PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
ESSAYS: .
TRANSLATED
FROM THE ORIGINAL LATIN
// '
OF '
, y '
SIR TORBERN BERGMAN,
KNIGHT OF THE ORDER OF W AS A, t PROFESSOR
OF CHEMISTRY AT UPSAL, fcc. he, *c.
TO WHICH ARE ADDED,
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,
BY THE TRANSLATOR,
VOL. III.
EDINBURGH:
rMNTED FOR O. MUHIF, fiOUTM-PRl^OE STREET,
j. Sc ]. FAIJID.AIRN, HUNTER'S SQJJARE;
AND J. EVANS, NO* 32* P AT E R T.'OSTE H-ROVV, LONDON.
M UCC XCi.
or, a-/
.BS
,. :-
LOAN STACK
Gift
Mr*. H. C Holton
PREFACE
BY THE
TRANSLATOR.
O name is jnore illuftrious in the annals of
Chcmiflry than BERGMAN: none has contri-
buted more than he, to the rapid advancement
which this fciencc lias made in the prcfcnt cen-
tury. Nor has any other philofopher applied
the principles of Lord JJACON with greater (kill
or attention, in the invelligation of nature.
Ardent; enthufiafm, and patient afiiduity in the
purfuits of fcience, candour, modcfty, clcar-
ncfs of judgement, and comprehend r. of inind,
qualities the union of \v;*ich conflli ,ues the tiuc
pMl-jfopher, appear f> h:;vo r-en hap}>ily con-
joined in tins great m,.n. The n\mibcr and
the accuracy ot his experiments, the fimpliciry
rnd ingenuity of )iis j^roceiles, the beauty and
plaufibility of his tlicorics, command the admi-
ration and refped of every intelligent reader of
his works.
His writings arc already very generally known
through Europe. They have moil of them been
tranflatcd into various languages. An Lng-
lifh t re filiation of two volumes of liis Effays was,
fome years fince, publifhed. They met with
the favourable reception which they deferred :
a ami
813
it PREFACE.
nnd there is reafon to think that they have been
of great utility.
The pieces which compofc this volume are
not inferior in value to thofe already before
the Englifh reader : The Hillory of Chemif-
try is no where traced with greater erudition
and good fenfc, than in the two firfl of thefe
Eflays. The Arrangement of Fulfils, the Com-
bination of certain Metals, the Analyfis of fome
Swedifh mineral Waters, with a few other mat-
ters, perhaps of Hill higher importance than any
of thefe, are the fubje.ds which occupy the reil
of the volume.
Whether confidercd as original records of a
number of chemical facts, communicated up-
on the very bell authority, or viewed as models
of philofophical inveiligation, the reafonings
and procelles of which may be imitated with ad-
vantage in either of thefe lights, the contents
of this volume will be acknowledged to have
been worthy of the tranllator's rfciiris. Their u-
tjlity may perhaps be the greater, becaufc the
propagation of a new theory, formed to pervade
the whole fcience of Chemillry, renders it of
confequence for the Undent to examine that
\\hich has fo long prevailed, in all its parts, and
to view it in connection with every fad which lias
been di (covered ; in order that he may determine
whether to adhere to the doctrine of STAH'L, or
to cUlopt the opinions of LAVOISIER,
CONTENTS.
1. Of the ORIGIN of CHEMISTRY.
5 i. Of the flow Progrefs of Natural Philt)'
fiphy page i
1. Origin of Chewical Arts - 5
3. State of Chcmijlry in Kgypt - 15
4. State of Chemijlry among the Greeks 54
5. Traces of Cbemijlry {lift over a Me in dif-
ferent parts of the world ji
6. Synopfis of things tinknoivn in Cbewif-
try during the fir ft Period. - 90
II. HISTORY of CHEMISTRY during the MIDDLE
AOK. ,
5 J. General Idea of this Period 93
2. Of the great Work 129
3. Of the Univerfal Medicine - 143
4. Of the chief Difcoveries in Chcwijlry
made during this period - .14$
III. ANALYSIS of LITHOMARGE.
5 I. General Char after of Lithomargc 15$
a 2 * 2. Of
iv CONTENTS.
2. Of Lemnian Earth * page 161
3. Of Ofmundic Earth 171
4 . Of HampJInre Ea rth - 174
IV. Of ASBESTINE EARTH.
5 I . Of Tarentalfian slfiejhs 1 8 2
2. Of the slflejlos ofSwartvick - 186
3. Of the AJl>eJl<js of Swartvlck reftm-
bUng Steutites 187
4. Of the Steatites of Sw at tvick 188
5. Of the AJbcJlos of Btijlthi-s 191
6. Of the sl/lcjlos of Cvt'ms - 192
7. O///^ stjbtjt'js of Crete ibid.
8. Q/V/^ sljltjlos of Stuhlberg, commonly
culled Mountain Cork 193
9. Of the sl/brj?os of Stahlberg, known by
the name of Mountain Leather ibid.
JO. Oftbefafc'uulated sljlujhs <fC,r<en$e 194
1 1 . Of the AjbcJl'jS of Pehrjberg 1 95
12. Of th? fibrous Schorl of Grange 195
j 3. Of thefihroiis Schorl of '/Mlertbal 1 96
1*\. Corollary f^< - 199
V. TnoucjiTs on a NATURAL SYSTEM of FOS-
SILS.
5 i. Principal Divi/ion of Natural Bodies 205
2 . Organiftd Bodies z O 6
3. Claffes of organifed Bodies ibid.
C O N T E N T S. v
4. Vnorganift'd Bodies .page 206
5 . / "ariout Conjijlcncics of unorganifed Bo-
dies - 207
6. ,$>>//>/ Bodies ibid.
7. Liquid Relics ibid.
8. /7///W 0i'//V/ - 208
9. The Utility of this Dijlinftion ibid.
10. The continued Series of Natural Bo-
dies - - ibid.
11. 77^ ncceffity of a Sv/lem in Natural
Hijfary 209
12. Criteria cf natural Bodies - 210
j ^. Conjliuit and perpetual Forns of orga*.
r.ifed Bodies - 210
14. Mon/lroas Productions - 210
15. Fojjils - an
16. Mineral Kingdom -
17. Generation of FoJJUs -
Jo. Variable and inconjliint Form of Fojfils 212
19. Oryctohgy - 214
20. I'aricus Svftems of Qryctokgy - 2/5
11. The bcjl Arrangement - j'Z>/V.
22. /// it'/w/ Manner tbtCompo/ilion ofFof-
Jits may may be br/l after tained - 216
23. External Criteria - i/J.
24. Uncertain and deceitful Size of FoJJils 2 1 7
2^*. y///^/ Colour - - !*/'</.
26. Internal Texture and Form * 218
2 7 . Fbyjica I Ma rks of Ea rtbs - 219
28. Hardnefs - - t'W</.
a 3
*i CONTENTS; .
' S 29. Specific Gravity - page 220
30. Examination hy the Mug net - 2.21
31. Real Utility of external and pbyfical
Marks - ibid.
32. Nature of Fojpts difcoverable by the
sHdofCbemiflry - - 222
33. neir Char after in Fire - ibid.
34. life of the Biw-pipe in Oryctohgy 223
35 A/o/? of the Principles of FoJJils are dif-
covered by Fire - - ibid*
36. But not every Principle - ibid.
37. Why Iirveftigatfati by Fire is fome times
falaci'jits - - ibid.
38. The Efficacy of Fire cannot be defined
with any Accuracy - 224
39. And it is variable alfo - ibid.
40. Does not determine the Proportion of the
Principles - - 225
4 1 . Merit of Cronftedt - 225
42. The btjl Method f*f examining FoJJils in
the burn id IV ay - - 225
43. The Difficulty of founding a Syftem of
FoJJils - - 226
44. Internal and external Characters 226
CLASSES of FOSSILS.
45. Enumeration of the Claffes - 227
46. Order ...
47.. Di/lingui/hing Marks of each Chifs
CONTENTS. vii
48. Tajle - page 229
49. Solubility in Water - ibid.
50. Artificial Limits of Solubility - 231
51. Great E\tent of Solubility - ibid.
52. lyijlin^mJJnng Marks of Earths , 232
53. Mr ttils ibid.
54. Phlogijlic SubJIances 233
55. Mixed FoQils - - i'4/W.
56. Affinity of Foflils 234
57. Affinity of Salts ivitb Earths and Me-
tnls ibid.
58. Affinity of Earth with Metals 235
59. Sulphureous Char after of Mttah ibid.
60. Stone* - - -23-
61. Organic FoJJils - - -2 36
62. Volcanic Productions - 237
63. Arrangement of Genera - 238
64. Genera of Salts - - 240
65. y/r/V/ ibid.
66. Alkalies - - - 241
67. 6V///X not fatnratcd - - /&>/.
68. IVhcthcr neutral Salts are to be refer-
red to a diftinEl Genus - ibid.
69. Mixed neutral Stilts - . 24-2
70. Analogous Salts - - 243
71. Other Combinations of Salts - ibid.
72. Doubtful Genera of Salts - 244
73. Genera of Earths - - #/</.
74. Primitive Earths - - 245
75. The common Origin of Earths ibid.
a 4 $46. Reafonf
tiii CONTENT S.
76. Red ft us why Terra Ponder of a ought to
be a dijlincl Genus - P* l c .246
77. Five Genera Jbould be CQnflitvtfd of the
five primitive Earths - 247
78. Exceptions. >*,r - 248
79. Compound Earths are not united me-
chanically only - - 249
So. Centra of ' Metals - ibid.
1 1 , Increafcd within a few years ibid.
82. Arrangement of mixed Metals 250
83. Genera of pbhgijtic Bodies - 251
84. Sulphur - 252
85. Petroleum - -> ibid.
86. Amber - - ibid.
87. Diamond - ibid.
88. Pyrites and Molybdena do not conjli-
tute peculiar Genera - - 253
89. Properly fpeaking there is but one Ge-
nus ufPbfogiftU Subftancet - ibid.
90. F'u'Ji slppendi\ - - ibid,
yi. Four Genera of Foffilf mixed mechani-
cally - - 254
fj2. Fifjl Genus - ibid.
93. Second Genus - ibid.
<j.\. '1'hird Genus - - 255
*)5 Fourth Genus - - ibid.
96. 'DiJFinct a 'id mixed Par ticks of FoJ)Us ibid.
1/7. F'Atr Genera of organic FoJJils 256
cj8. /'V^ Genus ofdon/ledt - /A/V/.
99. ^';i r ^'V tiodiif mineralized by Salts />/V/.
ico.
CONTENTS. is
JOG. Belies impregnated with fli lumen page 257
Jo i. Pctrifatlion of organic Bodies ibid.
rc2. Organic Bodies penetrated with metal-
lic particles - 258
103. Nuclei - - ibid.
104. Remaining imprejflons of organic Bo-
dies 259
105. OJleocolla - - ibid.
1 06. Luriijlnted organic Bodies - 259
107. Spfc[fa Character of Salts - 260
i o 8 . Spi \ ies of Acids ibid.
109. l-'egeUible slfids ibid.
no. minimal -/t.-V/f - - 261
in. /ffiW/ common to fever at Kingdoms of
Nature - a'/>/W.
112. C/r^v/r number of Acids - 262
11$. Species of alkaline Salts - //W.
j 14. /V.v/ Alkalies . - |7;/V/.
1 15. Neutral Salts - . 263
1 1 6. Itnpetjl cl double Salts .
117. Triple Salts -
I xH. Inipcrfccl trip tr Suits - - 264
119. Qttadritple Salts - - //;/>/.
12&, Species cf analogical Salts - ;7;/W.
121. ^ff/>j- vf liable perfett earthy Salts ibid.
1 22. Double iw^ifcii earthy Salts - 265
j 23, Triple curtly Salts . . //,/ r /.
1 24. Lat thy alkaline Salts - - ibid.
125. Species of metallic Salts - 265
126. Metallic
a CONTENTS;
126. Metallic Salts, with an Excefs of me-
tallic Bafe - ; *, v . - page
127. Triple metallic Salts - ibid.
128. Qiuidruple metallic Salts - 267
129. Alkaline metallic Salts .v . ibid.
130. Synopjis tf Salts - . V; ibid.
131. Species of Earths of & double Charac-
ter - y 269
132. Mixed Species of Earths , * i/ t ;.
133. oc;^i/ Arguments their Diverjity is
founded - - i^/V/.
134. The Necejfity of conjidcring the Pro*
portion of every Part - , ibid.
135. Method of invejligating the fcveral
Species of Earths - - 270
136. Continuation - - ibid.
137. IVhy this Method is imperfect V 271
138. In ivhat Manner can this Defecl be
corn-tied or f applied? - 272
139. Enumeration of double Species ibid.
140. Enumeration of triple Species - 273
141. Qiadruple Species * * 274
142. S>uin tuple Species - - ibid.
143. si mount of the Species - 276
144. Further Explanation of the Formula ibid.
145. Species of Metals ,. v - 277
146. Native Metals - , '.-. . 278
147. Mine rail fed Metals . . 279
148. Miner alijing Subftances - ibid*
149. Metal* mine rail fed by Sulphur ibid.
$, 151. Vitriols
CONTENTS. xt
151. ritriols page 280
152. Metals miner alifed by the muriatic
Acid - - 281
T 53- Met ah miner alifed by the aerial *dcid ibid.
154. Metals miner alifed by the pbofyboric
slcld - - 281
155. Metals miner alifed by the arfenical
Acid - - ibid.
156. The different Species of Metals admit of
alrnojl number lefs Variations - 182
157. Species of Pblogiflic Subjlances ibid.
izfi. Specie* of tbt Diamond - - ^83
159. Speeies of Sulpbur ibid.
160. Species of Petroleum - ibid.
161. Spedcs of Amber - ibid.
\(>2. Origin of phlogijlic Subjlancts - 284
16^. Species of Yo fills ml\ed mechanically 285
164. The feverul Species e.\preffed by Letters ibid.
165. Continuation - 286
1.66. The Pojition and Situation of mixed
Fofllls ' 287
167. Species of organic Fojfils ibid.
168. Species of organic FolJJils miner alifed by
Salts 28 g
169. Species of organic FoJJils miner alifed by
Earths - ibid.
170. Species of organic Fojjilt impregnated
ivltb metallic Particles ~ 290
171. Species ofp^log ijlicatcd organic FoJJils
291
VAJL-
xii CONTENTS.
VARIETIES.
5172. Ordinary Confufon of Varieties with
Species - page 292
173. Criteria of Varieties to It: taken from
external Appearances - - ibid*
174. llhijl ratio n of external Ma rks 293
175. Amorphous Fojjils ibid.
176. Cbr \Jluline Fojjils - ibid.
177. External Marks taken from the Tex-
ture of Fojjils - - 294
178. from the Colour ibid.
179. Plnjical Marks - -295
180. Varieties of organic Fojjils ibid.
8i. Epilogue ibid.
Of GIVING NAMES to FOSSILS.
182. The Utility of Names Properly adapted
in Mineralogy - - . 2(jf
183. IHJhry of Names in Natural Philofv-
phy - ibid.
184. Of reforming the Names of Fojfils 297
185. Names that that are evidently abfurd
c light to expunged 300
186. Andfalfe names Jikewife Hid.
187. JVhat then are the Names to be adopt- 301
ed ? 301
1 8 8. IVbat ore the Names to be tolerated? ibid.
% 189. Nunfies
CONTENTS, xiii
189. Names Jignifying lefs than the tbing de-
fined ought to he ab'jlifljcd page 302
190. How are ivc to proceed without proper
emphatic Names - 303
191. Name* derived from the Authors of
new Difcoveries 303
192. By what Means the C/qffct of Fijfih
arc to be defined 304
193. Denominations of Genera - 305
194. Of applying Names to the fun pie Fojllt,
and efpecinlly to the Salts 307
195. Ntuna of Species hi the Cafe of Salts 308
196. Trivial Namrs of Salts 3 1 r
197. Of the Specific Names of Earths, Me-
ta/f, and pblogijlic Subjlanrcs 314
f9S. Conclttfion. - 31^
VJ. Of the Co MCI NATION of MERCURY \\\\\\
the MARINE ACID.
5 I. Introduction - 317
3. Corro/ive mercurial Sublinuite 319
3. Whether corrojivc mercurial Sublimate
can be prepared by the Mixture of the
marine Acid and Mercury - 320
4. The various Proceffes by which corro-
fivr Mercurial Sublimate is prepared.
and I. The Mixture of Bodies contain-
ing Mercury and muriatic Acid 322
5. II, What is the Importance of the ni-
trous
Iv CONTENTS.
trtus Acid fn the Preparations ofmcr-
curid Sublimate - page 315
6. III. How far is tbe Vitriolic *4cid Ser-
viceable in this Preparation. - 326
7. IV. IVbat are tbe Effetts of tbe Vitrio-
lic and Nitrous Acids ufed together to
tbisPurpofe? - . 379
8. IVbat Mode of Preparation is tbe bejl 332
9. Tbe external Appearance of corro/ive
mercurial Sublimate - 335
10. Its Cbarafler in nfyecl of stir and Wa-
ter 336
1 1 . Corrojive mercurial Sublimate diffblved
in Spirit of Mine - - 337
12. Diffokfd in mineral Acids - 338
13. United ivitb alkaline Salts and caujlic
Lime - - 340
14. . witb Metals - ~ 342
15. Tbe Quantity of Acid and Mercury in
corro/ive Sublimate, and itsfpecific IVeigbt 344
z6. Corrojive Sublimate adulterated witb
Arft-nic 347
17. IVblte mercurial Precipitate 349
18. Modes of Preparation. 350
19. JVbite mercurial Precipitate d(ffilved
in Water 357
20. The Quantity of Acid contained in
ivbtte Mercurial Precipitate 358
I . Adulteration of ijubite Mercurial Pre-
t \fiti\tc - - 535
21, Sweet
CONTENTS. xv
$ 22. Sweet Mercury ^ page 359
23. Methods of preparing it 360
24. In 'what Way the ancient Chcmijls pro-
ceeded in refpett to fweet Mercury 365
25. P by fical Qualities offwect Mercury 366
26. Siveet Mercury diffbhed by various
Fluids 368
27. Procefi for preparing corrojive Mer-
cury from fweet Mercury 369
28. How it happens that the cor ro five Force
offaJited Mercury it not a! ways the fame
37
a 9. The various fffei of the Mercurial fain
373
VII. PROCESS for BURNING BRICKS.
5 I. Circumtlances which fuggejled the fol-
low iig Experiments, and the Dpfgn
with which they are communicated 376
i. The different Sorts of Bricks - 377
3. The ordinary Faults of Tiles - 378
4. Pure Clay '. V 379
5. Common Clay - 380
6. 7/ou; Bricks fiould he formed and burnt 381
7. Attempts to im^iyve Clay by the inter-
mixture of other Subjlanccs are of no
Service - * - 383
8. Experiments of the Author - .. 384
f). Advice relative to the burning of bricks 385
{o. Methods ofajfiiying C/ayfor Tiles 386
VIII. Of
*vi CONTENTS.
VIII. Of the ACIDULATED WATERS of
MEDVI.
. Hi/lory of the acidulated Waters of
Medvi - - page
a . Difioveries by former Experiments of the
peculiar Virtues of the Water* of Medvi 391
3. Phyfical futilities 392
4. Chemical A nahfu of this IVater 395
5. Of the internal Ufe of the Water 399
6. In Ufe in Baths 401
JX. Of the MEDICINAL SPRINGS of LOKARNE.
. i. Hijlory if the Lokarne Springs 403
2. Pbvfical Qialities 404
3. Chemical Analvfu 4-^
4. Earth of Lokarne - . .411
5. Salubrious Powers - 412
X. Of COBALT, NICKEL, PLATINA, and MAN*
CANESE.
i . Circumftances which fu
Experiments -
2. Examination ofPlatina by Precipita-
tion - -' 4 '7
3. Precipitates of Nickel - 4 2
4. Precipitates of Cobalt * 4 2 -
5. Precipitates of Manganeft 4-4
6. Corollaries
XI. OBSERVATIONS on URINARY CALCULI.
OF
or T H x
O R I G I N
o r
C H E M I S T R Y.*
In art'ibut etfcifnfiif, tanquam in met alii fodlnis, omnia novit op
ril/ut tt ullcrtonlut progrrJJiLus circurnjlrepcrc dclcnt.
BACO DE VERVLAMIO.
5. I. Of the Slow Progrcfs of Natural Pbi
J\ S the qualities of bodies can never be known
by rcafbning a priori^ it is not to be wondered,
that the progrcfs of Natural Philofophy unto its .
prefcnt height fliould have been fo flow, when
we confidcr, that every thing mud be atten- *
lively obfcrvcd, compared, and put to the tcil ;
of experiment. The fallibility of our fenfcs,
too, is one great caufe of delay: For, whenever
A fubftanccs
* T'aia difTcrtation was publicly read at Upfal, ia the
IIJJ, 4ih Jucc 2779.
* OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
fubftanccs below a certain fkc are to be exa
mined, they are either feen confufedly, or va*
nifli from the fight; and things that arc in them-
felvcs fuflicienlly obvious are often reprcfented
very obfcurely. The great number and variety
of characters likcwilc of the productions of na-
ture is fo great, tlr.it I will venture to fay, not
only the fagacity of Newton, employed during
the age of Methufalem, had failed in afccrtain-
ing but flightly the qualities of a fingle object;
but that the united indufhy of many, employ-
ed during a long fcrics of age-j, had not been
more fucccfsful.
Nature may be compared not improperly to
an iininenfe book, written in an unknown lan-
guage. In order to underilund the text of
which, it is ncccflary that the letters ihouhl
lie known, ib that by attentively obferv ing the
refcmblance and difparity of bodies, their dif-
tinguifliing characters, and natural qualities,
may be difeove;ed. This conftitutes Xutunil
Hijiory. Then the fyllables are to be form-
ed : And this allegorical language points out
general properties to be determined by proper
experiments. And, as in focicty, the genius
ai'id fecret difpofition of the mind and aUcctions
arc rendered more cbnfpicuous in ftuiationi of
diiliculty and diflrefa; Ib, in the fume manner,
the fecrets of nature arc more unfolded by the
nioleftations of art than when they are fuftered to
remain undiflurbed. Fromliencc Pbrfcsunfe.
Next,
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 3
Next, the fcnfe and connexion is to be gather-
ed from the words, as to the proportion and va-
rious modifications : Which conilitutcs Cbcurif-
try.
If then we confidcr thcfc three vafl fields of
phenomena and experiment, and thc-fmall num-
ber of l hole who have attended to their cultiva-
tion ; and if we contemplate the ncecflary fup-
ply of felcd apparatus, llie fingular fagacity rc-
tjuifitc for militating proper trials and view the
unwearied patience, dexterity, and exquiiltc at-
tention, in carrying on, repeating, and varying
tlie fcvcral proccflcs; and finally, the mature
and penetrating judgement required to form a
true refult, we fhali ccafe to wonder at the
flow ad\anccs of Natural Philofophy.
Lord Vcrulam juftly remarks, that the hu-
man undcrflanding is not a mere faculty of ap-
prchcnfion, but is affcclcd more or Icfs by the
will and the pufiions. What man illics to be
true, thru he caiily believes to be fo. From
impatience he rejects every difficult enquiry;
irorn pride and arrogance, he difdains the light
of.cxperienee, left he fliould appear to be wholly
abforbcd. in particulars iubjcd to the fcnfes.
He dcfpifes moderate purfuits, bccaufc they li-
mit his hope; avoids paradoxes, on account of
the oprnionof the vulgar; and flights the beau-
tiful difcovcrics of others, from envy.
The hiilory of Natural Philofophy muft there-
fore in z great mcafure confiil of errors, falfe-'
A 2 Iwods,
4 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
hoods, and conje&urcs : For in nil crofs ways w
feldom arrive at the truth by the fhortcfl path ;
nor do we reach it at latt but by many circui-
tous wanderings, and after every other read has
been tried unfuocefsfully. But, ncverthelds, the
view of the errors of the human underfta ,ding
is exceedingly ufe ful, and thr caules of them be-
ing laid open in the examples of others, the mind
is improved ; like a failor, who, from different
charts, learns to navigate through dangerous
feas, and from the track of former voyagers, to
c-fcape the rocks and fhorils around him. Hence
then it appears, in what manner the under-
ltanding,rcfcued from dark nefs, reflects the light
of truth, and refumes its true direction.
The hiilory of chemillry s properly divided
Into the mythologic, the obfcure, and the cer-
tain. The firft period exhibits it from its in-
fancy, deformed by fictions, until the deftruC-
tion of the library of Alexandria by the Arab:.
The fecond, though freed in fome meafure
from thefc abfurdities, yet is Hill clothed in num-
berlcfs enigmas and allegorical exprcilions.
The third period commences at the middle ot*
the feventeenth century, with the firft eftablilli-
rncnt of focicties and academics of fciencc ; of
which the wife aflbciates, in many places unit-
ing their efforts, determined to purfuc the ilu-
dy of Natural Philofophy by obfen-ation and
experiments, and candidly to publifh their at-
tempts in a general account of their t ran fac-
tions.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
tions. In the following pages, we fliall give a
ilight fketch of the firft period, trufting to the
mild criticifm of our gentle readers. To treat
of every part at large would exceed the limit*
tf one volume.
II. Origin of Chemical Art**
Tun concatenated Tories of truths on which
feience depends, arifes from a more frequent and
accurate companion of many phenomena.
In order to acquire this knou ledge, it is nccef-
lary to prepare a number of experiments and
observations with judgement and attention.
The properties of foine bodies, porhaps, were
known immediately; but neceflity, or the love
of gain and convenience, the moll powerful in-
citement to genius, taught their ufe and appli-
cation. Hence iprung arts and artificers ; but,
as yet, there appeared no vcftigc of true fcience.
Sagicif.y and fedulous invciligation were requir-
ed to perceive the relation of various phcnc.no-
n;i, and to reduce them, in fonu* mcafure un-
folded, to a necellary arrangement.
We arc, however, to far from wiihing to tie-
tract from the merit of the tirft ditcovercrs, that
we contend, they were men of the grcateft in-
genuity ; for who will not allow, that in order to
^udge truely of their claim to honour, both the
times in which they lived, and their fituations,
A 3 njufl.
fi OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
mud betaken into the account. If Newton, the
great Newton, the glory and ornament of thw hu*
man umlei Handing; he who determined fo won-
derfully the law's of motion of the planetary tyf-
tern ; who, to t lie aftonilhment uf all mankind, di-
vided a ray of light, and reduced almoil infinity it-
fell" to calculation; if thi; hero of philosophers
had lived among the Laplander*, he would fcarce?
have been the inventor of decimal arithmetic.
Or had the fublime Stahl cxilled before the
ilood, he had, perhaps, riot furpailed Tubalcaiu
in dexterity,
Hence it may, in fume meafure, be conjectur-
ed, why, in remote times, divine honours were
paid to the firR difcovcrcrs of the works of na-
ture ; and why to thofe who had deferved well
in t;ivil allairs, the dignity 'of heroes only wa.
granted. The benefits of the firll a tied all the
Jiuman race, and extend their hi'ppy inlluences
through every age; while the operations of the
latter is confined to certain iituutious, and limit-
ed to a few years. Jiclides, it rarely happcm
th-'.t any improvement takes place in fociety,
without fume violence or commotion; but the
noble diicoveries in the great book of nature
bleii \vhvrc\cr they proceed, and bear their fu-
lu: ; iry fruits without lorrow or diflurbance *.
The truths of every part of philoibphy, whe-
ther they are worthy of admiration, and extol
the \vifdom of the fupreme aut!;ority of naturu,
Ck\
* Lord Jhcon. *
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 7
or whether they arc actually beneficial to the
purpofcs of a ftatc, do ftill intitlc it to the fame
degree of cftimation. But, ncvc^hclcfs, there
arc not wanting many cultivators of fcicnce who,
nut content with this Inure of commendation,
feck in the dull of antiquity fcr traces of invert*
tjons they conceive to have been meritorious,
dr to have been more amply difcufied. And
I am forced to acknowledge, that many among
ihc earlier chcmifts cfpccially, have attended
too much to tins fludy, labouring to reduce to
their favourite iyftem the fublimcil arts almoft
coeval with our own globe. In this view anci-
ent monuments are ranfackcd, and diligent fearch
i' every where made for the vefligcsof their bc-
Joved a^e ; and if, in the tcilimonics they arc
able to produce, any thing fhould be deficient,
they are at no lofs to fupply the vacancy with
reaibning and conjecture. Let us attend a
little to thcfc patrons of fucli high nntiquity.
Surely they apprehend, that from this enquiry
into the character and hillory of mankind, it
\vill appear, that the firft intimations of arts and
fciences were received partly by divine, and
partly by diabolic infpiration. The lioly writ-
ings make mention of fevcrol interviews with
God and angels ; nay, even in cxprcfs words, it
i? faid, that Hezalcel, the fon of Uri, was endu-
ed with the fpirit of the Lord, and with /kill to
*-ork in gold, (ilver, brafs, marble, in precious
A 4 ft ones,
8 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
flones, and feveral kinds of wood *. They adduce
Enoch the patriarch, as a firfl evidence, who relates
that the Egrcgori (*>r/f- adminiftrcd antidotes a-
gainft poifons to men and women, and verfcs that
fhould preferve them from difeafes. And they
quote llexaele the tenth prince of the Egrcgori,
who taught the art of making fwords,breafi-plates,
and all warlike inilrumcnts, and the methods of
\vorking gold and lilver, to make them appear
beautiful to the women; and indruclcd them
in painting their faces, and in wearing precious
flones f .
The fame thing ulmofl is advanced upon the
faith of ancient monuments by Clemens Alex-
andrinus J, Tcrtullian , and Eufcbius |{. u-
polcmus in Kufebius relates of Enoch himfelf,
that he was taught by angels, and transmitted
the fcience of allrology, through Mcthufalcia
and his podcrity, down to Abraham. Zofimus
of Panopolita aflcrts, th.it the works of nature
were revealed by demons unto the daughters of
men, in return for their love ; and he adds,
that the firfl account of thcfe arts was called
,v/*. as well as the book itfclf; and hence the
nrt
* Exod.xxxi. 3.
f- Frajjmcn apud Synctllum.
t Strom. 5.
$ DC iduKilria dc virgin, vchnd. ct cultu
I! Prarp. cvantj. lib. 9* cap 17, 18.
OF THE ORIGIN' OF CHEMISTRY. ?
an came to be diftinguifhcd by the name ***.
By rmgcls or demons, and Egrcgori, as the/
are called by fome, many underftand, with Bor-
richius, the poftcrity of Seth and Tubalcain,
(the children of God) the wicked offspring of
righteous parents, who being initiated by their
fathers in the fecret myflevics of nature, pro-
fancd the majelly of their truft, by an- ill-timed
loquacity with the daughters of Cain, with
wliofe charms they were captivated. By this
and other crimes they drew upon themfclves the
anger of the Deity f. Who could believe that
morofe philofophers.fliut up, for the great eft part
of their lives ami Jit the coal- and furnaces of their
laboratories would lerioully leek the origin of their
fciencc in the tender paflion ? But they did not
flop here. Almoil every where in their writ-
ings they allude to love fports ; one while to thf^
nuptials of a philofophit king, then to the not
of Vulcan, and many other llcrics r/f a iimilar
nature ; which, as they fay, are all to receive a
myftic interpretation. Wherever Homer itu-
' X.f* TM
TVTCI/ i
i< T-T r* *< f
r, 6i < rr* ra ^en-
Conf. Scaligcr in notis ad Kufcbii ciirunicont
j- Dificrtat. Jc oitu ct pro^cfTu climcix*
xo OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY,
dioufly dcfcribcs the Helen embraces of Mars anc|
Venus, thcfe fkilful profelTors of the art arc
furc to dil cover fume chemical fccrct, fome com-
bination of copper and iron, painted in glowing
colours. When they menu to fignify the mule,
ing of gold, which they call the great work,
they fpeak of broken conjugal iakh: They had
perhaps erred leis, liad they thus inierpretcvl
conjugal fidelity unbroken.
But we have dwelt fulliciently on thefe
things. It is however truly to be lamented,
ihat thofe who cultivate the ingenious arts, as
well as the ignorant vulgar, fhould plcafc them-
ielves with ridiculous opinions, which they af-
terwards venerate and defend, with us. much
'zeal as they would the interell of their country
and religion; fee-king cut arguments every
where, by which they may be fuppoited. For,
fuch is the force and obtlinacy of prejudices,
that whoever fuller themfelves to be led away
by them always maintain thofe very errors of
which they an* confdous, a practice moil un-t
worthy of, and prejudicial to ai; iiivefligator of
truth. He who delires truth tranu'llly, will a! ,
ways feck it, with Horace : 4 ^
Si quid nwljli reflius ijllf^
Candulus imperti.
All that can be faul \vith certainty of the
origin of chemhlry, is refolved limply into
this, that the various arts depending upon it are
of the liif'lieit j;:.Ju|irity. Tlie ilriptuves call
Tvibafcain,
OF THE ORICIX Ol CHEMISTRY. i*
Tubalcain, the eighth man from Adam f thcr
worker and hammerer of iron and copper*; the
fame whom the heathens jccm to have wor-
fhippcd under the name of Vulcan. We arc
not acquainted with any proofs of his (kill; and
indeed it is inoft likely they would be of the
rudeft kind. The title of chcmift, however,
with which he appears to have been honoured
by many, would have applied fully as well to
every fmith and melter of metals. Some indeed
inlift,that neither brafs nor iron couidbc wrought
and varioufiy moulded, unlcfs the method of in-
vcfiigating the nature of minerals, of burning,
purifying, and fcparating them, were prcvioufly
uncle rfloocl,
If ratals however were found native in the
neighbourhood of Paradiic, there could be no
occafion for all ihcfe proccfies. Mention is
;nade of gold (liicc the beginning of the world f;
and in the time of Abraham many tilings were
bought and fold by determined weights of filvcrj.
Tliemoft ancient monuments clearly denionllratc
the great quantity of thefe metal.-*; and il is*
not unlikely that the ingenious Tubalcainlhould
obferve they were capable of extension under
the liamrner, and of fufion by ilre; and that
hg
* Gen. ir. 22.
f Gen. ii. 1 1, 12.
^ Gen. xxiii. 16.
Tlicrc was once a time, \vncn Tnankltxi were totally itrnr,-
jcrs to the ufc of Arc; and they fcc:n to l:r.vc learnt its mture
it OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
he would fearch for thefe properties in other
bodies, anddifcovered them in iron and copper,
h alfo very probable.
The
and Its property of heating and deflroying bodies, from volca-
nic eruption*, and from ll;c effects of lightning. Jt will be
cafily f.ppofcd, that, on iu fir/I difcovery, fire would be at-
tentively and anxioufly prticrvtd, and that cure would be b-!
Jlov.'td to nourifh it, in proportion as its great utility became
known. Hence, it ii beyond all doubt, that the office of fup
porting it a. given, a* an honourable re.vard, ty thole, illul-
trious men who Iu4 ckfcivcd well of the Hale. The authority
of religion loo became attached to it, and the fuperilitious
vcnvration of perpetual firCicithcrwoifliipped in the name of ihr
Deity, or coniVcratcd to the godj ; ui.lil, by degrees, it was
ciilcovcrcc 1 , that firfc could be excited at will j with which,
howvver, few only wcic l fiift *c<jaaii)tcd, and which fceir.y
to have been confidcred by them as a fccret. We read of
Abel's ofTcrin^ to God, winch niufl nrcci&rily h:ive been con-
funicd bynrc,unlcf) he made his facriHccs in Ionic other manner.
I am ckurly of opinion that the fcparation of metals by
lire was difcovcrcd by acciiK nt. But t'lis powerful clcmcut
vas fa fjr from being known to the whole human race, that,
we are told by Pliny, the Egyptians in Africa, before the
rrign of Ftulcmy JLathuvu.,, wcic entirely ignorant of its uf*.
Nay, we are certain, that, three hundred years ago, the in-
liabitants of the ifiands between AHa and America were c-
oually unacquainted with it.
I do not appn.heml thue would !>e any dlfliculty in okfcrv.
jfg, that Hones rubbed ngninil rach other produced fparki of
f.ro. Theattil.cc ol Pninictiieiif, fo celebrated in the fongj of
poets, appear.** to have been nothing tl/e than tire produced in
tlr!s rniuncr fiuro ftoiJK**, rxct-pt that lie fall flu- wed how it
iJiovjld he nouriflicd. To this* applies tie account of Pliny :
' : i'yrodis the- fon of Cilex fn ft obtained fire from ^lints
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 15
Tlie Siberian iron examined by Pallas wa c >
found to be malleable, though cold, or mode*
rately
41 anil Prometheus taught firft to prcfcrvr it in a reed," L. 7.
C. 57. And clfe where, " It is well known, that fre is bed chc-
* rilhi'd in reed*, and Ui.it thofe in Egypt excel all others."
Lil>. 13. e. 22.
The vulgar opinion fnppofes Ariftophancs to be the firfl
who made any mention of burning-glades. But if thofc vcr-
fcs are gcn\iine, which arc attributed to Orpheus, it will ap~
pear that this prince of poets, who lived long before Arifto-
phancs, had dcfcnbcd the effect of the folar rays received into
cryflaT, in the f Ilowing lines :
' Take into yorr hands a fplcndid and pellucid cryftal,
" A ftonc pofTcfTing fuch divine brilliancy,
*' As docs the hearts of the immortal gods delight, ia hcav'n
" cntliron'd :
" This, if to the temple then you bear,
" No god upon your vows (hall unpropitious frown.
'* The virtue of this wond'rous Hone attend and learn :
*' Should you, without b-.rning fire, chufe to excite a flam<%
* To ft^gots dr) M approach it near.
" Upon the wood anon a gentle ray appears:
M Which, when once the dr)' and fat materials it hat fuVd,
" Smoke fnft, then fire and dreadful flame
" Afcend : Earth's facr d fire by the ancients nam*d.
" With other flame than this, facritices to the god
" Acceptable, I hope, will never b rn.
* Moreover, of tins wond'roi:s cryil il ad<!,
< That, though itfclf the caufc of heat, yet, foon
" At from the blazing fire withdrawn, *ti ilraight way cold,
" And fafcly lobe handled ; and, to the rcinj applied,
" AH paini and aches remover,."
Plutarch, in the life of Numa, after ts that the holy fire of
the vcfiali was kinUlcd by burning-a^^'-
14 OF THE OIUC1NT OF CHEMISTRY.
lately heated. Iron of thcfe qualities, however,
is now very rare; though it is not impoffiblc
that, in the infancy of the world.it fhould have
been more abundant, and by fucceeding ages
corroded into ochre. The flight mention made of
kin the fcripturcs proves not h ing certain as to its
proportion; it rc'ls therefore upon conjecture,
tuid that hy no means well founded.
The facrcd writings fpcak of Noah, probably thci
ttaechiiL, of the Pagan*, that he made wine from
grapes*, and mention the burning of bricks foi
building the tower of Babel f. ThcfeareahnofUhe
Oiilytracesof chemical arts preceding the deluge J.
in. T/JC
Of fire produced hy friclion, Pliny fy&, 1. xvi. c. 40.
" Thofc trees from which touchwood can be made, a. ilu*
* mulberry, laurel, and ivy, arc all or" a warm nature.
" Scuutj of armies and fhepherds n.ake uk of them forlighl-
4 * iii fires, a* Hones aic not always to be found. Two
* pieces of wood are rubbed hard againft each oilier, until th-
*' tlamc breaks out, wMen i> iuuncdiatcly communieatcd tv>
44 foinc dry fuel, of fungus or leaves. For tliis puipofc no-
' tiling h better than tlitf laurel and ivy. The \vood-\iuc
* alfo may be employed ; not \vlat ii c.iHcd \vild-viue, from
*' \vhuh it differ*, by twitting iUtlf round irccs in the ir.anncr
of ivy."
By a fimilar proc^fi of rubbing pieces of wood together,
the Arabs, und the iflauoVr* cf America, obtain all their
lire.
* Gen. ix. 20, 21.
f Gen. x:. 3.
J lierofus tlic Annian rcbtes that Noah had olfcrved ^-7
cf the ferret \voiks of nature, which \v<?r: only cntr^fted tu
the priefts. Of iiis knowledge t'cfivcd from the pillar* cT
S:tb, Jofvphus fpcaks, Aiili'|. 1. i. c. 3.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
in. The State of Cbcmijlry in
THAT we may proceed in order, we fliall iiril
flightly touch upon the fortunate and unhappy
fates of natural philofophy ; afterwards we (hall
confidcr the various chemical arts; then the
moil celebrated authors in the fciencc of chc-
miftry ; and laflly, we fiiall review their princi-
pal theories,
Every body knows, that Egypt was in
the poflcfiion of Cham the fon of Mizraim : And
Plutarch mentions, that it v/as called Cbcinia *
in thecariieil times, perhaps from Cham the fon
of Noah f. But it is oftcncr the land of Mi/.-
raim, Gen. xiii. 10. xli. 41. xlv. 18.
in consulting thofe writings of antiquity that
have withitood the ravages of time, we have
found mention made of a certain man, whom
the Egyptians call Tbojtb, the Phoenicians,
Taunt, the Greeks ^/u, and the Romans Mer-
cury, and to wham they all attribute the inven-
tion of letters, and many arts and fcicnccs.
From the tcllimony of Diodorus Siculus, he was
liighly honoured by Ofnis the king of Egypt,
and cltccmed above all others for his penetrat-
ing genius in difcovcring every thing that could
be ufeful in common life. The king, accompa-
nied
4 Oflfis and Ofiris, 0.5.
j- ?fal. Jxxxviii. 51. cv. 23. 27. cvi. 22,
16 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
nicd by people /killed in agriculture and other
nrts, travelled into foreign regions, in order to
inftmft the inhabitants, and fubdue their na-
tive ferocity. During his abfcnce he committed
the reins of government to his confort Ifjs, and
appointed Hermes as her counsellor*. Of thi<;
Hermes it is reported, that he engraved upon
pillars, or, according to feme, upon the walls of
the Syr'mgmn cavern?, an account of 'all thefci-
fcnces that had flourifhed before the deluge. Di-
odorus fpeaks befides of two columns in the city
of Nyfa, one of \vhicfi is dedicated to Oiiris, who
was the fon of Crecm, the youngcil of the gods;
and \vlro had over- run many Countries with his
notorious arms, and rendered general benefit to
mankind. The other column bears the follou-
ing infcription: u Ifis am I, the queen, filler,
" and wife of Ofiris, by Thoyth /killed in fci-
** cncc, who taught agriculture to men, \vho
** bore king Horns, who fliines iri the dog-days,
** and who ordered Bubnflus to be built: Fare-..
44 well Egypt, where I was educated,"
Some monuments fpcak of another Hermes,
who, (if A'-lian is to be credited f), lived in the
reign of Sefollris, was higlily extolled for \vif-
dorn, and called Trifmigiftus. Manethuf, the
chief priefl of the Gentiles at Hcliopolis, relates,*
to his king Ptolemy Philadclphus, That all
thofe things which the firft Hermes had writ-
ten
BiU. lift. 1. i. *
f Var. hlil. 1. xii. c. 4-
OP THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 17
ten upcn the columns, either in the holy or the
Egyptian tongue, \vcrc by this man tranfiated,
after the deluge, into Greek, and then written
in hieroglyphics in books, and depofitcd in the
mod facrcd places of the temples *. It is alledg-
cd by fomc, that through a mi flake of the ex-
trad or tranfcription, i*c TM !AK-ti/ *, is infcrt-
ed inilcad of ***., which indicates a ftyle of
\vritinj, according to the Greeks, from left to
right ; or more properly perhaps, inflead of
i<f r *xv- /<*&* viz. /,jL.r. j- : As the Greek lan-
guage was -as yet but imperfectly undci flood, it
i<? notimpoflible; for both the father and grand-
father of Sefoflris had fubjedcd Greece to their
authority.
Two hundred and eighty years before Chrifl,
Mancthus dedicated to the fame king 1m \vork t
entitled /M*O x*afcf, in tlircc volumes, contain-
ing all the hiflory and arts of the Egyptians,
whether compiled from the columns in Scriadi-
ca, or from the facrcd books. Fragments only of
this work arc now remaining }; but iVom it Ju-
ii lius
In libro I. Ghronici Ecfcbii Mantthos is faid
y .!/><"> <!*-", -' f ' /I>.ITW u
r* KTi*A.v*i9v f. rf tiff /iA.ir<i i< r t&Jk<J
i^c>.Xu^ne,{, nai w'*ri >i/rt it ^ M^f * r rv AX'^
fM **r,o< /l f Tr, it rof a/vrtic T* ii^-f Ai)rfrifc-.
f Baum^artcn in Elrl. dcr Alien Gtfch. torn. I. p. u 407.
The Scriadic land U, by its fi^nificntion in tlc Coptic tongt:<- t
to be the f.imc as the land of the fun, or HtKopolius*
Sjncollui in clircno^r.
i8 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY;
lius Africanus, from Africanus Eufebius,
philius, and from Eufebius Synccllus, have fc*
verally made extracts; and from the preface
of Diogenes Laertius, it appears plainly, that he
had made ufe of the * ITT./ of Manethus.
The hieroglyphics of the Egyptians reprcfent
natural bodies entire, as well as in part, andalib
mathematical figures. Thcfc are perhaps the
letters which were attributed to Hermes; ex-
pelling things rather than founds : But how-
ever likely it is, that fuch fliould be the rude
inventions of antiquity, yet \ve (hall prefently
fee, they were reckoned more ingenious than
later improvements. Whatever might be the
mode of writing tlrat Hermes is faid to have in-
vented, although as yet rude and imperfect, it
was clectily of the greatefl importance. Hitherto
the fciences, equally with the vulgar arts, de-
pended entirely on the uncertainty of oral tradi-
tion ; whereas, by the affiltance of letters, the ob-
fervations of ingenious men would be mere ccifily
<;ollocted, compared, and reduced into order,'
and the firft foundations of inrtruction be tila-
blifhcd.
Many circumftances lead us to apprehend
that the cxillencc of both the Ilermefes was not
merely imaginary, as Urfinus and Corringius
do. For although it was the cuftom of the an-
tients to difguife the actions of their heroes in
the ornaments of fiction, yet arc we not to in-
fer, that fuch perfons are altogether fabulous.
There
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 19
'There would he an end to all hiflorical truth,
if, from the difagrcc men t of records in rcfpeclto
form *,we were to deny the exiftcncc of the tilings
themfclves. But, liowevcr, who they pofuivcly
were remains dill infome obfcurity. Many agree-
ing with J. C. Kricgfman, fuppofe the firft to be
Canaan the fon of Cham*. Others, again, with
Kirchcr, imagine him to be Enoch. With Hu-
ct, he is called Mofes ; by Philo, the fon of Miz-
raim (Mifor) f. Nay, fomc of the moft modern
writers think they difcovcr Abraham under that
appellation J ; who, from the united tcftimonies
of Jofcphur, , Eupolcmus, and Artapanus ||,
intruded the Egyptians in the ufe of numbers,
and aflronomy, and dwelt among them for twen-
ty years.
There is no doubt, that the defccndants of
Scth knowing that Adam had foretold the ge-
neral deftrudion of every thing, atone time by
the flood, and at another by a conflagration,
wrote all their inventions and difcoveries upon
f./o columns, left the knowledge of them fhould
pciifn. Jofcphus, who, upon the faith of others,
relates, that fuch a flone iiill cxiftud in his time
B 2 in
* On the Smaragdinc table.
f PLilo BiLlius rcporti from Sanchuniaton, that Mifor had
tSon named Taaut, called by t lie li^ypiiant Tho)th, the in-
e;.tor of the lit A elements uf \vriting.
t Koclu Pharos dei Chron.
} Antiq. I. i, C, 2
1,' Euftdm Ptp. v. ix. c. 17, l8
2* OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
in Syria, is thought, not improperly, to have a*
plied to Seth the above-mentioned account of
Hermes, by Manethus. Sanchuniaton calls
Hermes a Phoenician, which agrees with the o-
pinion entertained of Abraham.
Many of the moderns * difcovcr another Her-
mes in Jofeph the fon of Jacob, from the autho-
rity of antient monuments; from which it ap-
pears, that Faimus (Hermes) was infidioufly be-
trayed by his brethren to the children of Cham ;
among whom he was highly honoured, clothed
in garments of gold, and worshipped as a god,
from his knowledge of future events |-.
In the f cries of Theban kings, extracted with
fuch fingular induflry, under Ptolemy the Third,
from the facred books by Erutofthencs, the firlt
is Menes, perhaps Mifraim the fon of Chum, cal-
led elfewhere Oiiris. Then follow the brothers
Athotis I. and II. of which the latter, the To-
forthrusof Manethus, was /killed in letters, and
various arts. Here, urlcf. I am deceived, we
find the firft Hermes. Siphoas, or Memnon,
the thirty-fifth in order, is diftinguUhed cxprefs.
ly by the firname of Hermes. This is the Pro-
teus of Herodotus and Diodorus, thcAmentph-
thes of Manethus, and probably, the Agamem-
non of Homer, as he \\as not left remarkable
for perfona! ftrength, than for his extraordinary
inventions.
* F. J. V. Schroder* Bibl. fur die ho here Katu^-ifT. t. I-
f Ccdrtni Hifl. It Chr. Alex. Conf. Gen. xxxis-xli.
01' THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 21
inventions. Have we not, then, found Her.
uies II. ? The great variety of names that occur
in 'the hiftory of Egypt, have rendered it ex-
tremely confufcd ; as every king received a new
iirname as foon as he was initiated in the myite.
rics of his religion.
Scfoftris is decorated with the name of Mer-
cury, on account of his wifdom, by Cicero; and
by fomc is imagined to be the fame with Cad-
mus, who, having received letters from the He-
brews, was the firil who communicated them to
the Egyptians, Greeks, and Phoenicians. If it
;s really To, then, as C, W. Beyer with great ftu-
died arguments endeavours to dcmonftrate, it
will be calily underftood, that the letters invent-
ed by the firft Hermes were fymbols of 'things
only, and that the fccond Hermes fccms to have
been the author qf thcfe figns of founds, which
arc at this rime properly denominated letters.
That it may appear in what manner thcfe fe-
vcrally ogrec, if will be right to attend to the
following circumilanccs. According to him,
the deluge was 2289 years before the birth of
Chrift; the arrival of Cham in Egypt, and be-
ginning of the reign of the gods, 2188 years;
the coining of Abraham, 1922 years; the
death of Cham, end of the government of the
gods, and Mcncs king, 1857 years. Scfoflris
987 years; andSiphoa, 889 years*.
B 3 However
* Baumgartcn, I. c. Syncillni Jia^ prcfcrvcd the arrange-
picnt of Eratofthcncs.
22 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
However it may be decided with regard t
thefe Hermefes, it is evident, that they far fur*
palled their cotemporaries in learning and faga-
city, and that the Egyptians were indebted to
them as the authors of tint wifdom for which
they were afterwards fo much renowned. Ac-
cording to Herodotus, the Egyptians were the
wifeft of the human race. The tilings mod wor-
thy of b?ing known were retained by the priefb,
of whom there were three communities, in the
time of Diodorus, at Heliopolis, Memphis, and
Thebes. Among th?n^ diilcrent faiences flou-
riihed, cultivated by ditlereut perlbns*; but lo
folicitoufly were they kept a Uxrct, that not
even the Hierophanti, or the Kings, v.howerr:
often chofenfrom the facerdotal order f, were ad-
mitted to the knowledge of the fublimcr fludicrr,
unlefs they were riril ilrictly examined. They
were unwilling that their fecrets fhouklbe com-
municated to many, and punillied thofe who
ever revealed them. The letters called facred
were known to them only, having learned them
privately from their ancellois { . The people they
amufed with fables, but philolbphifed them-
feives under the names of deities $. It is now
proper to inquire, whether thefc myfterieu bore
anv iclution to the intinmc nature of bodu-s.
Tl.::t
Herod, lib. t'v.
f Plutarchus tic Jfide.
J Clemens Alex. Sir. 1. i.
ci contra C :ifum, 1. j,
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 23
That the chief of their religious opinions were
involved in enigmatical obfcurity, and allegori-
cal fymbols, is beyond alldifpute: But it is by no
rneans a confcquence, that they each took their
rife in phyficui qualities, taken from the very
heart of natural philofophy, although it is pofri-
ble that they came to treat Afterwards of things
more abftracfc, and lefs obvious to the fcnfes.
We arc furprifcd at the author of Atlantica,
\vhofe very fertile genius, fupportcd by great
fhew of erudition, has ventured to tranfport
the ifland of Plato to the north ; but we are not
Jcfs aftoniihcd at the grc.it undertaking of thofc,
who pretend to difcover, in a myflic fenfe, the
. pliiiolbpher's (lone, the making of gold and fil-
vcr, in the mythologic fables of the Greeks and
Egyptians. Certainly, whoever has confidercd
thcfe attempts will wonder at the extraordinary
coincidence of fQ many monuments, even tho
jnoft trifiiing*. But the limits that we havepre-
cribed to ourfelves do.not permit a more particu-
lar examination.
Pliny, fpcaking of the Egyptian obcli/k, in the
great circus ind Campus Martius, adds :"Infcripti
f'ambo rcrum nature intcrpretationemEgyptio-
" rum philofophia continent." Some, inflcad of
"phifophia/'rcad "opera philofophia:." Which-
ii 4 ever
* Sre the various wrltin^a of BornchJup, alfo the Chc
mical Heaven of Tollius in all the f<:nfc of madncfv and Di
Pcrncty, who, like all the rclt, h:ia h.imilcd this fubjcc^, in a
book lately publiflied, entitled, " lablcs Ejypticnncc ct Grrc
" quc dcvoilcds.
*< OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY-
ever reading is preferred, the fenfe will be near*
ly the fame, as it grants that natural philofophy
was written in thcfc hieroglyphics *.
In the following pages, the tefiimonies of ma-,
jiy will be found to corroborate the received o-
pinion, that their phyilcal tenets were expref-
fed in fuch fymbo!$. But, as no ftranger was
capable of reading and explaining them, there
can be no authority for further conjectures.
Following the fentiments of Julius Finnicus
Maternusf, a writer of the 4th century, many
as yet contend that the faccrdotal art, orfucrcd
and divine icienee, as it is called, conliiled chief-
ly of magic and alchemiilry J. By magic, how-
ever, they do iiot here underllund tliofc diaboli-
cal and forbidden pracliccs, which obtained even
in the time of Moles Jj, but merely an attention
to the works of nature, and the particular qua-
lities of bodies, whofe fecret modes of operation,
diflingutrticd commonly by the epithets fympatfiy
aud antipathy, enabled them to difplay all their
miracles. Hence the difference between magical
medicine, hermetic or pbilofonhic, and empiric ;
for the former, reiling folely upon oblervation,
confiders thecaufes of difeafe, the figns of bodies,
and virtues of remedies.und which Ifocrates think*
fo defen r ing of praile, as to give to the Egyptian^
the
* L. xxxvi. 9.
f Matth. L. Hi. c. 15. conf. Pi-xf. 1. ii. iii. iv. v.
^ Schri dcr, 1. c.
. vii. and viii.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 25
tjic fupcriority in all the arts*. Their fkill has
indeed been greatly admired by many writers f;
but, it muft be confcfied, their remedies bore
often the appearance of ridiculous mummery.
Galen afiirms, that King Nechcpfus, 630 years
before Chrift, had written, that, if a green jaf-
pcr, cut into the form of a dragon furrounded
with rays, was applied externally to the pylorus,
the ftomach would be ftrengthened. Have we
not here the traces of amulets and talifmans?
Under all the changes in their government,
under all their kings, and under the yoke of the
Perfiaus, Babylonians, Grcpians, and Romans,
though fciencc did not llourifh among the E-
gyptians with equal vigour, yet did it continue
to be cultivated and protected, until the dcftruc-
tion of Alexandria by the Arabians. Ptolcmeus
Soter had collefted a library in Bruchius, which
by the care of his f jcccflbr, 1'hiludclphus, in-
creafod from 100,000 volumes to 400,000; with
which number it was fo cnuulccl, that it became .
neceflury to creel a new hall at Sera pis, iufli-
ciently large to receive thofe who were daily
coming to it. This olVspring of the old library,
in a few years, could boaft of 300,000 volumes.
The fiift collection was reduced to afhcs, by ac-
cident, in' the war with Julius Ciefar, but die Sc-
ruple
* Conf. Cclfus, L, XXXTI. c. 2, 5, ct 4. ia Uudibui Buf.r.
i* Apuleiut in Apol. '.
f Diodoiut t
26 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
rapic was continually augmenting, and poflfcfled,
at the taking of Alexandria, in 642, above
700,000 volumes, John Fhilopon. a philo-
fopher, petitioned the general of the Saracens,
Amri Ebnol-As, that he would fpare him purt of
this library; but he dared not to comply with
his entreaties, without perniiilion from Omar, the
feccnd caliph; who, when it. was requeued
of him, returned for aniwer, that the books
could not be faved ; for, if they arrced with the
tenets of the Alcoran, they were ufclefs, if they
diilcred from them, they v/ere dangerous *. From
this blow the grea.teil trealure of the knowledge
of the ancient world wa> totally deflroyed, and
the barbarians employed, for above fix months,
all its various manuicripts to kindle the fires of
their baths, of which there were above 4000 in
the city.
Cambyfcs, indeed, carried oiTthc fac red vo-
lumes, but the priefts either fecreted ibme, or
recovered them afterwards, or compofed others
again from the monuments; for both Herodo-
tus and Diodorus, and Erutoftheues law icveral;
and the latter diilinguiihed the genuine from
the falfc. But it is not unlikely, that the hiilo-
rical books were ofVafier cojnpoiition,and writ-
ten in smother manner, a< Jiratollhcncswas able
to understand them.
Candidly, however, it mud be acknowledged,
that doubts may yet be entertained of all th'^
proof*
ii Hid. Dynaft.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 27
proofs that we have brought, especially when
they relate to the periods of the greateft anti-
quity.
For, if we examine into circumfiance:;, that
preceded the age of writers of. the i5tli and iGtli
centuries, and which \\orcrccordexlbyforcigncrs;
if we ccnfider the enigmatical (lylc of thofc
times; and, hilly, if we attend to the impeded!
ft ate of writing, the uncertainty of various rela-
tions and book:, and the errors and alterations
in manuicripts, it will be impolliblc not to hefi-
tatc in our belief. Some authors fpcak of one
Mercury only, others will have two; Abulpha-
ragius names three, Ladlantius four, and Cicero
infills on producing five. How, then, if their
number is as yet undetermined, (hall their ac-
tions be defined, and dates aliigncd to their ex-
iftcnce? Let us pafs therefore to the arts of the
Egyptians, which may probably be involved in
left darknefs.
Dicdorus Siculus, who vifucd Egypt under
the reigns of Julius .and Oclaviu.s Cxfar, at a
time when arts were in full fplendorin the Ro-
man empire, ingcnuoufly confdics, that they
were highly cultivated among the Egyptians,
nnd brought to the greatcfl degree of perfection.
He mentions, that cgg r were not hatched there
by the birds; but that the Egyptians, contrary
to the cuilom of any other country, were able,
by their ingenuity and fame x;atural prcccfc, to
bring
** OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRT.
bring forth the foetus into life *. But here lei
us rather examine the Uate of thofe arts which
floiiriihed in Egypt upon chemical principles. *
Of thefe proofs may be procured fur Icfs fufpi-
cious, as they are yet to be found by thofe who
travel into that country.
Their pharmacy fecms entirely to have con-
fided of extracts, infulions, decoclions, and mix-
tures. From Diofcorides and Pliny we learn,
that they uied the cy perns papyrus, burnt to
allies, inlicad of cauftics t, Galen J afcribes to
the Egyptian priefts the compofition called cy-
pbeos, confirtingpf myrrh .cinnamon, turpentine,
Jj>ice, cy penis, juniper, and bdellium, the per. ,
fume of which they ufed as being acceptable to
the gods; and we are told by Diofcondes, that
this mixture was confideredas an alexipharmic,
and lerviceable in aflhmatic compluints. Galen
allerts, that the competition of Kcnnon, the fa-
cred fcribe, which is called allo //?/, wa; taken put
. J rom thelacred depoiiti in the temple of Vulcan ||.
liciidcs turpentine, this receipt contained Hakes
of copper, mil of brafs, fal ammonaic, burnt
uilum, and feveral other things. They had vajrious
plaiilers formed of litharge, as uftum, diphrygis,
mify, lory, calx of (ilver, and other metallic fub-
ilances; and which were known before the timft
Of
* Lib. ii.
^ ii. N. xxv;. 2.
t l)r Ant. 1. ii. c.2
6 I. i. c, 24. *
|; Cump ir.i !. 1. v. c. I.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. a>
of Hippocrates. Thefc and other examples,
though they do not indicate a very profound
knowledge of pharmacy, yet they arc by no
means contemptible.
That fculpture in all its branches flouriflied a-
mong the Egyptians, is evident from thofc won-
derful edifices of hewn ftone, the Pyramids, which
have fo long withftood the ravages of time ; and
from the marbles, ftatucs, obclifks, and tem-
ples, which we every where meet in Herodotus^
Diodorus, Strabo, Pliny, and Marcellinus; and
are to be feen in Rome at this day. It fccms
highly probable, that Panopolis was the chief
and moil ant ient/Wr/?r# x^o^,. Strabo* makes
mention of it; and it was hither without doubt,
that the moft famous Grecian flatuarics refortcd.
In the earlicfl periods they were acquainted with
the method of burning bricks |-, of forming va-
ies for ointments out of alabaflcrj, and of mak-
ing mortars for medical purpofcs from granite,
the Pyrrhopoecilus of the anticntsj. They hud
ibmc mortars al fo of black marble ||.
Pliny mentions, that common fait was obtain-
ed from a lake in the neighbourhood of Mem-
phis*]", and nitre at Naucratis and Memphis.
Strabo
* Geogr. xvii.
f l'I>;od. v. .
$ Pliuius, I. xxxvi. c. 8.
Diofcoridc% 1. v. c. 102.
U PlJn. xxxvi 17. Strabn, 1. xvii.
5| Flin. 1. xxxi. c. 17* Wlu; he relates iu tliu chapter vf
tl.c
30 OP THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY;
Strabo fpcaks of two placed beyond Momcm-
phis, where nitre is produced. The Egyptian
nitre, according to Pliny*, was dark coloured,
and hard like a Hone; and the proccfs of mak-
ing it fimilar to that of fait, except that the fea
was let into the fait pans, while the Nile only
entered thofefor nitre. As the Nile retired they
became dry, but were kept moift tor forty days,
"by being fprinkled with the nitrous folution. If
rain fell, they diminiflicd a proportional quanti-
ty of the Nile, and removed the nitre from the
pits as fooi i as it began to thicken, loll it Humid
be uj'.ain diflblved. In this oily rtatc they ap-
plied it as a remedy for the fcab in animals.
When laid by in large mattes it becomes hard.
They reckon the lighteft part of nitre, and con-
fequemly the frothy part, the beft; but the
roarfe dregs are ferviceab'le in dying purple and
all other colours. -The Memphitic nitre was
foul in its concretions; from whence the ftony
iuaiFes of which vafes were formed, and fome-
t hue's reduced to a coal by means of ignition
\vith fulphur. The aphronitrum, or fcum of ni-
tre, w:is brought in veflels covered with pitch,
letl it ihould clillblve by contact with the air.
Nitre was adulterated with lime, which was ca
lily difcovcred by the tafle; the genuine melt-
ed readily in the mouth, but the fpurious was
extremely
the flower of kit, fcems to apply properly to tlie fairer* of
fal ammoniac.
* L. x\xi. c. iu.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 31
extremely pungent, and emitted a powerful o-
dour. They were ditlinguifhcd alfo by burning
them in the fire; the adulterated being always
in a clofe vcilcl, that it might not ily out; the
genuine not requiring that precaution. From
other circumflanccs it appears, that the nitre of
the Egyptians was mineral alkali, in fonic de-
gree cauflic, combined with nitrated volatile
alkali*,
Pliny commends the Egyptian aluinf. Di-
xion in his commentary on Athenreus, thinks,
that fal ammoniac was fcnt from Egypt into
1'erfiaJ.
The Egyptians obtained oils from the rlcheft
olives, from radifhes, graft, fefamy, nettles, and
other vegetable fubflanceb. The mummies
which are yet found entire, afibrd fpecimens of
the mod perfect fkill in embalming. Ilcroda*
tus,
* Boyle received in a prcfent from the En^liih ami>afTaf!or
at the Porte, a piece of Nitre from the river Nile, which do
llqucfccd in the open aii as readily as fait cf tartar, and cfier-
vcfc d violently wiili the acetous and maiinc acids. Sec D<:
Produc. Chem. Princ. f 3. Barkhufcn reports, that llic fjlt
extracted from the Nile, when mixed with lime, has nn urinoui
fmell, Acroam. 1 34. To the fame fait mui\ be attributed
*-lut we rend of the Nile in Profpcr Alpinus, in Hift. -cEg.
that it pttfTtflci a falinc lade, is purgatire, cmmcna^oguc, and
diuretic.
f L. Ixlcxv c. i^.
$ Dipnof 1. ii. c. 29.
f Pliniuj, xv. 7. xix, 5.
3t OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
tiis*, and Diodoms Siculusf, relate, that thd
Ethiopians formerly inclofed their dead bodies?
ing/afs; but which Gefner contends is to be un-
derftood as amber \. As to what we arc told of
their perpetual lamps, from Arabian authority,
if they are not wholly fabulous, they can have
been nothing clfe than threads of amianthus (or
earth flax,) and finall dreams of bitumen, with
which thole regions abound.
Diodorus mentions a place in which were fe-
veral large golden mines, that were wrought by
many thoufanc! men in chains; and he fpeak
:tlfo of the working of gold and bra is at Thebes ;
It is worth while to attend to the defcription he
gives of their operations, and of the minerals
on the confines of Arabia, with which, he fays,
the kings were acquainted in the earlieft ages.
The foil is black, and produces \vhite veins of
marble. The mineral, rendered brittle by cal-
cination, is firft broken and then divided int?
imaller pieces, and pulveriied in mills ; the cftr-
thy part is fepu rated by wafhing on an inclined
plane; and then certain proportions of IcaJ, of
lult, tin, and a flux being added to the reliduum,
the whole was put into covered crucibles, and
expofedto the lire for rive iiycbtbemera;u.ivl thus
pure gold without any fcori^ was obtained. Here
w*?
* Thalia.
f L. xv.
$ Aa GovltiMg, 1. 2. i
L ill
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 33
we fee the fame procefles as are yet employed
by the moderns.
They did not engrave, but painted Anubis on
their (ilver veflels * ; and Heliodorus records, that
Chariclca the daughter of the Egyptian prophet
wore at her brcall golden ferpents of rin azure
colour ; that the fplendor of the gold had been
deitroycd by art, to imitate the rough and va-
rious fcales, and reprefcnt the fkin fpottcd with
black and yellow f* From this, then, it appears
that the art of colouring metals by fire was not
unknown in fhofe days. The Egyptians made
glafs of a dark colour, fometimcs tranflucid, cal-
led ob/idinnurn, in imitation of that which was
clifcovcrcd by Obfidius in Ethiopia |. But their
magnificent cups betray a confidcrable know-
ledge in the art of making glafs; and of which
the Emperor Adrian, then rcfiding at Alexan-
dria, thus writes to the conful Scrvius: " I have
" fent to you fomc Alaffian cups of various co-
11 lours, given to me by the pried Of the tem-
'* pie : They are dedicated to you, and particu-
41 larly to my fitter; and I dcfirc that you will
44 always produce them at your fcafts on holi-
days." Bcfidcs thcfc proofs of their ikill, we
have tcftimonies of their being able to imitate
the emerald. Pliny mentions, that in Ixh time
C the
* Plin. 1. xxxlit. c. 9.
^ ^f-thiop. 1. v.
J Plin. 1 xxxvi c *G.
J Lib. Phl;gonti>.
M OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
there was (till extant in an Egyptian labyrinth
a Colofllan Scrapis of emerald, meafuring nine
cubits high: And Tlicophrallus ulfodcicribes an
obeliik in the temple of Jupiter, funned of four
emeralds, that was 40 cubits in length, and in
fome places four, in others two, in diameter*.
That, therefore, the Egyptians had very fuccefs-
fully imitated the emerald, is beyond a doubt ;
for there fcarcely, or perhaps never, was found
real (tones of fuch magnitude. They reprefent-
ed the turqueois alto, as we learn from Thco-
phralhis; and the merit of giving it the blue
colour is afcribed to one of their kingbf. Were
they acquainted with cobalt J? Pliny aliens,
that
* II. N. xxxv 1.5.
f Of Stones, 98.
$. The celebrated PauW afiinns that the Egyptians ufcd finaft,
and the Romans alfo, if we believe Lehman, were not igno-
rant of this mineral. Fcibcju* aiid Dclaval entertain the
lame opinion, which the one iuppoi'*, by appealing to the
fmali Egyptian im:i;jt* incruilcd with blue glafi, aud the o-
her from the little blue Hones th:it tire cwry where iuuml in
the fepv.Ha ted works and pavements of the ancients. The
illuitrious Gmellin, Prof. Gottin^. liowc\er, t!ci:k^ that the
account given of it by Pliny can puflibly apply to cobalt, and
<.)iufe lather to uuvlci iiand from the writings of this naturalilk
the native blue calx of copper, called ultramarine. 12cfidc,
he thinks that tle blue colour of Egyptian glali was imparted
to it without tire; or, if ii. deed lire had been employed, that
it wa* obtained fiom Tome otlitr mttal than cobalt. Kxpeii-
mtiitt coiiiiim tlti',, opinion. K^t li-.r from mount Ptligiird,
:\ *v/ )c;\u iuu'C) loinc 1'cpcllatfd pavement vt'variou^colo
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 35
that their opaque red coloured glafs, called H;c-
matinos, the white and murrbinc, and the ims
C 2 tations
floncs was dug out of the earth. Some of thofc that were
blue Gmcllinus diflolvcd in aqua rcgia ; and, having made a.
perfect fululion, he dlfcovercd evident marks of iron. Had
there been any cobalt, it would have formed the fympathctic ink.
There is no mention made of cobalt among ancient authors ;
for what is called cadmia by Pliny feems to have been zinc, or
rather arfcnic. I have not heard of any one yet who ha
found cobalt, either in Egypt, Arabia, Kuinidia, or Ethiopia.
And, as to the mineral of which Lehman fpeaks, that was
brought fiom mount Atlas, and poifcifed the property of
tinging glafs of a blue colour, it was probably the ore of iomc
other metal. If you except Picdcmont, there is no appear-
ance of cobalt in all Italy. It was certainly found however in
Picdernont after the time of the Romans : and the inhabitants
of that country were fo ignorant of the art of making it into
imalt, that they fold the cobalt but rudely calcined to the peo-
ple of Nurcmbi-rg.The iflandof Cyprus fo celebrated for its vein*
of topper, produced no cobalt. Thii mineral, however, was firil
Jug up in Liter times in the country of the Grifuns, in France,
and in Spain. It is well known, that the Chinefe, Japancfe,
and Indians ufe a blue pigment in colouring their porce-
lain, and that they have long poflcflcd this art ; but, it is pro-
bable that they took the lapis lazuli for tin's purpofr, with
which the northern provinces of China every where abound.
Delaval, by fomc particular procefs, made a blue glafs
with iron, which he mixed with other glafs that was white and
pellucid, and thus obtained various degrees of colour, but not
all thofc which arc difcovcrcd iu the ancient monuments.
Iron is found every where; and it is not pofliblc, that thofc
who knew how to make jwrcclain (hould be ignorant of its
ufc. The Egyptians were acquainted with the hxmatiics,
jjj with red ochre, from both of \vliich ochre is now extracted
^6 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY
tations in other colours of hyacinths and Tap-
phires*, nay, even the true precious flones could
f-rarce be dirtinguifhcd from the falfef.
Betides wines, the Egyptians prepared a li-
quor from* barley, in flavour and talle very little
inferior to the juice of the grape; and which
they call Zytbus^ and fuppofe to be invented by
Oiiris}. Tlieir vinegar is extolled as the bell,
by Chryfippus in Athenxus ; and fuch was its
acidity, that it immediately diilblved the great-
efl pearl Cleopatra had in her poflefllon.
% Of their (kill in colours we have many beau-
tiful examples. They were acquainted with
native minium. The words of Pliny upon this
fubjecl are worthy of attention: " Fingunt,"
he fays, " et vefles in yEgypto, inter pauca mi-
44 rabili gencre, Candida vela poiUjuam attrive-
44 re, illinentes non coloribus, fed colorcm for-
44 bentibus medicamcntis: hoc cum fecere non
41 apparet in veils ; fed in cortinam pigment!
44 fervcntis merf.i poll momentum extrahuntur
44 pidu. Mirumque, cum (it unus in cortina
44 color
in Ntumdia. And they mud neccfTarily luve known tlie Llut
fcorire, alfo, t lint covcu the furfacc of iron, obtained by Fire
from thole ores. From fuch arguments as thefe, Gmclin
contends that the blue ^l.tGi of the ancients was not coloured,
witli cobalt, but with iron. Vid Gotting. gel. Anz 1776^
St. 42.
* Lib. xxKvi. 26.
f Lib xxxvi. 12. *
| Diudoru* Siculuff !. i. c. 2O. 34.
} Pliu. ix, 3;.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 37
**' color, ex illo alius atquc alias fit in vcfte, ac-
** cipicntis medicament! qualitate mutatus, nee
** poftea ablui poteil *." Surely this is a de-
fcription of the colouring of filks.
But let thcfe proofs fuflicc. Some of them are
indeed not quite fo accurate, and others are ra-
ther exaggerated: But we arc not therefore to
conclude, that though many chemical arts were
not invented by the Egyptians, they were not
cultivated fuccefsfuUy by them. Indeed, if we
credit Zoiimus, they were acquainted with dif-
tillations; for which lie defcribcs various vcfle Is
and apparatus, although he paints them in the
rudelt manner. Of the fir ft ufe of pitch Pliny
fays : " Lignum (trcda) concifum furnis undiquc
" igni extra circumdatq, fervet: primus fudor
14 aquas .mod o iluit canuli: hoc in Syria ccdrum
" vocatur; cui -tanta vis eft, ut in Egypto cor-,
" pora hominum dtfunclorum eo perfufa fer-
44 ventur. Sequens liquor jam craiHor piccm
44 fundit |." Of this we may underftand a clif-
tillation per defccnfum. In what manner oil is
obtained from pitch he defcribcs clfcwhcrcj;
that while it is boiling, fleeces of wool arc fprcnd
over it to receive the vapour, which is afterwards
exprciTcd from -them. No doubt this is a pro-
cefs of diil illation in its infancy.
Whether they undcrftood ^t^* we cannot
learn from the antient monuments. Some au-
C 3 lhoi;>
* L. xxxv. n.
f L. xvj. ii.
} L. xv. 7.
38 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
thors infift, that is naturally to be inferred from
the immenfe wealth and power of the Egypti-
ans. So many huge pyramids, obeliiks, col-
lofll, extenfive cities, and hanging gardens ; fo
many fepulchrcs, labyrinths, fubterraneous ca-
verns, and other works of Herculean labour,
which were formerly found, and of which part
remains yet entire, could never have been erect-
ed but nt an incredible expence.
In Diodorus Siculus we find, that Sefoflris co-
vered a (hip of cedar with gold; that on the top
of the fepulchreof Ofymandua, there is a circle
of gold of 365 cubits; and that, in the time of
Ofiris, ftatues, and even entire temples, were
made of gold. But we dare not vouch for the
truth of thefc relations. However great might
be their riches, we arc certain, that they had
no gold mines in the time of Hermes; and that
thofc which were afterwards difcovered were
wrought with great colt and labour, and with
very little profit: So that many are of opinion,
the Egyptian kings worked thefe mines as a co-
lour and pretext for the treaiurcs they had o-
therwife amaflcd. Herodotus and Diodorus
both make mention of a temple at Memphis
that was dedicated to Vulcan; and the latter
adds, That the invention of all the operations
relating to copper, filvcr, and gold, and of eve-
ry other fubflanc'c th.it is prepared by fire, was
attributed to this deity*. Under the n:nnc of
Vulcan
Eibl. Hift. J. v. !. j. c. 13.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 39
Vulcan, they worshipped fire itfelf, for they
believed that it was eflentially ncccflary to the
creation and perfection of all matter*. Zofimus
calls Panapolis the fchool of chcmiftry ; and Sy-
nefius confirms this fentimcnt. Cedrenus in the
eleventh century throws more light upon this
queftion, for he fays, That " Faunus, named
" clfcwhcrc Hermes, r u X r" f **' (in ot^crco-
41 pics rmyffirff)i;fFnpf/iirAKcif." But neverthclefs,
all that has been faid does not, in my opinion,
prove that the Egyptians undcrftood the &>***
t' t or art of making gold; and we know from
daily experience, that whole Hates, ignorant of
this art, rife to wealth and power by induflry
alone. However, in ancient times, it is well af-
rcrtaincd, that vaft quantities of pure gold were
concealed in that quarter of the globe, which
had been CN traded from the foil there, or im-
ported by commerce, or wars with the neigh-
bouring nations, and thus had increafed their
trcafurcs.
This extraordinary rage of converting every
thing into gold fcizcd all the chc.mifts of the
fourrh century. As gold had b^cn long confi-
dcred as the medium of exchange in the pur-
chafe of every commodity, the chemifts, who
were bettor acquainted with the various quali-
ties of bodies than others, and who faxv mira-
cles riling daily under their hands, and alJurcA
C 4 aljb
* Ibid. 1. ii. c. 2.
Y HifL Comp.
fit OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
alfo by the love of gain, and perhaps by vanity
and arrogance, unanimoufly turned their atten?
tion to the making of this moil precious metal.
They knew that art could eflTec~l various changes
in the appearance of metallic fubftances; and
\vherefore fliould they think it not competent,
by proper experiments, to form them in this
mod perfect character?
This problem, however difficult it may ap-
pear, no one had then.dcmonllrated to be inca-
pable of folut ion ; and, it may be added, that
not, even in our times, has its abfurdity been
proved. Therefore, not without fome profpecl
of fucccfs, did thefe alchymiits employ number-
lefs means to attain their objecl. But, it is evi-
dent that they toiled in this occupation under no
good aufpices ; for their conllant perfeverance,
labour, and expcnce, were not only employed
without fucccfs, but they themfclvcs wandering
from the true paths of philofophy, and loll in vi-
lionury dreums, began to entertain conceits hoi-
tile to the principles of fciencc. Encouraged
by the wiflied-for gain, they bent ull their
thoughts, and every faculty of the mind, to tiic
foltition of this myilerious problem; fothat, had
any one been fo fortunate as to have obtained
the reward of hi> labours, he would have defer-
ved the appellation of 3 covetous ^W/,T;, ra-
ther than th:it of a fkillful chemiil. Under the
dominion of fordid avarice, and miferably envi-
s, t!;ey iinpoft J upon thcinlelves u ridiculous
fileocc,
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 41
filence, and, althowgh they poflcflcd fcarce any
lecrcts for carrying on what they called the
great work, yet did they involve that art, which
they pretended to dcfcribe, in fo many abftrufe
hieroglyphics, figns, and cxprcffions, as not only
to prevent others from receiving information,
but alfo to conceal their own ignorance under
the thick covering of fuch darkncfs. Some wri-
ters imagine, that the table of Hermes alludes
to this art, and that jt is concealed alfo in the gol-
den chain of Homer. Others, with more pro-
bability, believe it to exifl metaphorically in the
Golden Fleece of the Argonauts. Johannes of
Antiochus, who lived during the reign of Hera-
clius, and after him Suidas, are cxprefsly of opi-
nion, that it is undcrftood in the Golden Fleece.
ru; Ji7 /.* ><"*< ^"-9 *f)-affif$ai yiyrxufin)*. BciUlCS, it
is well known, that the ancients did not fpeak
only of books, under the name of ikins ; but, as
we are informed by Plutarch, 200,000 books*,
that were taken from the libraries of the kings
of Pergamus 'ind which Anthony prefcntcd to
Cleopatra, were all written on the hides of goats.
The prbfeflbrs of this art explain to us the way,
alfo, in which the knowledge of their great work
reached as faras Colchis. According to Strabo,
Sefoftris did not overrun Ethiopia, Trogloditica,
and Arabia, only, but he pafled through all Afia,
like wife, and crc&ed temples in various places*.
From hence the antiquity of chemiftry among
the
? Ccogr. 1. xvi.
4^ OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
the Chinefe derives its origin : And further, It
is added, on the authority of Herodotus, Diodo-
rus Siculus, Strabo, and Marcellinus, that the
Colchians were the remains of his army. Jn
confequence of finding cinnabar, (the bafis of
their great work), they determined to fix their
refidencc at Colchis ; and afterwards, according
to Pliny, having obtained the virgin earth, they
extracted from it fuch confiderable quantities of
gold and filver, that they furpafled even the fu-
perbSefoflris intheirdifplayof theirriches,and in
all the fplendor, which thofe metals could give to
their apartments, their pillars, and various orna-
ments *. The leaders of thefe new fcttlers, initiated
in the facred rites of the Egyptians, now torn away
from their native country, foon grew inattentive to
that fecrecy, in which, according to the cuftom
of the Egyptian priefts, the art of chemiflry was
inviolably prcferved, and revealed the whole,
under the myftic representation of the Golden
Fleece. They repented, however, too late of
their loquacity, when it led the Grecian plun-
derers to undertake the Argonautic expedition.
Happily as all thefe relations fecm to coincide,
yet the account Strabo gives is worth the atten-
tion of every one who makes the attainment of
truth the objecl of his enquiry. He fays, that
the Iberians, near neighbours of the- Colchians,
ufedto receive the gold brought down from the
high lands by the torrents, intofievesand fheep-
fkins,
* Lib. xxxiii. c. 3.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 43
fkins, and from thence arofc the fable of the
Golden Fleece. The feigned antiquity, there-
fore, of the art, if it is not deflroyed altogether,
is at lead rendered very fufpc&cd. But although
MM* *on'v, or ro">t"3<"t may, in a literal fcnie,
mean the making of gold from its firft principles,
yet, with many writers, it fignifics nothing elie
than the feparation of this metal from its ores.
So, in the Latin tongue, he is called tf7/r//I\v,who
makes vcflcls or other utcnlils of gold. To make
oil furcly can mean its cxprefllun only ; andfo on
as to other things. If Suidas is to be credited,
many records of this art were dellroycd by lire
in the third century *. Six hundred years be-
fore him, Paulus Orofius, a Spamiii pried, relates
the fame Aory f . Tije emperor Diocletian is
faid to have treated the Egyptians very cruelly,
bccaufc they rebelled againll him, and to have
burnt all their books of the chemillry of gold and
filvcr, left they flioulil draw fuch wealth from
that art, as to enable them, at a future period,
to oppofc the authority of the Romans. From this
account, however, we are not led to any conclu-
fions: One thing only we will venture to aflert,
that chcmiilry, at firft fceming to fignify the in-
timate knowledge of bodies, came afterwards to
denote the making of gold and filver ; then af-
fumcd -r, the name of a facred and divine
art ; and laftly, with a foolifli ]>ridc, was enti-
tled
* In Icxico.
t Hift.1. tii. c. iC.
44 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRT.
tied akbemiftry, as if r i^,, chemiftry. The
\vord alchemiftry is firft mentioned by Julius
Firmicus Maternus, a writer of the fourth cen-
tury, and then in a remarkable manner. His
language, which favours much of aflrologic in-
fanity, is as follows ; "Si fuerit domusMercurii,
*' dabit allronomiam; fi Vcncris, cantilenas et
44 kctitiam ; fi Martis, opus armorum ct inftru-
44 mciitorum ; ii Jovis, divinum cultum fcien-
4 * tiamque in !ege ; fi Suturni, fcientiam alchc-
** mia?*. w It occurs, however, but fcldom be-
fore the ninth century; but, after that period,
indeed very frequently. In the mean time, it
L proper to obferve, that in Suidas, as above ci-
ted, as well as in John of Antiochus and Cedre-
nus, quoted before, the word ahbennjlry never
makes its appearance, but, inflead of it, x>ni*(
only, which, in the times of thole authors, ad-
mitted various fignifications.
Let us now coniider the wanner in which the
Egyptians treated ourfcience. Proclus Lycius
commends them for preferring their inventions
upon columns f. And Galen {, and Jamblic!ms
ail'ert, that every new difcovery was firrt ap-
proved by the common voice of the priells,
and then engraved without the authors name
upon the flones of the temple. Of the obcliiks
above-mentioned
* Matth. !. iii. c. i j.
{ Conun. i. in Timxum.
I I,, i. coi.trd J>jl. DC limp. mcd. fac. 1. iv. *
DC my:1cri: ^r.}'?--
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 4;
:<bove -mentioned, one was made by the com-
mand of Sefodris, the other by that of King-
Sem^.cfert, in whofe reign Pythagoras vifited
Egypt; which clearly implies an uninterrupted
progrefs in their inventions. Bcfides Diodorus
tells us, that the priefts- jvvere in pofielfion of
iomc writings Hill more fecret*; and which Cle-
mens Alcxandrinus fuppofes to have been thofe
of Hermes-}. Plutarch alibj, and long before
him Sunchuniaton the Phoenician, make men-
tion of them. The lad, according to Porphy-
rrus, was a great lover of truth. The fame n
faid of Philo Biblius, a man of great erudition
and third for knowledge; who being defirous to
learn the hidory of every nation, bellowed his
attention chiefly to the writings of Taaut, as he
underftood him to be the chief inventor of let-
ters, and of writing in books. Philo quotes
a book of Hermes on the origin of the world,
lamblichus afiigns to him 36,529 books; which,
a-fter the manner of tbofc times, were without
doubt very concife, and confided of a few fcn-
tenccs only. In another place, the poiition is;
further illud rated; for he aflerts, that his fol-
lowers or difciplcs, fuppofing all fcience to have
owed its origin to their great chief, dignified
their works by his illudrious name ; ib that we
can:
L. ii. c. 4.
f Strom i.
t DC Ifidc.
j EuCcbii Pncp Evang* 1. i. c. .7.
4 6 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
can give but little faith, in thefe days, to the
title of fuch books as arc afcribcd to Hermes.
We have already mentioned the writings of
the columns of "Hermes, that were tranfcribed
by the fecond Hermes into the facrcd books.
Manethus is laid wt*rif< *TWI. TiXy*;<*)ai</**v
c,x., which is a divination of future events, ra-
ther than a recital of circumflances that had
already happened. Befides, in the preface de-
dicated to the King, Manethus adds: E*r,, 0MT<
VT rev wfowanpof Tftffitftrt* ff
#*w *. From which it is fufllciently clear, that
thcfc columns did not contain an account of the
part only, but that they in fome manner allud-
ed to times to come; perhaps from the lituation
of the flars, as Hermes was fkilled in allrology.
Abulpharagius, alfo, relates, that the deluge
was foretold by themf. Whether any other
fecrets, cfpeciully thofe belonging to chcmiilry,
were written on them, it is not poffible at this
day to determine ; the ancients, however, ap-
prehended that there were.
Galen fpeuks of the medical writings of Her-
niesj. Clemens Alexandrians aflirms, that he
had written 36 volumes on the fecrets of the
Egyptians, and fix on the healing art. Six of the
firft contained hymns, the duty of kin^s, and
fome
* Fra^mcnta in tliron. Euftbii. ^
f Hid. Dynuit.
I DC fimp. meJ. fac. !, iv.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 47
forne things relating to aftronomy. Other ten
explained the myflcrious modes of writing, treat-
ed of the univcrfe in general, of the earth, of
the motion of the fun, of the moon and planets,
of Egypt, of the Nile, of confecrated places,
and of facrificcs. Ten others prefcribed iacrirl-
ces, hymns, ceremonies, feflivals, burials, and
many other things of a (imilar nature. The
third decade inveftigated the nature of the foul
and of the gods *. According to Diodorus, the
facred books were cntruflcd to every pbyfician,
that he might learn from their prefcriptions to
to cure the (Ick.
Of the writings of the Mercuries fcarce any
are at this time to be found genuine. The ma-
nufcriptsin the library at Ley den, honoured with
their names, of which one treats of poifons and
antidotes, and the other ofgcmf, arc of a much
Jutcr period. The fame may be faid of the
poemandcr, of slfclcpius, oftbejccret of the pby-
Jical Jlone, of compofttion, of alchtmijlry, of tbf
introduction to chemi/lry, of the pbtfieal tin&urc,
cf the f even chapters, and of the art of Agatbo-
dtcmon of in a king gold ; and of all the others at-
tributed to Hermes, which were cither printed,
or lie yet as manufcripts in the dud of libraries.
Albertus Magnus aflerts, that Alexander the
Great, in the courfe of his expeditions, difcover-
ed the fcpulchre of Hermes, the father of phi-
lofophers, filled with trcafurcs, not of metallic
forms
* Strom. 1. 6.
48 Ofr THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY;
forms, but with golden writings, on a table of
satadus, which is called clfcwhere emerald*.
Whence he had this account he does not fay ;
but, although this tablet is not mentioned by any
Greek author, yet was it known, before him,
unto Avicenna, the Arabian Ariilotle, the elder
Zadit, and to others. W. C. Kriegfman reports
a tradition, that, ibmc ages after the Hood, it was
found by a woman named Sara, in the hands of
the corpfe of Hermes, lying in a cave near the
Hebrus. This full Hermes he fuppofes to have
been Cain; nor is it inconiiftcnt with this opi-
nion, that the woman who difcovered the body
fhould be the wife of Abraham. The tablet
was written in the Phoenician character. As it
is but fliort, and refembles the fymbols of the
alchcmifls, it may not be improper to introduce
it here in its Latin drcfs, in which the propriety
of the original context is prefervcd, by the Ikill
and labour of Krieglman.
DKSCRIPTION OF THE SECRETS or HERMES
TKISMECISTUS.
ccrtijjimcque aio.
Inferior a bac cum fuperioribus i7/// t iftaque
cum iis viciffim vires J octant, ut producant
rem unam omnium mirificcntiffimam.
Ac quemadmodum cuxEla edufta ex uno fucre
verbo Dei nniusj Jlc cmnes quoque res perpe-
tuo
* DC fecretii chymivli. *
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 49
tuo ex bac una.rc gcncrantur diffrofitionc na-
ture.
4. Patrcm ca habct fo/ew, matrcm lunam : ab
acre in utercquajigc/latur, nntrituraterra.
.5. Canfa omnis perfedlionis rcrum ca (ft per uni-
vcrfum boc.
6. Ad fummam ipfa pcrfettioncm virittm pcrvc*
;/iV, Ji redicrit in bnminn.
7. /// paries tribuito bumum igncin pa(p.vn^ at-
tenitens denjitatem ejus re omnium fuavijfima.
8 Summa adfccnde ingcnii fagacitate a terra in
ccelum, indeque rurfum in tcrram dcfcende,
ac vires fupcriorurn ir[feriorumqe coge in
unum .' Jic pvticrc gloria lotius mundi ; atqut
it a abjccitc fortis bomo ampliur non babcrc.
9. Iflb(vc jam res ipfa firtitiidinc fortior m-
Jlet : corpora quippe tarn tcnuia, quam fo-
lida pcnctrando fubige.
ic. Atque fie quidem qiuccunque mundus continct
cieat a fucrc.
11. Hinc admiranda evadunt opera, qua: ad
eitmdem modum injlituuntur.
12. Mibi vero idea nomen Her metis Trlfmegtfli
impofitum fuit, quod trium mundi fapicniitf
parti urn doftor dcprcbcnfus fum.
13. Hae funt, qiucdc cbemica artis pra/l ant iffimo
opere conjignanda cjje duxi.
Shrocdcr aficrts, that this autographic tablet
is dill to be feen at Turin * ; if fo, it ought furc-
ly to be attentively examined and dcfcribed*
D It
* Loc. cit.
5* OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
It was firft made public by Bernhard Canefiu*
the alchemift, as we are told by Kirchcr*; and
that it contained the theory of the mod valua-
ble eflence, which they call the elixir of life,
potable gold, and the fifth ellence. In the
year 1657, W. C. Kriegfman explained the u-
niverfal mercury of the philofophers, and G.
Dorneus gave an account of the piaclice of me-
dicine, entirely upon the principles of chem>-
ftry.
As to the works of other authors which relate
to this fubjecl, none have as yet appeared ex-
cept fome written in Greek, or tranllations from
that language, and all of them alchemical. Ma-
ny of thefe are fpurious, as the Kffays of Ifis,
fiddrejftd to her fon Horuf, and the Lhemijlry of
Horus. Of Moles and Maria, Jew*; ol'b'ophur
from Perfia; of Democ-iitus the Abdcritc; and
other Greeks, we fliall fpcak in another place.
Leo Allatius, a Grecian, and with him Eoni-
chius, both condemn us fuppofititious the works
of Comarus, or Coinanus, a prieft, inflrucling
the Queen Cleopatra in the fccrct of the philo-
fopher's rtonc ; alfo the works of the Qj-ieeu her-
felf on weights and meafures, on the making of'
gold, and the prefervation of beauty. The au-
thors of thefe productions have attempted to
gain. both credit and attention by the fplcndour
of illuilrious names.
'^> We
(EJipui.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 51
We fhall proceed to make fomc few obfcrva-
rions on the theory of the Egyptians refpcding
the principles and com pofition of bodies; as \vcll
as the mutilated fragments and enigmatical man-
ner of writing will permit, and the various alle-
gorical cxprcifions, wliich allow fuch different
interpretations. Not Oedipus himfelf would be
able to explain many of thcfc. In Philo Biblius
we find the following extrads by Sanchuniaton
from the commentaries of Taaut on the origin
of the world: " Principium hujus univerfitatis
44 ponitaerem tencbrofum ac fpiritu fcetum, feu
44 mavis tcncbroii aeris flatum ac fpiritum chaof-
44 quc turbidum, atraque caligine circumfufum.
14 Hajc porro infinita cffe, nullumquc nifi longo
44 Hcculoruni intcrvallo terminatum habcre. Ve-
44 rum, ubi fpiritus amore principiorum fuorum.
44 flagrarc cccpiffet, eumque fimul cffet mixtio
44 confecuta, ncxum hunc motuum Cupidincm
44 appellarunt. Is quidcm rcrum omnium pro-
* 4 crcationis principium fuit. Spiritus vero fuam
44 ipfius procrefitioncm minime agnofcebat. Ex
44 hac illius conjundionc prodiit MOT, id quod
44 lirnum nonnulli, alii aquofae mixtionis corrup-
44 tioncm effe volunt, ex qua fccutx produdlionia
14 femina, ipfaqueadeo rcrum univcrfarum gene-
44 ratio extitcrit. Ccterum animantia quacdam
44 crant omni fcnfu carcntia, qiu-c poflmodum
44 intelligcntia prxditos animantcs procrcarunt.
44 Eos illi Tiophafcmin, hoc eft, cocli contcmpla-
D 2 " tores
51 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
tores nominarunt, in figuram ovi conformatos.
44 Illico autem MOT, cum fole, luna, flellis, ac
" reliqua majorum aflrorum multitudinc cmicu-
44 it. Cum igneum fplcndorcm aer emifiiTet
44 ex ardenti maris ac terrarum inflammatione,
" venti nubes, magnoque nientium impetucce-
41 leilium imbrium ac nimborum effullones cx-
44 flitcre : Cum autcm hicc omnia, qure diiiincla
44 paullo ante, ac propter vehementiorem foils
44 arftum a propria fcde disjunda fuerant, in eo
* 4 committcrentur, tonitrua funul ac fulgura pe-
44 pcrerc; quorum ad tonitruum iragorcm, dc-
" fcripti antca intcllcdu pncditi animantcs ve-
44 kit a fomno excitati, liorrendoquc fonitu cx-
* 4 tcrriti, mares pariter ac fccniiiur, tarn in ter-
-" ra, quam mari, movere .corpere."*
Here we find fome appearance of a tradition
concerning the creation of the world, which,
though fo near the period of which it treats, is
loaded with fictions, and difguilcd with peribm-
flcations. Cofmogony, which has, in a wonder-
ful manner, furpajlcd all the powers of nature,
muiV necefTurily be a great obllacle to the mod
fugacious invciligation, not founded upon the
principles of divine revelation* lieiides, they
feeiu to have attributed a triple nature to all bo-
dies, which they indicated hieroglyphic-ally,
.under the names of Ofiris, His, and Typhon, or
of God, Air, and Night, iignifying, gerhaps,
the
. . * Eufcbli Pnrp. Ev. I. i.e. ic.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 53
the active Caufe, the pafllve, and dead terrcftriai
matter*.
By divine energy they undcrftand fire and
rhe fpirit of the world; by the pailive aether,
they mean fomething eternal, immaterial, and
homogcncousf; and by mortuum malum, the
inert matter of the earth. By the intervention
of this fpirit, they apprehend an uninterrupted
communication is maintained between fupcrior
and inferior beings J. This fyftem is affigned to
Hermes, as lie produced every thing by the
means of two elements, Fire as acting, and Earth
as acted upon . They taught, that, by fome
internal reparation, fermentation, or putrefac-
tion, all bodies fprung from their feeds, were
changed, incrcafcd, rendered perfect, and de-
ftroyed ||. In thefe. opinions fomc traces of a
more intimate acquaintance with nature may be
discovered : From which, it may be inferred,
much light would be thrown upon natural phi-
lofophy from their doctrine, if we poilciled it
entire, and unclouded with fictions. The un-
connected fragments only of it have reached us,
and thefc collected by foreign writers; who, ig-
norant of the relation of the different parts of
the fyftcm, have fupplicd many things from
D 3 conjecture,
* Plutarch us c!c Ifidc ct Ofiride.
f Plato. Pythagoras.
J Porphyrius in vita Plotin.
Burgravc in Bibl.
I! Diodorus, 1. i. c. 1 3.
54 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
conjecture, and given to others a falfe interpre-
tation.
iv. The State ofCbcmiflry wnwg the Greeks. '
THE Greeks, after they were inftrufted in the
ufe of letters by Cadmus, cultivated various fci-
ences; but, for a long time they paid no atten-
tion to Natural Philofophy, being more occupied
in fpeculation and debate, than in obfervation
and experiments. From hence fprung that va-
riety of fedls and philofophers, fome of \vhom
wandering about, difplayed their wifdom thro*
feveral cities, with a view to profit; others, how-
ever, influenced by nobler motives, had a fixed
abode, opened public academies, and taught
their doctrines freely and without reward. But
they were both led into a fubtlety of difquifi-
rion and argumentation, highly inimical to the
defign of difcovering phyfical truths. There-
fore, the priefl of the Egyptians of Sais fays :
" Oh Solon, Solon, ye Greeks will be always
" children: There is not one grey head among
" you, nor any ferious kind of inilitution *.
" They refemble boys in their loquacity and in-
ability to propagate: And, although wifdom
" falls from their tongue, their aclicns arc weak
"and puerile f." The words ofDiodorus are
remarkable : He fays, That " Orpheus, MuHeus,
14 Melampus,
Plato in Timco. .
| Bacon. *
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 55
'* Mclampus, D;cdalus, Homer, Lycurgus, So-
44 Ion, Plato, Pythagoras, I^udoxus, and Demo-
14 critus the Abdcritc, all went into Egypt, and
44 they doubtlcfs learned there all thofe things
' which rendered them afterwards famous a-
'* mong the Greeks*. Plato and Eudoxus aflb-
44 elated during thirteen years with thofc pricfls
" in Egypt, who molt excelled iu the knowledge
"nf celellial things: But, for a long while, they
41 kept it in the greatefl fccrecy, and would not
* 4 deign to impart it to any one. At length,
" fubducd by time and humble intreaty, they
44 difcovered fome few things; but the greatell
4 part they concealed entirely from the barba-
44 rians f." Pythagoras fullered himfelftobe
44 circumcifcd, that he might have accels to the
fecret depofits of the Egyptians, and learn their
myftic philofophyj, lambh'chus (hews clearly,
that Pythagoras and Plato both had acquired a
variety of knowledge in Egypt, from the co-
lumns of Mercury ; and Tliales the Milcfian
firft brought geometry and aftronomy into
Greece from Egypt, about 530 years before
Chrifl || . Before the time of Pfarnmitichus,
660 years before our Saviour, tJje Greeks
were not permitted to enter Egypt ^[; but,
D 4 afterward*
* L. ii. 0.4. i. c. 69, 8 1, 96.
f L. xvii.
j Clemens Alex. Sir. i.
DC myrt. Ejrypt.
ji Diogcne* Licrtiu*.
* Herodotus. Strabo.
5 6 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
afterwards, many of them vifited that coun-
try, and even chofe their refidence in it ; and foU
licitoufly endeavoured to open an cafier com-
munication with their fecrets: when, through
Alexander the Great, Egypt became fubjecl to
the Macedonian yoke, 332 years before Chrift,
under the reign of the Lngidi, the moil celebra-
ted were received into the new academy of
Alexandria. But it was the rate of all thofe, who
travelled into Egypt to be but little cfleemed
in their own country ; for, whatever fublimity
of knowledge they pofllfled, they communicat-
ed it at home fo very myflerioully, as to be in-
telligible to a very few. In the mean time ju-
dicial aftrology, nuific, and agronomy, were
cultivated by them with great fuccefs ; and,
though they were obliged to yield to the Egyp-
tians in art's great undertakings, and in the
magnitude of their works, and immcnfe labour
and expence; yet were thefe, in their, turn,
forced to acknowledge the fupcriority cf the
Greeks, in the elegance and form which their
artuls^ave to every thing, ftriclly imitating na.
ture; and in every work that depends upon fun-
cy and imagination. In natural philoibphy
they laboured with k-fs advantage, unltfs in-
ilrudcd by the Egyptians. An Alexandrian
feft being cfhiblifhcd among the Greeks, in the
third century, the fecrets of chemiilry were
ftill more cbfcured in tlarknefs, and became dai-
* \y
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 57
Jy more involved in new enigmas, parables, and
numberlefs Platonic and cabaliilic modes of ex-
prcflion. Greece and Egypt being equally fubjccl-
cdtothc power of Rome, fcicnce alfo was reduced
to flavcry, and was, at length, almoft finally
extinguifhed by the conquefts of the Saracens.
Chemical arts made a much flower progrefs
among the Greeks than among the Egyptians.
Ores were found in two places only. Thofe
of the ifland of Thafo, in the Egean fea, yielded
gold, and thofe difcovcrcd in Laurus contained
filver. But the Corinthians were acquainted
with three metallic competitions, formed in a
particular way, by fire, and remarkable for their
colour; one had all the white fplendor of illvcr,
another the yellow hue of gold, and the third
contained an equal proportion of both *.- They
fccm to have carefully concealed thefe prepara-
tions, which were no other than of zinc and
copper,f. Copper takes its name from the i-
iland of Cyprus, in which it was firft difcovered.
Pliny reckons the ccrufc of Rhodes to be by far
the bed }. According to Thcophraftus, mi-
nium (cinnabar) was known to Callia, the Athe-
nian, about five hundred years before Chrift,
who
* Plin. xxxiv. cap. 2.
f The preparation of orichtlcus, with copper and lapit ca-
luminaris was known to the ancients :|V id. Pliny, 1.34. Diofco-
lid. l.v. c.$5. I'hcprocef* of making (led, by healing iron a-
mong coals is mcotioru-d by A nit otic, met. iv. c.6. aud Pim,
1. xxxiv. \ L, xxxiv, 8.
5 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
v.ho imagined that it contained gold; but, from
making ievcral experiments without iuccei?,
he learned the life ot' it as a pigment *.
Philippus Comicus, writing ot' thofe times
be lore the origin of the Grecian monarchy, ai-
ferts, that Daedalus took ww ** to animate a
wooden itatuc, the knowledge of which metal
he no doubt owed to the prieiK ot' Memphis ;
but, that Hermes ever obtained it from cinna-
bar, we can fcarcely believe. Thcophrallus
Ere lius and Arillotle fpeak allb of this metal ).
Sculpture and ilatuary, though, perhaps, they
did not owe their rile, yet were they indebted
for the'u* perfection to the images of the gods.
Dibutates, tlie Sicyon potter, was the fir It that
\vroiiglit clay, at Corinth, into various figures
and likenefles. Some indeed are ot opinion,
that Rhecus and Theodoras, in Samos, had in-
ver.ted the plallic art, long before the Bacchia-
diu were driven from Corinth J. J-Jeiore the ta-
king of Troy, Dadahis the Athenian carved
figures on wood ; bur. Dipocnus and Scillis,
born in the ifle of Crete, about the fiftieth Olym-
piad (570 years before Chri(l) \\cre the firll
\vho iignali/.ed thcmfeJves by fculpiurc in mar-
ble 5, The moil anciejit feais oi' the Cricks
bear
% DC LpMibin.
{ Met. 4. 8. Dcauima, I. i
*. Pliity xxxiv. 1 2.
Piinv xxxvi. 4.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 59
bear a ftrong rcfemblance to thofc of the Egyp:
pans, as Pliny writes; from whence it appears
clearly, where they had been taught: although,
following the footftcps of Phidias the Athenian,
who lived 450 years before our Saviour, they
carried this art to the greatcft perfection *. They
did not cut and engrave ivory, pearls, corals,
and marble only, but they worked in bafaltcs,
porphyry, and the hardell gems. On agates
and cornelians they engraved chiefly concave
figures; on onyx they railed them convex, of-
ten forming the head or image of the opaque
flratum, lying on a furfacc more pellucid, and
which they could darken at will, by a little pig-
ment placed below it. Their later works of
fculpture and engraving an* what we now call
antique, and arc in high cilimation; and, on ac-
count of their pcrfed form, and exquifitc polifli,
have become models for the imitation of modern
artifts.
Long before the age of Homer, the Greeks
knew how to melt, temper, cart, engrave, and
cement metals. Rhcecus and Theodorus fecm to
have fully underfloojl the art of calling copper;
which, according to Pliny, took its rife along
with painting, under Phidias f. He reckons
366 mailers in this art |; and dcfcribcs various
temperatures
* Piinyxxxiv. 8.
f Pliny, xxxvi. j. S*c Hcyne.
t
6o OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
temperatures of metals . The carting of fla-
tties reached its height in the time of Praxitelis ;
although he is reported to have been more fuc-
cefsfui in marble than in copper f. The name
of Chares the Lindian is rendered immortal by
the coloflus of the fun at Rhodes, which mca-
fured 70 cubits in height. This immenfe fa-
bric, compleated in 12 years, at the expenceof
300 talents, (about 274 years before ChritV) was
hollow within, and filled with (tones; and with-
out doubt mull have been call at diilercnt inter-
vals of time. After (landing 56 yuars, it was
overthrown by an earthquake ; and lay proftrate
where it fell, for nine centuries, until A. 0.651,
when it was fold in lots. Nine hundred camels
were loaded with the different pieces {; and if
we fuppofe each camel to carry 8co pounds, the
weight of metal in the whole flatue will amount
to the enormous fum of 720,000 pounds.
Tychius a Boeotian is faid to have invented the
art of preparing leather .
Chemical filtration through wool is clearly de-
feribed by Plato ||. Hippocrates underflood cal-
cinations *[. Galen gives an account of the bal-
neum
* Ib. xxxiv. 9.
I Ibid, xxxiv. 8.
$ Pliny, xxxiv. 7. CeJrcnus.
9 Pliny.
( In Gympofio.
*[ DC Iizruorrhoidibu3, and clfcwher?
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 6t
ncum Mar'nc, where he ufecl oil inflcad of water*.
He fpcaks of fublimation f , ami di/lillation per
defcer.fnm like wife J. Diofcoridcs, who was the
great friend and follower of Cleopatra, the mod
luxurious of women, appears not to have been
wholly unacquainted with diftillation, as he
fpcaks very plainly of <.^*, to which afterwards
the Arabian particle al was added . On look-
ing into Pliny, we find a dcfcription of a fimilar
procefs forcxtradingquickiilver from cinnabar:
" Patinis fidilibus impofitum (minium) fcrrca
" concha calicc (*c,o coopcrtura, argilla fuper-
" illita ; dein fub patinisaccenfum foilibus con-
" tinuo igni, atque ita callicis fudore deterfo, qui
** fit argcnticolorectaquicliquore." But certain-
ly Calcn knew nothing of this art; for he fays:
" Non mul turn abciY, omnia vcllem fubire peri-
" cula, fi quam machinam, artcmve invenirc liccat,
" ficut in lacle contrariumpartium, fie ct in ace-
41 to, fcparandi j} ." He thought, however, that
A lixivium could be made with waflicd aflies;
and therefore had fome idea of alkaline fait, c-
ven of the caullic kind. But he fccms to have
been wholly ignorant of reducing them to a dry
ftate^. In the iflandof Lefbos they had a ma-
nufadory of glafs **.
In
"* De fanitatc tucnda, 1. ir. c. 8.
f De nu-dic. fmjp. fac. 1. ix.
\ De facile parabilibus.
f Mat. mcd. 1 v. c. 1 10.
^ DC mcd. (imp. fac. 1. i. c Ibid. c. 14.
** AiLcnxui Dcip.
6i OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
In this place may be remarked the invention
ulfo of CtiHinicus the architect, \vlio, when he
had fled from Heliopolis in Egypt toConflantino-
ple, difcovered the marine Jire, (*?***') whic !i
they call Greek like wife; and burnt during win-
ter tlie lleet of the Saracens at 'Cyzicus *. This
lire, when thrown into the water, acquires great-
er force, flies about violently in all directions,
confumirig every thing in its way that is the
lead combuftible. Conftantinus Pogonatus,
who was then on the throne, and his fuccelTbrs,
ufed it with advantage iri their wars with the
Saracens. It was reckoned one of their valua-
ble fccrets; and as fuch has been faithfully kept,
for we are not in the lealt acquainted with its
competition.'
Among the writers on chemiftry I fliall not
reckon Orpheus f, Homer, or Pindar, and feverul
others of the fame kind; as no one has demon-
ftrated, that the fable of the golden apples of
Hcfperis, of the Hydra conquered by Hercules,
of the Phounix rifmg from its own allies, of the
golden
* Ccdrcnus.
f Orpheus is the reputed author of the Argonautic hymns,
and a Hngular book, entitled /" *$*, which treats of the
fccrct nature of (lones, and explains their viitues in the offer-
ing of facrificcs, and rendering the gods propitious. The
Hones mentioned in this book are nearly the following:
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
fleece, and funihir (lories, contain any
ullufions to the fciencc of chemiflry.
In thofc works which arc attributed to Pytha-
;;oras and Plato, many fubjccls of chcmillry are
fo be found ; but they relate more to theory
Than experiment. Of the Greeks fcarcc any
one had imbibed fo much knowledge from the
Egyptians as Democritus, \vlio was born about
458 years before Chrifl at Abdcra in Thrace.
Seneca reckons him the mod ingenious and
acute of all the unticnts; as he difcovered the
method of dillblving iloncs; of making artificial
emeralds and tinging them with any colour; of
foftcning ivory; and was the author of many o-
ihcr ufeful inventions*. And Pctronius allb
fpcaks of him, that he exprcffed the juice of all
plants, and that he patted his whole life in mak-
ing experiments on the different properties of
fulfils and vegetables f.
Often laughing at the follies of mankind, he-
\vas confidered by the vulgar to be difordered in
his underftanding; and Hippocrates being called
in to cure him, foon found him to be the \vifeft
man of the age. In his prcfence he determined
the colour of an animal by looking at its milk
only; and did many other things equally won-
derful, if we admit the veracity of Diogenes
Lacrtias. With fo much carncftncfs did he ap-
* L. xiv. cp. 41.
* In Salyrico.
64 OF THE OHIGIN Ofr CHEMISTRY.
ply himfelf to the ftudy of nature, that he de-
clared, he would prefer the difcovery of one
caufe in the works of nature, to the pofleflkm
of the PcrJIan monarchy*. Syncellus fays, that
lie obtained the celebrated name of Natural
Philofopher from Oflane the Mede, w!io \vus
fent by the kings of Pcrfia for the government
of religious affairs into Egypt. - IJy him
Democritus was initiated, and intruded in the
facred writings, in the temple of Memphis, a-
mong priefts and philofophers; with whom was
Maria, a Hebrew woman, (killed in all kind of
learning, and Pammencs. He wrote of gold,
of filver, of (tones, and of purple colour, in the
fame enigmatical manner that Maria did, Yet
both Democritus and Maria are praiicd for this
myderioiis and dark (lilc, in which they have
buried the art ; while Pammenes is blamed for
having written fully, and with perfpicuity j-.
Diogenes Luertius aflcrts, that he wrote ,,,
alib *tf >.i> : Of which Zofimus ipeaks thus :
Yet may it be doubted, whether Demo-
critus ever treated of the phttofopher's (lone,
when fomc will have the title of the work (land,
/! x.>. And bcfidcs his treat ife th foils ct tu~
ncc tinfturis, et purpura, there is another attri-
buted
* Dionyf. Alex, apud Eufcblum, xiv. 27. *.
f Chron. p. 248. Vid. Eufcbiui. .
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 65
butetl to him, dc Inpidibns pretiq/is. Others al-
fo believe the PbyficannA Myjlica to be his: But
it is not yet afcertained that any of thefe are
genuine, and which is entitled to his name.
Vitruvius fpcaks of ^/*;ur *, which arc fo cal-
led on account of the waxen marks (lamped
with a ring which he ufed to put to all thofc
paradoxes that he had found to be true ; or be-
caufc he inferted nothing into that book but
from his own obfervation and experiments.
Arillotlc the Stagy rite, in his third and fourth
book of Meteorologies, treats of fotlils, dividing
them into opwr* and *rr*.xivr*. His difciplc The-
ophrailiH Ilrcilus wrote v *&- and although
he was ignorant of chemical analyiis, yet he
dcfcribes fevcral qualities, and fomctimcs their
condition by fire. Diofcorides of Anazarba, in
the firft century f, and Galen in the fecondj,
enumerated all thofe minerals that were ufed in
medicine.
There is yet extant a manufcript chemical
trcatife of Porphyrius in the third century, a
work of lamblicir. in the fourth, and an Iambic
poem of Heliodorus, to Thcodoiius the Great,
Of the myjlcriwt Art of Pbihfopbcrs. The filth
century produced tbc tinclurcs of Per/tan cop-
per and Indian iron, by Philip of Sides; the
E E.ffay
* I.xi. c. ^.
j* Mat. mcd.
J Simp, mcd fac.
66 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
of Dbfcorus, the high priefl of Sera-
pis in Alexandria, and the Letter of Synefius to
the fame Diofcorus; being a comment on the
Tindure of gold and iilver of Democritus.
7.ofimus mentions this, who, therefore mufl have
lived after thefe pbilofophers ; but it is impof-
iible, in a general Iketch only, to lix the age of
every one with pcrfccl accuracy.
'/.ofimus of Panopolis, fo highly eftccmed by
the alchemifis, was alfo referred to the fifth cen-
tury. His work, Of the Compojhion cf Waters;
of the facr cd and divine Art ; of Finite, and In-
tcrpr elation ; of Injlnnnents and Cbimnies ; of the
AJbtjlos; and his mylHc trcatife and writing to
Thcolcbia, are all prcfcrvcd in diflcrent libra-
ries: None of them however have yet been
printed.
Olympiodorus, who lived a fhort time before
the emperor Thcodolius, lias commented upon
the practical treatilc of T.oilmus, of the manner
ofivorkinjfi and upon thole which are attribut-
ed to IIcrrnes,and other.-, rcipccling tlie making
of gold.
Thcophrartus the philofopher, on the facred
and divine Art ; Hicrotheus on the Pbih/lj-
pbcrs/hnc, on the facred Art % and the Method of
making Gold ; Archelnm on the chemical Art,;
Anepigraphvu on CbnftjMiea, and the way to
ivbiten divijie Water ; Pelagins on the divine and
fared Art ; Eugc-nius on the fared .<///, and the
chemical
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 67
chemical Secret ; Cofmas onChryfopolca, and many
others, arc of fuch obi cure origin, that it will be
impoilihlc to arrange them in chronological or-
der, fo long as they arc kept from the prefs;
concealed in ancient libraries*.
But the abfurditics of alchcmiflry daily in-
crcafcd, and were blended with fcholaftic follies
and the cabaliftic frenzy of Pythagoras, until
the fevcnth and eighth century, when chcmif-
try, and every other fcicncc, became involved
in chaotic darkncfs, and opprcflcd by horrid
barbarifm.
A nation too much inclined to hypothefis and
fanciful conjecture was likely to give birth to
various theories; but, ofthefcit is apprehended,
thAt they differed more in words and outward
appearance, than in their true principles. We
fhall fay nothing of cofmogony, as it abounds
with fuch nonfenfc; but, we will touch on a
few of their opinions, refpccttng the nature and
principles of bodies. Thales the Milcfian, the
founder of the Ionic feet, about 600 years before
our Saviour, preferred the ftudy of Natural Phi-
lofophy to all other fciences.
He held water tb be the principle ofall material
fubftances, from which they all proceeded, and
into which they were all to be finally rcfolvcd.
E 2 Some
* Of the writers on chemiftry, thofc to be chiefly con-
fultetl are Libatfius, O. Bom'chius, and H. Conringtui.
63 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
Sonic, however, arc of opinion, that he confi-
dercd it as the univerfal vehicle only *
Anaximenes the Milelian, the third teacher
of that fchool, about 100 years afterwards, con-,
tended that air was the firil general principle;
Hcraclitus was for (ire -j- and Heliodus for
earth.
Pytliagonw of Sumo*, about the middle of
the ilxtli century before Chrill, travelled into
Kgypt, Arabia, Jud;ea, and Italy, and taught in
the mod abitrufc manner, for feventy years at
Cremona. He was the founder of the Italian
fchool, and Hill fhines, by the fplendour of hL
knowledge, like a fun in the hcmifphere of
fcience and learning. From the telllmony of
Plutarch, we leain, that he propofed to himfelf
a pcrfccl fyitem of the world. Being initiated
in the fueled rites of the Egyptians and Chal-
deans, he fct a great value en mathematics ; and,
perhaps, his partiality for this fcience led him
too fir, when he condtnlvd tint not i>uly tlii;.
'.voiUt wai made by number, wci/.ht, and nva-
ture, but that there was a iingular p<nvr in
numbers and figures. According to hi* ienti-
jnents, tiro was of a pyramidal form, air was oc-
tahedral, wuter was icofahcdral, earth cubical,
imd the globe itfelf dodecahcdral J. Hence pro-
ceed
* J. M. Vcrdrlc- phyf. p. 283.
f Piutarcliuv dc plac. philolupli. viJ. OU.Tiiu* Jc prlnclpio
vtruji\ Jiatura.* ex mcbtc PJcracli'.u
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY; 69
<recd the five regular folid bodies of Pythagoras;
and which, on account of fome phyfical virtue
expected from them, have been confidered by
Euclid geometrically. Ecphuntus afTerts, that
hi3 Monades were corporeal. Ariitotle gives
magnitude to them ; from whence ionic fay
they were the fame as atoms, and think that
Pythagoras -was taught by the difciples of Mof-
chus in Phoenicia. lie likcwife fludicd magi-
cal medicine ; but, whatever has been reported
of his phyfical tenets, is yet obfcured in all the
darknefs of my fiery. It is faid he lived 105
years.
Leufippus and Dcmocritus were followers cf
the Elcatic fchool, about 450 years before Chriit:
But they denied the tenets of their teachers,
which dcilroyed the teftimony of the fcnfes ;
and, laying afidc harmonics, ideas, qualities, and
elementary forms, they contended that the bo-
dies themfelycs were prefcnt, and examined
their figure, motion, fituation of parts; tenuity,
and other properties. Dcmocritus aflertcd, that
all bodies were compofcd of indivifible and im-
mutable atoms, which, having only figure and
motion, were dcilitutc of taile, colour, and every
other quality; and, that, by the union of thcfc,
bodies were created. The vacuum profciibed
by Thalcs, he recalled again, and maintained
that the fca was conftantly diminilhing*. Thi"
E 3 manner
* Diogenes Laertius.
?o OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
manner of philofophizing was followed by Epi,
curus the Athenian, at the beginning of the
fourth age, who, from the various modifications
of light upon the furfaces of bodies, firfl taught
the origin of colours *,
Towards the ejid of the 4th century before
Chritt, Plato imagined every thing to depend
upon three principles, God, Matter, and Idea.
According to this hypothefis, Matter was infi-
nite and eternal, and deprived of all qualities, and
bodies were created from it by fome fccrct mov-
ing power. Cod was a pure fpirit not to be ap-
prehended but by the mind only; and Idea was
the eternal model according to which God
had made the world. He conceived matter
to have had in the beginning a triangular form,
from which the fcvcral elements were produced.
In the order of creation, heallirnsthc firil place
to fire and earth, as without them nothing can
have exillcncc ; next he places air and water,
which he contends may be mutually converted
into each other: To thefe he attributes particu-
lar {'acuities, as heat, drynefs, cold, amlnioiflure.
lie defcribes fermentation to be the motion and
evolution of earthy matter by the air that is
contained within it f .
Ariftotle, the difciple of Plato, although he
infomemcafureforfook the doctrine of hi: matter;
yet
* Lucretius dc natura rcrar.i.
f JnTiwjro. *
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 71
yet, withrefpcd to the theory of the elements,
he nearly entertained the fame opinion. He ef-
tablilhed three principles, Form, Privation, and
Matter, and four fpccies of cauies: the Materi-
al, from which ; the Formal, according to which ;
the Efficient, by which, and the Final, /or which,
all things were made. He maintained two ele-
ments, fimple and contrary, as Fire and Earth;
between which Water and Air held a middle
place. Pie denied the exiflencc of a vacuum.
He imagined that animals were produced by
putrefaction and natural heat ; and advanced
many other opinions, which were revered as ora-
cles for feveral ages f .
As the particular theories of the Greeks were
fcldorn founded upon observation and experi-
ment, but were rather the monftrous concepti-
ons of prejudice and frivolous imagination; it
may appear to the reader that we have dwelt
fuflicicntly upon the ftate of chcmiftry as it
ilourifhed among them. We (hall therefore
proceed to give fomc account of this fcience,
rather more general and mifccllancous.
v. Traces of Chemijlry difcovcrablc in varfous
Parts of tbc IVorld. ,
THOUGH from the want of proper monuments
and records among other nations, we fhall not
4 be
f Bruckeri Hid. Phil. Crit.
71 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
be able to give fo full an account of chemiftry
as we could wifh ; yet we think it will not be
unacceptable to the curious reader, to lay before
him the principal fads and circumitances that
we have collected.
There is no doubt, that the Ifraelites carried
with them into Ada a conilderable portion of
the knowledge of the Egyptians. Their leader
Mofes was inflrwcled in all their doctrines*; and
according to Philo, had learned from them a-
rithmetic, geometry, rythmus, metre, the the-
ory of harmony, and their various mulic, and
their philofophy, written in fymbols in their fa-
cred books f. That he was acquainted with
precious iloncs appears from the bible J ; and
with the art alfo of cutting and hollowing them
and granite . The preparation of the oil of
Jucrcd uuM'toiii and the ;//?/? holy perfumes ||, ac-
cording to the precepts of pharmacy, indicate
no lefs a degree of (kill, lie made, bcfitlcs, u
moil fplcmlid brazen fcrpent; and he give* an
account of fix metals gold, iiivcr, copper, iron,
tin, and lead ^[. And the profcffors of c he rail-
try confidcr the pulvcriiing and diflblving of the
golden calf as a perfect fpecimen of his know-
ledge of their art. No doubt, if the calf were
all
Ah vii. 32,
-\ In vita Muf.
\ Kx. xxviii. 17. 30. xxxlx. lo. 13.
|| Ex.xxx. aaaj. 34,35.
Numb. xxxi. ;. and xxxi. a?
OK Till: ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY, 73
*11 gold, that the diflblution of it required con-
fummutc art; unlcfs perhaps he ufcd the hcpar
fulphuris, of which 16 parts will act upon one
of gold; and the whole imVht afterwards be re-
duced into powder, and rendered folublc in wa-
ter. Some writers iniiit, that the calf was made
of wood, covered with thin leaves of jjold *; and
if ib, the rcduclion of it could be c Reeled with-
out any chemical operation, j'ut Moles fpcaks
alfo of thread dyed of various colours; of the
cxprcffinn of oil; of fermented leaven |; of the
vinegar of wine}, and other chemical produch.
And there are not wanting fcvcral who, in thefc
days, contend, that under Urim and Tluunmim
were concealed fome chemical ferrets 5. In the
time of Abraham, mention is made of butter |j.
job, who lived before Moles, undcrilood fer-
mentation, the fprinkling of glafs with gold,
and nictallurgic operations ,'. David was ac-
quainted with the purification of iilvcr in a fur-
nace**. Solomon, whole wifdom furpaflcd all
the philofophy of the E? it and of Egypt ff,
fpcak^ of filver drofs JJ. Jeremiah mentions
foap;
* Via. Michacli*.
j- Kxod. xxvi. j. xxvii. 20. xiii. 3,7.
:t Numb. vj. ^.
$ 1). Schrocdcr, 1. c.
I! Gen. xviii. 8.
*j Chap, xxxii. 19. xxvii 15, 17. xxviii. 1,7,
^* 1'fal. xii. 7.
tf I Kin^s iv. 30.
'j.t Prov. xxvi. 23,
74 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
foap * ; and Siracides, the covering of earthen
veflch with a crurt of glafs f. illiiha, by adding
fait to water, rendered it fapid Jj and fo of fc-
veral other inflancss that might be adduced of
the early acquaintance with chemical arts* But
thefc that we have already given, though they
dlfcover inventions of general utility in com-
mon, yet do they not betray the leart figns of
ingenious and fubtle theory,
Thofe comments on chemical competition
and duplication in the royal library at Paris,
written in the Greek language, and which are
afltgned to Mofes, do no doubt acknowledge a
later author. The Pradicc of Chemiftry, and
Experiments on the Philofophcr's Stone, fuid to
be by Maria the Hebrew, may be ulfo includ-
ed in the fume lentimem, As to thofe who en*
deavour to fqund Natural Fhilofophy upon the
Scriptures, Lord Bacon very juftly remarks,
that they feek the dead among the living. And
he thinks it neceflary to check andfubdue this
vanity; left, from a total confuiion of divine and
human affairs, the truth of philofophy iliould be
loft in vifionary conjectures; and he recommends
ftrongly, that faith fliould be given to nothing,
but with deliberation, and to thofe things only
which are worthy of it.
The*
* Chap. ti. a a.
I Chap, xxxviii, 34, ^
$ : Kings ii. 30*
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 75
The Phoenicians by their induilry anil com-
merce excelled all other nations. Before the
time of Moles, and about 700 years after the
flood, an accident fuggcfted to them the making
of glafs: As fomc Tailors, on the iliorc of Belus
for want of lloncs, had employed pieces of nitre
to fupport their kettle, in which they were boil-
ing their provisions, they obferved the fand and
the nitre unite into vitriiicd maflcs*. The ge-
nius and penetration of the Sidonians foon im-
proved upon this difcovery, and carried it to
fuch perfection, that for 2000 years it brought
them an immenle revenue: And as glafs was
prized equally with gold, the fand of Belus,
which for a long time was reckoned the only
kind fit for making it, even after Chrift, was
collected, and taken away by vcflcls that came
annually from foreign countries, as'Strabo, Jo-
fephus, Tacitus, arid others allirm J.
They had three varieties of purple colour :
The Tynan, which was twice dyed, was reckon-
ed the fincll and dcarcft. At the taking of Su-
ia,
* Pliny fpcaks of the origin of glaf*; and ho fays alfu :
*' Mox, ut ell alluta ct in^cmofa fulcitia, non fuit contents
" vitrum nufcuiflc: captus ct addi magncs (magncfui ?) la-
'* pis quoniam in fc liqunicm vitii quoquc, ut icrrum tra-
" here crcditur, 1. xxxvi. 2/>. Lapis hie (magncs) ctinCun-
" tabiiu nafcittir, non il!c magnet vcrus cautc continuo, fc<\
' fparf.i bubhationc : ita appellant : ncfcio an vitro fundcndo
'* pcrindc utilij : noniium cnim cxpcrtus cH quifquam/ 1
J. xxxiv. 14.
76 OF THE ORIGIN OP CHEMISTRY,
fa, Alexander the Great found in the royal trcn-
furc purple to the value of 50,000 talents, which
had lain there 192 years, and Hill retained its
original beauty. We ure told by Pliny in what
manner they ufed the coccus amttbvjlinus and
byfginus for the purpofe of dying cloths *. Men-
tion is often made in Exodus of argaman, which
is generally underitood to mean purple.
Herodotus relates, that the Pha-niciuns fetch-
ed tin and amber from diftant countries.
From the colonies which they hud fettled in
Spain, and other places, they drew vail quan-
tities of gold and iilver. In Greece alfo, the
Phoenicians were the fufl who fought for ores,
and extracted their metals.
Among others, Mofchus of Sidon is efteem-
<*! as the mod antient interpreter of nature;
and Pofidonius in Strabo, and SixtusEmpiricus
tell us, that he invented the doctrine of atoms.
' Cadmus, who is not celebrated for any know-
ledge in phyfics, is imagined to have brought
thofe letters from the Phoenicians, which they
had obtained from Aflyria, into Greece, and had
adapted them to the Pclufgian tongue f. Of
Sunchuniaton, an author fufpc'clcj by many,
and who is believed to have lived before the full
of Troy, we have fpokcn at fulKcient length
already.
According to Diodorus, Babylon, in the time
of
9 l, ix. .41. 4 Biuker, I.e.
OF THE ORIGIN 0? CHEMISTRY. 77
of Scmirarrm was removed from Egypt into
Chaldea, by Belus, who afterwards inftituted
there a faccrdutal college. But it fhould ap-
pear, that the fcicnccs had flourifhcd among the
Chaldeans long before; and were entitled as
much, if not more, to the praife of antiquity
with them, than among the Egyptians. They
confulcr 7,oronfter as the founder of their philo-
fophy ; of whofc name the Greeks were entirely
ignorant until the time of Pythagoras *. But,
indeed, any account of him is involved in fo
much obieuiity, that \ve are hardly authorifed
to afiign to him a place among the learned. Pic
is reported to have difcovcrcd the principles of
the world, and magical arts, and diligently to
have attended to the motions of the planers f.
In the following pages we /hall perhaps men-
tion a few things, of which we are not certain
whether they relate at all to this Zoroailcr.
Zardus, or Zaradut, or, as he is called, Mog,
was celebrated among the Perilans as the inven-
tor of magic. Pliny infills, that this art took
iti rile in Pcrfia from 7.oronftcr, who was in-
itructcd in it by A'/.onace}: And that it fccm-
ed more properly to lay claim to Inch an ori-
gin, as he is reported to have laughed on the
very day of his birtli ; and it is faid of him, thut
the palpitation of his brain was fo great, as to
rcpt'l
* Cicm. Alex Sir.
f Plato in AlciblaJc pjioru Jufliniu:, 1. I.
i L. xxx. c. (.
78 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
repel the hand of any pcrfou applied to his
head. Theie uncommon circumflances were
confidcred as prefages of future \vifdom *. Be-
fides, we are told, that he lived twenty years
in defarts upon checfe, and was of fuch a con-
ftitution as not to be feniible of old age f ; and
that he had compofcd two millions of vcrfes.
He is the reputed author of many writings on
aftrology, pbylics, magic, chcmiilry, and po-
litics J.
It was an ancient cuftom among the PerHans,
to diilinguifli metals by the names of the planets.
AndCelfus, in his writings againft Origen, men-
tions fomc Pcriian ceremonies which eftablifli
this account. In the following words he defcribcs
the heathen wor/hip of Mithni under thofe figns:
" Eft in eo duarum cceli revolutionum fignifica-
44 tio, turn ejus, qua Itellcu fixae fcruntur, turn
" ejus, qua planets, et animne per cas tranfitus
<l tale Symbolum: fcala eft in altum aliis fuper
'* alias portis furrecla ufque ad fummum oclava^
44 portrc forniccm; prima portarum plumbea eft,
44 fccunda ftanea, tcrtia ahcnca, ferrea quarta,
44 quinta mixti nomifmatis, fexta argentea, iep-
44 tima aurea. Primam faciunt Suturni, plum-
14 bo notantes tarditatcm ejus fideri?, fccundam
* 4 Jovis, comparantcs ei ftanni fplendorem et
44 mollitiem,
* L. vii. c. 1 6:
j- L ii. c. 42.
J Htilbronnrr, HJf 1 , M,rK. ^
Of THE ORIGIN Of 1 CHEMISTRY. 79
" molliticm, teruam Vcncrh xratam ct folidam;
14 quartam Marti?, eft cnim laborum paticn:,,
" rcque ac fcrrum, cclcbratus hominibus ; quin-
" tain Mcrcurii prcptcr mifturam inrcqualcm ct
14 variam ; fcxtam luns argcntcam ; fcptimam
41 foils aurcam, coloribus fuis ea fidcra rcfcrcnti-
41 bus.
We have already allcdgcd, that the hierogly-
phic mode of writing ufcd by Hermes, und the
attentive care of his followers to involve in myf-
tcry the operations of nature, moft probably
gave rife to the application of chemical flgns :
Theie, however, fubjcct to tlje fame variations
to which the letters of every language arc liable,
differ, no doubt, widely from thofc that were
firft employed; yet, we can flill trace in them
certain original characters, which the lapfe of
lime lias not been able to obliterate. We have
icon that, a! moil from the beginning of the
world, the fhirs were thought to have confide-
rablc influence on all tcrreftrial afiairs; and this
opinion, as well cftablifhcd as it is ancient, af-
figns clearly the reafon why all the rnctals have
been diftinguifhcd unto thi> d'ty, by the names
of the planetary bodies. On a principle fomc-
what fimilar, we find the triangular iigns in th*
theory of Plato. As the ftars held dominion
over time, fo the vanity of aftrologcn led then-.
to fuppofe, that fome, more than other?, had an
influence on certain days of the week; and,
thxr
8o OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
that they could impart to thole metals corrc-
fponding to them, conlulerable efficacy upon
their particular days. But we fhall give pre-
fently an example of this extraordinary folly.
From the Athenian ambafladors we learn,
that among the Perfians, before the time of A-.
Icxander the Great, c^.,^,^r. (vcflcls made
of glafs) were daily ufccl *.
Of the eftablifhrncnt of the fuccrdota! college
at Pcrfopolis, according to the Egyptian princi-
ples, we have th: following account from Dio-
dorus. Pliant";, a certain Halicumallian, hav-
ing infmuated himfelf into favour with King
Amafis, obtained from him the knowledge of
the Egyptian myftcries, with which he fled in-
to Perfia, and betrayed them to Cambyfes.
Temj)ted from what lie thus knew, with the
defirc of learning Hill more, the King of the
Perfians marched immediately ugainfl Pfammi-
nitu^, the fen of. AmalU; from whom he did
not take away his trcafures only, (about 525
years before Chrift,) but the Ilierophauti alfo,
With regard to them, however, he failed in his
deiign; as they obllinately refufed to commu-
nicate any knowledge of their myftcries, until
after his death they imparted them to his fon
"barms Hyflafpcsj. We have already mention-
ed, from Syncellus, that Oilancs was fent by
..^ Xcixe;,
* Arulophanes, Achanu i. a.
BH.I. I-iiil. !. i. 0..
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 81
Xerxes into Egypt. The letter written to Pc-
talius, dc fact' a ct tlivina arte, commonly afcrib-
ed to him, is without doubt entirely fpurious.
Equally unfounded arc many other writings un-
der his name. The fame fentcnce may be puff-
ed upon that work too which bears the iliuilri-
ous name of Sopharis, who is faid to have been
the preceptor of Oflanis.
Mow far the inhabitants of the Indies had
proceeded in their enquiries into the operations
of nature, it will be dillicult for us at this day
To determine, as we are not in the poilefiiou of
any accounts fufiiciently authentic. The fol-
lowing quotation, however, from Philoilratus
prove**, that they cultivated equally with other
nations of the EaR the fcience of metallic ailro-
iogy : He Jays, " Apollonius cum Jarcha Brach-
"' mane fecreto philofophatus, imuieris loco ab
4i co lulit annulos feptem, tolidem planetaruru
44 diclos nominibus, quos iingulos geilaret per
44 fubjcclos planctis dies ; fc. ut annulum aurc-
" uiTi ^eflarct die folis, argeuteum die lunre, fcr-
" rruni die Martis, hydrargyrinuni die Mcrcu-
" rii, die Jovis Jlanneum, leneum die Vencris,
'* ct plumbcum die Saturni, quod fingulis pla-
'* netis lingula refpondcant metalla *. ff
The Chinefe, according to Martini the Jefuit,
had been long acquainted with chcmiilry ; and
arc even faid not to have efcaped the rar;c of al-
F chcrniftiy;
* Life of A
8i OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
chemiftry, 2500 years before our Saviour : Tho*
it muft be confefied, they have left no writings
on this art behind them, to fupport fuch an opi-
nion*. But if China, as D. de Guignes alledges,
is a colony from Egypt, the dilliculty is not fo
great : And it is beyond all doubt, that many
excellent chemical arts and inventions had flou-
riihed long in China before it was vilitcd by the
Europeans. Among their chemical preparati-
ons it may be fuflicient to reckon nitre, borax,
alum, copperas, corrofive fublimate, calomel,
mercurial aethiops, mercurial ointment, fulphur,
explofive powder, fplendid fire-works, various
dyes in filk and linen, and veflels of porcelain
painted in elegant colours. Befules a great num-
ber of metals, as gold, filver, quicklilver, lead,
copper, iron, and tin, they cxtracl zinc, nearly
pure from the mines; and, with it and copper,
niccolum
* Hift. Sin. Lc Comptc, a Jcfuft mifllonary, in hi', ac-
count of Chinefe chemiils, makes mention of one celebrated
by his knowledge ot the philolopher* (tone, who lived 633
years before the Chriftian x-ra, and 150 before the time of Con-
fucius. Barchutcnius calls him Li-Lio-Kim or Li-Lao- Kiuru
In the Chincfe Atlas Martini has placed a lake near the city of
Pukiang, in the neighbourhood of which king Houang-ti \vho
lived 2500 years before our Saviour, is fuid to have prac~tifcd
alchcmiilry. The fame writer met with a large mafj of gold
on mount Zukin, which was reported to have been prepared
by the art of chemiftry, and to poflfefs the virtue of curing ma-
ny dif.afcs. He relates alfo a flory of nine virgin fillers, who
pafled their live* in celibacy intuit on-alchemical purfuits.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. S 3
niccolum and iron, they compofc what is cal-
led white copper.
It was not until long after the Romans had
iubjcclcd the Greeks and Egyptians to their
yoke, that they became acquainted with the
fcicncc of chcmidry, as we learn from the tefli-
inony of Jofeph Scaiiger. They made war their
<hief uudy, and cultivated thofe virtues only
that could fupport and improve it ; as fortitude
and courage. The other arts they Jcfpifed,
until Marccllus,' Scipio, Paulus /Emilius, Mum-
mius, and others, brought to Rome the mod
exquilitc pieces of workmanlhip from the con-
quered countries. But they remained Hill in-
tent upon arms, and the means of extending
their dominion; for, whenever they were in
want of excellent ftatucs, noble edifices, or fine
paintings, they always had rccourfc to the ta-
lents of the Greeks.
Anllotlc, however mentions, that the Urn-
brians were in the practice of extracting a fait
from the a flics of reeds and bulrufhcs *. About
I he beginning of the Chriftian icra we can dif-
cover feme traces of chemical knowledge; which,
though fbmetimcs not cafily defined, may be a-
fcribcd to the Romans. Vitruvius clearly de-
fcribcs the reduction of gold into an amalgam:
He fays, " Cum in vcftc intcxturn efl aurum,
" caquc vcftis contiita proptcr vctuftatcrn ufum
F i M non
* Mct.l.n. 0.3.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
" non habet honeftum, panni in ficlilibus vafis
" impofiti fupru ignem comburuntur. Is cinis
44 conjicitur in aquam, et additur ei argeritum
vivum, id autcm omncs micas auri corripit in
44 fe et cogit fecum coire : aqua dcfufa,cum id ia
44 pimnum infunditur, et ibi manibus prcmitur,
44 argentum per panni raritates proptcr liquc-
44 rcm extra labitur, aurum.compreffione coac-
44 turn intra purum invenitur *." What Vitru-
vius fays of the cloth, Pliny has written more
Particularly in thcfe words' " In pelles fubaclas
eHbditur,perquasfudoris vicedefluens purura
44 relinquit aurumf." Pliny ghes further an ac-
count of gilding by means of quicklilver, and of
the inarching for filvcr with the Lydian (lone J.
Pure g(j!d lias been faid to be extracted from
ochre, or orpiment, alfo, by Gains Caligula, a
'Have to avarice, though in inch fmall quantity
us not to defray the expcnce of the procefs .
Petronius, Ipeuking of flexible glafs, relates,
44 Fuit faber.qui fecit phialam vitreani,qu:e non
44 frangebatur. Ad mi fl us ergo ad Citiarem ell
44 ci:rn fuo muncre, deinde fecit rcnorrigere C:e-
4< fari, et ilium In pavimentum projecit. C:rf:ir
* 4 \iui pote validius, quam expavit : at ille fiillu-
'* lit phialam dc terra: coHihi/*rat, 'anquam va-
" fum a:ncum. Deinde martiolum dc linu pro-
tk T'.ilir,
* I., vii. c . 3.
L. xxxiii. c. d.
I L xxxiii. c. b. *
1., xxx.'ii. r. ..
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 85
u tulit, ct pliialam olio belle corrcxit; hoc pafto
" putabat fe cctlum Jovis tcnerc. Utiquc poll-.
'* quam ill! dixit: num quis alius icit hanc con-
" dituram virreorum? Vide modo. Poflquuiu
" negavit, jufilt ilium Crdur dccollari ; quia c-
" nim, fi fcituin effet, aurum pro 3uto habere-
" nius *." The fame (lory is told by Dion Cai-
fiuif, Johannes Sa rid) uric nfis J, and Pliny; who
adds, that, though the fume of the flexible glais.
difcovcrcd under Tiberius was very general, ycr.
it wanted farther confirmation 5-
What Seneca means, by the " collcctio ignh
" nhiminc," is rather obfcure, imlcfs it refers to
fome kind of pyrophorus ]!.
The fame luxury and difliputinn tl)at dcftroy-
ed the warlike genius of the Romans led them
to a corrupt and intemperate abufe of the arts.
Not fatisficd with the lined garments, they re-
quired them to be tinged with a \ariety of the
moil fplendid colours. The face was rendered
delicate and beautiful, by means of a poultice
made of bread and aflos milk, a fine colour be-
ing uiperinduccd with a mixture of ceruJe and
purple. The hair was powdered with gold
dud, as we learn from Ovid, Martial, and
Plant us. The apertures or windows of their
F 3 h on I'M
Satyr.
| Hill L. viJ.
I Polyor. L. iv. r. j.
f ( L. xxxv. :. id.
! O. N. I., ii, c. 17.
8C> OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
were at firil cloied with a tranfparent
flone, a kind of gypfum ; and afterward 1 ? they
uied glafs: And liicronymus and 1, acanthi 1
mention, that the* windows in the fourth century
were all made with it. PtMih and (\eins were
hii-hly valued by them, and were often pulilhcd,
carved into various figures, either concave or
prominent. Nonnius, a ieiiator, v. hen Hying
from Rome, carried with him, of all his wealth,
a p--a:l alone worth 2r,cco fcflerces. Pliny,
with great propriety, expreflcs lii:; furpiife ar
the cruehy of Anthony in profcribinft a man for
the i\ke of a finale jewel, and at the fully of
Nonnius ibr chiil'mr banifhmcnt rather than
part with it ; when, even \vild beails would i're-
quently fave their livesby biting from tliemfehes
thole parts ibr \vhich unly they knew they were
puifucd *.
Under the rci/rn of N r i ro, ti\e art of making
f.lalV, whieh hud been long known in Spain and
Caul, v.;i!i clifcovered at Rome; but it was yet
fo f.arce, that two fnvall cups niadv of Dial's, cal-
lei! ptcrotii told fertile iiinnenfe fuin of i'ccc t'v
fteru.i |. M:my other example:: (A tlr.ir lu.\i.r\
CiJ^l proiiilion, occur in ic viral author* 1 .
On the conyciilc,!! of CoinlantiP-e rlc Cin a"
to Chriilianity, a fatal blov/ \;';:', rue.vto tlir
fuptiftitious darknefs of i:n thul'.^y, arui the
* I., xxxvii. c. 6. <
I I'iiuv, 1, XAXVJ. c. 26.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. $7
arts and fcicnccs began to wear a more favour-
able afpcdt *.
Nor
* By way of fupplcmcnt, we fhail add here fomc few obfer-
rations on the preparations of medicine known to the ancients.
\5iracidcs,c.xxxviii. fays "Dominusnicdicarncntacieiccrc facit,
" tt ille, qui ungucntaprxparat, indc rnifcelas couficit." la
the Scptuagint vcrlion ointments arc called fc*i*u**i t vid.
i Kings, x. 1 5. Exod. xxx. 25. 35. xxxvii. 29. The word
/3oTiXr f fignific* properly, a man engaged in .ill kiud* of com-
merce, as alfo a perfumer. Among the ancient authors we
find mention made often of perfumers and dealers in ointments.
Thus, for example, Hcrmxus is fuid to be a Perfumer*
whofe rich widow was afterwards married to yEfchincs : HUB
of Thcfprotia in Kpirc, who refuted poifon to Ulyflcs which
lie afterwards obtained from King Anchilaus; was called an
Apothecary: Nicomachus the Siagyritc alfo was named a
O^uack : Ariftophilus a Quack of Platxa : Antonius is defcrib-
cd as a Quack by Galen ; and many others who we need not
mention. Ariflotle himfeif, if we can give credit to jfclianui
and Epicurus, had profcfled the trade of a pcifumcr before he
turned his mind to the iludy of philofophy. But, in general,
the practice of tins art was confidered as \cry rucan and con-
temptible ; and therefore Solon diovc all the perfumers out of
Athens, and Lycur^us was notlefs feveic to them at Sparta :
Under this idea too, Antony reproached Augullus that hii
great grand-father hat! kept a perfume (hop. Formerly thcpicpa-
rattonof nlrnod every medicine was in the hands of the perfum-
ers ; and it appears from Hippocrates that the ancient phyfi-
clans paid but little attention to pharmacy. It muft, however,
he acknowledged that chcmiilry is indebted for m*ny inven-
tions to the perfumers of old, and Greek phyficians, and ef-
prcially to thofe i/f a later period. In thu vicvr we may con*
iidcr the various compofitions of medicines, of which we mull
enimmcratc thofe only that were moil cUccrned. Diofcotide*
fakilbct tlf method of extracting the oil from pitch j that ir
F ui
*3 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
Nor irfthe mod remote times were the che-,
jnical arts wholly unknown to the northern re-
gions. Pythcas of Marieillcs relates, that the in.
habitants of Thule even made a beverage of
grain
Teas collected in clean fleeces fpread over the vapour of boiling
pitch. He alfo fpcaks of th<- dilUIlation of quick-filver from
/'.* (native cinnabar) and the burnt drofs of wine (fait of tar-
tar) which xvcre judged to be well prepared, if they were
while, and acrid to the tafte. Galen, Oribafti.s, Paulus ALgin-
rta, and JEttm txtol much a Gallic fo.ip : ./Etiiu menlions a
bl.ick foap alfo. yEgincta prepared an extemporaneous foap
from oil, the burned dregc of wine and nitre. The oil of
fulphur alfo i* mentioned by him, which was probably a fpecies
of balfam cf fulphur. The lixivium frot oft aflum of wfcgincta is
nothing clfc tl.an the cauftic alkali, yttiu-. di fcribes the diilil-
Jation j>cr dtfi<*f#* of flunking oil, and relates the preparation
ofbrafsand pttrilicctwin cf antimony. Various phtillen alfo
of which mention \ made fic<juently by ancunt author i, may
be reckoned among the prej)arations of cltcmiiiry. Oribafi'.is
and TEtiiiH added the drofs of filver (lithargyrium) to fc\cr:il
pluiilers, and thecompofjtionof thefnowy-likeplailttr from mi-
iiium was long prcfcrvul among their valuable fccrets. Syrups,
drofata, jisleps and /uleps are not well dillingui/hcd among
them. Myrepfi:s reckons 129 formulx of f)Tupa and 137 of
pills. Elcduniies, confections, pills and bolufcs ina'.'e two
tiiirds of their internal medicines The drar.gca: of the Greek
phyficiant f-cm to be fame with our t raj; tar. Smeguia is
uudtrflood by them in fcveial frnfes: Sometimes it ffgnifie 1 *
a dry powder, at other times a foft maf-, chu-fly mixed ulh
ioaj> ; and again, a trrtrtin kind of paib'K. Undtr th. ;,..: r
of troc^iiSi paflils were formed of varioui figures. Oi I rt< r-
they hail fcvcral kinds, as powdm, pilii and tlet r tiur:c:,. 'J'l,.ii
acidulated medicine?, infufions ct Imbs, and mixtures of vin.
rgar and watrr were prrpnred by cxpodire to the f'm, \\'h:i
li called nt'igmaly thr Greek'., the Arabian* rail Av:A and
.v't!j Li ;s lin.iu:.
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. tfp
grain and honey *, many ages before the birth
of Chrill.
For iheir inftruments of agriculture, as well as
for their arms in war, they required both the
life of metals and artificers : But they involved
all thofc arts in fables and myfterics, fully as
much as the nations of the foulh. They be-
lieved that the bed fwords were made by cer-
tain pigmies, who were concealed in the moun-
tains f. It is related alfo of the All, that, in
Idavail, (a wood in Vcrmelandia, which derives
its na'tie from Edda) tliey had conllrucled fur-
naces, and made pinchers, inftrumcnts, and
////</, which fome interpret money]. Krode kinr
of Denmark, paying a vifit to the Upfal Kioln,
is faid to have obtained two female iluvcs, one of
which was /killed in making gold, the other in
making fait 5- The in oft ancient temple of Old
Upfal is dcfcribcd as being not only very finely
ornamented with gold within, but alfo as being
adorned with a border of gold without |j. From
other accounts likewife, it appears, that the in-
habitants of the north were not only acquaint-
ed with the ufe of metals, but had made fome
progrefs in chemical arts.
5 vi. S\w ft/if
* r,ir;ilK., -t-r-rnph. I. iv.
Ku.l.i l).i::;f.
I rfnvamal Volufpa.
^ F.diia UamJf.
jj A. Crctn. anj A. Cranz.vid. ShcfTcri Uplaila
90 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY.
. vi. Synopjis of 7'biiigs known in Clcmijlry
during tbefirjl Period.
WE have fecn, very foon after the creation, the
invention of fuch arts as laid afterwards the
foundation of chemiftry. After the deluge, we
have obferved the cultivation of them in Egypt
until the devaluation of that empire by the A-
rubs. And, although the genuine tenets of na-
tural philofophy were fo lludioufly concealed
from us; yet fome glimmerings of a theory, e-
ftabliihed upon the various phenomena with
which they were acquainted, have not efcaped
our attention. We have alfo followed out the
Scattered traces in other countries, and chiefly
have afccrtained the wonderful practical pro-
grcfs of the Chinefe. Chcmiitry, then, fccms to
by claim to as high an origin nearly as the other
fciences; and with refpccl to many, is certain-
ly of much greater antiquity. During all this
period of near 5000 years, we find Polytheifm
every where; but cfpecially among thole nati-
ons where chemillry was moll cultivated; and
the myfleries of fcicncc and religion were thus
perpetually blending. Immediately after the
redemption of the world, the followers of the
true faith were every where fo hirrafled and per t
iccutecl, that they were nerefiarily mgre occu
pied
OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY. 91-
pied with the means of avoiding perfonal dif-
trefs and torture, than anxious for the improve-
ment of the fcicnccs.
Before the time, therefore, of Conftantine,
fcarcc any Chriftian had' bellowed a thought
upon chemiilry ; and after him, indeed, we find
very few, and thofe chiefly inclined to alche-
mirtry ; in the fingular fludy of which fo many
have fmcc loll both their time and labour. Some
general idea may be formed of the (late of che-
miftry in thofe days, from the confideration of
the fcvcral fubjecls of the art with which they
fecm to have had no acquaintance.' Except the
acetous, no trace can be difcovered of any other
acid. The mineral alkali was known to them
by the name of nitre : But of the vegetable al-
kali they knew little; and of the volatile they
were altogether ignorant. Of neutral falts they
had the marine and the ammoniac. Of earthy
falts they had native alum only : And of metal-
lic falts, copperas and native g reen vitriol. Cer-
tainly a very limited halurgy.
Of earths they feem to have diflinguiflicd the
calcareous and argillaceous ; and of flcncs, a
very conilderable number.
Of inflammable iimple fubflanccs, they were
acquainted with fulphur, cxpreflcd oils, and oils
ifa\\z& per defcenfum. But they knew no other
method of extracting ciFential oils than by the
means of the unduous. V/c find no account
whatever ot'fpirit of wine aud ether.
Of
92 OF THE ORIGIN OF CHEMISTRY;
Of the fevcn perfect metals hitherto known,
they were acquainted with all except Platina ;
But they were ignorant of the imperfect. Some
authors, indeed, make a diftinclion between tin
and white lead ; which was perhaps zinc, bifV
muth, or regulus of antimony. But it is impof.
fible to draw any certain concluiion with re-
fpedl to this; when even Pliny cliflinguiflies
hydrargyrum from argentwn vivum.
ExprefTion r >, digeilions, and decoclions were
alrnoil the only operations in their chemitlry.
Perhaps, indeed, they ufed fomc varieties of e-
lixation, evaporation, and infpiil'ation ; as like-
\vifenfcryftallization, fublimation, calcination,
dirtillation per defcenfuWt fuiion, eliquation, VN
trification, and fermentation.
From the authorities, therefore, already cited,
k may be naturally inferred, that, at the peri-
od under confideration, the dawn only of che-
rniftry had made its appearance ; and that it
-was rather a collection of unconnected and ill-
founded axioms, the rcfult of obtcrvation and
remark, than a fcicncc cflabliflied upon the
brnad bafis of an infinite variety of experiments.
At this time they were in want ulfo of the pro-
per inflrumcnts, and unacquainted with the ne-
ccf]hry llcps by which the principles of natural
bodies can be cxaclly feparated, collcclctl, and
properly defined. They were, therefore, with-
out thole means fo nccefliiry to the evolution of
truth, and the conflruftion oi.' a genuijie-'fyilem.
TJIU
THE
HISTORY
O F
CHEMISTRY,
During the Obfcurc or Middle Age, from the
Seventh to the Seventeenth Century.*
.\iftimarf vfortct naturam inu.'ta ct varia a rebut ipfn
tt coaSam ffff i rat ion fm vtro i J, qua ab ilia Jill mandala et
traJita futrant) bojltriut aJcunttiora ft pditiora reJJiJffi, ft
aJJiJiJJi- t in nonnult'u citius t in aliit tarditis.
LA CRT i us.
5- i. General Idea of this Period.
T
MLS period may be reckoned from the de-
ilrudlion of the Alexandrian library by the A-
nibs about tlie middle of the fcvcnth century,
unto the firil inilitution of fcicntitic focicticr, a
little beyond the middle of the fevontccnth cen-
tury;
* This Diflcrtation was publicly delivered in the
Hal], on the ntliof June, 1782.
94 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
tury; 'comprehending in all about a thoufand
years. In the year 1651 the Academy del Ci-
mcnto was founded at Florence; in 1660
Charles II. cflabliJhed the Royal Society of
London. The Academy of Inquirers into the
works of nature, in 1664, and the Academy of
Sciences, in 1666, botharofc at Paris under the
aufpices of Lewis XIV. From the dark obfcu-
rity in which the hiilory of chemiflry remained
buried during all this interval, we 'arc naturally
led to compare it with the civil hiilory of the
fame time, and perhaps to allign to it fimilar
features : And, indeed, the circumilances to be
related in the following pages will fully explain
the character of this period, and furnifh fuflici-
ent reafon to call it by the name of Hermetic
or Alchemiftic.
At the firll view, we find the political con-
ilitutioa of thofe countries where chcmiilry re-"
ccived its earlielt growth, in a flate of the great-
eft barbarifm. The inhabitants of Arabia Felix
whom Ptolemy long ago calls Saracens *, were
for many ages fubject mollly to the Roman au-
thority, and i'erved occasionally as mercenaries
in the armies of that empire. But about the
beginning of the fcvcnth century, under the
reign of the Emperor Heraclius, they overran
Egypt, which they had been threatening with
an invafion for three years. A fliort time be-
fore
*
* Ccogr. vi. 7.
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. $$
fore, they had embraced the Mahometan reli-
gion, and had laid wafle all Syria under the
banners of Mahomet. In Egypt thcfe new
Lords deftroyed, with indifcriminating hand, c-
very monument of Icience, every abode of learn-
ing. Ptolemy Soter, who founded the acade-
my at Alexandria, had begun to coiled a very
confiderable library alfo ; which, at the dcatlf
of his fon Ptolemy Philadelphia, contained al-
ready 100,000 books; and which incrcafed
loon after to the immcnfe number of 700,000*.
Mauufcripts were collected from every quarter;
and being accurately and neatly copied, the o-
riginals were prcfcrved in the library, and the
copies were exchanged for them, accompanied
fometimes with large prcicnts. The firfl collec-
tion amoun ted to 400,000 books, in that part
of the city called Brucmon ; the other confided
of 300,000, and was kept in the Scrapcum. The
former was accidentally confumed by fire, while
Julius Crcfar was beficging the city; and the
latter, though often plundered, recovered fo
much from its misfortunes, that it became at
length greater than the Bruchian collection },
To this were added 200,000 volumes alfo from
Pergamus, which Mark Anthony had prcfented
to Cleopatra. But when this incftimabie libra-
ry fell into the hands of the victorious Saracens
in
* Strabo L xvii. Eufcb. Chron.
f Plutarch jn the life of Julia* C%fa>.
06 THE HISTORY OF CULMISTRY,
in the year 1642, a certain philofophcr, named
John Philopbnus, who was high in favour with
their leader Aniri Kbnol-As, requeued of him
tofparehima part of it. The Caliph Omar,
however, without whofe permiflTion Amri dared
not to favc a tingle volume, ordered them all to
be deitroyed ; adding, at the fame time, that
fliey were ufelefs if they agreed with the Alco-
ran, dangerous if they differed from it. Du-
ring fix- months almoll four thoufand baths were
daily heated with thefe valuable munufcripts '.
How little learning was eileemed by the heroes
of thofe days iulficieritly appears in this unfor-
tunate example. In afimilar manner the Goths,
and other wandering tribes, fpread terror far and
wide, and depredated entirely the nations they
had vunquiflied. lint we ihall not enter into
the unpleaiant detail of the etfecls of barbarifm
and ignorance ; as the fate of Egypt, where
chemillry hud fixed her throne, too clearly il-
lufl rates the melancholy condition of the fci-
erices.
Although the firfl influence of the Mahome-
tan dominion was fatal to letters, and the conlti-
tution of that religion even afforded no profpeft
o!*a Iiappier iituution; yet loon after, under the
Achernidic dynutly, the fmilet> of fortune in-
fpircd them with fome new hopes. Abu-Jaafer-
A I man for, the fecond of this family, who, in
* the-
* Abulpharagiut, hlft. I)y. x.
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 97
the eight century made Bagdad the feat of the
.Babylonian empire, whether from thoroughly
undei (landing the Alcoran, or from the affec-
tion he bore to the fciences, became famous for
learning, and for his (kill in aftronomy efpeci-
ally, to which he had always given a preference.
After him the encouragement given to fciencc
daily incrcafcd. Harun or Aaron Rafchid, who
\vas cotcmporary with Charles the Great, lived
in liabits of intimacy with feveral philofophcrs,
mul took great delight in their convcrfations.
But, of all the princes of Arabia, his fon Abdal-
la Almamun was by far the mod diflinguiilicd.
This Prince held the reins of government from
the year 815 to 831, not icfs celebrated for his
clemency than for the ardour with which he cn-
rouraged letters. At groat pains and cxpcnce
he collected books in all languages, and had
them accurately tranflated, and carefully pre-
fcrvcd. Negotiating a peace with Michael the
III. among other conditions, he ilipulatcd for
permiifion to collect and export in Greece what-
ever books he wanted. From this period we
find the fciences protected every where in the
Eaft, and in Africa. The Arabs highly ho-
noured thole who cultivated learning, and in-
ftituted academics for the propagation of know-
ledge. But they fecmed to fet the highcft va-
lue on aftronomy and alchcmiftry, which \vcrc
Jit this time abfolutcly infeparabjc. Indeed, it
G was
& THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
was not until long afterwards, that thcfe fcicnct*
were found independent of each other in Eu-
rope. The celebrated Tycho Uruhc, not only
uttcndcdto the motions of the planets, hut had
a laboratory alfo, in which he tried experiments
upon eurtby fubftances by fire. The great
Newton, too, when roiling from his hnmcnfe
labours, .employed bimfolf occasionally in che-
mical operations. There are, belidt"-., many
other iniiances which we need not mention.
In the mean timeeurope overrun with f warms
of bnrbruians, whole fava^e third of wealth led
them to ravage and dellroy v, hcrevrr they came,
w;r< lilmolt wholly ibrfakcn by the liberal UIIN.
'I he Mufes iiy from Gotii^ uud Vuiulals. Ciluuies
ihe Gicnr, however, \\\c m*ll powerful priiio:
Ht that time, offered them h:^ protcclioa ; and
ir is in a '^rent ineafurc to liie expeditions under -
taiicii lor the lake of religion, that \\e urc in-
debted for t)u ir utcovory. Thcfe v.t-re begun
about the end uf the i ith century; and piin-
jnij; liii entry amoti^ ihe Arabian 4 !, uiibrdcd tin:
t'.i:r>pviius an (.pportunily of c^mcrting their
liteiary trtiifures lo thoir o\vn ule. \Vhe;i Coa-
ilantiiH.pie was taken by the Clirhlianu in the
yen;* i -C5, a coniiderable number of inuimfcripLs
.^ade tiieir \\ay into Lur^pe, where a '.'/eat puit
.-jf thrill wasgradiKilly tranllatcd into a more ge-
neral h'.ncMiage. About tin; >car ;^^c,thc Km-
Kior 1'rcderii; II. turiud }:i-i atlei;u.u to th*;
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 99
cultivation of the liberal arts. Several princes
followed his example : So that they Teemed now
to be quitting their former habitations, and to
feck more and more for fheltcr and protection
in our quarter of the globe. But the fuperfli-
tion under which Europe groaned, retarded for
a long time the progrcfs of natural fcicncc. For
every one who attempted to explore the works
of nature, or had acquired the lead acquaintance
with her, was deemed a conjuror, and agent of
infernal fpirits, and fcntenccd to be burned to
death. By degrees, however, the thick clouds
of ignorance and cnthuiiatm were diflipatcd, and
men of fciencc and of genius were permitted to
purfuc their ftudics in a wider field. And this
change was efpccially remarkable in the i6th
century, when the zeal of Luther freed the
church from that load of abfurd and ridiculous
garments with which it had been long disfigur-
ed and opprciied.
If we coniidcr ftcp by ftcp the progrcfa
of chemical fcience, we mall find indeed that
various properties of bodies were difcovcrcd,
but that they were neither fo accurately de-
termined, nor exactly compared together, as was
nccellary ; and formed only a rude and undi-
gcflcd mafs, arranged into no fyftcm : In fuch
myftcry and confufion was true fcience as yet
obfcurcd. The vaft number of experiments that
were made about the end of this period, with-
G 2 out
too THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
out order or regularity, were not unlike to a
confufecl heap of dones, lime, fund, beams, and
rafters, rcquilite for condrufting an edifice; but
which, being combined with no Ikill, fail in pro-
ducing the propofcd cil'ed. Tlie falfe and per-
verfe opinions likcwiie which were entertained
by many, contributed in a great meafure to
thicken this darknef*. Several liad pcriuaded
themfelves, that gold could be compofed from
its principles by art ; and that medicines en-
dowed with the virtue of curing all difeafes, and
of rendering man immortal could certainly be
found. Thus they were perpetually grafping
at wealth, and defirous to piotrad life beyond
its natural limits. This was the goal to which
every fearcher into the works of nature ran with
all his might. Truth, however, they unxiouf-
ly avoided, led it fliould fugged any thing that
might enable others to folve thefe problems,
which they coniidered of the greatdl import-
dnce. In order, therefore, to died their my.
derious purpofe, they made uie of particular
characters and %ns, and employed a ridiculous
and metaphorical manner of fpcaking, that
their words and their writings (hould be undcr-
dood by themfelves only. But notwithdanding,
a cortfiderable number of books were produced;
though to what purpofe is not fo eaiily deter-
mined, as they had fparcd no pains to render
them as obfcure as poflible. Our furpofe, how-
eve*
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. ipt
ever, at this rage for writing is greatly increaf-
cd, when they tell us, that the art of making
gold is beyond the reach of human capacity, and
that it is made known by God to thofc only
whom he favours, and whom they call Adepts.
They aflert alfo, that dire misfortunes will a-
light upon his head, who, poflcfling this know-
ledge, ihall in any way communicate it to o-
thcrs.
During almoft the whole of this dark period,
the art of printing was unknown ; and hence we
may imagine the labour bellowed upon tranf-
cribing all their books. Great, however, as it
was, the number brought forth was not affected
by it: For which we cannot othcrwifc account,
than by fuppofmg them to have produced an a-
dequate gain to the authors. They feldom put
their own names to their writings, but ufcd o-
thcrs, anticnt or feigned, to obtain perhaps a
credit they Could not of themfelves have ac-
quired.
In the mean time the number of cbryfipoci
incrcafed almoft every where ; but the favour
of the public did not keep pace with them.
This divine art had been fo propitious to the in-
habitants of Africa, that it could not be retrain-
ed at Fez. Some of them were in qucft of a
certain elixir that fliould convert all common
metals into gold. Many, who .were a mailing
wealth by adulterating the coin, paid the penal-
f- 3 */
102 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
ty of their difhonefly with the lofs of their hand*.
Pope John II. in the fourteenth century, pub-
licly condemns them in his bull as impoftures :
Spondent qua tion exhibent, &c. Henry IV. of
.England, in the fourteenth century, and the
faculty of medicine at Paris in 1609, followed
the example of the Pontiff. But we will not
dwell longer upon the fufterings and miifor-
tunes to which they were now expofed.
Towards the dole of this period, the fociety
of Roficrucians, an inflitution congenial to the
fpirit of the age, begun to dillurb the rcpofe of
Germany. While academies of fcicnccs were
eftablifhing a fhort time after, for the purpofe
of exploring the fecrets of nature by proper ex-
periments, and of publifhing an account of
their tranfaclions, and were thus gradually fub-
verting all bold and obfcure myltcries; tliis fo-
ciety not only chimed to itfelf the tranfmuta-
tion of metalSj and an univerial panacea, but af-
ferted likewiie, that by the cabulu and numbers
every thing was made known to the adepts, and
to thcfc that were kept by the peculiar care of
the Deity, by invifible unknown beings ; and
that even thoughts could not be concealed
from them. They had iikewife many o-
ther opinions equally as abfurd and ridiculous.
From the year 1609 to 1630, an incredible num-
ber of books were poured out from this frater-
nity; though it is not left to be doubted whether
it
. * Johannes Leo <lc vim illuftrlbus spud Aritbn
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. roj'
.:t really had an exigence, or \vhcthcr Europe
was made the fport of one or a few individuals,
it will not be foreign to our purpofe to infert.
here a (lory made by fonie in the name of this
fociety. A nobleman of Germany travelling,
in- the year 1378, into Arabia, was faluted in iiif>
proper name by the wife men of that country,
though they had never feen him before, and
they related every thing that had happened to
him, during all his life. He was initiated by
them m their myflcries. On his return to Ger-
many, he inflrurlccl fcvcral difcipJcs, until the
year 148.4 ; when, at the i^c of 150, he volun-
tarily choie to depart this life. Some one or Im
uicccfibrs, 1604, difcovcred his tomb, in which,
bcfidcs various remarkable infcriptions, was it
book engraved in golden letters. J)ut here we
ran learn nothing further. Their own confei
fion has furnifhed u^ with the above circum-
flancc-b. They had for their general conduct.
J;x fundamental rules: Ky thefnft they were to
heal the iic.k \vherever rlu-y met them; the fc-
rond dirccled them to atTume the cloathing of
the country in which they happened to be; the
third obliged theia to attend the annual jjene-
r..'i meeting, unlcfs they could allign fomc law-
nil -raufc of abfence; tlie fourth enjoined every
hrolhcr, a r > loon as he chofe tu die, to nominate
.t v;orthy fucccifor; the fifth ordained the rofy
crofs to be their fyml>ol ; the fixth dirct^eJ
C 4 ^Ij.it
104 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
that the fraternity fhould be concealed care-
fully for 100 years *. In France this fo-
ciety gained but little ground; and, after 1630,
it pafied almoft wholly into oblivion. In
this year one Mormius offered to reveal the
whole ofjts fecrets to the magiftracy of Hoi-
land; but his propofal was treated with con-
tempt.
It was not to be expected, that fcience whol-
ly occupied in the purfuit of other objects would
contribute to the improvement of chemical arts,
They were however rendered gradually more
perfect, partly by accident, as the artifls difco-
vercd fhorter an t d better procefles, and partly
by experiment, as they fometimes chofe to rilk a
path unbeaten by their teachers; and in fome
meafure, by the unfuccefsful attempts of the
alchemifts. For tfiefe laborious invefligators,
though they feldom gained their propofed end,
yet often brought to light much ufeful know-
ledge, which had otherwife perhaps lain conceal-
ed to this moment.
As to medical chemiftry, and the principles
upon which its theory was eftablifhed during
this period, we fhall explain them feparately
further on: Here it rnay be proper to take no-
tice of a few things relating to the pharmaceu-
tical part of this fcience. The prolix competi-
tion
* Morhofius in Polyhiftorf, Mormiui, in arcany
fecrrtiflimii, may chiefly be confultrd.
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE.
tion of Mithridatc, theriaca, and antidotes fufn-
cicntly demonftrate the low eftimation of fim-
pler medicines, which ftill fell more into difre-
pute, as the Greeks and Arabians vied fevc-
ral ages with each other in ufing the longcil
formulne. At the time the knowledge of the
Arabians firfl enlightened the wcilern part of
Europe, it was ihroudcd with fuch impenetrable
darkncfs, that neither rcafon nor perception
could form the lead probable conjecture of its
future improvement. From Ariflotle we learn,
that medicines were divided into the warm and
cold, the dry and humid, which were combined
according as circumftanccs required. Hippo-
crates was the author of the attenuating, in-
craffating, debilitating, and allringent qualities,
and feveral others, in which Erafiilratus and his
followers committed wonderful atufes. As we
have many medicines that ad particularly on
certain parts, as the cephalic, ftomachic, diure-
tic, hepatic, Sic. an opinion was afterwards
entertained, that others aflecled equally the
whole fyftcm. They divided every quality in-
to four degrees, and each degree into three parts.
All compounds they examined with attention;
and, if they found them faulty, fomething to
correct them was added : That their force might
not be impaired by digcftion, they were defend-
ed by fome particular ingredient from the ac-
tion of the ftomach ; to thofe that operated too
hrulily
ic6 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
iiaftily, they -added fomethins to occafion de r
lay; to others rather fluggiih, they joined a
ftimulant ; and, thofe that wore to ad on a
certain part, they accompanied with Tome medi-
cine that was to perform the ollicc of a conduc-
tor. Others were compounded according to'
the conftitution of th'j patient. With fuch a-
rithmetical precifion was the healing art prac-
tiled in thole days.
Thofe perfons who were intruded with the
preparing of medicines, about the middle of
the fifteenth century, and were called pbarma-
<copoh? t belides their collection of formula!, had
fcarce any other books, ihun one of Avicenna,
another c; Serapio on plants, another written by
Simon of Januenta on lynonymous appellations,
a fourth called the book of Servitor on the pre-
paration of plants, and fome chemical medicines,
and two liils of antidotes, of John of Damufcus,
or Mefuis, and Nicolai of Salerno *. Towards
the
* If the Arabiansw; o t-iu^Iu their clu miilry !>y the Greek-,
it rr.u!\ be confc'T'.-d they nndc u much greater ufc of ii in the
practice o(jhy fie than Ucir prcccptori t!ii!: Hut it cannot be
denied that thvj'alfo invented many cither inert or even clan-
^CTOUR mctliCincS. It i!oc not \\ry cliinly .ijipcur that the
Arabians were the inventors of fu;;;r ; ycl there ii, no doubt
they were the frft who employed it in th" in ttcri.i iiiflic-i, un-
der the name of *$> cffjne. The inet!iri:ie-( of Kf:a/ij wtre
chiefly galenicals. Pills, powtkrr, t!e^\u;snes, decoct io;.:.,
iroclic:, OmtmefiUf and jilaiilere. Oils lie dij.',eiltd ctihor hy
i-.folation or fand heat, lie luixcd lead in fevtr.;! ofhrV-luiil-
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 107
the end of the fame century, Nicolaus Prevoft,
a phyfician of Tours, wrote a general pharma-
copoeia,
rn. The /Egyptian ointment, oil offcorpioni, diachylon
plaifters, and others of Arabian origin, arc dill ufcd at this
day, under the fame names, and with very little change of com-
poiiiio*i. We know nothing of the preferred litharge, the
white fulphur, the earth of mercury, &c* cf Rhazis. He
commends much a martial vinous elixir, by the title of a pre-
paration of the fcoria of iron with wine, and watci of rtifcs
alfo ; but whether he prepared it by fimplc infufion or by dif-
tillation we arc not told. Of the fyrups, he mixed fome with
honey, others with fugar and honey, and fome with manna.
The infpifiatcd juices of plants the Arabians called rob ; and
they reckoned among their fyrups whatever was piefcrvcd
with aromatic*. The names of oxymcls and oxyfacchari they
ufed indifcriminatcly; from which it might be conjectured that
fugar and honey were equally common to them. Rhazis con-
trived various mixtures of fugnr ; fuch ai the fugar of water
lilly, of voilet*, of rofes, AT. He is faid to be the firft who
exprcficd oil from rggp, and Friend fufpefls, that the oil of
brick* was his invention. Albucafi:., who probably lived af-
ter Rhaxi's furpaflcd all his countrymen in chemical know-
ledge Of all his remarkable, and in fome mcafur: volumi-
nous, work on the unvctful materia modica, we have the
2yth book only remaining, entitled Servitor, and which con-
tains all the precepts of pharmacy, concifc indeed, but fufH-
cicntly clear and intelligible. Bcfides other things, arc to be
fuiind rnthisbook, the preparation offal titimoniacj three modes
of diftillitior, of vinegar, of wine, &c. It defcri!)cs four
kinds of alembics and cucuibits, ofglaf*, of earth intruded
with glafs, of lead, and of braf*. Albucalls has a decoction of
hiera ; which \7as a tirdurc prepared in the fun ; and various
rxtmds from Die juices of plants infpifiatcd in the folar heat.
He difTolvcd ums in water or acetous acid, and filtrated the fo-
Jution through courfc. hempen clothes. He defcribcs the prc-
of alkaline fait in the fame manner with Dioicori-
de. S
loS THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY.
copcein, which contains more formula? than any
other,' efpccially of antidotes *. Afterwards,
many of the fame kind made their appearance :
But Valerius Cordus publifhcd a difpenfatory,
compofed of extrads from all the others, which
was functioned by the law, and recommended
by a decree of the State of Nuremberg, in
1542, to be the guide of the apothecaries. Many
of
<lc5 ; and mentions the Coda from the plant kali, and the lix-
ivium of attics. Rhazia is the firft who fpcaks of quickfilvcr
rendered white; and which is perhaps the fame as the fublimcd
quickfilvcr ofAviccnna. He orders quicklilver, mixed with
acetous acid and vitriol to be rubbed into a perfect amalgam,
and then the mafs to be dried and diflillcd, or fublimcd between
two deep dimes ; and this proctfs to be renewed fcven timts,
and at each a frefh fprinkling of the vinejpr. In another way
he fublinus quickfilver, by mixing it with lime, fal ammoniac,
and yellow arfcnic* Ccberus fccins alfo to have dcfcribed a
fpccies ef corrofvc fuhlimate : See lAb. tie 'wvtnt. writ. .720.
" Stime do to (quickfilvcr) lib. i. vitrioli ruhificati, lib. ij. a-
" luminis rcchx culcmati, 1J1>. i. falls coinmunis, lib. f . et
" falis petnr, lib. ^. tcic totum, et incorj)orat'jm fublima, ct
" r.clligr ftlbum, denfum,- tlarum, et poiultrufum, ^c." He
appears to have had fom: idea likewife nf aqua regia, and of
its property of difToIving gold. Crocus Marti 1 ;, too, was pre-
pirtd by calcination, and by coriofion with the acetous acid.
Lime obtained from the flulli. of iggs w;:s reckoned j)nfcru-
blc to tliat of burnt Hones or marine fhcllM. Mcfuc?, whom
fomc* authors imr.gine to have lived before the time of Rlia-
zis and AlSuoaHs, acquired ^?reat reputation from the inven-
tion of fcvvral medicines, and the diltinguiftiing tit!*- rf
Ev**gtRf& PLirmacr,pcccrum. Some of his compohtionr arc
.'i ufc to t!iis day, as confiftio a/ltritnrf t and various others.
* Entitled, De compofitionc mcdicarr.cr.t'jrum particu!a-
in 410. *
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 109
of the compofitions were only mixtures, or more
fimple preparations, as extracts, decodions, e-
lecluarics, fyrups, and fuch like. Pie defcribcs
however very clearly the method of making e-
thcr (which he calls oleum vitrioli dukc)\ of
which we find only obfure traces in Balilius Va-
Jcntinus.
Medicines that required the aid of more pro-
found chemiftry were at the beginning of this
period very rare, though not altogether un-
known. The emperor Conitantinc IX. fur-
named Porpbyrogcnetcti who died in the year
^59* relates in the life of Bafilius of Maccdon,
his grandfather, that the emprefs, when juil dy-
ing, was recovered by mrw^;* r-^ar.. Conrad
Gefner lias taken great pains to prove, that the
fyrupum rofatum is underitood here; for he flip-
pofes that rbodoftagma is the fame as rhodoftac-
turn ; but, from the preparation of it defcribed
by Paulus of yEgina, there is no doubt of its be-
ing the fyrupum rofatum. But although many
ages paft, the fame thing was cxprefied under
two ditlercnt names, it by no means follows,
that they were afterwards confidercd as fynony-
mous. Actuarius alfo makes mention of rhodo-
ftagma; but, from its ufc, it is evident, that undtr
this appellation he means the water that drop-
peth from rofes. How could it happen that
diftillation was not known, when the utcnfils for
Ir
THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
ir had been fo long defcribcd by Geber? We
arc indebted to the Arabian ph yficians, not only
for our knowledge of fe vend purgatives, as man-
na, fenna, rhubarb, tamarinds, caflia, and myro-
bolan ; but alfo of muflc, nutmegs, mace, clove
giliiflowcr, and other aromatics ; and from them
we learned the ufe of fugar, which they em-
ployed in (lead of honey, in fyrups, juleps, con-
lervcs, and fomc confcdtions. Rhazis fpcaks of
corrofive fubliniate, in the ninth or tenth centu-
ry; and Avicenna mentions not only it, but
likcwilc fublimecl arfenic, dillilled water of ro-
fes, and the diftillation of bones and huir. Johan-
nes Mefues, the younger of Damafcus, writes of
the diflilled water of rofes, and the oils of am-
ber, barley, and bricks, in the twelfth century,
as if they were well known to the antients. In
the thirteenth century, however, chemiflry be-
came of more importance to medicine. Thad-
dieus a Florentine, who died in 1270, at eighty
years of age, among chemical preparations, be-
llows great commendations on the virtues of fpi-
ritofv/ine. Baiilius Valentinus prepared vari-
o'us kinds of antimony, which he ilrongly recom-
mends in practice. As to what is faid by fomc,
that it derives its name of antimony from its bad
eflecls on the monks of his fociety, as tfanli'/iona-
cbal, is entirely without foundation, as Bafilius
himfelf makes ufe of that appellation, which o-
thcrwifc he certainly would not liavc done.
DURING THi; MIDDLE AGE. ui
Thcophraftns Paracelfus drew the attention of
every body fo much by his chemical medicines,
that lie was the iirfl. who was appointed to teach
pubiicly che?viiitry at jfciiil, in the year 1527.
lit' was fo violent in his hatred at all fcholailio
and Arabian productions, that in a rage he-burn-
ed the writings of Avicennu and Galen at his
lirll lechire ; fwearing, that full as much learn-
ing \vjis contained in his cap. ]>y his induftry,
tlic difference between chemical remedies and
;.V'ier,ioal was chilly -increaied. It i> reported,
tiiat he cured many difcafcs by the means of o-
pium andquicklilvcr. The fmgubr manner of
Jiving praclik'd by this man gained him c(jiml
enc'mics and admirers, ills followers jofcph du
C'iiefnc, commonly called Qucrceta, Theodore
(!- Mayonnc, and fcvcral others, proclaimed tht:
nnivciial cxcciicncc of chemical medicines. In
flic year 1609, Crollius publiihed a method of
preparing incrcurius duicis. Many ditilcultics,
hov.'cvcr, attended as yet the progrcfs of fcience.
'I'iic life of antimony was prohibited by the fu-
]>rcme council of Paris, by an edict in 1566:
which was renewed in 1650: And Befnier \vas
cxpeiicd the faculty of medicine in 1609, for
having given antimony in his practice. In the
year 1590, the Faculty of Paris publifhcd a col-
Icdlion of all the proper medicines to be ufcd.
The edition of 1637, contains vimtm antimonia-
turn : B*it tiiis diipcnfatory was not fan&ioned
by
it'4 THK HISTORY OK CHEMISTRY,
by the fupreme council, until the loth April,
1666. I. Schrocder gave to the world in 1644,
a chemico-mcdical pharmacopoeia, which was
printed, for the third time, with many addi-
tions, in 1649. It delineated exactly the phar-
macy of thofe times, and enumerated almoft all
the chemical medicines that were kno\in to-
wards the clofe of this period. About the lame
time, the Auguftan aud London difpcnfatorics
were publifhed. The Copenhagen difpenfato-
ry did not appear before 1658. All of them
wonderful performances, coniidcring the ilateof
phyfic at that day. The diieoverics and im-
provements fubfcquent to thefe do not come
within the limits of the oblcufc period.
It was long before (hops for the fale of medi-
cines were eftablifhed in Sweden. When Guf-
tuvus I. was on his death-bed, Johannes, the
Ordinary of Stockholm had the charge both of
his body and mind. In (lead of an apothecary,
Lucas was employed ; but it i> probable he was-
not furnifhed with any medicines of his own, but
rather preferred and prepared, when neccilary,
thofe for the ufe of the royal family. Tiling 4 ;
were fo circumflanced at the time, that John
III. granted on the 2 ill March, 1575, to An-
thony Bufenius, the power of felling medicines,
thnt they might not be fpoiled with age; on
condition that a proper and frcfh aflbrtment
wan always rcr.dy. The records of that time
DURING THE MIDDLE ACE. 11.3
make mention of a Simon Waldcr, an upothcca-*
ry, living near the great market. Towards the
t-nd of this century, the number of apothecaries
Ihops at Stockholm were much increafcd ; and
by degrees they were eitabliflicd in the other ci-
ties. But it was not until the year 1686, that
pharmacy was lanftioncd by the voice of the
legiflaturc.
Scarce any thing certain can be advanced
with refpcd to the Hate of ordinary chcmiftry,
and the attention that was paid to it in thcfc
times ; nor have we better intelligence of that
part of the fcicncc that relates to the various
arts, except fome account of metals, and a few
others.
Metallurgy was cultivated long before the
birth of Chriit. Gold, lilvcr, lead, copper, iron,
and tin, were cxtraclcd from their ores ; but in
what particular manner is yet unknown to us.
Without doubt the procellcs employed until
the eight century mufl have been exceedingly
rude and fimplc. From that date, however,
all the writings (peak frequently of metals. The
ftatute published by Charles the Great about the
year 800, mentions " argcntum de noftro labo-
44 ratu, fcrrarias, et fcobcs." The chart of di-
vifion alfo of Lewis the Pious, in 817, fpeaks of
metals. Ofrcdus, a monk of Weifenbcrg re-
lates, that in his country, filver, copper, and
H iron,
ii 4 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
iron, were dug out of the earth, and gold ob-
tained by wafhing the fund.
After this we perceive metallurgy gradually
afluming the form of a fy Hematic fcience. In
that manner was it treated by G. Agricola. H'rj
twelve books on metallurgy were firft nubliih-
ed at Balil in 1546; though it appear, from
his epiftlc dedicatory, that they had been pre-
pared for the prefs ever lince the month of De-
cember of tiie year 1500. As they contain
much of the knowledge of the prefent day, we
think it confident with our plan, to enumerate
them fingly. In his dedication he complains,
that he had received no aiMance from the anci-
ent writers, except a little from the fecond Pli-
ny. Not one of them attended futlicicntly to a
part, and much lefs to the whole art. Of the
Greeks he found no writers, except Strato of
Lampfacus, the fucceflbr of Theophralhis, who
\vas the author of a book (iince loll) on metal-
lic machines and inilrumcnts ; unlefs, perhaps,
the poet Philo in his MetuUicus treated upon
this fubjecl. But this woik too has not clcap-
ed the wreck of time. He mentions t\vo books
written in the German language, one anony-
mous, on the experiments on metallic bodies and
metals ; but which he fays is very confufcd :
The other is by Calbus Fribcrg on veins; on
whom he make* this obfervation : " Venter cam
41 quaui fumiit, pattern UbiUlvit." He fpcalis of
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. itj
VannonBiringuccius, as of the moft modern au-
thor who writes in Italian, on the fufion, fcpa-
rution, and foldcring of metals ; though not ve-
ry perfectly. Upon all this lie remarks: " Quo
" autcm minus multi funt, qui cle re metallica
" fcripferunt, eo magis mihi minim videtur, tor.
11 chcmillas cxtitiflTe, qui compofucrint artifici-
" urn dc mctallis aliis in alia mutandis." The
firft book refutes nil the objections that are
commonly made againft the cxfpcclation of any
public or private advantage from the ftudy of
metallurgy, and vindicates all the honour due to
fuch labours, In the fecond, he treats of thofc
places abounding in veins of metal, and of the
marks by which they may be diftinguifhed; and
of the rod of divination, of which he fays the learn-
ed mountaineer has no need. The third book
contain? an account of the metallic veins and
ttrata of the mountains. The fubjcct of the
fourth is the limitation of the mines. In the
fifth we find a trcatifc on the cxti a-fling of
ores, on pits, on cutting of mines, on drains-
nnd on fub terraneous geography and architec-
ture. In the xth arc dcfcribcd the various im-
plements, as ballccts, tubs, and machines for
taking away the different materials; as cap-
fterns, ladders, hand batkets, hydraulic and
pneumatic machines, pumps; and, la'uly, all
the inconveniencies, but chiefly the difeaies to
*Ahich the miners are expofed. The feventh
H 2 tic*
u6 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
treats on the docimaftic art. In this are de-
fcribcd the docimaftic furnaces, ovens, dilh-
es, cupels made of burnt bones or aflies, alfo
Ihades, melting furnaces, crucibles, iron hooks,
fcalcs, buckets for \vafliing the ore, and various
kinds of weights: It teaches the method like-
wife of afcertaining how much gold, filver,
quickfilver, lead, copper, iron, tin, or bifmuth, is
contained in every ore; and in what manner
gold or lilver coin may be examined on the Ly-
dian itone, by proof needles; the invert iga-
tion of the qualities of gold by the nitrous acid,
quartatkm, and the increafe of weight from the
filver rcfiduum; and many other things. We
meet in this book with almoft every thing now
in life in the docimuftic art, and the fame kinds
of procefles ; except that the inilruments and
methods of operating are become more fimplc
and accurate. The lead of Villachia is laid to
contain no lilver. In the eighth book we have
an account of the feparating ores from the rock,
of calcining and pounding them; and alfo a par-
ticular method of purifying them through a
iievc, or by waflimg in fome other manner. The
ninth enumerates the various forts of furnaces,
with their bellows, and the leveial methods by
which, from the greater portions of minerals,
$;old, lilver, lead, copper, iron, tin, and bifmuth,
may be extracted by the means of fire. The
tc:;:h relates in \vh:it way gold and i'ilvr may
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 117
be feparatcd from each other by acids, or, in the
dry way, by fulplmr, antimony, and cementa-
tion. The eleventh fliews the method of fepa-
rating filvcr from copper and iron, by cliqua-
tion with lead. The twelfth dcfcribcs the pre-
parations of common fait, nitre, alum, martial
vitriol, bitumen, and glafs. From all thefe ac-
counts, therefore, it appears, that the chcmiftsof
thofe days proceeded in their operations as we
do at prefent, except that we have learned, in a
a more cultivated A ate of the fciencc, to rcjed
many things as ufclefs, and to form (horter pro-
ceflcs. In his book on the nature of foflils, A-
gricola treats particularly on minerals. He di-
vides all earthy bodies into two claflcs, thofc
which flow out from the earth, as water and
fubtcrrancous air, and foflils; which he agaiu
arranges under five heads : i/?, Earths are en-
numerated according to the ufe that is made
of them': the earth of hufbandmcn, of pot-
ters, of fullers, painters, artificers, and phy-
ficians. 2///v, Concrete juices: fait, nitre, a-
him, vitriol, chryfocolla, ultramarine, Armeni-
an ilonc, mil, orpimcnt, fundanicha, fulphur,
bitumen, afphaltus, camphor, pifiafphaltus, a;n-
pdlites, jett, fofiil coal, and amber. 3<M
Stones ftriclly fo called : magnet, fchiilus, mo-
rochtus,gypfum, talc, amianthus, mica, the Jewilh
flonc, and other petrifactions ; gcodcs, urtites,
enhydrus, pirmex, laj)is molaris, and fluor mi-
neralis. Gems ^ not thofe only that are tranf-
H 3
t*d THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
parent, but others that are opaque : as the jaf-
per, &c. : Whatever admits of being polifhed j
as marble, porphyrites, ophites, tophus, and
Hints: Various kinds of ikme ; as the fand-ftone,
the (lone that cutseaiily, calcareous, and a ftone
of a thread-like texture, ^tbly, Foflils proper-
ly fo called : metallic minerals, plumbago, py-
rites, cadmius, antimony, pompholyx, lapis afii-
us, and earths heavy with concrete juices.
//>//, Metals: gold, filver, quicklilver, copper,
white lead (tin), black lead (common lead),
alh -coloured lead (bifmuth), and iron. Al-
though this minerulogical efl'ay is not without
inany faults, yet they fliould be fafe from the
feverity cf criticifm, when we confider that A-
gricola was the fir ft who attempted fuch a fyf.
tem.
The progrefs of metallurgy, after the time of
Agricola is fully illuftrated by a comparifon of
his writings with thofc of others; as of C. En-
cellius fie re mttnliua, in 1557; of Modcrtinus
J'lichs, whofcJ^driin/j/Ja, though written in 1567,
did not appear until 1595, publiflicd by his ion;
of L. Ercker in auhi Jubterranca, in 1575; and
of Muthtfius of Sarptiat, 1578, and a few others.
White vitriol begun to be manufactured at
Ruinmein>erg, anno 1574.
About the time that the light of the Chri-
tfian faith had difpelk-d the idolatrous gloom of
f he northern regions, it is moll likely tlwt the
people
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE.
-people turned cither to open the inward trea-
furcs of the earth, or to apply them with more
ikill to purpofcs of utility. At a convention of
the dates of the kingdom at Stockholm, in the
year 1282, during the reign of Magnus Ladu-
la>, all the mines and their produce were afliga-
cd to the public trcafury. Before this time we
have no authentic writings that give any account
of metallurgy. King Magnus regulated by a
law, in 1354, the mine of Norbcrg: The privi-
leges of the mine of Atvidabcrg, and of the me-
tallic focicty, were granted by King Erie in
1413. In 1420, the mines of Norbcrg, Bitf-
berg, Vik'tbcrg, Silfvcrberg, Tunaberg, and
Skinikatteberg, obtained their privileges. Some
privileges, indeed, are mentioned of a more an-
tient date ; but the original manufcripts have
fallen in the general ravages of time, which re-
quires not many ajrcs to overturn and deflroy
things far more durable. At a time when no-
thing but what was antient was held in any ef-
timation, many pcrfons of Ikill in thefc matters,
contended, that the mine of Sahlberg \va.? open-
ed a fliort while after the birth of our Saviour:
But no papers or records fpcak of it fooncr than
the time of Suantc Sture. Otto liiihop of Aro -
fien, in his letters to him, dated about the be-
ginning of the year 1511, folicited a part of
this mine. He founded his claim, firft on his
right as bifliop ; and fccondly, on a plea of hi-
II 4 ' damnification
MO THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
demnification for the lofs he ha4 fuflained of the
tenths of the field in which the mine had been
<Jifcovered. In another letter, he wrote to Ste-
no Sture, in 1513, he urges his prctenfions ftill
further. The inhabitants of the metallic coun-
try of Norberg, in the year 1510, complained
to Suante Sture, that the mine of Sahlberg
lately opened had driven them to great diftrcfs,
by enhancing the value of proviiions, of whicl;
it bought up the grcateft part. In Norway we
find fcarce any account of working of metals be-
ing properly underftood, until the iixteemh cen-
tury *.
Glafs was long known, but its application to
the purpofe of windows is of a later date. It
is one of the moll ufeful inventions; as it admits
man to the enjoyment of the clear light of the
heavens, and the fplcndour of the fun, without
cxpofing him to the umvholefome changes and
qualities of the air. There are fome paflages,
indeed, to be found in undent authors, that
fcem to imply the ute of glaft in windows in the
time of Caligula : But we may, with equal rea-
fon, underftand them as meaning pellucid iloncs,
that bore ibme refemblance to glaf>. Laclan-
tius is the firil of them all, who has given any
certain account refpecling this matter. Hcfcyi,
44 Verius et maniicilius eit mcntcm cllc, quit per
11 oculos ea, qu:c funt oppoiita tranfpiciat, quu-
"ii
* ICcpcnh. Sal/!:. Hand!. 7 del.
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. m
44 fi per fcncflras lucente vitro aut fpcculari la.
14 pide obduclas *."
Not Icfs dcciiivc arc two paiTagcs in Hicrony.
mus. In the firft of which he fays: u Fcncftrx
" crant fadx in modum rctis, ad inftar cancel-
* 4 loriin, ut noii fpcculari lapide, ncc vitro, fed
" Jignis interraiilibus ct vcrmiculatis include-
rcnturf." In the other he fpeaks of " fcnef-
" tris, quru vitro in tenucs laminas fufo obduclx
" erant." Windows made with glafs were known
towards the end of the third century : But this
application of it did not become general until
fevcral ages after. Some churches in France
were furniOied with windows after this manner,
in the time of Gregory of Tours J. The Greeks
bcftow great praifes upon the vail number of
glafs windows that adorn the round tower, com-
monly called the cupola, of the great church of
St. Sophia built at Gonflantinoplc, and which
was dedicated to our Saviour by Juflinian .
In the feventh century manufactories of glafs
were cilabliihed in France ; from whence, to-
wards the end of it, fcveral artificers migrated
into England, where the art was hitherto un-
known || . The eight century curried the in-
vention into Germany and Italy, and the ninth
extended it to the northern regions, On read-
* DC opificio Dc*i, c. 8.
f In Hcf. xlJ. 1 6.
4. DC gloria marljrrum.
$ Paulas Silcnliarius.
(I Hcury hiil. ccclcf.
THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
ing of the fmgular effecls which the rays of the
fun, transmitted through the windows of the
cupolas, are reported to Iiave produced within
the churches, it would appear, that the glaG
then ufed was tinged with various colours; al-
though we do not find it mentioned to be fo any
where.
In Italy, long before the birth of Ghriit, we
meet with fepellated works, compoled of vari-
ous kinds of Hones, and pieces of glut's of dille-
rent colours, the art of which the Italians had
acquired from the Greeks. And yet, until the
right century, coloured glafs was never ufed in
ornamenting the windows of their churches.
After that time, however, they had windows
conP.rii'fled with bits of variegated glafs, under
the form of flowers, crowns, and other devices.
And at length, in order to give encouragement
to pious meditations, art ills were employed to
reprefent upon them ilorics from the holy fcrip-
turet, or the traniaclions of faints. At firit, and
even as late as the end of the twelfth century,
black figures only v/erc burned in upon red
glaft, which afterwards became rather ferirre.
In the thirteenth century the art was commu-
nicated through Germany, Holland, and Italy.
About the end of the fourteenth century, g!uf
was flnined with many other colours than red,
;\ving chiefly to the pain.-, and induilry of John
vm Kick, orvon Jirugges ; and by degrees the
* art
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 123
art was carried to perfection in the 1 6th centu-
ry: From which time it lias fallen infenfibly into
decay; in fo much, that there is reafon to fear,
it is now totally lofl.
The method of painting in enamel is nearly
the fame as in glafs. Raphael Sanzio and Mi-
chael Angclo Buonarotti were the firfl in Italy
who carried this anticnt art to any height. Ne-
ri aflirms *, that pictures were made in this man-
ner by the means of ji Limp, in the year 1601;
jmd that John Toutin a French goldfmith ren-
dered them afterwards much more perfecl f.
The art of imitating gems engaged confidc-
rably ihc attention of the alchcmifts. R. Lulli-
us is fuppufed to have made great proficiency in
it, and Ifaac J Jollandius ilill more about the be-
ginning of the fcvcnrh century J. Ncri labour-
e-d yet further in this purfuit. He collected all
the various procefTes of others, examined them
rarcfully, and publiflied thofc that he thought
were moft likely to fuccccd. He knew in what
manner red glafs was prepared with gold, and
taught how to ftain it with any other colour.
He delcribcs the preparation of ultramarine and
lac, and makes mention of the Picdmontcfe
magnefia.
Some of the more anticnt amaitfa of a bluifli
colour
* Arn vitr. c. 42.
j- Diet, dcs arts cl.Jrj metiers.
^ Op rr.in 1, i. c. 7'^ ii. c. 89.
A ki;ul af femi-iifllucid ftouOi of which the anticnta
vafus and other vrifcit.
THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
colour, from Egypt, and pieces of glafs of tht
fame dye from the ruins of Herculaneum, are
yet in exigence. Hence it has been concluded
by fome, that the uie of cobalt was known to
the antients: Though the more modern che-
mitts* rather queflion it ; as by all the trials to
which they have fubjected the fpecimens of
their art, they difcovcred traces of lapis lazuli,
iron, or copper, but no cobalt.
Among the collecflion of ftoncs in the academy
of Upfal, are preferred fome glafs checquers,
found in Herculaneum, which have an azure tint,
arc tranfparent, and feem to owe their gold co-
lour to a thin plate of yellow glafs, to which they
are very ikillfully united. But they are by no
means coloured with cobalt. For having only -4
flight bluiih tint, if they are examined by the re-
fracted rays of light, the redncfs characleriflic of
cobalt will not be found in them. Befidcs, when
fmull pieces of thefechecquers are melted by the
blow-pipe upon charcoal, either alone or with
borax, the red and opaque hue of copper is eaii-
ly difcovcred.
The ores of cobalt, which, together with fil-
ver, contain bifmuth, ftiould have fuggefled the
application of the blue fcorta to fome ufeful
purpdc f : But they were long reckoned amon;?
the refufe only; until Seb. Prcufder ellablimeii
a mari'^faclory for giafs with cobalt, in Bohemia,
in
* Ccl. Grncl.'r.. in Aftis Goctin. *
t Encclius dc re n:etd!ica.
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 125
in 1571, and John Jcnitz. and Jofeph Harrcn,
followed his example, in 1575, in Saxony. In
the year 1564, David Hcidler, in Bohemia, and
Hicr. 7,urch in Mifnia, had already found pro-
ccfies for collecting arfcnic from them.
From the paintings in Hcrculancuin we fee,
that all the colours that arc prepared with wa-
ter were known long before the year 79. With
thcfe the ancients painted on walls frefh plaifter-
cd. The art of mixing colours with oil, it is com-
monly believed, was invented by John Von
Bruggcs, about 1431; though it is fuificient-
Iy evident that it was pradiifcd in the nth
century.
Very little improvement w f as made in the art
of dying, for many ages from the beginning of
this period. The Greeks and Saracens of Eu-
rope ufcd the purple of the Weft ; but at length
this colour fell into difcflccm, and the more
brilliant red was preferred : In fo much that,
in the nth century, the fccrct of ftaining with
the purple periflicd likewife in the Eaft. By the
expeditions of the crufades, many artifls,and with
them various arts found their way into Italy ;
and the chief of them took up their residence
at Venice, to which port moil of the vcileis
from the Eall rcforted. As early as the year
1194, 1198, and 1306, mention is made of the
grana dc brafilc, braxitts, and indigo : Though
they certainly did not mean thofc fubAaru.c^
which
126 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY;
which were afterwards furnifhed by America.
The name braxilis no doubt was derived from
fome other place than the IkufiU, which in
thofe days was yet undifcovered; and the in-
digo feems to be the fame pigment with what
is called imUcum by Pliny *. - About the
year 1300 a Florentine merchant difcovcred by
accident that the mofs of Roehelle (called by
the Englifh manufacturers cudbear) gave a blue
tinge to urine ; and, making repeated experi-
ments, he learned to ufe it fo fuccefsfully in dy-
ing this colour, that it not only procured wealth
to himfelf, but was fo advantageous to the
Florentines, that his dependents all went by the
name of Ruce/fianf. In 1429 the Venetians pre-
fcribed rules to their dyers; which were render-
ed more perfect, and rcpublifhed in 1510 by John
Ventura Rofetti, under the feigned namcof Plich-
tus. With thefe i nit ruction? tho art improved
clfewhere, and was daily extending : iiut the
materials afforded by the difcovery of America,
of which the principal were the indigo and co-
chineal, ccntributed more than any thing die-
to its great increufc. Indigo, however, \\.is not
altogether trufled, and, for a long time, was not
in fuch eilirhation as woad ; and the ufe of log-
wood too was often prohibited. During the
reign of Francis I. of France, Cillcs Gobelin at-
tempted thy dying of fcarlct. His iirft cilliy*
* JI. K. 1. xxxvl. c. 6
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 127
v;crc confiderccl as madncfs ; and when, con-
trary to expectation, they proved fuccclsful,
he was robbed of the praifc due to his genius by
ihe fuperllition of the age, which attributed tin:'
difcovcry to the interference of the devil, with
whom he was believed to be in league. I 1 .
Kloeck, a Dutch painter, acquired great (kill
in the ulc of colours in the Kail ; which he car-
ried to great perfection in his own country, and
died there in 1550. In England and in Germa-
ny, about the fame time, tins art was making
great progrcfs ; though it was itill generally in-
volved in rudcnefs and obfcurity ; until tho
patronage of Colbert in France gave it new
powers, and threw light on ail its operations*.
The mortar employed by the ancients in their
buildings, isoffuch conlidcrable hardncfs, thar
many have been led to fufpcct it was prepared
in fomc way with which we are unacquainted.
Though there can be no doubt that the mate-
ii;ds that compote it were better mixed in thofc
days than at prelim ; yet, as hard lumps of the
fr/.c of a pea or a bean arc cfi.cn found in it, there
mull furcly have been fume error, cither in the
burning or flaking of the lime, or in the mixture
itfelf. On examining narrowly the mortar of the
anticnts, it is found to contain more land than
the mortar cf the prcfcnt day. The authority
o
* iiifchoS GcCcb. dcr Firbcrkunft.
THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
of Pliny 4 , andVitruvius f, confirms this obfer-
vation ; for they both direct, that when it is
made with pit fand, a fourth part of lime mould
be iifcd ; and, when with river or fea fund, a
third pa^ according to the bulk. From expe-
rience, however, we are taught, that the pro-
portion of the materials mufl be varied, accord-
ing to their quality, and to particular circum-
ftances. The antionts burned their lime on the,
fpot where they were building ; and it is cer-
tainly of the greatefl importance to ufe it quite
frefh. But, even as it is, the common mortar
employed at prefent hardens in a feries of years,
and will become a perfect (lone, unleis local ob-
flacles arife to the abfbrption of the aerial acid,
or counteract its effects.
S ii. Qf
+ H. N. 1. xxxvi. c. 23.
f Arch. 1. ii. c. 5.
J Not many years ago it has been difcovered, that the pc-
trcfaftion of mortar requires a much larger proportion of fand
than is generally given, viz. about three to one (according to
the obfcrvation of Pliny) ; and that by ufing lime hot from
the kiln, without tempering it, the mortar binds atid confo-
lidatcs to the hardnvfsof ftbne. It is not a little extraordina-
ry, that this confirmation of antient occonomy in raafonry
fliould have brcn fo litcly cflabliflicd.
Kott of the Tr an/later.
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE.
ii. Of the Great Work.
BEFORE we take into conficlcration the mak~
ing of gold, a fubjecl on which the alchcmifts
laboured with the great eft y.cal and induftry,
two qucflions naturally prcfcnt thcmfelvcs, and
demand our immediate attention. The firft is,
Whether the problem is capable of a folution ?
The next, Whether any one has really ever made
gold ? Let us examine them fepuratcly.
Firft of all, it is neccflliry to determine the
precife meaning of the "making of gold/* be-
fore we can venture to hazard an opinion, or
purfuc the enquiry. Cold, as well as all other
metals, is com poled of a proper metallic earthy
and the principle of inflammability. There-
fore, if we do but find the former, and cxpofc
it to a fuflicient degree of heat, we arc prefently
in pollcflion of pcrfcft gold. If then this ope-
ration is called making of gold, by the fame pa-
rity of reafoning, we may beftow that appella-
tion on the daily proccflcs of reducing metal-
lic calces; which is repugnant to the ufual
mode of cxprcffion. Let us then trace the mat-
ter from its fource. There can be no doubt,
that the Almighty only is equal to the taik of
creating the original elements and principles of
bodies; but, it is fo far from being iuconiift-
I ent
THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
cnt with this idea, thru, by a due examina-
tion- of the laws of attraction obferved by na-
ture, chemiitry Ihould be able, from thefe prin-
ciples varioufly connected and prepared, to com-
pofe numerous inorganic fubftances, either re~
fembh'ng the Spontaneous productions of our
globe, or wholly new and different from them;
that it is rather in fuch operations, and the pro-
fecution of fuch deiigns, that the fcienceof che-
rniftry is at this day employed ; and, in proper
tion as the conflituent parts of bodies and their
properties are previoufly known, will always be
the fuccefs of its labours. If therefore the prox-
imate principles of this golden earth are phlo-
iAon and a certain acid, which may be caiily
Tuppnfcd, the queflion then Is reduced limply
to the obtaining this acid in a fullicient quanti-
ty; for the phlogifton is every where to be
found. By the means of the latter, the acid be-
ing fixed and coagulated, the earth is procured,
and the reft of the proceis is carried pn without
any difficulty.
As it is molt probable, that the acid of gold
has fo powerful an attraction forphlogiitonthatit
cannot exiil long without it, it may be queition-
od, whether more of this acid can be found ia
the bowels of the earth than what has already
aflumed the form of gold, or at leaftof the earth.
In this opinion, however, though we arc fate
from contradiction, it docs not' imply tlr.it, if
* the
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 131
the acid were found in a fcparate ftate, it would
be either impoflible, or beyond the powers of
chemiftry to faturateit with phlogiilon.
The alchemilis contend, that the principle
of gold, though corrupted by various caufes, is
contained in all the metals ; and that, if proper-
ly purified and freed from extraneous matter,
it may be brought into its perfect ftatc. From
what has been faid before, then, this is as much
as to declare the original acids of all metals to
be the fame; from which, cither by varying tho
proportion, or by the admixture of heterogene-
ous fubftances, nature produces fuch dirtcrent
effects, that, by the addition of a certain quan-
tity of phlogifton, according to the capacity of
the fubftance, not only gold, but various kinds
of metals are in the ufual manner produced.
To correct the errors of thcfe proportions and
combinations, by the means of their elixir, or
philofopher's ftone, was the great aim of the al-
chemifls; fo that all the bafcr metals might be
converted into gold, or, in their own language,
to tinge the imperfect, in fuch a manner, as to
render them all the moft perfect of metals.
If we attend to the experiments hitherto
known, and made with the greateft care, we
fliall find but little or no encouragement to be-
lieve in the tranfmutation of metals or other
more fimple bodies. In thofc days, when the
inveftigationof philofophcrs were not made with
I 2 the
132 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
the fame prccifion as they are at prefent, the e-
vent of many experiments fometimes alTumed
fuch appearances of change; but thefe illuflons
no longer exift. For fubllances which are not
fuppofcd to contain any gold, may ilill conceal
a very fmall portion of it in their compofition;
as we know that, except iron, no metal is more
frequently to be found, though, from its ex-
treme minutcncfs, it often efcapes our obferva-
tion. Let then fuch a fubilance be expofed to
a. continued and violent fire, which nothing will
refill, except the grain of gold. At the light of
it, the operator, believing it to be created by his
(kill, not extracted (as it really is) from the fub-
jlance he employed, is traniported with joy.
Difcouraging, however, as this may appear, no
one, who has at all explored the fecret paths of
nature with induitry and penetration, will deem
that impoflible, which docs not militate againft
u known and eilabliihed truth. In the queftion
now before us, no fuch dilliculty has been dif-
covered. Daily experience furnilhes eflcch a-
nulogous to thofc, of correcting and purifying
bodies mentioned by the alchcmiils. For, do
we not fee, that a fin all quantity of leaven is
fuflicient to ferment a large quantity of new
wine; fo that the vinous fpirit, which was before,
contained in the grain, or entirely concealed, is
evolved and liberated from tliofe particles with
which ic was in intimate union, or compound,-
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 133
cd, by a clue proportion of its conftitucnt prin-
ciples. Who then \vill be bold enough to af-
fert, that no change can be wrought upon the
baler metallic acid, by any additainent however
fmall, cither by adding, fubtrading,tranfpoiting,
or in any other way, ib that it may be convert-
ed into a nobler kind ?
The opinion that bodies formed by art arc lefs
firm and perfect than thofc of the fame kind
produced by -nature, is to be received with fomc
limitations , as art has given birth to many fub-
flances, that agree perfectly in their qualities,
with thofe of natural growth. Cannot neutral
falts, and fuch like fubfianecs, perfectly ilmilar
to thofe that ore native and pure, be prepared by
art ? And may not many other bodies likewife?
Jffomctimes, indeed, the combination fecms to
be rather looter, it is to be afcribcd to the great-
er quantity of moifture retained in them, and
which natural productions have loll through
time.
From all, then, that has been already faid, it is
evident, that the impoflibility of making gold,
or tranfmuting metals by art, cannot bedcmon-
ftrated : Yet whoever thinks therefore, that the
pofiibility is proved, will find himfclf greatly
miflakcn. Between two fuch extremes the in-
terval is very wide. Or if it be imagined, that
any certain conclufion can be drawn a priori, ir
will be found, that a. more perfect knowledge
I 3 of
THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
of nature is required, than has as yet been
clifcovtred. But even granting the poftibili-
ty, it remains next, to curry it into execu-
tion: For it does not follow, that every tiling
that is poilible to be clone is within the power
of art to perform. Should the experiment fuo
ceed by a fair procefj, all further enquiry about
the poilibility of it is at an end ; for the fact un-
der fuch circumflances is abiblutely djciiive.
We are i;ow, in the next place, to coniider,
whether, of the great number who called them-
fclves adepts, any one lias actually compofed
gold. The folution of this que'liun is entangled
in many diilicuhies, owin^ to the want of pro-
per and faithful defcriptioiib of tlie many tranf-
mutations. 'J'he teltiinony of ignorant inecta-
tors is as little to be depended en as the after-
tions of the writers themfelves. In the prorelc
many deceptions have been praclifed: (Juld hue
been concealed in the vdlols, in the inflrumcnts,
in the. reals, and in oilier ir.atciiak. liut tho'
this may ))e fuid of ninety-nine oi a Iiundred
fuch afl'irtions concernin.^ the tranfmutation, it
niny be alic;!f r ed, triat it does not apply indefi-
nitely : Vv here, however, fuch afiertions arc nor
fupported by abfolute prooi" they mult remain
inadmi/lible.
But ibine accounts are entitled to u greater
^retr of credit. .For, doubtlefu, if a perfon
who has no faith in the clranges of a
fTi'jiill cbti'.ia by chance it Imall piece t,f thr
philofcpher'f;
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE;
'philofophcr's flone, and, on making the cxpc-
.riment alone in his clofet, procure a quantity of
gold heavier than the weight of the (lone; will
jr. not be difficult to explain .in what manner he
was liable to be deceived. Something iimilar
to this fcems to have happened to Dr. Ilclvc-
tius at the Hague. He was a conflant oppofer
of the great my fiery that was to cure all difea-
fcs ; and declared his opinion of it in a work he
.publiihcd again ft the fympathetic powder of
Digby. On the 27th December, j666, a flran- .
;gcr paid him aviiit; who after difcourfmg fomc
time on the nature of an univerfal .medicine,
produced the philofophcr's Hone, of the colour
offulphur, and live pieces of gold; dcfcribing
the manner in which they had been prepared.
Helvetius carneftly petitioned for a fmull piece
of the (lone in remembrance of him; or clfe
that he would difplay its virtues in the fire. The
ilranger rcfufed both rcqucils, but promifed to
return in three weeks. Accordingly, he kept
his word ; but it was with 4 grcat diiiiculty that
he would part with a bit of the (lone not larger
than a grain of rape-feed : And Helvetius doubt-
ing, whether fo fmall a quantity was fufiicicnt
to change four grains of lead into gold, the
ilrangcr c:ut oil' more than the half of it, aflur-
ing him the remainder would be more than wa*
neccllary. At their firft meeting, Helvetius had
f<:rnped oil* with his nail, unknown to the tfran-
i 4 5 C1 4
I 3 6 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
ger, a fmall particle of the ftonc, which he af-
terwards threw into ibmc melted lead; but the
whole almofl evaporated, leaving behind only
a kind of vitreous earth. On his relating this
difappointment, the alchcmiil candidly acknow-
ledged the deceit ; but direded him in future
to inclofe the (lone in wax, that it might not
be aHeclcd by the fumes of the lead. He in-
flrucled him in other circumftanccs likewiie ;
told him that the whole proccis could be com-
pleated in a few days, and that two florins would
defray all the ex pence. In order, however, to
teach him the method of performing the ope-
ration, he promiied to be with him again the
next day. The appointed hour came, but no
flranger; and Hclvetius having waited for him
with fome impatience, but to no purpofe, re-
folved on making the experiment in preicnce of
his wife and his fon. To fix drachms, of lead
melted in a crucible, he added the piece of
Aone he had received the day before, wrapped
up in yellow \v^x ; then covering the crucible,
he left it for a quarter of an hour cxpoicd to the
re ; at the expiration of which he found the
whole mufs converted into gold. At firlt, it ap-
peared of a gu-enifh colour; but being poured
out into a vcilcl of a conical fhapc, it a Homed a
tinge like blood, and afterwards, as it grew cold,
the true golden hue. This gold was examined
by a ftoldlmilh, who found it fovery pure, th:*t
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 137
he reckoned an ounce of it to be worth fifty
florins. Porellius, the general aflaycr of the
coin throughout the province of Holland, rc-
quefted, that he might be permitted' to make
trial of it; and examining two drachms of it by
quartation and aquafortis, he found it had in-
crcaied in weight two fcruples. This change he
attributed to the cficcT: of the great abundance
of colouring matter, which had tranfmuted fo
much of the lilver he had employed. Sufped-
ing, however, that the filvcr was not firmly u-
nitcd with the gold, he melted it again, with
levcn times its bulk of antimony, and treated
it in the ufual manner; but without producing
any alteration on its weight.
Such, then, is the account given by Hclvc-
tius; and as the man who furniilicd this ex-
traordinary (lone never entered hi> laboratory, or
Was even prefent at the operation, no fraud
could be pradifcd .by him ; and it will not be
cafily proved in what way he might have de-
ceived himfelf. The whole argument, therefore,
refts on the credit of Helvetius. For, if he has
concealed any one circumilance relating to the
procefs, or added others that are falfe, the quef-
tion will be juft ns obfcurc as it was before.
His dcfcription, to-be fure, betrays the ar-
dour of his dcfire to learn the chryfopoictic art ;
nor can any one anfvver for the probity of an-
other : Yet it would be highly unjuft to accufc
any
i 3 8 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
any one of adefign to deceive all mankind, un-
lefs upon better grounds ; as the impolllbility
of the tranihiutation in qucilion can never be
demo nitrated. Berigardus of Pifa, gives an ac-
count of Ibmething limilar that happened to
himielf. Pie defcribes it in the following words*:
44 Rcferam, quod olim inihi contigit, cum velie-
44 menter ambigerem, an auruin ex hydrargyro
" fieri poilet, accepi aviroinduftrio, qui huncmihi
44 icrupulum aufcrre voluit, ilrachmam pulveris,
;> colore non abiimilis llori papaveris fylvcflris,
4< odorc vero lal marinum adullum icierentis,
14 atque, ut abellct omnis hiipicio jocoliu iYaudis,
' vafculum c multis venalibus acccpi, carboncrn
4< et hydrargyrum, quibus nihil auii occuite, ut
" fit a circulatoribus, fubjeclum ellet. Decem
" L^lius drachmis pulvercin injeci, fubjedo igni
" fatis valido, (latirnque omnia, cxiguo inter.
41 trimcntoin jo fere drachmas auri optimie na-
*' tune coaluerunt : quippequod aurificumjudi-
4 * cio nullam non lubiit tentatiunem. Hoc mi-
44 hi in fulo loco et rcmoto ab arbitris niii corn-
' ; probalTem, fufpicarer aliquiJ fu belle fraud is :
44 nam fideiiter tefl-iri poilem rein ita cflc." I.
E. \ r an Hclmont thus expix-rTes himfelf : 4t Co-
" gor credere lapidem aurificum et argentificum,
44 qui diilinclis vicibus manu mca unius grani
44 pulverh fupcr aliquot millc grami argcnti vivi
" projectionem feci, aflanteque mul.oreni corona
44 noilr:
s r;r. 75.
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 139
" noftri omnium, cum titillante admiratione ne-
44 gotium in ignc fuccefiit." And in another place
he lays, " Dabat ijiilii forte femigranum illius
" pulveri-s et inde uncut 9 atque i argenti vivi
" tranlmutatcc iunt. lilud autcm aurunv dedit
" mihi peregrinus unius vcfperi arnicas *.
It is related of the Emperor Ferdinand like-
wiic, in 1648, and of the Eledor of Mentz, in
1658, that they both made trials of the philo-
fopher's ilonc with tlie greater! attention, re-
moving every tiling that might in the leafl coun-
tenance impofition: But the mcafurcs they took
;*re not cxprefsly dcfcribed f : From the nature
of the evidence, however, in fupport of this re-
lation, there can be no rcafon to fufpect the
truth of it. With regard to other accounts of
tranfmutations, of -which the liil is fo nume-
rous, foine beurfuch ilrong imprcfiions of fraud,
as to betray the means even by which they
were cfleclcd ; while others have been conduct-
ed in fuch a manner, that though their fallacy
cannot be inconteflibly proved, yet there is e-
vcry reafon to apprehend they are equally
doubtful and uncertain. As to the flory of fix
drachms of lead changed by one drachm of the
philofopher'.s ftone, into a mafs of gold ccjual to
the weight of 147 golden ducats, by General
Otton Arnoldus Paykull, when in prifon in the
year
* DC arborc vit*.
| Moncony's travels. Sec alfo in 6. uadcr the name
Ricblhaufca,
i 4 o THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
year 1707; fame circumflanccs in it nrc men-
tioned by Dr. U. UU-rne *, formerly the King's
phylician, which, though different from any
in the former accounts, do not altogether ex-
clude fufpicion. There is no doubt, that
Colonel Hamilton faw the preparation of the
powder to be employed in giving the necef-
'iary colour, and that, -unknown to Pay k nil, he
had made it from materials he purchafcd him-
iclf, and which he was certain contained no
old ; but the colouring powder was thrown in
by Paykull; and it does not appear that the
crucible was ever carefully examined, in which
gold might have been concealed in various ways,
ik'lides, the very circumftance of the weight
occafions doubts. For, fuppofing that the whole
of the fix drachms of lead, and one of the co-
louring powder was converted into gold, how
are we to underftand, that the weight of the gold
iliould exceed that of the materials in the cru-
cible more than twenty times, without uflum-
ing the power of the Almighty, who alone L
equal to the talk of creation? Arnoldus of Vil-
la Nova, at Rome, is reported to have tranfinu-
ted iron into gold. The fame Ls faid of R. Lul-
iius, who performed this change before King
Edward at London, who ordered fome rofe-
nobles to be coined from the metal. And we
read of L. Thurnciferus exhibiting in 1587, be-
fore
* Su. Magaz. part i, p. 220. 2:7.
DUttING THE MIDDLE AGE.
fore Ferdinand I. Grand Dukcof Tufcany; and
of Cofmopolita, in the prefencc of the Duke of
Saxony; and Sendivogius before the Emperor
Rudolphus II. and fnnilar (lories of many o-
then. Hut from all thefe various accounts, the
truth is not rendered in the lead more obvious.
Nay, by the difcovery of the fraudulent mea-
fures of Thurneiferus, it is evident he took pains
to conceid it.
There is a report of a tranfmutation perform-
ed in Pomcrania, before king Guftavus Adol-
pluis, and that ducats ilamped with the ligns ot*
mercury and copper \vcrc coined iVoin the gold
produced by it *. Alfo, a (lory is told of u
merchant of Lubec giving in a prcfent a hun-
drcd pounds of chemical gold, to the fame king,
from which ducats were made bearing the figna
of mercury and fuiphur. One of thefe pieces of
money, ilruck at Erfordia, in the year 1634, is
ilill to be fecn in. the royal cabinet of medals;
but no conclufion can be drawn from it, as we
have other coin of Erfordia, called grofcben,
with fimilar imprcffions. After the Saxons
made peace with the emperor, the Erfordians
were no longer permitted to coin money with
the Swedifh armsf.
Among ail the various inftanccs of tranfmu-
tation fo warmly fupportcd by the believers in
alchcmillry
* Borrichius dc ortu ct progrcfiu chemise, r.d hnem.
f Bcrchi Bcikiifn. om Suenfka myot ocl) Skadcp. p. i.
M * THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
alchemiftry, the greater number are fallacious,
manyuncertain ; and fomc are of fuch a nature,
that, while the faith of hiilory is admitted, they
cannot well be called in queftion. The harfh-
eft fentence, therefore, that wer can pronounce
upon them is, that the perfons who made the ex-
periments may poflibly have been deceived
themielves; and that, as the different fteps they
took are not very clearly related, we ought to
fufpend our judgement, until fuch time as we
can have an opportunity of repenting the expe-
riments under our own immediate obfervation.
It mull be acknowledged, however, that more
circumfpeclion will be necettary in the invefti-
gation of a f abject of this kind, on which parti-
cular phyiical opinions are eftablifhed, than of
a fact on which every witnefs of common fenfe
is able to give a determination *.
S HI- Of
* It is now almoft five ycais fincc the eye* of all the wcrlj
were attracted by the experiments of Dr. James Price, F. R. S.
of London, which fccincd to vcvive the fpirit of of alchc-
millry, fo lon^ neglected by every genuine chemitl He
produced a red and a white powder that he had prepared him-
fclf; with which he boalted he couVJ convert mercury into
gold or filver. And th.it he might prove the truth of hid afTer-
tions he made fcven different experiments before a number of
refpeftablc pcrfuns affcmhled for the purpofe. Sec, " Account
41 of fotne Experiments on Mercury, Silver, andGulJ, made at
" Onilford, in May, 1782, in the Laboratory of James Price
" M. D. F. R. S. Sec. Oxford, 1782. 410.'" Likewifcthe
London Clironicle, i^th Oclobcr, 1782, an I "Crell's NcucftJ
' Entdcckun^en in dcr Chemic, th. 8. 17^3. ^275." But
211
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 143
in. Of the Univerful Medicine.
AGREEABLE to the plan of this work, the
hiilory of an imiverfal medicine oftcrs itfclf next
to our confideration: And from the great pati-
ence and induflry with which the fludy of it
his been proiecuted, equally with the making
of gold, by many chernilts, it becomes a fubjcct
more worthy to be inveftigated.
Although
as all the powder he had prepared was ronfumcd in thcfc c ,
pcrimcntS) and as he declined making any more on account of
the tedious and unwholcfome proccfs, the qiieftion remains yet
to be decided. Probably, though in other rcipc&s a man ot
leaining and Integrity, yet he was not proof again ft the inii-
nuation* of vanity and the dcfirc of fame, through which lie
was led to declare he had discovered the cryfopoictic art. Hi
unfortunate end in foinc mcafurc authorizes this conjecture.
For when preffed on ail fides, by thedoubtsand interrogation* cf
his adverfarie*, to renew hi< pQ\vder,and repeat his cxperimenti
before men of flcill and fclencc, he fccms to have thought it ca*
fitrto piit an end to his own exigence by laurel water, than to
create gold for their fatitfa&ion. Crcll's Chcm. Ann. 1784.
Kott cfthe Traijlator.
Sir Kcnclm Digby at a meeting of the Royal Society, foca
after its inilitution, produced a fmall piece of gold, which hr
afiertedto have been made by the greatprocf*oftranfmutatum;
faying, " Gentleman, I afTure you I was formerly fo great an
** infidel that I could not have bclirvcd it, except I had fccn
" the facl with mine own eyes." " Marry come up '(aid Sir
" Tliomas Brown of Norwich) I am perfectly of Sir Kcnclm'*
* opinion ; nor will I give credit to tht making of goM, ur;il
** I behold it wilh my own eyes."
r 4 4 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
Although from the remotcft period an opi-
nion has obftinatcly prevailed, that a medicine
endowed with the property o'f defending the
body from dileafe, and rendering old age vigo-
rous and chcarful, might certainly be difcover-
ed; yet we do not find any of the celebrated
phyficians make mention of fuch a wonderful
medicine except Acluarius *, Of the virtue of
the philofopher's itonc, and the preparations of
gold in the cure of difeafcs, we have the firfl
account from the Arabians. Geberus long ago
faid, " Elixir rubeum omnes infirmitates chro-
" nicas, cle quibus medici defperarunt, curat,
4i et facit homincm juvencfcere ut aquilum f ."
And Morienus fays, u Lapis noiler perfechi me-
41 dicina eft, habens virtutem pnc omnibus me-
44 dicinis et potionibus, fanandi univcrlas infir-
44 mitates hominum J. M The ilory of Arthephi-
us, who faid he had lived 1000 years, by means
of an univerfal tincture, is known to every bo-
dy. Roger Bacon propofed a iiinilar medi-
cine to Pope Clement X. which he extolled
highly, as the invention of Petro de Maharn-
court. Afterwards authors frequently infertccl
feveral things in tlicir writings ref peel ing this
univerfal medicine; and of thefe Arnoldus de
Villa Nova, R. Lullius, Joh. de Rupcfcifla, Ba-
filius
* Meth medendi. I. iv. c 6.
} Summa Pcrfcctionis Magitlerii*
^ Jn Dialogo ciun Rcgc Calid, *
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 145
Tilius Vaientinus, and J. Hollandus, were the
moft remarkable. . Hence aroie the abfurd and
dangerous notion, that, all difeafcs could be cu-
red by one medicine, health preferred without
interruption, and old age protect cti from infir-
mity unto the Jail hour of cxiilcnce. In thn
manner, though the practice of medicine was
icndcred exceedingly fimple, yet it was erro-
neous and inconliilent with its true principles :
For phyilcians neglecting the ncceflkry invcili-
gation of laufcs, milled entirely to the gene-
ral virtues of their fpcciiics, and rendered their
art dependent uponchemiflry ; which Bocrhaavc
lays, " Egregiu illiu:; ancilla eft, non alia pcjor
" dominu." But of all thofe who were remark-
able for fupporting this opinion, thc-moil extra-
vagant were Theophraftiib Paracelfus, and Joh.
JJ Helmont ; wlio not .futisficd with having by
means of their remedies protiacled the term of
life to a good old ngc, carried their folly fo far,
as to infill it might be extended conlidcrably
beyond the limits affigned by nature. They
indeed performed feveral cures by their violent
..Micdicines. But neither could Paracclfus, with
Iiis " Elixirum Proprictads," defend himfelf
againll the king of terrors ; uur Hclmont,
with his Alkahcft, difarm the fury of that fub-
Uc fpirit, to which he attributed every difeafc :
.For both dying before they were old men, af-
ibrdcd a ftrong inilancc of the vanity of their
K doctrine
THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
dodlrine, and ineflicacy of tlieir practice. Sucfy
then, were the chief opinions of authors on the
fubject of an univerial medicine, which prevail-
ed fo long, and with fuch extenflve influence;
nor ceaied until the nature of difeafes, and the
powers of remedies were better underftood.
What it was that occafioned gold to be con-
fidcrcd as an univerfal medicine is perhaps not
fo eafy to determine. Probably it was indebt-
ed for this character to the metaphorical lan-
guage of the Arabians ; who, coniidering all the
media they believed neceflary to the tranfmu-
tation of the bafer metals into gold as medi-
cines, diftinguifhed gold by the appellation of
a ftrong and healthy man, while the other me-
tals were in general defcribed as men labouring
under difeafe and infirmity. The chemifls of
the fucceeding age reading this language, would
probably apply it literally to the human bpdy.
And it is not unlikely, from the high opi-
nion they entertained of the power and adlivity
of the philofopher's (lone, and the moderate
temperature of gold, with regard to heat and
cold, that they conceived fomc hopes of its
efficacy in difeafes of a very oppofite nature.
The great virtues afcribed to the univerfal
tincture, wore believed to arife from its agree-
ment with thofe elementary and general prin-
ciples on which the phenomena of life and death
depended ; and, from its great purity, that
* could
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 147
could not fuficr the prefcnce of any earthy, grofs,
or unclean Jubilance in the human body ; but
confuming them, as it were by a fecret and in-
ienfible fire, difcharged them by the ordinary
natural duds. They imagined, that it did not
act: like other medicines, but fpread its influence
chiefly on the natural heat and vital fpirits,
preferred the radical moifture, averted every
thing noxious from the heart, moiilencd the ar-
teries, and purified the blood. Such were the
wonderful qualities they attributed to their tine*
turc, that they recommended it in all difeafes, ex-
cept thofe that were conftitutional, coeval with
our birth, or that required chirurgical afTiftance.
There can be no doubt, therefore, that its fuc-
ccfs was wholly imaginary. For let it be ad-
mitted, that it had the power of effecting the
tranfmutation of mctuls, furcly it will not fol-
low, that it fliould polTeisthc fame influence on
the human body. The immcnfe difference be-
tween animated exigence and unorganifcd maf-
fcs, mud convince us of the abfurdity of fuch
an opinion. Amidft the numerous band of dif-
enfes to which the human race is cxpofed, fume
arife from obftnitfcd vifccra, from debility, from
;i defect in the nervous fyflcm, from redundcn-
cy of bile or blood, or from various other caufes;
and each, according to its peculiar character,
requires a particular method of cure, and me-
dicines very often exceedingly oppofitc. It is
K a therefore
14* THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
therefore fufliciently obvious, a priori, that little
faith can be given to the virtues of any one me-
dicine, which is expected to fubdue inflanta-
neoufly all dilbrders,t hough arifing from very dif-
ferent caufes; and fo both to excite and reprcfs eva-
cuations; that is required to cure thole difeufes
that fpring from a too rapid circulation of the
blood, as well as others occafioned by a circu-
lation too flow; that is to reilore parts affect-
ed with gangrene to their former health and vi-
gour ; and perform many other things equally
as ftrange and contradictory. The want of pro-
per experiments prevents our reafoning a po/le-
rio/i. As to the various accounts of Artcphius,
of the Hone of Butler, and of the furpriling cures
performed by Polcmannus and Burrhus, they
are fo vague, and repugnant to the general cha-
racter of truth, that the ignorant and the cre-
dulous only can Men to them.
5 iv. Of the cbitf Difcoveries in Cbcmiftry made
during tbis Period.
To throw fome light upon the progrefs of this
fcience, we fliall now take notice of the various
new preparations, of the inflruments employed,
ciiid the different operations.
In Salts the greatefl variety has been produ-
ced. And to the acetous acid, which was for-
* mcrly
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE.
merly the only one known, many other acids
have been added. The method of extracting
an acid from vitriol of iron is dcfcribcd by Baf.
Valcntinus, \vlio calls it oleum vitrhli\ and Mill
better by Dorna:us, who occasionally makes
mention of oleum fulphuris per campanam. R.
Lullius obtained an acid from nitre ; and B. Va-
lcntinus, when about to difl.il the aquam nitri, as
he calls it, put a triple proportion of the pulve-
rifed fragments of unbaken earthen veflcls with
the nitre into the retort, and half a proportion of
water into the receiver. But Glauber was the
firft who employed the flronger vitriolic acid for
this purpofe ; and by means of which he pro-
cured the acidum nitri finnans. With the fame
agent he extraclcd the acidum muriaticumfu-
mans from fca fait. B. Valentinus in diililling
vitriol with common fait, obtained what he calls,
aquafortis. Aqua rcgis, or as Valentinus chufes
to name it, liquor ftkm fohcns, was prepared by
Jlollandius, by diililling nitre with brine. And
menftrua were generally called, aqua; "jalentcs>
nut fortes ; and various fubitanccs were propofed
as neceilary to their preparation. Beccher
throws out fomc obfcure hints on the nature of
the Sedative Salt, which combines like an acid
with Borax. Lullius fpcaks of the didillation of
Tartar.
They appear to have been no lefs acquaint-
ed with Alkaline Salts likewifc. Gcberus dc-
K 3 icribe*
I 5 o THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
fcribes the proccfs of rendering alkali of tartar
cauflic by means of lime ; and Lullius men-
tions its delumefcence. Ceberus takes fome
notice alfo of the Salt of Soda. Lullius fpeaks
of the production of Volatile Alkali. by putre-
fadion ; and we find in Valentfnus the method
of fcparating it from Sal Ammoniac, by the fix-
ed alkalies. Molt of the neutral fairs were
known to them. But they apprehended that
the Alkali vf. vitriohittun^ which they diftin-
guiilied by various names, retained always fomr
quality peculiar to the manner of its preparation.
The direcl union of Alkali of Tartar and Vitri-
olic acid is called by Crollius Tartarus vitriofa-
tt/s, while the fame fait, obtained by precipita-
tion with the Alkali of Tartar, from vitriolated
Iron, he denominates Speclficum purgans Parc\-
cclfl ; that procured by the detonation of Sul-
phur and Nitre, is the Nitrumfixum of Schroedcr ;
and what remains in the retort, after the diftilla-
tion of Aquafortis, is the common Panacea //&/-
Jlitica, the slrcanum duplicatum of Schroeder,
and the NitriiinvitriGlatum of Rolfirtckius. The
word Nitre, which formerly fignified the mine-
ral Alkali, was in this period applied to the At-
kali vcg. nitratum, and it Hills retains this figni-
fication. The sllkali vcjf. falitum, which Jac.
Sylvius, called Sal digc/livm, was alfo in their
lilt of neutral falts. Vitriolated mineral Alkali
received from its inventor, Glauber, tha name
of
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. i$t
of Sal miralrilc Glauber i. Of the Alkali min.
nitratum there is no account, and the brine
mentioned by Pliny was properly common
Salt. Borax is mentioned by Gcber. The vi-
triolatcd volatile Alkali, invented by Glauber,
was called Sal fccrctus. Of the Alkali vciat.
nitratum they fcem to have had no knowledge,
though Sal Ammoniac was difcovcrcd long be-
fore the beginning of our period. The Alkali
I'cg. acetatum is celebrated for its many virtues
by Pliny, though it was afterwards Hill more
extolled by Mullcr, under the name of Terra
foliata fecretijjima. Crollius makes mention of
the Salt of Amber, and Bartholetus of the Su-
gar of Milk. The Sal Scignctti was prepared at
Rochelle very near fifty years before its compo-
fition was generally known.
Among the middle falts, with bafes of earth,
they were acquainted with few except Alum,
although they diilblved corals and pearls in
the muriatic or acetous acid. Hollandus gave
the name of Sal air.mon. Jixut to muriatic chalk.
Moil of the metallic falts were known and ex-
amined in this period. The combination of
iilver and the nitrous acid, under the name of
Magijlcrlnm Argcnti, vcl Chryftalli Diana ; and
the fame fait rendered cauftic, by being melted
in the fire, and called Lapis infernally are dc-
fcribed by Angelo Sala. Crollius gave the ap-
pellation of Luna cornua to filver and the mu-
riatic acid. Mcrcurius fublimatut conofivits is
K 4 mentioned
i$2 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
mentioned by Avicenna and Rhazis; and
curius dulcis by Crollius. B. Valentinus hints
obfcurcly at the Mercurius pracipitatus ruber,
to which Crollius gives the name Arcanum Co*
raUliutm Paracfljl. Crollhis defcribes the .SW
Jovh a lfo t a Salt of tin and acetous acid. In
B. Valentinus \ve find an account of the Salt oi*
Lead In chrylYuls, being a combination of lead
and acetous acid, and which he names Siiccba-
rwn Saturn!. lie likcwifc makes mention of
the Butter or* Antimony. The white Precipi-
tate obtained from antimony by water, h the
Mcrcurlum l''iirt of Puracelius, and the Puhis'
iittgettcits of Algaroth. The fume Butter of
Antimony, dephlo^ifticated by means ot the ni-
trous acid, gives a powder which CrolUus cal-
led slntiiH'jnhim diapbomiann, and Begninus
jRezwirdicum mineral?. 7'armntm emeticum v. as
i}rii ufed by Mynllcht. J>. Valcptiims and
i'aracelfus obferved, that Sal Ammoniac com-
bincd with metallic fubflanccs, and fublimed,
produced flowers containing metals. Of the
Vitriols, the principles of the blue were known
to Galcnus, thoie of the green to B; Valenti-
nus ; and the white alfo, though its compofition
was not well underflood, yet was certainly
made in this period.
Of the earths very little was known, and'
even that liitlc was unfupported by the princi-
ples of cheniiflry. They difcovcred, however,
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 15.3,
th.it it was ncccffary to burn calcareous carth r
before it could be employed in making mortar.
In the Pharmacopoeia of Schroeder we meet with, '
Cnl\ viva and Lixivium Culcis, commonly cal-
led Lime-water. Clay was iliflinguifhed from
fand, bur not according to its genuine cha-
racter ; and various kinds of Hones were defin-
ed in the fame fuperficial manner. Fine and
coloured earths were iludioufly fought for the
purpyfes of medicine ; and that the genuine,
might not be confounded with the fpurious,
they were inclofcd on the fpot that produced
tliem, and fcalcd by the governor or chief ma-
gin rate; from whom they palled into the fnops
of the apothecaries.
Among the phlogillic bodies, they were ac-
quainted with Sulphur and its Flowers; and L.
Valentinus mentions a iblution of it in iixcd al-
kali, and Bcguiiuis dcfcribes it as diflblvcd in
volatile alkali. Vigcncrus fufpccled that it was
compofcd of phlogifton and vitriolic acid. Kf-
fcntiul oils were very early di/Hllcd, as well as.
philofophic and cmpyrcumatic, from undluous
fublhinccs, but with a flrongcr fire. Beccher
difcovcred the vitriolic acid dulcified with fpi-
rits of wine. B. Valentinus mentions the Vi-
triolic and Nitrous ^Ethers but very (lightly.
Crollius however has tranfmitted very diflindly
tbe art of preparing the former. The analyfis of
Soot was attempted by Vigcneru-*. Of thclc
v.*ho '
154 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
who give any dcfcription of Spirit of wine, the
principal arc TImddicm, Villunovanu*, and Lul-
lius, who calls the ftrongeft, sllcabol; and (hews
how it may be freed entirely from water, by
means of fixed alkali; which B. Vale minus af-
firms is done more cilcdually by lime. The
fait known under the name of Oj/li Helmontii,
and which was long fince defcribed by Lullius, is
nothing elfe tlum the aerated volatile alkali.
Fr. Sylvius prepared the fame under the name
of sllkaH Qleofwn.
All the metals pofleiTing maleability, except
Platina, were known before this period; but
the brittle were yet undifcovercd. G. Agricola
is the firil who mentions IJiiinuth. As to white
Arfcnic, it is tlillicult to fuy when it was fnfl
reduced to a regulus. Schroeder defcribes the
procefs of reduction, in his Pharmacopoeia of
1649. In the former edition of this buok it is
not to be found. Albertus Magnus fpcaks of
7,i nc, by the name of Marcajita aurea. G. Fa-
bricius reckons Stibium, or Antimony, in the
number of metals ; but B. Valentinus had long
before related the method of -extracting the re-
gulus from the crude ore, and compared it af-
terwards with lead. Whether more of the femi-
metals than thefe four were difcovered during
this period, is a queflion yet to be determined.
Thofe metals that are calcinable by fire,
even Mercury, were very early mentioned by
Goberus.
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. r$;
Gcbcrus. Hclikcwifc gives an account of facti-
tious Cinnabar; and B. Valcntinus makes men-
tion of the Cinnabar of Antimony. Under the
name of Pitlvis albus Antimonii, and Vitrunt
/Intiinonii, Valcntinus dcfcribes the detonation
of Antimony with Nitre. The calcination,
fublimation, fufion, digcllion, folution, precipi-
tation, and amalgam of metallic fubftances, af-
forded a great variety of preparations, chiefly
calculated for medical ufc. Bcfuies thofc al-
ready defcribed, fuch arc the Pur pur a miner alit,
durum fulminant, Fhrcs So/is, slurum fotabilt,
Luna potdbilis, Turpetbum mincralc, Mcrcunut
prtrcipitatus albus, lutcus, incarnatus, Coralttnus
corallatus, liridis, Arcunum CoruUinum, minium,
Litbargyrium, Colcvibar, Crocus Martis, Lilium
Paracclji, Crocus Metalhrum, slntimonium dia~
pboreticum, Ceniffa slntirnonii, and many others,
as magiftcrics, flowers, oily, and tinctures, though
not equally of all metals.
With regard to waters and aeriform fubftan-
ccs, their peculiar properties and different cha-
radcrs, very little, if any thing, feems to have
been determined during thi's period. It was
not, however pofliblc to avoid obfcrving the fub-
tlc claftic air produced by cffcn ? efcence, fermen-
tation, and combuftion. They gave it the name
ofSpiritufJytvc/lrif,aT\d it was confidercd byPa-
Eaccirusandhiscotcmporaricstobccxadlylimilar
to rcfpirablc air. Helmontius probably was the
firft, who thought this fubftancc worthy of more
minute
156 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY,
minute attention, and called it Gas, or Gas fy^
vejlre. In his account of it he lays, it could
neither be lluit up in vettels, nor diicerned by
eyes, but that it was fixed in bodies, and as it
were coagulated. He imagines, that in this air,
\vhich is very different from utmofphere air, lie*
the caufe of all thefe phenomena that are ob-
fervedin the Grotta del Cane, in fermentation,
t'ilerveieence, exploilon, and epidemic difeules.
It had been long known that the weight of me-
tals increaied by calcination ; but Key was the
firft, who ventured to account for this change
by the abibrption of air.
The number and variety of furnaces, inflru-
ments, veflcls, and modes of operating, of this pe-
riod are altogether iurprifing. Luliius mentions
the Athanor as being long in ufe. Geberus de-
icribes particularly various diftillations. Agri-
cola was acquainted with the crucibles of Ypfen-
iia, and veflels oi Waldenburgh. Aludcls a lip
were employed, and apparatus of feveral kinds
for the purpofe of continued digeitions, cohoba-
lions, circulations, volatilisations, cementati-
ons, fublimations, and reverberations, were
contrived.
From this view, by no means very minute,
that we have taken of the progrefs of chcmif-
try during anieraof obfcurity, we may, by com-
paring it with that formerly prefented of timer:
DURING THE MIDDLE AGE. 157
more remote, have a very .diftind idea of the in-
creafe of chemical knowledge within a period of
a thoufand years ; and obfervc it to be fully c-
qual to any expectation that could be formed.
But our ellimation of its importance is confide-
rably diminifhcd, when we turn our attention
to the improvements and difcovcrics of the lad
ten years, in which chemillry, puriuing a fub-
limer path, has not only foarcd into regions of
iuviiihlc aerial fubflanccs, but has dared, with
a perfcvcrinrr fy'mt, to explore the nature of
thcfe fubflances, and fearch into their conftitu-
cnt principles. Such, however is the conilitu-
tion of tilings, that in order to attain the fum-
:nit, it is ncccflary to afcend the fide of the hill
by flow and flcady paces ; and the progrefs of
fcience, however great and attorn/king, claims
no exemption from this general law. In the
dawn and infancy of chemillry our experiments
are too rude, and attempts too feeble, to afford
any certain conclufions ; but in proportion as
they arc often and diligently repeated, and va-
ried when ncccflary, our flrcngth incrcafcs, and
truths arc unccafmgly evolved, But very fre-
quent and accurate trials are required to cfta-
blifli the purity and perfpicuity of genuine fci-
encc. The more truths, therefore, that arc
collected, the more readily and happily will o-
thc-rs be difcovcrcd. But in the period now be-
fore
I 5 3 THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY, ficc.
fore us, the progrefs of chemiftry was much in-
debted to two fuch powerful (limuli, as the de.
lire of wealth and of long life ; by which it was
enabled to remove all the obftacles that igno-
rance and fuperflition could oppofe, and attain
to that height at which we have now beheld it,
THE
THE
A N A L Y S I S
OF
LITHOMARGE.
igitur not corfrribitt circum undiquc fepti
i* dtcut ac for mam t txttrnutnquf nltorem t
Jlfiramur tantum t fummofjue in certtct rerum
LuA'imm f Intcrnam cur non penetramut in *dcm
Natur*, atquf adyt'u immitti pofcimut tftfit ?
ANTI-LUCRETIUS.
. i. The general Cbarattcr of Lithomargc.
JL HE celebrated A. F. Crondftcdt, in his Mi-
neralogy t diftinguifhes among argillaceous earths,
a particular kind under the name of Litbomarge^
to which he afcribes the following characters * :
j/? f When dry its furfacc is flippcry and fmooth
like hard foap. 'idly, On being thrown in fmall
portions fucceffively into water, it feparates in a
few
160 ANALYSIS OF LITHOMAIIGE.
few feconds into little bits not unlike curdled
cheefe, or coagulated fubftances ; but it is not
fo minutdy (Jivided as to become plaftjc. $dly t
Jt is eafily reducible by fire into u white or red,,
dilh flag, which, by frothing up, is conlideiably
encreafed in bulk. *tbly. Its fractures are ir-
regularly concave or convex.
JZe Cefcribcs -three varitties only, the Cl-
mundic, the Tartarian, and the Lcmnian ; but
according to thefe criteria, lie fhould have ad-
ded that from Hampihhe, which is a genuine
fuller's earth. This however ho never law, as
the exportation of it is prohibited ; and, truft-
ing entirely to the defcription of others, he has
ranked it in general amonjj the ubilergents.
Specimens , of all thcie, except the Tartarian,
are in the collection of minerals at the academy
of Upfal ; and it is their compofition and proper-
ties that we arc now going to explain, in order
to determine wtcrherthcy conflitute more than
one fpecies of argillaceous earth, hi our exa-
mination of fuller's earth we have bellowed par-
ticular attention; as, from its great ufe in the
preparation of woollen cloth, it is of importance
to uiulcrdund it thoroughly, that, whenever it is
wanted, the proper kind may be readily dillin-
guiflicd.
ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMARGE. i6<
n. Of the Lcm n la n Ea rth.
FROM the ifland of Lcmnos in the Egcan Tea,
\vhcrcthiscarth was firft difcovercd, it has ob-
tained its name ; and which, though the ifland
is now called Stalimcnc, it Hill retains. It was
called Sigi/fum Cnpritium (rr^y/f >of ) ; for when
taken out from the ground, the pricfls of Ve-
nus, in the time of Diolcorides, ufcd to mix it
with the blood of a goat, and moulding it into
fcvcral pieces, ftamped upon each the figure of
that animal. Thefe rites were abolifhcd while
Galen lived ; but others equally abfurd and ri-
diculous fuccccdcd to them. When Bdlonius
vifitcd the illand, it was the praclicc to open
the vein annually on the 6th of Auguft; and,
after prayers faid by the priciii, as much of the
earth was taken out as was thought fuflicicnt
for the enfuing year: The entrance to the vein
was then clofed, and the inhabitants threaten-
ed with the hcavicft punifhmcnts, if they mould
venture to open it. The greateft part of the
earth obtained in this manner was fent to Con-
flantinople to receive the feal of the Emperor;
and from this circumftancc it has often been
named Terra Turcica. The remainder was fold
by the governor of the illand, cither in its rude
ftarc, or ilamped with his feal. From tbc time
of Homer and Hcfiod this earth was held in fuch
L eftinvatiun,
i(5j ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE.
eftimation, that it was never dug up without
great parade of religious ceremonies: And they
.'dlert, that whether ufed internally or external-
ly, it was a medicine endowed with nlexiphar-
mic, diaphoretic, detedive, and healing vir-
tues *.
As to its outward appearance, it is dillinguifli-
ed by its colour more or lefs refembling clay :
for as yet we have not feen any of a flefh colour.
The furl ace of it is ihiooth and fhining, fomc-
fhing like agate, and efpccially in recent frac-
tures, which arc alme'ft always concave ajul
convex. When applied to the lip it adheres
clofely. The form of its mallls is rude and
fliapclcfs, rather angular, but not regularly de-
termined. The fmall particles, of which it is
compofed are fo very fubtle and minute, that
they efcape both the touch and the Ji^ht. It
is of fuch a texture as to be. fc raped with the
nail ; has an earthy inicll, but no talle ; and
feels between the teetli like tallow, and a little
filiceous. Old liilures often become black.
This is the defcription of the common kind not
fcaled, fuch as is found in the (hops, and which
we have examined by the following experi-
ments.
When a lump of this earth is thrown into
water, it divides fpontaneoufly into feveral
pieces, and with fome degree of a cracking
noiiV.
*
* Ceoffrwi Traitc dc h Mal-erc Mcd
ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE. iCj
rioife. Thcfc pieces fepanitc again into others
Hill fmaller, but the diviilon does not go fo far
as to render the particles impalpable, for the/
remain always viiiblc and fcnfiblc to the touch.
This earth, when pulvcrifcd and boiled in iix-
teen times its weight of water, for half an hour,
the mixture paries calily through a doubled
flicet of filtering paper, almoil perfectly clear,
except u fmall degree of whitenefs communi-
cated by the fufpended argillaceous particles.
This liquor neither reddens paper that is dipped
in the tinchirc of turnfolc, or dcftroys the red
colour it may have acquired; from which it has
neither the property of an acid, or an alkali.
The nitrous folutipn of filver poured into it oc-
cafions little white clouds, which afterwards, on
being cxpofed to the light, turn quite black.
The nitrous folution of quickfilver produces al-
nioft immediately fmall white particles; and
the terra ponderofa, diflblved in muriatic acid,
does not aftcci it in any manner.
On rubbing this earth between the hands in
water, it generates no froth like fo;p, but it re-
moves impurities, though not fo readily as the o-
ihcr kinds.
Pulverized Lcmnian earth, cxpofed in a glafs
veffel to the fire, gradually raifed to a red heat,
emits aqueous vapours, and a grateful aromatic
odour. Papers, qualified for reagents, cither
dyed red with Braiil wood, or blue with thr
b 2 turn foil?
i6 4 ANALYSIS OF L1TITOMARG2.
turnfole, arc a little aftefled by thefc vapours?
tlie firll becoming ycllowilh, the other inclin-
ing to reel ; thus indicating the prefence of a
very weak acid. While the fund that iurrounds
the vcilel approaches to a red heat, the powder
within uiTunics a black colour ; but as the firt*
vncreafcs, thi> oblVwity gives way, and the. ori-
ginal colour returns. From this appearance of
black, and itsfubfequent deltrudion by the lire,
it might- be fuppolcd, that ionic oily fubftanco
was contained in the powder, which being firlt
reduced to a coal, was again confumed by a
greater heat. After tho opcrat ion was finiihed,
and the powder cooled, it was found to have loft
17 per cent, of its weight.
A fmall piece of this earth placed upon char-
coal, and expofed to the ilume of a blow-pipe,
does not decrepitate, but turns black, melt J
with ebullition, and is converted into a dark
frothy cinder. Willi the microcofmic fait, it
dcfolves partially at lirlt, and with eflfcrvefce nee;
but afterwards, the remainder is fcarcely dimin-
illied. Borax acts moil etleftually upon there-
iiduum, but it is fome time before the whole is
confumed. The fait of foda occufit-ns a conli-
derable eilervefcence with noile. Henco, then,
it would appear to contain a portion of aerated
earth, 'though the greatefl part of it i* filiceous.
The little glais globules are tinged in the (liglit-
cil degree with a colouring of iron.
> When
ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMAUCE. 165
When cxpofed to tlie action of acids, no cf-
fervefcence is produced. The powder, indeed,
excites a degree of motion in the mixture ; but
not greater than when water is poured upon it,
throwing out a few air bubbles. .
In order to be well acquainted with the prox-
imate principles of this earth, it is ncceilary to
learn by a few judicious experiments, what, and
how many they are *. After this difcovery the
next llep is, to purfuc the proper method for
determining their fcparatc quantities. In the
prdent cafe, we have judged the following mode
of analyfis the moil convenient. A centenary,
or a hundred docimallic pounds of the earth, be-
ing reduced to powder, and inferted in a fmall
glafs cucurbit, with twice the weight of highly
concentrated vitriolic acid ; an alembic with a
receiver was adapted, andclofely luted, and the
whole apparatus placed in a land bath. By a
gentle heat an acid vapour was firil expelled ;
which being examined, was found to contain
muriatic acid, that had doubtiefs arifen from
decomposed lea fult. A greater degree of heat
brought over no ammoniacal ilowcrs. The fu-
L 3 perlluous
* If a fma!I quantity only of calcareous earth is prcfcnt, it
will ho in vain to expect a precipitation by the tartarizccl vege-
table alkali. The water* of Uplul, in which thcleailgrain of the
cryllalhzcd acid of fugar occafions white clouds and ilrcaks, in a
fc;v fccon if, arc not in the fmalleit decree affected by the tar-
larizcd vc;j. alkali, though a hundred times their weight ;
but remain perfectly clear without any dcpofition.
ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE.
perfluous acid being poured off, and the refidu-
um throughly wafhed in diftilled water, and af-
terwards dried, it weighed 47 pounds; one fourth
of which was u fine white iiliccous powder, and
the reil, a powder rather courier, and of a co-
lour inclining to purple. The colour was poili-
b!y obtained from the muriatic acid, and owing
lo a portion of iron.
That the folution, containing argillaceous
c;uth, calcined iron, magneiia, and chalk, re-
quired an excefs of acid, is evident from the
few former experiments.
But that thcfe fubltances might bci procured
fcparate, and their weight afcertained, the fo-
lution was divided into two equal parts. The
firft was employed for the inveiligation of the
chalk and magneiia, the other icterved to exa-
mine the argillaceous and ferruginous matter.
The firfl being made very warm, was gradu-
ally faturatcd with aerated chalk, with fuch
prcciiion, that neither too much nor too little of
the precipitant was ufed; fo that the argillace-
ous earth and the iron only being alVecled by it,
the whole of the magncfia, which burnt lime, not
aerated chalk, precipitates, might remain un-
diiturbed. The fcdimtnt was then collected in-
to a nitre, and was wafhed with warm water,
until all the gypfum was diflolved. The iolu-
tion being evaporated to dryncfs, difcovered
yjtriolated chalk and mugnclia, which were fe-
ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMARGE. 167
paratcd from each other by a little warm water.
]>ut as it was fcarcc pofliblc to prevent fomc of
the gypfum alfo from being taken up, another
evaporation and folution became nccettary to
get rid of" it entirely. In this experiment, the
iolution of vitriolatcd magnolia, when precipi-
tated by aerated fixed alkali, gave 3.1 ; and that
of vitriolatcd chalk, by the fame medium, 2.7 ;
the weight of the aerated chalk employed as a
precipitant being fubt rafted. Twice the amount
of thele fums indicates the quantity of each con-
tained in a hundred weight. J5ut it mull be ob-
fcrvcd, that the liquors remaining after the pre-
cipitations made by aerated alkali, hold a por-
tion of the fedimcnt in folution, by means of the
aerial acid; but this may be recovered from
them by boiling them during a quarter of an
hour *. It is ncceilary, however, to add this
L 4 to
* Tli.it argillaceous earth may be diflolvcd by the acri.il a-
cid, ii affinal in the til vol. of thde Kfl'iys. BiU a certain
proportion of phlogifton mi^ht perhaps aflV.l the folution licre,
in the fann* manner it dots when the calces of fome metals arc
lo he difl'iilvcd. 'i'in ought LobcdephlogiAicatcd to a certain
point, l)ffore the aeid mcnflruacan aC\ uj)on it ; hut if it is too
much dcpritcd of its pldogirton, tlie acids lufe all their power,
i'hloginon therefore affilU tlte folation, but doej not direcAly.
creation it *, nnlcfs we chufe to a ffccl novelty of cxprcfTion.
Rut if any one thinks otherwjfe, let him defcrihc t!c method
hv which argillaceous earth c ui be difTolrcd in water with
' O
j)!ilo^il\on only. When argillaceous earth is roaflcd in the Tire,
in give* out a quantity of aerial acid.
i ft ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE.
to the precipitate, to afccrtain the true weight
of it *.
To examine the other half of the folution, the
phlogifticated alkali was employed ; and from
it was obtained 12 Ib. of blue icdimcnt, con-
taining 2 of iron in its metallic Hate, and 2.7
of the calx of that metal. In a hundred weight
therefore, there is 5.4 Ib. of ferruginous matter,
befidcs that portion to which the liliccous earth
owes its colour.
The liquor being puffed through a filtre, con-
tained argillaceous earth, magneiia, and chalk,
all combined with the vitriolic acid; but we
were now inquiring after the firil only. To the
folution, then, reduced to the bulk of fix cubic
inches, and heated to 90 degrees of the Swedilli
thermometer, was added gradually as much ae-
rated magnefia as would be fuilicient to dcilroy
entirely the excels of acid, fo that the paper
flained with the turnfolc gav^ no lign of any
remaining unfaturatcd. In order that the quan-
tity of nujgnt fia JLould not exceed the proper li-
mits, every bit thrown in was fullered to diilulvc
bcfore more was added. The futuration being
then compleated, the liquor was boiled for half
an
* Calcareous earth is precipitated by the faccharatcd fxcil
vcg. alkiili. As laccharatcd ma^nefia remains tlillulvtii it; an
excefb of acid with pure argillaceous earth; it ib therefore to be
m.'ulc perfectly dry by rutlAtiig ; and in 01 Jcr t- Jcilrov the
*cM cf fj^ur, mull Lc bur:il in A ilron^ lire.
ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMARGE. 169
jn hour, and the fediment collected proved to
be the argillaceous earth, exactly faturatcd with
vitriolic acid. Alum, it is. well known, requires
an cxccfs of acid ; without which it lofes its fo-
lubility with its other properties. Of this excefs
it may be deprived in various ways, and the ar-
gillaceous earth precipitated, cxaclly faturated,
but iafol.ublc *. If tlic fedimcnt is fufliciently
digcRcd
* Tlic cxccfi of aud in alum may he dellroycd by alkali,
iinu 1 , magncfia, pure argillaceous earth, iron, or /inc. la
the lii'll volume of thcfc lilf.iys, pn;^e 334, aerated chalk j*
employed to fcparatc alum from vitriolattd ma^ccfia ; and this
medium never fails unlcfs its fucccfs is purpofely obfiatcd.
If any one, with an intention to miflead, fhould dilute llic
folution too imch, and ufe largo pieces of the chalk inllead of
its powder, lie will certainly be difappointed in his ddign, for
fcurce any fenfiblc eflecl will be produced. Too gnat a quan-
lity of w.itcr removes the particle? of alum fo far from any
contjifi with the chalk, that no dccompofition can lake place.
I>etiiicM the pieces employed pufcnl a much fmullcr furfacc
than when they are reduced to powder. Whoever h really
bent on [jiviii;^ a fallacious appearance to this experiment,
will not confider the remarks made here as worthy his atten-
tion. But fhouM any one be defirous of certain conviction,
let him mix a known weight of r.lum and vitriolatcd ma^ncfia,
;*nd diifviiVC them in as much tepid water as is neeeiTary, and
add aftcnvards gradually fmall portions of powdered chalk un-
til fueli time as the folution ccafcs to redden the tindure of
turnfolc. If the cfied ia required very foon, cxpofe the fo-
lulion to a iUong digcftin^j heat, othcrwife a lef^ decree of
temperature will be fuificient. The acid bcin<; thus dell roved,
pafa tiie lijtjor through a filtre, and wafli the inaf* with pmc
water ; evaporate the whole of the liquor that paflcd through
tin- filt re to i!r-ncf, aud the rcfult will be the true weight of
vitfiolatcd
i-o ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE.
cligeftcd in a folution of aerated alkali, pure ar-
gillaceous earth is obtained ; and which, in the
cafe before us, being waflied and dried, weigh-
ed 10.5 ; therefore equal to 21 Ib. in a hundred
weight.
This method of determining the quantity of
argillaceous earth, is equally accurate and con-
venient. And, when a hundred weight of pure
cryilaline alum, diilblved in lixteen time* it>
weight of dillilled water, and deprived, in a tem-
perature of 90 degrees, of the excefs of acid, by
means of aerated magncfia, depofits 36 Ib. of
argillaceous earth cxadlly faturatcd with the vi-
triolic acid, by calling the given weight of
the precipitate a, the quantity of the earth will
18. ico a a
be found s= = . After the point of
36.100 2
faturation is attained, the folution mufl be eva-
porated to a third of its bulk before the ledi-
mont is collected on the filrre. The precipita-
tion may be cfiecled like wife by fmali phtes of
v.inc, extended very thin under the hammer.
The folution of alum, though ilowly evaporat-
ed, depofits no fcdimcnt until reduced to near-
ly an eighth part; but if the water carried of}' in
vapour
vitriolatcd magnefu without any admixture of alum, aiul a
fmUl quantity only of gypfuin that had remained undifiolvcd
;n the water of the folution. If the experiment is properly
inilitutcd in this manner, he will not be in the Icait influenced
by any opinions that may be advanced to the contrary.
ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE. 171
vapour is replaced by an equal quantity, the
whole folution immediately becomes turbid, and
the argillaceous earth exactly faturated, falls to
the bottom. This procefs, however, is liable
to objection : For as the vitriolatcd zinc alfo re-
quires an exccfs of acid, the proper criterion for
regulating the operation is yet to be afccrtain-
cd.
From what then has been faid, we may con-
clude, that a centenary of Lcmnian earth con-
tains 47 parts of filiceous earth, 5.4 of aerated
calcareous earth, 6.2 of aerated magncfia, 10
of argillaceous earth, 5.4 of calcined iron, and
17 of a moill volatile fubltancc. The fum of
the experiments taken fcparatcly, amounts to
102 ; but this fmall excels is owing to the diffi-
culty of rendering the argillaceous earth pcr-
dr.
5 in. Of tbc Ofmundlc Earth,
Tins earth is the produce of Mount Oihuind,
in the parilh of Rattvik, in ail Dalecarlia,
where it forms a flratum of three feet thick.
The rock of the mountain is calcareous, hard,
and interfered with ftrata of argillaceous mat-
ter and fchiilus. Petroleum is found in fcvcral
places of it, but efpecially in the fchiftus. But
a more particular dcfcription and delineation of
the
17* ANALYSIS OF L1THOMARCE
the mountain will be fcen in the Tr an fusions of
the Stockholm Academy *.
The colour of the earth is more or left com-
pletely cineiitiuus ; its furface tomcuhut lough,
ami feds usifgreaied, It is pompofcd of incgulat
particles. Though it appears llratilied,yet it can-
not be fcparatcd into regular lame-Ike, but breaks
always into large pieces with acute angles, refcm-
bling almoil the concave and convex fractures of
filiceous fubilanccs. It cxcclls in liardnefs the
Lemnian earth. When a fulid piece of it is ap-
plied to the lip, it adheres very llrongly. Old
fillurcs in it are covered with a yellow ochre. It
has an earthy fmell ; no tafte ; but feels bu-
twcen the teeth more filiceous than the Lem-
nian earth.
When immerfed in water, it feparates in the
1:1 me manner as the Lemnian earth, but rather
into fmaller particles. JJeing moiltened and
rubbed between the hands, it creates no froth,
but it is notwhhiiandiug detergent*
When pulverifed, and boiled for half an hour
in dillilled water, it paillrs perfeclly clear
through a double filtre, ajid docs not allecl the
papers employed as reagents. 'J'he nitrous fo-
]ution of iilver occafions a fmall precipitation,
^vhicli blackens by expofure to the light of the
Am.
if
- D. Tibs in Adis Stockh. 1739. ta ^- *-
',
ANALYSIS OF LlTIIOMARGE. 173
If expofed in powder to the fire raifcd gradu-
ally to a white heat, it emits aqueous vapours,
and an cmpyreumatic odour. The papers of re-
action indicate the prcfence of an acid. Juil
before igniiion the mafs' becomes of a black co-
lour, but afterwards this colour difappcars.
When cooled, the centenary is found to have
loft I 3 pounds.
A fmall piece placed on a coal, and receiving
the ilame of the blow-pipe, decrepitates, turns
black, and melts with ebullition, leaving a white
frothy Hug. With the microcofmic fait, it ex-
hibits the fame phrenomena as the Lcinniau
earth ; but a grain of it thrown into a folution
ofth'j fait becomes white. It cficrvcfccs lefs
with the fait of foda.
We purfued the fame method of analyfis as
\vith the Lcmnian earth. From the fmall ex-
periments, indeed, a trillling quantity only of
jra^nelia was difcovered; but, that itr, pro-
portion might be more accurately afccrtained,
we examined half of the folution with the pow-
der of chalk, and the refill t was not more than
a quarter of a pound of magnelia.
Collecting all thcfe circumftanccs then toge-
ther, it appears, that a centenary ofOfmundic
earth contains about 60 parts of white filiccous
powder, 5.7 of calcareous earth, 0.5 of magne-
lia, i J.I of argillaceous earth, 4.7 of calcined
iron, and i3 of a nioiil volatile matter.
The
174 ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE.
The experiments taken fcparately gave 14.1
of argillaceous, and 5.7 of calcareous earth; but
this excefs of 3.8 feems to arife chiefly from the
imperfect drying of thefc fubftunces.
S iv. Of tie Hampjbirc Earth.
THIS earth is a native of the county of Hump-
fliire in England ; but, as the exportation of it
is prohibited, it cannot be procured in larger
quantities than are required for inineralogical
collections. Fullers huve long ufed it in their
trade, although in feveral manufactories in Eng-
land, the proccfg of fulling cloths is carried on
by treading them under feet with the dung of
f\vinc and warmed human urine.
The colour of the Hamplhire earth is dark, a
little inclined to green, and faintly marked with
yellowish veins. Jn Jubilance it is opaque, and
appears in foine degree fl ratified, although it does
not feparate in llrata. As to hardnefs, it is not e-
qual to thofe already defcribed. Its particles
arc without fhape, but capable of being poiifh-
cd by the nail. Its fractures are rather rough,
with dark pointed eminencies. It has an earthy
fincil, but no tulle ; adheres to the lip; and be-
'tween the teeth feels a little filiceous.
When immeried in water, it falls to pieces
like the other earth. Rubbing it in water pro-
duces
ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMARGE. 17$
(luces no froth ; but it is exceedingly detergent*
Being pulverifed, and boiled for half an hour
in dillillcd water, ir will pafs through a filtre of
fevcral folds, ilill turbid, with many fubtle par-
ticles floating in it, that diminifh its tranfparcn-
cv. If to this water a few drops of the fulution
of muriated terra ponderofa be added, no pre-
cipitation is obferved ; from which it may be in-
ferred to contain neither vitriolic acid, gypfum,
or i:ny fait combined with that acid. But if
the nitrous folution of filvcr be poured into it, a
milky fedimcnt foon makes its appearance, which,
on being expoied to the rays of the fun, immedi-
ately becomes black; an undoubted proof of the
prcfence of the muriatic acid.
If fubjedcd, in its pulverifed flate, to a fire
gradually raifed to a white hcat.it becomes black
juft before ignition, but afterwards refumes its
natural appearance as the fire increafes. While
in this fituation, it emits aqueous vapours, a lit-
tle acid. On being cooled, it is found to be
15 J Ib. in the centenary lighter than before.
A final! bit expofcd to the flame. of the blow-
pipe, on a piece of coal, decrepitates, but not in
fo great a degree a^ the Ofmundic cartli ; it
turns black, and melts with ebullition into a
dark coloured fpongy inafs. With borax, mi-
crocofmic fait, and mineral alkali, it exhibits the
fame character as the Lemnian earth.
Its analyiis was obtained in the fame way as
thai
i 7 6 ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMARGE.
that of the two former earths ; and, in a cente-
nary of it was found 51.8 of a filiceous powder,
tinged yellow with iron ; 3.3 of calcareous earth;
0.7 of magncfia ; 25 of argillaceous earth ; 3.7
of calcined iron, and 15! of moift volatile mat-
ter.
An excefs of one pound only we attributed
to the argillaceous earth.
By a volatile matter is undcrftood here, as
well as in the preceding experiments, not only
the dcftrucYton of an oily Jubilance, but alfo the
expuUiori of the muriatic acid from its bale, by
means of the vitriolic. What this bafe may be
is not eafy to determine with fuch fmall quanti-
ties; but certainly traces of fea fait appear, how-
ever faint, in fomc of the varieties examined by
boiling in water, and filtration. We difcovered
no fal ammoniac. Perhaps, indeed, it would be
neccflary to employ larger malles of earth to
procure a more perfect fublimation than has
been yet attained.
v. Corollary.
FROM a comparifon of the foregoing defcrip-
ttons and anulylis the following concluiions may
be drawn :
That, as to the external cbaraftcr, the varie-
ties examined are fo perfectly fimilar, that they
differ in degree only. The greatcfl difparjty ob-
vious
ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE. 177
vious to the fenfes, is in the colour, and fmooth
iliining furfucc of the Lcmnian earth.
Tiic fame obfervation may be made on their
properties, cither in fire or water.
With regard to their competition, the differ-
ence in that rcfpccl ulfo is milling. They
have all the fame proximate principle*;, and va-
ry in nothing but the proportions of them. But
that \ve may prefent a clearer view of their fe-
vcral qualities and relations, we have drawn up
the following table in which the weights of each
principle are cxprcffed, in hundred parts, under
the head of its particular earth.
TABLE.
A Centenary J Lcmnian Ofmundic Hampfhirt
contains of 3 carth - carth * earth -
Siliceous Powder 47.0 <5o.o 51.8
Aerated Lime 5.4 5.7 3.3
Aerated Magncfia 6.2 0.5 0.7
Argillaceous Earth 19.0 xi.i 25.0
Calcined Iron 5.4 4-7 3-7
Moid voiat. matter 17.0 18.0 15.5
In the natural fyflcm therefore, ofCronftedt,
the Hthomargaj are ranked as a particular diilindl
fpccies of clay ; although the proportion of mag-
nefia in two varieties in exceedingly fmall. But
M this
i 7 8 ANALYSIS OF LITHOMARGE*
this name of Lithomargae docs not feem to be art
important diflinclion. The character of this
fpecies bears a (Irong refemblance to the zeolite ;
nor do they diller in compolition, except in the
Jmall portion of magncfia which the zeolite wants.
There is fome analogy between it and marles
alfo. But in the lithomarge the combination of
the different principles is not merely mechanical,
as in the marie, which eftervefces more readily
with acids, although it contain lefs calcareous
and magnefutn earth than the lithomarge now
under coniiderution.
Notwithllanding, in the varieties examined,
the great eft proportion of argillaceous earth does
not equal a fourth part of their weight, and that
the filiccous earth generally exceeds the half; yet
neither Cronlledt, nor any other mineralogill,
have thought proper to refer them underthe head
liliceous; and for the very bell reafon; as fuch
is the inteniity and prevailing quality of clay,
that though it were ihll in a much lefs proper-
tion, it would yet determine the charader of
the whole mafs.
As the clay of Hampfhire is muchufed in the
trade of fullers, we may learn from this analylis-
what are the properties it is required to pofleft.
In the operation of fulling, twothingschiefly are
necefiary ; firfl, the witfningaway all impurities \
and fecondly, the thickening and confolidating
at
ANALYSIS OF LITIIOMARCE.
of the \vcb by the curling or intermixture of the
fibres on its furfacc. Any kind of clay will an-
fxvcrthcfc purpofcs, provided it is free from quali^
ties pofitivcly noxious. The filiceous part of it
mud be very finely divided ; for large particles
would wear the threads with their angles, or
even cut them under the hammers : The argil-
laceous proportion alfo mull not be too fmall,
that it may readily diflblve in water, form the
ncccfiary confiflcncc, and be eafily waflicd a-
way when the operation is fmiflicd. It mud
not be combined with any colouring matter, ci-
ther vitriolic, or any other that is capable of af-
fe cling the dye of the cloth. It fhould contain
a fmall proportion of chalk; but if that propor-
tion is cncreaied, the mafs becomes too thin,
looting not only its tenacity, which is ncccflary
to form the pile or map, but its grcaiincfs alfo,
by which the threads arc prcferved againft all
external violence. Nothing of the kind of py-
rites ought to be in it. But that it may contain
the calx of iron not combined with any mcnf-
truum without prejudice, is evident from the
Hampfliire clay, which is an excellent fullers
earth.
We have no doubt but the Ofmundic likcwife
might be very fcrviccablc, if it could be procur-
ed in fufficicnt quantity, and of the fame quality
as tjiat examined here. Soaps would indeed be
M 2 preferable
i So ANALYSIS OF LTTHOMARGE.
preferable to earths for the bufinefs of falling, if
they did not generally afled the colour of thr
cloths.
For cleaning linen, clay free from every co-
louring matter may be fucccfsfully ufed. It is
true it creates no froth like foap, but it doe?
not the lefs remove impurities.
OF
or THE
ASBESTINE EARTH.
n fffitnt oculi njturam nnfc.re rerum.
LUCRETIUS.
S-**
v_>RONSTEDT, in his mineralogy, reckons
nine fpecies of earths, which, as he had never
analyfed, he confidcred as fimplc and primitive
fubftanccs. By analyfis, however, we have
learned that the mod of them arc compounded,
as the Granatic, AHcatwus, Zcolitic, and F/uo-
ratic, and that the Mflgnefian is to be altogether
excluded from the clafs of earths, and ranked
;mong metals. Our knowledge of the aibeftine
earth lias been hitherto uncertain and fupeifi-
ciiil. Some of the varieties have been rcfolv-
ed by mcnilrua into more fimplc principles;
while others, that fccmed the pureft, have not
nudergone the Icaft alteration. In hopes there-
M 3 fore
1 82 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH.
fore to throw fome light upon a fubjeft hitherto
not well undcrftood, we have inftitured many
and various experiments, which we fhall now
oiler to your attention.
According to Cronftcdt, the Afbeftos is diflin-
guiflied by fcven different characters. Firft,
When pure, it is very difficult to be fufed.
Second, The flexibility of its fibres. Third, Its
furface. Fourth, It becomes brittle by ignition.
Filth, It is not fufliciently hard to flrike fire
with Heel. Sixth, Is infoliible in acids. And
Seventh, It melts cafily with borax. How far
we may trull to this ddciiption, relating almofl
to its external properties only, we fhall now pro-
ceed to determine.
5 iv. Of the Tarcntaijlan AJleflos.
THIS fpecies, called Tarentaifian, is the pro-
duce of Savoy in Italy. As to its outward cha-
racter, it is of a pure white colour, and can be
divided into the fuftcit threads of a tolerable
length, fhiningnnd opaque.
When ex poled to the fire, it exhibits the fol-
lowing qualities :
Ex P. I. By a long continued calcination, it
fcarcc lofes fome liundred parts of its weight.
In an intenfe heat it liquefies, and, when cool-
OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. i5 3
ing, and, when cooling, concretes into a filamen-
tous mafs; but, if this is melted much longer,
it becomes a grccnifli glafs, cafily penetrating
the crucible.
EXP. 2. When the extremity of a thread is
expofed to the flame of the blow-pipe, it melts
into an opaque globule, that grows dark colour-
ed, if the ilamc continues to adl upon it. It
diflblvcs with borax and the microcofmic fait,
and eficrvcfces with the mineral alkali.
Though reduced to fo fine a powder that it
cannot be mechanically further divided, yet it
is but little folublc in any mcnitrua.
EXP. 3. A hundred docimafUc pounds were
gently boiled in ten times the weight of aqua,
rcgia, until a fmall quantity only of the liquor
remained. The menftruum diflblved no more
than 12, and the refiduum had undergone no
change. The folution being precipitated by
fixed alkali, yielded an earth iimilar to the terra
pondorofa, fome calcareous earth, and the reft
magnefia.
EXP. 4. An hundred pounds, treated in the
fame way, with eight hundred of concentrated
vitriolic acid, four only were diflblved, and
which appeared to be calcareous earth and mag-
nefia.
M 4 EXF.
i*4 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH.
EXP. v. As it was pofllble too great an abun r
dance of filiccous earth might prevent its being
more foluble, one hundred pounds, with four
hundred of vegetable fixed alkali, were kept in
a red heat for two hours, but were not brought
into fuiion. After this operation, the vitriolic
acid extracted twelve, but the rcdduitm was not
in the leaft ufTeded by it. It fcemed, there-
fore, to be owing to the prefence of the vitrio-
Juted terra pondcrofa that it Hill refilled all at-
tempts to decompound it. Accordingly the
following method was purfued, with a view to
fcpuratc all the primitive earths it might con-
tain.
EXP. 6. ico Ib. of albcilos, well mixed with
icoofveg. alkali, and 100 of powdered char-
coal, were ignited for two hours; and then being
boiled for" fume time in loco of aqua regia, af-
forded a complete fulution.
What remained umliilblved was tranfparent,
like jelly ; and, being collected, and thoroughly
waflied in diililled water, and afterwards dried,
weighed 64. It was now white and opaque,
and not to be ailecled by any acid menilruum,
except the iluurilic; but melted with cfier-
vefccncc with half its weight of vcg. alkali,
and exhibited a perfect gluis.
The clear liquor being concentrated by eva-
poration, the vitriolic acid was dropped into it,
and occafioned a precipitate cf 6 Ib, of a wli^te
powder.
OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. 185
powder, which proved to be the fpatbcum pon-
der of um.
The evaporation being carried Aill further,
12 of vitriolatcd lime were obtained, of which
6.9 were aerated chalk.
By means of the phlogiflic alkali, 7 of Pruf-
fian blue were precipitated, which anfwcrs to
nearly 1.2 of calcined iron.
From the liquor yet remaining, the fixed al-
kaii produced 18.6 of aerated magnolia. It
ought to well obferved, that the water poured
oil* from the precipitate Ihouldboil near an hour,
as it always holds a portion of magncfia, and
fomctimcs of lime diilblvcd in the aerial acid.
This volatile incnftruum being diflipated, the
neratcd lime falls almoft immediately, but the
fcparation of the magncfia is flow, and not com-
pleted until the whole is evaporated to dry-
nefs. The fcdiment, containing magnefia a-
lone, difiolvcd in the vitriolic acid, being in-
fpiflatcd, and afterwards ignited for a quarter of
an hour, is Aill wholly foluble in water; what-
ever alum may be in it remains burnt and de-
prived of its excels of acid ; if gypfum, that
ulfo remains; \inlefs wafhcd away by a large
quantity t/f water. To dilcover the argillaceous
earth, the aerated magncfia, as ilfewhcre ex-
plained, is mail fuccefsfully employed as a pre-
cipitant of the folution already deprived of its
iron.
18* OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH.
iron*. This method is very convenient: For,
fliould the magnefia be added in too large a
quantity,. the excefs will fubiide to the bottom
whiter and heavier than before, fo that the a-
lum, which is neither lo heavy or fo light co-
loured, may eafily be feparated from it by
vvalhing. In the experiment that was made in
this manner, we obtained 3.3 of r.rgillaceous
.earth.
In the analyfis of the following varieties this
method was continued.
in. Of AJbcftK tf Swartvlk,
MANY remarkable varieties of this afbeflos
occur at Swartvik, in the parifli of Swerdfio in
Dalecarlia; two of which we fliall now proceed
to confider,
Thefirft is wiiite, anddivifible into the fineft
flexible fibres. Mixed with which are found lit*
tie bundles harder arid ferruginous, that were
however feparated from them, uj> more impure,
and more charged with iron.
Cronilcdt's Mineralogy, g 106. 2.
Its character on being expofed to the fire,
Exp. 7. By calcination it becomes rather
whiter in the crucible. With a greater heat it
runs into a general mais of a martial colour.
Analj-lls of Lithomargc.
OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. 187
EXP. 8. In the flame of a blow-pipe, whe-
ther alone or mixed with alkali, microcofmic fait,
or borax, it exhibits the fame appearances as the
Tarentaifian ; except that it difcovers a greater
proportion of iron in its compolltion.
EXP. 9. Purfuing the method of analyfis de-
cribcd before, Exp. 6, the centenary produced,
of terra ponderofa nothing; but 13.9 of chalk;
17.2 of aerated magnciia; 27 of clay; 64offl-
Jiccous earth; and 2.2 of calx of iron.
iv. Of the Jljleflos of Siuartvik rcfcmbling
Steatites^
Wz are now to gi ve our attention to another va-
jricty of the Swart vik afbcflos, which forms as it
were a link between the afbcflos already dcfcrib-
ed, and the flcutitcs which is found in the fame
place. It refemblcs the ftcatitcs in its green colour,
but which is rather a little paler; its furface is
fmooth andfliining ; can be fcrapcd with the nail
into a white powder; it differs however in the ar-
rangement of its parts, being ftriated parallel and
longitudinally, and capable of divifion into the
fined white threads, which were before fo clofc-
ly united, that their joining was not percepti-
ble.
EXP.
s.8,8 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH.
EXP. JO. In a violent heat, in a crucible, it
hardens and becomes white.
EXP. n. The flame of the blo\v-pipe produ-
ces the lame eflecl upon it as on the foregoing.
EXP. 12. Treated in the fame manner as
the former experiments, \ve procured by ana-
Jyfis, of terra ponderofa, o; calcareous earth,
7.7; aerated magneiia, 13.6; argillaceous earth,
2.7; liliccout; earth 74; and calx of iron, 2.
v. Of the Steatites ofSwartvik.
As thefteatites of Swartvik refemMes in ma.
ny circumllanccs the aibclli found at the fame
place, we have thought it would be attend-
cd with fome advantage to determine by
annlyfis the extent of this iimilitude.
The llcatiteb is of a gretn colour, with a fur-
face fmooth and ihining ; forms a compacl folid
mais, here and there interfered with irregular
fjflures, that are frequently concealed. Its con-
fiftence is fuch, that it can be fc raped with the
r.ail ; and it turns into u white powder.
Cronfledt's Mineralogy, 81. zt.
Ex?. 13. A fmall thin lamella, weighing
355
OF THE ASBESTINE EAftTH.
355 Ib. being cxpofed to a white heat for two
hours in a crucible, was found, when thorough-'
ly cold, to weigh no more than 333 Ib. fo that
in this operation a lofs was fufhiined of 22 Ib.
which accounted for feveral pounds of humidi"
ty as well as aerial acid.
The whole of it became white, and though
fomcwhat harder than before, yet could flill be
fcraped with the nail.
In a fevcrc fire of many hours, it changes .1
little from yellow to a darkifh colour, and ac-
quires a degree of hardnefs capable of ftriking
fparks of fire from a flint. If a folid piece of it
could be obtained free from chinks, of a proper
fi7.c, nothing would excel it for the purpcfc of
fculpturc, and efneciully for the carving of heads
and fmail figures. For it may be eafily wrought
with a chi/.cl ever fo blunt ; and when finifhecl,
being properly hardened in the fire will defy the
kccneft tooth of time.
To melt it requires the ftrongeft pofilblc de-
gree of heat.
Exr. 14. The powder of ftcatitcs roafted in
a pneumatic apparatus gives out about 6 llh of
aerial acid in. a centenary .
Exp. 15. In the flame of a blow-pipe it be-
comes white, but is not melted j unites with
cftervcfcenee
J 9 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH.
effcrvcfcencc with the fait of foda ; diflblves
with borax, but not with the nticrocofmic fait.
EXP. 16. 100 Ib. of it being reduced to a
fine powder, were boiled in 1200 Ib. of aqua re-
gia. To the folution filtrated, and concentrat-
ed by evaporation, vitriolic acid was added, but
no muddinefs appeared in it, nor was any gyp-
fum depofitcd, although the evaporation was
carried farther. But that it might not efeape
by being (Defended by the iilicious earth, as
much vitriolic acid was poured into the fulutiun
as would be more than iuiiicient to take up the
foluble eartlis ; and the whole was then evapo-
rated to dry nets.
Being afterwards thoroughly wafhed in wa-
ter, there Hill remained a reiiduum of iiliccous
earth equal to 80.
Phlogiflicated alkali diilurbed the liquor, and
produced 4 of Prufllan blue; which anfvvcrs to
0.9 of calx of iron.
The remainder, when filtrated was found tot
contain magnolia. But that it might be afcer-
tained whether it held any argillaceous earth, a
precipitation of 4 was obtained by means of the
aerated magncfia; and it was obfervcd, that the
greatcil part of the precipitate fell before the ex-
,cefs of acid was completely deflroyed. The fedi-
raent was faturatcd exadly with vitriolic acid; and
the
OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. 191
the proper cxccfs of which being rcftored, a ge-
nuine alum was produced.
It appears, therefore, that a centenary of
fteatites contains, of terra pondcrofa, o; of cal-
careous earth, 6; aerated magncfia, 17.1; ar-
gilaceous earth, 2 ; iiliceous, 80 ; and calx of
iron, 0.9.
vi. Of tbc Aftcjlos of Bajlnccs.
IN the mine called Baftnrcs, at Riddarhyttan,
js Ibund an ulbcllos of agrccnilh grey, with ve-
ry fine, foft threads, caiily broken ; mentioned
by Cronftcdt in his Mineralogy, 105, A. 2. and
*vhich often fcrves as a matrix of copper pyrites.
EXP. 17. Roafted in a crucible, in a fire it
exhibits the fame character as the afbcftos in
general.
EXP. 1 8. Nor does the blow-pipe occafion a-
ny extraordinary phenomena.
EXP. io. By the ufual analyfis, from the cen-
tenary was obtained, of terra ponderofa, c;
chalk, 6; aerated magnefia, 16.8; argillaceous
arth, 6 j filiceous, 67 ; and calcined iron, 4.2.
$ vii.
192 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH.
vn. Of the Ajbejlos ofCorias.
THIS kind is found at Corias in Auftria, re-
fembling very much the albeltos of Tarentaife,
is white, foft, and divifible into the fmeil threads.
Cronfledt's Mineralog. 105. i.
EXH. 20 and 21. In the crucible, and with
the blow-pipe has the lame qualities with the
other afbelti.
EXP. 22. $y analyfis, the centenary produ-
ces, of terra ponderoiu, o; aerated chalk, 10.5;
aerated magnelia, 12.9; clay, 3.3; iiliccous
earth, 72; and calx of iron, 1.3.
vin. Of tbc AJlcJlos of Crete.
THIS fpccies of afbcftos, brought from Crete,
is white, of a rough irregular texture, with
fliort broken threads, laid over each other like
tiles on the roof of a houfe.
Cronftedt's Mineral. 106,
. EXP. 23 and 24. In the fire it exhibits no-
thing different from the others.
OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. 193
Exp. 25. Its analyfis yielded, of terra pon-
dcrofa, o; aerated chalk, 14.3 ; aerated mag-
nefia, 28.8; clay, i ; filiccous earth, 53.9; and
calx of iron, 2.
ix. The AJbeJlos of Sablbcrg, commonly called,
Mountain Cork.
THIS is dug out of a filver mine at Sahlbcrg;
it is white, compact, and claftic like cork, and
with its fibres varioufly interwoven.
EXP. 26 and 27. It has the ufual character in
the lire : Hut it Is worthy of remark, that when
properly heated in the flume of a blow-pipe, it
aflbrds a transparent globule, which fcldom hap*
pens to the other afbdli.
Cronfledt's Mineral. 104. i. a.
EXP. 28. By analyfis the centenary produced,
of terra pondcrufa, o; aerated chalk, 10; aera-
ted magncfiu, 22; clay, 2.8; iiliceous earth,
62 ; and calx of iron, 3.2.
x. Of tbe AJbeflos of Sablbcrg, known by tbc
Name of Mountain Leather.
IT differs from the foregoing variation in its
N laincllatcd
I 9 4 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH.
lamellated mafs only, and its confidence, which
is not fo firm.
Cronitedt's Miner. $ 103. i.
EXP. 29 and 30. It agrees perfeclly with the
former afbcfios in its apj>carance irvthe fire.
EXP. 31. A centenary of it yielded by analy-
fis, of terra pondcrofa, o ; aerated chalk, 12.7;
aerated magnefia, 26.1 ; clay, 2; liliceous earth,
56.2 ; and calcined iron, 3.
$ xi. Oftbcfafiiculatcd AJbeJlos of Grange.
THIS fpccics is found in the parifh of Grange
in Dalecarlia, and confifls of grey parallel fibres,
rather ri^id, not very diftincl, and collecled in-
to little bundles, which are not parallel in rela-
tion to each other, but crofs in various direcli-
ons.
Cronftedt's Mineralogy, 106.
EXP. 32 and 33. In the fire it appears as ufual.
EXP. 34, Analyfis difcovcrs in the centenary,
of terra ponderofa, o; aerated chalk, 12.8; aera-
ted magnefia, 16; clay, 1.1 ; filiceous cartli,
63.9; and calx of iron, 6.
S xii.
OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. 195
XII. OfthcdJl'cJlosofPchrfbcrg.
AT Pehrfbcrg in Vcrmcland, we meet \vith
an afbeftos of a dark colour, with rigid parallel
fibres, that can fcarcc be feparatcd, or admit
of being further divided.
Cronftedt's Mineralogy, 105.
EXP. 35 and 36. In the flame of a blow-pipe
it becomes white, and leaves a white feoria ;
which is rather extraordinary, as it contains a-
bove Vo j of iron.
EXP. 37. By analyfis we obtain, of terra pon-
dcrofa, o; aerated chalk, 12; aerated magnc-
fia, 13.7; clay, 1.7; lilieeous earth, 62; and
calcined iron, 10.6.
xin. The fibrous Schorl of Grange.
As the fibrous Shorls very often bear fo ftrong
a rcfemblancc to the afbefti, that they arc with
difficulty diilingui/hed from them by their exter-
nal appearances, it may not be improper to ex-
aminc the competition of both the one a?nd the
other variety, which, from their outward cha-
radcr, ought naturally to be referred totheclafs
of fchorls. In the parilli of Grange, fuch a fpe-
]N T 2 cies
i9<* OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH.
cies occurs of a greenifh white, with flender
parallel threads, tranfparent, and brittle like
glafs, and in other rcfpecls very fimilar to the
albedos of Baftnxs already defcribed.
Cronfledt's Min. 5 74- "
EXP. 38. It is converted by fire, in a cruci-
ble, into a white fcoria.
EXP. 39. In the flame of a blow-pipe, it
melts with ebullition into a Hag; dittolvci with
borax and with the microcofmic fait, but with
the latter more ilowly ; and eftcrvefces in its uni-
on with the mineral alkali.
EXP. 40. The analylis of it produces in a
centenary, of terra ponderofa.o; aerated chalk,
6; aerated magnefia, 12.7; clay, a; filiceous
earth, 72; and calx of iron 7.3.
xiv. TJJC fibrous Schorl of Zittcnbal.
AT 7illerthal in Tyrol is found a beautiful
fchorl of a green colour, with prifmatic fibres,
brittle, tranfparent, not quite parallel, but com-
bined in fevcrai little bundles, diverging from a
centre. Small pieces of it cut glafs.
Cronftedt's Min. 74. b.
OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH. 197
Exi>. 41. and 42. Whether tried by fire in
the crucible, or by the blow-pipe, it difcovcrs the
uiual qualities of ichorL
Exr. 43. liy analyfis, the centenary produ-
ces of terra ponderoia, o; aerated chalk, 9,3;
aerated magncfia, 20; clay, 2.7; filiccous earth
64 ; and calcined iron, 4,
Having proceeded thus far, it may perhaps
be not altogether u fold's to defcribc more par-
ticularly the method by which the different a-
nalyfcs were conduded. The it ones intended
for examination being firll reduced to the fined
powder, and exactly weighed, were thoroughly
mixed with fixed vegetable alkali and powder-
ed charcoal, and then ignited for two hours in
a covered crucible ; at which period the cover
being removed, they wrre calcined until the
charcoal was completely dephlogiilicatcd. The
lleatites alone was not expofed to this proccfs,
as its folubility was fullicicntly proved by other
experiments The alkali employed was the
pure fait of tartar. In all the trials, both the
quantity and quality of the charcoal being the
fame, there was no realon to apprehend the ad-
mixture of any foreign fubflancc. A centenary
of this coal yielded no more than z| ofafiies.
After the calcination, the powders became more
or lets blue or green, and communicated dired-
Jy to a fmall quantity of water poured upon
N 3 them
I 9 8 OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH.
them, a green, or bright red. If an acid was
poured upon the green liquor, it \vas changed to
a red ; it* upon the red liquor, the colour was at
firft much heightened, but afterwards affuming
a yellowifh tint, became gradually fainter, and
at length wholly difuppcarcd. To the fmall
portions of magnefin, which almofl always ad-
heres to the charcoal, we may attribute all thefe
phenomena, as will be found explained elle-
\vhcre *.
The powder thus prepared was boiled in aqua
regia, until all the foluble part of it was diflblv-
ed. The filiceous part remaining \\as collcded
in a filtre, and waflied in warm water. To the
folution concentrated by evaporation, fome
drops of flrong vitriolic acid were added ; and,
if after a quarter of an hour there were no figru
of terra ponderofa in it, a quantity cf the fame
acid iull'icicnt to faturatc the calcareous earth
was then pcurcd in, and, by a gentle evapora-
tion, almoit the whole of the gypi'iim was lepa-
ratcd. This being collected, the folution was
again difturbed by aerated alkali, and received
on a filtre : The precipitate was then wafhed;
:md, while yet moid, vitriolic/acid was gradual-
Iy added to it, umil none of it remained ex-
cept perhaps a fn tall portion of gypliiin that
fonictimes eluded the firfl icparatic;n. On boil-
ing the water of the precipitation, it depofu
^ ted
2 Vol. ?C 220,
OF THS ASBESTINE EARTH. 199
ted fome magnefia diflblvcd in the acrid acid;
and, if there was flill any quantity of aerated
chalk, it would be cafily feparated by means of
the vitriolic acid. The two precipitations a-
bovc related were found ufeful folutions in the
vitriolic acid, for the purpofe of expelling the a-
qua regia, and depoiiting the alum in its turn.
The new folution in the vitriolic acid is there-
fore firft to be precipitated by the phlogiftic al-
kali, and then, the i'ruilian blue being collccl-
ed, the alum may be dcpofitcd in the remain-
ing clear liquor, by means of the aerated mag-
ncfia.
xv. Corollary.
In order to Icficn the difficulty of comparing
together the fevcrai varieties examined, we
have exhibited here at one view the proportion-
al contents of a centenary of each of them.
N 4
OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH,
Terf a pond.
(Vcir. M.p.ncfi*.
Clay.
SiHerout
Calx t f
VII
triw
au.
Call
lh.
can
n.
iron.
Steatites
.0
O
.0
17-
I
2
.0
80
.0
c.o
Albert. Steatiform
C
.0
7
7
13.6
*>
7
74
.0
2.0
Swartvik
o
.0
'3
9
17.2
2
7
64
.0
2.2
Ccrias
0.0
ID
5
12.
9
3
3
72
.>
'3
Crete
o.o
M
3
28.
8
1
.0
53
9
2.0
Corium
o.o
12.7
26.1
2
.0
5*
.2
3-
Cork-like
.0
10
.0
22.
2
.3
62
.O
3-2
Baflnxs
o
.0
6.0
16.
8
i
.0
67.0
4-2
CJra-n^c
C
.0
12
.8
1 6.
i
3
63
9
6.0
Pchrfbcrg
o.o
12
.0
! 3*
7
i
7
62
.0
10.6
' Tarcntaifc
6.0
6
9
18.
6
3
3
64
.0
1.2
Schorl Grange
0.0
6.0
12.
7
.0
72
.0
7-3
ZillcrthaJ
0*0
9
3
20.
2.7 64
.0
4.0
Having well confidercd thcfe circumflances,
it is plain,
That no fuch earth cxifts as a peculiar fimple
nfbcftine earth. For every one of thcfe varieties
contains, befides a fmall portion of iron, other
known principles, four of which arc primitive, as
the calcareous, the maf\nefian, argillaceous, and
filiceous; and, although the fecoiul is by no means
info great a proportion as the hill, yet ir Hill deter-
mines the character and genus. As in the Scia-
graphy of the Mineral Kingdom, digefted and
arranged according to proximate principles, the
genera of compounded fubftances are not defi-
ned by the excefs in quantity cf any one parti-
cular ingredient; fo, in the cafe now before us,
certainly
OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH.
certainly no one, from the character of a (lone,
foft, fibrous, and flexible, would be led to ap-
prehend fuch an abundance of filiccous matter.
In the conipnfitioh of the nine fpeeics, reckon-
ed, with the confent of all mineralogifts, under
the name of aibelli, which have hitherto been
chemically examined, the filiceous earth is found
to conllitutc the greater part, making never lefs
than the half, and fometiiiies three fourths of
the whole. In relation to quantity, magnefia
holds the fecond place between the limits of
iz.y and 28.8 in the centenary. Then follows
the aerated chalk, fluctuating from 6.0 to 14.3.
Argillaceous earth is in the fmall proportion of
1.6 in the centenary. Calcined iron is found
in all of them from 0.9 to 10.6. The fpecific
difference therefore fccms to be thus determin-
ed:
AJl>eJlos compofcd of filiccous, magncfian,
calcareous, and argillaceous earth, with fomc
admixture of ferruginous matter. Metallic fub-
itances arc indeed extraneous ; but, as earths
of the purcft kind arc fcldom entirely free from
iron, it mull ftill be confidercd as a fpccics of
alloy. In this order the materials of the com-
poiition being enumerated, according to their fc-
veral proportions, illuftratc clearly the fpecific
diflercnces.
As to what relates to thofe fubflanccs that
bear different degrees of rcfemblance to the af-
beiti,
fio* OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH.
befli, the Tarentaifian approaches fo near to the
genuine, that it is a quetlion whether it fliould be
feparated from it. It lias the fame principles,
arranged in the fame order, with the addition of
vitriolated terra ponderofa only, and which does
not fcem to have been combined by the hazard
of neighbouring iltuation, but by a more inti-
mate and perfect union with all the parts, as it
efcapes the penetration even of aifiiled viilon.
The albedos of Taremaife, then, conftitutes the
ninth fpccies of the Magnefian genus; to which
perhaps the inilgnificant name of amianthus a p.
plies, thai would orherwife be fuperfluous. But
ive will now attend to a fpecific difference.
The amianthus compoftrd of llliceous, mag-
neiian, and calcareous earth, terra ponderolu,
vitrioldta, argillaceous earth, and a portion of
iron. Whoever has had an opportunity of exa-
mining this fubflance in large quantities, on the
fpol where it is found, fliouUl have iuvciligated
whether the mixture of the terra ponderola is
merely mechanical. For were it no otherwise
united, it would fcurcely remit fo much the ac-
tion of acid menflrua, a> we ilud b> experience
that it does. The progreOion from the ilcatites,
through the lleatiibrm ufbeltos, to the foftcft
variety of albedos, defcribcd under the third
and fifth heads, is ibmething remarkable.
The firfl diilers folely by its wanting the cal-
careous earth ; which feems in fome meafure
lo imply a conlideiablc power in this tfarth to
form
OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH.
form its fibrous texture. On the other hand,
again, it not only difcovcrs an obvious refcm-
blancc to the tibrous fchorl, but a fpeciiic agree-
ment even is dcmonilrated by analyfis. But
this cannot be affirmed of all the varieties of the
fibrous fchorl, as hitherto l\vo only of them have
been examined ; though, with regard to the reft,
the probable conjecture is very great.
From the corroborating tcftimqny, therefore,
of thcfe experiments, we may correct, the fpeci-
fic differences laid down in the Sciagraphia of
the Mineral Kingdom. For, at the time that
this paper was written, no perfect analyfis of
the afbcftos had as yet been made, and two
only of its principles were known. We would,
however, hope to (latter ourfclvcs, that we have
determined the fpccific difference of the afbcf-
tos among eleven varieties, both as to their a-
grccmcnt in external characters as well as inward
competition*
The afLcfti have been hitherto applied to lit-
tle or no ufc. Formerly, indeed, cloths made
of the foftcil kinds were employed to wrap up the
bodies of the dead, that, by its qualities of refilling
lire, their allies might be prcferved. But on
the abolition of funeral piles, the utility of the
afhcllos ccafed. And as to its being calculated
for garments for the living, the continual and
intolerable irritation of its liarfli and fhort fibres
wuuld render it certainly not very dcfirublc.
Paper
OF THE ASBESTINE EARTH.
Paper made of afbeftos is both brittle and abfor,
bent; and fo little adapted to the purpofe of
writing, that as yet it has never been otherwife
confidercd than as a curious phenomena in
phyfics.
Perpetual mutches, or wicks for lamps not
confumable by fire, may indeed be formed with
the proper kind of albellos ; but they require to
be occationally cleaned, otherwife the oily mat-
ter, that nouriihes the Hume, depolits a carbo-
naceous refiduum on the top of the match, and
accumulates in fuch quantity as finally to ex-
tinguilh it. Beiides, feveral of the varieties
whole fibres are fuiliciently detached, to draw
up the oil or fatty fubilance, run fo clofely to-
getherinthe hottcft part of the dame, us to pre-
vent the necellury fupply.
Various llories are related of ruilles made of
the albedos, by the Chinele, and worn at the
end of their linen llcevcs; that they were finely
wrought, and, when dirty, were readily and
thoroughly cleaned by throwing them into the
lire. But the fpecimen lent to the collection of
minerals in the academy, a few vears lince, doe*
by no means anfwer this. defer! ptiou; For on
examining it, it wns found to be nothing elfe
than a flight open cloth made of tome vegeta-
ble fubilance, and therefore ealily deilrudi-
blc in the fire.
THOUGHTS
THOUGHTS
O N A
NATURAL SYSTEM
O F
FOSSILS.
J\fs arJua, wtiiftu titruitatem dart, uovif auflorilaUm Jubiij
, omniltuvtro naturam tt nelur* fu* cmnia.
PLIMIUS.
PART I.
ARRANGEMENT OF FOSSILS.
NATURAL BODIES IN GENERAL. '
I. Principal Divijion of Natural Bodies.
J\ LL bodies which nature fpontaneoufly pro-
duces upon the furface of the earth may be
properly divided into organifed and unorga-
nifcd,
} n. Organifrd
200* ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
J ii. Qrganiftd Bodies.
THESE are pofiefled of a number of internul
veflels, by which, from the nouriflimcnt they
take in, the particles ncceflury to the increafc,
fupport,and propagation of fuch bodies, are ex-
traded, prepared, conveyed, and diilributed.
in. Claffes of organifcd Bodies.
THESE bodies are diftinguifhed by the epi-
thet living ; and, whether they poflefs fenfibi-
lityor not, they conllitute two immcnfe eludes,
the tinimal and the vegetable, whicli are com-
monly coniidered as two diflincl kingdoms in
nature.
iv. Unbrgatrifed Bodies .
THOSE bodies are termed unorganifed that
arc entirely without any organic (Iruclure, and
feem to be formed by the accumulation of par-
ticles united folely by the external force of at-
traction.
} v. Vuriws
OF FOSSILS. 207
$ V. Various ConJ\Jlenc\s ofunorganifed Bodies.
THESE did or in many refpeds, but we (hall
here take notice of the degrees of dcnjity only,
which has commonly been deiignedby the name
of confidence.
C vi. Solid Bodies.
CONSIDERING thcfc, then, according to this
rule, we fmd fome bodies fofolid, that their par-
ticles are fo firmly united as not to be fcparated
but by a very confidcrable force. Of this kind
are mofl of the foilils.
5 vii. Liquid Bodies.
SOME again are //<////</, whofe component parts
adhere fo loofcly, that they may bo fcpnrated
by the fmaileft impulfe j but being left undiliurb-
cd, they, by the force of gravity, arrange thcm-
felvcs in fuch mutual equilibrium, as to prcfcnt
a furfacc parallel always to the horizon.
4 vni. Fluid
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
vui. Fluid Bodies .
OTHER bodies are reckoned Jluid, whofc par-
ticles arc not only eafily feparuble, but fecm irt
feme degree to repel each other. It is true,
they feek an equilibrium ; but, as they arc not
lefs influenced by clafticity than by gravity,
they oftener appear with the unequal furfaces
we daily fee in clouds and vapours.
ix. The Utility of this Di/linttion.
ALTHOUGH the fame body, as occafion re-
quires, may undergo every variation of con-
iiflence, yet this difHnclion is not the lefs to be
regarded; for peculiar qualities, with a confide-
rable dirfcrcncc in their proportions belong to
each condition. But the plan we have propof-
cd to follow, will not admit of a further explica-
tion of this matter.
x. The continued Series of Natural Bodies.
THE great Leibnitz, by that law to which
he gave the name of continuity, denied formerly
that there could poflibly be any interruption be-
tween
OF FOSSILS. 209
twccn phyfical caufcs and c.Tc.ls; and main-
taincd, with fuch confidence, i's invariable ope-
ration and influence, that he prcdtrled, that
Come time or other a fpecies of animals (as the
zoophyta) would be difcovcrcd, partaking more
or lei's of tlie nature of v eatables. The cele-
brated Trcnibley us, by the diico very of the Poly,
pi, afterwards confnmcd the tru'Ji of this prc-
fage. Daily experience alio convinces us of the
exiftcncc of fuch a connecting chain in the or-
der of natural bodies; ib that, though \vcarc
acquainted with fcvcral links finely, yet it nv.iy
fee in fcarcc p')fliblc to afccrtain thofethat fliould
be immediately united to them.
xi. Tbs Ncccffitf of a Syjlem in Natural
Hijlory.
As natural bodies may in various ways be
rendered ufeful to man, a thorough knowledge
of them becomes highly neceflary; and it will,
indeed, in general be found, that their utility
encreafes in proportion to the extent of that
knowledge. T*heir great number and variety
require fyflematic arrangement; without which
the nccclTary diflinclions could not be made,
and which, in fume cafes, where the difference
is very minute, would be productive of great in-
convenience.
O 5 xii. Criteria
a io ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
xii. Criteria of Natural Bodies.
IN order to di (criminate with fafety and pre-
cifion, even where bodies arc united in the great-
eft affinity, it is an object of the lirft importance
to eftabliih proper criteria.
xin. Conjlant and perpetual Forms cf Organic
Bodies.
IN the cg, or in a fecundated germ, the
little body, the rudiment of the future foetus,
lies wholly concealed, until by proper heat and
nourifltmcnt it is gradually evolved, increafes,
and arrives ut maturity. In all organic bodies,
thc-refoie, the form is predetermined from their
very origin, which the power of their internal and
peculiar ilructure is calculated to dcvelope ; fo
that between thci'e two qualities the relation is
invariable ; and therefore criteria arc not impro-
perly collected from that external figure \\hich
is derived from, and rooted in the cflcntial cha-
racter of the fpccies.
S xiv. Mviftrdus Productions,
AMONG thefe, indeed, we fomerimcs find de-
viations from the general laws of nature, produc-
ing mjnjlcrs ; but fych events which are rare,
* and
OF FOSSILS. in
and arifmg from particular caufes, arc almoft al-
ways unlike each other.
xv.
ALL unorganic bodies, as well folid as liquid,
which arc cither altogether without any orga-
nic (Iruclurc, ordifplay the ruins only of orga-
nization, are denominated./!^!//, or more com-
monly minerals.
5 xvi. The Mineral King dun.
THE tcrmfOjffil, or mineral kingdom, is gene-
rally applied to ail arrangement of fuch fofiils
as arc found in the earth.
xvn. Generation of FoJJils.
IN this third kingdom of nature, the proccfs
of gem-iano!! H carried on in a manner widely
different from that of organised bodies. Here
is no eg;:;, no feed, to chcrilli and fupport tlic
future toUil, confined and retrained wirhiii the
narrowed limits ; no fecundation; no cita-
bliihcd circulation of the nourifliing iluids; nor
any evolution. Molecules uniting, by the folc
O 2 power
au ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
power of attraction, form at once the growtfy
and perfection of foflils,
xvin. Variable and incanjlant Form of Foffik.
FORM, and other external qualities, of which
the fenfes only can determine, depend upon
circumilanccs that are perpetually varying, hut
which do not in the leall a fleet the intrinfic na-
ture of the fofiil.
The poll Lion may poflibly need the illuftra-
tion of an example. Let us take a quantity of
water, charged with aerated calcareous parti-
cles, and we fliall fee arifc various figures, tex-
tures, and cofiefions, according to the different
modes in which the concretion was performed.
By the fubfidcnce only of the atoms a crufl is
generated, parallel to the bottom, if the dillrt-
Lution of them has been made equally through-
out the whole mafs; if otherwifc, the greater
part forms tubercles farther from the furface of
the bottom, than in the fuppofhion of equality.
Water impregnated with aerial acid actb like a
nicnftruum ; and, though it does not at all aifcct
the faturated particles in this hypothecs, yet it
neverthclefs has conilderuble inilucnce in form-
ing their concretions. Such water oozing
through fubtcrrancous vaults, generates calca-
reous drops, hanging from the rcof, wliile
x pointed
OF FOSSILS. 213
pointed cones are produced by the falling fluid
upon the floor, and both increufing in 'length,
meet at lufl, and form one continued column.
If the fame water purfucs its trickling courfe
along the walls, we find them covered with a
Oalagmitic cruft; which according to the diver-
lit/ of the protuberances exhibits a great varie-
ty of figures, that, with the alliitance of a warm
imagination, may be made to rcfemble com-
plete animals, or their fevcral mcmb-jrs, and a
thoufand other forms and appearances. From
this water fullered to remain long at reft, fpata-
ccous cryftals ar" fcparated, that ailuinc va-
rious fliapes; as the granatic, the ichocrlaccous,
hyacinthic, dodecaedric, and thofc pyramidal on
both fides, named fvvines teeth, and many o-
thers.
The internal texture like wife admits of conii-
derable variation. The niofl fubtle particles
unite into a denfc and equal ma is : Tiiofe that
are granulous, and of many angles, form com-
binations more rough and uneven ; fuch as are
produced by chryflailization appear fpataceous;
and others that arc alternately depoiited in lira-
ta, or lamel he, prefent.ii divided ilruclure.
The degrees of cohclion alfo vary according
to circumllanccs. \Vater charged with fine
particles of aerated chalk, and quickly evapora-
ted, leaves a powder icarccly cohering, and
which foils the lingers, like the mineral known
.0 3 by
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
by the name of Agaric. Larger mattes however
of calcareous powder, expofed for many years
to the prciTiirc of a confidcrable weight, acquire
at length fuch a degree of confillence, that di-
flinft lines can be drawn with fmall pieces of
them; indeed this property b found in calca-
reous chalk likcwife. Hitherto the greater de-
gree of liardncfs has been produced by cry-
ftallization, as we find that calcareous cryitals
make no mark whatever, a circumstance ouing
to the firm union of their particles, by which
the friction on a painter's canvaf> has no eilect
upon them, at leail fo as to be viiiblc.
What has been thus briefly dated may be
fuflicient to fatisfy us, that, from the external
qualities of follils, no proper judgement can be
formed of their internal compoiition.
OF THE SEVERAL CRITERIA OF FOSSILS.
x I x. Oryflology.
OKYCTOLOGY, or Mineralogy, are names giv-
en to that fcience, which fo arranges all the
known foilils, that they may be accurately di-
ilinguiflied from each other.
I
[OF FOSSILS.
xx. Various Sterns
As'zoologifts, in their arrangement of animals,
have chofcn diilcrent parts; foinc the feet, o-
thcrs the teeth, the becks, and other parts, ac-
cording to the agreement or difagrecmcnt of
which tlicir dillcrcnt fyllems were cftablifhcd ;
and, as botanifts have diilcred in the principles of
their fciencc, one preferring a leaf, another the
petals, a third the Aamina and pcilillum, while a
fourth maintains the fuperiority of the fruit; c-
ven fo is it with mincralogifts, who have often
purfucd very different paths,intheircndcavourlo
illuftratc and confirm the fame objccT:. Such a
view of natural bodies, taken as it were from
many different points, has however its advanta-
ges, as it incrcafes the number of accurate com-
parifons. But, as every method cannot equally
anfsver the end propofed, it becomes ncccluiry
to felccl that wliich is the mod perfect and con-
venient.
xxi. The bejl Arrangement.
As, in order to undcrftand the nature of ful-
fils, and apply them to purpofes of utility, it is
iK'ceJlary to arrange them in fomc kind of fyile-
matic order, the preference is certainly due to
that method, by which buth their internal cha-
Q 4 radtcr
OM A NATURAL SYSTEM.
racier and compofition may be made equally c-
vident. I llential properties depend on the qua-
lity of the parts th.it enter into compofition,
and their mutual proportion ; and, unlefs we
are well aquanucd with thele parts, we fliall la-
bour to little purpjie, in our attempts to mould
them to our own dciires : Nay, we often meet
with diiappointments, becaufe we have not con-
fidered that our views are inconfiilcnt with the
very nature of the materials fubjecled to experi-
ments.
} xxn. In ivbat manntr the Compofition of FoJJils
may be after taincd.
HAVING fettled thefc points, it remains yet to
be determined in what manner we are to judge
of the compofition of fo(Fils : Whether the con-
nexion between fupcrficial marks,and the intrin-
lic character, is fo intimate and confcqucnt, that
the former cannot be known, without the other
being revealed ? whether it may be nectflary
to proceed . by a chemical analyfis in the dry
\\;iy ? c.r, llic.uld this not be fufficient, aie we to
have lecoiu.e to the -nn^ift way? We will ecu
iidci thcie queilions fcparutely.
x x 1 1 1 . E\tenml Criteria .
IF, tluoiigli the means of criteria colleeled
from
OF FOSSILS. 217
from the external appearance, and obvious to all,
we were able to obtain the object ofourre-
fearch, no method could certainly be more fim-
ple ; tor, with the ailiftance of our fenies only,
we might liiipcnic with the tedious precedes of
experiments : Jiut we have already difcovercd
the fallacy of relying on many of thefe marks,
even the mod principal, as they are liable to be
aiicctcd by various circumilunces of iltuation,
and diveriiiicd \vitliout end, ( xviii.). It may
be proper, therefore, to enter a little more mi-
nutely into the coniideration of this queflion.
xxiv. Uncertain and deceitful Size of FofftJs.
IN no criteria can we poflibly have lefs faith
than in that of magnitude ; and \ve cannot fuifi*
ciently exprefs our aftoiiifhment at the violence
ofiercd to nature, when a larger piece of ftone,
referred to its proper genus, if reduced to a pow-
de, is net only exiled to fome other, but is not
even permitted to remain under the fame clafs.
xxv. And Colour.
Tun vulgar proverb, that cautions us againft
belief in colour, in not inapplicable to ory do-
logy. It is well known, that there arc icvcn
primitive colours; and, in order that a body
appear coloured, it is rccjuiiitc that fonv. parti-
cular
21 SI ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
cular kinds of rays be reflected ; would we en-
quire into the caufe of this phenomenon, we
mud feck it in the quality of the furface, which
is indeed often fu tranlk-nt, that the colour may
be changed, or entirely dedroyed by the heat
of boiling water, or even by the influence of fo-
lar light.
A tranfparcnt colour arifes from tranfmittcd
rays, and feems to indicate a fpecies of attrac-
tion ; while, on the other hand, an opaque co-
lour implies rcpuliion. Both without doubt fug-
ged the idea of tome relation between the light
and the given body ; but which is of fuch fub-
tlety, that though it alone were varied, the cha-
racter of the matter remains altogether unalter-
ed ; at lead the difference is hot obvious to the
fc nil's. We have fccn, that tranfparency de-
pends upon the difpoiition of the particles ; and
this once didurbed, the tranfparency vanilhes,
and with it all the effect produced by tranfinit-
ted rays. Thefe fe\ eral appearances feem to a-
rife from the phlogiitic molecules, \\hich vary ei-
ther as to quantity, magnii ude, or eladicity. Ve-
locity even determines the difference of colours.
5 xxvi. Internal Texture ami Form.
WE have already touched on interim! te\ture
and form in the foregoing divifions, ($ xviii.)
Determinate
OF FOSSILS. 219
Determinate figures bear a refemblance to geo-
metric bodies, and it is not without fomc degree
of probability that they are faid to be derived
from the 'nature of the matter : An opinion that
has long influenced many to believe, that cer-
tain figures were proper and eflemial to diuc-
rent fubflanccs. The folly of this doctrine I
have elfewherc demonstrated at large *. If
therefore regular figures, and thofe bell defined,
arc fallacious, we arc furely not to rely on any
fuperficial characters which arc very often com.
mon to fubilances of the moil oppoiite qualities,
and never uniformly conilant in the fame fpe-
cies.
xxvn. Pbyfical Marks of Eartbs.
NOR. arc we wholly to neglect the ' plyfical
rnarhi which, though they cannot be fully efti-
mated by the external fenfcs alone, yet may be
afccrtaincd by eafy experiments, without the
trouble of dccompofition. Such, in the firit
place, are hardncfs and fpeciiic gravity; to
\vhich, indeed, we may add the relation to the
magnet.
xxvin. Haninefs.
DEGREES of hardncfs may be determined in
various ways, by the nail, the knife, or by ilccl;
and,
* a Eflays, vol. 2.
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
and when they arc more intenfe, by a ferics of
gems, cut exprcfsly for this purpofc. But this
property indicates lefs the matter, and its mix-
ture, than the various exficcutions aritlng from
different circumflances, the fubtlety and cohc-
fion of particles, dcniity, and iuch like. Soft
clay dried gradually, and afterwards expofcd to
an cncreafing lire for ievcral hours, until it i*
brought to a white heat, becomes harder and
harder, and is at length capable, like a Hint of
finking fparks from ilecl. In all this procefs,
however, tlie matter is no otherwife alfeded
than by a contraction of its bulk, which is di
miiiiihcd about one half.
5 xxix. Specif c Gravity.
SPECIFIC gravity is determined by the hydro-
(latic balance, which properly indicates nothing
' elfe than the deiiitty or quantity of matter in a
given volume. A knowledge of this property
is of confidcrable utility, elpecially in the exa-
mination of metals, whether pure, or of known
mixture ; but with refpedl to other fofllls, the
diilcrence is fo very trifiling, that their nature
and compofition can fcarcely ever be this way
-ifcertained.
XXX.
OF FOSSILS.
xxx. Examination ly tbe Magnet.
IRON, unlefs it is dcphlogifticated below a
certain point, is ever obedient to the magnet;
but this mark is particular. Various phenome-
na likcwife authorife a fufpicion tluit many o-
ther iubftanccs arc attracted by it ; therefore no
reliance can be had upon this as a diilinguifhing
character.
xxxi. Real Utility of external and pbjfical
Marks.
ALTHOUGH fuperficial criteria contribute no-
thing to the true knowledge of foffils, and that
the obfcrvation of Juvenal, fronti nutiajidtt,TNHy
bo well applied to them, cvcnthoughthc phy-
fical properties be at the fame time underllood,
(} xxviii. xxx.) yet we arc not altogether to pafs
them over in contempt. By Tuch accurate de-
terminations as the celebrated Werner fo fuc-
cefsfully attempted, they are rendered very pro*
per for diflinguifliing varieties ; and when the
eye is once habituated to them, they often lead
it direclly to diacritic experiments. Perhaps the
compofuion being thoroughly afcertained by a.
nalyfis, an exact comparifon may allift confi-
dcrably in drawing a juft inference.
xxxu,
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
$ xxxii. Nature of Fofflh dlfcwcrabk by tbe Aid
of Cbemijlry.
IN order to difcover the proximate principles
of folliis, it is necellary to have recourie to che-
mical experiments. But \vill not the fimpier
kinds be fuflicient, in which the foffiis, whether
alone, or with the addition oi' proper fluxes, are
niched in the fire and treated in various ways?
This indeed ii the path purfued with indefatiga-
ble zeal by the celebrated Pott, and which no
one iince him has extended uirh more fucctfs
than the renowned Monfieur D'Arcet. Iio\v
far it is connected witli our delign we fliull pie-
fen tly have occalion to obitrve.
J xxxni. Tbfir Cba rafter in tbe Fire.
A Tiioftouci! knowledge of the effects produ-
ced by lire upon ibflllsisof the ^reaitfl importance
in the cultivation ot * many arts. For if we re*
collect that bricks, tiles, crucibles, gluts, a-
mtiufu, earthen and china velleb, cliquation </f
metais, and other works, can neither be carried
on nor completed without the uillilancc ot lire,
we lhall fee that tliis knowledge is equally
necciiary and extcnfivc%
^ XXXI V,
O F F O S S I L S, 123
} xxxiv. U/eqftbeBhw-Pipein Qryttohgy.
NOR c?,n \vc p ift over in filence the great u-
tilityofth'.* blow-pipe in oryclology, by itsfpce-
dv an;l concifc mo.le of operating. With it a
few minutes arc fufficient to examine the nature
ofafoflil, upon a piece of coal, orinafpoonofgold,
and to obfervc all the changes from beginning to
end; which for the in oft part is not poilible in a
crucible; notwithitanding in this way, it re-
quires feveral hours before the rcfult of the pro-
ceis can be known*.
xxxv. Klofl of the Principles of Fofltis are
difcovered by Fire.
IT muft, however, be acknowledged, that,
in many cafes, the principles of foil! Is may be
afcertained by the proper application of lire;
unlefs, by the number or delicacy of fuch prin*
ciples, the cornpofition of the foflll is rendered
too complex and intricate.
xxxvi. But not every Principle.
THERE arc many circumflanccs that will pre-
vent us from confidcring fire as the fupremc ar-
biter of compofition, though fupportcd with all
the
* EHayc, id tol. page 45$.
M4 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
the afllftance of the dry way ; and it may be
fuflkient to enumerate fome of the moft confi-
de rable.
S xxxvn.
fallacious.
FIRE tends to confound all principles toge-
ther, except thofe of metallic bodies which are fe-
parated from their matrices ; it is therefore not
at all calculated to extricate the fcveral ingredi-
ents of compofition.
$ xxxvin. 7be Efficacy of Tire cannot be de-
fned with any certainty.
AN accurate and eafy meafure of the power
of this element is yet wanting. A fcflil refills a
certain degree of heat, that will yield to one
more intenfe ; and there are perhaps a very few
that are deemed altogether rcfru&ory.
xxxix. And it is variable alfo.
IT is not uncommon for the fame degree of
fire to melt fome varieties of the fame fpecies,
while upon others, it feems not to have the
fmallcfl influence. The petrofilices, feltfpat,
and other foflils, afford examples of this kind.
4 XL.
OF FOSSILS.
} XL. Docs not determine the Proportion of the
different Principles.
AND laflly, if fomctimes it is competent to dif-
cover fmglc principles, yet it always conceals
their mutual proportions. This imperfection is
of the greater moment, as it is evident, that the
proportions of the fame materials being varied,
both the appcarencc in the fire, and the other qua-
lities of the foflil, arc often conlidcrably altered,
5 XLI. Merit ofCronfledt.
THE celebrated Cronilcdt, in his excellent fy-
ftcm of follils, has eflablifiicd the fuperiority of
principles, and has therefore conceived the ge-
nuine method ; and if, notwithstanding, he has
occailonally fallen into errors, they muft be at-
tributed to the want of proper experiments.
XLI i. The left Method of examining Foffds in
the Humid IV ay.
THE illuftrious Margraf had no fooncr difco-
vcred the true method of decompofition, the hu-
mid and menflrual, than he endeavoured, by his
own exertions to render it cafy and practicable.
The new road into which he ftruck, was bcfet
with thorns and briars ; but it is certainly the
P only
22* ON A N.VTUIUL SYSTEM
only one that leads to a knowledge of princi-
ples, both as to quality and quantity ; and i here-
to re indifpenfably ncceilary in every enquiry in-
to coin poll tion.
} XLIII. The Difficulty if founding a Svflcm of
Foffih.
IT was the opinion of the celebrated Lehman,
whofc judgement in fuch mutters was unqueili-
onable, that a thoutand years would not be fuf-
ficient for the conftrudiun of a fyftem of tollils,
arranged according to proximate principles, on
account of the immenfe number of various fofiils,
and the daily augmentation it is receiving; the
variety and cxpence of the neceflary expe-
riments, and the want of a more general fpirit
of adventure and induilry rcquiiitc for fuch uii
undertaking.
J XLIV. Internal ami external Cbaraflcrs.
A collodion of thofc properties on which the
leading principles depend, is called the internal
churach'r ; and the chief fupcrficial marks of a-
uy foflil taken together, conflitute the external
character.
OF
O F F O S S I L S. 127
Or THE CLASSES OF FOSSILS.
$ XLV. Enumeration of tbe Claflcs.
AVICEKKA, an Arabian phyfician of the e-
levcnth century, divided foilils into tlie four
dalles, of falts, earths, metals, and phiogiflic
bodies. In this divilion, all fubftances agreeing
either in external or internal character, are pro-
perly enough combined; and, as hitherto no
general arrangement has been propofcd prefe-
rable to this, it is no doubt worthy of being
continued.
$ XL vi. Order.
THE order of the clafies may in a great mca-
lure be treated as a matter of indifference; how-
ever, I think it right to begin with Salts, as be-
ing the only fubilanccs fulublc in water, and
which ought to be thoroughly undcrftood, in
order to developc the nature of the other clafies;
and perhaps, bccaufc they are radically united
with each of them, though the moll confidcra-
blc number of them have as yet in this ilatc c-
fcapcd difcovcry.
Phlogiilic bodies I place the lad in order; for
thcfe by their prevailing principle approach nea-
rer than any of the other cluflcs to organifcd bo-
1' 2 dies,
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
dies, charged with inflammability, and to which
principle foflils perhaps arc indebted for their
exiilence. Earths and metals, according to their
character, hold with propriety a middle (la-
don.
j XL vi i. Di/lingui/hlng Marks of each Clafs.
FOR the prefent it may be fufficient to men-
tion the following criteria of the clafles, which
fhall afterwards be more fully explained.
Salts very finely pulvcrifed, and diflolved in
a thoufand times their weight of water, are more
or lefs fendble to the talle. With rcfpcdl to
diflilled -'water 2 is the common limit of their
fpecific gravity.
Earths have neither taflc norfolubility. They
are however taken up by proper fun pie falts.
Though for the moll part heavier than falts,
they are not reducible to a metallic Aale. When
compared with water, their fpecific gravity
iluduates between 3 and 4;, which it has never
yet exceeded.
Metals arc not foluble in water; have a pecu-
liar fplendour; and furpafs all other known bo-
dies in fpecific gravity. They are at lead fix
times heavier than equal bulks of water, com-
monly much more ; but never exceeding twen-
ty times.
Fhlojjiflic bodies are almoft always lighter
than
OF FOSSILS.
tlian the falts ; but have this peculiar quality of
being combuftible.
$ XLVIII. Tq/le.
TASTE, depending upon the fcnfibility of the
tongue, differs fo much in different pcrfons, that
what will excite powerful fen fat ions in one man
(hall not be at all perceptible to another. It
is evident, therefore, \ve arc to place but little
dependancc on this quality.
XLIX. Solubility in Water*
SOLUBILITY in water, confidercd generally,
is an unlimited property. In order to define it,
it will be necellary to attend to the Aate of divi-
iion of the body to be diflblvcd, and the quan-
tity and temperature of the menflruum cm-
ployed.
Pulverization encrcafts the extent of furface ;
and in proportion as it does fo, the menitruum,
by coming into contact, in a greater number of
points, ads with more eflicacy. For this rcafon
large mailes immerfcd in a menflruum, are
fometimes very little, if at all corroded: When
divided intofmall pieces they oiler Icfs refinance;
and, if pulverised are entirely diflblvcd. It;
happens occafionally, however, that mechani-
cal diviiion docs not anfwer the end eflcduaily,
P 3 and
230 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
and therefore recourfe is had to the more fubtile
powers of chemittry; and the precipitation of a
folution made in a ftrongcrmcnttruum, is taken
fuccefsfully for this purpofe. Fora precipitate
yet moid and recent is fo open and fpongy, that
it far exceeds all mechanical divifion.
In like manner, though a folution cannot
be effected in an equal weight of water; yet, if
that weight is doubled or tripled, or fufllciently
encreafcd, there would be no doubt of produc-
ing it. If water of a moderate temperature a-
vail nothing, tepid or warmer water may fuccecd;
and fliould this degree alfo of heat be ineffectual,
it may yet be raifed to fuch a height in a clofe
veflel, as will generally overcome all refiftence,
and even produce elicits fcarcc to be expected.
Hence, then, I apprehend it is evident, that
the very nature of folubility will not admit of a-
ny certain or determinate criteria, but that it
may be faid rather to proceed in an infinite fe^
ries : For if, on inttituting an experiment, no-
thing is dillblvcd, a fufpicion will always arifc
that if the refitting matter were cither more
minutely divided or immerfcd in a greater quan-
tity of water, or in water of a higher tempera-
ture, it would ncccflarily be diflblvcd. In this
manner, therefore, all certainty is dettroyed, and
every conclufion rendered merely
OF FOSSILS. 231
5 L. Artificial Limits of Solubility.
IF folnbility ever becomes an ufeful criterion,
it muft be by afll^ning to it certain ncccflary ar-
tificial limits. Having duly confidcrcd this idea,
I have pronounced thofe to be-tlie beft, that can
be found moft eafily every where. I have felecfted
therefure for this purpofc mechanical pulveriz-
ation, a weight of water a tlioufand times hea-
vier than the fubilancc to be diflolved, and a
degree of heat equal to boiling, as boundaries
more proper than any others.
5 LI. Great Extent of Solubility.
WE are very far from believing that this li-
mit is to interrupt one link in the great connect-
ing chain of nature. Our ignorance and weak-
nefs have rendered it ncccflary ; and, whatever
fubftances bcjond it a more improved Hate of
fcience may difcover, we fhall refer them to the
clals of earths, though we give them the appel-
lation offulinc, as an indication ol their charac-
ter. As examples of Inch falinc fubilnncqs, we
may take the liliceous earth, which is found ab-
folutely diilolved at Geyfer in Iceland * ; and
the zeohthic, at Laugarnacs in the fame iiland (.
P 4 Vitriolatcd
* EfTayi, vol. jd. p. JJI.
t Ibid. p. 255.
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
Vitriolatcd ponderous earth, commonly called
f pat urn ponderofunii aerated lime *, lluoratcd
lime, impregnated with the acid of the lapis fin-
dcrofus f , are all faline earths, by the force of
compofition, and arc even without douht folu-
ble, though to what extent experience has not
yet determined.
$ LII. Diflingui/bing Marks of Earths.
Tit characters of earths are of the negative
kind. An earth is that fubftance, which is not
ibluble ; not fo heavy us metallic bodies, nor is
capable of combuflio.ii. Criteria fuch as theic
betray our ycry limited and imperfect know-
ledge. Croniledt indeed mentions another
mark, the malleability of earths ; but this ob-
fervaticn may be applied tofalts, phlogiflic Tub-
fiance, and the brittle metals. As to their
form not being changed by a red heat, the fame
can be fuid of the vitriolated vegetable alkali, of
metals that require a much greater degree of
heat for their fufion, and of other foffils. Any
cxpuniion of their bulk is fcarce perceptible to
the eye, though a red !ic::t i'i always lure ro pro-
ducc it, unlcis counteracled by the difllpation of
fume volatile matter, as in c!;iy, aerated Jijiie,
and other fubilanccs.
S
* vvi. ;. p. 26.
j Vol. iii. p. 2:8. *
OF FOSSILS. 233
LI n. Metals.
PERFECT metals arc caiily diflinguifhcd by
their opacjiic (liming furfuccs and fpccific weight.
Their malleability, which Cronllecit cuniidcrs as
their peculiar chant clcr, is no general criterion; for
we reckon ulmoft as many brittle as duclile metals.
5 LIV. Phhgijlic Sub/lances.
A CURTAIN degree of levity, with as much
phlogifton, loofely combined, as will occufion in-
flammation, is ncecilary to the conftitution of all
bodies denominated phlogiilu:. Solubility in oil
is not a diftinguifliing property of this clafs; as
that mcnftruum, though producing no e Heel on
plumbago, yet ach violently on lead, copper,
arfenie, and other metal*.
5 LV. Mixed Ff Jfils.
WIIILI: \\c arc giving our attention to thcdi-
iliiicl arrangement of the ieveial elafles, it will
be ealily feen that we mean to conii'der fuch
foilils only as are in a ilatc of purity; that is to
fay, free from every corruption by combina-
tion with the fubjccls of other chuTes, not ncccf-
fary to their compolidon. Sulphurated metals,
p;r example, belong to two elafles ; and we are
to
234 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
to determine from other data, to which they
ought in preference to be adjudged. In like
manner, aerated and fluorated lime, muriated
filver, and fome others are to be conlidercd.
SLVI. Affinity o
BY the law of continuity, we may obferve a
great aftinity among the feveral dalles of fof-
fils.
LVJI. Affinity of Salts *witb Eartbs and Alf-
tah.
WE have already taken notice of the connex-
ion of falts with earths, and we may add further
to our remarks on this fubjcdt, that burnt lime,
by the intermedium of the matter of heat, ac-
quires a folubility perfectly faline. The fame
thing happens to ponderous earth, but not to
magnefia. In all metals there lurks a certain
acid peculiar to each, the nature of which we
have as yet explored in ai feme only. Thefe
metallic acids diiTer from all others in this re-
fpect, that, when taken with proper proportions
of phlogifton, they become metallic calces; but
iffaturated with that principle they are reduced
to a perfect metallic Hate *, generating at the
fame
* Effays, vol. 3. p. 124. *
OF FOSSILS. 235
fame time fulphur and aeriform fluids *. Mofl
phlogiftic bodies likcwifc, perhaps indeed all,
contain an acid united in their very conftitu-
tion.
LVIII. Slffuiity of Earths with Mctah.
EARTHS rcfemble tlic calces of metals in ma-
ny of tiieir properties ; but in rcfpecr, to fpccific
gravity, the faculty of colouring glafs, and their
reduction to the metallic Hate, they arc cflciuial-
ly dill ere nt.
5 LIX. Sulphureous Character of Mctah.
METALS in their perfcdl ftatc arc cither me-
tallic acids faturatcd with phlogiflon, or a fpc-
cies of metallic fulphur, which arc fometimcs
very evidently fufccptiblc of inflammation, as
7.inc and arfcnic. Gold and copper, when in
fufion, afford fomc appearance of flame, though
faint,inagrccnifli vapour; bright fparks are emit-
ted from iron in a white heat ; and tin alib may
bc inflamed by a proper manner of operating.
S J<x. Stones,
IN the claflcs already enumerated, all fofllls
?:-n by no means included. Such as arc compo-
fcd
Vol. ii. p. 352.
230 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
fed of heterogeneous fubftances, mechanically
mixed, and united in aviltble manner, and which,
for the mod part, conltirute the entire fummits
of mountains, are comprehended under one
name of Petite or Saxn. Cronlledt has, with
great propriety, treated theft fcparately in an
appendix. The knowledge of thefe fubftances
is doubtlcfs highly neceliary, and tends much
to the illustration of phyiical geography ; but
they are not therefore to bo confounded with
bodies more homogeneous, whole combination
veiling on chemical principle*, is dlcclcd in the
way of folution.
LXI. Organic FoJJlls.
ORGANIC foflils are conlidered by Cronftedt
in another appendix. Thcfe fubltances are to
be treated as tlrangers from the animal or vege-
table kingdom. '1 hey arc diftinguiflied by an
organic llructure, more or It-is imperfect; of
which, as long as they bear any marks, we arc
to reckon them as follils of a foreign fpccks.
The confideration of them is however in various
points of view, highly ufeful. They refemblc u
fcrics of ancient coins in the teilimony they
bear to the convuliions and revolutions of our
globe, on which hillorical monuments are whol-
ly iilent. From them we may learn the wide
extended fovercignty of the fea ; the changes
that
OF FOSSILS. 237
that fucceffivc ages have wrought upon the fur-
lace of the earth ; and they difclofc to us what
animals inhabit the deep abyfles of the ocean,
and many other circumllances moft worthy the
attention and enquiry of philofophy.
5 LXII. I'olcumc Productions.
THOSE burnt Jubilances thrown out from the
mouths of volcunos, by a greater or icfs degree
of fubtcrrnncous fire, Croniledt has thought fit
to arrange in a third appendix. A general view
of them no doubt would be ufeful ; but there,
arc not wanting many rcaions why, in my opi-
nion, volcanic productions will not admit of a
feparate clarification. We know there arc ma-
ny who lircmioufly fupport the hypothcii*, that
the whole foflii kingdom owes its origin to fire ;
ibrfuch as thcfe, therefore, any diihnclion will
be unncccflury. We have learned ali'o, that
marks burned by lire into foilils are gradually
obliterated by the injuries of time; becoming
fir (I obfcure, thru equivocal, and at, length be-
ing wluilly dcllroycd. Whatever limits, there-
fore may be drawn, they are in their very na-
ture trunfient and perilhablc. Jt is, and mull
be often exceeding difficult to determine whe-
ther fofllh have derived their exiilcnce from fo-
lution, or from the cilecb of fire. According-
ly, to me it feems propvr, to Infcrt homogcncou -
volcani<:
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
volcanic productions into clafles agreeable to
their principles ; and that all thofe heterogene-
ous fubitances, whole combination is viiibly me-
chanical, mould be the fubjecl of ths iiril ap-
pendix.
Or GENERA.
LXIII. Arrangement of Genera.
BY the afliflance of clafles, all thofe foflils arc
connected, whole compofition, charader, and
properties are perfectly limilar. Genera require
a nearer affinity ; fpecies a refemblance flill clo-
fcr ; and varieties mall correfpond in their inter-
nal habitudes only.
Foflils entirely homogeneous are of very rare
occurrence; as, for the molt part, two, three,
or more principles, enter into their compofition.
The more innple their competition, it follows,
they will be the ealier reduced to their natural
genera.
,Let A and B be the proximate principles of
any foflil, let A be heavier than B, the com-
pound A B, will be then referred to the genus
of A ; but this admits of various exceptions.
Suppofe B pofleiled of a generic difference,
and that it is no where found in a fmgle ilate,
(for we do not here fpeak of artificial feparati-
* on,)
OF FOSSILS.
on), but al \vays united to A, or fome other mat-
ter, and ever inferior in weight in fuch combi-
nations. According to the rule propofed above,
the genus B fliould difappcar entirely, and be
altogether wanting in the genera of* its own
clafs, which is by no means confident with a
, natural lyiU-m.
Again, let us fuppofc B excels A in the in-
teniity of its properties, fo that B is only equal
A
in weight to , yet notwithftanding the quali-
N
tics of B arc clearly predominant in the compo-
iition A B, tliat is, arc much more confpicuous
than thole of the lefs ingredient A. Here again,
unlcfs I am deceived, we are to admit another
exception.
If the cafes propofed under B and C obtain at
the fame time, the exception receives a double
confirmation.
Sometimes it feems ncccffary to give a prefe-
rence to the price of particular fubflanccs. Sup-'
pofc ABC an ore, whofc metal C, though of
lefs weight than any other part of the mixture,
yet in value furpafles both B and A, fo that they
arc entirely negledcd, and C only thought wor-
thy the expence of mctallurgic operations. In
this cafe A B C is in fad the ore of C ; but if
the proportion of quantity were regarded, it
fhould belong to the genus of A, and with great
propriety, if a natural fyftcm only is required.
We
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
We nre not here to have any rcfpeft to fictitious
valuation. Rut as the arrangement of foflils is
made with a view that our knowledge of them
may be eventually ufeful and advantageous, it
may iecm to militate again/I this defign, if we
were to feck among the bafer kind for all thole
noble minerals, whofc intrimic value can defray
the labour and coll of chquation,
The feveral cufcs propofed ought not to be
coniklcred as imaginary, as they each of them
occafionally occur, and will be rendered more
clear and intelligible by application in the fol-
lowing fedlions.
5 LXIV. Genera of Salts.
INT falts, we difcoyer two genera, by no means
ambiguous ; the acid, and the alkali. Chemif-
try has not yet been able to cxtnicl their proxi-
mate principles; but, that they are different
from, and oppofite to each other, there is not
the leaf I room to doubt.
LXV. slcids.
AN acid is eafily difcoverable by the tafle, by
its property of changing to red the blue vege-
table colours, and of cffervefcing with aerated
alkalis.
OF FOSSILS. 241
5 LXVI. A i 'kalis.
ALKALIS arc diftinguifhed by a burning tafte,
by their convcrfion of blue vegetable colours to a
green, and by their powerful attraction for acids.
$ L x v 1 1 . Salts not faturated.
UNSATU RATED combinations of acids and al-
kalis, enter the genus of the prevailing fub-
flancc, unlefs any one ihould cluife to refer
them rather to the i in period neutral falts ;
which might be done not altogether without
rcafon, as the moil of them betray an excels of
either the one or the other ingredient.
LXVI u. Whether neutral Salts arc to be refer"
red to a dijlincl Genus.
IT may be qucflioncd whether an acid cxacr-
iy faturuted with an alkali iliould conftitutc a dt-
ilincl and fcparatc genus? Or ought rather fuch
a combination to be ranked under the acid, or
the alkaline falls? If there is evidently an ex-
cefsof cither of thcfc principles, as in * 75, then,
without doubt t it may be properly ailigned to
the genus of the exceeding principle ; but, in
all perfect neutral falts, the properties of acid
and alkali arc blended lo intimately by fa tu ra-
tion, that all diiliaclion between them fcems en-
Q^ tircly
243 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
tircly to have difappcared. In this Hate of e-
quilibrium, then, it becomes a matter of indiffe-
rence whether the preference be given to the
acid or the alkali. To the latter however I
ihould rather incline, as the moll convenient ;
but I would not violently oppofe any one who
might think proper to refer them to the acid, or to
a diftincl genus. Quantity may in this cafe, in
fame mcafure, aflifl our determination; but not
without irregularity : For, as the pure fixed al-
kali is Saturated with a weight of acid lefs than its
own; fo, on the oilier hand, the volatile alkali
requires the acid to be heavier than itlelf.
5 LXIX. Kttxcd Neutral Sahr*
IT may happen, that the fame acid is partly
faturated with one alkali, partly with another;
and yet nevcrthcleft, thele three arc foilrongly
united by crytlulli/.arion, as to conilitute but
one peculiar fait. The fult of Seignette afFordsan
inilance of this fpccics of compolition ; the
cream pf tartar like wife faturated with volatile
alkali. That the fume alkali may be combined
with two acids, the union of cream of tartar
with the acid of borax fullicicntly dcmonflrates.
In the foflll kingdom, indeed, we find none of
thefe triple fults ; but they inform us what may
be done towards eflublilhing a general arrange-
icut. The fait of Scignette, with the arid cf
buro:
OF FOSSILS. >43
borax, produces a quadruple fait ; and it is not
unlikely, but that the induitry of future ages will
difcover combinations of five principles, and per-
haps of Hill more; the difpofttion and order of
which may be determined by the character and
quantity of the feveral ingredients.
5 LXX. slnahgout Salts.
FOSSILS of the fee on d and third clafs become
true falinc fubftances, by combination with any
fait; and inthiscomlitbnthey are baniihcd from
their original claifes. Salts, fuch as thcfe, are
called, an.ilogous ; and according to the charac-
ter of their bafcs, arc of two kinds, cither earthly
or metallic. Whatever imparts the faline na-
ture ought to determine the genus.
LXXI. Other Combinations of Salts.
ALL earths almoft as well as metals arc not
only taken up by acids, but feveral fulfils befides,
of both claflcs are cliifolvrd by -alkaline falts,
and fomc even by neutral .falts ; nay, it happens
occafionally, that t\vo double falts will unite in-
to one, and form a fait of four principles. From
fuch multiplied and various combinations pro-
coed, alkalis and acid* charged with earths and
metals; double neutral falls, or falls of more
principles, containing earths and metals; double
earthy falls' united with double metallic fairs,
2 which
2 44 , ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
which, according as. the faline mutter is either
the fame or dillbrcnt in each, generate triple or
quadruple compounds.
LXXII. Doubtful Genera of Salts.
IN tlie clafs of falts it often happens, that
iome principles are never found in a lingle and
independent llate, hut united always with others.
Such are, for example, the nitrous, the muria-
tic, and arfenical acid, it may be doubted,
therefore, whether thefe fubilances are to be
COiiiiderctl under their iimpic genera. As, how-
ever, it does not feeiii improbable, that they
were once free and uncombined, we are hardly
authorized to exclude them ; though it may be t
at the fume time, obfcrvcd, that they have ne-
ver yet been found otherwiic than inthis itate of
combination. At all events, the iaveiligation
of iiinple Jubilance* \\ili throw light, upon the
fcveral compoJhion:;,
LXXII i. Genera of Earths.
SOME genera of earths have hitherto refilled
all attempt* to reduce them into limpler princi-
ples; while other*, by a proper analyiis, have
difcovcrcd two or more. The former arc called
primitive, the latter, dtrivati vc earths.
*
JLXXIV.
O F F S S I L S.
S LXXIV. Primitive Earths..
CRONSTEDT has eftablifhed nine primitive
earths, but accurate experiments have lincc
flicwn that the greater number of them were
compounded, fo that the account is reduced to
three only; the calcareous, iiliccous, and argilla-
ceous. We have however to add new earths, with
which he was not acquainted, the terra pon.dc-
rofa and ma^ncfia. We reckon therefore live
primitive earths.
LXXV. Of the common Origin of Earths.
ALTHOUGH the powers of chcmiflry have not
yet been able to decompofe thefe five earths,
the reduction of them all to one fpecies, or,
at lead, to a fmallcr number than the prefent,
may pofTibly be the reward of future induftry.
I acknowledge myfcjf of this opinion, and I
think with fonic foundation. Clay, for exam-
ple, is nothing elfe than calcareous earth, fo
Ariclly combined with fomc unknown acid, that
the fcpuration of them has hitherto been attempt-
ed in vain. No one certainly could have fuf-
peclcdthe calcareous bafe in the lapis pwhlerofus,
which has been dtmonil rated by amilytis. In
like manner, other fubftanccsmay be invcfiigat-
ed. But until proper experiments ihall have ful-
ly developed the nature of fuch compolitions,
24<5 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
they nui ft be, in reflect to our knowledge of
them, coniideicd r.s primitive fubilaiices : 1'uri.'.
is wholly inconlhli-nt v.ith the cauti-n ;iul dif-
tide-net; of natural philosophy to ad\ -.mce any
pofition npcn a bare pollibility. Daily experi-
ence fulliciontly trachcs, that thole thiricr,
v. hit!) ;:t (.nc time appc.ir highly jjrt-bablc, 111:17
at another be tillcuvcrcd to be entirely unfounded.
LX.\VI. ]\t'i'J-J/lJ *./' V /'>(' Yt'l'l'il Vt.llJtT'f.l
^fr-/'f t'j be f'ij\ t t't'il t<; ii dijLr.cl (Jt ;/:;/.
Tin: ponderous curlli, on a* count of it -, j r rcat
fpeciile ;.^ra\iiy, ii defcrvingot' partieuiar uiren-
(ion, and h-;u! , u^ narurally to ap]>ahend it to
be ci incr::l;:c on;',in. Other ;:i !',unK-?its allo
f'.!T>port tlii, h\ iM^rl.ili-,. It i, admitted, with
tb'j f-.-rce ('[ an axiom, tluit p!i!'.)i;:iH(.uied alka-
li precipitates ir:cta!!ic fo!i.ti'.)n> only : Hut Jt
this alkali is dropped into a {uluti -n <: acctatcd
j;';ndercus eaith, it i> immc\liatc! v ihilurbed,
and a \\hite n^wdcr is prct'ipita r '.*d ; T\ iith, on
f'\;tminat.i':n. i r : f'.:V!::d to mniiil ( .f tlr.it earth
viJiiohiT'jd, fi"!!! t!ie vitriolic Jici.l ir.I'.erei'.r in
l!:r rriiflltin biue. If the pf.v.der i'. !lr:ir:;tid by
ir.car'.s cf a nbro, ;./.v! u ir.:\v pf.-iti.-:! ofacetntcd
^-ind-.-nni-J <^r;fi added to t!:c liquid, (-TI c\pi*!i:u;
r to i!i'- f.v } t!:;; i'.lution, t!'or;-]j c kar bef )i'f f
d'-pofjts ar.fytlier ^ hite .-v. der, roiira:?::!:;.'; th"
pni-.d,, r.-iir, earth "nitcd with the p!',!o;;iiVie ,:!k:- -
Ji. '.!'}:c rri'iJ 1 ;s the f.Di:^ if thi- iv'iulcroj,
; . t
OF FOSSILS. 147
earth, faturatcd with the nirrous acid is treated
in a fimilar manner: Therefore it fccms rather
to refcmble a metallic ealx than an earth, by
thcfc properties.
Among tiie metallic calces, that which arifes
from load corrcfponds with the ponderous earth
in its weight, its white colour, and peculiar at-
traction for the vitriolic acid, by which that a-
cid is torn away from alkaline falts ; but there
is notwithilnnding a remarkable difference be-
tween them. Acctatcd lead is diihirbed wholly
in the cold by phlogiflicatcd alkali, anddepofits
a fediment, which neither is folublc in water, nor
in the vitriolic ncid ; but theacctatcd ponderous
earth yields its genuine precipitate by heat on-
Jy, and which is folublc both in the vitriolic a-
cid and in boiling water. Bcfidcs, this earth
has hitlierto refilled all efforts to reduce it to
a mefallic (late.
Therefore, although there may appear a con-
fidcrable affinity between the ponderous earth
and a metallic calx ; yet, as long as it is incapa-
ble of reduction, its metallic nature is certainly
nut fullicicntly demon (Ira ted, and it mull ilill
retain a place among tlic earths.
LXXVII. Five Genera JJwnhl be eonjlituted of
the five primitive Earths.
As we have enumerated already five primi-
tive earths, they naturally become the heads of
< five
a 4 3 ON A NATUHAL SYSTEM
five diflinft genera. It is very rare, if ever, that
they are found in n fimple ftate, being either
combined with one or more of the other earths.
The moil ealy method, therefore, would be to de-
termine the genus of every fuch compofition,
according to the heaviell principle ; but the
cafes before ieparately ilated, in 5 Ixuii are often
objections to this plan.
LXXVIII. Exceptions.
WERE this rule once admitted, we fliculd lofe
altogether the magnellan and argillaceous ge-
nera ; fur, in the compolhious hitherto examin-
ed, into which thofc earths enter, the filiccous
lias been always found to outweigh the others,
although, from their character and properties,
they hud both the fupcriority. Common clay
contains above half its weight of iilicccus earth,
ibmetimes above three fourths, and yet the ar-
gillaceous qualities arc fo dirtincl, that thele com-
petitions are unanimously denominated argilla-
ceous. The fume richnefsund pre-eminence of
quality, with rcfpccl to the filiccous earth, are
found in magnciia, and oilier fubflances.
All earthy competitions, tlierefore, may be
determined by the genus cf tliat ingredient,
which exceeds the others in weight, unlcfs ir be
flliceous, and not equal to fevcn-eights ot the
whole. In fuch cafes, the genus ought to be
afcertained
OF FOSSILS. 249
nfccrtaincd by whatever ingredient aproaches
ncarcft in weight to the fuiecous.
5 LXXIX. Compounded Earths arc not united me-
chanically only.
Bt;r perhaps, all earthy compofitions are no-
thing elie than many fubtlc mechanical mix-
tures ? At the very firll view indeed there fecms
Ibine foundation for fuch an opinion; but a
more minute invcfligation furniihcs evidence of
a cloicr union conilrudcd on ether principles.
The earth of alum immcrfed in lime-water,
and entering into fo livid a combination with
the lime as not to be feparablebut by chemical
art, teaches us, that among primitive earths mu-
tual attraction has a real exillcnce. Betides, as
almoft all thcie mixtutcs generally form cry-
ftaline concretions, we have another proof, not
only of the minutencfs of their particles, but of
an union perfectly homogeneous.
} LXXX. Genera cf Metals.
IK the third clafs we arc to conftitutc as many
genera, as we have known diilind metals.
LXXX i. Encreafed within a few Tears.
AT the beginning of the prcfcnt century,
eleven
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
eleven metals only wereknown ; butithadfcarcc
grown forty years older, before the diicovcry
\vas made of platinu, a noble and 'ductile metal,
find of three or four others, that were not mal-
lenble, as cobalt, r.iccolum, magnefium, and fi-
clerum, which lad has hitherto appeared to dif-
fcr from all the red *. The fifth in molybde-
jw is not yet diffidently explored, to determine
whether it fliould be reckoned among thofe al-
ready known, or conllitute a new fpcues ; and
to the fixth, in the acid of the lapis pondcrofus,
we may apply the fame obfcrvation. Of thcfe
two, however, we are in hopes the c ha racier of
the full will be Loon dilplajed by the indullry
of Mr IJiclm. The genera of rnctuU, therefore,
of which we can be certain, amount to iixtcen,
or fifteen at lead ; and it is not unlikely that
this number will be increufed by future diicove-
ries.
LXXXII. Arrangement of mixed Metals.
IN feet ion Ixiii. we have a queilion refpeding
the genera of minerals containing two metals,
the one of which is more valuable than the o-
ther, but in lefs quantity. Examples of fuch
minerals we find in the golden pyrites, which
hold
* Meyer am! Khprotliius have proved it to be iron joined
to the phofphoric acid ; and our author, convincccfby their
arguments, changed lu opinion*
OF FOSSILS. 251
hold a fniall proportion of gold united with a
large proportion of iron ; among the galena?,
that arc far richer in lead than in filvcr; among
the copper pyrites, always producing more iron
than copper; and fo on of many others. Ac-
cording to fyftcmatic 'rules, the more valuable
and (career metal, although it defray the ex-
pence of cliqtmtion, mould yet be referred to
the genus of the more abundant, though of lefs
eftimation. But if the ufe and aim of any fyftcm
is confidercd, there can be no doubt that the
preference mould be niligncd to the metal of
the llighcft value. In fomc degree, however,
the determination of this point may be a mat-
ter of indifference, provided no dilVmcl genus
is thereby dcftroyed ; a circumilancc that would
probably aficcl the fiderite, in cafe it were de-
cided in favour of fuperiority in weight, as that
metal has never yet been found fcpnratc from
iron ores, to which it always bears the fmallcft
proportion.
L x x x 1 1 1 . Genera of Pbkgifllc Bodies.
THE fourth clafs contains the fcwcft genera,
fulphur, petroleum, amber, and perhaps dia-
mond.
$ LXXXIV.
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM.
LXXXIV. Sulphur.
SULPHUR is an inftance of the mod fimple
compofition, confiding of two principles only,
acid faturated with phlogifton.
LXXXV. Petroleum.
IN petroleum we difcover an union more com*
plex ; a final! portion of water combined, by
means of an acid, with the principle of inflam-
inability.
LXXXVJ. drnber.
THE origin of amber is evidently from the ve-
getable kingdom, for, befidcs its peculiar acid
and oil, we obtain tjie acetous acid by diftilla-
tion. The earthy refiduum may be coniideied
as a matrix.
Lxxxvji. Diamond.
WITH regard to the diamond, 1 have hitherto
found no place fo proper for it as this clafs.
In a fufficient degree of lire, it is entirely con-
fumed, and with an appearance of cloud or
rlame; and, in the focus of a burning lens it
difcovcrs iigns of a footy matter.
LXXXVJ 1 1.
O F F O S S I L S. 153
5 LXXXVIII. Pyrites and Molybdena do not con-*
Jlit ute peculiar Genera*
I HAVE referred pyrites, or fulphuratcd iron to
the genus of iron. In like manner, molybdena,
\\hi-.h is nothing elfe than a metallic calx mi-
ncrali/cd by fulphur, provided its genus were
known, ought to be aflribcd to the clais of me-
tals. /\s to the foflil confidcrcd by Cronftedt as
fixed plilogidon, and which he calls brandertz t
its compntition lias not as yet been fufliciently
invciligated.
LXXXIX. Properly f pea king, there is but one Ge-
nus ofpbhgijlic Subjlances.
IN the flridncls of language, all the genera
of this clafs might be reduced to one, as the
fame principle of inflammability prevails in each
of them.
xc. Firjl Appendix.
iNthefirft appendix to the clafies, arc treated
thole foiftls of various and mechanical combina-
tion, and which for the mod part is obvious to
the fight.
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
5 xci. Four Genera ofFofft/s mixed mechanically.
ANSWERING this clcfcripiion, we have four
genera only, which arc denominated according
to the clafs of the molt predominant ingredient
in their compoiitiun.
} xcn. Flrjl Genus.
THE firft genus in which the fulinc charac-
tcr prevails occurs fometinies in the neighbour-
hood of volcanoes. In gyp I inn alto other foflils
intimately mixed arc occafiorially found. The
fubflunces likcwifc contained in natural waters
may perhaps be referred to this genus. They
are indeed held by water in folutioii, but their
union is generally merely mechanical, of which
the fixed principles arc collected in the reildua,
after .the evaporation of the liquor.
} x c n I . Second Genus.
To the fecond genus we uflign allthofe foflils
in which the earthy principle abounds. Such
are thofe placed by Cronfledt in his full appen-
dix under the name of J}t\a. Under this ge-
nus may be arranged fcveral matrices of metals
as well as of inflammable Jubilances; for lithan-
* . thrax,
OF FOSSILS.
shrax *, aluminous fchiftus, aluminous ore of
La Tolfa, and many others, contain fome extra-
neous earthy matter, and in confiderable quan-
tity.
xciv. Third Genus.
IN the third genus, the metallic nature is pre-
dominant. It has been long obfcrved, that
ibmc metals ailed a difpofhion to aflociate with
each other; ib that if one is discovered, it may
be properly conjectured that the other is not ve-
ry tar diilant. Relations fuch as thefe, as arc ob-
vious in this genus, arc worthy attention and
enquiry, as they prciniJc no Imall advantage to
the inhabitants of mountainous countries.
xcv. Fourth Genus.
IN the fourth genus we meet with variou3
mixtures of fofllls, of which this ruling principle
belongs to the lail clafs.
V
$ xcvi. DlJllnCl and mixed Particles of FcJJih.
To this appendix likewife, the diftinft and
mixed particles of foil i Is may conveniently be
referred, inferting them under their proper ge-
nera, according to circuiullances. Such, for
example
Pit coal.
256 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
example are the marlcs, moft of the common
clays, mixed funds, and feveral other*.
} xcvn. Four Genera of organic Fqffils.
LASTLY, Organic foflils nre divided into four
genera, as the diverfity of their nature fuggefts,
whether they are found impregnated with and
compofed of lalts, earth, metals, or phlogiilon.
xcvin. Fifth Genus of Cr on/led t.
CRONSTEDT adds a fifth genus, and perhaps
with great propriety, in which are included all
the dead remains of once living fubftanccs,
which, .by gradual putrefaction, have loll their
original (truchnr, though they Hill retain fuch
flrong marks of it as are not obliterated entirely
but by the lapfe of many years. To this genus
belongs the earth of dctlroyed animals or vege-
tables.
J xcix. Organic Bodies mineralized by Salts.
THIS operation mud vary according to the na-
ture of the fublhince. Bodies immerfed in a fait
folurion are fometimes penetrated by it, and in-
durated. In this manner the entire bodies of
men, that had fallen by accident into the vari-
olated water of the mine ofFahlun were found
OF FOSSILS* 257
after fcveral years, fo little changed to the eye,-
that the -individual could be remembered by (
his countenance : In other rcfpecls however thejr
were rigid like a ftatue, formed of falinc mat-
ter. When expofed to the free air they began
to crack. By a fimilar procefs, no doubt, even.
lofter fubftances may be fo hardened, as to pre-
ferve their ilruclure a long time, exempt from
putrcfadioii.
$ c. Bodies impregnated with Bitumen.
IN like manner organic bodies, impregnated
with bituminous matter arc enabled to prefcrvci
thcmfelvcs from decay, and retain their figure
and flruclurc*
$ ci. Petrifaction of organic Bodies.
NEITHER the bodies of animals nor of vegeta^
tales can be wholly penetrated by fiony particles*
The harder parts only, as the bones, fliclls, ex- .
tcrnal covering, roots, woods, fruit, and fimilar
fubflances, are liable to this change; which, if I
miftakc not, proceeds in' the following manner: j
At firft, the parts of foftcfl texture putrefy, and ,
leaving feverul empty fpaces, through which
water loaded \\ith earthy particles paiTes, and ,
in its courfe depofuing them, the vacuities are
nt length filled by their gradual accumulation.
Then follows the deft rucl ion of the more iirm
confidence, to be penetrated in the fame order.
R -If
258 ON A NATUR \L SYSTEM
If the later dcpofitions diflcr in their colour and
properties from thofe of an earlier date, yet the.
original organic llruclure is beautifully difplayed
by fmooth and polilhed fcdlions of the diifercnt
bodies. All the particles, however, of the bo-
dies fo dellroyed are not always carried off; for
it often happens in dill illation, that fuch are ex-
pelled as fhcw iigns of an organic con A rail ion,
J en. Organic Bodies penetrated with metairu
Panicles.
TJIE moft fubtle'mctallic molecules, that can
poffibly be canicd along by water, may in the
fame manner penetrate and change the harder
organic parts.
cm. Nuclei.
FROM the fubilances already defcribed, nu-
clei have, with great propriety, been confider-
ed as quite dillinct. They are produced by two
diiferent proceilcs. Any body pollening a ihell
or firmer covering, and depoiitcd in a loft ftra-
tum, is gradually attacked in its llefhy parts
and foft inteilincs, \\ hich are either wholly de-
llroyed, or contracted by exficcation ; fo that
room being made in this manner tor the parti-
cles flowing in, the (hell is at length filled with
a nucleus, bearing the marks of its internal fur-
iacc. If a body is involved in iediment, and
after the exliccation of the (Iratum is any way
dellroyed
OF FOSSILS.
3eAroycd or carried off, a nucleus will be form-
ed in the cavity, dcfcribing its external fca-
:ures.
$ civ. Remaining ItnprrJ/ions of organic Bodies.
IN any foft fubflancc, imprefllons are left by
rockles, fnails, infects, fiflics, and other fmall a-
limals of the firmer kind, cither of their extcr-
lal furfacc, their bones, or Ikelctons.
cv. OJIcocolla*
Ix particular foils, living roots arc by degrees
:overed with ib hard a cntll, as to prevent the
ibforption of the necellary juices. \Vlien a ve-
getable attracls nioillurc every \vhcrc in the
icighhourliood of its root, the fubtile, calcarc-
>us, argillaceous, filiceous, and even oclircous
nolecules, that accompany ir, produce this ef-
cd. The fluid in which they were borne being
iblbrbcd by the rocts, they fix thcmfelvcs on
.he furfacc, and there forming a covering impcr-
,'ious to water, tiie roots decay, putrefy, and
cave this crufl, which is commonly culled oflco*
cvi. Incrjijlated organic Bodies.
WATERS loaded with earthy particles fre-
quently cover with a cruft, reeds, fmall bran-
R ^ ches,
itfti ON A N ATUIUL SYSTEM
dies, and other fubRances immerfed in theuv
without any alteration of their original form.
Or THE DIFFERENT SPECIES.
} cvn. Specific Characters of Salts.
SPECIFIC characters :irc to be determined by
the difference in the nature of thole 11 m pic falts,
which art has not been able to compofc from
their principles. Of thefe, t\vo dillincl genera
only are known ; the acid and the alkali alrea-
dy mentioned.
cvni. Species of'Aclth.
THE genus of acids is very extenflve. The
vitriolic, nitrous, and muriatic, have been ex-
tracted from foinis.for many ages pad ; but the
difcovery of others diilering evidently from thefe
has been made within a much later period. The.
acidoftiuor, borax, arfenic, ilderitc, molybdc**
na, and lapis ponderofus, are of this defcrip-
tion *.
cix. Vegetable Acids.
WE have the profpeft as yet of a more cxten-
five field in the acids of the vegetable kingdom.
Befides,
41 For metallic aci&> fee EfTuys, t. ill. x
OF FOSSILS.
Be fi tics the acetous, which was the onl} r one
formerly known, it has produced to us already
the acids of fugar, forrcl, tartar, benzoin, citron,
amber, and feveral others.
{ex. Animal Acids.
THE animal kingdom is the poorcft of the
three; for except the acid of ants, and of fat,
we know of none other proper to it, although,
without doubt, it contains many highly deferr-
ing of notice. As for example, the acid which
the larva phakenac vinuhc of Linnaeus throws
out in its defence, clear as water, and colour-
lefs, which rcfcmblcs the concentrated acetous
acid in fmell and tafle, coagulates blood, and
thickens fpirit of wine ; reddens blue paper for
a fhort time; but the original colour returning
afterwards, affords proof of its great volatility *.
The fcarcity of this very fmgulur lujiior has per-
haps delayed fo long its farther invciiigation.
5 cxi. Adds common to fercral Kingdoms of
Nature.
OTHER acids arc common to all the kingdoms
of nature, as the phofliboric, which had been
falfcly amVncvl to the animal kingdom alone ;
but which has been found, though rarely, in the
foflil f , and in great plenty in the vegetable
R 3 kingdom.
* Ocuvrcs do M. Bonnet, v. iii. 8vo, p. 28.
f ElTayS| vol. ii page 4:6.
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
kingdom. Under this head we may arrange
the aerial ucid.
cxi I. Great Number of Acids.
IF we confidcr, that probably the exiftcnce
pf all metals depend upon their peculiar radical
acids ; that vegetable* evidently contain a num-
ber oi* unknown acids ; and that, perhaps, the
fume may be laid of anin.als alfo; we have rea-
fon to wonder at the abundance and variety of
this fubltanee, and to let a high value on its u-
tility and importance in the a-conomy of na-
ture.
5 c x u \ . Species of dlku line Sa Its.
THE extent of the other genus is confined
within very narrow limits, i'or a long time
three fpecies only of alkaline falls were known;
two of which could bear a flight ignition, and
were therefore denominated fixed ; while the
Other was diilinguiihcd by its volatility.
5 ex iv. Fixed sllkalies.
Or the fixed alkalies the one feems to prevail
in the vegetable, and the other in the mineral
kingdom; from which they. both derive their
names.
cxv.
OF FOSSILS.
cxv. Neutral Salts.
SALTS formed by the cxatl faturation of acids
wkh alkalies amount to iixty double fpccics, on
the fuppofition that the acids do not exceed
twenty in number. A confulcrablc part, how-
ever, of the combinations of thcfc are as yet un-
known, or at lead but impcrfedly examined.
ex vi. Lnperfccl double Salts.
MANY imperfect double falts have been dif-
covered. The acids of vitriol, arfenic, tartar,
and for re 1 unite in cxcefs with the vegetable al-
kali ; and the acids of vitriol and tartar with the
mineral alkali. The labours of poilcrity will
probably add a greater number. Borax retains
an excefs of alkali ; and the arfenicatcd miner-
al alkali like wife r capable of a Ilmilar combin-
ation.
ex vi i. Triple Salts.
THE fult of Seigncttc, and tartar faturatcd
with volatile alkali, furnifli examples of the neu-
tral triple faits.
K4 Jcxvnr.
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
cxvin. Impcrfefl Triple Salts.
AMONG the triple imperfeft falts, we know oi'
the union of tartar with the acid of borax.
Here is an excefs of uciJ.
cxix, Qwclruple Salts.
TARTAR and borax combined, are an in-
fiance of the quadruple falts.
5 cxx. Species of analogical Salts.
EARTHS and metals, although fingly they re*
fufe every combination with water, yet by the
admixture of a fait they become for the inoft
part foluble, and are then called analogical
falts.
S cxxi. Species of double perfc ft earthy Salts,.
FOUR primitive earths uniting with twenty a-
cuh, produce eighty double perfect earthy falts;
that is falts compleatly faturated. The fifth
earth, the filigeous, isfolublein the fluor acid
only.
CXXII,
O F F O S S I L S.
5 cxxn. Double imperfctt earthy Salts.
OF all the double imperfect earthy falts, with
an cxcefs of acid, the fait of alum is the moft
") confpicuous.
5 cxxiu. Triple earthy Salts,
THE principle triple compounds, arc the vo-
latile alkali, either vitriolated or muriarcd, and
magnclia, with which even nitrated lime readi-
ly unites. Vitriolatcd magnelia combines with
clay ; and both the vegetable and mineral alka-
li faturatcd with the acid of fluor, admit an uni-
on with iiliceous earth*
cxxiv. Earthy alkaline Salts.
FIXED cauflic alkalis, 1 know for certain af-
fed no other earths than the argillaceous and
filiccous. No triple alkaline falts have as yet
been difcovercd.
j cxxv. Speciei qf metallic fahs.
ANALOGICAL metallic falts arc by far the
moft numerous. From a combination of the
fixteen metals with the twenty acids, we ob-
tain. three hundred and twenty double falts;
but
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
"but which can be fcarccly fo perfectly faturatcd,
as that there fliould not be fume finull excels of
acid.
{ cxxvi. Metallic Saltf, ivitb an Excefs of the
metallic Baft.
THERE are fomc inflances alfo of the union
of metals and acids, highly deferving of notice,
iu which tlie exccfs is on the part of the metal.
To this head we refer the turpith mineral, .and
red precipitate of Mercury, v/hich though ever
fo well waihed, yield a finall quantity of a-
cid on dillillation. The fame remark applies
equally well to the pulvis algarothi. Mercurius
dulcis retains its metal partly calcined and part-
ly perfect*; and nitiatcd lilver, in like manner
can take up a portion of lilver, without dcphlo-
gitlicuting it. Muriatcd copper, deficient in its
iicid, couiiitutcs a peculiar fait hitherto unclif-
cribcd.
J c\\vn. Triple metallic Suits.
WH hp.vc long been acquainted with a con-
fiderable number of metallic triple falts, that
are nut feparable but by dccompoiiiion. Of
this ddcription are tlie combinations of tartar
with iron and antimony ; of the vitriolated ve-
getable
^ Schcclc iu Adis Stockh.
OF FOSSILS. 267
Actable alkali with iron ; of the muriatcd vcgcta-
\)\>. alkali with platnu.m; of the variolated vo-
latile alkali \\itli ci'^ptr; of the muriatcd vola-
tile alkali with platinum, quicklilver, copper,
and iron; of vitriohitedand acctated quickiiiver
with iron ; of vitriolatcd iron with magnciium,
with copper, and with /.inc.
c x x v 1 1 1 . Quadruple met a Ulc Salts.
THE quadruple metallic fairs are formed by
the union of ial an.nu-niac \\ith nitrated iron,
with nitrated copper, ar.d \\ithboracicquick-
filvcr; of the viuiol of iron, likewite, with the
vitriols of copper and ^inc together.
{ cxxix. Alkaline metallic Salts.
MOST of the alkalis alfo combine readily with
metals, efpecially the volatile alkali; which
fometimes forms beautiful cryllals, with a me-
tallic bafe, as with iilver and copper. The nu-
merous family of thefe falts are dcfcrving of
mucli greater attention than has ever yet been
paid to them.
ex xx. Synopjts of Salts.
FROM what has been faid, I am of opinion,
there can be no doubt of the extcuiive 'influence
and
168
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
and variety of the clafs of falts, in which vrt
have here confidence! all thofe prepared by art,
as -well as thole produced by nature. In fa-
vour of the halurgic fyftem, I lhall fubjoin a
table, prefcnting at one view all the chief varie-
ties, with which I am acquainted. A greater
number of proper experiments would certainly
add many more to the account.
Properly
fo called
SALTS.
Simple
Double
Triple
Acid
Alkali.
Neutral
Imperfect.
Neutral
C I ni perfect.
. C Neutral
Quadruple J Jmi>cricc t.
earthy
Ana- i
lo^ic
double?
with an alkali double
cloubli
metallic <
with an acid
Imperf. with
cxccf* of acid
Irnpcrf. by
.defect of acid.
w quadruple
I, with an alkali double
cxxx.
OF FOSSILS.
$ cxxxi. Species of Earths of a double Cbnraftcr.
In the clafs of cartlis different fpccics frequent-
ly occur, pofleffing two characters. To the fird
belong the falinc earths; which, on account of
the limits before nttigncd to them, arc not rec-
koned in the clak of falls, although they refera-
ble them in their nature, and conflitutc but an ;
imperfect fpccies of earths. Of thcfe fubiianccs^
however, a few only are known, 51.
cxxx 1 1 . Mixed Species of Etirtbs.
GENUINE fpccies of mixed earths arc produ-
ced by the intimate union of two or more. Of
the exidcncc of fuck au union we have clear c-
vidcncc, in 90,
> cxxxin. On what Arguments their Diverjity is .
founded.
Not the quality and number only of the in-
gredients, but even their relative weights im-
ply a fpccific divcrfity.
cxxxiv. The NcceJJity cf confide ring tbc Propor-
tion of every Part.
In the Sciagraphia Rcgni Mineralis, lately
publilhcd
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
published, I have overlooked the mutual pro-
portions; hut, on further reflection, I find the
confideration of them abfolutely neceffary.
cxxxv. method of invejligatingtbc/trviral Spt*
ties tf Earths,
IN order to determine with accuracy the fpe-
cics of earths, which hitherto feem to have red-
cd on no very certain foundation, it will be re-
quire to explain carefully this doctrine. Ijct
the five primitive earths be indicated by five
initial letters, the ponderous b> p, calcareous by
r, magnefian by m, argillaceous by a, and iili-
ceous by /.
J cxxxvi. Continuation.
AT firft we will attend to 'the character only
and number of principle*; and, by means of the
doctrine of comi,inatiun$, it will be eaiy to af-
certain how many fpc-cific coniociations can arife
from thefe five letters.
For example, />, r, ///, u, and /, can produce nt
more than ten double ipecies
pc, />/;/, pa, fs t
cut, ca, cs t
inn* ins,
as.
Of
OF FOSSILS. 27*
Of triple fpccics we have as follows :
pern, pea, pcs, pma, pms, pas,
cm a, cms, cas,
mas.
Quadruple :
pema, perns, peas, prnas.
Laftly, One quintuple only :
pcmas.
In this manner, from the whole clafs of
rarths, bcfides the five funplc fpccics, contain-
ing the primitives alone, we can obtain but
twenty-fix different combinations; which, toge-
ther with the five fmiplc, amount in all to thirty-
nc.
j cxxx v 1 1 . IVby this Method is impcrfccl.
IN thispbn, lunvcvcr, the number of the fpe-
cies is too much limited, and our conclufions
liable to error. It \\ ill caiiiy appear that pa, for
example, mull be feparaled ; iur the character
of the mafs, with an cxccfs of ponderv^us earth,
\\ill be by no means the fame as with an excels
of clay. In like manner puc ihouid be referred
to three dillinift genera, according as the liril,
the fecund, or the third principle bear thcgrcat-
3il flure in the conipofition, ($ 78.). The fame,
indeed
27* ON A NATURAL SYSTEM.
indeed, will be obferved in whatever formula is
employed. Therefore it is neccflury, together
with the number of the principles, to coniider
the weight of each.
} cxxxviii. /// ivlat Manner can this DC-
feel be J applied or corrected.
THAT they may be all fymbolically defined,
and rendered obvious to the fenles, a certain lo-
cal value mull be ufligncd to every letter; To
that whatever principle occurs full in combina-
tion, that fhould be underilood to be the heavi-
cflof the whole mufs: livery intermediate prin-
ciple \\ill yield to the p cceding one, but ex-
ceed thofe that follow it, and the lull oi'all will
be of the leail importance.
5 c xx xix. Enumeration of double Species.
ACCORDING to this fyilein then \\efliall have
twenty double fpecies :
pc t pm, pa, ps.
cp, cm, at, cs.
111 pi vie, inn, MS.
ap, ac % ttm t as.
fa /'. /'" >
OF FOSSILS. 173
$ CXL. Enumeration of triple Species.
EACH of the five letters in fortning triple
compofitions, may be arranged in twelve dif*
ferent ways. Five multiplied by twelve, there-
fore produce fixty fpecies as follows :
pent, pea, pcf, pma, pmf t pmc, pa/I pac, pant,
pfc, pfm, pfa.
cpm t epa, cpf, cmp, cma, tmf, cap, cam, caf,
<fj>, cfm, cfa.
mpc, mpa, wpf, mcp, men, mcf, map, mac, maf t
wfpi mfc % r??fa.
ape, apm, apf, acp, acm, acf, amp, amc, amf,
*$ nfc* fifm.
Jpc, fpm, fpa, fcp, fern, fca t frtp, fmc, firla,
ex LI. Quadruple Species.
As the double fpecies amount to twenty ; and
thefe, with the remaining three letters can be
combined in fix different ways, in the quadru-
ple fpecies, it will be eafily fcen, that fix times
twenty, or one hundred and twenty, will ex-
prefs the amount of this divifion
S pcma,
374 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
pcma, pcam, pcrnf, pcfm, pcfa, pcaf, pmat,
prnca, pmaf, pmfa, pmcf, pmfc, pacm, fame,
pacf, pnfc t parnf, pafm, pfcm, pfntc, pf*c,
cpma, cpam, cpmf, cpfm, cpaf, cpfa, cmpa,
cmap, cwpfi cmfp, cmuf^ cmfii, ctij>m t camp,
caff, caff, caiiif, ccifm, cfpm, cfmp, cfpa,
cfupt cfnia l cfum.
mpca 9 Tupac, wpaf* mf/<** Mfijt mf>fc rncpa,
pt mcpf, mcfp, me of, me fa, rnacp, mapc,
i nw/c, luaff^ waff, mfcp, rnfpc, mfap,
mfpa, mfac, mfca.
apcm^ apmc, apmf, af/m, apef, apfc y acpm,
^ acmpi acm/, acfm> acff, ae/jp, arnpc y amcp %
ampf, amfpt armf, amfc % afpc^ afip, afpm,
afmpt a/l/n 9 afmc*
fpcm, fpmc, fpim, fpma % fpca, fpac^ fcpm,
fcmp* fcam, fcma^ fcpa % /cap, fmca t J'mac^
jmt>* t fmap, fmep, fmpc, fapc> Jacp, facm,
fame, famft fapm.
} CXLII. Qyintuph Species.
triple fpccies being fixty in number,
(140.) and each of thcfc admitting of two
changes only with the other two letters, it fol-
lows
OF FOSSILS. 27$
lows, that, under this head, we may reckon one
hundred and twenty fpccies.
pcmaf, pcmfa, pcamf, pcafm, pcfam, pcfma,
prncfa, pmcaf, pmafc, prnacf, pmfca, pmfuc,
pamfc, pamcf, pafmc, pafcm, pacfm, pacmf,
pfcma, pfcam, pfmca, pfrnac, pfumc, ffacm.
epmaf, cpmfa, cpafm, cparnf, cpjlim, cpfma,
cmpaf, cmpfa, cmapf, cmaf}), cinfya, cmfup,
ca*nfp, camhf, capmf, capfm, cajpm, cnfmp %
cfmpa, cfmap, c/pma, cfpam, cfapm, cfamp.
mpcfa, mpcaf, mpacf, mpafc\ mpfca, tnpfac,
mcpaf, mcpfa, mcapf, mcafp^ mcfpa, mcfap,
mupcft mtipfc, macpf, macfp, mnfcp, mafpc^
mjpca, mfpac, tnfcnp, mfcpa, tiifacp, nifapc.
npcmf, apcfrn, apmcf, apmfc> apfcm, (ipf'nc,
ucpmf, acpfm, acmt>f, actnfp, ac/f>m, acfinp,
awpcf, amffc, amcpf, amcjp t awf[>c, awfcp,
ajpcm, aJpmC) afcpm, afcmp, (ifnpc, af/ncp.
fpcma, fpcam, fprnra, fpmac, fj)cicm,
fcpma, fcparn, fcmpa, fcmnp, fcamp, fiaprn,
frnpca, fmpac, fmcpa, fmcap, fmacp, fmapc,
, fapmC) facpm, facmp, fumpc^ farncp.
S 2 CXLIII;
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
$ CXLIII. Slmounf of the Species.
IF the primitive earths are five in number,,
rhen tire preceding paragraphs exhibit the
formula? of all thofe fpccics that can poflibly a-
rifc from their various combination ; and to
which, adding the fise fimple earths, we fliull
find the amount to be thus, 5+20+604.120
+ 120=325, the amount of the whole.
$ CXLIV. Further Explanation of the Formula.
I HAVE fo contrived thefe formula? as to make
it evident to what genus every combination is to
be referred. The firfl letter determines the
character of that genus, j- only crxceptcd ; as,
though it exceeds in weight, yet its other qua-
lities do not always prevail, ($ 89.)
. If at any time the number of the primitive
earths i* diminifhcd, whether by decompoiing
them into others more limplc, or by diicovering
them to be of a metallic nature, yet the fame
formuke may be prcfervcd after making the ne-
ceflary correction.
For example, Suppofc^ were referred to the
third clais, the quintuple formulae, (J 142.)
would then become quadruple, that ieries being
deihoyed entirely where /> begins, and from all
the others would it be taken away. In this cafe
OF FOSSILS. 277
lofe the whole of the firft genus and the
;fame formuke are repeated four times in each of
the remaining genera, and constitute one fpecies
only; fo that V = 6 fpecies is of each genus and
4x6=24 the number of all the quadruple fpe-
rics.
Let -us take another example, and remove al-
together a, the formuLe of that genus are imme-
diately annihilated, and the eighteen in the
three other genera arc reduced to 2X3=^6.
In the fame manner, that the corrections are
made in the formula of -the lait order, can they
be applied to thofe preceding. For it is evident
that in reducing quadruple to triple fpecies, it
is impoflihle when p is deilroyed, that the re-
maining feries fliould be quadruple, and arc
therefore to be removed entirely.
Let n reprefent the number of primitive earths,
and the number of the double fpecies beexpref-
fed by n. n. i. of triple fpecies by n. n i.
n 2, of quadruple fpecies by /;. n i. n 2.
n 3, and that, of the lad order by n. ni.
rt2. // n 2.
{ CXLV. Species of Metals.
HAVING determined thefe points, we now
proceed to the third clafs, in which, on account
of the greater number of genera, we fliall find
.the fpecies alfo to be far more numerous.
S 3 Metalo
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
Metals occur generally either complete, mi-
neralized, or deprived of their phlogifton.
i c x L v i . Na five Metals.
WHATEVER pofleflesa complete metallic form,
js denominated native.
Into this (late no heterogeneous Jubilances are
admitted, unlefs they are perfectly metallic.
Hence arife various fpecies; the metal native
andfimple; combined with fome other; or
with feveral together. Native fimple metals
are very rare, and, as far as I know, have
never yet been difcovered perfectly pure.
Mod metals are occafionally found native, as
gold, platinum, filver, quick-filver, copper,
bifmuth, niccolum, arfenic, cobalt,, and anti-
mony ; but fearce anyone of them occurs quite
pure. Cold is mixed with filver or copper; (il-
ver with gold or copper; platinum with iron;
niccolum and cobalt with arienic as well as iron;
antimony with iron or zinc; and further expe-
riments will without doubt difcover other com-
binations.
The exigence of native lead, iron tin, and
7/i nc has been always much qucflionrd by ma-
ny.
Magncfium and fiderite have never yet been
found in a native Hate.
OF FOSSILS.
j CXLVII. Mincralifcd Mctalt.
A MINERALISED metal appears to me to be
metal intimately united with fomc foreign fab-
ftance that deftroys more or lefs the genuine
metallic form.
J CXLVIII. Mincralifing Suljlancef
SUCH are fulpher and acids.
CXLIX. Metals mincralifcd by Su/pbur.
SULPHUR can be direclly united with all the
metals, except gold, platinum, and zinc; and
thcfe mineralifations arc found in the bowels of
the earth. Sulphurated tin alfo occurs in Si-
beria *.
Some mineralizations arc ailcftcd, both a* to
chnntdcr and appcanmcc, nccording to tho
quantity of fulphur. Tin, combined with twen-
ty hundred parts of fulphur, forms a minerali-
fation, white and fibrous; but, with twice that
proportion, the compound is micaceous, and of
the colour of gold.
Sulphur ading on perfect metals feparates a
portion of their phlogifton ; and is even capable
of uniting with many calces like wife.
84 The
* Eflayt| vol. tii. p. 158.
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
The combination of gold with fulphur, by the
intermedium of iron ; is not yet made fuflicient-
ly evident; for that which is found in pyrites
feems to be rather mixed than diilblved; as in a
folution of pyrites, in the nitrous acid, the
gold is depoiited in molecules, not in powder,
but diil'ering from each other both in lize and fi-
gure *.
As to 7.inc, that metal appears in the pfeudo
galena to be joined T uith iulphur by means of
iron.
CL. Miner alifing Acids.
OF mineralifing acids there are fevcral, asthd;
vitriolic, muriatic, phofphoric, aerial, and pro-
bubly the arfciiical.
} CLI. Vitriols.
VITRIOLS of copper, iron, and zinc, are the
fpontaneous productions of nature. Combina-
tions of the fame acid with lead, niccolum, and
cobalt, are likewife fometimes found ; and they
feem generally to be the refult of decompofed
mineralifations.
ictii,
* EfTayi, vol. ii. p. 412.
\ JbiJ.p. 329, an
OF DOSSILS.
J CLII. Metals miner atifed by tbe Muriatic Acid.
THE muriatic acid is more rarely found unit-
ed with metals. As yet it has nut been difco-
vered in any other than filver, quickfilver, and
copper. The two firft contain with it the vitri-
olic acid likewife *,
{ CLII i. Metals miner alifed by tbe Aerial Acid.
THE aerial acid is often prefent in calciform
metals. We meet wkh it in lead, copper, iron,
and zinc. Of its connexion with oiiiu* mculs
we have no certain intelligence.
CLI v. Metals mineral'* fed by tbe Pbofpboric Add.
OF all the acids, that of phofphorus is the
fcarceft, and has hitherto been found with a
fpataceous kind of lead only.
j CLV. Metals mincraliftd by tbe Arfenical Acid.
THE arfcnical acid, if I miftake not, is the
true mcntlruum of the red cobalt, that is fome-
times beautifully cryflailifed. It is certain, that
a red colour is ouing to an acid, and that, from
all the experiments as yet made, no other has
.been difcovercd.
CLVI.
* Woulfc, Philof. Tranf.
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
J CLVI. T&e different Species of Met ah admit of
a/mo/l fiumberlefs Variations.
WHOEVER, confidcrs, that we arc acquainted
already with fixteen metals, and that of theft
the greater number of the perfed can be in fe-
veral ways combined together, as well as thofe
mineralifed by fulphur and various acids, will
naturally exped that, by means of accurate ana-
lyfes, many more fpecies might be difcovered,
which have as yet probably efcaped the re-
fenrches of the laborious philofopher. Were we
to purfue the plan applied to the earths, (Scxliii.)
the number would be really aftonifhing ; but I
am almoft of Pliny's c pinion, who ibmewhcrc
confcflcs : " Mihi contucnti fcfe pcrluafit re-
" rum nutura nihil incrcdibilc exillimare de ca."
FormuLT, indeed, point out to us what may be
done; but whether, and where, they are employ,
ed, mu ft be learned from a faithful analyfis ;
which aflifls us, beiidcs, better to underftnnd
thofe of them that prcfcribe the true limits to
our invefligations.
J CLVII. Spifcies fjf Fbhg \Jlic Sub/lances.
THE fourth clafs is exceedingly poor both in
genera and fpecies.
tCLVIJI.
OF FOSSILS.
} CLVIII. Species oftbc Diamond.
WE are acquainted with many differences of
the diamond, but with hone that are fpecific.
J CLIX. Species of Sulpbur.
THE fpocics of fuiphur are diflinguiflied by
the diveriity of their acids, and we know ot two
only ; the common farmed by the vitriolic acid,
and plumbago, containing the aerial acid iutura-
fed with phlogiilun.
5 CLX. Species of Petroleum.
THE varieties of petroleum, in colour and te^.
nuity, depend for the moft part on the degree
of exiiccation, and on the matrix or heteroge-
neous fubftanccs mechanically mixed with it; fo
that they can be confidercd but fcldom as fpe-
cilic. Exficcation produces a mafs thick and
tough, or folid and dry.
CLX I. timber.
THE fame obfcrvations nearly will apply to
amber. In refpeft of tranfparency and colour,
we meet with many varieties in the European
ipecies.
Tte
2*4 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
The Indian fpccics agrees in all thing with
the European, except its being fofter, and want*
ing the volatile fait*, which lad circumftance
feems to eilablifh a fpecific difference. Cop;il,
commonly fo called, is to be diilinguifhed from
the gum rciin of tbat name fold by the apothe-
caries.
$ CLXJI. Origin of PbJogi/llc Sub/lances.
DIFFERENT opinions are maintained by phU
lofophers, refpecling the origin of phlogiilic fub-
ftances. Some contend, that thefe bodies arc
proper to the foflil kingdom; while others, pro-
bably with more reafon, afcribe them to thofe
organic fubilanccs which abound in various oi-
ly and fat juices, and iirc not fo much ailcclcd
by time, as they are gradually changed in the
bowels of the earth by neighbouring pyrites and
other foilils, until they acquire a bituminous
quality. Heterogeneous fubilanccs encloled
within them are cxident proofs of original flui-
dity. The dittcrcnt degrees of purity of naptha,
coagulation performed by time, acids, or other
media, and various urcumiliinces bciidcs in the
great laboratory of nature, all influence the dcn-
fity, colour, clcarnefs and other properties.
As to ambergrife, Aublet infills, that it is the
juice of a tree growing in Guiana, and there
called
X
* I*chman, Chcm. SchnTt.
OF FOSSILS.
called Cuina. He fays, that after heavy rains,
large inafics of it are waflied into the rivers.
The fpecimcns examined by Koflcllc arc faid to
refemble ambergrife in their odor and prin-
ciple qualities *. Long ago, Rumphus makes
mention of a tree called nanarius, containing a
juice fimilar to ambergrife. Lately, however, in
Kngland an opinion has obtained, that this Uib-
Aance is the excrement of a cetaceous filh. Ob-
fcrvations made on the phy fetor macrocepha-
ius,(thc fpermaceti whale) have given rile to this
Idea, as the excrement in the intcftincs of that
animal, is found on diileclion pcrfeclly harden-
ed, and containing the beak of the repia oclo-
podia, on which it feeds, and in every refpecl
refembling the ambcrgrife of commerce,
5 c L x n I . S peeler of Fofflls mixed mccba nlcally.
Or foflils mechanically mixed, that fall un-
der confidcration in the liril appendix, we have
conilituted four genera only,(j 91.) their fpecies,
however, are numerous.
\ clxiv. The federal Species cxprcffcd by the
Fvnnulcv of Letters.
LET J denote fait, / earth, m metals, and i
phlogillic fubftances; and let the fama local
valua
* HiA. del plantci dc la Cuyanc, 177^.
386 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
value be afllgned to thefe letters as in the fore.
going examples, ( 138.) and we fhall obtain the
following double fpecies.
jr/, /;/i f /i.
//, tm t /j,
in/, wt, mi.
is, it, im.
Triple fpccics.
stm % //, smtt //,
, ///, //T//, /;/, tmi,
t i/ f
fpecies.
sttni, ///;/;,
, WI/lV, 77///V, 7/I///, 7///V/,
, J/OT/ f iV/W, ;VW/, I/ff//,
5 CLXV. Continuation.
WE are, however, not rafhly to conclude that
all the fpccics are cxhaufled in thefe formula? ;
for every letter may be varied in many ways,
according to the diverfity of the fcveral fpecies.
For example, / can be multiplied more than
325 times, ( 131, 143). /, indeed, prcfents
but
O F F O S S I L S. 387
but few variations, and /like wife ; as the num-
ber of the falts proper for thefe mixtures, is ex*
ccedingly limited; but / furpaftcs even m,
({ *5fy > f that \vc huvc here another occafion
of admiring the exhauiliblc Aorics of nature.
SCLXVI. The Pojiilon and Jit nation cf mixed
I r is by no means to be expected ; that every
fpscies of thefc mixed tbilils, wliich to me appear
tobe/wtf/vr, flunild be equal to the production
of huge mountains. The grcatefl number of
them have hitherto been found in veins orfmall
flrataonly; many of which, though of different
characters, when combined, give birth to rocks.
The fame may be faid of the fcparatc particles,
which, in the aggregate, form large and- conti-
nued ridges of hills. But thefe a 1 mo fl always
fpring from the ruins and decompofuiorU of
mountains.
S CL\VII. Species cf organic Fojfilf.
ORGANIC foffils conditutc fourgcncra, (97.) ;
but the fcver.il fpccics of fulfils, whether poffciT-
ing an organic form only, or with it an organic
Aructure, arc diflinguifhcd by fpecific marks.
5 CLXV1IJ.
288 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
CLXVIII. Species of organic FoJJils mineral!/-
ed by Salts.
OHOANIC foffils, penetrated with fulinc mat-
ter, are but fcKlom found. Gypfum, indeed,
fometimcs contains the lefs perilhable remains
of animals and vegetables ; but thefe fubftances
are fcarce ever found quite gypfeous. Entire
animals are occafionaly to be met, filled with vi-
triol, (* 99.) and Rill oftener the harder parts of
vegetables, or their roots, fecni to rciill putrifac-
tioii by the means of ilii* fult.
$ CLXIX. Earths.
THE fecond genus, comprehending earthy
foflils, is by far the riche h Innumerable cal-
careous nuclei of fliell full and marine infecls
daily occur in calcareous llrata. Sometimes, an
animal covering, or ihcll, which \vasbefore cal-
careous, being changed in its internal texture
only, become fpataccous.
Argillaceous nuclei of marine animals are com-
mon in aluminous fc hill us, but very rare in any
other bed. Frequently the covering of the a-
iiimalcule (lill remains.
Marine exuvhu are obvious in marie alfo. If
lime predominates, often the Skeletons alone of
the fifh are feen. Of Olleocollu we have alrea-
dy fpoken fuflkiently, J 105.
Siliceous
OF FOSSILS. 286
Siliceous nuclei frequently fill entirely the in-
ternal cavity of organic fofiils, and fomctimes
even the fame matter furrounds their external
furfact*. I am in poflelTion of an cchnitcs, the
Jhell of which is filled witli cainmon flint, and
Ihcws upon the lurface of the nucleus all its na-
tural inequalities ;' the (hell itfeif, however is
calcareous and fpataceous, although it was iin-
heded in (iliceous earth on both fules. Small
Ihells occur fomctimes in jafper, but very rarely *,
and are not more frequent in petrolilex.
Organic bodies, themfelves aifo are found
penetrated with iiliccous matter. Siliceous pe-
trcfadions of the trunks of trees are often clif-
tindly marked with the growth of every year.
Siliceous mulcles and cockles alfo frequently
occur, and final 1 corals even arc fometimcs clear-
ly to be dillinguiflicd in common flints.
I have fee n the marks of leaves accurately
exprelled in quartz, and the cpitomium of Blan-
kcnburg is often quartofe.
Nuclei of land are fometimcs to be met with;
but the figure of their furface is generally fo ob-
I cure, that it is very difficult to determine from
what organic body they were produced.
In the fand pit at iMaeftricht was found not
long ago the (keleton of a crocodile, fome teeth
of which were lent to me.
T i CLXX.
* 1'VrWr iu Epiil. <U- Italia.
290 CM A NATURAL SYSTEM
CLXX. Species of organic FoJJUs impregnated
'with metallic Particles.
VERY few metals aflame an organic form.
The calx of iron, but (lightly cohering, or con-
creted like a ilone, penetrates roots, wood, anil
even whole trees, preferving Hill the fibrous
texture, which may fo me time 8 be fc raped with
the nail.
Pyrotaccous iron, indeed, now and then forms
nuclei ; but it commonly adorns the organic
iirufturc witli lines or little fpots, and ieldoru
occupies it entirely.
Copper, in the form of a calx is fuppofed fre-
quently to enter into bones and teeth, giving
them a blue colour, especially after they are
calcined. This colour, however, is often ow-
ing to iron.
Pyritaccous copper alfo refemblcs the anemia
in the magnet oi'Iurliberg in Norway, and iiihe*
in feveral places.
Spots of native gold or filver are fumetimex
feen on the furface of foifil Ihells.
The grey ore of filver at Frankenthal in Hcfle
is found in the form of ears of corn, and com-
monly called kobrn-ubrcn\ and under the ap-
pearance of leaves and italks of fume ^ranife-*
rous vegetable.
Ciniiubariue ihclls are exceedingly rare.
I
OF FOSSILS.
I have in rry pcffeffion fomc pfcudogalcna of
u blackifli yellow, united to millcporcs.
CLXXI. Species of Pbhgi/licatcd organic Fojpls.
WOOD impregnated with petroleum frequent-
ly occurs. Tlicre is a trunk of a tree in the col-
lection of the academy at Upfal, indurated with
])ctroleum, black and fmooth, and yet eafily
diilinguiflicd to be of a beech. The Icelandic fof-
111 wood alib comes under this head, of which
I have fpokcn more fully in another place *.
Bones penetrated with afphaltus are fome-
times found.
As is foiTil wood likcwife, whofe pores arc fil-
led with amber, and even with infects and other
final 1 animals; which this fubftuncc docs not on-
ly penetrate, but even furrounds, as :i fplcndid
monument covering their remains.
Turf and mould contain organic bodies, cfpC-
cially of vegetables reduced in the greatcll part
by putrefaction to dull; but which difplay iigns
of their original ftruchirc and charader, more
or lefs obfcure. The firft fcarce diflers from tho
latter but in the greater decompofition and den-
fity of its mafs*
T 2 VARIITIES,
EfTays, v. iii. p. 239
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM.
VARIETIES.
c LX x 1 1 , Or tUna ry Confufion of Varietlet ivitb
Species.
TiiAT many varieties have been obfervcd in
fpecies properly determined i* the more evident,
as they have, for the moil part, been coniidercd
us different fpecics. A milhike to which the
practice of the niineralogiiU in determining fpe-
cific differences from external marks undoubted-
ly gave rife.
5 CLXXIII, Criteria if Varieties to be taken f
external
IN the foregoing, we have ihewn that fpecific
marks were to be taken from the particular com-
pofition ; but although fuperlkial criteria do not
vdTect the intimate nature of thefc bodies, yet
they are not by any means to be neglected ;
they are well calculated to determine varieties,
and are even ufeful, not only in leading often a
Jkiliful eye to proper diacritic experiments, but
in throwing light upon the mode of production,
and other interefling circumftances.
$ CLXXIV,
O F F O S 5 I L S.
CLXXIV. Jlhijlrathn of external Markt.
THE chief external marks arc thofe taken
from the form of the outward furfncc ; the tex-
turc', in tlic appearance of its particles by a re--
rent frachire ; the colour, hardncfr, and gravi-
ty-
CLXXV. Amorphous Fv/fits.
FOSSILS that have no determined fliape are
denominated amorphous.
5 c i xx vi. Cbryjlalllne Foflils.
BIT r thofe whofe circumference is included
\vithin plain iidcs meeting cacli other at various
angles arc called crystalline.
In the foflil kingdom, \vc have five regular geo-
Tiictric figures, of plain, equal, ancl fimilar
ikies; as the tctraedra, cubes, oclacdra, docle-
caedra, and icoi'acdia ; helides many others dif-
tinguilhcd by their prifmatic columns and py-
ramidal terminations. In what manner the great
number of derivatives arifc from a few prima-
tivcs, and differing from each other at the firft
view, I have related elfewhcrc *.
Salts, indeed, on account of their folubility
T 3 in
*. fTay9 t vol. ii. p. I.
194 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
in water, more readily acquire a fubtilety and free-
dom of their particles, which, through the means
of attraction, is necefliiry to form them into cry-
flalline concretions; but t!ii> property is not limit-
ed to them, as crytialline fulfils are found in aU'
moil every genus of earths, metallic, and phlogif-
tic fubflunccs.,
$ CLXXVII. -External Markt taken from the
Texture -of FoJJUs.
THE texture of fofiils is not eafily determined
by the form of the particles ; as when they arc
intimately combined with each other they are
always mutilated by fractures ; we may, how-
ever, dillinguifh many varieties. The molt fub-
tile;ihapelefs molecules ulually called impalpable,
give rife Lo an equal texture : while others larg-
er, and more dilccrnablc produce a granous, fi-
lamentous, fcaly, and fpataceous competition,
5 CLXXVIII, From the Colour.
COLOURS, efpccially the gradual fhades ol
them, can fcarcc be fo defcribi-d l>y language,
as to convey any clear idea, Hardly any other
method, therefore, than that of companion can
be uied by always referring to thofe colours Juf-
ficiently undcrflood.
CLXXIX.
OF FOSSILS.
c L x x i x . Fhvfical Marks.
1'nvsiCAL marks alfo, as hardncfs and gravi-
ty, arc to be employed for afccrtaining varieties,
ivhenever they are found to throw any light.
} CLXXX. Varieties cf organic FoJJiIs.
THE varieties of organic foflils arc to be deter-
mined from the fpccics of vegetables or animals,
which fcrvc as guides ro our judgement. And
ill living bodies being defined by their external
appearance, the fame rule maybe obferved in
fliN as in the otlicr dalles.
5 CLXXXI. F.pihguc.
A iYSTLM ofil.flils, arranged according to the
foregoing method, I think is to be recommend-
ed for its variety, order, and utility; for tin;
number of fpccie:> and varieties, the manyfbld
combinations of principles, the feries of agree-
ment and difcrepancy,thc harmony and oppofi-
tionot internal and external characters, and many
other important rcafons: And 1 hope it will be
found to anfwcr better, not only on account of
its extenlive view, but ulio bccauic the riches
and phenomena of the organic kingdoms are in
it more properly difphiyed than in any other.
T 4 \ CLXXXI.
+$6 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
' ' *
LATTER PART.
Or GIVING NAMES TO FOSSILS.
$ CLXXXII. Tbe Utility of Numes properly
ed in Afihefafofj.
IF foffils arc rightly and juflly arranged and
denominated, agreeably to flic nature of tilings,
\ve find a harmony in them not k-fs grateful
than advantageous.
SCLXXXIII. Ill/lory of Names in Natural Phi-
hfipby,
THE fcicnccs cultivated during the early a-
ges, as chcmiflry, and all thofe depending on it,
had unhappily adopted certain fchemes and
modes of ipeech, of which the greater part were
not only puerile and abfurd, but often altoge-
ther falfe, and leading to erroneous conclufions.
Many cireumflances contributed to the fupport
of this mummery. At firil, in thofe days of
darkell ignorance, names were required to de-
fcribe new difcovcries and phenomena, atiaptcd
to the unfkilfulncfs of their authors. By de-
grees the knowledge of natural bodies, as well
as of artificial, being extended, the profeflors of
chemiflry began to entertain fuch lofty kleas <\f
their
OF FOSSILS.
their (kill, that they did not hcfitatc to promife
thcmfclvcs the miracles of an univerfal medi-
cine, and the making of gold, Hence arofc
the ridiculous flruggle betwixt the immoderate
bondings, through \\hich they were endeavour-
ing to difpofc ad van tagcoully of their difcove-
ries, and tlie moti i'olicitous attention with
which they wiihcd to keep them concealed.
What the names they employed could be,
when depending on the moil abfurd theories,
the (lighted appearances, and mod abilrufc me-
taphors, we arc at no lofs to apprehend. To
thcfe were added afterwards of hers produced by
any fortuitous flight occurrence ; and we per-
ceive in fome meafure a language peculiar to
the early operations of chemiilry.
c i.x x x I v . Of reforming the Names of Foffih.
THE inditution of academies of fcicnce gave
rife to the gradual introduction of a founder
theory, founded upon more accurate experi-
ment, which tended confidcrably to limit the
barbarous and mydical ailcclation of fecrcfs; and
occalionccl a more rational denomination of new
cUfcoveries, though as yet not built upon gene-
ral principles. HeJides, the rude and indigedcd
mafs c\f antiquity was Hill preferred for the
greatcd part, and chiefly for the following rea-
fons. 1'rom the reformation of names and
phrafes
39* ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
phrafes, it was apprehended that the
fcience would be involved in great confufion,
and that their number would create confident
ble difficulties ; and it was like wife alledged,
that the moll ancient writings would, by thu
mems, be tendered unintelligible, and all the
fcience they contained condemned to oblivion.
lint fuch evils, at leall not all of them, fctin not
to be a ncccfliiry confequence. The oldefl
Writings, efpeciully thole on alchemy, are aliuoll
all of them incomprehcniiblc: \Vhatcver there-
tore will anfwer to probable conjecture, or will
admit of a certain and determinate explication*
might be more eafily underllood, if t run I poled
according to the nature of the fubjecl, and the
fenfc of this or that denomination being once
extracted, it might be prefcrved in a book ap-
propriated to the purpole. As to what relates
to the dread of the introduction of new names,
it would undoubtedly be well grounded were
not all writers to fuller them to be regulated in
the fame manner. In this cafe the new names
adapted to the nature of things would readily
infmuiite themfelvcs, and be uiuveriitHy jeceiv^
cd.
Surely, it is highly improper that the noblell
fcience, which conllitutes, as it were, the very
efience of natural philofophy, ihould deliver
truths of the greateil importance in the moil
ubfurd of all languages, livery country jn.Eu-
OF FOSSILS.
rope has thought the cultivation and perfection
of its peculiar language an objccl highly \vorthy
of attention; andihall the fcicnces alone be dif-
tinguifhed lor rudcncfs and barbarity ofililc,
while they arc daily requiring new names to cx-
prcfs new difeovrries cor. flruclccl upon rational
principles; ,md which, if they arc not all wifely
and methodically ordered, would fomotimcs by
their number occafion the dcilruclion of thofo
very difcovcries they wore intended to prcferve.
In but:my, fuch a reformation lias long taken,
place ; and what is there that iliould prevent
i*o ialu'ary a plan fruin being extended to the
other fcicnccs ?
Hut nr>t with (landing the obvious nccefllty of
reform, as well r.s of foinc fixed ilandard, accord-
ing to which all the new names nViuld IK* regu-
lated, then: are ilill many diflicultics that op-
pole their frc-e introduclioii into the republic of
letters. From the very nature of the propofal
it is expofed to the influence of particular opi-
nions ; ;md every one, pavli.il to his own, and
chuiing diilcrent data, it will be imppfiible in
the beginning at lcail,to unite, in one common
conlent, fcritinicnts fo adveife and contradicto-
ry. We arc not however to defpair; for, if t he-
voices of all do not combine, perhaps the grea-
ter number will, to ftifiie the dr.mour of pcr-
filling cavillers. Every reul iVicnd to chcmif-
f ry, therefore, fiicuid wifn for a happy illue to
the
3P0 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
the plan of Monf. Morveau, to be attempted in
the new Encyclopedia. In the mean time, it
may be permitted inc. to offer a few curfory re-
marks, which I think are relating particularly
to mineralogy, and fubmit them to the judge-
ment of the public. The end of the whole lyf-
tem is doubtlefs to exprefs with truth, perfpicu-
ity, prccilion, and brevity, every thing of \\ Inch
an idea caii be conveyed by words. New names,
therefore, become neceflary to new things ; and
to render thefc the mod convenient is the chief
aim and object of this undertaking.
5 CLXXXV. Names that are evidently abfurd, am^
o//fj/'/ to be expunged.
I AM of opinion, that all abfurd names, and,
fuch as betray oftcntatious vanity, are to be en-
tirely fet afule. Of theft' we have examples in
the ful niirabilc Glauberi, fal fecrctum Glaube-,
ri, fal polychreftum Gluferi.arcanHin corral'mum,
arcanum duplicatum, ful de du^bus, and fcvc^
rai others.
5 CLXXXVI. Andfitlfi Names likewift.
IN like manner, names that are falfe ought tr\
be removed. Of this description arc the follow-
ing, fuggdling ideas that are erroneous :
Oleum
Of FOSSILS.
Oleum vitrioli
Spiritus vitrioli
Oleum tartari
Sul tarturi
Terra foliuta tarta-
ri
Butyrum antimunii
Scmi-metallum
j
f Concentrated vitrio-
lic acid.
Diluted vitriolic a-
cid. Spirit indicates
properly an inflam-
mable liquor miiciblc
with water.
Vegetable alkali dif-
folvcd by delujucf-
cence.
1
j Alkali of tartar.
! Acetous acid fatura-
tcd with the vegeta-
ble alkali.
Muriatic acid fat uni-
ted with antimony*
Fragile metal.
$ CLXXXVII. IVlnit then arc the muncs^to be a-
dopted?
THOSE names which indicate ionic cdcntial
property or compoiltion are of all others the
bell.
CLXXXVIII. What arc the Names to be tolerated?
THOSE which admit a more cxtcnfivj fi
c.itioii may be fullered, if others evidently bet-
ter cannot be fubflitutcd, And thefc indeed
arc
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
nre true names ; for although, from the power
of the words, they will apply to mnny Jubilan-
ces, nothing prevent* them from heing /!;*"
upplicd to the one or the other. In this way
ucidum ncrium was ufed in the. year 1772, for
aer fixum ; which is not abiblutely advancing a
falfehood, as it poflellcs a proper acid, and in
an aerial form ; but it is objectionable, becaulc
thcfe qualitiei arc diicoverablc in other fubftan-
ces. Let therefore fome other denomination be
fubflituted more exact and determinate, as, gas,
or acidum mcphiticum, or clfe there will be no
end to the various changes. But if it be iinpoiH-
ble to find one more accurate, it will be attend-
ed but with little inconvenience, to apply it to
that fubilance which we know for certain to be
the acidum aerium of the anticnts,
r.i.xxxix, NwncjJ*gn{ffmg Icfs than (be Thing
defined fj tight to be a
WHATEVER names exprcf* too 1 i mi ted a fen fe
fhould certainly be expunged, if a choice can be
made among thole that arc fynonijnous, ofpeci-
nlly thole recommended by long time; as they
convey fulfe and inadequate ideas. Thus mine-
ral indicates properly an ore ; but in the vul-
gar fenfe it fignifies every inorganic body found
in the bofom of the earth; although this idea is
more accurately expreiUrd by the word f'-JIU.
In
OF FOSSILS. 303
In like manner, orycloht-ia implies a more cxaft
denomination of the fciencc of fulfils than mine-'
rafagra, Pctrefaclum QV petrlficatitm^ falls near-
ly under the lame criticifm. But as here we
have no better fynonimous word to fubftitutc,
\ve mull be contented with fueh as cullom has
eftabiiihed. Words, like coin, owe their cur-
rency to prefcription.
{. cxc. How ur (ire to proceed without proper em-
phatic Names.
As it is not cafy to apply names exacflly
txprcflive of the thing defined, we arc to
adopt fuch as having no determinate meaning
may have their ienle afcertained by definition.
5 cxc r. Names derived from the Authors of n civ
Difcoveries.
AMONG botaniAs and anatomifts the memo-
ry of difcovcrcrs is perpetuated in particular de-
nominations ; it may, therefore, be a qucClion,
whether among chcmhts, where the reward of
new fads is attended with greater inconveni-
ence, it would be proper in the fame manner to
teilify a grateful fcnfe of obligation? Tome,
indeed, it fecins to be practicable, and without:
ny impropriety ; but as it often happens, that
the fame difcovcry has been made by different
individuals
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
individuals at the fame time, it might, upon the
whole, he better to mitt the fame of all, to the
impartial records of the hiiloric page. This ex-
ception, however, need not extend to names of
little importance in chemillry.
5 cxii. By what Means are the Citifies of Fof-
Jlls ib be defined ?
EACH clafs of fotTils fhould, if pollihle, he de-
fined by one lingle word. Such as, Salts,
Earths, Metals, and Plilogillica. True, indeed,
the lail is an adjedive ; but <m this account fole-
ly it is notto.be K-jcdcd, as we ihall prefently
ihew : Nor, indeed, have we reaion to appre-
hend ambiguity from the life of it, as the con-
text will always determine whenever it refers
to folfiN. If any one Ihould think the word
bltumlua preferable, I can have no objections ;
although it may appear extraordinary to many
toconlider diamonds under thi* definition.
For want of a more proper appellation, I dii-
tinguifh foilils mixed mechanically under the
name of'Petnt*. My realons for this dillinclion
I have given already in } 166. Thole, however,
that form the fubjecl oi' the other appendix, ;u
organic foiliii, can fcarcc be defined under one
tide, and we mull therefoje citiier employ two,
or calj them in general retrefacliom, 4 109.
t.\(in.
OF FOSSILS. 30;
S cxcur. Denomination of Genera.
EACH genus fliould be cxprefTcd in one word,
for the fake of brevity and convenience.
Among the falts there arc, flriclly fpcaking,
but two genera ; the acid und the alkali. And
we fliaU fee by and bye the great advantage this
produces, that the combinations of every acid
conftitute proper genera. An acid may be con-
fidered fubfluntively without the nccefllty of
having the word Salt prefixed to it, as every a-
cid is a fait.
In the fccond clafs we have found five gene-
ra. One of which, but lately difcovcred, has,
on account of its fpccific gravity, obtained the
name of Terra Pondcrofa. But in order to ren-
der it more concifc and convenient, the firft
word might be cadly omitted, though always
undcrflood, and the lall employed alone as a
fubftantiyc ; or we would, with Monf. dc Mor-
vcuu, adopt Bnritcs from /*,-.* with great advanj
tage. The remaining earths are all cxprcfled
with fubflantivc names; but for the lake of per-
fpicuity, I would yet recommend fomc alterutj.
on in tlicm: As for example, Culx,Magnefm,Ar-
gilla, and Silex, arc dcfcriptivc of fottiJs, fuch as
they occur on the furfacc of the earth, bicntiul
more or lefs with heterogeneous matter ; and
therefore the words Calcarcum, Mugnefium,
U Avgiiiaccurp,
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
Argillaccum andSiliceum, might be properly u-
fed to iigniiy thefe fubflances pure and unmix-
ed.
The names of the fixteen metals are all fub-
ftantivtrs, and except one, are of the neuter
gender. Thew>wjr of the Greeks was t ran f-
lated into Latin by Pliny hydrargyrum, and why
may not t\\splathia of the Spaniards be adopted
into the fume language, with a neutral termina-
tion? According to this propoial,weihallhavcthe
following generic names, aurum, platinum, argen-
tum, hydrargyrum, plumbum, cuprum } ftrrum,Jlan-
ncnm, vifmutum, niccolum, arfinicum, cobalt //;//, zin-
cum, antimonium, magntfium, and fulcrum, if this
laft diilers at all from iron. Each of them are to
indicate the metal in its complete (late. De-
phlogiflicated metals, commonly called calcin-
ed, or metallic calces, reiemble indeed, in
fome meufure, burned chalk, from their attrac-
tion of the aerial acid, from their becoming cau-
Ilic \\iih tlie volatile alkali, their fuiceptibility of
pulverifation, and ot!cr properties. ^ '
Of phlogiilic bodies, the generic names are fo
well cuiiilrucled that we have no remarks to of-
fer upon them : Mainafijulpbur, petrdtum, and
fuccinwn, are recehed with propriety.
The four genera ut petr<r 1 define by the fol-
lowing names. The firfl, abounding in faline
matter, I ^\fnlf amentum ; the fecond, loaded
vuih earthy matter, appears to rue to be proper-
O F F O S S I L S. 307
ly faxnm ; the third, containing metals in their
matrices, I denominate mincra; and the fourth,
from the mixture of petroleum, or other phlogU
flic bodies more plentifully found in it, takes
the name obitumc/ij or, if this name be given to
a clafs, picarium may be fubftituted,
Of the organic fulfils, that which is penctrat*
cd with any fait may be called y?//i/f//Yi ; with
rarthy particles, lapidojum ; with metallic, me-
tal/ifcrumjand with phlogi{iic,/0///fl#tfffi. Should
names more proper than thefc occur to any per-
ion I ihall have no objection to withdraw them.
cxciv. Of applying Names tn tbejimplcr Fqffi/s t
and efpcciully to the Salts.
ALL bodier, whofe proximate principles have
never yet been afcertained by art, require lim-
pier names; the primitives efpccially Ihould be
cxpreflcd by one word; and thofc of a known
competition fliould be defined by derivatives
having a reference to their principles; if not of
one or two words, confiding at the mod of
three. To denote each body by a peculiar fun.
pie name would be productive of great incon-
venience, and be an ufclcfs burden to the me-
mory. It might however be of confuiuable
advantage to the fyrtcm of nomenclature, in the
clafs of falls, if every one of the fnnplc falls
could be indicated by a fmglc word. \Vould it
U 2 not
3 c8 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
not therefore be aclmiffible, by fuppofing the
acid toconllrucl the namc^ as fublhuitivcs ? Aa
for example, vitriolicuin % nitrofum, wuriaticutn,
regal'mum, Jluoratum, arft-nica/f, boractaw/t t ftic-
cburiniim, oxyaHnutn, (inherent in the acid of the
wood (brrel) tat'turum, benzoinum t citrinum>fuc-
cineuw, galuclicuni, formicate ifibnccum, phofyho-
reum, and atreum. Phlogillicatcd vitriolic :icid
mi^ht be named fulphitreum, and plilogiilicuted
nitrous acid nitreuw. In like munner, in the
genus of alkalies, the veg?uiMc will be potnjli-
iium ; tlie mineral natrum, a mine by which it
has fomctimc been already knov.n; and the vo-
latile will be ammoniticuni. Tlie gr:at advan-
tage of this fimplicity, as we /hall Ice p relent Jy,
will be obvious in giving names to compounded
Jubilances ; which, if they confirt of more tlr.ni
two or three words, will give rife to a diilule and
circuitous llile, bjth in fpcakin^ and writing.
All names certainly proceeding from the defi-
nition of lev oral words are by far the moil im-
proper.
r ) cxcVi Names <*f Species demon]] rated in tbe
Cafe of Suits.
SPEC if ic differences, that can ferve as di-
flindl names, arc ufed with confiderablc advan-
tage. Admitting what has been already pro-
pofed in tlie preceding paragraph, thi* very ea-
fily
OF FOSSILS.
fily obtains in the clafs of falts t as to all the fpc-
dcs pcrfin'lly faturated, That earthy and me-
tallic falls oui.',ht to he arranged under the head
of their mcnilrua, \vc have fecn in j 70. ; but,
with rcfpeft to the perfect neutral falls, it is not
fo clear, 68. It feems indeed more conveni-
ent to refer them to the genera of their feverai
bafcs ; and in this way alfo 1 -have proceeded.
But we fliall have more agreement with the a-
nalogical falts, moft of u Inch are properly af-
figncd to the acid, if the neutral falls are fub-
jccled to the fame arrangement. According to
this iiK-thod we (hall have names fiulkientiy apt
by combining the acid with the adjedivc of the
balls. As lor example,
ir . ,. . ^ (Tartarus vitrio-
Vitnolicum potalTmatum, for< j atuin
XT . r \ Nit rum cubi-
ISitrofum natratum, <
., . . C Sal ammonia-
Munaticum ammomacum, < cus
, C Terra foliata
Acctum potafunatum, < t'irtari
Vitriolicum calcarcatum, Gypfum.
r C Sal catharticus
magncfiatum, - amarus ^
argillatum, Alumen.
XT-* r t ^ Barytes nitra-
Nitrofumbarytatum, < '
... C Calcarcum ni-
argillatum, - Uatum<
m* . . r S Barytes muri-
Munaticum barytatum, 6tc. < a ^ cus
U 3 Metallic
3 io ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
Metallic double falts alfo. may be treated in
the fame manner ; as,
Vitriolicum auratum, &c.
Nitrofum argentatum, &c.
Muriaticum plumbatum, &c.
Arfenicalc cobaltatum, Stc.
anil many others.
No one can object to thofc adjcclives derived
from the names of the metals, as Pliny ufes the
word f erratum ; and it is according to this plan
that they are here applied,
Analogical falls, containing an alkali, may be
cafily arranged in the fume manner.
Thus,
T> rr { Annllatum,
Potaffinum -H c r , c
Silicatura, &c,
Arentatum.
Ammonhcum
i rgentatu
< Cupratum,
( Zincatum,
Double falts, in which cither principle pre-
vails can alfo be denominated in fuch a manner
us to exprtfs an imperfecl; faturation, } 127.
For example, '1'artar, with an cxcefs of acid,
can be defined by a combination of its generic
name with the genitive of its bale, as turtareum
p'.titflini ; but, when perfeclly faturatcd, may br
called tartartum pot ttjjimi turn. In like manner
we fliall have GXti/inum potti[]uii, but, when ex
aclly liituratt'd, it will be o\tiHnum potaj/inatum j
uitrwlicurn natri, and Vttrio/icum nutmtum; na-
tntm bur acini, and boracinum natratumj and fo
on of others. *
This
OF FOSSILS. 5 ti
This method, however, is not applicable in ci-
ther clnflcs, not even to the double fpecies. Sa-
line earths, \vith fuch an cxccfs of earthy matter
as nearly to obliterate their faline character,
ought thus to be exprcfled.
Barytes vitriolatus, for Spattim pondcrofurrL
Calcarcum fluoratum, Fluor mineralis.
Calcarcum aeratum, Calcareum vulgare.
The character of the remaining follils diflers
more confiderably from tlic falts, and requires
auxiliary illuilration.
$ cxcvi. Trivial Names (jf Salts.
FOSSILS, containing three or more principle*
appear capable of the cleared definition by
means of the trivial names. The celebrat-
ed Linnaeus firft made u fc of fuch, in his Spe-
cies Plantarum of 1753, by which every fpecies
could be conveniently cxprcflcd, without a repe-
tition of the fpccific diflcrenccs. The language
of botany became thus remarkably cafyand in-
telligible ; and zooiigifts and mmcralogifts have
to thank the lame author for the happy intro-
duclion of them into their fcicnccs. But, al-
though thcfe names may be aflumcd from the
inventor, fomc virtue, ancient appellation, pro-
perty, or accidental circumilancc rcfpccTmg the
fpecies; yet Aiould they be generally limited to
one word, and very .fcldom indeed extend to
two. They may be coniidered as furnamcs dif-
U 4 tinguilhing
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
w
tinguifliing the individuals contained in the
lame genus.
The triple falts are, by means of thefe trivial
names, denominated with great facility. Of
which we have the following examples :
* Epfom fait united to
\ the volatile alkali;
Yitiiolicum fal!a$ / ealily producing
j an apparent ine-
C quality of attract.
C Epileptic fait of
, cpilepticum, -J \ V( . irni;in .
.. i Anti-epilepticum
Mimaticumanti-epilep- N pucwruniuffioeN
ticum, ^ haavc.
, alembrot, Sal alembrot.
dulce, Mcrcuriub dulcis.
r Sugar of milk, fird
Gah'flicum Bartoleti, < deicribed by Bar-
C toletus.
. . ( Sal polychrcftum
Tartarura Seignetti, Seignetti.
- .. C Tartar joined to the
LafoniJ, -j fclbl - lv( . 1U i t .
S Tartar fat ura ted with
volatile alkali,
loiuuiic, -^ coniiucmly ci
tartarus
Mynfichti*, Tartarus
Clobuii nurtialcj.
Phoiphorum nucrofmu_) Sa] microcofir4icus ;
cum, 5
Compound
* KlTuyi, vol. i. p. 340.
OF FOSSILS. 313
Compound falts, produced by rcgalinuin (a-
qua rcgis) never bccumc triple, at lead not all
of them. The nitrous acid fceins to be ncccila-
ry for the purpofeofdcphlogillication only; and
the muriatic generally exhibits the lame combi-
nations as the regulinc, by which, if the muria-
tic is not in fuii.cient quantity, a double fait is
obtained, charged with the nitrous acid,
The fame observation is equally applicable to
the quadruple fails.
rr , r. ' ^ Tartar united to bo-
lartarum Fevri, <
C rax
Nitrofum Kunckclii, Rubini Kunckclii.
r . . C Sal ammoniac with
Ompnthicum, -j n i tial cd coppcf.
This fait exhibits cryflals, that alllnnc a yel-
low colour when heated, but become blue in a
moderate tempeiature. If a folution of them
fufticicntly diluted is ufed for writing, the let-
ters will be found to difappcar entirely, by the
application of heat ; and, if cxpofcd to the va-
pour of cauftic volatile alkali, to change to a
beautiful blue colour.
Thus, then, 1 have pointed out a method, as
I apprehend, both eafy and fimple, by which all
the known falts, about fifty in number, may
be each denominated in one or at moil in two
words. According to the firfl diviiion, we have
the genus only. Of the fecund, the double falts
completely fa tn rated are indicated by the nd-
jcdivc of their bafe ending in atus. In the
third, the impcrfeft falts arc known by the
genitive
ON A NATURAL SYSTEM
genitive of their bafc. The fourth contains the
triple falts and thofe of fcveral principles, which
are exprefled by the trivial names ; and as in
them we neither find the adjecYive- of the bafe
atits, nor the genitive, it is not pofliblc that any
ambiguity can arife. The whole compofition of
the triple falts could not be fignified in two
words, unlcfs the double falts were defined in
one only ; and if the fame brevity were expect-
ed of the quadruple, the triple mud have necef-
farily been denominated by one. But it may be
a queftion, whether it is more difficult to invent
fuch a number of new and fimple names, or, if
invented, whether they could poflibly be retain-
ed by tlu memory.
c x c v 1 1 . Of tbf fpecific Na mes of Ea rtbs, Me-
tah\ and Pbhgijlic Sub/lancet.
IF we confider every thing that has been faid
in the foregoing lections on the fubjccl of the
falts hitherto known and inveftigatcd, we fliall
find, that we have in fome mcafurc laid the
foundation of a general fydemof mineralogy.
With regard to the earths, and the following
clafTes, the denomination of the double and
more compounded ipccies may be conveniently
expreflcd by the trivial names in two words.
Thus, for example, under the genus magnefia,
a fpecies occur, in the formula, finca, compofcd
* of
OF FOSSILS. 315
of filiccous, calcareous, and argillaceous earth,
with feme admixture of iron *, which in fyfte-
matic authors is denominated afbeilos, and treat-
ed as a peculiar genus. To this, indeed, the
trivial name of afbeilos maybe properly applied,
as it feems to be fo well undedlood, that the
youngeft mineralogift is in no danger of being
milled by it. The fame may be faid of fchocrl,
granate, zeolite, and many others, that are dif-
tinguifhcd by names known to every body, and
highly proper. In the compofitKm of earths,
iron is by no means a neccrtary ingredient, al-
though it is generally fuun I in them; and we
therefore conlider it as an alloy, or heterogene-
ous fubflancc.
cxcvnr. Conchifion.
I CANNOT finifli my remarks on the denomi-
nation of ibflils more to my own fatisfaction,
than by pointing out what is yet wanting to the
improvement of fcience. I would wifli that in
the cftabl ifhing of new names, a preference
Humid be given to the Latin language. This is,
or at lead was formerly the mother tongue of
the learned ; and being now not the living lan-
guage of any nation, it is no longer liable to
innovation or change. If therefore, the reform
we propofc is made firil in Latin ; it may be cafily
carried
* Pidcrtation on the albedos.
316 ON A NATURAL SYSTEM, &e.
carried into execution afterwards upon the fame
model in the modern languages, as far as their pe-
culiar genius and conltruclion will admit. In this
manner, the language of chemiflry will become
every where uniform ami conlillent, and confi-
dcrable advantage will be derived not from the
reading only of foreign publications, but the
facility alfo with which they can b: tranflated.
1 have fccn an excellent ellay of Monf.de Mor-
vcau on the reform of the L'rcnch names', and
I am not a little flattered by the agieeincnt I
find between many of the alterations he pro-
poles and thofc that 1 have oilcrcd on that lub-
jecl. From this, perhaps, we rnuy venture to hope,
that by making it an object of further atten-
tion on bo:h iides, the difference* yet iubiiiting
may be removed, to the great benetit ot luencc;
and to the permanent cltablilhing and advance-
mcnt of which all our views mould be dirccled.
* Diary of Monf, Rokirr.
or
OF TUB
COMBINATION
o t
M E R C U R Y
WITH THE
MARINE ACID*
tefiit vanis fpfctt/ationibttt, ft fjtiicyuiJ inane el flcrilc rfl, con-
m fjl ac Jrutlurjum,
BACO.
I. Introiluttion.
J\ TRKATisEonthc preparation ofcorroflvc mer-
curial i'ublimatc in the humid way, and fcnt to
me by the celebrated Monf. Monnet, and which
1 delivered to the SwcdiHi academy of fcicnccs,
firil fuggcllcd to me the idea of giving the hifto-
ry of the mercurial falls, arifing from the mu-
tual
*
This diflertation was rc.iil In tlie S\rcJi/h Acndcmy of
Science*, and publifhcd in the Acli of ilic nid academy, 17691
iu the liwodiili
318 COMBINATION OF MERCURY
tual combination of mercury and the marine
acid.
The relation betwixt menftrua and the bodies
they didblve, is eilabliihed by a conflant and
univerfal law of nature, in fuch a manner, that
they reciprocally fa titrate each other ; that is,
are mutually diminished in their eilicacy and a-
crid properties. From this combination, a ne\f
form of each mixt body arifes* ; whole qualities,
although they are generally to be attributed to
the character of the condiment parts, and the
confullon of the properties of each, yet they
fometimesdiirer entirely from the characlerof the
menftruum, and of the body diflblvcd. An ex-
cefs of either principle gives birth to another
genus of mixture, under which the true nature
of the combined fubltance is often concealed.
By taking away this excefs of the one, or fup-
plying the deficiency of the other principle, the
obfcurity is removed and the mixt body aflumcs
its proper character. This is commonly the cafe
in the union of acids with lixivial falls, earths,
or metals. But fuch is the peculiar nature and
condition of mercury combined with the marine
acid, that it fometimes unites with a lef*, fume-
times a greater proportion of acid ; and can
with great difficulty be forced from the mixture
into which it has once entered, to make part of
another. There are three forms under which
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 31*
tiiefe mixtures or combinations prcfcntthcmfelvcs,
and which dcfervc to be fcparately confidcrcd.
ii. Ctrrtjivc Mercurial Sublimate.
WHEN mercury is completely faturated with
the marine acid, the [alt refuhing from fuch an
union is generally fignificd by the name off o/r0-
Jivc mercurial fubliniatc. This name it derived
from i's corroding pt-wcr ; and it was called likc-
\vife th? tnulltus uii'talfarum, from its fingular
cilLvcy in tlie foiution of metals.
Gftlr: firit inventor of this metallic fait we
I'.ie cnthely i^iioi.tnt. The anticnts, however,
ll'em tu have had fomc knowledge of it. Avi-
ccnna, (who died, us it is laid, an. 1036, p. L.
N.) makes mention of it; and, even a century
before his time, it was known to Abubcker-al-
Khafi, commonly called Rhafcs *. That the
Chincfc were acquainted with the preparation
of corrofivc fublimate, ajypears evident from a
Chinefe nianufcript on tlio inedSt-al art, a tranf-
Jati n of which by C. A. Vandermondc into
French is prcfeved in the library of B. Juflieu \.
>Jut whether the Chinefe and the Kuropcans
derived their knowledge on this fubjccl from the
J'amc fourcc, or whether it was invented by fc-
vcral
* Mcmoirc pour fcr Jr a I'liirtoirc He 1'uiV.gc interne du
\crciiro fubiimc corrofif, par M. Lc Brguc Uc Prcflc.
| Cbcmic medic, tic Mulouin, 1736.
320 COMBINATION OF MERCURV
vcral in different parts of the world, is a qucf-
tinn I dare not venture to determine. It is well
"known, that the profefTors of alchemiilry fought
for the bafis and fupport of their art in mercu-
ry, which, with tlr.it view, they made the fub-
jed of every poflible experiment. While they
were thus employed, therefore, it is not unlikely
that chance made them acquainted withcorro-
live mercurial fublimatc; the preparation of
which they feem, from the beginning, to have
long reckoned among their fecrets ; or, at lead,
to have difcovered it in vague ami enigmatical
language. According to Junker, this metallic
fait war, called by the ancients Mercurium, and
qtiicldllvcr was iignificd under the name of Ar-
gentum vivum.
I in. Whether Co rro/tve Mercurial Sublimate can
bt prepared by the f At: Mixture .of the Marine
Acid and Mercury >'
THJ: marine acid poured upon Mercury does
not difTolve it without the alTilluiicc of heat.
Until the prefent day, therefore, corrofivc mer-
curial fublimate has always been prepared by
the means of fire, in a tedious procefs of fepa-
rations and compofitions. It is not abfolutely
certain, that J. C. Barchufen polleired the art
of combining mercury with the muriatic acid,
without employing fuch complicated precedes.
* The
WITH THE MARINE ACID. *2i
Tiic following words of the celebrated author
fecm to have fome reference to this particular
art : " Tan-Jem fieri potcll idem (mcrcurius)
<l corrofivus, fi fpiritu falls difiblutus itcrumquc
" coagulatus, Cucurbits inditus fublimatur."
Margraaf has demonftratcd, that many metallic
precipitates are ibluble in thofc acids, which
have no effect upon perfccl mctuh *. And
long ago it was ailcrtcd by Stahl, that Mercu-
ry precipitated from aqua fortis, by a lixivial
fait, could be dillolved in the muriatic acid. On
the credit of Junker, Stahl is find likewifc to
have declared, that tin's lail folution was not in
the leail difturbed by the addition of an alka-
Ime fait; which if added to a folution of corro-
iive fublimate would have produced confidera-
ble efled. I am at a lofs to conceive by what
accident u circuniftnncc founufual (liould occur
in the experiments of Stahl. As often as I have
repeated them my fclf, I have always obferved
a very diilerent rcfult ; even \vhcn the acid was
in excels; although a paler powder was then
precipitated. From theie accounts, however, it is
manifert, that it has not been hitherto doubted
\\hether currofive mercurial fublimate could be
prepared without lire ; the -faith of experience,
however, was wan ring to cdablifli the truth of
what as yet relied only on conjecture. Great
praifc, therefore, is due to the diligence of Mo-
X net,
* Mem. dcTAcaU. dc Berlin, 1476.
COMBINATION OF MERCURY
net, which has thrown light upon a fubjeft by
no means certain, at Icail not attempted by any
one. .
iv. The various ProceJJts by which Corro-
Jive Mercurial Sublimate Is prepared. I.
The Mixture of Bodies containing Mercury and
Muriatic Acid.
CHEMISTS have preferred various meafures in
the preparation of corrofive fublimute. Thefc
can, however, be referred to four kinds only,
and of which we Ihail now proceed to give ionic
explanation.
I. The admixture of bodies containing mer-
cury and muriatic acid. Lemery, Senior, was
the firfl who followed this method, and of which
he has given an account to the Pariilan academy *.
He mixed together by friclion four ounces of
mercury, and as many of dried fait, and after
he had expofed the mafs to the fire for four hours,
he obtained four ounces of a^ialt in all refpecls
iimilar to corroiive fublimute ; at leail all the
dilference that was found between them was,
that this preparation was of a darker colour, a
texture lefs cryfhilline, and of a milder nature.
I cannot help observing in this place, Jit,
That the procefs of extinguifliing mercury com-
pletely by trituration with common fait, is ex-
ceedingly
* Mem. dc TAcad. R. dcf Sc. .deParu, a. 1709.
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 323
ccedingly difficult and tedious. 2d, That, by
the method of Lemery, Icfs corrofivc fublimate
is procured than by the ordinary method, 3clly,
It is ncccfTary to employ the common white fait
which always contains fomc muriatic magncfia
and lime. If the experiment were made with
common fait freed from thole earthy falts, not
a particle of corrofivc fublimate would be pro-
duced ; as appears evidently from the attention
Baumc has paid to this queftion *, as well as
from the experiments ivmdt' by Lemery. The
latter, when he had dillblvcd in water, the mat-
ter remaining after his operation, had filtrated
it, and formed it into cryilals, obtained the
purcit common fait ; but which, when triturated
again with mercury, andcxpofcd to the fire af-
forded no corrofivc fublimute. In this cafe the
acid of the common fait was not expelled by
tire as, it would have been from the earthy fails.
Nor, indeed, docs the experiment fuccecd bet-
ter, if, .inftcad of fait, its acid only is taken ; as
it does not net upon mercury, unlcfs that metal
has been prcvioufly divided minutely by precipi-
tation or rciblvcd into vapours. Bdldes, before
the fubliming vdlcl is penetrated with a degree
of heat fuflkient to raife the mercury to a (tatc
of vapour, the acid of the fait has already alUimcd
that form, as it polll-llcs a greater proportion of
volatility. It is therefore required, that the acid
X 2 ihoiild
* Dift. dc ChcmJc dc Macq^cr.
324 COMBINATION OF MERCURY
fliould be able to refill the aclion of the fire un-
til they can be both converted at the fame time*
into vapours. We are told that mercury and fal
ammoniac being mixed, and expofed to the fire,
will yield a final! quantity of. corroiive fublimate.
The property of fepa rating acids from the vola-
tile alkali, is common to mercury with other
metals. On this principle are founded the ex-
periments and modes of preparation fuggeflcd
by the Count de la Garaye *. ; r
Stalil has another experiment, in which he pro-
duces mercurial fublimate by iubliming together
Juna cornea and cinnabar. For, as by the aid of
fire, the muriatic acid feparates from the filver to
combine with the mercury of the cinnabar, tlir
fulphur like wife, being expelled from the mercu-
ry, diiVolvcs the fllver,and forms with it fulphurat-
cd lilver, or artificial ntintra vitn'ti. This experi-
ment dcfervcs to be repeated frequently and
with attention; efpccially as it Kailirmed by Pott,
that when mercurial corroiive fublimate and lil-
vcr filings arc put intoa retort, and.expofed to the
fire, mercury will be found metallized in the re-
ceiver, and luna cornea remaining at the bottom
of the retort. If this refill t is uniform and con-
llant, it is a remarkable inllance of the great af-
finity between lilver and the muriatic acid. It
will admit of explanation upon the principles of
double cleclive attraction, by which the parts.
Macquer m Mem. <!e 1'Acad. dci lie. a. 1752
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 325
arc interchanged, which conftitute cinnabar and
kma cornea.
v. II. What if tbe Importance of the nitrous
Acid tn the Preparations of mercurial Sub-
limate ?
As it is exceedingly difficult To to fubdue
mercury by triturution \vitli common fait, as to
deflroy its fluidity; and as even when this la-
bour is mod fuccefsful, the metal is Rill railed
too quickly by the heat; the nitrous acid has
been employed by feveral chemitls to reilrain
the volatility of the mercury, and to render it
more diviiiblc, and culler to be mixed. But this
is not the folc reufon tor adding the nitrous acid.
Some people pour it upon the mercury while it
i.s triturating with the fait, in order to corrode
the metal, and contribute to its extinction. O-
thcrs again, following the flop* of J. II. Curdi-
luccio, ufe the nitrous folution of mercury ; in-
to three pounds of which he ordeis a few hand-
fids of fults to be thrown, the iluid mixture to
be gradually exiiccatcd, and the rcfiduum to
be diltiiied in a retort *. In this procefs, a white
precipitate of mercury, (of which we fliull prc-
ix:ntly give a fuller account,) is produced, which
is railed by the fire in the form of a milder fub-
limatc. Some alfo pour the muriatic acid upon
X 3 the
* R. MindcrcTJ Ks -icgfaruncy.
3*6 COMBINATION OF MERCURY
the nitrated mercury ; but this method is but
little profitable. On the other hand, there are
feveral, who taking Barchufen for their leader,
infpilTate the folution by heat, to perfect dry-
nefs, and afterwards rub the refiduum with an
equal portion of fult deprived of irs water of
cryftallifation. The authors of the Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia have adopted this method. G.
Roth directs nitrated mercury to be triturated
with a fourth part of common fait, the refidu-
urn of the folution to be poured into a retort,
the fluid part of the mixture to be feparated by
diilillation, and what remains dry in the veflel
to be fublimed by a flrong fire, If a milder
preparation of corrofive mercury is defired, he
orders as much muriatic acid to be added, as
will equal the quantity of the nitrous feparated
by the diftillation *. The fame end may be ob-
tained, and not lefs certain, at a fmaller expence,
if a greater proportion of common fait ib added
at the beginning.
vi. III. How far is tic Vitriolic Acid ferric c-
able in this Preparation.
THIS acid may be employed in fuch a man-
ner, that any fubllance in which it is contain-
ed, as for example, the vitriol of Mars, can be
mixed \\ith mercury and common fait. In or-
der
* Anlcilung zur Chcmic, 1717.
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 327
tier to forward the extinction of the mercury,
which would be othcrwife tedious and difficult,
it is ufual to add a fmuii quantity of dried clay.
Daily practice has fanc'tioned this proccfs 5 and
we find it recommended by N. Le Fevre, who
directs four repeated fublimati-ms *. Alfo, in the
Brandenburg Difpenfutory, by Rlancard j ; by
J. F. CarthcufcrJ; II. F. Tcichmcycr i ; R. A.
Vogel (I ; Wallcrius ^]\ and others. We arc
told by Tachcnius, tiiat the Venetians prepare
great quantities of the mercurial fublimatc ac-
cording to this method. They mix together
280 pounds of crude mercury, with 20 pounds
of corrofivc fublimate, and then, with great care,
and variety of apparatus, they add 400 pounds
of common fait, 200 pounds of vitriol, and 50
pounds of colcothar. Fifteen vcflels arc employ-
cd in this operation, and the fire being conti-
nued for fifteen days, they obtain at laft 360
pounds of corrofivc mercury**. Junker met with
a Portuguefc Jew at Amflcrdam, ufmg the fame
procefs; the theory of which may be very ea-
lily undcrflood. The action of heat, and the
mutual affinity between the Vitriolic acid and
X 4 the
* Cours <Ic Chcmlc, 1660.
f Chcmia.
J Pharmarologia, 1745.
^ Inft. Chim, 1729.
j| Init.Ciicm. 1755.
5 Chcm. Phyf. vol iii.
** Tachcnitis in Hippoc. Chcm.
323 COMPILATION OF MERCURY
the mineral alkali, feparate the muriatic acid
from the common fait, \vith which the mercu-
ry, railed into vapours, readily combines. The
addition of the corrofive fublimate ailiils in the
extinction of the crude mercury. Inftead of vi-
triol, the Chinefe ibmetimes make ufe of alum*.
The pure vitriolic acid may be employed in
diilcrcnt \vays in a lluid form. If turpith mi.-
neral is preferred, (which is a mercurial calx
according to Baumef, deprived of all acid by
ablution in water), it is not fufficicnt to have
added the common fait, but it becomes neceifa-
ry to add bciides the vitriolic acid, in order to
expel the acid of the fait. The method invent-
ed by Kunkel {, ha> confiderable merit. E-
qual weights of crude mercury and itrong vi-
triolic acid are dillilled together ; an exceeding
volatile and fetid fpirit puttcs over into the re-
ceiver, leaving behind in the retort a white la-
line matter, commonly named Turpcthum al-
bum, but which would be more properly cal-
led, vitriolated mercury. This fait combined
with the common fait exficcated, and put into
a fubliming vcflcl, produces mercurial fubli-
ijiatc. If the operation is rightly conducted, it
js not requifite, as Kunkel would perfuadc us,
to diflblve and fublimc repeatedly this fait in the
muriatic
aJn, Clicmie medic.
Diftionnairc dc Chcmic.
JL-bort. Clicm. 1716.
WITH THF, MAIUNE ACID. 329
muriatic acid. ]>ouUluc junior recommended
this proccfs to the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Paris in the yr;r 1730; not knowing, as it
fccms, that it had been already employed and
made public by Kunkel.
i iv. IV. What are tbe Eft-els of tbe Vitriolic and
Nitrous A: ids itfcd together to this Purpofe ?
THE united powers of tlic vitriolic and ni-
trous acids may be varioufly directed to the prc-
paragon of the c >rroiive mercurial fubliniatc.
And, in l he fir ft place, the procels may be in-
flituted \\ith any acid united to its bale; and
mercury, vitriol, common fait, and nitre, may
be triturated together, and the fublimation pro-
ceed afterwards very fucccfshilly. The object
of this method is the expullion of the nitrous
acid from its bafe by the vitriolic ; fo that being
thus free, it may immediately con ode the mer-
cury ; and that the muriatic acid, unequal in
force to the other two, may unite with the mer-
cury, after the corrolion with the nitrous acid
is complete. Tachenius *, Junker t, and others,
recommend this preparation of corrofive mer-
cury. For the fake of promoting the extincti-
on of the mercury, 7,wclfer {, Jac. le Aiurt }, and
the
* Hlppocr Chcm.
f Coulp 'hern.
: Pharm. Ki-p i^>7?.
| Them. Mid Phyf. 1618.
33* COMBINATION OF MERCURY
the authors of the London Pharmacopoeia direcl
an addition to be made of one twelfth of corro-
flve fublimate.
The pure and uncombincd nitrous acid, with
which Junkenius orders the mixture of mercu-
ry, vitriol, and common fall, to be moiltcned, is
applicable to the fame purpofc. But he pro-
pofcd likcwife another procefs, viz. equal weights
of common fait and vitriol are to be calcined
together, fomc of the mixture to be fpreud on
the bottom of a veflcl, and then mercury filter-
ed through leather ; and thus alternately to be
placed layers of mercury and of the mixed falts.
As much nitrous acid then, as is fuflicient to
moiilcn the mafs, is poured upon it ; the liquid
is expelled by diftillation, and the dry matter
remaining is fublimcd *.
When vitriulutcd tartar is added to a nitrous
folution of mercury, a powder is precipitated,
which, when cxpofed to the fire with common
fait, very eafily produces corrofivc fublimate.
Stahl fecms to have mentioned this mode of
proceeding, but in obfcure language f. Pott
has explained it with more prccilion J ; and has
proved with the pcrfcvcrencc of Baume, that
vitriolic acid can be feparatcd, by means of the
nitrous, from the falts to which it adheres. Ac-
cordingly,
* Lex Pharm. Chcm. 1699.
f Von lialzcn, 1738. <"';*
1 Mifccll. Ctrolin. t. v.
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 331
cordingly, although the affinity of the nitrous
acid is weaker than that of the vitriolic, there is
nothing fo wonderful in the circumftancc juft
now related. We arc to confidcr the propcn-
fity of mercury towards the vitriolic acid, as o-
pcrating to incrcafc the influence of the nitrous,
and from hence it proceeds that we obtain
a vitriolatcd mercury but little foluble in
wi.ter, and, on account of the fmall quanti-
ty of the menflruum, falling to the bottom of
the vcflcl in the furm of cryilals ; while, on
the other hand, the nitrous acid uniting
with the Jixivial fait produces a perfect nitre.
Further, if this vitriolated mercury is
mixed with common fait, and fubmittcd to the
fire, a new exchange of parts takes place: for
the mercury combining \\itli the muriatic fait
is fublimed under the form of corrofivc mercu-
ry, the matter remaining at the bottom of the
vcilel being a Glauber's fait, generated by the
acccfllon of the vitriolic acid to the mineral al-
kali.
The rcfiilt is nearly the fame, if you employ
nitrated mercury, common fait, and vitriol. The
ufc of this preparation is preferred by Bcgui-
nus *, Boerhaave j, Scnac {, A. C. Ernfling ,
J.H.
% Tirocin. clicm. 1^15.
i Klrm. clicm. torn. ii.
\ Cours <lc client, fuivant Id principcs dc Newton ct dc
Stal>l, torn ii. 1623.
Lex. chtm. 8765,
33* COMBINATION OF MERCURY
J. II. Schuhe*, Malouinf, H. Ludolf}, A.
"Rudigcr , Macquer |j, J. R. Spiclmann ff,
Baume J{, L. J. D. Suckow {$, and feveral o-
thcrs.
viii. What Mode of Preparation is the be/I.
WE have thus enumerated ulmofl all the chief
methods of preparing corrofive fublimate; but,
if we compare them with each other, in refpcft
of profit and expence, we (hall find them not all
of equal merit and importance. We fliall take
no notice of the late boa fled difcoveriesof a IV
rifian apothecary, in the preparation of this me-
tallic fait with the acid of milk, as their incon-
Jiilency with known principles in nature is their
flrongell condemnation. In Sweden, but a
fmall quantity of corruiive fublimate is prcj)ar-
ed, which is a circumllance much to our difad-
vantage, as we are not only obliged to purchafe
it from abroad, but alfo ex poled to the rilk of re-
ceiving it adulterated with arfcnic, the mod
dangerous of poilbiib, than which nothing can
t
* Clicm.Vc-fucliC.
f Ciicm. medic.
"J: Einlcit. in t!ie chcm. 1752.
Syfumat. Aril, zur allgcm. chcm. 1756.
J| lilcmcns de chcraie prstujuc, torn i.
f f Eltm. chcm. 1763
|t Manuel dc clian-c, I 763.
CJ rh)Tu r clic Stlniduikunfl, 1769.
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 3 j-
be more fatal, whenever, for the purpofcs of me-
dicine, corrolive fublimate is di Helved i'i fpirit
of wine, or a portion of crude mercury is add-
ed to moderate its corrofive quality. Of this
cruel and diabolical fraud mention was made by
the writers of the lad century; and we arc
therefore furprifed at the ill-judged and much
too late delicacy of Dollie, who thought him-
felf not permitted to reveal cxprefly the poi-
fonous fubllancc with which corrolive fublimatc
might be adulterated. We fiiall have occalion,
a little fulher on, to fay more upon this fub-
jcd ; at prcfent we have it in view to (hew, as
fur as we are able, in what manner corrolive
mercurial fublimate ought to be ])rcpared in
our laboratories. It mull be acknowledged,
however, that the greater number of methods
f"" this purpofc are exceedingly tedious and ev-
penlive, and replete with danger. The labour
required to mix three or fuur fubflunces is ex-
ceedingly great, and does not fuccced properly,
except in very large vefiels, winch, during the
progrefs of the operation, are very often broken.
And add to this confederation, that the vapours
of the nitrous acid are exceedingly noxious, and
frequently produce rucmoptylis, and other dif-
ordcrs, in thofe who infpirc them. The danger
is however not of fuch u nature, as that it malt
always attend tlie preparation of mercurial fub-
nmate. Tiiat method which requires the leu'l.
tubour
334 COMBINATION Oi- MERCURY
labour is no doubt the bed. Mercury diflblved
in the nitrous acid precipitates all thofe falts
containing vitriolic acid. Therefore turpcth
mineral, or vitriolated mercury, can be prepared
at a very (mail expcnce, if vitriol is added to a
nitrous folution of mercury, or if even the ar-
canum duplicatum is employed, which is ob-
tained from the diftillers of aquafortis at a very
low rate. In this procefs there is little ground
for appreheniion from the vapours of the nitrous
acid, which may be entirely avoided by fepa-
rating the vitriolic acid from the mercury by
means of did illation, (vide 8.). When tur-
peth mineral is triturated with common fait, it
throws off afli-colourcd vapours, highly often five
to the lungs ; but thcfc may be borne much
more eatily than the nitrous vapours, and efpe-
cially if the mixture is made quickly and in
fmall quantity. If the mats is now cxpofed to
the fire, corrofive fublimutc of the molt perfecl
kind wiJl be collected in the head of the fub lim-
ing veflel : The rcfiduuiu at the bottom is a
Glauber's fait, which, for the purpofcs of medi-
cine, mull fuller again the action of fire, in or-
der to expel any portion of mercury that may
be yet adhering to it. It is not ncccfTary for
this operation to purify the common fait of all
the earthy falts that are combined with it, of
which we have already fpoken above, ($6).
Hence it is only required to dry the mixture, ib
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 335
as to carry off all the fuperfiaous water ; the a-
cid is carefully to be preserved and retained.
S ix. The external AWmrancc of corrojtve mer-
curial Sublimate.
Co!\Rosiv: mcrcvrkl fublimte is collected
cither in the form of claftic fmall needles, or a
(Bryftalline mats. On being difTwlved again, and
the water afrcr.vanls evaporated, it accretes in-
to various lvinI-i of cryllal*?, according to the
difference of nrticu!iu circuinflances. If boil-
ing water is taturatui \vit.h it, and the folutiou
cxpofcd immediately to ihecold air, nccdlc-likc
cryflals are produced. It' the evaporation is con-
dmlcd gradually, \ve perceive cryiials in the
fhape of cubes or oblique parallelepipeds *. Mo-
net dcfcribc? cryflals uii('er yet other appear-
ances. JUit fuch is the nature of falts that each
affects a certain form peculiar to itfclf, a r > an
architypc, unlefs its courfe is interrupted by the
accidental iinpulfe of external things*. Cor-
rofivc mercurial iubliniate is governed by the
the fame law. In general, if fallicient fpacc is
allowed it, it aflumcs the form of quadrangular
prifms, with alternate narrower tides, and with
uniform terminations of two inclined planes.
ix.
* Mem. dc 1'acod. dti fcienccs, 1753.
A See Di He nation eo the furmi of cry Hals, F. flays, r ii.
COMBINATION OF MERCURY
5 x. /// CbaraVer in rcfictt of Air and Water:
CORROSIVE mercury does not attract moifture
from the air. For tho purpofo of diflolving it,
more or Icfs water is requifue, according to the
increale of tli* temperature of the water. Speil-
inan allorts, that an ounce of water, of the
temperature of 30 degrees of Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer can ditlMve thirty grains of it*; hence,
h-ilf an ounce of water at is degrees of the
Swedifh thermometer, will take up a lixtcenth
part of its own weight. The cxpeiiments of
Macquer are f>mewlut diUerent from this; for,
if we follow him in his conclu lions, we lhall be-
lieve, that half an ounce of water, at the tem-
perature of 16, will diilMve a twci tietij part;
and, at the boiling point, even mure than a
half of its own weight.
it is, however, to be ohferved, that on mix.
ing this fult with warm water, the heat of the
mixture is railed beyond the looth degiee of
the b \vedilh thermometer, but at the very time
of the fulution no change of tcmperatuie is ob-
ferved. If (id ammoniac is added lilieuife, we
have noinconliderable degiee of a foiution ; al-
though Dollie is of a dillerent opinion f. Mac-
quer knew by experiment, that three ounces of
water impregnated with ful anuuoniac, were ca-
pable
* lufl. chcm.
f Laburutory laid open, 1758*
WITiI THE MARINE ACID/ 337
pablc of diflolving five ounces of corrofivc mer-
cury; and that, during the folution, the heat
was incrcafcd fix or fcvcn degrees. When the
folution becomes cold, a part of the fait is formed
into cryftals ; to prevent which the corrofive
mercury mould be added very gradually, and as
each particle diflolves ; arid thus all increafe of
heat will be avoided. Thefe falts once combin-
ed in this manner are infcparable by any art,
and conflitute a particular compufition known
by the name offal alcmbroth, highly extolled by
the alchemifts ; if we believe Kunkel, Dip-
pel, and others, on account of its wonderful
power to diilblvc gold and other metals.
5 xr. Corrofive Mercurial Sublimate dijjolvcd
in Spirit of Wine.
AMONG the ancient profcflbrs of the chemi-
cal art, by whom the mixture of corrofivc mer-
cury and fpirit of wine had been made, we reck-
on R. Lullius, Bafil Valentinus, Salomon Trif-*"
mofinus, and many others. Pott alfo obfcrved
that this fait was altogether * deliquescent in
that mennruum ; but a fuller illuilration of it
has been given by Macqucr. Half an ounce of
fpirit of wine, of the temperature of 20 degrees,
diilblvcd three-eights of its weight of corrofivc
mercury, or when of a boiling heat it took up
Y 195
* Di(T. cle fptrtu falii vinofo, in Obf. Chcm. Coll, I.
33* COMBINATION OF MERCURY
'
195 Ib. Troy, the greateft part of which concret-
ed into cryftals on the cooling of the folution.
Spirit of wine, futuratcd with fal ammoniac,
of 20 degrees of temperature, will diflblve dou-
ble the quantity of corrolive mercury, or three-
fourths of its own weight. Being fct on lire, it
bums at iirfl with a flame of the ordinary colour;
but changes afterwards gradually to a yellow,
throws olFblue Harry fparks, and at length ex-
ploding is extinguifhcd *.
5 xii. Difflhed in Mineral Adds,
NEITHER arc the mineral acids avej-fe to an
union with corrofive mercury. The muriatic a-
cid diflblves it the moil readily ; and, if it is em-
ployed in confidepable quantity, no cryflals arc
formed, but when fparingly ufed, needle-like cry-
Aals are produced.
The nitrous ucid occaiions vapours fuch as a-
rife from aqua regiuf. It is therefore to be con-
cluded, that this acid lias fei/.ed upon Ibme part
of the mercury. By the means of heat the
whole fait is diflblved ; and, on the evaporation
of the fluid, is formed into cryilals, and fullers
no alteration cither in weight or character {.
With
* Macquer in Mem. dc PAcaJ. dc Turin. 1766.
f Pott, dc Sale communi.
WITH TtfE MARINE ACID. 33$
With the afMancc of heat, the vitriolic acid
is capable of diflblving corroiive mercury ; but
cannot retain it after the folution is become
cold. It is an obfervation of Pott, that the vi-
triolic acid occafions a precipitate in the form
of powder from a folution of corrofivc mercury,
.which is afterwards rc-dillolvcd on being heated.
Allowing this to be fact, it implies neither a de-
compofitionof the fair, nor a greater affinity to
mercury in the vitriolic than in the muriatic acid,
which P. A. Marherr apprehended to be the
cafe*. When warm water was poured upon the
precipitate, it was immediately diilolved, leav-
ing behind no turpeth mineral. There is no
precipitation therefore of vitriolated mercury,
but of corroiive or muriutcd, which had been
deprived of part of its water by the vitriolic acid.
But Pott himfelf found, that common fait occa-
iioned a precipitate from the vitriolic folution of
mercury, which could not happen unlcfs from
a combination of the metal and the muriatic
acid.
Corrofive mercury, prepared in the ordinary
way with vitriol and nitre, gives a yellow colour
to dillilled vinegar. A red powder is obtained
from the folution by evaporation, which is con-
ceived by many to be a mercurial fulphur.
The opinion of Junker, however, that it is a
martial earth fublimed by the violence of the
Y 2 fire,
* DiiT, Uc affimiatc corporum Vicnn. 1762.
34 o COMBINATION OF MERCURY
fire, is certainly the mod probable. For the
fame red powder clearly appears, although the
corrolive mercury be repeatedly fublimcd with
the fame matter, or caput mortuum that remain-
ed after its former fubliination, or even though
the procefs is renewed with vitriol and nitre *.
We arc told by Becher, that corrolive mer-
curial fublinuite diiloJved in water, precipitated
by an alkali, digeftcd withditlilled vinegar, tlien
exficcated, and afterwards macerated iguin and
again by a long digeilion in fphit of wine, is
reiblved after all this labour into a milky Iio 4 uor
which depofits a fediment,and aiiumes at lait the
form of a fwcct llavoured oil. The truth of this
relation, and the principles on which it rolls re-
quire the investigation of repeated experiments
before they can be cilabliihcd. Pott f howe-
ver aflerts that corrolive mercury mixed with
triple the quantity of fal ammoniac, cxpolcd to
d(liquefcence in the air, and afterwards cxficcat-
ed oa bibulous pupj;-, yielded by dillillation a
water, v, hicli being again diililled, contracted a
ixvect imeil, and was wonderfully calculated to
dillblvc various bodies.
x 1 1 1 . United with alkaline Salts and caujlic Lime.
ON the addition of fixed alkali to a folution
of
*Confp.Chcm.
f DC SulpUurc McuUorum. 1716. r>
WITH TOE MARINE ACID. 311
of cor*ofivc mercury, a red powder is precipi-
tated. If the acid is in considerable quancity,
the colour of the precipitate will be proportio-
nally paler, and will become perfectly white if
the cxccfs of acid is very rcat. The fmallcft
particle of lixivial fait, although the acid be in a
large proportion, will precipitate fome of the
corrofive mercury, which is however in a fhort
time again dilfolved. Petermaa * is of opinion,
that the red colour is owing to martial vitriol ;
but Teichmeyer conceives it fliould be attribut-
ed to the fulphureous parts of the falts. It is
certain indeed that a red powder can be prepa-
red without any vitriol.
Volatile alkali alfo decompofes the folution of
corrofive mercury. If it is pure, it precipitates
a white powder; but, if it is charged with any
fatty fub fiance, (as in the vinous ipirit offal
ammoniac,) the precipitate is of an afh-colour f.
From the plogifton in the volatile alkali, it
fomctimcs happens, that a dark afli-coloured
or black powder is precipitated.
According to Meyer t, an ounce of lime-wa-
ter is capable of precipitating two grains of cor-
rofive mercury of a yellow colour, which, on
being dried, changes gradually to black. This
Y 3 is
* Chcmia, 1708.
I Zimmerman in Zuf.U7.cn zu Ncumaru Chcmifchcn Vor-
kfungen.
i Abhandlung vom ungclofchtcn KalcK.
34* COMBINATION OF MERCURY
is a mild phagedicnic water, with two grains
only of corroiivc mercury to the ounce. The
fixed alkali produces no eiVect on it ; but the vo-
latile feparates a very fmall portion of a white
powder. The pharmacopoeia of Paris and Straf-
burg have both this formula of the aqua pha-
ged;enica ; but it may be more eilicacioufiy pre-
pared, if necefliiry, when it is exactly known
\vhut quantity of corrolive mercury can be ei-
ther diflolved or precipitated by lime-water.
For the purpoie of determining whether an
Alkali is prefent in any fluid, and of what kind
it is, the corroiive mercury may be convenient-
ly employed. As foon as a fmall portion of this
fait is thrown into it, it is tinged according to
the nature of the alkali with a yellow or red co-
lour, or is clouded with u white powder; if it
contains no alkali, it remains unchanged.
An infufion of galls mixed in a folution of
corrofive fublimate renders it thick and black.
The precipitate on being dried ailumes the co-
lour of umber.
$ xiv. IViib Metals,
MOST metals decompofc corrofive mercury.
Stuhl has obfervcd that it deliqucfces, ii' pow-
dered tin or iron are fprinkled on it, and that
theic metals arc corroded with the muriatic a-
cid *. Junker alfo informs us, that if a fojution
of
* Spec. Bcch. 1703, 1720.
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 343
ofcorrofive mercury is boiled in an iron vcflcl,
the vcffel will be affccfled with its acrimony, and
quickfilver will be collected at the bottom of it.
If copper or brafs is immcrfccl in the folution,
they are covered with a (liming pellicle of quick-
filver. 7.inc alfo detaches mercury from the
muriatic acid, and forms with it an amalgam*.
From the combination of various metals with
corrofivc mercury, and fubfcqucnt did illation,
arife the butters commonly to called, or thick
fluids, the greater! part of which is more or lc(s
impregnated with metallic matter. Of this kind
arc the butters produced by the diflillation of
the ores of lead, tin, bifmuth, 7,incf,or rcgulus of
antimony, with corrofive fublimate. Silver,
lead J, and copper, cflcd a fcparation of the mer-
cury from the muriatic acid. The red powder,
occafioncd by expofmg equal quantities ofcor-
rofive mercury and iron to the fire, infpiflating,
and afterwards fubliming them, as fccn by Car-
diluccins, has been fmce dcmonflrated from the
repeated experiments of Pott; who however
adds, that he was lefs fucccfsful in his attempt
to afcertain what had been bcfides remarked by
Cardiluccius in this procefs, that the rcfiduum
being expofcd to the air, and again fublimcd,
yielded a talcy fubflancc ; and that from what
Y4 ftiU
* Pott dc zinco, in Obff. Coll. II.
f Pott dc fair, &c.
J Brand in A& Acad. Bucc. 1753.
COMBINATION OF MERCURY
fttll remained, a fnowy-like fait could be extract-
ed, by pouring upon it the diftilled acetous a-
cid *. 1 am unwilling to relate any more ex-
periments refpedling the various combinations of
metals with corrofive fublimate, led I fhould feem
to have forgot the juft limits of this diflertation.
5 xv. The Qiantity of 4 cid and Mercury in cor.
rofwe Sublimate, and its f pec [fie II 'eight.
CORROSIVE fublimate was held by the ancient
chcmilb in great ciVunation, chiefly becaufe
they believed that in it were united all the mi-
neral acids. Barchufcn was very properly of o-
pinion, that it contained the acid of fait only :
The arguments on which he founds this idea
will be related as we proceed. Among the
more modern chemills, Gellcrt apprehended
that the nitrous, as Well as the muriatic acid, en-
tcred into the compofition of corrofive fubli-
mate -f. But although, from the different
modes of preparing this fait, we do not deny
that it may fomctimcs be corrupted with the
vitriolic, or with the nitrous acid, yet thefe acids
are neither always prefcnt or absolutely requi-
Jite, and corrofive fublimate can be very well
prepared without the ailiilance of cither, (^3. 4.)
It appears, therefore, that mercury can be alto-
gether
* Pott dc fa Je com muni,
f Mctallurgifche chymie,
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 345
gcthcr united with the acid of fait alone, of
which the metal can take only a limited quan-
tity. From the experiments of Rouelle, it is ma-
nileft, that, neither by a greater proportion of
common fait, re-iterated fublimations with it, or
repeated folution of corrofivc mercury in the
muriatic acid, it is poffible to combine an ex-
traordinary quantity of the acid with the metal*.
As to the account given by Homberg, of the
liquefaction of corrofivc fublimate, charged with
a fupcrabundance of acid, and its refemblance
in confidence to the butter of antimony, we
conceive it is to be explained by the folution of
the fait in the cxccfs of acid.
The acid in corrofive mercury is fo faturatcd
as to become quite taftcicfs. Monf. Rouclle
writes, that a folution of corrofivc mercury
changes the fyrup of violets to a green, but that
it docs not in the leall ailed the tincture of tur-
ncfol. As often however as I have made the
experiment, cither with the fait that 1 purchaf-
cd, or with fome of it prepared by myfclf, wafii-
ed even in the purcit water, I have always feen
it redden the tindure of the turnefol, but it
produces no figns of an acid with the blue ve-
getable colours -J-.
It is not yet fufliciently afccrtaincd what is the
proportion of acid and mercury in the compo-
fition,
* Mem. dcl'Acad. clcs Sc. dc Par's, 1754.
t Baumc affcrta the contrary in his Manuri dc Chymjr.
COMBINATION OF MERCURY
fition of corrofive fublimate. Tachenius, whom
I mentioned above with fome commendation,
aflerts, that 280 pounds of mercury will produce
360 pounds of corrofive fublimate ; from which,
if it is true, it follows, that the metal will be
in. the proportion of 3^ to i of the acid. On
the other hand, if we are to believe Lemery,
who obtained 19 ounces of corrofive fublimate
from 1 6 ounces of mercury, the parts of the mix-
ture will give a ratio of 5! to i. Maccjuer, how-
ever, rightly obferves, that more mercury is loll
if the procefs is inilituted with a fmall than with
?i large quantity. Le Mort errs coniiderably in
flating the weight of the acid to be triple that
of the mercury *. The proper weight of this
fait is yet undetermined, as it is varioufly de-
fined by different authors. According to Core-
far, the fpeciiic gravity of corrofive fublimate is
to the fpecific gravity of rain water as 6.325 to
JCGO; while, on the contrary, Mufchenbroek
eflimatcs their weights in the proportion of
8000 to i. Hence, then, it appears, that the
bulk of the two ingredients, and efpecially of
the mercury, is greater when combined toge-
ther, than when taken feparately.
xvi.
* Facie* Chcm. pun'f. On a more accurate invi-f-
tigation, our author afterwards found, that the proportions
of acid and qmckfilver in a centenary were as 24,5 : 75,5. S
PifTcrt. df miner, tlocimafw huniiJa, Opufc. v. ii p. 42*3.
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 347
xvi. Corrofivc Sublimate adulterated with Ar-
fcnic.
I HAVE formerly mentioned the adulteration
of corrofivc fublimatc with arfenic. Somechc-
mifts, however, have denied that thefc two fub-
rtanccs can be united by fublimation*. Indeed, if
we arc to believe Glaferf and Sperling J, we (hall
be pcrfuadcd, that when arfenic is mixed with
corrofivc fublimate, and expofcd to the lire, the
acid of the arfenic is expelled, and a butter i<
formed; the mercury, at the fame time freed
from bondage, being rcllored to its metallic
itatc. The experiments of Pott $, Gmclin ||, and
Spielman ^[, arc in direct oppolition to this opi-
nion ; in which the combination of mercury and
true arfenic was cilecled. But in order to re-
move all doubts on this fubjcdt, I took three
parts of corrofivc fublimatc, and two of arfenic,
and triturating them both together, put the mix-
ture into a retort, and fubjcdled it to a violent
heat. At the end of the proccfs there was no
appearance of any butter ; but all the matter
was
{ Kcuman in pr.rlc&.
| Cour* tic ChcmiCf 1663.
$ DifT. dc Arfcnico.
DC Sale comm.
|I DifT. dc fpccif. can. fanandi mcthodis, Tubing. 1757.
f Iuft Chcm,
34? COMBINATION OF MERCURY
was collected in the neck of the vefTel. After
breaking the retort, a portion of arfenic and cor.
rofivc fublimate was found, but fo fur fcparate
from each other, that they could be diilinguiih-
ed by the form of their cryflals. The reft of
the mafs was in powder, and uniform. From
this experiment, therefore, unlefs I am deceiv-
ed, it may be concluded, that arfenic and CON
rofive fublimate, in the proportions I have di-
rected, can be united by fublimation, and con-
nected in the greateft part into a folid mafs.
Du Mon flier ", Doffie, and many others af.
firm, that the prefence of arfenic is indicated
in the black colour produced by pouring an al-
kaline lixivium into a folution of corroilve fub-
limate* But Barchufen f, and Boulduc, fenior f,
have long aflertcd, thrt xhis experiment is fal-
lacious and ill-founded. Gnieliu contends, that
a folution of corroilve fublimate adulterated
with arfenic yields, on the addition of the vo-.
latile alkali, a black precipitate. To me, how-
ever, when making this triul, the event did not
fcem to anfwcr my expectation. For in thof<
particles which were abfolutely under the form
of arfenic and cor rofivc fublimutc, no change of
colour was produced by the fpirit of fal ammo-
niac prepared with quicklime. The remaining
iohd
* Inannotat. ad Chcmiam Glaferi Si Le Ftfvre.
f Pyrofophia, 1698.
t Mem. del 1 Acad. dcsSc. a. 1699.
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 349
folid and uniform mafs aflumed a dark and ra-
ther an afh colour, but not in the lead a black.
But further, I diilolvcd fophirticated corrofivc
fu'oliinatc in diflillcd \vatcr of a boiling heat;
which folution, \vhen 1 added to it the cauftic
fpirit of ful ammoniac, dcpolitcd thin flakes, and
in a f/iort time aftcnvard* fccmcd here and there
to become of a green colour. The change of
colour \vis ftili lefs when I employed the fpirit
of luirtfliorn. The trial with ilie volatile alka-
li is therefore uncertain ; but we can determine
much more eafily, and with greater prccifion,
the prefen.cc of arfenic, if a finell of garlic is e-
inittiHl from corrofivc fublimate fprinklcd upon
burning coals.
5 xvn. IV bite Mercurial Precipitate.
THE white powder clcpofiterl in the nitrous
folution of mercury, on tiie admixture of com-
mon fait or muriatic acid, is named white mer-
curial precipitate. By fomc it is called cofinc-
tic mercury, or milk of mercury ; and Potter
gives it the appellation of the cakinatum wajiif.
Its colour, and the mzihod of ufing and prepa-
ring it have given rife to various names, which
were for the moft part very imliftincl, and have
been transferred to fubftanccs of a very different
nature. The preparation of it fcems to have
been
COMBINATION OF MERCURY
been known for fomc centuries part, but we have
no information refpecling the peribn by whom
it is invented.
} xvm. Modes of Preparation.
THE moft common method is to pour a quan-
tity of fait- water into a nitrous iblution of mercu-
ry after which the mixture becomes ilreakcd and
cloudy, and a white mucilaginous matter gra-
dually fubfidcs to the bottom of the veflel.
The water is added as long as any thing is pre-
cipitated ; afterwards when the white mafs is
collected, the clear liquor is poured oil* the rc-
fiduum is well wafhcd in pure water, and being
then inclofed in bibulous paper is dried either
in the air , or over the fire. The fire employ-
ed fhould however be very moderate, leail by
too great heat the powder acquire a yellow co-
lour -j-.
In this procefs a double Reparation or decom-
polition of the i.igrcdients takes place. The
mercury is feparated from the nitrous acid, and
unite* with the acid of the common fait, form-
ing a fait but little foluble in water; and the ni-
trous acid quits the mercury, and with the mine-
ral alkali of the common fait, produces cubic
nitre.
* Barchufen Elem. Chcm. 1712.
f MietiinCollca. Chcra. Lcydcnf.
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 35 1
nitre. As the mcnftruum, however, in which
this mercurial fait is diflblved is not in fufiicicnt
quantity, the fait is tumultuoufly coagulated
and precipitated in the form of a mucilage. In-
ftead of common fait, ammoniacal or other falts
containing the muriatic acid may be employed
for this purpofe ; the acid itfelf uncombined
with any fubftancc might be ufed with advan-
tage, if it were not too cxpcnfive. It is, howe-
ver, to be obfervcd, that according to Junker,
Geoffrey, and Pott, the muriatic acid in its ftatc
of fcparation, precipitates a fait from the nitrous
iolution of mercury, poficfling more folubility
in water *. Freih urine added to this folutiou
occaiions a mercurial precipitate of a flefli co-
lour ; for which appearance we can readily ac-
count, if we confider, that befides common
fait, it contains digellivc and ammoniacal falts.
The red colour is owing to the admixture of
fomc extraneous matter. Lcmcry is of opinion
that this mercurial precipitate is milder than the
white -j-.
If on the addition of .common fait, a faturatcd
Iolution of mercury is dccompofed, it follows,
that the nitrous acid ft* pa rated from the mercu-
ry mull be either capable of faturating the alka-
line fait, or incapable, or in excels. Which
ever of thcfe cafes occurs, may be cafily afccr-
tained
* Macqucr di&. <lc Chcmic.
f Couu Jc Chcmie, 1675.
353 COMBINATION OF MEKCURY
rained by the means of reagents, unlefs nitrated
mercury mould be rendered turbid by the acid
poured upon it. As I fufpedled that this ap-
pearance might be owing to a quantity of hete-
rogeneous matter mixed with the folution, I en-
deavoured to feparate it by adding diilblved al-
kali, but to little purpofe ; the cloudy (late of
the acid was in no way to be removed, until all
the mercury was fir (I precipitated.
When a confidcrahlc quantity of muriatic a-
cid is poured iuddenly upon a nitrous folution of
mercury, inilead of a white mercurial precipitate
we obtain a corrollve mercury caiily ibluble in
water. Monnct, therefore, very prudently ad-
vifes in the preparation of white mercurial pre-
cipitate, that both the folution of the mercury,
and the muriatic acid to be employed, fliould be
well diluted, and the mixture of them made
gradually and with caution *.
The precipitate ought to be wafted in as much
water as will be futlicient to difljlve all the cu-
bic nitre combined with it. On the other hand,
if too much water is poured upon the precipi-
tate, and fullered to remain any length of time,
it is again eaiily diflblvedf . White mercurial
precipitate wafted in warm water, is called by
Mayern manna mercunnlis \.
Plummer
* Afta Acad. R. Suec. a. 1770.
f Eflay for a reformation of the London PHarm.
m. iiuiule.
WITH THE MARINE ACID* 353
Plummcrhasafcertainedby experiments, that
the weight of the white mercurial precipitate,
when thoroughly exficcated, is fomcwhat great-
er than that of the mercury employed in the
procefs*.
When no more precipitate is occafioncd by
the addition of the folution of common fait, the
liquor poured oil* does not altogether lofe its
caullic property ; hence, therefore, it is fuppof-
c.d to poft'efs the virtue of removing fpots and
freckles on the face. If it is mixed with the wa-
ter of roles, lillies, and beans, &c. it becomes mil-
ky, and is reckoned among the remedies for af-
fcclions of the face ; and has on that account ob-
tained the name of cofmetic mercury f. Its a-
crid quality arifes from the mercury dittblved in
it, which may be collected in a copious fcdimcnt
by pouring into it fixed or volatile alkali. Tliis
circumilancc has been already obfcrved by
Barchuicn {; and if we are to give credit to
Junker, fcarce one-fourth is precipitated, when
equal weights of conunon fait and mercury arc
taken for this preparation J. The fad has been
frequently remarked, and the feverai pharma-
copoeias have, in confequence of it, adopted the
pradice of mixing the fpirit of fal ammoniac
7, with
* Obfcrvations of the Society at Edinburgh, Vol. I.
f I. T. Carthcufcr in Pharmacia.
J Elcm. Chym.
Confj). Chcmir.
354 COMBINATION OP MKRCURY
with the liquor, whenever it is no longer affected
by the folution of common fait. In this man-
ner a white powder is "precipitated, which ac-
cording to Junker* is equal to half the quantity
of the mercury employed in the folution. The
authors of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia direct
the white mercurial precipitate to be prepared
by diflblving corrofive fublimate in water and
adding fpirit of fal ammoniac to the folution.
The London phtrmacopoeia, following the ex-
ample of Lemeryf, order corrofive mercury
and nitre to be feparately diflblved in four times
their quantity of waterf, the folution to be fil-
tered, and fixed alkali to be afterwards added
to it. By this method, a white powder is pro-
cured equal to three-fourths of the weight of the
corrofive mercury $. Sa! ammoniac does not
render corroftvc mercury milder only, but it
gives a whiter colour likewife to the precipi-
tate || . If the precipitation is made with urine,
and the fpirit of fal ammoniac u afterwards
poured upon it, the black mercurial precipitate
of Lemery is the produce of that mixture.
From what we have already faid it mull be e-
vident,
* JL. c.
j- Coura de Chcmic.
t Which however cannot be done, v.'.ucf* fal ammoniac is
aJJo'.
^Dcfli-, Laboratory laid open.
!| Hucrnc Tent, Chynru T. II.
WITH THE MARINE ACID.
viclcnt, that tilings of a different nature have been
exprdfed under the fame name ; an error by
no means unattended with danger. For it may-
happen, that inftead of the white mercurial pre-
cipitate which a phyfician fhall have ordered
for his patient, mercurial calx, mercurial fait,
or a mixture of both may be adminftcrcd. Thcfe
fubftartcds, though they agre* in form and ex-
ternal appearance, yet in their properties and ef-
ficacy they arc in no way fimilar. For, if we
add the muriatic acid or common fait to a ni-
rrom folution of mercury, we iliall obtain a ge-
nuine mercurial fait; but, if we take the volatile
alkali, a mercurial calx will be precipitated, from
Which all the acid can be walhcd away by wa-
ter. Some writers have diflinguiflicd tlr.j calx
by particular names. Teichmeyer calls u, 'vr-
pethum album*, and in the firft editions of the
London pharmacopoeia it is defcribed under the
appellation of mercurius pre dp itatus dulcis. It is
altogether milder than the white precipitate,
and lefs volatile. Doflie contends, that white
mercurial precipitate fliould be prepared by
mixing fixed alkali with a folution of corrofive
mercury. There is no doubt, that in this way
a white matter is often precipitated; but Doflie
did not know that it never happened unlefs old
alkali, and fuch as had abforbcd the aerial acid,
was employed.
Za As
'* Inftit. Chym.
COMBINATION OF MERCURY
As water diilblvcs fomctimcs more, fometimcs
lefs, of the white precipitate, ^t may be yet it
queflion, whether the muriatic or the nitroivs
acid is united with- the mercury in the compofu
tion of increurium cofmcticum. Although, in^
deed, I do not deny that fume portion of muria-
tic acid exifts in it, as the mode -of preparing .it
fcems to indicate, yet I cannot help thinking 1 ,
that the nitrous acid has the greater .influence
on its character, and is chielly inftrumental y ta its
production. For if we add a few -drops of nitrat-
ed mercury to a dilution of gum arable; thcJiquoc
becomes immediately milky, and very fcldoiu
recovers its tranlparency though ilill more ni-
trated mercury ihould be added. This, milky
colour, however, 1 have never feen when the
experiment was made with corroiive mercury.
Having ihown above, that cofmetic mercury af-
fumes the appearance of in ill; when mixed with
diflilled water, we infer, that this change of co-
lour is occalioned by the nitrated mercury, Co me
part of which is dtylroyed by the acceilion of the
mucilaginous matter.
We have now only further to obfervc on this
part of our i iibjed, that the method of prepar-
ing white mercurial precipitate, as propoled by
HII anonymous writer, is yet to be noticed.
He allerts, that from the mixture of corroiive
mercury with a certain weight of crude mer-
cury, a falc is obtained by the application of
heat
' WITH THE' MARINE ACID?
heat in all rcfpecls fimilar to white precipitate*.
Whether the experiment has been made by a-
ny other pcribn, I am altogether ignorant.
xix. JVbitc me rent nil Precipitate dijfcfacd in
Water.
IT is not yet fufliciently afcertaincd what
weight of white mercurial precipitate can be dif-
folved in a given quantity of water. The qucf-
lion is even difficult to be determined; as from
the various proportion of the acid in this fait,
it* folution in water is cither aflifted or impeded.
The time and manner alfo of the folution arc
principle objecls of confideratiorh For in that
moment 'when the acid firft acls upon the mer-
cury, the fait fo produced is cafily folublc in wa-
ter; but, if the precipitate is collected in the
form of a coagulum, its affinity with that fluid
is much diminifhed. Sal ammoniac affords con-
fidcrablc aifilhuicc to the folution, whether it
be made in water or in fpirit of wine.
The difficulty of the folution prevents the
white precipitate from forming into larger cry-
fbils, with the true form of which we are there-
fore yet unacquainted.
2, 3
11 Eflay for a reformation of ilie LonJon Plumi.
COMBINATION OF MERCURY
J X. The Quantity of A ] cid contained in
white Mercurial Precipitate.
MANY circumflances tend to prove that the
white mercurial precipitate contains lefs acid
than the corrofwe. It is, in the firfl place, of
more difficult folution, of a milder nature, and
receives a darker colour from lime water and fpi-
rit of ial ammoniac. According to their fcvcral
conditions it is varioufly aileclcd by acids and by
mercury ; which is by no means furpriiing, as all
mercurial falts, differing from corrofive fubli-
mute and fweet mercury, and holding a place
between them, are commonly exprefled under
the name of white mercurial precipitate.
S xxi. Adulteration of white Mercurial Pre-
cipitate,
IT. 5s not uncommon to meet with this fait in
a (late of adulteration. This is fometimesefiedcd
by a mixture of white lead ; for the difcovery of
which fraud DoiCe hasinllitutcd an experiment*.
I le di reels a fourth part of a lixivial fait to be mix-
ed with the mercurial precipitate, the whole to be
expofed to the fire, until the mercury riles un-
der the appearance of fmoke. If lead is found
in the crucible, the fraud is beyond a doubt ; if
not,
* Laboratory laid open.
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 359
not, the matter remaining will be a digeftivc fait
folublc in water ; and fhould no part of the rc-
fuimiin admit of folution, the adulteration is
made with white clay. White precipitate is a-
dulteratcd with (larch alfo. The marks of this
kind of fophiftication conflft in the levity of the
fubftance remaining, and the carbonaceous mafs
left after ignition.
xxn. Sweet Mercury.
MERCURY prcfcnts itfelf under another form
of combination, with the muriatic acid, to
which the name of mercurius dulcis has been
generally applied. This fait wasformerly in pof-
fefllon of various appellations, wfublimatumdul-
cc, aquila alba, aquila mitigata % manna mctal-
hrum* Pancbymogogum mincrale, and fcverul
others. The art of preparing it was, fo late as
the beginningof the fevcnteenth century reckon-
ed a myilery, Ofwald Croli fccms fuHiciently
cautious whcnfpeakingon this fubjeft. He lays
" Sunt duo fecrctifllmi modi tradandi mcrcuri-
" um pro mcdicina corporis. In fccundo
11 mortiticantur corrofivi fpiritus vitrioli et falis
** in mercurio fublimato, e quo miro et fimplici
* artificio homogencofit pulviscryilallinus plane
u infipidus *." That mercurius dulcis is meant
in this paflage I have not the ieaft difficulty to
Z 4 believe.
4 Bafilica Chcro. 1608.
3<Jo COMBINATION OF MERCURY
believe. But it was tolittle purpofeto haveobfer-
ved foobilinate a lilence; for in the fame year in
which Croll wrote this,J. Heguinpublilhedawork
at Paris, entited Tirocinium Chcmicum, where the
\vholecompolltionof this medicine (Draco mifiga-
///.r) is dcfcribcd in plain terms. Soon afterwards
its fame encrcafed more and more, and it was call-
ed at that time by the name of Pancbymugogus
Qyercetanus*. Neumann condemns the nameof
mcrcurius Jitblimatus dulcis as liable to occafion
dangerous errors, and prefers the appellation of
mercuriusdulcisbmply. At London, however, the
name of mcrcurius dulcis Jublimutus Hill obtains.
XXI 1 1. Methods of preparing it.
THE ancient chemifts, in all the pomp and
metaphor of language in which they fo much
delighted, boafled, " that 'they had tamed the
44 fierce ferpcnt and reduced the dragon to fuch
" fubjeclion as to oblige him to devour his own
" tail ;" while they were doing that only, which
\ve, in lefs aflecled terms, call foft cuing and a-
bating the acrimony of con-olive mercury. All
however, arc agreed that this change is produc-
ed by the further mixture of crude with corro-
iive mercury ; but different fentiments arc held
\virh refpcft to the method of doing it. Some
tritunite us much crude mercury as the corrofivc
mercury
* In honour of Juf. du Chtfnc, n celebrated chcmift.
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 3 rf f
mercury is capable to extinguifli, and others de-
line accurately the weight of mercury to be em-
ployed. Were the form and quantity of corro-
iive mercury always the fame, and equal pains
bellowed, it would be of little confcqucnce
which of the methods was preferred; but as this
is by no means the cafe, more circumfpecliou
becomes abfolutely necelTary. Lcmery, indeed,
in other refpecls moil attentive to determine
weights and proportions, contends that corro-
fivc cannot enter into combination with more
crude mercury than three-fourths of its weight.
The authors of the London and Edinburgh Phar-
macopoeias deliver the fame opinion. I mull own,
however, that for the reafons already adduced,
I confulcr it much fafer to employ crude mercu-
ry in excefs than in too final! proportion; efpc-
cially as the fuperabundant mercury may be
favcd with very little additional trouble. If
\vhite mercurial precipitate is taken, a (mall, and
fomctimer- no addition of crude mercury is requir-
ed. According to Lemery, fublimation alone
\vill be fullicient ; and Neumann had fo little
doubt that white mercurial precipitate ilood in
no need of crude mercury, that he pronounces it
to be already perfectly fimilar to mercunus dul-
cis. This opinion is not without fomc appear-
ance of truth, cfpecially as J. F. Carthcufer *
has obferved, that white mercurial precipitate,
not
* F.lem. Chcm.
COMBINATION OF MERCURY
not fubducd by fublimation, is the fame in effica-
cy and folubility with the fweet mercury pre-
pared in the common manner.
The mixture on which we are now treating,
ought neither to be made in metallic nor marble
mortars, as they are corroded by the mercurial
fublimatc ; but mortars of glafs are to be em-
ployed for this purpofe. Great care is at the
fume time to be taken that the dry powder does
not enter into the throat and lungs of the ope-
rator. In order to diminiih the danger of which,
the mafs ought generally to be moillcned, and
the mouth and noitrils of the perfon engaged in
the trituration covered with a cloth. When the
mercury is thoroughly extinguillicd or divided
into the fmalleft globules, the mixture a flumes
an obfcure or afh-like colour. This mechanical
procefs is not u little forwarded by digeflion ;
but it is not altogether adequate to fubdue the
acrimony of the corrofive mercury. An inti-
mate combination of the twofubftancesis requir-
ed, and which is generally produced by the
means of fire.
Sublimation is performed in an alembic, or (as
Stahl advifes), in a retort large enough to con-
tain 3 fufticient quantity of mercury, that none
of it may be wailed. Following G. Rothius,
J. F. Curtheufer properly directs, that the alem-
bic fhould be. covered with fand up to the very
neck, in order that the mercury, and more a-
crid
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 363
*rid particles of the fublimatc, rifmg \yith a Icfs
degree of heat, may be collcclcd in the fummit
of the vcflcl ; from which ciicumftance a va-
cant fpace of fomc inches in length is left in
the neck for the pure mcrcurius dulcis, when
it is raifed with an encrcafed degree of heat. If
a coated vcflcl is expofrd to an open fire, the
upper portion of the neck mud be left uncpver-
cd for feveral inches.
The fire is to be gradually augmented, until
it be fomcwhat more powerful than in the pre-
paration of corrolivc fublimatc. If it is too
flrong, Wilion tells us, the fwcct mercury turns
black, and retains this appearance with fucli
pbilinacy, that fublimation alone repeated can
fcarce remove it, unlefs it is feveral times rub-
bed with common fait *.
The veflcls being broken and opened, befides
the fwcct mercury, a yellow or afh-coloured
powder is found in the receiver ; a few grains of
which we are told by Vogel arc AuTicient to kill
a dog f . This is the corrofive mercury not ren-
dered mild by fublimation. At the bottom of
the vcflcl is found a dry and inert mafs, foine-
timcs .of a rcddifli colour, which I apprehend
to be the rcfiduum only of the extraneous mat-
ter adherent in the corrofive mercury ; although
Junker confidcrs it as fomething of a peculiar na-
turc,
* WJlfon'a courfc of chcmi&ry, 1699.
f Inftit. Chcm.
COMBINATION OF MERCURY
V
tiire *. The yellow or afn-coloured powder men-
tioned above, if mixed with afuflicicnt quantity
of crude mercury, and again fublimed, can be
converted into fwect mercury ; it is therefore by
no means to be thrown nfulc:us ufelefs, as is com-
monly done, on the authority of pharmaceuti-
cal writings.
The firil procefs being ended, maiiy chemiils
direct the afli-coloured po\vder to be fepa rated,
and the folid faline mafs, either alone, or mixed
with as much crude mercury as it can extinguish,
to be again and even fevcral times fublimed. In
this way they at Jail judge it to be properly called
incrcurlus dulcis. In our laboratories, however,
the fublimation is feldom repeated more than
twice. The French reckon frequent fublima-
tions of great importance; and after three are
made with addition of crude mercury and three
without.it, they name that calomel or cu/outf/as
which is obtained by the lad fublimation. This
appellation is however fuflidently abfurd, and
ciiticifed by many f ; with us it is commonly giv-
en to the mercurius dulcis, which is produced
by the firil: fublimation. La lirune has gone
yet further, and added greatly to the labour of
this preparation, in fubliming fweet mercury
nine
* Confp. Chtm.
t See Lewis's notes uponfcWIlfon's Courfe of Chcim'ftrr,
J735. and the author of the book: Efiay fora rctormatiun
of the London Pharmacopoeia.
j WITH THE MARINE ACID.
nine times, and then- digelling it with fpirit of
wine impregnated with aromatics. Mercuriua
dulcis prepared in this manner is commonly
known by the na;nc tfpaiiti&a mcrcttritilis*.
xxrv. /;; what IV ay the ancient Cbcmiftf
proceeded in t'ffpctt to fwcct Mercury.
SWF.ET mercury is prepared in the prcfcnf
ajje by a proeefs far more ready and limple than
it was formerly. -Hogum mixed corroflve mercury
with crude mercury, and vitriol of Mars' calcined
to rcclnefs, and then ])roccedcd to fublimation.
The vitriol could not aflill in fubduing the acri-
mony ot* the corrolivc mercury, but would ra-
iher tend to adulterate the fwect mercury with
inart'ial earth and vitriolic acid. How Croll con-
dueled this operation \ve know not; lie probably
employed a limplcr method, as he calls it artifi-
rium hMfrtfencum. Compolitions of fwcet mercu-
ry with various metals, which are now ohfolctc,
were in high cftimation among the ancient
chcmifK 1 do not chufc to difputc that fomc
iifcful medicines may be produced by fuch a
mixture ; but it is incontrovertible that the fvvcet
mercury is more or lefs changed by it. Sc breeder
fays, that having fublimed iweet mercury which
had been mixed and triturated with laminated
jilver, he found no veiligc of filvcr in the refi-
duuin
4 Mal'juin Chcmie mcdiciaale.
3 66 COMBINATION OF MERCURY
duuih; and that therefore what was fublimed
might properly be called lunar fweet mercu-
ry*. It is well known that volatile fubftancen
often lend wings, even to fuch as otherwife are
very fixed, and bear a great degree of heat;
therefore even this is not to be wondered at,
that fweet mercury fhould ruife along with it
cupels of p;lafs, and even large ones -j-.
xxv. Pbyjical Qmlities of fweet Mercury.
THE fweet mercury commonly fold in the
ihops is folid, cryflallinc, and of a white. colour;
which however for the moil part is ycllowifh in-
wardly and in its fradures. It is fimilar to the
flower* of benzoin which arc brought from China.
Its proper weight is diminiflied by every fubli-
mation. According to Mufchenbroek {, on its
fecond fublinuition, it is as 12.353 ; on its third,
as 8,82; on its fourth, as 8.236, Hence it ap-
pears, that our fait, having often borne the force
of the fire, by degrees encreafes in volume, and
approaches to the weight of corrolive mercury;
to which otherwife it is very diffimilar. It may
be fufpecled by fome, that the acid is diminifli-
ed, and that the refiduum enters into a more in-
timate combination by repeated fublimations ;
but
4 ScrocJcr Pharmacia. 1641,
f Uaumc Manuel dc Chcmie.
t Introd. in Philof. Na*.ur.
WITH THE MARINE ACID.
but when, by tlicfo alone, corrofive cannot be
converted into fwect mercury, it is very plain,
that the addition of quick-filvcr is necefTary;
unlcfs it is contended, that, by fublimations
in a greater number than what have hitherto
been attempted, corrofive may be changed into
fweet mercury. There is, no doubt, a certain
mutual relation in the weight of the acid and
of the quick-filver, which has not hitherto been
accurately defined ; although Lcmery by his
experiments feems to evince that the ratio is
as i to 61.
Sweet mercury held in the fun, is, in amort
time tinged with a nob feu re colour*. In the dark,
too, as obfcrvcd by Schcelc, it fhines if rubbed;
which property, however it lofes, by repeated
fublimations. By this means, therefore, it may
be found out how often it has been fublimed.
What is commonly laid, that gold is not
made pale by friction with fvvcet mercury, is
true ; but by this experiment, however, the
pcrfedion of this fait cannot be known ; for e-
ven by corrofive mercury, if well prepared, the
colour of gold is not changed. But fince, by
the addition of too much quick-filver, it con-
tains, after the firft fublimation, many metallic
globules; and that gold rubbed with it may by
this means be whitened, from hence this vulgar
error
* Ntaman. Pricl. Chera.
368 COMBINATION OF MERCURY
error has taken its rife, that corrofive mercury
can change the colour of gold.
xxvi. Sweet Mercury dij/blvcd by various
Fluids 4
SWEET mercury has hardly any tafle, as it is
with difficulty diilblvcd by water. From the ex-
periments of Rolfirle it appears, that even with
the ailiftance of tritunition i^nd boiling, 2 ounces
of water only dill'olvcs a iingle grain of fwcet
mercury; that is, one part only by 1152 of wa-
ter. The fvrup of violets is made green by this
folution. The fume folution is did u I bed by fix-
ed alkali; but much more by the volatile alka-
li, which gives it the colour of an opal. There
is, however, no cflervefccnce produced, and af-
ter a day, there is hardly any precipitation*.
Since corroiivc mercury is much more foluble
in water, it may be eaiily known, by the expe-
riment propofed by Carthcuferf, whether
fweet mercury is free from the acid or not, viz.
if, after pounding it grofsly, it is macerated in
warm water for an hour. But it is better, how-
ever, to make ufe of the fpirit of wine, which
diilolves the corrofive mercury caller than wa-
ter, but the fweet not at all.
The colour of mercurius dulcis is obfcurcd by
lime
Mem. de 1'AcaJ. <lci Sc. dc Parti, a. 1754.
t EL CLyw.
WITH THE MARINE ACID.
time-water, fpirit offal ammoniac, or even a folu-
tionof lixiviated fait found upon it. This pheno-
menon is commonly thought to depend on the
perfect dulcification of the mercury. But the
alteration is the fame, when white precipitate is
ufed.
Some aflcrt that three parts of oil of olives, and
one of fweet mercury, if boiled together, diflblvc
and form a fort of balfam.
5 xxvii. Protcfs for preparing Corro/fvc Mercury
from fweet Mercury.
FEW have tried to prepare corrofivc from fweet
-mercury. Schcffer of the Swcdifh Academy
made fome experiments with this view: and his
papers, in which, among other things, 1 found a
detail of thofe experiments, were, after the au-
thor's death, put into my hands by the illuflrious
Patrick Alllromcr. Ahtromcr was induced, by
SchclVer's example, to attempt the folution of fwcct
mercury in the marine acid; but the experiment
was unfucccfsful. Sweet mercury macerated
with that acid, and reduced to a powder, was in-
deed altered, and aflumcd a dirty colour on the
furfacc, but retained its mild charader unchang-
ed. Nay, though fublimated three times fuc-
ceflively, witlv the addition of equal quantities of
romninn fair, and vitriol calcined to whitcncfs, ic
A a ftill
37 o COMBINATION OF MERCURY
ft ill remained the fame. Nor was its nature al-
tered by adding a quantity of nitrous acid fuf-
ficient for the folution of the quick mercury con-
tained in it, feparating that nitrous acid hydilliU
hition, and fublimating the reliduum with an e^ual
quantity of common fait. But corrofivc mercury
was obtained by adding for every part of fweet
mercury, one of common fait, and two of vitriol
not calcined, and fublimating the mixture. To
render the event of the experiments the more
certain, a quantity off\veet mercury was pre-
pared, from running mercury by the ordinary
procefs, and again converted into corrofivc. From
thefe fuels it follows, that corrolivc fublimate may
be prepared without nitrous acid, and that the
fubftances ad upon each oilier with a greater
reciprocal force in a humid mixture than in thq
dry way.
xx vi ii. How happens it that the cot t ojhe force
d Mercury is not uiionys the fame ?
AFTER confidering the various combinations
of mercury with the acid of fait, we are Jed to
enquire to what cuufc thedivcriitiesin their cha-
racter can be owing. The ancients imagined
that the acrid power of corrolive fublimntc vumJe-
lived from the influence of the vitrolic acid; a;
ii wns p!?in, that the mercury, cunliiling as ir.
did,
WITH THE MARINE ACID 371
vlid, of final! globules could have no fuch quali-
ty. Some even afcribed to the nitrous acid a
part of the peculiar (jualitie&ofcorrofivcfublimatc.
Barchufcn was one of the firil who exploded
thcfe opinions as erroneous. The mineral acids,
lie obfervcd, tl'c greater their fpccific gravity,
are fo ir.ucli the Ids volatile, and the arcanum
corallinum, which, in his opinion, is produced
from vitriolic acid, ought to be equally white
andcorrolive nsfublimatctl mercury, were it true
that this preparation owes its whitencfs and other
peculiar qualities to the vitriolic acid. Although
thefe arguments be not very conclufive, yet
what liarchulcn wiflics to evince isccrtain, that
corroiivcfublimatc iscompofedfolclv by the com-
bination of mercury with the marine acid. It
jias been already proved, that in corrufivc fubli-
jnatc there cxills an excels, in white precipitate
a moderate portion, and in fwect mercury a ft ill
fmallcr quantity of marine acid. And fmcc the
corrolive powers of tiiclc (alts vary nearly in the
fame order, it is natural to attribute their acrid
quality to that acid. lint upon a more accurate
examination, the came appears inadequate to
thccllccl. A drachmof acid of fait, if diluted in
a due quantity of water, may be drunk with
fafety : but even half a drachm of corroiivc iubll-
mate, although diluted in the fame quantity of
water, proves a mortal poifon. JJclidcs in the
compound fait, the acid is intermixed with
A a 2 thrc<?
3 ;a COMBINATION OF MERCURY
three times its weight of mercury, and fo quali-
fied, that its prefence cannot be deteded either
by tafte, or by the inlluence of reagents. In-
(lead of attrading moifture with any confider-
able force, it does not diflblve in water without
difficulty. Ihcfe circumftances, as they all a-
gree to prove the intimacy of the combination
between the acid and the mineral ; fo, inltead of
explaining, they rather concur to conceal more
entirely the caufe to which the mercury owes
its corrofivc powers, Yet, I cannot avoid praiiing
the ingenuity of Macquer, who, though he does
not altogether remove the difficulty, yet pro-
pofes a plaufible and natural theory *. Nature,
fays he, has difpofed all bodies to a mutual uni-
on. This natural tendency is commonly called
affinity or attractive force. Upon the heavenly
bodies it operates even at ii wntnfe ill Jlunccs ; but
on earth it ads between bodies, only when they
arc brought clofe together. Bcfides, the mutu-
al attradions of terreftrial bodies arc not regu-
lated merely by bulk and diflancc. The modes
and the degrees of chemical affinity arc very va-
rious. Some bodies even refufe to combine :
and this may happen, when the parts of any one
of two bodies have a greater tendency to adhere
together than to enter into combination with
the parts of the other. Mercury and the ma-
rine acid aflbrd an inftance; in their natural
flat*
* Dictionary of Chemiflry.
\VITH THE MAIUNE ACID; 373
ftutc they refufeto unite; but deftroy tlic cohe-
fion of their parts, and they combine without
difficulty ; for the acid diflblves the mercury
when either converted into vapour or precipita-
ted from a nitrous folution. Mercury is given
by itfelfas a medicine, with fafety, and itsefiica-
cy then depends folcly upon its own operation :
but, again, when it is joined with the marine
acid, the parts being no longer in conta6t with
each othcr,the attractive force by which they were
united, operates in a new direction, and carries
them, with a violent impulfe, upon the bodies
to which they arc mod contiguous. Hence the
corrolivc force of the fublimatcd mercury, which
in proportion to its fupcrior gravity, is more vio-
lent in its adion than other poifons. But, when
mercury is combined in a larger proportion with
the fame quantity of marine ocid t the particles
of the metal approach nearer to each other;
and their power of producing changes upon o-
ther bodies is thereby gradually diminished, till
they become at length ulmoft incapable of oper-
ating as reagents. Sweet mercury is the re-
fult.
$ xxix. "fbc various Ufcs of Mercurial Sttts.
THK mercurial falts above defcribed are ufc-
ful, not only as medicines, but likcwifc in tho
arts. Kunkel bellows lavifh praifes on that
A a 3 mercury
274 COMBINATION OF MERCURY
mercury which ib obtained by dift illation from
white precipitated mercury, with a mixture of
iron filings, or fixed alkali. But I cannot think
this to poilefs any higher virtues than other pure
quick ill vet. Cold that has contracted an unna-
tural hardnefs and brittlenefs, by intermixture
with other metals, or by tlie action of their va-
pour, recovers its natural ductility, it" it be melt-
ed, and a quantity of corrofivc fublimate cafl
upon it ; for the marine acid having a greater
affinity with mod of the other metals than with
quickfilver or gold, fortiikcs the quickiilver with
which it was united in the corrolive fublimate,
and attracts them from the gold. In this pro-
cefs care mufl be taken, that the operator iuf-
fer no inconvenience from the vapours which a-
rife from the corrolive fublimate diilblved by the
heat of the fire, the pure mercury, and the ex-
traneous metals Separated from the gold.
This mode of .purifying gold is preferable to
the pvoceis by deflagration with nitre ; f<*r the
deflagration of the nitre ieparates riot only the
bafer metals, but even lilver from gold. It is of
importance to obferve, that corrolive fublimate
may be employed to prefcrvc metals that are
mixed and fufed with zinc, from contracting any
undue rigidity. Upon this principle, according
to Neuman, workers in brafs throw fait on the
metal in fulion, to render it fofter and more duc-
tile.
Corrofivc
WITH THE MARINE ACID. 315
Corrofive fublimatc and white precipitate are
ufed in printing cotton, to make the cloth receive
the colours, efpcciully red, and to make them
fpread equally upon the ground. It is a general,
though ncedlcfs praclicc, to add corrofive fubli-
mate, as on<* of the ingredients, to the prepara-
tion for dyeing black iilk. Chcmifts, too, fre-
quently ufc corrofive fublimatc in examining wa-
ters ; in preparing butter from antimony, and
other metals ; as alfo in the preparation of fal
Alcmbroth.
A a 4 PROCESS
PROCESS
FOR
BURNING BRICKS,
yfr//um magijltr vfut*
COLUMILLA.
$ i. Circumjlanccs wbieb fuggrfled the following
Experiments, and the J)s/ign of communicat-
ing them.
J[ HAVE long obferved the mode of making;
bricks commonly praftifed, to be in many par-
ticulurs injudicious, and fufceptible of great im-
provements. The Academy at Upfal, fome
years ago, impofed on me u talk which gave
mcanoccaiiontbr a ftricter enquiry into this mat-
ter. J was enjoined by that body to examine
feveral dillerent forts of clay ufed in making
bricks in the works under their direction. The
experiments which I then inltituted, confirmed
my conjectures : And I now communicate them
rvith the greater confidence, becuufe this art,
notwUhltaiidiug
P R O C E S S, &c. 777
notwithstanding its utility and importance has
been hitherto ncgleded by chcmiib.
ii. The different Sorts of Bricks.
MANY arc of opinion that bricks, fuch as arc
made at prcfent are too porous aud fpungy, and
arc much inferior to the bricks of the ancients.
I myfelf have fecn brick-walls crumble down
within a few years after they were creeled ; yet
it is not uncommon to fee a brick-wall retain all
its original ilrmnefs and folidity after having
flood a century or two. I mean not, however,
to fpcak here of bricks for building common
walk. Thcfc mud be very bad indeed, if they
will not lail for a number of years when properly
cemented and plaiftcred ; and this latter circum-
ilancc I am to conlider at length clfewherc. But
forchimnics and other parts of buildings of which
the materials are required to be folid, bricks or tiles
ought to be prepared by the proccfs of which I
am about to give a detail. Care muft full be
taken, however, *o have the roof formed of du-
rable materials, as a protection from the weather
and from accidents. Wooden roofs are very im-
proper, they are very liable to catch fire, and
they occafiun the woods to be cut down before
reaching their full growth. Turf is no lefs un-
i'uitable ; the ufe of it caufes the meadows to
be ravaged, and befide*, other materials are nc-
ceiTary
3?8 PROCESS FOR
ceflary to (IK the 'turfs together. Plates of any
metal are both too expenfive, and require to
be covered with wood, and yet are no fccurity
again ft fire. The ufe of flate for roofing houfes,
although it may be found in Sweden, is almoll
entirely unknown to my countrymen. Tiles there-
fore are the only proper materials that remain
for us to ufe. And it is cafy to fee ot what con-
fequence it is to have them compact and folid.
in. The ordinary Faults of Tiles.
SOFTNESS is the greateft fault of tiles. I have
fcen tiles burnt in the bell brick kilns in Sweden,
which on a roof of 30 degrees of inclination ab-
forlxed water like a fponge. The water retained in
the poies of tiles is congealed in winter, and the
expanlion of the ice fplits and (hatters the tiles,
fo as to render them in a fliort time abfolutely
ufelefs. 'I'o keep out the \U|ter, tiles are in fume
places incrullcd with u thin covering of vitreous
matter; which adds corilidenibly to the ex-
pcncu. But, if tiles were more thoroughly burnt
on the furfacc, fo as to be nearly reduced tofu-
Jion, they might, in my opinion, be rendered
fo hard as to abibrb very little moifture, and to
be almoft entirely proof aguinll the influence of
froft. JJut, before faying more on this head,
I mull enter into a more accurate examination
wf the nature both of pure and common clay.
S iv.
BURNING BRtCKS. 379
iv. Pure Clay.
I KNO\V not that pure clay is liable to fufion,
T>y any intcnfity of heat, unlcfs perhaps by that
of the burning glafs. D'Arcet found it to un-
dergo no change in the heat .of a porcelain fur-
nace. In the lire, however it becomes fo hard
tn to give fire with ftccl. This is owing to the
incrcafc of its denlity, for it IbfcValmofl one half
of its bulk.
Pure clay is hot Aifiblc with quicklime, in a-
ny proportion. But the addition of even the
fmalleft quantity of filiceous matter brings the
niafs to iufion. And the fufion takes place very
readily if to one part of pure clay, and one of
lime, two or three parts offiliceous earth be ad-
ded ; a larger proportion offiliceous matter is un-
favourable to the fulion of the mixture ; and
the addition of five parts renders it almoll infu-
lible. A mixture of equal parts of clay and lime
fullers wne half lefs diminution in bulk than the
fame quantity of pure clay would fuller. But,
if in the mixture, the clay be only in the pro-
portion of one to five, or one to fix, it produces
Icarce any alteration on the character of the,
lime. Clay is not fufiblc with pure qurirtz;
but, according to Pott, it melts without great
difficulty with tluor mineral. Fcldfpath, or
il luting ipar, often fufes l>y it felt* in the lire,
suut
380 , tROCKSSFOR
and even affifb the fufion of clay. The Petitrl-
tfc of the Chinefe, ufed in making their porce-
lain, is a mixture of this latter ibrt ; and it is by
this means that they reduce their clay to fu-
iion.
J v. Common Clay.
CLAY of various degrees of purity is found iii
many places on the furface of the earth, but
fcarce any where in perfect purity. For fuch
of the common clays as have been examined,
have been found to contain a large proportion,
fometimcs no lei* than fevcnty in an hundred
parts of iilicious fand. Warning, indeed, de-
taches the fand, but a very fubtile iiliceous dull
dill remains, and cannot be feparated unlds by
the folution of the clay. Hence it appears,
why the mixture of clay and lime commonly
known by the name of marl, is fufible in the
fire. It is thought to be the lime that oc-
cafions the fulion, whereas it is the . Iiliceous
earth.
The Swedifli clays are fufible without lime ;
but the rcafon of this cannot be precifcly ex-
plained. Some have thought that the iron ia
the Swedilh clay promotes its fulion. But
Rinmunn difcovcrcd by a feries of expcriments r
that clays contaminated with a large propor-
wonof ircn, are more refractory than thofe in
\vhich
BURNING BRICKS. 381
which there appears no indication of the pre-
fence of this nictai. Perhaps the true rcafon
is to be looked for in the fund intermixed, which
may he often fufpccled to contain many par-
ticles of fcintillating fpar. I fufpcdl alfo,
that it fometimes participates of the nature of
gypfum or fluor mineral. One thing certain,
is, that vitriolic acid is ahnoft always intermix-
ed with the clay : and hence the fulphureous
fmell that is always felt in the neighbourhood
of brick-kilns. And, if lime be intermixed
with the clay, it mud unavoidably abforb the
acid : for which rcafon an examination with
acids will always be found fallacious.
If the iron be combined with vitriolic acid,
the colour appears in the burning. For as the
violence of the fire incrcafes, it aflumcs firft a
yellow colour, then a red, then a dark grey,
and at length a deep black. The colour is
darker or lighter in proportion as the quantity
of iron intermixed is greater or lefs. If the
burning docs not expel the whole of the vitrio-
lic acid, the acid often attracts moifture from
the air, and cfllorcfccs in the form of alum.
5 vi. How Bricks JJjould be formed and burnt.
HRICKS confiil univcrfally of clay and filice-
ous earth. The clay renders the mafs duclilr,
f ind fufceptiblc of induration. But as clay, by
itJelf.
31 1 PROCESS FOR
itfelf, is contracted and cracked, as well as
burdened by the aclion of fire, an intermix-
lure of land is therefore rcquifitc, \\hich, as it is
expanded by heat, and diminifhcs the quantity
of the clay, ruull render the whole brick lei's
liable to contract. But we mull beware of add-
ing too much fund, as that would be unfavour-
able to the denfity and folklity of the mafs.
In making bricks, therefore, as much fund
ought to be intermixed as may be nccefl'iry to
prevent the bricks from drying and cracking;
unlefs particular circumitanccs may recommend
a different proportion, of which hereafter. Na-
ture, in many places, prefents clay with fuch a
Tpixture of faiid, that no addition whatever Is re-
cjuifUc. And as it is no cafy tafk to mix clay
and fand in the due proportions, that where the
mixture has been performed by the hand of na-
ture ought always to be preferred. Art cannot
imitate the perfection in which nature intermixes
thcfe two fub fiances, but produces a rude une-
qual mafs, which is variouily affected by the ac-
tion of fire, and i* liable to have its deniiry great-
ly impaired. Hut when an artificial mixture is
fobc made, the (and ought to be chofen fine, and
coiiiifling of minute particles rather than thick,
and contaminated with earth, and to be painful-
ly mixed with the clay.
The heat mull be fuflicicntly intenfe to melt
(the bricks on the furface. This renders them lo
BURNING PRICKS. 383
rompacl as to exclude water. But if too great
\iolencc of fire be applied, there will he danger
that the bricks, efpccially in the low eft and the
middle lira turn, be cither entirely melted, or at
leaft, run together.
4 vii. Attempts to improve Ch w f hy the intermix-
tine if ttber Sitblliinccs, arc tf no Service.
Tin; makers of bricks difapprove of mixing
poor clays with a large proportion of fand, earth,
and lime : for experience has ihcwn that thcfc
fubftances are of no ufe whatever in the prepa-
ration of bricks. Yet it is often nof fo much the
fubdancc, as the method of preparation followed
that i^ faulty. The burning is frequently con-
dueled in fuch a manner as to reduce the lime
to quick-lime, in which ft ate it abforbs moilture
from the atmofphcrc, and caufcs the bricks to
crack and form chinks for the reception of walcr.
But a more entire burning will obviate this in-
convenience, by blending the lime thoroughly
with the fand and clay, and producing a fort of
vitrification. In this cafe, the lime, inftcad of
doing harm, is even of advantage, contributing,
in no fmall degree, to the fulioii of the clay.
When, fhcrcforc, there happens to be marl in
the neighbourhood of a brick kiln, it ought to
be preferred to any other fort of earth. But
rnarl is liable to various impcrfcclibns which
render
3*4 PROCESS FOR
render it Icfs fuitable as a material for brick?.
The chief of thefe, its containing too large a pro-
portion of lime, may be remedied by the addi-
tion of clay. Another fault of marie is, when
its parts have too great a tendency to vitrifica-
tion ; but the addition of filiceous earth rcclifie*
this*. Care muft likewife be taken, that the
lime be fufliciently pulverized. If it be in lumps,
the .procefs is more likely to milcarry.
vin. Experiments of tie slutbor.
I AM now to give an account of a ferics of ex-
periments which I made upon common clay,
without any admixture of lime, and two dille-
rent forts of marl both dug near Upfal. Of
ihefc earths I had bricks formed and burnt, fome
without any fund, others with one-fourth of fund
to three-fourths of clay. Thole in which there
was no fand did not crack as they were dried;
from which it appeared that the fubftancc of
which they were compofed, was of itfclf, without
any addition whatever, fufficiently fuitable as *
material for bricks. Of the bricks fume were
burnt till they became red, and toother* a more
intenfc heat was applied, which gave them a dm k
brown colour and rendered them hard on the
furface. But the hardeil were thofc into the
compofltion
* f iv. v.
BURKING BRICKS. 38$
compoiltion of 'which a fourth part of fund had
entered. Others which had been cxpofcd to the
moll intcnfe heat, (Veiled and afllimed the form
of a black fibrous Hag. The bricks, after being
burnt and cooled, were caft into water, which,
after abforbing copioufly, they were removed,
and e.xpofed for three whole years, to the open
air. Thole which had been cxpofcd for the
ihortcfl time to the fire, were almoft totally dc-
llroycdand crumbled down by the aftion of the
air; fuch as had been more thoroughly burnt,
fullered lefs damage; and upon thofe which were
formed folely of clay, and had been half vitrified
on the furface by the action of a very ftrongfire,
not the flighted alteration was produced by the
influence of the air and weather*
5 ix. Advice relative to tie burhing tf Bricks.
FROM thcfe experiments in the fmall way
a judgement may be formed, how far any clay is
proper 'as a material for bricks. The more clay is
liable to contract ion in drying, the greater ad-
dition of fand docs it require. The bed clays
are thofe which need no fand. For, with fuch,
the labour is abridged, and the bricks are ofafu-
pcrior quality. The colour, after burning, fliews
whether there be any iron in the bricks. The
nature and appearance of the matter varies with
the degrees of the heat to Which it is expofcd ;
B b and
3 86 PROCESS FOR
and hence we haver indications by which we nr
diltmguifh when bricks ;rrc thoroughly burnt in
the kiln. Every pcrfon is ready to obferve that
brick? are too foft, and imperfectly burnt : but
few have (kill enough to difcern the blunders
whicli are liable to be committed in the proceiV
of preparing bricks, or how far t!ie burning
ought to be carried. For tlh: apyrous clay or"
which bricks are fumetimcs computed is not vi-
triliuble merely by burning: and indeed no vi-
triiication is neceilary when they can be render-
ed hard enough iblely by the violent aclion of
fire, If, however, a vitreous cruJl be thought ne-
ceiftry, it may be formed v/ith great eufo, and
almoit no expence, by liitfvinUhing the fire for a
little, throwing in a fmall quantity of fait, and
ilmttiiu 1 ; up the kiln immediately. The bricks
v. ill thus infallibly acquire u vitreous crufl, and
That in the reudieil manner poilible. It only re-
mains to determine the |>roportion of f.ilt necef-
lary.
j
> 5 x. Method ofaffliyin^ Ckiyfor.Tik.r.
To infurc fuccefs, it will be highly proper to
examine the nature of the clay before proceeding
to form it into bricks. This may be moll expe-
diltoufly done in the following manner: nitrous
;n:il. p ->urcii upon un burnt clay, dete^U the pre-
fence,
BURNING BRICKS. 387
fence of lime by producing an effervefcencc.
Calcareous clays, or marie of this character arc
ofrcn the littc.l materials for bricks. Farther,
take a lump of cl.iv, of a given weight; mace-
rate it in water, and flrakc the mixture; then,
fullering the heavier parts to iink to the bottom,
pour the liquid into a different vcfiel; mix the
refiduc with anew quantity of water, and repeat
this proccfs, till the whole become perfectly
limpid. The clay is now all diifulved, and
what remains is nothing but fancl. What-
ever matter may be found to have fubfided in
ihc different vclll-ls, may alib be reduced by re-
peated wafhings to the fmell (and. Again, to
fe para te the lime which may be intermixed with
the clay, pour upon a quantity of clay in any
vcflcl fpirit of nitre to the depth oi'a few inches;
ditrcft the fpirit of nitre upon the clay, then after
the eilcrvefcencc has ceafed, let the clear liquor
be poured on the land previoufly fcparated, which
is fomctimes equally contaminated with lime. An
additional portion of clay mult be from time to
time added to the aquafortis, till the cflervef-.
cence entirely ceafe. The clay and fand arc
then taken hot, and wafiied apart. It is ncedleis
to burn the clay in thefe experiments, ai
that would diiVolve a part of it. But, let fpirit
t>f volatile alkali be dropped into the folutkm of
lime in nitrous acid, till the lime be precipitated;
pour the pure liquor into a different vcflcl; and
B b 2 \vafli
3 3t PROCESS FOR, &c.
wafli the refidue with liot water. At lengt.fr/
when the clay, the lime, and the fund are all ful-
ly dry, weigh them fcparately, that their propor-
tions in the mafs may be afcertained. The land
may be examined with the mierofcope, in order
to dillimjuifh whether it contain any filiccoiia
matter, feint illating fpar, &-c.
After making the allay, it will be eafy to dif-
tingiiifli the pecular nature and the competition?
of the clay; whether an addition of fund be rc-
qiiifitcto render it a Jit inatcikil for bricks; what.
kind of fund it may be proper to add; and by
what indications we are to know whether tbo
bricks be thoroughly burnt.
,o f r 11 ^
ACIDULATED W A T E R
O F
M E p y r,
rfluf tjvifrjuf re/iflij t
Ntturam frtmumjlvtlent co^nnfc erf rcrum.
i. II[ftory of the acidulated waters ofMcdvi.
I i*. fmiatcd in the dioccfc of N-
kyrkc in Gothland. The medicinal fprings arc
at the dirtance of a quarter of a .Svvedifli mile.
They owe their celebrity to Guflavus L. B. Soop,
fenatorof the kingdom, and Lord of the Manor,
who firll difcovcrcd them in the year 1677. That
nobleman Tent a fampleofthc water to Ulbanus
iliiLTne, who was at that time royal archiatcr;
and he, after examining its nature, and vifitin^
(he fprings next year in perfon, pronounced it fa-
iubrious. There were then three fprings, com-
monly known by the names of Ihgbrwit Dal-
B b 3. hritti,
5v o ACIDULATED WATERS
brun, and Rodbrun % the Upper, the Nether, and
the Red Spring; the two firil five and twenty
paces diftant from each other, the third an lum-
drcd paces diflant from the firih The Upper
fpring, on account of the fuperior excellence of
its water, as well as its iituution, was lirll op?n-
cd, inclofed with a (tone and lime wall, covered
above, and folemnly confccruted on tlie 25th of
July, 1678.
It is remarkable, that tlr; octangular build-
* ing with which it was inclofed, ilill Hands en-
tiro ; and the original roof is Hill a fuJlicient
Ihelter from the rain, although furroumled \\ith
tall branchy trees, and expolcd from its litua*'
tion to uncommon quantities of rain and con-
tinual dampnefs.
\V y ell> have not yet been dug at .the open-
ings of tlvj other two fpring^ : The netber t or
hiver fpring, fo called from its low fituution ;
sind the red fpring, which owes its dhtiiiguilh-
ing epithet to the ochre with which its waters
are mixed.
It is more than probable, that the virtues of
thofe waters had been long known to the neigh-
bouring inhabitants. To the red fpring parti-
c.ularly farriflccs appear to have been ollerctl,
and religious veneration paid. Whether t licit?
fprings retained their celebrity during the reign
of popery, we know not. In the Colleclanca Of-
Urogothica of Pal mil-hold mention is made, fhut.
OF M E D V I. 3-;r
'/of. CwflaHtitt an Italian phyfician had fecn in
the Vatican library nn old manufcript concern-
ing tlic fauibrious virtues of certain acidulous
\valers in Gothland, which I take to have been
thofe of Meilvi.
5 ii. JVbat has been difiwercd by firmer F.\l*eri-
ments concerning the peculiar I'irtucs <>file II 'a-
ft'is.of MiJi'L
HM-IKNF. made fonic experiments on the water
of the upper fpring, the refult> of which, though
they did not iiulii-ate \\'itli certainty or prccifion
\vhat dillcrcnt matters it contained, or in \vhaf
4|iiantities or proportions; yet induced that au-
thor to think, that there exiiled in the water a
certain univerfal acid, capable of acting upon
crude iron ore, richly impregnated with iul-
phur, and of producing by tliis operation vola-
tile vitrfot, and a portion of fcrrcous fulphur.
JJixrii'j thought farther, that a portion of this
univerfil acid, fatiirated with calcareous mat-
ter, formed the alum, which he imagined, he
difcovcrcd in the waters of Medvi.
A^ the waters of IMedvi Iiave been fo long
and lo generally celebrated lor medicinal vir-
tues fuperior to thole of any otlu?r mineral
waters in Sweden, it is furprifing that no pcr-
fon, before me, lias l>een induced to attempt
^ more accurate analyfis of them. In the year
3 <;i ACIDULATED WATERS
1778, indeed, the illudrious L. R. Aldroemfr.
Couniellor of the Palace, and Comniendator of
the order of Vafu, Tent me twelve pints of the
water of Medvi, and half a pint of a liquor that
remained after the evaporation of ten pints
and an half of the lame water, with a brief de-
tail of experiments made upon it by Dr Dubb;
and at his dcfire I immediately fct about ana'-
lyiing it. I have el (c\v here related wliat I then
obicrved *. But having myfolf, in this very
year, had occafion to vilit that watering place,
I availed myfelf of the opportunity to make
ntw and more accurate experiments upon the
mineral waters of Medvi, of which I (hall hcni
give an account. *
in. Pbyjical Qialitifs of tbc Waters of Medvi.
THE water of the mineral fprings of Medvi,
is indeed limpid, but not fo clear as common
fpring water.
In the month ot'Augult, I found the tempe-
rature to be, at the bottom of the well, 6 ) de-
grees above zero in the Swedish thermometer,
and 7dcgrecsofthe fame thermomcterat thelur-
face. At the ufual hour of drinking the water,
the temperature of the well was fomc dt-gr^es a-
bove'tliat of the open atmofphtre ; but this, as
well as the difference between the temperature
of the furfuce and that of the bottom of the well,
might-
* Opufc. C!icm. v. r. p. 755.
OF M>:D v i. 393
might probably be owing to the building which
covered and inclofed the well being at that
time crowded with people. When water was
brought tome, in my room, I found its tempe-
rature 8 degrees. Any perfon wifhing to have
it as cold as pollible, fhould therefore drink it at
the well, and take care to have what he drinks
drawn from the bottom. There is alfo another
reafon for this, which I fhall mention by and
l>ye.
It tafles fomcwhat of iron, though not difa-
grccably ; but has nothing of that pungency
which is peculiar to aerated waters.
In drinking it, the noftrils are oiTended with
a hepatic fmcll, like that of rotten eggs. Thi*
fmelJ, however, is not very ftrong, for it was
not felt by any of thofe who were prcfcnt at the
fpring when I firil obfcrvcd it, till I mentioned
it to them. Hepatic air is the moil powerful
principle in mineral waters: to it the mineral
waters of Lokarne and others in Sweden owe
their virtues. " And no wonder that the princi-
ple of thofc virtues was not earlier difcovercd,
as vcJTcls for receiving and collecling aeriform
bodies have been but lately invented.
From what was above faid refpecling the wa-
ter of Medvi being warmed at the furfuce, it is
plain that the hepatic gas will be fooner dilen-
f;aged there. A perfon whofe fenfe of fmcliing
h but moderately acute, will readily perceive
; ' the
ACIDULATED WATEKS
the difference between water drawn from th<;
bottom of the well, and water taken from th
furface. And this is the other reafon to \vhich
1 above alluded, for drawing water for drinking
rather from the bottom than the furface of the
well. This may be done with a veflcl in the
fhnpe of an inverted cone, made of tin or pure
lilver, truncated on the under part, and clofed
with a folid bottom, fo contrived that it may
rife upon a hinge, when the vcllel is immerf-
cd, and may be again (hut by the weight of the
water when it h taken up. With this veilel
fixed to a long wooden handle, water may be
taken up from any depth. A fmall iron rod
may be fixed to the brim of the veilel, in order
to clear the bottom of the well, and the water
may run out from the narrow part of the cone
into a different Veilel. This mode of drawing
the water will be adapted, I prefume, by all
v/ho willi to have it as cold and as flrongly iiru
prcgnutcdjwith hepatic air aspoilible ; although
[ mean not to aflert that it is of no uie when
drunk in the common way.
This mineral water appears to be lighter than
common. water : but not having an hydroflatic
balance at hand, I could not determine its f pa-
cific gravity. A pint of it weighed. an hund-
red and ninety four drachms.
Jiv.
OF MED VI. 39;
{, iv. (Mtnical Analyjls of this ll'ntcr.
\ rous'D \>y experiment that the water of
Mcdvi contained two volatile principles, aerial
acid, and hepatic gas. It contains alfo iron di-
folvcd in aerial acid, or aerated ; a little tali ted
!iinc ; as alfo a final! (juantity of common fait,
and mucilaginous extract.
The pa-fence of the aerial acid is detected nor
by the taile, but by the infulion of lime water,
or tinchire of lurnfole. There are fcarccly ever
more than fix cubic inches in a pint of water.
The fmell again betrays the prefcncc of he-
patic air : but fo final 1 is the proportion in which
it is contained in thcfc waters, that no fulphur
is produced upon the infuiion of fuming fpirit
of nitre. Collected with the aerial acid, it fills
a fpace of 14 cubic inches ; but when abiorbcd
by lime-water, its mcafure is only eight cubic
inches.
Tinclure of galls, and a lixivium of blood,
indicate the prefcncc of iron: Or, if the water
be fullered to remain for a few days in the open
air, the iron falls to the bottom without any
addition being made. From which it appears
to have been maintained in folution by aerial
acid.
it is fomc time fincc I propofed a proccfs for
whether martial water be fit- tor
medical
39$ ACIDULATED WAFERS
medical ufcs, or crude and contaminated witty
vitriol. Yet for the fatisfadion of fome wh^
have lately queftioned me on that head, I am
induced to repeat here briefly what 1 formerly
advanced*
Let thfi water be boiled for a quarter of an
hour in a clean kettle ; then let it cool, ami
pour it into a glufs velll'l. Into another cup
pour frerti fpring water. Into each of thefc
veflcls pour & few drops of fpirit of wine, in
which a quantity of powder of galls has becrj
previoully macerated in a clofe vellel.
If the boiled wateraflbrd not the fame quantity
of precipitated fediment as the frefli water, ir.
may be concluded to have contained iron diflolved
in aerial acid, and to be, of confequence, an acidu-
lated water. But if the fediment be the fame
in both vcflels, or only a little fcaqtier in that
which contains the boiled water, tbe boiled
water may then be concluded to contain a mi-
neral acid, and be unfit for medical purpotes,
till its nature be farther invHlii^ated.
I'luch pint of the waterof Medvi contains three
gi.iins of iron.
This water contains no extraneous matter
bolides the principles now enumerated ; and
11 of them are of lingular efficacy. The quan-
tity of fulited lime intermixed, ii fo very trilling.
lhat the laccharine acid fcurce detects its pre-
tence at the end of four and twenty hours ; ap(L
-jft Jio fixed alkuli can be obtained. The
nitrou-j
OF MED Vt. w?
nitrous folutiun of iilvcr fhcws the lime to be
united with fait. Only half a grain of falitcd
lime cxills in each pint of water.
A lew minute particles of common fait,
fcarcely viiiblc, appear in the rcflduum, after
the boiling, but the whole are fcarce equal to
one fourth of a grain.
A folution of ponderous earth hath not the
e fie ft to render water of Medvi turbid ; whence
it appears, tliat this water contains no mixture
of vitriolic acid.
Kxtraftive mucilaginous matter precipitated
with vinegar of litharge, the folution of filvcr
being previoufly fe pa rated with marine acid, is
obtained in the proportion of three grains for e-
very pint of water. There mud therefore be a
grain of pure mucilage for every pint.
Upon comparing thefe experiments with thofe
of llucrnc, it appears, that Hiaernc's univcrfal
acid, which he regards as exifting in a fmaller
proportion in the Mcdvi than in the Spa water,
is the fame principle which we denominate ae-
rial acid; that his ferrcous fulphur is hepatic
air; and his alum, falitcd lime.
Although there be in Sweden other acidulous.
"Waters endowed with medicinal virtues, yet we
know of none, as yet, equal to thofe of Medvi.
It may therefore be proper toinilitute a com-
parifon between the Mcdvi waters and thofe of
Pyrmont and Spa, which have been long, im-
ported
ACIDULATED WATERS
ported into Sweden, and celebrated as fupcrior
to the mineral waters or* our own country.
In this companion it appears,
j. That in the waters of Medvi there is a fin all
proportion of aerial acid, fuflicient indeed for the
folution of iron, but not in fo large a proportion
,as to give that agreeable pungent taile which is
peculiar to frcfli Pyrmont water.
2. The Medvi water contains hepanV air,
not a particle of which can be detected in the
mineral waters of Spa and Pyrmont, in the (late
in which they are commonly brought into Swe-
den.
3. The water of the Upper fpring of Medvi
aOords nearly the fame proportion of iron as the
water of Spa or Pyrmont, about one fourth of
a grain to the pint.
4. The water of Medvi contains none but
medicinal principles ; but the foreign waters of
Spa and Pyrmont have many other principles
intermixed in them, which are either dellitute of
all virtue, or dircclly pernicious ; no Ids, for
inflance, than 18 or 20 grains of lime and chuik
in every pint. Nay Pyrmont water is found to
contain about 3 4 grains of gypfcoii* matter, to
which many who drink it in large quantities find
their conilitutions unequal.
v.
OF MED VI. s;y
S v. Of the internal tfft of ibc Water of Medvi.
1 HAVE heard many who were in ufc to ilrink
the waters of iVIedvi 30 or /p years ago complain
that it* ftrength and \irtucarc no longer the
fame; but its taftc more inlipid, and a larger
quantity ncceiFary to be drunk at onre, in or-
der to produce the proper eileil. Hut. it is by
no means a fure tell, to talle after a long inter-
val, \shat you had tailed once before, forage
impairs the fenfibility of the tongue. Again, as
to this water being drunk in larger quantity
now than formerly, that is no proof of its loiing
irs virtues. Iliiirne relates, that on the firil
tlifcovcry of the fpring of Medvi, a certain per-
Ion who had loft the ufe of his feet, drank a
whole firkin of the water every day, and at night,
too, called for water whenever he awaked. So
far, however, was this pcrfon from being hurt
by drinking it in fuch enormous quantities, that
he was in the fpaec of a few weeks, rcltorcd to
perfect health. I can readily grant, indeed,
that but few, and thofc pcrfonsof a llrong frame
and a vigorous conilitution, could drink fo much
water without being injured by it. But what I
want to prove, and that is plain from IlktTnc's
relation, is that no inference can be drawn a-
the ilrcngth of the water, from the cir-
cumftunco
ACIDULATED \VATMKS
cumftanceofits being drunk in larger quantities!
now than formerly.
Mineral waters may happen, however, to lofe
their virtues jn the courfe of* time. Many fprings
have, iridved, retained their lalutary virtues tor
*#es : but there are others whole medicinal
powers have generally declined. Even of Med-
vi the tafte and ellicacy have not been uniform-
ly the fame. Hkurne himfclf bears witnefs, that
he hud found its taile fometimes fwect, fomc-
times bitter; probably as the proportion of the
hepatic air varied : and that fo frequently, that
it could not be referred either to the changes of
the moon, or the feafons. I inyfelf obierved ic
to undergo a limilar change in the end of the
month of Augull. All who had been before at
the fpring found it to taile ftronger than lifual
then of iron.
That the waters of Mcdvi arc endued with reJ
rnarkable healing powers, appears from numer-
ous inftances of perfons, who both in former
times, and in the prefent age, liave recovered
their health by drinking of them. Many upon
drinking it, immoderately have in a week or two
found their llomach oppreilcd, their head ren-
dered giddy, their knees infecbled, and have
felt it impoflible to refill llccp after dinner.
Our water contains lefs iron than that of Pyr-
inont ; but this very quality renders it the fit-
ter for llrengthening a weak ftomach, which is
often
OF ME DVT. 401
often unable to bear much iron, ancl is much
more benefited by the daily life of a moderate
portion. I found myfclf furprifingly better for
the Mcdvi water. And from many years expe-
rience, I can declare, that I have received lefs
benefit from journies into different countries,
for the fake of health, than from excrcife, and
the ufe of tliis mineral water.
For the ufe of thofe \vhofe cafes may require
a mineral water more flrongly impregnated with
iron, I would advife the lord of the manor to o-
pcn the Red fpring, and inclofe it. The water
of this fpring contains a proportion of aerated
iron, at lead equal to that of the water of Pyr-
mont : every pint affords 4 j. grains. It con-
tains alfo no fmall quantity of hepatic air, and
of aerial acida mode rate proportion, not difccrn-
ible by the tailc. It therefore rcfcmblcs the
water of the Upper fpring ; only, has more iron
in its competition. It may, accordingly, be of"
great fcrvicc to men of a ilrong conftitution ; or
even to thofe who arc weaker, if they ufe it on-
ly when recovering from illnefs, or drink a cup
a day after drinking firlt of the water of the
Upper fpring.
$ vi. Ufe of the Mcdvi IVatcrs in Baths.
MANY of thofe who vifit the mineral wells of
Mcdvi, bathe in cold water from the upper
C c fpring
,;02 ACIDULATED WATERS, &c.
fpring, the earth ufed in the baths is found near
the red fpring. It i* fine, black, and free of
fand, yet affords, in a flight degree, the fame
hepatic odour, as the mud of the waters of Lo-
karne; hence the pimples and itching of the (kin
produced in the bath of the water of Lokarne
are not obierved here. I my felt* received the
the fame beneficial effecls from this batli which
many had experienced before me.
OF T II
MEDICINAL SPRINGS
OF
L O K A R N E.
juvat interns actedcre fontes.
LUCRET.
$ i. Hi/lory of the Lokarne Springs.
i
N the parifli of Grythytte, and the dill rift of
Ocrcbroevc, is a marfhy vale, lying in the midll
of high hills, with two lakes called the lakes of
Lokarnc, upon one fide. In that vale arc three
fprings, which from the contiguous lakes, have
been denominated Loka-kalor, or the Lokarnc
fprings. It is probable that one of thcfe knowia
by the name of Old fpring, was in days of old,
reforted to as medicinal by the adjoining inha-
bitants ; and that they aflcmbled round it, par-
ticularly
MEDICINAL SPRINGS
ticularly on John BaptifVs eve, a cuitom not yet
entirely gone into difufe. But it had been long
negletftcd, till about iixty years ago, it was open-
ed anew, and incloied with a ilone and lime-
wall. The water of this fpring is now ufcd on-
ly by the lower clafs of people. Another to which
people of middling circumilanccs re fort, is na-
med the new well. It is lituated near the Inn,
and was lirll opened and inclofed with a build-
ing in the year 1767. The third, called the
Bath-well, is at fome diltance from the Inn. Th
water of this well is drunk at table in the Inn,
and is ufed in bathing. Thcfc three wells arc
arranged nearly in a triangle; the old well be-
ing about eight and thirty fathoms diilant from
the new, w and thirty from the bath-well ; the
bath-well "again being eight and forty fathoms
from the new well.
ii. Flnfical qualities of the Lokarnc tt'atcr.
IN June 1783, I made the following obfcrva-
tionson the Lokarne water.
1. It is clear as cryilal : and mufl therefore
contain either no mucilaginous matter, or at lead
very little.
2. It is pleafant to drink; tafting nearly like
common fpring water. But it dries the mouth j
whereas common fpiing-water rather caufes the
faliva to fecrete more copioully.
3- Tim
OF LOK ARNE* 405
3. This water, new out of the fpring has no
peculiar fincll; but violent agitation makes it at-
ford an hepatic odour. This odour is Wronger in
the water of the new than in that of the old
fpring; and again in that of the old than in that
of the bath -fpring.
4. This water feels cold. In the new well the
mercury ftood in the thermometer at fix one-
fourth degrees; while the temperature ofthcat-
mofphcrc was at the fame time no Icfs than thir*
teen degrees, The fame thing was obfcrvcd of
the old well. On the wall inclofmg the latter,
I found an infcriptiou bearing, that on the 25th
of June 1757, the thermometer which had flood
in the open air at twenty one-half degrees above
7.cro, fell in the well to eight degrees ; and that
at five in the morning on June i, 1758, the tem-
perature oftiic atmofpherc, being nineteen and a
half degrees, that of the water in the well was
only fix. Between this lafl obfcrvation and my
own there is only one-fourth of a degree of diffe-
rence. Tim difference might be owing to a faul-
ty eon ft ruction of the thermometer. Bcrge has
alligned the fame degrees of temperature to the
mineral waters of Lokarne. As to the mercury
tailing in the thermometer only to the eighth
degree in the old fpring; that might happen in
confequence of the inftrument not being fuf-
ficicntly immcrfcd in the water, or being too haf-
tily taken out. Whofc were the obfervations
C c 3 inicnbed
4 c6 MEDICINAL SPRINGS
infcribetl on the wall I knew not, till the keeper
of the wells informed, they were written by the
celebrated Odelflierne, director of the mines.
In the bath-well the mercury flood at fevcnty.
It is fcarcely a fathom deep. The water, as a-
bove mentioned, is both drunk at meals and ufed
for bathing. It is alib conveyed into that called
the Englifh bath, which is but of late date, and
is 9 one-half fathoms long, three one-half broad,
and two deep. The water in this bath is con-
llantly frefh ; it being fo conftrufted that new
water from the well runs runs it, while that which
has been made ufe of is conveyed off. Hence its
temperature is often eight degrees colder than
that ufed in the common baths.
It is not fo eafy a matter as is commonly ima-
gined to afccrtain the exaft temperature of the
water with the thermometer. Although the
thermometer when immerfcd in water indicates
thctcmpcratuieof the water with fuflicient accu-
racy ; yet when taken out to be examined, it is
liable to be aileded by the breath, and by the
temperature of the atmofpherc ; and conclufions
formed concerning the temperature will of conic-
qucncc be uncertain and indcciiive. To avoid
thcfc inconveniencics, 1 put the thermometer in
a perpendicular pofture, into a glah vcllel, fo fil-
led with faikl,that the j-io'mtof the|!calc is at the
brim of the vctt'el. 1 then wrap up thrinilrumcnt
with a thick cord ; and then immerfe it fufpcn-
dcd
.OF L O K A R N F. 407
ilcd by the rope into the \vell ; in the bottom of
which it is left for half an hour. With this ap-
paratus, 1 obtain what I want: I can now dif-
ccrn the pfccife heat of the water by the thermo-
meter, without fear of the mercury falling when
it is taken out.
In the cave of the Royal Obfcrvatory at Pa-
ris, the mercury of the thermometer Rands
through the whole year at the fame degree, cor-
rcfponding to the twelfth in our Swcdifh ther-
mometer. The waters of Medvi and Lokarnc,
therefore, and of other perennial fp rings which
have come under my obfcrvation, exceed that
temperature only by one degree. The fame
temperature is found to prevail in fubterraneous
cavities. Now, as the water on the furfacc of
the earth is fupplied by lakes and fubterraneous
citterns, at Icaft asdittant from the centre of the
earth as thcfe fprings ; it follows that the fourcc
of thofe wells mufl be extremely deep, whofc
temperature is only fix degrees. Bclides, the
openings of fuch fprings are ufually inclined to
the horizon. In general, however, the heat of
water on the furfacc of the earth is different at
different feafons in the year. In natural cuvitcs
in mountains, although on the fame level with
the adjacent plains, water cannot but be uncom-
monly cold. But I can fcarcc think there arc
many places in which it can become fo cold in
fu miner
4 oS MEDICINAL SPRINGS
fummer as to reduce the mercury to fix degree's
in the thermometer.
5. The water is not always in equal quality.
The new fpring gives 142! pints in the hour;
the old fpring 465; and the bath fpring 517,
one-half.
6. I could not determine the fpecific gravity
of the water of Lokarne, for want of inllruments.
HI, Chemical dimly/if.
FROM the account above given of the phyfi-
cal qualities of the waters of Lokarne, it -ap-
pears, that they contain in their compofition,
but a fnvall proportion of extraneous and mine-
ral matter. The fame thing appears from ex-
periment.
i. A pint of this water afforded by evapora-
tion only two pennyeights and twenty-eight
grains apothecary's weight. Nearly a fourth
part of this refidue was fine liliceous powder;
the retl calcareous earth in combination with
marine and aerial acid. 1 have never indeed
met with any fpring-watcr entirely free of fali-
ted or aerated lime. Hut the infulion of a few
drops of the nitrous folution of lilver foon dilco-
vcr the pretence of the marine acid, by commu-
nicating to the water, if it contains any of that
acid, au opaline colour. In a few days the fedi-
incnt
OF LOKARNE. 4^9
incnt is found in the water, in the form of a thin
purple plate. When the fediment is more co-
pious, the nitrous folution produces a violet co-
lour in the water; and when in flill greater
plenty, tinges it black. The calcareous earth,
when in no larger proportion than in the wa-
ters of Loknrnc, is fcparated in twenty-four
hours by the faccharinc acid.
The falitcd ponderous earth intermixed in the
Lokarnc water difcovcrs no mark of vitriolic a-
cid ; nor does tinclure of galls detect the pre-
fence of iron. In the reiiduc, like wife, which
remains after the evaporation, no iron appears ;
unlcfs the acid employed be prcvioufly tindtur-
ed with iron.
I meant likewife, had not ill health prevent-
ed me, to have examined the water of the old
and the bath fpring by evaporation. But, by
the ufe of reagents I found the water of thofc
fprings to contain the fame principles as that of
the new fpring, only in an inferior proportion.
JU'rgc obtained only two grains rcliduc for eve-
ry pint of the water of the old fpring.
2. There is but very little volatile matter in
the water of Lokarne.
The tallc gives no indication of the prcfence
of aerial acid : yet that every pint contains two
or three cubic inches of this aeriform fluid, ap-
pears from the circumftance of a red colour be-
ing
4 ,o MEDICINAL SPRINGS
ing produced in this water ; when tinclure of
turnfole is poured into it in equal quantity.
I have obferved above, that the Lokarne wa-
ter contains hepatic air. But, fuch is its fubtili-
ty and volatility, that it efcapes, although the
glafs veflel, in which the water is contained be
corked and fcaled in the moil careful manner.
A bottle of Lokarne water, the temperature of
which was 107, being clofely corked and kept
by me in my bed-chamber, loll in the fpuce or*
four hours all its hepatic air, Ib that even when
fliaken, it exhibited no appearance of having e-
ver contained any. And, in water newly drawn
out of the fpring, was not above a cubic inch to
the pint.
From what has been faid it appears, that the
water of Lokarne is not mere fpring water,
though but very flightly mineralized. Moll mi-
neral fp rings owe their healing virtues either to
aerial acid or hepatic air. Aerial acid, unlcfs
contained in a pretty large proportion, in water,
produces but little alteration in its nature. Such
as in the proportion of eight or ten cubic inches
to the pint: whence it. may be inferred that the
water of Lokarne is lei's indebted to the aerial
acid than to the hepatic air which it contains
for its virtues. Hepatic air is a much more
powerful agent than aerial acid : two pints of
cold water that had abforbed only two cubic
inches of hepatic air, retained the peculiar o-
ilour
OF LOKARNK. 4ir
dour of that gas for, at lead, two days. But far-
ther obfcrvations arc required, to determine how
far the mere internal ufe of tliis 'water may be
beneficial : for at prefent all who drunk the Lo-
karnc water, bathe at the fame time.
iv. The earth of Lokarne.
THE earth ufcd in bathing by thofe who fvc-
(juent the Lokarne wells is foundonthc fide of a
rivulet at a fmall di (lance from the wells. It is
fine, tenacious, contains very little fand, and is
often infected with a hepatic fmcll. In the
baths this earth fcrvcs two purpofes it lubri-
cates the (kin by friction; and keeps the body
cool. Any fort of fine earth, or foft muddy clay
would do the fame thing. But if the mud con-
tain hepatic air, an irritation of the fkin is pro-
duced, and an itch breaks out. This earth,
ufed in the baths of Lokarnc does not unfrc-
qucntly produce this effect, after the bath has
been fcvcral times ufed. /The vitriol intermixed
with it co-operates with the cold in contracting
the veJFelsof the ikin.
Bcrgc has proved, by various arguments, that
this earth is produced by putrefaction from the
fyhagnum palitflrc. Its fpongincfs and lightnefs
I take to be owing to nothing but the dry cha-
racter of that mofs. But, in order to invciti<nite
o*
more
MEDICINAL WATERS
more accurately the nature and qualities of this
earth, I tried fcvcnil experiments with it. I full
poured upon it cold dillilled water; and after the
water was fulllciently digeited with the earth,
and a fulllcient quantity of the foluble parts of
the latter fufpended in the former, poured it
through a drainer. The 1 lixiviate thus prepar-
ed continued pure, and fullered no change of co-
lour from the infulion of tincture of turnfolc.
Tindlurc of galls mixed with fome of this lix<
iviate, both in its original Hate, and boiled, al-
furned a violet colour; but not readily, nor till af-
ter a conliderable time. The faccharine acid
produced no precipitate, and afolution of filver
fcarce any ; fulitcd ponderous earth rendered
the white powder by degrees turbid. Jlencc
then it appears that there is fome vitriol in the
earth ufed in the Lokurne baths; and that it
forms with water a lixivute very different from
pure fpring-water. This affords a certain proof
(if what was above-mentioned, that water ill'uei
out of fprings even in the depths of the earth;
and that this and the water on the fiirfacc of
earth have nothing common.
$ v. Salubrious powers of tbe Lokarnc waters.
To render the falutary efforts of this water
better underflow!, I lhall prefcnt my reader*
with
OF LOKARNE. 413
with an extract from the diary of the hofpitnl of
Lokarnc, exhibiting a flatc of the lick, and their
difcafcs for eight years backwards, which was
communicated to me by Mr Knut A. Lcnceus,
jnfpcclorof the wells of Lokarnc.
Difcafcs. Pcrfons who left
the Wells.
Cu- Conra- Re- Incur-
red Icfccnt. licvcd. able.
Rhachitis 8522
Sorcnefs of eyes attend-
ed with running 5 23
Sorcnefs of eyes attend-
ed with unatural dry-
ncfs 4 3 i -P-
Hyik-riufis 6 5 3
Hicmorhoids 4 3 3 T -
Hicmaturia 231
Cancer in the nofc I
Ulcer in the neck 2 4
An unnatural contrac-
tion 3 3 ~
Difliculry in fpcaking i i 7,
Valetudinary JO 33
Kpileptic 5 3.8
Arthritis 25 6 7 2
Cataracl 213
Vertigo 2 II
Melancholy 6221
Dcafnefs
MEDICINAL WATERS
Difeafes.
Perfons who left
the Wells.
Cu- Conva- Re- Incur-
red.
lc fee nt.
licvcd.
able.
Deafnefs
4
2
2
Paralytic
12
5
2
5
Head-ach
4
2
2
Scurvy
6
I
Worms
3
4
I
' lubrici
3
2
2
.. tcnia
I
I
3
Hxmoptyfii
7
I
2
Atouy
i
I
2
Hypochondria
3
4
3
i
Dregs of an intermittent
fever
6
2
3
Diarrhoea
2
Cephalxni
3
3
2
2
Aphonia
i
1
1
I
Slow fever
i
5
Madnefs
4
Allhma
6
2
2
Delirium
2
I
2
Dullnefc
3
Atrophy
2
3
2
Glaucoma
.
3
2
Amaurofis
i
2
2
Angina fchirrofa
I
Itch
5
3
2
Eryfipclas
~
3
2
Afcites
OF LOKARNE. 515
Difeafcs. Pcrfons who left
the Wells.
Cu- Conva- Re- Incur-
red. IcTccnt. licvcd. aUlc.
Afcitcs 2
Dccrcpid 3 2 3 i
I m po ft hu me in the lungs 223
Hip-gout 5 3 3
Anchylofis 26 3 2
Stjcatoma 31
Cardialgia 6 3 3 2
Stone in the bladder S3
Paraplegia after lying in 2 2
Diarrhoc 3 3 2
Blood-fliot eyes 423
Irregularity ofthe mcnfcs 2 3
Cachcxia 315^-
Bleeding at the nofe 221
Spafm 434t
Scrophula 2
Hemiplegia 31 ~
Arthritis ilphylitica 3
Arthritis nodofa 5 43 j
Herpes 42
Blindnefs -*. 2
Hcdic i 3 ^ ,.*_
Convulfions 5332
Total 195 161 129 56
OF
O F
COBALT, NICKEL, PLATINA,
AND
MANGANESE:
WITH THE
PRECIPITATES WHICH THEY AFFORD*,
conflart necejfe eft
Ex a/Us fj, tju* ntqutanl tonttrt'ier utujuam.
LUCRF.T.
I. Circwnjlances which fuggefled thefe experi-
ments.
anceftors knew of eleven metals. To
thcfc the induftry of the pi-cient age has added
other lour : Cobalt, Nickel, Phtinu, and Man-
ganefe. Which were all firll examined with ac-
curacy, and diftinguiflied by their peculiar cha-
raders,
* Vide N. Ada Acad. Succ. Vol. I. 1780.
OF COBALT, &c. 417
rafters, in Sweden *. Moil agree, from experi-
ence; that the three firft of the above-mentioned
nc\V metals are, in their naturo, eflentially dif-
ferent from all other metals. There are, how-
ever, many who think thefe not to be primary,
fiinplc metals, but of a compound character. But
the cagmiefs with which chcmills entered upon
an invefligation of the relations of thcfc metals,
has now thrown light upon many of the difficul-
ties which they at firft prcfcnted. Yet, I don't
know that any body has examined them by folu-
tion and precipitation in different mcnflrua. I
have therefore been induced to fubjecl them to
thefc procefles ; and ihall proceed to relate my
experiments and obfervations.
x i . Ex a mi nation of Platina by Precipitation.
I HAVI: elfc where given an account of the rc-
iults obtained by the folution of platina in alka-
line falts. The only thing which I fhall herc-
add, is, that no alkali, whether vegetable or mi-
neral, aerated or cauftic, produces any precipita-
tion of platina that is adually diflblvcd. Tli6
colour of the precipitate is yellow, inclining more
or lefs to red ; but when evaporated to dryncis,
it becomes bluck. A foiution of an hundred
D d weight
* A&. Upfal. 1733. A6\. Acad. Succ. 1751, 17521
1774- N. Ad. Upfal, vol. ii. p. 135, 246. Schcffcr'* Chem.
I'orclafi!, p. 39.
418 OF COBALT, he.
weight of pure platina in aqua rcgla, with tfie'
addition of thirty-four pounds of iterated minr-
ntl alkali, alVordcd upon the infuiion of a quanti-
\y ofcauilie alkali, thirty. fix pounds of precipi-
tate, all hough the utmoll care had been taken to
have the folution compleatly faturateit. ft fol-
lows therefore, that the other two thirds of the
metal were taken up in the neutral fait formed
at the precipitation; as the parts of the platina
that were diilolved, could not but be of the fame
bulk and fupcrficies as thofe which were preci-
pitated.
To afcertain the caufe of this phenomenon
more fully, I refolvcd to try tin? fame ex peri-
nient on platina with other metals, inlleadofthe
alkali which I had uied. I accordingly diilolved
an hundred weight of pure platina in aqua regia ;
and then poured into the folution, after d ihifiivy;
it in diitillcd water, as much zinc in final I thin
plates, as it would diilolve. No lefs than 416
pounds of the *inc, were diflblved, with a con-
ilant ertcrvcfccn.ee, although the menftruumhad
hccit previoufly faturated with platina to fitch a
degree that it would not duTolve another grain of
that metal.
Meanwhile, as the zinc was diflolving, the
black flaky matter fubilded to the bottom of th?
veflel. Tliis relidue, when waihed and dried,
\vas f(Hind to weigh 77 pounds. And when ex-
pofc-d to the blow-pipe, lirit exhaled ah afh-co-
lourecl
OF COBALT, &c.
loured fmoke, and thus lofmg its black colour,
afliimcd ibon after a grey and nearly metallic
appearance. The fmoke was not unlike the
vapour which mercury emits.
A little of this black precipitate, mixed with
microcofmic fait, and expofcd to the heat of the
blow-pipe, emits a fmokc at the very firit. The
precipitate then runs into union with the fait ;
yet does not form a globule, unlcfs when a very
fmall grain of it is expofed to fire with a particle
of the fait. When the proportion of the preci-
pitate employed is too large, the mafs alfumes a
variety of colours; but if afccond time melted
by a flrong blaft of the fire, becomes generally
pellucid. The fame thing nearly takes place, if
borax be ufed inflcad of microfmic fait ; only the
changeable colours do not then make their ap-
pearance fo foon.
The pure liquor remaining after the precipi-
tation of the platina and thcfolution of the zinc,
was tinged with yellow, and feemcd ftill to retain
n little platina ; for when evaporated todryncfs,
with the addition of a little vegetable alkali, it
a Horded a few yellow grains of refidue.
The black precipitate is not fubjecl to the at-
rniclion of the magnet, cither when newly preci-
pitated, or no being expofed to heat-
All the metals precipitate platina from aqua
rcgia, jull as readily as ?.inc.
Dd2 111. Prc*
OF COBALT, &c.
S ui. 'Precifilate/ of Nickel*
A futurated folution of nickel in nitrous acid is
well known to he green. All alkalis whatever,
cliilblve the combination between nickel and
nitrous acid. An hundred weight of nickel pre-
cipitated by aerated alkali, is of a very light
green colour, which it retains when dry. The
powder weighs, when dried, 135 pounds. Caul*
lie alkali produce* a funilar precipitate from the
fame folution : but 100 pounds of nickel arife
only to an hundred and twenty eight, when
precipitated from a folution in nitmu acid with
cuuilie alkali. JMogillieated alkali produces u
powder, of the fame colour nearly, but rather
yellower, and liable to a Hume, as it is dried, t
greeniih yellow, of a darker hue. The precipi-
tate obtained with phlogillicated alkali, after be-
ing wrJhed and dried, weighs 250 pounds.
From acid of nitre in which I had diifolved an
hundred weight of common regulu* of nickel,
which had pro viouily undergone only a iinglc
procefsof reduction, upon the addition of a quan-
tity of v.inc, there fublided feventcen pounds of
arfenic, in the form of a black metallic powder.
Mci.nthne, the mercury flood in the thermome-
ter Ut fifteen degrees, Jiy the application of ;i
llrong heat the powder was calcined to whitc-
nefs. Yet fuch is the mutual attraction between
nickel and arfenic, that a conliderable propor-
tion
OF COBALT, &c; 421,
tion of nickel is unavoidably precipitated with
the arfenic. This appears from the melting of
the precipitate with borax. For when the arfe-
nic is diillpatcd by the aclion of the fire, the
glafs that remains, difplays the colour peculiar to
glais of nickel. But when the ball of glafs
cools, the colour then difappears, when it is evi-
dent that even in the precipitate there remains
'/.inc. Another and ilill more convincing proof
of what has been above aficrtcd, is, that the acid
folution, when in a large quantity, and well
warmed, affords together with the black powder,
alfo a confidcrablc portion, nearly an hundred
pounds of a white powder. Wlicn this takes
place, the green colour ofthc folution is very lit-
lie altered; although it could not fail to become
paler, if calx of nickel conflitutedtho large II pan
of the precipitate. The powder precipitated
from acid of nitre is cafily foluble with the help
ofh'-'ut. The folution h grey, and on the infu-
fion of phlogiflicatcd alkali, a fiords a powder of
an orange colour : a pretty ftrong indication of
the prciencc of a confulerable quantity of ?.inc.
But that the fame powder contains alfo 7/mc,
Pppcars from tlic colour of the folution, from the
iiifion of which it is fufceptible with borax ormi-
crocofmic fait, and from its reduction by which
feveral pounds of regulus of nickel arc obtained
feparate.
from the green folution that remains after
P d 3 precipitation,
OF COBALT, &c.
precipitation, all but a few pounds of the nickel
originally employed, may be feparated.
Fromthefc facls it plainly appears, that zinc
does not precipitate the nickel iticlf (from the fo-
lution. For, whatever weight of zinc be put in*
to the faturated folution of nickeJ, the green co-
lour dill remains unchanged. If, then, there be
any portion of nickel in the precipitated pow-
der, its precipitation fcems to me to be owing
merely to the mutual attraclion of the metallic
calces; finceit appears in the precipitate diver-
ted of its metallic form, which could not be the
cafe, if nickel were, like other metals, precipi-
tated by a double affinity. But there are vari-
ous inilanccs of metallic calces being connected
by mutual attraction : gold combines with tin,
copper with zinc, in the form of calces.
5 iv. Precipitates cfCfbult*
IF a hundred pounds of regulus of cobalt be
diflblvcd in common nitron* acid, and u quanti-
ty of aerated mineral alkali be added to the fo-
lution thus prepared; a yellowifh dark green
precipitate, 1 60 pounds in weight, will inflantly
be produced. On the other hand, if cauttic mine-
ral alkali be poured into the fame folution, the
precipitate will weigh only 140 pound*, and will
be indeed of the fame appearance as the forniei
precipitate,, only darker in colour. PhbgiiVitat-
cd
OF COBALT, &c. 423
od alkali precipitates from the fame folution a
powder of the fame colour, but of a different cha-
raftcr in other rclpech, and in weight 142 pounds.
The production of the firR precipitate is accom-
panied with eflervefccnco ; the fecond Aibiides
without any emotion in the li(|uor t the third is
ubfolutely infoluble in acids. The fame tiling is
it rue of the precipitates of nickel, prepared with
the fame alkali.
Nitrous acid faturated with an hundred weight
of rcgulus of cobalt, upon the addition of an c-
<]ual quantity of zinc, precipitated only a fmali
portion of (limy matter. I rendered the folution
thicker by boiling, but in vain; for except the
flimy matter, a part of which covered the plates
of y.inc, no other precipitate was produced. The
zinc itfelf, as 1 found, upon waihing and drying
it again, had frittered no lofs of weight. Water
poured upon the rcfiduc was very Toon tinged
with a red colour ; and, on the admixture of ac-
rated fixed alkali, afforded 135 pounds of a pre-
cipitate, unufually red. The ilimy matter when
fepnrated, wafiicd and dried, had a grecncolour,
which the a^ion of lire rendered blackilh, and
was fubjcft to the attraction of the magnet ;
whence it appears to have b?en calx of iron fe-
paratcd in 'the boiling, in the fame manner as
ochre is commonly fcparatcd from a folution ot
iron. This feruginous matter is for the mod-
part, void of arfcnic ; a fmall portion of cobalt
I) d -| . adhere^
OF COBALT, &c.
adheres to it, and is the caufe of its acquiring a
green colour from borax and microcofmic fait. It
communicates a yellow colour to the acids in
\vhich it is diflblved ; and without the portion of
it employed be conliderable, no redneG appears
in the fulution.
5 v. Precipitate of Mauganefe.
THE exiflcnce ofmangtiUcfe was but very late-
ly difcovered. Of tins I have cUewherc given u
particular account. Krm a folution of an hundred
pounds of this metal, aerated mineral alkali pre-
cipitates 185 pounds, cauflic alkali 168, and
phlogifticutcd alkali 350. The firll of thefe pre-
cipitates is whitifh, with ycllowifli brown parti-
cles intermixed. The fccond is of a dark colour.
The tliird Is at iiril green, but changes to yellow
towards the end of the precipitation ; inconfe-
qucncc of which the dried powder, being a mix-
ture of green and yellow, has a grecnifh appear-
ance. But it is always to be obfcrvecl, that
while regulus of inangancfe is diilblving, a imnvn
powder is feparateil,; which \ obtained in tlic
proportion of fevcn pounds to the hundred,
weight of numganefc clillblvcd in vitriolic acid.
This powder is micaceous; it produces a violent
detonation with hot fufcd nitre; the fmnll por-
tion of iron which it contains, enables it to com-
municate an orange colour to acids; but it is in-
OF COBALT, &e. 425
folublc. From tbcfe circumftanccs it may be
fufpcdlcd to contain plumbago.
Into a folution of an hundred pounds, or ra-
ther of the folublc part of an hundred pounds
of mangancfe in vitriolic acid, I put a quantity
of zinc, which I observed to precipitate only fe-
ven pounds of a brown ponderous metallic pow-
der. This powder give* a green tinge to micro-,
cofmic fait, but renders borax red, and like cop-
per, deprives it of its tranfparency. But only a
very fmali part of the precipitate can be of a
cupreous nature ; for in its nitrous folution, un-
Icls the folution be very complcatly faturated,
the infufion offal-ammoniac fcarce produces any
green tinge. If, however, the volatile alkali be
added in L larger proportion than what is rcquifitc
to f.uurate the folution, a tine white powder im-
mediately falls, communicating as it falls a (light
tin^c of green to the fupernntant liquor. This
white powder, when colleclcd, wafhcd and dif-
folvcd in nitrous acid, aflumcs,upon the infufion
of phlogifticated alkali, in part a green, and part-
ly a ycllowifli colour, and fubfides to the bot-
tom of the veilel : whence it appears plainly to
be a mixture of calces of iron and zinc.
'Ainc then docs not precipitate the manganefe
itfeif, but the extraneous matters accidentally
adhering to it, That the mangancfe remains in
folution together with the zinc, appears plainly
from what takes place on the infulion of alkali.
For
OF COD ALT, Ac.'
For the alkali precipitates a powder that be*
comes black in the fire, tinges borax and micro-
cofmic fait \vith the colour peculiar to manga-
nefe ; which colour, however, foon fades on ac-
count of the 7,inc intermixed ; zinc being well
known to efface the colours of glafles.
From a faturated nitrous folution of manga-
nefe, there is a precipitate of copper obtained by
the intervention of zinc ; which lias in part the
red colour peculiar to that metal, and partly
that pale green appearance which a precipitate,'
even a folution of fine copper ufually exhibits.-
vi. Corollaries..
i. Were platina only a mixture of iron and
gold, thefe two metals would, of necellity, be
feparatcd, upon the addition of zinc to a foluti-
on of the mixture. Gold is precipitated from 'its
i'olutions by all the ether metals, and ef^echlly
by zinc. JUit zinc can never precipitate iron,
even though dillblvcd in vitriolic aciU, which in
other cafes combines but very ilightly with the*
metals. Wherefore, fmce platina is precipitated
by zinc, without the lols of any of its qualities, I
infer that iron, though often accidentally inter-
mixed in it, forms no ellcntial part of its fub-
ftancc. That which 1 ufed in my experiments
bad only a fourth part of iron, but the propor-
tion vane?; and iu common platina there K
fonict huts
OF COBALT, &c. 4*7
fometimcs irore, fomctimcs left iron. In the pow-
der precipitated no mark of the prc fence ofir on
appeared, although I fufed it repeatedly by the
ad ion of ill*.- blow-pipe, with microcofmic fiilt.
2. From Solutions of nickel, cobalt, and man-
ganefe, v.inc precipitates only hct erogenous fub-
fiances, accidentally intermixed with thefe me-
tals. Now, as zinc precipitates all metals, ex-
cept iron, it follows, that nickel, cobalt, and
inanganefe are either particular modifications
or fpccies of iron, 'or entirely diftindl from it.
Some may, perhaps, fay, that two or three me-
tals may be fo combined by nature, that zinc
cannot feparate them in a fotutionin \vhichthcy
cxift in natural combination, although capable
of precipitating each of them from a iblution in
which it cxifis by itfelf. To this, if proved by ex-
periments I ihi'.ll not refute to agree; but till it
be cftabliihcd by experiments, it would be fool-
ifh to receive it upon mere fancy and conjec-
ture.
That nickel, cobalt and manganefc arc, as
has been thought by fome, modifications or fpe-
cies of rron, may be maintained by other argu-
ments, bciides thofc above-mentioned. Iron ha^
nmch greater verfatility of nature, and is fufcep-
libleof a much greater divcrfity of forms than any
other metal. Fufcd iron, cold iron, hot iron, brittle
iron, rtccl,&c,liave all diilincl characters: and each
of
OF COB ALT, Sec.
of them is by infenfiblc degrees changed, till it
l>e transformed into fomc other. A variety of co-
lours too, red, yellow, green, mure, brown, and
others are produced in iron by different modes of
treatment, although not precifcly the fame as arc
obierved in the above three metals. It is, how-
ever, exceedingly diilicult to fcparate iron from
nickel, cobalt, and nianganefc ; as 1 have elle-
\vhere fhewn particularly, in the inftance of nic-
kel. Of regulus of nickel I have obierved, that
the more painfully it is purified, the more docs
it come to refemble iron in attraclability by the
magnet, and even the very fragments of the re-
guli then attract one another. I know that fomc
reguh of nickel are not fufceptible of magne-
tic at trad ion. But fuch need only to be puri-
fied in order to acquire this quality, efpecially
nickel precipitated with liver of fulphur, mull
be freed of all extraneous mixture before it can
become fubjccl to the power of the magnet.
There has not, as yet, been in much pains ta-
ken to purify cobalt and mangancfe as to puri-
fy nickel. But the experiments which have been
madelhew clearly that iron adheres to thclV me-
f:ils with great obilinacy, and is often attracted
by them from among other matters.
There is alfo another argument which mews
how great the affinity of nickel and cobalt with
iron is. The pure reguli of thefo metals, though e-
vuporatcd to drynefs with acids yield n ) ochre;
which,
OF COBALT, &c.
, however, always appears when cither iron
If, or iron mixed with any other metal U
edin an acid.
m thcie particulars it appears, that there
a remarkable and fmgular fimillitude be-
> cobalt, nickel, manganefc, and iron; yet
.milarity is by no means fo great as to induce
hink all thcie only are one and the fame me-
or this can be demonftratcd no other way,
43 o OF COBALT, &c.
3. From a comparison of nickel, cobalt, arid
manganefe, it appears, that when pure of arfenic,
thcfe metals will fcarce melt in the fire; when
combined with arfenic, with which they enter
very eagerly into combination, they are no
longer iubjecl to the attraction of the magnet : it
like wife appears, that they can fcaree be entire-
ly iVee of iron if attrachibility by the magnet be
the tell of the prcfcnce of iron; when carefully
purified, they become ductile, and precipitate lu-
ruratediblutiomof niver/thusdinering Jrom iron.
Thefe qualities,- jull mentioned are, therefore,
common to tliefe three metals; but in other par-
ticulars they plainly ditler. For manganefe dif-
fers fo far from the rctt in its fpeciilc gravity
which is 6,850, and in other qualities peculiar to
itfelf, that uny peribn \\liu makes experiments
upun it, can have no doubt of its being a pecu-
Jiur fubtlunce. As to whut 1ms been lately af-
iertcdby a celebrated chemill, that nickel and
cobalt ave one metal, only indifferent forms, that
has indeed Tome ihew of probability, if what I
have above related concerning thole metals be
taken into conlideration. Yet proofs of their
diverilty arc not wanting. Nickel, when impreg-
nated with cobalt, cannot, without great dif-
ficulty, be feparatcd from it, and viceverjli;
this circumflance alone might be fullicient to
produce the miflakc. But nickel, when feparat-
cd from cobalt, canuor, with any addition of ar-
fenic,
OF COBALT, &c. 43*
fenic, be converted into a green glafs; neither
is it a lit ingredient for fympathctic ink, nor doc 1 ?
it allord red folution with acids, or a green calx
limilar to that of cobalt. Befides, pure nickel
\vill melt niuf run into a mafs with filvcr, but
not cobalt; and to precipitate an hundred weight
of iiivcr, twice as much of nickel as of cobalt i
required. I^cad and bifmuth are much liker to
each other, yet no body doubts their diverfity.
Although Brandt flic wed by experiments, fifty
years fincc, that cobalt is a peculiar metal; yet:
iome perfons, chiefly in Saxony ,have fmcedenicd
that part of cobalt which ftainsglafs to be metal-
lic. They have referred, too,to a certain ore of co-
balt (cobalt-muhttt) which communicates a green
tinge to glafs, and yet affords no rcgulus of co-
balt. But, although I have not, asyet,citherfcen
or examined this ore of cobalt, I fufpecl its pu-
rity to be the caufc of its ailbrding no rcgulus.
For, from what I have faid above it appears, that,
pure cobalt, without any intermixture of arfe-
nic is extremely difficult to melt. In allaying
many j'.lallcs tinged with cobalt, with an addition
of black flux, I ulwuyx obtained a rcgulus of that
metal, although but a very fmali quantity is nc~
ccflary to ftain a large piece of glafs. The preci-
pitate too, produced in folutions of cobalt by the
admixture of phlogiilicated alkali afforded, upon
reduction, a regulus fit for ilaining glafs, and was
iu
OF COBALT, Sec.
in all other refpcds very like pure cobalt. No\v f
fin cc experiments have fliuwn, that none but me-
tullic matters are precipitable from folutions by
phlogifticated alkali, when the fhturation is com-
plete ; it follows neceflarily, that the part of co-
"bait with which glafles arc flawed, mull be
SOME
SOME OBSERVATIONS
ON
URINARY CALCULI.
Cujus rei nnttira in pnrltonibus tjus mimmis optimr ctrmtnr.
ARISTOTF.LIS.
BOUT the time when the celebrated Schccle
was making his experiments oji urinary calculi,
I, not knowing that he was To engaged, had en-
tered upon the fame tafk. In the proccfs of my
experiments I not only difcovcrcd with Schcele,
that thoic calculi contain a peculiar acid in a
concrete folid ftatc, but made fome other obfcr-
vations not corrcfponding to his ; but the diffe-
rence might poffibly bo occafioncd by a diver-
fity of nature in the matter on which our expe-
riments were made.
I was unfuccefsful in all my attempts to dif-
folvc calculi entirely in diflilled water, or nitrous
acid. Indeed, the more minutely the matter is
pulverifed, the fcanticr is the rcfiduc. But,
L e fomc
434 OBSERVATIONS Otf
fome part (1111 remains undiflolvcd: as any per*
Con may fee, if he attempt the folution of a pret-
ty conllderable quantity of the matter of the
calculi in a finall vellcl. In that cafe, what remains
undiflblved, gathers into one place, while the
liquor cools. IJut a flill better tefl is to put
finall bits of calculus to the weight of a few
grains, into a copious proportion of men fir u urn,
and expofe it to a heat nearly equal to that ot
boiling water; the greater part will then'bcdif-
folvcd ; but there will remain a very final! por-
tion of a fine white matter, almort infoluble in
water, fpirit of wine, acids or cauilic alkali. In-
creufe the heat to a boiling temperature ; and
the fubilance which has hitherto refilled the ac-
tion of the iblvents, will be reduced into flakes,
and will almofl difappcar, but will not even yet
be abfolutcly diflblved. 1 have not been able
to procure a fuflicicnt quantity of this matter
for a more accurate feries of experiments. Jiut
1 know that a coal which is fcarce combudible
and not foluble in nitrous acid, remains.
Saccharine acid produces no precipitate in a
nitrous folution of calculi. Hence it is plain to
any perfon, that thofe calculi contain no calca-
reous earth ; otherwife it would be inftantauc-
oufly deteclcd by the Saccharine acid. Buf,
having obferved, in the profccution of my expe-
riments on elective attraclions, that on the
addition of a third body to two already in com-
bination.
URINARY CALCULI. 435
buiation,the third body, in (lead of cfiecYmg the
reparation of the twoprcvioufly combined, often
added itfelf as a new ingredient in the compofi-
tion ; I was induced tofufpecl that in the pre-
font indunce a fimilar event took place, and
uith the greater confidence, as 1 was certain
fomc, although but a very fmall, portion of unc-
Uioiu matter was always joined with fugar. The
facl confirmed my conjecture. For by the tho-
rougii combuftion of urinary calculi, 1 obtained
a white aib, evidently calcareous, which ctter-
vefccd with acids, and acquired on tlic infulion of
\itriolic acid, a gypfcous characler ; was ealily
prccipitablc by faccharinc acid, and was to a
certain degree, folublc in water, c. There
Aill remains, however, nearly an hundredth part
which is infolublc in nitrous acid. But the rcfi.
due above-mentioned, forms in conjunction with
the concrete acid, the fubilancc of the calculus.
The matter of the calculus may be obtained by
evaporation from a nitrous folution of it; and if
burnt to whitencfs, will allbrd a calcareous pow-
der.
Pure vitriolic acid not being contaminated
with any unctuous matter, 1 hoped to fuccced
in examining the calx with it: and it proved fo.
For on pouring into a nitrous folution of calculi
a few drops of flrong and limpid vitriolic acid,
I perceived a few cryilals detached, which upon
a particular examination, and chiefly by prcci-
K e 2 cipitation
OBSERVATIONS ON
pitation with fncclmrinc acid proved to begypfe-
ous. In a diluted folution of a calculous matter,
no change was at firft obferved ; but after a conii-
derable part of the inniihirc was evaporated, try.
flals began to appear. Kroin thefe circumilanccs
if appears, that there is actually quick-lime in
urinary calculi; but in a very finall proportion,
as one hundred weight fcarce everallords more
than halfa pound.
Strong vitriolic acid diflblves calculous mat-
ter, with the help of heat, and with ellervd"-
cence. The folution is of a black colour ; and
if a little water be poured into it, fcems in foine
degree to coagulate; but on the addition of a,
larger quantity of water, recovers its limpidity,
and afliuncs a brown colour.
Muriatic acid feems to be incapable of difiol-
ving calculous matter; yet, I know not but it
may feparate a part of the lime.
The rcihicfs which fometiincs arifcsin the ni-
trous folution of calculous matter is remarkable.
When the folution is faturated, it gives no indi-
cation of the prcience of the nitrous acid by its
fin ell ; and when evaporated in a large open vef-
fel, it is changed into a darkened liquor, in which
tinfture of turnfolc can fcarce dctcft any re-
mains of nitrous acid. Any acid deftroys the
redncfs; and neither the infufion of alkali, nor
any other addition can re do re it. If the moi-
ihire be more fpeedily evaporated, the folution
fwclh
URINARY CALCULI. 437
f wells with innumerable aerial bubbles, and forms
a froth which is at firft ruddy, and when more
entirely evaporated, becomes black. This black
matter tinges a great deal more water than the
weak folution, and is foluble even by thofc acids
which act not upon the calculus, and always the
Ilronger the acid infufcd, the fooncr does theco-
lour difappcar. Even alum, in which there is but
a final 1 proportion of acid, dcilroys the colourof
this froth.
Nitrous acid acls in a fmgular manner on in-
flammable matters; and as inflammable matter is
the principle of colour, hence it is eailly undcr-
ilood wliy none but the nitrous acid extracts the
colour from the calculus. A due proportion of
the acid is t however, rcquilitc to render the co-
lour permanent. Diluted nitrous acid fhould
therefore be employed to avoid the inconveni-
ence of an excels; for an excels docs not produce
too flrong a red, but dellroys the colour by the
abforption of all the phlogillon, Strong nitrous
acid, mixed with calculous matter, is, after a
fliort interval, converted, without the application
of heat, into froth.
The acid of the urinary calculi is calily fepa-
raleil from the nitrous acid by evaporation; the
nitrous acid being rendered more volatile by
combination with phlogitlon. Alkaline iults
do not feparatc thefe acids; for it almolt always
happens in the cafe of two acids being mixed,
E c 3 that
43 8 OBSERVATIONS ON
that no difunion is produced, but the alkali at-
tracted into the competition. The red matter
which is obtained by infpiflation, is evidently dif-
ferent from the concentrated acid which exilb
in calculi ; its faturated colour, the force with
which it attracts moifture from the atmofphere,
tin* rofe colour which it communicates to water,
its folubility in the muriatic and other acids,
which fooner or later deprive it of all heat,
thcfe particulars murk fulliciently the peculiari-
ty of the red matter. That remarkable change is
produced, as I have obferved, not fo much by
the reiidue of the nitrous acid, as by its cflicacy
in dilllpating phlogiflon. A folution of this mat-
ter produces rofy fpots on the (kin, as alfo on
bones, glafs, paper, c. but on theie latter, the
reclrefs docs nut appear fo foon unlefs heat be
applied.
1 forbear an account of my other experiments
on calculi; as their refults were the fame with
thofe which Scheele has laid before the world.
I /hall only add, that the chemical analyfis of the
ftone in the bladder may be of great benefit to
nudicine. lor -we can fcarce hope to find any
remedy \\hich may ailbrd a certain relief to the
evils of this dreadful cafe ; unlefs we firil difco-
ver the nature of the Hone. Experience has
flicun that lime-water and lixiviated cauilic al-
kali are a medicine for this complaint; uliich
might
UR1NAUY CALCULI. 439
might indeed be difcovcrcd, had it not becnpre-
vioufly known by confidering the competition
of the calculus. But, whether all calculi be of
the fume nature, I cannot prefumc to deter-
mine. New experiments are ncceflfary to decide
this qucilion.
E c 4 IN-
A
I N D E X.
P**.
CIDS, fpccics of - r . f ,?
Acids, vegetable *>, , = *bid.
Animal * 261
Agricola, his writings on metallurgy mentioned 114
Arabian phylicians, purgatives In (I recommended by them no
Adepts 101
A i it!s, common to feveral kingdoms in nature > . 261
Adulteration ofcorrofjvc fublimate with arfcnic _> ., 332
Alchemy, whether known to the Egyptian*, &c. - 40
Alkaline falls, fpecics of 26;
Alkalis fixed - - V ' . i()j t j.
Alum, Egyptian, commended by Pliny ;V > 2 <j
Alkaline metallic falls ... 2 C"J
Amhcr . ,p t 2 cjt
fpccici of . 2b ^
Amianthus . ? 2C2
Analogical falls '* ; - 2^4
Analogous falls v ' 24 1
Amorphous fulfils * . 2 oY
Art of ftaining glafs, in its highdl perfection in the 1 6th
century 1 2^
Arfenic, corrolive fublimate adult/Tated with it 717
Aflciline earth - ' ; , 180
Albcdus, 'I'areotaifan v . * . " jjjj
Of Swartvik 5 ^ t * ; ,-^ if t
, afbcftos of . , .,** loi
of Pifa, inccdotc related by him concerning
alchemy - ,,<{
13ifmut!i
INDEX. 441
Page.
Bifmuth fir(l mentioned by George Agricola - i$4
Bitumen, bodies impregnated with it - 257
Ulowpipc, its utility in experiments on foflils - 223
Hricks burnt by the Egyptian* - 29
nutters, metallic, their nature and origin - 343
Bricks, proccfs for burning them . - * - - 37^
Chinefe, acquainted with corrofivc mercurial fublimatc 3 1 <;
dafTcs of foflHs - - 7"
Common clay confidercd as a material for bricks 380
Combinations of mercury with the marine acid - 317
Competition of fofilli - *^' > - 216
Corrolive mercurial fublimatc 3*9
Coma, albedos of f-' 1 - - 19*
Chincfc poflefTcd of coafidcrablc chemical knowledge 8 c
Chcmiflry metaphorical character of - 3
Chemical arts, origin of - r ^ , ^
Chcmills, their defence of antiquity blamed - 7
. fond of tracing an allegorical hillory of their fci-
cncc in the fables of antiquity - - "9
Chemillry, nature of fofGls difcernablc by its acid 22 z
Chemirtry, its progrefs flower among the Greeks than a
mong the Egyptians - - ,- i 1 57
Copper firil tlifcorcred in Cyprus - - 57
Crete, afbcltos of * - ; - - 19*
Corinthian compofitions of mctali * * if ^7
Cyplic)8, an akxipharmic compofition of the Egyptians 2S
Cudbear, the fir ft difcovery of . - 126
Cronlltdt, his merit as a foflilill *;; tlj
Compound earths, how united - * '' 149
Crocodile, (kelcton of, found in thcfand-pit at MacftricLt 286
Diamond - * '*' ' '" "'' - 251
fpccics of * - 283
Difpenfatory of Valerius Cordus - 108
DoHie, his delicacy relative to the adulteration f corrofivc
fublimatc with arfcnic " * . * 333
Double
442 INDEX.
Double per fed earthy fait 5 . 264
Double imperfect earthly falls 265
Earth* ; 169
Earths, their al&nites witU nirtali . . 23$
Earthy fubflances, experiments with fire tried on them by
Tycho Brahc ... 58
Earths, dillinguiflting marks of 228 232
Egypt, Hate of chcmillry in V 15
Earthy alkaline fulls ... 365
Enoch, his account of the Egregori quoted . 8
External criteria of fulfill *., 217
Fixed alkali* *&*
Fibration through wool tkferibed by Plato . 60
Flexible glafs exhibited by an art ill to Tiberiui 84
FofTtls, thoughts on a natural fyllem of 205
. charaftcr of - 2 1 1
. examination of them in the humid way 2 if
Genera of fulls ., V- * * * 3 4
Gcyfer in Iceland, filiceous earth diHblved by the water
of that fjning - 2jl
Glafs, manufactories of it clUblifhed in France in the 7th
century - ^_ ?^.. . .., , t 121
Gold mines of Egypt ,; ?,., 32
Grxnge, albcllou of ^ f .. . 194
Gravity fpccific of earths 220
Creeks indebted Jto the Egyptians for the rudiments of
fcience %, 55
Hampmire earth 174
Helvetius Dr. what happened to him 135
I It-n ii'jut mn, pieces of gl:iU found in its ruint 1 24
Hcrme*, the (nil, the fame as Thoyth 1 6
. the frond * . *; ltj
Hermcfcs, both of them great inventors in the art* 2*
s, ttu buulo uttdcr hi fume not hi* 46
Hidory
INDEX. 443
Page.
I Jiftory Natural, what 2
Iliiloiy of tlic acidulated wntrn of Mcdvi jfc^
Jcrom, his evidence rcfpcc~ling glafs - 121
Imperfect double falls - - 263
Incniitatcd oi^p.nic bodies 259
Imperfect triple falu - . 264.
Invelligation of fulfils by fire fallacious 224
Ingredients in the mineral waters of Mtdvi 39^
Iron native of Siberia, malleable - 13
Laftantius, his evidence rcfpccling glafs 1 20
Leather, mountain 193
Lemnian earth - 161
Library of Alexandria founded by Ptolemy Sotcr 95-
Lithomargc - - * *59
J^okame mineral fprings . 403
Magnet, examination of earths by it - - 221
Making gold, meaning of tilit cxprcffion - 129
^Tcdvi, acidulated waters of 388
Metals, fulphurcous character of 335
Metals tltc ufc of, very ancient - 1 1
Mctah, diflinguiOiing marks of 228
Metallic falls - 26^
Metallurgy cultivated before the birth of ChriH 113
Metallic falls with an excefs of metallic bafe - 266
Mixed neutral falts ... 242
Mincrali/cd metals - - 179
Mortar prepared by the ancients with a larger proportion of
land than at prcfeut 128
Mincrali/.ing fubdanccs - 279
Metals minerali/ed by fulphur ibid.
Mofes (killed in chemiilry 72
Metah mineralised by the arfenical acid 381
Mountain cork 193
Mixed fufiiU, pofition and fitualion of 287
Mcrcuriel
.144 INDEX.
Page.
Mercurial fublimate prepared by various procefTct 322
Mixture of bodies containing mercury and muriatic acid 321
Mineral acids, their aft ion on corrofive mercury 338
Mercurial Cdts, their various ufcs 373
Maugantfe, precipitates of - - - 424
Names derived froni the authors of new difcovcries 303
Native melals ., ,. . . 2 ;3
Neutral falls - - - - 263
Neutral falls, whethe* referable to a diftinft genus 24 (
Nickel, precipitates ot - * * 41*
Nitre was found in Egypt flt a very remote period 29
Nil rons acid, its importance in the preparation of mercurial
fublirnalc - . * 325
Nuclei - - - - 258
Origin of phlogillic fubflances - - 284
Organic fulfils, fpecies of ", ' -":<,: 287
Organic fofliU - 236
. bodies mineralized by falls , ;. i 256
pet refaction of 257
pencil ated with metallic particles - 25$
Ory&ology . 214
Ofmundic earth r * * 171
Oilcocolla . . . 259
Pet nr, what -i t ::*>;. ... '* 304
Pchr(l)eig, afbeflos of ; * n 19^
Petroleum . . 252
fpcclea of . . 2 3\
I'htina, examination of it by precipitation -417
Pharinacopaia of Nicolaui Prcvoil <f 107
Piienicians, the making of glafi fuggefted to them by an
accident .. . . *.-
*- mt-tula brought by them from Spain and other
countries ^ ,, s . . ^,
I'Juriuacy of the Egyptian j, what It confitlcd of . 28
functioned
INDEX.; 445
Page.
Pharmacy fancVoned in .Sweden by the legislature . 113
Philofophy Natural, it-; (low progtcft - - * l
Phlogitlon, a principle in gold - - 130
Plilogillic bodies the character of , 22 ^
Phyfics, wliat . - -'.{.' *
Phlogillic fubflsmcct " 2 3*
fpCCU'S of " . - , - 2*U
Primitive earth r 245
Pulverization favourable to the folution of folJd bodies 229
Pliyiical qualities of fwcet mercury . 3^6
Pure clay 379
Precipitates of cobalt - - . - 422
(Quadruple falls - - , 2^4
(^jiadruplc metallic falts - 267
Remaining iniprcfTions of organic bodies a59
RoficrucianSy their origiti - ' 102
Sal alembrotli - - 337
Salts, fynopiisof - - - - 267
Salts diftinpuilhing marks of - ' . 228
. tlicii afTmkics.witli carlli and mctaU 234
fpecific characters of them - - , 260
Schorl, fibrous of Grrngc 1 95
Separation of metals by fire at Aril probably accidental I 2
Solubility in water, confidered as a property of foflils 229
artificial limits of it - - 231
opecica of fofliU mixed mechanically - - 285
Species of organic foflils, mincrali/.cd by fait I - 288
Spiiit of wine, corrofivc mercurial fublimatc difTolvcd in
it ... 333
Steatites of Swartvik - 1 88
.Sulphur - 252
fpccics of - - 28;
Sweet mercury - - 35 y
S\vcdifli clay fuliblc without lime 380
Swartvik,
I N D E X.
Swartrik, tfbeflos of _ . ,#5
Syflem of foflils, difficulty of founding it - 226
Tarentaifian afbcllos *V . 182
Terra Ponderofa 246
Thoyth, hi Ingenuity \^
Tiles, ordinary fault* of them , 9 *r j^g
Triple metallic falti " :> U 7 *', 266
Triple fall* - 363
Triple earthy falls . - '** }^$
Tubalcain made difcovcries concerning metals [*1^* II
Umbrians, a full extracted by them from the afhci of reeds
an-1 bulruflics *' : 83
Unlvcrfal medicine ** '"' ' 143
Varieties of organic fofTils * * ' ; 295
Volcanic produflions ";-' 237
Waters of Mcdvi, their phyfical qualities - : *'.;' 391
White mercurial precipitate ; 349
preparation of it '' '*' 350
diflblvcd in water ' 357
. adulteration of it ' * V'"' : "'v "'' 35^
Zillcrthal, fchorl fibrous of '*' il'- K/>
Zoroafter, the reputed author of many writings on chc-
miftry, &c. , : " ?*
r i N i s.
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