, it is true, particles piled on in greater profusion than
we that are English might expect, though not so much greater
than we find in many other languages which are not Celtic. We
find the adjective, as in French and Semitic, very generally after
4he noun, though by no means uniformly in. any of the different
forms of Celtic, nor in all of them equally. The nominative is
often after the verb, while it is generally before it with ua.
TChere are many other important differences, but which we must
pass by entirely, or which will be observed in the selections
nrhich we are about to give. There is one very noticeable point,
liowever, which we will dwell on here, a feature not by any
means peculiar to the Celtic, for we find it well defined in French,
in German, in Greek, and in many, if not, indeed, in all others
— though perhaps nowhere so prominent as in Celtic ', we refer
to the change which a word undergoes (to adopt the current
idea) to correspond with some other word connected with it, and
either preceding it or following — thus, in Greek, apo, from,
before some words, is written aph, and kata, kath; and sun, with,
connected with a following A; or ^ sound, becomes stig by assimi-
lation. It is on this same principle that we find, in Celtic, pen,
a head, alone and with eu, bb eu pen, their head ; but, with c/y,
as cfy hen, thy head, pen changes to ben, and with;/^, my, as^
mhen, it changes to mhen ; and we find eiphen, her head ; also,
hrawd, a brother, dy frawd, thy brother ; yy mrawd, my brother;
also the forms, troed, droed, nhroed, throed, (foot) ; and ci, gi,
nghi^ chi (dog) — according to their connections.

677. It will be observed that all these changes or mutations,
are mere variations of cognate letters, that these variations are
on the same principle as those which occur in compound words,
or in the different parts of the same word. All variations in
the end of words, in all languages, to denote tense, person, case,
etc., arise from this same principle of assimilation between cog-

254 PHRASIB.

nate letters ; it is regarded as certain that these mutations in
Celtic may be taken as representations of the case relation, or
case variation. We nowhere find stronger proof than this
which we find in Celtic, of our position that all the letters of a
word, all the letters of compound words, of words coining to-
gether in any way, are of the same nature, and continually tend
to assimilate.

678. The following selections will serve to illustrate the
character of the Celtic languages, and we take first the Welsh :

Prynoddy efyw ^e^Z— bought the (y) man (did) (a) horse
(Fr. cheval); y dyn hwn (this) — the man this (one). Cododd
y milwyr yn-erhyn eu cadpen — rose the soldiers (did) a-gainst
their (eu) captain. DarUenwyd eich llythyr i-r aelodau-^ was-
read your (etch) letter (was) to-the members. Fa (what) der-
/ysg sydd yn y ddinas — ^what disturbance is (Ger. smd, are)
in the city (town) ; gwdais e/— I-saw him (e/) ; a-v)el80ch chwi
efneu hi — a-saw you (did you see) him or her ?

T gvyr a-4 toraig a-ddaethant — ^the man and-his (a-i) wife
a-came (a is common verb prefix, like the Ger. and G'k aug-
ment). Gallwch chwi a-ch (and-your) gwraig /yned-*— can-you
(you can) you and your wife go (mounts fyned) ; daeth efe-*^
came he; daethant hwy — came they; deg llyfr — ten book;'
Gwelais geffylau, a phrynais hwynt — I-saw (some) horses, and
I-bought them. Yr-toy/yn credu ei hod yn gwawrio —— there-
am (I) in believing {i, e. I believe) it is (be, hod) in dawning
(it dawns) {yr is a prefix, like our there in there is, and like Ger.
c», Scand. er, and we may regard yr-wyf as double 6c, foryr*s
are).

Gwelais y milwyr a^ carcharwr yn myned i-r Vys •*— I«saw
the soldiers and-the (r^=^yr, the) prisoner in going (a-going) to
the (r = the) hall ; fel nas geUa/ei chredu — that not I-can its
(ei) believing (cannot believe it). Fe Uaddai e/eji, etc mi (I)
a-oheithaf ynddo — though (jpe, what) kill he me, yet I (will)
a-trust in-him (i/nddo). It is a prevailing feature in Celtic, to
find the pronoun and preposition united, as in yn^do, or accord-
ing to our view, to see the preposition, as to, develop elself into
the representative of pron. and prep., as to-me,

Tr oedd y dyn yn ddoeth — there was a man in knowing (the
man was wise (knowing); adjectives like in-wisdom, for wise,
are common) ; mor drwm a phlwm — as heavy (drag) as (and)
lead (L. plumh*) ; y/enyw yr oeddychyn ei gweled — the woman
there (which) were (you were) in her seeing (the woman which
you saw). Fy mhen, fy mraich, fy nhroed — my head, my arm,
my foot. Faham yr ydych yn ceisio fy Uadd — why there are-
ou (ydych) in seeking my killing'^ seek to kill me (yr must
•e counted as an augment).

I

OELTIO LANGUAGES. 255

Ifyfi yw y hara hywiol, yr-hum (the-this) a-ddaeth i waered
o-r wc/— I (I-I, my-self ) am (is) the bread living, which a-came
to down from-the (o-») neaven (L. nubes). Ynay cy fiavmyd
yr-hyn a-ddywedcmd — then there (was) fulfilled the-this (what)
(was) anspoken; lief a-glyhuwyd^-^ Yoice (was) a-heard (a is
prefix); ac wedi ei gyfodi — but a^r his hearing, i. e., when he
heard \ y gelwid ef — there (shall-be)-called he, t. e, he shall be
Galled.

Aeyny dyddiau hynny y daeth Joan Fedyddiwr^ gan bre*'
gethu-yn niffeithwch Judea-^ and in the days those (y augment)
came John (the) Baptfst, with preaching in (the) wilderness
Judea.

679. Cornish : Little can be said that is peculiar to the
Cornish, when compared with Welsh. We notice our form of
passive : OrU nef of dan/enys — from-the heaven I-am (o/) sent;
bos rewardyys --^ be rewarded ; an gorhel my a-n gura (work)
— the ship I it (will) make ; me a-s ygor an (the) darasow — r
I (for^ them (m\\) open the doors.

680. Celt-IBreton : The Celt-Breton has greater and more
important peculiarities, not only orthographic but grammatical,
as the following examples will show : Ann douar ho tigemero
goude ho maro (death), am gwelo o vervel, hag enn han e vezinn
douaret^^ the earth (L. terra) you (it) will-receive after (goude)
your death (which receives you after), me (it) will-see (gwelo)
to die (in dying) (see me die), and in it (e augment) I-shall-be
(yezinv^ earthed (interred); it gant (with) hi — go with her;
evid mond e bro — for (to) go into (the) country, gand he c-hreg
hag he zaou vah — with his (he) wife (Welsh wraig) and his
two sons (6u5, Ger. knabe) ; Jie za^u vab aM>a hanvet^-^ his two
sbn a- was named; ead e bro — go into (the) country; Noemi
Orlavaraz d-ezhi — Noemi arsaid (a augment) to her (hi),

681. A few more words must suffice to give an idea of the
orthography : Kaloun^ heart (/ = »*); «va, drink, L. bibo^ bever-
age; mad^ good, L. magnus; mor, sea, Fr. mer ; an or, the
door ; chatalj cattle ; gar leg, arm, G'k cAcir*» hand; lech, place,
L. locus,

Melen, yellow, mellow; moal, bald; nerz, force, nerve; mveTj
number ; paz, all, G'kpas ; penn, head, L. caput, mount, point;
tij house, sty, L. tectus ; teod, tongue ; deiz, day, L. dies.

Breach, arin, L. branch ; ia>ch, health ; choad, wood ; war^
sure ; gwarek, arc ; gwir, true ; uhel, high, hill ; fall, e-vil, bad ;
kaer, pretty, L.pul-cher; braa, great; mean, stone; dour, wa-ter;
hreur, brother, Fr. frere,

Koulm, Fr. colombe, dove ; pqotr, boy, L.puer; hano, name;
km, fire; keich, circle; env, heaven; ali, bird, L. avis, 1, v; tra,
thing, L. res ; avel, blow, wind, Fr. vent; wel, look.

256 PHBASia.

Kif dog, Fr. chieti ; haz^ stick, beat, Fr. baton; gweR, better,
well, Fr. meilleur ; gwenn, white, Fr. hlanc, L. can* ; biz, digit,
Fr. doigt ; he xoum, his hand, G'k cheir; piou, who; ohoar,
sister, Fr. soeur,

Kresky grow, Fr. crois, increase; dtgor (learn), L. disco; ro,
give, L. c^, r, d ; kred, Fr. crois, credit, trust ; kika, put, place,
L. locus. I

Kar, love, dear, care ; lavar, (speak), L. lego; kav, Fr. trouv
(find), re-trieve ; gall, can, will ; gwez (know), sage, wise ; dont,
come, gone, d, g; mont^^dont, mount, went; k^a, go, Fr. va;
gan, sing, L. cano ; dale, delay.

Ober, work (make), L. opere ; ra, do, rann, done, r, d ; gra,
do (g prefix); sevel, raise, Fr. lever; kaout, have, k, g, h;
krenn^ round, sFr. rond, kr^=r; ^lin, in-cline, knee, Fr. genou;
den, man, Fr. gens (plur. of den is titd, Gter. leute, folk).

Lagad (eye), look ; geo, yoke, Fr. joug ; enk (straight), Grer.
eng, narrow, anxious ;^arrc^, rook; trouz, Fr. bruit (noise);
bran^ raven.

These, and very many more which we might give, comprising
a large portion of the language, are easily seen to be variations
of French and German words. ^

682. Gaelic : Our next selections we will take from the
Gaelic proper, or Highland Scotch: Agvjs a^deirim ribh — and
I-say unto-you (a is an augment); agus ri m-shearbhant, dean
so, agus nise e — and to my-servant (I say), do that, and dooth
it he (he does it) ; nach d-fhair mi creidimh co mor ols so'-^
not (have) found I (mi) faith so great {mor) as that {I have
not found) — d\ for do, is the predx or augment for the past
tense.

Thigaedh (infin.) do rioghachd — come thy kingdom (G^r.
rick, L. regnum) ; deanar do thoil air an talamh, mar a-nithear
air (on, in) neamh — (be) done thy will (jthoU) on the earth
(L. <erra) as a-done (as is done) in heaven (a augment); chualax
guth an Rama — (was) heard (G'k khw) voice in Kama; agus
an uair a-chunnaic iad (they) an reult — and the hour (t. e.
when) a-saw they the star (when they saw) ; bha a chulaidh
(clad) aig Uoin — (then) was the raiment to John (John was
clad, clothed); thubhairt e m-^said he to-them; air ata (is)
6 scriobhta — for is it written (it is written) ; ampobuU a-hha
'nan suidhe an dorchadas — the people a-was (was) in sitting
(was sitting) in darkness ; ag imeachd da Josa — in walking
(coming) of Jesus (i, e , Jesus while walking).

Agtis bha e an-sin gu (to) bas Heroid — and was he there
(the-there) until death (of) Herod ; anns na laithibh sin (those)
thainig Eoin Baiste, a-searmonach am fasach Judea — in the
days those (those days) came John Baptist, a-preaching in wil-

CELTIC LANGUAGES. 257

demetn (of) Jndea — agus ag-radh, and a-saying (in saying,
T'adh (Qer. reden).

Agus bhatsteadh tad leissam (by-bim) ann an Jordan ^ ag-
mdmheU am peacanna — and (were) baptized they (were) by-
him in the Jordan, a-oonf easing (admitting) the (their) sins;
^hum gu-m biodh e air a bhauteadh lets (fe==by) — for that be
be (for him to be) in (air) the baptizing by-him (baptized by
bim) — a is a prefix ; chaidh (goed, went) e air ball suas as an
nisge — went he (e) on (the) spot (J,, e. immediately) up out the
water. Js e so mo (my) mhac gradhcuih, am bheil (Slav, byl)
fno mJior Machd — is he that (this is he) my son {mac) beloved,
(be) is my great delight — am is prefix.

Vhum gurm biodh e air a bhtiaireadh (try, proved, b-r-d) leis
an diabhol — for that be he (he be) on the (a is prefix) tempt-
ing by {leis, by-him) the devil (to be tempted) ; air teachd do-n
hhuaireadair — on coming of-the tempter, t. e., when he came ;
an sin thug an diabhol e do-n bhaile (ville) naomha — the then
(then) took the devil (did) him into-the city (the^ holy (one);
Leanaibh mise (my-self ), aga>s ni (make) mi iasgeirian (fishers)
air daoinibh dhihh — follow- (ye) me, and make I (I will make)
^hers of men (of) you (dhibh); lean iad esan — follow they
bim.

Cha^n fhevdar baile a ta air a shuidheachadh air sliabhh
Jholach — not can (a) city which (a) is (to) on a sitting
(which sits) on (a) hill hide (be hidden) ; ni h-ann a sgaoHeadh
Orthainig mi, ach a choimhlionadh — not for the destroying
(to destroy) a-come I (do I come), but the fulfilling — (the a
here may be treated as the, to, but it is as much a part of the
verb as any prefix is } so, in the sentence before, a, which was
called whidb is so much a part with to, that in Irish it is
written ato)-

Chndla sibh gu-n dubJiradh^ Suil air son snla, agus fiacail
air son facia — heard yo (ye have heard) that say (it is said),
eye (L. occid-us) for sake (ot') eye, and tooth for sake (of) tooth ;
tabhair (L. daho) do-n ti (the, that) a dh^iarras ort — give to-
ihe he (to the one ) who asks of-thee — (dh is prefix, iarras, ask) ;
buailibh an dorus, agus fosgaHear cf/mt&A— knock (blow-ye)
the door, and (it shall be) opened to-you ; o-ir gach uile neach
a dhriarras, glacuidh e — for each all one (every one) who asks,
receives he (does) ; lean cuideachd mhor e — followea multitude
great him (followed him).

688. The idiom and grammar of the Irish is so nearly identi-
cal with the Gaelic, which we have illustrated thus copiously,
that we will not stop to select expressions from the Irish. We
will next give a comparative view of the Gaelic, Irish, and
83

258 PHRASIS.

Welsh, using, in this case, the verse in John already taken for
a similar purpose.

Gaelic : Ruith i an sin^ ofrus tliamifr i gu Simon Peadar,
agus gus an deisciohul eile a h-ionmhuinn le h-Josa, agns a-deir
I (she) rm; thug iad lea an Tigheam as an naigh^ agus chd
n-eil fhios againn c-ait an do chuir iad e — run she {%) the then
(then she run), and came she to Simon Peter, and to the (an)
disciple (the) other, who w-dear (was dear) to h-Jeeus, and
a-said she (she said) to-them {riu) : Took they (have) away the
Lord out the grave, and not is (not) knowing to-us (^aga-inn)
where that (do pref.) laid they him (we do not know where (the
place) they have laid him).

684. The same verse runs in Irish thus : Ut'me-sin (there-
fore) do-rioih si {do is prefix, si=i^, agus tainigh si mar
(where) a.-raihh (was) jSimon Peadar, agus an deiseiohal eile,
noc do-h (who was) ionmhin le Jffiosa, agus a (pref.) dubhairt si
riu, Rngh-adar (they took) an Tigheama leo- as an dt-uama,
agus ni (not) hhjil (is) a fhios aginn gha-hait (what-place,
where) ar (pref.) chir-eadar e (is laid he, they laid him). We
notice that they {iad of Gael.) is here represented by the end-
ing -adar, and we see the prefix do = Gael, a, our to,

686. And next wc give the Welsh : Yna {\k\^\i) y-rhedodd My
ac a-dddeth at Simon Pedr, a-r disgyhl arall (other) yr-hvm
(who) yr-oedd (^/•= there, prefix) yr (to) Jesu yn ei garu (in
his care, love), ac a-ddyw'edodd (a-said) wrthynt (to them) .•
Ewy (they) a-ddygasant (took) yr Arghmjdd ymaith o-r hedd^
ac ni u^/ddom ni (not we-know not) pa le (what place) y-doda-
sant ^/(him).

686. The Irish is written with letters of its own, an alphabet
of eighteen characters, differing considerably from the English
or Roman.

The amount of writings in Irish is very large, and in point of
time they range between the 8th and 14th centuries. Those of
the Gaelic are not so abundant as the Irish, nor do they bear a
date by any means so ancient.

687. In conclusion, we may remark on the Celtic languages,
that though they present many features in a new form or new
light, they are still much nearer the German and Latin class of
languages than is generally supposed. When once we fully
understand the nature of their orthography, and their system of
prefixes, or augments, we shall find few words and few points
in grammar, that cannot be compared with the English or
French.

LATIN : LANOUAGBS. 269

CHAPTEfe IV. ; . '

LATIK LANOtlAGES; = '''

68S. Tine Latin, long since an idiom without a living people
to speak it, is represented still by these three impottant families :
the Italian, the Spanish, and the French — and with thede we
may count the less prominent Portugese, Wallachi^n, and Pro-
vencial. There are, indeed, many other members of this great
Latin family, which we inay either re^rd as branches of these
late living languages, or" as themselves ihdepeiidfent dialects^
Such of them as come within our scope, will be noticed in the
coarse of the review. The old Latiu itself we treat of sufficiently
in another place, aiid it refnains to speak briefly of the main
points observable in its desciendafets. 'We will' introduce the
French first.

689. We may with propriety divide the French into a north-
•ern and a southern dialect, as we divided the German into HigK
and Low German. Fbr 'practical* purposes, we may say tlie Loire
marks the separation of two idioms very easily distinguised. The
oldest, and once the ruling one, as a cultivated language, was
the southern, to which the comprehensive term Proven cial is
applied, as well, too, as the name Langue d'Oc. The northern
is the source of our present modern French, the written lan-
guage ; the names Langue d'Oil and Norman French have been
applied to it. Besides these two leading sections of the French
spoken language, in both north and south there are other sub-
dialects, more or less defined and extensive in point of area, but
we have not the space td dwell on them here. Suffice it to say,
that several of them present some very interesting and instruc-
tive features, when compared with the modern standard French.

690. Of these two leading divisions we may say further, that,
as we might expect, the northern, coming constantly in contact
with the German culture, has received a German impress, while
the southern, iotimately associated with the Latin languages, has
been affected in its growth by their pressure, or, in other words,

One presents a phase more or less German, while that of the

other IB quite as much Latin.

691. It should be noticed, with regard to the names Langue
d.'Oc and Provencial, that they are sometimes used without dis-
tinction, as denoting the southern .languages of France; still,
the names are used in a narrower sense, to denote the idioms of
tiwo different localities in Southern France; or, again, Provencial
is used as the comprehensive name of the old idiom of South
France, of which the Langue d'Oc ana others are now dialects.

258 PHRASIS. >

Welsh, using, in this case, the verse in John already taken for
a similar purpose.

Gaelic : Jiuith i an sin^ o^m thainifr i gu Simdn Peadar,
agu8 gus an deisciohul eile a h-ionmhuinn le h-Josa, ag^is a^deir
i{Bhey riu : thug iad leo an Ttghearn a« an uaigk^ agus chd
n-eil/hios againn c-ait an do chuir tad e — run she (i) the then
(then she run), and came she to Simon Peter, and to the (on)
disciple (the) other, who w-dear (was dear) to h-Jeeus, and
a-said she (she said) to-thcm (riu) : Took they (have) away the
Lord out the grave, and not is (not) knowing to-us {aga-mn)
where that (do pref.) laid they him (we do not know where (the
place) they have laid him).

684. The same verse runs in Irish thus : LVwe-sm (there-
fore) do-rioth si (do is prefix, si=i), agtbs tainigh si mar
(where) a-raibh (was) Simon Peadar, a gus an deisciohal eile,
noc do-b (who was) ionmhin le Hiosa^ agus a (pref.) duhhairt si
rill, Rngh-adar (they took) an Tigheama leoa^ an dt-uama,
agus ni (not) hh/il (is) a fliios aginn gha-kait (what-place,
where) ar (pref) chir-eadar e (is laid he, they laid him). We
notice that they {iad of Gael.) is here represented by the end-
ing -a^lar, and we see the prefix do = Gael, a, our to.

685. And next we give the Welsh : Yiia (then) y-rJiedodd My
ac a-ddaeth at Simon Pedr, a-r disgyhl arall (other) yr-hvm
(who) yr-oedd (jyr = there, prefix) yr (to) Jesu yn ei garu (in
his care, love), ac a-ddyw'edodd (a-said) wrthynt (to them) :
Bwy (they) a-ddygasant (took) yr Arglwydd ymaith o-r hedd^
ac ni wyddom ni (not we-know not) pa le (what place) y-doda-
sant e/'(him).

686. The Irish is written with letters of its own, an alphabet ^
of eighteen characters, differing considerably from the English ^
or Roman.

The amount of writings in Irish is very large, and in point of '^
time they range between the 8th and 14th centuries. Those of "^
the Gaelic are not so abundant as the Irish, nor do they bear a -^
date by any means so ancient.

687. In conclusion, we may remark on the Celtic languages, « j
that though they present many features in a new form or new ""^
light, they are still much nearer the German and Latin class of "^^
languages than is generally supposed. When once we fully ^
understand the nature of their orthography, and their system of
prefixes, or augments, we shall find few words and few points
in grammar, that cannot be compared with the English or
French.

LATIN : LANQU AGES. 269

CHAPTER IV.

LATIN LAN^GUAGBS

68S. TliB Latin, long since an idioni without a living peopl0
to speak it, is represented still by thfese three impottant families :
the Italian, the Spkhish, and the French — and with theSe we
may count the less prominent Portugese, Wallacbi^n, and Pro-
vencial. There are, indeed, many other member's of this gi'eat
Latin family, which we inay' either regard as branches of these
late living language^, or' as themselves indejpehd'erit dialects^
Such of them as come within our scope, will be noticed in the
course of the review. The old Latin itself we treat of sufficiently
in another place, aiid it refnains to speak briefly of the main
points observable ih its descbhdatits.' 'We will' introduce the
French first.

689. We may with propriety divide the French into a north-
ern and a southern dialect, as we divided the German into High'
and Low German. Fbr practical' purposes, we may say tlie Loire
marks the separation of two idioms very easily distinguised. The
oldest, and t)nce the ruling one, as a cultivated language, was
the southern, to which the comprehensive term Proven cial is
applied, as well, too, as the name Langue d'Oc. The northern
is the source of our present modern French, the written lan-
guage ; the names Langue d*Oil and Norman French have been
applied to it. Besides these two leading sections of the French
spoken language, in both north and south there are other sub-
dialects, more or less defined and extensive in point of area, but
we have not the space t(j dwell on them here. Suffice it to say,
that several of them present some very interesting and instruc-
tive features, when compared with the modern standard French.

690. Of these two leading divisions we may say further, that,
as we might expect, the northern, coming constantly in contact
iv^ith the German culture, has received a German impress, while
the southern, intimately associiated with the Latin languages, has
been affected in its growth by their pressure, or, in other words,
One presents a phase more or less German, while that of the
other is quite as much Latin.

691. It should be noticed, with regard to the names Langue
fi'Oc and Provencial, that they are sometimes used without dis-
tiinction, as denoting the southern .languages of France; still,
'the names are used in a narrower sense, to denote the idioms of
tiwo different localities in Southern France ; or, again, Provencial
is used as the comprehensive name of the old idiom of South
France, of which the Langue d'Oc ana others are how dialects."

260 PHRASI8.

692. A few examples selected from French antHors, witli the
explanations belonging to them, will give a better idea of the
leading points in this language than any abstract remarks.

De meme que Twhich, as) Kepler — of same (the same) a»
Kepler {de is called a prep, equal to of, but it often, as here,
takes the place of our the^ with which it agrees in form also) ;
Vhomme (T ■■ the) qui se sert du (of-the) microscope parte (speaks])
de grossissenients, et s'imaffine pouvoir a leur (their) aide con^
naitre mieux les ohjets — tne-man who self serves (server him*
self with) of-the microscope speaks of enlargements, and imag-
ines self (s' = self, a pure article, or pref.) to-be-able (pouvoir ^
power, \i, potisy possum, It, podere) by (a) their aid to-know
better the objects.

PeiU encore nous conduire — can yet us conduct (can conduct
us) ; une demiere/ois nous Vavons (V -« it, the)preM^ sur notre
cceur — one (a) last time we it-have pressed upon our heart
(have pressed it) ; il est, it is, there is , nous avons vu que — we
have seen that ; ce corps se trouve — that body self finds (finds
self, is found); de cette maniere — of that (in that) manner;
une partie en est dissoute dans le sue — one (a) part of (it) is
dissolved in the juice (« —y).

A dHjet^ — has ought (due) to-throw (has ought is good
French and German, if not English) ; de donner — of giving,
to give (c?e=to) ; deplus en plus — of more in more (more and
more).

L* etude de la structure intime — the-study of the structmre
intimate (adj. follows) ; et meme de Fhomme — and same of the-
man (even of man).

Comme its (they) le sont in effet — as they it (fe) are in effect
(are it= are) ; U a egalement — it has (there is) equally ; (f im«
(an) maniere tout opposie — of (in) a manner wholly opposed.

Rien de solide — nothing of solid (nothing solid) ; le monde
animal suit les plantes — the world animal follows (pur-sues)
the plants; sans dire — without to-say (i, e., saying, without
saying); dit it — says he; mais ce principe unique de la vie,
comment Barthez Va-UU concu ? — but that principle unique of
the life (of life), how Barthez it (f) has-he conceived (how
has he conceived it, Barthez) ? The French use generally this
surplus it in questions — t between a (has) and ^ (he) is the
usual connective letter.

Je Vai d^a dit — I it (V) have already said (di£) — already
said it, for already said that ; il faut de plus cannderer — it
must of (the) more to-consider — there is need of more consider-
ing; Utre roi proprement, c'est avoir (to have) des subfets et
n* avoir point cTamis — to be king properly that-is (ce-est') to-
have of-the subjects, and not (n') to-have none of (a') friends

LATIN LANaUAQBS. 261

(not to hare friends) — the o/) and rumey are some of the many
wordRy or particles, which the French employ, and which we
have no nse for ; luidit-je, to-him said-I (Jez=zl)', Fun et Vautre^
the-one and the-other t. «., the hoth, or both ; ih sepaussent Vun
f autre — they self push the-one the-other, t. «., they push each
other; ye viens de recevoir — I come to (of) receive, come to
receive, t. e., have received.

Donnez-mai ce Uvre-la — give-me that book-there, t. 6., give
me that book ; eette femme-cC — this woman-here (as we say,
this 'ere woman) ; elle se hrvla la main — she self burnt the
hand, she burnt herself the hand, t. e., on the hand. This self
is very common in French, and in German and other European
languages ; in many instances, it has the force of an article, or a
^mple prefix, and generally it has no equal in English ; vende-
^en un (one) — sell-me of them (en) one (one of them) ;^arfe-
iuiren — spealL him-of-it, speak to-him {lui) of-it (en); de lire

— of to-read, of read, of reading; dites-lui de veiiir — say-him
(to him) to come {de =: of, with inf.) ; U ne fait qiie son devoir

— he not does only (que, which) his due (duty) {ne = que, not
that, only).

693. There are many other idiomatic expressions in French
as important and interesting as those just given, but there is not
space to go further here ; it should be noted, however, that,
strange as these expressions may seem to us, they are very com-
mon forms, in Europe, in other languages besides the French.

694. The principal difference between the Provencial and the
French proper, is one of orthographic dress — though that is
not the only difference ; we often find one using a word, French
though it be, in a place and in a manner not common to the
other. A few examples will illustrate the difference in orthog-
raphy :

695. First, Prpv., next, Fr. : Nouastre, notre, our; noum, nom,
name ; creyni^ cr^e, crape ; cagar, chier ; chin and can, chien,
I^ cants, dog ; cahraj chevre, L. capra, goat ; espigat and espade,
^f>ee, spade and sword ; espina, epine, spine and pin.

Etpes, epais, thick ; aigua, eau, L. aqua, water ; grat, gre,
vr ill ; goust, gout, taste ; jaire, gesir, lie ; camba, jamhe, leg,
l^xmb ; ahri, ivre, drunk ; hort, jar din, garden ; juni, jeune,
j^a^nior.

Jjoch, lait, milk ; luec and loc, lieu, L. locus, place ; liame
^^^^ lioMc, Hen, lien; liech, lit, L. lectus, bed; ligible, listble,
'-^^ble; man, main, hand; boutar, mettre, put; neou, neige,
aiacw; negre, noir, black.

-P«, poids, weight ; pourpre, poulpe, pulp ; prochi, pres, near
•■lad 'proach ; prest, prit, ready ; pregdr, prier, pray and preach;

262 PHBASIS.

rahi and ragea, rctge, rage ; garri, rat, rat; ren and ves, rien, L
res, thing; buou, taureau, stier and bull.

696. It must by no means be supposed that the above may be
taken as the proper measure of the difference between French and
Provencial ; they are selected from the very few of their like—
the vast majority of words varying but little, or not at all, from
the French ; and it is to be noted, too, that the variation? of the
Provencial which we have seen above, is in almost every case a
variation in agreement with Latin.

697. The changes of words in Old French, in its gradual
growth into the late or new French, presents some interesting
facts which may be noticed here. The older these forms are,
the nearer they approach to Latin : acheter, to get, has the dif-
ferent forms acapter (L. capio, catch), acater, achepter (c = ch,
pt=t); (lonner^ give — dorrai, dourai, doint, doing; parler,
speak -^poroler, pardtut^ aparlui^ mes-parler ; trouVj retrieve—*
troz, truis, troeffe.

Courir, course and run — escourre, sequeur (L. sequor^, keurty
corre, se-cor ; dormir^ sleep -^ c?or<, dorge, devorge ; ouvrir,
open, overt — aouvert, apert (apart), overt, iievrir, ubrir ; tenipy
retain — tieigrient, tieg, tigne, tendrai.

Faillir, fail, false and fault — faldra^ faulva^ fmiray far a;
ouir, hear, L. audio — oyr, oyt, et, o^'ra, oon, ones ; voir, see,
view — verrai, voyrras, veoir, vehoir, vehu, veir, veois, veoid, vir^
vinrent, varout.

Boire, drink and beverage — heurai^ hurez, beivre, hoif; con-
noitre, know, ac-quaint — cognoistre, conistre, quenoist, conuistre,
cogtiehu, conusier, conissies; dire,82Lj — diet, dient, diomsj dixons,
desiSy dites ; ecrire, write, scribe- — escripre, scripsi, escripvi,
ecrivi.

698. The G^ascowisanimportant dialect of the French. There
is, too, in Switzerland, besides others found there, a form of
French approaching near to the Latin, and called by the differ-
ent names of Romanic, Rhaetish^ and Celto-Romanic. It runs
parallel with the other Latin languages in every essential parti-
cular. We find such variations in orthography as these, com-
paring Romanic, Latin, and French: els, illi, Zcs, the, those ;
madem, Fr. meme. It. medesmo, same ; tschel, quis and ille, ceUe,
which and that ; jou and eug, ego^je, I ; fova^fui, /us, was ; sunt,
sum, suis, am ; ean, sunt, sont, are ; Jilgs, L. Jilii, sons ; ilg, Fr.
tl, L. ille, he.

Un hum veva dus filgs ; Fr. Uh homme avait deux Jils — a
man had two sons ; schet alg hah, Fr. dit a-son (to-his)^ere —
said to-the {alg^ father; mi dai la part, Fr. donnez-moi {^\y%
me) la part — me give (mi dai) the part (give it to me); a

LATIN LANGUAGES. 263

pcLrchiraUr ih pores y Fr. pour (fot-U)) paitre hs pourceauoo — to
feed theporkff (swine);

Mo nagin Igi deva — but none (to) him gave (Fr. donnait);
€b j€m miei (aie) dyom^ Fr. et je meurs de/aim — and I die of
famine (hunger) ; jou vi lavar si, ad ir tier (Fr. irai vers, go
to) mieu bah — I will raise self (rise), and go to my father ; jou
haz/aig puccau ancunter (^contra) ilg tschiel (Fr. del) adavont
tei — • I have done sin against the heaven and before (JFr. avont)
thee; ilg gual eis (is), the which art, who art (Fr. qui es); tieu
ragindvel (L. regnum) vengig — thy kingdom come, (Fr. ton
refjne vienne^; nou tiers — us to (to us); tia velgia da-ventig—^
thy will be-come.

In the different forms of this idiom, for there are several sub-
dialects, we find for da^entig (be-come), daventa^ d/vaint,
dvtzinta; naunproa, for nou tiers; hoatz^ Ger. heute ; for debts,
we find dabittSy dbits; culpants, L. culpa, Ger. schuld. We see
that this Eomanic is French, with a strong tendency to the
German, with which it is associated.

699. The Walloon and Flemish (or Flandrish) are two kinds
of French, possessing the form and spirit of the French, varying
from it not by any striking differences of orthography, and yet
so pressed by the German people, among which they have been
located, that they have received much of the German finish.
The Walloon and Flemish have much in common with each
other, whole sentences being translated from one to the other in
^Haost identical words. Both are interesting and valuable to
*^e philologist, but more especially so the Walloon.

Other forms of French we must pass by without notice.
700. Italian : The Italian is a language spoken by a people
tnown to be direct descendants of the Latins, and occupying
to-day the very country which was the central part of the once
proud and powerful Roman Empire ; and yet, take it all in all,
the Spanish is a closer imitator of the Latin than, the Italian is.
Still, the parallel between the Italian and Latin is very regular
*tid exact. Its words are like emigrants, which, however far
they may have wandered away, never seem to forget their nativ-
ity, and point constantly homeward.

It seems to have pretty much the same history as the French,

and is more like it than any other language. Were they spoken

in more limited localities, and by a people less strongly defined,

they would easily be taken for dialects of the same language.

It is common to French and Italian, that though they use the

Latin word, somewhat varying in its form, they often give it a

different place, and generally a different meaning. We select

the following examples :

701. Pochi giorni dopo la battaglia di Waterloo — (a) few

264 PHRASIS.

days (Fr. jour) after the battle of Waterloo ; ntm avete un m-
stanfe da perdere — not you-have a (one) instant to (of) lose
(<ia = to, of); t momenti sono preziosi — the moments are'
precious.

Ma gli uomint degli (of-the) altripartiti commciarono aUora
contro di lui (him) una crociata, che fu pot (L. post) cawa
princtpale di sua grandezza — but the men of the other parties
commenced then against to him a crusade, which was (Ju) after-
wards (the) cause principal of his greatness ; che cominciavano
a temere deW influenzay che poteva (jpoi= could) esercttare U
nome di lui, lo ammisero con diffidenza al consesso loro — (they)
who (che) commenced to (a) fear of-the influence, which could
(^poteva) exercise the name of him (his name could exercise),
(they) him sent, with distrust, to-the {al) assembly (of) theirs
(their assembly).

Palla di cannone — ball of cannon (cannon ball) — as it is
uniformly, too, in French ; U mo porta — the its port (its port) ;
t nostri lihri — the our books (our books) ; egli non si limito a
far (L. facer e) conoscere il effetto — he (did) not self limit
(limit himself ) to make (^far) know the effect (to publish the
effect) ; e la sua fantasia ando injlammando *si — and the his
fancy went (on J inflaming (it) self (went inflaming) ; in che si
giaceva — in which self laid (he was placed) ; lofaro — it (I)
will-do (I will do it) ; dite-lo — tell-it; e cerca (search) di ritor-
nare a vita il poverello — and seeks to restore to life the poor-
one (poor-little); che credeva perduto — which (he) believed
lost (perished).

Eiipose-gli — responded he ; per esprimere — for (to) express ;
con cui una sUlaha viene pronunziata apreferenza deW aUra —
with which one syllable comes (is) pronounced in (to) prefer-
ence of-the other. The personal pronoun is very often not
expressed where we would find it indispensable ; viveva — lived,
i. e., there lived; era — was, i. e., there was ;^mVa la corn-
media 81 hallo — (being) finished, the comedy, one danced (they
danced) ; piu ricco di mi — more rich of me (than me) ; voglio
parlar-vi di questi affari — (I) will (wish) speak-you of these
affairs.

La citta ha fatto construire un pdnte — the city has made
construct (has had constructed) a bridge; al lato di — to-the
side of (near) ; che che sia — what that be (= whatever) ; nel
modo che — in-the manner that (=how) ; Jin a quando — till
to when (=till when); quando vuol ella (she) mandarfniH
paniere — when will you send-me the basket; vuole dar-mi del
pane — will (you) give-me of-the bread (some bread) ; li ho (I-
have) avuti — them I-have had; non mi (myself ) /amento —

LATIN LANeUAGES. 265

xiiot me rdo-I) lament, lament myself, lament ; far del progressi

to-make tne progresses, to make progress.

U eUa ricca f h sono — are you rich ? it I-am (I am it, i. c,
•^ sm), (she is used for you); r aiuto afar-lo — himl-aid to do-
ity help him do it ; egli h piiJi, dotto cW io non credeva — he is
anore learned (taught) than I not believed, t. e., than I believed;
■'mo me loprocuro — I me it procure, I procure it (for) me, i. c,
H prooure it ; noi veniamo amati — we come (» are) loved ] le
^uali andarono foLlite — the which went failed, which failed
^as G«r. go lost),

702. In conclusion we may say, there is not a single impor-
^tent feature in the Italian idiom that is not French as well.

703. Like the French, the language of the Italians may be
^vided into northern and southern classes, influenced by diflfer-
^nt forces, and taking directions, hence, somewhat varying. As
standing between the two, we may count the Tuscan and Komish.

Other dialects are the Genoese, Milanese, Tyrolian, Venitian,
IPiedmontese, Bolognish, Sabine, Tarentian, Friulan, Neapolitan,
«nd 1^ few others, besides Sicilian and Sardinian. These are
^Ualects pretty well distinguished, and having their own books
— yet all plainly starting from the Italian, or Latin, as a base,
and departing more or less from it.

Of Uie Sardinian it must be said, it has more of the Spanish
than of the Italian cast.

704. Spanish : To the Spanish, or Castilian, we come next.
For the English and Latin scholar, this is one of the easiest
languages in the world to acquire. It is a Latin language in
every respect ; it has not departed from the mother tongue so
fer by any means as the French, or even the Italian — but so
iiEtr as it has gone, that has been in a direction in common with
them. To use a figurative expression, it has been somewhat
squeezed out of shape, but the body is Old Latin none the less.
It has been pressed, hard pressed, on the south by Moors, or
Arabs, from Africa, and on the north it has been subject to
incursions from the notorious and powerful Goths. The Moors
lefl a lasting impression ; they added many words ; they changed,
too, in a measure, the style of the native. Indeed, the Moors
were masters of Spain for something near eight hundred years.
They did not destroy or change the spirit of the tongue, but
they did warp its form and mar the finish.

705.^ The following will illustrate some of its peculiarities
compared with our own idiom :

luvo la hocagrande — (he) had the (a) mouth large (a largo

mouth) ; quiero los qfos grandes — (I) like the eyes large (large

eyes) ; casa de ladritto — house of brick, i, c, a brick house ;

coluna depiedra — column of stone, i, e., stone pillar (Span, as

34

266 PHBASIS.

well as Fr. and It.) ; e$ tan noble oomo tu lo dedas — (she) is
so noble as (how) you it said (as you ssdd it, as you said) ; una
nacion venctda — a (one) nation conquered, i, c, a conquered
one; la dijo (also difo4a) — (to) her (he) said, i. e., said (toy
her (laf= the, her); yomehe cortado d dedo — I me have {he)
cut the finger (digit) — cut for me the finger, i. e., out mj fin-
ger ; un homhre rico *— a man rich, i, e., a rich man.

Yo mismo (Fr. meme^ same) lo vi — I same (myself) it saw;
eUa U echd lo8 brazos al cueUo (L. coUum) — she him (le) threw
the arms to-the (al) neck — threw around him the arms, i. Cy
threw her arms around his neck ; so again, el cahaUero (Cavalier)
le besd (bussed) las manos — ^^the knight (for) her kissed the
hands ; no sabe lo que quiere — not (he) knows the which (what)
(he) wants (re-quires) ; este quiso (-quire^ wish, qu) sujetdr-r-
this (one) wished (to) subject (some one); ndda ae hahecho —
nothing self has done (done self, been done).

Se dice — self says, i, 6., is said; »o tiene razon de decir eUo
— (you) no have reason to (de) say (inf.) that (no tiene, not
it-has, luts not, is not) ; he de salir — I-have to (de — of, to) go,
must go out (saliTy our walk) ; esta leyendo — is reading, pase^
andoj walking (passing) ; tiene de hacer-lo — he-has to do-it ;
entraron cantando — they-entered singing; lo iron (run) dici-
ehdo a todos — it (they) will-go (tVon) telling to all (go tell-
ing it).

Quiere que h haga yo — (he) desires (-quire) that it do I
(that I do it); hay (has) muclio que hacer — there-is (^y)
much which to-do — r much to do ; mis hijos 6 hifas vinieron todos
hoy para ver-me-^mj sons (L. filii) and daughters came all
(todos) to-day (Ger. heute) fq^ (to) see-me (ver-me) ; yo amo
aun a mis enemigos — I love even to my enemies (I love them).
An extra preposition is very common in other languages).

JFue asolada'^^—YfBa d-esolated; es estimado — is esteemed;
todos mis cartas estan por escribir hoy — all my letters are for
to-wriite to-day — must be written to-day; pero nolehe hablado
jamas — but not (to) him have-I {he) spoken never — never
spoken (to) him (double ne^tives are common in Europe) ; todo
esto se hizo — all this self did, t. e., was done, did self; esto es
de mi hermano — this is of my brother — it is my brother's.

706. The Catalan, or Catalonian, and the Yalencian languages
in Spain, are built upon the Spanish basis, an4 are Spanish
throughout, but they have received, from their locality, much of
the French touch; there are those who think them more French
than Spanish. In the Catalonian is especially observable the
ending -it for the past part., as in Old French; as, estapossehtt
— is possessed; haveu Uegit — have read; haveni oMt — having
heard (L. audit). While the idiom is purely Spanish, the Ian-

LATIN LANGUAGES. 267

f^uage is chiefly interestiDg from the pecnlkr orthographic
forms in which Spanish words appear here.

707. The Castilian has several minor dialects, not particularly
Imown to philology, and which we cannot here dwell on.

708. The Portugese is spoken by a people having a sepa-
Tate nationality, but so far as difference in written langnage is
ooncernedj it varies from the Spanish no more than one dialect
does from others of its class. Its nature is purely Spanish ; it
is true, the pronunciation of the words as written differs considi-
crably from that of the same words in Spanish. Its orthography
presents us with forms of much interest.

709. We will give here a comparative view of four of the
languages related to the Spanish, taking first the Italian, John,
ix, 2 :

Lcumde eUa se ne corse (therefore she self then ran)^ vewne
^went) a Simon Pietro^ e cUT (to-the) disoepeiOj U qucd (the
which, who) Gesu amava (loved), e (and) dtsse loro (to-them):
Turn toko (have taken) dcd (from-the) monumento il iSignore, e
lioi (we} non sapptamo ove (where) r (him) abbian posto (have
put).

710. French : EUe courut done (then) trouver (to^find) Simon
Pierre, et VmUbre (l\ the) disciple que Jems aimait (loved) ; et
eUe leur (to-them) dit, on a (one has) enlevS du (from-the)
sepulcre le Seigneur^ et nous (we) ne (not) savons (know) ou
(where) on Va (him has) mis (put) (where one has put him).
"711. Catalan: Ycorregue (and sne-ran), y vmi^mc a (to) Simo
Fere, y a aqudl (that-which) aUre (other) deixehle amat (loved)
de (of, by) Jesus, yls (to-them) digue : Sen hanportat (carried)
h Senyor del (fromrthe) sepulcre, y no sahem (not we-know)
ahont P han (him-^thejyhsLve) posat (jpnt).

712. Portugese : Gorreo pois (then), e veio (went) a Simdo
Pedro e ao (to-the) omJlro discipulo a quern (to whom) «/^«u«
emavd, e disse-Uies (said-them) : Ao (to-the) Senhor Umuirao do
(from-the) s^pvlcro, e ncLo (not) sah'em^>s onde (where) o (him)
poxerao (they-have-put).

718. And, finally, one of the dialects of Romanic (low Euga-
dina) : Per il qual (for the which, therefore) ella currit, e verm
pro Simon Peiro,epro (to) Tauter scular il qual Jesus cunava,
e diss €td eh: JSdun els (nave they) tiU daX (from-the) m^onu-
mairU U (the) Segner, e nvA nun (not) savain (know) ingio
fhafantschanta (placed).

714. Basque Language : There is a language of Spain,
known to philology under the name of Basque, and sometimes
ealled Iberian — an idiom somewhat celebrated, but certainly
not well understood. The Basque, with some kindred dialects

268 PHBASIS.

is the present language of the people of Biscay and Navarre,
and is the representative of an ancient language^ now extinct,
and of a people once powerful and prosperous, but long since
departed and forgotten. There is reason to believe that it was
once the idiom of all of Spain, or nearly all, besides of a large
portion of southern France.

715. It has been supposed, and with good reason, that the
Basques, and their family, belonged in their connections with
the Celtic people. There is, indeed, much in the general cast
of Basque orthography that reminds one of Gaelic or Cymric,
but in the grammar there are many strong points of difiference.
With the limited knowledge we now have of the Basque, we
would prefer leaving it to stand as some solitary monument,
alone. It is not enough to say that all of its points of construc-
tion and grammar have something similar to them in other lan-
guages ; that many, no doubt most, of its words can be traced
back to a relationship with words in the European or Asiatic
languages ; the road we have to travel is far too long to allow
us to call this connection and relationship a family likeness. Its
very marked character can never be changed, though it is of
course probable that time will make us more familiar with its
peculiar features, and bring it nearer to some languages with
which we are better acquainted.

716. The language is found in Spain (and that is the only
reason why it is introduced under the head of Latin Languages),
but it is quite as different from Spanish as Irish is from Eng-
lish. We will proceed now to give some idea of its prominent
points :

717. The article, so-called, is here found sufl^ed, as we find
it in Scandinavian and elsewhere ; thus, gizon, man ; gtzonay
the man; gizonak, the men; gizonbat, a man — bat is the
numeral one, used for a, an, as we everywhere find it. The
cases are formed by varying the endings, as in Latin ; thus, aita,
father ; aitaren, of the father, or father's ; aiiari, to the father.
This genitive attar en (the father's = that of the father), may
undergo another change, or may be used as a base on which to
form a new genitive; thus, aitar en-arena, that-of-that-of-the-
father, and the latter form again as a new base, going on so
without limit, just as we may say, that-of-that-of-that-of, inde-
finitely.

718. What we use as prepositions, they use as post-positions,
placing them after the noun, and generally united with it at the
end ; a«, ogirgdbe, without (jgabe) bread ; jauna^gaMc, through
(gatic) the (a) Lord ; jaunorre-Mn, with (kin) the Lord ; aitor
gana, to (gana) father ; ceruaren contra — heaven against ; gu-
gami — to us (^a).

LATIN LANGUAGES. 269

719. The adjective is found after the noun ; as, guicon on,
good ; abre on, good (on) animal. Not only are adjectives

compared by a change of endings, but nouns are compared in
the same manner , thus, hide^ way ; btdeago, more way ; so can
participles be compared; as, edertzen da^ improving he is;
edertzeik-ctgo da, more improving is he.

720. In verbs there are two ways of conjugating, one the
simple and older form, and the other compounded or circum-
scribed by the use of participles with auxiliaries — the simple •
form being used only with a few verbs. Verbs which are used
in the simple can also be used in the compound form ; as, nator,
I come (from etorrt), and etorten naz, coming I-am (wa«). It is
■particularly noticeable that not only are nominative pronouns
developed, at the end of verbs, but, also, the objective (ace.) and
dative occur very generally in connection with the verb ; as,
dut (dot, det) 1 have him, or it. Here d is the representative
of the object him, u of the verb-root, and t the pronoun I ; so
du is he has him, or it — here the mark of Ae, the subject, is
not so developed as to be distinguished from u of the verb-root.
It will be remembered that the marks of the third person very
commonly lie latent. Again we find dugu, we have him, or it ;
due, thou hast it; natzatzu, I am to you — where n marks 1,
atz, root be, a is connecting letter, tzu marks to-you, dat.

721. Speaking generally, the auxiliaries be and have, as we
find especially evident in Turkish, are the basis of the verb, and
are in fact the only real verb in Basque — to form the usual
tenses of the verb, we must attach the participle to these as a
base. The auxiliaries, as in other languages, are placed last ;
thus, fnaitetuten dot — loving him-have-I (d'0»t), I loving have
him, love him; maitetuten naz — loving I-am (7iaz), ' The aux-
iliaries play a very conspicuous part in Basque, as we shall see
by the examples we are about to give, and they are often too
Domerous for us to dispose of in the translation. We find many
elements united into one word, which we regard as distinct in
our own and other languages, and, as we have seen in dut, those
elements are often so little developed as to have only single let-
ters to represent them. Examples will best illustrate further
the character of the Basque :

722. Uta hitz-aren ministre igan (been) diradenec — and the-
"Word's minister been being (having been), i. e., who were min-
isters of the word (hitz)) Jiats-etic fin-erano — beginning-from
©nd-to, i. €., from beginning to end. Herodes Judeaco regue-
Ten eguTiretan cen Zach^rias deitzen cen (G'k gin, been) sacri-
ficadore bat — in-tho days (egun-etan) of-Hero(> of-Judea, the-

king (of-the-king, regue-ren) was (there was, cen) sacrifizer one
(a certain one, bat) named (who was named, deitzen cen) Zacha-
nas.

\

270 PHRASIS.

Eta Karen (his) emaztea een Aaron-en alah-etarie — and (ete)
his wife was (cen) Aaron's daughters-from-the (one from the
daughters of Aaron) ; iai-quiric ioanen naiz (he, will) neure
aita-gana — rising, go (ionanen) will-I my father-to (to my
father); eta erranen draucat — and say will-I ; ethar cedin —
come has, has come ; ihis cecan^ -^ seen has; hU egague — kill
do-ye ; ecen ene seme haar hU cen — for my son this (one) dead
(killed) was.

Si bethi ene-quin atz — thou he me- with (with-me) ever (art
ever with me); ceren hire anaye haur hU baitzen — for thy
(hire) hrother this (one) dead was; ene gttda hire due — my all
(jgucia) thine it-hast-thou (thou hast (it) my all).

Ecen ikussi dugu haren icarra Orientean — for seen it-
have-we (d-i*^) his star East-in (his star in the East we have
seen); trubla cee^in -^ troubled was, had trouble; ezaiz Ju~
daco gohemadoren arteco chipiena — art-thou-not (thoti art
not) Judea's governors among (arteco) the least (art not the least
among).

Scribatua e?wc— (is) written thou-hast-it (hast written);
enganatu igan cen -^mocked been was, had been mocked ; etran
igan cena — said been being, having been said ; to cegan haren
famac Syria gucia — gone (to) has his fame Syria all-through
(through-all, ^'lecta); cuec carete mundvLco arguia — ye are the-
world's light; eznaiz ethorri abolitzera, baina complit-zera —
I-am-not come to-abolish-for (for-to-abolish), but complete-for
(to complete). The present part., used like ours, ends in -tc;
as, itzir-icj leaving.

723. Here we introduce, for further illustration of the char-
acter of the language, ^ list of some of its words : aditu, hear,
L. auditum ; andia^ grand (a = gra) ; aurra^ fore, ere ; begwUi^
eye, Ger. avge (be is pref.) ; beroa^ warm ; biar, morrow ; bidea^
way, path; burua, head; chiloa, hole, ch, h; ciUara^ silver;
cerua^ heaven, Fr. del, r. 1.

Deitu, call, L. dico; doya, just, Q-') dlki; eann, when ; echea,
house, case ; esan and erran, say, Gr'k red ; edo, or, other ; eguin,
make, do, L. ago and egi ; eguna, day, Fr. jour, g, d ; eman,
give, L. dono; ez, not, Q-'k ouk, Ger. kein.

Zaca, save, without, Fr. sans; gacia, acid ; gan and goan, go;
gosna, cheese ; gauba, night, g, n ; goia, high, g, h ; gucia, all,
Ger. ganz ; guero, near, g, n ; gura, will, Ger. gierig, gr, wl ;
guti, little, bit ; hiru, three ; ibaya, river.

Mintza and hitza, word, Fr. mot ; icena, name ; iccm, teach ;
tcusi, see, look ; t?, die, kill ; igan, go, G^r. st-eigen ; igU and
mZ, silent ; jdn, eat ; Zb, sleep, 1, si ; lora, flower ; Ztwra, earth,
L. terra, 1, d, t.

Mendia, mount; mta, mouth, tongue, word; obe, better (notioe

LATIN LANQUAGES. 271

that many letters in Basque are prefixes for ns) ; sendooy sound;
9ua, fire, s, b.

Tipia^ bit, little ; ucitu, cut, deal ; zaldia, horse, Fr. cheval;
«rre, burn ; ikuo, see, 1-ook ; al, oan, Celt. gaU, our will ; arrtay
(stone) rock ; hicia, life, L. vivo ; choriay bird.

I^on, be, stand, do, L. ago ; izan, ucan, Ger. seiw, be — i is
in Basque commonly a prefix, as, also, in igo, for our go ; mola^
L. muUus, many, G^r. vtel; cma, good, L. h-ona,

724. Wallachian Language : The last language of the
Latin class which we come to, and the most of all different from
it, is the Wallachian. It is unquestionably built on the Latin
basis; its whole framework is Latin; but it must not be forgotten
that it is Latin as it has grown up in a Slavic atmosphere, and
under Slavic influences. What there is of it that is not Latin
18 Slavic — speaking generally, of course. While a vast majority
of its larger words are almost identical with Latin, there is enough
of the smaller words and particles so un-Latin as to divest the
text of very much of its Latin cast — especiallv so, when we find
fibad it, as we often do, written in the Cyrillic, or old Slavic
alphabet.

725. The Wallachians call themselves Eomam, and their
language is spoken in Wallachia (a country in Austria), in
Moldavia, in Transylvania, in Bessarabia, and in parts of Hun-
gary. It is divided into a northern and a southern branch.

726. Among the prominent features of this language, we
notice the suffixed article H, le, L. ille ; as, cane-Uy the dog ;
urpe-Uy the serpent ; ceriu^ the heaven ; and we find the fem-
enine article a ; as, mente-ay the mind ; flore-a^ the flower —
aU of them, it seems evident, a pure development of the ending
-iw, -a, -lem, of Latin nouns andi adjectives ; as, bon-us, -a, 'Um.
This suffixed article takes a dative and genitive form in ui; as,
tocrurl, the father-in-law (L. socer) ; a socm-lui, of the father-
in-law (L. socert) ; frate-le meu, the my brother (L. /rater
meu£) ; a frate-lui meu (L. fratrU mei, gen.), of the my bro-
ther; pre fraieAe rneu (L, fratrem meum, ace), to the my
brother -^pre is a mere sign of the accusative, a mere insep-
tiable prefix, and is not translated in English ; and a performs
the same part for the genitive ; de la frate-le meu (L. a fratre
meOy abl.), from the my brother. Conclusive proof we find in
these facts, that the prepositions are mere prefixes, and the
articles, pronouns, case endings, and the like, are simply devel-
opments of the endings of nouns. In the plural, we find a/rati-
for mei (h. fratrum meorum, gen.), of the my (met) brothers.

727. Other features will be best understood by the examples
which we are about to give :

272 PHRASIS.

Cicero oratorvA quelu mare — Cicero orator-the which great
(one), that great, the great one, or who (is) great (Cicero the
great orator) ; fa^ casa* de lemnu, nee de petra — make (L. fac)
the-house from (de) wood (L. lignum)^ not from stone; caluP
quelu suru mi 7 dede — the-horse (Fr. cheval) that cerulean
(one) (to) me it (^l) given (he has), has given it, the horse, to
me (this superfluons it^ as well as many other superfluous parti-
cles, we find in other Latin languages as well) ; qizare-le (the-
which) au (has) datu legi poporu-lui Romanu — who has given
laws (to) the-people Koman (to the Romans) ; se chiama — self
calls, calls self, i. c, is called.

fera mi s-au (self has) aratat in vim — a beast (to) me has-
self appeared (has appeared) in sight (to my vision) — show-
self = appear ; se vede — self sees, is seen ; leuC au invinsu pre-
ursu — the-lion has vanquished the bear — call pre an unmean-
ing prep., or the sign of aco. ; omu cu intelepdune mare (L.
magnus) — (a) man with intelligence great, man of great intel-
ligence ; y^cZecaton/w cu direptale — judge with justice, a just
judge; casa aquesta e buna — house this (this house) is good.
We find the leading character of the Latin family here, the-
adjective after the noun. It will be observed that all the fea-
tures which strike us in the modern Latin languages, are onl;
developments of what we may also find in the old Latin.

JEste de vendutu — is to (de = of) sell, i, c, to be sold ; nu
tempu si giaci (L. jaceo) in patu — not is time (it is not time)^^ID
that you-lie in bed, time not to lie in bed — this si = that, "'"jTi^^T
be treated as the or to^ and we shall always find the^ thai and to^ ^^
used to perform one and the same office ; the Wallachian Ian— -»•
guage continually reminds us, by the identity of form, of thi- ■ n

identity of prepositions with articles and pronouns ; witness th ( ^ i Q

prepositions/a, c?e, din^ a.

Vedu-V io — see-him I, I see him (V) ; io Vasi (him-that^" -■)
lauda — I him might- praise (asi= that is merely sign of subj.) ;

cedm^l este arboru4 quel (which) mai inaltu (L. aUvs) — the^^s-
the cedar is the- tree that (the) most high, highest tree (we see i^r~"n
in^altus the addition of prep, in, not found in other idioms, an»- d
we find very many like instances — this shows that there is a— — n
in undeveloped in L. alius) ; da^mi — give me, to me; June (.
juvenis) albu (blank) la facia — (a) young (one, a youth) whii
to face, i. e., with a white face (/a is preposition with n>rce i
article) ; tener (tender, young) ager la mente — (a) youth acui

(ager) to mind, i. e., in mind ; gradina nostra (our) cu (with n)

aoa iugere este mai mai mare de (from) quaf (from what, fro - ^
as- much) a^vostra (your) — (the) garden ours by (with) i^^^o
acres is more more great from what yours (is), i. e., greater ^Bt?/
so much than yours is ; greu {gravis, grievous) de smtu, diMowmjdt
to ascend.

)

LATIN LANaUAGES. 273

Fmt'ti este aquestu ? — son-you (to-you, ti) is that, t. c, is that
tliy son ? Btele-le quele mart (great) noui (us) se in^paru a-fire
mici (much and mite) — the.stars which great (the great ones)
to-us self show (appear) to-be small ; que voiu (will) face (do)
qiui n (subj. sign) me mentuescu — what shall-I do that (jqita)
me (-self ) I-may-save (may save myself) ; da-mi dare ("there-fore)
una dintre (de-inter) quele — give-me there one from them ;
'ormi pare — to me (it) 'pears (ap-pears to me); me dore capu
— me it-pains (in-the) head (L. caput).

728. There is very little else in Wallachian that is sufficiently
peculiar to justify further notice here. We will next introduce
the 2d of the 20th John, so as to compare it with the rest of the
family :

Deche au aJergat, si au (has) venit^ la Simon PetrUj si la chela
(jquda) lalt ouchenik (disciple), pre karele iuvia Jesus^ si au-zic
lor (to-them) : Au luat pre Dmnul din mormunt, si nu (not)
sciu ounde l-au (him-have) pus^ (put) — afterwards (she) has
run (t. e., she ran), and has come to (la) Simon Peter, and to
that other disciple, whom {pre-harele^ which) loved Jesus (did),
and has-said them (to-them) : (they) have removed the (pre
sign ace.) Lord from grave, and not I-know where (unde) him-
they-have put (have put him).

729. Here follows a list of some important and interesting
words, with Latin and English counterparts: peptu, pectus,
chest J chidu, claudo, close ; cetate, civitas, state ; dosu, dorsum,
back, d, b.

Foam^, fames, hunger, f, h ; ^erw, gelu, cold, r, 1 ; nopte, nox,
night; quelu. Hie, he, Ger. welcher ; tunu, tonitru, thunder, and
tone, sound; porumbi, columhx, doves; reu, malvs, worse.

Puntea,pont, bridge ; pruncu (horn), puer (boy) ; plopu, plebs,
Vi^pcpul-us, people ; spunu and espunu, expono, expose ; scriu,
«n6o, write; angeru, angelus, angel; santu, sanctus, saint; sore,
9ol, sun.

Ghia^cta, glacies, ice, gla, ya, i; delu, collis, hill; wewe, nix,
B-now; ochiu, ocul-its, eye, Ger. auge; chiae, clams, key ; gaiina,
gaUina, hen, gal, gai, hai ; scurtu, curtus, short, s prefix.

Cercu, quaero, search and seek, cr, sr, qr; gatu,paro, get, g,
p; scapu, fugio, es-cape; saru, salio, spring, walk, sr, spr, and
b1, wl.

Tocu, tango, touch ; tra>gu, traho, drag, g, h ; jvde. Judex,
judge, d, dg; diori, aurora; golu, {nudui), bald, bare, g, b.

Mim, s-mall, mite ; mane, morrow, morn (maun) ; afundu,
profound, a, pro; naUu (for inaltu), L. altus; amu, have (our
am) ; cUtngu, L. tango, at, t ; astemperu, L. tempero, ast, t ;
oiunu, L. sono, as, s ; sbatu, quatio, quash, shake, sb, qu, qv ;
tparWy terreo, sp, t.

35

274 PHRASIS.

CHAPTER V.

SLAVIC LANGUAGES.

730. We pass next to the language of that extensive and
powerful race, the Sclaves. These people were the last to com^
into notice on the theatre of European civilization ; but, onc^
organized, they have ever been active, and their march has beeif-
constantly onward. Their course has exhibited the unchange— ■'^
ableness and majesty of the moving mountain. They stand i
an ever-enduring monument of our Asiatic ancestry; they affwd-
us a living demonstration of the transition from the wild and
monadic Tartar to the proud and polished citizen of enlightened
Europe.

731. While we call to mind again the fact, that all classifiioa- -
tions are more or less arbitrary, and that, particularly, subdiyis—
ions in language cannot stand the test of critical examination, .
we will yet, on the ground of convenience, and because even
unjust classification is far better than none at all, divide the
Slavic idioms into the following usually recognized families.

732. First, the Lettic, or Lithuanian class, composed of ihe
Old Prussian, the Lithuanian, in its forms of Lithuanian proper,!
Samogitian, and Pruss-Lithuanian, and the Lettic or Livonian^
together with its several dialects ; the line of distinction '
tween this family and the rest of the Slavic, is very clear and
striking.

733. Next, the Eussian, comprising, again. Great, Little, andJ^^
White Russian ; and the Illyrian, or South Slavic, comprising, of^:^^^

used as synonymous with, Servian, Slovenian, and Creation

the Slovenian having the minor dialects of Carinthian, Windian,^ -i
Carniolan, and Styrian. This constitutes the soutii-eastem^^^
branch of Slavic.

734. And, finally, the western portion ; being the PoliBh^^
Bohemian, and Serbian, or Wend.

735. There is, besides, the Bulgarian and tiie Polabian, quit^
distinct from any of the above.

736. Having given this brief notice of the classification odT
these languages, we will now take the Russian and describe it
more particularly, as the representative of the whole Slavic
class. The Russians are the leading and ruling people of the
whole Slavic race ; Russia is the literary center, too, of ihe
Slavic territoij; the Russian language contains the worb
which will be toxmd by far the most important to the philolog*
ioal student.

SLAVIC LANGUAGES. 276

737. In passing to the Russian, and to the Slavic generally,
you find, together with much that is Latin or German, a great
deal besides that is peculiar to it. It takes some time to be-
come acquainted with and accustomed to its strange orthog«
raphy, its consonants piled upon consonants, and its compara-
tive scarcity of vowels; — in Russian, too, though not in most
others, you must learn to know its peculiar, though not very
difficult, alphabet. When you have once fully mastered these
obstacles, your task, if you properly direct your efforts, is half
done. Learn well its orthography, and you will find its prepo*
aitioiiB, its pronouns, its conjunctions, and its adverbs, all famil-
iar to you ; -you will find they have all their easily recognized
xelatires in Greek, in Latin, or in German. Personal endings,
|Murtioiple endings, and lastly, though less plain, the case end-
ings, all those seeming little marks which when really mastered
leave but little of our work yet to be accomplished, will be easily
snade familiar, from the resemblance which they bear to similar
aiarks fi)und elsewhere.

738. The idiom of the Russian, and of the Slavic generally,
the arrangement of its words, is to an Englishman exceedingly
easy. There are, it is true, important differences, but they are
^ery few ; and without assuming to have counted the points of
likeness or unlikeness in any two cases, we have a feeling that
the order of the Russian, and of others of its class, is more like
ihe English than the order is of any other language of Europe.
One cannot but be struck at every step, especially in Russian,
with thi& remarkable identity. Russian is also strikingly Greek
in many of its features, particularly in orthography; after Greek,
it is German.

739. The only real and lasting difficulty (and that one occurs
in most fioreign languages, particularly so in Greek) is in the
difference between the root given in the dictionary, especially in
verbs, and the derivatives in the text which are assumed to come
fifom it. No quick-or far-sightedness can provide against these
obstacles, and so long as our dictionary system remains as it is,
those derivatives must be learned as a mere matter of memory.
The science of etymology can aid some, but it can do no more
than help us.

740. We give now the following examples in Russian, re-
marking generally that the points illustrated, in nearly eveiy
uuttance, are points equally the same in most or all of the other
Slavic idioms.

Ja dam vam trech tchelovyak — I (will) give (to) you three
man. The Russian numerals are followed by the genitive sin-
gular after 2, 3, and 4, and the genitive plural after other
numerals — some few nouns are used in the nominative singular

274

lie (

•I I li:i\\.'

.•':'h'.\o f/ta

• hii<i>f —

. |»ljie<\< \V(

;■ 'zhiio — (()

j'> ^fis/iio — t.

. iu'io are nc» ai

:/'0/*' //'''"*•*•■/"'

• .id (one ) l)urio'i

•. ' '/> r<i/(i rii ( lln

.•• V — iKit (is it ) p<

^ . ."..•rmed woro {f^i/ij 1

.' //rfr/ so/)ffi/f) — tiler

» .''tfi, arrcln'o

• ro n'ddt scat

.'ve from ( //, to") us irolt

"s.» \^i) lis take into eovcn

. .!jci> thy covenant ; / /

.''ii\a lie pf/pif'/dc/sf'/ —

• oyos not ])resents-self' ( s/V.

M-il'lo the eyes). Thi> extr

. ». as elsewhere; // corof ::<

..• tlu'y ) wrote our nauies ; na j

. . .'lifu's ( 's = sell' ) If I'd rdi 1/(1

.- ^ihe) palace {jlror::<i ) exen

■,:\hnl ilUzi/d mnoi/o rrlikdif/d}

. -.avet (are) many (of) maizuilicei

nuidf/o). A leadinii' I'eature oft

. .s»-e i»f the verb f)f\ in ca>es when^

li.-, matter, .Uussiaii is by no means

.■iniiudf/dfui/d sohldfd))u — ( they ^ <

are occupied — this iorm (»f pas;

.1.- expression of case relatic»n by varyi

:ii lli»^ use of ]»repositions. Kussiaii

.1 I Latin ; mi mnt/fi sis/.uff (yo — we t

'i.iii ; ilriKj-ifnuj — other (the) other,

IhisA'Dd (Inlijo h\i<h t hrdnovuf-i^i/d id

Moscow lon^will yUmJit. bo shiiie-

V lUicytC) (of) cities (oi'; Kussia ; ^ukhi

SLAVIC LANGUAGES. 277

visluzMl pensiyo — soldier this (one) h as-served long, and has-
received (a) pension; za eto ego nagradiU ordenom — for that
him (they) rewarded (with a) decoration (he was rewarded with) ;
Rossiya ohitaema mnogimi narodami — Ilussia (is) inhabited
by-many nations ; la vas utchu, zhdaya vam dobra, i nadayas
tchto vi (you) uspyaete v naukach — 1 you teach, wishing (as I
wish) you good, and hoping-self (as I hope) that you (will)
progress in (v) (the) sciences.

• Odna vdova imyala (had) dvuch dotchere — a (one) widow
had two daughters j tchto ia vizhu — what (do) I see ? gdya ti
iaJc (so) dolgo hila — where thou (ti) so long (hast) been? i
onya brosili's hit menshuyo dotch — and^ they (Ger. jener) ran-
selves (ran) (to) beat (the) little girl (child, daughter).

741. It may not be amiss to remind the student that ^, i7, Z?', /a,
as endings of verb, mark the past, and equal our -ed ; that ^, it^
at, are infin. endings ; that am marks dat. plur. ; om, and em,
instrum. sing. ; acJi marks instrum. plur., and ich marks gen^plur.
of adjectives. We must note, too, that ya, ia, yo, tch, sh, and zh,
we use as representatives each for a single character in Russian.

742. It must be observed, finally, that the examples we have
given here, as elsewhere, are those which contain some peculi-
arity of expression, while, as a general rule, the Russian order
scarcely differs from ours. The number of idiomatic expressions
is not very large.

743. Bohemian : The Bohemian possesses the general struc-
ture of the Russian, as well as of the other Slavic languages,
with, however, several strong points of difference. The orthog-
raphy, while it possesses thoroughly the Slavic character, is
yet considerably different from Russian — there are many words
common to both, and many words, again (in the two languages),
with equal meanings, have very different forms.

744. The Bohemian has an extensive literature, and some of
it dates back several centuries. Bohemia, it will be remembered,
18 a country of Austria bordering on the German States — the
people call themselves Tchezki, and number between seven and
eight millions. It is spoken, too, in Moravia and Hungary ;
the Slovak of Hungary is a leading form of it. There are
several dialects of the Bohemian, which we cannot notice here.

745. A few examples will be given from what would strike
us as peculiar :

Muj hratr naroz^n jest (is) v Praze — my brother born is
(was) in (v) Prague ; to mesto kde jsem (am) prava studoval
— that (the) town (place), where (I) am (have) (the) rights
(laws) studied ; slave Viden, calls (self) Vienna, i. e., is called;
jakjste star — how (much) are (you) old, i. e., how old are you;
cisare sameho jsem vtdel — (the) emperor (czar) himself (the

280 PHRASIS.

the great class of which it forms a part. The modern Illyrian,
it will be noticed, is separated from Venice and northern Italy,
by the dividing line of the Julian Alps ; the limits of ancient
Illyria are not well understood, but there is every evidence to
lead us to believe that the Illyrians were once a people far more
numerous and mor« powerful than the modern Illyrians now
are.

749. The words are nearly all Slavic, but with a strong tend-
ency to the Latin and German methods of orthography. As
compared with the rest of the class, it is particularly noticeable
that this family forms its past or perfect tense by the ending aA,
ach^ or ecA, in place of Slavic Z, or our ed ; thus, Polish czytal^
read (past), Illyrian citah^ read (past) — and so, Illyr. hi-ah^Vo\.
h-yl, Servian h-ech^ our w-aa.

750. Illyrian compares with Bohemian thus : Otce nas koji
(who) jest na nehesih ; (Boh.) Otce nas, jenz jsi na nebesich
— father of- us (our) who art in (na) heaven Q'ejiz, Ger.
yewer, that = who) ; Svetl se ime tvoje) (J^o!) po-swet se jmeno

twe — hallowed (saint, holy) be name thy (sveti se, hallowed
self, for be hallowed, reflex = pass). (In Boh. po-swet com-
pared with sveti, we see pos = s, or that prefixes are devel-
opments of initial letters, and add nothing in any case to the
original or base word) ; pridi kraljevstvo tvoje ; (Bo.) jprijd
kralowstwi twe — come kingdom thy (pridi = pr-idt ; pr is a
prefix, and idi = go, L. ivit and it).

Budi volja tvoja kako na. nebu tako i na zemlji ; (Bo.) Bud i
wule twa jako w nehi taJc i na zemi — be will thy so (kako) in
heaven so and (as) in earth ; kruh svagda7iji (daily) daj nam
danas ; (Bo.) chleb'nas wezdejsi dejz nam dnes — bread (Bo.
bread-our, our bread) daily give (daj) to-us to-day (dnes); nego
izbavi nas iza zla ; (Bo.) ale zbaw (see iz-b = izb = zb) nas od
zleho (ill, evil, z = v = i) — but (G'k alia) deliver us from
(out) ill.

751. We cannot resist the temptation to introduce here some
Illyrian words, to show their departure from the northern and
eastern Slavic style of orthography , in words clearly identical ; we
will introduce some words, too, which are more or less peculiar
to Illyrian.

Ako (when), L. ac, and, at; bar (at least), bare, barely ; Becs^
Vienna ; bel (white), blank, bleach ; berz (quick), hurry ; bibeVy
pepper, It. 'pevere; bodni, point (bodkin) ; bolse, well, better. It.
meglio, L. melius ; brada, beard ; breh'r, beaver ; hrek, (dog),
bark; breky burg; brod, boat, br, b; buha. It. pulce, flea,
uh, ul.

Car, czar, L. rex (king) ; carkva^ church ; carn^ dark (black),
Nit. nerOy h, nigery Ger. schwartz, n, schw; cely whole; cepatiy

SLAVIC LANaUAGBS. 281

Ger. spatten, It. q>accare, split, cep, cp, sp; cerv, worm, It.
verme ; do = cil, whole, Ger. ganz ; cipelaj It. scarpa (cpl,
srp), shoe ; civ, tube ; csa, It. cosa, che, what ; csedo, child,
Gter. kind, cs, o ; cselciy bee ; csep, It. (apo^ stopple ; csesto. It.
a^essoj oft, st, sp, ft; csez^ with, G'k me/a (through) ; mn,
done, deed, cs, s, d ; csredoy It. greggia, herd, gr, hr — mark
that the cs of Illyr. is very clearly only a kind of 8, or a kind
of c; cmd, sense, Ger. sinn; csudan, wonder, cs, 217; csuttiy
It. udire (cs prefix). It. sentire (hear) ; csuvar, ward (csuv, csv,
sv, to), guard ; csverst, force, strong, Ger. stark ; cucak. It. cane,
Gter, hu7id, (dog) — ak is a common noun ending of Illy r.; cukro,
sugar, 0, s ; cura, girl, G'k kore,

Dabar, beaver; dar, dower (gift); darvo and drevo, tree

Swood) ; davati (give), L. past, dabat (gave) ; debeo, thick,
euse ; decs-ak, It. giovine (young), child, d, g, ch ; desan, and
desno. It. destro (just, d, j), right, d, r; diltti (iti, Illyr. inf.
ending), deal, divide. It. s-partire (ire, inf. ending), separate,
dvd, dl, spt ; dim, It. fumo, steam, d, st ; dlakka, It. pelo (pi,
dl), hair; dreti, tear, It. stracciare, strip, Ger. zerreissen, dr,
str, zerr — see Ger. prefix zer lost in the Illyr. dr; dug, due. It.
deintOy Ger. schuld, sch, d ; duJia, o-dor, Ger. ge-ruch, r, d; dvor,
court.

Frigati (ati, inf. end.). It. friggere, fry, parch (bake) ; Gark,
Greek ; Gjuro, George, gj, ge, g ; glas (sound), Ger. laut (gl=
lor g pref.), loud ; gled, look (<g pref.), Ger. blick (b pref.) ; gliih
(deaf), G'k kluo = hear, as It. sordo (deaf) = heard ; godina,
year, gd, yr; gorje, worse; gorki (bitter), sour; govor (speech),
word, verb (^o, pref.) ; grabiti, L. rapio, rob, gr, r ; gravran,
raven, It. corvo ; gredem and grem, go (gr = g), L. gredior;
griem, warm ; grih (sin), error (go, wander).

Haran (thank). It. grato ; hit, jet, (throw), It. gittare ; jab-
hn, apple ; jagnje. It. agnello, 1-amb ; jaje, Qgg, Ger. ey, ei, It,
vow; jedin, union, join, one ((f suppressed) ; iskatti, seek, search
— ts is treated as prep = iz = out, but it is our s in seek, isk,
sk; ivan, John, It. Giovanni; izfrigati^ frigati, izf, f ; and
iagrahite = grabiti, izg, g.

jTcn, daughter ; kerv^ gore (blood) ; kip^ Ger. hild, pict-ure,
%-are; kisd, acid; kljucs, key, Ger. schlUssel; klup (bank),
cliff; kola, car, r, 1 (wheel) ; koleno, knee, (-cline, bend) ; kost,
l)one, It 08S0; kralj, royal, kr, r; krepost, force, Ger. kra/t;
krics, cry ; krivo, wrong, curve, -prave, It. reo ; krov, roof —
niyr. k is often for us a prefix; kroz, through, -cross ; krupan,
gross, robust, rp, rb (k pref.) ; krut, rude, c-rude, hard ; kucha,
house, cage ; kuhan, cook ; kupiti, Ger. kait/en, It. comprare,
bay — 80 we see k of kaufen is com of comprare, or pref. com
36

282 PHRASIS.

becomes lost in the word ; and this is only one illustration of
the universal law ; hus (bite), Jdss.

Lahda, ball, Ibd, bl ; lagak, light, It. leggiero (strike off ah
generally as mere ending) ; mek^ meek, weak, Ger. weich, It.
molle; mil (deal), G'k phil-os, L. a-micus, It. OrmahUe; mivy
Ger. friede and ruhe^ joy, fr, j ; mlad (young), lad ; mochy
might, may; mraz, ripe; mnVi, die, r, d (m pref^)

Nag, naked, nude ; narav, nature ; nauka, doctrine — na is
Illyr. pref., but it is our t of teach and I of learn ; na-ucsan,
taught, L. doctus, n, d ; nechjak, It. mjpo^c, nephew; nem, dumb,
mute ; nemogu, not-may (cannot), nem = nm = m ; nor, fool,
Ger. narr, ig-nor-ant, ign = gn (know); nuglo, a-ngle, Ger. eck,
nick, nook.

Ocsi, eye ; odkrit (pd pref.), discover (dscover), It. scoperfo,
Ger. enUdeckt (decked) — krit, covered ; odpert, o-pen, German
o-ffen. It. a-perto ; ogled (o = od), (object) look, glook ; opady
fall (p, f ), L. cado ; ov (this), L. nhi, Fr. ou.

Pal, fall ; penna, foam, It. schinma, scum ; pokrit, covered
(po pref.) ; posobnost, substance ( po pref.) ; pot, sweat. It.
sudor ; po-znan, known, Ger. be-kannt ; prav, right, -prave (p
pref). L. verus; pridi, L. gredior, come, go, L. it (pr pref.)- —
so pri-cM, come, go (j>ri pref) ; pri-lika (pri pref), likeness;
pri-pek, burn, bake ; puk, folk, people.

Rahiti, work, Ger. a-rheiten ; rasti, g-row, L. c-resco ; rat,
war, Ger. k-rieg; razhor^ reason, It. ragione; razdel=del, deal,
and razgovor = govor, word — raz is prefix ; so raz-krivati,
cover ; raz-lika, un-likeness ; red, order.

Sam, sole, some; san, sleep, It. 8onno,8, si; sarce, heart, It.
cuore, core; sbitti, beat (« pref.) ; strov, rough («i pref.) ; skerh,
care, It. cura, Ger. sorge (we see Ger. s, our c=^k, both used
in Illyr. as sk)) sJcrovan, secret (s-covered); skuhati, cook
(s-cook) ;. slava, glory ; smart (death), L. m^rs ; smok, sap ;
sneg, snow. It, neve (s-neve) ; spor, spare, It. parco ; suh, dry
(s, dr), It. secco; sur (s, g), gray. It. grigio ; svet, world, G^r.
yjelt (sv = vv »=* w).

Tat, thief. It. lad-ro (1, t) ; tvard, hard. It. duro ; tvor, work
(tv=vv = w); tie?, limb, Ger. gl-ied ; ugal, angle, Ger. eck ;
vart, gard-en ; voz, wagon ; vrata, port, door (p, d).

Xiv, live, It. vivo ; zanak, knot (z, k), It. nodo ; zana^,
-quaint, Ger. kunst, know ; zima, frigid, winter, L. hiems ; zvtr,
Ger. thter, li, fier a (beast).

752. Servian : The Servian subdivision is easily classified
with the Illyrian ; they run parallel in every essential point ;
they are evidently closely related dialects of one original tongue.
Indeed. Illyrian is used as a comprehensive term for the Servian
taken in connection with Slovenian and Croatian.

SLAVIC LANGXTAGBS. 288

, 758. Servia extends west to the Adriatic ; and on the south,
merging into Bulgaria, it extends to Albania and northern
Greece. The Danube separates it from Wallachia on the north;
further towards the west, taking in the Illyrians, it crosses that
river, and the Save, and extends to the southern limits of Hun-^
gary. The Servians number over five millions. Speaking geui-
erally, Seryja is the northwest portion of Turkey.

754. There are, of course, many forms of Servian ; two lead-
ing forms, after the Illyrian portion, are the High and Low
Wend, or High and Low Lusatian. The term Wend is used by
the Germans often as synonymous with Servian. The High
Lusatian is spoken in the country about Budissin, Reichenbach^
Kaimenz, Bautzen, Loebau, and Muskau; and the Low, in vari*
ous dialects, in the region about Cottbus.

755. The following selections are from the High Wend:, ^o
czmi, $0 mamy wmtojneho a pilneho sahrodnika — that makes
(Ger. thun), that (so) we-have (a) clever and (a) diligent gar-
dener (s = g) ; wone budze dre skoro (shortly) czass — it (will)
be very soon time (wone = one, Euss. on, he) ; to moze hyez —
that might be; pol punta zokora^^half pound sugar (of
sugar).

Sciuo moze to wedziez — who {scht =■ w) may that (to, the)
know (Ger. wmen) ; ja hdu 'mu tuMej nje$chto norpissacz — .
I will (be) him here (of-this) something write (no- write,
n- write).

A t^'z to 4isym ja sesnal — and also that am (have) I known ;
schtoz (what)ya newjem (ne pref.) — what I not-know; chzeoze
(choose) dacz — will (you) give {dacz').

756. It is well to observe that these Lusatian dialects are
often treated apart from the Illy r. -Serb., and placed in the
Bohemian class, under the name of Serbian, Sorabian, or Wend.
The term Servian for a language is like Servian to denote a
people, anything but definite.

757. Croatia lies between the Drave and Save rivers ; Cro-
atian is spoken, too, in western Hungary. The Croatians, ot
Croats, are also named High Slavonians. The language is emi-*
nently Illyrian ; it also very much resembles the Bohemian^
Compared with these two, nothing particularly important can be
said of it. The orthography presents very few peculiarities. It
has, however, several forms, or sub-dialects.

758. There is yet an extensive family, called the South Wends,
"Who belong with the Illyrian race, or may be classed with it.
Their, language is called, also, Slovenian and Corutanian, and is
spoken in Styria, Carinthia, Carniola (Carniolan or Krain),
countries above the north Adriatic — also in a portioa of Illyria
and in Hungary.

284 PHRASI8.

759. The followiDg from the Hung-Wend (Lord's Prayer)
will show how it compares with Illyrian or Servian : Otscha
nasch, ki ssi (who art) vu nehesay ; ssveti sse (hallowed self)
ime tvoje ; pridi (be) vx)la tvoja, Jcako (h&)je (it-is) vu nebi, tak
i (also) na semli ; krucha nasega (our) vszakdenesnyega (daily,
each day) daj (give) nam ga dnesz (to-day).

760. We may notice here briefly the North Wend, or Pola-
bian. This dialect represents a language once, beyond doubt,
prevailing in different dialects, to a large extent, in northeni
Germany. We hardly know where to class it; it is neither
German nor Slavic, or it is both, as you like. A very large
proportion of the words are German and not Slavic ; again, there
are many others which are Slavic and not German. The follow-
ing, from the Lord's Prayer, presents one of its forms :

Nos holy a wader ^ ta toy (that thou) chiss (art) wa nehugay;
sjunta woarda (holy be, were) tugi geima (name) ; tia rik k<m-
ma; tia willy a schingot (be) koke (so) nehisgay kokkak (as) wo
sims (earth).

This language has been extinct since about the eighteenth
century,

761. Bulgarian : Here we may speak also of the Bulgarian.
Bulgaria is a country in the northern part of Turkey. The lan-
guage is clearly Slavic in its fomj and spirit, easily classed with
the Servian or Illyrian, but having much stronger evidences of
Greek relationship than any other Slavic tongue. The alphabet,
differing somewhat from the Russian, may, like that, be called
a form of the Greek, or, the three may be all forms of a common
original.

762. The following are selections: Oni mu rekocha — they
(to) him said; c j3i«awo, is written ; otrotche to — child the;
zashoto videchme zvyadza ta negova (of-him) na vostok (east), %
doidochme da mu (him) ce poklonime — for (we) have-seen
star that (the) of-him in East, and (we) have-come that (to)
him self worship(-we) — that we may worship him, worship-self
^ worship.

We notice here the ch = k^ sign of past tense, like Illyrian,
which may be looked upon as standing nearer the ka of Greek
perfect, and the ed of English, than does the / of other Slavics.
We find here the article, or demonstrative, to, te, to, following
the noun, as we find possessives and relatives doing in the
other dialects.

Duwrashe — (and) said; veshe — was; govoreshe — he said;
she ti dam — will (to) thee I-give, i. e., I will give thee (will
is used separate to form future here, as in Illyrian) ; retchenno
to — spoken the (the (thing) spoken) ; da hude void ta tvoa —
then be will the thy, i. e., be thy will ; i sitchko to-H (and all

SLAVIC LANGUAGES. 285

the-thy) tyalo (body) %he da hude svyastlo — and all the-thy
body shall then be lighted {jsvyastlo) ; da ne sudeni budete —
that not judged (ye) be (that yo be not) ; sJie da retchesh — will
then (thou) say (thou wilt say) ; i kato videcha narodi te —
and when saw (they) people the (people saw).

Dade, L. dedi, gave ; vide, L. vidi^ saw ; koito (which) ce
naritcha — who self called (was called) ; ste, (ye) are ; tchuli ste
zasho e (is) retcheno — heard (ye) are that (it) is said (have
heard, it has been said) ; 726 mozhete da rahotite na (to) Bga i
na mamuna — not ye-can (may) that ye-serve to God and to
mammon (ye cannot serve) ; so, vrill that I deny, for I will deny ;
and I have come that I destroy, for conie to destroy,

763. Da is a prefix (separate) used before infinitives and im-
peratives, equal to our to, do of Celtic, and the da of other
Slavics — it is used also for that, and it shows very clearly what
augments may become by development. We have nothing to
add that is peculiar to the language, so thoroughly is it Slavic,
not only in its form and grammar, but also in its orthography.

764. The Bulgarian is an interesting and valuable language,
and it is greatly to be regretted that it has not received greater
attention from philologists.

766. Lithuanian : The most interesting, in a philological point
of view, of all the Slavic families, is the Lithuanian, sometimes
called German-Slavic. It is intesesting because it shows the tran-
sition of the Slavic to the German, or of the German to the Slavic.
The leading members of the family are the Old Prussian, the Li-
thuanian, with its branches, Samogitian, or Shamaitish (called also
Pol. -Lithuanian), the Pruss-Lithuanian, which, too, has several
minor dialects, and the Lett, or Livonian, which, again, has at
least five 'recognized divisions (one of which is Semgallian).
These languages constitute a well-defined family, possessing
Uniform features, and alike distinct, as an individual, from both
the Slavic and the German, while they are yet each and all
made up of elements common to one or the other of the two.

766. The Old Prussian we will take up first : it is, of all the.
family, the nearest to the German. This was once, it is agreed,
t^he language of a numerous people, divided into different tribes
Xvith corresponding difference of idiom. They dwelt in north-
ern Germany. Of the language, extinct since the seventeenth
^sentury, very little remains to us, and we know less of it than
^K>uld be desired. With all its German or Gothic orthography,
:S.t is still essentially Lithuanian. Some examples will best show
"^hat it is :

767. As quoi stesmu ainan po-galban teclcint — I (as) will
^to) him an (a) help make (give) — {int is one of the inf. end-
Sjigs); stwi hiUa stas smunents — then spoke the (Ger. das)

286 PHRABIS.

man ; twrri gerdant — shall say; <t«rri=sliave and shall ^ is like
Lit^., and connected with Ger. solh^ shall, 1 >■ r ; laikuts wirst —
held hecomes (is held) ; kai stai ismuktnt masi — that thej (to)
learn (inf.) may (may learn); tou ni-turri — thou not-shouM
(shouldn't) ; ka ast sta hUlitqn — what is that said ; -on^ -ats,
-m<«, -<«, 'ton, are pass. part, endings; -ans, -uns, are of the act.
part. ; -tweiy '•ton, -int, -ut, -it, -t, are infinitive endings.

Ains dUants ast waisei (his) algas werts — a worker is (of)
his pay worth (worthy); kai erains lahhan segge — what every-
one good does ; bhe prei wiran hiUa Deiws — and to (the) man
spoke (tell) God ; quoi warein kirsa (over) din tuari — ^^rhich
power over him has (^wrri) (has power over him).

768. We may notice the following orthographic forms be-
sides :

Adder, other ; a^nimts, Ger. ge-nommen (taken) ; arwis, true,
right ; astin, thing (a form of «to«« the) ; aiisins, ear.

Billa, say, tell ; buttas, house, a-hode, Semitic faith : diJm^
works (dl = dr) ; druwe (believe), trust ; eit, goes, L. it; gan-
nan, woman, queen ; garrin, tree ; giwan, life, L. vivo, g, v, 2;
gurins, poor, g, p ; ilga, long.

Kackint, to catch ; kawids^ which (Jca pref.) ; kermens (body),
L. corpus; Jdrd\ hear; kittan, other {k pref.); lahs (good),
Slav, dohry, d, 1; laukit, seek, lopk(-for).

MaMai (young), small ; mylis, love (my pref.), L. a-micvs;
packe, peace ; per»eit = eit (go) ; per^gimmons (born) = gm-
mons, G'k ginomai; po-lygu, Ger. g-leich, like (jpo pref.) ; po-
simma, Ger. he-kenne, know.

Schlusi, serve (schl = sr) ; sidons, sitting ; sparts, Ger. staxhy
strong; stas, Ger. das, the, st, d; teihu, do, Ger. thun, make;
ttrs, old ; wyrs, L. vir, hero, man, force.

A very large portion of the words of this language are decid-
edly Slavic.

769. Lithuanian proper is spoken by a people not very large
in numbers, nor possessing any particular national importance.
They are found in Prussia and in Kussia, and number, with the
Lett«, perhaps two millions. We proceed immediately to illus-
trate some of the features of the language :

770. Kas tar ausu (ears) klausyt — who hath ears to-hear—
in Samogitian, ant klausimo, for to-hear; su juni-^Yiii\i hiiU;
jie at-sakejam — - they to-said (said) to-him ; ir jis kel-es, naka^
erne (took) waikeli (wkeli, w-child) — and he (jis) arisen (hav-
ing), by-night took (the) child ; bet girde-dams — but hear-ing
(Samo. iz-girdes, heard); jis biis (be) wadinnams — he (shall)
be called ; tary-dams, saying ; asz sakaujums — I say (to) you;
sakyti — to say; galprkkelt — can raise-up (pri pref.) (galfot

SLAVIC LANGUAGES. 287

cdn is common — • our shaU^ Welsh gal) ; wand^mi — with
water; ugenvmi — with fire; m« wandens — out (of) water.

Kad jo kriksztijams butu — by him baptized to-be (butu) ; ir
tu ateinipas mane (me) — and thou comest to me ; pa^kriksztitas
— (being) baptizea {pa pref.) ; gundinams butu — tempted to-
be; jey esffi (art) Diewo mnus — if (tbou) is God's son ; poto
wede ji welnas i szwenta miesta — then took him {fi) (the)
devil (did) into (the) holy city (place) ; ir state ji ant — and
stood him on ; tai wislab du-su taw — these all (I) will-give
thee (Samo. wistag duosin tau). See the s mark of the Greek
and Irish future —it is common in Lith. Notice also the pasts
with suppressed endings, like L. dedi and feci, in the forms
sake, said, wede, took, state, stood.

Jus este swieto szwiesybe — ye are (the) world's light; ne
aiejau paniekint, bet iszpildit — not (I) come to-destroy, but to-
fulfiU ; sakyta esant — said being (being said) ; eit wiena myle
to-go one milo; eik su jumi — go with him (si* = G'k sun, L.
cum) ; hutumbit — may be.

Niekz ne gal dwiem ponam szluziti — no-one ict can two
masters serve (none can) ; jey nori (L. nolo) — if (thou) wilt
(this will is used with future also) ; busit wedami — (ye) shall-
be brought (Samo. busite wadztati) ; ne turrit dum^ti — not
(ye) have to-think (not to think, shall noi)] pa-duti yra —
given are {pa pref.). Prefixes in the way of meaningless aug-
ments are very common.

Zinnotumbit — ye may know (had known), (Samo. zinotumet)]
kasgi tadda gal iszganytas buti — who then came saved be ; zin-
note — ye know; kas daryta yra — which done is (dar=^kar,
chore) ; zmogus — man {zm = m) ; lygi yra — like is.

771. After the examples given in Lithuanian, little need be
said of Samogitian ; for the two are much alike. The Samogitian
often changes the form, but seldom changes the principle. These
few examples will suffice :

Ejo pirm ju — (it) went before them ; ey-kite — go ye; hir
bowo — where was (L. cwr= why) ; in^e (in pref.) ing namus
(L. domus) — coming (they) in (the) house; idantji nuzuditu

— for (-to) him destroy (itu is a common supine ending); tar-
damas — saying; kas ira pa^sakati — what was said ; ira gir-
detas — is heard; norejo buti palinksminta — will be comforted;
isz-girdes — having heard ; huwo nuwestas — was lead ; palay-
minti — blessed ; 4m8 wadinti — shall-be called ; priesz zmonies
— before men, L.Aomine«; noriu — Iwill (L. woZo); idantmokitu

— for (to) speak (preach); walgans ir gierans — eating and
drinking : hir turejo Christus uzgimii (uz pref.) — where should
(has) Christ (be) born.

772 The Lettish is spoken in Livonia and in Kurland. It

288 PHRASIS.

has considerable literature, and some of it goes back as far as
the thirteenth century. We give only a portion of the Lord's
Prayer of one of the forms of Lettish : Muhssu tehws dehessis —
our father (in) heaven ; sswetihts lai tohp taws' wahrds — sancti-
fied let be thy word (this lai is the prefix da we have seen else-
where) ; lai nahk pee mums tawa walstiha — let come by us thy
kingdom ; muhssu deenischka maisi dohd mums schodeen — our
daily bread give (dohd) us this-day (to-day, heute) ; peedohd
=dohd.

It bears a strong resemblance to the other Lithuanian dialects,
but it has also several peculiarities of its own.

773. We give here the Lithuanian form of the 20th John, 2,
and will follow it with the other Slavic tongues, for comparison
with it and with each other :

Tay ji hega (then she ran), ir ateit (came) pas Simona Pe-
tra, ir pa^ (to) ana kitta m^kitini (disciple), hurri (whom) Jezus
myhQO^ ir sako jiem dwiem (to-them two) ; ateme (they have
taken) Wieszpati isz kapo (out the grave), ir ne zimmoms (we-
know) hir (where) ji (him) padejo,

774, In Samogitian :

Nvhego tada (came-she then), ir atejo pas Simona Petra, ir
pas kita raokitini kuri milejo (loved) Jezus^ o sakiejems ; ateme
Wieszpati isz graboy o nezinome kurji padejo (they-have-laid).

776. In Bulgarian :

Otortcha protchee, i doide (came, do pref.), kod Simona Pe-
tra, i kod drugiat (olher) outcheniky kogoto (whom) obutchashe
JisuSy i retche (and said) im; zeli (taken) Gda o grohat^ i
ne znam (we-know) gdt/a sa (have) go (him) polozhiU (jpo
prefix).

776. In Bohemian :

/ bezela (and she-ran), a prissla k (to) Simon^im Petrowi a
k druhemu (other) ucedlnjkowi tomu (this) gehoz (which) miloioal
(loved) Gezjsy a rekla (G'k reo) gim : Wzali Pana z (out) hrobu,
a newjme (not-know-we) kde (where) geg polozili (placed-they,
po=^p of place).

777. In Hungarian Wend :

Bezi zato i pride (ran then and came) k Simon Petri i k
tomi (that) drugomi (other) vv^senikiy steroga je lubo JezuSj
i ercse (said) nyima} odneszli (taken-they, od-ne pref.) szo
Goszpoda z groba, i neznamOy kama szo (to) ga djali (him
placed).

778. In the Polish :

Biegla tedy (therefore) i przyszla do Symona Piotra, i do
drugiego ucznia (disciple) ktorego (whom) milowal Jezus a
rzekla im, ; wzietoc Pana z (from) grobu, a nie wiemy gdzie
(where) go po^lozono.

SLAVIC LANeUAGBS. 289

779. And last, in Russian :

Itak (and then) hyazhit % prichodit (comes, pri pref;) k Sir
momi PetrUy i k drugomu tUcheniku kotorago (which) lyohil
Jims, i govorit im ; unesli Goapoda iz groha, i tie znaem (we-
know) gdya polozhili ego (him).

780. (We may make the general note here, that the contents
of parenthesis, in the text, generally gives the meaning of the
word that precedes that ; occasionally it only suggests some
related word. In the selections from John just given, we have
only given the meaning of a few words, the rest being sufficiently
determined by the translation known, or from comparison with
the others accompanying it. The order and number of words
in our translations will uniformly correspond with the text, and
when the meaning is not sufficiently clear it is explained in pa-
renthesis. Generally, words in parenthesis, in the translations,
are meant to be only explanatory and suggestive. Through the
whole work, be it marked, letters and groups of letters are meant
to denote actual equivalents when placed side by side, with or
without the sign of equality). ^

781. In concluding our remarks upon the class of Slavic lan-
guages, we may review some of its peculiarities. We notice,
especially, the great abundance of prefixes and augments, not so
developed as to affect the meaning of the root; or, as we may
otherwise express it, we find them representing our initial letters
by groups of letters, as gov for w, pol for p, mil for 1 — also many
separate adverbs used as augments, as da; the existence of
a dual, as in Grreek — but not so prominent ; the tendency to
put the possessive pronouns after the noun, which show them-
selves as suffixes in Hungarian, and which are like the follow-
ing article in Bulgarian ; the use of the singular after numerals ;
the absence of personals with verbs, and the medium between
the particles of Greek and those of German ; also the common
use of the reflexive (G'k middle) for either the passive or active ;
the use of gerunds as a sort of transition between verbs and par-
ticiples ; the strong development of case endings, and endings
of all kinds, placing the class Q^uch nearer to Greek and Latin
than to German ; the absence of an article such as German has,
and the continual tendency to develop it from the numeral one
and the demonstrative this, tha>t — seen more strongly in some
members of the class than in others; as, in the Wend, ta, to,
ton, Greek to and ton.

37

290 PHRASIS.

CHAPTER VIL

FINNISH LANGUAGES.

782. The Finnish languages proper, the Hungarian or Magyar,
and the Turkish, tire usually put together as one family ; but
while we leave the classification so, it is with the obserration,
that there is a greater difference between the three than is usu-
ally found between members of the same family. The Finnish
languages, embracing a large number of distinct dialects, are
sometimes denominated Uralio, being found originally in the
region of the Ural Mountains. The Voguls, Ostjaks, and Hun-
garians, constitute the Ugric branch of the Finnic languages.

783. We will treat first, and principally, of the Hungarian.
There is, evidently, a closer relationship between this and Slavics,
than is generally supposed ; and so there is between Finn and
Slavic."^ There is not a feature in one that we cannot recognize,
somewhat changed, in the other. The pronoun is not exactly
suffixed in Slavic,. as in Finnish, but it is one of the leading
marks of Slavic to find the possessive following the noun — and
in Bulgarian the article also.

784. The suffix preposition in Finnish strikes us as peculiar,
but we find it even in German and English ; as, demr^ach (that-
after), wo'mit (where-with), where-in, there-after, where-to,
there-on ; so, Ger. meinen-freund an — my friend on, t. 6., upon
'my friend ; ist keinen thaler werth — is no dollar worth, i, e., not
worth a dollar ; we say, read a book through,, i. 6., through a
book } the suffix na^h, after, is very common in German ; as,
der sprache nach, the language after, i, c, after the language,
dem um/ange nach, the extent after; also, but, as hs but, for
btU he, as we say he however, for h^owever he.

785. But we find, in the family in question, prepositions before
as well as after, and those that follow are not different from the
case endings of Slavic, except that they are more developed than
those of Slavic. The verb system is about the same in both ;
and in orthography they have much in common.

786. The Hungarian is Eastern, but Slavic is Eastern too.
The following illustrations will give the best idea of the charac-
ter of the language :

Az atyak — the father (Ger. d-as) ; aUtalap — the hat (a =
az); 8zep estve — (a) beautiful evening; hazat epiteni — (a)
house to-build ; a*hegy*en embert (man) lattam — the mountain-
on (on the mountain) (a) man I-have-seen (en is suffix prep. =s
on). Prepositions uniformly follow in Hungarian, save in some

FINNISH LANGUAGES. 291

instances of pronouns ; egy (one) Bahorai kirdly — a Balsora
king (king of Bals.) ] derek egy ember — excellent a man; szena
gyujteni ment — hay to-collect he- went; ez a* konyv a* gyer-
mekeke — this the book (is) the children's, i. e., belongs to them.
The final e in the last word takes the place of the possessive
sign ; a* ki magae lehet — the who (i. 6., who) his-own (i. e., own
master) can-be.

Nagy^ohh volt mint — greater was as (greater than) ; mas
Ihiropai nemzet — (an) other European nation; ezen a* fa!n
9ok alma van — this the tree-on (on this) much (many) apple
is; heteg voU — sick was; betegek voltak — sick were; vettem
lovat de nem igem szepet — I-bought (have) (a) horse, but not
very (igen) beautiful (t, etj at, are accusative endings; nak, gen.
• and dat. ; k, ak, ok, plural sign).

The adjective, when standing before the noun, is not changed
for case, number, and gender ; as, a' nagy varos — the great
town ; a* nagy varos-nak — the great towns — - but after the verb
he it suffers changes.

JLov-aim igen kicsinyek — horses-my (are) very little (ek is
plural sign of adjective taking place of verb — poss. pronouns
uniformly suffix); legeros-ebb a* negylabu ailatok kozot — (the)
strongest the four-footed (laby foot) among (prep, following sep-
arate, frequently).

The use of personal is very limited in Hung. — possessives
mre never found separate ; kaptam levelet, de meg nem olvastam

I-received (have) (a) letter, but yet not (have) I-read (it) ;

%f^ en hazam, nem a' tied — the I house-my (i. c, my house),
:siot the thine (this double personal 1 is very conmion — it is
emphatic, like I myself) ; az b hazok-— the she house-her (her
louse) — we would say his house, John's; house of him, John;
^zavam, my word ; szavad, thy word ; szava, his word.

BoMog az a* fiu — bulky this the son (is); o magat dicseri

he self (same) praises ; a' vUagnak teremto-je — (of) the

"World (gen.) its-creator (the world's creator). This superfluous
-^ks^ the ending je^ and the like, is common, ad our the man his
^loiue; az ember elete — the men life (for men's) — as we say
^oose quiU, for goose's quill; a' mi-rol szohk — the what-of
^where-of, of which) I-speak (say); mdlyet ma lattunk — which
^^x>-day (mob) we-seen (have) (unk = we) ; a' micsoda jo h-nak
. ^^udom annyit meger- — the what (-ever) good of-horse 1-knew
^ftwZom) so-much worth (it is) (as far as I know)} a' mi-m van

the my-what is, that what is to me, what I have; a* mid van

-=— what you have (what is to you, yours).

Latok (I see) valakit a' kert-ben—l-seQ some-one the garden-
T.n (6€«=in); kiir, ki olvas — who (the-one) writes, who (the-
oiher) reads; tttdom hogy nemeUy itek szegeny — I-know that

292 PH&ASis.

many of-yon poor (are) ; a' honyvtarha vcdo honyv-ek — the in
(ha) library being (belonging) books; kezdek szolni — Lbegin
to-speak (ni inf. ending).

A' tanulo gyermek — the learning boy; egre HaUo vetek-^-
(a) heaven-'to (to-heaven)- crying sin ; setalvan az oramat elvesz-
tettem — walking (t. e., as I walked) the my-watch I-lost (in
oramat, m «= my, and at is aoo. sign) ; varva va/rtam — waiting
I-waited (have), i. e., I have long waited (in vartam, t is sign of
past tense, the ending also of past part., and m =1) ; irva van
— writing (it) is *= it is written, the pres. part, nsed as passive ;
varalak — I expect you; kwari'lak laini — I-wish-you to-see;
egy reszt igen szeretem — (to) a part (i. e., partly) very (much)
lovd-him-I (partly love him much); ezt mondjak — this one-
says (they say this); mikor pedig szuletett volna — when but
(but when) been-bom was (had been bom).

£$ mikor lattak volna — and when theynsaw was (when they
saw, or had seen). We find prepositions before the pronouns ;
as, benneniy in me, benned, in thee, benne, in him, rajtam,, on
me, rajtad, on thee; keljfd — rise up; fd-kdvan — up-rising,
t. 6., rising up; meg^haUatott — is-heard (meg. pref.); meg^hoU
volna — dead was; b nekUfik al^atiA; -— he (is) tOrUS for-father
(we have him for father).

Negt/ven nap — forty day; mind ezeket neked adorn — all
these to-thee I-will-give; m^mdatnak — they-shall-be^called (nak
denotes th^^ and at the passive m>ond, Ger. mund-art, say, speak) ;
U va{/ytok e' foldnek savai — ye are-ye the earth's salt; ne bJ^-^
not kill (kill not) ; valaki olend — whoever killing, i. e., that
shall kill; mi Atyank ki vagy a' mennyek-hen — we father-our
who art the heaven-in, t. 6., our father; senki nem szolgalhat
ket tfcrnaifc — no^ne not can-serve two master (no one can).

787. We here furnish a list of Hungarian words, to show the
form whicb German and Slavic terms assume there :

Szek^ stool; kar^ arm, branch, G'k cheir; has, meat; «er,
beer ; nap, day, sun ; torony, tower ; det, life, el, 1} lo, horse,
colt ; o, old ; so, salt ; szo, say, word, L. os.

Ko, stone, Slav, ka-men; szu, heart, Slav, serdze; fi, son, L.
Jilius; soh, much, G«r. sdir ; folyo, flow, river ; m;, new, «; =
nu ; de, and, but, G'k de ; jidh, sheep, L. ovis, ewe ; arany^ gold,
L* awmm.

Ev, Slav, nev, sky, heaven ; kez, hand, claw; fwic, fire, heat;
tra», writ; hgy, fly; keves^ little, G«r. toenig; hev, heat;^,
ice ; szel, wind, blow (sz is used here, as in Slavic, as the equal
of w, V, u, b).

Ut, r-oad, L. tY >» go ; viz, water ; okor, ox ; ahm, sleep, al, si;
etek, food, eat; hereg, worm ; halom, hill ; jarom, yoke.

Oloniy lead, L. p^ttrnft', ql, pi; str^ grave; in, nerve, Ger.

FINNISH LANGUAGES. 298

tekne; izj limb; Gyula, Jalins; draga, dear; vastag, thick,
L. spisms ; vds, iron, Ger. eisen ; ercZy earth, metal.

Ferfi, man, L. vir ; penzy money, pence ; pedig, but ; kardy
sword ; Jiet, week, seven ; hang, clang ; mod, mode ; ev, year,
L. aevum, age ; Aitr^, horn»

Gotnhy know ; reaz, part, L. res = thing ; cstUag, star, L. «ee/^;
Aa2, go, walk, Fr. aZZer ; lab, foot, c-law ; szem, see, eye ; 6ara^,
£riend } lecmg, daughter, 1, d ; szo, voice, sound.

^oZ, wall; Aany, how-much, L. 5^0* ; erdo, wood, Qer, wald ;
^, just, tamd-ni, to teach; ir-ni, to write; erdem, work ; keres-ni,
to seek, search ; lop-ni, to steal, Gr'k klep ; te and tesz, do ; Ai
and hw, call, Ger. ru/en; akar, after, either.

Adrfii, to give, L. (io ; allani, to stand ; ar, river ; azon, that ;
Zo^, look; embert, man, L. mr (mber); Bees, Vienna, Ger.
Wien ; biz, true, Ger. waJir and ge-wiss ; cscUa, battle, Ger.
9chlacJU; cnnos, clear, shine, Ger. rein.

Edes, sweet, G'k edtis ; egesz, whole, Ger. ganz ; ef, night ;
d-ni, to live, be ; er-ni, to reach.

Fed-ni, deck ; /e/cr, white, fire ; fel, half, Slav, pol; fo and
yey, head, f, h ; fold, land, field ; Gorog, Greek ; gyonge, weak ;
hajo, ship, L. navis ; hatra, after, back; haUani, hear, 1, r;
A«^, high, rock ; hir, hear, Ger. ruf, report ; Aiif , oath ; hon^
home.

ido, time, tide ; igaz, true, Ger. wahr ; iva«, drink, L. bibo ;
jor-ni, go ; Jut-ni, go, L. lYww ; kis, little, Ger. A;^» ; kimen-ni,
go, come ; A:ora, early ; kota, note ; koz, common ; koriil, circle,
around.

Me-gholt, killed, dead ; me-gini, a-gain ; myack, neck ; on, tin ;
ok, cause, Ger. aache ; rossz, hod, worse.

Telfes, full ; terirni, do, Ger. ihun; tett, deed, Ger. that ; tor»ni,
break, twist ; tud-ni, know, L. video ; ut-ni, beat (b-eat) ; vad,
wild ; ver-ni, strike ; viadal, battle.

Zbld, yellow, Slav, zelen ; zseb, sack ; level, leaf, letter ; ur,
sir, Ger. herr ; arok, grave; ?iyi?, nail, dart, Ger. p/eil; fond,
pound, QoT, p/und.

Zddo, Jew, Ger. Jud^ (yude) ; nep, folk, people ; ver, gore,
L. cruor ; azon, that, QeT.jener, da^ ; ar, price ; bo, wide and
rich; elso, first, 1, r ; hives, be-lief; igy, so; kptor, out-turn (ki
pref.) ; kot-ni, bind, knit ; kdrom, claw, r, 1.

Lang, flame; len-ni, be, been, 1, be; miv, work; mivel^i,
huHd (mi pref.) ; nev, name ; ott, there, Ger. cZor^ ; dreg, old,
Slav. »tory ; ven-m, take, Ger. fang-en ; veg, end, L. ^nts.

788. The fact particularly noticed in Magyar, is the shortness
of the wordSj the condensing, if you please, of two or more let-
ters of ours into one of theirs ; thus, we often find that our initial
letters are entirely suppressed ; as, ie^ «■ b-eat, ara= price, on «

294 PHBASIS.

tin. Prefixed, prepositional, verbs of all kinds, are well developed
in this language.

789. Finnish : The Finnish class proper is as interesting
and valuable as it is peculiar and beautiful. It has all the prom-
inent features of the Magyar ; the two stand very nearly related
in many particulars ; and yet the Finnish, and especially some
of its forms, possesses the whole Slavic structure, only develop-
ing some of its features in an unusual manner. The Finnish
must stand as an invaluable light to show us the path that leads
from Magyar to Lithuanian and the Slavic, or the reverse. All
the endings and prefixes of Finnish, the verb be^ all the pro-
nouns and particles, all the participles and tense forms, manifest
a strong tendency to identify themselves with Slavic, and indi-
rectly with German and Latin. Hence, the acquiring of the
language is quite easy, and always full of interest. The Finns,
as a whole, are not an organized people, though some portions
of them are highly cultivated and possess many men of learning ;
for example, those of Finland proper. They are divided into
many sections, with their dialects each peculiar to them.

790. There is an east and a west Finnish group, with consid-
erable marks of difference ; the tribes or sections are, the Suomi,
Esthnish, Syryanish, Wotjak, Mordvin, Tcheremish, Ostjak, and
Wogul. We regret that there is not room here to speak of
some of their most interesting peculiarities, especially in the
structure of the verbs.

791. We will give but few examples, sufficient only to give
a rough idea of Finnish orthography and structure :

Koska he olit Jeuningan hauUret — when they (he) had (was)
(the) king heard (o/ of olit is the hyl of Slav, was) ) syndy-man
piti — born shall-be (shall be born — puti is Slav, hudu^ be, the
sign of future) ; syndy-nut oli — born was (was born); sen (that)
kuvU — (he) that heard (heard that). Pasts are formed like
Latin perfects, dedi^ fed^ rexi, with vowel endings ; notisi ja
otti, arose and took ; nouseja ota, rise and take ; on kuulu-nut —
is heard ; tdmd (same) on se — this is he (that one) ; (tuli), went;
jonga minun kansaani pita hallitz-eman — who my people shall
rule (piVa = be, shall) ; mind sanon te-iUe-^l say to-you (mine
•= I); Isa meidan — father our.

The case endings are heavy — prepositions follow, either suf-
fixed or separate. Poss. pronouns are developments of noun
endings not separated; ou prcyphetan kautta Mrjoi-tettu — is
prophet by written (written by the) ; on tulewa — is to-come,
will come; m^nit he — went they; huoneseen — house-in; he
tdhden nd-it — they (the) star saw; he olit mennc^ (went) —
they had gone ; Egyptistd kutzuin mind (I) poik-ani (boy-my)

FINNISH LANGUAGES. 295

Egypt-OQt called (have) I son-my (called my son) ; joka aanoo
— ^which says,

Sanottu oli — spoken was; Rham-asa on ddni kuulunut —
Rama-in is (a) voice heard ;yoA;a Jmtzutan — which (was) called;
wedelld — with-water; tulella — with-fire; kastetta hdneldd —
to-(be)-baptized him-by; he hastettin — they (were) baptized;
kctatan teUd — baptize thee; hdnkastaa — he (shall) baptize;
ei ihminen (h, . Jwminem) eld — not man (shall) live (e pref.);
asetti hdnen — set him ( a pref. ) .

Jos sind olet — if thou art ; ja osotti (show, o pref.) hdnelle
kaikM (all) mailman (Ger. weU, L. mundus) waldakunnat —
and showed to-him all world's kingdom (of the world); ndmdt
kaikhi mind annan (give) sinuUe — these all I (will) give to-
thee ; sUmd on (is) ruumin walkeus — (the) eye is body's light
(of the body) ; klmd sUmdstd — eye for-eye; kuollet — the dead
(killed) ; seura minim — follow me; se sana — that word (that
= the), say; joka tehty os — which did is (made) ; hdnesd (in-
him) olt elama — in him was life; he ky^yit — they asked.

792. It would be a very easy task to show a multitude of Fin-
nish words agreeing substantially with correspondents in Hunga-
rian, and, with suitable allowance for their style of orthography,
we might identify a large majority of its most common words with
G-erman and Slavic, particularly Lithuanian — but we can barely
touch upon this question here ; thus, we notice eld^ live, Hung.
el-ni J tunde-nut^ knew, known, H. tud-ni ; mene, ^go, H. menni;
tul, fire, H. tUz ;- pcja and^a, head, H. fo; jalg^ foot, H. lah,
1^, lb ; toesi, water, H. viz; ssUme, eye, H. szem ; ssu, mouth,
BL. szcy' ; kasi, ked, ki^ hand, H. kez ; nait, saw, H. nez-ni;
^cuoUetj dead, killed, H. holt; puu, tree, H. /a, p, f ; ihminen^
XKian, H. ember ; vqj^ night, H. e;; anna^ give, H. ad-ni — and
every one of these words can be identified with German or
Slavic.

793. We give, next, the 2d of John 20, to compare with
^Bungarian :

Nu/n hcmjuoxija tali Simon Petarin tygo^ja sen opetttslapsen
^iS/go jota Je$u8 raka^ti, ja sanoi (said) heille : he owat Herran
^>ttanet pois haadasta,ja en me tiedd^ kuhunya he hdnen (him)
^^[^anit — then she ran and came (tuli) Simon Peter to (tygo),
£i.xid that disciple to (to that one) whom Jesus loved, and said
-'t^o-them : they have (are, owa{) (the) Lord taken away grave-
:fsx>m, and not we {me) know, where they him put (have).
7S4. In Hungarian :

Ei-fiUa azert es el-mene Simon Peterhez, es ama masik taniU

'^^^xnyhoz^ a* kit Jezus szeret (cherished) vala, es monda (said)

^TM^^Idk: El-vittek az Urat a' koporso-bol, es nem tudjuk hova

€cUek otet — then (azert') she-ran {el pref.) and came Simon

i

296 PH&ASis.

Peter-to (-es), and that other disciple, the whom (kit") Jesus
loved had (was, vala)y and said to them : taken (they have) the
Lord the grave-from (-bol), and not know (I) where (hovd) laid
(they have) him (^ot-et).

795. The Syryan deserves this especial notice : In it we find
muTia {mount), I go ; mtmy, went ; munly, has gone ; mtmaf
will go; the verb be has em (am) for all persons singular, and
emos in the plural — a fine proof that any person of a verb may
represent all the persons. We find me voly (will), I was ; ^'a
voli^y he was ; vony, been, be. In a form of this language, we
find vi/ifym == enij showing e = vyjy, yyyy, eeee.

796 Lapp : The Lapp language, of the Laplanders, is most
undeniably a Finnish language ; it is, if anydiing, nearer the
Magyar than the Finnish itself. It has by no means received
that attention which its numerous points of interest justify us in
saying it deserves — and this has arisen from the political insig-
nificance of the Laplanders as a people, numbering, as they do^
less than thirty thousand. A single example must serve to give
a comparative view of its features. Same verse as above :

Wvobkei 8odn tdbheU ja pati Svmon PetrU'Sen kaik, ja tan
mi^ben appetesahnan kaiky juoh Jems etsi,jajatti sonnon: Stfe
Idh eritwaldam Herrah gruoptest^ja epe tete^ kosa litjeh pidjam
so — ran she therefore and came (pati) Simon Peter to (katk'),
and {ja) (jtan mubben) that other disciple to, whom (Juob) Jesus
loved (^etsi), and said to- them : they have (are*, lah) taken-away
(the) Lord grave-from, and not-we know (fete) where they-have
put him.

Attjes kuoren — father-his near (by his father); mo^kfum, me-
with ; mon etsetowap — I lovcd-am ; sotn etsetowa] he loved-is;
stfe Wb etsetowomen — they are loved-been; mife lepe etsetowoTnen
— we are loved-been (are loved) ; etset^ to love.

In Suomi, ovat = owap is used for are^ and ova, more or less .
varied, is a common ending for verbals in the Finn languages —
it is the ending, too,, of active tenses ; as, antavat, they give ;
tulevat, they come ; tidwat, they came. In Lapp, we find lei,
or li, for was; and orrat for be (are, L. eram); it is not different
from oly Uiy U, of past. Lapp verbs have a dual form.

797. The Serenian is the language of a Finnish tribe, on a
Finnish basis — but having strongly developed the Slavic ten-
dencies of the family. There are many points where it is Slavic
and not Finn, and as many others where it is Finn and not
Slavic. It is found written in the Slavic letter.

798. The Karelian is another Finnish language, with a Slavic
finish. It is written in the Russian letter.

SAMOIDISH LANGUAGES. 297

799. Samoidish Languages. — The Samoidish languages
constitute a family located in the north of Russia and in the
north and centre of Asia. They are connected, on one side,
with the Finnish, and, on the other, with the Siberian family.
Many of the leading features of the language are Finnish ; there
is a strong tendency, however, to the peculiar North- Asiatic
stamp.

800. The following translation of Samoidish composition will
give some conception of the manner in which they tell their
stories :

The woman goes ; the servant goes ; the woman (to) father
came, into house went, father up-raised, father old ; two man
sit, three brother stand — those two bad (are), those two sleep :
woman sits, (to) servant says, back go, (to) him say, " two man
came " ; servant back went. Other (one) man got up, out went,
bow sounds, servant (he) killed ; man (into) house came, (with)
selves they talk, laughing go-to-sleep ; morning get up, from-
around folk came, "thy servant killed" (-is, they say); woman
sits, sleep, woman wakes ; one-has-stolen-her (tualambadat)^ two
mea came (in-)boat, take-her {tadaref),

801. This gives us an instructive lesson on what language is
in its infantile style or state — it shows how particles and end-
ings and fixes are the result of growth out of fundamental
words. The ancient poetry of northern Europe has advanced
farther than this towards our present complicated style, but
evidently by traveling the same road as this.

802. Albanian Language. — The Albanian, we do not
hesitate to say, is to be classed as one of the remote forms of
Greek, especially of modern Grreek. Philologists are at a loss
where to place it, partly from the little knowledge they have of
it, and partly, too, from the peculiar phase the language pre-
sents. But we feel confident that the more we become acquainted
with it, the nearer we shall find it to Greek. It has not the
character of an ancient language — it is essentially modern ; it
has the article, compound tense, passive on the reflexive and
with to be, the declining appearance of endings, and the like.

803. It has many points that are Celtic, if not Greek, as the
abundance of augments and little meaningless particles, and
adverbs ; it has many more that are Slavic, others, again, that
are particularly French, such as the adjective following the
noun, and the orthography of some of its words. But all these
points of agreement do not necessarily prove it related to these
languages in particular; it rather shows that they have all
traveled the same way, and have the same history.

38

298 PHRASIS.

804. Albania proper belongs in Turkey; it lies north of G-reece,
and between the Adriatic sea and Bulgaria.

805. The language presents little that is really strange, little
that we have not already seen in some other language. A few
examples must suffice for it :

Me mirre — more good (better) ; me is scarcely more than a
prefix ; fort poukoure (L. jmlcher, pretty) — very pretty (most,
super.); time dese — thou me lovest; dotui te shruoaig — I-will
that (to, the) I- write (will write) ; dcmame te skrouagem^ — we-
wish, etc; dijioig^ difimi — I, he, hears; chap — I open (gap);
thom^ thote — I, he, says, th, s ; dall — go, Fr. ^aller ; pat skrou-
are — he-had written ; pat hdekoure — he-had died.

H i pirri (L. puer) i dot atig — and the son he said to-him
(atig) (you may also call the i before dot an augment) ; se este
idoutet i mpretit (prince) se mud (magnus) — for (it) is town tliat
(the one) (of) king the great (tnat of the great king); bete mpe
stepi (stoop) te Petrit — I-go into (mpe) house that (of) Peter
(bete = went) — te here may be called a suffix article, indeed our
own relatives that and which are not more than post-positive
articles ; i Iwutem pemtise — (to) him I-pray to-God, i. e., I
pray to him, to God (or call i an augment).

Po ou thom gicmhet — but (to) you I-say to-you, i. e., to you
I say to you (or call ou an augment). Such difficulties we have
seen often before, and the student must be reminded that all the
words of a sentence, when traced far enough back, prove to be
duplicates like these; ai he seste me mmui — the (who) who not-
is with me (as we say he who); se kouig pirri im — for this son
(of) mine.

JSi hountre este shrouare nte profeter^ na oune der/oig eggeline
tim perpara phakese sate, ate-ke do te dertoge otidene tente (thy)
perpara tege — so again (contra) it-is Written in (nte) prophets,
behold I (ovjie) send angel the-my (tim) before face (of) thine,
the- which shall (do = te) prepare way (road) thine before thee ;
e si thurri nie gka kopigte, e pieti tzdo te gene (been) ketb —
and so (he) called one (nie) from servants, and asked (Ger.
heten) what that be (been) this, i ei, what it was {te augment),
or what it may be.

Etha: nie (one) nieri kis di dgielm — and (he) said : a man
(G*k aner) had two sons (child); giati ine ke ge mpe Mel —
father our which thou-art (ge^ be) in heaven ; pas (post) gio
(G'k ou1c\ soume (some) ditet (dies) — after not many days.

806. There are still a few words which we must notice for
their extraordinary orthography :

Skourtoig — to shorten; skoig, go (s pref.), scud; ikeig^ go;
tzourare, tear ; pounoig (work), G'k poieOy Ger. thun ; krache
(arm), bracket.

ALBANIAN LANGUAGE. 299

Geiri(2irmY G'k cheir; mpe, up, 'pon; gkre, right, erect;
SI, eye; ched (pour), gush; giaste, o\it;pime (tree), Ger. baum;
lis (tree), L. lignum ; ourder^ order; serpeig^ serve.

Feta, find ; lesoig, louse (notice that oig^ aig, eig^ are endings
of first per. singular, and that -are is a part, ending) ; este (bone),
L. OS ; xomple, example; thurra (call), Ger. ru/en.

Strome (bed), L. stratum; lid (tie), L. ligo ; mplioump^
plumb, Ger. hhi (lead) ; lioule^ b-lodm, f-lora; Jiak (blood), L.
sang-uis ; kekia^ bad, G'k kakos.

Povke (bread), bake — Ger. brot, bread, is allied to hraten,
roast, bake ; pris, break ; /erre, broad, far ; pirri, bring, bear ;
bela, brother, 1, d, t; tzati, L. tectum, roof; tent, thine.

Drod, turn, Ger. drehen ; streggoig, stress, press ; de, earth,
G'k ge ; stere, earth, L. terra; arrig, reach, Ger. erreichen ;
tremp, tremble ; pare, first.

Chiri, carry, ferry ; zgiar, fire ; Jist, finger ; pisk, fish ; liy
flax, linen; mise, meat; muze (fly), mouche; lioume (river),
flume; froua (wife), Ger. /raw; lephter (free), left, loose; faz,
peace, L. gavdium, L. pax.

Phriout, fruit; phrike, fear, fright; Jithe (all), Ger. ganz —
sound the / as ^, as it may in all cases in Albanian ; dourim,
Ger. ge-duld, -dure,

Riziko, risk ; chapsa, catch ; garaphe, grasp ; gkrig, freeze,
gk, f ; musteri, mystery ; spirt, spirit ; litoure, lettered ; sos, L.
iatis ; dreigte, straight, direct.

Poune, business; worn (law), G'k nomos; phake, face; stat,
- state, Ger. ge^-stalt ; pesoig (believe), faith ; ta-Uch, luck; zere'
miri, grim ; berde, verdant ; phound, ground ; stepi (house), L.
tectum; We (head), L. cranium; sent (holy), saint.

Bape, hot; kemise, Ger. hemd (shirt); drou (wood), tree;
ougia, hunger; re, young, new; niocha, know; ropa (cloth),
Ger. rock ; mount (can), might, mought ; kake, Ger. kopf, head ;
sorra, crow ; gete, be, live ; doua, love, d, 1 ; megges, morning ;
nate, night ; m^re, Ger. narr, fool.

Gkrigta, take, grasp; kale, colt, Fr. cheval; phuti, plant;
pJdet, read, Ger. lesen, lego ; sktad, shade ; skoume, scum, foam ;
sioch, see, seek ; bitorea, victory ; mount, sur-mount.

Kentoig, sing, L. cano ; stereos, strong ; bdes, die ; mpourr,
proud; zog, Ger. vogel (bird), fowl; lao^ folk, G'k laos, Ger.
leute) bape, warm ; ouge, water ; phgiale (word), G'k logos.

Seker, sugar ; be, lay ; bichem, become ; boub, dumb, mute ;
pise, beast ; pout, foot ; pri, iiorn ; geni^ genus, kind ; giam, am ;
gio, no, g, n ; glou, you, your; gkia, wild, gk, w; gkrig, cry.

Fial (jgial), like, gleich ; frik, herd ; dex, take; drite, bright
(light) ; eleuthero (free), loose ; emere, name ; zi, black, Ger.

300 PHBASIS.

Schwartz, dark, dim, z, d; thele (deep), L. altus ; theke, dagger;
thu, swine, L. sus,

I'ken, gone, go; karre, car; kelk, glass; ken (dog), L. cants,
Ger. hund; kies (laugh), L. ris-um; kipi, heap; koske, L. o«,
Ger. kno-chen, b-one ; kourm, L. corpus, body ; kotts, who, Ger.
was.

Lehdoig, laud; mole, L. malum, apfel, Ger. pfel, ppel, mpel,
mel, mol ; monede, money; mpareig, bear, carry, Ger. tragen;
nam, fame ; nemer, number ; ntgiek, chase.

JTes^ra, cistern ; oull, star, L. st-ella ; ourte, prudent; pgid
(bear), beget ; pelouma, L. columha ; pgiese, piece ; pioul, wood,
Ger. wald ; poune, thing, done, p, t.

Ropa, rob; skiat, hat 7 skias, glide, skip; ^2;aZe, halt; tra'p,
grave, t, g; phemige, family; phle, sleep; phsech, bedeck;
phseche (thing), Ger. sache ; choda, go, lead.

This is but a small portion of words of the kind.

807. Turkish Language. — The Turkish is the last of
the European languages which we shall notice ; it stands on the
very threshold of Asia, and we must pass over it to reach Asia.
Thoroughly Eastern in its spirit and origin, it has yet developed
itself in the atmosphere of European civilization. Born of Arab
and Persian ancestors, it has been educated under the roof of
the Greek and the Slave.

808. Very little need be said on this language here, for the
reason that it has scarcely a feature that does not in a stronger,
or at least in as strong a light, appear either in languages which
we have already noticed, or, more especially, in the Tartar, Per-
sian, and Semitic languages, which we shall notice hereafter.
These few lines must suffice :

809. Bahormuz ki sema-de sin — father-our who heaven-in
thou-art (sin); mukaddes ola senin ismin — sanctified be thy
name ; senin emrin olsun nitek i goj-de ojiejerde-de — thy will be
so in (i) heaven and earth-in; vUa chelas cjle hizi, fena-da/n —
but free make us (hizi) evil-from.

810. We have already said that it is often grouped with the
Finnish and Magyar, but we must also observe, that while it
has several leading points in common with them, it clings as
strongly to the Tartar as they do to the Slavic.

811. There are many forms or dialects in which Turkish is
spoken by the people. • Leading branches of the Turks are th^
Turkomans, Kirghis, and the Osmanlis, or Ottomans. The latter-
are the dominant people of the Turkish empire, and it is theii=
language which is generally intended by the term Turkish.

PERSIAN LANGUAGES. 801

CHAPTER Vm.

PERSIAN LANGUAGES.

812. One of the most interesting languages of Asia, or of the
world, and to the philologist one of the most valuable, is the
Persian. It gives evidence to us of the easy transition between
the idioms of Europe and those of Asia, particularly Semitic.
Its remarkable coincidence with the English, or German, not
only in orthography but also in grammatical structure, is hardly
what history would lead us to expect. We have been told, or
rather it has been conjectured, that our ancestors were Asiatics,
but not that they were particularly Persians or Semites. For
aught we know, they might as well have been Tartars, or the
people of India. Yet it must not be supposed that Persian is
the only one of its neighborhood which is especially related to
ours ; it only stands in the front of that relationship. The Se-
mitic and Indian first, and the Tartar languages next, manifest
a strong tendency to identify themselves with the European —
the Persian has only developed that tendency in a higher
degree.

813. Let it be remembered that Persian, while it agrees so
nearly with ours, is still, nevertheless, eminently a Tartar and a
Semitic language. The number of words in Persian confessedly
Semitic, particularly Arabic, is very large, and an expert ety-
mologist could easily identify nearly all the words of the two
classes — not only the words, but the grammar also. Those
decaying a, st, m, n, b, prefixes of verbs and verbals, are forcible
illustrations of the connection. And Hindostani, which may be
called a form of Persian, has also a large supply of Semitic
words. Persian is also intimately connected with the Indian
and the Afghan.

814. The Persian which we treat of now is that of modern
Persia. We have said that the Persian has the European style
of orthography, and the grammar too of modern Europe, but, on
the other side, the arrangement of the words and of the members
of the sentences, the idiom, the thought, is not European but
Asiatic. We are at the same time aware that others think differ-
ently. In fact, the leading difficulty in thoroughly mastering
the Persian, after knowing its particles, its endings, and its irre-
gular imperatives (on which some verb forms are based), is the,
to us, peculiar nature of its compounds, its arrangement, its
expression, its thought. Persian words are far from being fully

302 PHBASIS.

individualized (being like Sem. and Sans.)* We find many
words united together which with us are separate ; thus, one-
part, not'isy my-head, who-is. A limited number of examples,
to illustrate, among other things, this peculiar thought, we will
now give :

815. The article does not exist developed as it is in Europe,
or even as it is in Semitic ; there is a common ending of nouns,
t, which, among other uses, performs the part of a suffixed a or
an ; thus, kuh, a rock, kuM, a certain rock ; padishah, pacha or
king, padtshahi, a certain king (Gr'k hasileus). As we have
seen often before, and will often see agaiq^ here the numeral ou
is often used to supply the place of a, an, and uniting with its
noun as a prefix ; so an, that (Dan. han, Slav, on), and ain or
in, this, he, are used in place of the definite article, the ; also
uniting with the noun, as ini'ruz, this day, the day, to-day,
im-sal, this-year. Of course, there is nothing unusual in all
this.

816. Noun endings are here in about the same stage of advance-
ment as we find them in English ; thus, padar, father, padar-
an, fathers (an = en of children, oxen) ; murgh, bird, murgh-
an, birds ; man, I, man-ra, me-to, to me, tvrva, thou-to ; zan,
woman, izan, of woman (the i coming from preceding word) ;
zan-ra, to woman (ace. and dat); also ba-zan (6a = to), az zan,
from woman, az zan-an, from women ; dil-am, my heart (-am
= my), padar-ash, his father (-a«A = his), kitah-at, thy book
(-a^aa thy); also, dili man, heart-of me (man), am man, that-of
me, t. e., the mine; hah, good, hah-ter, better, hah-terin, best;
ind az inglUtan ga'rm-teT as<— India than (by) England warmer
is (warmer than England).

Mah nicku-st — (the) moon splendid-is (all adjectives may
thus develop he at the end) ; rahi-st rah ashek — (the) way-is
(et =* is) way (-of) love; kah hich-esh kanarah ni-st — that any-
its (to it) end not-is ; am kud — that-of self, his own. They
say mai-ra nushidam — the wine I-drank; but if indefinite,
then the form is, m^ai nushidam, wine I-drank (so that ace. end-
ing ra has sometimes the force of the) ; irirzamin -— (at) this-
time; im^shah, to-night; dust-am, or dust-i man, my-friend,
friend-of me; asp-i kud-ash — horse-of his-self, i. e., his own
horse ; hira-dar-i kud-at — brother-of thy-self (a^ = thy) ; da-
vidan, to run, davanidan, to cause to run.

817. In the abundant capacity for such compounds as Jtre-
temple, rose-garden, mountain-country, lion-heart(ed), kub-awar,
pretty- voice(d), nik-nam, (of) good-name, gul-afshan, flower-
scattering, sar-afraz, head -exalting, battle-seeking, hard-hearted,
we know of no European language it so much resembles as the
German. The Persians are very partial also to compound verbs,

PERSIAN LANGUAGES. 303

made by a noun or adjective joined to make, do, have, strike ^
come, sit, find, take, like our take-rest, for rest, sit-smiUng, for
smile, make4nquiry, for inquire, keep-watch, for watch, make-
happy, for delight.

818. Asp-ra didi — (the) horse did-you-see (ra sign of ace.) ;
dar kuab didan — in^ sleep to-see (i. e,, to dream); mard kah
au-ra didam — (the) man (L. vir) that him I-saw (^that is an-
other case of doubles), i e., the man I saw ; so again, an mard
kah au gaft — that man (the man) that he said (that-he = he) :
parsidaJi shudah bvdam — asked been was-I, t. e., I had been
asked; ma-pars — (do) not-ask; tamam kardan — complete
to-make (to complete) ; rujuu namudan — returning to-show (to
return); dar amadan — in to-come, i. c, come in.

Prenx prepositions to verbs are common; ha-daria dar — in-
sea in, 1. 6., in the sea (double, like Lat. ad homvii-em^; dikani
hagi dasht — a-husbandman a-garden had fthe usual order is
nom., obj., verb), (adjectives uniformly follow uounsy, padi-
shahi takt-nisMn — the-king (the) throne-sitting (one), i. e., who
sits on the throne; silah u (and) dirham dad lashkar-a^h-ra —
arms and money gave-he (^dad) army-his-to (to his army).

Atb^a gu/t kih na^kaaham kurd (eat) — to-her (he) said that
QcUi) not-I-will eat (we would rather say, that he would not eat ;
kurd is inf. less the ending) ; so we find, commanded that to-
master robe and reward they-gave (that they should give, we
would say) ; hay ad kah hizani — it-must that you-beat, i, e,, you
must beat ; so, I-wish that I-go, for I wish to go.

Man (I) ighar hi-didan'ash raftam w-ahas — I once to-seeing-
his (to-see-him) I-went, and-only (once and only once) — w =
and, pref. ; man kah man dashtam — I that I had-I, L c, I who
had (thrice I, while we would have it only once). We need
hardly remind the student again, that there i^ a tendency to
such repetitions in all tongues — so we say, of whom it was
spoken of ; 1-had-I, is taken as a new base, where the Fs are
quite absorbed and cease to be felt; hirun shud — out he- was,
went out (be = go) ; gahi ahi surk nordidam (seen) — some-
times (i. c, never) water-of (being) red not-seen (have I) (never
seen water red) ; baad az du ruz — after from two day (after
two days); hama sarhai kahka zadah kandidand — all (the)
heads (sarhai) a-shout striking they-laughed.

Yaki ba-sanat-i kushti ba-sar amdah bttd'^^ one (a-man) in-
art-of wrestling to-head (at-the-head) come was (bud), {, e., stood
first in the art; dar-in — there-in; awardand — they have
brought (related, L. fero, bring = tell) ; dar-u sih mahi shigaraf
' — in-it three fish fine (ones), i, e., three fine fishes ; kah Ilut-i
mpihr az rash-ki aishan bar ta-bah ghairat birian shudi — so-
that Hut-of sphere (pisces) by (az) envy-of them (aishan) on

304 PHRASIS.

fryiog-pan-of (tahdh) envy burnt migbt-be (was roasted on pan);
kada-ra shukar laid (must) hi-kanam (hi pref.) kih namat-i
dhat hi-man (on-me) ita farmudah ast (est, is) — to-God praise
(it) must (that) I-make (I must praise) who (kih) blessing-of
health on-me gift (ita) made has (dst) (who has bestowed).

819. The foregoing will give a fair id^a of the peculiarities
and difficulties of the Persian. Most of the difficulties are such
as we find in all Asiatic languages; they did not, evidently,
recognize the division of sentences in composition, and of words
and phrases from sentences — at least not to the extent that we
do. You do not find capitals, and periods, and commas, and
such guide marks to steady you. The running of words to-
gether, or rather the non-development of terms or expressions
into their word-elements, is a uniform Asiatic feature, a feature
which places them all so far back toward the original or infantile
character of language.

820. These compounds, as we are wont to conceive them, are
the real words of the Oriental ; and as long as we have dictionaries
that have not these words, but rather their assumed elements,
so long must the first day's travel of the Oriental student be
" hard upon the weary way." Be it remembered, that our own
words are not ultimates — there are no ultimates in wholes. Our
own words have their parts, parts that we now recognize, and
more yet that we some time hence shall recognize ; and still we
find the necessity of defining words aside from the elements.

821. Of the forms of the Persian we have this to say :
Parses is a name applied to the Old Persian; it, has been

extinct for long centuries. There is a modem form of this
ancient idiom, that of the Parsees, and called by that name.
The Parsees live in the southern province of Fars; and a larger
number still dwell in a portion of India. The term Persian, as
applied to a people, is very comprehensive ; it includes the vari-
ous tribes or j)eople which constitute the Persian nation. This
Parsee was for a long time the prevailing language of Persia ;
but when the Persians were mastered by the Arabs and the
Tartars, there grew up under their influence, from this Parsee,
a new language, the modern Persian. This became the national
language, and it left the Parsee, or ancient Persian, to grow
along into a mere provincial idiom. Persian is spoken in a large
part of India ; a form of it is the language of Bukhara.

822. The Pehlvi, called also Huzwaresh, and the Zend, are
names of old languages of Persia, closely allied to the Persian,
and once more or less prevailing. The Pehlvi shows the transi-
tion of Persian to Semitic.

823. The Zend is admitted to be one of great age ; it seems
to have been a church language. It is not now much known,

AFGHAN LANOUAGB. '805

though it is attracting the serious atteution of philologists. Its
identity with the Sanscrit, and, through it, with the Greek and
Latin, is certainly remarkable.

824. An interesting and valuable language is the Kurd. It
is closely allied in form to the Persian, even so much as to appear
to be a mere dialect of it. It, too, gives us many valuable hints
on the connection between Semitic and Persian. It is the lan-
guage of Kurdistan and Luristan, and exists in several different
dialects. It is neighbor to the Armenian, and is much like it.
It is without literature.

825. The Beluohees language is evidently built on the same
basis as the Persian, but it has varied the Persian orthography
very materially. There are two leading dialects.

826. It is here that we would remind the student, that a care-
ful comparison of the different forms of Persian, must lead us to
the belief in the identity really existing, in their origin, between
the Semitic and the Persian families.

827. Afghan Language. — The language of the Afghans
is by no means well known, and its place in the family of tongues
is not accurately defined. Some place it with the Persian, and
others, again, put it in the Semitic division — and there are, of
course, reasons for both conclusions. It is related to both, as
they, too, are related to each other. . It plainly possesses the
foundation common to both, but there are many points, especially
in the orthography, where it differs very materially from either.
It possesses those marks which we should expect to distinguish
the idiom of a rude and wild people from that of a comparatively
intelligent and progressive people. We will briefly notice some
of its leading features.

828. A prominent mark is the agreement of the transitive
verb, in the past tense, with the object in gender and number,
while the intransitive agrees with the nominative in gender. And
there is reason in this. Their verbs, and, really, verbs in all
languages, are true participles, and, as such participles, like
adjectives, they have an agreement; the past tense is, especially,
everywhere based on the passive or past participle. We have
here a case precisely like that of French and Italian perfects,
where the participle agrees with the object. So, 1 struck him
== Ihave Mm struck, where it can well be seen that struck should
agree with him. They, the* Afghans, do still more — they put
an objective or instrumental form where we put a nominative ;
as, th>e striking of him hy me, ratl\er than 1 struck him, i, c,
they make of it a case exactly like our passive expression. All
this iu Afghan has its counterpart elsewhere : by-the-man the-

39

806 PHRASIS.

woman (was) struck, the man the woman struck, ?'. e., struck the
woman.

829. The cases are clearly on the Persian system ; so are the
plurals. The adjective precedes the noun. The Persian com-
parative ending ter is. found here, but attached to, or connected
with, the noun compared with'; many comparatives are made bj
doubling the positive.

830. The pronouns are decidedly Persian, and not Semitic:
haga, he and him, reminds us of Danish Aaw, L. hac; d-ga^da^
dij this, the; kum and kam^ whom; zana, some, any; zah=il)
ma, me ; tah, ta = thou, thee ; mung or muz, we.

831. The Afghan has not only developed such endings as we
find in Latin, and in nearly all other languages, as zah aus-nnj I
exist, tah avs-i, thou or you exist, but it has some peculiarities
besides. These endings, with or without the separate pronouns
also (as liked), may be used with intransitives, and with the
tenses, not past, of transitive verbs also.

832. With transitive pasts they use the instrumental form of
pronoun, as bt/me struck = I struck; or, more particularly, they
adopt a form of pronouD, either prefixed or inserted, and not
having an independent existence, which is different from the
separate pronouns, and from the endings above noticed ; thus,
mi kah -— I did ; di kah — thou didst ; mu kah — we did.

833. These pronouns,. or prefixes, when used with verbs not
transitive, denote the object or the possessive case. They remind
us of the Semitic tense, where also the person endings are initial,
and they must be explained in the same way. Their intimate
connection with those augments which we find so prominent in
Afghan (as bi, da, u), and which seem to characterize particu-
larly the Semitic and Persian families, is undoubted. There are
also pronouns, or prefixes, in Afghan used solely with the verb
to denote the object.

834. We find the infinitive used for past tense, and the past
for the perfect and pluperfect tense ; indeed, it is very clear
that all their tenses are but variations of participles and infin-
itives. Passives are formed as in English or Persian, compound,
and compound tenses are found made like theirs.

835. The infinitive ending and those of the participle are
Persian ; so, evidently, are many of the particles. Taken as
a whole, we might call the Afghan a ^remote form of the
Persian.

CAUCASIAN LANGUAGES. 307

CHAPTER IX.

CAUCASIAN LANGUAGES.

836. An important, though by no means well-known, family
of languages, related to the Persian, is the Caucasian group. It
includes the Georgian and Armenian, both more or less cultivated,
and these we will treat of separately in their turn ; but there are,
boo, belonging to this group, many little dialects, well defined as
they are, but unwritten. The four chief divisions are Lesghian,
Misjeghian, Ossete or Iron, and Circassian ; and they, too, have
their various forms or subdivisions.

837. That they are all of them Persian in their character,
disguised by a strange orthography, we hold to be unquestion-
able. They bear a close relationship with the Finnish, Samoidish,
and East Slavic ; but it is only as they also are related to the
Persian.

838. Compared with oiirs, their order of Words is much in-
verted ; though, if we place them along-side the Persian and
the languages of Eastern Europe, we shall find almost nothing
that is remarkable. Their sentences are short, disconnected,
and emphatic ; in a word, they possess the character of all
uncultivated idioms.

839. We will introduce a few examples of their expression,
and we will note some points that are peculiar :

In Lesghian : Emen nedscher sovalda-ish hugewk — father
our heaven-in (thou) art; hugahi chatir dur km sov-alda hagadin
ratUalda — be will thy (dur) so heaven*in like-as earth-in; dur
zar — thy name.

To- God death not (is), i. c, God dies not; toyman life much
not'lasti'ng (is), t. e., man lives not long; ^et she sick (is);
daughter hy sits (sits by), lOeeps (and weeps) ; this man blind
(is), his wife deaf is; from^us (the) speaking not-hearing is (she),
i, e., (she) hears not the speaking by us ; little eats, little drinks,
i. e.y eats and drinks little ; nose (of the) face middle (is), (in
the middle of face) ; tongue-and, teeth-and (and is suffix) ; (on)
head hair grow; hones (are) hard stone like; moon great is
star by J sun by (it is) small (large by a star, larger than a star);
(the) hair long is, thin is^, i. e., long and thin ; Jire burn, we see
smoke, flame (and) coal. It may be well to mention that words
in parenthesis are not in the text.

840. As an instance of the peculiar form our words take in
this group, we note the numeral one, which is zo, zis, and hos,
z equal to the d of the Slavic one ; other dialects have mi, G'k

308 PHRASIS.

mia, and others still have ert and art, our erst and first; for two,
we find ki-go, go being suffix, and Jci = ti ; in Circassian, we find
tu = two ; day has the forms dge, ga, jogh, djaka, dent, toha,
c^it;;— all variations of one form equal to dai/, Yv.jour; we find
also for day the form ko, which equals ga = dge = da. It would
be interesting, had we the space to spare, to go through many
other comparisons of this kind.

841. We come next to the Ossete, or Iron, the idiom of a
people neighbors to the Circassians and the Georgians. It is
without literature, and yet it is a language of great interest to
the philologist, from the form in which it presents to us the
Persian, and remotely the European in general. The orthog-
raphy presents a very unexpected agreement with that of the
Persian and the Eastern European, and even with the German.

842. Mai stalutei istir-daru, choreitei kzill-daru — moon of-
star (than star) great-er (is), of-sun smaller (it is), i, e., but
smaller than the sun; as = I, c?i = thou, wi = he {ho, Per. aw),
mach = we (Per. ma, Slav, my), smach = you (Per. shuma, Gr'k
humeis), udo7i = thej (Slav, yeden, one, Sw. eder, Ger. rferand
jeder) ; as dan, I am, c?e = art, isz = is ; mach stem — we are;
s#M< = are-ye, ts^i = are-they. This d of dan (am) brings us
back to the Turk, idum, Pers. hudam, A better representative
is found in the Ossete past, uden, ude, udi ; plur. udsim^n, udsine,
udseni ; wod (would) = be, was.

843. Many verbs are formed here, as we find in so many lan-
guages, by using make (kanin, Ger. thun, t = k, L. paro. Per.
kardan), and noun or adjective as a base ; as, A;ar-A;amn — cry-
make (to cry); achur-kanin — learn-make (to-learn).

844. Augments before verbs here play a prominent part —
they are fe, ni, ha (forms of Pers. hi, and Sem. m). We find
the perf. part, ending nag and ag ; as, from kus or qtis, hear, we
have qus-ag, which we find varied to qus-gond (thisa^ and. na^
are clearly related to our ing, Turk, mek. The imperative has
prefix hai, hi, as hai-qus — infin. qus-en. So in the Tushi, an-
other Caucasian tongue, the present part, ends in -in, as dagvrin,
eating, from dago, eat ; and the perf. part, ends in -no, as xac-no,
heard, from xace, hear. .The prest. indefinite of Ossete scarcely
differs from the infinitive.

The prepositions, adverbs, and conjunctions, are easily recog-
nizable as either Persian or European.

845. A few selections will further illustrate its peculiarities :
Ui'thychei, ama man umin chnzaw — this-for (for this), that

I trust God; zei-thychei, Ger. was-fur, what-for; ama kanin
chors — and do good ; za ui sidag dsinad sahi — what his (ui)
holy law command; as kud fand-kanin chuzawei — I as judg —
ment-make of»God (as I judge of) ; jul uni,Jul hud, jid soni

CAUCASIAN LANaUAGBS. 809

all (everything) sees, all hears, all knows ; kud (how) ui iss ud
(ghost) — as he is spirit.

Fid mack kazi de wol-arwi — father our who art (dc) in-
heaven ; stdag wond — holy be (was, being;) ; ali andar chuson
all other things (Fr. chose); zitkin dar da*fidi ama da-madi —
. honor give (L. do) thy-father and thy-mother ; ma amar (mur-
der) — not-kill ; ma-zisah — not-say ; e kawi — his-d welling (c,
his) ; dsul mach honthy (daily) rati machen ahon — bread our
daily give us to-day {ahorC),

846. It is to be hoped that in time this remarkable idiom will
come to receive more study than it has so far.

847, To the Circassian the same general remarks will apply
that were made on the rest of the family. A few examples must
suffice for this :

Szie shad (Per. shud) — I was ) arr shad — he was ; masar
whagoh me nachjin-sh — moon star by (me) greater-is (sh = is)
— moon greater than star (nach = more,ym = great). The sh
is an is developing itself at the end of adjectives, as we saw in
Persian — it is not really t«, but a mark for it, and at the same
time a part of jifi; hache, dogs; ha-Jcode, much dogs (kod^
much); sheh-kod, much horses (a beautiful illustration, this, of
the growth of adjectives from nouns, similar to diminutive end-
ings); sse unneh me ssoko — I house to go (to house) ; s-ah, my
father ; w-ab, thy father ; r-ab, their father.

Bdse-ma una (eye) iash, thakhuma eakom (not) — fish-to (to
fish) eye is, ear not (is) ; my zugur naf-sh — this man blind-is.
The pronoun object of a verb is incorporated with it. We notice
in this language, as everywhere, words assuming different forms
according to their different connections.

. 848? Georgian.— The Georgian is another language belong-
ing with the group under consideration ; it has received some
attention at the hands of philologists, but it has not been studied
with any great amount of perseverance. It is only valuable in
respect to its linguistic illustrations.

849. We will dwell but briefly on this tongue : Me am tsigns
gtser — I this letter you-write (g is pref. =obj. you) ; ak dids
kalaks Pharizs moivedith — here (to-this) great city Paris (I
have) come; mowedin Supeva scheni — come kingdom thy;jpwri
tshweni — bread our; danu — and not; szeda — earth-on ; tea^a
■ — heaven-in.

860. Postpositive particles, or prepositions, after the noun
are here quite prominent. The comparative, marked by its
ending, is followed by the genitive. The pronouns are easily
referable to the Persian-German class ; their genitives are used
afl pofisessives. The demonstrative letters are g=^d,m=n, and

310 PHRASIS.

8 = t, The verb has considerable development in persoD end-
ings ; and prefixes, or augments, are prominent. The endings
of the participle are well developed. A leading difficulty,
in acquiring a knowledge of this language, is its exceedingly
strange alphabet. It is only after careful search that it can be
found to be connected, though remotely, with the European
alphabets.

851. The Armenian is the last of the class before us ; and
it is by far the most cultivated and the best known. There is
much written in this tongue — going back even to the fourth
century. The ancient Armenian is extinct. The alphabet is
odd to us, but very handsome ; and it is easily traceable to the
Greek and Semitic alphabets. It has, like the Georgian, cap-
itals as well as small letters. We notice, briefly, some of the
features cf Armenian :

852. In Armenian, and also in all the class, gender as a dis-
tinctive mark is scarcely developed. The k mark of the plural
is so far Hungarian and Tartar. The objective here, as we so
often see elsewhere, does not differ in form from the nominative ;
it has a prefix z, our to, the, and Heb. eth. The ra ending of
some genitives reminds us of the ra of Persian cases ; the dat.
ending is m, the am, em, of L. accusative — the abl. ends in e.
.There is, besides, a dative prefix or augment, i, z. Many case
changes are manifested by what are called inserted letters, but
what is really a development of the letters in the word, as we
term it, rather than at the end of the word as usual.

853. The pronouns, and the particles generally, are clearly
recognizable. Pronouns are often found as suffixes to the noun,
as in Persian. The verb is well developed, having its augments,
endings, and participles. We find the active and the passive
participles undistinguished. There are full sets of compound
tenses, by the aid of be and become. The infin. ending is el^ al,
and the part, endings are a variation of it. The verb be is el,
as in Amharic ; it reminds us, too, of the Finnish and Slavic
classes } become is linil, and this also reminds us of Hungarian
and Finnish. The present participle ends in og, our mg, while
the past or passive ends in cai= infin. el.

854. A few selections from the language we now give : Sair
mer or zeryins ies — father our who in- heaven art (is) ) kam Uho
(will thy) — thy will; harayr-n otevan norm woch evs hencher %
tsayn yerkotz nora — (the) cavern (-n = the, her) the-abode of-
her (jwrin) not more (no more) resounded with (i) sound of-
voice hers ; kosel, to speak ; henchel, to resound.

Ev linizi int orti — and may-come (be born) to-me (a) son-*
(L. puer) ; ergou ortil ant — two sons are ; es em ortin ho — "

CAUCASIAN LANGUAOBS. 311

am son thy (thy son) ; ev deseal ezna — and seeing him ; ase z»na
Zrouan — said to-him Z. (did) ; orowk ez-hasdn arner — with-
which sacrifice he-made } z- Ormitz^ to-Ormiz ; orti nora — boy
his ; wasn oroh — cause (of) which ; wasn-ko — cause-thy ;
wam-im — my cause; z-or arnem — which I-make (z pref.);
has-d arar — sacrifice (he) made, i. e., sacrificed.

Haindam esgsan Ormizt ev Arhmnen arn-el ararads — then
began 0. and A. to-make creatures; im orti-n e — my son is
(n= the) ; tou es — thou art (L. tu es) ; des-eal ez-na (z-na) —
seen him ; ev amenain me zor Ormiztn arner pari er ev ougig
— and all that what 0. made (am^er) good was (are, were) and
right.

Asetj I said ; asem, I say ; asen, they say -, kid»az, knew ;
twr, his, her; nma, him, to him; z-iia, him, (hat; mek, we;
mer, of-us (our), mez, to-us, z-mez, us; imkj our; touk, ye, tser,
of-you, your ; sir, love (dear, cher-ish) ; presfent indie, sir^em,
isir-es, sir-e ; plur. sir-emk, sir-ek\ sir'en ; imp. ind. sir-er, sir^eir,
sir-er ; sir-eak, sir-eik, sir-ein; aorist sir-ezi, sir-ezir, sir-eag ;
sir-ezak, sir-ezik, sir-ezin; infin. sir-el, part, sir-og. The end-
ings of the pres. indie, are almost identical with am, art, is, etc.
(em, es, e ; emk, ek, eii) ; infin. to he is el, part. eal.

And we may note here, that the uniform agreement every-
where of verb and participle endings with the forms of be, is not
accidental, but it proves the fact that the verb he is only a devel-
opment of those endings thrown off".

855. Of the verb give we may noticfe these forms : dam, I
give (L. dam\ derri), damk, we give, dan, they give ; dal, infin. ;
dou-ael, part, aorist ; dou-og, pres. part. ; future part, daloz ;
impera. dour; imperf. dahi ; dou^eal linim — given am (am
given, become given) ; pazeal linim — openened (I) become
(am openened) ; kid-em, I know, L. vid-eo ; gou-el, to go (tsh
= g); lo-el, to hear (G'k k-luo), listen; say, impera , is asa,
aorist part, asa-zeal, infin. as-el — other participles, as-og, aseloz,
and astt'Zog ; e-dov (e augment), have given, L. dedi. .

856. Aside from the alphabet, the language is easy to learn,
and when learned it will prove one of much interest, importance,
and beauty. The idiom is by no means hard or unnatural. For
an Asiatic language, there is much that is European. There
are very many words which are clearly identical with words in
Europe ; the orthography of these is very interesting ; we have
space here only to instance such words, in addition to those
already named incidentally, as these: tun (house), L. dom-us;
oskr (bone), L. os; air (man), L. vir ; lusin (moon), L. luna ;
am (year), L. annus, time; mis (flesh), meat; (fs^arr, tree ;
djur, water; glouk (head), Slav, glava; amam, summer;- koz
(swine), L. sus; hur, fire ; div, day; agn^ eye, Ger. aage; liezu

812 PHRASIS.

tongue, L. lingua; odn, foot, G'k pod-os,; adanm, tooth, G'k
odous.

857. It is greatly to be regretted that this language has not
been better studied, so well does it illustrate our own languages.
The facilities for studying it are very limited, and the number
of thorough Armenian scholars is very small.

CHAPTER IX.

TARTAR LANGUAGES.

858. That the Mongolian, Manchu, Tartar, and Turkish,
constitute one great family of languages allied to each other by
various and unmistakable marks, and that they belong also with
the Semitic and the Persian, are facts beyond all doubt; and
yet these positions have each been often questioned. As a
whole, we may denominate them the Tartar class. Those people
are by no means all Tartars ; but as they are all closely related
to the Tartars, and as the Tartars, if not the oldest, were at least
the most prominent and most numerous branch of the family,
the name seems fully justified. But let it be borne in mind,
also, that Tartar as a name of a people or a tongue, is very
indefinite. They, the Tartars, have at times conquered others,
and have been lost with the vanquished ; they have themselves
in turn been* overrun, and the limits that defined them have
vanished in the darkness of the past. The Mongolians have
absorbed a large share of them — they are themselves Tartars ;
but Mongolian, as a country name, has to a great extent taken
the place of Tartar. The name Tartar is now confined to nar-
row limits, and is applied to that portion of the class most nearly
connecte«l with the Turkish. The term Ouighour is also applied
to it, or to a form of it.

859. We may as well remark here, that the term Turanian
is often applied to this class, taken in connection with Finnish
and Samoidish ; the term Arian, or Indo-European, is opposed
to Turanian ; the Semitic is accounted a third class, distinct
from both these — as to which we will see hereafter. What is
not Semitic or Turanian (Tartar) in Europe and Asia, speaking
generally, that is, all that has the European character, is Arian.
The Chinese and Malay class have so far been compelled to take
a place outside.

860. Tungusic and Manchu are names which may cover nearly
the same limits, the one as the other ; and yet Tungusic is used

TARTAR LANGUAGES. 313

in a narrower sense to apply to a subdivision of Tungusic, paral-
lel to the Manchu, and indicating a people consisting of tribes
in tbe north of Asia, principally in Siberia.

861. Tartar : The Tartar (-Turkish) possesses those features
which so strongly mark the whole class. And, first, we notice
the strongly developed case endings, so far advanced as in the end
to separate* from the stem and become postpositions. The gen.
mark is ung^ ing; as, hack-ung — of-head (Slav, -ego^ -ych^ Hung.
-nelc) ; de and den are abl. marks, as hach-de^ in-head (L. de^ Per.
•ra^ and der) — besides these marks, separate postpositions are
used. The suffix possessive pron9uns appear here as we saw
them in Finnish and Hung. The adjective is always before the
noun, with which it unites so strongly that the latter only re-
ceives the case and number endings. The plural ending is lev.
The absence of the article is a mark of the whole class, save that
hir^ one, is used for a, and that for the, A few illustrations, in
the way of selections, may now be given :

862. Chedjy nam karye — Chedjy (by) name (a) village (a
village called); guieuz-um lean doha — eye-my blood should-
fill-with (if niy eye should be filled with) ; hu kiar-ing ferdjami
— that anair-of (of that affair) end-its (the end of that affair);
m huch-i — water chief-its,, i. c, head- water, the sea; heyler-hey^
of beys-the-bey ; mutemed adem-isi guiel-ub — faithful men-his
arriving (his faithful men arriving) ; Mmi-miz — who-your, i. «.,
who of you, some one of you ; her hirimiz — every one-us (one
of us); kande baghtche — where (is) garden. We find com-
pounds as in the Persian style.

Beuiles-ini guieurme-mich idi — like-of-lym (his- like) seen-
not had-he (was) (had not seen ; me inserted = not) ; henim bir
haghtch-em var dyr — to-me a [bir = one) garden-my is there
(I have a garden of mine); guienrduk-leri — their-having-seen
(/ert -> their), t. c, what they had seen; guield-iguim — my-
having-come, V. c, what I had come to; bun-ing birle — fhatof
for (biBcause of that) ; burUer guibi — those as (as those) ; benim
dfins'im — of-me race-my (my race of mine); senung-ki — of-
thine that, i, c, tfilit of thine, thine (A;i=that), like Ger. deinige;
yok-dur — not-is, i, c, there is not.

763. Besides the pronouns and particles of Tart.-Turkish, so

easily reduced to European relationship, there are many other

eading words, verbs and the like, which are by no-means strange,

r we bear in mind the laws of letter changes. In the case of

Brbs, we drop the mek of the infin. ; as, for ttmek, we take it

the representative :

Bos J press, bind ; var, go, walk, L. erro ; vir, give, L. fero,

ing; a/, take, G'k el; geur, see, peer, view; eid, die, kill;
40

314 PHRASIS.

hyl^ Sans, har^ I, r; gel^ go, walk; di^ L. di-co^ say; it^ do,
Ger. thun ; ara^ search ; ak, blank, white ; ohu^ read, L. lego ;
sev, love; ko, put, L. po' ; kara, black, dark; at (horse), G'k
'i2)po8.

864. Mongolian : This has all the features characterizing
the Tartar languages ; but, more than this, it can with a slight
eflPort be placed along-side the Persian and European. The pro-
nouns, the participles, the structure of the moods and tenses,
the form of the verbals, all these are quickly made familiar to
us by their resemblance to languages known to us, not only
Asiatic but European also.

865. The leading sections of the Mongolians are the East and
West Mongolian, the latter being again named Kalmuk. They
are closely related dialectic forms.

866. Manchu. — This refers particularly to the language of
the people of Manchuria. It is in all respects a Tartar language,
but Tartar which has been pressed by the Chinese. It serves
well to mark the transition of Chinese to Tartar.

867. As a language of the class, we find little in the grammar
to remark as peculiar. The plurals (for living beings only) end
in sa, ta, (the k of other forms) ; i is the gen. sign, de is dative, be
is ace, tchi is abl. We find an ending ngga, our tng of verbals,
which is seen in all Tartar ; also, miningge, mine, and siningge^
thine (Ger. deinige). As we find in the whole class, so here we
find no proper relative. We find, between the root of the verb
and the infinitive ending, 5w as a pass, mark ; ako^ Turk, me, is
the negative mark, joined to the verb (k m). Many of the
particles are easily connected with the Greek.

868. We will give a few examples of its peculiarities : Ere
gisun-he niyalma tome kitchetchi atchamhi — this word (he is
ace. sign) man all to-inquire ought (all ought to inquire, con-
sider).* The genitive, like the adjective, is always before the
noun : emke emkei — one to-one, one after another; emou niyixlma,
i-ni dchoue niyaman imhe handchifi — one man, his two parents
him bearing (whose two parents have borne him).

Ouhahe dchafafi (jisouretchi — this assuming (if we) speak
(oU'ha is a double this, he is ace. sign,^ pros, part., tchi is con-
ditional mark — verbs have not developed personal endings, and
the persons are often neither indicated nor expressed) ; touha-<le
(dative mark) hitcM — that-in (there) (he may) be. i. c, he may
be there (6i = be); toumen dckaka — all thing; mimhei/e — my
body, my self; terehe we same moutemhi — that (-thing, ace.)
who (we) to-know might (who might know) ; men^de emou sain
sargan dchoui hi — us-to a (one) good girl daughter be (is) (we

TARTAR LANGUAGES. 815

have a beautiful daughter) ; geneme, to go, gone ; geno, go ;
gen-ere — will go (Fr. irai) ; sa-mhi — I, thou, or he know (Fr.
sais) ; sav'ko — know-not (Ajo'= not).

Kake keke — husband (and) wife {and is omitted, as it is uni-
formly — conjunctions are scarcely yet developed here); banin
keseboun sere dchoue kergen — nature (and) fate (so) called two
words (two words, names, nature and fate) ) dergi edcheid band-
chihoukangge (of or by) supreme lord being-been-born (bandchi*
bouba, has created, or borne) ; moukchan dcheingge-i warangge
— (with) staff (or) sword slaying; emou ikan-be bakatchi — one
(a) ox (if you) receive (receive one ox, i. e., if you receive).

Si aika sain-be yaboutchi — thou if good (you do) do ; tat-
chire-de (teach) amourangge — to-learn loving (i. 6., loving to
learn) ; bov touketchibe — house fall, ?*. e., although the house
fall, G-er. wohnen^ a-bode ; bandchiboure wemboure sekiyen tede
hi — (of) bearing (and) dying (the) fountain (in) him {tede) is
(be), 1. e., their fountain is in that; blya chun-i — moon sun-
with; goa koungtse-i barou kliend-ouke — one Confucius before
said (one said to C.)

869. A few parallel lines will give some idea of the compar-
ative form of Tartar, Mongolian, and Manchu :

Tartar : Atha wisum chy kok-ta sen-^ father our who heaven-
in art ; wer wimm guiidaluch otmak — give (bring) to-us daily
bread ; wou-gun — this-day ; garta wisni geman-dan — free us
evil-from.

870. Rumanian: Bezom attU'inasz — to-us father-our; kem-
Ico — who-art; hik-te — heave n-in ; s«e-/e«ow s2?e?i-ac?-o?i — holy-
be Qez) thy-name-thine.

Kalmuk, or West Mongol : Atshiga mani octorgi-du baiktshi
— father our heaven-in being (who art) ; taninaratani — thy
name-thine ; mani odor — our day; tani gar-tu amai — thy
hand-in am (is) (in thy hand it is).

871. Tungusic : Aminmun mungi avagu negdavgidadu —
father-our (of) us (thou) art heaven-in; gerbish dngi — name
thine (word) ; on singi bisin — for thine is (be-st, Ger. bist)', on
^eg-dordu do endra-du — as heaven-in so earth-in.

872. And, finally, Manchu: Abka-de the//e megni ama — hea-
■yen-in (there) dwell our father; sini kebu enturinge okini — thy
name (word) holy be (Arab, kan = be) ; na-de — earth-in.

873. The Mongolian and Manchu have both an alphabet
peculiar to them, though the two have a clear reference to each
other, and are supposed to have been built on the same basis.
They are written in lines downward, proceeding from left to
right. These alphabets are syllabic, and are evidently related
to the Chinese; and they have the character, too, of the
Sanscrit.

316 PHRASIB.

874. The leading point which we notice in these languages,
and in those of Asia generally, is that words here, where so
many are connected together, are not yet individualized as they
are in Europe : they are not yet old enough to be detached
from the parent stem — as is particularly the case, also, in
Sanscrit and Semitic.

CHAPTER X.
CHINESE LANGUAGE.

875. Our knowledge of the Chinese language is commensurate
with our knowledge of the Celestial people. There is more than
one point of obscurity in both. Still, the study of the Chinese
character and Chinese idiom has many able devotees, and we
are flattered with the assurance that we are daily becoming more
enlightened in respect to this portion of the history of the
" Central-Flowery-Kingdom."

876. It is not many years since we were taught that the
Chinese were a people without another with which to compare
theip, and that their language was without a parallel or connec-
tion iuvthe whole wide world. But time and labor have made
us wiser. We now know for a certainty that the roots of both
the language and the nation extend far back into the great
Tartar class, in the north and went, and into the Malay and
Indian^ in southern Asia — thus proving that here, at least, we
do not find an exception to the great truth, that nothing is
found in this world without its kind, its like, its homologue.

877. All things considered, the Chinese is to be ranked
among the most infantile and uncultivated idioms so far known
to us. Speaking generally, we may say the language has all
the characteristics of a wild people, and that it lacks those which
mark the idioms of enlightened men. There is almost a total
absence of those derived forms of adverbs, adjectives, verbs,
case, number, and gender forms, besides those of tense, mood,
and participle — an absence of everything that is properly in-
flexion and derivation. The parts of speech and their subdi-
visions are not distinguished by appropriate forms, but, rather, by
their connection, and by the relative place they occupy. There
is much in all this, and more that might be mentioned, that is
Polynesian, that is even African. We have, here, says one
author, only to do with naked stems or roots.

878. The genitive is a pure adjective, and as such it is placed

CHINESE LANGUAGE. 817

before the noun. It is placed thus without any variation from
the noun form, as we do in our irow-horse, horse of iron; or,
the genitive is followed by a sort of suffix prepostion, ti or cAi,
i, €., of, or of the ; as, tca-<i, I-of, of me, or my ; ta-ti^ he-of, or
his. Other cases are marked by prepostions placed before or
after. The plural may be expressed by the singular, marked by
some word equal to much, all ; also by suffix mun (= other). It
is expressed also by the well-known mode of repetition.

879. For all persons, all tenses and moods, all participles, it
may be said that the same unchanged and bare form of the verb
is used, i, e., the Chinese mind is scarcely conscious of these dis-
tinctions. They know only live and dead, or full and empty
words — meaning by the former verbs and nouns, and by the
latter, particles ; beyond that, they are uncertain, unconcerned.
The persons they distinguish by the context, or they use pro-
m)uns before the verbs ; as, wo yu kin — I have gold ; ni yu
kin-sha — thou have gold-dust. The tenses are either not dis-
tinguishable, or auxiliary particles are used as in English.

880. There is, in these respects, a great difference between
the ancient and modern Chinese : in the former, there is an
absence of these particles and auxiliaries — the sentence being
here one unresolvable whole (while the other form shows the
result of development). The modern is again divided into the
Pekin and the Nankin dialects, having considerable differences;
and, besides this, the written form varies greatly from the spoken
language.

881. The words of Chinese are chiefly of the simplest kind,
such as we find m Polynesian and African — but they are not
all monosyllabic. Not only is there an absence of derivative
forms, but we scarcely find what we may call true compounding
— unless we may consider every noun with adjective, or indeed
the sentence itself, as a commingled mass or compound. Others,
looking at it from another stand-point, decide that there are
many compounds in Chinese. They, to say the least, are com-
pounds of a character very different from what we consider com-
pounds in our languages.

882. From the absence of derivative forms, we find many
instances where the same word, if we look to the form alone, is
applied to several different objects — or, as we express it, one
word has several different meanings. Generally, we either use
different words, or words which have varied their form to corre-
spond with the new application ) as, price^ prize, promise ; also
me, rose, raise, raised, raiser, raising, rising. But the Chinese
lias no capacity for such variation. In spoken language, they
distinguish by nice variations of tone or accent, precisely as we
do, to a limited extent, in prem-ise and pre-mise, read (present)

818 PHRASIS.

and read (past), man and meii. All changes of vowels, and,
more remotely, all changes of the word, are the workings of this
variation of tone, found so prominently in Chinese. The Chinese
carry the principle much farther, and they have many shades of
tone not perceptible to us — these changes of sound being in-
cipient to a change of form, and in a measure representing it.

883. A very fruitful source of new words, or terms, in Chinese,
is found in the associating of two words of similar meaning —
an application of the universal principle of doubling or repeating
words to form new elements. Their words having each a great
variety of different applications, their meaning must be fixed in
some way. They take two words having each one meaning like
one of those of the other, and thus use one to determine the
other. Our compound stage-coach will serve to illustrate this
system in Chinese. The word stage applies to a great many
different things, besides to a certain kind of coach, and so does
coach apply to many other kinds of car besides that used in
staging ; but put them together, and we know with certainty the
object intended.

884. In this and like cases, both stage and coach denote the
very object pointed out by stage-coach^ but also so many other
things as to be indeterminate. We see here, again, that the part
really includes the meaning of the whole, that it is equal to the
whole. This affords an instructive lesson on the origin of new
words.

885. Chinese Writing. — There are no letters in Chinese, s.uch
as we find in European tongues. Their words are represented by
characters which are known only as one sign, i. e., the parts have
n« separate existence, more than the parts of the figure 4. But,
more generally, the representatives of ordinary words are made
up of two individuals, having each a separate value, somewhat
as in our fractions 1-8, 2-5 — or even of three parts, as in our
complex fractions 2-3-5.

886. What may be considered the base of this Chinese word-
sign, is the so-called radical, of which there are about 214 in the
language. These radicals, or keys, are themselves words, refer-
ring to elementary ideas.

887. The other part of the word-sign is called the phonetic
part ; it, too, ig a separate word, as the 3 of 1-3 is a separate
number. The phonetic alone gives the name to the whole char-
acter, as the fraction is called 4ths, 5ths, from its denominator
alone. That is, as we understand it, generally the Chinese
words or names are all adjectives, as indeed the case is every-
where, and the radical is the base noun which becomes obscured
or lost in pronunciation, as we say the good^ for good men^ the
senior^ for senior one^ a level, for level ground. This, we think,

CHINESE LANaUAGE. 319

is the precise principle in Chinese. So the words sea, river,
lake, in Chinese, have for their key or base the element water,
i. e., they are certain kinds of water ; the kind alone is expressed
(the adjective), and water as a sound (but not as a sign) is lost.
So the sign composed of the parts shut, water, and ciTig, blue, is
called cing, and it means clear or pure.

888. Some of these sound-giving signs have lost their mean-
ing, and- are mere characters, while others are proper words.
Chinese word-signs have at least one radical, and some have
more ; they are hence all compounds, as Egypt-land^ for Egypt
— in which land is not sounded. It is a very extensive appli-
cation of that principle of determinatives, or radicals, which we
notice in the Tartar, Malay, and other Asiatic languages; just
as if we said, gold metal for gold, America-land for America,
Persian-man for Persian, male-man for male, city-place for city,
Jcing-nder for king, speech-make for speak, walk-go for walk.

889. The Chinese word-characters have parts, as our own
words have, but not so many recognized as we have. The Tar-
tar and Sanscrit write their letters after the same principle as
"we find in Chinese. There is no doubt but that the origin of
these Chinese characters will be found in hieroglyphics. A few
examples will best illustrate some of the peculiarities of the
language :

890. Ngo fu — I father, my father; s-in sin — man heart,
heart of man; sin sin — man man, each man. The pronouns
are, wo, I ; ni, thou ; to, he ; wo-mtm, we (mwn sign of plural) ;
tarnu7iy they ; wo yu, I have ; wo sien-shi-yu — I had ; ta sien-
shi-yu — he had; wotsiu yu — I will have (the words before
yu being used as signs of tense — but even these auxiliaries are
not used in the written language) ; wo mu yu — I not have; wo*
ti torshan — I-of coat, my coat.

iVa, which; shui, who; tung-si, thing; na-ko, the, that; che-ko,
this ; che-ko ma, this horse ; ji ji, day day, every day ; kau-ti,
high; twan-ti, short (ti gen. or adj. sign); ki to, how much;
chi, only ; kin nien — this year ; kin ye — this night, to-night ;
wo shi — I am; ta shi, he is; yu, there is, has; shi-ti, right (ti,
the, of) ; lai, come, ku, go ; ta lai — he come ; wo»mun lai —
we come; wo lai-liau — I came; ku-liau, went; ta tsiang lai —
ho will come; tso, do; tso-yuen-liau — done.

891. The following translations will exhibit some other fea-
tnrea of this idiom :

(The) ^olk (is) quiet (adjective used as verb, is being sup-
pressed) ; fu hai, seu san — (his) luck (is a) sea, (his) life
(-length) m,ountain, i. e., his-fortune (is) great-as-sea, his-life-
length (length of life) like that of a mountain. All those qual-
ifying words are not expressed in Chinese, or they lie latent'in

320 PHRASIS.

the words luck, sea, mountain : they regard the points only of a
sentence.

Heaven (and) earth (are) hliLe (and) pah (remember that all
words in parenthesis are not in the original text) ; (in) that land
much mountain (is); (to) men all deep eye (and) high nose, i, e.,
they all have deep eyes ; body (and) face (were) broad. (The
tense is known by context, and broad is a real verb in its office);
mun prince {sin kiun') — a man (who is) a prince ; cold come
heat go — (when the) cold comes (then the) heat departs.

/ seu — has taken (several verbs are used, as with us, with
other verbs to detiote past or complete action, as i, yu, he). The
noun before another noun is uniformly the adjective, and the
noun before the verb is the subject; je ming — night sing, i. c,
in-the-night he-sings ; not can (he) far fly ; (the) prince why
(he) grieve f (in) name-report under Kuang very far (was he),
I. e., in reputation (was he) far under Kuang; thou come already
long, i, e., hast long been here.
V Place-place, every place ; he saw water suddenly came, i, c,
saw it come ; Ae was a man he possessed, t. e., who possessed ; mid^
dlc'land hear it (but) not believe it^ i. e., China heard but did
not believe (all thofee conjunctions and particles so used with us,
are left out in Chinese); thou where see him, i. e., thou whom
you see; I where have money, i. e., money which I have.

892. Adjectives, as great, good^ can be used not only for is-
great, was-good, but also for transitive verbs, as make-great,
consider-great ; as, to = gr«at, chi=it, <a-cAi ^ increase-it, t. e.,
make-great it. Adjectives not before the noun are, as with us,
adverb, participle, or verb ; as, we say great in all, being great
in all ; formerly say Chin-tu, i. e., formerly they said Chin-tu ;
India-of man, i. e., Indian man, Indians; different country dif-
ferent use, i. e., (for) for different countries (are) different usages;
from-far to-cite, i. e., to cite from far; (to) express (what) they
it beautiful, i. e., what they think it beautiful (here, met, beauti-
ful, is used causatively or transitively = to-think-beautiful).

Man it love — what men love ; (if) king say how for good 1
(of my) empire (must I act) (then) great man say how for good
I family — i. e., if the king says how (must I act) for my coun-
try's good (then too will the) great man say how for (that of our)
families.

893. We conclude the Chinese with the remark, that there
is nothing there that is not found, at least in the germ, in other
languages. The time will yet come when it will not be thought
amiss to compare European words with those of Chinese.

SEMITIC HISTORY. 321

CHAPTER XI.

SEMITIC HISTORY.

894. The Semitic languages constitute a large and distinctly
marked class. From the peculiar phases in which they present
language, they are to the philologist of the utmost interest and
importance. They are very properly located on the confines of
Asia ; their character and history affords us the transition from
nrhat is European to what is Asiatic. It affords us another illus-
tration of the truth that languages uniformly belong where they
are geographically located.

895. The Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic, constitute the main
body or branch — they are what we generally have in view
when we speak of the Semitic languages. The Ethiopic is
located in Abyssinia, and has been so long and so far removed
from the fatherland in Asia, as to receive, on a Semitic basis, an
impress peculiarly its own. The Egyptian is Semitic too, but
it differs from the original family even more than the Ethiopic
does.

896. The Hebrew is without doubt the oldest of the family ;
certainly, at least the oldest written monuments are found here.
Like its near relative, the Syriac, it is now, and long since has
been, for all practical purposes, an extinct idiom. Hebrew, as

well as Syriac, is still spoken in some form or other by the ij4

. scattered remnants of the old Hebrew family ; but it is rather, ^^ }^ \
like Latin, when spoken in its purity by the students of Europe, a>^ *

as a language that on ce was, but now is not. It is a language ^\^ . .♦
"^ly of literature ; it is, ani in so far like the Sanscrit, a sacred ^ v '^\ ^
language, one appropriated to the church. The Hebrews no *
more exist as an organized race, or people ; they were first swept
down by the Syrians, and they in their turn were vanquished
by the Arabs, a people'' that have long since absorbed all that
was either Hebrew or Syriac in Asia. Scattered as the Hebrews
now are over the broad face of the earth, they readily yield to
the influences of the people that adopt them.

897. Among the dialects or forms of the Hebrew, we may
name the Rabbimcj which is Hebrew and Chald. in its features,
and the Samaritan, The latter may indeed be called a dialect,
but nevertheless it has several leading characteristics of its own.
The Rabbinic alphabet is Hebrew slightly varied. The Samar-
itan alphabet is Hebrew very much changed — it is old Hebrew
(it has no vowel points). The number of Samaritans still living
10 very small ; their language ceased to be a living one several

41

322 PHRASIS.

centuries ago, but it is still written and read, like the Hebrew,
as a church language. It is now replaced^ as a vulgar tongue,
by the Arabic.

898. The Phoenician runs closely parallel with the Hebrew,
with several distinctive features however. It yielded much to
Greek influences. Very little in the way of specimens of the
language, and those inscriptions only, have come down to us,
and hence our knowledge of it is very imperfect. The Phoeni-
cian has an alphabet — it is old Greek also.

899. The Chaldaic with the Syriac constitute a branch of
Semitic called Aramaean. The former is mostly Syriac in its
features — but it has some, too, which are not Syriac, but He-
brew. It is written in the Hebrew alphabet.

900. The Sdbien is an obscure form of Semitic, noticeable
for its peculiar kind of alphabet. We might name also the
Assyrian, But little is known of it ) it is, however, attracting
some attention. It is known to be essentially Semitic.

901. If the extent of territory which it covers, if the number
of people by whom it is spoken, and the extent of its family
connections, render a language worthy of study and attention,
then, certainly, AraHc ranks among the very first in is claims
upon us. Of ancient Arabic we have little that remains to us,
and little that can be said of it. One of the forms of Old Arabic,
Southern Arabic, is the Himyaritic^ of Yemen. It differs very
materially, however, in a dialectic way, from the Arabic now
known to us. It is known by inscriptions, and much is yet to
be learned of it. It was spoken in Yemen as late as the fif-
teenth century. Another form of old Arabic is known as the
Koreish,

902. Unlike the Semitic idioms already spoken of, the Arabic
is a living, progressive language. The Arabs as known to us
are by no means an ancient people ; they do not seem to have
begun to have an individualized existence until some centuries
after Christ. ^

903. There is a difference between the literal Arabic and the
vulgar or spoken language ; and the spoken language has differ-
ences also, according to the region where it is spoken.

904. The Ethiopic, as we find it, is supposed to have had its
origin in an Arabic colony. Amharic may be called a modem
form of Ethiopic, one modified by African influences. The lat-
ter is now become practically a sacred language ; in its true
form, it is no longer spoken.

905. Ethiopic literature embraces about two hundred works,
mostly translations from Greek and Arabic — the oldest repos-
itory of Ethiopic is a copy of the Bible. About the fourteenth
century, it began to cease to be spoken. The Tigre is a language

SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 328

similar to Amhario, and holding about the same relation to
Ethiopic.

906. The Egyptian we notice next ; the connection between
this and Semitic is undoubted. But it has a peculiar form
nevertheless, which we shall see when we come to treat briefly
of its character. The Coptic is properly modern Egyptian — it
is the language spoken by the Christian portion of Egypt. The
Coptic alphabet, in form, is a modification of the Grreek letters.
The Coptic has three dialectic forms, differing from each other
but slightly, and called, respectively, the Theban, Memphitic,
and Basmurian.

907. The Maltese is a Semitic (Arabic) language, greatly
modified by European touches, or, if you prefer, by European
admixtures. The Berber is the last of the class which we shall
name.

908. Semitic Languages. — The peculiarities that charac-
terize the style of any one of the Semitic idioms (Hebrew,
Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopic), speaking generally, characterize
the others also. So, we will dwell at length upon the idiom
of the Hebrew ; and we shall after that have little that need be
said on any feature belonging exclusively to any one of the
remaining tongues.

909. The difficulties in acquiring the Hebrew, or any of the
class, do not arise from the unusual position and strange com-
bination or order of the words ; for there is in all this, making
due allowance for the simplicity of the language and its ex-
pression, much that is quite natural to us. There is, however,
a great uncertainty, often, arising from the absence, to a great
extent, of inflexion, or variation of the forms of words, to indi-
cate that one word belongs with another, and from the absence,
too, of those marks or auxiliaries which point out to a nicety the
different shades of mood and tense. We have to depend much
upon position, and more upon the context ; there is much of
latent or unindicated meaning in Semitic terms. But to the
XLninitiated learner, there is yet a greater and more embarrassing
difficulty — that of finding in the lexicon the words which shall
denote the meaning of the word which he finds in the text ; for
lie finds one form of word, a sort of root, in the lexicon, and a
^ery different, more intricate, form in his reading. His gram-
xnar informs him that some parts of the word which his text
oflfers are ending or prefix, to denote the pronoun, subject or
object, the gender, and to some extent, the case; that each verb
lias its derived forms or conjugations, which have developed
<iew letters, either prefixed or infixed ; that there is a large
number of prepositions and adverbs, or conjunctions, welded to

824 PHRASIS.

the word at the beginning, or incorporated with it, in a manner
that is quite foreign to most of the European languages.

910. It takes time, considerable time, before we can at a
glance, as if by intuition, separate the formative letters (the pre-
fixes, suffixes, and infixes) from the body of the word, and turn
without hesitation to the very root or base-form which we should
look for in the lexicon. The student of Greek can well under-
stand these difficulties, but he must mark this difference : in ]
Greek, it is the irregularity of a few words, while in Semitic it '
is the irregularity of the whole system. It is with great effort,
too, that we become familiar with the Semitic alphabets, and
with the oddity of reading the words (save the Ethiopic) from
right to left.

911. Nearly all the characteristics of these languages which
seem so strange to us, are those which are more or less common
in all the languages of Asia ; for instance, the union of particles
and pronouns with the main word. So we see, that in Semitic,
also, words are not individualized to the extent that they are
with us. We offer now selections from Hebrew composition,
as the best method of pointing out the peculiarities of the
language :

912. U'legach-tiy-cha — and-I-have-taken-thee (w = and, tiy
= I, cha ^ thee, and legach is the root or base-form of the verb,
found isolated in the third person present) 3 legache-fa-nu —
(hast) taken-thou-us (thou has ttaken us) (ww«- us) ; he-malech-o
— in-reigning-his (malech is the infin. or verbal noun, be = in,
pref. prep., and r?, or w =his, meaning when or while he reigned,
or he reigning ; this he is, without doubt, only a modification
of the participle prefix m, as well as of the bi of Persian verbs) ;
achal — he-ate ; be-achele-nu — in-eating-our, i, e., when we eat,
or ate (inf. is achol) ; so, we find and-in-speaking'tni/, i. e,, in
my speaJcing; h-shachen-iy — for-dwell-my, ^. c, for me to dwell,
that I may dwell; u-be-yade-cha — and- in-hand- thine, i. e., in.
thy hand (yad «= hand).

The'Votce'thine-heard-I'in^arden (thy voice I have heard) ;
given-I (I have given) to-thee the-aU (given thee the whole)
dll-these (were) drawers (of) sword. The verb be in all its fo:
is very generally omitted, ^. e., the nouns and adjectives
real verbs here ; in the last example, shohphey is a participle
the drawing (ones), the drawers — the word for sword, charebh^ ^*>
is really a part of the participle, though separate from it, %, e.7 — >
they (were) sword-drawers.

And-not shaU-he-they (j/o-h^-u) to-thee^ i, e,, there shall no^ ^ r^ t
be to thee, you shall not have ; give^to-us water and'shaU-drink -^"^S;-
we (that we may drink) ; /ruit-of greatness-of heart (t. e., boast^^ *"
ing) (the mark of the genitive being, in Hebrew, put on tb--^^^^

SEMITIO LANGUAGES. 325

word governing it, when two nouns thus unite) ; (it was) heavy
(the) famine iri'land, i, e,, there was a heavy famine (heavy ^ a
verb).

913. The infinitive form, as that of to^know, equals a noun,
as knowledge ; many participles and verbal forms are used, with-
out any change, as real nouns. We find, comparatively, but
few adjectives, but rather nouns and verbals with preposition
used instead of them ; thus, we find ark of wood, for wooden
ark ; with-power, for powerful.

914. As we find the prepositions, or case fixes, placed at the
beginning of the word, so we find also the article ; as, ha-yom
— this-day, the day; ha'Oaretz, the-earth. In the use of the
articles, we find such instances as men the-war, i. e., the war men,
those-of-war ; the-city the-great (one); the-place the'that^ that
pla9e ; honest (are) we ; thou he king mine, i. c, thou art my
king {he taking the place of be). The possessive suffixes are
used to denote objectives also ; as, wrong mine, i, e,, my wrong,
wrong to me ; so, fear his, i. e., his fear, the fear for him; daughter
(of) who, i, c, whose daughter ; which to-him, i, e., to whom ;
which in'it (in-there), i. e., wherein.

916. We find verbs repeated, one of them being infin., and
the other acting as adverb with it ; thus, ask he-asked, i. c, he
asked much, or urgently; so, he went going, i. e., he continued
to go (like L. contewdit ire — goes to-go, starts to-go — so, in Ger.
come-going, come-walking, our came-running ; hence, we see how
one of them becomes an auxiliary, which gradually changes its
form and iheaning, and in the end the repetition which really
exists becomes obscured). The infinitive is used, too, in the
place of a full verb, as, we-have-rehelled and turned, instead of
we have turned (really, we do the same when we say we will go
and see, where see is only an infinitive) ; water for the people to
drink, in Hebrew is water for-the-drinking ofthe-people.

916. In general, we may say that the infinite is used in most
cases as a finite verb. The participle does not distinguish time,
and may be used, according to context, for any tense; so, no-
phel is used to denote one /ailing, or having fallen, or tcho will
faU.

917. God perfect (is) way-his (his way is perfect); the-people
removed he them (it); (a) light (a) great (one), i. e., a great
light — the adjective follows the noun ; sin (is) hitter very (very
bitter); (the) spirit and-soul (are) of God (pref. prep.); often
year wa^-he (ten years old was he) ; (a) woman (being) good
loves-she the- Jehovah (she loves God) ; placed-he, Jehovah (did),
to- Cain (pref. prep.) (a) sign (God placed a sigp).

They-caused-to-err thcrpeople-mine by-hoasting (caused them to
err ; here is used simply the causative of the verb err, ta-gah,

326 PHRASIS.

just as qatalj to kill, hv-qeti^l, cause-to-kill — which form, again,
has its persons, like the original qatal ; we can see by this how
such verbs as catise, make, do, etc., grow out of other verbs; he-
macte, God (did), the-two (of) the-lights, the-great (ones), t. e.,
God made the two great lights.

918. K Hebrew, and the rest, prove anything conclusively,
it is the independence of the nominative from the verb to which
it is supposed to be joined, and the independence, also, of the
adjective from the noun to which it is supposed to belong.

Behold we (are) binding sheaves (part. = verb) ; carrying^
masc. form, *- he (is) carrying, he carries; two (and) ten (of)
lion (are) standing-they tJiere, L c, twelve lions are standing
there. This participle is used precisely as if L. arnante^ (they-
loving) be taken for amant (they love) — showing very clearly
that the verb is a participle, and vice versa,

919. The potential may say, can say, etc., is expressed by the
future, will say ; go for-meet Moses (to meet) ; this (is) the-ma$,
who fears the-Jehovah ; for not has^obeyed^she (she has not) ;
wonders (are) thy testimony (wonderful) ; and'have-said-we, for
we will say ; go (going) hast-gonc'thou fromr-with-m^e (go-gone
= hast gone) f (the) doors (of) brass 1-wiU-break (them) ; tk
pride (of the) man tt-shall-humble-him ; withrthe- God walked he,
Noah (did) ; saddVed-they-him (for him) the-ass, (and) rode^he
(he rode) upon-it ; I I-will-comfort-you.

920. Short and disconnected sentences, we observe, prevail.
One example more, illustrating repeated words, will close the
Hebrew : dachoh de-chiy-ta-niyli-nephol — to-thrust hast-thrust-
thou-me for-to-fall, i. e., thrust at me that I might fall (ta=thou,
niy = me, Zt = foe, to, like our sign of infin. — we have here the
double verb thrusting he-thrust, simply he thrust).

921. The Syriac we find, in character, but little different.
The following are selections, translations : cam^he set-he against
Acco, ^. e., he came to besiege Acco (he-set, used for to-set— rso^
he began he opened, for he began to open) ; arose-they went-thy
— they arose to go, i, e., they went ; all (every one) who shall-
drink from this water again he-shall-thirst ; he-shall-come to-foe
and-he-shallrdrink, i, e., let him come to me and drink; thatrh-
shall-go and^shall-see, i. e., he might go and see (future = sub.
and potential); entreat-they with-him that-he-shall-be (shaH^ re-
main) with'them, i. e., they entreat his remaining (this future
shallrbe has the Syriac prefix d, a true augment, with the force
of that, the.; we find this d frequently with the infin. and part,
and it is evidently a variation of the Hebrew and Arab I, and
the m of verbals); who shaU-say, i. e,, can say; not shaU-fear^
i, e., fear not (future for impera.) ; sovght-he that-he-shaU-0)

SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 827

t. €., he sought to kill {d being prefix to the fixture, equal to
the^ that, and indicating the true gerund.

Blessing I-^illhless, i. c, I will greatly bless; going not went-
he, t, c, he did not go at all; soughirhe for-catch, i, 6., (for-
catching) he sought to catch ; the-knowmg (ones) (of the) law,
i, e,, those knowing the law ; and-saw-he (a) company (jbl), great
(one) whtch-coming (the-coming (one), wno came) to-him (the
which before coming, or cams, is denoted by the prefix d, already
noticed); (he-shall be) rising hrother-thine, i. e., thy brother
shall rise (part, for future). Speaking generally, it may be said
that the participle and infinitive may be used for the difiierent
moods and tenses.

Thou but (but thou) what (why) Jv>dge thou brother- thine (why
judgest thou thy brother) ; 1 1, i. c, I am (pron. ■« be) ; ye in-
mc ye (are), i, e,, ye are in me ; against-him (the) tyrant; 1 he
(am) Jesus ; in-it in-field (in the field) ; to-it to-law (to the law)
(this extfa pronoun is common).

1 I (I am) Joseph that-sold-ye-me (i. e., whom ye sold ; for
that, whom, we find, again, that prefix d) ; but that-of-he (his)
that-sent-he-me (his who sent me — both thats are represented by
prefix d) ; which-created God (did) in-the-making (it) (which is
represented by prefix d, in by /, prep., and the by m verbal pref.) ;
gueen that-of-south (queen of the south, d = that here is sign of
genitive); sorrow-thy and-conception-thy, i. e., sorrow of thy
conception, and (u) having place of of; da-bnay-nosho — of-
sons-men (of sons of men - — that da, the d above, has the force
of a preposition).

922. Prepositions are not prefixes to verbs in Semitic, but, in
Syriac particularly, we find them as suffixes to the verb, though
separate ; as we say speak-of, wonder-at^ drink-from. The tend-
ency in all Semitic is to bring the verbs first, and adjectives and
participles after the noun. Comparisons are made thus, dear
be/ore (the) queen, i. e,, dearer than.

923. In Arabic there is very little that is not Syriac first,
and Hebrew afterwards. We will notice only the following
features :

Proposed'he to-them what commanded-he-the-Mamun, i, c,
showed them what Mamun had commanded ; (it) was went-he,
i, e., he had gone ; was-he not doing, i, e,, he did not. In Arabic,
/ is a common prefix, identical with our that, to, the, and the
Syriac d; it may be termed the article of the verb, and it is
often a mere unmeaning augment ; /, u, is used as a prefix, in
the same manner — it is not different from the Semitic prefix u
■» and ; that'^0'l= that I may go {that is prefix).

924. Those double verbs, one being participle or infinitive,
which we noticed in Syriac and Hebrew, are also common here.

828 ' PHBASIS.

From the verb give-you-it, having suffix pronouns, we get the
participle, (the one) gtmng-you-it^ i, e., the giver-to-you-of-it.
We find and ^ with ; thus, what (is) to-you and-Zeid (with-
Zeid) ; not to-me (there is) father and not-mother (J. have not,
etc.) ; (there is) dead to-me (a) brother, i. c, my brotner is dead;
the-creating-thee, the one creating (he who creates thee) ; that-
aid'I= that I may aid ; / (am) going ^ I go ; we (are) going
^ we go ; tO'iLs (it is) long time not (have) seen-we-you (it is long
since we have seen you).

BusinesS'thy what (it is) thing now f i. e., what is thy busi-
ness? one from the-animalsy i, e., some animal, an animal; time-
time = from time to time. The genitive scarcely differs from
the nominative; T-amur-Airkum — shall-command-he-you, i.e.,
shall command you {y is sign of future, hum is suffix pron. you^
and u may be taken as equal to he, or as part of the root) ;
fa-mala-Vrhunna — and-fillcd-they-them (they filled them), fa
= and, u = they, and hunna (fem.) = them.

Elrma^ the water {el, 7 is the prefix article); el-m-aMru^
the-returning (el is article* m or ma is the augment of participles
or verbals, common in Semitic).

925. Semitic Kelations. — It is very generally claimed,
even to-day, that the Semitic is an anomalous and distinct class.
We will, however, examine briefly some of the leading features
of the class, with a view to show that they are not so extra-
ordinary as they have been considered, and that we may find
clear parallels to them in the European and related languages.

926. That the pronouns, particles, and numerals can be iden-
tified with those with which we are familiar, is a truth which
no one will dispute who understands the forms that are found
in Semitic — we will at least pass them by without any special
consideration.

927. One of the most striking points of resemblance between
Semitic and European, is the strongly developed prefix article.
It is true that in Semitic it is associated with the noun, or united
to it; but we must remember that in European, also, though
printed apart from the noun, it is in conversation treated as an
inseparable part of it. The Arabic article el, il, reminds us of
the Latin ille, Fr. le ; a and ha of Heb. points to Lat. hi, hae,
G'k ^,h — and the Syriac prefix d, used in so many different
capacities, is a clear representative of Grer. die, der, Semitic ze.
In Egyptian and Coptic, we find the articles pe, te (the), ne.
In Ethiopic, the prefix ma is a demonstrative akin to the articles
of the other Semitic tongues, though used in them more as a
relative.

928. We may call attention to the fact, also, that the noxui

SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 329

endings n and t, so well developed in the formation of Syriac
nouns, also the i, at, et, of Ethiopic, are evidently related to the
soffix article of the Scandinavian class, and to that of the Alba-
nian — as well as to the gender endings of Greek and Latin.

929. Not only do we find the prefix article, but also, as in
English and other European tongues, we find prefix prepositions
(not separate, as with us, but united with the noun or pronoun).
But it is a very common thing in Europe to find the preposition
unite with the article or pronoun, as in Ger. beim, for bei dem,
and our own to-em, for to them ; in Celtic, it will be remembered,
the union of preposition with pronoun is a very prominent fea-
ture, as in Irish a^aw^with me (a^ = with).

930. All these Semitic prepositions are, without doubt, only
a variation oithQ article el, i7, I — indeed, one of the most com*
mon Semitic prefixes is I, and another is cA or A; (clearly point-
ing to the cA, k, q, which we find everywhere marking either
the relative or demonstrative). Another is m (also demonstra-
tive) ; a fourth is b. This b is identical with m, as well as with
the Syriac d, used as article, relative, conjunction, and preposi*
tion. We might add to these eth, th, t, our to and the. The
very common prefix u, though a conjunction equal to and, is to
be classed with these, and is evidently identical with the prefix
h; the prefix /= and, in Arabic, is another form of the u, v,

931. But by far the most common of all the prefix letters of
the Semitic languages, is m. It compares almost perfectly with
the German g and ge ; it is used not only as the prevailing mark
of the participles and the infinitives, but it is, like the Ger. ge, g,
also a common mark of nouns and adjectives -wj^st as we find
ge-ncht, sight, face, from sehen, to see, and g-lUck = \uck, g-leich
= like, a-liko, Fr. e-gcd, equal. As there is no doubt that the
Ger. ge is closely allied to the various prefixes and inseparable
prepositions of the language, so, too, there is quite as little doubt
that the Semitic m is closely allied to all the prefixes and articles
of that class of languages. It may be even convenient to con-
sider this verbal prefix m as identical with the article /, and the
two as the bases of all the other prefixes in the class. We find
this I not only used as a prefix preposition, but it is also, like
this m, used as a prefix to verbs, a mere augment, particularly in
Arabic.

932. The identity of the prefix prep, b with the m is shown,
among many other ways, by b, as well as m, being used in Per-
sian as an augment before the verb, and at the same time as pre-
fix preposition. Even m itself is used somewhat with the force
of a preposition in those abstract or verbal nouns, with prefix
m, denoting place where (and equal to in), and the instrument

42

830 PHRASIS.

(equal to 2i^) ; as, in Arabic, katah, write, and m<i-ktahj (a place)
for-writing*

933. We must not forget that the Spiac prefix c7, in ltd dou-
ble force of relative, or article, and preposition, is also a good
representative of this m. The Egyptian participle prefix nt, <,
= who, which, also represents Semitic m. In E^iopic, the par-
ticiple prefix m, ma, has the force of the, as ma-ammes »= the-
wrongdoer.

934. To understand the nature of this m, we must bear in
mind that one of the most common pref. preps, is m, and 'that
m is a prominent relative or demonstrative letter (and Coptic
n = m is one of the articles).

935. But m has still other very important representatives or
connections in Semitic. We find it, varying its form and taking
that of some related letter, used as the mark of certain forms of
the verb. In the form of n (known to be equal to m the world
over) it marks in Hebrew the reflexive ; as, qatal, kill ; nuqetal^
kill self (and in some Hebrew verbs, it marks the passive; in
others it is a simple active). Welsh has the same prefix for the
same purpose ; as, plygu, bend, yvnMygu, bend self; in Cornish,
it is cm ; in Armoric, it is double, 6w-cm, thus, en-em-wiska, to
dress self (wiska, to dress), en-emrtotskomp, (we) dress selves.

936. Among other proofs of the identity of this n with the 7J%
treated of, we notice that while the participles of other formtf of
the verb are marked by m, the participles of this refiexive-pass.
form is marked only by this n, i. e., the participle form practically
identifies with the tense form, niqetal, above.

937. In Arabic, this n, m, has the form an; in Syriao, eth
takes the place of an, n, ni; the Ethiopic as (as well as an),
the Arabic, Amharic, and Ethiopic a^t, are other forms of eth
= c7i. In Amh. and Eth., a8=a8t is chiefly a causative mark
— in Arabic, it indicates a wish ; as, Hm, know ; asUilm, or
ast-alam, desire-to-know.

938. But n is by no means peculiar to such forms of the verb;
it is often used, like other augment letters, to begin verbs (and
other words) with, and then it seems to have no special office ;
thus, we have nortal, to raise (G-'k tlao, L. toUo), in Heb., and
the form talal besides ; so, norshal, slip, fall («=/), also na-thanj
nortan, give, L. dono (t=^d). It is a prefix letter also in Per.,
as w^-sAaw=sign, ne-zr, see, peer. It is used, too, as a mark of
persons in the future tense. Again, it is not only the mark of
many other things besides passives and refiexives, but, on the
other hand, many of these are made by using other marks, and
others again are found without any prefix letters at all ; thus, in
Heb., qittel, kill, massacre ; quttaly be killed, massacred.

939. In concluding upon this letter, we may notice that the

SBMITIO LANGUAGES. 331

prefix ethty est, is so strongly deyeloped as to well represent is,
be. Is there any doubt that these passive forms, thus marked
with prefixes, are anything more than participles with the prefix
m deyeloped ?

940. We find, in Heb., the prefix AtVA=Syriac eth, another
prefix to indicate the reflexive, and hath or hoth to indicate the
passive. This hith, ith, equals is and the. This same hith,
reduced to hi, becomes a causative mark ; as, hi-qetiyl, cause-to-
kill ; it is identical with Syr. and Ar. a, Syr. sh, and Ar. t, an.
We must notice that these forms, commencing with hi, as well
as those with ni, do not take an additional m in the participle,
but change the hi to m, showing that hi =» m (but forms with
hith have ni'ith in the participle).

941. In Arabic, t ia & very common prefix to verbs. It is
used to mark the passive and reflexive, and is plainly identical
with a, an, a^t, as well as Heb. hith, Syr. eth. In Amhar. and
Eth., we find the prefixes nt, ant, showing that n, being asso-
ciated with t, is equal to it ; and hence t='n^m. This t is
found in many other places besides passives and reflexives;
among others, in the form of th, it marks person forms, as a
prefix, in the future.

942. We must add to this, that we find in Persian this same
m, a, on, ast, t (among others) as prefix to verbs, nouns, and
adjectives, and having precisely the same office as our prefixes
or augments be in be-wail, per in per-form, re in re^cess, Ger. ge
in ge*sicht, our a in a4ive.

943. So we easily come to this conclusion about the verb-
fonns in Semitic : that those prefixes are developments of m,
being all identical with each other; that while they do appear
in tbese verb forms, they are by no means peculiar to them,
being found not only in the original form of the verb, but also
as initial letters of parts of speech which are not verbs ; and we
conclude, finally, that these prefixes, as well as others, are iden-
tioal with the inseparable prefixes and augments of our own and
other languages.

944. Ajid we must remark, also, by the way, that no cla^ of
llkl^uages is so valuable as the Semitic, to point out the history
md character of prefix letters, to show that they have all one
eommon origin, and that they all diverge from one and the same
point ; and again that there is no class of languages so valuable
to prove that all particles, pronouns, and auxiliiuries, are devel-
(^mepts of initial (or final) letters, which in the end separa,te
from the stem and become individualized.

945. We now perceive that, contrary to the general opinion,
the Semitic languages have inseparable prepositions before verbs.
They are not used to the same extent, and not always in the

332 PHBA8IS.

same manner, that they are in all European knguagea; btit we
can find parallels for them, in Europe, for every office which we
find them performing in Semitic. Not alone in Celtic do we
find prefixes used to play such parts, but even in our own we
find them; thus, in en-lart/e, make-large; en-lrap, take in a trap;
Ger. ein-kleiden^ en-clothe, to dress; er-lauben, give-leave — we
find en, ein, er, used precisely as the Semitic causative a. (And,
if we mistake not, the form is-gone, is-lefi, is-taken, is a fair
representative of the Semitic passive form). We might refer
also to «-Zay= cause to lay, G'k «fc-Z/o= cause to go (from eld);
Ger. sch'icken =cau9e to go (from gehen, gtng, gick).

946. So the Greek reduplicated forms, as pi-j9i«A:5=: cause to
drink, may be taken as forms similar to the Semitic. And
the Slavic languages use their prefixes of verbs in a inanner, if

not identical with, very similar to, that of Semitic. They are ^
there used as signs of tenses (particularly future) ; also to denote .^5

completed action. And the prefix m we know has its repre- :-

sentative, as a mark of infinitive and participle, in more than ^~-m
one of the languages of Europe.

947. There is no single instance of importance where we shalLfT Jil
find the Semitic verb system differing from that of Europe. We^^^ e
have thus far seen prefixes play an important part in the makin gE^ g
of new forms, but it is far more common to find new forms arisin^^^ g
not by assuming these augments, but by changes in the body oftr'^T
the word — just as we get sung and song from sing^ rose ftotxsz^^cn
rise, written from write, men from man,

948. A very prominent way of deriving new forms of verbs -^^,
is by doubling some of its consonants, as we have^^ andyb/fen ^'^,
gleam and glimmer, beat and battle, Ger. leiden, past litty partzn^B*
ge-litten (suffer), mix and mingle, ng-r^gg, wag and ivtggh.

Many new forms are made, again, by inserting letters (as j8

it is said), just as we have L. dicfo from dico,fundo ^*n /tf f/f^ \

G'k tupto and tnpo, esthlos and ethlos, tkapsd and thapd,

949. There are but two simple tenses in Semitic, and thei ^e

are no more in any language. These two are made to stippL ^J
the places of our usual compound tenses, just as we use tfa^^e
present sometimes for the future, and the past for the perfe^^^t
and pluperfect. The past tense of Semitic has developed en— d-
ings in full, as they are in Latin and others, to denote the p^^^r-
sons. But the tense called future has the apparent peculiari tj

of developing the initial letters to indicate the pronouns, inste =ad

of the final letters as usual. We consider this subject one cf
sufficient importance to entitle it to special notice here.

950. We remark, first, that so far from being peculiar, it=^- m
precisely as we form all our tenses ; thus, he-says, we-say, th^^n-
sayest — with this difference only, and that not real, tkat w^S.t2i

SEMITIO LANGUAGBS. 838

118 the pronoun is printed apart from the Yerb, thougli in con-
versation it is closely united to it.

951. To enable us to understand what these initial letters in
Semitic are, we give them as follows :

1st sing., a for Heb., Syr., Ar. 1st plu. n for Heb., Ar., Syr.
2d " th " " " " 2d " th " " " "

3d " y " " Ar., Syr. n 3d " y " " " Syr. ».

952. In Coptic, we see what the initial letters are by noticing
the persons of mer, fill; thus, sing., tmeTy k-mer^fmer; plur.,
tn-mer^ tetn-mery se-mer. The 2d 8ingular4 k-mer, is masculine ;
te-mer is feminine. The Amharic and Ethiopic present nothing
peculiar compared with Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac.

953. There are several facts which we must now notice. All
except y are letters which we have already seen to be verbal
prefixes or augments* But this y or i is also a very common
prefix. That it is identical with the others, as they are identical
with each other, is a fact not to be doubted. That it is equal to
w, is seen by n replacing it in Syriac; that it is equal to /and a,
is shown also in Coptic; that a=tj we see by t, ti, of Coptic
Ist singular.

954. It is not in the least to be doubted that these future
initials are the ordinary prefixes of the verbs, and that they may
be considered as a variation of the prefix m. The basis of the
future is the infinitive, in other languages ; and, in the Semitic
clasS) it is known also that the infinitive is the basis of the
future ; but the infinitive we know also has the prefix m. It is
one of the plainest laws in natural history, that the same member
in different animals m.ay he developed in a very different man*'
ner and put to very different^uses ; thus, the fore feet of quadru-
peds, the wings of birds, and the fins of fish, are known to be
homologous. In the Latin, for example, it is the ordinary end-
ings of participles that we find representing the persons. And,
if we notice the Semitic future final letters, we shall observe
that the future has the same person element as the past tense,
though not so fully developed as in the past.

955. We may with equal propriety consider the future as a
participle having the article prefixed, as we find it in Arabic ;
thus, the knt>wing (ones), the knowers, for those who-knoWy shall
know. This transformation of participle with prefix article into
a verb with pronoun nominative, is most clear in Coptic.

956. It is important in this connection to notice that in one
of the forms of Arabic, that spoken in modern Syria and Egypt,
an m is prefixed before the first person plur4 future, and a b
before all the other persons •'^ showing that such prefixes do
ehange for the persons. This b and m is in place of the I which

384 PHBA818.

we find 80 constantly, in ordinarj Arabic, united to the fntnte
in some of its applications (that h and m is prefixed in addition
to the nsnal person letters, as well as the Arabic Z).

957. The whole history of the Semitic future shows that it is
really a dependent form ; it is the exact counterpart of the Lat.
subjunctive, in application as well as in origin* Both are alike
identical with the infinitive, and both from mere usage are trans-
formed sometimes firom a dependent, objective expression, to
one which is independent, indicative, as opposed to subjunctive.
Dependent, or objective, as we know the Latin infinitive to be,
it is still often used as an indicative.

958. It is over and over again, particularly in Arabic and
Syriac, that we might replace their future by a participle or an
infinitive— and the Syriac uses the gerund or participle, with
the prefix /, where the Arabic uses a future. Where we say, he
^ent to sow, the Arabic has it toent that-heshaU^saw (future) ;
instead of sitying he desires to aid, it is, in Ar., desires that he
shall aid. The imperative, with its prefixes a and l, is one of
the forms of the future.

959. To all this we may add, that, in all instances where
relatives occur as subjects of the verb, we have a parallel to
this Semitic future ; as, I speak of him who»does it, t. «., the-
doer of it, the one-doing it ; the word which-was-spokenj t. e., the
word the-spoken (one) — the relatives being developments of
prefix articles, as we may assume.

960. To continue the parallel of the Semitic and the European
languages, we must remind the reader of an auxiliary which, in
Semitic, has the office of our be, and which is clearly identical
with it. In Arabic particularly, we find this auxiliary be used to
form compound tenses as in Europe. We learn, too, in Semitic,
that this be is only a variation of he, she, it — they being often
used for he,

961. And Coptic teaches us that this be is, in Semitic at least,
a development of the ordinary prefix letters. Thus, we find at,
I was, or have been, and ai-me, I have loved (me, love) ; and
nei, I was, nei-hmoos, I sat (hmoos, sit) ; eie, I shfiU be, cie-
mou, I shall die (ntou, die). Other forms of 6e are prefixed to
denote mat/, might, would. The infinitive has the prefix e, n, m,
and participles the prefix e, et, and we may with propriety con-
sider the auxiliaries above as developments of these prefixes.

962. Having thus disposed of the apparent anomaly of the
tenses, we may add, forther, that as far as regards the assumed
peculiarity that Semitic roots are composed of three letters, we
nave only to remark that, by a proper method of reduction, we
can bring the number down to two, or even one, and, on the
other hand, if we insert the vowels, the h of aspirates, and dou*

# SEMITIO LAK0UAGES. 335

ble letters, we shall increase the number considerably beyond
three.

963. There is an almost entire absence of such compounds as
we find in the nearly related Persian —-yet we must consider, at
least, that every case where two nouns are united, one of which
is genitive, is a true compound.

964. Endings such as the tos, ta, um, of Latin, are not very
prominent in Semitic } still we begin to find them pretty gen-
erally and clearly in Syriac and Ethiopic, as well as in Arabic ;
thus, wo find such verbal endings as o, ot, an, ta, na, av, avi,

966. Egyptian. — The Coptic, and Egyptian, while it is em-
phatically a Semitic language, as said before, still has developed
some Semitic features in a peculiar manner. So far as stage of
life is concerned, it is considerably in advance of the common
Semitic, with a strong hold, nevertheless, upon its embryonic
structure. Not only the alphabet is not Semitic, but rather
Greek, but the orthography too, as we might infer, is not Sem*
itic. There is the same system of prefixes that so strongly char*
acterize the others of the class, but they are strongly developed,
and are often strangely applied, while the old uses, such as that
of prefixes for verbs, are often nearly or quite lost sight of.

966. There is here the Semitic pref. article, but it is no longer
oZ and ^, as there, but pe, te, approaching nearer to our own;
it is ne in the plural, like the Persian an; thus, the vowel being
eclipsed, p-noute, the-Grod, n-rome, the-men. We find also the
double nor-p = the-the = that«the, that«of. We find here deriv-
atives formed by change in the word, as opposed to fixes so pre-
Talent in the other Semitics. Compound terms, which are rudi-
mentary in the rest, are here more common.

967. And, after the pure Semitic style, we find derivatives
thus, mat, to-love, met'tnai, the-love, or loving (met is the Sem.
pref. m). We find, as we have seen elsewhere, the pref. ma to
denote the place where. As in the rest, cases are denoted by
prefixes and prepositions ; nte marks the genitive case, ha the
dative, e the ace; ngis= the, is the sign of nom. Derivative
adjectives are formed by prefixes, that same part, prefix modi*
£ed. We find compound adjectives as in Persian.

968. The pronouns are strictly Semitic, and they readily be-
come suffix with particles ; poss. pronoun is suffix as in Semitic.
Double pronouns are common, as pe-k = the- thy, for thy. Im-
peratives have the prefix ma of Semitic ; «o has the infinitive.
Tenses and moods are formed by augments or prefixes, as in
Semitic. Among the many compounds of Coptic, is that of the
^nitive following its noup, and identical with the construct
case of the other Semitic languages.

886 PHRASIS. %

969. The following selections will abo illustrate the lan-
guage :

Pi-koitdgi ebol oute ni apoitolos tev'Ou — ihe-small from among
the (m) apostles all- these (ter « all), i. «., the least of the apos-
tles all ; tei-hime — this- woman ; pe-et — he- who. The articles
are used for verb he; as, pe = he is, te = she is, ne =««= we are ;
ank*pe — I am ; anan ne — we are ; p-hootU tape pe nte-Srhime
— the-man the-head is of-the-woman ; nt-af — oi-him (in Celtic,
efmmhe) ] ou = what, cn< = who, esh = what (Sem.), mm=who ;
shat= to cut, 8hent = to he cut ; talo= to offer, taleoiU^s:^ to be
offered ; A:o= place, A:c=be placed (see active = passive).

Pen tot et khen nipheout — our father who (et) in the heavens;
pen oik nte (gen. sign) rasti mei/nan m-phoou — our bread to-
morrow give us (nan) this-day ; n-^tero-n — our-debts (the-debts-
our); eihrefi {ethre-f-i — e=to, <Are = make, /= him, t=go,
come) to-make-him-come (see how one word develops itself into
several of ours).

In pek ran = thy name,jp-e-A: is composed of at least three
parts, jp = the, c = his, k = thy ; so also in p-e-n tot = our father ;
rok^ face-thy, thy face or mouth ; ro-i = face-my ; Qkteif=^
Ork'-teirf^ thou hast given him (a <sss past augment, or have, Ic =
thou, tei= give, /= him, to-him) ; oube-k ^^ against-thee, ovbe-f
= against him; neme-t = with-me (ncm, with); pe-dih-^K^^^o
say, may be considered as having the elements (at least) jpe-cf«A-an
=the-say-our, the-saying-of-us (these elements may be again
divided).

970. While the Persian exhibits the Semitic as taking one
direction, and having a certain phase, the Coptic, or Egyptian,
exhibits Semitic as taking another direction and assuming an-
other phase. We learn from Coptic many important facts,
among these, that pronouns and particles may be developed from
either end of the word ; that one and the same element, with or
without variation, may perform the office of pronoun, particle,
and auxiliary ; that the letters of a word represent an accumula-
tion of repeated elements, which in the end come to represent
individual words (and that even these letters have their elements
in turn).

971. Ethiopio : The Ethiopic and Amharic are so thoroughly
Semitic that very little need be said of them now. The Am-
haric, especially, shows a very strong development of endings, to
correspond with our -oik, ^nes&y •ing, etc. •» proving again that
the germ of such endings really exists in Semitic, and is sup-
pressed in some of its forms. Many derivatives are formed by
prefixes also, and we find the very prefixes of the Sem. conjuga-
tions, such as t^ a, m, a€, €ut^ the initial letters of nouns as well.

SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 337

Nouns are derived by infixing, as well as prefixing, such letters;
also by reduplication of letters.

972. The auxiliary he here plays a conspicuous part. It is
placed (in form of a/, hal, identical with Arabic article aQ after
the verb, as it is in Lat. amatus est =» loved is. In Ethiopic,
we find it used with the ordinary future, before it or after, and
separate from the main verb. When the auxiliary is thus used,
we have an expression equal to he'WiUrCome he-will^ for he will
come ] also, iUwas he-ca/me, for he came (as in Arabic).

It is in the Amharic that we find the peculiar constructive
mood, a transition, as it is, between verbal, or infinitive, and verb,
but still possessing more or less of the nature of a verbal noun.
It will yet be found to be identical, in its character, with the
Semitic future.

973. Berber. — The Berber language, spoken by people
living in North Africa, must be considered a very rude form of
Arabic.

974. The Berber verb is full of interest. The language may
be said to have but one individualized tense, and that the past ;
but this is so far like the Semitic future, and unlike the Semitic
past, that it has initial letters varying for the persons. Thus, we
find askar, imperative, make (Sans. kar = do); past tense, 1st
person, seker-ngh, 2d te-seker-ad, 3d usker ; 1st plur. nresker, 2d
tC'SkeT'em, 3d seker-end ; so also the pers9ns of he (i7, Arab. art.
el), ellrigh, te4li-d, i-Ula; n-eUa, te-lla-m, eU^ant. We see be-
sides the variation of the prefix letters, also the regular changes
for person endings ; so, we are taught that in the Semitic future
the former are not to take the place of the latter ; also that these
prefix changes are not confined to the future (indeed those end«
ings id, am, ant, must remind any one of the person endings
it, am, ant, of Latin).

975. The future, and present, is made by prefixing ae2 = d to i
the tense already given (just as I and d in Semitic, which letters
ad equals, as well as Persian hi). Thus, a^«^A;er=he makes,
ad-^nesker^=vie make. Possessive pronouns are developed at the
end of nouns, as in Semitic.

976. The tendency in all Semitic to discard real adjectives,
abstract terms, and individual conjunctions, has gone in Berber
4ilmost to their entire absence. Hence, its sentences are very
short and disconnected ; thus, he-eats he-goes, he eats and goes.
'There are evidently many points of interest in the idiom, but
-there is much yet to be learned in regard to it. It is chiefly
nraluable in showing how Semitic languages may have European
orth^aphy.

43

338 PHRASIS.

CHAPTER XII.

INDIAN LANGUAGBS.

977. None of the family tongues of Asia are at present receiv-
ing greater attention, or are studied with greater interest, than
the languages of India, and of these, especially £he Sanscrit. The
Europeans have made permanent settlements in Southern Asia,
and a knowledge of these languages is the more valuable on that
account. But more than this, the Sanscrit, the type, if you
choose, of the family, is found to be a great repository of ancient
philosophy. This has been one of the impulses to the study of
Sanscrit, but there is yet one more. There has been unexpect-
edly found a remarkable identity in the words and structure of
the Sanscrit and European, and of the European, particularlythe
Greek and Latin.

978. The Sanscrit is an ancient language, with all the char-
acteristics of one which has grown old and gone down. It has
not been a spoken language for many centuries ; it has become
a mere repository of literature, laws, and particularly of religion;
running in this respect a course very much resembling that of
the Latin. To what extent it has given rise to the modem
idioms of Southern Asia, is not at present accurately deter-
mined. It is certain they have replaced it, but not it alone.
There is reason to believe it was not the only language of India.
One thing is certain } the languages of India which we shall
notice hereafter, all bear a close connection with the Sanscrit,
and seem beyond doubt to have the relation to it of a modern
to an ancient tongue.

979. The Sanscrit is written in an alphabet peculiar to it and
to its cognate idioms. Neither the Semitic nor Greek alphabets,
at first sight, bear any resemblance to it ; though, on closer in-
spection and careful study, we find it has a basis in common with
them. If we look at the grammatical structure of the Sanscrit,
and even to the form of many of its words, we shall be forced to
confess that it has a greater resemblance to Greek than any other
Asiatic language. But this we do not understand proves that
the Sanscrit has, as often is claimed, in respect to origin, a so
much closer relationship to Europe than the Semitic does, or
the Persian, or the Tartar. It has only developed, exhibited,
germs and features which, to a greater or less extent, lie latent
in those less cultivated idioms. Hence we see that the modem

SANSCRIT LANGUAGE. 339

languages of India are far more Persian first, and next Tartar
and Semitic, than Greek, or Latin, or even Slavic.

980. And mark still further ; notwithstanding this remarkahle
parallel between Sanscrit grammar and Greek grammar, and
Sanscrit orthography, to a certain extent, and Greek orthog-
raphy, a fact which must be surprising to every student, yet the
style, the thought, the idiom, the soul, of Sanscrit, is not Greek
or European, but rather Asiatic, and not only Asiatic but Indian.
It is hard estimating values in such cases, as said before, and yet
we feel constrained to say, that in these latter respects, the Per-
sian, and even the Arabic, is more European than even the San-
scrit is.

981. So little do we find peculiar in the Sanscrit grammar, in
the case and person endings, in the forms of their comparatives,
their pronouns, their particles, their moods, and their tenses and
participles, when compared with Greek and Latin, we shall need
but little space for it here. Its forms worthy of remark we
notice elsewhere. The striking and characteristic features of
the language are the size and number of its compounds. We
had particularly noticed this principle at work in the Persian,
but the Sanscrit has carried it much farther. We do not look
upon this phenomenon as a simple union of two or more individ-
ual words. It indicates, rather, that in Sanscrit the words are
in many cases not individualized; it is in this respect far behind
the languages of Europe. The words had not so far grown to
maturity as to be able to separate from the parent stock. This
same feature we find in all ancient languages ; we find it in Latin
and Greek, in their moods and tenses, their cases, their partici-
ples, and prepositional verbs — and, to a limited extent, in their
compounds.

982. One class of compounds is made by the non-development
of andj and the union of two words or more which we could con-
nect by it; as mn-moon, for sun-and-moon ; song-music'dance
(and dance). These elements unite as a single unit, the last
alone taking the case-sign ; just as we say, Peter-the- Greaf s (not
Peter's). It is clear in all these compounds, that of their being
made of elements the Sanscrit mind was quite unconscious;
so, we find pretty 'hrow-nose-eye-hair^ for having a pretty brow,
etc., or pretty browed^ nosed, etc. ; this-shape, t» e., this-shaped,
shaped like this ; lance-hand, i. e., lance-handed , lance-in-hand
(having). In all the compounds of Sanscrit, we shall find united
only such as belong together in all languages ; the principle is
the same in all languages, and it only works in Sanscrit on a
grander scale.

983. One single selection must suffice to give a little idea of
Sanscrit composition : Asti Magadha-dese Champakavati nam'

340 PHRASIS.

aranyani, Tasyam chiran mahata snehena mriga-kakau niva-
satah. Sa cha mrigah swechchhaya bhramyan hrishfa-pushtan-
gah, kenachit srigal^navalokitah. Tarn drishtwa srigalo chin'
tayat: ah, katham-etan-man-sam sukilitam bhakshagami —
(there) is (in) Magdha-land (dese) Champakavati (a) name-large-
forest (a forest called Ch.); there (in-it) long (in) great
(mahata) friendship (a) deer-crow (and-crow) dwell (the two
did) ; (he) the also (cha, L. que) deer (the deer also) at-pleasure
roaming gay-fed-body (by a) certain jackal- seen (-avalokitah,
part, seen) (i, c, the deer was seen roaming at will) ; him (tarn)
(having) watched the- jackal (he) thinks (thus) : oh, how-this-
flesh delicate (shall I) eat (how can I get it).

984. Here follows a list of some of its most important funda-
mental or root words :

As, be, Ger. sein; an (live), animal, mind ; ah, say, gpr-echen,
Qer.; ag, near, G^r. eng; ag, move, go , Ger. wegen, shake ; agh,
fl-og) Ger. sch-aden', a>c, respect, Ger. acht; av, will, wish, love;
am, honor, L. amo ; ab^ speak, G'k epo ; ab=ag ; ap, have,
hold, L. c-apio ; arh, power, G'k archo; arf, work, Ger. arbeit

Svan, sound, tone ; saik, go, seek ; sagh, saw, cut ; sUc, see,
sage ; sarp, go, creep ] sar, go, run, spring ; da, give, L. dono,
do ; da, divide, deal, Ger. theil; dah, burn, L. ardens, ar-dens;
duh, draw, tug, L. duco ; die, show, say, digit ; dar, tear, break ;
dra, run, G'k drao; dal^ split, deal, Fr. taiUe; dha, put, L.
do, po.

Tan, tend, extend ; tag, take, touch ; tvae, deck ; tap, burn,
tepid ; tur, move, turn ; tars, torrid, toast, parch ; trag, go, drag;
tut, bal-ance.

Stigh, step, steep ; star, strew, spread ; iks, see, look ; ir, run,
go, L. erro ; il, go, Ger. eil-en, walk ; yam, hem, hold ; han, kill,
G'k kteind, wound ; hi, pour, gush ; Aar, grasp ; hcU, hollow ;
hul, veil, conceal.

Cvid, white ; ci, lie, G'k keimai; can, hew, L. cavus; car,
bore ; cm, hear (sru) ; gal, eat, swallow; jam, been, born, kin,
G'k genao ; jna, know; jna, bend, knee; jiv, live, L. vivo,

Ghas, chew ; kan, sing, tone, L. cano ; kup, hope, desire, L.
citpio ; kruc, screech ; karp, break, L. carpo ; kal, yell, call ;
cad, shine, L. candeo ; khya, say, L. Ugo ; ksur, shear.

Us, burn, L. us-tum, from uro ; tU, flame, Ger. stralen ; va,
go, L. venio, Fr. va ; vid, know, L. video ; vac, speak, voice, L.
voco ; vil, di-vide, Ger. theilen.

Ma, measure ; man, think, mean, mind ; math, move, L. mitto ;
mar, kill, murder ; bal, live ; bhi, fear; bhar, bear, L. gero, wear,
carry ; pa, hold; pa and pi, drink, h, pi-no ; pad, go, foot, path ;
pac, pack, bind ; pu, pure, Ger. rein ; parth, spread, part ; pri,
love, friend; prach, preach, speak; pU, press, tread, walk, fly.

SANSCRIT LANGUAGE. 341

S-par^ breathe, L. spiro; arch, go, Q'k erchomai; radh, work,
G'k redo ; rat, read, speak ; W, run, flow ; ruj, break ) raph^
break, force, ravish ; lut, read, L. lego ; luh, love ; laks, look j
Ivhh, love, will, wish ; laip, leave, run.

985. These, it must be observed, are the elements of the lan-
guage ; they do not generally occur in this crude form, but rather
with the additional development of pre- and suf-fixes, like our own
pel, in the form ex-pel or ex-pel ling, /cr, in pre-fer-ence, L./cro,
rog, L. rogo ^ ask, in pre-rog-ative.

986. It will be noticed, also, that the above forms given are
greatly reduced, t. e., many of their letters have not developed into
two or three, as with us and elsewhere ; compare an and mind,
ac and look, respect, arh and force, power, da and deal, divide,
ah and speak. We observe, also that they represent our letters
by very different ones, but, as we shall find elsewhere, always in
accordance with the law of letter changes ] thus, d=^8p, t = b,
g=^v,j^v and I, h = g, gr,jn = kn, p = h, d, etc.

987. Mabathi : The following is a short list of words from
the Marathi, a modern Indian language : Asan, seat; avaz, voice ;
ehede, one ; uga^ quiet ; umer, age, Ger. immer ; upar, over,
upper.

Kaiir, severe, hard ; had, edge ; Jear, do, form ; kal, time,
Ger. mal ; kid, all ; Mr, dirt ; kaid, catch, capture ; kith, castle ;
khali, hole ; khara, salt, r, 1 ; khali, hollow ; k?ied, dig.

Gat, gang, band ; gat, fate ; gam, compassion ; gaman, giving;
garami, warm; ga^a,eoWy ga, sing, ca-no; guha, cave; gira,
fair ; ghar, house, yard ; ghe, catch (the infinitive ending ni in
all cases left out).

Choi, walk ; chir, tear ; chain, sound ; chap, stamp ; jan, live ;
jad, join ; jalad, quick, L. celer ; jor, force, L. vir.

Tar, trick ; daU, form, style ; tamam, all, Ger. zammen ;
tar, wire, t, w; ter, great; dam, breath, Ger. damp, steam;
dar,'per; dad, just, G'k diki; das, slave, tie, bind; de,
give.

Nanga, naked ; nak, nose ; nad, noise ; nav, boat, L. navis ;
nir, water ; pad, foot ; par, through, L. trans ; pun, again ; pus,
ask ; per, boy, L. puer ; phar, very ; phir, turn.

Bara, well, very ; hin, without, L. sine ; heli, talk, old Prus.
hiU; hhala, well, L. bonus ; hhal, bear, 1, r; hhed, view; mis,
meat ; mus, mould.

Metha, great, L. magnus ; ran, war, rattle ; rang, rank, row ;
raza, king, L. rege; vach, read, L. lego, voice ; vap, vapour; vara,
air ; mr, hero ; vel, time.

This is only a few of the very many words which we might
cite as familiar in this language. Many are Sanscrit, many more

342 PfiRASis.

are Semitic and Persian ; and then, besides, there are large num-
bers of words almost identical with those found in European
tongues.

988. Bengali: The two most important languages of modem
India are the Bengali and the Hindostani. The former is spoken
by perhaps over thirty millions of people, and the latter, in its
dialects, is spoken by fifty millions.

989. The Bengali is perhaps the most Sanscrit, but slightly
varying from it. Case endings are well developed, and post-
positions are also common. The adjective with the noun forms
a compound, and hence it takes no case or number signs ; it is
compared by -tara (our -cr) and -tama (our -e«#, L. -tirmui).
The verb seems to be built up after the Turkish manner, with a
participle for base, and 5e, in its tenses, for auxiliary. The pro-
nouns, particles, and endings, are all familiar. A few examples
will best illustrate the character :

990. Si balakke amara-mkat ana — the boy me-to (to-me)
bring (bring to i^e; 8i=thaty used as the). This language
abounds in compounds, as in Sanscrit, which may have an inde-
finite length; as, the-beauti/'O/'shootS'/ruiU'JlowerS'clusters-^nd'
buds. A standing rule in arrangement, in Bengali, is to put the
nominative first and the verb last, bringing the object* before the
verb. This may be peculiar to us, but it is a common Asiatic
feature. The adjective goes before the noun.

Amra tanhar tara dekhite paiyachi — we his star (tara) see-
ing have-got (have-seen, 23a=get); taha^ tahara kahUa —
then they said; ei mat likh-ita ache — it thus written is;
takhan se uthiya shishu o tanhar matorke (ke ace. sign) la-iya
hhraeJrdeshe aila — then he ris-ing (the) cnild and his mother
tak-ing {la-iya)^ Israel-land (into) went (he), i, c, taking them
he went.

Prachar kar-iya kahUa — preach making said (he), i. c, he
preached (compound verbs of all kinds are very numerous) ; ei
amar priya putra — this my dear son (is) ; Johan dwara —
John-through (by- John) ; tint uttar karilen — he (this-one)
answer made (answered) ; kebal rut-ite manushya banch-ibe na
only bread- by (by-bread) man shall-live not (not by bread
alone).

Not only the noun comes first (the nominative), but also all
that belongs to it as an adjective ; the rule is the same with
regard to the object and all that belongs to it.

Tumijadi ama-ke — thou if me (if thou me) ; ami si sakcU
toma-ke diha — I this all (to) thee will-give (diba) ; tanhar seba
kar-ite lag-ila — him service to-do (they) began (another com-
pound, they-began-to-make-service = they serve) ; jaite^'aite,

BENGALI LANGUAGE. 343

going-going, t. c, while going (double words of this kind are
very common) j upadesh dite-dite — (his) teaching making-
making, t. c, making-teaching, teaching simply ; prachar
kariterkarile — preaching making-making, simply preaching.
(Our possessives, as his^ its, are rare — so also him, it, them, as
the object of verbs); tomar ichcha swargete jeman hauk —
thy will heaven-in so be.

Se giya tomav'^igr^ path prastut karibe — he going thee-
hefore (thy) way prepared shall-make (shall-make-prepared,
shall prepare) ; Jardan nadite haptaijit haila — Jordan in bap-
tized (they) were ; pashchat-pashchat^garnan-karila — (to) fol-
low-foUow-going-he-did (^ari7a=be did), i, e., did go following,
he followed simply ; raja jini janmi-yachhen tiiii kothay —
(the) king who was-born be (this-one) where ? t. c, where is he
who ; hhar-er sahit — (their) load-s with.

991. A leading peculiarity of Bengali is the inversion in the
order of clauses, from the fact already noted, that not only the
object, but all that belongs to it, must come before the verbs —
thus, we find, I which man I saw this (is) that (one), i. e., this
is the man whom I saw ; he my desire (if he) grant does, I sat-
isfied shall be, i. e., if he grants my desire.

992. HiNDOSTANi : To this language we come next. It is
written in the Persian (Arabic) character. It is this form of
Indian that shows most forcibly the connection with Semitic and
Persian.

993. Here, as in Afghan, we find transitive verbs in theif
past tenses agreeing with their objects — the nominative appear-
ing in an ablative or instrumental case. It is really using a
passive form thus, by 'me he was struck, for I struck him (in Hin.,
it would be me-hy <Ac man-to the-striking (was).

Alone, the language is the most interesting of its class, but
compared with what we have already noticed, Qiere is little that
is new, being, as it is, mostly Bengali or Sanscrit, as well in
arrangement as in orthography and grammar. Much of it is
Semitic also.

994. Hence very little must suffice as a specimen of the lan-
guage : iu kis tarahjanta hai-^ thou (in) what manner known
hast (is) ? (how hast thou known) ; aur kaha ki is larke-ko tar-
hiyat kar — and said that this boy (ko ace. sign) instruct make
(do instruct, t. e., instruct him; he told him to instruct the boy) ;
ek bat Tnenja (go) nikla — a wood into gone coming (or wander-
ing), i, c, wandenng into a wood ; wise wahan aur to koina nazar
aya — (to) him there other then some not (nothing) sight came
(came to him), i, e., he saw no other sight; puchha, ate-ho
kahan-se aur (and) ja-oge kahan — asked (he), (you) coming-

344 PHRASIS.

are where-from and go- will (you) where (he asked whence come
ye and where will ye go).

995. An older than the Hisdostani, but one closely resembling
it and the Sanscrit, is the Hindee. Another one of the ancient
languages of India, and long since dead, is the Pali. It is closely
connected with the Sanscrit, but in what precise relation as to
origin is not yet determined. There is also the Pragrit, a form
of Sanscrit. There are other languages in Southern Asia be-
longing to the Indian, or more or less related to it, and more or
less important, but all these we must pass by here.

996. We can only name the Telinga as belonging to the San-
scrit family, and partaking largely of its characteristics.

997. The Tamil is a language of considerable interest. It
belongs to the Sanscrit and Indian class, and so little is there in
it that we have not already noticed in these languages, we will
scarcely dwell on it here. It is the leading member of the class
which includes also the Telugu^ Malayalam^ and Canarese. Its
literature is considerable.

998. Prepositions, adverbs, and conjugations, are all 'rare ;
the relative is absent. The whole verb system is plainly built
on participles, or verbal nouns, from which are developed per-
sonal and tense endings. What few prepositions do exist are
real nouns, or adjectives, and are placed after.

999. The Birman is a language of Southern Asia, which is
very instructive to the philologist, but by no means well known.
Many of its essential characteristics are those of the language of
Thibet, but in simplicity and lack of development it is, perhaps,
most like the Chinese. It may be said to be destitute of inflex-
ion — a want which is compensated for by compounding. Many
parts of compounds have no separate or individual existence.

1000. In the structure of sentences, the relations of words are
indicated by particles. The adjective and noun constitute a com-
pound. The verb, in all its forms, is nothing but a participle.
As we might expect, the parts of discourse are scarcely distin-
guished. Intonation here, as in Chinese, plays a conspicuous
part. Like the people of Southern Asia generally, they rather
sing than talk.

The languages of Siam and Anam are classed with this.

MALAT LANGUAGBS. 345

CHAPTER Xni.

MALAY LANGUAGES.

1001. From the Indian we naturally pass to the Malay lan-
guages. This class, from the peculiar and new phase in which
it presents language, is very important as well as very extensive.
Its rdbts plainly extend far into the Indiam idioms, but as an
individual growth, it has much to distinguish it from its neigh-
bors. The whole family is decidedly infantile in structure ; yet
some of its members are more so than others. The leading
members of the class are the Malay proper and the Java tongue.
We will start with the Malay, and notice the others in the order
in which we come to them.

1002. One of the most striking features of the Malay is the
inordinate growth of inseparable particles, often where none
exist in other languages ; but the character of those particles,
prefixes, and suffixes, are like those of all tongaes; thus, from
a^a=be, they get A:a-a^«an ==jBxistence ; Tne-rnvkol^^ to beat,
from pvkoly strike — p changing to m after me.

1003. We find here, too, in a strong light the variation in the
forms of words according to what they are associated with. At
the same time, with the great growth of the particles spoken of
above, there is an absolute want of what should correspond to
the Latin case, gender, and person endings — of everything that
belongs to inflexion. We find double or repeated words very
common; as, radiorradia, for princes (L. reges)-, kcUa-icata,
word-word (words), (Fr. mot). And we should remark, that
much as the members of these duplicates seem to resemble each
other, they are still very distinct and different, and one is used
as a mark or determinative for the other; this is clearly estab-
lished in Chinese.

Orang laki'laki — person (man) male-male, i. e., a male man,
a male; ka^pada rumah (L. domus, room) — to-wards (the)
house; deri-pada rumah — from-away (the) house (double, and
even treble, prepositions are common, like our daum-alang»nde^
away-fram^ fram^heneaik) ; dengan tvlong nahi — by aid (of)
prophet (genitive without sign) ; pukol akan andieng itu —
strike. to dog that (one) {akan is often used as a mere sign of
ace., and tfu as a sort of suffix the); mata hart — eye (of) day,
(t. e., the sun) ; hamba punia ouang — I (=my^ own silver.

Mati= dead ; kor-mati-an = death ; boat = to do ; per-boat^n
(a) work ; baier = pay ; pemrhaier « payment ; peng-Uaa^ fol-
44

346 PHBASIS.

lower (pew^ is prefix); kawal=tO'gaa.Td; peng-awal= (a) guard;
samorsama, together, Ger. sammen; ber-sama-sama-anwEM union;
kuda (Goli) putih — (a) horse white (adj. generally after) ; but,
putih kuda radia — white (is) horse (of) king. The verb he is
generally left out, or it is represented by pronouns, as inSemitic,
as / that = I am.

Leheh manis deri-pada (by-with) gula — more (leheh) sweet
by (than) sugar ; ter-ladiu, very-rapid ; ter-lebeh ttta, very great
old, very old ; ka-mana (to-where) tuan hendahpergi (L. perge)
— where (do) thou (prop, master) wish (to) go f apa tuan man
(must) maka — where thou must (will thou) eat (or eating) ;
martkor-itu — those-there, they; akupuma — I (my) own; mata-
mtt=eye(of) yours; awaMaw = son-thy (thy son); kapala-
Tim = head-of-his (ma, his).

Prefixes to verbs are common ; di-pvko-nia = his striking, he
Strikes, or struck {di is a mere augment) ; yang haik — which
(is) good ; itu, the, that, L. id; ini, this, L. hinc, Slav, on ; sirapa
= the- which, what; orang mana itu — man what that? (what
man is that); yang am-punia ruma — who (whose) the-own
house, I. e,j to whom belongs the house ; ia-itu «• this-that,
that is.

Ada is used for 6e, and (ii-CTc/t = become (ada with augment);
ada-lah pada hamba — (there) is to mc (I), i, c, I have (lah
is not person ending) ; hendak ada — will be {ada, Fr. ete, Turk.
idunif our the and that') ; orang ada maka — man be eating, t. e.,
the men are eating, they eat; dia diadi kata — he becomes
rich.

Men-diadi-kan radia — to-make-be king (causative o^ diadi —
kan is often for infinitive ending, but not for that alone) ; ter,
like Ger. ge, is pass. part, sign, as ter-^w^w = written, ter-bunoh
«■ killed ; bri, give, bring ; pergi, go (thou) ; mari-lah, come ;
hata and burkata, speaks, says ; apa kata kamu — what say
you.

Di-tidor-nia = he slept, or sleeps (nia = his) ; tidor ==■ sleep
(thou); dia akan tidor — he (is) to sleep, i. e., will sleep; ada
tidor — is sleeping (see the absence of person and verbal ending);
sudah tidor, or telah tidor, having slept (sudah and telaJ^ are
both used for have and having, but they are called adverbs — so
lagui, yet, now, is tised in place of is) ; ber-tidor = to sleep ;
ka-tidor-an, also ber-ka-tidor-an, sleeping, in sleeping (see the
growing particles, like our accumulated consonants at the begin-
ning of words, as strip, for rip, dispense for spense, secede for cede;
dialan = to walk ; kamusudah dialan — thou hast walked ; tdah
bur-dialan — have walked.

1004. Most of the prepositions, adverbs, and conjunctions, are
rendered familiar by keeping in view the forms of the Indian

MALAY LANGUAGES. 347

languages ; s-m, W^, s-ana, m-ana, and many others, are com-
pounds, the-thi8, the-thatj for hercj t?iere, then; so the preposi-
tions dcdam, Fr. dam, in; arah, around; ka^ to, A: = t — conj.
dan = and.

1005. Prepositions have pronouns as a sort of affix ; aSypada-
ku =to-me {ku) ; pada-nia^ to-him ; humi dan languit — earth
and heaven ; hidorku (A:w=my) =« my horse ; kudarmu= your

. horse ; anak manusia itu — son (of) man the (one) (suffix art.);
itur-lah dunia ini — is world this (the) (is this world) ; gigiganti
gigi — tooth for tooth ; ^a^o-nia «> saying (nia is a verbal ending,
as well as pronoun) ; ber-kata-lah ia = said he ; kamu tdak
munungar — ye have hear (heard); hapa-mu yangada dishorga
— father-K)ur who (he, that) be (art) in-heaven. /

Sagala fihak fihak — all part part (all parts) ; ka-rwrnah-mu
=.to-house-thy (thy house) ; . dA}%a dosormu telah di-ampuni —
sin sin-thy (thy sins) are forgiven (fe-Iah^ is,. the, that) ; buat-
lah inimaka di-buat-nia itu — do this and (maka^ doeth-he it
(he does it); akan di-bri — shall give, for giving, i. e., shall be
given ; teAah mati — is dead; telah ber-bang-kit deripada (up-
from) matt — was risen from dead ; telah datang — is come.

Kata kamu aku ini — say you I (am) this. It seems to be a
leading feature of Malay to develop a verb be from he, the, this,
or that, Malay only thus illustrates a universal principle ; ini-lah
aJeu handaJc buat — this I will do ; audah mati-^ was dead ; telah
hidop — is alive ; yan ber-nama Yakya — who by-name (named)
John (was named).

Subab tiada di-kunaUnya {nya = his, he) akan (the) suara
orang-orang-asing — for not knew-he the voice (of) man-man-
stranger (strangers, or strange ones; akan is sign of ace.) ; orang-
«^~man-the, the one; aku burkata pada-mu — I say (&wr is
prefix) to-you {mu « you) ; ahi ini-lah pintu — I am door (mi
= this, and it has lah the verb ending) ; aku-lah gombala yang
haik itu — I-am (lah verb end.) shepherd which good the, i. c,
I am the good one ; mum-bri (mum is ^ref.)jtLa'nya ganti domba
%tu — (he) gives life-bis for sheep the (the sheep); angkau ini-
^a itvrdia — I this-he (am) that-he, t. c, I this-here (am) that-
tliere, for 1 am he,

1006. We notice a great abundance of conjunctions, for which
we can find no place in translation ; just as we say, now*when-
therefore he went, for when he went We have given this large
amount of space to the Malay, to illustrate some of its many
peculiarities. The order of words is remarkably i^atural to us--^
but their form and composition are often strange. . Besides this,
the features which we have noticed are common, more or less, to
all of the class, and they will not need to be noticed again.

348 PHRABIS.

1007. J A VAN : The Java idiom runs closely parallel with the
Malay. We find, here, the same absence of proper inflexioD, of
case, number, gender, and person ending, the same duplication
of words, the same abundant growth of inseparable prefixes and
suffixes, particles which have not yet gained an independent ex-
istence. The prefix si represents an undeveloped article. Not
only are many new terms formed by doubling, but the initials
are often doubled after the manner of the Greek reduplication.
Personal pronouns are not used for lifeless objects ; we find suf-
fix pronouns, as aku tuku omah'tnu — I buy house*your.

1008. One of the most common prefixes of the verb is met, so
often seen in Malay and Semitic. The prefix ha, seen often in
Malay, is used, among other purposes, as a sign of past participle,
like ge in Ger. ge^sehen^ ge'tnacht. Tenses are marked not by
developed endings, but, as in Malay, by proper adverbs or aux*
iliaries. New words are formed by compounding or uniting
different words, as well as by doubling or repeating the same
word.

There is so little in the grammar of the Java idiom that is not
Malay, that we need not dwell on it farther. The orthography
alone is somewhat different. The Java alphabet is peculiar,
while the Malay is written in Arabic.

1009. Macassar : One of the Malay class is the Macassar,
a leading language of the island of Celebes. We find the same
prefixes here in like abundance as in Malay, and very nearly
every feature found in Malay and Javan, is found here also, and
but little more. In this, as in all the related languages, there is
great want of individuality in the words ; they have all a strong
tendency to run together.

1010. In this language there are no relatives, and possessive
pronouns are suffix. Derived verbs are formed by doubling, and
by using the prefixes a, maj ni, ta, pi, ka, pa-ka, and si. We
find the ending ang very common ; it is the Malay an, our -ing,
4on, as in per-form-ing, per-form-ance. It is clear that all these
prefixes and endings have their representatives with us. ^

1011. Many verbs are made by compounding two different
words, as akanatodjeng = to true-word (make), i. e., to make an
oath, a being prefix, kana =word, todjeng = true. These com-
pounds are treated in all respects as simple verbs, and as such
they receive the ordinary fixes. The prefix ni, Malay di, else-
where ri, is use^, like ge in German, for pass. part. ; as, ni-^alle
e= (been) taken, alle, take ; ni^huno = killed ] ni^gau == become
blue, make blue; and ta, Malay ter, is used also as participle
prefix.

1012. We find here, as in Javan, (it is) true his*word, i. e.,

MALAY LANGUAGES. 349

his word is true; inakke asare — I giving, i. e., I give, gave,
have given, should give,, etc.; ikatte asare — we giving, etc.;
inakke ni-sare — I (am or Was) given ; also, hv^sare — I givq,
gave, etc.; ki^sare — we give; na^s'are — he give (pronoun
united with verb as prefix — a Semitic feature); asare^ya=^
give I, i. e., I give, gave (it also means give me); asar€-dj'a=^
give*ever-I, i, e., I ever give, am giving; osare-s-a = give-once-
I; asarc-A;an^-— give-we, i. c, we give (give-US') .

1013. These added or inserted adverbs, so called, are plainly
the result of a tendency to develop auxiliaries, precisely as L.
am^ah-am = loving-was-I, loving-did-I, I loved. As we might
expect, it tends to develop obj. and subj. pronouns, like Semitic,
at the end. Adverbs are, as in Malay, used to denote time as .
auxiliaries ; as, lebah^ past, done ; leba kursare — already-I-give,
t. 6», have given; or the personal, as with our auxiliary, unites
with the adverb, so called, as leba^ka a«are— already*! give,
have-I given, did-I give.

The alphabet is one of its own.

1 014. Kawi : The Kawi was once a language on the isle of
Java, and no doubt on some of the neighboring islands. Its
precise relation to Javan and Sanscrit is not yet determined.' It
has the grammar of the Javan, but many of the words are San-
scrit* It represents, no doubt, an ancient growth of the Malay
class, which has been long since dead. It evidently stood nearer
to Indian than the modern Malay idioms do.

1016. Its article is sang, Malay i/ang, who, and the si and se
of others ; ka, Ger. ge, is not only passive sigh, but it is often
used elsewhere ; sa =one, the, is a prefix denoting the singular;
ma-nama, by-name, named-— this is the common Semitic and
Malay prefix, used for adjectives as well as verbs.

1016. Here, as in all the class, it is a prominent feature to
find the verb a mere verbal noun, and the nominative pronoun
in the poss. or instrumental case ; as, my giving, or giving by
me, for I give ; my seeing (was) star = I saw star. As We might
expect, we do not find a real passive in these languages. All
the passive we find is made by the use of verbal nouns with he
omitted. A word without the least change may be used as verb,
noun, and adjective.

1017. Hawaii Language : Still more infantile in structure
than any we have so far noticed is thfe Hawaii, or the language
of the Sandwich Islanders. It is one of the members of the
Polynesian branch of the Malay languages, a branch which may
be said to represent Malay, and indeed language in general, in
itfi least advanced stage. The Polynesian idioms are those of a

850 PHBASIS.

savage people, with the usual features of savage idioms, but with
a greater tendency to develop itself, and far greater inherent
power for that development, than we find in the languages of
the wild Americans. The numerous members of this Polynesian
class are unmistakably connected with each other, and more
remotely with the Malay.

1018. In these languages, dififerentiation in classes of words
has gone but a little distance ; there is scarcely to be found either
clauses or accent ; even our individual words are hardly distin-
guishable in the molten mass This is the history of all wild or
uncultivated languages. It is worthy of remark, too, that there
is a great predominance of vowels over consonants. Vowels are
clearly earlier than consonants.

1019. In all savage idioms, speech has but few variations, few
notes ; there is much of singing about it, but it is mostly like the
singing of infants, merely an up and down, up and down.

1020. Inflexion we find, of course, at zero. We give the fol-
lowing illustrations : wahine maikai — wife good, wife (is)
good, or good wife; wahine kane-make — wife (of) man-dead,
i. e., a widow (we havej. here separated the words, but they are
found united together) ; haawiy to-give, haawi»ia^ be-given (ia is
pass, ending, it is the Malay iya). Duplicates are numerous ;
keik% child ; keikirkane^ male-child, i. e., son.

1021. There is, as in Malay, much of prefixes, and some, as
ke^ ka^ na, are called articles ; ke»kanaka — the-man ) ka-^mea
— the-thing ; kuu mea — my thing ; keia mau mea — • the some
thing, i. c, these things ; kahi, one, ke-kahi, the-one. The sin-
gular is often used for the plural ; o = the ; o na mea — the
these thing3, i. e., the things.

He is used for the article and for be ; he aina maikai o Fa^
rani — be (is) land good the France (good country France is);
he maka no ka maka — be eye for an eye ; o ka moha nui Nu
holani o na moku a-pau ma ka honua nei — the this island great
(one) New Holland (of) the those (no) island the-all (^a^pau)
in (ma^ the earth here (largest of all islands) ; ia (he) is used
for preposition.

1 kei la — on this day ; kana hana — his deed ; kana oleh —
his word; o-ke keiki hipa — the (p-ke) child (of the) sheep
(lamb) ) or, a-ka hipa — of-the-sheep; ko is article and preposition
also; ko Aigupita — to Egypt; na lima — the hand (hands);
(no = the and o/) ; no Fertisia — of Prussia; ma = in and
where, really a pronoun (it is in this language that we particu-
larly see prepositions and he identical witji pronouns).

lo makou nei — to us here; au and zoaw = I.(Mal. ahu) ;
oe and oukou = thou, you (Mai. kamou) ; ia and na = he (Mai.
i^a, nia) ; all these pronouns have prepositions corresponding

HAWAH LANGUAGE. 851

with them, and these again unite with these pronouns ; thus,
na-na = of him, his, o-na^to him ; ko wahine — thy wife; kela^
that ; wei, here and now ; lakou net — see here (look) ; ta kanaka
la — the man there, that man ; wai, who, which ; ka inoa wax la
— the name which there? (what name) ; %a-wai= whom ? o-wai
= whose? mc = with, as, and how; me ka lima — with the
hand; poepoe ka honua — round the earth (is).

1022. As we have seen in the languages before, verbs are not
properly varied with inflexions such as we have, but they develop
particles or auxiliaries like prefix prepositions. They are prop-
erly augments ; e, mat, o, tor the present and future, i for the
past, as s in Greek; ke is used like that — indeed, all these
augments are clear pronouns.

Ana, which we found in Malay equal to -ing, is here also ; ke
ola-^a, the living; a{=he, have, shall, and pass, sign — the ii/a
of Malay ; aloha, loves, aloha-ia, is-loved ; ike, see, know, ikeia,
seen, known; ho-tke, let-see (cans.); ike-ike and ho-tke-ike, see
ofteh ; e ^by, m^to; oia ka mea au e-haawi aku net ia-oe —
this the thing (is) (which) I (by-me) give thei'e now to-you (e
is present sign ; ia is dat. sign) (the thing which I give you).
Mark the abundance of adverbs.

Ka-u keia i-haawi aku ia-oe — I (by-me) this gave (giving,
with past mark i) there to-you ; e-haawi ana aku — giving there
him (e and ana are both present or continuing signs) ; ka mea
e-haawi-ana aku — the one giving there, i, e., the giver (mea =
thing, one) ; ka haavrirana — the giving; o oe no ke Akua nana
i'hana ka-lani — the thou art the God he (who, by whom) made
the-heaven (no = indeed, but it has the place of 6e) ; nxirna =
by-him (ka is article or ace. sign, i is past sign).

1023. The simplicity of this language is its difficulty for us.
There are many other points which it illustrates, and we regret
to be obliged, for want of room, to stop here. Its relation to
the Malay, through all its variations, is never lost ; very many
of the words are clearly Malay — and others can be discovered
with a little effort. Through the Malay we connect the Poly-
nesian with Sanscrit and European. Nothing could be more
interesting than to compare with European the forms of many
related elementary words in Malay and European, but there is
no space for it. • We should find many surprising identities.
Pronouns, numerals, and all particles, are easily traced back to
those with which we are familiar.

1024. All the Polynesian languages, particularly the Eastern,
as the New Zealand, Fejee, Tonga, Tahitian, and Marquesian,
have the general characteristics of the Hawaii. We find aug-
ments to denote tenses, particles or prepositions as signs of cases,
the same abundance of adverbs, and the use of one and the same

352 PHRASIS*

word for present, adverb, pronoun, auxiliary, and augment or
prefix (proving the oommon origin of these parts of speech and
elements, here at least). As in all the Malay, except Tagale, the
adjective follows. Here we may give some of the forms of the
pronouns as we find them in Malay, Jav., Bugis, Mad., and Tag.,
in order : I, aku and ku^ haku, iyak and idik^ zao and ahou, aco
and co; thou, angkau and kau, kowe and ko and ?A;o, ano and no^
tea and lyo and tayo ; he and the, ii/a and i/ang, hiya, yatu^ izan,
siya and niya,

1026. Madagascar : An interesting language of the class,
and possessing the usual characteristics of the Malay proper, and
Javan, is the Madagascar. Here, all verbal prefixes begin with
m : soulon, a change, ma-noulon (h for «), to change ; /outsi,
white, ma-Tnoutsi, to whiten. The prefix c?c, the di of Malay, is
very common here, and, though an augment, it has the real
value of be, is. The passive (or intransitive) is used in prefer-
ence to the active ; so, rehe/a hitcf.'ny ny Petera izany — ad see-
he (his) by Peter this, i. e., Peter he-saw this (-wy = his) ; mi-
tady, he seeks ; nitady, has sought ; hitady, will seek ; tenses
are formed by a change of • initials, as well as by augments or
adverbs.

Izany no sorata-ny — this is write-his (he), he write this, is
his written ; ary no ny efa nilaoza-ny ny Devoli izy — and was
the been (efa, past sign) leaving-he (by-him, his) by (by-the)
devil he, i. c, he was left by him the devil, the devil left him
(jty = his, the, by, and by-the).

1026. Tagale : Another important Malay language, of the
Phillippine class, is the Tagale. The words do not vary by in-
flexion, but, as in others, they use particles separate and fixed,
fts verb is perhaps the most complete of the Malay class. It
has, like others, a fondness for passive in place of active. A
peculiarity, which we find, too, in Malay, is the insertion, so
called, of 171 and un after the initial consonant. "We find some-
thing like it in Semitic ; but we regard it rather as a new form
of the initial than the insertion of a new element ; so, from hating,
cut, cutting, we get h-in-atlng-an, cut-been, been-cut (in being
inserted, and an the passive end.) ; can-in mo ito — eaten-been
by-you (mo) this, i, e., eaten or eating by you, or you eat, will
eat, this; i-higai mo — given by-you, you give (there are three
styles of passive -—t as prefix, an as suffix, and m) ; in is future
and impera. sign ; from sulat, writing, s-um-ulat, to write. Pre-
fixes ma, mag, and man, are very common ; ma is intrans. and
passive sign. Reduplication of initial syllable, as in Greek,
prevails here ; it is used in the present.

THIBETAN LANaUAGE. 853

CHAPTER XIV.

THIBETAN LANGUAGE.

1027. The transition from the Indian languages and the
Malay, to the Thibetan, is both easy and natural; Thibet lies
to the north of India, and the idiom has evidently much of its
history in common with the Sanscrit and its related tongues. It
is already conceded that there are many points of resemblance,
and it is certain that as we become more acquainted with it, we
shall find it built on the same foundation as the Indian lan-
guages — and hence, too, the same as the European. It is,
indeed, a very different growth from any European or Indian
language } but the elements, the base-forms, are the same as in
them.

1028. There are the pronouns, the reliable index in all cases,
nga, I, L. ego ; kht^od, thou, you (Hy = (y = y in ye — r- pr trans- '
pose JlJid to dkh, Ger. dich) ; kho, he, who ; Tide, this, the, there,
h being prefix; sou, who — ♦also cAi, Ital. che, our that

A little examination renders the numerals familiar ; there is
dfug, six = sigs; dun, seven — other forms, chet and sat/t; gad^
eight— other forms, jpay< andpe^; gu, nine, g = n', dju, ten, «
two; la, five — other forms, w^a and nam; fschi, four — also
pou; smm, three — also sam and thum; nntss, two — also «o,
hait; djig, one, a, an — also nin, noo. These are easily com-
pared with European and allied forms.

1029. Then take, besides, such leading words as dje, tongue;
8SO and /an, tooth (fang); lag, hand, also me, ma, Fr. main]
nawa, nose; hu, go ;hou, head; ma, mother; pa, father; ««a,
earth, L. terra, &k ge; la, moon, L. liina; me^ fire; — then
the verb and the verbal endings, which we notice elsewhere ;
also the particles.

1030. As we have found in so many other languages, we find
liere also a great abundance of prefixes ; but they are yet so
feeble, in most instances, that though they e?:ist in writing,
they are mute in pronunciation, exactly as our p in psalm, or h
in hour. It is clear that these are as much prefixes as those in
the Thibetan— and so in all other cases where words begin
with a consonant. There are endings like those of Latin ; they,

.too, are not of strong growth ; they are often silent or but feebly
expressed. This language presents the Chinese feature of small
^ords — generally mere monosyllables reduced to the smallest
possible ; as, va, fox, na, malady, kka, snow, na, fish, m, earth,
djo, master.

45

354 P^RA8IS.

1031. In inflexion, it has mucli of the Malay character —
everything is expressed by particles, so called ; they represent
inflexion in its earlier stages. There are endings following nouns
and adjectives, corresponding to suffixed articles, and grown into
gender endings, like the -w«, -a, -wm, of Latin. So we find mi-
vo, the-man (yo = the) ; mi-mo, the>man (fern.) ; lag-pa, tie-
hand (jpa =the). Sometimes we find double endings; as, hyed-
pa-po — the-doer, i, e., do-er-the (j?a = -er). Cases are ex-
pressed by preposition endings, sucn as hi and gi for gen., la for
dat. We look upon these endings, as with those of Latin, bs
the development simply of the suffix articles just noticed.

1032. In regard to the adjective, we notice that when it is
placed before the noun, it takes no case particles, or it assumes
the genitive form, just as in Latin we use the same unvarying
form ejus, of-him, his, for the full number of cases of its noun;
as, by his (ejus) act, his (c/ws) act, his (efus) acts. But when
the adjective follows, it, and not the noun, takes the case end-
ings, just as we place the preposition before the adjective alone,
as /or all times — and for like reasons in both ca^9, that the
whole unites as one unit.

1033. The verb is pretty well developed for an Asiatic lan-
guage. The present participle ending is pa, corresponding to
our -ingy a variation of this, par, is the infinitive ending. Aux-
iliary verbs are used in the formation of tenses. The past part.
has* the same ending, pa, as the present, but on a new base,
apparently just as we find in Latin two infinitives, esse sudfutsse.
Such aux's as do and make are often used ; as, do go forgo. The
perfect is only a past part, used as a tense ; we find augments
also. The future is formed as in German, he go, or become go^
for win go. The imperative takes sometimes the dative form,
as our infinitive to go ; we find this so in several (rther languages.
Bronouns are used before verbs just as we use them; taking one
form of the verb for all pronouns, there being no variation for
nvmber and person.

1034. The arrangement of the words is somewhat peculiar.
The verb is placed at the end of the sentence. The use of the
instrumental, or ablative, for nominative, is favored ; we find it
before transitives and passives, and the nominative before in-
transitives.

1035. The passive is a mere verbal noun, and so is not dis-
tinguished from the active, except in the use of the instrumental
pronoun ; thus, ngas khyod rdourtg-har hyed-do — by-me thou
striking (inf.) make (hyed'do, make-do, do-make), i. e., I strike
thee, or thou art struck by me. Another important point is the
making a participle by adding the particle jing to the verb ; as,
smrorjing, bay-ing.

JAPANESE LANaUAGE. 355

1036. There are many points of interest in the language, but
none of importance that have not been illustrated under other
heads. The alphabet is peculiar to it, and is after the Sanscrit
style ; we also find letters connnected together and placed one
above the other.

CHAPTER XV.

JAPANESE LANaUAaB.
•

1037. The Japanese has many of the characteristics of the
Thibetan, but it is perhaps nearer related to some forms of the
Chinese than to any other. Here, as in other Asiatic idioms,
we find but three parts of speech are recognized by the Japanese
themselves ; they are noun, verb, and particles. They seem to
be conscious of no other classes, and indeed they are all that
can be said' to properly existun .these idioms.

1038. There are suj£z gender signs, and, as in Thibetan,
suffix articles and case signs; as, fito-va^ man-the, or a man;
JUo-no^ of-man ; fito-'wo^ man (ace.) ; fito-ni^ to-man ; Jlto-bito,
men. The genitive, like the adjective, precedes. As in all
Asiatic' tongues, we find much of the so-called determinatives,
base-words of a compound ; as, Egypt-land, for Egypt, Paris-
city, for Paris. We may notice the pronouns ware and waga, I ;
nandzi, thou ; ano-Jlto, this-man, he ; ko-r^j ko-no^ this ; so-re^
so-no, that ; to-re, to-no, who, which ; a-re, a-nOy he, this. In
the verbs, there are no person endings, and the tenses are based
on the participle, and compounded after the usual manner with
be ; thus, ware aro, I am ; are aro, he is ; ware atta, I was (has).
The subj. ends in ha, as ware areba, that I be. We^nd verbals
with A»to= thing as ending; aro, to be, aro-koto, be-thing, being;
atta-koto, been-thing, been-being, or being-been.

1039. The past tense is a participle. The passive ending is
rare, as act. age, pass, age-rare. Doubling is very prevalent.
Prepositions follow. The progress of inflexion here is indicated
by the following : koro, (Fr.) le noir ; korosa, noir-ceur ; horoki^
noir, noire (black); AioroAo, black-like; korosi, ifr-black; koro-
moro, noircir ; koromo, se noircir (blacken). The use of pro-
nouns is rare.

1040. The Japanese writing is much simpler than the Chinese,
but is evidently connected With it. They write down in per-
pendicular lines. The language exists in several different forms
or dialects^

856 PHRASIS4

CHAPTER XVI*

AFRICAN LANGUAGES.

1041. If we except the country north of the Great Deserty
where we find Arabic in some of its forms, and also Egypt and
the country of the Ethiopians, where we find other idioms of the
Semitic family, we may say that Africa presents us with a wholly
new and peculiar class of languages. They are the tongues of
people wild and little known to us, and we find the language
untamed and uncultivated. Our progress towards an acquaint-
ance with theln is very slow. However, one by one, at intervals
more or less long, a grammar of the idiom of some new tribe or
nation appears, and we are gratified with the consciousness that
Our sphere of vision is becoming more and more enlarged, and
that the data on which we are to found our conclusions, are be-
coming daily more and more extensive.

1042. Yet we must not suppose that these wild tongues, how-
ever peculiar they may seem, are without their relatives, in Asia
at least. The idioms of Eastern Africa are neighbors to the
Malay class, exhibiting strongly its leading features ; while the
idioms of Southern Africa are evidently also connected with
Malay or Semitic. Through these southern idioms we may
connect those on the western coast with the languages of South-
ern Asia.

1043. As a people, all the tribes of Africa are too insignificant,
too ill-defined, and too little known, to admit of. any labored
account of their idioms. Speaking generally, we may say that
most of the chief characteristics of the great Malay class also
prevail here in the African languages.

1044. The first thing that impresses itself upon us, more in
some than in others, but strong in all, is the prefixes or augments.
Many of them are used to perform the usual office of prefixes in
other languages — but very many more have not developed them-
selves into any individual significance. We see these prefixes
in great abundance in the Herero, a language of the western
part of Southern Africa. We find here such prefixes as omtt, e,
oka ; as, omu-ndv.^ man ; omu-ko^ region ; oha;^ which is reaJly
an infinitive prefix, like our to, is used also as an ordinary noun
prefix ; oha-oko, arm ; oku-ripamrhu^ pride.

1045. Many of these prefixes clearly identify themselves, in
use, with the Malay articles. Many of them are doubled, or
receive a new pronominal element with them; such are the
double prefixes Wrdi^ im-hay inrga. We find others thus^ amvr-

AFRICAN LANaUAaES. 357

na-t^ti^a=^ the- with -hating, i. c, the hating one, the enemy (an
= with).

1046. The common origin of these prefixes with demonstra-
tives, or pronounSj in the first place, and with prepositions next,
is proved over and over again in these tongues. We notice in
all these languages an entire absence of all that labored system
of case, gender, and person ending, which characterizes the
Greek and Latin and others of their class. And yet we find in
all these languages, in some more than in others, an evident
tendency to develop this very system of inflexion. Hence, we
find a general absence of those marks which with us, and others,
distinguish the noun, adjective, and verb from each other, and
the same form unchanged may be used to perform the office of
any one of them.

1047. In the Namaqua or Hottentot, in South Africa, we find
the pronouns take the place of a suffix article and case ending ;
as, koicy the man ; koi^a, the men ; kots, thou man ; koi-da, we
men — proving the identity of pronouns, case-endings j and arti-
cles. So we find ba here as a dative ending ; thus, kov-ha^ to
man — this ba is a clear demonstrative, and we shall find it also
with the verb ; di is in like manner used as a genitive sign. In
Akra, or Ga, we find tse, among others, as a sort of determinative^
or ending ; thus, man-tsey sien-tse, friend ; dien-tse, self.

1048. In all these languages, we find diminutives more or less
developed ; as, in Zulu, a form of Caffer, in South Africa, wi/a=
dog, m/ana == little dog; tw?«* = house, inlwana^ little house..
In this tongue, we find nouns derived from verbs, distinguished
by a certain prefix, as im in im-hazo = an ox (from baza). So,
in Suaheli, from soma=^U> read, we have w-«cwm»= reader (show-
ing that this im, m, is the Semitic prefix m of verbals). Infin-
itives are used as nouns, retaining their prefix uku; as, uku^
hamba, going.

1049. The plural is not generally well distinguished, but in
Zulu, as in others, we find it varying .thus from the singular :
umuntu == man, abantu = men ; irdu = house^ izinlu = houses
— ^being a change in prefix.

1060. The adjective generally, in the African languages, fol-
lows the noun, showing its participial or verbal character. Com-
parisons are expressed by dififerent contrivances ; as, in Herero,
mountain this goes above that, i, e., is higher than that ; honey
this very fine by thaty i, e., is finer than that. In the Ewe lan-
guage, of West Africa, adjectives formed by reduplication are
very common ; as, dso-dsoe == right, ko-ko, holy. In short, redu-
plication appears evefywhere in the African languages. In them,
too, we find the adjective used aa verb, just as if we should use
wise for is^iscj was-wise.

358 PHBASIS.

1051. In Zulu, we find adjectiyes of elements like this, the-
withstrengthj for strong; as, umuntu u na-manla — man the
with-strength (na = with); umuntu o na-manla — man who (is)
with-strength, i. e., who is strong. The absence of is in African
tongues is general. Verbs as well as nonns can be used as
adjectiyes, with the affix ^o, and that, too, not only in the present
but the past ; as, inkosi e lungUe-jo — king the good-being, i. 6.,
being good, the good king ; umuntu o hama^jo — (the) man the
wandering, t. e., who winders; izinto e ngi zenzile-Jo — (the)
thing the I heard, i. e., which I heard. In all these cases, the
yerb is turned into a true participle, and e and o are used as
augments = the, who.

1052. We notice particularly of the Zulu adjectiye, that it is
preceded by prefixes which yary according to the initial of the
noun preceding it ; as, umuntu om-kulu — man great, i. e^y great
man (kvlw^ great); into en-hvlu — thing great; isika esi-kvk
— - tub great. Properly speaking, the real adjectiye hardly exists
in African, and it is rarely used. In some of the tongues at
least, the attributiye adjectiye yaries in form from the predica-
tiye, as de and cfeto, den and denen. In some cases, the single
adjectiye is used in one application and the duplicate, or double,
in the other.

1058. In the African class generally, the pronounis thou and
/ exist independent, but the demonstratiyes, and hence the per-
sonals he^ it, and she, tend to identify themselyes with prefixes
and suffixes of nouns and yerbs, and tney are generally foiind as
such. In Zulu, this is particularly eyident ; there^ as in Herero,
the personals of. the 3d person and demonstratiyes seem to haye
a yery close connection with the noun ; they are mere forms of
the noun prefix, and yary according to the prefixes of the noun
they are associated with ; 2iS,jena for he, when the noun prefix is
um or u, and sona when it is isi-^— also kona when it is uku. So
We find le in-doda — the husband (U with prefix im). All this
shows that the personal.and demonstratiye are mere duplicates
of the noun and yerb augments.

1054. Here, too, the interrogatiye is to be referred back to
the demonstratiye, and questions are made thus : ini loku na —
what this here ? ini na are used together equal to what, but both
are demonstratiyes ; so, again ) into ini loku na — thing what this
here ? i. e., what thing is this ? leli Hike lijini — that (the) stone
it what (Jini, what that), i. e., what stone is that? h umuntu u
jini — that man he what, t. e., who is that man?

1055. Relatiyes here are only demonstratiyes of a certain kind,
yarying according to the noun they are found with ; for example,
Uizwe elirmkaulo u kude — (the) land which-limits (whose-lim-
its) it far (are far) (di is noun prefix, eli is relatiye prefix, really

AFRICAN LAKaUAGES. 859

.= a, the that, but here which, whose) ; umuniu tU-zwe lake li nar-
mania — (the) man the-word his it mighty, i, e., a man whose
word is mighty ; ikald u li tandajo — (the) horse thou it hold,
horse thou hold which, i. e., which you hold ; amadoda e f^gi
honile wona — (the) men which (e) I seen them, or which I have
seen ; o ngi huluma huje — whom (o) I speak to him (Je), i. 6.,
whom I speak to.

1056. The use of pronoun for verb he is also common ; thus,
in Herero, oami Jehova — I (am) Jehovah; oete imh-a — we
(are) this. Here, toe, the separate personals used as object
are before the verb ; as, ami me hii tono — I, I thee strike, or
I will strike thee. The superfluous pronoun is very common ;
as, the m>an he speaks, for the man ^eaks; a/mi a/mi ani — I, I
who, I who am I.

1057. In Namaqua, the personals are all demonstratives; so
is the interrogative. The pronouns of this and other African
languages, are easily referable to those of Semitic and South
Asiatic ; for instance, in Akr% ene and no, the, this ; le, the ; ni,
who. . Here, too, all the augments, prefixes, and auxiliaries, are
seen to be pronouns, or it is seen that pronouns are not different
from these augments. The same thing is seen very clearly also
in the Oji. In the African languages generally, we may say thj^t
pronouns, in all their kinds, are found both separate and as fixes ;
the relative, like conjunctions, being usually absent or repre-
sented by demonstratives.

1058. With, regard to the verb of African tongues, we notice,
nerally, that regular forms for tense and mood are not found,

ut that they are indicated by augments and auxiliaries. So, in
Namaqua, koiba ma, man gives ; koiba go ma, man has give
(ao perf. sign). We find, here, tita ma — I give, or ma-ta, give-
i; ^0,. ma-ta go, give-I have, have given. The imperative and
infinitive here are the root ; there is a participle ending la, as
moria, giv-ing ; ge and a represent the verbs he and have (really
they are pronouns) ; tita ge koita, I be man ; koih ge ma, man
be give, does give, gives.

1059. As an instance of that repetition, that superfluity, so
often found in uncultivated languages, we instance this in Na-
maqua : tita ge ra ma — I be do give, i, c.j I give. The passive
in this language is a form of the active ; as, tita ma-he — I am-
given (he being passive sign). In Zulu, the passiye differs from
the active, thus, loha (active), lokwa (passive); tanda, love,
tandwa, be loved ; hvhisa and hujiswa ; to form causatives, they
use is or isa) as, hamh-isa, from hamha, to go ; gi hamha, 1 go ;
ga hamha, I went (change in gi, the pronoun); go hamha, I
shall go (pronoun changed) ; gi hamhMe, I have-gone (ending
tZs).

860 PHRASIS.

1060. The help-verbs are ha (be), ja (go), and za (come);
gi nga hamha — I can go. In Akra, e is the augment of the
perfect, as in Greek; as, /o=to do evil, c/b=has done evil.
We find here a great many compounds of two verbs, one of
which grows into a simple auxiliary ; as, go-Bee (go and see), for
see; take-show (take and show), for show;-Ae walks and goes
Ga, L e., he goes to Ga; read this story show me, i, c, read to
me this story.

1061. In Herero, as in Gaffer, there are many derivative forms
of verbs ; as, suta, sutisa, sutika, sutira, having causative, reflex-
ive, and other meanings. Here, as in Zulu, tenses and moods
are indicated by augments and auxiliaries. In Herero, ri^ be,
r{ra= become. In Oji, mi-kOj I go; wo-ko, thou go; o-ko, he
goes ; ma-ko, 1 (have) gone ; wa-ko, thou (hast) gone (change
of pronoun, as in Zulu); mi-be-ko, I will go; wo-be-ko, thou
wilt go. It is hardly necessary to remark that in all these lan-
guages, the participle and its class are scarcely developed.

1062. In Ewe, as in all West Africa, there is a great heaping
of verbs to express a single idea — all but one being a pure aux-
iliary; thus, he brought (a) sheep come give me, i. e., brought a
sheep to me ;. A€ took his boy (to) go (to) stand up, i, e., stood
him up. Many of these form-, or help-verbs grow, in some
languages, to be conjunctions and prepositions, and their origin
is thus shown.

1063. We find in all the known languages of Africa, conjunc-
tions, prepositions, and adverbs. The last are more numerous,
being mostly pronouns, nouns, adjectives, and verbs, used ad-
verbially, just as we find in other languages. Gonj unctions
especially are rare, and so are prepositions. Sentences and clauses
are detached, or they are connected as the elements of our com-
pounds without a conjunction. In Herero, it is said, there are
only four real prepositions, mu = in, pw = by, ku = np and on,
n>a = with ; all of which are pronominal in their character.
Many others are compounded from these, taken with some
noun or pronoun, like our in-stead, inr/ront =hef ore,

1064. But m many instances where we use prepositions, they
express the relation by the verb alone. The conjunctions in
Herero are almost identical with those four prepositions already
named. We find here, as in all languages, but particularly in
Semitic, nouns used as prepositions; as, in Ewe, ta, head, dsi,
cover, gbo, side. In Namaqua, the prepositions are principally
to be referred back to a verbal origin, and stand regularly after
the noun.

1066. We notice particularly in these lan^ages, a scarcity of
abstract terms, and a multiplication of words by reduplication.
We find mai^y points of resemblance in orthography, not only

AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 861

between the languages themselves, but between them and the
languages of Europe and Asia. We find reduplication, or repe-
tition, to express frequency of action, plurality, etc. ; but we
notice often a slight variation in one of the duplicates, juat as
we find with us. We might remark that all our cases of verb
with kindred objects (or any other) are also duplicates ; as, dream
a dream, ask a question, talk a talk, see a sight; also, one-hy-one,
here-and'ihere. *

1066. A very noticeable peculiarity of the South African, is
the clacking, geese-like sound of their talk ; in short, it may be
remarked that in all the rudest languages the talk partakes more
and more of the character of the clacking, chirping, or even the
singing of birds.

CHAPTER XVII.

AMERICAN LANGUAGES.

1067. The aborigines of the New World, the Indians, present
lis with a class of uncultivated languages, difiering considerably
from those we have already noticed ; yet the more light we get
on them, the more do we perceive that they are built on a basis •
precisely similar to those of the Old World. As they have no
literature of their own, that is, as their language is not tangible
and we are left to the uncertainties of oral discourse, we can make
but a slow and unsteady progress towards an acquaintance with
these American idioms. Using such information as we now have
upon the subject, we will notice a few of the features of some of
the languages coming under this head. The Greenland tongue
we will notice first.

1068. It possesses that leading character which marks the Amer-
ican languages generally, namely, long words and few of them ;
every word is here properly a whole or condensed sentence.
The pronouns are developments not yet detached from the noun
or verb; thus, igdhm^^hi^ house, igdlut=ihj house; takuva,
he sees it ; takusava, he will see him ; takuvat, thou see it ;
terianiak takuva — (the) fox he-saw-him (he saw the fox).

1069. In the noun we find developed endings like the Latin
case endings, and equal to them ynunane, on land ; nunamit, from
land ; nunakut, overland. Interrogative form of verb, takuvauk,
saw he him ? takulerpa, begin to see him (a variation of takuva).
In fact, we find generally in^hese idioms much that partakes of

46

862 PHBASI8.

the nature of inflected forms — especially a great variety of forms
of verb like the Semitic.

1070. The demonstratives are familiar to us ; ma, here, tcus,
there, uv, here ;. manga^ from here, mana, this, na that and what;
kina, who, mk^ what, kikat, which ; nuna-ga, my land, nun-ei,
thy land, nuna-mit, of land, nunaunit^ of my land.

1071. Nominative and objective forms exist; as, nuna, land
(obj.), nunap (nom.); so, tasek (ohj. \'tatsip (nom.). Even the
particles are developed at the end like the Latin -qv>e, -vcy -ne ;
pitmtj the poor, pitsutdlcy but the poor ; kavane, in South, kavanv'
lunit, or in South. Some particles are separate ; tokuvok angur
nito — he-is-dead his-father-also, i, 6., he and his father are* dead ;
angune tokungmat, uterpok — his-father-when he-was-dead, he-
came-back (when his father died); kitomanut tumupa — to-his-
child he-gave-it; kajak issiyara omikatit — (a) kajak I-saw-
him he-comes-to-you, i. e., I saw a kajak who came to you.

1072. Many of these particles which we use, are not expressed,
or they lie latent in the verb, showing, as we understand it, that
every sentence, with its pronouns and particles, is a pure growth
of the verb of that sentence; so, in naparssimassup misigilerpok
— he-began-to-mark that-he-is-sick — the first being a growth
of the verb mark, and the litter, of the verb-adjective sick (a fine
illustration of the growth of the parts of a sentence in all languages.

Nuna-vtinit kanipok — by-our- lands he-is-near (he*near). All
adjectives in this and other American idioms, are real verbs or
participles ; as, nuna panertok — land the-dry, being dry, which
is dry ; they develop endings, as I-great = am great, Tie-great
= is-great; igpagssak kikia'lia^ra — yesterday my-made-nail
(Jdkiak is naU, liak=lia has the force of made, ra= my).

1073. Participles, infinitives, and moods, have their own end-
ings ; tenses are not much distinguished. Prepositions follow
the noun. We notice here and throughout the class, that a dif-
ferent object makes a difierent verb ; so, they might have the
word wash in was'h'hands,2indL another verb to express washrface,
t. e., they do not always generalize as we do. What we consider
as the same kind of action, known by one common name, they
mfigr look upon as quite different, and on the other hand, for very
different things, they have names which can hardly l)e distin-
guished, that is, they generalize often where we particularize or
separate.

1074. The absence of abstract,, insensible, ideas exists every-
where in the American class of languages ; they can think of
this tree and that tree, my tree or his tree, beech tree or pine tree,
but not of a tree in general, i, e., of no particular tree at all. We
notice in all these Indian tonguej, that they do not see things

AMERICAN LANGUAGES. ^

as indiyidualsy but always as being somewhere and belonging
with something. Their sentences are not made up of words, but
they seem to be struggling to grow words out of sentences.

1075. In Dakotah (Sioux), we find a suffixed article, hm.;
toicaxta-kin — the man. The adjective follows the noun ; as,
maha waxta — land good; from which we judge that the adjec-
tive is a true verb or participle. .Poss. pronouns are prefixed ; as,
ta-wa =his God ; ^a-t(7aZa=his ship. So the persons are known
through prefixes ; as, wakaga=:l make, ya-A;a^ai= thou makest,
kaga =he makes ; wa-ni, I will, yorni, thou will, ni, he will ; ni
lUa= he make will, will make ; toai/a = I am ; yaya = thou
art ; ya = he is. Prefixes are prominent in this language ; as,
na^on;= hear, na^a=»flee, 90-^171=3 stand; in like manner the
prefixes ana^ ko, o, etc. There are many verbs with ending ya,
the verb be ; cawte-ya = love ; iye-ya = make. The passive,
infinitive, moods, tenses, and participles are hardly differentiated
here ; they are either indicated by particles, or known by con-
nection.

'1076. There is a general tendency in all these languages, as
well as elsewhere, to conjugate all parts of speech, that is, to
treat them as verbs. It should be borne in mind, by the way,
that when we put a noun, adjective, adverb, etc., after &e, we
treat it as participle, i, e., as a verb ; thus, is here, is on, is a man,
is good. So they also take the word man in the sense of being
a man, and from or on this develop the pronouns ; as, he-man
=he-being-a-man, or he is a man, all a development of man.
This is not strange, when we bear in mind that with us gO'er=s
one-who-goes, and this latter expression contains no more than
goer-one, the who being represented by the development er.

1077. In the Lenapi (Delaware) language, we find the adjec-
tive and noun united; as, chingo^teney = greai village (chingae
= great, and ofewey= village. Indeed, in all the wild tongues,
we can say that the parts of the sentence, short and frequent
as sentences are, constitute one undistinguishable mass.

1078. Ki'soghen-injenin «=«I take you by the hand (one word,
or the growth of one) (of this, the part 8ogenaut=^ take, grasp,
onir^ima s? hand, ki= thee) ; soginikenin = take-by-the-hand-
him (nininj=mj hand, kining^ thy hand). In these conglom-
erations of words, we do not find the fiiU form of the separate
elements, but only a part of them, indicating that those parts are
not full grown. We find this mutilation of elements in the com-
pounds of other languages not American. In the first example
take-hy^hand is plainly a growth on hand as a basis — and we
may call to mind our own handle, from hand, which may be
used for take-by-the-hand. And the moment it gets to be a

864 PHBASIS.

verb, it may of course also develop nom. and obj. pronouns, like
any verb.

1079. Let us take one term more : qmta'gischg'ook = serpent
which fears the day (and lives in the earth) ; the first part indi-
cates quitameu = to fear; (7iscA^w = light, day; acJigood= ser-
pent (a fear-light serpent). We find in this language, as in
others, many prefixes. Here, as elsewhere, the person sighs of
verbs are prefixes to them ; as, n^pendame ■» I understand, n-pen-
dax{= I am understood.

1080. We will dwell a moment on the Huron, one of the mosfc
instructive of these wild idioms. They have neither derivative
nor compound forms as we 'have. No noun is found without its
pronoun — not /afAer alone, but his- father, my-father, etc. Thej
are without the use of pure abstract terms. Their adjectives are
pure verbs. They do not speak of good and bad alone, but tbej
always use those words as a verb } thus, he is good, you are bad.
And'if they do not have separate adjectives, they neither have
separate verbs, as walk, go, cut. Active verbs are fouDd only
with their objects ; as, .cut-wood, cut-head-off. The same is true
of the Mexican verb. To take the verb away from its object or
subject, is an abstraction unknown to them. They have no pre-
positions or conjunctions. They do not have distinct forms to
denote act, actor, acting. Tenses hardly exist. Such are some
of the points in the account given of the Huron. It accords
with our notion of what a language most infantile would be in
these respects.

1081. There are many points ,of identity which we. find be«
tween the different and even remote American idioms, especially
the prevailing n for I, k for thou (as in Semitic). In the Peru
tongue, carni=l am, co-ng^wi = thou art, can.«=he is, or they
are; mamai/=mj mother, maman= his mother. In Mexican,
nuauh =1 go, ti'auh,j-auh = he go ; 7no-ma=thy hand, mo-ca
== you with, no-ca = me with ; ni<,a = I am, ti-ca = thou art,.
ca = he is. This language and that of Peru seem more elevated
than the other Indian idioms.

1082. The importance of any of the American tribes as ^
people is not sufficient to justify here any extended review o^
these idioms. We have given only briefly a few points in whic?^^
they particularly instruct us. They are languages embryoni-^
and more or less chaotic. They give us positive proof of wh^^
embryonic language is. In so far, and only so far, are the^^
Valuable at present.

ABSTRACT PHILOLOGY- 866

CHAPTER XVIII.

ABSTRACT PHILOLOGY*

Reduplication, >

1083. No feature is found more universally in language thati
reduplication. It is found in all idioms, but it is most promi-
nent in the wildest and rudest tongues. It is in these languages
that we see most clearly that doubling is the leading and origi-
nal source from which new terms are got — doubling not only of
syllables but of words. This phenomenon continually impresses
itself upon us, meeting us everywhere, at every step and at every
turn, forces us to conclude that language in its whole growth
and in the growth too of its parts, is a mere result of the working
of the principle of repetition. That language is in the likeness
of a living organism, following the laws of a living organism, is
a fact admitted by all intelligent philologists of the present day.
The proposition itself is not denied, but the notion of it is crude
and imperfect; it needs time and thought to enable us to feel

• and see that language does live and grow.

1084. But if language does live and grow, it must live and
grow as the animal, the plant, and the crystal, for all things
grow alike. And what is the fundamental law of their growth ?
It is development by repetition; this is plainest in the lowest
orders of creation, and it grows dark as we reach the organism
which is more perfect, more intricate. In the plant we see the
leaf, even the twig, the branch, repeated hundreds of times. In
the lowest animals, which are still far above plants, we see the
same arm, the same foot, the same segment, repeated, with
scarcely any perceptible difference, over and over again. As we
rise higher in the scale of being this likeness of parts, this dou-
bling, becomes obscured. The highest animal has just as many
parts or organs as the lowest, but they have become differentiated,
so that in quadrupeds, for example, what things we find so much
alike as to be called by one name, we find again in man so much
unlike that we call one set arms and hands, and the other set
legs and feet.

1085. But even in the highest organism, as man, there are
certain parts of the structure that evidence this duplication prin-
ciple most clearly; there are the two ears, two eyes, two feet,
the fingers, the hairs of the head, the te^th, and the like. Go
^here you will in the living creation, you will find all increase to
"be a continuous repetition of one model, as one cell followed by a
like cell, one bud followed by another bud, one segment by a

866 PHEASIS.

like segment, one arm by another arm. And if when the being
is arrived at maturity, we find the highest parts differing from
the lowest in character, the skillful naturalist can show you
where this difference is apparent and not real, and that the two
most remote parts of the body are yet repetitions of one type.
No new part is ever created ; one structure has as many and the
same parts as every other structure. To repeat illustrations
given elsewhere, the elephant has a trunk and tusks, but they
are only a developed nose and teeth; the wings of the bird and
bat, the fins of fish and the claws of the crab, arc only develop-
ed arms and feet; the shell of the tortoise is but the internal
framework of bones of other animals, here gtown upon the out-
side. In chemistry we find the same evidence ; a few simple
elements lie at the base of all things, that is, all things are made
of the same ingredients repeated over and over again. (Even
the number of these few elements is becoming less and less, as
we become acquainted with their character).

1086. The picture we have given of the living creation is the
picture as well of language and its parts. We need only take a
comprehensive view to perceive this truth ; in fact, we may use lan-
guage to illustrate growth in nature generally. The Eight or
Ten parts of speech are the development of one type, and we can
easily trace them all back to that common ancestry. The dif-
ferent letters which we find in the alphabet are the growth of
one single letter, or at least of a very few; and it is the repetition
of this one, or these few, which constitutes the framework of so
many thousand words. Words repeated or words growing upon
words make new terms; these new terms by doubling again pro-
duce new terms of a higher scale, as leaf follows leaf and twig
follows twig. Terms make phrases, phrases make sentences, and
these again make composition, and all by growth, all by the re-
petition of like elements. There is no true compounding, no
putting together of old parts ; all being one from the other or on
the other, as we find budding in plants and the lower animals.

1087. We have seen elsewhere that the letters of the word
are duplicates, as the hairs of the head are duplicates; the words
of every term, as that from adjective and noun, of every phrase
or sentence, are repetitions of words having meanings in fact
alike, without which likeness they would not grow together.
The cause gives character to the effect, the parent cannot beget
that which is not in harmony with its nature. When we say the
fisher fishes fish with afishline (fisher), every one sees the repeat-
ed words, and yet the same kind of repetition exists in every
sentence. When we say the man catches fi^h with a hook^ we
use man = fisher, ca^cAe5= fishes (a particular kind of fishing),
Aoo&= fisher, fishing-thing (sometimes used in fishing).

ABSTRACT PHILOLOGY. 867.

1088. Bnt then there is about this tenn and idea of repe-
tition, something to be borne in mind, in natural history as
well as in philology. Nothing is properly repeated; it is only
that imaginary thing, the form, that is thns repeated. The
b of book is as different from the b of boy as o and y, or o
and k. However mnch alike any two doubled words or doubled
letters may be, they are yet besides as unlike, as distinctly in-
dividual, as any two other words or letters. So, again, in living
beings, similar as may be our two eyes, two ears, two hands, they
are nevertheless, too, very distinct, very different, things; one
never does and never can take the place of the other.

Interrogative Expressions.

1089. The difference between interrogative and affirmative
amounts, when carefully sifted, to nothing. We know indeed
that we use i^e relatives who, whichy and whatj as interrogative
without any change of form and meaning; we know, also, that
we can take an affirmative expression, as i/ou spoke, and make a
question of it by adding the interrogative sign, thus, you spoke?
Again, the very form which we commonly denominate interrog-
ative, as d^es Tie speak f is not peculiarly such ; we use it in cases
not interrogative ; as, does he speak, (then) all listen, t. e., if
he speaks. Every subjunctive expression is one which con-
tains a question, and is hence interrogative. Our ordinary
question forma, aawJuU (did) he say?, imply another part which
is commonly suppressed, as I ask what did he say, or what he said ?

1090. Every question is a dependent form, like a subjunctive
expression, governed by some such verb as ask, wish-to-know,
etc.; thus, can he reisd^^Iwith to know {if) can he read, or
tM me (if) he can read. Hence, we must insist that our ques-
tions are subjunctive, questionable, doubtful, and not, as gram-
marians say, indicative. While our question-form differs often
from the indicative, we must bear in mind that, in very many
languages, there is commonly no difference at all in the arrange-
ment. In many cases, a particle is used with the form to indi-
cate doubt or question, like our if he speaks, does he speak,
whether he reads, perhaps he reads = does he read? All such
words or particles in any language indicating doubt or question,
are pure interrogative marks.

1091. Negative forms are closely related to interrogatives.
We can say equally can he read?, or can he not read?, will you
take this? or will you not take this? It is as true in philology
as it is in philosophy generally, that the negative is a form, a
growth of the affirmative, or that both are different developments

. 868 PHRASIS.

of the same form ; thus, ignorant denotes knowing^ but a particu-
lar kind of knowing, i. e. knowing nothing or little ; so, unsuc-
cessful is a kind of successful^ and the former is a growth of the
latter by a development of the prefix ww, just as wrong \& a form
of righty and there a form of here.

1092. We must identify negatives with opposites ; the opposite
of heat is cotd^ and we may call one the negative of the other, and
still one is just as positive, as real, it is as much something, as
the other is — so, taking is as positive as giving, minus is as pos-
itive as plus, low as high, empty as full, bad as good.

1093. The idea should be forever banished that a negative is a
nothing, a nonentity; that nothing is not a thing as well as some-
thing is. We have more than once had occasion, etymologically, to
identify what are usually considered the most opposite terms, as
hig and little^ one and none, few and many^ to and from. We
have noticed in other languages a regular class of negative verbs;
based on the affirmative, they are merely a departure from it, as
our cant from can^ mistake from take^ undo from do — just such
verbs as de-har^ in-lay^ dis-cover.

Compounds,

1094. Every instance where an adjective is joined to a noun
affords us an example also of a compound; and we must bear in
mind in this connection that the case of one noun joined to an-
other lo denote a single object, is one precisely that of an ad-
jective joined to a noun — every adjective being a real noun in
an oblique case, and always to be so considered.

1095. But the real question under this head is, how two names
usually denoting each one thing, can come to be so united as
together to denote but one object. It occurs to us that these
two names, however much we may endeavor to unite them^ never
do cease each to denote their own object, though it may be true
that one is more or less slighted, as road in rail-road. Express-
ed in other words, we are using two names to denote one object,
with the design of being more specific or definite, exactly on the
same principle as we say a tallold-oak-tree^ one which is tall, old,
and of oak. That the name rail may be used to denote the ob-
ject known as a rail-road^ may be seen by such expressions, as
goods sent hy rail, travelling by rail,

1096. Another kind of compound is found in such expressions
as Clayton- Bulwer treaty, i, e. the treaty of Clayton and Bulwer,
the South-Atlantic ocean, i. e, which is south and Atlantic.

1097. So that we conclude any two or more words joined togeth-
er by any connective, as tall and straight, men and women, better
than that, men of talent, nails with heads, iron for wheels^ constitute

ABSTRACT PHILOLOGY. 869

a true compound, and just such a one as talented men, headed-
nails, wheel-iron. It will be remembered that in the Eastern
languages the great body of compounds were found to be words
thus connected. We now understand that there is a reason for
such expressions, in Hebrew, as the choice of thy valleys, for thy
choice valleys, the strong of shields, for strong shields, and a reason
why we say the fashion of the place, for the fashiondbleness of
the place.

1098. Compound sentences are as much compounds and just
such compounds as we have found in words — they are made up
of two or more inseparable parts, elements, and yet the compound
is practically a unit, a single sentence. How two sentences as
this is the man, whom 1 saw, i, e. this is the man, him I saw, can
ever become one sentence, is just as incomprehensible, for it is
the same question, as how we should ever come to consider one
thing as being two, or two things one. It is the identical ques-
tion of the idea of number, and one not so easily solved.

1099. It will have been observed long before this, that the lin-
guistic system of this work is based not on the current doctrine
that two things unite and form one, but, reversed, that one thing
develops, grows, and manifests the new elements not as real, separ-
ate individuals, but as formerly latent, covered, folded parts now
becoming visible. This idea is illustrated and repeated in the
history of every living, growing thing. The majestic oak now
with its thousand leaves and scores of boughs, once emerged
from the ground a simple, single, stem, with all its parts folded,
compressed, encased. It has displayed its innumerable parts,
but all the while it remains in number simply one, an oak. So
it is with words that grow into parts, and so it is with the sen-
tence also.

1100. In the sentence named above, if we take the idea of
one sentence, we must consider whom I saw as an adjective, or
rather participle, belonging to man; that is the relation it now
holds to the main body of the sentence. The word whom as a
relative is known to be an adjective; it has a tendency to become
independent, just as the personals, originally adjective pronouns,
are now become individualized; — in this respect, the relative
stands as a sort of transition from the adjective to the personal.
As before suggested, whom-Lsaw is a true participle =<Ae-«cen-
one-by me; indeed we say, he is the man seen by me, he is the
man Lsaw (me-seen, my-seen). It is very clear that whom is
not the object of saw, that it is the mere development of a parti-
ciple prefix, like the in the-seen-one. We have no doubt that all
adjective expressions like these in compound sentences, are the
growth of participles at first suffixed to the main verb in a rude
state.

47

S70 PHRASIS.

1101. All other compound sentences are to be referred back
to the relative class as the original one, especially those made by
connectives, as and, as, when, all of which are pronouns, and
more than that, relatives also; thus as=8k-osz=za8=who; Fr.
que = which = and, as ; when z=: which ; if= L . ibij vM, where,
which.

Imperative.

1102. After having discussed the other moods as we have,
little need be said of the imperative. In all languages, it has a
history in common with the infinitive first, and with' the future
and the subjunctive next — all of which are often used for the
imperative, though they may differ from it considerably in form.
With a uniformity remarkable, in the different languages, the
imperative is the shortest, barest, form of the verb — -so much so
as to give us often what is called the root of its class.

1103. Indeed there is very little of the verb about the imper-
ative ; it is a mere term of exclamation, and partakes most of the
character o£ an interjection. When a man exclaims in terror, a
tiger ! a tiger 1 he uses an imperative as much as if he said see !
see ! If 1 say roam where we will, I use roam as a mere abstract
noun = a roam be it where we wiU, or be the roaming where we
wiU.

1104. The imperative, being identical with the infinitive, is a
dependent, objective, term always governed by some implied
verb, as 1 wish that, or ask that, or demand that you do this,
for do this. Hence, we easily understand how it tends to identiiy
itself with the form of an oblique case; thus, in Latin, rc^c^imp.
rule; is identical with rege=zhj a ruler; and audito=heaTthou,
and hear him, also auditu=zwitli hearing; and ama= love thou,
aM^i=hear thou, have the form of an ablative singular. G'k
imperatives have case endings; witness on'tdnz=gen. plur.

1105. It is worthy of remark that the simple form of the
Latin imperative, as ama= love, is condensed for am^t, for we
find another form of the same, amato ; besides, it is often seen
that the iinperative is a mere departure from the 2d sing, prest.
ind. (or subj.) amas, ames. But amato may perhaps better
show the supine in the abl. case. In G'k, too, tupte (imp.) =
tuptet, as one of the forms is tupteto. The old L. es^uc?=be
(imper.) also shows the ablative^

WORDS ^IMPLIED. 8T1

CHAPTER XIX.

WORDS IMPLIED.

1106. We frequently speak of words being understood or im-
plied; we seem to imagine that a word expresses or indicates
more than it does express or indicate, that a wOfd means moxQ
at one time than it does at another, more when it stands alone
than when accompanied by other words. Thus, we say that in
the expression the wise are esteemed, wise means wise men, or wise
people. The point which we must first settle in discussing this
question is, wliai is the difference between the wise' are esteemed,
and wise m>en are esteemed? There is certainly a difference in
the forms of these expressions, and is there not an equal differ-
ence in their value and nature ? In the first case, wise presents
to the mind one idea, that of a certain and distinct class, the
wise; in the next, there is an attempt made tQ direct the mind
to two objects, two classes, at the same time, men and the wise
of men. But as it is impossible for us to think of two objects
at the same time, when we turn to one, we must lose sight of the
other ; we think of the wise or of mew, according as we emphar
size, or accent, the former or the latter. It is a mistaken idea
that wise is not as much the name of a class as men is, and that
one is not as much adjective or noun as the other. All such
terms made by the adjective and noun are compounds, two inde-
pendent words united, precisely as in any other compound j — as
in stone-house, hammer-handle,

1107. But more than this, in all such cases, when we mean
to speak of wise men as a class of men, distinguished or marked
by their wisdom, the adjective, so called, is the real principal,
and men is the real adjective, the cipher. It is not men that are
esteemed, it is a class, a part, of men; it is the wisdom, and not
the manhood. Nouns following adjectives in this way are the
determinatives, the radicals or general terms, which prevail in
the Asiatio languages. They are the kind of thing named, but
the adjective points out the what of that kind. The denominar
tor of the fraction represents the noun, while the numerator,
which tells how many or what, is the adjective. Anid just, as
the numerators, and coefficients, are alone added, subtracted, an4
divided, leaving the denominator, the thing ns^med or nuniber-
ed, to follow along as a valueless and uqnoticed element, so it is
precisely with the adjective.

1108. The point always lies in the adjective; that is the real

872 I»HRASIS.

subject. When we say we like good men, or tall men, or sweet
apples^ or sour wine, it is not the men, or apples, or wine in gener-
al, that we like; it is only a certain kind of these classes ; it is
the goodness, the talln^ss, sweetness, sourness, that strikes us so
favorably. When we say ten hooks vrlll suffice, we have no re-
ference to what will suffice, the thing, the kind, but rather how
much, or how many, and that point lies in the word ten. Hence
ten, we apprehend, is the real and only subject — ftoo^s being
parenthetical, adjective, valueless. If we say ten of books have,
the ancient of poets have, much of money has, this of business
has (all which are common and prevailing forms in other lan-
guages), no one would for a moment doubt that the adjective is
the subject, and that the noun is the real adjunct or adjective.
Why is not the fact the same in the equivalent English express-
ions, ten books, ancient poets, much money f

1109. But if the point does lie in the adjective, if that is the
real and only subject, of what use is the noun following it? Of
the same use as the denominator, the thing numbered, in Arith*
metic — this and no more. But numbers are alone considered
in Arithmetic, while the thing numbered is continually lost
sight of. This is exactly the case in language. When we speak
of a certain kind of thing, denoted by the adjective, we lose
sight of the thing to which the kind belongs ; and though the
kind is not dropped in print, or in conversation, it is so disre-
garded, so slighted, in pronunciation as well as in thought, that
we leave it unaccented, and it passes along for a mere cypher.
In language, as in mathematics, as soon as the subject of thought
or conversation is named or known, we need not have it repeat-
ed again; we deal after that only with adjectives, with marks
that point out who, what, what kind, exactly as in mathematics
we deal only in numbers,* or marks which indicate how many.
Thus, speaking of John, we say : he (or John) rises early in the
day, prepares himself for its labors, and sets about performing
them ; at night (he) may turn back and see what (he) has ac-
complished. Observe that the subject appears but once for all
these verbs ; and should it ]^e named before each one, it would
be none the less a mere cipher. ,

1110. We now begin to see how one word may represent
several words, as is often said, and we see what the real state of
the case is when words are said to be implied. We say the vnse
are esteemed (instead of wise men"), because the point lies only
in the adjective, and the noun falls off a^ useless. (It is usual-
ly said, in such case, that the adjective stands for a noun. This
is not correct, for wise, if it stands for anything, stands for wise
m,en. But is there not a palpable absurdity here, when wise

WORDS IMPLIED. 873*

is assumed to stand for, or be equivalent to, itself and something
more ?)

1111. We observe still further, that in the expression mse
men are esteemed, wise and rken both of themselves indicating
a class, one or the other, in the thought, must be eliminated, for
we cannot speak of the wise and of men also. If we give the
adjectives the force, we wish to distinguish the wise from the
foolish (nothing said or thought of men) ; but if we give the
force to men, we wish to distinguish men from those who are
not men (nothing said or thought of wise, or any- other class of
men).

1112. The student cannot be impressed too thoroughly with
the idea that nouns point out a kind of thing, to distinguish
from some other kind of thing, precisely as the adjective does ;
that a noun may be or is understood after every noun, just as
much as after wise in the expression the wise are esteemed.
There are hook things, men persons, hoiLse property, tahle articles,
exactly as there are good things, wise persons, this property, that
article. We speak of servant, and that is a pure noun ) but
servant is a serving one •— it is really the Latin form of our
serving, and no more. Our words, senior, level, walker, wader,
youths, a black, a gray, we see clearly are adjectives, and only
adjectives ; — other nouns are just such adjectives, though their
history may not be quite so plain. And as no one thinks that
any noun is understood after such nouns, so no one should thinks
of supplying a noun after adjectives used alone as these nouns
are.

1113. The sooner we come to understand that many words
stand unquestionably alone and independent, the sooner we shall
find language a simple and easy thing. It is perhaps unneces*
sary, so often has it appeared already in the course of this work,
in different ways, and yet we reproduce it, and remark, that not
only some adjectives have no nouns with which to be connected,
but rather that no adjectives have such nouns, in the sense in
which the proposition is usually understood ; that they each
stand independent of the other, and are wholes in themselves,
bearing latent, each in its own individuality, the essence of the
whole clause. We see this most strikingly in the Chinese
tongue, where there is no connection or agreement, and where
every word stands apart from the others and independent of them.

1114. And the difficulty which we so often experience when
we undertake to dispose of adjectives in which we assume that
something is understood, lies in the fact that we start upon this
wrong basis, namely, that every adjective must belong to some
noun. We all know that many adjectives do occur where it is
impossible that any word should be implied ; such as, in vain,

374 i*HRASis«

at leastf at first, besides all pronouns and adverbs (whicli we
know to be adjectives in origin). There are also those cases
where the adjective follows the verb ; as, is glad^ grows warm,
looks ^ne, stands erect ^ was mine : who would say that it is glad
something^ or erect something f Just as much as in the express-
sion he is an oratory it is orator something — just as n^h and
no more. So in the case of participles, 9iahe is walking ; here
we are wont to call waVcing a participle, i, e., an adjective, and
to say it belongs to he. But it is well known that walking is as
much a noun as any one can be which follows a verb in this
way, and hence it need not have, any more than such a noun,
another word to belong to. The original form of such expressions,
it must be remembered, and that form still exists in many lan-
guages, was he is a walking^ at or in walking,-7- in wnich the
noun character of the participle cannot be mistaken. Again,
we speak of the Germans, the Bomans (L. Romani) , and never
* think of putting people after them ; so in tropics, blacks, ones^
skeptics. , .

1115. But this fundamental error which we have spoken of,
is not confined to adjectives. It is also wrongly assumed that
every verb must have a nominative, while in fact many verbs
have none (if any do). Thus, John reads a sentence, reflects,
and understands (it). The subject is named but once, and it
need not be repeated. The point is not who, but what. What

9 does John do ? — Answer, reads a sentence^ reflects^ and under-
stands (it). Will any one insist that those verbs ought to have
nominatives? It is at least certain they do not have any.
Again, what is John engaged in ? — answer, reading, reflecting
(or reflection), and understanding. Do these nouns need to
have nominatives forced upon them ? No. But all words are
developments of just such verbal nouns as these ; and in their
application, they never get to be more than verbal nouns, never
have any more of expression or affirmation than • they do. In
other words, to insist that every verb must have a nominative,
whether it will or not, is to assume that every inflnitive, ev.ery
participle, must have one ; it is to ipsist that every verbal noun,
or one derived from a verb, as addition, reception, government,
and the like, must also have one. We need not, then, say that
many verbs have no nominatives, but that they do no more have
them than all nouns and adjectives do, those derived from verbs
at least.

1116. In other languages much more generally than in this,
verbs are without nominatives, it being assumed, as in Latin,
for example, that the endings (which we have elsewhere shown
to be a mere development of participial endings), represent
nominatives. Again^ in all our cases where pronouns are assumed

RADICALS. 876

to be the nominative, we may say the verb really has none.
When we say John writes and he reads, the he is valueless ; it
is nothing but an augment or prefix. We have shown else-
where that a Ae, she, it, and they, are only forms of the, an article
which we know to be a meaningless prefix to the word that fol-
lows it. We have seen in more than one language, they reading,
the reading (ones, plur. form of part.), get to be they read, or
represent it. We have proved over and over again that the
verb in all its moods, tenses, and persons, is only the participle
wrought up into different shapes. So when we say it rain^,
there goes, they say, there is really no nominative ; it is not
me^nt to say who or what goes, says, rains, but merely that there
is a going, saying, raining (verbal nouns and no more).

1117. In conclusion, we claim that words should always be
treated as what they are, and not as what we would assume or
wish them to be.

1118. We turn next and consider, in this connection, the sub-
ject of abbreviated words. Is there anything implied in an
abbreviated word ? To use a paradoxical expression, is there
anything in it that is out of it r By what right do we assume
that Kob., or Bob, is a shortening of Robert ? We say a part is
left off in the case of Rob. (-ert) ; hence, it is only a part of a
word, only a part of Robert. Is that true ? Only a part of
a word ! Is not Bob a whole word, a real name, as much as
Robert itself ? We might as well claim that rise is a shortening
of rising, or faith of faithful, or hit of bite. Words are not
parts of words, or less than a word, because they are short ; a
is as much a word as and, and as much a whole word. So we
apprehend that ^ar, kath, meth, and aph, are just as much forms
of Greek prepositions, and independent forms, as para, meta,
kata, and apo, from which they, the former, are assumed to be
derived.

Radicals,

1119. In looking over the Asiatic languages, we are struck
with the unwonted abundance of general terms. They are
wanting in that luxurious growth of endings which we find in
European languages, and among other substitutes for these
endings, they employ general or generic terms which are lost
with us ; thus, they would say male man, for male, London city,
for London, walk go, for walk, Persian man, for Persian, preach
make, for preach, stranger man, for stranger, white metal, for
silver, great water, for ocean. These general terms are known
as radicals, or determinatives.

1120. The Chinese radicals or keys belong in this category.

376 PHRASIS.

Every Cliinese word has at least one of these generic or common
names as an element. Those radicals have so little force, are so
abstract and ethereal, that, although found in the written char-
acter representing the word, they have no part in the sound of
the word when spoken; they are unaccented — mere ciphers.
They play a part eicactly as the ending of our words, such as
'(msy in joyous, -er, in worker, -ment, in treatment, and we
consider the two classes parallel in every respect. Some of
these endings of ours grow into distinct individuality, and being
detached, become themselves words. So in Chinese, of these
keys, or radicals, some are found as separate words, while others,
again, exist only as component parts of the word-sign. That
these generic terms, these radicals, have grown out of or on the
other part, the sound-giving and accented element, of the
word-sign, just as oms, from joy, and er from work, we believe
is capable of demonstration.

1121. But it must be remembered that while those Asiatic
languages which thus abound in these general and apparently
superfluous terms, are by no means destitute of common end-
ings, our own languages are quite as far from being destitute of
common radicals. Every time we say go lost, for lost, go walk-
ing for walk, take a sleep, for sleep, keep watch, for watch, stand
talking, Delaware state, Albany c%, negro men, for negroes,
loving ones, for lovers, ten heads of hors^es, for ten horses, we
are using those very same meaningless, valueless, terms which
we think characterize the Asiatic tongues. Our auxiliaries,
such as do, be, make, go, keep, etc., belong here — so do our
pronouns and particles.

1122. Prefixes may also be referred to in this connection ;
- they also are meaningless marks, having a general and abstract

character, similar to those radicals under consideration. That
they have no more ' value than these radicals, is seen by the
numberless instances where the word which is found with the
prefix in one language is found without it in others } as, the
Latin ^e?/b=.expel, re-pel, paro ==:ap-pear, parozz= prepare,
porto = trans-port, Fr. partir = depart.

INDEX.

THE NUMBSaS BEVEB TO THE 8E0TI0NB.

Abbreylations, explained, 157,

Adjectives, what they are, 12; when found after verbs, 13; they hav»

the nature of verbs, 14; their degrees, 15; numerals, 17; ac[j.

and noun make a compound, 142, 143 ; they are developments of

noun endings, 144 ; like verbs, 152 ; after nouns they are adverbs,

153 ; how adj's and nouns agree, 154.
Adverbs, 41 ; what they are, 42 ; their forms and history, 196 ; those

of clear pronominal origin, 196, 197.
Afghan lang., 827 to 835.
After, its forms, 206.
African lang's, 1041 to 1066.

Albanian lang. and specimens, 802 to 805 ; forms of words, 806,
American lung's, 1067 to 1082.
Amharic lang., 904.
And, its forms, 201.
Anglo Saxon lang., its history, 593 to 599 ; it» forms and specimens,

601 to 607, and 625.
Aorist, 104: in Greek, 408; 1st Aorist of Greek, 410 to 413.
Arabic, Etymology, 588; its forms, 901; selections, 923.
Armenian lang. , 851 ; selections, 854.
Articles, what words, 17 ; forms, 172.
As, its forms, 202.
Augsburg dialect, 650.
Augments, defined, 109.

Back, its forms, 207.

Basque lang., or Iberian, its features, 714 to 721; speoimens, 722;

forms of words, 723.
Bavarian dialect, 651.
Be, the verb ; in Gothic. 474 ; Ang. Sax., 476 to 478 ; Old Qerm., 479 ;

French, 480 ; Italian, 481 ; Celtic, 482 to 487 ; Slavic, 488 to -19) ;

Albanish, 494; Wallachian, 495; Hungarian, 496; Finnish,

497; Mongolian, 498; Persian, 499; Arabic, 602; Greek, 608,

504.
Beluchees lang., 825.

Bengali lang., 988 and 989; selections, 990.
Berber lang., 978 to 976.
Birman lang., 999.

Bohemian, etymology, 582, ; lang. and specimens, 748 to 746, and 77d,
Bolognish dialect, 703.

Bulgarian lang., and specimens, 761 to 764:, and 776.
But, its forms, 208.
By, its forms, 230.

48

878 PHRASIS.

Case, what are case forms, 8; names of cases, 9; in Latin, 51 ; names
and forms in Latin, 54, 56; in Germ, and Ang. Sax., 9; in Latin,
case-forms a variation of gender-forms, 57; they vary to corres-
pond with verbs governing them, 68; oblique, 59; more than six
in some lang's, 107; endings of case, history and forms, 111 to
131 ; common ending for nom. case, 112 to 118; endings of all cases
a mere variation of one tyne, 118; Greek cases like Germ, and
English, 119, 120; ending*disappear in mod. Lat. lang's; Slavic
case ending, 122; every genitive a plural, 133; identical with
personal endings, and a variation of suffix articles and demonstra-
tives, 129; adverbial endings belong with those of case, as well
as verbal and part., 129; case endings in Polish, 123; in Bohemi-
an, 124; they are a growth to represent prepositions, they add
nothing to the word but grow out of it, 126.

Catalan lang., 706; specimen, 711.

Causatives, 520 to 625.

Caucasian lang's, 836 to 867.

Celtic lang's, history, 674; features, 676 and 687; Celtic mutations,
676 and 677.

Celt Briton, specimens, 680; forms of words, 681.

Chaldaic, 899.

Cheshire dialect, 612.

Chinese lang., 876 to 893; writing, 885; specimens, 890 and 891.

Circassian lang., 847.

Clacking sound of African lang's, 1066.

Cleveland dialect, 622.

Comparison, of adj's in Latin, 61; not peculiar to adj's, 146 and 147;
oompar. a form of positive, 147; every adj. a comparative, 148;
really no degrees in quality, 149; and none beyond comparative,
160; superlative endings, 161.

Compounds, all duplicates, 145; all made of like elements, 194; dis-
cussed, 1094.

Conjunctions, what they are, 43; the list, 44. (See Particles.)

Cornish lang., 679.

Cornwall dialect, 613.

Craven dialect, 623.

Croatian lang., 767.

Dacotah lang., 1075.

Danish, etymology, 577; its words and Germ., 664; specimens, 666

and 672; compared with Swedish, 667.
Demonstratives, 173 to 177.
Derbyshire dialect, 615.
Derivatives, 626.
Desideratives, 519.
Devonshire dialect, 616.
Dutch, etymology, 576; lang., 644; specimens, 645.

Each, and any, their relatives, 187 and 188.

Egyptian, 906; lang. and specimens, 965 to 969.

Eight, its forms, 259 to 261.

Endings, defined, 108; of case. 111 to 131; personal, 337 to 345.

English lang., its history, 593; Old Eng. specimens, 608 to 611, 618;

specimens of Eng. dialects, 612 to 624,
Ethiopic, 904; lang. and character, 971 to 972.

INDEX. 870

Etymology, separating words into parts, 528 ; separating letters into
parts, 529,530; that of Germ., showing the form which certain
words of ours assume there, 576; that of Dutch, 576 ; Danish, 677 ;
Latin, 578; Greek, 579; how its words identify with ours, end of
579; of Russian, 581; Gaelic, 584, note on same, end of 584; of
French, 580 — Fr. Orthography shows one letter equal to several,
end of 580; Welch, 585; Hebrew, 686; Syriac, 687.

Every, its relatives, 186.

Even, Ever, forms, 209, 210.

Ewe lang., 1062.

Faroe Islands, lang., 662.

Feminines, 137; agree with plurals, also fern's and abstracts, 139;

fem's and 2d person agree, 141.
Finnish lang's, 782 to 798; Finn, proper, 789; divisions, 790; and

specimens, 791 to 793.
Finite, what it is, 40.
Five, its forms, 253 to 266.
Flemish lang., 643 and 699.
For, its forms, 232, 233.
Four, its forms, 250 to 262.
Forms of words, any case-form or person-form is a form of a word,

237 to 139.
Frequentatives, 510 to 514.
French lang., its forms and history, 689 to 691; specimens, 692 to

710; Old French forms, 697.
Friesic lang., 642.
Friulan dialect, 703.
Future, in Latin, 430; in Pol., etc., 431; Wallachian, 432; Albanish,

433; equals pres't ind. and subj., 484; in Goth., 436; inlUyrian,

436; modern Latin, 437.

Gaelic, etymology, 684; specimens, 682; compared with Irish, 683.

Gascon dialect, 698.

Gender, what it is, and the kinds, 4, 6, 6; endings in Latin, 52; its

true nature, 136.
Genoese dialect, 703.
German lang., its history and character, 627, 628; specimens, 629, end

of 645; pronunciation of Germ, letters, 630, note, page 167;

forms of Germ., 631 to 636; Old Germ., Francic, specimens, 636;

Old H. Germ, endings, 638 ; and its poetry, 640 641; dialects of

Germ., 649; etymology, 676; their compounds like ours, end of

676.
Gerund, what in Latin, 71.
Georgian lang, 848 to 850.
Gothic lang., 652 to 656; specimens, 666 to 658; forms of words, 669

and 660.
Greek lang., idiom like Latin, 104; comp'd adj's, 106; articles, 104;

Greek etymology, 579 — how words identify with ours, end of 679.
Greenland lang., 1068 to 1073.

Hawaii lang., 1017; specimens, 1020, 1021.

Hebrew, etymology, 586; difficulties, 909; selections, 912 to 920.

Herero lang., 1056 and 1063.

Hindostani lang., 992; selections, 994.

Hindee lang., 995.

880 PHRASIS.

Hungarian, lang. and specimens, 783 to 786, 794; forms of words, 787.
Huron lang., 1080.

If, forms, 211.

Illyrian lang. and specimens, 748 to 750; forms of words, 761.

Implied words, 1106 to 1118; adj. and noun form a compound, in
which one or the other must be lost, 1106; the adj. is the real
principal, 1108 and 1109; the noun folio wing adj. is like the denom-
inator in arithmetic, 1109; nouns have nature of adj's, 1112;
adj's stand independent, 1113 and 1114; all verbs do not have
nominatives, 1115.

Impersonal verbs, 505 to 509.

Inchoatives, 515 to 518.

Indefinite pron's, 186 to 192.

Indian lang's, 977.

infinitive, in Latin, common ending, 69.

Instrumental case defined, 107.

Interrogatives, 23; compared with affirmatives, 1089 to 1090.

In transit ives, 31 »

Irish lang., compared with Gaelic, 684; letters, 686.

Italian, its character, 700; specimens, 701; like Fr., 702; dialects, 708.

Japanese lang., 1037 to 1040.

Javan lang., 1007.

Eawi lang., 1014 to 1016.
Karelian lang., 798.
Kalmuk, 870.
Kentish dialect, 617.
Kumanian, 870.

Latin, grammar, 50 to 79; selections, 80 to 101; its etymology, 578;
how easily it compares with Eng., end of 578; Latin lang's, 688.

Lancashire dialect, 624.

Lapp lang., 796.

Laws; the working of one thing into different results, without losing
identity, 130; that addding letters to a word gives no new sound,
but indicates an old one, 539.

Lenapi lang., 1077.

Lesghian lang. with specimens, 889.

Letters, the latent parts, 581 ; syllabic, 635; vowels implied in conso-
nants, or latent, 535 to 539; the base stroke or key of consonants,
640 to 548; our words like Chinese letters, 543; marked and single
letters really double, 544 to 546 ; assimilation of letters, 647, 648 ;
the form and value of the letters of the alphabet, showing the
connection of each, 549 to 566; the order of the alphabet in Heb.,
Greek, and Russ., 667 to 671; other alphabets, 571; vowels, rela-
ted to each other, 572; they unite in diphthongs from harmony,
673; what vowels for ours, in Old Germ, and Lat., 67.4; letters
never lost nor silent, end of 680 ; their harmony, note, page 184.

Lettish lang., 772.

Lithuanian lang., 765 and 769; specimens, 770.

Locative case, 107.

Macassar lang., 1009 to 1013.
Madagascar lang., 1026.

INDEX. 381

Malay lang's, 1001 to 1016; selections, 1003.

Maltese, 9vj7.

Mancbu lang., and specimens, 866 to 869.

Many, its relatives, 189.

Middle, form of yerbs, 104.

Milanese dialect, 703.

Mongolian lang., 864, 865.

Moods, what are they, and the names, 36.

Namaqua lang., 1047, 1068, 1069.

Neapolitan dialect, 703.

Negatives, allied to interrogatives, 1091; and opposites, '1092; not ii
nothing, 1093.

Neuters, objective in character, 138; neut. plur. and abstract, 140.

New forms, any oblique case may be base for sueh, 128.

Nine, its forms, 262, 263.

North (Old), 662; history, 668; specimens, 669 to 671.

Nominatives, after be, 27.

Nor and Not, forms, 213, 214.

Notes, about all reduced to identity, etc., 156) explaining the mean-
ing of equality, 196; on decay of words, 689; all philosophizing
leads to absurdity, 690; explaining translations, 780; it is no ob-
jection that one proposition does not agree with every other, 591 }
on identifying all things, 592.

Nouns, defined and divisions, 3; their history, 110.

Number, in Grammar, the kinds, 7.

Numerals, their history, 240; those over twelve, 272 to 276; letters
used for them, 277 ; are only marks of order, 278 to 280.

Oblique cases, what are they, 59.

Of, Oflf, their forms, 234.

Often, its forms, 216.

One, its forms, 240 to 242.

Only, its forms, 217.

Or and nor, forms, 212, 218.

Order of words — words belong where found, inC Latin, 80 to 101, 89.

Ossefe (or Iron) lang. and specimens, 841 to 846.

Other, its forms, 190.

Out, its forms, 227.

Pali lang. and Pracrit, 996.

Parts of Speech, how many, 47; no distinct line to mark them, 48.

Parsee lang., 821.

Parts of words, their development, 229; part as great as whole, 581.

Particles, their history, 198.

Participles, what they are and the kinds, 88; usedlikeadj's, 40; used
for verbs in Latin, 106; their history, 283; Gdrman, 284 to 288;
Celtic, 290 to 293; Slavic, 294; Hung, part's, 302; Finnish, 308;
Turkish, 304; Albanish, 306; Persian, 806; Hindostani, 807; Ben-
gali, 308; Manchu, 809; Semitic, 810; Malay, 812; Greek, 818 to
318; part, in urus, 319 to 326^ 489) other points in German verb-
als, 327 and 828; Old Eng., 609 to 611.

Passive, in Latin, 438 to 443; Slavic, 444 to 446; Hung., 447; Albs-
nish, 448; Wall., 449; Celtic, 450 to 452; Latin past pass., 458 ;
Greek, 454; Greek past, 456; Greek perfect, 456, and p. perf.,

382 PHRASIS.

457; Greek future, 458; Bengali, 460; other points in Greek
passive, 461.

Past tense, in Latin, etc., 401 to 404; in Greek, 405 to 407.

Persian lang's and specimens, 812 to 819; forms of, 821 to 823.

Pehlvi lang., 822.

Person, what it is, 37.

Perfect tense, in Latin, etc., 414 to 419; Greek, 421 to 426; Mod. G'k,
427.

Philology, abstract, 1083.

Phoenician lang., 898.

Piedmontese dialect, 703.

Pluperfect tense, in Latin, 420; in Greek, 428; in Albanian, 429.

Plurals, connected with fern's, 134, 135; identical with genitives, 132;
not different from sing., 133; a noun in gen. case, 281.

Portugese lang., 708; specimens, 712.

Polish lang» and specimens, 746, 747, and 778.

Polabian lang., 760.

Polynesian lang's, 1024.

Possessives, 10.

Preformatives defined, 109,

Present tense, in Latin, etc., 899 and 400.

Prepositions, what they are, 45; growth by doubling, 531.

Pronouns, personals, 18, 19; compound, 20; relatives, 21 ; compound,
22; interrogatives, 23; pron's equal adj's, 23; in Latin, 62; their
history, 156; they have arisen by growth of noun and verb end-
ings, 166; personal, I, 158, 159; it is a demonstrative, 162; plu-
ral, we, 160; poss., our, 161; personal, thou, 163; in plural, ye,
164; poss., your, 165; those of the 2d person identical with the
3d; the different cases of pron's all variations of the same form,
166; personals of 3d person, 167 to 171; he and it, 169; she and
it, 170; they and their, 171; demonstratives, 173 to 177; rela-
tives, 178 to 185; indefinites, 186 to 192; the parts or elements
of pron's, 191, 192.

Provencial lang., forms of words, 695.

Prussian (Old) lang. and specimens, 766, 767 ; forms of words, 768.

Rabbinic lang., 897.

Radicals, in Asiatic lang's, what they afe, 1119 to 1121; prefixes,

1122.
Reduplication, 422; words grown by repetition of like elements, as

plants and animals, 1083 to 1088.
Relatives, 178 to 185, 21.
Repetitions, the sentence is made up of them, 103, 126, 127 ; repetition

or doubling in adverbs, 198, 199; in compounds, 194.
Romanic, or Rhaetish, dialect, its words and specimens, 698, 713.
Root, or base, defined, 108.
Russian etymology, 581 ; lang., 7;^6 to 739; specimens, 740 to 742,

779.

Sabien lang., 900.

Samaritan lang., 897.

Samoidish lang's, 799.

Samogitian lang. and specimen, 771, 774.

Sabine, Sicilian, and Sardinian dialects, 703.

INDEX. 383

Sanscrit lang., 978; alphabet, 979; list of words, 984; compounds,
982; specimens, 983.

Saxon (Old), differs from Old H. Germ., 637; forms of words, 639.

Saxon (Ang.), see English.

Scandinavian, its branches or forms, 661.

Semitic lang's, 908; history and forms, 894 to 907; relations and pe-
culiarities, 925, 964; prefixes, 932 to 964; tenses, 949; Semitic
etymology, 686.

Sentence, what it is, 1, 2.

Servian lang., 752.

Serenian lang., 797.

Seven, its forms, 258.

Since, its forms, 218.

Six, its forms, 256, 257.

Slovenian lang., 758.

Slavic etymology, 583; lang's, 730 to 781; its forms, 732 to 735; its
peculiarities, 781.

So, its forms, 203.

Soon, its forms, 21f .

Spanish lang., history, 704; specimens, 705.

Still, its forms, 220.

Subjunctive, in Lat., 462, 463; modern Lat., 464; Slavic, 465; Celtic,
466; Greek (and optative), 467 to 469; in German, 470 to 472.

Suomi lang., 796.

Supine, in Latin, what, 72.

Swedish, specimens, 665; compared with Danish, 667.

Swiss idiom, 646, 647; list of words, 648.

Syrian lang., 795.

Tagale lang., 1026.

Tamil lang., 997.

Tartar lang's, 858 to 874; Tart, proper, 861, and spec, 862.

Telinga lang., 996.

Tenses, what are they, 32 ; in Latin, 64 to 68.

Ten, its forms, 264, 265.

That, its forms, 204.

Thibetan lang., 1027 to 1036.

Though, its forms, 220.

Three, its forms, 246 to 249.

Through and across, 236.

Tigre lang., 90e.

Till, its forms, 220.

To, at, in, on — their forms, 235.

Together, forms, 221.

Transitives, what are they, 26, 28.

Translations, are word-for-word, 626.

Turanian, 859.

Tungusic lang., 860.

Turkish lang., 807 to 811.

Tuscan lang., 703.

Twelve and eleven. 266 to 271.

Two, its forms, 243 to 245.

Tyrolese, Thuringian, and Translvanian dialects, 649.

Up and upper, their forms, 228.

884 PHBASIS.

Yalenoian lang., 706.

Venetian dialect, 708.

Verbs, what they are, 25; trans, and intrans., 26; reg. and irreg., 25;
history, 333; do not peculiarly affirm, 334 to 336; in Latin, 63;
Turkish verbs, 347 to 857; Finn., 357; Mongolian, 358; Persian,
859; Afghan, 364; Hung., 865 to 370; Slavic, 371 to 383; Ben-
gali, 884; Hind., 386; Celtic, 386 to 397; Greek and Latin, 398.

Verbals, what are such, 40; verbal endings, 329 to 332.

Wallachian lang., 724; features, 726; specimens, 727 and 728; words

compared with Eng. and Latin, 729.
Walloon lang., 699.

Welsh, etymology, 585; specimens, 678; compared with Gaelic, 685.
Wend, language and specimens, 754, 755; Hung. Wend, specimens,

759 and 777.
Westmoreland dialoot, 621.
With, its forms, 224, 225, 226.

Yet, ' xorms, 219,

Zend lang., 828.
Zulu lang, 1051.

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