ov
CO
FROM A PICTURE IN THE POSSESSION OF
JOHN BROADWOOO & SONS.
LONDON ; ROBERT COCKS &C? NEW BURLINGTON ST. REGENTS!, W.
/IMtJFACrUHEftS AND MUSIC PUBLISHERS, BY SPECIAL WARRANTTO
HFJR MOSTGRACIOUS MAJESTY QUEEN VICTORIA,
AND TD HIS IMPFRIAL MA.lESTY TH EMPEROR NAPOIFON III
THE PIANOFORTE,
ITS ORIGIN, PROGRESS, AND CONSTRUCTION;
WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF INSTRUMENT!) OF THE SAME CLASS WHICH PRECEDED IT; VIZ.
\
THE CLAVICHORD, THE VIRGINAL, THE SPINET,
THE HARPSICHORD, ETC,
TO WHICH 18 ADDED A SELECTION OF
SPECIMENS OF MUSIC
COMPOSED FOR KEYED-STRINGED INSTRUMENTS,
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
/ &
. } ^ 1,
EDWARD JOHNSON
MUSIC LIlfKARY
BY BLITHEMAN, BYRD, BULL, FRESCOBALUI, DUMONT, CHAMBONNlfeRES, LULLY, PUKCGLL, MUFFAT,
COUPERIN, KUHNAU, SCARLATTI, SEE. BACH, MATTHESON, HANDEL, C. P. EMANITRL BACH, ETC'.
BY
EDWARD F. RIMBAULT, LL.D.
MEMBER OP TBB 110YAL ACADKUT OF MUSIC IX STOCKHOLM, ETC. TC.
LONDON :
ROBERT COCKS AND CO. NEW BURLINGTON STREET, REGENT STREET, \\ .
MUSIC PUBLISHERS TO HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY QUEEN VICTORIA,
AND HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY NAPOLEON HI.
1860.
HL
<^ R ^X
MAR 8 1965
*' <&)j
o to 1 4 1
TO
HENRY E. DIBDIN, ESQ.
(OF PLODDBN LODOE, MOBHINO8TUB, EDINBURGH)
I DEDICATE THIS VOLUME,
NOT ONLY BECAUSE I ESTEEM HIM AS
A VALUED FRIEND,
BUT BECAUSE
TO HIS GRANDFATHER IS DUE THE MERIT
FIRST INTRODUCED THE PIANOFORTE . TO PUBLIC NOTICE
IN ENGLAND.
PREFACE.
AMONGST the entire range of musical instruments, there is not one, in
our day, that possesses so many claims to notice as the Pianoforte the
" household orchestra" of the people. Although it was the birth only of
the last century, there have existed, for hundreds of years, instruments which,
under different appellations, resembled the Pianoforte in the more important
features of construction. Those instruments are but little known to the artist ;
scarcely, if at all, to the public. But the spirit of enquiry which marks the
present age demands some explanation of those musical fabrics upon which
so many of our eminent musicians exercised their mechanical skill, and
for which they composed strains which are listened to with pleasure, even
in these days of improvement.
The history of the Pianoforte has never been attempted on any scale at
all commensurate with its interest or importance. Brief, unsatisfactory, and
incorrect notices are indeed to be found ; but these have only served to lead
the enquirer into a net of inaccurate data, or a maze of wild conjecture.
Nevertheless, some articles are to be found which must, to a certain
extent, be exempt from the general stigma ; and amongst them the following,
all of which have been used in the course of the following pages.
M. Fetis's Sketch of the History of the Pianoforte and of Pianists, origi-
nally printed in the Revue Musicale, and afterwards partly translated (the
translation was left unfinished) in The Hannonicon for 1830-1, a valuable
periodical, edited by the late Mr. W. Ayrton.
The late Professor Fischhof s Versuch einer Oeshichte des Clavierbaues.
Vienna. 8vo. 1853.
vi PREFACE.
Thalberg's Kemarks on Pianofortes, printed in the Jury Report of the
Great Exhibition of 1851.
Mr. W. Pole's Musical Instruments in the Great Industrial Exhibition of
1851. Printed for private circulation.
I may also enumerate the valuable Tours in France, Italy, Germany,
&c. by Dr. Burney ; together with his articles in Rees's Cyclopedia. I have
derived much curious and minute information from these sources, which
cannot be too highly commended for their intelligence, learning, and accuracy.
I accord this praise to Burney, because it is the fashion of the present age
to speak slightingly of his labours.*
The task of writing the history of the Pianoforte was one of no small
difficulty ; the materials being widely scattered, and, in some cases, almost
inaccessible. The amount of miscellaneous reading, too, required was almost
enough to deter the most ardent explorer after hidden treasure from pursuing
his labour ; and when I present the following pages to the public, it is not
without some misgiving that the result will be found to be far, very far short
of what might have been expected. But, perhaps, if my work cannot be
received as a complete history of the subject of which it treats, it may be
regarded as a diligent collection of facts and opinions, illustrating the origin,
progress, and construction of that delightful instrument the Pianoforte.
The materials are divided into three parts ; viz.
I. The History of the Pianoforte.
II. The Construction of the Pianoforte.
III. The early Composers for Instruments of the Pianoforte Class.
* My friend Mr. Charles Salaman's Lectures on the Pianoforte are deserving of especial notice, for the care
with which they have been prepared. The information they contain has been gleaned from authentic sources,
and reflects much credit on the industry and talent of their compiler.
PREFACE. vii
In the first part of the work, I have given an account of the early
keyed-stringed instruments which preceded the invention of the Pianoforte ;
i. e. the clavicytherium, the clavichord, the clarichord, the virginal, the spinet,
and the harpsichord ; tracing, as far as possible, their origin and progress.
And here I may remark, that a much greater antiquity is assigned to
instruments of this class than has hitherto been ceded to them ; although I
do not go the length of the learned Abbate Pietro Gianelli, who, in the
article Cembalo, in his Dizionario della Musica, says, " that King David
knew something of this instrument is apparent from the 130th Psalm,
where occurs the expression, * Laudate eum in cymbalis jubilationis ;" which
is, of course, to suppose that King David wrote and spoke the Latin language ;
for cymbalum is but the vulgate translation of a Hebrew term !
I have also treated of various instruments in use by the Hebrews, the
ancient Egyptians, the Greeks, &c. Perhaps some of my readers may deem
this portion of my volume irrelevant to the purpose ; but it seems to me
absolutely necessary to trace briefly, as I have done, the progress of the lyre,
the harp, the psaltery, the dulcimer, and many other of those instruments
which preceded the invention of the key-board. Besides, it must be remem-
bered that the noble works of Sir J. Gardner "Wilkinson, Dr. Layard, Eosel-
lini, &c. throw new lights on the manners and customs of those ancient
nations which I have named, clearing up many doubts and difficulties which
puzzled our older musical historians.
The origin of the Pianoforte is now, it is hoped, satisfactorily cleared
up, by the republication of Scipione Maffei's interesting account of Bartolo-
meo Cristofali and his discoveries. The claims which have been set up for
various ingenious men Schroter, Marius, Silbermann, &c. now fall to the
ground ; and it is a source of no small gratification to me to be enabled to
present a literal translation of this highly valuable document, setting forth
as it does so minutely the claims of an ingenious artisan to the honor of the
invention of the Pianoforte.
PREFACE.
The list of patents appertaining to the Pianoforte, copied from the books
of the Great Seal Patent Office, must be welcomed as a valuable and faithful
record of the progress of the instrument. All doubts as to the various
claimants for the honor of discoveries may be solved by referring to
this list. It would doubtless have been desirable to have examined the
specifications themselves, and to have recorded more minutely the particulars
of each invention ; but this could hardly have been done in the present
instance ; not solely on account of the additional labour, but because the
volume already extends considerably beyond the limits proposed.
The second part of the work treats generally of the construction of the
Pianoforte, without descending too minutely into the technicalities of the
manufactory.
It is arranged under three heads : i. e. 1. The Framing. 2. The
Stringing. 3. The Keys, and Machinery attached for striking the Strings,
technically called the " Action." Under these divisions, all that relates to
the manufacture of the Pianoforte, of whatever shape, " grand," " square,"
or " upright," has been carefully considered, and the various improvements
and inventions duly chronicled.
And here I must express my obligations to Mr. Pole's valuable labours,
as set forth in his volume already mentioned. The author is not only a
musician in the proper sense of the word, but a gentleman of highly scientific
attainments. His observations are of the utmost possible value ; and what-
ever merit may be due to this portion of my work, it must be shared with
Mr. Pole.
My notices of the improvements in the mechanical details of the Piano-
forte close with the year 1851 the year of the Great Industrial Exhibition.
Had they been carried down to the present time, several manufacturers
would have received attention whose names do not occur in the index.
Amongst them I may mention the spirited publishers of the present volume,
in whose establishment an excellent class of instruments is produced, well
deserving the notice of the public.
PREFACE. ix
*
This division of the volume also contains a chapter on the " Various
Mechanical Contrivances applied to keyed-stringed instruments in order to
obtain sustained Sounds" a subject which has occupied the attention of the
philosophic mind for a period of nearly three centuries.
The " melographic," " mechanical," and " transposing" Pianos have also
received due attention ; so also have the " Statistics of Pianofortes and Piano-
forte Manufacturing as an Article of Trade ;" the " Materials used in the
Construction of Pianofortes," &c.
The third portion of the work consists of an interesting collection of
specimens of ancient music for keyed-stringed instruments, ranging over a
period of two centuries. They have been taken from rare books and manu-
scripts in the possession of the author, and have been selected from a large
mass of material, chiefly with a view to show the gradual progress of what
may be termed the art of Pianoforte-writing.
Many old-fashioned stereotyped notions will be disturbed by a careful
perusal of these specimens. Frescobaldi, the famed Italian organist, will be
pronounced vastly inferior to our John Bull ; whilst Henry Purcell, the
great English musician, falls far short of his German and French cotempo-
raries in the art of harpsichord-writing. Couperin, the renowned clavecin
writer, sinks into insignificance when compared with his predecessor in the
French Court, Jean Baptiste Lully, whose harpsichord works betray a genius
for which he has not hitherto received credit.
The sonatas of Handel and Scarlatti, printed for the first time in the
following pages, shine forth with redoubled lustre when compared with the
duller satellites by which they are surrounded.
Some of the more technical portions of my material have been thrown
together in an Appendix, where, under the heads of " Hints to those who
have the Care of Pianofortes," " The Mode of Tuning," and " How to regulate
Defects in the Mechanism of the Pianoforte," a variety of information may
be gleaned by all who need it.
X PREFACE.
I have also added to the Appendix " A Glossary of the principal Terms
used in the Manufacture of the Pianoforte," which might have been inde-
finitely extended, had the prescribed limits (already much exceeded) of the
work allowed.
Before concluding these prefatory remarks, I have one duty left, which
affords me much pleasure the offer of my sincere thanks to those gentlemen
who have so kindly assisted me in carrying out my enquiries during the
progress of the following pages.
And first, to my friend W. Chappell, Esq. F.S.A. who kindly translated,
at my request, Scipione Maffei's Italian description of Cristofali's Pianoforte.
To Thomas Jones, Esq. B.A. the learned librarian of the Chetham Library,
Manchester, for the transcripts of two important documents preserved in
that repository. To Mr. Murray, the eminent publisher, for permission to
copy several wood-cuts from Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson's Manners and Customs
of the Ancient Egyptians. To Robert Hendrie, Esq. for calling my attention to
the monk Theophilus's curious notice, De Mensura Cymbalorum, and for per-
mission to use his translation of the same. To Count Pepoli, for his kind letter
(printed in the Additional Notes and Illustrations) respecting Marco Jadra,
the early virginal-maker. To E. W. Eairholt, Esq. E.S.A. for pointing out
several early representations of musical instruments. To H. E. Dibdin, Esq.
for many valuable hints, and for extracts and drawings from Prsetorius's
Syntagma Musicum, in the University Library, Edinburgh. To the Messrs.
Broadwood, for permission to copy the portrait of Tschudi, the founder of
their firm, engraved as the frontispiece to the book. To Mr. Thomas Eastman
(a gentleman on the Publishers' Staff), who kindly read over the proof sheets
during the progress of the work through the press, and favoured me with his
valuable observations ; and also for the note on the meaning of several
Hebrew terms used in the Psalms, inserted on pages 12, 13.
To Professor Eischhof, of Vienna (now, alas ! no more), I acknowledge
myself indebted for many valuable communications ; as also to my late
PREFACE. xi
lamented friend, Mr. J. P. Barratt, for most valuable assistance in many
technical portions of the work, especially in that portion devoted to a con-
sideration of the causes of defects in Pianofortes, and the method of
remedying them. Mr. Barratt's extensive knowledge of everything relative
to the Pianoforte, and his readiness in communicating that knowledge,
are well known to all who enjoyed his friendship. This acknowledgment
is due from me to the memory of a truly deserving artist and a good man.
EDWARD F. RIMBAULT.
29, St. Martfa Crescent, Gloucester Road,
Regents Park,
February 10, 1860.
ERRATA..
PAGE 13, line 8, read ~tf JPJ7, y Ain, not JJ Tsaddi (with Kamels).
13, foot-note, 2nd column, line 5, for "or," read " on."
19, last line but one in the text, for "Musica," read "Musica."
19, foot-note, 2nd column, line 8, for "prseseus," read "praseus."
33, foot-note, 2nd column, line 10, for " sub-silentia," read " sub-silientia."
47, foot-note, for " Fishof's," read " Fischhofs."
64, foot-note, for " Arlington House," read " the Mulberry Garden."
74, line 8, for " Rucker," read " Ruckers " ; the same in the foot-note.
77, line 18, for " Podini," read " Todini."
91, line 20, for " son," read "nephew."
129, foot-note, 1st column, for "Fischoff," read "Fischhof."
165, line 33, for "James," read " John."
156, paragraph 13th, read " SAMUEL THOMAS CROMWELL."
190, line 1, for " George," read " James."
208, foot-note, for " parted," read " port<5e de tout le monde."
217, No. 28, for " Peachy," read " Peachey."
218, In the italics at the head of the columns ; for " Catalogue" read " Catalogue " ; for " Grand,"
read " Grand." I
218, in the division at foot of page (Belgium), for "Entwerp," read "Antwerp."
220, for " Ne. iu," read " No. in."
224, line 10, insert " from " before " the court or palace."
229, line 17, for " 1591," read " 1587."
233, line 29, for " born about 1591 ; died in 1640 read " born in 1587 ; died about 1654."
CONTENTS.
PART I.
THE HISTORY OF THE PIANOFORTE.
CHAPTER 1. SOME OF THE STRINGED INSTRUMENTS OF THE ANCIENTS. 1
TheLyre 2
The Harp 7
Stringed Instruments, the particular Names of which are unknown 12
Recent Discoveries at Nineveh 15
CHAPTER II. THE MEDIEVAL INSTRUMENTS THAT PRECEDED THE INVENTION OF THE KEY-BOARD. 1 7
The Psaltery, or Psalterium 18
TheDulcimer 23
TheCitole 25
CHAPTER III. THE FIRST INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS 28
The Clavicytherium 28
The Clavichord 29
CHAPTER IV. THE VIRGINAL 48
CHAPTER V. THE SPINET 67
CHAPTER VI. THE HARPSICHORD 71
CHAPTER VII. THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE 94
CHAPTER VIII. THE PROGRESS or THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT 112
CHAPTER IX. THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND 180
CHAPTER X. THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 149
PART II.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
CHAPTER I. THE FRAMING 162
CHAPTER II. THE STRINGING 175
CHAPTER III. THE ACTION . 184,
xiv CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV. VARIOUS MECHANICAL CONTRIVANCES APPLIED TO THE PIANOFORTE IN ORDER
TO OBTAIN SUSTAINED SOUNDS 197
CHAPTER V. MELOGRAPHIC, MECHANICAL, AND TRANSPOSING PIANOS ... 205
CHAPTER VI. STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING AS AN ARTICLE
OF TRADE ; MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF PIANOFORTES ; &c. . . . 209
PAET III.
THE EARLY COMPOSEES FOE INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS 223
A COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS ILLUSTRATING THE PROGRESS OF Music FOR KEYED-STRINGED
INSTRUMENTS... 237
1. Gloria Tibi, Trinitas William Blitheman 237
2. Sellenger's Bound William Byrd 241
3. The King's Hunting Jigg Dr. John Bull 245
4. LesBuffons Ditto 248
5. Courante Jewell Ditto 253
6. Capriccio del Soggetto sopra 1' Aria di Eoggiero Girolamo Frescobaldi,.. 257
7. Suite de Pieces H. Dumont 262
8. Suite de Pieces Chambonnifcres 265
9. Suite de Pieces J. B. Lully 268
10. Prelude and Airs Henry Purcell 278
11. Variationes super Cantilenam ... F. X. A. Miirshhauser. . 284
12. Sonata Johann Kuhnau 292
13. Suite de Pieces John Mattheson 299
t i. Sonata in A minor ... Doinenico Scarlatti 306
15. SonatainQ Ditto 810
16. Suite de Pieces Fran?ois Couperin 316
17. Capriccio J. Sebastian Bach 332
18. Capriccio in G Handel 340
19. Fantaisie Theofilo Muffat 344
20. Air Ditto 348
21. Allemand ; Ditto 350
22. Introduction and Toccata De Mondonville 351
23. EondoinEflat Carl Philip Eman. Bach. 357
24. Fantasia Ditto . . 363
ILLUSTRATIONS. XV
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX I. HINTS TO THOSE WHO HAVE THE CARE OF PIANOFORTES ... 369
APPENDIX II. ON TUNING 372
APPENDIX III. How TO REGULATE DKFECTS IN THE MECHANISM OF THE PIANOFORTE 380
APPENDIX IV. A GLOSSARY OF THE PRINCIPAL TERMS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF THE
PIANOFORTE ... ...... 387
ADDITIONAL NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS . 398
LIST OE WOOD-CUTS AND DIAGRAMS.
1. Figure of a Hebrew playing on the Lyre -. 8
2. Representation of an Egyptian Lyre in the Berlin Museum 5
3. Lady playing on the Lyre, from a Theban Tomb ... 5
4. Female Figure playing on the Lyre, from a Vase found at Herculaneum 6
5. Male Figure, ditto. .. 6
6. Bow-shaped Harp preserved in the Museum at Florence 8
7. Egyptian Figure with small bow-shaped Harp ...... 8
8. Ditto, larger 8
9. Ditto, still larger 8
10. Drawings of Brace's Harps in the Tombs of Bibdn el Molodit ....... 10
11. Female Figure playing on the triangular Harp 14
12. Male Figure, ditto 14
18. Egyptian Instrument of the Harp Class, in the Museum at Florence 14
14. The Cithara of the Middle Ages 19
15. The square Psalterium 20
16. The triangular Psalterium 20
17. The Psaltery or Nabulum of the Fourteenth Century 21
1 8 . Drawing of a grotesque Performer on the Psaltery of the Fifteenth Century 21
19. The Hackbret or Dulcimer, as given by Luscim'us 24
20. Figure of a Lady playing on a Citole ... 25
21 Drawing of the Clavicytherium 29
22. Ditto of the Clavichord 30
23. Diagram of the Mechanism of the Clavichord 31
24. Drawing of the Clavicymbal ... 33
X vi ILLUSTRATIONS.
25. The Simicum, as depicted by Galilei 35
26. The Cymbal, as represented by Grassineau 39
27. Drawing of the Manichord 46
28. Eepresentation of a Lady playing on the Virginal 49
29. The triangular Virginal from Prsetorius's Syntagma Musicum 50
30. The upright Virginal 53
31. Diagram of the ' Jack' Action of the Virginal 57
32. The Virginal of the Seventeenth Century 64
33. Drawing of a Lady playing on the Spinet ...... 67
84. Eepresentation of a Spinet made by Joseph Baudin, in 1723 69
35 . The Harpsichord, from Father Mersennus's Harmonicorum ... 72
36. Eepresentation of an Italian Concert in 1634 ...... 79
37. A Spanish Harpsichord 84
38. Diagram of the Mechanism of Cristofali's Pianoforte 99
39. Diagram of Marius's " Harpsichord with Hammers" 1 04
40. Ditto, showing a different Mechanism ... 105
41 . Ditto, showing the Mechanism of the upright Harpsichord ... 1 06
42. Ditto, showing a Harpsichord with Hammers and Jacks 107
43. Drawing of a Pianoforte in the Palace at Potsdam 119
44. Diagram of the Mechanism of the Pianoforte as improved by Mason 137
45. Diagram of the Framing of the modern upright Pianoforte front view without the strings. . . 169
46. Ditto back view, showing the bracings 169
47. Diagram of the Action of the modern upright Pianoforte when the key is at rest ... 187
48. Ditto, when the key is pressed down ... 187
49. Diagram of the Action of the modern square Pianoforte 188
50. Diagram of the common Grand Pianoforte Action 189
51. Diagram of Broadwood's old Grand Action 189
52. Ditto, with the Improvements of W. Southwell 189
53. Diagram of Collard's Patent Grand Action 190
54. Ditto of Erard's Patent Grand Action 190
55. Ditto of Wornum's Grand Action 190
56. Ditto of Zeitter's Grand Action 191
57. Ditto of Wornum's Unique Action ...... 191
58. Ditto of Wornum's Double or Piccolo Action . .191.
PART I.
THE HISTORY OF THE PIANOFORTE.
CHAPTER I.
SOME OF THE STRINGED INSTRUMENTS OF THE ANCIENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
MUSICAL Instruments with stretched strings the first principle of the piano-
forte existed in the remotest ages of antiquity ; but it is almost lost time to seek
for their origin. " Shadows, clouds, and darkness" rest upon their first beginnings ;
and the names of their inventors, with their personal histories, are obscured by fables
and traditions.
We can well imagine, that when the father of these instruments
" struck the chortled shell,
His listening brethren closed around,
And, wond'ring, on their faces fell,
To worship the celestial sound : .
Less than a God they thought there scarce could dwell
Within the hollow of that shell,
That spoke so sweetly and so well."
The Egyptians are generally looked upon as the fountain from whence the arts
and sciences were diffused over the greater part of Europe ; and, from the wondrous
records that have been handed down to us, this seems more than probable.
The ancient history of this extraordinary people is so entangled with tradition that
it is impossible to unravel it. That there were extant at one period records extending
up to its earliest existence is highly probable : but these were destroyed by Cambyses,
THE LYRE.
who, about 525 B. C. subdued Egypt, overthrowing the temples in which the records
were deposited, and slaying the priests. In the absence of written authorities, all
tradition points to Ham, or one of his sons, as the first who led a colony into Egypt ;
and some writers suppose that Noah reigned there, identifying that patriarch with
Osiris, to whose secretary, Hermes Trismegistus, is ascribed the invention of music.
THE LYRE.
Apollodorus* gives the following account of the circumstance which led to the
discovery of this enchanting art ; and, although the art itself certainly did not owe
its origin to the encounter of Hermes with the shell of the tortoise, it is not
improbable that the invention of the lyre may be attributed to some such adventi-
tious cause : " The Nile," says the writer, " having overflowed its banks at the periodical
season for the rise of that wonderful river, on its subsidence to its usual level, several
dead animals were left on the shores, and amongst the rest, a tortoise, the flesh of
which being dried and wasted in the sun, nothing remained within the shell but nerves
and cartilages, which, being tightened and contracted by the heat, became sonorous.
Mercury (Hermes), walking along the banks of the river, happened to strike his foot
against the shell, and was so pleased with the sound produced, that the idea of the
lyre suggested itself to his imagination. The first instrument he constructed was in
the form of a tortoise, and was strung with the sinews of dried animals-]-." Assigning
the discovery to some human being, this story has so much probability as can be
* Bittiotheca, lib. ii.
t The lyre was called, by the Greeks, chelys fyeXvi;) ; earliest found were without the magas, or any contrivance
and by the Romans, testudo ; that is, tortoise. It seems to assist the sound. It is also remarkable, that, although
that in these the magas or concavity formed towards the the tradition assigns the invention of the lyre to Egypt,
base of the instrument, to augment the sound, was really none of the instruments which their paintings exhibit are
formed of the shell of the tortoise ; for Pausanias speaks of the tortoise kind. The Egyptian lyre was generally
of a breed of tortoises on Mount Parthenius, excellently held horizontally by the players, not perpendicularly, as by
suited to furnish bellies for lyres. Pans. Grose, lib. ii, the Greeks and Romans. Sir 3. G. Wilkinson says, they
lib. viii. Arcad. The variations in the forms of lyres, as were always held horizontally. But this statement is
exhibited in ancient sculptures and paintings, are so contradicted by drawings in his own work,
numerous as to defy any attempt at classification. The
THE LYRE 3
afforded by the fact that many figures of ancient Greek lyres do actually bear the
figure of a tortoise.
The lyre, in its various modifications of form, seems to have been the most common
stringed instrument of all ancient nations. It possessed various forms, and various
names lyra, chelys, testudo, cithara, barbitos, &c., by which its principal varieties
were distinguished. It seems certain, also, that the Hebrew -033 Kinnor, was a
form of lyre, a representation of which is here copied from the curious tomb at Beni
Hassan. The entire painting is supposed to represent the arrival of Jacob's family in
Egypt, and is cotemporary with that event. Sir J. G. Wilkinson,
from whose valuable work on the Manners and Customs of the
Ancient Egyptians (vol. ii, p. 296) our figure is taken, says,
" The lyre is rude, and differs a little in form from those
generally used in Egypt ; but its presence here, and in others
of the oldest sculptures, amply testifies its great antiquity,
and claims for it a rank among the earliest stringed instru-
ments."
The question as to the number of strings in the original lyre of Hermes, has
been a subject of much discussion ; some writers assuming that it had only three,
corresponding to the seasons of the year which the Egyptians recognized ; i. e. winter,
spring, and summer*. These three strings produced an acute, a mean, and a grave
sound the grave answering to winter, the mean to spring, and the acute to summer.
Others contend that the lyre had four strings ; the interval between the first and
fourth being an octave ; the second, a fourth from the first ; the fourth, the same
distance from the third ; and that from the second to the third was a tone. Others
again contend that the Hermean lyre had seven strings ; but this discrepance is very
likely to have arisen from confounding the lyres of the Egyptian and Grecian
Hermes, or from adverting to the state of the instrument at different periods.
* Not only the Egyptians, but the ancient Greeks, " The hour* to Jove did lovely Themis bear,
divided their year into three seasons, which were called Eunomia, Dice, and Irene fair:
hours. Thus Hesiod : O'er human labours they the pow'r possets,
With Stasora kind the fruits of earth to bless."
Theogony.
B 2
THE LYRE.
Many of the Egyptian lyres were of considerable power, having five, seven, ten,
and even eighteen strings. They were usually supported between the elbow and the
side, and the mode of playing them was generally with the hand, and not, as in
Greece and Kome, with a plectrum*. This custom, however, observes Sir J. G.
Wilkinson, was also adopted by the Egyptians ; and as it occurs in sculptures of the
earliest periods, it is evident they did not borrow it from Greece ; nor was it unusual
for the Greeks to play the lyre with the hand without a plectrum; and many
instances of both methods occur in the paintings of Herculaneum.
There is as little agreement amongst ancient writers with regard to the form of
the lyre, as there is respecting the number of its strings. There are drawings of it,
and remains of sculpture, in which its figure exists in various shapes ; some
resembling the front part of the head and horns of a bull, others the shell of the
tortoise. Some were ornamented with the head of a favourite animal, carved in
wood ; as the horse, ibex, or gazelle ; and others were of a more simple shape. The
strings were fastened at the upper end to a cross bar connecting the two sides, and
at the lower end they were attached to a raised ledge, or hollow sounding-board,
about the centre of the body, which was of wood, like the rest of the instrument.
The Berlin and Leyden Museums possess lyres of this kind, which, with the excep-
tion of the strings, are perfectly preserved. That in the former collection is
ornamented with horses' heads ; and, in form, principle, and the alternating length
of its strings, resembles one painted on the walls of a Theban tomb ; though the
* " This implement seems to have been generally a piece left-hand. Josephus says that the Kinnorim of the
of ivory, polished wood, or metal, in the form of a quill. Temple were played with the plectrum : and this may have
Other forms are preserved, some of which seem to have been, although it appears from Scripture that the common
been too clumsy to extract from the lyre tones of much lyres were played with the hand." Pictorial Bible, ii,
sweetness or delicacy. Hawkins says that the lower joint 574. The quill plectrum was used in the earliest keyed-
of a goat's foot was sometimes employed. It appears that stringed instruments.
the plectrum was only used with the larger species of the It may be remarked, in passing, that, in the classical
lyre. When employed, it was held in the right-hand ; and writings, a distinction is observed between the 1-ccten, with
while the player struck the chords with it, the fingers of which the strings were fretted as with the ends of the
the left-hand also touched the strings. When the fingers fingers, and the Plectrum (from wXijira, to strike) with
only were used, those of both hands were generally em- which they were struck the latter term including, as is
ployed : but some ancient lyrists were celebrated for their assumed, all instruments of the bow kind.
performances with one hand, and that too sometimes the
THE LYIIE.
board to which the strings are fastened is nearer the bottom of the instrument, and
the number of strings is thirteen instead of ten.
We have here an engraving of both, thus affording an opportunity of comparing
a real Egyptian lyre, with the representation of one drawn by a Theban artist more
than three thousand years ago.
The body of the Berlin lyre is about ten inches high, and fourteen and a half
broad, and the total height of the instrument is two feet. It is entirely of wood, and
one of the sides, as of many represented in the sculptures, was longer than the opposite
one ; so that the instrument was tuned by sliding the strings upwards along the bar.
The Greek lyres were similar to those of Egypt, sometimes imitating the shape of
the head and portion of the horns of a gazelle, and other elegant forms : the strings too
were as varied in number as those of the Egyptians. In Greece, the instrument
had at first only four strings, till an additional three were introduced by Amphion* ;
who, as Pausanias seems to hint, borrowed his knowledge of music from Lydia, and
was reputed to have been taught the use of the lyre by Mercury.
Seven continued to be the number of its strings, until the time of Terpander, a
poet and musician of Antissa, near Lesbos (670 B. C.), who added several other strings ;
but many instruments were still made with a more limited number ; and although
* Pausanias, lib. ix. The scattered notices of music preserved by this writer are very valuable.
THE LYRE.
lyres of great power had long been known, and were constantly used, many Greeks
and Romans contented themselves with, and perhaps preferred, those of a smaller
compass. The lyres in the paintings of Herculaneum vary in the number of their
strings, as much as those in the Egyptian frescos ; and we there find them with three,
four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, and eleven strings.
We give representations of two ancient lyres, drawn from the vases found at
Herculaneum. The female figure seems to be in the act of tuning the instrument.
The male, who is about to perform on a square-shaped lyre, has in his right-hand the
plectrum.
There is every reason to believe that the musical instruments used by the Greeks
and Romans came from the East, and were originally the same as those used by
the Egyptians, Chaldeans, Phoenicians, and Syrians. The learned editor of the
Pictorial Bible (the late Dr. Kitto) remarks : " It is, therefore, not impossible to
recover, through the representations left by the Greeks and Romans, forms of lyres
and other instruments nearly approximating to, if not identical with, those used by
the Jews and other Orientals. The Greeks, always vain, and always jealous of their
own glory, asserted that most of the musical instruments used by them were the
invention of their gods or ancient poets. So they said of most inventions in science
and art. But in the present instance, the Scripture alone suffices to overthrow such
pretensions, since it mentions some of the instruments thus claimed as existing in
times long anterior to even the ages of Greek fable. The Romans derived many
THE HARP. 7
of their instruments, and the traditions connected with them, from the Greeks ;
but their writers intimate that additions were made to them from Syria: their
musical instruments came from the East. Thus Juvenal* sneers at the influx of
Syrian customs and musical instruments ; and Livyf mentions the great number of
instrumental performers which came to Rome from Syria, after the wars between
the Romans and Antiochus the Great.
" But even the Greeks are not consistent in their tales, being sometimes obliged
to recur to the true source of most of their musical instruments : and this is always
in the East ; in some instances, Phrygia or Lydia ; in others, Egypt, Syria, or Persia.
As for the Hebrews, we need not suppose that they were themselves the inventors
of the instruments they employed. They do not appear to have been ever remarkable
for invention ; and the instruments of neighbouring nations are in general so similar,
that it is not necessary to seek anything peculiar in them. They were probably sup-
plied from the same sources which supplied Greece and Rome : the Chaldeans, from
among whom their fathers came ; the Egyptians, among whom they so long lived ;
the Arabians, Syrians, and Phoenicians, by whom they were surrounded ; probably
furnished them with the models of most of the instruments they possessed."
THE HARP.
One account of the origin of the lyre, and consequently of all stringed instru-
ments, attributes it to an observation made by Apollo upon the twanging of a bow-
string. It might, therefore, be inferred that the earliest instruments founded on this
idea would bear the form of a bow. Yet this does not appear (as far as it has been
observed) from any Greek or Roman monuments ; whilst all the harps of Egypt are
more or less of the bow shape, so that the idea of such an origin would be suggested
even were there no tradition to support it. The engravings, which we have selected
from the perusal of a large number of Egyptian frescos, will trace the progress of the
idea from the simplest modification of the bow-form to the large and magnificent
bowed harp.
* Sat. iii. t Lib. xixix.
THE HARP.
The most simple application of the bow formed into a harp appears to be that
afforded by the instrument represented in our first engraving : it is given by Rosellini,
as copied from a real instrument preserved in the Museum at Florence.
From the number of the pegs, the strings
seem to have been four in number ; and which
appear to have been conducted through a box
or belly, framed at one extremity of the arc, in order to strengthen the sound.
The second engraving exhibits another instrument of
the same kind, with the four strings stretched over a box.
This figure is further interesting, as showing the manner
in which the instrument was played, by carrying it upon
the shoulder.
The next is another and rather larger instrument of
the same description. It is not portable while played, but
rests rather awkwardly upon the ground, without any base
for its support.
The fourth figure shows a larger instrument of the class,
and which has the same number of strings that Josephus gives
to the Hebrew nebel.
THE HARP. 9
All the Egyptian harps, according to Sir J. G. Wilkinson, have a peculiarity for
which it is not easy to account ; the absence of a pole, and, consequently, of a support
to the bar, or upper limb, in which the pegs were fixed ; and it is difficult to conceive
how, without it, the strings could have been properly tightened, or the bar sufficiently
strong to resist the effect of their tension, particularly in those of a triangular form.
The strings of the Egyptian harp were of catgut ; and some of those on the
harp discovered by Sir J. G. Wilkinson at Thebes, in 1823, were so well preserved,
that they emitted a sound upon being touched, although they had been buried in the
tomb probably three thousand years. This length of time would appear incredible,
if we had not repeated instances of the perfect preservation of numerous perishable
*
objects, even of an older date, in the sepulchres of Egypt.
The oldest harps found in the sculptures, are in a tomb, near the pyramids, of
Geezeh, between three and four thousand years old ; but perhaps the most interesting
are those described by Bruce, in one of the tombs called Biban el Molook (where the
Kings of Egypt were interred), of the time of Rameses iii, B. C. 1 235.
Bruce was the first to describe these representations, in a letter to Df . Burney,
which the latter printed in his History of Music. He also gave a drawing, engraved
in that work, which was intended to represent one of the harps painted in these
tombs. It is, however, so different in form and principle, as to leave no doubt that it
was drawn from recollection*. Denon afterwards gave, in a rude sketch, a more
correct representation, preserving the arc form which Bruce had destroyed. Then
came the great French work on Egyptf, which gave a more finished and correct
drawing ; as also of one of the other harps, which appears to be larger, and more
wonderful than that attempted by Bruce. Some serious errors have been committed
in the descriptions of both these harps. According to Rosellini, the second harp
contains thirteen strings, not eighteen, as stated by Bruce, nor twenty-one, as in the
French work. But Sir J. G. Wilkinson, whose authority cannot be questioned, shows
* This distinguished traveller committed many mis- t Detcription de tfigypte, on RecueU det Obter-
takes, through his zeal and enterprise. But the mature cations, &c. published at Paris by order of Napoleon. See
investigations of the present quarter of a century have the second tome, pi. xci.
amply vindicated his character.
C
10 THE HARP.
that it had only twelve strings. The accompanying engraving of both these harps is
copied from the latter gentleman's Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,
&c., and may be depended on for general accuracy and minuteness of detail.
Bruce, as we have said, made a fundamental error in the form of the first harp,
and in the number of its strings. He also made another error, which has never yet
been pointed out. After describing the player, he says, " To guess by the detail of
the figure, the painter should have had about the same degree of merit with a good
sign-painter in Europe ; yet he has represented the action of the musician in a manner
never to be mistaken. His left [right] hand seems employed in the upper part of the
instrument among the notes in alto, as if in an arpeggio ; while, stooping forwards, he
seems with his right [left] hand to be beginning with the lowest string, and promising
to ascend with the most rapid execution ; this action, so obviously rendered by an
indifferent artist, shows that it was a common one in his time ; or, in other words,
that great hands [sic] were then frequent, and consequently that music was well under-
stood and diligently followed. If we allow the performer's stature to be about
five-feet ten-inches, then we may compute the harp, in its extreme length, to be
somewhat less than six feet and a half. It seems to support itself in equilibrio on its
THE HARP. 11
foot, or base, and needs only the player's guidance to keep it steady. It has thirteen
[ten] strings, and the length of these, with the ease and liberty with which they are
treated, show that they are made in a very different manner from those of the lyre."
This description of the manner in which the performer's hands are placed upon
the instrument, is calculated to give us too exalted an idea of the state of music in
Egypt more than three thousand years ago. The Greeks, and other ancient nations,
certainly knew nothing of the accordance of sounds, which we call harmony ; and it
is not more likely that the Egyptians were acquainted with an art, the discovery of
which belongs to the medieval period*. The performers on " Brace's harps" are
simply playing single notes in octaves : the " arpeggios," and " rapid execution," are
purely the invention of our imaginative traveller.
Bruce further adds, " Besides that, the whole principles upon which the harp is
constructed are rational and ingenious ; the ornamental parts are likewise executed in
the very best manner : the bottom and sides of the frame seem to be veneered, or
inlaid, probably with ivory, tortoiseshell, and mother-o'- pearl; the ordinary produce
of the neighbouring seas and deserts. It would be even now impossible to finish an
instrument with more taste and elegance." Dr. Burney himself has some interesting
remarks on the same subjectf, liable however to the correction necessary, from his
having been in some respects misled by Bruce's drawing.
When, a few years after his letter to Dr. Burney, Bruce published his own work,
he gave a representation of the second harp, which he had overlooked on the previous
occasion; and which, although considerably modernized and improved, is far more
faithfully copied than the other. With reference to both, he says, " These harps, in
my opinion, overturn all the accounts hitherto given of the earliest state of music and
musical instruments in the East ; and are altogether, in their form, ornaments, and
* Whether the ancients had any knowledge of music in Bougeant, Padre Martini, Marpurg, Rousseau, Ac. The
parts or counterpoint, is a subject that has given birth to a prevailing opinion among scientific men is, that the ancients
variety of disquisitions and disputes. The authorities in were totally unacquainted with harmony in our acceptance
favour of the hypothesis, are Gaffurio, Zarlino, G. B. Doni, of the term ; but those who feel disposed to learn more
Isaac Vossius, Z. Tevo, the Abb6 Fraguier, &c. Those upon the point, are referred to Dr. Burney's History of
who deny the ancients this knowledge, are Glareanus, Music, vol. i, p. 112, where they will find the matter very
Salinas, Bottrigani, Artusi, Cerone, Kepler, Mersenmis, ably discussed.
Kircher, Claude Perrault, Dr. Wallis, Bontempi, Buretti, f Vol. i, p. 213, et >eq.
c 2
12 THE HARP.
compass, an incontestable proof, stronger than a thousand Greek quotations, that
geometry, drawing, mechanics, and music, were at the greatest perfection when this
instrument was made ; and that the period from which we date the invention of these
arts, was only the beginning of the sera of their restoration. This was the sentiment
of Solomon, a writer who lived about the time when these harps were painted : ' Is
there,' says Solomon, ' any thing whereof it may be said, See, this is new ! It hath
been already of old time which was before us.' '
STRINGED INSTRUMENTS, THE PARTICULAR NAMES OF WHICH
ARE UNKNOWN.
Much light might be thrown on the names of the various harps, lyres, and other
musical instruments of Egypt, if those mentioned in the Bible were more accurately
denned. But, as Calmet truly observes, " There is no subject in Scripture which has
been so little understood as the nature of the Hebrew musical instruments*. The
various translators of the Bible all differ as to the meaning of the terms applied to
these instruments in the sacred volume ; and the rabbins themselves know no more
of the matter than those least acquainted with Jewish affairs. They enumerate no
less than thirty-four different instruments, as used by the ancient Hebrews ; supposing
that the titles of several psalms, viz. Michtam, Sigaion, Sheminith, &c. indicate the
names of particular instruments to be used in performing them. But of this there is
scarcely any authority, excepting for the latterf .
* Those who are desirous to obtain knowledge on this seems to have been devoted to it, only three volumes were
subject, may read with advantage the curious investiga- published before his decease in 1783. The first volume,
tions of Padre Martini, in the first volume of his History which is wholly confined to Hebrew Music, appeared in
of Music: those of the Abbe Mattei in various disserta- 1757. The second and third volumes, which treat of the
tions with which he has illustrated his elegant translation music of the ancient Greeks, appeared in 1770 and in
of the Psalms in Italian verse; P. Philip Bonanni's Gobi- 1781.
netto Armonico, 1722; and the Latin dissertation of f According to the Rev. J. Jebb, Michtam signifies
Francisco Blanchini, De tribus generibus instrumentorum " A Psalm composed or written by David ;" Sigaion (or
Music* VeUrum Organic*, 1742. Shiggaion), "A wandering Song;" and Sheminith, "a
The Padre Martini's History of Music, unfortunately, Harp of eight strings.";! Literal Translation of the
was never completed. The learned father began his work Book of Psalms, ii, 140, 148, 157.
on so large a scale, that, though the chief cart of his life Mich-tarn Drp2_ acc ording to the Targum, "Sculp-
THE HARP.
13
Mersennus, and, after him, Kircher*, have indeed undertaken to describe these
instruments ; the latter professing to have derived his information chiefly from the
rabbinical writers and commentators on the Talmud. These are bad authorities ; and
it would only perplex the question still more to wade through their elaborate details.
It is to the wonderful discoveries in Egypt that we must chiefly look for information
upon this subject, and there our enquiries are more profitably rewarded.
Much confusion exists between the cithara or kitarus, the ashur ('asor, accord-
ing to the Masoretic pointing, "TiJPV), the sambuc, the nabl (nebel), and the kinaur
(kinnor): nor can the various kinds of drums, cymbals, or wind instruments
of the Jews be more satisfactorily ascertained. " The difficulty of identifying
them is not surprising," says Sir J. G. Wilkinson, " when we observe how
many names the Greeks had for their stringed instruments, and how the harps and
lyres represented in the Egyptian sculptures approach each other in principle and
tura recta Davidis ;" according to the Septuagint, " Tituli
Inscriptio dpifbrfpaufyta} ipsi David " which seems to
signify " a memorial of honour to David."
Shigga-j6"n p'JtJ' Ode erratica Davidis ; i. e. varia."
Sythner's Lyra PropJtelica. It is otherwise explained,
"Occupatio aut Studium;" again, " Delectatio, hetitia,
jucunditas."
Hash-sheminith rVJ'Sp$n_The Sheminith "In-
strumentum octo chordarum," from the numeral ]0t> octo.
* As these two writers will frequently be mentioned in
the course of the following pages, we shall here briefly
notice their biography. MARIN MERSENNUS was born at
Oyse, in the province of Maine, in 1588. He was educated
in the College of Sorbonne, and afterwards received the
habit of the Minims. He was a great Hebrew scholar,
and possessed of deep learning and research. He had also
a correct and judicious ear, and was a passionate admirer
of music. These gave direction to his pursuits, and were
productive of numerous experiments aud calculations, tend-
ing to demonstrate the principles of harmony, and to prove
that they had their foundation in nature, and in the original
constitution of the universe. His principal work is enti-
tled, Harmonicorum Libri XII in quibus agitur de
Sonorum Natura, Causis et Effectibus, Generibus, Modis,
Cantibus, Compositione, Orbisque totius harmonicit In-
ttrwnentis; folio, Paris, 1636. The most material con-
tents are dissertations on the nature and properties of
sound; on strings; on consonances and dissonances; or
ratios, proportion, and the division of consonances ; on the
modes and genera of the ancients; on singing and the
human voice; on composition; and on musical instru-
ments. This great scholar died in 1648.
ATBANASIUS KIRCHER, a Jesuit of Fulda, was an able
mathematician and a profound scholar. He was a professor
at Wurtzburgh, in Franconia, from whence, on the en-
trance of the Swedes into Germany, he retired into France.
He afterwards went into Italy, where he died in 1680,
aged 79. He was the author of many learned works, and,
among others, of tbeMusurgia Universalis,in two volumes,
folio, 1650. He has been severely censured, by Meibomius
and others, for bis barbarous Latin, and unclassical ideas
of ancient music, as well as for his credulity and want of
taste in selecting bis facts and materials. His Musuryia,
however, contains much curious and useful information, for
such as know how to sift truth from error, and usefulness
from futility.
14
THE HARP.
form ; and we sometimes hesitate whether to ascribe to them a place among the
former or the latter." It is among the instruments of this class, the genus of which
is undecided, that we must seek for an explanation of many of those mentioned in
the Scriptures.
Perhaps, among the most singular of these instruments, are those of a triangular
form, two of which are here copied, as given by Rosellini, from tombs at Thebes and
Dakkeh.
The first instrument has nine oblique strings, and is probably supported by a
belt from the shoulders of the performer. The second instrument is a larger one of
the same kind with perpendicular strings. It is held by pressing it between the side
and elbow, and is played on with both hands, by one of those monsters which the
Egyptian, mind was so prolific in producing. From their peculiar character and
form, no instruments of the kind claim a more attentive consideration.
To the same class essentially belongs another Egyptian instrument, of a very
simple construction, and which is given by Rosellini, not from a painting, but from a
real instrument found in Egypt, now deposited in the Museum at Florence.
In this, the strings (originally ten in number,
as appears from the pegs) form a triangle, by
their extension from the upper end of a piece
inserted at right angles into a large harmonical
body of wood, with which the strings are at
the other extremity connected ; as shown in
THE HARP. 15
our engraving. Portions of the strings still remain, and appear to have been
formed from the intestines of animals. Remembering that Solomon obtained wood
for his psalteries by distant commerce, it is remarkable that the wood of this instru-
ment is what Rosellini calls " a mahogany (swietana) from the East Indies ;" and
which the Egyptians must have obtained through commercial channels. Comparing
the delta form, which the old authorities assign to the nabl or psaltery, with the
number of the strings, Rosellini himself suggests that the present instrument
has probably some resemblance to the ^33 "YViZW> " the ten-stringed nabl " of the
Hebrews*.
The instruments above represented are very similar in principle, however differ-
ent their tones and powers may have been; but still they must be considered
distinct from the harp, lyre, and guitar : and they may, perhaps, bear some analogy to
the nabl, the sambuc, and the ten-stringed ashur of the Jews.
RECENT DISCOVERIES AT NINEVEH.
The sculptures discovered by the enterprising Dr. Layard, in the ruins of
Nineveh, contain representations of a musical instrument very similar to the trian*
gular one above described. It occurs in three different places in the series of slabs
now deposited in the Nimrud room at the British Museum. Two of these represent
processions, in which the king, returning from hunting, is met by five figures, the
two last being musicians, standing side by side, and playing upon the instruments
referred to. In the third slab, representing the Assyrian camp, a group of warriors,
carrying the heads of the slain, are rejoicing, in company with two musicians, also
with triangular instruments in their hands. Dr. Layard says, " It is possible that
the Assyrians, like the Egyptians, had various musical instruments ; only two kinds,
* " Owing to the obscurity which envelopes the instru- (Antiq. vii, 13, 3) ; whereas, we know, from the second
mental music of the Hebrews, we cannot trust to Jewish verse of the 33rd Psalm, that it had but ten." The Rev.
tradition for any accurate definition of their various species. John Jebb's Literal Translation of the Book of Ptalms,
Even Josephus is not altogether accurate : since he speaks ii, 146.
of the nabal or psaltery as an instrument of twelve strings
16 THE HARP.
however, are represented in the sculptures a drum, and a sort of triangular harp or
lyre, which is held between the left arm and the side, and apparently suspended from
the neck. The strings of this harp, nine or ten in number, are stretched between a
flat board and an upright bar, through which they pass. Tassels are appended to the
ends of the strings, and the bar itself is generally surmounted by a small hand,
probably of metal or ivory. The instrument was struck with a plectrum held in the
right hand : the left appears to have been used either to pull the strings, or to
produce notes by pressure. Like the Egyptian harp, it had no cross piece between
the upright bar and the flat-board or base ; it is difficult, therefore, to understand
how the strings could have been sufficiently tightened to produce notes*."
* Nineveh and its Remains, %vo. 1849; vol. ii, p. 412. ing over the crouching lion, now in the British Museum.
In a note, the author adds, " There is a representation of See also Layard's Monuments of Nineveh, plate 12.
this musical instrument in the bas-relief of the king stand-
CHAPTER II.
THE MEDIEVAL INSTRUMENTS THAT PRECEDED THE
INVENTION OF THE KEY-BOARD.
IN reference to the stringed instruments of antiquity, but little can be said;
unless we were to enumerate the various opinions at different times expressed by
learned authors a task by no means calculated to give the reader satisfaction. We
are at a loss to conceive what the differences could have been between the numerous
instruments of the same class to which we have referred. Montfaucon, indeed, says
that he examined the representations of six hundred lyres and citharas in ancient
sculpture, without coming to any conclusion*. Burney, in his " Reflections on the
Construction of Ancient Musical Instruments," f however, quotes a passage from
Quintilian, which throws a gleam of light upon the subject. " Among the stringed
instruments," says this authority," " you will find the lyre of a character analogous
to masculine, from the great depth or gravity and roughness of its tones ; the
sambuca of a feminine character, weak and delicate ; and, from its great acuteness
and the smallness of its strings, tending to dissolve and enervate. Of the inter-
mediate instruments, the polypthongum partakes most of the feminine ; but the
cithara differs not much from the masculine character of the lyre."
From this description we learn that the Greeks had two classes, as they
imagined, of stringed instruments ; one producing tones called masculine, the other
those which were considered of a feminine character. " The Greeks, ' says a recent
* This learned antiquary says, in all the representa- research, however, has shown us that the ancient Egyp-
tions which he had seen, he did not find one musical tians were perfectly well acquainted with this important
instrument with a finger-board ; but nil had open strings, discovery,
such as the harp and lyre are provided with. More recent t History of Music, vol. i, Appendix.
D
18 THE PSALTERY OR PSALTER1UM.
writer, " were especially distinguished by a regard to nature in all their works. To
them we are indebted for the noblest specimens of architectural taste; and, if we may
believe their disciples and annotators, they established the three orders from a con-
sideration of the human figure. The Doric represents masculine strength ; the
Corinthian, virginal elegance and grace ; the Ionic, matronal simplicity, and an avoid-
ance of redundant ornament. So it appears, from the passage just quoted, they were
accustomed to classify their instruments. There are two characters mentioned the
lyre, distinguished for its masculine tones, and the polypthongum, an instrument
spoken gf by Homer, for its feminine character. Between these two extremes, there
were, in all probability, many varieties ; the cithara, resembling the lyre ; and the
sambuca, having a similarity to the polypthongum."*
We do not intend to carry out our inquiries into the stringed musical instru-
ments of the Greeks and Romans, as it would not lead to any satisfactory result.
The arts and sciences of all ancient nations were in a rude and imperfect state.
The perfection of the arts depends on scientific knowledge ; and when we consider
the uncertain state of the practical sciences at this early period, we can readily account
for the imperfection of all ancient musical instruments. We shall therefore proceed
to notice some of those instruments of the medieval period that more immediately
suggested those of the class to which the present work is especially devoted.
THE PSALTERY OR PSALTERIUM
Enjoyed great celebrity in the middle ages. It was a stringed instrument,
played with the fingers or the plectrumf, and differed from the cithara, chiefly in
having its sonorous body placed at the top, instead of its being below^.
* Higgins on Sound, p. 102. J " Sciendum quod Psalterio musico instrumento ci-
f Kircher cites Suidas, to prove that the word Psalte- thara est contriaria, quae concavitatem quam Psalterium
rium is derived from Psallo, to strike the strings with the habet superius, inferius habet." Bedce Op. torn, viii,
ends of the fingers. Musurgia. p. 31].
THE PSALTERY OR PSALTERIUM.
19
The cithara is thus commonly depicted in ancient
manuscripts.
There were two forms of the early Christian psaltery
the square psalterium, and the triangular psalterium.
The former had ten vertical strings. The sonorous body,
which was placed at the top, according to Saints Augus-
tine and Isidore of Seville, was of wood; or, according
to St. Basil and Eusebius, of brass. Drawings of various
forms of this instrument occur in a MS. of the ninth cen-
tury, in the library of Boulogne-sur-Mer, and in a MS.
of the eleventh century, in the Imperial Library at Paris (No. 1118)*
It is a curious circumstance, that, in manuscripts dating from the ninth to the
eleventh centuries, David is always figured playing on the square psalterium, while
subsequently to the twelfth century he is always depicted with the harp. This seems
to show that the psalterium was, at the earlier period, considered as the nobler instru-
ment, and more fitted to sound the praise of the Creator.
The triangular psalterium in form of a Greek A , resembled the cithara of the
barbarians. According to Isidore of Seville, it was called Canticum. The Abbe
Gerbertf, in his De Cantu et Musicd Sacra, plate xxiv, has left us figures of both
the square and triangular psalterium, copies of which are here given.
* See the Annales Archfologiques of M. Didron, where
both are engraved. Other representations are preserved in
Cotton MS., Tiberius, c. v. fol. 16, 17., Strutt's Horda
Angel-cynnan, Carter's Specimens of Ancient Architec-
ture, &c.
t The labours of this learned man are of such import-
ance to the history of the art, that he is entitled to a pass-
ing notice. Martin Gerbert, Prince-Abbot of the convent
of Benedictines, and of the congregation of St. Blaise, in
the Black Forest, was born in 1720, at a small town in
Austria. From his position and authority in the church,
he was enabled to discover the most secret treasures of
musical literature, by obtaining admittance into the libra-
ries of convents and monasteries, closed to the ordinary
enquirer. In 1762, he announced his intention of writing
a history of church music, by the publication of a printed
prospectus, preserved in the Critical Letters of Marpurg.
He finished his noble work in six years, though, in the
interval, the abbey and valuable library of St Blaise were
burnt to the ground. The full title of the work, which is
in two quarto volumes, with many plates, is De Cantu et
Musica Sacra, a prima ecclesite atate usque adpneseu'i
tfmpus. Auctore Martino Oerlerto, Monatterii et Con-
gregationis St. Blasii de Siltd ffigra Abbate, Sacrique
Romani Imperil Principe, Typit San-Blasianis, 177*.
The author divided his history of church music into three
parts : the first finishes at the pontificate of St. Gregory :
the second carries it on to the fifteenth century: and
D 2
' 20
THE PSALTERY OR PSALTER1UM.
The resemblance between this instrument and the harp was probably the reason
it went finally out of use. The name of psalterium or psaltery, however, was pre-
served, and given at a somewhat later period to a stringed instrument having
some analogy to it, but more resembling the first instrument of the pianoforte class
with a key-board.
Trevisa, in his translation of Bartholomceus de Proprletatibus JRerum, printed
by Wynkyn de Worde*, gives us the following description of the latter instrument.
" DE PSALTERIO.
" The Sawtry highte Psalterium, and hath that name of Psallendo, syngynge ; for the consonant answeryth to the
note thereof in syngygnge. The harpe is lyke to the sawtry in sowne. But this is the dyversytee and discorde bytwene
the harpe and the sawtry : in the sawtry is an holowe tree, and of that same tree the sowne comyth upwarde, and the
strynges ben smytte downwarde, and sownyth upwarde ; and in the harpe the holownesse of the tre is bynethe. The
Hebrewes callyth the sawtry Decacordes, an instrument having ten stringes, by numbre of the ten hestes or commande-
mentes. Stringes for the sawtry ben beste made of laton, or elles those ben goode that ben made of sylver."
the third to his own time. But the work which has given
Gerbert the greatest distinction, is his Scriplores Eccle-
siastici de Musicd Sacra potissimum. Ex variis Italia,
Galliee et Germanits codicibus Manuscriptis collecti et
nunc primum publicd luce donati, &c. Typis San-
Blasianis, 1783. This is a collection, in three volumes,
of all the ancient authors who have written on music since
the third century to the invention of printing, and whose
works had remained in manuscript. Dr. Forkel has given
an extensive analysis of it in his Histoire de la
' * Bartholomew's singular work was written about the
year 1366, and is certainly one of the most entertaining
and valuable remains of antiquity. The contents are of a
miscellaneous nature, and display the author's extensive
knowledge of the several subjects of divinity, ethics, natu-
ral history, medicine, astronomy, geography, and various
branches of the mathematics. After discussing these seve-
ral topics, with great learning and ingenuity, he concludes
with a very interesting dissertation on the music and musi-
cal instruments of his time.
THE PSALTERY OR PSALTEHIUM.
21
To use more intelligible language, the instrument now called the psaltery or
nabulum, was a stringed instrument, composed of a triangular sonorous box, one of
the angles of which was often slightly flattened or rounded. The strings were placed
on the upper face, sometimes perpendicular to the side opposite the flattened angle,
sometimes parallel to the face opposite this flattened angle*. We have copied two
interesting illustrations. The first from a MS. of the fourteenth century, in the
Imperial Library at Paris ; the second from a grotesque alphabet, by " the Master of
1466." f
In Wace's description of the Coronation feast of King Arthur (Brut d'Angle-
terre), written in the twelfth century, he enumerates the various instruments used on
that occasion, amongst which we have " psalterys and monochords." The psaltery
was a favourite instrument of the minstrels of the middle ages, as may be gleaned
from its mention in the following extracts.
* Gressineau, in his Musical Dictionary, in v. Ptal~
terion, says, " It is strung with thirteen wire chords ('. .
strings), set to unison and octave, and mounted on two
bridges, on the two sides ; it is struck with a plectrum or
little iron rod, or sometimes with a crooked stick (the
writer here confounds the psaltery with the dulcimer,
which latter was struck with a crooked stick), whence it is
usually ranked among the instruments of percussion. Its
chest or body resembles that of a spinet It has its name
a Psalltndu; some also now call it Nablum or Xahlium."
f This is the instrument frequently mentioned as the
Sautry, by Chaucer and his contemporaries.
22 THE PSALTERY OR PSALTERIUM.
In the Squire of Lowe Degre, a romance of the fifteenth century, we are told
" There was myrth and melody,
With harpe, getron and sautry,
With rote, ribible and clokarde,
With pypes, organs and bumbarde,
With other mynstrelles them amonge,
With sytolphe and with sautry songe,
With fydle, recorde, and dowcemere,
With trompette, and with claryon clere,
With dulcet pipes of many cordes,
In chambre revelyng all the lordes."*
Gawain Douglas, in his allegorical poem, The Palace of Honour, describing his
visit to the Court of the Muses, says
" In modulation hard I play and sing,
Faburdoun, pricksang, discant, countering,
Cant organe, figuratioun, and gemmell;
On croude, lute, harpe, with monie gudlie spring ;
Schalmes, clariounis, portativis, hard I ring,
Monycord, organe, tympane and cymbell ;
Sytholl, psalterie, and voices sweet as bell,
Soft releschingis in dulce delivering,
Fractionis divide, at rest, or clois, compell."t
And Holland, the author of a poem called The Houlate, written in 1543,
enumerates the following musical instruments.
" The psaltry, the citholis, the soft atharift,
The croude, and the monycordis, the gythornis gay ;
The rote, and the recourder, the ribus, the rift,
The trump, and the taburn, the tympane but tray ;
The lilt-pype, aud the lute, the cythill and fift,
The dulsate, and the dulsacordis, the schalm of assay ;
The amyable organis usit full oft ;
* Ritson's Metrical Romances, 1802, vol. iii, p 189. t Sibbald's Chronicle of Scottish Poetry, 1802, vol. i,
p. 386.
THE DULCIMER. 23
Clarions loud knellis,
Fortatibis, and bellis,
Cymbaellonis in the cellis,
That soundis so soft." *
THE DULCIMER.
The psaltery or sautry gave rise to two instruments of a similar kind the
dulcimer (mentioned in some of the previous quotations), and the citolef.
The dulcimer, from duke melos, sweet melody, was an instrument of a trian-
gular form, strung with about fifty wire strings, resting on a bridge at each end, the
shortest wire being about eighteen inches in length, and the longest about thirty-six.
The instrument is laid out fiat before the performer, and he plays on it by striking
the strings with two small rods, sticks, or hammers, one held in each hand, the
force of the stroke being varied according as the tones are required to be piano
or forte. The psaltery appears to have been of a smaller size, and to have been pro-
vided with much fewer strings than the dulcimer. Ottomarus Luscinius, in his
valuable work, Musurgia sen Praxis Musics, Strasburg, 1536J, gives an engraving
* Pinkerton's Scottish Poems, reprinted from scarce cutors are, Andreas Silvanus, Sebastianus, Virdung, sive
editions, 1702, vol. iii, p. 179. mails, to use his own expression, Barthulomeus StoHerus,
f Baretus, Minsheu, Cotgrave, Phillips, and others, and Ottomarus Luscinius. They meet by accident, and
speak of the dulcimer as the same with the sambtica : but, enter into conservation on music, in which Stoflerus, ac-
according to Bartholomajus, the sambuca was an instru- knowledging the great skill of his friend in the science,
ment with hollow pipes made from the boughs of the elder desires to be instructed in its precepts, which the other
tree. Leyden says, " the recorder was sometimes made of readily consents to. The dialogue is somewhat awkwardly
the elder bough, and denominated sambuca." (Complaint conducted; for though Stoflerus is supposed to be just ar-
of Scotland, p. 150). Tyrwhitt (Glossary to Chaucer) rived from a foreign country, and the meeting to be acci-
makes the dulcimer the same with the rote; but he is dental, Luscinius is prepared to receive him with a great
clearly in error, as the latter was certainly an instrument basket of musical instruments ; which his friend seeing,
of the bagpipe kind. The dulcimer was most probably the desires to be made acquainted with its contents. The in-
same with the " dulsacordis," of which we read in the struments are severally produced by Luscinius, and he
earlier romances. The lexicographers have confounded the complies with the request of his friend by a discourse,
dulcimer with the dulzain or dulcino, a wind instrument which is no other than a lecture on them. The merit of
resembling the tenor hautboy. this book is greatly enhanced by the forms of the several
J This interesting and important work, which we shall instruments described in it, which are very accurately
have frequent occasion to quote in the course of the follow- delineated. It is a small book, of an oblong quarto size,
ing pages, is in the form of a dialogue, in which the interlo- containing about a hundred panes.
24 THE DULCIMER.
of the dulcimer, which is here copied. It shows the instrument in its earliest stage,
before it had attained its full complement of strings.
Luscinius calls it the " Hackbret,"
i. e. the Hackboard, or chopping-board,
used by cooks, which it exactly resembles
in shape.
" Short instruments, called dulci-
mers," are mentioned in the Inventory of
Henry the Eighth's musical instruments, remaining in his various palaces at the
time of his decease*.
Nicomachus, the Arabian, who flourished in the middle of the first century after
Christ, mentions, in his curious tract on music, the trigon or triangular dulcimer ;
but we much question whether it resembled the instrument just described.
A kind of dulcimer forms a favourite instrument in Egypt at the present day.
It is of a four-sided figure, with three rectangular and one sloping side. A specimen
of this instrument, which Mr. Lane examined, and which is called a ckdnoon, was
about forty inches long, sixteen inches wide, and two inches deep. The face and
back were made of fine deal, and the sides of beech. The sloping side of the in-
strument, which is made of beech, is provided with seventy-two pegs, round which
are wound the ends of the same number of strings, the other ends of the strings
being fastened to the opposite end of the instrument. The strings pass over a bridge ;
and, in order to aid the resonance, the face of the instrument is pierced in two places.
The strings are made of lamb's gut, and are arranged in triplets, each note having
three strings tuned in unison. The fore-finger of each hand is armed with a
plectrum, made of a thin piece of buffalo's horn, kept close to the finger by a sort
of thimble or sheath ; and with these plectra the strings are touched. The player
sits down, in the attitude customary among oriental nations, and places the
instrument on his knees.
* Harleian MS. 1419, A fo!. 200.
THE CITOLE. 25
THE CITOLE.
The word citole is derived from the Latin cistella, a little chest ; and, in truth,
the instrument was no other than a little chest or box upon which was stretched a
series of strings. It differed from the psaltery and dulcimer in being played with the
fingers, instead of plectra or small hammers. It was known in the early part of the
thirteenth century, when the author of the half-historical,
half-legendary history of Fulke Fitz- Warine mentions an
outlaw " who knew enough of tabour, harp, viol, sitole,
and jonglerie*." A drawing of the instrument is pre-
served in the British Museum (Bib. Reg. 20 A. 16),
which is here copied.
Amongst the ancient authors who allude to the citole
(besides those already quoted), are the following.
In the Roman de la Rose, commenced by Guillaume de Lorris early in the
thirteenth century, and finished by Jean de Meun towards the end of the same, we
have the following enumeration of musical instruments.
" Puis met in cymbales sa cure,
Puis prent freteaulx, et si fretele,
Et chalemaulx, et chalemelle,
Et puis taboure, et flute et tymbre,
Et citole, et trompe, et cheurie,
Et si psalterionne et viele ;
Puis prent sa muse et se travaille
Aux instrumens de Cornovaille,
Et espringue et sautele et bale."
Adam Davie, in his metrical Life of Alexander, written in the fourteenth
century, describing an entertainment before the king, adds
" At the feste was trumpyng,
Piping and eke taboryng,
Sytolyng and eke harpyngf."
* Wright's Essays on the Literature and Super- The romance has since been printed by the Warton Club.
stitions of England in the Middle Ages, vol. ii, p. 53- f MS- in the Bodleian Library.
E
26 THE CITOLE.
The next quotations are from the Confessio Amantis of the " Moral Gower."
" But thee I might knowe,
For olde men which sowned lowe,
With harpe and lute and the citole,
The houe dance and the carole."
* * *
" He taught her till she was certaine
Of harp, citole, and of riote,
With many a tune, and many a note." *
Chaucer, in his Knighfs Tale, describing the statue of Venus, says
" A citole in hire right hand hadde she,
And on hir heed, ful semely on to see,
A rose garland full swete, and wel smellyng,
And aboven hire heed dowves fleyng." t
In the description of King Arthur's feast, in the Romance of Launfal, we are told
" They hadde menstrales of moch honours,
Fydelers, sytolyrs, and trompours,
And elles hyt were unryght ;
Ther they playde, for sothe to say,
After mete the somerys day,
All what hyt was neygh nyght." J
But perhaps the most curious enumeration of musical instruments of the fifteenth
century is contained in Lydgate's poem entitled Reson and Sensualite, written about
the year 1430.
" For they ronde the practyke
Of al maner of Mynstralcye,
That any mane kane specifye ;
For ther wer rotys of Almayne,
And eke of Arragone and Spayne :
Songes, stampes, and eke daunces,
Dyvers plente of plesaunces,
* Printed by Caxton, in 1493. J Ritson's Metrical Romances, vol. i, p. 18.
t Canterbury Tales, edited by T. Wright, for the
Percy Society, vol. i, p. 79-
THE CITOLE. 27
And many unkouth notys newe
Of swiche folkys as lovde trewe ;
And instrument;* that dyde excelle,
Many moo than I kane tcllc.
Harpys, fythels, and eke roytys,
Wei accordyng with her notys,
Lutys, rubibis, and geterns,
More for estatys than taverns :
Orgyns, eytolys, monacordys ;
And tlier wer founde noo discordys
Nor variaunce in ther souns,
Nor lak of noo proporsiouns." *
" Citolers" are mentioned among the musicians in the establishment of King
Edward the Third. See also, besides the above passages, Du Cange, in v. CITOLA ;
and M. de la Ravaliere, Poesies du Eoy de Navarre, torn, i, p. 248.
* MS. Fairfax, No. 16, Bodleian Library.
E 2
28 THE CLAV1CYTHERIUM.
CHAPTER III.
THE FIRST INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS.
IT is generally asserted, by those who have treated of the origin of stringed in-
struments with key-boards, that no traces of their existence are to be found anterior
to the sixteenth century. M. Fetis, indeed, goes farther back, adding, " From all
that we can learn by tradition, it seems probable that the clavichord was invented by
the Italians about the year 1300, and that it was afterwards imitated by the Bel-
gians and Germans*."
But a much greater antiquity may be ascribed to instruments of this class, and
the period of their invention may probably be fixed about the beginning of the
twelfth century. The clavier or key-board was invented at the close of the eleventh
century, when it was applied to the organf ; and we cannot suppose that much time
would be lost in adapting this important improvement to stringed instruments.
THE CLAVICYTHERIUM.
The first stringed instrument to which the key-board was applied, was probably
the clavicytherium, or keyed-cithara. In its early stage, it was a small oblong box,
with the strings arranged in the form of a half-triangle. The strings, which were of
catgut, were sounded by means of quill-plectra, attached in a rude way to the ends of
the keys. Luscinius and Mersennus have each treated of this primitive instrument,
but in such a vague manner, that it is impossible to form any correct notion of its
mechanism.
* A Sketch of the History of the Pianoforte and of but seems to be the only work (brief as it is) claiming to
Pianists, translated from the Revue Musicale, and printed' be a history of the instrument of which it treats,
in the Harmonicon for 1830 and 1831. We shall have f S fie The Organ; its History and Construction; by
frequent occasion to notice this article in the course of these Dr. Rimbault and E. J. Hopkins. Recently published by
pages. It is lamentably deficient in antiquarian research, Messrs. Robert Cocks and Co. Historical Section, p. 31.
THE CLAVICHORD.
29
The idea of the Clavicytherium was of course suggested from the lyres, citharas*,
and -other instruments, the strings of which were snapped with a quill or with a
piece of tortoiseshell. The thought of employing mechanical contrivances had the
advantage of offering means of combining a greater extent of sounds than could
be done on any of the numerous varieties
of the harp kind. The clavicytherium assumed
different shapes ; but the earliest delineation
of its form handed down to us, is the wood-cut
we have copied from Luscinius's Musurgia,
sen praxis Musicce, Strasburg, 1536.
THE CLAVICHORD.
The next instrument on record, to which the key-board was attached, was the mono-
chord, clavichord, or clarichord.; for it was called by all three appellations. As the
* The cithara was a particular species of harp or lyre ;
but its precise structure does not appear to be distinctly
known. We have given one form of it, on p. 19; but it-
varied at different periods. The ancients describe it as
triangular, in the form of a Greek delta ; and the poets
ascribe its invention to Apollo. Bartholomew, in his Z>
Proprietalibus Rerum, has the following curious passage
on the subject
" De Cithara.
" The harpe hyghte cithara, and was fiyrst founde of
Appollin, as the Grekes wene ; and the harpe is like to a
mannys breste, for lyke wyse as the voyce comyth of the
breste, soo the notes cometh of the harpe, and hath there-
fore that name Cithara, for the breste is callyd Thorica
Thicariuz. And afterwarde some and some, came forth
many manere instrumentes thereof, and hadde that name
cithara, as the harpe, and saw try, and other such. And
some ben foure cornerde, and some thre cornerde ; tin-
stryngcs ben many, ami specyall manere thereof is diverse.
Men in olde tvmc callyd the harpe Fidicula, and also
Fidicen, for the strynges thereof accordyth as well as some
men accordyth in Fey. And the harpe had seven stringcs,
and so Virgil sayth. libro septimo. Of sowne ben seven
discrimina of voys, and ben as the next strynge therto.
And strynges ben seven, for the fulleth all the note. Other
for heaven sownyth in seven menyngs. A strynge liyghto
corda, and bathe the same name of corde, the herte ; for
as the puls of the herte is in the breste, soo the puls of the
strynges is in the harpe. Mercurius founde up fyrste snche
strynges, for hestrenyd fjrste strynges, and made them to
sowne, as Ysyder sayth. The more drye the strynges ben
streyned the more they sowne. And the wreste hyghte
plectrum."
THE CLAVICHORD.
clavichord (for that is the name by which it
was most commonly known) was destined
to play an important part in the history of
music for nearly six centuries, it is entitled
to something more than a casual notice.
Luscinius depicts it in this form.
Drawings or sculptures of early keyed-stringed instruments are very rare. Douce
(as quoted by Sir Harris Nicolas, in the Privy Purse Expenses of Elizabeth of York)
says, " The clavichord is frequently represented in ancient bas-reliefs, in churches, both
in France and in England, which differs materially from the dulcimer." Douce must
have been mistaken, as no such representations are to be found at the present day, nor
do they exist in the numerous archeological works of France and England which we
have consulted. Luscinius's engraving of the clavichord is the earliest with which we
are acquainted.
yjjv-xtjtvN T^f ^y7V-\^HK*r
It will be seen that the instrument was made something in the shape of a small
square pianoforte, and was without frame or legs. Indeed, the idea of the square
pianoforte was taken from the clavichord ; but it retains only its shape and the dispo-
sition of the strings ; their actions have no similarity. The strings of the clavichord
were of brass*, and its action was simply a piece of brass pin wire, which was placed
vertically at a point where it could be struck or pressed against its proper string ; this
pin could be held against the string as long as required by the firm pressure of the finger.
It thus necessarily formed the wrest-pin for the string, which vibrated only whilst the
key was held down, a close damper being fixed behind, always acting upon the string
when quitted by the pinf; the string was of course, hooked upon a hitch-pin at the
back, but it was tuned only after having been struck, and whilst pressed by the
striking pin at the end of the key, which, in fact, formed one of the two bridges
between which the string vibrated.
* The pandoron, a musical instrument of the lute kind, f " As the clavichord was still what the Geimans call
said to have been the invention of the Assyrians, had brass ' gebunden,' so that several keys struck a single string, it
strings. Preetorius says it gave the idea of furnishing could not be perfectly tuned ; people played therefore only
the clavichord with the same. Syntagma Musician. in those modes which could be tuned with the most purity."
Forkel's Life of Bach, p. 24.
e-
n
THE CLAVICHORD. 31
Some idea of the mechanism of the cla-
vichord may be formed from the annexed
diagram.
a, key ; 6, brass pin ; e, string ;
It IS obvious that an instrument Upon d, cloth woven between the strings as a damper.
this construction could not have possessed much power ; yet the tones are said to
have been soft and melancholy, and better suited to the student, the composer, or the
solitary, than for any purposes of social amusement.
Old Bach delighted in the clavichord ; he considered it " the best instrument for
study, and, in general, for private musical entertainment. He found it the most con-
venient for the expression of his most refined thoughts, and did not believe it possible
to produce from any harpsichord, or pianoforte, such a variety in the gradations of tone
as on this instrument, which is indeed poor in tone, but, on a small scale, extremely
flexible*."
Bach's preference for the clavichord was not singular. This instrument, it will be
remembered, formed part of the baggage of Mozart when he travelled ; and Dr. Bur-
ney, in recording his visit to C. P. E. Bach, at Hamburgh, in 1 772, says, " M. Bach was
so obliging as to sit down to his Silverman clavichord and favourite instrument, on which
he played three or four of his choicest and most difficult compositions, with the deli-
cacy, precision, and spirit, for which he is so justly celebrated among his countrymen.
In the pathetic and slow movements, whenever he had a long note to express, he
absolutely contrived to produce from his instrument a cry of sorrow and complaint,
such as can only be effected on the clavichord, and perhaps by himself f."
Concerning the origin of the name clavichord, and the various other appellations
given to this instrument, our etymologists are not very clear. To quote a few of the
most erudite :
" CLAVICORDES, an instrument having many stringes of one sound, saving that with small pieces of clothe, the
sound is distinct. Monochardium, dii neut. ge. Monockordia, orum Monochordion."
J. Baret's Alvearie, or Triple DietionarU, 1573.
" MONOCORDO, an instrument with many strings of one sound, which with little pieces of cloth make distinct
sounds."
Queen Anne's New World of Word*, by John Florio, 1611.
* Forkel's Lift of Bach, p. 28. t Barney's Present State of Mutic in Germany, 4c.
second edition, 1775, vol. i, p. 269.
32 THE CLAVICHORD.
" CLEBICORDES, claricords or clavicdrdes. Spanish, clavicdrdias ; Latin, ' clavecymbalum ; French, clavessins,
manicordion ; Italian, clavicordio, clavicembalo ; German, clavicord quia eius chordse extenduntur et circumuoluuntur
clavibus (because the strings thereof are wrested up, with a wrest of iron, like a key, called, in Latin, clavis), vocatur
etiam ; Latin, Monochordum. It is an instrument having many strings of one sound, saving that with small pieces of
cloth the sound is distinct."
John Minsheu's Ductor in Linguas: the Guide into Tongues, 1617.
" CLARICORDS. Instruments so called."
" CLARICYMBAL. See Clavecymbal.'"
" CLAVECYMBAL (Clavecymbalum). A pair of virginals, or claricords, so called, because the strings are wrested up
with clavis, a key."
Blount's Glossographiu, 1656.
" CLARICORD, or Clericord, a kind of musical instrument, somewhat like a cymbal."
" CLAVECYMBAL, or Claricymbal, a kind of instrument with wire strings ; by some taken for a harpsical or
virginal."
The New World nf Words : by E. Phillips, 1678.
" CLAUICORD. A musical instrument in the form of a spine't, containing from thirty-five to seventy strings. Florio
calls it clarigols, and makes it synonymous with the harpsichord. He also spells it claricoes. See his New World of
Words, ed. 1611, pp. 39, 173, 219; Harrison's Description of England, p. 238. ' Claricymballes, cimballes,' Palsgrave.
Sir W. Leighton has claricoales, in his Teares or Lamentations of a Sorrowfull Soule. 4to. Lend. 1613."
Halliwell's Archaic Dictionary.
It will be observed, in the first place, that our lexicographers make no distinction
between the terms clavichord and clarichord ; but the one can hardly be a corrup-
tion of the other. The words suggest a totally different etymology, upon which we
shall venture an hypothesis.
The word clavichord is certainly from clavis, a key, and chorda, a string ; an
instrument compounded of keys and strings. It seems far more likely that the clavier^
or key-board originated the name, than the key by which the instrument was tuned.
Besides, the tuning key was not peculiar to the clavichord ; it must have been used
centuries before, in connection with the harp, and other similar instruments.
We learn that the strings of the clavichord were softened or deadened by slips
of cloth. Now it seems probable that the clarichord was without this addition ; and
that the name was derived from the French dair, denoting a clear transparent tone,
in contradistinction to the softened or muffled tone of the monochord, or clavichord.
Or it may be from clarion ; in low Latin, dario ; an instrument which received its name
THE CLAVICHORD.
33
from its shrill sounds*. We merely throw out this hint, as a likely distinction between
the two instruments ; in other particulars they were
probably identical.
The clavicymbal differed materially from the clavichord
and clarichord. It appears to have been the origin of the
harpsichord, the strings being disposed " after the fashion
IlliJIIJlllJllllllllllll
of the harp." It was sometimes made in an upright form ;
sometimes in an horizontal one ; its strings were of steel
wire, and sounded, like the clavicytherium, by quill plectra.
The earliest drawing of this instrument exhibits it in an
upright form. It is here copied from Luscinius's valuable
work before mentionedf.
Julius Caesar Scaliger, speaking of a newly-in vented stringed instrument, in the
first book of his Poetics (cap. 48)J, has the following passage : " That new invention
or contrivance was Simio's, which, from him, was called the simicum ; it consisted of
thirty-five strings, from which is the origin of the instrument the vulgar now call
monochords ; in which, when in order, plectra hopping (or leaping) up, give the sounds.
Moreover the points of crow-quills are added to the plectra, which elicit a more lively
harmony from the brass strings. When I was a boy, it was called the clavicymbal and
harpsichord ; but now, from those points, the spinet ."
* Menage derives the word Clarion from the Italian
Clarino, or the Latin Clarus ; because of the clearness of
its sound. Nicod says that the clarion, as used among
the Moors and Portuguese, served anciently as a treble to
several trumpets which sounded tenor and bass.
t Hawkins remarks upon Luscinius's representation of
the instrument: "The clavicimbalum is no other than
the harpsichord, clavicimbalum being the common Latin
name for that instrument ; the strings are here repre-
sented in a perpendicular situation ; and there is good
reason to suppose that the harpsichord was orginally so con-
structed, notwithstanding that the upright harpsichord has
of late been obtruded upon the world as a modern invention.
There is a very accurate representation of an upright harp-
sichord in the ffarmonia of Mersennus; viz. in the tract
entitled l)e Instruments Harmonicis, lib. 1, prop, xlii, and
also in Kircher."
J Scaliger was born in 1484., and died in 155S. His
Potties, Libri VIII, was first printed in 1C17.
J The passage in the original is as follows : " Fuit et
Simi commentum illud, quod ab eo simicum appvllntum,
quinque et triginta constabat chordis, a quibus eorum
origo, quos nunc monochordos vulgus vocat. In quibus,
ordine digesta, plectra sub-silentia redduntsonos. Addita-
dein plectris corvinarum pennarum cuspides ex eereis fills
expressiorem eliciunt harmoniam, me puero, clavycymbalum
et harpicbordium, nunc ab illis mucronibus, spinetam
nominante."
34 THE CLAVICHORD.
The same words, or nearly so, are given by Praetorius, in his Syntagma Musicum*,
who adds, in a bracket, after the word monichords, clavichordia the former name, as
Scaliger says, " being that by which the vulgar called the instrument."
The statements of these two old writers are exceedingly valuable, as pointing out
the connection between the monochord, clavichord, clavicymbal, harpsichord, and
spinet.
There are no fewer than three instruments to which the name of monochord has
been applied; the first and oldest is the harmonic canon of Pythagoras. It consisted of a
single string ; and the instrument or frame to which it was attached was marked off by
sections and subdivisions corresponding with the intervals of the scale. There were three
bridges, two stationary, one of which stood at each end ; the other, which was placed
between the two, was moveable, and, by being applied to the different divisions of the
scale, showed the relation which the sounds bore to the length of the string, and in this
way was useful in determining the series of intervals which it embraced. This instrument
was, of course, not employed in the performance of music ; but there was a stringed
instrument, called a monochord or unichord, used for that purpose, not by the ancients,
but by the moderns of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It was sometimes
called the Trumpet Marine (for what reason is not distinctly known), and was about
five feet long, of a pyramidal shape, fitted up with a finger-board and bridge, and
played upon like a double-bass, with a bowf.
The monochord used by our ancestors in the twelfth and following centuries was
certainly not an instrument of a single string. The word is frequently spelt monochordis,
' The full title of this rare and curious book, a copy of f Representations of this instrument may be seen in the
which is preserved in the University Library, Edinburgh, is Harmonicorum of Mersennus, and in Bonanni's Gabinetto
as follows: Syntagma miisicum ex veterum et recentiorum Armonico. We lately saw one of the real instruments, in
ecclesiasticorum auctorum lectione, Polyhistorum consig- excellent preservation, in the possession of Mr. Walesby, of
natione, variarum linguarum notatione, hodierni seculi Waterloo Place. Grassineau says, " It is the trembling of
usurpations, ipsiusque Musicce artis observatione : in the bridge when struck, that makes it imitate the sound of
Cantorum, Organistarum, Organoposiorum, cceterorum- the trumpet, which it does to that perfection, that it is
que musicam scientiam amantium et tractantium gratiam scarce possible to distinguish one from the other, and this is
collection, in quatuor Tomos distribution. Wolfenbiittel what has given it the denomination of Trumpet Marine,
e Wittenberga, 1614, 1G18. tho' in propriety it be a kind of monochord."
THE CLAVICHORD.
35
a mode of orthography suggesting different ideas from the one-stringed instrument in
fact, a polychord, or instrument of many strings*.
It may perhaps be doubted whether the instrument called the monochord, the study
of which was recommended by Guido in the eleventh century as the best method of
teaching beginners their musical intervals, was the Pythagorean monochord above
described. Guido is said to have invented the clavier, or key-board, and it is not at
all improbable that he was the first to apply it to the medieval instrument of many
strings ; at any rate, the monochord seems to have been the same with the clavichord,
and, as such, was the progenitor of the harpsichord, the spinet, the virginals, and the
pianoforte of modern times.
With regard to the instrument called the simicum,
Vincenzio Galilei, the father of the celebrated astronomer,
in his Dialogo della Musica Antica e Moderna, Fiorenza,
1582, has ventured to give us a representation of it,
although it may be doubted whether he had any authority
from antiquity for so doing. The form which he has
assigned it resembles nearly that of an upright harpsichord,
without the key-board, which seems to indicate that, when
played on, it was held between the legs of the performer, ^
different perhaps from the harp, with the bass strings near,
and the acute ones remote from him. _
Athenaeus (lib. iv) mentions the simicum, and the epigonium invented by
Epigonius. " The former," he says, " had thirty-five strings ; the latter, forty : the
first was played with the plectrum ; the latter, without it."
* "The term monochord has occasioned much per-
plexity to musical writers and readers by its equivocal
meanings in some passages of modern authors. Sometimes
it seems to signify a one-stringed instrument, and sometimes
an instrument having several strings. In Domenico Scor-
pione's Riflessione Armoniche, published at Naples in 1701,
we find, page 17. the following passage: ' Fu ancocbia-
mato Monocordo quell' instromento che ha i tasti, come quelli
del cembalo, del quale ne furone inventori gli Arabi, fit cosi
chiamato, perche, senza quei pannucci che s'intessono
fra le corde, accid s' oda distinto il suono di ciascuna di
e&se farrebbe un sol sentire, e molto confuso, e nojoso.'
From this passage it appears very clearly that, in the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries, instruments having finger-
keys and many strings or wires were known under the name
of Monochords."G. F. Graham's Essay on the Theory
and Practice of Mutical Composition ; Appendix, p. 78.
r 2
36 THE CLAVICHOBD.
These instruments, in common with many of those we have described in the
previous chapter, can only be regarded as furnishing the first idea of those of the piano-
forte class. The instrument to which the clavichord was much more nearly allied,
was the medieval psaltery ; the box of small depth, over which was stretched a set
of strings.
Presuming that the monochord and the clavichord were the same instrument
(which we can hardly doubt), we have evidence that it was known as early as the
twelfth century, the proofs of which we shall now bring forward.
In Master Wace's Brut d' Angleterre, before quoted, the author mentions " psal-
terys " and " monochords ; " and Ritson expressly says, in the Introduction to his
Metrical Romances, that the musical instruments of the French minstrels at this
period were " the viole, the clavicorde, the rote, the tabour, and others."
A very curious and important notice of this instrument occurs in the Conseils an
Jongler, written by Giraud de Calanson, in the year 1210. Speaking of the accomplish-
ments of the Jongleur, it is said, " he must play on the citole and the mandore, and
handle the clavichord and the guitar*."
Of the state of music during the first half of the fourteenth century, much may be
collected from the Decameron of Boccaccio, which was published in 1352, or 1353f.
It is, as everybody knows, a collection of one hundred novels or tales ; the author has
ingeniously united them, under the supposition of a party formed during the dreadful
pestilence which desolated Florence in 1348, composed of a number of cavaliers,
and young, intelligent, and accomplished women, retired to a delightful part of the
country, to escape the contagion. It was there agreed that each person, during the
space of ten days, should narrate daily a fresh story. The company consisted of ten
persons, and thus the number of stories amounted to one hundred. Each day's
amusement is finished by dancing and singing ; at the end of the fifth day, after a
dance, the queen orders Dion, one of the gayest and most facetious of the company,
* See Sismondi's Historical View of the Literature the solicitation of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and after
of the South of Europe, vol. i, p. 128, Bohn's edition. two remarkable negotiations between this Prince andP pes
t Upon the first discovery of printing, the Decameron Pius V and Sixtus V, the Decameron was again published
was freely circulated in Italy, until the Council of Trent in 1573 and 1582, "purified" and corrected,
proscribed it, in tbe middle of the sixteenth century. At
THE CLAVICHORD. 37
to sing, who proposes several, at that time, well-known songs, to which the ladies
offer some objection, on account of the licentiousness of the words. He tells them
he would sing others, which he names, if he had a cembalo; "by which," says Burriey,
" some have imagined is meant a harpsichord, that instrument being now called
cembalo, in Italian. However," continues the writer, " the harpsichord is certainly
of later invention than the time of Boccaccio, who, in the passage where the word
cembalo or ciembalo is used, probably meant only a kind of tambour de basque, or drum
in the shape of a sieve, with small bells and bits of tin jingling at the sides of it ; a
tinkling cymbal, but not the modern harpsichord, nor the cymbalum of the ancients,
which consisted of two parts resembling basons, which, being forcibly clashed together,
marked the steps in Bacchanalian processions and the measure in singing the orgies,
and which at present is in general use as a military instrument*."
M. Fetis, writing on the same subject, says, " some persons have expressed a doubt
as to this cembalo being the harpsichord afterwards known under that name in Italy,
and have imagined that an instrument of the same species as the cymbalum of the
ancients was intended ; that is to say, an instrument of percussion. This is not likely ;
for the use of small portable organs, and stringed instruments, had been so widely
spread during the thirteenth century, as is seen in illuminated MSS., and music had
made such progress in Italy in the time of Boccaccio, that it is not probable they would,
under the circumstances related in the romance, have accompanied the voice with an
instrument of percussion." " If," continues the same writer, "it were permitted me to
venture a conjecture in this regard, I should rather think that the instrument spoken
of by Boccaccio was the tympanum (the timpano of the Italians), which is still to be
occasionally seen in the hands of itinerant musicians, and which consists of a rectan-
gular chest, in which is a sounding-board, surmounted by a bridge mounted with wire
or catgut strings. The player strikes these strings with two small sticks hooked at
the end, forming a harmony of two parts, and, if skilful, even executing passages of
some difficulty. To the various mechanical means afterwards devised in order to
Hist, of Music, vol. ii, p. 344.
38 THE CLAVICHORD.
obtain subsitutes for these sticks, we are doubtless indebted for the origin of stringed
instruments with a key-board.*"
The instrument here described by the learned Frenchman is evidently the
dulcimer. But we cannot help thinking that had Boccaccio intended the timpano, he
would have spoken of it under that name. Undoubtedly the cembalo was a small
portable clavichord or clarichord, and not the tambour de basque or the dulcimer.
Both writers, however, were unacquainted with the curious passages we have adduced
of its use so long before Boccaccio's period, or their ingenious conjectures would
probably have been spared.
Concerning the term cembalo, it will be necessary to say a few words. The
instrument called by the Italians cembalo, or clave-cymbalo, by the French clavecin,
and in Latin clave-cymbalum, is always understood to be the harpsichord, or at any
rate an instrument of that class, furnished with plectra, strings, and a key-board. The
word cembalo is of ancient origin, being the cymbalon or cymbalum of the Greeks and
Latins. St. Isidore derives it from cum, and ballematica, an immodest dance, usually
accompanying this instrument ; but it is more likely to be from cymbos, cavity.
The ancient cymbals were of brass or other metal, and very much smaller than
those which we now call by the same namef. Cassiodorus and Isidore call the cymbal
* Sketch of the History of the Pianoforte, in theRtvue and Pupils of the Conservatory of Brussels.'' One of the
Musicale. Although differing, as we do, from many of expresssions of the answer of M. Fetis to the address, is
the opinions of M. Fetis, and lamenting his want of research characteristic of the man and his career : " In choosing for
upon the present subject, we cannot but feel a degree of this solemnity the fiftieth anniversary of the beginning of
respect for his various labours in the art. my domestic happiness, you become the instruments of
An interesting ceremony has just taken place at Providence, which recompenses in a single day a life of
Brussels, in which this distinguished artist was the most devotion to the beautiful ; for, whatever opinion posterity
prominent person. After a musical career that embraces may form of the value of my labours, I can conscientiously
nearly the whole of this century, the fiftieth anniversary of say that, as artist, theorist, historian, and critic, I have
his marriage has been celebrated by the artists, the pupils struggled at first with the ardour of youth, and have been
of the Musical Conservatory, and several of the principal subsequently taught by the lessons of experience, to realise
State functionaries of Belgium. On the day appointed, a the triumph of the beautiful and the preservation of the
mass was sung in the Church of the Sablon, the music of soundest traditions of musical science."
which, by the delicate attention of the ecclesiastical authori- f'The Cymbals (Cymbala)," says Bede, are " small
ties, was of M. Fetis' own composition. After which vessels composed of mixed metal, which, when stricken
the inauguration of his bust took place in the court of the together on the concave side, in skilful time, produce by
Conservatory, in presence of a large concourse of artists and their delightful collision a very sharp note." Opera, torn,
functionaries. It is a bronze cast, after Geefs, and has the viii, p. 900.
inscription, " To Francis Joseph Fetis, from the Professors
THE CLAVICHORD.
39
Acetabalum, the name of a cup or cavity of a bone in which another bone is articulated ;
and Xenophon compares it to a horse's hoof. It must, therefore, undoubtedly have
been hollow. It is also certain that a handle was fastened to the exterior cavity ; from
which circumstance, Pliny likens it to the upper part of the thigh, and Kabanus to
a phial*.
The invention of the cymbal was attributed to Cybele ; on which account it was
used at feasts and sacrifices. Frederic Adolph Lampe, who has written a learned
work on the subject, De Cymbalis Veterum, 1703, gives the invention to the Curetes,
or inhabitants of Mount Ida in Crete, who, as well as the people of Rhodes and Samo-
thracia, were reputed to excel in the use of the cymbal. The Jews had their cymbal,
or an instrument which translators render by that name. David, it will be remembered,
in the CL Psalm, speaks of the "loud cymbals," and the "high sounding-cymbals; "
and those instruments of joy and worship were early introduced into the ceremonies of
the Byzantine church, where it formed a conspicuous part.
The nature of the cymbal has never been properly understood. It is generally con-
sidered as simply rhythmic, producing sounds unappreciable by the ear; but this was
not the case with those of the middle ages. As we have said, the ancient cymbal was
much smaller than that of the present day ; and from the valuable treatise of the monk
Theophilus we now learn that they were capable of being tuned to the various sounds of
the scale. Theophilus, who flourished at the latter end of the eleventh century, has
* Grassineau, in his interesting Musical Dictionary,
after noticing the ordinary cymbal, adds, " There is a kind
of instrument which we likewise call a cymbal, which
differs greatly from that above described. It consists of a
frame, about four feet long and two and a half wide, along
which there is a bar of wood laid straight, and a second
athwart from one corner to the straight one, in this manner :
~"~ -._ and a third straight, which has one like the
other that meets it at one end
within a little distance ; so that
all the bars lye thus in the
frame ; on each of these bars is
fixed an equal number of pins, about twenty-eight upon the
two first, and near twelve or thirteen on those behind;
which pins are not sharp, but their points are rounded ;
each of these supports a bar or wedge of a particular kind
of metal, but chiefly a compound of bell-metal and silver,
at each end, the longest whereof is about ten inches, about
one and a quarter wide, and about half an inch thick, or
not quite so much ; these ban have a round hole about
half through, to fit the pins ; the sound of the longest is C,
the others are diminished (in length only) according to the
proportion of the intervals in music, and those of the second
row answertotheflatsand sharps of the spinet There is near
forty in all, so that this instrument has something more than
three octaves in compass, and may be reckoned an instru-
ment of percussion, by reason 'tis played by striking it with
knobs of wood at the end of sticks. The sound it yields is
very agreeable, being something exceeding soft, the low notes
resembling the flute (i. c. the old English flute), but the
high ones have not so much duration as these, yet their
sound may be compared to that of a small flagelet."
40
THE CLAVICHORD.
left us a most valuable chapter on the subject of "cymbal-making for Ihe use of the
church," which we transcribe entire*.
"DE MENSURA CYMBALO RUM.
" Quicunque vult facere cymbala ad cantandum rectfe
sonantia, ad timimquodque debet ceram dividere cum pon-
dere, et a superioribus incipiatut descendendo possilperve-
nire ad graviora. Unumquodque autern notet cum propria
littera ut illud in divisinne cognoscat. Imprimis facial duas
partes cera; sequales cum libra, unam ad a litteram alteram
ad G. Ceram a litter dividat in octo sequales partes, et
tantum ad ceram G litters? quantum est in octava parte
cera a. Similiter dividat ceram G per octo et tantum det F
littera quantum est in summa ejus, et insuper octavam ejus
partem, et habebit duos tonos continuos. In illo loco semi-
tonium f debet esse, et hoc ita inveniat. Summam cerse
a littera; dividat in tres partes, ipsamque summam det E
littera, et insuper ejus terciam partem. Deinde det tantum
ceraa D littera, quantum est in summa a et octavam ejus
partem. Item tantum cera det littera C quantum habet
G, et mediam ejus partem, itaqtie haberet duos tonos post
semitonium. Deinde tantum cera tribuat B litlera quan-
tum est in tola summa F littera et insuper terciam ejus
partem, et babebit iterum semitonium ; atque septem
symphonias ab a littera usque ad B inveniat. Dyapason
vro necdum haberet sine octavo cymbalo. Duplicet igitur
totam ceram a littera et sic earn tribuat A littera;, et nichil
deerit. Dyatesseron, Dyapason, atque Dyapente Syneme-
non autem inveniat ita, tollat summam cerse littera; et tan-
tum det F littera;, et insuper medietatem ejus, ae constituat
illam inter A et B. Omnind autem caveat qui cymbala
formare aut fundere debet, ut de supradicta cera quee tarn
caute ponderata et divisa est, nichil mittat ad juga et spira-
mina, sed de altera cera facial ilia omnia. In magna
providentia habeat ut, priusquam aliquod cymbalum
fundatur, slagnum cum cupro miscealur, ut reclum sonum
habeal. Qu&d si aliter feceril non veniunl ad tonos.
"OF THE MEASURE OF CYMBALS.
" Whoever wishes to make cymbals of proper sound for
singing, should divide the wax for each one with a weight,
and should begin from the highest, that by descending he
may be able to arrive at the graver (cymbals). He can
likewise note each one with its own letter, thai he may
know it in the partition. In the first place, let him make
two portions of wax equal with the balance, one for letter a,
the other for G. Let him divide the wax of letter a into
eight equal parts, and (give) so much to the wax of teller G
as is in the eighth part of wax a : lei him similarly divide
wax G by eighl, and give so much lo letter F as is in its
total, and an eighth of its part beyond, and he will have
two consecutive noles. In thai place the semilone should be,
and let him thus find it. Lei him divide the whole of the
wax of lelter a into three parts, and give this total to letter
E and beyond, the third part of it. Then let him give so
much wax to letter D as is in Ibe total a, and the eighth
part of it. Likewise let him give as much wax to letter
C as G possesses and half a part of it, and he will thus
have two notes after the semitone. Then let him afford to
lelter B so much wax as is in the whole amount of letter F
and beyond, the third part of it, and be will have the semi-
tone again ; and let him find the seven concords from letter
a to B. The octave he cannot yel have wilbout the eighth
cymbal. Lei him therefore double all the wax of lelter a,
and so give it to lelter A, and nothing will be wanting: the
fourth, eighth, and fifth chord let him find thus, let him take
the amount of the wax of the letter and give so much to letter
F and Ihe half of il beyond, and lei him establish ilbelweenA
and B. lie who should fashion or found the cymbals should
above all lake care lhal he puts none of the above-mentioned
wax, which is so cautiously weighed and divided, to the
necks and air-holes, but let him makeall these from otherwax.
Lei him have Ihe greal foresighl lhat, before any cymbal be
casl, Ihe lin be mixed wilh the copper, thai it may have Ihe
right sound. Because, should he have done olherwise
they are nol brought to their tones. A fifth or sixth part
* Theophili, qui et Rugerus, Presbyteri et MonacM,
Libri III, de Diversis Artibus : Opera et Studio Koberti
Hendrie. Londini : Johannes Murray, MDCCCLVII. 8vo.
Mr. Hendrie has kindlv allowed us to use his translation.
f " Semitonus," imb.
THE CLAVICHORD. 41
Quinta aut sexta pars debet esse stagnum, utrumque bene should be tin, and be both well purified before they are
purificatum priusquam permisceatur ut clarfe sonent. Si mixed together, that they may sound dearly. Should,
autem fusa cymbala minus rectfe sonuerint hoc emendetur however, the cast cymbals sound imperfectly, this can be
lima vel lapide." rectified with the file, or stone."
"DE CYMBALIS MUSICIS. OF MUSICAL CYMBALS.
Facturus cymbala, primum acquire tibi lectionem et Being about to make cymbals, first procure your
secundum quod docuerit formam facito, atque ceram dili- directions, and, according to what they may have taught,
gentSr pondera. Quas * cum fuderis, sicut supra dictum make the mould, and carefully weigh the wax. When
est, si quid per negligentiam vel incuriam de equitate y0 u have founded these, as mentioned above, should any-
tonorum defuerit, corriges. Si volueris cymbalum altius thing be wanting in justness of tone, through negligence or
habere, in ora inferius limabis, si vero humilius, circa oram carelessness, you will correct it. Should you wish the cymbal
in circuitu." to be higher, you will file about the mouth underneath (of
the mould); but if flatter, round the rim in circumference."
The use of the cymbal in churches was discontinued upon the improvements in
the construction of the organ, which instrument, however, still possesses traces of its
ancient accompaniment in two of its stops, the cymbal octave, and the cymbal regal.
With the explanation we have thus been enabled to give, the ancient name of
cembalo or cymbal, for a keyed-stringed instrument, does not seem so far-fetched as it
has hitherto been supposed^.
To carry on our enquiries into the history of the clavichord. There existed at
Rome, about a century ago, a clavichord furnished with twenty-five keys, without any
difference of form for the sharps or flats, and which had the appearance of being one
of the first essays made in the fabrication of keyed-stringed instruments. It was then
affirmed that it had been brought from Greece to Rome in the time of Julius Caesar :
such an opinion has no need of refutation. The author of the article Clavecin, in the
Encyclopedic Methodique J, also speaks of another clavichord which existed in the same
city; the body, table, and bridges of which were of white marble. This instrument
had doubtless formed part of some monument. The date of 650 assigned it was alto-
gether ridiculous. Zarlino speaks of a " cembalo," the relics of which existed in his time
(1555), and which appeared to have been made about one hundred and fifty years
previous. " The testimony of so learned a musician," remarks M. Fetis, " is undeni-
* Quse?
t In the MS. romance of Clariodus and Meliades, we J M. Nicholas Joseph Hullmandel, an eminent pianist,
read of " The clear cymbdll with the merrie cord," which He quitted France on the breaking out of the French Reve-
certainly must mean the cembalo or clavicymbal, thus lution, and settled in London, where he died in 1823.
bearing out our argument.
G
42 THE CLAVICHORD.
able, and is, moreover, in accordance with what is known relative to certain celebrated
artists of the fourteenth century, such as Francesco degli Organi, Nicolo del Proposto,
Jacopo di Bologna, and some others, who were not only skilful organists, but also
distinguished themselves on keyed instruments, as is seen in the pages of the Italian
writers of the fifteenth century. Again, nothing more clearly proves the existence of
the harpsichord or spinet of the fourteenth century, or, at latest, at the beginning of
the fifteenth, than the manner in which they are spoken of by those who give descrip-
tions of these instruments in the early part of the sixteenth century. They do not
speak of them as new inventions ; and the varieties which they mention demonstrate,
in the clearest manner, that they could be the result only of multiplied essays, dating
from times already long gone by. The least attention to the slow manner in which
discoveries and improvements were made, in so backward a state of civilization as
that of these first periods of the birth of the arts, will convince us that instruments
of so complicated a kind could not start forth at once from the brain of such inven-
tors as those described by the writers of the sixteenth century."
The popularity- of the clavichord and clarichord in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries may be illustrated by the following extracts. Caxton, in his celebrated
translation of The Knyyht of the Toure, printed in 1484, gives us the following
passage, confirming what Ritson advances relative to the common use of the clavichord
by the early French minstrels. The extract occurs on sign C. 115.
"A yonge man cam to a feste, where were many lordes, ladyes, and damoysels, and arrayed as they wold have sette
them to dinner, and had on hem a coote hardye, after the maner of Almayne. He cam and salewed the lordes and
ladyes, and when he had done to them reverence, syre Geoffrey called hym before hym, and demanded hym where his
vyell or clavycordes were, and that he should make his craft : and the yonge man ansuerd, Syre, I can not medle there-
with. Haa, sayd the knyght, I can not beleve it; for ye be contrefaytted and clothed lyke a mynstrell."
In the accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland*, we find the instrument
spoken of under the " vulgar appellation :"
" 1497. Apr. 10. Item, to John Hert, for bering a pare f of monicordis of the kingis fra Abirdene to Strivelin, ix s."
" 1504. Oct. 15. To the cheild [that] playit on the monocordis, be the kingis command, xviij s."
* Preserved in the General Register House at Edinburgh, and quoted in the Appendix to Dauney's Ancient
Scottish Melodies. 4to. 1838.
t An ancient form of expression, meaning an instrument with more strings than one. See the term fully explained
in the Hist, of the Organ, p. 40.
THE CLAVICHORD. 43
Also, in the testament of Edward Henrysoun, " Maister of the Sang Scole of
Edinburgh, and Prebendare of St. Gelis Queir, quha deceist, 15 Aug. 1579."*
" Item, I leif to my sone, James Henrysoun, my gown, my coitt, my bumbasie doublet, and the bodie of poldavie, my
kist, my bybill, ant pair of monycordis, my hat, thre of the best sarkis, ane pair of round scheittis, foure serviottis, ic."
From these extracts we might have imagined that the term monochord was used
in Scotland instead of the more general name of the instrument ; but this was not
the case. At the marriage of James the Fourth of Scotland with the Princess
Margaret, in 1503, we read that "the kyng began before hyr (i. e. the Princess) to
play of the clarychordes, and after of the lute. And uppon the said clarychorde Sir
Edward Stanley played a ballade, and sang therewith." Again, the king and queen
being together, " she played upon the clarychorde and after of the lute, he being uppon
his knee allwaies bare-headed, "f
At the pageantry exhibited at Westminster Hall in 1502, on the occasion of an
entertainment given to Catherine of Spain, we read that " twelve ladies had clari-
cordis, claricymballs, and such other ;"J and in the Privy Purse Expenses of Henry
the Seventh at the same period, we have the following entries:
" 1502. (Jan.) To one that sett the Kinge's Clevechords xiij s. iv. d."
" 1504. (March.) For a pair of Clavycords xx s."
Among the Privy Purse Expenses of Elizabeth of York ||, Henry the Seventh's
queen, we have the following :
" 1502. (August.) Item, the same day to Hugh Denys, for money by him delivered to a straungier that gave the
Queene apayre of Clavyeordes, in crownes for his rewarde iiij li."
This entry affords a singular instance of the queen's liberality. The " foreigner "
is rewarded with/owr times the value of his gift !
Stephen Hawes, groom of the Privy Chamber to Henry the Seventh, was author
of a poem called The Pastime of Pleasure, finished at the beginning of the year
1506. In Chapter XVI, he has the following stanza :
* Dauney's Ancient Scottish Melodies, p. 99. | Addit. MSS, Brit Mus. No. 70.99.
t Leland's Collectanea. Append, iii, p. 284. edit. 1770. || Edited by Sir. N. H. Nicolas, 1830.
I Antiquarian Repertory, vol. ii, p. 310.
G 2
44 THE CLAVICHORD.
" There sat dame Musyke, with all her mynstralsy
As tabours, trumpettes, with pipes melodious,
Sakbuttes, organs, and the recorder swetely,
Harpes, lutes, and crouddes ryght delycyous ;
Cymphans, doussemers, wyth claricimbales glorious.
Rebecks, clarycordes, eche in theyr degre,
Dyd sytte aboute theyr ladyes mageste."
Among the "proverbis" that were written about the time of Henry the Seventh,
on the walls of the Manor House at Leckingfield, near Beverley, Yorkshire, anciently
belonging to the Percys, Earls of Northumberland, but now destroyed, were many re-
lating to music and musical instruments. The fact of inscribing these curious
rhymes on the walls, is a proof of the estimation in which the art was held at
the period. Those relating to our purpose are as follows :
He that fingerithe well the keys of the Claricordis maketh a goode songe,
For in the meane is the melodye withe a rest longe ;
If the tewnys be not pleasant to him that hath no skyll,
Yet no lac to the daricorde for he doith his goode will.
He that covytithe in darisymbalis to make goode concordance,
Ought to fynger the keyes with discrete temperaunce ;
Too myche wyndinge of the pipis is not the best,
Which may cause them to sypher wher armoneye shoulde rest."*
Skelton, the facetious poet laureate, in one of his doggrel poems, A comely Cays-
trowne, printed by Pynson early in the sixteenth century, says of one of his characters :
" Comely he clappyth apayre of clavycordys ;
He whystleth so swetely, he makyth me to swete ;
His descant is dashed full of dyscordes." t
The writer of an old poem on MusicJ, in the reign of Henry the Seventh, gives the
following advice :
* A MS. copy of these proverbs is preserved among the XIX yere the month of July. A Treatise between Trouth
King's MSS. in the British Museum, Bit. Reg. 18. D. 11. and Information." This curious poem, in black-letter, was
t The Poetical Works of Skelton, edited by the Rev. printed by Wynkin de Worde. It contains a parable
Alexander Dyce, vol. i, p. 16. abounding with allusions to music and musical instruments ;
J " In the Fleete made by me WILLIAM COENISHE, and seems to be a complaint of Cornishe himself, under the
otherwise called Nyshewete, Chapelman with the most denomination of Musicke, against one whom, under that of
famous and noble King Henry the VII, his reyne the Informacion, he charges with having falsely accused him.
THE CLAVICHOKD. 45
Who pleythe on a harp he should pley trew ;
Who syngeth a song, let his voyce be tunable ;
Who wrestythe the Clavycarde, mystuning eschew ;
Who bloweth a trumpet, let his wynd be mesurabyle ;
For instruments in themselves be firm and stable,
And of trowthe (would trouthe to every man's songe) :
Tune them then trewly, for in them is no wronge."
Again he says :
" The davicorde hath a tunely kynde ;
As the wyre is wrested bye and lowe,
So it tuneyth to the players mynde :
For as it is wrested so must it nedes showe,
As by this reson ye may well know,
Any instrument mystunyd shall hurt a trew song,
Yet blame not the clavycorde, the wrester doth wrong."
King Henry the Eighth, whose knowledge and love of music were very great,
was a performer on the clavichord, as well as on other musical instruments. Richard
Pace, in a letter to Cardinal Wolsey, preserved in the State Paper Office, says :
" The Kynge haith nowe goode passe tyme bi the newe player uppon the Clacicordes that M. Rocbpotte haith broght
wyth hym (whoo playith excellently) and like wyse bi the gentilman off Almayne whoo was wyth hys grace at Wudstoke,
and hath nowe brought hydre a newe goodde and goodly instrument, and playeth ryght wele uppon the same. Fintm
faciam in inslrumentis Husicis, quia aliud nihU scribendum inpresentia habeo."*
In the list of Henry the Eighth's musical instruments " remaining at West-
minster in the charge of Philipp van Wilder," immediately after the king's decease,
we find mention of " two payer of clavicordes."f
About the middle of the sixteenth century, an instrument called the Manichord
first appeared. The writer of the article " Manicorde," in the Encyclopedic Metho-
dique, says, " it was more ancient than the harpsichord or spinet," and he presumes it
to have been invented by the Germans ; but it more probably first took its rise in
* Wolsey Correspondence, IX, art. 60. See also Sir H. f Harleian MS. No. 1419, fol. 200.
Ellis's Original Letters illustrative of English History,
Third Series, vol. i, p. 200.
46
THE CLAVICHORD.
Italy. Florio has it in his Dictionarie of
the Italian and English, 1611, and describes
it as " a rigoll or claricorde." Mersennus
gives us a representation of the instrument,
which is here copied.
From this drawing, and the description
handed down to us, the Manichord appears
to have been a large and superior clavichord.
It was provided with forty-nine or fifty keys
and seventy strings, which rested on, or passed
over, five bridges ; some of the strings being
in unison*. It was furnished with a kind of
hammer of brass, which struck the string,
and a cloth damper to stop the vibration
after the note had been struck. The hammer
is thus shown by the author to whom <~| J
we have just referred. Mersennus
also says, " It's strings, like those of
the clavichord, are covered with little
pieces of cloth, to deaden the sound
as well as soften it ; whence it is
called the dumb spinet (epinette
sourde J, and is much used in nunneries, by reason the nuns who learn may
play without disturbing the silence of their gloomy cells."
This instrument exactly resembled in form the first square pianoforte. It
^
\r
* Sir John Graham Dalzell, in his Memoirs of the that, instead of the jack and quill of the older instrument,
Musical Instruments of Scotland, says, " some musicians a stump at the inner end of the lever struck inwards
assure me that they have seen the clavichord with more
than a single string to each note. Others have described a
against the wires on depressing the key." This was un-
doubtedly the manichord.
part of the action as much resembling that of a pianoforte:
THE CLAVICHORD. 47
was long and narrow ; the sounding board took up half the length of the instrument,
and the lid was frequently painted or inlaid with coloured woods; sometimes it was
domed like the top of a hair trunk.
The clavichord, however, in almost its original form, still continued the popular
instrument of Germany, and was much encouraged by the great masters of harmony.
Roland von Lasz, Chapel Master to the Duke Albert of Bavaria, who died in 1594,
is said to have been the first to use it in concert with other instruments.
The seventeenth century does not record any improvements in this primitive
instrument; and we are told that Daniel Faber, Organist at Craylsheim in Anspach,
about 1725, was the first clavichord maker who used a string for each sound!
Carl Lemrae, an organist and instrument maker at Brunswick, at a somewhat
later date, is said to have made " oval round clavichords with double sounding-
boards." The clavichords of Wilhelm, of Cassel, were remarkable for their fine tone ;
as also were those of Vensky, Horn, and Mack, eminent makers, of Dresden.*
The last maker of the clavichord in Germany, of any note, was Kramer of
Gottingen, some of whose instruments may still occasionally be met with in the old
baronial residences with which that romantic country abounds.
* See Professor Joseph Fischof ' Tenuch einer Geschichte dea Clavierbanes. Wien. 8vo. 1853.
CHAPTER IV.
THE VIRGINAL.
M. FETIS, in his Sketch of the History of the Pianoforte, before alluded to, has the
following remarks upon the origin of this instrument :
" When the defects inherent in the construction of the clavichord were dis-
covered, a plan was devised of striking the strings with small pieces of quill affixed
to minute springs, adjusted in the upper part of small flat pieces of wood termed jacks.
These jacks were directed perpendicularly upon the key, and when the jack had
made its escape, after the string had been struck, the jack fell in such a manner as
to be able to reproduce anew the sound at will. A slip of cloth applied to each side
of the jack had the effect of a damper in stopping the vibration. This new invention
was applied to two instruments, which differed only in form : the one was the virginal,
the chest of which was rectangular, like that of small pianofortes ; the other was the
spinnet, which had the form of a harp laid in a horizontal position. These instru-
ments were much in vogue towards the close of the sixteenth century, but were soon
surpassed, both in respect to volume of sound and variety of effects, by the harpsi-
chord."
The invention of the jack and quill had formerly been applied, although perhaps
in a ruder way, to the clavicytherium. The virginal was an improvement upon that
instrument, and its strings of various lengths, one to each note, were of steel and iron,
instead of catgut. Sometimes latten was used ; and, occasionally, for the treble notes,
gold, silver, and even silk strings ; but these were often affected by the weather, and
less harmonious in tone.
The virginal, however, did not supersede the clavichord, which instrument, as we
shall afterwards see, only fell into disuse upon the rise of the pianoforte.
THE VIRGINAL.
49
The earliest mention we have found of the virginal occurs in one of the
" proverbis," as they are termed (before referred to), inscribed on the walls of the Manor
House at Leckingfield, Yorkshire, in the time of Henry the Seventh*. It runs thus :
" A slac strynge in a Virgynatt soundithe not aright,
It doth abyde no wrestinge it is so loose and light :
The sound-horde crasede, forsith the instrumente,
Throw mysgovernance, to make notes wbicbe was not bis intente."
The virginal was also known early in the sixteenth century on the continent.
Martin Agricola, in his Mwica Instrumentalis, Wittenberg, 1529, mentions it, in
company with the other keyed-stringed instruments of his time ; i. e. the clavicordium,
the clavicymbalum, and the clavicytheriumf .
The general form of the instrument is shown by the following engraving, copied
from an ancient piece of stained glass of the Elizabethan period.
* Bib. Reg. 18, D. 11. Brit Mus. See Ante, p. 44. " Clarycordes, the payre, 2s.; Harp Strynges, tbe boie*
t Among the import duties relating to music in The 10s. ; Lute Strynges, called Mynikins, the groce, 22d. :
Hates of the Custome House, both inwarde and outwarde, Orgons, the payre, ut lint in talort ; wyer for Clarycordes.
very necessarye for all MrrcTiants to Icnowe, Imprinted the pound, 4d. ; VIROISALKS, the payer, 3s. 4d. Ac.
at London, ly Rycharde Kclc, d-c. 1545, will be found
If
50 THE VIRGINAL.
On the continent, the virginal was often made in a triangular shape. Prsetorius
thus depicts it, in his Syntagma Musicum.
An interesting engraving of a lady playing upon the virginal is given in the
series of cards so beautifully engraved by Jost Ammin, and copied in Singer's History
of Playing Cards. Other representations of ladies performing upon this instrument
occur on the title pages to the two editions of Parthenia, or the Maydenhead of the
first musicke that ever was printed for the virginalls, 1611 and 1650*. The former is a
well-executed engraving by William Hole.
Some authors have supposed that the name of this instrument was intended to
convey a compliment to Queen Elizabeth the "Virgin Queen ;" but what we have
just stated shows that the virginal was known anterior to the date of her birth.
Dr. Johnson suggests that the instrument was so called " because played upon chiefly
by young ladies ; " and a modern writer, with better judgment, ascribes its title to its
uses ; and reminds us how, in the pleasant twilight of convents and old halls, it served
to lead sweet voices singing hymns to the Virgin.
The following is what a few of our etymologists and glossarists say upon the
subject :
* Both editions of this rare volume are in the author's printed, under the author's superintendence, by the Musical
library. See a fac-simile of Hole's title-page, in the edition Antiquarian Society.
THE VIRGINAL. 51
" VIRGINALLS. Instrumentum Musicum proprifi Virginum, unde ei nomen inditum esse videtur, so called, because
Virgins and Maidens play on them. Latin, Clavicymbalum, Cymbaleum Virginoeum, fuit enim Cymbalum apud veteres
Instrumentum Musicum, quod in sacris metris deorum cum Sympanis babebatur."
John Minsheu's Doctor in Linguas, The Guide into Tongues, 1617.
"VIRGINAL (Virginalis), Maidenly, Virgin like; hence the name of that Musical Instrument called Virginals
because Maids and Virgins do most commonly play on them."
Blounfs Glotsographia, 1656.
" VIRGINALS (Lat. Clavicymbalum), a common, but noble sort of Musical Instrument, toucht in like manner as
the Organ or Harpsichord, and probably so call'd, as having been thought a proper Instrument for Virgins to play on."
The New World of Words, by E. Philips, 1678.
" VIRGINAL. An instrument of the spinnet kind, but made quite rectangular, like a small piano-forte. I remember
two in use, belonging to the master of the King's Choristers. Their name was probably derived from being used by
young girls. They had, like spinnets, only one wire to each note. Sir John Hawkins speaks of them as being in fact
spinnets, though under a different name ; yet his own figures of them demonstrate a material difference in the con-
struction. The spinnet, as many persons remember, was nearly of a triangular shape, and had the wires carried over a
bent bridge, which modified their sounds ; those of the virginal went direct from their points of support to the screw-
pegs, regularly decreasing in length from the deepest bass note to the highest treble."
Archdeacon Nares's Glossary, in v.
The virginal, as we have seen, was known in this country in the early part of
the sixteenth century, if not earlier ; and one of the first patrons of the instrument
was King Henry the Eighth. Hollinshed, in speaking of the removal of the court
from London to Windsor, when the king was beginning one of his progresses, tells us
that he " exercised himselfe dailie in shooting, singing, dansing, wressling, casting of
the barre, plaieing at the recorders, flute, virginals, in setting of songs*, and making of
ballades."
All accounts agree in describing Henry, in early life, as an amiable and accom-
plished prince ; and the character given of him to the Doge of Venice, by his three
ambassadors at the English court, could scarcely be expressed in more favorable
* Some of the king's own compositions are still extant. of all things," which is attributed to him in Boyce's Cathc-
In a collection of anthems, motets, and other church offices, dral JUtisic, is the composition of William Mundy; the
in the hand- writing of John Baldwin, of Windsor (the Iran- words only are taken horn Henry the Eighth's Primer.
scriber of that beautiful MS. Lady Neville's Virginal Book, The music of a masque, preserved in the Arundel Col-
in 1591), is a composition for three voices, " Quam pulchra lection in the British Museum, is also ascribed to Henry
es, et quam decora." It bears the name Henricus Octavns VIII, but without sufficient authority. See Stafford Smith's
at the beginning, and "quod Henricus Octavus" at the Musica Aniiqua, vol. i.
end of the cantus part. The anthem, " Lord, the maker
52 THE VIRGINAL.
terms*. In their joint despatch of May 3rd, 1515, they say : " He is so gifted, and
adorned with mental accomplishments of every sort, that we believe him to have few
equals in the world. He speaks English, French, and Latin ; understands Italian
well ; plays almost on every instrument, and composes fairly (delegnamente) ; is
prudent and sage, and free from every vice."
In the letter of Sagudino (Secretary to the embassy), written to Alvise Foscari,
at this same date, he says : "He (King Henry) is courageous, an excellent musician,
plays the virginals well, is learned for his age and station, and has many other endow-
ments and good parts." On the 1st of May, 1515, after the celebration of May Day
at Greenwich, the ambassadors dined at the Palace, and, after dinner, were taken into
certain chambers containing a number of organs, virginals, flutes, and other instruments ;
and, after having heard from the ambassadors that Sagudino was a proficient on some
of them, he was asked by the nobles to play, which he did for a long while, both on
the virginals and organ, and says that he bore himself bravely, and was listened to
with great attention. The prelates told him that the king would certainly wish to
hear him, for he practised on these instruments day and night.
Pasqualigo, the ambassador-extraordinary, gives a similar account at the same
time. Of Henry, he says : " He speaks French, English, and Latin, and a little
Italian, plays well on the lute and virginals, sings from book at sight, draws the bow
with greater strength than any man in England, and jousts marvellously. Believe
me he is in every respect a most accomplished prince ; and I, who have now seen all
the sovereigns in Christendom, and last of all these two of France and England, might
well rest content," &c.
Upon these despatches the editor justly remarks : " As Pasqualigo had been
ambassador at the courts of Spain, Portugal, Hungary, France, and of the Emperor,
he was enabled to form comparisons between the state of the science in those king-
doms and our own ; and, indeed, it is the universal experience of the Venetian
Ambassadors, and their peculiar freedom from prejudice or partiality (no jealousy or
* See Four Years at the Court of Henry Till. Se- from January, 1515, to July 26, 1519. Translated by
lection of Despatches addressed to the Signory of Venice, Rawdon Brown, 8vo. 1854, 2 vols.
THE VIRGINAL.
53
rivalry existing between them and England), that makes their comments on our
country so valuable."
As far as our purpose is concerned, the way in which these Venetians speak of
the virginal is of considerable value, as showing that the instrument was well known
to them. This is obvious, also, from the fact of Sagudino, the Secretary, being able
to "bear himself bravely," in his performance upon it before the courtiers.
In the Privy Purse Expenses of King Henry the Eighth, published by the late
Sir N. Harris Nicolas, in 1827, we meet with the following entries :
" 1530 (April). Item the vj daye paied to William Lewes for ii payer of virginalls in one coffer with iiii stoppes
brought to Grenewiche iii li. And for ii payer of virginalls in one coffer brought to the More other iii li. And for a
little payer of virginalls brought to the More, xxs vii li."
"1531 (February). Item the xiii daye paied to Phillip of the Cbambre, for William Lewes, for v payer of Vir-
ginalls viii li. vi s. viii. d.
And in the inventory of King Henry the
Eighth's musical instruments, taken after his death
(before alluded to), we find mention of numerous
pairs of virginals, both single and double. Amongst
them were " Two fair pair of new long Virginalls
made harp-fashion, of Cipres, with keys of ivory,
having the king's arms crowned and supported by
his Graces beastes within a garter gilt, standing
over the keys."
The " virginalls made harp fashion" was pro-
bably an upright instrument. We give a curious
drawing of an upright virginal, taken from a
collection of pen-and-ink drawings of ancient
musical instruments, executed about the end of
I
the sixteenth century. It seems to have been the
original from which Mersennus gave many of his
engravings. It resembles the simicum (see p. 35),
with the addition of a key-board and striking
action.
54 THE VIRGINAL.
Henry the Eighth was very solicitous that his daughters should excel in musical
accomplishments, and their talents appear to have been of no mean order. Sir
Frederick Madden, in his introduction to the Privy Purse Expenses of the Princess
Mary*, says, " In regard to the lighter accomplishments of music and dancing, Mary
equalled, if not excelled, Elizabeth. Of the first, indeed, she appears to have been
passionately fond, as intimated in the letter addressed to her from Queen Catherine
Parrf. She played on three instruments, the virginals, regals, and lute, and, according
to Michele J, excelled on the latter to a surprising degree. So early as 1525, we find
particular directions given to her Governess, in regard of the Princess's occasional
practice in both the above accomplishments ; and in the letter of maternal advice sent
by her mother after their separation, she is desired sometimes to use her virginals or
lute, ' if she had any.' From the Expenses contained in the present volume, we learn
that this monition was not disregarded ; and after Mary's restoration to favour, she
seems to have sedulously applied to the cultivation of music. Mr. Paston|| is named
as her teacher on the virginals, and Philip Van Wilder^}, of the Privy Chamber, as
instructor on the lute. She was accustomed, it seems, to take these instruments with
her wherever she removed, and items often occur of payments to a person coming from
London to tune them."
These items are so interesting that we give them in extenso.
* 8vo. 1831. T] This person is often mentioned in the Expenses of
) " Artem illam Musicse, qua te simul mecum oppido King Henry the Eighth. In 1550, a commission was
delectari, non ignoro." Strype, Eccl. Mem. ii. 2. 330. The given to him by Edward the Sixth " to take to the king's
annual expense of Mary's musical and dramatic establish- use such and so many singing children and choristers as
ment, in the first year of her reign, amounts to the large sum he and his deputy thought good," within any churches or
of 22331. 17s. 6d. Collier's Annals of the Stage, i. 165. chapels in England. We suspect he was the same with
J " Intendentissima, oltre gli essercitij di donna di lavor Phillipe de Vuildre, a motet of whose composition was
d'ago in ogni sorte di ricamo, anco della musica, special- printed at Antwerp in Libra quarto Ecclesiasticarum
mente ilel sonar di manicordo et di leuto. In tanta eccel- Cantionum, 1554. From his being selected as preceptor
lenza, che quando v'attendeva, la fatto maravigliare i buoni on the lute to the Princess, and the favour we know he
sonatorij, et per la velocita della mano et per la maniera del enjoyed at Court, his talents appear to have been of a high
sonare." MS. Lansd. 840, A. f. 156. order. The author is in possession of an original set of
\ Burnet, ii 2, 336. part books that belonged to the Chapel Royal in the reign
|| Nothing is known of this musician. He seems to of Edward the Sixth, amongst which are some interesting
have been a favorite with the Princess, who frequently made anthems by Philip van Wilder.
him presents. See Household Book.
THE VIRGINAL. 55
" 1537 (Jan.) Item geven to one coming from London for mending of my ladys grace Virgynalls v s."
" 1537 (March). Item geven to one Cowts for mending my ladys grace Virginalls v s."
" 1537 (March). Item for iii y'ds of Satten geven to Mr. Fasten techyng my lady of the Vyrgynalles...xxii s. vi d."
" 1537 (April). Item geven to Cowts comyng from London and mending my ladys grace Virginalls. ..iiii s. iiii d."
" 1537 (April). Item geven to Mr. Fasten on Saynt Marke daye techyng her on the Vyrgynalles vij a. vj d."
" 1537 (May). Item paid to the man that sett the Virginalls vs."
" 1537 (Sept.) Item geven to one Cowts of London for mending my ladys grace Virginalls vij s. vj d."
" 1537 (Nor.) Item geven to one Cowts of London for mending of my ladys grace Virginalls at sou miry
tymes vij s. vi d."
" 1538 (May). Item geven to one Cowts mending my ladys grace Virginalls vs."
Edward the Sixth appointed three virginal players to the court, with yearly salaries.
The same musicians were retained by Mary when she ascended the throne. Their
names are thus set down in a MS. in the Library of the Society of Antiquaries.
. a. d.
{John Heywoode*, fee - - - - 50
Anthony Cbounter, fee - - - - 30
Robert Bowman, fee - - - - - 12 3 4
Princess Elizabeth's love of music is well known, and has frequently been dis-
canted on. Camdenf, in giving an account of her studies, says, that " she understood
well the Latin, French, and Italian tongues, and (was) indifferently well seen in the
Greek. Neither did she neglect Musicke, so far forthe as might become a Princess,
being able to sing, and play on the lute prettily and sweetly."
There is every reason to believe that she devoted much time and attention to the
study of music long after she became Queen of England. Sir James Melvil J gives
* John Heywood was the only virginal player in the in him." A full length wood-cut of him is prefixed to his
household of Henry VIII. His fee was 6: 13:4 curious work, The Parable of the Spider and the Fly,
quarterly, but probably this was independent of board and which has been copied by Richardson. On the accession
clothing. Elizabeth and James retained three virginal of Elizabeth, Heywood left England and retired to Mechlin
players in their courts. in Brabant, where he is supposed to have died in 1565.
Hey wood's ready wit and skill in vocal and instrumen- Chounter and Bowman are unknown as musicians; they
tal music rendered him a great favourite with Henry the were probably merely performers.
Eighth, and Sir Thomas More ; and by the latter he was f Annales, or the History of Elizabeth, late Queen
introduced to the notice of the Princess Mary, by whom he of England. 3rd edit 1C35, p. 6.
was especially patronized, rather, says Puttenham, " for the J Memoirs, tiote published from the original MS.
mirth and quickness of conceit than good learning that was 1683, p. 50.
56 THE VIRGINAL.
an account of a curious conversation which he had with this Princess, to whom he
was sent on an embassy by Mary Queen of Scots*, in 1564. After her Majesty had
asked him how his Queen dressed 1 What was the colour of her hair ? Whether
that or her's was best 1 Which of them two. was fairest ? And which of them was
highest in stature ? " Then she asked what kind of exercise she used 1 " I answered,
says Melvil, " that when I received my dispatch, the Queen was lately come from the
Highland hunting : that when her more serious affairs permitted, she was taken up
with reading of histories : that sometimes she recreated herself in playing upon the
lute and virginals. She asked if she played well "? I said reasonably fora Queen."
" The same day, after dinner, my Lord of Hunsden drew me up to a quiet gallery,
that I might hear some Musick, (but he said that he durst not avow it), where I might
hear the Queen play upon the virginals. After I had hearkened a while, I took by
the tapestry that hung before the door of the chamber, and seeing her back was
toward the door, I entered within the chamber, and stood a pretty space hearing her
play excellently well. But she left off immediately, so soon as she turned about and
saw me. She appeared to be surprised to see me, and came forward, seeming to strike
me with her hand ; alledging, she used not to play before men, but when she was
solitary, to shun melancholy. She asked how I came there 1 I answered, as I was
walking with my Lord Hunsden, as we passed by the chamber door, I heard such a
melody as ravished me, whereby I was drawn in ere I knew how ; excusing my fault
of homeliness, as being brought up at the Court of France where such freedom was
allowed ; declaring myself willing to endure what kind of punishment her Majesty
should be pleased to inflict upon me for so great offence. Then she sate down low
upon a cushion, and I upon my knees by her ; but with her own hand she gave me a
cushion, to lay under my knee ; which at first I refused, but she compelled me to take
it. She enquired whether my Queen or she played best. In that I found myself
obliged to give her the praise."
In the dedication to Vander-noodt's Theatre for Voluptuous Worldlings, imprinted
by Bynneman, in 1569, the author pays her Majesty the following compliment :
* This unfortunate Princess, besides her personal of languages, had considerable taste in music,
charms, captivating powers of conversation, and knowledge
THE VIRGINAL. 57
" Your grace is expert in song and in the arte of Musicke ; skilful in all kindes
of musical instruments, and, according to the exact proportions of geometrie, exquisite
in the measures of the dance."
Richard Mulcaster, the famous Master of Merchant Taylors' School, in some
Latin verses prefixed to Tallis and Byrd's Cantiones Sacra, 1575, eulogises the
Queen's musical abilities in lines which are thus translated :
" Our gracious Queen, bright glory of our age,
Th pow'r of notes harmonious can engage ;
Much joy she thence receives, but more conveys,
While both her voice and hand the concert rawe."
In a MS. note by Isaac Reed, written in a volume of old plays, we meet with
the following anecdote : " When Queen Elizabeth was playing on the virginals, Lord
Oxford, remarking the motion of the keys, said, in covert allusion to Raleigh's favour
at court, and the execution of the Earl of Essex, ' When jacks start up, heads go down.' "
The jacks, as before explained, were slender pieces of wood, armed at the upper
ends with quills. They were fixed on the further end of the finger-keys, and acted as
plectra by impinging or. twitching the strings. By the stroke of the finger, the quill
was forced past the string, its own elasticity giving way, and remained above the string
so long as the finger was pressed on the key, giving the string liberty to IJL
< ^
sound. When the finger was removed, the quill returned to its place, and
a little bit of cloth, fixed on the top of the jack, rested on the string, and
stopped its vibration, or, in other words, acted as a damper.
The action of these jacks was the constant subject of simile and
pun; for instance, in Middleton's Father HubbarcTs Tales, describing
Charity as frozen, he says, " Her teeth chattered in her head, and leaped
up and down like virginal jacks;" and in Dekker's Satiro-Mastix, or the
Untrussing of the Humorous Poet, 1602, one of the lady characters "' Jl
i, Tongue.
exclaims : " Lord ha' mercy on us ! we women fall, and fall still ; and
/7
when we have husbands, we play upon them like virginal jacks, they <*, Bristle spring.
must rise and fall to our humours, or else they'll never get any good ' Cloth t^w-
strains of musick out of us."
i
58 THE VIRGINAL.
John Strangways, in some verses prefixed to Tom Coriat's Crudities, 1611, has
the following lines :
" Kemp yet doth live, and only lives for this
Much famous, that he did dance the Morris
From London .unto Norwich. But thou much more
Doest merit praise. For though his feet were sore,
Whilst sweaty he with antick skips did hop it,
His treadings were but friscals of a poppet ;
Or that at once I may express it all
Like to the jacks of jumbled mrginatt."
Passing from these humourous notices, we must take a glance at the Queen's
virginals. Several " pairs," once belonging to Queen Elizabeth, are yet extant
in different parts of England. There is one, a very interesting specimen, at
Helmingham Hall, in Suffolk, the ancient seat of the Tollemache family ; Sir E.
Bulwer Lytton is the possessor of another ; the Eev. Mr. Sperling, of Kensington, is
the fortunate owner of a most splendidly decorated instrument ; and a fourth, certainly
the most remarkable of all, is preserved at the residence of a Worcestershire esquire.
It was purchased at Lord Spencer Chichester's sale, in 1805, and is of incalculable
value. In the Gentleman's Magazine for that year, we read that "The case is of
cedar, covered with crimson Genoa velvet, upon which are three gilt locks, finely
engraved ; the inside of the case is lined with strong yellow tabby silk ; the front is
covered entirely with gold, having a border round the inside two inches and a half
broad. It is five feet long, sixteen inches wide, and seven inches deep, and is so
lightly and delicately formed, that the weight does not exceed twenty-four pounds.
There are fifty keys, thirty of ebony tipped with gold, and the remaining twenty (i. e.
the semitones) are inlaid with silver, ivory, and different kinds of rare woods, each key
consisting of about two hundred and fifty pieces. On one end are the royal arms,
richly emblazoned ; and at the other end is a symbolic and highly finished painting of
a crowned dove, with a sceptre in its claw the painting done upon a gold ground,
with carmine, lake, and ultramarine.
In the Fitzwilliam Museum, at Cambridge, is preserved a small-sized folio MS.
volume, in red morocco binding, elaborately tooled, and ornamented with fleur-de-lis,
&c., and gilt edges, traditionally said to have been Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book.
THE VIRGINAL. 59
The MS. is written upon six lines, on 418 pages, throughout in the same hand. At the
end of each piece of music, the arrangers' names are generally given. Among them
we find, Dr. John Bull, Ferdinand Richardson, William Byrd, Thomas Morley, John
jf
Munday, Giles Farnaby, William Blitheman, Peter Phillips, Nicholas Strogers, Martin
Peerson, Thomas Warrock, Thomas Tomkins, ' Robert Johnson, Richard Farnaby,
Marchant, W. Tisdall, Hooper, Edward Johnson, William Inglott, Orlando Gibbons,
Thomas Oldfield, Giovanni Pietri, Johan Fieterson Swellinck, Thomas Tallis, &c.
Dr. Burney says, " If her Majesty was ever able to execute any of the pieces
that are preserved in a MS. which goes under the name of Queen Elizabeth's Virginal
Book, she must have been a very great player ; as some of these pieces, which were
composed by Tallis, Bird, Giles, Farnaby, Dr. Bull, and others, are so difficult, that
it would be hardly possible to find a master in Europe who would undertake to play
one of them at the end of a month's practice." *
The late M. Choron expresses a similar opinion : " In every thing relating to the
execution of instrumental music," says this distinguished critic, " it is of the utmost
importance to dispel a very common error ; which consists in believing that music was
formerly very simple, and easily performed. This error arises from the circumstance
of the old writers having used notes of very great value; and from its not being
remembered that these notes were executed with very great rapidity, so that they had,
in fact, no greater value than those in use with us at the present time. Besides, if we
cast our eyes upon the collections of pieces remaining to us from former ages upon
the Virginal Book of Queen Elizabeth, for instance, difficulties will be found which
would puzzle the most able of our modern performers. "f
A recent writer in Chambers's Journal } is still "stronger " upon this point. After
remarking upon the " insupportable and overwhelming difficulty " of the volume,
he goes on to say, " a dozen of its pages would serve not only to crush the preten-
sions of any ordinary professor, but even to appal the bravest and most skilful among
* ffistory of Music, vol. iii, p. 15. prefixed to the first volume of the Dictionary of Munciant,
t Summary of the History of Music, translated and 1827, second edit.
t October 27, 1855.
I 2
60 THE VIRGINAL.
those spasmodic pianists who delight the concert-going public of this concert-giving
age." " V . :; ....- .
Opinions, such as these, regarding the extreme difficulty of the music in the
Virginal Book, have become so prevalent, that it seems almost heresy to contradict
them. Nevertheless, it is time the illusion should be dispelled. Of the writers above
quoted, the first (Dr. Burney) is the only one worthy of notice ; for he alone saw and
examined the volume, and doubtless, in his time, the music possessed some claim to be
considered difficult. At the present day it has no such claims. An ordinary pianist
could with ease execute any of the pieces in the volume after an hour's practice.
At the end of the sixteenth century, the virginal was the popular keyed-stringed
instrument in England, and was found in the house of every person of education.
In an inventory of the furniture in Kenilworth Castle, in the days of the magni-
ficent Earl of Leicester (A. D. 1584)*, we find : " Item, an instrument of organs,
regalls, and virginalls, covered with crimson velvet and garnished with goulde lace ; "
also, " A faire paire of double virginalls." And in the inventory of the goods and
chattels belonging to Sir Thomas Kytson of Hengrave Hall, Suffolk* 1603, we have
" Item, one payer of little virginalls ; ditto, one wind instrument like a virginall ;
ditto, one great payer of double virginalls. "f
In Nicholas Breton's poem entitled A Flourish upon Fancie, 1582, the virginal
is mentioned along with other musical instruments as forming part of the ordinary
stock of a gallant of those days :
" Upon an olde crackt forme,
By his bed side, there lies
Ould instruments of musick's sound
All broke in wondrous wise ;
A lute, with half the strings
And all the pinnes neere out.
The belly crackt, the back quite burst,
And riven round about.
His virginalls with never a jack,
And scantily halfe the keyes ;
* MS. in the possession of the writer. f Gage's Antipdties of Hengrave Hall, 4to. 1822, p. 2-i.
THE VIRGINAL. 61
His organes with the bellows burst,
And battred many waies.
His fife, three holes in one ;
His harpe with neere a string.
Great pittie, trust me, for to see
So broken every thing."
Burel r describing the pomp and pageantry with which Queen Anne (wife of
James VI) was received at her public entry into Edinburgh, May 19, 1590, mentions
the virginal amongst the instruments used on that occasion :
" Organs and regals thair did carpe,
With their gay goldin glitt'ring strings ;
Thair was the hautbois and the harpe,
Playing most sweet and pleasant springs ;
And sum on lutis did play and sing,
Of instrument the onely king.
" Viols and virginatts were their,
With gi thorns niaist jucundious ;
Trumpets and timbrels made greit beir,
With instruments melodious.
The seistar and the sumphion
With clarcbe-pipe and clarion." *
Spenser has mentioned the virginal in an English trimeter-iambic ; one of those
fantastic attempts to introduce the uncongenialities of Latin versification, which the
taste of the great poet soon led him to abandon. The line, however, in which the
virginal is mentioned, presents a picture not unworthy of him :
" Unhappie Verse ' the witnesse of my unhappie state,
Make thyself flutt'ring wings of thy fast flying
Thought, and fly forth unto my Love wheresoever she be ;
Whether lying restless in heavy bedde, or else
Sitting so cheerless at the cheerful boarde, or else
Flaying alone carelets on her heavenlie virginal*."
Watson's Collection of Scottish Poemt, vol. ii, p. 6.
62 THE VIRGINAL.
The musical instrument mentioned in one of Shakespeare's sonnets is of the
same keyed family.
" How oft when thou, my music, music play'st
Upon that blessed wood, whose motion sounds
With thy sweet fingers, when thou gently sway'st
The wiry concord that mine ear confounds,
Do I envy those jacks, that nimble leap
To kiss the tender inward of thy hand,
Whilst my poor lips, that should that harvest reap,
At the wood's boldness by thee blushing stand.
To be so tickled, they would change their state
And situation with those dancing chips
O'er whom thy fingers walk with gentle gait,
Making dead wood more bless'd than living lips.
Since saucy jacks so happy are in this,
Give them thy fingers, me thy lips to kiss."
Thus we have two of our great poets, Spenser and Shakespeare, showing us the
delight they took in the same species of instrument which we have now, and so
bringing themselves near to our pianofortes.
The first book printed in this country for a keyed-stringed instrument, appeared
in the year 1611, with the following singular title :
PARTHENIA,
OR
THE MAYDENHEAD
OF THE FIRST MUSICKE THAT EVER WAS PRINTED FOR THE VIRGINALLS,
COMPOSED
By three famous Masters, William Byrde, Dr. John Bull, and Orlando Gibbons,
Gentilmen of his Majesties most Illustrious Chappell.
Ingraven
By WILLIAM HOLE ;
Lond : print : for M. Dor. Evans, Cum privilegio, and are to be sould by G. Lowe, printer in Loathberry.
This work, entirely engraved upon copper plates, was again printed (from the
same plates) in 1613, 1635, 1650, 1656, and 1659, and, according to Anthony a
Wood, was " the prime book used by Masters in Musick for nearly half a century."
THE VIRGINAL. 63
This publication was speedily followed by another of a similar kind, without date,
with the following title :
PARTHENIA IN-VIOLATA,
OR
Mayden Musicke for the Virginalls and Bass Viol,
Selected out of the Compositions of the most famous in that arte,
By ROBERT HOLE,
And consecrated to all true Lovers and Practisers thereof.
All you professors of this arte divine,
So strive your earthly accents to refine
To AngelTs ayres, and Saynts most holy skill,
As all your musique sound your Maker's will.
Then is there true composure of the parts,
When there's an equall harmony of hearts :
And that the sacred concords be so even
As here on Earth you strike the same w th Heaven.
Printed at London for John Pyper, and are to be sould at his Shopp at Pauls' gate, next unto Cheapside at the
Crosse Keies. Cum privilegio.
Shortly after the restoration, John Playford, the ingenious publisher, put forth,
without date, his work entitled
MUS1CKS HAND-MAID,
New Lessons and Instructions
FOB THB
VIRGINALS OR HARPSYCHORD.
In his introduction, the author says, " The Virginals, according to the ancient
standard, were made to contain 29 keys (with the half-notes 48 keys), but of later
times they add to that number both above and below. "
The two famous English virginal-makers of the latter half of the seventeenth
century, were John Loosemore and Stephen Keen. Playford, at the end of his
Introduction to the Skill of Mustek, edit. 1672, advertises, " Mr. Stephen Keen,
64
THE VIRGINAL.
Maker of Harpsycons and Virginals, dwelleth now in Threadneedle Street, at the
sign of the Virginal, who maketh them exactly good, both for sound and substance."
A small virginal of this period is copied in the following wood-cut * :
Self-acting virginals were known as early as the seventeenth century. On the
27th of August 1623, a license was granted to Bartholomew Cloys, with three
assistants, to make show of a Musical Organ, with divers motions in it; to make
show of an Italian Motion ; to show a Looking-glass ; the Philosopher's Stone ; and
a Virginal with machinery."-]- And at a later period, on the occasion of the Fireworks
to be presented in Lincoln's Inn Fields on the 5th of November 1647, we hear of self-
acting virginals, or, as the writer expresses it, " musically playing of themselves." J
The virginal became so common in England in the seventeenth century, that old
Pepys, that entertaining gossip, describing the flight of the inhabitants by water at
the time of the great fire, says, " I observed that hardly one lighter or boat in three
that had the goods of a house in, but there was a paire of virginals in it."
* Thomas Mackinlay, Esq. F.S.A. of Soho Square,
possesses two interesting virginals of the latter part of the
seventeenth century. One, made by John Loosemore, bears
the date 1655. The other, made shortly after the restora-
tion of Charles, has a curious painting on the inside of the
lid, showing the Mall in St. James's Park, with a distant
view of Arlington House.
t The Office-Book of Sir Henry Herbert, Master of the
Revels to James the First.
{ A rare broadside in the British Museum. See also
Brayley's Londiniana,vo\. iv, p. 56.
\ Diary (Sept, 2, 1666), edit. 1848, vol. iii, p. 271.
THE VIRGINAL. 65
This instrument continued in general use until the beginning of the eighteentli
century. One of the latest notices of it occurs in the London Post of July 20, 1701 :
" This week a most curious pair of virginals, reckoned the finest in England, were
shipped off for the Grand Seigneur's Seraglio."
In addition to the specimens of this instrument still remaining, and which we
have noticed in the course of the preceding pages, we may add that many others may
be found in the nooks and corners of old houses, in various stages of dilapidation.
Sometimes, indeed, these old " crackt " instruments are still made to " play their part ;"
and we cannot conclude this chapter with a more characteristic anecdote than the
following from The Professional Life of Mr. Dibdin. Speaking of his engagement as
composer of the music to David Garrick's theatre, he says, " I was summoned to
Hampton to take instructions for the Christmas Tale; many of the songs had been
previously written, by fits and starts, and I had set some of them two or three times
over ; but now we were to go to work in earnest ; and as he could not be easy
without me, for his muse was very often in want of obstetrick assistance as to songs
and choruses, however easily he might bring forth prologues and epilogues, so was
I either obliged to sit up after the family, or get up before them, to lend musical
aid to bits and scraps of which nobody could guess either the drift or meaning ; and
all this music was to be extracted from an old virginal, with half the strings broke,
a prodigious fine antique, which graced Mr. Garrick's beautiful drawing-room, with
much about the elegance and embellishment as a spot of rust upon a polished register-
stove. I used to tell him, I hoped he would bequeath it to the Antiquarian Society,"
CHAPTER V.
THE SPINET.
THE spinet (spinetto, Ital. epinette, Fr.) is so called from spina, a thorn or quill* ;
the tone of the instrument being produced by a crow's quill inserted in the tongue of
the little machine (before explained) called a jack.
The spinet, we are told, consisted of " a chest or belly, made of the most porous
and resinous wood to be found, and a table of fir fastened on rods, called the sound-
board, which bears on the sides : on the table were raised two little prominences or
bridges, in which are fixed as many pins as there were strings to the instrument."
Mersennusf compares the structure of the spinet to that of the human body ;
he says that " the sounding-boards are the muscles ; the cross bars the bones ; and the
strings the organs of speech." But what is more valuable, he adds ; "the spinet had
ordinarily, forty-nine strings, of which the lower thirty were made of latten, because
that was strongest and deepest, and the higher ones, nineteen in number, were of steel
and iron * * *. There were but six or seven sizes of strings ; but if the spinet were
made in real perfection, there would be strings of different sizes, suited purposely to
every note. Even in the length of string the makers are careless, and everything
depends upon the tension."
The difference between the virginal and spinet is said to have been this : " the spinet
was always of a triangular shape, and had the wires carried over a bent bridge, which
modified their sounds ; those of the virginal, went direct from their points of support
* Florio, in his Queen Anna's New World of Words, SPINETTEGGIARE, to play upon Virginalles.
1611, p. 524, has the following: SPINETTO, a thicket of brambles or briars."
"SPINETTA, a kind of little Spina * * also a paire of f Harmonicorum, Paris, 1636; frequently quoted in
Virginalles. our earlier pages.
THE SPINET.
67
to the screw-pegs, regularly decreasing in length from the deepest bass note to the
highest treble." We have not been able to make out this distinction ; in all the vir-
ginals and spinets which we have examined, their internal construction was the same.
The date of the invention of the spinet is not ascertained. According to Clement
Marot, it was in common use among the French ladies in the reign of Francis the
First (A. D. 1515, 1546). In the dedication of his version of the Psalms to his fair
country-women, he tells them, that he hopes, divine hymns will supersede love-songs,
and fill their apartments with the praises of Jehovah, in accompanying them on the
spinet.
" Et vos doigts sur les Espinettcs,
Pour dire Sainctes chansonnettes," *
We have copied an interesting representation of the spinet from Father Bonanni's
Qabinetto Armonico, 4to, Rome, 1722.
According to Artusi's Imperfettioni della moderna Musica, printed at Venice in
1600, the spinet was known in Italy early in the sixteenth century : and Pietro della
Valle, in his Discourse on the Music of his own time, 1640f, tells us, the first opera
* (Eiivrea de Clement Marot, & Lyon, 1551. 12mo. t ?*A in the works of Battista Doni, at Florence,
p. 192. 1763, torn. ii.
K 2
68 THE SPINET.
or musical drama performed at Rome, took place in a cart, on which occasion, " II
Cavalier Leuto played wonderfully on the spinet."
Zarlino, the celebrated theorist, had a spinet, with quarter tones, made at Venicef.
Burney saw it, in the course of his travels, at Florence, and says it was afterwards sent
to England ; but we have been unable to trace it.
The family of the Euckers, of Antwerp (of whom we shall have occasion to
speak presently), were famous makers of spinets in the seventeenth century, as also
were their successors, Couchet and Jean Dennis : the latter was a Frenchman, and
resided for many years in Paris.
The Hitchcocks and Hay wards, fathers and sons, were the great makers of spinets
in London, in the first three quarters of the seventeenth century. John Hitchcock
made these little instruments of a compass of five octaves. Several specimens still
exist bearing dates between 1620 and 1640. The keys are of ebony, having ivory
fronts ; the flats and sharps inlaid with narrow slips of ivory. Charles Haward, or
Hay ward, is mentioned as a celebrated maker, in Salmon's Vindication of an Essay, ^c.
1672, p. 68.
Queen Anne had, among her musical instruments, a spinet by Hay ward, the
loudest and perhaps the finest that was ever heard ; and which she highly valued. Her
Majesty, just before the period of her decease, gave especial direction that this
instrument should go to the master of the children of the Chapel Royal for the time
being, and that it should regularly descend to his official successors. Accordingly it
passed first into the possession of Dr. Croft, and afterwards into the hands of Dr.
Nares, from whom it descended to Bernard Gates, and the late Dr. Ayrton. Mr.
Hawes was the next master, and when the writer last heard of Queen Anne's spinet,
it was consigned to the cock-loft of that gentleman's house in the Adelphi Terrace,
where, in all probability, it still remains.
} In a letter to Mason the poet, dated Florence, Sept. 1548, by Dominico Pesarese : it is now in the possession of
1770, Burney says, " This instrument was invented by Signora Moncini, widow of the late composer, Piscetti."
Zarlino, in order to give the temperament aud modulation In a subsequent letter, he says, " Zarlino's spinet or small
of the three genera, the diatonic, chromatic, and enhar- harpsichord is now in London."
monic. It was made under Zarlino's direction in the year
THE SPINET. 69
The later makers of spinets, of eminence, were Keen, Slade, Player*, Fenton,
Baudin, &c. A fine specimen of the latter maker is in the possession of the writer.
It has this inscription in front :
"JosEPHus BAVDIN, LONDINI, FECIT. 1723;"
and its general appearance may be imagined from the following engraving.
Burney, writing at the beginning of the present century, f says, " As the spinet
rivalled the virginal, -the small piano-forte has supplanted the spinet in public favour;
and we believe that very few have been made since the middle of the last century."
* This maker is mentioned in Ambrose Warren's To- f Rees's Cyclopedia, in v. Spinet.
nometer, 1725, p. 7, as having made spinets with quarter
tones.
CHAPTER VI.
THE HARPSICHORD.
THE form of the harpsichord is precisely the same as that of the grand horizontal
pianoforte. Its origin was evidently suggested by the harp, from which instrument
it received its name.
Papius, and after him Du Cange, derive the name of harp from the Arpi, a people
in. Italy, who they say, erroneously, were its first inventors. Menage derives the
word from the Latin, harpa, and that from the German, herp or herpff ; others
bring it from the Latin carpo, because it was touched or thrummed with the fingers.
Dr. Hickes derives it from harpa or hearpa, which signifies the same thing ; the first
in the language of the Cymbri, the second in that of the Anglo-Saxons.*
Galilei f in his Dialogo della Musica Antica e Moderna, Firenze, 1581, has a
very interesting passage respecting the harp, which we shall translate literally :
" Among the stringed instruments now used in Italy, we Lave, in the first place, the harp ; which is in fact nothing
but the ancient cithara, with a great number of strings, differing somewhat in form, but that chiefly owing to the taste
of the artists of those times, the number of strings and their degree of tension ; the extreme highest and lowest
* " From the Teutonic derivation of the harp, it is " The Roman Missioners kept alive and augmented the
easy to account for its becoming the national instrument enmity between the Britons and Anglo-Saxons : the former
of the English. The Anglo-Saxons were of German race, would not adopt Popery or its superstitions, to which the
and introduced the harp into Britain. Inflamed with a latter were devoted : every temporal and spiritual motive
thirst of conquest, and eager to possess alone that fertile which theological malignity could invent, was conjured up
Isle, they almost exterminated the natives, and totally to make the resentment of both people implacable and per-
erased every vestige of Roman and British civility. The petual, and with too good success. Hence the triumph of
gentler modulations and softer harmony of the crwth were the harp over the crwth, and its general use among all ranks
equally despised with its performers and admirers : this of people until the Norman invasion." Walker's Historical
instrument was banished to Wales, Cornwall, and Ar- Memoirs of the Irish Sards, Appendix, p. 7.
morica; in the last country, Venantius found it in the 6th t A Florentine nobleman, and father of the great
century. astronomer, Galileo Galilei.
THE HARPSICHORD. 71
comprising upwards of three octaves. This very ancient instrument was brought to us from Ireland (as Dante has
recorded) where they are excellently made, and in great number ; and the inhabitants of which island have practised on
it for many and many centuries ; its being also the particular badge of the kingdom, and, as such, frequently painted and
sculptured on their public edifices and coins, the people alleging, as the cause of it, that they are descended from the
Royal prophet David. The harps used by them are much larger than ours, and they are usually mounted with strings
of brass and some of steel, in the acute part, of the same kind as the clavichord. The performers upon them are wont
to let the nails of both their hands grow to a considerable length, trimming them with great care in the manner we see
the quills on the jacks of the spinnets. The number of strings are 54, 56, and as far as 60 ; whereas we read, that
among the Jews, the cithara, orpsaUerion of the Prophet, had only 10 strings. The distribution of the strings of
one of these harps (which I obtained a few months ago, by means of a very obliging gentleman of Ireland), I found, on
careful examination, to be the same as that of the harp icilh a double row of itrings, which was a few years ago
introduced into Italy; although some (without a shadow of reason) assert that they have lately invented it, endeavouring
to persuade the vulgar that none but themselves can play upon it, or understand its temperament, which they hold in such
great estimation, that they have ungratefully denied it to many ; in spite of whom, however, I will here describe it for
the sake of those who may desire it. The 38 strings, which are mounted on the harp, contain four octaves and one tone;
not major or minor, as some have imagined, but of the measure which I have above said to be contained in a key'd
instrument. The lowest string, therefore, as well for a sharp as for a flat, is double C ; and the highest string is D in
alt: when they are to be tuned for B flat, the 16 lower strings on the left side are to be distributed according to the
nature of the common diatonic, and the 14 that are in the opposite row to these, that is, on the right side (leaving apart
the unison of D and A), must give, as we may say, the chromatic kind, agreeable in its nature to the said diatonic*.
The 15 that follow next, ascending the scale, are to be tempered diatonically, according to the mode of the 16 lower ones
on the left side. The 13 that follow next above the first 16, are now to do the office of the lower ones on the right, as
may be seen in the example.* If then you want to play in 8 natural, let the flats of each diatonic be altered, and tuned
in one or the other of the chromatic, instead of the B flat ; and let these be arranged in the place of those in the diatonic,
both on the right, and the left. This mode of proceeding was so ordered by its author for the convenience and facility
of the fingers of both hands, particularly in making diminutions, and lengthening sounds. We find thus among the
said strings ; five times C, five D, four E, four F, four G, four A, four B flat, and four B natural. Four unisons of D,
four unisons of A. Four sharps of e, four sharps of f, four sharps of g, and the four flats of e ; which in all make the
number of 58 strings. But there are wanting, for the perfection of the diversity of harmony, the four sharps of d, and
the four flats of a; for which, in those modes, or melodies, where these strings occur, their unisions which are among
the chromatic strings, are accommodated to them ; which unisons produce a great facility in the diminutions, as appears
manifestly in practice ; which facility is the cause that they are generally distributed in the manner I have mentioned.
" The harp is so similar to the epigonium and the simicum, that it may with reason be said to be one of them ;
* In the plate, a scale of the strings of the harp, re- left-hand row. It seems they were tuned in different keys,
ferred to by Galilei, it has twenty-nine strings in each of as occasion required them ; and part of one row, and part
the two rows ; that is, D at top, and DD at bottom, in the of the other, served for the accidental flats and sharps ;
right-hand row ; and C at top, and CC at bottom, in the the remainder were unisons in both the rows.
72
THE HARPSICHORD.
nor do I think he would be much mistaken, who should maintain, that the strings were tuned in the same manner and
proportion in the one as in the other instrument, seeing that these instruments were not introduced till after they began
to play in consonant parts; and what distribution is best adapted to this, has been fully explained.
" Returning now to the invention and origin of modern instruments, I say, that (on account of the agreement of the
name, of the form, and of the number, disposition and matter of the strings, although its professors in Italy say, that
tliey have invented it;) from the harp, most probably, the harpsichord had its origin; which instrument is nothing
but a horizontal harp : and from it, may be derived the key'd instruments of touch."
The harpsichord was, in fact, only
a largc-sizfd spinet. In the spinet and
virginal, however, there was but one string
for each tone ; another was added to the
harpsichord, the form of which, as we have
said, was precisely the same as that of our
grand horizontal pianofortes. In Germany
instrument was called Flugel, from its
resemblance to the shape of a wing.
We give an engraving of the harpsichord
from the valuable work of Father Mersennus,
so often quoted in our pages.
The mechanism of the jack remained the
same in this instrument as in the older
virginals and spinets*. Hans Ruckers of
Antwerp was the first maker who effected
an important reform in the construction of
the harpsichord. He was originally a joiner ;
but, quitting that business, devoted himself
entirely to the manufacture of keyed-stringed
musical instruments, and gained a reputation
which was surpassed by no other. He gave
his harpsichords a more powerful and con-
* The action of the harpsichord was simply a key and in S of crow-quill was passed to touch the string when
what was called a jack, which was a piece of pear-tree * e J ack was in action '" Burne > % in Rees ' S C y cl P edia -
with a small moveable tongue of holly, through which a
THE HARPSICHORD. 73
nected tone, by joining to the two strings in unison a third range .of shorter and
finer strings, tuned to the upper octave of the others, and which could be entqned at
pleasure, either together with them, or separately. He mounted his harpsichords
partly with catgut strings, and partly with steel wire. la imitation of the organ, he
added a second key-board to his instruments, the object of which was to allow three
strings to be heard at once, or only a single one at pleasure. In fine, he extended the
compass of his harpsichord to four complete octaves (from C to C), by adding four
grave sounds to the forty-five which existed before.
It was towards the close of the sixteenth century, about 1590,that Hans Ruckers
first began to manufacture his harpsichords. This artist and his two sons, Jean and
Andreas, who rivalled their father in ability, sent a prodigious quantity of their
instruments into France and Germany.
Burney, in his entertaining sketches of The Present State of Music in Germany,
the Netherlands, #e.*, has left us an account of these artists and their successors,
which it is worth while to extract. Speaking of the city of Antwerp, the Doctor
says " The famous harpsichord-makers, of the name of Ruckers, whose instruments
have been so much and so long admired all over Europe, lived in this city : there
were three, the first, and the father of the other two, was John Ruckers, who flourished
at the beginning of the last century. His instruments were the most esteemed, and
are remarkable for the sweetness and fulness of their tone. On the left hand of the
sound-hole in the bellies of these instruments may be seen a large H, the initial of
Hans, which, in the Flemish Language, means John. Andre, the eldest of John's
sons, distinguished his work by an A in the sound-hole. His large harpsichords are
less esteemed than those made by any one of that name ; but his small instruments,
such as spinets and virginals, are excellent. Jean, the youngest son's harpsichords,
though not so good as those of the father, are very much esteemed for the delicacy of
their tone ; his instruments may be known by the letter I in the sound-hole. The
harpsichord-maker of the greatest eminence, after them, was J. Dan. Dulcken ; he
was a Hessian. At present there is a good workman at Antwerp, of the name of
* 2nd edit vol. i, p. 47.
74 THE HARPSICHORD.
Bull, who was Dulcken's apprentice, and who sells his double harpsichords* for a
hundred ducats each, with only plain painted cases, and without swell or pedals ; the
work too of Vanden Elsche, a Flamand, has a considerable share of merit ; but, in
general, the present harpsichords made here after the Rucker model are thin, feeble
in tone, and much inferior to those of our best makers in England."!
Handel possessed a fine Rucker harpsichord, which he left by will to his friend
and amanuensis, Smith. Coxe, in his Anecdotes of Handel and Smith, speaking of
Handel's original MSS., which Smith presented to King George III, adds, "The
harpsichord so remarkable for the ivory being indented by Handel's continued
exertions, and on which, as has been already related, the far greater part of his music
had been composed, and the bust, by Roubilliac, he sent afterwards to Windsor Castle."J
The Messrs. Broadwood possess an instrument by Ruckers, which they concefve
to have been Handel's, but its geneology will not bear examination. It is, however, a
very interesting instrument, and merits a brief description. It is inscribed, " Ruckers,
Antwerpia, 1651." The case and lid are painted black, with ornaments in gold and
colour, a sort of lacquer-work. The sound-board is ornamented also, to the great risk
of its sonority. Upon a ground of pale green are arabesques, among which sit half
a dozen monkeys executing a concert. The lid is inscribed upon the under surface,
in letters of gold, Sic transit gloria mundi, a legend which is often to be met with
upon spinets and harpsichords, and which doubtless signifies that the glory of the
world vanishes as sound and space. On that part of the lid which turns back when
the harpsichord is opened, is Musica donum Dei (Music is the gift of God), also
written in gold letters, upon a black ground .
* A single harpsichord of two unisons and one set of Many instruments by these eminent makers are still
keys was, in effect, a double spinet or virginal. A double occasionally met with in out-of-the-way corners of our
harpsichord had two sets of keys and three strings, two old mansions. Mr. Twining, of the eminent firm of that
unisons and an octave, to each note. name in the Strand, possesses a fine single harpsichord by
t Rucker harpsichords, about 1760, were in such high Andreas Rucker, 1G40.
estimation that they frequently sold for more than a hundred J Roubilliac's bust of Handel is still preserved at
pounds each; but before the beginning of the present Windsor Castle; but the harpsichord cannot be found,
century, pianofortes became so prevalent throughout Europe, \ For this description we are indebted to M. Victor
that the finest Rucker harpsichord would not produce more Schoelcher's elaborate Life of Handel, lately published,
than ten pounds.
THE HARPSICHORD. 75
It was anciently the fashion to ornament the cases of old virginals, harpsichords,
and spinets with inscriptions and paintings, many specimens of which have come down
to our time. An ancient sounding-board, formerly belonging to a small virginal, now
in the writer's possession, has the following curious inscription upon its upper
surface :
" I once was livinge in the woods.
But now I am cut downe
By stroke of cruell axe, indeed,
But yet to my renowne :
For while I liv'd, I spake nought else
But what the boistrous winde
Compel'd my murmuringe straines unto ;
But heinge dead I please y* minde
And eares of such as heare me singe,
So pleasant is my musickes ringe."
Among the most interesting painted instruments, we may point out the virginal
of Mary Queen of Scots, still preserved in the north of England. It is made of oak,
inlaid with cedar, and richly ornamented with gold. The cover and sides are
beautifully painted with figures of birds, flowers, and leaves, the colours of which are
still fresh and undecayed. On one part of the lid is a grand procession of warriors,
whom a bevy of fair dames are propitiating by presents or offerings of wine and fruits.
The old painters were proverbially fond of adorning their harpsichords. An
exquisite little painting, by Annibal Caracci, of Silenus, teaching Apollo to play the
pan-pipe (mentioned as being in the British Gallery), is said to have formed one of the
compartments of an instrument belonging to that great painter. The story too of
Salvator Rosa and his harpsichord ought not to be omitted. Happening one day to
be found by a friend in Florence in the act of modulating on a very indifferent old
harpsichord, he was asked how he could keep such an instrument in his house !
" Why," said his friend, " it is not worth a scudo." " I will lay you what you please,"
said* Salvator, " that it shall be worth a thousand before you see it again." A bet was
made, and Rosa immediately painted a landscape with figures on the lid, which not
only was sold for a thousand scudi, but was esteemed a " capo opera" On one eud
L 2
76 THE HARPSICHORD.
of the harpsichord he also painted a skull and music hooks.* Both these pictures
were exhibited at the British Institution in the year 1823.
Burney, in his amusing Tour in France, after describing his visit to the church of
St. Rocque "to hear the celebrated M. Balbastre, organist of that church, as well as
of Notre Dame and the Concert Spirituel," adds, " After church, M. Balbastre invited
me to his house, to see a fine Rucker harpsichord which he has had painted inside and
out with as much delicacy as the finest coach or even snuff-box I ever saw at Paris.
On the outside is the birth of Venus ; and on the inside of the cover the story of
Rameau's most famous opera, Castor and Pollux ; earth, hell, and elysium are there
represented : in elysium, sitting on a bank, with a lyre in his hand, is that celebrated
composer himself; the portrait is very like, for I saw Rameau in 1764. The tone of
this instrument is more delicate than powerful ; one of the unisons is of buff, but very
sweet and agreeable ; the touch very light, owing to the quilling, which in France is
always weak."f
The harpsichord had arrived at considerable excellence in Italy very early in the
sixteenth century. In the account of a banquet given by the magnificent Cardinal,
Andrea Cornaro, to the Venetian ambassadors in 1522, we read, that after dinner
" There was music of every sort that could be found in Rome. Excellent fifers played
continually ; harpsichords also were there, with most wonderful sounds in them ; lutes
with four strings ; harps and songs outside the room and inside ; one music after
another. "J
The author of a rare volume published at Bologna in 1590, under the title of 77
* Lady Morgan's Life of Salvator Rosa. large subject of the performance of a masque by the Royal
f This instrument was afterwards brought to London, Family, exquisitely painted by Le Prince, on a superbly
when it became the property of the late James Coding, Esq. carved and gilt stand. The instrument, 6? octaves, by
That gentleman had so little veneration for the work of Zeitter." It sold for seventy guineas. When Zeitter took
Eucker, that he caused the " inside" of the harpsichord to out the old sounding-board, he caused it to be made into
be taken out,, and a modern pianoforte substituted in its a handsome music box, preserving the inscription, "Johannes
room ! At the sale of Mr. Coding's musical instruments, Euckers me fecit Antwerpse," at the back. This box is
by Christie and Manson, February 20, 1857, the instru- now in the writer's possession.
ment was thus described : " A MAGNIFICENT GRAND J The Girlhood of Catherine de Medicis, by J. A.
PIANOFORTE CASE: the top and sides beautifully painted Trollope, 8vo. 1856, p. 50. The author does not enable us
with classical subjects, by Boucher : the inside, with a to give the passage in the original language.
THE HARPSICHORD. 77
Desiderio, mentioning some curious instruments in the Palace of the Duke of Ferrari,
says, " there was a harpsichord, invented by Don Nicola Vincentino, surnamed Arci-
musico, in the year 1555. It had six rows of keys, comprehending in their division
the three harmonic genera." He adds that the multitude of strings in this astonishing
instrument rendered it very difficult to tune, and more so to play ; and that, for this
latter reason, the most skilful performers would seldom use it : nevertheless, he
continues, " Luzzasco, the chief organist of his highness, who it is supposed must have
understood and been familiar with the instrument, was able to play on it with wonder-
ful skill." He says that this instrument, by way of pre-eminence, was called the Archi-
cembalo ; and that after the model of it, two organs were built ; the one at Rome, by
order of the Cardinal of Ferrari ; and the other at Milan, under the direction of the
inventor.
Father Bonnani, in his singular collection of engravings of musical instruments,
entitled Gabinetto Armonico, 4to, Rome, 1722, gives a representation of an organ,
harpsichord, two spinets, and a virginal, so contrived that they may be used separately,
or together. This " prodigious artifice," as the monk calls it, was contrived by Michele
Todino, of Savoy, for Signer Verospi, of Rome. Dr. Buraey in his Tour in France
and Italy, says, " I went this morning to visit the famous Podini gallery, in the Verospi
palace. All the accounts of Rome are full of the praises of this music gallery ; or,
as it is called, gallery of instruments ; but nothing shows the necessity of seeing for
one's self, more than these accounts. The instruments in question cannot have been
fit for use these many years ; but, when a thing has once got into a book as curious,
it is copied into others without examination, and without end. There is a very fine
harpsichord, to look at, but not a key that will speak ; it formerly had a communication
with an organ in the same room, and with two spinets and a virginal ; under the frame
is a violin, tenor, and base, which, by a movement of the foot, used to be played upon
by the harpsichord keys. The organ appears in the front of the room, but not on the
side, where there seems to be pipes and machines enclosed ; but there was no one to
explain it, the old Cicerone being just dead."
Giovanni Maria Artusi, in his interesting work, Delle Imperfettioni delta Moderna
Musica, Venice, fol. 1600, gives a curious account of the state of instrumental music
78 THE HARPSICHORD.
in his time, and in describing a grand concert that was made by the nuns of a convent
at Ferrara, in 1598, on occasion of a double wedding between Philip the Third, King
of Spain, with Margaret, Queen of Austria, and the Archduke Albert with the
Infanta Isabella, the king's sister, he enumerates the several instruments that were
employed,and points out their excellencies and defects. Among these the harpsichord
is honoured with particular attention both as to its construction and use.
Ottavio Kinuccini's drama of Eurydice was set to music by Jacopo Peri, and
performed at Florence in 1600, on occasion of the marriage of Mary of Medicis to
Henry the Fourth of France. In Peri's preface to the printed copy of the music, he
tells us that " behind the scenes, Signer Jacopo Corsi played the harpsichord ; Don
Garzia Montalvo the chitarone or large guitar ; Messrs. Giovanni Battista dal Violino
the lira grande ; and Messer Giovanni Lapi, a large lute."
In the Oratorio entitled Dell' Anima e del Corpo, performed in the oratory of
the church of Santa Maria della Vallicella at Rome, in 1600, the clavicembalo or
harpsichord formed one of the instruments of the orchestra ; and in Monteverde's opera
of Orfeo, performed at the Court of Mantua in 1607, amongst the instruments used
we read of " Duoi Gravicembani,"*
The u orchestra" of this period is well exhibited in the following wood-cut,
copied from a scarce work entitled, Festa,fatta in Roma, Alii 25 di Febraio 1634, e
data in luce da Vitale Mascardi. Rome, 4to, 1634. The entire engraving represents
one of those magnificent entertainments in which the cardinals and other dignitaries
were so often wont to display the enormous riches of the church. The group of
musicians appears at one corner. The " maestro " is seated at the harpsichord, by the
side of which is the vocal choir. He is assisted by two instrumentalists ; one of whom
is playing upon the viol da gamba, the other upon a large lute, or perhaps the " lira
grande."
* Hogarth, in his Memoirs of the Musical Drama, by two gravicemuani, probably misprinted for davicemlali,
eol. i, p. 17, edit. 1838, says, speaking of this opera, " Th or harpsichords."
Genius of Music, who speaks the prologue, is accompanied
THE HARPSICHORD.
79
For a long period, according to M. Fetis, the Italians did not avail themselves of
the improvements made in the harpsichord, and continued to construct these instru-
ments with two strings only to each note, and with a single key-board. The best
manufacturers, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, were a Venetian priest
named Zanetti, Crotone, and Farini. The latter conceived the idea of mounting his
harpsichords entirely with catgut strings instead of wire, which gave them a more
mellow and soft quality. To this kind of instrument he gave the name of Clavici-
therium the name of an older instrument, then out of date. Farini's example was
followed shortly after by several German makers.
About the year 1620, Rigoli, of Florence, invented the vertical harpsichord,
taking the idea from the earlier clavicymbal, which has since been imitated in a variety
of the pianoforte. Near the same period, Richard, a French artist, acquired great
and merited reputation for the excellence of his harpsichords. He was the first who
conceived the idea of substituting small slips of cloth in the place of the quill, for
producing the sound ; by this means he succeeded in obtaining tones more agreeable,
and yet without any diminution of power. Richard formed several distinguished artists,
who necessarily perfected different details in the manufacture of the instrument.
80 THE HARPSICHORD.
The need of improvement in the quality of the tone of the harpsichord, which
had always been harsh and disagreeable to delicate ears, led artists to attempt to
disguise at least a defect like this by artificial means. Instruments were accordingly
constructed with more than twenty different modifications, to imitate the tones of the
harp, the lute, the mandolin, the bassoon, the flageolet, oboe, violin, and other instru-
ments. The sounds discovered in the course of these experiments, and in which no
analogy could be discovered to those of any other known instrument, were honoured
with new and fantastic names, such asjeu celeste, cmgelique, 8$c.
A good illustration of this point is afforded by the following hand-bill, copied
from the original, which appeared about the middle of the eighteenth century :
" HARPSICHORD IMITATING FOURTEEN WIND AND CHORDED INSTRUMENTS.
" THE SIEUR VIHBES, Professor of Music, and Teacher of the Harpsichord, from Paris, most respectfully acquaints
the Nobility, Gentry, and Public, in general, that he is lately arrived in this Capital, with a most extraordinary Harpsi-
chord, of a mechanism sufficiently simple, but so curious withal, as to deserve the attention of all connoisseurs, on
account of the effects it produces, and its additional improvements. The very flattering reception he met with, on his
first voyage here, from the Royal Society, and the most eminent artists, has encouraged him to give a new degree of
perfection to that instrument, and offer it as a tribute of gratitude to this nation, whose suffrages he will be ever proud to
deserve. He may be heard every day in the week, Sundays excepted, from twelve until three o'clock. To begin on this
day, the 20th instant, No. 40, Suffolk street, Charing-cross.
" Admittance, a crown each person.
" He is in possession of the certificate from the Royal Academy in Paris, which testifies, that his new-invented Harpsi-
chord imitates in nature the fourteen following instruments : The Lute, Harp, Harmonica, German Guitar, Italian
Mandoline, Hautboy, Tabor and Pipe, Tabor and Galoubet of Provence, Sistrum, Bassoon, Clarinets, Martial Kettle
Drums, and celestial Harmony. The latter produces the most pleasing sensation, and cannot be compared in its grateful
sound to any instrument hitherto known.
" The certificate may be seen, and an English 'translation of the same to be had of the inventor, as above."
In order to produce these different effects, new rows of jacks were added, which
were furnished with materials of the softest kind, and most conducive to expression.
The performer could produce these different effects either together or separately, by
means of springs acted upon by the knees, or by pedals: sometimes, in order to
facilitate these combinations, a third key-board was added to the two former. And
yet, with all this complication, the grand secret, the real shading of the piano and
forte, was wanting still ; nothing better was devised for augmenting or diminishing
THE HABPSICHORD. 81
the sound, than to put in motion different rows of jacks, so as to withdraw them from,
or approximate them to, the strings at pleasure.
The result of these various experiments led to the invention of the stops, as they
were termed, of which there were three kinds : the forte stop, which raised the
dampers ; the soft stop, which partly stopped the vibration of the strings ; and the
buff stop, which interposed a layer of cloth or soft buff leather between the jacks and
the strings.
These stops seem to have been the origin of the pedals. They were used in the
" middle age " of pianoforte-making as well as in the earlier harpsichords.
About the middle of the eighteenth century, Godfrey Silbermann, of Freyberg,
and Blanchet, of Paris*, made several very important improvements in the details of
the harpsichord, and particularly in the key-board, to which they gave a lightness
unknown in former instruments. These makers added new key-boards, and extended
the compass, of a large number of instruments made by the Ruckers.
Paschal Tasquin, " keeper of the musical instruments to the King of France,"
the celebrated pupil and successor of Blanchet, first used buff leather as a substitute
for quill, in the year 1768. He also invented several ingenious pieces of mechanism
in connection with the harpsichord, a detailed account of which may be seen in the
Encyclopedic Mtthodique (Artset Metiers Mdcaniques, torn, iv, pt. l.)f
Schobert, an ingenious mechanic and an elegant composer of music, was the
inventor of a harpsichord with a double bottom, iu which was placed, above the first
sounding-board, a range of strings of two octaves, of considerable size and length, to
strengthen the bass. These strings were sounded by a piece of mechanism brought
into action by a range of pedals. Harpsichords of this description were constructed
by Silbermann of Strasburg, and by Perronard of Paris.
* The family of the Blanchets are well remembered f M. Trouflant, canon and organist of the cathedral at
in France as celebrated clavier makers. Francois Etienne Nevers, addressed a letter to the Journal de ifusique,
Blanchet flourished in 1750. His grandson Armand (born 1773, on the inventions of M. Paschal Tasquin. See also
1763} succeeded to his business, and died in 1818. The the report of Baron deDietrick to the Academic des Sciences,
firm of Blanchet and Roller still occupy a prominent cited in the Encyclopedic Mfthodique, 1791, art Clavecin.
position among the pianoforte makers of Paris.
M
82 THE HARPSICHORD.
Wiegleb, " an organ and musical instrument maker " of Berlin, made harpsichords
and spinets in 1724, in which the strings were sounded by brass or metal tongues,
instead of the bristles or crow-quills commonly used.* This idea was revived some
few years later, in 1788, by a maker named Hopkinson (an Englishman), resident at
Paris. Godfrey Silbermann, of Freyberg, invented a piece of mechanism similar to
that of the clavichord, which struck the string at its half length, by which the har-
monic sounds were heard at the same time that the whole string was sounded ; the
strings of this harpsichord were much longer than those in common use. This instru-
ment was called the Clavecin d' Amour. There was also a double harpsichord, named
by its inventor, Johann Stein of Augsberg, the Vis-a-vis harpsichord, because each of
its extremities was furnished with a key-board, by which means two persons could play
at the same time.
But, perhaps, the most extraordinary invention of the time was that of Louis
Bertrand Castel, a Jesuit of Montpellier. This worthy monk whose Physical System
ranks among the best philosophical works of the early part of the last century, and
whose Optics of Colours is still esteemed, studied vision and the nature of colours, as
blended or contrasted with each other, till, his imagination getting the better of his
understanding, he confounded the eye with the ear, and associated the harmony of
tints with that of sounds. Infatuated with this idea, he invented what he called an
Ocular Harpsichord, which was strung with coloured tapes instead of wires, and being
placed in a dark room, when the keys were touched, the transparent tapes, which re-
spectively corresponded with them, became visible ; and the various successions and
combinations of colours, consequent to this operation, produced effects on the sight
which his fancy assimilated to the impression made on the ear by melody and
harmony f.
* " Besides arming the tongues of the jacks with crow \ This instrument was publicly exhibited in London
and raven quills, several other means were tried by which in 1757, as appears by a rare tract in the possession of the
to produce a softer tone, and to be more durable. As the writer, entitled Explanation of the Ocular Harpsichord,
quilling a harpsichord with three stops was nearly a day's upon shew to the Public. Invento exoritur docto geminata
work, leather, ivory, and other elastic substances were tried ; Voluptas, affinisque Sono nascitur, ecce color. Am.
but what they gained in sweetness, was lost in spirit." London : Printed for S. Hooper and A. Morley at
Burney, in Bees' Cyclopcedia. Gay's Head, near Beaufort Buildings, in the Strand,
MDCCLVII (pp. 22).
THE HARPSICHORD. 83
Varieties of the harpsichord were multiplied as fancy suggested, but the result of
the greater part of these experiments was similar to many that have since been made
on the pianoforte ; they amused for awhile, but were never generally adopted.
The Spanish harpsichords of the eighteenth century acquired considerable
reputation, and were much sought after by judges. Burney, recording his visit
to Farinelli at Bologna, adds his testimony to their excellence in the following
words : " Signer Farinelli has long left off singing, but amuses himself still on the
harpsichord and viol d'araour ; he has a great number of harpsichords made in dif-
ferent countries, which he has named according to the place they hold in his favour,
after the greatest of the Italian painters. His first favouirte is a piano-forte, made
at Florence in the year 1730, on which was written in gold letters, Rafael d" Urbino,
then Correggio, Titian, Guido, &c. He played a considerable time upon his
Raphael with great judgment and delicacy, and has composed several elegant pieces
for that instrument. The next in favour is a harpsichord given him by the late
Queen of Spain, who was Scarlatti's scholar, both in Portugal and Spain ; it was
for this princess that Scarlatti made his two first books of lessons, and to her the
first edition, printed at Venice, was dedicated, when she was princess of Asturias ;
this harpsichord, which was made in Spain, has more tone than any of the others.
His third favourite is one made likewise in Spain, under his own direction ; it has
moveable keys, by which, like that of Count Taxis at Venice, the player can transpose
a composition either higher or lower. Of these Spanish harpsichords the natural
keys are black, and the flats and sharps are covered with mother-of-pearl ; they are
of the Italian model, all the wood is cedar, except the bellies, and they are put into a
second case."
We are fortunately able to give an engraving of a Spanish harpsichord (probably
the very one mentioned as having been made for the Queen of Spain), from the title
page to a very rare work, entitled Essercizi per Gravicembalo di Don Domenico
Scarlatti, Cavaliero di S. Giacomo e Maestro de Serenissimi Prencipe e Prendpessa delle
Asturie, &c. folio oblong, no date or imprint. The shape of the frame-work and legs
upon which the instrument stands is exceedingly graceful, far superior to the English
and German harpsichords of the same date.
M 2
84 THE HARPSICHORD.
We see, from the foregoing extract, that transposing instruments are no new
invention, although recently imposed upon the public as such. The keyed instrument
in the possession of Count Torre Taxis, of Venice, was made under the direction of
the King of Prussia in 1760. "It is in shape," says Burney, "like a large clavi-
chord, has several changes of stops, and is occasionally a harp, a harpsichord, a lute,
or piano-forte ; but the most curious property of this instrument is that by drawing
out the keys the hammers are transferred to different strings, by which means a
composition may be transposed half a note, a whole note, or a flat third lower at
pleasure, without the embarrassment of different notes or clefs, real or imaginary."
The harpsichord does not appear to have been commonly used in England before
the latter half of the seventeenth century ; it was then called the harpsicon, and the
harpsical. John Playford, in the second book of his Select Ayres and Dialogues, folio^
1669, advertises, "If any person desire to be furnished with good new virginals and
Harpsicons, if they send to Mr. Playford's shop, they may be furnished at reasonable
rates to their content."
In the Harleian Collection, No. 5936, is preserved a curious hand-bill of the
worthy Thomas Mace, " one of the clerks of Trinity College, Cambridge." In describ-
ing his " musical furniture " which he wishes to dispose of, he adds : " There is a
Pedal Harpsicon (the absolute best sort of consort harpsicon that has been invented) ;
there being in it more than 20 varieties, most of them to come in with the foot of the
player, without the least hindrance of play (exceedingly pleasant) : and also a single
harpsicon."
In his Musick's Monument, published in 1676, Master Mace is very particular in
his description of this instrument. The passage is so curious, that we extract it :
To the Harpsicon, yet more properly, and much better, to the Pedal, an instrument of a late invention, contriv'd
as I have been inform'd, by one Mr. John Hayward of London, a most excellent kind of instrument for a consort, and
THE HARPSICHORD. 85
far beyond all harpsicons or organs that I yet ever heard of (I mean either for consort or single use) ; but the organ is
far beyond it for those other performances before-mentioned.
" Concerning this instrument (call'd the Pedal because it is contrived to give varieties with the foot), I shall bestow
a few lines in making mention of it, in regard it is not very commonly used or known, because few make them well, and
fewer will go to the price of them, twenty pounds being the ordinary price of one; but the great patron of musick in bis
time, Sir Robert Holies (whom, in the University, I had the happiness to initiate in this high art) had two of them, the one
I remember at 301. and the other at 5(M. very admirable instruments.
"This instrument is in shape and bulk just like a harpsicon, only it differs in the order of it, thus, viz. There is
made right underneath the keys near the ground, a kind of cubbord, a box, which opens with a little pair of doors, in
which box the performer sets both his feet, resting them upon his heels (his toes a little turning up) touching nothing,
till such time as he has a pleasure to employ them ; which is after this manner, viz. there being right underneath bis toes
four little pummels of wood, under each foot two, any one of these four he may tread upon at his pleasure ; which by the
weight of his foot drives a spring, and so causeth the whole instrument to sound, either soft or loud, according as he shall
choose to tread any of them down : for without the foot so used nothing speaks.
" The outside of the right foot drives one, and the inside of the same foot drives another ; so that by treading his foot
a little awry, either outward or inward, he causeth a various stop to be heard, at his pleasure ; and if he clap down
his foot flat, then he takes them both, at the same time (which is a third variety and louder).
" Then he has ready, under his left foot, two other various stops, and by the like order and motion of the foot, he can
immediately give you three other varieties, either softer or louder, as with the right foot, before-mentioned, he did.
" So that thus you may perceive he has several various stops at pleasure, and all quick and nimble, by the ready turn
of the foot.
" And by this pritty device, is this instrument made wonderfully rare and excellent ; so that doubtless it excels all
harpsicols or organs in the world, for admirable sweetness and humour, either for a private, or a consort use.'.'
The harpsichord was used in our public theatres in the latter half of the seven-
teenth century. When Shakespeare's Tempest, as altered by Dryden and Davenant,
was played at the Duke's Theatre, in Lincoln's Inn Fields, in 1667, it seems probable
that the band was for the first time placed between the audience and the stage. The
following is part of the introductory description : " The front of the stage is opened,
and the band of twenty-four violins with the harpsicals and theorbos, which accom-
pany the voice, are placed between the pit and the stage."
The chief harpsichord-makers in England at this time were Charles and John
Hay ward, and John Hitchcock, some of whose instruments are still occasionally to
be met with in our old country mansions.
These artists were succeeded by Keen, Slade, Player, Fenton, Baudin and John
Harris ; the last-named was the son of the celebrated organ-builder, Renatus Harris ;
86 THE HARPSICHORD.
and he claims the distinction of having taken out the first patent in this country for an
" improvement " in the construction of the harpsichord. This patent bears date
Oct. 22, 1730, and is clearly described in the following advertisement, preserved in
the curious collection of proclamations, broadsides, &c. presented to the Chetham
Library, Manchester, by James O. Halliwell, Esq. F.R.S. (No. 830.)
"TO THE NOBILITY, GENTRY, AND OTHERS, THAT ARE LOVERS AND JUDGES OF MUSICK.
"Tho' many of the Quality and Gentry, &c. read the News Papers, 'tis believed there are but Few that regard the
Advertisements ; so that tho' the Advertiser is at considerable Expence to have his Affair made known to them, 'tis of
little Service to him : I therefore beg leave to use this Method, and hope those Honourable Persons to whose Hands these
Papers are humbly presented, will be pleased to read them, their Benefit being designed by
Their most obedient humble Servant,
JOHN HARRIS.
" His Majesty has been graciously pleas'd to grant to John Harris, his Letters Patent, for the making of an Harpsi-
chord with two Sets of Strings, on which may be performed, either One Unison, or Two ; or Two Unisons and an Octave
together ; and the Forte's or Piano's, or Loud, or Soft, or the contrary, may be executed as quick as Thought : And
double Basses may be also expressed by touching single keys ; so that here, Divisions may be played well, without the
Thumb and little Finger together, which could not be well done otherwise ; and Shakes may be here performed, which
cannot be done by the Thumb and little Finger together.
" All Persons that shall make any of these Instruments, or in any respect imitate them in their extraordinary Per-
formances, shall be prosecuted according to Law, and whoever will discover any one that (without my License) shall do
so, shall, upon Conviction, be well rewarded by John Harris.
" N.B. These instruments are now made in Perfection ; and Mr. Harris will (at a very reasonable Expence) make
double basses, to either single, or double key'd Harpsichords, which are already made by other Persons, which will give
a Fulness and Nobleness to the Instrument, that the best of other Harpsichords have not ; and is very useful in playing a
Thorough Bass, or other Musick, for the Parts are expressed in a double Manner, when you please. This Performance
will not in the least injure the Tone or Sound of any instrument; nor make it go sooner out of Tune, than it would do
without it, and the Touch will be very good when the double Basses are used, and also when they are not.
" Mr. Harris (Organ, Harpsichord, and Spinnet Maker) lives within three Doors of Bedford Court, in Red Lyon
Street, Holborn, London."
In 1730, one William Barton, of whom nothing is known, took out a patent for
his " new invention of pins of silver, brass, steel, and all other sorts of metals, to
improve the use of harpsichords and spinnets, which will improve the tone of the said
THE HARPSICHORD. 87
instruments, and last many years without amendment; crow and raven's quills, of
which they are now made, requiring frequent change and trouble in repairing."
In 1741, Rutgerus Plenius, an ingenious harpsichord-maker, issued the following
curious broadside, which is transcribed from a copy of the original in the Chctham
Library (Halliwell's Coll. No. 772).
" ACTA VIRDM PROBANT.
" HARPSICHORDS, With a Stop that imitates y Welch Harp Having Quils that (tho' daily used) will last many years
without breaking, they being chemically prepar'd, and all cut of equal Length to a Hair's Breadth, in an Engine invented
for that Purpose which with Six other visible improvements are made by Virtue of His Majesty's Royal Letters Patent
By the Inventor only, RUTGERUS PLENIUS ; Who begs leave to acquaint all Gentlemen and Ladies, Lovers of Harmony |
and Encouragers of industrious Artists, that He, after Ten years indefatigable Researches to bring this noble Instrument
to y highest Degree of Perfection, has made more than Twenty essential Improvements in the Said Instrument, tho'
many of them can't immediately fall under the Cognizance of every Spectator, yet y* hand in playing will virtually feel
their good Effect And He humbly presumes that y Boldness of y* Instrument united to the Delicacy of it's sound, as
well as distinct Expression of every Single Tone, free from y* Confus'd jumble of Sounds often heard in many Harpsi-
chords, will most agreeably touch y Ear of every Auditor, it having already met with universal Applause, particularly
from y* most eminent Masters of Musick in England: The Truth of these Assertions, with a further Detail of the
whole, He is ready, at all Hours, to make appear to y* Curious, who shall honour him with their Presence.
" BY HIS MAJESTY'S ROYAL LETTERS PATENT, GRANTED TO RUTOERUS PLENIUS, HABPSICIIORD MAKER ; For
the sole Making, Use & Benefit of a New invented musical Instrument, called a Lyrichord. Which imitates a Violin,
Violoncello, & Double Bass ; but when play'd Full, it resembles a perfect Organ of a most delightful Tone, altho' by
Catgut Strings only, without Pipes. It admits of playing Forte & Piano ; as also of swelling any Single Note (or many
Notes ad libitum) on y same Key, by y* simple Pressure of y* Fingers : But what is most surprising, & indeed
incredible if not seen (yet plainly demonstrable to every one) its strings never go out of Tune, as long as y* constituent
Materials of y Instrument remain entire ; a Thing which has been so long wisht for & desir'd, & in all Ages, 'till now,
by every one, deem'd impossible to find out. This therefore is to inform y* Nobility, Gentry, * others, That y aforesaid
Rutgerus Plenius has now, (after Ten years painful study & Labour, accompany'd with no small Expence) brought y*
above mention'd Instrument to Perfection. And he humbly presumes, that all Gentlemen & Ladies, who will do
themselves y' pleasure & him y* Honour of seeing & hearing it, will be fully convinced of y* Truth of y* foregoing
Assertions ; & at y same Time be agreeably diverted by y* Harmony of y Instrument ; it being estcem'd & approv'd by
all that have yet seen it; particularly by y most eminent Masters of Musick in England, who allow it to be y" most
curious Piece of Workmanship & most wonderful Instrument they have ever seen or heard of. The Price of seeing &
hearing it perform'd on, at any Time between y c Hours of Twelve & Four o'Clock, is Half a Crown each Person, at y
Inventor's House (y* King's Arms being oyer y Door) in south Audley Street, Grosvenor Square ; where a good Hand
is provided for y Entertainment of y Audience.
THE HARPSICHOHD.
" N.B. The above described Lyrichord is not (as many erroneously thought) the same which appear'd in the World
Two years ago, But a Complete intirely New Piece and (in the opinion of every one who has seen them both) excels
That by at least a hundred Degrees."
A few years afterwards, Plenius's Lyrichord was thus advertised in the public
papers :
" TO BE SEEN AND HEAED 'TILL SOLD,
very day from eleven in the morning, 'till two in the afternoon, Sundays excepted, at the Golden-Ball, opposite the
Little South door of St. Paul's, in Paul's Church- Yard, for half a crown each person.
"THE LTRTCHORD, the most curious musical instrument ever invented; which at a very great expence of money and
ime, is now brought to a great degree of perfection. It imitates the Violin, Bass- Violin, and Double-Bass, and tho*
it has no pipes, yet, when played full, it resembles a perfect Organ, and is touch'd by keys, like a Harpsichord. It
admits of playing loud and soft, and the close-shake, as also of swelling any single note, or many notes together, by the
simple pressure of the fingers : But what is most surprising, and indeed incredible if not seen (yet plainly demonstrable
to every one) it's strings never go out of tune, as long as the constituent materials of the instrument remain entire : a
thing hitherto deem'd impossible to find out.
"Note. A good performer is provided to entertain the audience, during the aforesaid hours. 1 ' The Public Adver-
tiser, June 12, 1755.
The last notice we have of Plenius's invention, occurs on February llth, 1772,
in the following manner :
"TO BE SOLD BY AUCTION,
BY Mr. CHRISTIE,
At his Great Koom, late the Royal Academy, in Pall Mall,
To-morrow and Thursday ;
Fifteen fine toned Harpsichords, with double and single keys, several of which with double and single bass pedals,
fee. being the stock in trade of Frederick Naubauer, Harpsichord- maker, together with a Lyrichord, a capital melodious
instrument made by the famous Rutgerus Plenius. To be viewed this day. Catalogues may be had as above."
One of the most important harpsichord-makers of the eighteenth century was a
foreigner, resident in England, named Tabel. Nothing seems to be known of his
history ; but in his factory two men were employed that afterwards rose to considerable
eminence as makers of musical instruments Burckhardt or Burkat Tschudi, and
Jacob Kirkmann.
Tschudi was a Swiss, who came to this country about the year 1732. The
authors of The Universal Helvetian Swiss Lexicon tell us that " he was a poor journey-
THE HARPSICHORD. 89
man joiner who went to England and made himself known at the Court of London as
an eminent clavier-maker. Besides many other famous things, he made, in 1765, an
ingenious harpsichord with two manuals for the King of Prussia. He was married
in London, where he died in 1775, leaving great wealth to his family." Tschudi
was " harpsichord-maker to the Royal Family;" and in 1769 took out a patent for an
" improvement " in the harpsichord. Burney says, " His work was extremely neat,
and his tone and touch refined and delicate, while his instruments were new ; but
neither so full nor durable as those of Kirkman. Snetzler, who added horizontal
organs to many of his harpsichords, used to account for his instruments soon losing
their perfection, by his working in a very hot room, and keeping them there, in
order to give to the tone the brilliancy of old instruments ; but as soon as they were
removed to a cold or damp room, the wood swelled so much, as to warp, crack the
bellies, and disorder all the movements ; accidents which we never remember to have
happened to the excellent instruments of his worthy son-in-law and successor,
Broadwood."
The same author, in his Present State of Music in Germany, speaking of the musical
instruments in the Palace at Potsdam, thus alludes to the " ingenious harpsichord "
above mentioned : " In another apartment there is a most magnificent harpsichord,
made by Shudi in England ; the hinges, pedals, and frame are of silver, the case is inlaid,
and the front is of tortoiseshell ; this instrument, which cost 200 guineas, was sent to
Hamburg by sea, and from thence to Potsdam, up the Elb and the Havel, which, I
was told, had injured it so much, that it has been useless ever since ; however, it is
natural to suppose that some jealousy may have been excited by it, and that it has
not had quite fair play from those employed to repair it ; for I never heard of any one
of the great number of harpsichords which are annually sent from England to the
East and West Indies by sea, receiving so much damage as this is said to have done
in a much shorter passage. And now I am upon the subject of musical instruments,
I must observe that the Germans work much better out of their own country than
they do in it, if we may judge by the harpsichords of Kirkman and Shudi ; the piano-
fortes of Backers ; and the organs of Snetzler ; which far surpass in goodness all the
keyed instruments that I met with in my tour through Germany."
N
90 THE HARPSICHORD.
To this notice of Tschudi, we may add, that the Messrs. Broadwood possess an
interesting portrait of the Founder of their firm in the act of tuning the King pf
Prussia's harpsichord.
Kirkman, whose sign of the king's arms in Broad Street, Golden Square, we are told,
was as well known to the nobility and gentry as the equestrian statue of Charles at
Charing Cross, was esteemed perhaps the most eminent harpsichord-maker of his day.
Burney, whose valuable articles in Rees's Cyclopcedia have been of great use in these
pages, has left us the following characteristic memoir of him.
" Jacob Kirkman, an excellent harpsichord-maker from Germany, who came to
England about the year 1740, and worked with the celebrated Tabel, as his foreman
and finisher, till the time of his death. Soon after which, by a curious kind of court-
ship, Kirkman married his master's widow, by which prudent measure he became
possessed of all Tabel's seasoned wood, tools, and stock in trade. Kirkman himself
used to relate the singular manner in which he gained the widow, which was not by
a regular siege, but by storm. He told her, one fine morning, at breakfast, that he was
determined to be married' that day before twelve o'clock. Mrs. Tabel, in great surprise,
asked him to whom he was going to be married, and why so soon ? The finisher told
her that he had not yet determined whom he should marry, and that, if she would
have him, he would give her the preference. The lady wondered at his precipitancy,
hesitated full half an hour ; but, he continuing to swear that the business must be
done before twelve o'clock that day, at length she surrendered ; and as this abridged
courtship preceded the marriage act, and the nuptials could be performed at the Fleet
or May Fair, ' without loss of time, or hindrance of business,' the canonical hour was
saved, and two fond hearts were in one united, in the most summary way possible,
just one month after the decease of Tabel. Kirkman lived long enough to stock the
whole kingdom with his instruments, and to amass great wealth. He had no children,
but as many nephews hovering over him as a Eoman pontiff.
" Theodoras, the father of Isocrates, was a flute-maker, who acquired wealth
sufficient, by his employment, not only to educate his children in a liberal manner, but
also to bear one of the heaviest public burdens to which an Athenian citizen was
liable ; that of furnishing a choir or chorus for his tribe, or ward, at festivals and
THE HARPSICHORD. 91
religious ceremonies. Each tribe furnished their distinct chorus, which consisted of
a band of vocal and instrumental performers and dancers, who were to be hired,
maintained, and dressed, during the whole time of the festival : an expense con-
siderable in itself, but much increased by emulation among the richer citizens, and the
disgrace consequent to an inferior exhibition. The fluctuations of trade and public
favour have rendered the business of boring flutes far less profitable at present, than
it was in the time of Theodorus. But our harpsichord-maker, Kirkman, who was
known to be worth 90,000/. twenty years before he died, doubled the profits of his
instruments by becoming a pawnbroker and a usurer ; obliging young heirs with
money as kindly and with as much liberality as a Hebrew.
" At a time when ruin stared harpsichord-makers in the face, by the rage with
which musical ladies were seized for the guitar, in preference to all other instruments,
Kirkman hit upon an ingenious expedient, which saved himself from bankruptcy, and
restored the harpsichord to all its former favour.* He did not live to see his excellent
double harpsichords of sixty or seventy guineas price sold at auctions for twelve or
fourteen pounds, and the original purchasers turn them out of their houses as useless
lumber. But such are the vicissitudes of this world, that our descendants will,
perhaps, know as little about the pianoforte, as we do now of the lute or lyre. Kirk-
man is supposed to have died, in 1778, worth near 200,OOOJ."
Jacob Kirkman was succeeded in his business by his son Abraham, who ably
kept up the family name by the manufacture of his instruments. He was in his turn
succeeded by his son Joseph, who continued to make the best English harpsichords
up to the commencement of the present century.
The harpsichord was greatly improved by that great mechanical genius, John
* This expedient is related by the same writer in till old Kirkman, the harpsichord maker, after almost ruin-
another part of his work. (See article, GUITAR, Reea's fng himself with buying in his instruments for better times,
Cyclopaedia, vol. xvii.) " The common guitar used in purchased likewise some cheap guitars, and made a present
England has frequently had fits of favour in this country, of several to girls in milliners' shops, and to ballad singers
About fifty years ago its vogue was so great among all ranks in the streets, whom he had taught to accompany them-
of people as nearly to break all the harpsichord and spinet selves with a few chords and triplets, which soon made the
makers, and indeed the harpsichord masters themselves, ladies ashamed of their frivolous and vulgar taste, and re-
All the ladies disposed of their harpsichords at auctions for turn to the harpsichord,
one third of their price, or exchanged them for guitars ;
N 2
92 THE HARPSICHORD.
Joseph Merlin. This extraordinary artist was horn at St. Peter's, in the city of
Huys, between Namur and Liege, September 17, 1735. After residing six years
in Paris, he came to England, on the recommendation of the Royal Academy of
Sciences, in the suite of the Spanish Ambassador, Count de Firentes. He arrived
here, May 24, 1760, and resided for some time with the Count, in Soho Square. In
1768, he exhibited many curious inventions at Cox's Museum, in Spring Gardens, of
which place he seems to have been the director for several years. In 1774, we find
him residing in the parish of Marylebone, when a patent was granted him for
" his new-invented kind of compound harpsichord, in which, besides the jacks with
quills, a set of hammers of the nature of those used in the kind of harpsichords called
pianoforte, are introduced in such manner that either may be played separately or both
together, at the pleasure of the performer ; and for adding the aforesaid hammers to
an harpsichord of the common kind already made, so as to render it. such compound
harpsichord."
The common harpsichords of large size had two rows of keys, and three strings
to each note. Of these three, two were tuned in unison, and the third sounded an
octave higher. The latter was abolished by Merlin in 1775, and replaced by another
unison which left the tone equally full, and rendered the instrument less susceptible
to atmospheric influences. After constructing a great variety of musical instruments,
and extraordinary pieces of mechanism*, this artist died, May 1804, leaving only a
small fortune, but a name unrivalled for mechanical ingenuity.
From an advertisement now before us, it appears that Merlin's musical instru-
ments in his possession at the time of his decease were not disposed of for more than
thirty years afterwards. They are described as
* "During the latter part of the eighteenth century, on wheels. Supplied with a pair of these and a violin, he
this ingenious mechanic and musical instrument maker mixed in the motley group of one of the celebrated Mrs.
gratified the curious and tasteful by the public exhibition Cornelly's masquerades at Carlisle House, Soho Square ;
of his organ, pianoforte, and other inventions, at his Museum when, not having provided the means of retarding bis
in Princes Street, Hanover Square. Merlin's mind was velocity, or commanding its direction, he impelled himself
adequate to the embracing the whole compass of mechanical against a mirror, of more than five hundred pounds value,
science and execution ; at least, in the articles connected dashed it to atoms, broke his instrument to pieces, and
with elegant and domestic amusement. One of his in- wounded himself most severely." Busby's Concert Room
genious novelties was a pair of skaites, contrived to run Anecdotes, vol. ii, p. 137.
TKE HARPSICHORD. 93
"CELEBRATED MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
INVERTED AHD MANUFACTURED BT TH1 LAT
MR. JOHN JOSEPH MERLIN.
To be sold by Auction by Mr. MILLS,
Friday, 21 July, 1837."
" Amongst them will be found The Celestial Harp, and full Band of Keyed Instruments. This surprizing and
powerful Keyed Instrument is capable of producing all the effects of a full Orchestra, equal in power to four or six Violins,
the same number of Tenors and Violoncellos, and other powerful accompaniments may be added. By means of a catgut
worked by brass circles, the whole is made to sound. The performer is also enabled by one of the pedals acting as a
mute to give the instrument all the effects of the Welsh Harp. As a source of profit for an Exhibition, this instrument
might prove a fortune in the hands of a spirited speculator. " Also, Merlin's Original Private Harpsichord. Little
remains beyond the case and a part of the action ; yet enough remains to remind one of the great and talented individual."
The English harpsichords of the eighteenth century were infinitely superior to
those constructed on the continent. Burney has left us an opinion upon this point,
in his Tour in France, which is worth extracting. He says :
" To persons accustomed to English harpsichords, all the keyed instruments on
the continent appear to great advantage. Throughout Italy they have generally little
octave spinets to accompany singing in private houses, sometimes in a triangular form,
but more frequently in the shape of our old virginals ; of which the keys are so
noisy, and the tone so feeble, that more wood is heard than wire. The best Italian
harpsichord I met with for touch was that of Signer Grimani at Venice ; and for tone,
that of Monsignor Reggio at Rome ; but I found three English harpsichords in the
three principal cities of Italy, which are regarded by the Italians as so many pheno-
mena. One was made by Shudi, and is in the possession of the Hon. Mrs. Hamilton,
at Naples. The other two, which are of Kirkman's make, belong to Mrs. Richie, at
Venice, and to the Hon. Mrs. Earl, who resided at Rome when I was there."
It is needless to follow up all the contrivances of the harpsichord-makers of this
period to obtain sonority of tone, and to do away with the jarring noise produced by
the action of the quill against the string ; suffice it that the grand desideratum was
attained, and the hammer harpsichord was soon to appear before the world in the
shape of that charming and expressive instrument known to us all under the familiar
appellation of the pianoforte.
CHAPTER TIL
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
IT was within a few years of each other, that, by a remarkable coincidence,
three makers, in three different parts of the world, conceived the idea of the
pianoforte. The one was an Italian, the other a Frenchman, and the third a native
of Germany. Maruaj <fee French, teftfrnfectOM^, and Schrfltar. flte QertiMa?
have hitherto had the advantage of priority of date conceded to them, whilst the claims
of Bartolommeo Cristofali, of Padua, have been almost entirely overlooked.
Cristofali has an able advocate in the Count G. R. Carli, an elegant writer of the
last century, who relates that he (Cristofali) invented the improvement during his stay
at Florence, in the year 1718. The essay on music, which is to be found in the Mi-
lanese edition of Carli's works, published in eighteen volumes, 1784-7, contains the
following spirited passage : " From the organ we pass readily to the clavicembalo an
instrument always progressing towards perfection, and much improved by Bartolommeo
Cristofori (i. e. Cristofali), a Paduan, who added hammers to the mechanism ; of which
great invention we are so forgetful that we have even believed it a new thing, bringing
it here from Germany and England, and receiving it as an unique production of those
fortunate regions which are destined to illuminate us with our own Italian lights.
Thus it is that we have never known how to preserve any single thing for our own
honour."
The Count's error, as to the exact date, has caused much confusion, and has
led to Cristofali's claims for priority of invention being ignored. The discovery
which the Count places in the year 1718, had been made known to the public in 1711.
Bartolommeo Cristofali was born at Padua, in 1683, and settled at Florence in
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
95
1710, as " harpsichord-maker to the Grand Duke of Tuscany." Nothing seems to be
known of his career, and but for the curious account of his invention of the pianoforte
in the Giornale de' Litterati d'ltalia, Venice, 1711 (torn, v, p. 144), his name would
hardly have been remembered.* The article in question was written by the celebrated
Scipione Maffei.f and we feel proud in being able to present it to the reader entire, in
the original language, and with an English translation. It is certainly a great
curiosity, and will, no doubt, be read with interest
41 NUOVA INVENZIONE D'UN GRAVECEMBALO
COL PIANO E FORTE; AGGIUNTE ALCUNE
CONSIDERAZIONI SOPRA GLI STRUMENTI
MUSICALI.
" Se il pregio delle invenzioni dee misurarsi dalla
novita, e dalla difficolta, quella, di cui siamo al present*
per dar ragguaglio, non certamente inferiore a qualunque
altra da gran tempo in qua si sia veduta. Egli fe noto a
chiunque gode della musica, clie uno de' principali fonti,
da' quali traggano i periti di quest'arte il segreto di singo-
larmente dilettar cbi ascolta, 6 il piano, e'l fortezzo, sia
nelle proposte e risposte, o sia quando con artifiziosa
degradazione lasciandosi a poco a poco mancar la voce, si
ripiglia poi ad un tratto strepitosamentc : il quale artifizio
" NEW INVENTION OF A HARPSICHORD,
WITH THE PIANO AND THE FORTE;
ALSO SOME REMARKS UPON MUSICAL IN-
STRUMENTS.
" If the value of inventions is to be measured by tbe
novelty and difficulty, that of which we are now to give an
account is certainly not inferior to any that has been dis-
covered for a long time. It is known to every one who
delights in music, that one of the principal means by which
the skilful in that art derive the secret of especially delight-
ing those who listen, is the piano and forte in the theme
and its response, or in the gradual diminution of tone,
little by little, and then returning suddenly to the full
power of the instrument ; which artifice is frequently used
* Fetis, in his Biographic Universelle del Musiciens,
has a very meagre notice of Cristofali, whose name, he thinks,
is more properly Cristofori. He also devotes an unprofit-
able article to this subject in the Revue Musicale de
Paris, 1834. Fetis had evidently never seen the Giornale
de' Litterati d'ltalia. In his work called La Musique
mise d la PorUe de tout le Monde, Brussels, second edition,
1839, he says: "As early as 1716, a manufacturer at
Paris, by the name of Marius, had presented to the
Academy of Sciences, for their examination, two harpsi-
chords, in which he had substituted little hammers for the
strips of wood used to strike the strings. Two years after-
wards (?), Cristoforo, a Florentine, improved upon this
invention, and made the first piano which has served as a
model for those which have since been made." Although
Cristofali's claim to the invention has lately been disputed,
it was acknowledged by Dr. Burney, in Rees's Cyclopedia
in v. PIANOFORTE. He says : " There is a minute ac-
count of the invention and a description of the pianoforte.
in the Giornale d'ltalia (torn. v. p. 1H-), printed at
Venice, 1711. This instrument was invented at Florence,
by Bartolommeo Cristofali, harpicLord-maker, a native of
Padua, in the service of the Grand Duke of Tuscany." In
this statement he is followed by the Oxford Encyclopedia,
Wilkes' Cyclopedia, the fourth edition of the Encyclope-
dia Britannica, &c. &c. ; yet, with the/ac/ in print, in our
Encyclopedias, we find Mr. George Hogarth (Musical
World, July 15, 1836) giving a sketch of the " History
of the Pianoforte,' 1 and totally omitting the name of its
inventor !
t It is referred to correctly in Forkel's Allgemeine
Litteratur der Musilc, Leipzig, 1792, p. 262 ; Lichten-
thal's Dizionarioe Bibliografia, Milan, \ 826, v. iv, p. 67 ;
Walther's Musicalitches Lexicon, 1732, p. 1.92, Ac.
The article is also said to have been translated into
German, by Koenig, and inserted in Mattheson's Critica
Musica, torn, ii, p. 335.
96
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
usato frequentemente, ed a maraviglia ne' gran concert!
di Eoma con diletto incredibile di chi gusta la perfezione
dell'arte. Ora di questa diversita ed alterazione di voce,
nella quale eccellenti sono, fra gli altri, gli strumenti da
arco, affatto privo 6 il gravecembalo ; e sarebbe, da chi che
sia, stata riputata una vanissima immaginazione il proporre
di fabbricarlo in modo, che avesse questa dote. Con tutto
cio, una si ardita invenzione 6 stata non meno felicemente
pensata, che eseguita in Firenze dal Sig. BARTOLOMMEO
CBISTOFALI, Padovano, Cembalista stipendiato dal Serenis-
simo Principe di Toscana. Egli ne ha finora fatti tre
della grandezza ordinaria degli altri gravecembali, e son
tutti riusciti perfettamente. II cavare da questi maggiore
o minore suono dipende dalla diversa forza, con cui dal
sonatore vengono premuti i tasti, regolando la quale, si
viene a sentire non soli il piano, e il forte, ma la degrada-
zione, e diversita della voce, qual sarebbe in un violoncello.
Alcuni professori non hanno fatto a quest'invenzione tutto
1'applauso ch'ella merita ; prima, perchd non hanno inteso,
quanto ingegno si richiedesse a superarne la difficolta, e
qual maravigliosa delicatezza di mano per compirne con
tanta aggiustatezza il lavoro : in secondo luogo, perchfe 6
paruto loro, che la voce di tale strumento, come differente
dall' ordinaria, sia troppo molle, e ottusa ; ma questo 6 un
sentimento, che si produce nel primo porvi su le mani, per
1'assuefazione che abbiamo all* argentine degli altri grave-
cembali ; per altro in breve tempo vi si adatta 1'orecchio, e
vi si affeziona talmente che non sa stancarsene, e non
gratifice piii i gravecembali comuni ; e bisogna avvertire,
cbe riesce ancor piu soave 1'udirlo in qualche distanza.
E'stata altresi opposta eccezione di non avere questo stru-
mento gran voce, e di non avere tutto il forte degli altri grave-
cembali. Al che si risponde prima, che ha per6 assai piu voce
ch* essi non credono, quando altri voglia, e sappia cavarla,
premendo il tasto con impeto ; e secondariamente, che bisogna
saper prendere le cose per lo suo verso, e non considerare,
in riguardo ad un fine, ci6 ch'fe fatto per un altro. Questo
6 propriamente strumento da camera, e non pero adattabile
a una musica di chiesa, o ad una grand' orchestra. Quanti
strumenti vi sono, che si usano in tali occasion!, e che non
pertanto si stimano de* phi dilettevoli ? Egli 6 certo, che per
accompagnare un cantante, e per secondare uno strumento,
ed anche per un moderate concerto, riesce perfettamente ;
benche non sia perd questa 1'intenzion sua principale, ma
and with marvellons effect, in the great concerts of Rome,
to the incredible delight of such as enjoy the perfection of
art. Now, of this diversity and alteration of tone, in which
instruments played by the bow especially excel, the harp-
sichord is entirely deprived, and it would have been thought
a vain endeavour to propose to make it so that it should
participate in this power. Nevertheless, so bold an inven-
tion has been no less happily conceived than executed in Flo-
rence, by Signor Bartolommeo Cristofali, of Padua, harpsi-
chord-player, in the service of the most serene Prince of
Tuscany. He has already made three, of the usual size of
other harpsichords, and they have all succeeded to perfection.
The production of greater or less sound depends on the
degree of power with which the player presses on the keys,
by regulating which, not only the piano and forte are
heard, but also the gradations and diversity of power, as in
a violoncello. Some professors have not given to this in-
vention all the praise it deserves; because, in the first
place, they did not see how much ingenuity was required
to overcome the difficulty, and what marvellous delicacy of
hand was required to adjust it with so much nicety ; and,
secondly, because it appeared to them that the tone of such
an instrument was more soft and less distinct than the
ordinary ones ; but this is a feeling produced by first im-
pressions of the clearer sound we have on other harpichords ;
but in a short time the ear so adapts itself, and becomes
so charmed with it, that it never tires, and the common
harpsichord no longer pleases ; and we must add that it
sounds yet more sweet at some distance. It has further
been objected to this instrument, that it has not a powerful
tone, and not quite so loud as other harpichords. To this
may be answered, first, that it has more power than they
imagine, if any one, who wishes and knows how to use it
will strike the keys briskly ; and, secondly, he should
consider the object, the attainment of which has been so
greatly desired, and not in a point of view for which it was
not intended.
" This is properly a chamber instrument, and it is not
intended for church music, nor for a great orchestra. How
many instruments there are, used on such occasions, which
are not esteemed among the most agreeable ? It is certain
that, to accompany a singer, and to play with one other
instrument, or even for a moderate concert, it succeeds
perfectly ; although this is not its principal intention, but
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
97
si quella d'esser senate a solo, come il liuto, 1'arpa, le viole
di sei corde, ed altri strumenti de* piu soavi. Ma vera-
mentc la maggior opposizione, die abbia patito questo
nuovo strumcnto, si 6 il non sapersi universalmente a
primo incontro sonare, perchfe non basta il sonar perfetta-
mente gli ordinari strumenti da tasto, ma essendo strumento
nuovo, ricerca persona, che intendene la forza vi abbia fatto
sopra alquanto di studio particolare, cosi per regolare la
misura del diverse impulse, che dee darsi a' tasti, e la
graziosa degredazions, e tempo e luogo, come per iscegliere
cose a proposito, e delicate, e massimamente spezzando, e
facendo camminar le parti, e sentire i soggetti in piu
luogbi.
" Ma venendo alia struttura particolare di questo stru-
mento, se 1'artefice, che 1'ha inventato, avesse cosi saputo
descriverlo, come ha saputo perfettamente fabbricarlo, non
sarebbe malagevole il fame comprendere a' lettori 1' arti-
fizio : ma poichfc egli non 6 in cid riuscito, anzi ho giudi-
cato impossibile il rappresentarlo in modo, che se ne possa
concepire 1' idea, e forza, ch' altri si ponga all' impresa,
benche senza aver piu lo strumento davanti agli occhi, e
solamente sopra alcune memorie fattesi gia nell' esami-
narlo, e sopra un disegno rozzamente da prima disteso.
. "Diremo adunque primieramente, che in luogo degli usati
salterelli, che suonano con la penna, si pone qui un registro
di martelletti, che vanno a percuotere la corda per di sotto,
avendo la cima, con cui percuotono, coperta di dante. Ogno
martello dipende nel suo principio da una rotella, che lo
rende mobile, e le rotelle stanno nascoste in un pettine, nel
quale sono infilate. Vicino alia rotella, e sotto il principio
dell' asta del martello vi 6 un sostegno, o prominenza, che
ricevendo colpo per di sotto, alza il martello, e lo spinge a
percuoter la corda con quella misura d'impulsione, e con
quel grado di forza, che vien dato dalla mano ; e quindi
viene il maggiore o minor suono a piacere del sonatore ;
essendo agevole anche il farlo percuotere con molta violenja,
a cagione che il martello riceve 1'urto vicino alia sua im-
perniatura, che vuol dire, vicino al centro del giro, ch'
egli descrive ; nel qual caso ogni mediocre impulse la salire
con impeto un raggio di ruota. Cid che da il colpo al mar-
tello sotto 1'estremita della prominenza suddetta, 6 una
linguetta di legno, posta sopra una leva, che viene all'
ncontro del tasto, e ch' e alzata da esso, quando vien pre-
muto dal sonatore. Questa linguetta non posa perd sopra
rather to be played alone, like the lute, the harp, viols of
six strings, and other most sweet intruments. But, really,
the great cause of the opposition which this new instrument
has encountered, is the general want of knowledge of how,
at first, to play it ; because it is hot sufficient to know how
to play perfectly upon instruments with the ordinary finger-
board, but, being a new instrument, it requires a person
who, understanding Itl oaptbilititt, thall have made a par-
ticular study of its afeets, to a to regulate tix axaiure of
force required on the 1071 and the effects of decreasing it,
also to choose pieces suited to it for delicacy, and especially
for the movement of the parts, that the subject may be
heard distinctly in each.
" But now, as to the particular construction of this in-
strument. If the inventor had known as well how to de-
scribe as he has to manufacture it, it would not be difficult to
explain it to the reader ; but as he has not succeeded in
that, so I judge it impossible for me to represent it so that
a due idea may be formed of the skill of the invention,
especially as I have no longer the instrument before my
eyes, but only some memoranda made while examining
it, and a rough model laid before me.
~>
"I will say, then, in the first place, that instead of the
usual jacks that produce sound by quills, there is a row of
little hammers that strike the string from below, the tops
of which are covered with leather. Every hammer has the
end inserted into a circular but, that renders it moveable,
but these buts are partially imbedded, and strung together,
in a receiver. Near the but, and under the stem of the ham-
mer, there is a support or projecting part, that, rcceivingji
blow from below, raises the hammer, and causes it to strike
the string, with whatever measure of impulse, and what-
ever degree of force is given by the hand of the performer ;
and hence the sound is greater or less at the pleasure
of the player. Also, it can be made to strike with much
force, because the hammer receives the blow near its axis,
and therefore even a slight touch will affect it readily.
That which gives the blow to the hammer under the
extremity of the forenamed projection is a little tongue of
wood, placed upon a lever that meets the key, and that is
raised by it when pressed by the player. This little tongue,
however, does not rest upon the lever, but is slightly raised
and strung on two jawbone-shaped pieces that are placed
98
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
la leva, ma n'6 alquanto sollevata, e si sta infilzata in due
ganasce sottili, che le son poste a questo effetto una per
parte. Ma perchfe bisognava, che il martello percossa la
corda subito la lasciasse, staccandosene, benchfe non ancora
abbandonato il tasto dal sonatore ; ed era perd necessario,
che il detto martello restasse subito in liberta di ricadere al
suo luogo ; percid la linguetta, che gli da il colpo, 6 mobile,
ed 6 in tal maniera congegnata, che va in su, e percuote
ferma, ma dato il colpo subito scatta, cio passa ; e quando
lasciato il tutto, ella torna giu, cede, e rientra, riponendosi
ancora sotto il martello. Questo effetto ha conseguito 1*
artefice con una molla di filo d'ottone, che ha fermata nella
leva, e che, distendendosi, viene a battere con la punta sotto
la linguetta, e facendo alquanto di forza, la spinge, e la
tiene appoggiata a un altro filo d' ottone, che ritto, e fermo
le sta dal lato opposto. Per questo appoggio stabile, che
ha la linguetta, e per la molla, che ha sotto, e per 1'imper-
niatura, che ha dalle parti, ella si rende ora ferma, ed ora
pieghevole, secondo il bisogno. Perchfe i martelli rica-
dendo dopo la percossa non rifavellissero, e ribattessero
nella corda, si fanno cadere, e posare sopra una incrociatura
di cordoncini di seta, che quetamente li raccoglie. Ma
perchfe in questa sorte di strumenti necessario spegnere,
ciofe fermare il suono, che, continuando, confonderebbe le
note che seguono, al qual effetto hanno le spinette il panno
nelle cime de' salterelli ; essendoanche necessario in questo
nuovo strumento 1' ammorzarlo affatto, e subito; percid
ciascheduna delle nominate leve ha una codetta, e sopra
queste codette S posto un filare, o sia un registro di salte-
relli, che dal loro ufizio potrebbero dirsi spegnitoij.
Quando la tastura 6' in quiete, toccano questi la corda con
panno, che ban su la cima, ed impediscono il tremolare,
ch' essa farebbe al vibrarsi dell' altre sonando ; ma com-
presso il tasto, ed alzata da esso la punta della leva, viene
per conseguenza ad abbassarsi la coda, ed insieme lo spe-
gnitojo, con lasciar libera la corda al suono, che poi s'
ammorza lasciato il tasto, rialzandosi lo spegnitojo stesso a
toccar la corda. Ma per conoscere piu chiaramente ogni
movimento di questa macchina, e 1' interno suo artifizio, si
prenda per mano il disegno, e si osservi a parte a parte la
denominazione di esso.
for this purpose one on each side. But as it was neces-
sary that the hammer, having struck the string, should
instantly quit it, although the key was still under the finger
of the player, and the hammer should be in readiness to
return to its place ; therefore the little tongue that gives
the blow is made moveable, and so connected that it moves
up and strikes firmly ; but, having struck the blow, it sud-
denly becomes loose that is, it moves on; and, when
entirely free, it returns to its place under the hammer.
The inventor has obtained this effect by a spring of
brass wire that he has fastened in the lever, and which,
distending itself, strikes with the point 'under the tongue,
and, with some force, pushes it and holds it pressed against
another brass wire, which stands erect and firm on the
opposite side. By this firm support to the tongue, and by
the wire which is under it, also by the balance of the whole,
it becomes at one time firm, and at another pliable, just as
may be required. In order that the hammers, in falling
back after the blow, should not strike the string a second
time, and so repeat the sound, they are made to fall and
rest upon little strings of silk crossed, which receive them
without noise. But because, in instruments of this de-
scription, it is necessary to stop the sound of the strings,
which, by continuing to vibrate, would confuse the notes*
that follow, for which purpose spinets have cloth at the
ends of the jacks ; and it being also necessary in this new
instrument to check it entirely and suddenly; therefore,
each of the aforesaid levers has a little tail-piece, and
on these tail-pieces a register of jacks is placed, which,
from its use, might be called the damper. When the keys
are at rest, these touch the string with cloth, which is on
the top of them, and they prevent the vibration which
would be caused by the striking of other strings ; but when
the key is pressed, and the point of the lever is raised, the
tail-piece is consequently lowered, and with it the damper,
so as to leave the string fr!e to vibrate ; but this ceases so
soon as the key is quitted, and the damper again rises so
as to touch the string. However, in order to understand
more clearly every movement of this mechanism, and its
internal contrivance, let the reader examine the diagram ,
and observe the accompanying description.
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
A A
99
SPIEGAZIONE DEL DISEGNO.
A. Corda.
B. Telajo, o sia pianta della tastatura.
C. Tasto ordinario, o sia prima leva, che col zoccoletto alza
la seconda.
D. Zoccoletto del tasto.
E. Seconda leva, alia quale sono attaccate, una per parte,
le ganasce, che tengono la linguetta.
F. Perno della seconda leva.
G. Linguetta mobile, che alzandosi la seconda leva, urta
e spinge in su il martello.
H. Ganasce sottili, nelle quali fc impernata la linguetta.
I. Filo fermo d' ottone schiacciato in cima, che tien ferma
la linguetta.
L. Molla di fil d' ottone, che va sotto la linguetta, e la
tiene spinta verso il filo fenno, che ha dietro.
M. Pettine, nel quale sono sequitamente infilati tutti i
martelletti.
N. Rotella del martello, che sta nascosta dentro al pettine.
0. Martello, che spinto per di sotto dalla linguetta va a
percuoter la corda col dante, che ha su la cima.
P. Incrociatura di cordoncini di seta, fra' quali posano
Taste de martelli.
Q. Coda della seconda leva, che si abbassi nell' alzarsi la
punta.
R. Registro di salterelli, o spegnitoi, che, premuto il tasto,
si abbassano, e lasciano libera la corda, tornando
subito a suo luogo per fermare il suono.
S. Regolo pieno per fortezza del pettine.
EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM.
A. String.
B. Frame of the key-board.
C. The key or first lever, which at its extremity raises
the second lever.
D. The block on the first lever by which it acts.
E. The second lever, on each side of which is a jawbone-
shaped piece to support the little tongue or hopper.
F. The pivot of the second lever.
G. The moveable tongue (hopper), which, being raised by
the second lever (E), forces the hammer upwards.
H. The jawbone-shaped pieces between which the hop-
per is pivoted.
I. The strong brass wire pressed together at the top >
which keeps the hopper in its place.
L. The spring of brass wire that goes under the hopper
and holds it pressed firmly against the wire which is
behind it
M. The receiver, in which all the buts of the hammers rest.
N. The circular part of the hammers, which rests in the
receiver.
0. The hammer, which, when pressed upward* by the
hopper, strikes the string with the leather on its top.
P. The strings of silk, crossed, on which the stems, or
shanks, of the hammers rest
Q. The end of the second lever (E), which becomes lowered
by the act of striking the key.
R. The dampers, which are lowered when the key is
touched, leaving the string free to vibrate, and then
returning to their places, stop the sound.
S. Part of the frame to strengthen the receiver.
o 2
100
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
Dopo di tutto questo e da avvertire, che il pancone,
dove si piantano i bischeri, o pirdi di ferro, che tengono
le corde, dove negli altri gravecembali 6 sotto le corde stesse,
qui 6 sopra, e i bischeri passano, e le corde vi si attaccano
per di sotto, essendovi bisogno di piu sito nel basso, affmchfe
v'entri tutta la macchina della tastatura. Le corde sono
piu grosse delle ordinarie, e perchfe il peso non nocesse al
fondo, non sono raccomadate ad esso, ma alquanto piu
alto. In tutti i contatti, che vale a dire in tntti i luoghi,
dove si potrebbe generar rumore, fe impedito con cuojo, o
con panno; specialmente ne' fori, dove passano perni,
posto ha per tutto con singular maestri del dante, e il
perno passa per esso. Quest' invenzione e stata dall' arte-
fice ridotta ad effetto anche in altra forma, avendo fatto un
altro gravecembalo piu col piano e forte, con differente, e
alquanto piu facile struttura, ma nondimeno 6 stata piu
applaudita la prima.
Essendo questo ingegnoso uomo eccellente anche nel
lavorare gravecembali ordinari, merita di notarsi, com' egli
non sente coi modern! artefici, chi per lo piu gli fabbricano
non solo senza rosa, ma ancora senza sfogo alcuno in tutto
il casso. Non gia ch' egli creda necessario un si gran foro,
come erano le rose fattevi dagli antichi, nfe che stimi oppor-
tune il forargli in quel sito, ch' 6 si esposto a ricever la
polvere, ma suol' egli farvi due piccoli buchi nella fronte, o
sia nel chiudimento davanti, che restano occulti, e difesi ;
ed afferma esser necessario in alcunn parte dello strumento
un tale sfogatojo,perch6 nel sonare il fondo deve muoversi,
e cedere ; e chi il faccia, si conosce dal tremare che fara
cid che vi porrai sopra, quando altri suona ; ma se il corpo
non avra foro alcuno, non potendo 1' aria ch' 6 dentro
cedere e uscire, ma standosi dura e forte, il fondo non si
muove, e quindi il suono ne viene alquanto ottuso, e
breve, e non risonante. La dove fattovi un buco, vedrai
tosto dar piu il fondo, e restar la corda piu alta, e sentirai
maggior voce, e accostando le dita al predetto foro, quando
altri suona, sentirai far vento, e uscirne 1'aria. A questo
proposito non vogliamo lasciar di dire, che ricavandosi,
come 6 noto, bellissimi lumi per la Filosofia naturale dall'
indagare le affezioni, e gli effetli dell' aria, e del moto ; un
fonte grandissimo, benche finora aifatto sconosciuto, di
scoprimenti, e di cognizioni intorno a cid esser potrebbe
1'osservar sottilmente le diverse, e mirabili operazioni dell'
aria impulsa negli strumenti musicali ; esaminando la fab-
After this, it is to be observed that the plank in which
the iron pins are fixed that hold the strings, and which,
in harpsichords, is under the strings, is above in this,
and the pins come through it, and the strings are attached
to them below, there being more need of space in the
bass to admit the whole of the mechanism of the key
action. The string* are thickr than usual, and, in order
that their tension may not injure the bottom, they are not
trusted to this, but fixed somewhat higher. In all points
of contact, or wherever any rattle might occur, it is
prevented by leather and by cloth, especially in the
holes through which the centres pass, there is placed
everywhere [con singolar maestri del dante?], and the
centre passes through it. This invention has also been
effected in another form, the inventor having made another
harpsichord, with the piano and forte, in a different and
somewhat more simple shape ; but, nevertheless, the first
has been more approved.
This ingenious man, being also excellent in the manu-
facture of ordinary harpsichords, deserves notice, because
he does not agree with the modern makers, who, for the
most part, manufacture them not only without a rose in the
centre, but even without any other escape for the sound
throughout the case. Not that he thinks it necessary to
make the hole so large as the roses of ancient manufacturers,
nor does he think it desirable to make the opening in that
part of the instrument, because it is exposed to dust ; but
he makes two small apertures in the front, so that when
the instrument is closed, they are concealed and protected
from it. He asserts that such apertures are necessary in
some part of the instrument, because, when played on, the
sounding-board ought to vibrate; and that it does so, is
known by the trembling of anything you may place upon
it when any one plays : but, if there were no opening, the
air, not having an escape, could not yield, but would re-
main fixed ; and hence the sound would be somewhat
obtuse and short, instead of resonant. When, however, a
hole is made, you will soon see the sounding-board give
more, and the string remain higher, and you will hear a
stronger (fuller) tone ; and by placing the finger close
to the aforesaid opening, you may feel the vibration
and the exit of the air. I may here remark that, pro-
fiting by the investigations of natural philosophy into
the inclinations and effects of air and motion, a great
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFOETE.
101
brica loro, e riflettando da die nasca in essi la pcrfezione,
o '1 difetto, e da chc se ne alien la costituzione ; come, a
cagion d'esempio, la variazion del suono, cbe succede iiegli
strumenti, cbe banno 1'anima, quai son quelli da arco, se
questa un poculino si muove di site; divenendone tosto
Puna corda piu sonora, al'altra piu ottusa ; 1'alterazione, e
la diversiti delle armonie, cbe ricevono gli strumenti dalle
diverse misure, e singolarmente i gravecembali dall' essere
il loro fondo alquanto piu grosso, e alquanto piu sottile, e
cosi di mill' altre considerazioni. Non & ancbe da trala-
tciare, cbe tenendosi universalmentc, cfle siano sempre
imperfetti i gravecembali nuovi, e cbe acquistino perfezione
solamcnte col lungo tempo ; pretende questo artefice, die
si possa lavorargli in modo, che rendano subito sonora voce
non meno degli strumenti vecchi. Aiferma egli, che il non
risonar bene de' nuovi nasca principalmente dalla virtu
elastica, che perqualche tempo conservano la sponda incur-
vata, ed il ponte; perchfe, finchd questi fanno forza sul
fondo per restituirsi, la voce non vien perfetta : che per6
se questa virtu elastica sara loro tolta interamente prima di
porgli in opera, verra subito a levarsi questo difetto, com'
egli in pratica esperimenta. Contribuira ancdra la buona
qualita del legno ; onde il Pesaro si comincid a servisi de*
cassoni vecchi, che trovavo sopra i granai di Venezia, e di
Padova, e ch' erano per lo piu di cipresso di Candia, o di
Cipro. ,
Non sara qui discaro agli amatori della musica, che
alcuna cosa si dica ancbe d'un altro raro gravecembalo, che
si trova pure in Firenze in mano del Sig. Casini, Maestro
lodatissimo di Cappella. Ha questo cinque tastami, cio6
cinque interi ordini di tasti, 1'uno sopra 1'altro gradata-
mente; e si pu6 perd dire strumento perfetto, essendovi
divisa ogni voce ne' suoi cinque quinti ; onde, che si pud
in esso far la circolazione, e scorrere per tutti i tuoni senza
urtare in dissonanza alcuna, e trovando sempre tutti gli
accompagnamenti perfetti, come fa sentire il suo possedi-
tore, che lo ricerca eccellentemente. Gli ordinari grave-
cembali, come tutti gli strumenti, che hanno tasti, sono
molto imperfetti, a cagione, che non essendo le voci divise
nelle sue parti, molte corde vi sono, che non hanno quinta
giusta, e bisogna servers! degli stessi tasti per diesis, e per
b molli ; per ischivare in parte il quale errore alcune veccliie
spinette si vedono, massimamente dell' Undeo, con alcuni
de' neri tagliati, e divisi in due, del che non comprendono
amount of knowledge might be gained by closely observing
the various and wonderful effects on air set in motion by
musical instruments ; by examining the form of its vibra-
tions, and reflecting whence arises the perfection or im-
perfection of their sounds, and bow to alter them ; as, for
instance, the variations of sound in instruments capable of
expression, such as those played with a bow, which, if the
position be slightly changed, becomes in one place sonorous,
and in another obtuse ; also, the alteration and diversity
of sound in different measurements, and especially in Imrp-
sicords, from the bottom of the case being thicker or thinner,
and from many other considerations. It must not be for-
gotten that, the universal opinion being that new harpsi-
chords are always imperfect, and that they acquire perfec-
tion only by age, this manufacturer pretends that he can
make them in such a manner as to be immediately as
sonorous as old instruments. He asserts that the want of
vibration in new instruments arises principally from the
elasticity of the wood ; that for some time keeps the sides
and the bridge uninfluenced by pressure, and that, until
they press upon the frame, the sound remains imperfect ;
that if this elasticity be entirely taken from them before
employing them in the manufacture, this defect will imme-
diately be removed, as he finds by experience. The good
quality of the wood will also contribute ; wherefore Pesaro
made use of old chests that he found in the granaries of
Venice and Padua, which were for the most part of cypress
wood from Candia and Cyprus.
It will not be here disagreeable to lovers of music to
hear something of another rare harpsichord, which is in
Florence, in the hands of Signor Casini, a most esteemed
Maestro di Cappella. This hag five key-boards that is.
five entire sets of toy*, one above the other, and which
may be called a perfect instrument, the five fifths in every
octave being tuned perfect (instead of only one, as then the
custom), so that you may modulate and run through all the
keys without any dissonance, and always finding the ac-i
companiment perfect, as may be experienced by hearing i
the possessor p!;iy upon it, who. displays it to perfection. V
Ordinary harpsichords, like all instruments with finger-
boards, are very imperfect; because, the tuning not being
equal in all keys, there are many keys that have not a per-
fectly tuned fifth, and we are obliged to employ the same
key for a sharp and for a flat ; to avoid which defect, there
102
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
la cagione molti professor! ; ed 6 veramente, perchfe dovend
per modo d' esempio dal diesis di Ge sol-re-ut, al b molle
A la-mi-re corrervi almeno un quinto di voce di differenza,
v' & necessita di due corde. Ma nasce dall' imperfezione
accennata, che un gravecembalo, o tiorba non si pu6 intera-
mente accordare con un violino, benchS sonando in con-
certo 1'orecchio non se n* avvegga ; e ne nasce parimente,
che ne i piu de' neri non si compone, e solo vi si va con
riscrva, e da alcuni Maestri, solamente quando alia parola
ben conviene il falso, e '1 disgustoso della voce. Quests
imperfezione degli strumenti, cbe hanno tasti cagiona
altresi, che nell' udir sonare s' accorgeremo molte volte,
quando il componimento 6 spostato, come parla il dialetto
Fiorentino, o come dice la lingua comune, trasportato ;
perchfe venendo a cadere in quelle corde, che non hanno
quinta, la falsiti del suono offende 1' oreccbio. Non
cosi avverra nel violino, che non avendo tasti, pud trovar
tutto a suo luogo, e in qual si sia tuono far sentir le voci
perfette. II gravecembalo adunque, di qui parliamo, oltre
al diletto del perfetto suono, pud esser utile a molte
speculazioni su la teorica della musica ; nr si credesse cbe
troppo difficile fosse la sua accordatura, mentre anzi 6 piu
facile, attesochfe precede sempre per quinte perfette ; la
dove ne gli strumenti ordinari, bisogna aver attenzione
di far che cali la quinta, cbe crescano la quarta, e la terza
maggiore, con piu altre avvertenze.
are some old spinets, chiefly those of Undeo, with some of
the black keys divided down the middle, the reason for
which many professors do not understand ; and it is truly
because there being the fifth of a note difference between
G sharp and A flat, there is a necessity for two strings.
However, owing to the before-named imperfection, a
harpsichord or a theorbo lute cannot be tuned perfectly
like a violin ; although, when used in concert, the ear does
not detect the imperfection ; and hence it arises that there
are no compositions in keys that require a great number
of sharps or flats, that they are used sparingly, and, by
some masters, only when an imperfect sound suits the ex-
pression of the words, or harshness is to be expressed by
the voice. This imperfection in instruments that have
finger-boards is also often perceptible, when the accom-
paniment is transposed ; because, by changing into keys
that have ill-tuned fifths, the imperfections of sound offend
the ear. It will not so happen with the violin ; because,
not having a finger-board, the notes may be sounded in
the right position, and the sound be perfect in any key.
The above-named harpsichord, therefore, besides possess-
ing the charm of perfect intonation, may be useful in many
experiments on the theory of music ; nor should it be sup-
posed that its tuning is too difficult, for it is really more
easy, in consequence of the fifths being tuned perfect ;
whilst, in the ordinary instruments, it is necessary to pay
attention to the flattening of the fifths and the sharpening
of the fourths and major thirds, as well as to other things.
Marius,* the French manufacturer, the next competitor for the invention of the
pianoforte, submitted his instruments for examination to the Academic des Sciences in
the month of February, 1716. In the Recueil des Instruments et Machines approuvees
par r Academic Royale des Sciences, published by this learned Society, under the year
1716, we find, in Nos. 172, 173, and 174, engraved plans of Marius's four clavecins a
maillets, with a description of the instruments. This artist had already been known
to the public, in 1700, by his harpsichords in three pieces, so constructed as to be
able to shut into each other for convenience in travelling.
* Fetis has, singularly enough, omitted the name of this wretched article upon the pianoforte, speaks of Cristofali
maker in his Biographic Universelle des Maidens, and Schroter, but makes no mention of Marius. It is
although he refers to it under the article CRISTOFORI. The much to be lamented that greater care is not bestowed upon
last edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, in a most works intended for reference.
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE. 103
The clavecins a maillets evinced considerable invention and ability. They consisted
of four instruments, one in the form of the common harpsichord; another with a
mechanical contrivance above the strings ; the third, vertical ; and the fourth, in which
both jacks and hammers were used. The first differed from the clavichord only in
this, that each tone of the instrument was furnished with three strings, and that the
hammers, the weight of which restored the key to its position after the string had
been struck, were faced with leather for the purpose of softening the tone. As for
the rest, the hammer, which stood perpendicularly upon the key, was carried directly
to the string by the key itself, without any intermediary aid, and without an escape-
movement. In the second instrument, he approached still nearer to the desired result,
by arranging the hammers hi such a manner that they swung in a kind of stirrup.
By this means they were independent of the keys, which, meeting them in their
course, impelled them against the string ; and the hammer fell after striking the
string, even though the performer kept his finger upon the key. By different
combinations, Marius had rendered his mechanism fit to be placed either above or
below the strings. His third clavecin a maillets was a vertical one, in which the key
impelled a rod, furnished with the hammer, directly upon the string. His last
invention, as we have stated, united the two principals of the jack and the hammer.
The following are Marius's own descriptions and drawings from the Machines et
Inventions approuvtes par FAcadtmie Royale des Sciences, depuis son etablissement
jusqu'd present ; avec leur Description. Tome Troisieme, a Paris, 1735, 4to.
104
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
CLAVECIN A MAILLETS.
INVENT^ PAB, M. MARICS.
HARPSICHORD WITH HAMMERS.
IXVENTED BT M. MARIUS.
CETTE methode de tirer le son du clavecin, consiste a
substituer des maillets & la place des sautereaux. Le
corps du clavecin" est ici represente par la caisse A B ; cette
caisse porte un fonds a la moitie de sa hauteur : c'est sur
ce fonds que sont tendues des cordes fixees par des pointes
a 1'extremite o, and bandes par des vis a I'extremite D.
La les cotes de la caisse sont coupes pour recevoir dans
le fond une petite boe'te M N o p, qui contient le clavier ;
i o, L p, sont des bords a coulisse dans lesquels on fait
entrer une barre x T, sous laquelle se trouve le centre de
mouvement des touches E F ; ces touches prolongees en
dedans de la caisse, portent a 1'endroit G des maillets qui
respondent aux rangees de cordes posees sur la caisse.
L'on voit a 1'inspection de cette figure que les maillets
peauvent etre de differente epaisseur et doivent toujours
etre posees perpendiculairementauxextremites des touches
qui doivent les elever. A 1'endroit i L est une rangee des
chevilles fixees a chaque cdte des touches, et qui servent a
les tenir toujours dans leur direction verticale; c'est autour
d'un etrier tel que z que chaque touche peut s'elever et
s'abaisser. On observera de tenir le maillet plus pesant que
le reste de la touche, afin qu'il puisse descendre plus
promptement apres le choc. L'on voit le chemin et le
mouvement que chaque maillet fait par la troisieme touche
du clavier de la premiere figure en allant de F vers E ; le
maillet de cette touche est represente frappant les cordes
qui lui repondent.
THIS method of producing the sound from the harpsi-
chord consists in substituting hammers for jacks. The
body of the harpsichord is here represented by the case
A B ; this case has a sounding-board in its centre ; it is
on this sounding-board that the strings are stretched, fixed
by points to the extremity c, and by screws to the ex-
tremity D. The sides of the case are cut to receive in the
bottom a small box M N o P, which contains the key-board ;
i o L p are the edges with grooves, in which is placed a
bar, x T, under which is placed the centre movement of
the keys, E r ; these keys are prolonged beyond the case,
having at the spot G hammers corresponding with the rows
of strings placed in the case. On inspecting the diagram,
we observe that the hammers are of different thicknesses,
placed perpendicularly to the ends of the keys which lift
them up. At the spot I L, is a row of pegs fixed to each
side of the keys, and which serve to hold them in their
vertical direction ; it is around a stirrup such as z that each
key should rise and fall. Care must be taken that the
hammer is heavier than the rest of the key, in order that
it may descend more promptly after having struck the
string. The direction and movement each hammer makes,
is seen by the third key of the key-board (going from F
towards E) in the above diagram : the hammer of this key
is represented striking the string to which it belongs.
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
105
L'on croit que par des clavecins de cette construction,
Ton pourra tirer des sons plus ou moins aigus en employant
des forces connues sur les touches suivant les differens
tons et les differentes mesures indiquees par les pieces que
Ton voudra executer.
Voici sur cette theorie differentes manures d'employer
les maillets et de leur donner toutes les positions possibles.
It is thought that on harpsichords of this construction
sound* more or less sharp (or acute) can be produced, eren
by employing the usual power on the finger-board accord-
ing to the different keys and the different marks of time
indicated on the pieces we wish to perform.
According to this theory, there are different modes of
employing the hammers, and of giving them all possible
positions.
AUTRE CLAVECIN A MAILLETS.
INVENTK PAR B. HARIUS.
ANOTHER HARPSICHORD WITH HAMMERS.
INVENTED BY M. MARIL'S.
A B est une caisse qui represents le clavecin ; sur cette
caisse sont deux rangs de cordes c D, E r. Les maillets
sont ici represented dans differentes positions, c'est-a-dire,
places pour tirer le son en dessus, et une en-dessous ; deux
manieres de le tirer en-dessus, et une en-dessous. Par ex-
ample, le maillet a est en-dessus, et frappe sur la corde au
moyen de la touche H mobile au point I ; le petit montant K
est attache 1 a la touche n, et sert a faire frapper le marteau
o, ce marteau etant attache a 1'endroit L par un petit r trier
de fer, autour duquel il se meut librement. L'on peut
faire regner le long du clavecin un semblable clavier, pose
au-dela de ses bords sur une caisse transversale telle que
H N, surle devant de laquelle seront poses tous les maillets
et toutes les touches.
Le maillet o frappe sur le rang de cordes D o; ce
maillet est aussi attach^ en f par un etrier w semblable
aux autres, autour duquel il se peut mouvoir, de meme que
la touche Q mobile au point s. Lorsque Ton peso sur la
touche Q, 1'extre'mite' B du maillet se leve, le maillet o
frappe sur les cordes et en tire le son. II faudra observer
A B is the case which represents the harpsichord ; on
this case are two rows of strings c D, E F. The hammers
are here shown in different positions that is to say, some
to strike down and one to strike up. For example, the ham-
mer a is above and strikes on the string by means of the
key H, which is moveable at the point t ; the small upright
K is attached to the key B, and causes the hammer a to
strike ; the hammer being attached to the spot L by a small
band of iron, around which it moves freely. All the keys
of the harpsichord may be similarly arranged on a key-board,
such as n N, on the front of which the hammers and
all the keys can be placed.
The hammer o strikes on the row of strings D c ; this
hammer is also attached at p by a band, w, similar to the
others, around which it can move, the same as the key Q
is moveable at the point s. When we strike the key Q, the
extremity of the hammer R rises ; the hammer o strikes
the strings, and produces the sound. It must be ob-
106
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
dans la construction d'un semblable instrument, que toutes
les queues des maillets soient plus pesantes que les tStes,
afin que le maillet aprfes avoir frappe, se releve de lui
meme et ne laisse point de tons faux.
La deuxieme figure est pour faire voir comment on peut
etablir un clavier, a maillets pour tirer le son en-dessous.
Le maillet T est mobile au point v, et la touche x mobile
en T : en ce cas il faut que la tete i du maillet soit plus
pesante que la queue.
served, in the construction of such an instrument, that
all the buts of the hammers are heavier than the heads,
in order that the hammer, after having struck the string,
may rise of itself, and leave no false tones.
The second diagram is to show how a key-board can
be made with hammers to produce the sound from below.
The hammer T is moveable at the point v, and the key x is
moveable at Y : in this case it is necessary that the head of the
hammer T should be heavier than the but.
TROISIEME CLAVECIN A MAILLETS.
INVENT^ PAR M. MARIUS.
THIRD HARPSICHORD WITH HAMMERS.
INVENTED BY M. MARIUS.
Ce qu'il y & de particulier dans ce clavecin est, que le
sautereau comme A B porte une cheville c qui frappe les
cordes en-dessous, de meme que les maillets que Ton a
decrits precedemment. A quelque endroit autour de la
cheville est un morceau d'etoffe pour e touffer le son, comme
on le pratique aux autres clavecins.
L'extremite A du sautereau est posee sur le bout de la
touche E F G, dont le centre de mouvement est en F. II
THIS harpsichord differs from the others, inasmuch
that the jack A B has a peg, c, which strikes the strings
underneath, in the same manner as the hammers which
we have described in the preceding inventions. At a par-
ticular spot round the peg, is a piece of stuff to stop the
sound, as in other harpsichords.
The extremity A of the jack is placed on the end of the
key E F G, of which the centre of movement is at F.
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
107
est necessaire que ce centre soil le plus pres qui'l sera possi-
ble de 1'extremite o, afin que le sautereau retombe avec
plus de promptitude apres avoir frappe les cordes ; par ce
moyen on aura un son plus net L'on voit par entre eux
ces sortes de sautereaux.
L'avantage d'un clavecin construit de sautereaux sem-
blables est, que la sujtion de les retnplumer, se trouve
supprimee.
It is necessary that the centre should be as near as possi-
ble to the extremity o, in order that the jack should fall
with promptitude after having struck the strings : by this
means a clearer tone will be produced. The jacks may be
observed in the interior of the instrument.
The advantage of a harpsichord constructed upon this
principle is that the jacks will not require re-yniilin;/ .
QUATR1EME CLAVECIN A MAILLETS
ET A SADTEREAUX.
PAR M. MAKICS.
FOURTH HARPSICHORD WITH HAMMERS
AND JACKS.
INVENTED BY M. MABI US.
Apres que M. Marius eut trouve les maillets, il les
substitua a la place des sautereaux en donnant a ces
maillets differentes positions, comme il vient d'etre dit sur
les planches precedents : il trouva aussi le moyen de placer
deux jeux dans un seul clavecin, en y employant les
maillets et les sautereaux, et faisant neanmoins ces deux
AFTER M. Marius had discovered the hammers, he
substituted them in the place of the jacks, by giving to
these hammers different positions, as shown in the pre-
ceding plate. He discovered also the means of placing
two actions in a single harpsichord, by employing both
hammers and jacks, and making, nevertheless, these two
108
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
jeux tout-a-fait independans 1'un de 1'autre ; c'est-a-dire,
que les maillets peuvent servir seuls, de meme que les
sautereaux, et tous les deux a la fois quand on le veut ; ce
qui s'execute en cette sorte.
A B est un corps de clavecin ordinaire ; le clavier in-
ferieur c D a rapport a la rangee de sautereaux E F, et le
clavier superieur c H fait j oiler la rangee de maillets J K ;
la troisieme rangee, L M, contient des especes de sautereaux
fixes sur les touches des memes maillets, et garnis de
drap, afin d'etouffer le son apres que le maillet a frappe.
Les sautereaux N N passent au travers d'une planche o P
posee sur des tasseaux i coulisses, dans lesquelles cette
planche peut se mouvoir horisontalement suivant la largeur
du clavecin, au moyen de la piece p e mobile au point B,
de maniere qu'eri poussant cette piece par son extremite' Q,
Ton fait avancer les sautereaux, qui pour lors repondent
au-dessous des cordes, et sont en tat d'en tirer le son ; et
au contraire lorsque Ton ne voudra plus des sautereaux, on
tirera a soi la piece, les touches sur lesquelles elles posent
sont assez larges pour leur permettre ce mouvement. Void
quel est le mouvement des maillets, pour s'en servir, et
pour les supprimer.
Le maillet s est fixe sur la touche qui fait la bascule
sur un e'trier T fixe sur une traverse w, aux extrcmites de
laquelle sont des tourillons qui lui permettent de tourner ;
a cette traverse Ton fixe une piece x qui s'ftend a chaque
cote du clavier, et sous laquelle on fait couler un coin Y
pour Clever ou abaisser tous les maillets ensemble ; c'est-
a-dire, que si on laisse la traverse dans son tat naturel,
les maillets toucheront les cordes, et lorsque Ton voudra
les supprimer, on poussera le coin T sous la piece x, et
pour lors les maillets braisseront et ne toucheront plus aux
cordes. Le sautereau z est pose sur la touche a quelque
distance du maillet ; ce sautereau doit etre construit, et
place de maniere qu' a 1'instant du coup, il soit pret a
etoufFer le son.
actions independent of each other ; that is to say, the ham-
mers could be used alone, or the jacks alone, or both
together, at pleasure, which is done in this way.
A B is the body of the ordinary harpsichord ; the lower
key-board, o D, belongs to the row of jacks E F, and the
one above, G H, moves the row of hammers J K ; the third
row, L M, contains a kind of jack fixed on the keys of the
same hammers, and covered with cloth in order to check
the sound after the hammers have struck the strings. The
jacks N N pass across a plank, o p, placed on brackets with
grooves, in which this plank can move horizontally (ac-
cording to the size of the harpsichord), by means of the
piece P Q moveable at the point K, in such a manner
that, in moving this piece by its extremity, Q, the jacks
are made to advance, and are thereby prepared under-
neath the strings, and in a state to produce the sound.
When you do not require to use the jacks, draw towards
you the piece; the keys on which they rest are large enough
to allow this movement. Hence the movement of the ham-
mers, and the mode of suppressing them.
The hammer s is fixed .on the key which see-saws
on a stirrup, T, fixed on a cross piece, w, at the ex-
tremities of which are pivots which allow it to turn ;
to this cross piece is fixed a piece, x, which reaches to each
side of the key-board, and under which runs a wedge, T,
to raise or lower all the hammers together ; that is to say,
if the cross-piece is left in its natural state, the hammers
will touch the strings, and when you wish not to use them,
you push the wedge T under the piece x, and by that means
the hammers will be lowered so as not to touch the strings.
The jack z is placed on the key at some distance from the
hammer ; this jack should be constructed and fixed in
such a manner that, the instant the blow is struck, it
should be ready to damp the sound.
The remaining claimant to the invention of the pianoforte is Christopher Gottlieb
Schroter. This eminent artist was born August 10, 1699, at Hohenstein, on the
i rentiers of Bohemia. His father, an organist and professor of music, taught him the
rudiments of the science, in which he progressed so rapidly, that at the age of seven
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE. 109
he was admitted into the Chapel Royal of Dresden. Under the able tuition of
Schmidt the Chapel Master, and Behnisch the theorist, he completed his musical
education. According to the wish of his mother, young Schroter next studied
theology at Leipzig; but this not suiting the bent of his inclination, he took
advantage of her death and returned to the study of music. Once more visiting
Dresden, he became acquainted with the celebrated composer, Antonio Lotti, in
whose service he accepted the post of secretary. In transcribing and studying the
works of the most celebrated Italian composers, Schroter greatly improved his style
and knowledge of music. Lotti returned to Italy in 1719, when the subject of our
notice received the offer to accompany a German nobleman to England ; this opened
new fields of observation to our young aspirant, and he accordingly accepted it,
returning to Dresden in 1724. He now determined to continue his researches into
the science of music, which he had commenced under the able direction of Schmidt
and Behnisch ; and accordingly entered the University of Jena, where he completed
his first work on the theory of music, which was well received by his professional
brethren. After remaining about two years in that city, he obtained, without solici-
tation, the post of organist to the principal church at Minden ; which appointment he
resigned, in 1732, for that of" chief organist " at Nordhausen in Saxony. He died
in the latter city, November, 1782, at the age of eighty-three.
Whilst a pupil of the School at the Holy Cross at Dresden, in 1717, Schroter is
said to have constructed a model of a pianoforte, which was afterwards exhibited to
the Court at Dresden. Although the Elector of Saxony then testified his approbation
of the invention, Schroter received neither honour nor reward, and the new instrument
remained in abeyance. Many years afterwards, in a letter, dated " Nordhausen, 22
September, 1738," printed in Lorenzo Mizler's Miisikalische Bibliothek, vol. iii, p. 464,
Leipzig, 1752, writing upon the mathematics of music, and laying down " rules
on temperament for the use of organ builders and instrument makers who are
ignorant of mathematics," he thus alludes to his invention : " Indeed some of these
artists, who for several years have understood one of my inventions, have given it out
as their own. In 1717, I constructed, at Dresden, after much consideration, the
110 THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFORTE,
model of a new clavier with hammers, partly with, partly without springs, upon which
one at pleasure might play loudly or softly."*
According to the late Professor Fischoff, the mechanism of Schroter's invention
was simple. The hammer consisted of a lever of about three inches and a half in
length, moving on a pivot with a leather head ; the lever rested near the pivot on a
pin with a leather head, screwed into the further end of the finger key ; and the pin
was of such a length that, when the key was slowly pressed down, the face of the
hammer came within about a quarter of an inch of the string ; but, when the key was
smartly struck, the hammer, by the rapid motion communicated, was thrown up to
give the string a blow, and, instantly recoiling, fell on the leather head of the pin and
left the string free to vibrate.
In another plan of Schroter's for it seems he constructed two models the
hammers were placed over the strings; but the inventor himself considered this device
impracticable, " because the metal springs which should bring back the hammer after
striking, did not promise to be durable."
It is singular that these three ingenious men, Cristofali, Marius, and Schroter,
should have conceived the same idea, within a few years of each other, and without
any apparent communication or collision. But the priority of invention is certainly
due to the Italian maker, whose claims are now fully established.
The object of centuries was at length accomplished. The quill, pig's bristle,
thorn, ivory tongue, leathern tongue, &c. were soon to be banished. A small hammer
* H. C. Koch, in his Musikalisches Lexikon, says, had the first idea of it ; but the most authentic accounts
" the pianoforte was invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, establish indisputably the claim of Schroder to this inge-
in Saxony, in the year 1717. He had a model made of nious invention." Why did not this learned writer ascer-
this invention, and presented it to the Court of Dresden tain the true date of the Giornale de' Litterati d' Italia ?
for inspection. The hammers recoiled, and were covered In Thalberg's " Remarks upon the Pianofortes," in
with leather. Some time after, Mr. G. Silbermann, a the Great Industrial Exhibition of 1851, printed in the
musical instrument maker, began to manufacture pianos, Reports of the Juries, p. 326, the name of Schroter is
and succeeded in bringing them to a tolerable degree of altogether omitted in the great pianoforte-player's brief
perfection. It has been questioned, however, whether historical sketch.
Schroder, or B. Cristofali, an instrument maker of Florence,
THE CLAIMANTS TO THE INVENTION OF THE PIANOFOETE. Ill
was made to strike the string, and evoke a clear, precise, and delicate tone, unheard
before. The " scratch with a sound at the end of it " was doomed to a lingering
fate. The harpsichord had been changed into an instrument of percussion, and it only
remained for later manufacturers to perfect, extend, and popularize the now " world-
wide " pianoforte.
CHAPTER YIII.
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT.
THE pianoforte, upon its first introduction, was not successful. Nor can we
wonder at this ; the public is always slow at receiving innovations ; " besides," as M.
Fetis remarks, " the resources of the new instrument were not understood, and the
keys required a greater delicacy of treatment than those of the harpsichord ; in a
word, it became necessary for musicians and amateurs to change their style of playing,
a circumstance, of itself, sufficient to retard the success of the pianoforte."
Of Cristofali and Marius we hear nothing ; their inventions seem to have been
treated with neglect or indifference. Schroter was better appreciated by his fellow
countrymen. Silbermann of Strasburg, Spaett of Dresden, and Stein of Augsberg,
followed up his discoveries ; and it is to these makers that Schroter alludes, in the
passage we have quoted from Mizler's Musikaliscke Bibliothek.
Godfrey Silbermann was born at Frauenstein, in Saxony, in 1684. He is sometimes
called Silbermann of Freyberg, sometimes Silbermann of Strasburg ; the first, from his
having built the organ of Freyberg Cathedral ; the second, from his having learnt his
profession, and chiefly lived, in the city of Strasburg. Whether this ingenious artist
had any knowledge of the inventions of Cristofali, Marius, or Schroter, we have not
the means of ascertaining ; certain it is that he was one of the earliest makers of
pianos, and the invention is generally attributed to him throughout Germany.
Silbermann constructed two pianofortes, and submitted them for approval to the
great Sebastian Bach, who is recorded to have highly praised them as ingenious pieces
of mechanism, but complained of their feebleness of tone, especially in the upper
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT. 113
octaves. Struck with the justness of this remark, Silbermann withdrew his instru-
ments until he had found the means of remedying this serious defect. After repeated
essays, and considerable expense, he was enabled to present a new instrument to
Bach, who declared that it was without fault. From this moment the fame of Silber-
mann extended throughout Germany, and the first step in the progress of the piano-
forte was accomplished.*
We must relate Forkel's account of Bach's visit to Frederick the Great, about
this period, as an important event in connection with the history of the pianoforte :
" The reputation of the all-surpassing skill of John Sebastian Bach was at this
time so extended, that the King often heard it mentioned and praised. This made
him curious to hear so great an artist. At first he distantly hinted to his son (Charles
Philip Emanuel, at that time in the service of Frederick) his wish that his father
would one day come to Potsdam. But, by degrees, he began to ask him directly why
his father did not come 1 The son could not avoid acquainting his father with these
expressions of the King's ; at first, however, he could not pay any attention to them,
because he was generally too much overwhelmed with business. But the King's
expressions being repeated in several of his son's letters, he at length, in 1747,
prepared to take this journey, in company with his eldest son, William Friedemann.
At this time the King had every evening a private concert, in which he himself
generally performed some concertos on the flute. One evening, just as he was getting
his flute ready, and his musicians were assembled, an officer brought him the list of
the strangers who had arrived. With his flute in his hand he ran over the list, but
immediately turned to the assembled musicians, and said, with a kind of agitation,
* " The pianoforte was scarcely known in the time of art. It has been the means of developing the sublimest
Bach ; and from the style of his compositions, it is evident ideas of the composer, and the delicacy of its touch has
that they were the product of the harpsichord, an instru- enabled him to give the lightest shades, as well as the
ment of very limited powers ; the boldest effects of which boldest strokes of musical expression. It is the only in-
were produced by sprinkling the chords in arpeggio, which strument that will represent the effects of a full orchestra ;
occasioned a disagreeable jingling. The early sonatas of and since its mechanism has been improved, Beethoven has
Haydn also bear marks of the influence of this instrument, displayed its powers in a way not contemplated even by
and possess nothing of the expression of his later works. Haydn himself." Lives of Haydn and Mozart, 8vo.
The invention of the pianoforte has formed an era in the 1817, Note, p. IOC.
Q
114 THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT.
' Gentlemen, old Bach is come.' The flute was now laid aside ; and old Bach, who
had alighted at his son's lodgings, was immediately summoned to the palace. William
Friedemann, who accompanied his father, told me this story, and I must say that I still
think with pleasure on the manner in which he related it. At that time it was the
fashion to make rather prolix compliments. The first appearance of J. S. Bach before
so great a king, who did not even give him time to change his travelling dress for a
black chanter's gown, must necessarily be attended with many apologies. I will not
here dwell on those apologies, but merely observe, that in William Friedemann's mouth
they made a formal dialogue between the King and the apologist. But what is more
important than this, is that the King gave up his concert for this evening, and invited
Bach, then already called old Bach, to try his fortepianos made by Silbermann, which
stood in several rooms of the palace. The musicians went with him from room to
room, and Bach was invited every where to try and to play unpremeditated com-
positions. After he had gone on for some time, he asked" the King to give him a
subject for a fugue, in order to execute it immediately without any preparation. The
King admired the learned manner in which his subject was thus executed extempore ;
and probably to see how far such art could be carried, expressed a wish to hear a
fugue with six obligato parts. But as it is not every subject that is fit for such full
harmony, Bach chose one himself, and immediately executed it to the astonishment
of all present, in the same magnificent and learned manner as he had done that of the
King. His majesty desired also to hear his performance on the organ. The next day,
therefore, Bach was taken to all the organs in Potsdam, as he had before been to
Silbermann's/orfepiVraos. After his return to Leipsig, he composed the subject which
he had received from the King, in three and six parts, added several artificial passages
in strict canon to it, and had it engraved, under the title of Musikalisches Opfer
(Musical Offering), and dedicated it to the inventor."
In the same interesting Life of J. S. Bach, is another passage of importance to
our subject. After informing us that Bach used " two clavichords and the pedal, or a
harpsichord with two sets of keys, provided with a pedal," the writer adds : " He
liked best to play upon the clavichord ; the harpsichord, though certainly susceptible
of a very great variety of expression, had not soul enough for him ; and the piano
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT. 115
was in his life-time too much in its infancy, and still much too coarse to satisfy him.
He therefore considered the clavichord as the best instrument for study, and, in general,
for private musical entertainment. He found it the most convenient for the expression
of his most refined thoughts, and did not believe it possible to produce from any
harpsichord, or pianoforte, such a variety in the gradations of tone as on this instru-
ment, which is, indeed, poor in tone, but on a small scale extremely flexible. Nobody
could adjust the quill-plectrums of his harpsichord to his satisfaction ; he always did
it himself. He also tuned both his harpsichord and clavichord himself, and was so
practised in the operation, that it never cost him above a quarter of an hour. But
then, when he played from his fancy, all the twenty-four modes were in his power ;
he did with them what he pleased. He combined the most remote as easily and as
naturally together as the nearest ; the hearer believed he had only modulated within
the compass of a single mode. He knew nothing of harshness in modulation ; his
transitions in the chromatic scale were as soft and flowing as if he had wholly con-
fined himself to the diatonic scale. His Chromatic Fantasia, which is now published,
may prove what I here state."
John Andrew Stein, of Augsburg, by the silvery and brilliant tone which he
gave his pianos, tended greatly to increase the popularity of the new instrument. He
was born at Heidelstein in 1728, and was a pupil of Silbermann's. In 1758, he visited
Paris, where he worked for many years, and brought his abilities as a maker of pianos
to perfection.* We have already spoken of him as a celebrated maker of harpsichords
(see p. 82, ante). He died at his native city, Augsburg, February 22, 1792. In the
latter years of his life, his factory was directed by his son Andrew, and his daughter
Nanette, afterwards married to Streicher of Vienna.
Mozart frequently alludes to Stein, in his very graphic and interesting letters. In
one, dated " Augsburgh, October 14th, 1777," he says, " I had the.honor of perform-
ing for three quarters of an hour on a good piano by Stein. I played several fantasias ;
and, in fine, whatever music happened to be there, at sight ; among others, several
* Stein invented the keyed-instrument called the Poly- For a list of this ingenious artist's various publications,
Toni-Clavichordium, an account of which may be seen in see C. F. Becker's Sysiematisch-Chronologitche Dars-
the Augsburgischen Intclligenzllatt, October 5th, 1769. tettung der Musikalischen Literatur, 4-to. Leipzig, 1836.
Q 2
116 THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT.
pretty pieces by one Edelmann. I spoke of going to pass the afternoon with Stein,
whereupon the young man immediately proposed accompanying me. I thanked him
for his attention, and promised to return in two hours. I accordingly did so, and then
set out, accompanied by the son-in-law, whom one would take for a student. Though
I had particularly requested that my name might not be mentioned, Mr. Langen-
mantel had the imprudence to say to Mr. Stein, ' I have the honour of presenting to
you a virtuoso on the piano.' I instantly disclaimed this quality, and stated myself to
be an unworthy pupil of Mr. Sigl, of Munich. Stein made a negative movement
with his head, and said, ' May I have the honour of receiving Mr. Mozart 1 ' ' Oh no,'
replied I, ' My name is Trazom, and here is a letter which I have to deliver to you.'
He was about to open it immediately, but I would not give him time. ' Why will
you read the letter now,' I asked ; ' let us go to your music-room, I am impatient to
try your pianos.' ' As you please,' was his reply, ' but I think I am not deceived.'
He opened the door ; I immediately ran to one of the three pianos which were in the
room, and commenced playing. He could no longer resist his impatience ; he opened
the letter, looked at the signature, and with an exclamation, came to clasp me in
his arms."
In a letter, a few days later, " Augsburgh, October 17th, 1777," he has some
very interesting particulars connected with Stein's mode of manufacturing pianos.
" I begin," says the great musician, " with Stein's pianos. Before meeting with them,
I thought those of Spaett the best ; now I give the preference to the first mentioned,
for the key-board is better and more commodious than that in the pianos of the
Ratisbon manufacturer. In passages that require vigorous play, I can lift the finger or
leave it on the note, for the sound is not prolonged beyond the instant in which it is
heard. I strike the chords as I please, and the tone is always the same : it is neither
stronger nor weaker ; it never shivers, and never fails to sound, as happens sometimes
with other pianos. It is true that Stein never lets a piano go under three hundred
florins, but one cannot sufficiently repay the trouble and zeal which he employs. His
instruments have one quality found in them alone : they have all the escape-movement ;
it is almost impossible that a piano, without this, should render a well articulated
sound. The hammers fall again as soon as they have touched the string, whether
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT.
117
the finger be left on the key or not. When Stein has finished a piano, he plays on it
passages of all sorts, and never quits it till it is capable of anything, for he labours
not for his pecuniary interest, but for that of the art. He frequently says : ' If I were
not myself a passionate amateur in music, my patience would long ago have failed me ;
but I like an instrument which assists the musician, and serves for a long time. His
pianos are, in fact, very lasting. He warrants the solidity of the sounding-board.
When he has completed one, he exposes it to the air, rain, sun, snow, in a word to
every variety of atmosphere, that it may split : then by means of slips firmly glued
in, he closes the crevices. When a sounding-board has been thus prepared, it may be
regarded as safe against all accidents. He has now three pianos finished, on one of
which I have been playing to day. The pedals, which are pressed by the knees, are
also better in Stein's pianos than in any other. I scarcely touch it, yet the effect is
palpable, and as soon as I discontinue this pressure the sound resumes its natural
quality."*
,
* Mozart played upon the new instrument when he
was a mere child. The writer of his biography says,
" When Mozart, at the age of six years (. . in 1762), sat
down to play in presence of the Emperor Francis, he ad-
dressed himself to his majesty, and asked, ' Is not Mr.
Wagenseil here ? We must send for him, he understands
the thing.' The Emperor sent for Wagenseil, and gave
up his place to him, by the side of the piano. ^ ' Sir,' said
Mozart to the composer, ' I am going to play one of your
concertos, you must turn over the leaves for me.' Hitherto,
T \*jj*- Wolfgang had only played on the harpsichord, and the
extraordinary skill which he displayed on that instrument
seemed to exclude even the wish that he should apply to
any other. But the genius which animated him far
surpassed any hopes that his friends could have dared to
entertain ; be had not even occasion for lessons." Lives
of Haydn and Motart, 8vo. 1817, p. 342.
A correspondence has lately taken place in the Neue
Berliner Musik-Zeitung respecting Mozart's piano. The
result has been the publication of the following letter in
its pages, which we think will be perused with interest;
"SlB,
In consequence of the question asked by some
one in Vienna, and which appeared in No. 35 of the
Berliner Musik-Zeitung for this year : " Who now pos-
sesses Mozart's piano, which the minister, Count von
Rantzau, is said to have purchased in the year 180G, from
Mozart's widow?" I wrote Count Kuno von Rantzau, of
Rohlsdorff, with whom I have the honour of being ac-
quainted, and begged for information respecting the valu-
able relic. I have received a very comprehensive answer,
the most interesting portion of which I do myself the
honour of communicating to you."
" How much I am delighted " (so runs the answer),
"in answer to your communication of the 25th of last
month, to be able to give the information you require con-
cerning the piano of the Great Mozart, which is in our
possession at our ancestral mansion. The instrument was
certainly purchased by my uncle, and in 1806 conveyed to
Breitenburg, after the death of his respected friend, from
the latter's widow, who lived to the end of her life on a
footing of friendship with my family.
118
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT.
The mechanism of the key was not, in the first instance, more perfect than the
construction of the sounding-board ; for it consisted merely of a pilote attached verti-
cally to the key, which impelled against the string a short and light hammer, suspended
by a leather hinge, and guided by a thin shank which passed through its centre.
Stein discovered a better process, when he devised the simple escapement, which still
retains its name of German mechanism, and is still employed in the greater part of the
pianofortes fabricated at Vienna. In this piece of mechanism, which has the two-fold
advantage of great lightness and little expense, the hammer falls the moment the
pilote of the key has described its elliptical curve, and allows the strings to vibrate at
liberty, though the finger still remains on the key. Considering the fineness of the
strings used in the first pianofortes, this piece of mechanism was not only sufficient,
but the very best that could be devised.
At this period, the best instruments had a compass of only five octaves, were
mounted only with double strings, and, instead of pedals, were furnished with two
iron springs, ornamented with copper knobs, in that part of the chest nearest to the bass,
" The possessor of our family estates, Count Conrad of
Rantzau, died in 1845, and was succeeded by my father.
In order to regulate the inheritance and family property, a
sale was ordered to take place, by the superior court, of the
various art-treasures, etc. collected by Count Conrad, and
catalogues were printed and sent out at the time, and adver-
tisements inserted in all the principal German, French, and
English papers, from which the notice in the Berliner
Zeitung, of the 27th August, would seem to have been
taken.
"I myself, during the above and following years,
managed these family estates until the decease of my dear
father, and the auction could not take place until 1849, at
Breitenburg, in my presence.
" Tor works of art by Thorwaldsen, for paintings, and,
also, for all kinds of fashionable rubbish, enormous prices
were realised for Mozart's piano there was not a single
bid higher than the wretched price of an old mahogany box.
Truly indignant at this, I at least saved from the common
broker's shop this interesting relic of our greatest German
musician, on which his incomparable Requiem was certainly
composed, and from which his fingers drew forth, for the
last time, those immortal tones that still re-echo on the
soul of every German possessed of feeling by order of my
dear father, who retained his deep love of the sacred art of
music to his 83rd year, I purchased Mozart's instrument
for the castle. It is now, since my father's death, together
with the lordship of Breitenburg, in the possession of
my brother, Friedrich August zu Entin, Hofchef of the
Grand Duke of Oldenburg. The piano, however, stands,
at present, as it has since 1806, in its place of honour in
Breitenburg, which unfortunately has not been inhabited
for years."
"I hasten, honoured sir, to place this interesting account
at your disposal, in order that you may use it, if you please>
in your paper, and remain, with the greatest consideration,
"BEHREND, M.D."
" Grevermiihle in the Grand Duchy of
" MecUenberg-Schwerin, October, 1856."
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT. 119
to raise the dampers. In order to move these springs, it was necessary that the player
should use his left hand, and consequently he was obliged, for a moment, to quit the
key-board. Stein improved these springs by making them to act by means of knobs
placed against the knees.
A rough idea of the appearance of a pianoforte of this period, may be formed
from the following wood-cut, copied from a picture in the palace at Potsdam.
The chief cotemporaries and successors of Stein may be thus enumerated.
John Adam Spaett, or Spaeth (mentioned in Mozart's letter), was a celebrated
maker of organs and keyed-stringed instruments in the latter half of the eighteenth
century. He was born at Ratisbon, in which city he built the Cathedral organ.
His pianofortes obtained almost an equal reputation with those of Stein. He died, at
a very advanced age, in 1816.
Christian Ernest Frederici, the favourite pupil of Silbermann, was born at
Merona in Saxony, in 1712. He is said to have made the first square pianoforte.
He spent the greater part of his life in improving keyed-stringed instruments, and
was an organ-builder of no mean repute. He died in IT 79. An account of some of
his inventions may be seen in the Leipzig Magazin des Buch-und-Kunsthandels, 1781.
John Godfrey Hildebrand, the son of Zacaria Hildebrand, the eminent organ-
builder, and himself a distinguished builder, settled at Berlin, about 1758, as a maker
of keyed-stringed instruments. In 1782 he constructed a square pianoforte, in which
120 THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT.
the sounding-board occupied the entire length of the instrument, the hammers being
placed above the strings. Marius and Schroter had proposed this plan as early as
1716 and 1717, but both abandoned it as impracticable. Hildebrand was not more
successful. It was left for Streicher of Vienna, and Petzold of Paris, to show the
practicability of this arrangement ; and, finally, for M. Pape to bring it to perfection.
Christopher Michael Lenkler of Rudolstadt was one of the most ingenious
mechanists of his time. His instruments ranked very high, and were as much sought
after as those of Godfrey Silbermann. He flourished about 1760, and died before
1790.
Francis Ignace Seuffert, born at Wurzburg in 1731, was an organ-builder and
pianoforte-maker of considerable eminence in his time. He was living at Wur/burg
in 1807, well advanced in years. His two sons, John Philip, and Francis Martin,
were also eminent manufacturers of pianos at Vienna.
John Andrew Streicher, born at Stuttgardt in 1761, was an excellent practical
musician. In his visits to Augsburg, he became accquainted with Stein, and married
his daughter. After his marriage, he took up his residence at Vienna, where he com-
menced an extensive manufactory for the making of pianos. He made many improve-
ments in their mechanism, and improved the principle of placing the hammers above
the strings. He died May 25th, 1833.
Dr. Burney, in his entertaining Tour in Germany, gives a number of interesting
notices of the pianoforte, which show its gradual progress in public favour.
At Potsdam, he says, " after dinner I went to see the King's new palace (dasneue
Schloss), built since the last war. * * * * The apartments are fitted up with the
utmost magnificence and taste ; there is a suite of rooms appropriated to almost every
branch of the royal family. Those of the King, of his sister Princess Amelia, and of
the Prince of Prussia, are the most splendid. In each of these apartments there is a
room dedicated to music, furnished with books, desks, a harpsichord, and other
instruments. His majesty's concert room is ornamented with glasses of an immense size,
and with sculpture, partly gilt, and partly of the most beautiful green varnish, by Martin
of Paris ; the whole furniture and ornaments of this room are in the most refined and
exquisite taste. There is a piano-forte, made by Silbermann of Neuberg, beautifully
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT. 121
varnished and embellished ; and a tortoise-shell desk for his majesty's use. most richly
and elegantly inlaid with silver ; on the table lay a catalogue of concertos for the New
Palace, and a book of manuscript solfeggi, as his Majesty calls them, or preludes,
composed of difficult divisions and passages for the exercise of the hand, as the vocal
solfeggi are for the throat. His Majesty has books of this kind, for the use of his
flute, in the music room of every one of his palaces."
At Vienna, after recording his visit to Hasse, the Doctor says : " From hence I
went to M. L'Angier's concert, which was begun by the child of eight or nine
years old, whom he had mentioned to me before, and who played two difficult
lessons of Scarlatti, with three or four by M. Becke, upon a small and not good
pianoforte. The neatness of this child's execution did not so much surprise me,
though uncommon, as her expression. All the pianos and fortes were so judiciously
attended to ; and there was such shading of some passages, and force given to others,
as nothing but the best teaching, or greatest natural feeling and sensibility could
produce. I enquired of Signer Giorgio, an Italian, who attended her, ' upon what
instrument she usually practised at home,' and was answered, ' on the clavichord.'
This accounts for her expression, and convinces me that children should learn upon
that, or a pianoforte, very early, and be obliged to give an expression to Lady
Coventry's Minuet, or whatever is their first tune ; otherwise, after long practice on a
monotonous harpsichord, however useful for strengthening the hand, the case is
hopeless."
Speaking of the celebrated John Philip Kirnberger*, whom he visited at Berlin,
in the same tour, he says : " He played, at my request, upon a clavichord some of
his fugues and church music, which are very learned and curious ; he likewise pre-
sented me with a copy of his musical institutes, and a short dissertation upon tempera-
* " Court musician to the Princess Amelia of Prussia, He has done the first in his Art of Pure Composition
in Berlin. He was one of the most remarkable of Bach's (Kunst des reinen Satzes) ; and the second, in The True
scholars, full of the most useful zeal and general enthusias- Principles for the use of Harmony (Oritnd tdtze turn Oe-
tic feeling for the art ; beside the development of Bach's mode branch der Harmonit). He has, besides, been of service
of teaching compositions, the musical world is indebted to to the art, by other writings and compositions, as well as
him for the first and only tenable system of harmony, ty teaching." Forkel's Life of J. S. Bach.
which he has abstracted from his master's practical works.
122 THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT.
ment, which he has lately published, as well as of several manuscript compositions.
After this he had the complaisance to go with me to the house of Hildebrand, the
best maker of harpsichords and pianofortes in Berlin ; here M. Kirnberger played
again, and discovered great strength of hand, as well as knowledge in harmony and
modulation."
We have now to consider the progress of the pianoforte in France. It does not
appear that Marius's invention was ever adopted, or that he made any disciples by his
discovery of the hammers. Fetis, indeed, says, "Marius' discovery met with no
success in France, where custom is often seen opposed to the success of what is new."
Blanchet, however, made instruments with hammers ; and Paschal Tasquin, whom we
have before mentioned as an eminent harpsichord maker (p. 81 ante), manufactured, in
1776, small square pianos in " imitation of the English;" but they were not well
received. In fact, down to the year 1779, France had remained dependent on Germany
and England for its instruments of this kind ; nearly all those found at Paris, at this
epoch, came from the manufactories of Augsburg, Ratisbon, and London. The
brothers Erard were the first to free their country from this state of dependence,
and manufactured small pianofortes of five octaves with two pedals, the silvery tone
and perfect mechanism of which were truly remarkable for that period.
The great mechanical genius, Sebastian Erard, was born at Strasburg, April 5,
1752, and was the eldest of the four children of an upholsterer. At the age of eight
years, he commenced the study of architecture, perspective, linear design, and practical
geometry, in the schools of his native city ; and his mind, fertile in invention, was
continually suggesting to him new problems, and devising its own means of resolving
them. Erard, himself, confessed that it was to his early acquaintance with drawing
and the principles of mechanics that he owed his success. His father, having married
very late in life, was surprised by death before his children reached an age at which
they could be useful to their mother, or support themselves. Sebastian Erard became
the head of a family at the age of sixteen. As his native town did not afford him
the scope of which he felt the need, he set off courageously for Paris. He arrived
there in 1768, and obtained employment with a harpsichord maker, whose chief
workman he soon became, and whose jealousy he as quickly aroused by the superi-
THE PROGRESS OP THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT. 123
ority of his workmanship. His master, wearied by Erard's constant inquiries respect-
ing the principles upon which instruments were constructed, and, in fact, unable to
furnish the information sought for, first reproached him with wanting to know every-
thing, and concluded by dismissing him from his service. Another celebrated manu-
facturer of harpsichords being called upon to make an instrument which demanded
something beyond his mere e'very-day routine, and finding himself not a little puzzled
how to answer the unusual demand, sought out young Erard, whose reputation was
already budding, and proposed to him to undertake the construction of the instrument
for a certain sum of money, allowing the person of whom it had been originally
bespoke to affix his name to it. Erard consented, and the instrument was completed ;
but, when it was delivered, the purchaser, who probably had no very great confidence
in the ability of the manufacturer he had employed, demanded some explanation of
the mechanism ; the nominal maker was forced to refer to his assistant.
This anecdote soon circulated among the musical circles of Paris, and drew
attention towards the rising artist, who shortly after made himself still further known
by his mechanical harpsichord, a master-piece of invention and workmanship, which
produced a most lively sensation among the professors and amateurs. This remark-
able piece of mechanism was constructed for the cabinet of curiosities of M. de
Blancherie. The Abbe Roussier inserted a detailed description of it in the Journal
de Paris, which was afterwards reprinted in the Musical Almanack of Luneau-de-
Bois Germain, in 1776.
Sebastian Erard was hardly twenty-five years old, when his reputation was so
fully established, that whoever wished to have any new ideas carried into execution
applied to no one but him. He was sought out by the most distinguished men, and
introduced to the Duchess of Villeroi, a lover of the arts, a protectress of artists, and,
above all, passionately fond of, and having a highly cultivated taste for, music. The
Duchess wished Erard to remain in her employ, and offered him an advantageous
engagement ; but, preferring independence, and having besides already conceived the
idea of a visit to England, he declined the offer, consenting, however, to stay with
the Duchess till he had executed some plans of her invention ; occupying, during that
time, an apartment in the Hotel Villeroi, but with perfect liberty and command of
R 2
124 THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT.
his own movements. In his old age he still delighted to recall to mind the goodness
of Madame Villeroi, and express the gratitude with which she had inspired him.
It was in the Hotel Villeroi that Erard made his first piano. This instrument
had been known for many years in England and Germany, but was still little used in
France ; and the few instruments that were to be found in Paris were imported from
Augsburg, Ratisbon, or London. It was the fashion hi some great houses to have
these foreign instruments. Madame Villeroi asked Erard whether he could construct
a piano ? He had already conceived the idea of making one, and his answer was
prompt and decided in the affirmative ; he set immediately to work, and his first,
like everything else he made, showed that it came from the hands of a man of taste
and invention. It was heard in the saloon of Madame Villeroi by all the distinguished
artists and amateurs of Paris. Numerous applications were made to him by the nobility
for similar instruments ; but finding it impossible to execute their orders, he sent for
his brother, Jean Baptiste, to come to Paris and help him. Quitting the Hotel de
Villeroi, he founded his house in the Rue de Bourbon, in the Faubourg St. Germain ;
an establishment which the efforts of the two brothers eventually rendered one of
the finest in Europe.
The Luthiers, or makers of musical instruments, of Paris, who carried on the
trade of importing foreign pianos, found the new factory injurious to their commerce ;
they made a seizure in it, under the pretext that the brothers Erard were not mem-
bers of the Corporation of Fanmakers, to which the Luthiers belonged. Sebastian
Erard had powerful friends, however, and he obtained a brevet from Louis the Six-
teenth which delivered him completely from the prosecuting corporation. This
document is so highly interesting that we transfer it to our pages :
" This day, the fifth of February, one thousand seven monies of the protection with which he honours those who,
hundred and eighty-five, the King being at Versailles in- like him, have by assiduous labour contributed to the
formed that Mr. Sebastien Erard has succeeded by a new useful and agreeable arts, has permitted him to make, to
method of his invention to improve the instrument called cause to be made, and to sell in the city and faubourgs of
a forte-piano; that he has even obtained the preference Paris, and wherever it may seem to him good, forte-pianos ;
over those made in England, of which he makes a commerce and to employ there, whether by himself or by his workmen,
in the city of Paris, and his majesty wishing to fix the the wood, the iron, and all the other materials necessary to
talents of Mr. Erard in the said city, and to give him testi- the perfection or the ornament of the said instrument with-
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT. 125
\
out his being liable on this account to be troubled or dis- aforesaid regulations. And for assurance of bis will, his
turbed by the guards, syndics, and adjutants of the majesty has commanded me to expedite to the aforesaid
corporations and committees of arts and trades for any Mr. Erard the present brevet, which he has chosen to
cause or under any pretext whatever ; under the conditions, sign with his own hand, and to be countersigned by me,
nevertheless, by the said Mr. Erard of conforming himself Secretary of State, and of his commands and Finances,
to the regulations and ordinances concerning the discipline (Signed) Louis,
of journeymen and workmen, and of not admitting into LE BARON DE BRETEUIL."
his workshops any but those who shall have satisfied the
Incessantly occupied with new inventions and improvements, the genius of
Sebastian Erard embraced a vast variety of subjects ; he invented the organized piano-
forte with two key-boards, one for the piano and the other for the organ. The success
of this instrument was considerable. The Queen commanded one to be made for
her own use, and in the construction of it Erard introduced several novel contrivances,
. which, at that time, awakened much interest. The Queen's voice was of limited
compass, and almost every piece was too high for her. Erard rendered the key-board
of his new instrument moveable, so that by changing its position with relation to the
strings, a composition might be played a semitone, whole tone, or even a minor third,
lower or higher, without tasking the player's ability to transpose : for instance,
according to the position of the key-board, the key D would strike any string between
B natural below and F natural above its proper string. It was in the organ part of
this instrument that he also made the first attempt to produce a crescendo and diminu-
endo by the mere pressure of the finger on the key ; and this he afterwards carried
into effect, on a large scale, in an organ built for the King's chapel. Gretry, in his
Essais sur la Musique, particularly pointed out this invention to the notice of profes-
sors and to the attention of government.
The revolution now broke out in France, and Sebastian Erard determined on
removing to England ; not with any intention of finally abandoning his native country,
to which, on the contrary, he always meant to return, but with a view of opening new
channels for the sale of his instruments. In London, as in Paris, Erard filled his
manufactory with instruments of his own invention. In 1794, he took out his first
patent for improvements in harps and pianofortes, and his instruments soon became
fashionable. In 1 796, he availed himself of the altered state of affairs in France to
return to Paris, and, at this period, made his first horizontal grand pianos in the shape
126 THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT.
of harpsichords after the English fashion. These instruments were the first of the
kind, with escapements, that had been seen in Paris ; they had the defect which
formerly accompanied all similar instruments a slowness of action in the levers
and hammers. The Parisian pianoforte-players, accustomed to the easy touch of the
small pianos without escapements, disliked the new invention ; and it was for this
reason, that, after much study and many experiments, Erard brought out, in 1808,
another new species of piano, of reduced dimensions, and so more suited to the general
size of Parisian rooms, and the mechanism of which acted with greater freedom and"
ease. Dussek played on one of these pianos with the greatest eclat at the concerts
given in the Odeon by Rode, Baillot, and Lamarre, on their return from Russia.
Amateurs and professsors were alike satisfied ; but Erard was not : he knew that there
still remained some defects ; the touch, indeed, was easy, but the hammers did not
act with precision. On his return from London, at a later period, we shall find him
exhibiting the model of a grand piano, uniting every excellence in its mechanism of
which the instrument is susceptible.
About 1808, Erard returned to London, and there crowned his reputation as a
manufacturer of musical instruments, and still more as professed master of mechanics,
by his invention of the double-movement harp. The success of this new harp was
immense ; which induced Erard to neglect the manufacture of pianos in London, and
confine himself to that of harps only. Nevertheless, in all the patents he took out
in England, improvements on the piano, which he meant to carry into effect in France,
are mixed with those of the harp. At every exhibition his works received the prize ;
thrice he obtained the gold medal j and for one of his last exhibitions, the cross of the
Legion of Honour was decreed him ; in short, he received every honorary reward
that could be bestowed on the talents of a first-rate manufacturer.
The model of his grand pianoforte with double escapement was exhibited in
1823 ; the mechanism was most ingenious. The point to be achieved was to unite
in the same instrument all the nice shades of touch which can be produced by the
simple mechanism without escapement, and at the same time all the precision in the
stroke of the hammer which is the effect of the escapement.
Erard's constitution, robust as it originally was, could hardly endure his continued
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT. 127
exertions. For many years he suffered by disease ; and at length breathed his last at
his country house La Muette near Passey, on the 5th of August, 1831. His funeral
was attended by some of the most distinguished artists in Paris.
The founder of another important pianoforte manufactory in France, was the
celebrated Iguace Pleyel. This artist was born in 1757, at Rupperstahl, a small
village within a few leagues of Vienna. He was the twenty-fourth child of Martin
Pleyel, a schoolmaster of that place, and of a lady of noble family, disinherited by her
parents on account of what they deemed so imprudent a marriage : she died in giving
Ignace birth. The widower again entered into the wedded state, had fourteen children
by his second wife, and expired in the ninety-ninth year of his age.
The young Ignace learned, according to the German custom, his own tongue, the
elements of the Latin language, and music, all at the same time. His natural dis-
position for the latter induced his father to give him Vanhall as a master ; and at
the age of fifteen he was placed under the instruction of Haydn, with whom he lived
five years, at the expense of 100 louis per annum, a large sum at that period, which
was defrayed by the Count Erdoedy, a wealthy Hungarian nobleman, who, struck by
the talents and manners of the youth, took him under his protection. In 1777, his
patron allowed him to visit Italy ; and at Naples his genius for instrumental music
was evinced in a set of quartets, in which were first displayed that originality of
melody which is the characteristic of all his works, and a manner entirely his own.
In Italy, Pleyel made the acquaintance of the great masters then flourishing in
what was at that time the " land of song," of Cimarosa, Guglielmi, and Paisiello ;
and his taste was much improved by hearing the most celebrated singers. Nardini,
the violinist, was still living, and Pugnani, the master of Viotti, was in all his vigour.
With such advantages, his improvement was rapid, and he gained much that he had
failed to learn under Haydn, who, though the greatest composer of his age, was by
no means a good master : indeed, it may be laid down as a general rule, says the
French critic from whom we translate, that genius of a high order and the power of
teaching, are rarely, if ever, united in the same person. At Naples, Pleyel was intro-
duced to the King, who received him with much kindness, and desired him to compose an
128 THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT.
opera. His Ifigenia in Aulide was in consequence produced, which proved successful ;
but it was the first and last work of the kind from the same pen.
In 1793, Pleyel was appointed chapel master of the Cathedral of Strasburg, and
composed several masses and motets, all of which, unfortunately, were destroyed in
a great fire a few days after they were written. From the above period to the year
1793, he produced nearly all those works which wafted his fame into every city in
Europe ; scarcely any instrumental music was willingly listened to, but that which he
had created. In 1791, Saloman having engaged Haydn to compose symphonies for
is concerts, the managers of a rival institution, named the Professional Concert, sent
for Pleyel to supply works of a similar kind. He accordingly visited London, and
produced a symphony of no ordinary merit, as well as a charming concertante ; but, in
the contest with the father of this high class of composition, he had no chance.
The concert, which was under the direction of feeble-minded persons, failed, and
Pleyel did not add to his reputation by the part he had taken in it ; though he was a
pecuniary gainer to the amount of 1200, with which sum he purchased an estate
near Strasburg.
Suspected of aristocratic opinions, Pleyel was, in 1793, denounced no less than
seven times to the republican authorities at Strasburg, and at length fled, but was
pursued and taken. He was severely interrogated, and protested his civism, though
required, as a proof of his sincerity, to set the music to a kind of drama for the
anniversary of the 10th of August ; he of course consented, and was allowed to return
home to compose the work, but under the guard of two gendarmes, and almost with the
axe suspended over him. After an uninterrupted labour of seven days, the music was
finished, then performed under the author's direction, and afforded so much satisfaction
to the Strasburgers that the author never after was suspected of encouraging politics
at all adverse to the government. Little satisfied, however, with an occurrence which
had put on so threatening an aspect, Pleyel sold his estate in 1795, went to Paris with
all his family, and entered into a commercial speculation, becoming publisher of music
and manufacturer of pianofortes. The enterprise proved successful, and the business
was afterwards carried on by his son, Camille, in conjunction with Kalkbrenner.
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE ON THE CONTINENT.
129
Although both these gentlemen were skilful musicians, they devoted themselves to
trade, as a more profitable and satisfactory pursuit.*
After a laborious career, Pleyel retired to enjoy an estate, not far distant from Paris,
purchased by the fruits of his talents and industry, and indulged his taste for agricul-
ture. His happiness seemed complete, when the revolution of July alarmed a mind
somewhat enfeebled by time; his fears for the security of his property agitated a
frame not very strong ; he became ill, his anxieties increased, and, after three months
of suffering, he died on the fourteenth of November, 1831. f
Concerning the progress of the pianoforte in Italy, the country which gave it
birth, we have no authentic information, although we feel assured that it was not
neglected. Geronimo of Florence, and Gherardi of Parma, are said to have carried
out Cristofali's discoveries; but the particulars of their labours are not recorded.
Farinelli's/avon'fe instrument, the " Rafael d'Urbino," it will be remembered, was a
pianoforte made at Florence in 1730J a fact in itself alone sufficient to prove the
high excellence attained by the Italians at an early period in the history of its
construction.
* According to Professor Fischoff, Ignace Pleyel com-
menced musicseller at Paris in 1796; and pianoforte-
maker, in 1805. In 1824, Camille (his son) and Kalk-
brenner joined the firm. In 1834, they employed two
hundred and fifty workmen, and made 1000 pianofortes in
the course of the year. The firm is now Pleyel, Wolff,
and Co.
t These particulars, concerning Pleyel, are chiefly de-
rived from a notice which appeared in 1832 in the Revue
Muaieale.
\ Described in Burney's Tour in Italy (see ante, p. 83).
CHAPTER IX.
THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN
ENGLAND.
THE first pianoforte seen in this country, according to all accounts, was made by
one Father Wood, an English monk at Rome, and by him sold to Samuel Crisp, Esq.
a gentleman of considerable taste and learning, who sold it again to Fulke Greville,
Esq. at the price of one hundred guineas.* For a long time this instrument was
* The two gentlemen, whose names are thus mixed up
with the introduction of the pianoforte in England, are
deserving of a passing notice.
SAMUEL CRISP was the intimate friend of Dr. Burney,
the musical historian, and of his amiable family. In mind,
manner, and habits, he was one of the most refined cha-
racters of the latter half of the last century. Madame
d'Arblay says he was " a scholar of the highest order ; a
critic of the clearest acumen ; possessing, with equal
delicacy of discrimination, a taste for literature and for the
arts ; and personally excelling as a dilettante both in music
and painting." He was the author of a tragedy called
Virginia, and several poetical effusions in the magazines
of the day. He visited Italy and other parts of the con-
tinent in 1757 ; and, upon his return to England, two or
three years after, took up his residence at Hampton ; where
befitted up a small house with paintings, prints, sculpture,
and musical instruments, arranged with the most classical
elegance. He died, April twenty-fourth, 1783, aged
seventy-six, deeply regretted by all who had known
him during life. His epitaph in Chesington Church,
Surrey, was written by Dr. Burney.
FULKE GREVILLE, a descendant of the friend of Sir
Philip Sydney, and known as the author of Characters,
Maxims, and Reflections, was, at the middle of the last
century, generally looked upon as the finest gentleman
about town. "He excelled," says Madame D'Arblay,
in all the fashionable exercises, riding, fencing, hunting,
shooting at a mark, dancing, tennis, &c. and worked every
day at every one of them with a fury for pre-eminence not
equalled, perhaps, in ardour for superiority in personal
accomplishments since the days of the chivalrous Lord
Herbert of Cherbury." He travelled in a style that was
even princely; not only from his equipages, out-riders,
horses, and liveries, but from constantly having two of his
attendants skilled in playing the French horn ; and these
were always stationed to recreate him with marches and
warlike movements on the outside of the windows, when
he took any repast.
This eccentric gentleman was the friend and patron
of Dr. Burney ; and a most interesting account of their
first interview, at the ware-rooms of old Kirkman, the
harpsichord-maker, may be found in Madame d'Arblay's
Memoirs of Dr. Burney, vol. i, p. 26, et seq.
THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND. 131
without a rival, and the wonder and delight of all who heard it ; no virginal, spinet,
or harpsichord, had yet been made capable of any modification of tone. The hammer
harpsichord (for it was nothing more) obeyed the soul of the player, and, according
to the pressure of the finger upon the key, passed through every gradation of piano
and forte. This instrument became celebrated, and was known to all the dilettanti
of London as " Mr. Greville's pianoforte." Plenius, the ingenious harpsichord-maker
and inventor of the lyrichord (whom we have before mentioned), obtained permission
of the proprietor to make a copy of it ; but his efforts do not appear to have been
attended with any great success.
At length, about the year 1760, many ingenious German mechanics left their
country and came to England in search of employment as pianoforte-makers ; this
gave the instrument its first impetus. A party of twelve travelled hither in one
company, and obtained, from this circumstance, the appellation of the " twelve
apostles."
A German, named Viator, resident in London, had made several important
improvements in the pianoforte. He was followed by Americus Backers, also a
German *, who had been in the employ of Silbermann of Neuberg ; but it does not
appear that the instruments of these makers found much favour with the public.
An event happened about this time which gave a new impetus to the instru-
ment, and awoke the ingenuity, as well as the ambition, of the chief performers and
manufacturers in England. John Christian Bach, organist, pianist, and composer,
arrived in this country, and established that series of concerts which first made
familiar amongst us the grand classical music of the German schools -f .
* " The name-board of a grand pianoforte is still in Bach, was for some time a scholar of his eldest brother, the
existence bearing the inscription celebrated Charles Phil. Emanuel Bach, under whom he
became a fine P 6 * ' n k^- iMtrument ' b *
AMEBICUS BACKEBS, FACTOR ET INTENTOR,
quitting him and going to Italy, where his chief study was
Jermyn Street, London, 1776."
the composition of vocal music, be assured me that during
(Pole's Musical Instruments in the great Industrial many years he made little ^ of a harpsichord or piano-
Exhibition of 1851). forte but to ^p^ for or accompany a voice. When he
t " Mr, J. C. Bach, having very early in life been de- arrived in England, his style of playing was so much
prived of the instructions of his father, the great Sebastian admired that he recovered many of the losses his hand had
8 2
132
THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND.
The harpsichord-makers now all lent their efforts to improve and popularize
the new instrument. The most successful amongst them was a German, named John
Zumpe (who had been in the employ of Tschudi), who succeeded in the construction
of some small pianofortes (similar in shape and size to their progenitors, the clavichord
and virginal), whereof the tone was peculiarly sweet, the touch good, and the price
sufficiently moderate to place them within the reach of all those who had hitherto
been purchasers of the harpsichord and spinet. " These instruments suddenly rose
into such favour," says a contemporary, " that there was scarcely a house in the
kingdom, where a stringed instrument had admission, but was supplied with one of
Zump6's pianofortes, for which there was nearly as great a demand in France as in
England ; in short, he could not make them fast enough to gratify the public fondness
for them.*" Zumpe entered into partnership with Meyer, and afterwards with
Buntebart ; f and after realising an ample fortune, retired to his native country. A
sustained by disuse, and by being constantly cramped and
crippled with a pen ; but he was never able to reinstate it
with force and readiness sufficient for great difficulties ;
and, in general, his compositions for the pianoforte are
such as ladies can execute with little trouble, and the
allegros rather resemble bravura songs than instrumental
pieces for the display of great execution. On which
account, they lose much of their effect when played without
the accompaniments, which are admirable, and so masterly
and interesting to an audience, that want of hand, or com-
plication on the harpsichord part, is never discovered."
Burney, Hist, of Music, iv, 482. Bach arrived in England
in 1763, and established his concerts, conjointly with Abel,
in the year following. These concerts subsisted for full
twenty years,
* Capel Loft, in the Monthly Magazine for 1809, p. 23,
says, " I wish to ascertain the exact period, if possible, of
the introduction of the pianoforte into England. That
its origin is German seems agreed ; but neither the era of
its invention there, nor of its being introduced either in
France, Italy, or here, seems to be ascertained. I have
seen, and often had the pleasure of hearing, a good piano-
forte, dated 1775 ; but I am not sure that this date might
not belong to it in a harpsichord state, and the pianoforte
improvement be made afterwards. I have seen another
which, in its whole structure and appearance, indicates
that when first made it had its present construction.
This is at Bury, at Mr. Ramsay's. The superscription in
front is :
JOANNES ZUMPE, fecit, 1766,
' Princes Street, Hanover Square." "
In a subsequent page of the same volume, a corre-
spondent informs Capcl Loft that he has a square pianoforte
made by Zumpe in 1768; he adds, "it is upon the com-
mon construction with two wires to each note, with the
mark XVIII upon it, which appears to have been the
number he had then made."
f He was in partnership with Meyer in 1778, and in
1784 with Buntebart. My friend, Mr. Charles Salaman,
has a charming little instrument made by John Zumpe et
Meyer, 1778: Sir George Smart has one of Zumpe's
pianofortes with quarter tones.
THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND. 133
recent writer says, " the place of his retirement we well remember, and have heard
good report of his cheerful glass and well-filled pipe, without which, in those days,
a German did not acknowledge that he lived."
Contemporary with Zumpe was John Pohlman, who, although his pianofortes
were of inferior tone, made a fortune by supplying those who could not obtain the
instruments of his more skilful countryman*.
The pianoforte as yet was considered as merely a "household" instrument ; its limits
being confined to private circles. In the year 1767, it was introduced on the stage of
Covent Garden Theatre, as a new instrument. We have much pleasure in giving the
following copy of an old play-bill, now in the possession of Messrs. Broadwoods,
which records its first public announcement :
" By particular desire For the Benefit of Mitt Brickler.
" THEATRE ROYAL IN COVENT GARDEN.
" On Saturday next, being the 16th of May, 1767, THE BEGGAR'S OPERA. Captain Macheath, by Mr. Beard ;
Peacham, by Mr. Shuter; Lockit, by Mr. Dunstall ; Filch, by Mr. Holtom; Player, by Mr. Gardner; Beggar, by
Mr. Bennet ; Mat o' the Mint, by Mr. Baker ; Mrs. Peacham, by Mrs. Stephens ; Diana Trapes, by Mrs. Copin ;
Mrs. Slammekin, by Mrs. Green ; Potty, by Miss Brickler ; with a Hornpipe by Miss D. Twist ; and a Country Dance
by the Characters in the Opera.
" End of Act 1, Miss Brickler will sing a favourite Song from Judith, accompanied by Mr. Dibdin, ON A NEW
INSTRUMENT CALLED PlANO-FORTE.
" To which will be added a FARCE called the UPHOLSTERER. The Barber, by Mrs. Woodward; Feeble, by Mr.
Murden ; Bellmour, by Mr. Perry ; RoveweU, by Mr. Davis ; Watchman, by Mr. Weller ; Quidnunc, by Mr. Dunstall :
Pamphlet, by Mr. Shuter ; Harriet, by Miss Vincent ; Maid, by Miss Cokayne ; Termagant, by Mrs. Green.
" Tickets to be had of Mr. Sarjant, at the Stage- door, where places for the Boxes may be taken."
Charles Dibdin, who has the merit of being the first person to perform publicly
on the pianoforte in this country, was born near Southampton in 1745. His mother
* A pianoforte made by Pohlman in 1772, for the The wires were little more than threads, and the hanyners
great composer Gluck, is thus described by Thalberg : consisted of a few piles of leather over the head of a hori-
" It was four feet and a half in length, and two feet in zontal jack working on a hinge." Report of the Juries,
width, with a small square sounding-board at the end. &c.
134 THE INTRODUCTION AND PBOGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND.
had attained her fiftieth year at his birth, and he was her eighteenth child. He was
educated at Winchester for the clerical profession, but his love of music predominated,
and he received his first instructions from Mr. Fussel, organist of Winchester
Cathedral. At the age of fifteen, he went to London, and, at sixteen, produced an
operetta in two acts, at Covent Garden Theatre, under the title of The Shepherd's
Artifice. As an actor he first appeared as Damcetas, in Midas, and was the original
Mungo in The Padlock, as well as Ralph in the Maid of the Mill. In 1778, he
became composer to Covent Garden Theatre, at a salary of ten pounds a week. About
1782, he built the Circus (now the Surrey) Theatre, which he managed four years.
In 1788, he produced at Hutchin's AuctionRooms, in King Street, Covent Garden,
the first of those entertainments which originated with him, under the title of The
Whim of the Moment. In this was the ballad ' Poor Jack,' of which seventeen
thousand copies were finally sold.
Dibdin, encouraged by his success, in 1791 fitted up a room in the Strand,
opposite Beaufort Buildings, which he called Sans Souci, and opened it with an enter-
tainment entitled Private Theatricals. In 1 793, he built himself a small theatre in
Leicester Place, under the same name. Park, in his Musical Memoirs (i, 175), says :
" As a proof of the versatility of Dibdin 's genius, it need only be stated that this
pretty little theatre was planned, painted, and decorated by himself; and that he wrote
the recitation and songs, composed the music to them, and sang, and accompanied
them on an organised pianoforte of his own invention." Here he continued his own
unaided exertions, with varied success, till he retired in 1805, when he disposed of
his stock, copyright, &c. to Messrs. Bland and Weller, for the sum of 1,800.
This great genius died in 1814, and his remains were deposited in St. Martin's
Burying-ground, Camden Town.
The English pianoforte is said to have received considerable improvements from
the poet Mason. By some, indeed, he is considered its inventor. Before, however,
noticing his particular claims, we shall give a slight sketch of his biography.
William Mason was born in the year 1725 ; his father, a clergyman of great
respectability, held the vicarage of the Holy Trinity, in Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire.
Of the early part of his education little is known. Having been admitted of St. John's
THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND. 135
College, Cambridge, he took his first degree in 1745 ; from thence he removed to
Pembroke Hall, of which Society he was elected a Fellow in 1747. The degree
of Master of Arts was conferred upon him two years afterwards, when he first
distinguished himself as a poet, by an Ode on the Installation of the Duke of New-
castle as Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. One of his next poetical
productions was Isis, an elegy, which occasioned an answer from Thomas Warton, in
his noble poem entitled The Triumph of Isis, in which that celebrated writer en-
deavoured to rescue his favorite place of residence from the imputations cast upon it
by his formidable rival. Mason's fame was, however, speedily secured by the publica-
tion of his drama of Elfrida, in the year 1752; this was followed, after a short
interval, by Caractacus, which performance contains some of his finest writing, particu-
larly the odes. In the year 1754, he took holy orders, and was fortunate enough to
obtain the patronage of the Earl of Holdernesse, who procured for him the appoint-
ment of Chaplain to his Majesty, and presented him with the valuable rectory of
Aston, in Yorkshire. Previous to his leaving college, Mason had attracted the
attention of the poet Gray by his imitations of L' Allegro and // Pensieroso ; and
from the congeniality of their pursuits and dispositions, a friendship was speedily
contracted, which terminated only on the decease of the latter in 1771. This circum-
stance exhibits, in an eminent degree, that warmth and fervour of affection which
characterized Mason through life ; he regarded the genius of Gray with an enthusiasm
" bordering upon idolatry." And upon the melancholy event of his decease, he took
upon himself the office of his biographer, and the editor of such part of his works as
were in a state fit for publication.*
Besides the church preferments which we have mentioned Mason to have attained
in the early part of his life, he was appointed Canon Residentiary and Precentor of the
Cathedral of York. For the latter office, which he discharged with unwearied
attention and ability, he was peculiarly qualified, from his knowledge of the science of
music, and the warm affection he felt towards it, of which he evinced a very sufficient
proof in his interesting Essays, Historical and Critical, on English Church Music,
* Gray bequeathed to him the whole of his library and MSS.
136 THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND.
printed at York, 12mo. 1795. Of the sister art of painting he was a professed
admirer, which no doubt actuated him towards the translation of Fresnoy's exquisite
latin poem ; a work in which purity, elegance of style, and beauty of versification,
are eminently conspicuous.
Mason married a most amiable woman, the daughter of William Sherman, Esq.
of Kingston upon Hull, with whom he enjoyed the most perfect human happiness.
She died at the early age of twenty -eight. The poet survived her near thirty years ;
his own death was occasioned by a hurt received in stepping from a carriage, which
produced a mortification. He died in the month of April 1797, in the seventy-second
year of his age, bequeathing a name to posterity not more distinguished for exemplary
worth and philanthropy, than for brilliancy of genius and talents, correctness of taste,
and the most consummate skill and excellence as a writer. A monument was, in the
early part of the present century, erected to his memory in the Poet's Corner of
Westminster Abbey, adjoining to that of Gray. The design is well executed by Bacon,
and represents a figure of Poetry holding a medallion of the deceased, whose loss she
is deploring. The inscription commemorates little more than his name and the day
of his death.
Mason's love of music prompted him to turn his attention to the defects of the
pianoforte ; but the precise date at which he devoted his talent to the subject is not
known. It was probably shortly after his German tour in 1755. Under the date
of June 27, he thus writes to his friend from Hanover. " Oh, Mr. Gray ! I bought
at Hamburgh such a pianoforte, and so cheap ! It is a harpsichord too of two unisons,
and the jacks serve as mutes when the pianoforte stop is played, by the cleverest
mechanism imaginable, won't you buy my Kirkman 1 "*
The writer of the article Pianoforte, in the fourth edition of the Encyclopedia
Britannica, 1810, vol. xvi, says: " The piano has been called a national instrument,
because it is said to be an English contrivance, the invention of the celebrated poet,
Mason. Mr. Mason had seen some attempts that were made by the Germans to make
keyed dulcimers, which were in some measure susceptible of the forte and piano ;
* The Correspondence of Thomas Gray and William Mason, edited by the Rev. J. Mitford, 8vo. 1853, p. 29.
THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND. 137
but as they were all constructed on one principle, and required a particular touch of
the ringer, which was of difficult acquisition, and which spoiled it for harpsichord
practice ; as they were also deficient in delicacy and justness ; and as the performer
was by no means certain of producing the very strength of sound intended, Mr. Mason
removed all those imperfections, by detaching the mallet entirely from the key, and
giving them only a momentary connection. It is by this improvement that the English
pianoforte is distinguished from all others. Mr. Mason's general principle may be
fully understood by the following description."
Jfc
" The parts arc represented in their state of inaction. The key A B K. turns, as usual, on the round edge of the
bar B ; and a pin 6, driven into the bar, keeps it in its place. The dot F represents a section of the spring. E D is the
mallet, having a hinge of vellum, by which it is attached to the upper surface of the bar E. At the other end is the
head D, of wood, covered with some folds of prepared kather. The mallet lies in the position represented in the figure,
its lower end resting on a cushion-bar K, which lies horizontally under the whole row of mallets. The key A R has a
pin C, tipt with a bit of the softest cork or buckskin. This reaches to within one-twentieth of an inch of the shank of
the mallet, but must not touch it The distance E e is about one-third or one- fourth of the length of the thank. When
the end A of the key is pressed down on the stuffing (two or three thicknesses of the most elastic woollen list), it raises
the mallet, by means of the pin C, to the horizontal position E d, within one-eighth or one-tenth of an inch of the wire
F ; but it cannot be so much pressed down as to make the mallet touch the wire. At the same time that the key raises
the mallet by means of the pin C, it also lifts off the damper G (a bit of sponge) from the wire. This damper is fixed on
the end of a little wooden pin G g connected with the lever g H, which has a vellum hinge at H. This motion of the
damper is caused by the pin I, which is fixed into the key near to R. These pieces are so adjusted that the first touch
of the key lifts the damper, and, immediately after, the pin C acts on the shank of the mallet. As it acts so near to its
centre of motion, it causes the head D to move briskly through a considerable arch D d. Being made extremely moreable
and very light, it is thus tossed beyond the horizontal position E d, and it strikes the wire F, which is now at liberty to
vibrate up and down, by the previous removal of the damper G. Having made its stroke, the mallet falls down again,
and rubs on the soft substance on the pin C. It is of essential importance that this mallet be extremely light. Were it
heavy, it would have so much force, after rebounding from the wire, that it would rebound from the pin C, and again
strike the wire. For it will be recollected that the key is, at this time, down, and the pin C raised as high as possible,
so that there is very little room for this rebound. Lessening the momentum of the mallet, by making it very light,
T
138 THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND.
making the cushion on the top of the pin C very soft, and great precision in the shape and figure of all the parts, are the
only securities against the disagreeable rattling which these rebounds would occasion. In respect to the solidity and
precision of workmanship, the British instruments are unrivalled, and vast numbers of them have been sent to all parts
of the Continent.
" As the blow of so light a mallet cannot bring much sound from a wire, it has always been found necessary to
have two strings for each note. Another circumstance contributes to enfeeble the sound. The mechanism necessary
for producing it makes it almost impossible to give any considerable extent to the belly or sound board of the instrument.
There is seldom any more of it than what occupies the space between the turning pins and the bridge. This is the more
to be regretted, because the basses are commonly covered strings, that they may be of moderate length. The bass notes
are also of brass, which has a considerable lower tone than a steel wire of the same diameter and tension. Yet even this
substitution for steel in the bass strings is not enough. The highest of them are much too slack, and the lowest ones
must be loaded, to compensate for want of length. This greatly diminishes the fullness, and still more the mellowness
*
and distinctness of the tone, and frequently makes the very lowest notes hardly appreciable. This inequality of tone
about the middle of the instrument is somewhat diminished by constructing the instrument with two bridges ; one for
the steel, and the other for the brass wires. But still the bass notes are very much inferior to the treble."
The mechanism of the grand pianoforte received considerable improvement from
the talents of Joseph Merlin, of whom we have given a particular account when
speaking of the harpsichord (see ante, p. 92). Many stories of his ingenuity are still
handed down in the traditions of the pianoforte manufactory. In the well-known
portrait of Fischer, the oboe player, by Gainsborough, now in Hampton Court Palace,
that celebrated performer is depicted leaning upon a grand pianoforte, upon the name
board of which is inscribed " Josephus Merlin Fecit."
The progress of the pianoforte in this country is characteristically exhibited in the
following extracts from the reminiscences of two well-known veterans in the art :
William Gardiner, of Leicester, who was born in 1743, speaking of his youthful
days, in his pleasant book of gossip, entitled Music and Friends, says (vol. i, p. 12) :
" My mother bought me a pianoforte of German make, not much bigger than two
writing desks put together. Upon this I began with the lessons of Caspar Heck, and
the thorough-bass of Pasquali." Again (p. 33) he says: "About the year 1782,
young Crotch was brought to Leicester, as a musical prodigy, being then not more
than five years old. He was brought first to our house, and played upon the pianoforte
as he sat upon his mother's knee. At that time there were not more than two or three
pianofortes in the town or neighbourhood ; mine was esteemed a good one, made by
THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIA.NOFOBTE IN ENGLAND. 139
John Pohlman, I suppose in Germany, and before any were made in England.* Upon
this instrument Crotch first exhibited his extraordinary talent in Leicester."
Michael Kelly, in his Reminiscences (vol. i, p. 21), speaking of the preparations
for his continental journey, in 1779, says : " As good pianofortes were in these times
scarce everywhere in Italy particularly, my father bought a grand one made by one
of the first London makers." This instrument formed part of Kelly's baggage during
his travels ; and he remarks : " It turned out in every respect excellent."
The same author (vol. ii, p. 161), describing Sheridan dining with him, shortly
before the production of Pizarro (to which Kelly wrote the music), adds : " I had
pen, ink, music-paper, and a small pianoforte, which the Duke of Queensbery had
given me, and which he had been accustomed to take with him in his carriage when
he travelled."
The pianoforte was common in the orchestras of our theatres during the last twenty
years of the eighteenth century. In 1770, Mr. Burney, the nephew of Dr. Burney,
was appointed pianist to Drury Lane Theatre ; and a few years aftervvads, Mr. Griffith
Jones was nominated to the same office at the rival house of Covent Garden. Kelly,
describing the performance of Lionel and Clarissa, at Dublin, in 1779, says : " Michael
Arne presided at the pianoforte in the orchestra."
We have now arrived at the period of the foundation of the two large firms
whose names are " household words " at the present day Messrs. Broadwood and
Stodart.
John Broadwood (the founder of the firm of Broadwood and Sons) was born in
Scotland, in the year 1731 ; and, when about twenty years of age, travelled up from
that country in search of employment in London. He was a carpenter or joiner by
trade, and entered the firm of Tschudi, the eminent harpsichord maker, of whom we
have before given some account (see p. 88 ante). Here he ingratiated himself so
completely with his master that he became his son-in-law, partner, and successor. The
earliest notice of a pianoforte of the square form in Messrs. Broadwood 's books is
* The writer is here mistaken ; John Pohlman was a German maker, resident in this country. (See p. 133 ante.)
T 2
140 THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND.
dated 1771 ; the earliest of the grand form, in 1781.* In 1783, the books of the
Great Seal Patent Office contain an entry of a grant (July 18th) " To John Broad-
wood, of Great Pulteney Street, Golden Square, 'pianoforte maker,' for his new
constructed pianoforte, which is far superior to any instrument of the kind hitherto
made." This ingenious artist and worthy man died in 1812, at the advanced age of
eighty-one, being succeeded by his son James Shudi Broadwood. There is an
excellent folio mezzotint engraving of him by Messrs. Harrison and Say.
Robert Stodart, the fellow workman of John Broadwood, succeeded Americus
Backers, before mentioned, and founded the firm so well known as John, William, and
Matthew Stodart. The Patent Office Books, under the date Nov. 21, 1777, contain
the entry of a grant to " Robert Stodart, of Wardour Street, Soho, musical instrument
maker, for his new invented sort of instrument, or of grand forte piano, with an octave
swell, and to produce various fine tones, together or separate, at the option of the
performer." This seems to be a combination of the harpsichord and grand pianoforte,
similar to that of Merlin's, before mentioned. It is stated that the grand pianoforte
action, known as " the old English direct or common action," was the joint contrivance
of John Broadwood, Robert Stodart, and Becker, a German mechanic, in the employ
of Tschudi. James Broadwood, in a letter in the Gentleman's Magazine, 1812,
attributed the invention to H. Baccers, a Dutchman, in 1772. We suspect that
Americus Backers, Becker, and H. Baccers, were one and the same person.
Jacob Kirkman, the founder of the eminent firm of Joseph Kirkman and Son,
was succeeded by his nephew Abraham, who was among the early improvers of the
pianoforte. Harpsichords, nevertheless, were made by this house as late as 1 800.
In 1786, John Gieb, an ingenious mechanic, effected a great improvement in the
pianoforte, by the invention of what is called the grasshopper action. It consisted in
the placing of an additional lever under that of the hopper hammer, the object of
which was to apply the moving power as near as possible to the pivot of the hammer,
which, it is evident, increased the rapidity of the blow. The end of the under lever
* It should be noticed that the first account book of 1851, this eminent establishment made no fewer than
the firm is, unfortunately, lost. Between 1771 and 103,750 pianos !
THE INTRODUCTUW AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND. 141
rested on a little piece of mechanism, fixed in the finger key, and called a grasshopper,
not unlike, in its object and contrivance, to that of the jack of the harpsichord. When
the key was struck, the upper end of the grasshopper, which was about the eighth of
an inch in thickness only, was carried past the end of the under lever, which rested
on it, but communicated its impulse in passing, and received the end of the lever on
a little block of wood glued on about a quarter of an inch below. In returning, the
grasshopper, which was kept in its upright position by a slight spring of brass wire,
yielded and passed the end of the lever again to its original position. Improvements
in this action were patented, in 1794 and 1798, by William Southwell.
" The merit of the pianoforte," says the writer of an excellent article in Brewster's
Cyclopedia, vol. xvi, p. ii, p. 601, " was not immediately acknowledged in any of the
three countries, Italy, France, or Germany ; nor was it in its own country that it came
first into vogue. In England it was little better. The elder Broadwood, by executing
the mechanism in a superior style, first put the superiority of the instrument over the
harpsichord beyond question ; and, although some maintained the orthodoxy of the
latter, the innovation gradually forced its way ; and it had, in a great measure, taken
possession of the public taste here, while the musicians of the Continent still clung to
the harpsichord.
" Ever since the pianoforte came into general use, the ingenuity of rival makers
has been exerted to improve the instrument in power and quality of tone, and in the
delicacy and effectiveness of the touch. These improvements have been effected
chiefly by enlarging the instrument in general, by extending the scale and increasing
the weight of the strings, by correspondently strengthening the frame-work, and by
improving the mechanism of the action.
" The original scale of the pianoforte was from FF (octave below that immediately
under the bass staff) up to f in alt, comprising five octaves; and this has been gradually
extended. The first addition was of half an octave upwards to C in altissimo. Then
the scale was carried down to CCC ; that is, half an octave lower than FF."
Francis Panormo, who was born in 1764, and died at the age of eighty, Decem-
ber 29, 1844, was the person who first suggested the additional keys to the pianoforte;
viz. those from f to C ; and found great difficulty in persuading the makers to listen to
142 THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND.
the proposition. The first pianoforte with these additional keys, made by Messrs.
Broadwood, was used at the Kotunda, Dublin, in a concert given by Ferdinand
Panormo, who was considered a fine performer in his time.
We have already shown that the pianoforte was first used on the public stage in
1767, and it is not a little singular that the same year was also productive of another
event equally important in the history of its progress viz. the arrival of J. S. Schroeter
in England.* Dr. Burney (Rees' Cyclopedia, in v. Schroeter) says : " The pianoforte
was a new instrument in this country : when he (Schroeter) first arrived, the hammer
instruments of a large size were bad, and harpsichord players produced no great effects
upon them ; but Schroeter may be said to have been the first who brought into
England the true art of treating that instrument. We were unwilling to give up
the harpsichord, and thought the tone of the pianoforte spiritless and insipid, till
expression and better instruments vanished our prejudices ; and the expression and
the chiar' oscuro, in performing music expressly composed for that instrument, made us
amends for the want of brilliancy in the tone so much that we soon found the
scratching of the quill in the harpsichord intolerable, compared with the tone produced
by the hammer."
The compositions and public performances of Clementi tended fully to establish
the new instrument in the confidence of the musical world. He is] called, by Dr.
Crotch, and justly, " the father of pianoforte music." He occupies a very distinguished
position in the annals of music, whether we regard him as composer, performer,
inventor, or as an improver of the mechanism of the pianoforte.
* The Belle Assembtte for August, 1807, having instrument with that name made in Germany. From the
named C. G. Schroter, organist of Nordhausen, Germany, improvement by the English makers, particularly by my
as the inventor of the pianoforte, produced the following father, John Broadwood, who was the first native of this
reply, in the Gentleman's Magazine of 1812, from James Island that attempted the business (before exclusively
Broadwood : " If by the celebrated Schroter mentioned in carried on by Germans and Flemings), it may be claimed
the Belle Assembtte as having invented the pianoforte in as a British instrument, from its capacity of tone, extent of
1717, the late composer for the pianoforte and first elegant compass, superior in effect to every instrument of the same
performer on that instrument is meant, the article must be kind made on the continent." It is hardly necessary to
incorrect, as he only died about twenty years ago, aged say, that the writer of the above letter confounded the two
about 58. The first maker of the grand pianoforte was Schroeters. "We have quoted it for the information which it
H. Baccers, a Dutchman, who, in 1772, invented nearly contains,
the mechanism by which it is distinguished from the
THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND. 143
Muzio dementi was born in the year 1 752, at Rome, where his father followed
the occupation of a chaser and embosser of silver vases and figures for the church
service. He was related also to Buroni, afterwards principal composer at St. Peter's,
from whom he received his earliest lessons in music. At six years of age, he com-
menced sol-fa-ing ; at seven, he was placed under an organist of the name of Cordicelli,
for instruction in harmony, and proceeded with such rapidity, that, at nine years old,
he passed his examination and was admitted to an organist's place in his native city.
His next masters were Santarelli, who is considered by the Italians the last great
master of the vocal school, and Carpini, the deepest contrapuntist of his age in Rome.
While studying under the latter, and as yet little more than twelve years old, young
dementi wrote, without the knowledge of his master, a mass for four voices, which
was so much admired by his friends that at length Carpini desired to hear it ; although
not much addicted to bestowing praise, even Carpini could not refuse his tribute of
applause, adding, however, what was probably very true, that if the youthful composer
had consulted his master, " it might have been much better."
About this time, young dementi's proficiency on the harpsichord, which, not-
withstanding his other studies, he had assiduously practised, attracted the notice of
the celebrated Peter Beckford, then on his travels in Italy. Mr. Beckford prevailed
on the parents to consign their son's future education to his care, and brought him to
England, to his seat in Dorsetshire, where the society and conversation of a family
distinguished by literary habits and taste, as much as by wealth and rank, must have
contributed in no small degree to inspire that relish for the whole circle of the belles
lettres which led Clementi, independent of the study of his own art, to acquire an
uncommon proficiency in both the living and dead languages, and an extensive
acquaintance with literature and science in general. The works of Corelli, Alessandro
Scarlatti, Paradies, and Handel, were the sources from which he derived musical
instruction, and the examples on which he formed his taste ; while at the same time
he was indefatigable in the practice of the instrument to which he had devoted himself.
His success was equal to his zeal and assiduity. At eighteen, he not only surpassed
all his contemporaries in execution, taste, and expression, but had already composed
(though it was not published till three years after) his celebrated Opera 2, a
144 THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND.
work which, by the common consent of all musicians, is entitled to the credit of being
the basis on which the whole fabric of modern pianoforte sonatas has been founded,
and which though it is now, from the immense progress which manual dexterity has
made in the last eighty years, within the powers of even fourth-rate performers was,
at the period of its production, the despair of such pianists as J. C. Bach and Schroeter,
who were content to admire it, but declined the attempt to play what the latter pro-
fessor declared could only be executed by its own composer, or by that great performer
of all wonders and conqueror of all difficulties, the Devil.
While thus assiduous in the prosecution of his studies, dementi was not, as many
men of studious habits are, inattentive to his personal health. Aware of the injurious
effects of constant sedentary application, he used every means that abstemiousness in
diet and a regular and judicious plan of exercise afforded to counteract them ; and, by
this plan, he found his spirits unfailingly elastic, and his powers of application to
study seldom wearied.
The time arranged by his father for his study with Mr. Beckford was no sooner
completed, than his love of independence determined dementi immediately to quit
that gentleman's house and commence his career in the arena of the metropolis, where
he was speedily engaged to preside at the harpsichord in the orchestra of the King's
Theatre ; and his reputation increased so rapidly, that he soon received as high
remuneration for his lessons or performances as Bach or any of his most celebrated
contemporaries. In 1780, at the suggestion of Pacchierotti, he determined to make
a tour on the Continent, whither his compositions and the fame of his executive talent
had long preceded him. In Paris, which was the first capital he visited, he remained
till the summer of 1781 ; when he proceeded, by the way of Strasbourg and Munich,
to Vienna, enjoying everywhere the patronage of sovereigns, the esteem and admira-
tion of his brother musicians, and the enthusiastic applauses of the public. Accustomed
to the measured and somewhat cold plaudits of an English audience, the first burst of
Parisian enthusiasm so astonished him, that he frequently afterwards jocosely remarked,
he could hardly believe himself the same dementi in Paris as in London. In Vienna,
he. became acquainted with Haydn, Mozart, Salieri, and many other celebrated
musicians then resident in that city ; and played alternately with Mozart before the
THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND. 145
Emperor Joseph II, and the Grand Duke Paul (afterwards Emperor) of Russia, and
his Consort. On one occasion, when the Imperial trio alone were present, dementi
and Mozart were desired to play. Some question of etiquette, as to which should begin,
arising, the Emperor decided it by calling on Clementi, who, after preluding for some
time, performed a sonata; and was followed by Mozart, who, without any other
exordium than striking the chord of the key, also played a sonata. The Grand
Duchess then said that one of her masters had written some pieces for her which
were beyond her powers, but that she should much like to hear their effect ; and
producing two, Clementi played one, and Mozart the other, at first sight. She next
proposed a theme, on which, at her request, the two great masters extemporized,
alternately, to the astonishment and delight of their Imperial audience. The plan
was evidently premeditated, and hardly fair towards the eminent professors who
were thus surprised into immediate competition. The result, however, was equally
honorable to both, between whom existed no unworthy feeling of jealousy, and
creditable to them as artistes, on whose talents the demand, however unexpected or
unusual, could not be too great.
In the course of his tour on the Continent, Clementi had written, in Paris, his
operas 5 and 6 ; and in Vienna, his operas 7, 8, 9, and 10. .On his return to England,
he published his operas 11 and 12. In the Autumn of 1783, he performed publicly
on the pianoforte at a series of concerts given at the Pantheon in Oxford Street. In
the same year, J. B. Cramer, then about fourteen or fifteen years old, and who had
previously received some lessons from Schroeter, and was studying counterpoint under
Abel, became his pupil, and attended him almost daily, until Clementi went again for
a short time to Paris, whence, however, he returned the following year ; and from
1784 to 1802, continued in London, pursuing his professional career with increasing
reputation as an instructor, composer, and performer.
About the year 1798, upon the failure of the house of Longman and Broderip,
by which Clementi lost considerably, he was induced, by the representations of some
eminent mercantile men, to engage in the music publishing and pianoforte manu-
facturing business. A new firm was quickly formed, at the head of which was
dementi's name ; and from that period he declined taking pupils, but dedicated
u
146 THE INTROD0CTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND.
the time which was not demanded by his professional studies or mercantile engage-
ments to improving the mechanism and construction of the instrument of which
he may be said to have first established the popularity. He was associated in the
manufacture of pianofortes with Mr. Frederick W. Collard. Thus arose the great
firm of Collard and Collard.
In 1802, Clementi visited the Continent for the third time, remaining abroad
about eight years. While in Berlin, he married his first wife ; but he had soon to
regret her loss. The widower, having recourse to travel to dissipate his grief, set out
for St. Petersburgh ; but very speedily left Russia and proceeded to Vienna, whence
he was soon called by the death of his brother, which rendered his presence in Rome
necessary. In 1810, he returned to England, and, in the year succeeding, entered
again into the matrimonial state. He now published other works, and among them
his Practical Harmony, in four volumes, and his Gradus ad Parnassum, in three.
Clementi was one of the founders and directors of the Philharmonic Society, to
which he presented two symphonies, and every season conducted one of the concerts
of that Institution. In 1827, the musical profession, as a testimony of affection and
respect, invited him to a dinner at the Albion Tavern ; and during the evening he was
prevailed on to sit down to the pianoforte, when, choosing a subject from Handel's First
Organ Concerto, he extemporized on it in a manner that proved how little his powers
of imagination were affected by time, and excited the wonder of a very numerous
company of judges assembled on the memorable occasion.
Clementi died on the 10th of March, 1832, after an illness of short duration,
though his mind had for some time previous been gradually yielding to the attacks of
age. His remains were deposited in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey, the three
choirs of London and a great number of his brother-professors attending to pay the
last tribute of respect to so valuable a man, and so eminent a composer.
The pianoforte was now firmly established in the public favour, and the date of
dementi's commencing manufacturer, i. e. 1800, gave the death blow to the old
harpsichord. " dementi's successors," says a recent writer, " worthily followed in his
steps ; finding new wants arise, from time to time, they demanded new improvements to
satisfy them; and thus the player and manufacturer vied with each other in the
general advance."
THE INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN ENGLAND. 147
Before closing this chapter, it will be interesting here to chronicle a list of
harpsichord and pianoforte makers resident in London at the end of the eighteenth
century, which we are enabled to do from a rare and perhaps unique Musical Directoni
for the Year 1794.*
" BECK, Pia Forte Maker, 10, Broad St. Carnaby Market
" BDNTLEBAET and SIEVERS, Instrument Makers, 7, Princes St. Hanover Square.
"CoRRil, Pia Forte Maker, 41, Broad St. Carnaby Market.
"DONE (Joshua), Pia Forte Maker, 30, Chancery Lane.
" ELWICK, Harpsichord Maker, Long Acre.
" GANEK, Pia Maker, 48, Broad St. Carnaby Market
" HANCOCK, Organized Pia Maker, Parliament St. Westminster.
" HOUSTON and Co. Pia Makers, 54, Great Marlborough St.
" KIRKM AN and SON, Harpsichord Makers, 19, Broad St. Carnaby Market.
" LONGMAN and BRODERIP, Pia Makers, 26, Cbeapside; 13, Haymarket; and Tottenham Court Road.
" PETUER (George), Instrument Maker, Oxford St.
" SHUDI and BROADWOOD, Instrument Makers, Great Pulteney St. Golden Square.
" STODDART, Pia Forte Maker, AVardour St."
* This volume consists of 84 pages, besides 6 of in- copy to which we refer is in the valuable library of the
troductory matter. It was compiled, according to the Sacred Harmonic Society,
signature at the end of the preface, by J. Doane. The
u 2
CHAPTER X.
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY.
AT the beginning of the nineteenth century, pianoforte making rapidty increased
in every part of Europe, especially in Germany, France, and England ; showing, as
M. Thalberg expresses it, " how broad spread became the estimation of the instru-
ment." From the year 1800 to the present time, scarce a year has passed without the
appearance in England alone of patents for real or imaginary improvements, "countless
experiments being made, most of them totally empirical and unimportant, but some,
especially in the last thirty years, truly scientific, resulting in the enlargement and
improvement which we now find."
It is not possible to enter into minute details respecting all the various ex-
periments that have gradually brought the pianoforte to its present state of perfection,
nor to do full justice to those scientific men who have directed their talents and
energies to the subject ; but we have thought that a list of patents, chronologically
arranged, from the year 1694 to the year 1851, and carefully extracted from the
valuable Indices prepared by Mr. Woodcroft, would be an acceptable record to those
interested in the subject of the present work. We have the more pleasure in
presenting this list to our readers, because it corrects many errors prevalent in the
" trade" respecting the precise period that gave birth to certain important improve-
ments now in daily use.*
* The Indices prepared by Mr. Woodcroft out of the dustry and extensive practical knowledge. They are four
materials accumulated during two centuries in the Great in number. The first gives at length the titles of the
Seal Patent Office are valuable memorials of patient in- patents with a progressive number prefixed. From this
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
149
1694. GEORGE JOYCE and PETER EAST "a special! lycence for the sole use and exercise of their new invention
(Oct. 20.) of an instrument, which being applyd to organs, clockys, or any other key instrument, as harpsicord,
virginalls, or the like, will cause the same too chyme or playe any mannere of tune, air, or notes plain,
or perform a consort, and alterable to any tune or air in halfe an hour by any person, tho' noe master of
, miisick, without changing the instrument."
1730. JOHN HARRIS, " harpsichord and spinnett maker" a patent for his " new invention of an harpsichord,
(Oct. 22.) on which (having only two sets of strings) may be performed either one or two unisons, or two unisons
and one octave, either in the/brte or pianos, or loud or soft, and the contrary, may be executed as quick
as thought, and also double basses, by touching only single keys, whereby hard divisions to the basse
part may be well played in a double manner without the thumb and finger together."
1730. WILLIAM BARTON, for his " new invention of pens of silver, brass, steel, and all other sorts of metals, to
(Dec. 17.) improve the use of harpsichords and spinnets, which will improve the tone of the said instruments, and
last many years without amendment; crow and raven's quills, of which they are now made, requiring
frequent change and trouble in repairing."
1741. ROGER PLENIUS, of the parish of St. George, Hanover Square, harpsichord maker, for "bis new invencion
(Dec. 30.) of meliorating the musical instruments called harpsichords, lyrichords (which are harpsichords strung
with cat gut), and spinnets."
1745. ROGER PLENIUS, of St. George, Hanover Square, harpsichord maker, for the "sole use and exercise of
(July 10.) his new invencion for the great improvement of musical instruments called harpsicords and spinnets."
1769. BURKAT SHUDI, harpsichord maker, for "his invention of a piece of mechanism or machinery by which
(Dec. 18.) the harpsichord is very much improved."
1770. THOMAS II AXIIV, of York, musical instrument maker, for " his new invented single harpsichord, to answer
(Dec. 28.) all the purposes of a double one, and sell for the common price of a single one."
1772. ADAM WALKER, of Manchester, " teacher of natural philosophy," for " his new invented method of producing
(July 29.) continued tones from the wire strings of an harpsichord, and thereby remedying the acknowledged defect
of these kinds of instruments, giving them all the powers of musical expression which the organ, violin,
lyrichord, or harmonica, are capable of; and that he can adapt this improvement, which he calls a
coelestina, to any harpsichord without altering either the form of the instrument or any of its stops, by
adding a new piece of mechanism to it, of which he hath been the sole inventor."
catalogue is formed: 1st, an index of subjects, classified
and alphabetically arranged ; and 2nd, an alphabetical
index of names, &c. The series is rendered complete by a
" Reference Index," giving under each progressive number
the title and vol. of every work in which any notice or
description of the invention represented by that number
has appeared. Not, at first, being aware of this valuable
record, we took the trouble to compile a similar list of
" Inventions and Improvements in the Pianoforte " from
such works as were accessible : i. e. The Repertory of
Arts and Manufactures ; Newton's London Journal of
Arts ; the Official Catalogues and Jury Reports of the
Exhibition of 1851, &c. It is hardly necessary to say that
the present list is much more extensive, and to be relied on
for its accuracy. We have added a few remarks between
brackets : those in italics are Mr. Woodcraft's.
150 THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
1774. JOSEPH MERLIN, of Little Queen Ann Street, Mary-le-Bone, mathematical instrument maker, for " his
(Sept. 12.) new invented kind of compound harpsichord, in which, besides the jacks with quills, a set of hammers,
of the nature of those used in the kind of harpsichords called piano forte, are introduced in such
manner that either may be played separately or both together, at the pleasure of the performer ; and for
adding the aforesaid hammers to an harpsichord of the common kind already made, so as to render it
such compound harpsichord."
1774. SAMUEL GILLESPT, of Brownlow Street, St. Giles-in-the-Fields, harpsichord maker, for " his new
(Dec. 28.) constructed principle of putting on the quills to strike the strings of a harpsichord with a peddle and
swell, which raises the top, brings on the tone, and swells a new celestial stop, at the same time
preserving the instrument compleat."
1777. ROBERT STODART, of Wardour Street, Soho, musical instrument maker, for " his new invented sort of
(Nov. 21.) instrument, or of grand forte piano with an octave swell, and to produce various fine tones, together
or separate, at the option of the performer." (A combination of the harpsichord and grand pianoforte.)
1783. JOHN BROADWOOD, of Great Pulteney Street, Golden Square, piano forte maker, for " his new
(July 18.) constructed piano forte which is far superior to any instrument of the kind heretofore made."
1786. JOHN GIEB, of the Old Baily, musical instrument maker, for " his new improvement upon the musical
(Nov. 9.) instruments called the pianoforte and harpsichord, by which the same will become perfect and compleat
instruments of their kind, which hath never before been discovered, and by which the same can be more
easily tuned and played upon ; and that such improvement extends to each of such instruments equally
alike." (The grasshopper action, which is still in use for square instruments, is included in this patent.)
1787. JOHN LANDRETH, of Tabernacle "Walk, near Old Street, musical instrument maker, for "his new
(March 31.) improvement upon the several musical instruments called piano forte, harpsichord, organ and guitar,
and upon various other musical instruments, by which the same can be more easily kept in order and
played upon, and by which the same will become perfect and compleat instruments of their kind, which
hath never before been discovered."
1787. HUMPHREY WALTON, of the parish of St. Pancras, musical instrument maker, for " his new improvements
(May 25.) on the musical instrument called the pianoforte, and other instruments, which he believes will render
them more compleat and perfect than any now in use."
1790. JOHN CRANG HANCOCK, of Wych Street, St. Clement Danes, organ builder, for "his new invented
(April 13.) grand pianoforte with a spring key touch, German flute, and harp, which is preferable to any hitherto
discovered."
1792. GEORGE GARCKA, of Wardour Street, Soho, musical instrument maker, for his " new improvements on
(Feb. 4.) the pianoforte, which will render that instrument more perfect than any now in use."
1792. JAMES DAVIS, of Tottenham Court Road, organ builder, for " his new invented improvements upon the
(June 6.) several musical instruments called pianofortes and harpsichords."
1790. JAMES BALL, of Duke Street, Grosvenor Square, piano forte maker, for " his new invented improvements
(Nov. 1G.) upon the square and other piano fortes, which will render these instruments more perfect than any
hitherto made."
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 151
1792. GEORGE BCTTERT, of the parish of St. Martin-in-the-Fields, musical instrument maker, frfr " his new
(Jan. 26.) improvement in the construction of piano fortes and all other musical instruments in which hammers
are or can be made use of."
1794. SEBASTIAN ERARD, of Great Marlborough Street, musical instrument maker, for " his new invented
(Oct. 1 7.) improvements in the construction of harps and pianofortes, both large and small, and which improve-
ments mar also be applied to all kinds of instruments where keys are used."
1794. WILLIAM SOUTHWELL, late of Dublin, but now of Lad Lane, London, musical instrument maker, for
(Oct. 18.) "his new invented improvements in the construction of the musical instrument called a piano forte,
by which improvements the tones of such instruments are rendered more distinct and perfect, and the
players' playing on such instruments have a power to produce the gradations of tones from piano to forte
with greater effect than they are able at present to produce the same ; and an additional number of keys
may be put to such instruments in a new manner, upon a better construction than such keys can be put
to piano fortes at present." (Improvements in the dampers form the basis of this patent.)
1795. WILLIAM STODART, of Golden Square, piano forte maker, for " his new invented upright grand piano
(Jan. 12.) forte, of the form of a book case, the mechanism of which is upon an entire new construction."
1797. WILLIAM ROI.FE and SAMUEL DATIS, of Cheapside, musical instrument maker, for " new invented
(Jan. 31.) improvements upon the musical instruments called the harpsichord, grand pianoforte, and square
pianoforte. (See The Repertory of Arts and Manufactures, voL vii, p. 431.)
1798. WILLIAM SOUTHWELL, of Broad Court, St. Martin-in-the-Fields, musical instrument maker, for " his
(Nov. 8.) new invented improvements on the action and construction of piano fortes and other musical instru-
ments." (Further improvements in the dampers.)
1799. JOSEPH SMITH, of the parish of St. Martin-in-the-Fields, gentleman, for "his new invented improvements
(Oct 3.) in the internal bracings of pianofortes, so as to admit the introduction into the internal pan of the
instrument of a drum, labour, or tambourine, with sticks or beaters thereunto belonging, together with
other improvements thereon." (See The Repertory of Arts and Manufactures, vol. x, 215 ; xii, 71 ;
xv, 215.)
1801. SEBASTIAN ERARD, for " his new invented improvements in the construction of harps and pianofortes.
(May 16.)
1801. JOHN CONRAD BECKER, of Princes Street, Soho, musical instrument maker, for "his new invented
(Nov. 7 ) improvements in musical instruments, chiefly applicable to harps and piano fortes." (See The
Repertory of Arts and Manufactures, vol. xvi, p. 146.)
1801. ANTONIUS BEMETZRIEDER, of Chelsea, master of arts, and ROBERT SCOTT, JOHN SCOTT, and ALEXANDER
(Nov. 10.) SCOTT, of Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, musical instrument makers, for " their new invented
method of making piano fortes, entirely new, both in principle, construction, and shape." (See The
Repertory of Arts and Manufactures, vol. xvi, p. 143.)
1801. EDWARD RYLEY, of Kingston-upon-Hull, organ builder, and piano forte maker, for "his new invented
(Nov. 28.) moveable keys for pianofortes, organs, and other instruments." (See The Repertory of Arts and
Manufactures, voh xvi, p. 144.)
152 THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
1802. THOMAS LOUD, of Hoxton, musical instrument maker, for "his new invented improvements in the action
(Mar. 9.) and construction of upright piano fortes."
1803. GEORGE WOODS, of Barbican, gentleman, for "his new invented method of constructing harps, harp-
(June 28.) sichords, piano fortes, violins, guitars, and other stringed musical instruments."
1807. WILLIAM SOUTHWELL, of the city of Dublin, musical instrument maker, for "his invented certain
(April 8.) improvements upon a piano forte, which is so constructed as to prevent the possibility of its being so
frequently out of tune as piano fortes now generally are, which he denominates ' a cabinet piano forte.'' "
1808. SEBASTIAN ERARD, of Great Marlborough Street, for "his invented certain improvements upon piano
(Sept. 24.) fortes large and small, and upon harps, for which he has already obtained a patent." (The up-bearing
is included in this patent. By this the stroke of the hammer forced the string against the nut, instead
of away from it, which was the case with the dcwn-bearing. A firmer ;md increased tone is the result.)
1809. DAVID LOESOHMAN, of Newman Street, piano forte maker, for " his invented certain improvements in the
(July 26.) musical scale of keyed instruments with fixed tones, such as pianos, organs, &c." (The Enharmonic
piano, an account of which may be seen in the Monthly Magazine, 1812, pp. 9, 213, 409.)
1810. SEBASTIAN ERARD, of Great Marlborough Street, for "his invented certain improvements on piano fortes
(May 2.) and harps."
1811. WILLIAM SOUTHWELL, of Gresse Street, Rathbone Place, piano forte maker, for "his invented certain
(March 4.) improvements in the construction of a pianoforte."
1811. ROBERT WORNUM, the younger, of Princes Street, Hanover Square, piano forte maker, for "his invented
(March 26.) improved upright piano forte."
1811. WILLIAM FREDERICK COLLARD, of Tottenham Court Road, musical instrument maker, for "his invented
(Sept. 9.) certain improvements upon an upright piano forte."
1816. WILLIAM SIMMONS, of Wigan, Lancashire, writing master and teacher of accounts, for " his invented
(May 14.) certain improvements applicable to keyed instruments, as the organ, piano forte, harpsichord, or to any
instrument or set of instruments to which keys are, or may, or can be affixed."
1816. JOSEPH KIB.KMAN, of Broad Street, St. James's, piano forte maker, for "his invented improved method
(Oct. 14.) of applying an octave stop to piano jortej."
1816. JOHN DAT, of Brompton, lieutenant on half-pay, of our llth regiment of foot, for " his invented ' certain
(Nov. 14.) improvements and additions in the construction of piano fortes and other keyed musical instruments.'"
1817. ISAAC HENRT ROBERT MOTT, of Brighton, composer and teacher of music, for " his invented 'Method
(Feb. 1.) of producing from vibrating substances a tone or musical sound, the peculiar powers in the management
whereof are entirely new, and which mnrical fautWBMKt h llniUlllilllllnn the tOftiiHltte piano forte.' " j
1820. JAMES THOM, of Wells Street, Mary-le-bone, piano forte maker, and WILLIAM ALLEN, of Castle Street,
(Jan. 15.) ditto, piano forte maker, "for their invented or found out 'a certain improvement in piano fortes.' "
(This patent was brought out by Stodart ; it was for the metal tube bracing. Before this, however,
Hawkins and Braithwaite had both made use of metal bars for upright instruments. This bracing was
also compensating, as the metallic tubes possessing the same properties as the strings, extended or \
relaxed simultaneously with them.)
11
THE PROGRESS OP THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 153
1820. ROBERT WORNUM, of Wigmore Street, Cavendish Square, piano forte maker, for ' his invented improve-
(May 13.) ment on piano fortes and certain other stringed instruments." (Equal tension stringing: this plan has
not been generally adopted.)
1821. WILLIAM FREDERICK COILARD, of No. 195, Tottenham Court Road, Ac. for "his invented certain
(March 8.) improvements on musical instruments called piano fortes" (an additional bridge and a moveable
damper).
1821. WILLIAM SOUTHWELL, of Gresse Street, Rathbone Place, piano forte manufacturer, for " certain improve-
( April 5.) ments on cabinet pianofortes " (the action parts).
1821. PIERRE ERARD, of Great Marlborough Street, musical instrument maker, "in consequence of com-
(Dec. 22.) munications made to him by a certain foreigner residing abroad, he is in possession of 'an invention of
certain improvements on piano fortes and other keyed instruments.' " (The_repetition action This is \
a beautiful piece of mechanism, which, while it gives a blow of great force, can also be modified to the )
most delicate touch, the irttol bring always under the hand ready for the repetition of the stroke.)
1823. FRANCIS DEAKIN, of Birmingham, sword maker, for " his improvements to piano fortes.and other stringed
(Feb. 18.) instruments."
1823. HENRIT SMART, of Berners Street, piano manufacturer, for " certain improvements in the construction of
(July 24.) pianofortes."
1823. THOMAS TODD, of Swansea, South Wales, organ builder, for his " improvement in producing tone upon I
(Dec. 4.) musical instruments of various descriptions" (obtaining violin notes from pianofortes).
1824. WILLIAM WHEATSTONE, of No. 118, Jermyn Street, St. James's, music seller, for "a new method of
(July 2.0.) improving and augmenting the tones of piano fortes, organs, and euphonions " (by introducing drums).
1825. PIERRE ERARD, &c. "in consequence of communications made to him by a certain foreigner residing
(Jan. 5.) abroad, of 'certain improvements on pianofortes.'" (The system of fixed metal-bracing, which is now
generally adopted.)
1825. FRANCIS MELVILLE, of Argyll Street, in the city of Glasgow, piano forte maker, for an " improved method
(Jan. 18.) of securing that description of small piano fortes commonly called square piano fortes from the injuries
to which they are liable from the tension of the strings."
1825. GEORGE AUGUSTUS KOLLMAN, of the Friary, St. James's Palace, professor of music, for "certain
(Feb. 26.) improvements in the mechanism and general construction of piano fortes."
1825. JAMES SHUDI BROADWOOD, of Great Pulteney Street, Golden Square, for "certain improvements in
(Oct. 6.) small, or what are commonly called square pianofortes" (preventing the recoil of the hammer).
1826. (July 4.) ROBERT WORNUM, Ac. for " certain improvements on piano fortes (the action part).
1827. PIERRE EUAUD, &c. "in consequence of communications made to him by a certain foreigner residing
(Feb. 20.) abroad," of " certain improvements in the construction of piano fortes."
1 827. JAMES STEWART, of Store Street, Bedford Square, piano forte maker, for his " certain improvements in piano
(March 22.) fortes, and in the mode of stringing the same." (A new damper arrangement forms part of this patent,
in which the vertical wire was made to rise at some distance behind the strings actually struck, the head
being elongated this distance forwards. In the old syttem, the damper wire, rising close by the side of the
X
154
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
vibrating strings, was apt to jar against them an evil which this improvement removed. This patent
was brought forward by Messrs. Collard.)
1827. JAMES SHUDI BROADWOOD, &c. for "certain improvements in the grand piano fortes."
(April 9.)
1827. EDWARD DODD, of 62, Berwick Street, Oxford Street, instrument maker, for " certain improvements on
(July 25.) piano fortes."
1827. WILLIAM DETTMAR, of Upper Mary-le-bone, piano forte maker, for "certain improvements on piano
(Aug. 30.) fortes " (altering the pitch).
1828. JOHN HENRY ANTHONY GUNTER, of Camden Town, piano forte manufacturer, for " certain improvements j
(July 10.) on piano fortes " (an additional sounding board).
1828. ROBERT WORNUM, &c. for "certain improvements on upright piano fortes." (The pietdlo action, which
(July 24.) has been extensively followed by the foreign makers.)
1 829. FRANCIS DAT, of the Poultry, optician, and AUGUST MUNCK, mechanic, of the same place, " in consequence
(June 19.) o a communication made to them by a certain foreigner residing abroad, and inventions by themselves,' 1
for " certain improvements on musical instruments " (adapting toHUHHU metallic springs to a )
piano forte).
1829. THOMAS HALL ROLFE, of Cheapside, musical instrument maker, for " an improvement or improvements
(Aug. 11.) upon the self-acting piano forte."
1 829. JAMES STEWART, of George Street, Euston Square, piano forte "maker, for " certain improvements on
(Nov. 2.) piano fortes." (A check to the under hammer, to prevent the rebound of the hammer against the stringN
This patent was brought out by Messrs. Collard.)
1830. SIMON THOMPSON, of Great Yarmouth, mariner's compass maker, for " certain improvements in piano
Feb. 27.) fortes" (keys and action part).
1831. JOHN CHARLES SCHWIESO, of Regent Street, musical instrument maker, for " certain improvements on
(Feb. 2.) piano fortes and other stringed instruments."
1831. WILLIAM ALLEN, of Catherine Street, Strand, piano forte maker, for "certain improvements upon piano
(July 20.) fortes."
1832. PIERRE FREDERIC FISCHER, of Chester Place, Regent's Park, gentleman, for an invention communicated
(Sept. 8.) to him by a certain foreigner residing abroad, of " certain improvements in piano fortes.' 1
1833. JACOB FREDERICK ZEITTER, of New Cavendish Street, Portland Street, piano forte maker, for his
(Nov. 1.) invention of "certain improvements on piano- fortes and other stringed musical instruments. 1 '
1835. JAMES STEWART, of George Street, Euston Square, piano forte maker, for his invention of " improvements
(Jan. 15.) in the mechanism of horizontal grand and square piano fortes." (A naw eOBgtniction of the action,
the escapement being placed upon the toy, and, coming into contact with a lever "f CTBBfc th " g ^
regulating the rise and ftll of th hammer.) J
1835. FREDERICK LUDWIG HAHN DANCHELL, of Great Marlborough Street, musical instrument maker, for
(March 2.) " certain improvements in piano fortes ; being a communication partly from his partner, FREDERICK
GEORGE GREINER, a foreigner residing abroad.' 1
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
155
1835.
(March 2.)
1835.
(May 13.)
1835.
(Dec. 31.)
1836.
(Feb. 17.)
1836.
(March 8.)
1836.
(March 8.)
1836.
(May 14.)
1837.
(Aug. 24.)
183.0.
(Feb. 21.)
183.9.
(Feb. 23.)
1840.
(Feb. 14.)
1840.
(June 1.)
1840.
(Sept. 24.)
1840.
(Nov. 7.)
1840.
(Dec. 16.)
1841.
(June 23.)
1841.
(July 7.)
1841.
(Nov. 11.)
ROBERT WOLF, of Cornhill, musical instrument maker, for " an improvement in pianofortes, consisting in
the new construction, on the principle of acoustics, of a sounding body applicable to every description
of piano fortes.''
1'iERRE FREDERICK. FISCHER, of Great Marlborough Street, merchant, for "certain improvements in
piano fortes. 1 '
PIERRE ERARD, of Great Marlborough Street, musical instrument maker, for " certain improvements in
piano fortes," being an extension of former Letters Patent granted by His late Majesty George IV.
JOSEPH LIDEL, of Arundel Street, Panton Square, professor of music, for " certain improvements in
piano fortes, being a communication from a foreigner residing abroad."
JOHN GODWIN, of Cumberland Street, Hackney Road, piano forte maker, for " an improvement in the
making or construction of piano fortes."
CHARLES GUYNEMER, of Manchester Street, Manchester Square, professor of singing, for "certain
improvements in piano fortes, being a communication from a foreigner residing abroad."
WHBATLEY KIRK, of Commercial Street, Leeds, musicseller, and manufacturer of piano fortes, for "certain
improvements in piano fortes."
WILLIAM SOUTHWELL, of No. 5, Winchester Row, New Road, piano forte maker, for "a certain
improvement in piano fortes."
JOHANN ANDREAS STUMP/F, of Great Portland Street, musical instrument maker, for "improvements in
grand and other piano fortes."
GEORGE AUGUSTUS KOLLSIAN, of the Friary, St. James's Palace, professor of music an extension of
former Letters Patent for "certain improvements in the mechanism and general construction of
piano fortes."
JOSEPH CLARE, of Boston, in the county of Lincoln, printer, for his invention of " improvements in
piano fortes."
JOHN HAWLEY, of Frith Street, Soho, watch maker, for " improvements in pianos and harps."
PIERRE ERARD, for his invention of improvements in piano fortes." (An action for the oblique pianoforte.)
EDWARD DODD, of Kentish Town, musical instrument maker, for his invention of " improvements in
piano fortes."
JOHN STEWARD, of Wolverhampton, in the county of Stafford, esquire, for his invention of " an improve-
ment in the construction of pianofortes, harpsichords, and other similar stringed musical instruments."
JOHN GODWIN, of Cumberland Street, Hackney Road, pianoforte maker, for his invention of "an
improved construction of pianofortes of certain descriptions."
JAMES STEWARD, of Wolverhampton, in the county of Stafford, esquire, for his invention of " certain
improvements in the construction of pianofortes. (The Enphonicon ; an upright pianoforte, the frame-
\vork entirely of iron, with the lias* strings expnse.l in the i'<Tm <>f a harp. It h^l ti.r.-... soundj-boanjfc]
JAKES STEWART, of 21, Osnaburgh Street, pianoforte maker, for "certain improvements in the action of
horizontal pianofortes." (The introduction of jh trmntog <jajpanent faad pon the hammer-rail,
x 2
156 THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
thereby admitting of a firmer blow, and greater resistance ; as also a new repetition movement. \
1842. THOMAS LAMBERT, of Regent's Park, musical instrument maker, for "improvements in the action of
(Jan. 15.) cabinet pianofortes."
1842. HENRY FOWLER BROADWOOD, of 33, Great Pulteney Street, Golden Square, for " an improvement in
(Feb. 8.) that part of a pianoforte or harpsichord, or other like instrument, commonly called the name board."
1842. ROBERT WORNUM, of Store Street, Bedford Square, for " improvements in the action of pianofortes."
(Feb. 15.)
1843. JOSEPH KIRKMAN, jun. of Soho Square, pianoforte manufacturer, for "improvements in the action of
(Jan. 19.) pianofortes."
1843. HENRT DU BOCHET, of 46, South Mall, in the city of Cork, Ireland, pianoforte tuner, for " a new method
(Feb. 11.) of making pianofortes."
1843. JAMES STEWART, of No. 3, Gloucester Crescent, Regent's Park, pianoforte maker, and THOMAS LAMBERT,
(April 2.9.) of 91, Albany Street, pianoforte maker, for " improvements in the action of pianofortes."
1844. CHARLES MAURICE ELIZEE SAUTTER, of Austin Friars, gentleman, for "improvements in pianofortes."
(July 3.)
1844. OBED MITCHELL COLEMAN, of Fitzroy Square, gentleman, for " improvements in pianofortes."
(Oct. 10.)
1844. SEBASTIEN MERCIER, of Paris, manufacturer of pianofortes, for " improvements in pianofortes."
(Dec. 12.)
1845. WILLIAM HATTERSLET, of Regent Street, Westminster, pianoforte maker, for " certain improvements in
(April 7.) the construction of pianofortes."
1845. EDWARD LESLEY WALKER, of Foley Place, professor of music, for " improvements in pianofortes."
(Oct. 10.)
1845. BENJAMIN NICKELS, of York Street, Lambeth, machinist, for " improvements in pianofortes."
(Oct. 27.)
1845. SAMUEL THOMAL CROMWELL, of Romsey, Hants, teacher of music, for " improvements in apparatus to
(Nov. 11.) be applied to pianofortes." r-v.
1846. ISAAC HENRY ROBERT MOTT, of No. 76, Strand, pianoforte maker, for " certain improvements in )
(April 28.) musical instruments, whereby they are rendered much more durable, much more capable of resisting C
the injurious and destructive effects of the atmosphere (especially of extreme climates), and whereby,/ \
the quality of their tone is greatly improved and remains good for a much longer period."
1846. FREDERIC HANDELL BURKINYODNG, of Baker Street, gentleman, for " improvements in pianofortes."
(June 16.)
1846. THOMAS WOOLLEY, of Nottingham, pianoforte manufacturer, for " improvements in pianofortes."
(July 8.)
THEOPHILE AUGUSTE DRESCHKE, of Rue Therese, Paris, late an officer of artillery in the service of
(July 31.) Prussia, and late professor of sacred music at the University of Berlin, for " improvements in the keys
of pianofortes and other keyed musical instruments."
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENffURY. 157
1846. ALEXANDRE DEBAIN, manufacturer, of Paris, for " certain improvements applicable to keyed musical
(Aug. 29.) instruments."
1847. JOHN SPEAR, of Gloucester Road, Hyde Park Gardens, gentleman, for " improvements in pianofortes and
(April 29.) in the musical scale of notes in use for such instruments ; and also in apparatus to facilitate the action
of the fingers on the keys of pianofortes."
1848. JAMES MONTGOMERY, of Salisbury Street, engineer, for " certain improvements in pianofortes and other
(Jan. 11.) similar finger keyed instruments."
1849. WILLIAM PHILLIP PARKER, of Lime Street, City, gentleman, for " improvements in the construction of
(May 15.) pianofortes."
1850. PIERRE ERARD, of Paris, for "improvements in the construction of pianofortes." (The addition of pedal )
(Sept. 12.) keys. The patent also includes the metal wrest-plank.)
1851. JOHN HOFKINSON, of Oxford Street, pianoforte manufacturer, for " improvements in pianofortes." (The )
(June 3.) repetition and tremolo action.)
To take a retrospective glance at the interesting information furnished by this list,
We find, as early as 1774, mention of the " pianoforte" in the patent granted
to Joseph Merlin. This is followed up, in 1777, by Robert Stodart's "newly invented
grand pianoforte." Then, in 1783, we have " John Broad wood, of Great Pulteney
Street, Golden Square" (the locale of the firm at the present day), " pianoforte
maker." In succeeding years, we find Gieb, Landreth, Walton, Hancock, Garcka,
Davis, Bull, and Buttery all unknown men to the present generation each con-
tributing his quota towards the perfection of the pianoforte.
In 1794, we first notice the great name of Sebastian Erard; followed, in the
same year, by William Southwell, an artist of considerable skill, and to whom the
instrument is indebted for many of its greatest improvements. Then comes Stodart,
with his invention of the " upright grand" pianoforte ; and William Rolfe, the founder
of a most respectable house, in being at the present day. The century is well closed
by Southwell's perfection of his damper action.
The nineteenth century is commenced by the name of Erard; and followed,
shortly afterwards (in 1807), by Southwell's invention of the " cabinet" pianoforte.
In 1811, the name of Robert Wornum first appears, as an improver of the "upright"
pianoforte an instrument which he afterwards, in the name of the " Cottage" and
the " Piccolo," made his own. Wornum was an artist of extensive practical knowledge,
158 THE BROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
and profound mechanical skill. Many of his inventions are now spread over the
Continent as well as England.
Tfie well-known name of Collard makes its first appearance in the Patent books
of 1811; but the factory, as we have shown, under the names of Longman and
Broderip, and afterwards under that of dementi, was established in the previous
century. Joseph Kirkman follows, in 1816, with the curious invention (derived from
the harpsichord) of an " octave stop" to the pianoforte. This is the first appearance
of another great name in the books of the Patent Office. The year 1817 introduces
us to Isaac Mott's " Sostinente pianoforte," an improvement of the " celestina," as
patented by the philosopher, Adam Walker, in 1772.
The year 1820 exhibits a new era in the construction of pianofortes the
invention of " metallic tubes" by Messrs. Thorn and Allen. This paved the way for
various patents introduced by the great makers at different periods : i. e. for the
introduction of steel tension bars-, metal bracings of various kinds, and steel string
plates ; all having for their object the strengthening of the instrument, so as to enable
it to resist the enormous strain from the increased and increasing weight or tension
of the strings.
A more perfect mechanism of touch was the next great desideratum ; and in the
next year (1821), Erard took out the patent for his beautiful piece of mechanism
known as the " repetition action." The touch has been brought to still greater
perfection by the ingenious Mr. John Hopkinson, whose first patent for his " repe-
tition and tremolo action," taken out in 1851, closes our list.
It would have been desirable to have recorded a similar list of patents taken out in
foreign countries ; but the task was impossible, from the imperfect manner in which such
records are kept in most continental cities. It would have been impossible on another
account, which will be readily understood when we inform our readers that one maker
the ingenious M. Pape, of Paris enumerates no fewer than 120 patents (more than
all the English patents put together, from 1694 to 1851) taken out by himself alone!
1 rifles light as air." All the really important inventions of recent date, relative to
the pianoforte, are due to the talents of the English, who, in this particular at least,
far excell all other countries.
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 159
A number of ingenious inventions may be claimed for the natives of Germany,
France, Belgium, Austria, the United States, &c. some of the most important ofVhich
will receive attention in the Second Part of our work.
We may here remark that the " Vienna action" is more simple and less expensive
than our own ; and its results are totally different, both in touch and tone ; the former
being extremely light, the latter very thin. It was formerly in use throughout
Germany ; but, of late years, the English mechanism, " die englische Mechanik" has
been more generally adopted in Germany and elsewhere ; and hence the remarkable
improvement of pianofortes on the Continent. .
In pointing out a few of the most eminent Continental pianoforte makers of the
nineteenth century, we may instance Bessalie, of Breslau ; Dorner, of Stuttgart ;
Heitemeyer, of Miinsten ; Riihms, of Altona ; and Hoxa and Seuffert, of Vienna.
In France, we have Pfeiffer, Petzold, Herz, Pape, Pleyel, &c. Russia has an excellent
artist in Lichtenthal ; and Denmark, in Hornung. Both these latter makers use the
English action.
In the United States, we have Messrs. Nunns and Clark, Driggs, and Pirsson, of
New York ; and in Boston, the eminent firm of the Chickerings. The latter may
truly be termed the Broad woods of America.
" The manufacture of the piano as a branch of trade," says M. Thalberg, in his
excellent remarks drawn up for the Jury of the Exhibition of 1851, " is of very great
importance, from the superior character of the principal workmen, and the vast
numbers employed, directly and indirectly, in connection with it. In all the cities of
the civilized world, there are numerous makers of this instrument, with immense
numbers of workmen ; and in most secondary towns throughout Europe, there are
small makers ; while the increase of the number of pianos, compared with the popu-
lation, is every year more rapid a circumstance which is not observed in regard to
other musical instruments. This is corroborated by the fact, that, some years ago,
pianoforte-music constituted only a very modest portion of a music-seller's stock;
whereas now it fills more than three-quarters of his shelves, and makes his chief
business. The number of teachers is something wonderful. Many are reduced ladies,
who find in this exercise of their acquirements the most available means of support.
160 THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Every professional pianist has often had occasion to exercise his kindly and generous
feelings in recommending and assisting accomplished women, whose helpless families
would otherwise have been utterly destitute.
" The social importance of the piano is, beyond all question, far greater than that
of any other instrument of music. One of the most marked changes in the habits of
society, as civilization advances, is with respect to the character of its amusements.
Formerly, nearly all such amusements were away from home, and in public ; now,
with the more educated portion of society, the greatest part is at home, and within
the family circle music on the piano contributing the greatest portion of it. In the
more fashionable circles of cities, private concerts increase year by year, and in them
the piano is the principal feature. Many a man, engaged in commercial and other
active pursuits, finds the chief charm of his drawing-room in the intellectual enjoyment
afforded by the piano.
" In many parts of Europe, this instrument is the greatest solace of the studious
and the solitary. Even steam and sailing vessels for passengers on long voyages are
now obliged, by the fixed habits of society, to be furnished with pianofortes ; thus
transferring to the ocean itself something of the character of home enjoyments.
" By the use of the piano, many who never visit the opera or the concerts become
thoroughly acquainted with the choicest dramatic and orchestral compositions. This
influence of the piano is not confined to them, but extends to all classes; and while
considerable towns have often no orchestra, families possess the best possible sub-
stitute, making them familiar with the finest compositions. The study of such
compositions, and the application necessary for their proper execution, may be, and
ought to be, made the means of greatly improving the general education, habits, and
tastes of piano students ; and thus exerting an elevating influence, in addition to that
refined and elegant pleasure which it directly dispenses."
Heartily do we concur in the opinions expressed by the great artist. The piano-
forte cannot become too general " transposing pianos repetition pianos patented
pianos with hard names of unknown derivation pianos of seven octaves in compass
pianos adorned in richest carvings, built of costliest woods, and illustrative of all the
wealth, ingenuity, and tastefulness of the age better still, little Quaker-like pianos
THE PROGRESS OF THE PIANOFORTE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 161
of white wood, fine tone, and most moderate price, built by a maker who stands at the
head and front of his trade, and by him offered to the public of small means the
needy clerk, the poor teacher, the upper-class mechanic. This last," says the eloquent
writer in Chambers's Journal, from whom we have quoted, " is the very test and
triumph of the pianoforte as glorious a transition in its degree, from the time of the
rare and royal virginals, as is the daily press and cheap literature of the nineteenth
century from the darkness of that time when a scholar transcribed the classics with his
own hand, and the parish Bible was chained to the reading desk in the middle of the
church."
The pianoforte monopoly is now at an end. The " high-priced" makers have
had their day ; " small makers" are now rapidly advancing in public favour, and good
and cheap instruments, of all classes, are now things of every-day occurrence. Men
of intellect are beginning to turn their attention to " cheap" pianos ; new and more
simple actions are being invented ; and the dawn of that day is visible when the
" box of stretched strings," giving forth sweet sounds, shall be in every man's
house, his comfort, his solace, his companion aye, his friend! Let us then look
forward to that day. Shall we not be a happier, if not a better people ?
PART II.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
QHAPTER I.
THE pianoforte appears usually in one of three forms; called respectively the
grand, the square, and the upright. In the two former, the strings lie horizontally ; in
the latter, they are placed vertically. In entering on the construction of the instrument,
it must be borne in mind that the pianoforte, whatever its shape, consists of four
distinct parts ; viz. the framing and sound-board, the stringing, the keys and machinery
attached for striking the strings (technically called the action), and the ornamented
case enclosing the whole. The latter of these belongs to cabinet manufacture and
decorative art, with which we have nothing to do. The other three offer subjects for
our consideration ; and first, of
THE FRAMING.
When we open a pianoforte, especially a " grand," we are struck by the appear-
ance of bars, and rods, and strengtheners of various kinds, placed in different
directions, not merely with a view to give form and stability to the instrument, but to
resist the powerful strain to which it is exposed by the tension of the strings. This
tension is something extraordinary, and requires, for its due appreciation, a little
consideration of the phenomena of a stretched string or wire. Let us suppose that
a wire is wound round two pegs or pins placed a yard apart, and that it is merely
brought into a straight line, without any attempt at stretching it. If struck with a
soft hammer, it will yield a low sound, due to a small number of vibrations per second ;
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PIANOFORTE. 163
but if we wish to elevate the pitch of the tone, we can do so by increasing the tension
or stiffness of the wire. A tuning key being placed on one of the pegs to which the
wire is attached, the peg can be turned round, and a portion of the wire wound on it :
this necessarily increases the tension of the portion of wire extending between the
pegs ; the increase of tension increases the rapidity of the vibrations when the wire is
struck, and this increased rapidity gives a more elevated pitch to the tone elicited.
Now, in conformity with one of the laws of force, the wire pulls with a power equal
to that by which it has been stretched ; it tends to regain the state which it originally
had, and by this tendency exerts a powerful dragging or pulling force on the pins to
which its two ends are attached, and on the frame-work wherein the pins are inserted.
This force is exerted by every wire, according to the tension given to it ; and the
aggregate force is surprisingly great. It is calculated that the tension of the strings
in a full-sized grand pianoforte amounts to eleven or twelve tons, or about twenty-five
thousand pounds ! This is, in fact, the force tending to draw together the two ends
of the frame-work to which the wires are attached. It may easily be conceived that
the strength of the framing necessary to resist this force must be very considerable.
The various pieces of wood are in many places " glued up" so that the grain of one
component part shall extend in one direction, and that of the other at right angles
to it.
" Formerly," says u -writer* whom wo shall frequently quote in the ensuing pages,
" this framing was oonafaructed of timber only. The strings were looped at one end
upon studs driven into a solid block of wood, which we may call the string-block ;
while the other ends were wrapped round a series of iron pins, called wrest-pinsf , and
inserted into another bed of timber, called the wrest-plank. The string-block and
the wrest-plank, thus carrying the two ends of the strings, were kept apart by a
framing of carpentry, trussed in such a manner as to offer the best conditions for
resisting the tension. But, however ingenious this trussing might be contrived, or
* William Pole, Esq. F.R. A..S. Musical Instruments Mr. Pole says, the orthography in the tert is the true one ;
in the Great Industrial Exhibition of 1851. Printed for the word wrest " to twist by violence" referring to the
private circulation. action of drawing up the strings in tuning.
t These are often erroneously called rs<-pins; but,
T 2
164 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
however carefully seasoned the timber of which it was composed, it was found
insufficient in strength, and subject, in course of time, to give way and become
distorted in shape under the immense strain, causing the pianoforte to lose its
permanence of pitch, and to get out of tune. Moreover, the want of reliance on this
part of the instrument prevented the introduction of heavier strings, which the
makers, urged by the general call for improvement, were desirous of adopting, in
order to increase the power, and augment the tone. At length, the idea arose of
strengthening the framing with the more permanent and stronger material metal ;
and a series of improvements were made, which have resulted in the compound woodl
and metal framing, now used, with slight modifications, by all makers ; and which, I
in its general features, as applied to the grand pianoforte, may be described as follows.
The studs, upon which the back ends of the strings are secured, instead of being driven
into a wood block, as formerly, are now attached to an iron plate, curved to the form
of the hollow side of the 'instrument, and called the string-plate. From this plate,
metallic bars are extended longitudinally above the strings, and parallel with them, to
the wrest-plank ; their ends being so firmly connected with the string-plate and wrest-
plank respectively, as to take upon themselves, in a great measure, the force of tension
of the strings. At the same time, the string-plate, being screwed firmly down to the
timber-framing below, and the metallic bars also secured thereto at intervals in their
length, the whole forms one strong combined trussing, in which both wood and iron
contribute to the strength. The bars and string-plate are usually of wrought-iron
or steel. The principal parts of the wood-framing are composed of the best and
soundest oak, thoroughly seasoned and dried, and " glued up" in several thicknesses,
by which greater permanence of form is secured."
" It will be noticed, on inspecting a grand pianoforte," continues Mr. Pole, " that
the wood-framing under the strings is, of necessity, severed completely across by the
opening through whieh the hammers rise to strike the under side of the wires. To
convey the thrust across this chasm, small thin arches of metal are interposed, abutting
on one side against the wrest- plank, and on the other against a transverse rail, forming
a portion of the main body of the framing, and called the belly-rail. This interrup-
tion to the continuity of the under framing is a great, but unavoidable inconvenience,
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PIANOFORTE. 165
and did it not exist, probably the aid of the metal bars might be dispensed with
altogether."
The introduction of metallic bracing was suggested by the important part which
iron, 1 under the auspices of the engineering profession, began to take in the constructive
arts at the commencement of the present century. As early as 1808, Messrs. Broad-
wood applied metal tension bars to the treble. In 1820, Mr. Stodart patented the
first perfect system of metallic bracing for grand pianos*, consisting of the string-
plate and bars united. And between this date and 1827, other makers applied various
modifications of this system, which has resulted in the general plan now in use.
Stodart's patent, besides being entitled to especial notice as the first of its kind,
professed other important considerations than that of merely strengthening the framing
of the instrument ; it was intended to prevent those fluctuations in the pitch of the
strings which arise from change of atmospheric temperature. The idea is simple and
philosophical, and has been long since applied to chronometers, though its operation
in those delicate instruments is the reverse of that to which it has now been turned.
The principle is to compensate the natural expansion of strings through heat, or their
contraction through cold, by providing an apparatus possessing the same properties
as the strings themselves, upon which they are stretched. To this intent, a plate of
brass is laid over the belly of the instrument, of about two inches wide, and corre-
sponding in shape with, and placed close to, the curved side of the instrument : to
this the strings are fastened in the usual way. The bar which constitutes the front
is fixed in its place, about nine inches from the front, by iron clamps, which preclude
its moving, and under this bar the strings pass to the pegs, as is customary in other
pianofortes. Within this frame, and parallel to the strings, but above them, are
placed tubes, about three quarters of an inch in diameter, of a similar metal to the
string beneath i. e. brass above the brass, and steel above the steel. One end of
these tubes is placed against the curved side of the frame, the other against the straight
bar. They are prevented from rising or curving upwards, through the stress of the
tension upon the string, by stout bars of wood laid across. The effect contemplated
* Purchased of Messrs. Thorn and Allen, two ingenious workmen in his establishment.
166 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
in this construction is, that as the temperature affects the strings either by expansion
' or contraction, it will also affect the tubes, which extending or relaxing conseuta-
/ neously, as it were, with the strings*, will compensate the difference by allowing the
whole frame to coincide with their action. The only conjecture unfavourable to this
project which reason suggests, appears to lie in the size of the different masses of
metal to be acted upon by heat and cold ; but, according to an authority, " expe-
riment has determined that the expansion and contraction of the larger and the
smaller body are so nearly alike as entirely to answer the purpose." A grand piano-
forte, it is said, has been removed from a low to a high temperature, and back again,
without undergoing any perceptible difference in the pitch, or going out of tune in
the smallest degree.
An instrument of the grand form, by Messrs. Stodart, upon this plan, was
exhibited in 1851, upon which Mr. Pole makes the following sensible remarks:
" This is the original of all the varieties of metallic bracing now in use, and its leading
features viz. a metallic string-plate kept apart from the wrest-plank by a system of
longitudinal metallic bars are essentially the same as have ever since been followed.
The only variations from the more modern systems in matters of detail are, that the
longitudinal stretchers are hollow tubes instead of flat bars, and that the string-plate
is detached from the wood framing below. With regard to the form of the stretcher,
there is no doubt the hollow tube is the more correct form, on mechanical principles,
as being better calculated to offer the greatest resistance to a compressive force, with
the least quantity of material. Every one acquainted with constructive science knows
that a hollow tube is the most advantageous form for a column ; and the function of
the metallic stretchers in a pianoforte is precisely analogous. The object of leaving
the string-plate detached from the wood-work below, was to allow the whole metallic
frame, with the strings it carried, to contract and expand together, under atmospheric
changes, without straining the wood-work, since wood and metal are, as is well known,
differently influenced in this respect. The experience of other makers has not shown
* Some authorities tell us that strings will stretch gradually ; but this theory is not supported by facts,
almost indefinitely if the tension be conducted slowly and
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PIANOFORTE. 167
this to be of much importance in practice ; and therefore the separation of the wood
and metal framing is but seldom adhered to ; but the idea is ingenious, and the
principle correct. Altogether, Mr. Stodart'a system of metallic framing, adopted at
such an early date, is a good example of the application of scientific knowledge to the
construction of the pianoforte ; and the very general way in which it has been since
followed, corroborates the universal rule, that improvements based on correct prin-
ciples are those which will be ultimately found of the greatest practical value. A
peculiarity in the framing of this pianoforte, although not a part of the original
system, is, that the wrest-plank is turned upside down, being placed above the strings,
instead of below them. By this arrangement the strings are struck against their
rests without the necessity for an upward bearing stud ; while the metallic stretcher-
bars bear directly against the plank, instead of being cranked down to it, as in the
common plan. The wrest-pins pass completely through the plank, and their squared
ends appear above it, so as to offer facilities for tuning. The inverted wrest-plank is
a remnant of a system introduced by Mr. Wornum, in which the entire wood-framing
was placed above the strings ; but which, from its inconvenience, has not continued
in use."
Messrs. Broadwood adopt, in some cases, a metal bar, running transversely over
the wrest-plank, in a direction nearly at right angles to the longitudinal bars, and
secured firmly thereto. From this transverse bar, a set of screws descend into the
wrest-plank ; the object being to hold this part of the frame more firmly in its place,
and thereby to insure the stability of the instrument, and the steadiness of the tone.
When this bar is added, the number of longitudinal bars may be reduced from four
or five to two. The same firm have also lately adopted another system of metallic
bracing, the peculiarity of which is, that some of the tension bars, instead of running
parallel with the strings, are placed diagonally*.
* Messrs. Broadwood introduced the following im- 3. The transverse metal suspension bar, by which
provements in 1847 : several tension-bars were dispensed with.
4. The construction of the tension-bars, so as to com-
1. A newly revised harmonic scale of strings. bine the maximum of strength, with the minimum of
2. A peculiar method of fixing the sounding-board. weight.
168 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
Messrs. Erard exhibited, in 1851, a full-sized grand instrument, the pecu-
liarity of which was, that, in addition to the metallic string-plate and longitudinal
tension bars, the wrest-block was also of metal, being formed of a frame-work of
brass, in which was fixed a strip of beech-wood to receive the wrest-pins. This,
in conjunction with the longitudinal bars and the string-plate, formed an entire
metallic framing, extending from one end of the instrument to the other. Frames
partially of metal had previously been used for upright instruments in this country.*
Entire frames of metal have lately been adopted in America and Denmark, for
grand and square instruments. Messrs. Checkering, of Boston, exhibited, in 1851. a
grand in which the whole framing, consisting of string-plate, longitudinal bars, wrest-
block and drilled bridge (for upward bearing), was of cast iron, ca,st in one piece.
This plan has since been followed by several American makers. Hornung, of Copen-
hagen, exhibited two instruments, a grand and a square, in which the various parts
were cast in one piece of iron, on the American plan.
We agree with Mr. Pole that the growing tendency to the use of too much metal
in the construction of pianofortes, is injurious to the quality of the tone. It also adds
greatly to the weight of the instrument, and consequently diminishes its portability
and general usefulness. Nevertheless, the use of metal up to a certain point has its
advantages ; in fact, owing to the increased weight of the strings, it cannot now be
dispensed with.
The square pianoforte presents considerable difficulties, as regards the strength-
ening of its frame, by reason of the separation of the wrest-plank from the string-
plate, by the wide and deep space required for the keys and action. The strengthening
is principally effected by bolting the wrest-plank and string-plate firmly down to a
strong bed of timber, extending underneath the keys over the whole surface of the
instrument, and forming thereto a thick, solid bottom. In addition to this, one or two
5. The fixing these tension-bars in the string-plate by string-plate, and they enable the maker to do with a single
means of wedges, thus ensuring equal tension. direct tension bar.
6. The diagonal tension-bars. These abut against the
strongest angle of the wrest-plank and baas scale. They * By John Isaac Hawkins. See the Repertory of Arts,
meet effectually what is termed the " side-swag" of the vol. xiv, p, 143.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
169
metallic bars are, in the best instruments, stretched across from the string-plate to the
wrest-plank, over the strings and parallel to them.
A simple and philosophical alteration has lately been made in the construction
of the square pianoforte by an American maker, Mr. Spencer Driggs, of New York.
By this invention, the thick plank bottom and the interior blocking of wood are
dispensed with, and a greater strength and compactness gained by means of an entire
iron frame, independent of the case*.
The framing of the upright pianoforte is perhaps the most simple of any descrip-
tion of pianoforte, in consequence of its continuity being unbroken by any openings.
This may easily be seen by the following diagrams :
Front View without the Strings.
Back View, showing the Bracings a a a a.
c a::::: ;:::;:::! :<x:::::::::c'.o I
\
B
The letters (A A), in the first diagram, show the round pegs of iron, the ends of whicji screw into the wooden
substance of the sounding-board, and may be turned at pleasure by a tuning key, so as to increase or diminish the
tension of a string. The thickness of wire used for each note is determined by pieces of wood called bridges, fixed
firmly on the sounding-board (B B). The curve and position of the top and lower bridges are regulated by a guage, as
is also the arrangement of the pins inserted in it. These pins are so placed that the strings rest against them, being
thereby bent out of their rectilinear course, and their vibration thus limited to the space between the bridges (B B).
The metallic plate (c c) is used to check the violent pull of the bass strings upon the sounding-board, and is an improve-
ment now in general use. The belt (D D) serves to give additional strength.
* This remarkable pianoforte is highly spoken of by for its manufacture, under the title of " The Wallace
some of the most eminent pianoforte players, including Pianoforte Company," and from the prospectus now before
Thalberg. A company has been formed in New York us we extract the following particulars: "The strength
170
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
The tension is sustained by strong struts or bars of timber placed vertically at the
back of the instrument (see the second diagram), to which the wrest-plank and string-
plate are firmly secured ; so that the force of the tension is resisted by the bars in the
direction of their length. As Mr. Pole remarks, " they are, in fact, simple columns,
and receive their load in nearly the same manner as pillars supporting a building."
Iron bracing is sometimes used at the back of the framing to counteract the pull of
the strings on the opposite side ; but perhaps the most satisfactory and philosophical
mode of strengthening the upright pianoforte is the tubes of metal, in place of the
bars of timber, as invented by Mr. Rust. The metallic tubes not only strengthen the
instrument in the most satisfactory manner, but also materially improve the tone of
the pianoforte.
The surface of wood lying extended immediately under the strings, in a grand
of these instruments, by which is meant their power to
hold or resist the tension of the strings, is derived wholly
from an iron frame, so constructed as to unite the greatest
strength with the least weight. This iron frame, and a
light wooden frame, having the general form of the piano,
and to which the iron frame is let in and bolted, constitute
the interior of the instrument. The wrest-plank is fastened
to the top of the iron frame or plate, and rests firmly against
a flange, elevated from its inner margin. The sounding-
board, which is made thin and arching, and without ribbing,
preserves its shape and stiffness by means of a small iron
frame into which its edge is fastened, thus retaining all its
delicate sensitiveness and vibratory power. The bridge,
which is made in a peculiar manner, is glued along the
most crowning part of the sounding-board, and secures the
equal and continuous bearing of the strings. At this point
in their manufacture, the strings are put on and drawn up,
and the action is put in and fitted. It will be observed
that all this is done independent of tJie case. This is a
mere shell, only three quarters of an inch thick, and which
in the mean time has been making in another part of the
factory. It is now slipped on over the instrument, and
glued to it. The bottom sounding-l oard, which is a single
veneer, about the eighth of an inch thick, made arching,
and slightly ribbed, with its convex surface downward,
is then glued on to the under side of the wooden frame,
with its edges resting against a projection of the case which
conies slightly below it. This lower sounding-board,
covering the whole expanse of the instrument, and con-
nected to the upper one by a sound-post, through which
the least vibration of the one is instantly conveyed to the
other, is an exceedingly valuable feature in the invention,
and one which it is impossible to use in any other Piano-
forte. To any one acquainted with the method of making
the ordinary Piano, and with the laws of sound, it must
be apparent that the process here described differs in all
respects from that method ; and that this new and perfected
instrument, preserving in its construction the principal
characteristics of the violin, with its immense sounding
surfaces, its vast and unobstructed chamber, and its ex-
quisite sensitiveness to the slightest vibration of the strings,
must, in all philosophy and reason, be much better adapted
to the production of musical sounds than the common
Piano. That has a thick case, with ponderous inside
blocking; a bottom from four to six inches in thickness;
a small, flat, and heavily-ribbed sound-board; its strength,
durability, and tone, all depending on the uncertain season-
ing of its wood, and forming together a solid, dull mass,
with barely sufficient room inside for the working of the
action."
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PIANOFORTE. 171
or square pianoforte, or behind them in an upright instrument, is calletLthe sounding-
boa?d- (sometimes sound-board), ox belly. In a grand pianoforte, it occupies the
entire area of the instrument : in the square, about two fifths of its length. It is
analogous to the belly of the violin, and is composed of a thin boarding of the best
Swiss pine, or of fir-wood, perfectly free from knots or imperfections, cut in a
particular direction of the grain, and thoroughly seasoned. It is about one fifth
of an inch in thickness, strengthened on the under side with small ribs, and put
together with the utmost possible care. The edges of the sounding-board are
attached to the framing of the instrument, the whole of the middle part being left
perfectly free, to vibrate under the impulse received from the percussion of the strings*.
It will be observed, from what we have said, that the only support of the
sounding-board consists in the bars glued on at the back. If these are sufficiently
strong to resist the pressure of the strings, they are found too stiff to allow of the
requisite vibration. If, on the contrary, the bars are made sufficiently weak to admit
of a free vibration, they are found unequal to resist the pressure of the strings, and
the sounding-board is deflected, or forced out of its true position that of a perfectly
flat surface, its relation to the strings deranged, and the tone of the instrument
constantly impaired by degrees, as has been found frequently in pianofortes after they
have been in use for some years.
These considerations have led to the invention of the " Harmonic Chambers,"
which are hollow generators of sound, made on the principle of a violin, applied to
the sounding-board, and adjusted by screws to any pressure, thus giving the exact
amount of support that may be required. This invention has been patented by
Mr. Dreaper, of Liverpool ; but we have had no means of testing its merits.
* Dr. Brewer says " The sound-board should be ment the force of the sound." ( ! ! ) Sound and its Phe-
made of some light pale wood. The slit cut along it in nomena, p. 163. The author has committed a two-fold
the shape of a fanciful curve ( ! ), as well as the two carved blunder. He supposes the sounding-board and the belly
openings covered with silk in the front board, are designed to be two distinct parts of the instrument ; whereas they
to allow the air in the case to play more freely on the ex- are one and the same thing. What he dignifies by the
ternal air ; so that the wooden lining called the belly, the name of the sounding-board is merely the " shade" of the
sounding-board, and the vast body of air enclosed, all old square pianoforte, invented to keep out the dust !
vibrate in unison with the strings, and contribute to aug-
z 2
172 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PIANOFORTE.
There is little doubt that the derangement of the sounding-board, by the constant
tension of the strings, is the principal reason why pianofortes have generally lost their
tone as they have become older ; for we know, by the analogy of the violin, that,
supposing all the parts to remain undisturbed, the effect of age ought rather to
improve than to deteriorate instruments depending on wood for their sonority.
M. Pape, an ingenious Frenchman, gets rid of this evil by placing the sounding-
board on the opposite side of the framing to that occupied by the strings. A strong
open frame of cast-iron, or wood strengthened with iron, extends over the whole size
of the instrument, forming the bottom of the piano. On the upper side of this, the
strings are stretched ; and on the lower side is fixed the sounding-board ; by which
arrangement the pull of the strings can have no tendency to compress the sounding-
board ; but if any action at all is produced upon it, it must be that of extension, which
is rather beneficial than otherwise. The bridge over which the strings pass (and
which, in the ordinary construction, is glued upon the sounding-board) is, in the new
arrangement, a loose piece, communicating with the sounding-board by sound-posts,
similar to that of a violin, which transmit the vibrations to the sounding-board exactly
in an analogous manner. Another advantage is obtained by this arrangement ; viz.
that the sound-board may be considerably enlarged. In the ordinary construction,
its size is bounded by the blocks and points of attachment of the strings to the
framing ; whereas, in this plan, no such limitation being necessary, the sounding-board
may extend over the whole surface of the instrument, by which increase of dimensions
a proportionately greater resonance is obtained. This is of especial value in the small
upright forms. Another alteration in the sounding-board is in the position of the
strengthening ribs. These are usually fixed on the side opposite to the strings.
M. Pape places them towards the strings ; which position he considers much more
favourable, inasmuch as the strain tends to fix them more firmly, instead of to loosen
their ends, as in the ordinary plan. The sounding-board is also made thicker and more
solid than usual. M. Pape occasionally makes grands of the compass of eight octaves,
F to F. For these, the new arrangement of the sounding-board gives the means of
obtaining the requisite length for the tenor notes, without increasing the size of the
case beyond that of an ordinary grand.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PIANOFORTE. 173
Mr. Cadby considers the ordinary mode of glueing the edges of the sounding-
board firmly to the framing of the instrument, very detrimental to the brilliancy of the
tone, owing to the fact that it is not strained tight. He has adopted the plan of
securing the sounding-board to the frame-work of the instrument solely by metal
clamps, in such a manner as to admit of its being strained and tightened when desired,
like the parchment head of a drum. The principle is undoubtedly good, and,
probably, at some future time will be generally adopted.
J
CHAPTER II.
THE STRINGING.
PREPARATORY to noticing this important part of the pianoforte, we must offer a
few words on the vibrations of strings, which we are enabled to do, satisfactorily, from
Dr. Brewer's recently published work on Sound and its Phenomena.
Sounds differ from each other in three essential particulars : 1, In pitch, that is,
in gravity or acuteness ; 2, In loudness, or intensity ; 3, In timbre, or quality of
tone.
The pitch of a sound always depends on the number of vibrations communicated
to the air in a given time. Rapid vibrations produce sharp, shrill sounds ; slower
vibrations, those which are more grave.
The low C of a pianoforte gives a deep bass note ; the highest C, an acute treble
one. Not that one of these notes is touched more energetically than the other, but
that the string of the former vibrates more slowly than that of the latter. Thus the
lowest C of a six-octave piano makes only 64 vibrations, while the highest C makes
2048.
A string is made to vibrate more slowly : 1, By augmenting its length; 2, By
\ \ \ \ V v Oi/ s ^
augmenting its weight ; 3, By decreasing its tension. , ' v
The canons of vibrating strings, which had engaged the attention of philosophers
for about half a century, were first established by Dr. Brook Taylor, of Edmonton,
who published his valuable treatise, called Methodus Incrementum, in the year 1716.
These canons were established by means of the monochord, or sonometer, which
consists of a single string of wire or catgut, fixed at one end, and stretched by a weight
at the other over a frame. The tension of the string is increased or diminished by
increasing or diminishing the weight attached to it ; and the length of the vibrating
part is varied by means of a moveable bridge on which the string rests.
J
THE STRINGING. 175
Suppose the string of a monochord adjusted for any given note, and you require
to produce its octave: this may be accomplished in three different ways: (1) By
shortening the string; (2) By stretching it with a greater weight; and (3) By
employing another string less heavy. If the first of these plans be adopted, you must
shorten the string one half. If the last, you must use a string of half the weight.
If the middle plan be preferred, the weight employed to stretch the string must be
four times as heavy as the former.
First Canon of the Stretched String.
j I The vibrations of stretched strings are in inverse proportion to their lengths ; or,
in other words, as a string is lengthened, it vibrates more slowly, and produces a
graver note ; as it is shortened, it vibrates more quickly, and gives a higher note.
The diminution of length needful in order to obtain the successive notes of an
octave, is not the same for any two intervals. If a string 180 lines (15 inches) long
give the C of any octave, it must be shortened 20 lines in order to obtain D, 16 more
to produce E, only 9 more for the next note, F, 15 more for G, 8 for A, and 12 for B.
Supposing the length of the string in the first instance to be one yard, or one foot,
it will be found by the monochord that the relative lengths of string for the seven
successive notes will be as follows :
Relative Length of each String.
CDEFGABC octave.
1 5. JL 3 2381
9 5 4 35 15 2
That is if a string 1 yard or 36 inches long give C, in order to produce D it must be
eight-ninths of a yard, or 32 inches ; in order to produce E, it must be four-fifths of a
yard, or 28| inches ; in order to produce F, it must be three-fourths of a yard, or
27 inches ; &c. and in order to produce the octave, it must be exactly half its original
length.
As the number of vibrations from different strings is always in inverse proportion
\l
176 THE STRINGING.
to their length, the relative number of vibrations of any given octave may be obtained
by inverting the fractions of the foregoing table. Thus :
For C D E F G A B C
1 9 5 4 3 5 IS Q
843238
Or, in whole numbers :
CDEFGABC
24 27 30 32 36 40 45 48
That is, in the time that C is making 8 vibrations, D makes 9 ; in the time that C is
making 4 vibrations, E makes 5 ; in the time that C is making 3 vibrations, F makes
4 ; &c. and in the time the fundamental note makes 1 vibration, its octave
makes 2.
It will now be readily understood why the strings of a harp, or of a pianoforte,
differ in length ; and why their difference of length is not uniform.
*
Second Canon of the Stretched String.
The vibrations of stretched strings are in proportion to the square root of their
| tension. If the string of a monochord stretched by the weight of 1 Ib. gives a certain
number of vibrations in a second, and you wish, without altering its length, to obtain
from the same string the octave, a note which gives twice the number of vibrations in
the same time, you must change the weight for one of 4 Ibs. If, again, you would
obtain from the same string the 12th (or octave of the^/ifA), \\hich makes three vibra-
tions for one of the fundamental, you must apply a weight equal to 9 Ibs. If you
wish to procure from the same string, without altering its length, the double octave,
a note which vibrates four times as fast as the fundamental, you must attach to the
end a weight of 16 Ibs. ; and so on.
Hence it may be perceived that the tighter a string is drawn, thefaster it vibrates,
and the sharper or higher its pitch. On the other hand, the looser a string, the slower
its vibrations, and the flatter or graver the note which it produces.
THE STRINGING. 177
Third Canon of the Stretched String.
When strings have the same length and tension, but differ in weight or thickness,
their vibrations are in inverse proportion to their weight. If a given string makes a
certain number of vibrations in a second, another twice as heavy will, under similar
circumstances, give only half the former number of vibrations in the same time; one
thrice as thick will make one third as many ; and one four times as heavy will produce
only one-fourth the number of the first string.
This law finds an illustration in the common practice of making bass strings of
musical instruments thicker, or of a heavier material, than the treble ones. Sometimes
a metal wire is coiled round the lower strings of a harp or pianoforte, to increase their
weight. Sometimes different metals are employed, as copper, brass, and steel ; the
heaviest metal being always made to represent the lowest notes.
Thus, the manufacturer does not adopt any one of these methods of adjusting
tones of which we have spoken, to the exclusion of the others : he avails himself of
all. " Twelve strings of the same length and thickness," writes Mr. Dodd, in a clever
article on the pianoforte in British Manufactures*, " might be so different in tension as
to yield the twelve semitones of an octave ; twelve strings of the same thickness and
tension might be of such different lengths as to yield the twelve semitones ; or, lastly,
twelve strings of the same length and tension might be made to produce these effects
by having the thicknesses different. But, in practice, the tones produced by either
of these methods would be very defective in character. Each degree of thickness,
of length, and of tension, produces its own peculiar effects on the timbre, or quality of
tone. If two strings of the same length and thickness were so stretched as to produce
tones differing by an octave in pitch, one would be strained nearly to breaking, and
the other would produce a dull, weak, and smothered sound. If, while producing
these two notes, the strings differed only in length or in thickness, the qualities of
tone would not be so much at variance as in the case just supposed ; but still the
required equable character of tone would not be produced. The plan adopted,
therefore, is fo let the length, the thickness, and the tension, all vary together.
2 vols. 12mo. 1847.
A A
178 THE STRINGING.
" This explanation will enable us to understand the reason for the observed
difference in the strings of the pianoforte. We perceive that the strings for the upper
notes are not only shorter, but also thinner, than those for the lower ; and we should
find, though it is not perceptible to the eye, that the tension is likewise different.
The thickness, the length, and the tension, all diminish (but not uniformly) from the
lower to the upper notes ; tension being here used to express the force employed in
stretching the string to the required degree. In a grand pianoforte there are
fourteen different thicknesses of wire ; the smaller, for the upper notes, being plain
polished steel wire, and the thicker, for the lower notes, being coated with a very fine
coil of copper wire."
The strings of the pianoforte were originally of very thin wire. The difference
indeed between them and those now in use is very striking. As an illustration,
we may remark that the smallest wire formerly used for the C in the third space of
the treble staff was No. 7 ; that now used for the same note is No. 16. The weight
of the striking length of the first is five and a half grains ; of that of the second,
twenty-one grains. This is sufficient to account for the increased bracing required
in the modern pianoforte.
Grand pianofortes have three strings to each note ; upright instruments, generally
two. Of late, however, three strings are often used in grands for the treble notes, two
for the middle of the instrument, and one for the bass. The strings for upright
pianofortes, instead of being placed vertically, sometimes (in more modern instruments)
run obliquely across the frame, by which a greater length is gained, without increasing
the height of the case.
Formerly each string was formed of a separate wire, one end of which was twisted
into a loop, and passed over the stud in the string-block ; the other end being wrapped
round the wrest-pin. A great improvement in the mode of applying the string, so as to
avoid the noose by which they are ordinarily attached, was patented by Messrs. Collard
in 1 827. This is effected by using only one hitch-pin (of double the usual size), instead
of two, and passing the string from one tuning-pin to the other round this single hitch-pin,
in one continuous piece of wire. The object of this is to prevent the distortion of the
fibres of the wire by twisting, which often makes them false, to obviate the giving of
THE STRINGING. 179
the wire at the noose, and to avoid the frequent snapping of the string at the twist.
Notwithstanding that both unisons are made by one continuous wire, yet such is the
tenacity caused by the friction on the single hitch-pin, that one of the unisons may
be lowered several semitones without in the least aifecting the pitch of the other.
So great is the advantage gained by this mode of applying the strings, that a string
is seldom or never known to break ; it is brought up to its pitch almost instanta-
neously ; and a person who has never before put a string on a pianoforte, may do it
without the smallest difficulty. Since the expiration of the patent, this method of
stringing has been almost universally adopted.
Another Tmportant4mpjQement, applied to the stringing of grand pianofortes,
is that of the upward bearing of the string at the striking end. In describing this,
we shall use Mr. Pole's words. " The length of the vibrating part of the string is
determined by two bridges, over which each wire passes ; one fixed to the sound-
board, the other to the wrest-plank, a little in front of the striking point of the string.
Now the original plan was, so to arrange the levels of these two bridges, with reference
to the ends of the wire, that the string might, when stretched, have a downward
pressure upon both. But since the hammer strikes upwards, it is evident that a heavy
blow must exert a tendency, more or less, to lift the string off its bearing ; the effect
of which is considered detrimental to the tone. On this account, the direction of the
bearing on the front bridge was reversed, or rather the bridge itself was changed for
a plate pierced with a series of holes, through which the strings passed, turning
immediately upwards towards the wrest-pins. This gave each string an upward,
instead of a downward bearing at the front end ; the effect of the blow being, under
these altered circumstances, to force the string against its rest, instead of lifting it
from it, as before. The upward bearing is claimed by Messrs. Erard, as having been
described by them in a patent of 1808, and modified and improved in 1821."
The plan of employing one large string to each note of the pianoforte, upon
which the French dilate largely, is an invention, if it may be so called, derived from
this country. Lord Stanhope, in 1815, was amongst the first who made this attempt;
but the false and crazy tone rendered by the treble strings, particularly when so
enlarged as to produce the quantity of tone required, was an insurmountable obstacle
A A 2
180 THE STRINGING.
to its success. A contemporary journal speaks of this instrument in the following
manner :
" Mr. D. Loeschmann, Newman Street, has lately constructed a new pianoforte,
under the direction of Earl Stanhope, with single steel wires to each finger key, of his
lordship's invention. The lower wires are about the tenth of an inch in diameter,
and more resemble musical bars than wires, in their tone and effect." *
The " unachord" instruments have been greatly improved since the time of the
noble Earl ; and when we consider the diminution of outlay in their construction, it
will be at once seen that the plan possessed some advantages.
In 1819, the ingenious Mr. Wornum turned his attention to the reduction of all
the strings to one size and tension. The origin, progress, and effects of his enquiries,
are thus explained in the Quarterly Musical Review for 1820 :f " All pianofortes are
subject to a falling of the middle and upper octaves ; and 'so much are most manu-
facturers accustomed to this circumstance, that it is now scarcely considered in any
other light than that of a failing in the tuning. But it seems that Mr. Wornum did
not so regard it, but in the light of a distinct evil, and as one of a most disagreeable
character, especially when two performers are engaged at one instrument. In the
course of last year, he was led to make particular enquiry into the subject ; and his
first effort in the cause was to examine minutely the construction and parts of a
cabinet pianoforte. The materials were evidently well selected, the workmanship
was good, the construction of the case perfectly mechanical, and the action neat,
simple, and efficient. To these parts, therefore, it did not appear that any portion
of the defect could possibly attach. He then directed his attention to the stringing,
where he scarcely expected to make any progress in his pursuit, the scale having been
laid down on the most approved principle, and the strings being all of Berlin steel.
However, for enquiry's sake, he proceeded, laid aside the approved character of the
scale, and argued that, as the effect was imperfect, it was probable that the cause was
incorrect. Thus presuming, he tried the octaves, and found them, as usual, all flat
less so in the bass than in the treble ; the unisons, generally speaking, were in
* Gentleman's Magazine, September, 1815. f Vol. ii, p. 305.
THE STRINGING. 181
tune. His next proceeding was to examine the octaves and unisons in their relative
construction and circumstances. The construction of the octave he found to be of
unequal tension, and, at certain distances, of unequal size ; but the construction of the
-Uanisons were of equal tension invariably, and the same in size. And here at once was
discovered the seat and cause of the defect under enquiry ; for it was evident that the
superior accordancy of the unisons arose from their being of equal size and tension,
and that the defective state of the octaves arose from their want of similar uniformity.
Mr. Wornum now transferred his enquiry to the monochord, where, by taking the
length of the longest plain string, and subdividing that length, according to a given
temperament, into all the ascending degrees of the scale, he graduated an entirely
now scale for the pianoforte; in which all the plain strings were reduced to one si/e
and tension, and such as required covering were severally weighted with covering wire
until they arrived at the same force. The instruments constructed from this scale
answered most satisfactorily, and were an ample reward for the labours of the expe-
riment. Their tones were firm, sonorous, and brilliant ; and their standing warranted
the highest opinion of the principle. On comparing the best common method of
laying down scales for the strings of pianofortes, with the one above described, a very
great difference will be observable. By the equal tension, the octaves are all doubled,
and the other intervals are severally taken as given by the length and tension of the
octaves. In the common method, the octaves are not doubled, but are successively
reduced, and larger-sized wire employed, at certain distances, to correct the bad effects
of that reduction ; and the other intervals receive the lengths that may fall to them
by the accidental circumstance of an easy sweep from one octave to another in the
formation of the patterns. Now, in the new method, we have perfect equality ; in the
old, systematic inequality. The former is the dictate of nature consequently of pure
science ; but for the latter we are indebted entirely to mechanical convenience, which,
in the present enlightened state of society, is rather a compromise than an attainment
of the object."
Notwithstanding the philosophy and excellence of the late Mr. Wornum's dis-
covery, a patent for which was taken out in 1820, the system of equal tension never
came into general use.
182 THE STRINGING.
The curved piece of wood fixed on the sound-board which regulates the
sounding length of the strings, is called the bridge. Messrs. Clementi and Collard
invented, in 1821, an additional bridge, not for the purpose of regulating musical
intervals, but of augmenting the duration of the vibration, and consequently increasing
and beautifying the tone. Tbia new hndggf called "tfee brfdgof . reverberation."
was placed at a regulated distance on the sound-board, and the important advantage
resulting from it was, that the motion given to the principal part of the string by the
impulse of the hammer was kept up by the bridge of reverberation, instead of being
suddenly checked by an attachment to an unyielding substance. The prolonged
vibration produced an extraordinary purity, power, and continuity of sound somewhat
resembling the richness of an octave below.
On the old plan of passing the strings directly from the side of the case to the
original bridge on the sound-board, it became necessary, in order to prevent the jarring
noise of those portions of the wire which lie between them, not only to place some
soft substance on the top of the moulding, but also to weave a piece of cloth between
the strings. In the invention under notice, a novel action was substituted for those
portions of the string situated between the two bridges, yielding most sweet and
melodious tones. iThe performer, by lifting a valve, was enabled to elicit those
harmonious sounds, through a well-known sympathetic relation between accordant
strings, without touching those portions of the strings which produce them. The
augmentation of sound caused by this means resembled in some measure the effect of
lifting the dampers, but without producing the same confusion, since every note on
the body of the instrument was regularly damped as the performer lifted his finger.
By this apparatus a threefold power of augmenting the sound was acquired ; whereas,
instruments of the common construction have but the one caused by lifting the
dampers. The first augmentation of power was by lifting the harmonic swell. The
second by dropping the harmonic swell and raising the dampers. The third by
raising the harmonic swell and the dampers together. By the last means, the
performer added all the tones which were sympathetically elicited from the strings
between the original bridge and bridge of reverberation, over and above all that could
be produced on instruments of the common construction, and the effect was accordingly
THE STRINGING. 183
of extraordinary richness and power. These inventions were applied to upright and
square pianofortes, but, like many other excellent improvements, are now only num-
bered among the " things that were."
A great improvement in the stringing of grand horizontal pianofortes has of late
years been introduced by Erard. Formerly, each note of the lowest octave of the
bass has been produced by the action of the hammer upon two strings. It was found
that in strings of such length, there was a constant liability of their striking each
other, and jarring during their vibration; and this injured the effect of their tone.
This defect is removed, in the improved instrument, by making each hammer of the
lowest octave act upon a single string, whose thickness is increased as well as its
length. By this expedient, the jar which prevailed previously is effectually prevented,
and force and fulness of tone are obtained, which exceed in a striking degree the
effect of the instruments of the old construction.
The strings of the early pianofortes were partly of steel and partly of brass, the
treble notes of steel, and the lower notes of brass, a few of which in the bass were
over-lapped or covered, rather open, with plated copper wire. The covering was to
give them more gravity according to the length attainable in the instrument. But
modern pianofortes have steel wire throughout, with about one octave in the bass
closely lapped. The wrapping wire is of soft iron for the upper part of the octave,
and of copper for the lower. The wrapping too is close, like that of the fourth string
of a violin ; whereas, formerly, it was open like the worm of a corkscrew. In the
lowest bass notes of grand instruments, the copper-lapped strings are of considerable
diameter.
The steel wire now in general use is the manufacture of Mr. Webster, of Penn's
Mills, near Birmingham, and is greatly superior to the once-famed Berlin wire, now no
more in esteem with English manufacturers, from the bad quality of the metal, and the
very imperfect manner in which it was drawn ; when perfectly round, which it ought
always to be, it was generally too soft ; and when sufficiently hard, it was scarcely ever
well manufactured, from which circumstance it was constantly false in vibration.
CHAPTER III.
THE ACTION.
BY the action is understood the machinery through which the impulse
given by the finger of the performer is transmitted to the string of the instrument.
The parts we have hitherto considered may be said to be parts at rest, whose
peculiarities consist in their statical qualities. The action is the moving part, and
upon its capability to speak the will or mind of the player depends its excellence.
The earliest actions, as we have seen, were very rude. The hammer was lifted
by an upright wire, attached to the back end of the key, and capped with a leather
button, which came in contact with the under side of the hammer. The height of
this button was so adjusted, that when the key was pressed down as far as it would
go, the hammer was a short distance from the string ; the effect of this adjustment
being, that, after the impulse given to the hammer had caused it to strike the blow, it
fell back upon the button, and so left the string free to vibrate. This was called the
" single action." " It was," says Mr. Pole, " the simplest form of mechanism, and
probably the earliest that obtained for the pianoforte any share of public favour.
Square instruments were made with this action as late as the commencement of the
present century, and probably many of them are in existence still."
The invention of the " hopper " was the next great improvement. " The evil of
the single action," says the authority we have quoted, " was, that owing to the adjust-
ment already mentioned, the hammer would not reach the string, unless the key were
thrust down with sufficient force to give it considerable impetus ; so that it was
impossible to play very piano; while if, to remedy this evil, the adjustment of the
THE ACTION. 185
button was altered to bring the hammer nearer to the string, there was a danger of
its not leaving it after the blow a defect technically called ' blocking.' The hopper
remedied this evil. It was a jointed upright piece, attached to the back end of the
key, and used to lift the hammer, in place of the stiff wire and button of the former
mechanism. When the key was pressed down, the hopper, engaging in a notch on
the under side of the hammer, lifted it to within a very short distance of the string ;
so near, in fact, that almost the slightest pressure would cause it to strike ; but at
this moment, while the key was still pressed down, the jointed part of the hopper
coming in contact with a fixed button as it rose, escaped from, or ' hopped' out of the
notch, and let the hammer fall clear away from the string. This mechanism, as
applied, with trifling variation, to the square pianoforte, was called the ' double
action,' and is extensively in use for this and the upright form at the present day."
The invention of the " check" remedied a defect which we shall next explain.
" The hammer, when liberated from the hopper, fell upon a rail covered with cloth,
or some other soft bed prepared to receive it. Now, when a forcible blow was struck,
there was always a danger of the hammer rebounding ; or, in other words, the elas-
ticity of the struck wire would send it down with such force that it rebounded from
its bed, touched the string a second time, and so damped the vibration and injured the
tone. The remedy for this was found in fixing to the back end of the key a projection
called a ' check,' which caught the edge of the hammer as it fell, and held it down
so firmly that it could not again rise. The check was one of the most important
additions ever made to the action ; and no pianoforte, of any pretensions, is considered
complete without it."
The next invention applied to the action of the pianoforte is called the " repetition"
mechanism, and its object is thus explained : " In the ordinary action, after the
hammer has fallen, the key must rise to its position of rest before the hopper will
engage again in the notch of the hammer, so as to be ready for another stroke ; and
hence a note cannot be repeated without not only requiring the finger to be lifted
through the entire height of the key's motion, but also demanding a length of time
between the repetitions sufficient to allow of its full rise. The contrivances by which
this inconvenience has been overcome, are of various kinds, according to the fancy or
B B
186
THE ACTION.
ingenuity of the makers ; but they all act on the same principle ; namely, by holding
up the hammer at a certain height while the key returns ; by which means the hopper
is allowed to engage itself under the hammer earlier, and to reproduce the note in
less time, and with less labour to the finger, than before."*
The last invention, which seems to have brought the mechanism of the pianoforte
to perfection, is the repetition and " tremolo" action of the Messrs. Hopkinson.
This is accomplished by means of a pin-jointed sticker, attached to the key and
hammer-stick ; which sticker, being in connection with the relieving action, brings
the action of the hammer upon the strings completely under the control of the per-
former. A check is provided to prevent the hammer from vibrating after a powerful
stroke ; but for a gentle touch the check is not required, and the hammer remains
near the string, ready to be acted upon by the slightest movement of the finger.
By means of this mechanism, the utmost possible delicacy of touch is combined with
a far greater power than has hitherto been obtained in any pianoforte we have seen.
So sensitive is this action, and so accurately may the amount of tone desired be
regulated, that the " tremolo" (similar in effect to that produced by the violinist, or
the voice of a finished singer) may be produced by the mere trembling of the finger
when pressed upon the key ; at the same time, a performer of only moderate power
of finger can by it fully develop the most powerful effects of the modern style of
pianoforte playing.
We shall now give a brief explanation of the action of a pianoforte, and shall
take for oxir example the mechanism of the ordinary upright instrument, termed the
" Cottage."
* " When it is considered that all the delicacies of ex-
pression and articulation, and all the lights and shades of
the performance depend upon the precision, certainty, and
promptitude -with which the hammer responds to the
touch of the finger, the immense importance of the
mechanism of the key will be duly appreciated. Yet it is
a curious fact in the records of the progress of this instru-
ment, that the mechanism of the key has been the last
part of it to which attention has imparted perfection ; and-
that, even at the present time, notwithstanding the
advanced state of the musical art, and the all but universal
cultivation of the pianoforte, the key mechanism is con-
structed on imperfect principles, and is, consequently, pro-
ductive of unsatisfactory effects." Dr. Lardner's Popular
Essays on Scientific Subjects, 1852, 12mo.
THE ACTION.
187
The Action while the Key is at Rest.
The same with the Key pressed down.
o o~7
The key (A) forms a lever, one end of which (a), being pressed down, raises the other end (6), which in turn
pushes up the hopper (c). (The regulating pin (d) and spring (e) determine the touch). The hopper is met by the lever
or under hammer (f), which by a hinge (g) is fastened to the lever rail (h). Above this is the sticker ( t ), to which
the hammer (k) is hinged at ( I ) by a fastening of wash-leather. The butt (m) of the hammer being hinged to the
hammer rail (n), in the point (o), it is obvious that the pressing down of the key (A) must drive up the sticker ( ), and
consequently cause the hammer (K) to strike against the string ( p p p ).
Thus far, then, we have the means of producing the sound from the string.
But a little consideration will show us that we also require the means of limiting the
duration of each particular sound. For this purpose the damper is employed, the
form and parts of which, viewed sideways, are shown in the above diagrams.
The damper wire (1) is fastened sideways into the sticker at (2), so as to pass upright between the butts (m). The
top of the wire forms the screw (3), passing through the arm of the damper (4), which is secured to it by buttons (5 5).
The damper (6), which is fixed by a hinge (7) to the damper rail (8), being thus elevated with the sticker ( i ), raises its
felt surface (9) off the string (ppp), and leaves the sound clear and open. Immediately upon the hand being taken off
the key, the weight of the sticker ( t ) causes the wire to fall, and consequently presses it against the string, muffling and
stopping the vibration. Thus, as long as the hand is held on the key, the vibration will continue, and no longer.
B B 2
188
THE ACTION.
Some pianos have two pedals ; one to soften the sound, and the other to augment
it. When a piano has but one, it is always the "forte" pedal. The usual action of
the " soft " pedal is to shift the hammers sideways, so that they strike only owe string
instead of two, or two strings instead of three, for each note.
The action of the "forte" pedal is to lift the dampers oif the strings, so that each
set of strings may have a larger field of vibration, and that all the strings together may
contribute to swell the force of the note struck, by sympathetic vibrations. Im-
mediatelythe foot is removed, the hammers and dampers return to their original
position, and the effect of the pedal ceases.
The action of the pianoforte has afforded unlimited scope for the ingenuity of the
manufacturers ; and almost every maker of note has his own particular mechanism.
The same essential parts, however, are found in all the best instruments, more or less
modified in their shape and arrangement. Thus we have the hammer, the hopper,
the check, and the contrivance for repetition. To particularize all the various actions
of the 200 pianoforte makers whose names are found in the London Directory, would
be an unprofitable labour ; or even all the good actions : we must be content with a
few of those in common use.
ACTIONS OF VARIOUS MAKERS.
The Action of the modern Square Pianoforte, exhibiting all its Varieties.
,1,1
a, key. b, hopper by which the escape of the hammer is effected, c, string, d, Irish damper, d d, crank damper.
e, under hammer. /, hammer, g, check.
THE ACTION.
The common Grand Pianoforte Action.
189
a, key. 6, lever, c, button, d, check, e, damper, f, string, g, ruler, h, damper pedal lifter. ', rails and
.
sockets, k, spring. I, hammer.
Messrs. Broadwood's former and new Patent Grand Actions.
[ The improvements by Mr. Southwell.']
The shaded parts show the new additions ; the improvement being the keeping
the hammer at a certain distance from the string when the finger is on the key.
a, key. b, lever, c, button, d, check, e. damper, f, string, g, crank for damper, h, damper pedal lifter.
1 t i t, rails and socket, k, spring. I, hammer, m, n, block passed through the hammer butt, o, spring fixed at the
back of n, and pressing upon the front of it ; by which arrangement, when the lever passes the notch, it is caught by m,
and the hammer is sustained at the given height, p, another spring, which regulates the action of a, and determines the
height it shall rise.
190 THE ACTION.
Messrs. Collard's Patent Grand Action. (Invented by Mr. George Stewart.)
a, key. &, hopper, c, button, d, hopper spring, e, hammer. /, check, g, hammer rail, h, damper, i f, rail
and socket. k, crank for damper. I, damper pedal lifter.
-a
Erard's Patent Grand Action. (Invented by Sebastian JErard.)
a, key. b, lifter centered in the key and the hopper lever, c. hopper lever, d d, hopper, e, hammer sustaining
lever, f, stop for e. g, hopper button, h, butt for the hopper to strike against, i i, two small wire stops acting upon
. k k, springs acting upon hopper lever and hammer lever. I, check, m m, balance weights of lead, n, damper .
o, hammer, p, hammer rail.
Wornuris Grand Action. (This action is based on the Piccolo Action.}
&
a, key. 6, hopper and spring, c, hammer, d, check, e, button to set off the hopper, f, hopper lever, g, tie
attached to the butt of the hammer, h, sustaining spring linked at the end of the tie, and fixed in the front end of the
hopper lever, the rising of which puts the sustaining spring in action. This spring gives the piano blow and assists in
the/orte and repetition. damper and fixings, k, hammer ruler and back touch. I, wood spring to set up the hoppers.
THE ACTION.
Zeitter's Grand Action.
191
a, key. 6, hopper, which works in the key with what is called a bird's mouth, c, escapement part of the hopper,
and the setting off which is effected by the button working in the arched part above it, d, e. d, button and wire, e,
arch in which the button acts, f, hopper spring, g, hammer. A, check, f, damper, k, damper crank. I, damper
pedal action, m m, rail and socket, n, hammer rail.
Wornum's Unique Action.
Wornum's Double or Piccolo Action.
a, key. 6, hopper, c, string, d, hammer rail. , ham- a, key. 6, hopper and spring, c, hammer, d, ham-
mer. /, damper and wire, g, damper rail, h, ruler, mer rail. , tie and wire. /, check, g g, damper and
f t, springs. w i re . ft, setting off screw.
192 THE ACTION.
While the improvements in the mechanism of the action have been in progress,
others have been effected, individually less important, and demanding less refined
efforts of invention, but which collectively have augmented the power, improved the
tone, and increased the durability of the pianoforte, rendering it at the same time
more retentive of pitch and tone, and more capable of withstanding the deteriorating
influences of climate and vicissitudes of temperature.
In treating of the action of the pianoforte, our work would be incomplete
without some notice of the German mechanism known as the " Vienna action."
This we shall briefly record in the words of the eminent pianist, M. Thalberg.
" During the first years of this century, two systems chiefly prevailed with regard
to the grand piano : the older one followed by the London makers, known as the
English system, and the newer one in Germany, called the Vienna system. The
difference was principally in the action ; that of the English being the common grand
action, the origin of which is unfortunately unknown ; and that of Vienna, a new
action, invented, it is said, at Augsburg, by an organ-builder. The old grand
action gave a more powerful blow, and produced a fuller and finer tone, while the
lightness of touch of the Vienna action afforded far greater facilities of expression,
and caused it, therefore, to be adopted by most of the eminent pianists of the time.
This is not at all to be wondered at, when we consider the immense importance of
the action of the piano in bringing out the elements of expression which are peculiar
to the instrument. Between the mind of the player that conceives, and the string
that expresses by its sound the conception, there is a double mechanical action : one
belonging to the player, in his fingers and wrists ; the other to the piano, in the parts
which put the strings in motion. No two piano players touch the instrument alike ;
that is, no two players have the same mechanical action in their fingers, or produce
the same tones ; and the difference in the style and degrees of excellence of pianists
is more owing to this than to any other cause. It is, therefore, self-evident that that
part of the piano which continues the action of the fingers, and completes the con-
nection between the mind of the player and the strings of the instrument, should have
a delicacy and a power answering as near as possible to those of the hand of the player.
Every difference in the action of the piano will give a corresponding difference in tone
THE ACTION. 193
and expression ; and hence this part of the instrument has at all times been justly
considered of paramount importance, not only by the great professional pianists, but
by the highly cultivated amateur player. Now, however, we have an action, the
invention of the late Sebastian Erard, which gives a more powerful blow than the old
grand action, and a far more rapid and delicate effect than the old Vienna action
thus combining the advantages of both systems.
" To give an idea of the degrees of perfection attained at the present day in the
construction of the piano, we will describe one of the grand pianos in the Exhibition*.
This instrument is 8j feet in length, and 4 feet in its greatest width; its frame is of,
an enormous strength, compared with the instruments of former times, being heavily
braced with wood below the strings, having a complete system of metallic bracing
above the strings, firmly abutted, and consisting of longitudinal bars let into metal
at each end, and having the curved side formed of a number of separate pieces glued
together in a mould, to ensure durability and fixedness of form. Its sounding-board
extends to the frame on all sides, except the space left for the action. The strings
are made entirely of steel, and of wire so thick that the tension necessary to bring
them to the proper pitch, produces an aggregate strain equal to at least twelve tons
weight, while they are passed through studs drilled into the metal wrest-plank, thus
giving the strings an upbearing position, which prevents the slightest displacement
of the point of contact by any force of the hammers ; and the system of placing the
strings on the instrument, determined by accurate acoustic experiments, causes them
to be struck by the hammer at the precise nodical point which produces the freest and
clearest tone. The compass is extended to seven octaves, from A to A. The action
of this piano is described by Dr. Lardner, in a work just published on Mechanicsf, as
' a beautiful example of complex leverage in the mechanism which connects the key
and hammer. In this instrument, the object is to convey, from the point where the
finger acts upon the key to that at which the hammer acts upon the string, all the
delicacy of action of the finger ; so that the piano may participate, to a certain extent,
in that sensibility of touch which is observable in the harp, and which is the conse-
* The magnificent instrument by Erard in the British f See Dr. Lardner's Popular Essays on Scientific
department of the Exhibition of 1851. Subjects, 12mo. Longman, 1852.
C C
194 THE ACTION.
quence of the finger acting immediately on the string in that instrument, without the
intervention of any other mechanism.' The power of this instrument depending on
the quantity of matter brought into vibration, the resonance, or the perfection of that
vibration, depending on the correct proportions of its parts, and the accuracy of
intonation depending on the nature of the bridging, the proportions of the strings,
and their arrangement with regard to the blow of the hammer, are all most admirable ;
while the action depending on the peculiar mechanism employed far surpasses every
thing else of the kind ; for it enables the player to communicate to the strings all that
the finest-formed and most skilful hand can express, and becomes, as it were, a part
of himself, reflecting every shade of his feelings, from the most powerful to the softest
and most delicate sounds. This action is indeed so perfect, particularly in its power
of delicate repetition, that if any note is missed in execution upon it, it is the fault of
the player, and not of the instrument. Many persons have a very meagre notion of
the power of expression possessed by the pianoforte. The fact is, however, that it
really possesses almost all those elements of expression which belong to any other
instrument, and several which are peculiar to itself, from the circumstance of the
various parts of music adapted to the instrument being brought out by the same hand
and the same feeling. An immense difference of volume of tone, and of effect, is
produced by the manner of touching the keys, and by the use of the pedals, especially
upon an instrument of great power, fine quality of tone, and delicate mechanism in the
action." *
From the earliest period in the history of the pianoforte, as we have shown in
the first part of our volume, makers have bestowed their time and attention in con-
triving a system of action for striking the strings downwards, instead of upwards. In
addition to the early makers whom we have named, we may instance Messrs. Stodart,
Wornum, Kollman, and Pape. Many advantages undoubtedly attend this plan,
some of which are enumerated in the following extract from a report on M. Pape's
instruments, signed by Cherubini, Lesueur, Boieldieu, Auber, Paer, and Berton :
" The advantages which these newly invented pianos offer are the following :
* M. Thalberg's remarks in the Jury Report of the Exhibition of 1851.
THE ACTION. 195
they unite more richness, as well as sweetness of tone and power, to a greater solidity
and less external size. One of the greatest defects in the old system, against which
the manufacturers have struggled in vain for the last twenty years, arose from the
mechanism being placed beneath the sounding-board ; whence it became necessary,
in order that the hammers might strike, the string, to form an opening in the sounding-
board, by which the solidity of the instrument was more or less compromised.
Endeavours had been made to remedy this defect by double bracing, so as to prevent
the resistance of the strings ; but complete success had never attended these attempts :
and as to the opening on the sounding-board, and the injurious influence it had in
diminishing the tone of the instrument, it was impossible, under such a system, to
obviate it. With such difficulties, therefore, it became necessary to change the
whole plan.
" In the new invention of M. Pape, the mechanism of the instrument being
placed above the sounding-board, the two blocks now form but one ; since they are,
as well as the sounding-board, directly united and without any opening whatever ; by
which arrangement such a solidity is obtained, that it is next to impossible for the
sounding-board or block to give way a circumstance of very frequent occurrence in
pianos constructed upon the old system. Besides, the keys communicating more
immediately with the mechanism of the instrument ; and the hammers striking the
strings from above, against the bridge and the sounding-board, there results a much
greater power and clearness of sound, as well as a greater facility in execution. The
strings likewise being pressed by every stroke of the hammer upon the bridge, retain
the instruments in tune a greater length of time than in the old pianos, in which the
strings were continually being lifted up. A fortunate circumstance in the present
invention is, that it requires much less solid wood ; and the iron bars which they were
compelled to make use of under the old plan, have been entirely laid aside."
The arrangement of the mechanism in M. Pape's instruments has likewise
another peculiarity. In the generality of down-striking actions, the hammers are
situated at the back end of the key frame, and are moved by the back ends of the keys ;
in the present action, on the contrary, the hammers are placed under the keys, and are
worked from their front ends, directly under the part struck by the fingers ; so that
c c 2
196 THE ACTION.
the thrust passes immediately downwards, in a direction nearly vertical, from the finger
to the hammer, and thence to the string below. The firmness which this direct action
gives to the blow may be easily understood. Moreover, there is another great advan-
tage attending this disposition of action, namely, that from the hammers being brought
so far forward, a much greater length of string is obtained than on the ordinary plan,
with the same length of case. In up-striking instruments (as well as in down-striking
ones having the hammer at the back), the front end of the string must, of necessity,
lie at some distance from the front end of the instrument ; while in M. Pape's
arrangement the string is brought completely up to the front, and thus an increase
of about a foot in length is obtained, or, which is the same thing, an equal diminution
in the length of the instrument for the same length of string.
" There are some peculiarities," says Mr. Pole, " common to all the varieties of
action, as made by M. Pape, well worthy of imitation, but which have been little
attended to by the majority of makers. All the parts are perfectly accessible, and
every point liable to wear is provided with a mode of adjustment. For example, the
grand action, although apparently buried in the case, can in a moment be turned
round, and every part exposed to view ; while the escapement, the effective length of
hopper, the key-centre, and the front pinhole, the dampers, the height of the key, &c.
have all adjusting screws, by which they can be regulated with the greatest facility
when worn, or otherwise out of adjustment. By these means, all rattling of the keys
and action, unevenness in the touch, imperfect damping, &c. which so often occur
almost irremediably in old instruments, may be at once removed, and the mechanism
restored to its original good condition. The key-centres, instead of working on a
vertical pin, as commonly made, turn on a horizontal wire a plan more in accordance
with mechanical rules, and less liable to derangement."
CHAPTER IV.
VARIOUS MECHANICAL CONTRIVANCES APPLIED TO THE PIANO-
FORTE IN ORDER TO OBTAIN SUSTAINED SOUNDS.
THE absence of the means of sustaining sounds in the pianoforte has suggested
to ingenious men, at various periods, the possibility of devising some intermediate
agent, to act between the keys and the strings, that would accomplish this desired
object. But, as it has been remarked, it is much more easy to draw true harmony
from square or cylindrical pipes by artificial means, than to intone elastic strings,
which borrow a part of their sound from the body upon which they are mounted.
The bow, in the hand of an able performer, has power to act upon the mass of air
contained in the sonorous body of the violin, tenor, or bass, and to bring it in contact
with the external air ; but it is different to produce the same effect by means of a
mechanical bow. If it is sought to give it sufficient power for this purpose, the
motion of the machine becomes hard, restive, and almost impossible. On the con-
trary, if that degree of suppleness be left to the bow which is often necessary, the
only sound obtained is meagre and devoid of intensity. All the researches and trials
hitherto made have failed in removing these obstacles, and perhaps the latest invention
is as imperfect as the first.
The earliest attempt to produce sustained sounds in a keyed-stringed instru-
ment was made by John Heyden, about the year 1600. The instrument was called
the " Clavecin viole" or ' ; Geigen clavicymbal." The mechanism consisted of a series
of cylindrical bows, made to act, by means of a pedal, upon an ordinary harpsichord
with metallic strings. Heyden was a distinguished musician of Nuremberg, and the
198 CONTRIVANCES FOR OBTAINING SUSTAINED SOUNDS.
organist of the church of St. Sebald in that city*. He visited Prague early in the
seventeenth century, and exhibited his instrument to Rudolph the Second, from which
prince he obtained for himself and his heirs the sole right of constructing the instru-
ment. In 1605 and 1610, he published descriptions of his invention, in German and
Latin ; and it is honourably mentioned by Prsetorius and Mersennus, in their
respective worksf. Hey den died at Nuremberg in 1613.
More than a quarter of a century afterwards, Father Kircher, the visionary author
of Musurgia Universelle, mentions the possibility of constructing an instrument upon
a similar plan ; but his description is too vague to be of any interest at the present
day.
In 1664, John Evelyn records, in his valuable Diary " October 5th To our
Society [i. e. the Royal] there was brought a new-invented instrument of music, being
a harpsichord with gut-strings, sounding like a concert of viols with an organ, made
vocal by a wheel and zone of parchment that rubbed horizontally against the
strings." J
In 1717, Marius, the harpsichord maker of Paris (before noticed as a claimant
to the invention of the pianoforte), contributed an instrument of a similar description,
to which he gave the name of Clavecin vielle. It met with the approval of the
Academic des Sciences, and the model is, we believe, still to be seen among the
collection of " machines" preserved by that institution.
In 1754, Hohlield, an ingenious mechanic of Berlin, who had rendered himself
worthy of notice by several important inventions, conceived the idea of his Bowed
harpsichord, a model of which he presented to the King of Prussia in that year.
This instrument was mounted with cat-gut strings, under which was placed a hair
bow, put in motion by a little wheel. Small hooks attached to the keys pressed the
strings upon the bow, which, by its action on the strings, drew forth the sounds. It
differed very little, we believe, from Marius's Clavecin vielle.
* He was the son of Sebastian Heyden, and born in torn, ii, p. 67). An engraving of the exterior may also be
1540. See Fetis's Biographic des Musiciens. seen in Doppelmayr's Nachricht von dem Nurnbergischen
t Praetorius gives a drawing of the mechanism of Mathematicis und Kunstlcrn, folio, Nuremberg, 1730.
Heyden's " Geigen clavicymbal " (Syntagma Musicum, J Diary, vol. i, p. 381, edit 1850.
CONTRIVANCES FOE OBTAINING SUSTAINED SOUNDS. 199
This was followed by the Lyrichord, an instrument exhibited in London in 1755 ;
and afterwards by the Celestina, an invention of Adam Walker, the philosopher, and
friend of Dr. Priestly.* Walker introduced it with considerable effect in his
Eidouranion, or transparent orrery, exhibited at the Haymarket Theatre in 1778.
About the same time, the Kev. William Mason, whom we have before had
occasion to mention, in connection with the pianoforte, turned his attention to the
subject under consideration. Horace Walpole, in a letter to the poet, dated Feb. 29,
1776, says, speaking of Dr. Burney, " I perceive he did not know that you are .an
inventor in the science, and have begotten a new instrument by the marriage of two
others." This instrument was called the Ccelestinettes. The Rev. J. Mitford, in his
Correspondence of Horace Walpole and the Rev. William Mason, published in 1851,
adds, in a note (vol. i, p. 431) : " It [the Ccelestinettes] is not, however, to be found
among the other works of art still remaining at Aston ; all his music [and instru-
ments] having, I believe, been bequeathed to a friend. However, by the favour of
Miss Alderson, a MS. description of it, in Mason's writing, dated Aston, March 30,
1761, is now before me. It consists of ten pages, and enters into all the minute
particulars of its formation. The beginning is as follows : ' For the proper prepara-
tion of the horse-hair of the bow used in performing on the Ccelestinettes, the clearness
of the tone of the instrument, the facility of its touch, and, in short, every thing that
makes any degree of execution practicable upon it, all depends principally on that
part of it which is employed in making it sound ; namely, the single horse-hair
attached to the moveable ruler or bow, which is drawn backwards and forwards over
the strings by the left hand of the performer, while his right is employed in pushing
down the keys. To perform this properly, four circumstances must be particularly
attended to : 1, the size of the hair ; 2, its length ; 3, its texture ; 4, and principal,
its due degree of resin ;' &c. The instrument is still remembered at Aston, as
resembling in shape the old spinette or harpsichord."
* This invention is included in the patent granted philosophy," July 29, 1772. See page 1*9, ante.
to Adam Walker, of Manchester, "teacher of natural
f
200 CONTRIVANCES FOR OBTAINING SUSTAINED SOUNDS.
Towards the close of the eighteenth century, Gerli, a mechanist of Milan, produced
an instrument mounted with cat-gut strings, and acted upon by means of finger-keys
and horse-hair bows, in the manner of the clavecins we have described, but with a
greater degree of perfection. According to the Italian journals, it was used at several
concerts, and introduced into the churches; but it seems probable that the instrument
was found to have insurmountable defects, for it soon fell into oblivion.
The next attempt of the kind was by Schmidt, a pianoforte manufacturer at
Paris*, who produced an instrument in the form of a long square chest, which was
shown in the exhibition of the products of industry at the Invalides in 1806. At one
of the extremities of his instrument was a key-board, with the mechanism of a common
pianoforte ; at the other was another key-board, intended to put in motion a number
of small cylindrical bows, by means of which the cat-gut strings were intoned. The
sounds obtained by this mechanism resembled those of the cymbal ; not corresponding
to the intention of the maker, who sought to imitate bowed instruments. However,
M. Schmidt obtained an honourable mention of his endeavours.
In 1810, M. de St. Perne, an amateur, invented, under the name of Organon-
Lyricon, an instrument which, besides the common pianoforte, comprised a dozen
wind instruments, all of which could act in concert with it. By an ingenious, but
somewhat complicated piece of mechanism, the performer could, by the assistance of
a double key-board, produce the tones, either separately or together, of the pianoforte,
flute, oboe, clarionet, &c.
About the same time, Pouleau invented his Orchestrina, which bore a considerable
degree of analogy to the instrument of Schmidt, just mentioned. What particularly
distinguished M. Pouleau's Orchestrina from all other inventions of the same kind,
was a horse-hair bow, made without any visible suture, the secret of which he never
revealed.
The next invention worthy of notice is that of our own countryman, Mr. Isaac
Mott. The Sostinente is said to have resembled, in its tone, the celestina stop of the
* This artist, a distinguished mechanist, was born in the duchy of Nassau in 1768, and settled at Paris in 1795.
He died in 1821.
CONTRIVANCES FOR OBTAINING SUSTAINED SOUNDS. 201
harpsichord. But the effect was produced, not by drawing a skein of silk over the
strings, as in that invention, but by a different and novel principle. A strong silk
thread was stretched across the strings of the pianoforte, and to each finger-
key there was also a silk thread, to which was attached a skein of silk, which skein
passed over a cylinder of about two inches diameter, and was ultimately attached by
three threads to the cross thread above mentioned. When the finger-key was pressed,
it stretched the skein over the cylinder, and caused the cross thread to press on the
string. At the same time the cylinder was turning on its axis, and, being touched
with the dust of fiddle rosin, communicated vibration to the string*. This instrument
was made in the grand upright form.
In 1822, the Abbe Gregorio Trentia invented an instrument to which he gave
the name of Violicembalo. The Gazetta di Milano gives the following account of it :
" The strings are of cat-gut, of various dimensions, of which the lowest are covered
with metal wire, and each string is appropriated to a single tone. At the extremity
of each key is a horizontal lever, by means of" which the string is raised upwards
to meet the action of the bow. This bow consists of a piece of woollen stuff,
inwrought with silk threads instead of hair, which is drawn backwards and forwards
by means of two cylinders, affixed to the sides, and set in motion by means of a fly
wheel, worked by the right foot." The Breton, a jourrlal of literature, &c. published
at Nantes, says : " It is, perhaps, the most perfect instrument of the kind produced ;
yet it fails with respect to the bow, which, being made of hairs [sic"], produces tones of
a wiry and shrill kind. It seems to want the bow composed by M. Poulleau, the
secret of which unfortunately died with him." A long article upon this invention,
by the Conte Leopoldo Cigonare, may be seen in the Effemeridi Litterarie di Roma,
vol. v, p. 29.
M. Lange, of Munich, next invented an instrument called the ^Eolodikon. It is
said to have resembled the Celestina of Adam Walker ; but we have not been able to
meet with any account of it,
M. Gama, a pianoforte-maker of Nantes, invented, in 1827, an instrument to
* The patent for this ingenious invention is dated Feb. 1, 1817. See p. 152, ante.
D D
202 CONTRIVANCES FOR OBTAINING SUSTAINED SOUNDS.
which he gave the name of Plectroeuphon (i. e. harmonious bow). " While in its
mode of performance," according to the journal of the time, " it comprises all the
facilities of the piano, it possesses all the additional advantage of- diminishing or
reinforcing the sounds at pleasure, and producing with ease the finest gradations of
tone. It can, as occasion requires, supply the place of four stringed instruments ; and
offers, in other respects, resources not possessed by the piano." Notwithstanding
this recommendation, the attempt to introduce it at Paris was altogether unsuccessful.
The imperfections of the previous instruments suggested to M. Dietz, of Paris,
in 1827, his Polyplectron. The principles upon which it was constructed are more
conformable to what observation teaches with respect to the resonance of instruments
of the bow kind, than those adopted by his predecessors. Whether the bow acts
longitudinally, or whether it be cylindrical, its horizontal movements can necessarily
produce only a feeble sound, because, in acting upon the string, it can make it vibrate
only in an opposite direction to the vibrations of the sounding-board. This was the
predominant defect in all the instruments which have been described ; and the
observation of this led M. Dietz to form the idea of making his bow act perpendicularly
on the strings, after the manner that the violin, bass, and every other bowed instrument
is played. In order to effect this he had need of as many bows as notes ; and this has
been effected by means of a piece of mechanism of the most ingenious kind. Numerous
bows, composed of thin slips of leather, were made to circulate upon a cylinder
placed upon the upper part of the instrument, and over pulleys ranged on the lower.
The motion of the key brought the bow in contact with the string, by means of a small
thin piece of copper, and the sound was instantaneously produced. This sound was
capable of assuming different characters, according to the degree of pressure applied
to the key. Thus, when the artist played with a firm touch and legato, he obtained the
effect of an excellent organ, and of a voluminous tone. If he played with lightness,
whether legato or staccato, he produced the effect of bowed instruments. In the deeper
part of the scale, and in the medium, the analogy was almost perfect with the double
bass, violoncello, and tenor. In the higher range of notes, the sound assumed the
character of different kinds of violas, rather than of the violin. The inventor did
not succeed in producing the long-sought imitation of this admirable instrument.
CONTRIVANCES FOE OBTAINING SUSTAINED SOUNDS. 203
The Polyplectron was also distinguished from the other instruments of its kind
by the rapidity of its articulations, which allowed of its being played with all the
facility of the pianoforte, in executing the most rapid and complicated passages.
Notwithstanding all these presumed advantages, M. Dietz's invention has shared
the fate of its predecessors, and long since passed away.
This brings us down to the Great Industrial Exhibition of 1851. " We all
remember," says a pleasant writer in Chambers 's Edinburgh Journal (Oct. 27, 1855),
" that ear-rending and infinitely distressing anomaly, the fiddle-piano, in the American
department of the Industrial Building of 1851, wherein a violin, connected by me-
chanism with a second row of keys, played a dismal unison with the right hand of the
performer, and put every listener out of spirits for the rest of the day."
Other attempts, similar to those we have briefly narrated, have boen tried at
various times, by Garbrecht, Grainer, Meyer, Miiller, Hackel, rfawkins, Fiebig, &c. ;
but we are unable to describe them particularly ; and as the results have not, in one
single instance, been crowned with success, this is the less to be regretted.
The object so long sought after, of obtaining a sustaining power in the pianoforte,
has been attempted in another way. The principle, which has been perfected by
M. Isoard, an ingenious engineer and mechanician, consists in causing a current of
air to act on the string, which prolongs its vibration somewhat on the principle of the
JSolian harp. For this purpose there is an opening opposite to each string, through
which a stream of air passes from a bellows, when a valve, corresponding to the given
note, is opened by the key. The bellows are moved by pedals, in the same manner
as those of the seraphine or harmonium*.
According to the following statement, which has lately gone the round of the
press, this principle is about to be carried out in our own country ; but we have little
faith in its success.
* The application of wind to cause the vibration of air. Many instruments of various kinds were constructed,
strings was first tried at Paris about seventy years ago by such as the Anemochorde, the VMine-eolie, SLC. before
a German pianoforte maker named Schnell (born in 1740). any perfection was attained.
The idea was suggested to him by a harp banging in the
on?
204 CONTRIVANCES FOR OBTAINING SUSTAINED SOUNDS.
" IMPORTANT MUSICAL INVENTION. Mr. F. J. Julyan, of Gerrard-street, Soho-square, has invented and patented
a new method of producing musical sounds, that will be the means of effecting great improvements in the construction
of wind and stringed instruments. After making a great variety of experiments relating to the effect of wind upon
musical strings ; he has discovered a very simple and practicable means of causing strings and wires in a state of tension
to vibrate without the agency of either percussion or friction, in fact without touching them. The motive power employed
is a small current of air, either from the human mouth or a wind chest, being made to impinge upon the string at one end
of it, passing over the string and into a narrow slit or groove immediately under it, the groove being quite parallel to the
string and extending one-tenth along the length of it, leaving nine-tenths of the string available for fingering or attaching
to a sound-board. The rapid alternate rarefaction and condensation of the air at the slit or mouthpiece performing a
part equivalent to the bow of a violin, and sustaining the sound as long as the wind continues to act upon it. We have
seen it applied to a sound-board and organ-pipes ; and we have seen and heard an instrument made upon this principle,
called the ' Eolian Monochord,' which has one bass string fifteen inches long, one end of which is fixed over a mouth-
piece one and a half inch long, in the manner described above. It is held in the same position as a flute and blown with
the breath. Three chromatic octaves can be produced on this very simple instrument. The tones are of a peculiar kind
and of excellent quality."
CHAPTER V.
MELOGRAPHIC, MECHANICAL, AND TRANSPOSING PIANOS.
THE idea of constructing a harpsichord or pianoforte by means of which the
improvisations of a composer might be" preserved, has considerably occupied the
attention of several ingenious mechanists. The Rev. Mr. Creed, a clergyman of
London, first conceived the idea of a musical instrument that, while performed upon,
should trace on paper the music executed; and, in 1747, he submitted his project to
the consideration of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures,
in a memorial entitled A Demonstration of the Possibility of making a Machine that
shall write extempore Voluntaries, or other Pieces of Music, $$c.* It is asserted
also, that a monk, of the name of Engramelle, about the year 1770, made an instru-
ment of this kind, the success of which was complete ; but the explanations which
are given of it are very obscure, and of a kind to give rise to doubts concerning the
truth of the facts. On the other hand, John Frederick linger, counsellor of justice at
Brunswick, in a German work printed in 1774, has claimed the invention of the
instrument attributed to Creed, and proved that he had previously made a similar
onef.
* A Letter to the President of the Royal Society, f Entwurf einer Maschine, wodurch AUes, was auf
inclosing a Paper of the late Rev. Mr. Creed, concerning dem Clavier gespielt wird, sie eon sefber in Noten setzt,
a Machine, &c. is contained in the Philosophical Trans- im Jahr 1752, an die Konigliche Akademie der Wissen-
actions, vol. xliv, p. 445. The author of the letter advo- shaften zu Berlin eingesandt, nebst dem mit dem Herrn
eating Mr. Creed's notices was John Freke, the celebrated Doctor Eider, dariiber gefuhrtenBriefwechsel, and einigen
surgeon. an dem diesen Entwurf betreffenden Nachrichten. Bruns-
wick, 1774. 4to.
206 MELOGRAPHIC, MECHANICAL, AND TRANSPOSING PIANOS.
Hohlfeld, however, the ingenious mechanic of Berlin before mentioned, has the
best claim to the invention. Availing himself of the suggestions of Euler, he, in
1752, made an instrument similar to that proposed by Creed and linger, and presented
it to the Academic. The invention consisted of two cylinders, so applied to a piano-
forte, that, as they revolved during the performance, one received the paper unrolled
from the other. By this means the notes were marked by a crayon upon the paper,
which a spring kept in motion. But the operation was so fatiguing, that the Academic
contented itself with admitting the great ingenuity of the contrivance, and awarding
the inventer a handsome gratuity in compensation for his talents and trouble.
Hohlfeld received back his machine, and, some years afterwards, sent it to his country
seat near Berlin; where, in 1757, it was consumed by an accidental conflagration.
In the month of August, 1827, M. Carreyre made trial, before the Committee of
the Fine Arts of the Institute of France, of a melographic piano, which consisted of a
clock movement, which unrolled from one cylinder to another a thin plate of lead,
on which were impressed, by the action of the keys of the instrument, certain peculiar
signs, which might be translated into the ordinary notation by means of an explanatory
table. After the experiment, the plate of lead was removed, to make the translation,
and a commission was appointed to report ; but as no report was ever made,
it is probable that the translation was not found to be exact. At the same time,
M. Baudouin read before the Institute a paper, accompanied with drawings, con-
cerning another melographic piano ; upon the merit of which we do not find that the
Institute pronounced.
Self-acting virginals and harpsichords existed at an early period, as we have
shown in our historical introduction. A self-acting pianoforte was invented by Messrs.
Clementi and Collard early in the present century, which professes to be the first of
its kind. According to the notices that appeared at the time, " This curious instru-
ment, furnished with a horizontal cylinder, similar to that of a barrel-organ, and put
in motion by a steel spring, performs, without external force or manual operation, the
most intricate and difficult compositions ; and, by comprising in its mechanism two
complete instruments, each independent of the other, it admits, while the operation of
the self-actuated instrument is proceeding within, of a distinct accompaniment on the
MELOGEAPHIC, MECHANICAL, AND TRANSPOSING PIANOS. 207
i
keys without, which occupy the usual place in front, and may be played on at pleasure,
with or without the self-acting part of the machine. This, the first instrument of its
kind, when the spring is fully, wound up, will act for more than half an hour, and may
be again prepared for performance in half a minute ; and, if required, stopped in an
instant, while in full action. The time in which it executes any movement may be
accelerated or retarded at pleasure : and while, by the delicacy and perfection of the
mechanism, the piano and the forte passages are given with correctness and effect, the
fortsandi and diminuendi are produced by the slightest motion of the hand applied to
a sliding ball at the side of the instrument. When we consider the state of the piano-
forte as originally constructed its thin, wiry, jangling tone, ineffective weakness,
and other numerous imperfections, and witness the complicated beauties and powers
of this self-acting instrument, we must be both delighted and surprised, and almost
be persuaded, that to ingenuity, science, and industry, no excellence in musical
mechanism is unattainable."
An ingenious contrivance of M. Debain, of Paris, intended to supersede the barrel
hitherto employed, was shown in the London Exhibition of 1851. Instead of the music
being pricked on a barrel, it is formed by a series of pins, fixed on the plane surface
of a thin oblong tablet of wood, a few inches broad, giving to it the appearance of a
currycomb. This is drawn, by a rack and pinion, through a frame, in which project
wedge-shaped ends of levers, connected by rods with the hammers of the piano ; so
that,' when any pin in the tune-tablet passes over one of these wedge-shaped lever
ends, it depresses it, and thereby lifts the hammer, which, when the pin has passed
over, is thrown back by a spring against the string. The mechanical apparatus is
made to fit on the top of an ordinary cottage pianoforte, and may be detached at
pleasure, leaving the instrument in its natural state for performance by the fingers.
Transposing instruments, the object being to suit voices of different compasses, are
not of modern invention. Besides the instances noticed in the historical portion of our
work, we may mention that Bauer, counsellor and chamberlain to the Prince of Prussia
in 1786, constructed an instrument, the key-board of which was moveable, "trans-
posing music one or two notes higher." Roller, of Paris, also manufactured pianos
with a key-board capable of transposing 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 half-tones higher or lower.
208 MELOGRAPHIC, MECHANICAL, AND TRANSPOSING PIANOS.
Transposing pianos are differently constructed. Sometimes the key-board and
action, or the strings and framing, are shifted laterally, so as to make one hammer
strike different strings, according to its position. The Royal Albert transposing piano
differs from other instruments ; as neither action nor strings are moveable. The keys
may be described as divided at half their length, the front and back ends being capable
of moving independently of each other, and the connection being made between them
by means of a shifting lever underneath ; so that by altering the position of this lever,
the front end of the key C, for example, may be made to act at the back end of either
of the keys C sharp, D, B, B flat, &c.
In the sketches which we have given of what relates to pianofortes and their
manufacture, the reader may have been struck with the prodigious fruitfulness of
imagination manifested in all these inventions. Will things remain stationary in this
respect, or not ? This is doubtful. The imagination of man will always be active ;
but it may be doubted whether there will be produced hereafter effects greatly superior
to those which are now obtained. All the distinguished men, who have employed
themselves in the construction of instruments, have sought to make improvements in
them by a more severe application of theoretical principles ; but, in practice, the
results have not been such as they expected, either from unknown causes, or from
their not having taken the necessary precautions. Theory is sometimes found in
opposition to practice. For example, the principles of the sounding of vibrating
surfaces demonstrate that violins, violas, and basses, are constructed on arbitrary
rather than scientific rules ; but, in the application of these principles, no one has yet
been able to make instruments so good as those which were made by rules the found-
ation of which is unknown. The same thing may be remarked of pianofortes. Time
alone will shed light on these mysterious circumstances*.
* These remarks are translated from M. Fetis's ad- tout le Monde. 2nd edit. Brussels, 1839.
nnrable little volme, La Mutiqw mist a la ParUe de
CHAPTER VI.
STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING
AS AN ARTICLE OF TRADE; MATERIALS USED IN THE CON-
STRUCTION OF PIANOFORTES, &c.
THE manufacture of pianofortes has become a branch of national industry of
considerable importance, whether it be regarded with reference to the scale upon
which it is conducted, or the class of labour it employs. Dr. Lardner* took some
pains to collect statistical information ; but remarks " we have not been able to
obtain any certain or exact statistical data by which a calculation of its magnitude or
value can be estimated. In the absence of such precise data, however, some approx-
imation may be made by comparison with the ascertained extent of the same manu-
facture in a neighbouring country, where it is certainly fifty per cent, less in
quantity and value than in England.
" At the Great Exhibition of the Products of French Industry, which was held
in Paris in 1849, it was ascertained, by official documents placed at the command of
the juries, that the annual value of the pianos fabricated in France was above eight
millions of francs; and, inasmuch as the manufacture was then, and has since been,
in rapid development and increase, we shall not probably over-estimate its present
amount by stating it at ten millions of francs, or four hundred thousand pounds sterling.
" So great a consumption of this manufacture may be explained, partly by the
* Popular Essays on Scientific Subjects, by Dr. the progress of the Great Exhibition of 1851. (Essay xiv,
Dionysius Lardner. 8vo. London, 1852. A charming series p. 363.)
of papers, which originally appeared in the " Times," during
E E
210 STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING.
inevitable effects of time and climate even on the most solid and durable mechanism,
partly by the wear and tear proceeding from use and abuse, especially in the extensive
class of instruments used for teaching, and partly by the augmented population to
whose enjoyment the instrument administers ; but much also must be ascribed to the
increased cultivation of music, and to the rapidly progressive improvement of the
mechanism of the piano, which presents to the more affluent a constant inducement
nay, a social necessity to reject the pianos they possess, not because they are impaired
by time or use, but because the genius and invention of the makers have placed before
them better and more powerful instruments.
" Considering that by far the largest number of instruments constructed are of a
small size and low price, we may take the average cost, one with another, at about a
thousand francs, which would give the number of pianofortes annually fabricated in
France to be ten thousand, of which about thirty per cent., or three thousand, are
exported.
" The industry occupied in this business is nearly all of the class of skilled and
artistic labour, and is consequently highly remunerated. In the report of the jury on
the French Exposition, the average wages were estimated at five francs per day. The
number of pairs of hands occupied in the manufacture may therefore be estimated at
nearly seven thousand.
" If, in the absence of better and more exact means of calculation, it be assumed
that the manufacture in England is double this in quantity and value, we may infer
that in the United Kingdom the fabrication of pianos produces a gross return of
800,000; that about 20,000 instruments are fabricated annually; and that about
14,000 pairs of skilled hands are occupied in the business.
" This approximate estimate, considerable in amount as it will appear, is below
that which has been made by others who have investigated the statistics of this branch
of industry. The following appeared in one of the reviews of the Great Exhibition,
which appeared in the journals .
STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING. 211
" Estimate of Pianofortes annually made in London.
1,500 grands, bicords, and small grands, at 110 each 165,000
1,500 squares 60 90,000
20,000 uprights of various kinds 35 700,000
23,000 955,000
" According to this approximate estimate, the produce of the London manufac-
ture alone, not including that of the cities of Edinburgh and Dublin, besides towns of
less magnitude, amounts to a million sterling. If this estimate be correct, the extent
of this branch of industry, in England, is about three times its amount in France."
The population returns of 1841, according to the Rev. W. W. Cazalet*, show
that there were then in England and Wales 378 organ builders; but, singularly
enough, the pianoforte makers are not separately specified in the returns. From
information given to the writer in 1851, the Messrs. Collard sold annually 1,600
instruments ; or a gross amount, during the last twenty years, of about 32,000. The
Messrs. Broadwood, during the same period, have sold 45,863 instruments, or an annual
average of 2,293 and a fraction. " Taking the annual business," says the same writer,
" of these houses at a round number of 4,000 pianos, and at an average price of 60
guineas, which must be much below the mark, it gives, for these two firms alone, the
enormous gross return of upwards of a quarter of a million." Mr. Cazalet's deductions
arrive at the same conclusion we have already given. He says, " Now the number of
pianoforte makers in London is about 180. (I have taken this from the Directory.)
It is not unreasonable, therefore, to state the gross return of this branch at considerably
more than a million ; as, by a probable estimate that has been made, it would appear
that the number of instruments made and sold in the year is about 23,000, of all
sorts."
* A Lecture on the Musical Department of the late 6th, 1852. 8vo. 1852. The historical part of this lecture
Great Exhibition, read before the Society of Arts, May is very meagre and incorrect.
E E 2
212 STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING.
The prices of instruments made by the best houses, in plain mahogany cases, are .
for grands, 125 to 135 guineas; for bicord and small grands, 80 to 105 guineas; for
grand squares, 50 to 100 guineas ; for plain squares, 35 to 50 guineas; for cabinets,
75 to 85 guineas ; for cottage and other small uprights, 45 to 70 guineas. These
prices are often, however, increased for more expensive cases, in rose, walnut, or other
fancy woods, enriched with ornamental carving or inlaying. Beautiful specimens
of such were seen in the Great Exhibition of 1851. Messrs. Collard's principal
instrument was valued at 500 guineas ; Messrs. Erard's at 1000 guineas; and Messrs.
Broad wood's at, we believe, 1200. " The enormous money value of these," says
Mr. Pole, " is solely on account of the external decoration ; as musical instruments,
they are in no wise superior to the ordinary grands, sold at the prices above named.
On the other hand, a class of instruments has been lately introduced by Messrs.
Collard, with the laudable object of bringing the price of the ornamental part down
to the lowest possible sum ; and so putting pianofortes of the best make within the
reach of purchasers with limited means. With this view, the most useful variety of
the small upright is made, in a neat, plain case of deal or other cheap wood, and sold
for about 30 guineas." The appearance of these instruments is very neat, and, we
thinls, far preferable to the profusion of ornament, in the vilest possible taste, with
which some makers cover their pianos. Small uprights, by makers of little eminence,
are sold at much less prices than those of the large houses.
The principle of division of labour is adopted to a considerable extent in piano-
forte making, precision of detail being of the utmost possible consequence. As an
illustration of this, we may state that a grand pianoforte, in the course of its progress
to completion, passes under the hands of upwards of forty different workmen, each of
whom, with his assistants, is exclusively engaged in a special branch of the manu-
facture. They are as follows :*
* The documents upon which our information is founded sorts of materials used in the manufacture of pianofortes,
were prepared by Messrs. Broad-wood, on the occasion of They are inserted in Dr. Lardner's interesting work before
the Great Exhibition of 1851. They show in detail the referred to; also in Mr. Pole's privately printed brochure,
various classes of operations, and the different qualities and
STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING. 213
1 . The key-maker forms the entire key-board from one piece of lime-tree wood ; fixes on the pieces of ivory and
ebony ; bores the necessary holes ; and, finally, cuts the whole up into separate keys with a fine saw.
2, 3, 4, 5. The hammer-maker, the check-maker, the damper-maker, and the damper-lifter-maker, construct the
parts of the action to which these names refer.
6. The notch-maker covers, with doe-skin and cloth, the notches or ends of the hammer-shanks into which the
hoppers work.
7. The hammer-leatherer covers the hammer-heads with their different coats of leather and felt, and cuts them to
their proper size.
. 8. The beam-maker makes the mahogany beam or rail extending across the action and covered with brass, in
which the hammers are centered.
!), 10, 1 1. The brats-stud-maker and brass-bridge-maker form the upward bearing-studs and bridge ; and the wesi-
pin-maker, the iron tuning pins.
12, 13, 14, 15. The metallic-brace-maker, the metattic-plate-maker, the steel-arch-maker, and the transverse-bar-
maker, all construct part of the metallic bracing. (The makers of the iron and brass work, for pianofortes
and other musical instruments, are called music-smiths.)
16. The spun-string-maker makes the lapped or spun wires.
These parts, and other minor preparations, being supposed ready, the body of the
instrument is made as follows :
17, 18. The sawyer saws the timber roughly into shape ; the bent-side-maker then cuts it more accurately to its
size and thickness, and bends, by a steaming process, the pieces destined to form the curved side of the
instrument.
19, 20. The case-maker fashidns, puts together, and veneers the timber-framing forming the principal body of the
instrument ; he also forms and fixes the wrest-plank. The bracer inserts the timber cross-bracing in the
frame : this is, however, sometimes done by the case-maker.
21. The bottom-maker makes and fixes the framed bed, at the lower part of the instrument, to receive the key-
board.
22, 23. The sounding-board-maker selects the timber for, cuts out, and joints, the sound-board. The belly-man
planes it to its proper thickness, shapes it, finishes it, and fixes it in the case. He also forms and fixes
upon it the beech bridge, upon which the strings take their bearing.
24. The marker-off has more to do than his name implies. He marks out the scale for the strings, fixes the pins
on the beech bridge, and finishes it to its proper shape ; he inserts the upward bearing bridge and studs
in the wrest-plank, and bores it ready to receive the tuning pins ; he also fits and fixes the metallic string-
plate, longitudinal stretcher-bars, and other parts of the metallic bracing, by which the pianoforte is made
ready to receive the strings.
25. The stringer puts on the strings, and fixes the wrest-pins in their places.
26. The_/mwAr receives the keys and the various parts of the action from their respective makers ; he constructs
214 STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING.
the action-framing, puts the action together, fixes it in its place, and brings the whole of the mechanism
generally into playing order.
27, 28. The rougher-up then tunes the instrument for the first time, stretching the strings to their proper tension ;
after which, the tuner puts it thoroughly and permanently in tune.
29, 30. The regulator of action then examines and carefully adjusts every part of the action, and completes the regu-
lation of the touch; and, finally, the regulator of tones examines the tones and corrects all irregularities,
making the pianoforte sound and perfect throughout.
(
The following operations, which have reference to the external part of the
instrument, are done at various times in the course of its construction.
31, 32. The top-maker constructs and veneers the cover, and puts on the hinges. The plinther fixes and veneers the
plinth.
33. The Jronter shapes, hinges, and centres the fall or cylinder front; shapes the cheeks, makes and fixes the
mouldings, puts on the locks, and attaches the ornaments.
34. The canvass-frame-maker makes an open wood frame-work, covered with canvass, which is fixed in the
bottom of the instrument.
35. The lyre-maker makes the lyre-shaped bracket fixed under the instrument to carry the pedals.
36. 37. The leg-block-maker makes and fixes the blocks into which the legs are screwed ; and the leg-maker makes
the legs themselves.
38, 39, 40. The tuner, the carver, and the gilder, do all work wanted in their respective departments.
41, 42. The scraper scrapes and cleans the surface of the case, and prepares it, by rubbing it with glass-paper, for the
polisher, who gives it its coat of French polish.
It is almost superfluous to add, that all the hands employed in the manufacture
must be well skilled in their respective departments ; and that the whole of the
operations (but most particularly those connected with the framing and action) must
be done with the utmost care, or a good result cannot follow. It is moreover found
necessary, in order to ensure the good quality of the instrument, that the work be not
hurried ; but that it should progress slowly and gradually to completion. A grand
pianoforte usually remains in hand upwards of six months.
The following table gives a list of the different materials required in the con-
struction of a pianoforte, specifying the parts of the instrument where they are used.
STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING. 215
MATERIALS. WHERE USED.
Woods from
Oak Riga- Framing, various parts.
Deal Norway Wood-bracing, &c.
Fir Switzerland Sounding-board.
Pine America Parts of framing, key-bed or bottom.
Mahogany Honduras Solid wood of top, and various parts of the framing and the action.
Beech England Wrest-plank, bridge or sound-board, centre of legs.
Beef-wood Brazils Tongues in the beam, forming the divisions between the hammers.
Birch Canada Belly-rail, a part of the framing.
Cedar South America.. .Round shanks of hammers.
Lime-tree England Keys.
Pear-tree , Heads of dampers.
Sycamore Hopper or levers, veneers on wrest-plank.
Ebony Ceylon Black keys.
Spanish Mahogany. Cuba
Rosewood Rio Janeiro
Satinwood East Indies .,
For decoration.
White Holly England
Zebra-wood Brazils
Other fancy woods
Woollen Fabrics.
Baize ; green, blue, and brown Upper surface of key-frame, cushions for hammers to fall on, to damp
dead part of strings, &c.
Cloth, various qualities For various parts of the action and in other places, to prevent jarring;
also for dampers.
Felt External covering for hammers.
Leather.
Buffalo Under covering of hammers bass.
Saddle Ditto ditto tenor and treble.
Basil
Calf
Doeskin
Seal
Sheepskin. ,
Morocco....
Various parts of the action.
Sole Rings for pedal wires.
216 STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING.
Metal.
Iron A
Steel [Metallic bracing, and in various small screws, springs, centres, pins,
Brass f &c. &c. throughout the instrument.
Gun-metal J
Steel wire Strings.
Steel spun wire Lapped strings.
Covered copper wire Ditto lowest notes.
Various.
Ivory White keys.
Black lead To smooth the rubbing surfaces of cloth or leather in the action.
Glue (of a particular quality, made ]
^Woodwork throughout,
expressly for this trade) I
Bees'wax, emery paper.glass paper, ->
French polish, oil, putty pow- I Cleaning and finishing,
der, spirits of wine, &c. &c. ... J
The materials must all be of the best possible kinds. The timber especially, being
the most important, must be selected of the soundest quality ; it requires to be
thoroughly seasoned (a process often of several years), and must then be dried by
artificial heat before it is worked for use. A similar degree of care must be taken in
the selection and preparation of all the other materials, or the quality of the instru-
ment will suffer.
In comparing the French pianofortes exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1849,
with the British instruments presented for exhibition in 1851, we observe one curious
fact, which we must presume is to be ascribed to the fact that in this country the manu-
facture is limited to a small number of great capitalists, while in France it is distributed
among a much greater number of makers working on a smaller scale. With a
manufacture upon less than half the scale, and without the stimulus offered by
unlimited, or indeed any, foreign competition, there were in the Paris Exposition
nearly ninety exhibitors ; while, with all the extraordinary excitement presented by
the World's Fair, the Crystal Palace produced only forty native exhibitors.
STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING.
217
The following carefully prepared table shows the proportions of pianofortes
supplied by the industry of different countries, and also the particular description of
instrument exhibited by each maker.
ENGLAND.
I. LONDON.
=H
& K^
^3
1
1
a
a
1
Addisoii
487
i
2
Akerman, W. H
490
i
8
Allison
478
i
4
Allison, Ralph
480
i
5
Broadwood and Sons
518
4
6
Brinsmead, J
474
i
7
Cadby, C
471
1
2
8
Collard and Collard
168
2
1
3
9
Deacon
1
10
Ennever and Steedman
479
2
11
Erard, P.
496
4
3
12
Greiner, J. F
468
1
13
Harrison, J ,
464
1
14
Harwar, J. ...
498a
1
15
Holderness, C
482
1
16
Hopkinson, J. and J
500
1
2
17
Hund, F. and Sou
486
1
18
Hunt,F
*77a
1
19
Jenkins, W. and Son
484
2
20
Jones, J. C. and Co
4S1
1
21
Kirkman and Son
487
3
1
22
Lambert and Company
100
2
23
Lull' and Son
477
1
24
Metzler, George
475
1
25
Moore and Co
476
1
26
Mott, J. H. R
498
1
1
27
Oetzman and Plumb
683
2
28
Peachy, George . ...
2
29
Eolfe, W. and Son
472
3
30
Southwell, W
469
1
81
Stodart and Son
470
1
32
Towns and Packer . .
494
1
1
33
Wheatstone and Company
526
1
34
Wornum, E
499
1
2
F F
218 STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING.
II. PROVINCIAL TOWNS.
H
.|
^1
"a
a
<5
i
s
cf
1
"i-d
a
1
M'Culloch Belfast. .'
483
i
o
Smith and Roberts Birmingham
491
i
Q
Dimoline A Bristol
489
2
4,
\ffirio G H Colchester
488
1
K -
Mathews "W Nottingham
550
1
6
Woolley, F
493
2
III. COLONIES.
1
Herberth and Co Montreal
92
1
2
Phillips J. B. .. Halifax
1
Total..,
21
3
53
UNITED STATES.
1
Chickering, J. Boston
458
1
1
2
Gilbert and Co
435
1
3
Hews, G
438
1
4
Meyer, Conrad ... . Philadelphia , . . .
59
2
5
Nunns and Clark . New York. . .
374
2
6
Pirsson, James
90
1
1
7
Wood, James S
1
Total...
2
9
AUSTRIA.
1
Hoxa Vienna .
1
2
Pottie, J.
141 a
1
3
Schneider, J
140
1
4
Seuffert, E
141b
1
5
Viasky, J Prague .
141
1
Total...
4
1
BELGIUM.
1
Aerts, F. G Entwerp
186
1
a
Berden, F. and C Brussels . ...
174
3
3
Deffaux
188
3
4
Jastrze"bski, F
176
3
5
Sternberg, L
180
2
6
Verhasselt d'Oultrepont
179
1
7
Vogelsang, F. and J...
181
1
1
Total...
1
14
STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING.
219
DENMARK.
">S ^
*
3
|
1
i
J
1
1 1 nniung, C. C . Copenhagen
30
1
i
2
Riihms H .. Altona
14
1
Total...
1
i
1
FRANCE.
I. PABIS.
1
Aucher and Son
404
2
2
Bord .
1099
1
8
Collin
2
4
Debain, A. C
1172
2
5
Detis and Co.
476
2
6
Domeny, L. F
477
1
7
Erard, P. .
497
3
i
1
8
Frauche, C
1234
2
9
Herz,H.
1268
2
1
10
Jaulin, J
1274
1
11
Kleinjasper, J. F
1633
1
12
Mercier, S
633
2
13
Montal, C.
1665
4
14
Van Overberg
1
15
Pape, J.H
943
1
2
2
16
Roller and Blanchet
1687
6
17
Scholtus
1482
2
18
Soufleto
1482
3
Total...
7
3
35
II. PROVINCES.
1
Herding Angers
335
1
1
2
Zeiger. Lyons
747
1
3
Cropet. Toulouse . . .
131
2
Total..
1
4
SWITZERLAND.
1
Hiini and Hubert Zurich
87
1
2
Kiitzing . Berne
89
1
3
Sprecher and Beer Zurich
103
1
Total...
3
F 2
220
STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING.
GEEMANY (ZOLLVEREIN),
AND HAMBUEG.
*| S
IS d
S *"**
gi
^
!
o
i
<3
J<
Q
1
Q
1
Dieudonne" and Bliklel Stuttgart
20
i
2
Dorner F
21
i
i
3
Lipp E. E.
22
2
4.
23
i
1
1
5
Scheel C Cassel
668
1
6
Breitkopf and Hartel . Leipzig. .
25
i
7
Zeitter and Winkelmann . Brunswick
709
i
1
1
g
i
9
Schott and Son Mayence
25
i
10
Westermann and Co . . Berlin
80
i
11
Bessalie H P. Breslau
71
i
12
Klems J. B Dusseldorf.
595
i
13
Gebauhr . ... Konisberg
848
i
14
Heitermayer T. . Miiuster
486
1
15
Adam, G. Wesel
487
i
1
16
Gurike,B. . . Zoffen
78
i
17
Schroder, C. H Hamburg
13
i
Total...
14
3
7
HOLLAND.
1
Cuijpers, J. F. Hague
95
1
EUSSIA.
1
Lichtenthal, M. St. Petersburg . . .
172
2
SUMMAEY.
England and the Colonies 42 makers, exhibiting 21 grands, 3 squares, 53 cottages.
France 21 8 3 39
Germany and Hamburg 17 14 8 7
United States 7 2 9
Belgium 7 l 14
Austria 5 4, 1
Holland and Switzerland 4 .3 1
Denmark and Eussia 3.., . 3 . ..].. 1..
Total.
106
56
19
116
STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING. 221
-
Mr. Pole, to whose labours we have been so largely indebted in the second part
of our volume, speaking of the pianofortes in the Exhibition, has 'some very sensible
remarks, which, as they immediately bear upon the portion of the subject before us,
we beg to transfer to our pages.
" Notwithstanding the great intelligence and care that are brought to bear on
the manufacture of pianofortes, we doubt whether the aid of science has been called
in to the extent that could be wished, to guide their construction. Arrangements are
often seen which appear unwarranted by the principles of mechanics ; and, generally
speaking, the engineering of the construction is not so well studied as it ought to be.
But, in the application of the acoustical science, pianoforte-making is yet more behind
hand. The theory of the production of tone, at least as regards its quality, is at present
wrapt in mystery. Few persons seem to have any definite idea what are the essential
conditions under which a good tone, in general, or still less, any particular quality of tone,
can be ensured. A series of tentative experiments leads to certain methods of con-
struction which are considered good ; and all possible care is then taken to avoid
defects in the manufacture ; but the result is, after all, frequently due to some for-
tuitous combination of circumstances, which cannot be foreseen. Hence arises the
variety in the qualities of tone, not only of instruments by different makers of equally
good repute, but also in those turned out from the same house, and made apparently
in precisely the same manner. Nay, even in the same pianoforte, it frequently
happens that the practised ear can detect considerable variations. Sometimes a certain
portion of the scale may be far superior to the rest ; sometimes a few notes here and
there may be deficient in resonance ; sometimes one note only in the whole instru-
ment may be faulty : but the reason for these anomalies it is impossible to explain.
" The general excellence of a pianoforte depends, however, not only on the
design of its various parts, but also, as we have already stated, on the quality of the
materials, and the amount of care bestowed on the workmanship. It is due principally
to the great attention paid to these latter points by the chief London houses, that
English pianoforte-making has obtained, and still retains, its high reputation.
" If there is any point to which, in preference, future attention should more
particularly be directed, we think it is the cheapening of the better classes of instru-
222 STATISTICS OF PIANOFORTES AND PIANOFORTE MANUFACTURING.
ments. A hundred and twenty or thirty guineas for a grand is a price altogether
beyond the reach of multitudes, who both need and know how to appreciate a good
piano. And yet the tendency of late has been rather to increase than diminish the
cost. We admit readily that a good pianoforte, made purposely to attain the highest
possible grade of perfection, must always bear a high price ; but, at the same time,
it is but reasonable that means should be found to bring a class of instruments, equal
to the ordinary grand, within the reach of persons by whom it is now quite unat-
tainable. The expediency of combining cheapness with excellence in quality has
long been acknowledged and acted upon in almost every branch of manufacturing
art, and indeed seems to be the ruling principle of commerce in the present day.
It is beginning, though tardily, to extend itself to the pianoforte manufacture ; and
we hope, for the sake of the art, that the time may soon come when its influence will
be more general."
PART III.
THE EARLY COMPOSERS FOR INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE
CLASS.
Music, poetry, painting, architecture, and sculpture, included by our aesthetic
philosophers as one fine art, are united in the closest ties, and might be supposed to
have always flourished in unison ; but a knowledge of the histories of the several arts
show us that this was not the case. Although music was that art in the cycle which
first revived in the early period of the middle ages, and is therefore entitled to be
considered the eldest of the sisterhood, it at no period ever made the same advance
as the other arts. The dogmas of the Grecian schoolmen surrounded music, and ages
passed away before men dared shake off" the fetters with which it was encircled.
As regards the first music of the pianoforte class, and indeed all music uncon-
nected with the church, we are indebted for it to that important body of men in the
middle ages, the troubadours and minstrels.
" In all countries and in all ages the first and principal application of music has
been uniformly to the purposes of religious worship ; and in order to provide a com-
petent succession of persons capable of singing the different portions in the church
service, and to guard it from corruptions, in consequence of the ignorance of those by
whom it was sung, it was found necessary that music should form a part of the
clerical education. It was therefore taught in the schools belonging to the monasteries,
to such of the children of the neighbourhood as were sent thither for education ; the
system of instruction in which appears to have consisted of learning the psalms,
probably by heart, and acquiring the principles of music, singing, arithmetic, and
grammar. By this method, boys were, from time to time, procured for the service of
224: THE EARLY COMPOSERS FOR INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS.
the choir, and a succession of singers secured to fill up such vacancies as might be
occasioned by deaths ; for some of these boys, when their voices broke, perhaps
betook themselves to the church as their profession, embraced the monastic habit and
rule, and became ecclesiastical members of the foundation where they had been
educated. Others, on the contrary, disliking the monastic restraint, and availing
themselves of their musical education, applied to music as their profession, and were
occasionally employed in the monasteries, to assist in the choir on saints' days and
high festivals, when a more solemn service was performed, and a greater number of
performers required.
" In the intermediate space, these laymen subsisted by travelling about the court
or palace of one prince or nobleman to that of another, to entertain the lord and his
guests in the character of a minstrel, by singing legends of the saints in verse,
historical ballads, romances in verse, and other vocal compositions, written and set to
music by themselves, and which they also sung, accompanying themselves at the same
time on some musical instrument.
" Between the common ' violar ' and the character of the minstrel there existed
this wide difference, that, while the former might be justly ranked with the lowest
order of the people, the latter had the benefit of such a regular education, as would
have qualified him for a profession of comparative learning and elegance. In the
schools of the monasteries, the minstrel had learnt something of the theoretical
principles of music, the practical part of singing, and the elements of grammar ;
including also, perhaps as much knowledge of poetry as was sufficient for the com-
position of a song or ballad. Persons already acquainted with the principles of music,
could find little difficulty in acquiring sufficient skill to play, on the viol, the clavichord,
or some other ' minstrel ' instrument, a simple melody ; and the whole of this together
formed a sufficient body of theoretical science and practical skill, to enable them to
compose and play a variety of simple tunes. Like the ecclesiastics, these men must
have been disgusted with the monotony of the plain chant ; and that disposition to
hilarity and merriment which they appear to have possessed, would naturally lead
them to the composition of gay and lively melodies. These they no doubt produced
by making variations on the church melodies ; a method known to those skilled in
THE EARLY COMPOSERS FOR INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS. 225
church music, by the name of Descant. Extending their skill still further, they at
length formed melodies of more originality, and became in time the sole authors of
the music, as well as of the words, of the compositions which they sung and played.
" Thus qualified by their education to teach what, it must be confessed, none
were likely better to understand, it is no matter of surprise, that the minstrels and
f
monks should have been, for some centuries, the only teachers of music in Europe.
Travelling from place to place, and from the court of one prince to that of another, as
the minstrels particularly did, they had the opportunities of disseminating the prin-
ciples of musical erudition ; and in proportion to the degree of elegance and politeness
to which their auditors had arrived, would be the disposition of those who heard
their performances, to cultivate and practise the arts of music and poetry.
" In point of politeness and elegance of external behaviour, in gallantry towards
the female sex, and in poetical compliments on their perfections, which were often set
to music, the French have always professed to lead the way to the other nations of
Europe ; and probably for this reason it was, that the first efforts towards raising
these arts to the rank which they merited, and from which they had fallen during
the ignorance and barbarity of the middle ages, appear to have been made in Provence
and the kingdom of Navarre. When once the inclination had been excited, the
means of accomplishment were not difficult, as itinerant minstrels might easily be
procured to teach the principles ; and in this manner, no doubt, was that science
obtained, which gave birth to the class of Provensal poets.
" The time of their first appearance in the world has been stated, and apparently
on the authority of Crescentini, to have been in the tenth century ; but this is believed
to be much too early. The most authentic account of them, written by Le Monge
des Isles d'Or, who lived about 1248, and Henry de Saint Cezari, who flourished about
1435, two members of their own body, carries it no farther back than the twelfth
century ; the earliest writer whom it mentions being Geoffry Rudel, Sieur de Blieux
in Provence, who, according to their own account, lived in 1161.
" That the Provencal poets, who are also sometimes called Troubadours, were
indebted for their instruction to the monks and minstrels, is perfectly clear ; because
at that time when this class of men first arose, whether it were in the tenth, or with
G G
226 THE EARLY COMPOSERS FOR INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS.
more probability the twelfth, century, the monks and the minstrels were the only
teachers of music, and they alone understood the art."*
From the time of the revival of the sciences in the fourteenth century, music 'also,
as one of the number, was much encouraged ; and its influence was particularly
manifest when, towards the end of the fifteenth century, the effects of printing (an
invention assigned to the year 1440) began to make itself powerfully prominent.
Choirs of music were instituted in Italy and other countries towards the close of the
fifteenth century. Ferdinand I of Naples founded one about the year 1470 ; and
three highly accomplished Belgians (Joannes Tinctor, Gulielmus Guarnerius, and
Bernardus Hycaert) were contemporary teachers in that monarch's capital. Some-
what later, Duke Sforza opened one at Milan, at the head of which was the highly
celebrated Franchinus Gafurius, whose works were the first musical ones that issued
from the press after the invention of printing.
It was in the fourteenth century that particular attention was first paid to the
clavichord, and foremost among the musicians who cultivated it was Francesco Landini,
called also Francesco Cieco, from his blindness, and Francesco degli Organi, from his
skill on the organ. He was descended from the illustrious Landini family, and his
father was a celebrated painter. He excelled on many instruments, and was a poet
of no mean eminence. He visited Venice in 1364, when several superb fetes were
given in honor of the King of Cypres ; upon which occasion he was crowned with
laurel. He died at Florence in 1390.
Contemporary with Landini was Nicolo del Proposto, Jacopo di Bologna, and
some others, who were not only skilful performers, but also distinguished for their
compositions. Specimens of their vocal works are preserved in the Imperial Library
at Paris. None of their organ or clavichord music having descended to our times, it
is impossible to form any idea of its excellence. The Italian authors of the fifteenth
century speak in flattering terms of their talents in this respect ; it was therefore,
doubtless, highly creditable for the early stage of the art.
* These excellent remarks, by the late J. S. Hawkins, duction to Stafford Smith's Musica Antiqua, and in Dr.
F.S.A. are from an unpublished MS. in the author's Rimbault's Little Book of Songs and Ballads from An-
possession. They have been partly reprinted in the Intro- dent Musick Books.
THE EARLY COMPOSERS FOR INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS. 227
The next great player on record was Conrad Panlmann, who was born blind at
Nuremberg in the early part of the fifteenth century. He performed on the organ,
clavichord, violin, guitar, flute, trumpet, and several other instruments. He was
greatly honoured by the princes and nobles of his time, particularly by Albert III,
Duke of Bavaria, and the Emperor Frederick III. The latter presented him, on one
occasion, with a sword with a golden blade, and a chain of the same material. He
died at Munich in 1473, and was buried in the church of Notre Dame in that city-
On his tomb he is represented performing upon the organ.
Antonio Squarcialupi, surnamed Antonio degli Organi, was also eminent in the
same century. He was organist in the Cathedral of Florence, and lived in the reign
of Lorenzo il Magnifico, about the year 1450. His pieces have not been printed ; but
Doni informs us that he possessed more than ten volumes of tablatures for the organ,
clavichord, and lute, composed by Antonio di Bologna (Squarcialupi), Julio di Modena,
Francesco di Milano, and Giacomo da Busa. The reputation of Squarcialupi was
such that, after his death, a bust to his honour was erected in the Cathedral of
Florence, with an inscription, in which his merits were celebrated in very flattering
terms.
Among the most able performers on the clavichord of the sixteenth century, we
may class Fattorini, Francesco Corteccia, Alessandro Striggio, and Claudio Merulo.
The latter held the important posts of organist to the Duke of Ferrara and the
Cathedral of Venice. The works of these masters consist in ricercari on the themes
of madrigals or niotetts, in variations on French or Italian songs, and in dances more or
less ornamental. Some collections of these compositions have reached us, and are
preserved in MS. in libraries and private collections.
Andrea Gabrielli was one of the most celebrated composers of the sixteenth
century, and renowned for his compositions and performance on the organ and harp-
sichord. He lived at Venice, and was one of the organists of the Cathedral of Saint
Mark in that city.
The number of other organists and players on the clavichord, harpsichord, and
organ, who distinguished themselves at this epoch is very considerable. Among the
most eminent we may cite Paul Hoffhaimer, born at Radstat in Stiria, and who was
G G 2
228 THE EARLY COMPOSERS FOR INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS.
knighted by the Emperor Maximilian; Johann Buchner of Constance; Johann
Kotter of Berne ; Conrad of Spire ; Schachinger, organist at Padua ; Johann von
Cologne, in Saxony ; Melchier Neysidler, Valentine Greff, Enrico Rodesca da Faggia,
of Turin ; Bindella of Treviso ; Vittoria of Bologna ; Giulio Cesare Barbetta of
Padua ; Claudio di Correggio, Andrea de Canareggio, Paulo de Castello, Alessandro
Milleville, &c.
England was not behind its neighbours in the production of music for keyed-
stringed-instruments ; and the sixteenth century viz. from 15 30 to 15 70 introduces
us to the names of Hugh Aston, Alwood, Bedford, Shelbye, Newman, Heath, Farrant,
Shepperd, Edwardes, Mundy, Carleton, Taverner, Johnson, Dr. Tye, Blitheman,
Tallis, &c. ; specimens of whose " virginal" music have descended to our times.*
The improvements of the harpsichord, in the following century, could not fail to
excite a corresponding degree of emulation in the performers and composers for this
instrument, and to produce a beneficial effect upon their talent. The first book of
instruction published on the art of performing on the harpsichord, &c., dates from the
commencement of the seventeenth century ; it was the production of Geronimo
Diruta, a member of the order of Friars Minor, who was born at Perugia, about the
year 1580, and filled the situtiaon of organist in the principal church of Chioggia, a
small town in the Venetian State. His work is entitled II Transilvano, dialogo sopra
il vero modo di suonar organi e stromente da penna. Parte prima, Venezia, 1615, folio.
The work is dedicated to a prince of Transylvania, who had been a pupil of the
author, and to this circumstance it owes its title of U Transilvano. Besides the
didactic part, which treats of the method of fingering keyed instruments, and contains
* The volume containing the virginal music of these Mullineri, Johanne Heywoode teste." It was from this
writers is a small oblong MS. in the original binding, on valuable and interesting MS. that Sir John Hawkins de-
the sides of which are impressed, in a tooled border, H. R. rived the pieces for the Appendix to his History of Music.
(Henncus Rex), the portcullis and other badges of Henry On one of the leaves is the memorandum " J. S. Smith,
VIII. It consists of Airs, Galliards, Voluntaries, Fan- Lent to Sir John Hawkins, 1774." Upon the dispersion
tasias, In Nomines, &c. written on a staff of 12, 8, 7, and of J. S. Smith's Library, it came into the Author's posses-
6 lines, by the composers whose names are given above, sion. The celebrated Virginal Boole of Queen Elizabeth
On the fly-leaf is the MS. note-" Sum Liber Thomce has already been described.
THE EARLY COMPOSERS FOR INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS. 229
a series of exercises for that purpose, bearing considerable analogy to those which still
find a place in the greater part of modern books of instruction, we find a variety of
toccate, and other pieces by Diruta, Claudio Merulo, Andrea Gabrieli, Luzaschi, Paulo
Quagliati, Giuseppe Guami, and other celebrated composers. The second part of
II Transilvano was published at Venice in 1622, in the same form as the first. It is
divided into four books ; the first treats of tablatura, or the art of writing music for
the organ and other keyed instruments ; for the imperfect state of printing and
engraving at this period rendered it necessary to make use of particular signs for
representing notes and their comparative value. The second book relates to the rules
of composition ; the third, to the church tones and their transposition ; and the fourth,
to the mixed use of organ stops. A work of this kind is highly important as regards
the history of the art ; for it may be viewed as a summary of the knowledge possessed
by the artists of that remote period. It is to be regretted that copies of the work are
of the greatest rarity.
A great impetus was given to organ and harpsichord music in the early part of the
seventeenth century by Girolamo Frescobaldi, organist of St. Peter's at Eome, and
who was born at Ferrara, in 1591. His name was famous throughout Europe, and
his works, which are still admired, have survived a multitude of other productions of
that period. He was the scholar of Milleville, of Ferrara, and may be considered as
the founder of the harpsichord school ; for, before his time, there was no difference
between the music written for the clavichord, spinet, and harpsichord, and that
composed for the organ. He was the first who wrote exclusively for the harpsichord,
and his compositions were published under the title, Toccate d'intavolatura di Cembalo.
Rome, 1615, 1628, 1637, &c., folio. It may be remarked that the term toccata was
the common one employed in the earlier part of the seventeenth century to designate
pieces of music for keyed instruments. We agree with M. Fetis, Who says, in his
remarks upon Frescobaldi, " that true test of genius, expression, is perceptible in
many of the compositions of this celebrated man, particularly in a song with variations
under the name of La Romanesca. The character of melancholy which predominates
in this piece, is, perhaps, one of the earliest examples in the monuments of art of
the expressive style applied to instruments. As for the rest, the music of Frescobaldi
230 THE EARLY COMPOSERS FOR INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS.
abounds with ornament, and with elaborate passages, which would not be without
their difficulties even to the most skilful of modern pianistes."
Frescobaldi formed several pupils, who carried into different parts of Europe the
results of his excellent method of performance on the harpsichord, and which power-
fully contributed to the rapid progress of this instrument. One of the most dis-
tinguished among them was Froberger, a young German, who was sent to Rome by
the Emperor Ferdinand III, to profit by the instructions of the great Italian organist.
No distinction had hitherto been made in Germany between compositions for the
organ, and those for other keyed instruments. Froberger, having completed his
musical education under this celebrated master, travelled through the greater part
of Europe, and excited admiration wherever he went. After encountering various
romantic adventures, and running several risks of his life, he happily terminated his
career in the court of the Emperor of Austria, where he held the post of imperial
organist. His influence, with respect to the progress of the harpsichord in
Germany, was equal to that of his countryman and contemporary, Johann von
Kerl, in regard to the organ. Two of his works remain as monuments to attest
the degree of perfection to which he had carried his art. The first is entitled Diverse
curiose e rarissime Partite di Toccate, Ricercate, Caprici e Fantasie, Sfc. ; per gli
amatorl di cembali, organi, e istrumenti. Munich, 1695, folio. The second has for
title, Diverse ingeniosissime, rarissime e non mai piii viste curiose Partite di Toccate,
Canzone, Ricercate, Allemande, Correnti, Sarabande, e Gigue, di cembali, organi e
istrumenti. Munich, 1714, folio. These works were printed some time after the
author's death, and the pompous titles given them prove the high degree of estimation
in which they were held.
The residence of Froberger, at Paris, had a very important influence on the
progress of the harpsichord among the French, about the middle of the seventeenth
century. The most celebrated among the performers on this instrument, at this
period, was Jacques Champion, son of Antoine Champion, who had been organist to
Henry IV, and was the father of Andre Champion of Chambonnieres. So lively
was the impression made upon the latter by the performance of Froberger, that he at
once caught his manner and spirit. He changed his style, which before had been
THE EARLY COMPOSERS FOR INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS.
231
bad, and adopted the more large and noble manner of the Italians, <>f which his model
was a perfect master. The six books of harpsichord pieces which Chambonnieres
published at Paris in the beginning of the reign of Louis XIV, are proofs of his
ability. These, like all the collections of that period, consist of a series of allemandes,
gigues, and other dances, the harmony of which is pure, and the airs elegant and
flowing. The principal difficulties of the harpsichord music of this period consisted
in the obligation of playing four distinct parts. A profusion of shakes, beats, and
other ornaments, compose the brilliant part of Chambonnieres' music.
It will be interesting to extract here a few of the graces and embellishments in
use at this period, which we are enabled to do from a copy of Les Pieces de Clavesin
de Monsieur de Chambonnieres , Paris, 1670, now before us :
Written.
Played.
CouU.
Harpegement.
~1~ ~5^zi~d~
Cadence.
Pincement.
Port de Foix.
Double Cadence, /m _.;
The elder Couperin (Louis) was introduced at Court by Froberger, about the
year 1665. Hardelle, Richard, La Barre, and, at a later period, D'Anglebart, Gautier,
Buret, and Fra^ois Couperin, were formed in the school of Chambonnieres, and
enjoyed considerable reputation in their time. Francis Couperin, whose name we
have just mentioned, was remarkable for his noble and brilliant style of performance,
as well as for the facility with which he overcame difficulties hitherto unknown on
his instrument.
In Italy, several great writers for keyed instruments succeeded Frescobaldi.
We may particularly point out Ercole Pasquino, Bernard Pasquino (the master of
232 THE EARLY COMPOSERS FOR INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS.
Gasparini), Zipoli, and Domenico Scarlatti of Naples. The latter was one of the
most gifted of the early writers for keyed instruments, and his works are listened to
with pleasure to this day.
The great John Sebastian Bach was, as we have seen, one of the first artists who
played the pianoforte, and brought it into vogue* ; but it was his son, Carl Philip
Emanuel, who contributed the most to the success of the instrument, by his elegant
and graceful style of touch, as well as by his delightful compositions. As M. Fetis
remarks, " the sonatas, concertos, and fantasias, published by this excellent musician,
do not abound in any very great difficulties. It is true that the greater part of modern
pianists would consider the various ornamental and other passages of these compo-
sitions as mere child's play ; but it is not less true that the essential object of the art
is better felt than in that multitude of notes with which modern pianoforte music is
overloaded. As for the rest, it can well be conceived that the first pianoforte school
did not regard the surmounting of difficulties as the ultimate object of music, and that
the gradual march of showy and elaborate execution is the result of the necessity felt
by the artist of distinguishing himself in proportion as ability becomes greater." Or,
rather, as it has been remarked, the performer is now obliged to make up in rapidity
of execution for want of invention and taste in the composition.
The Bachs had their followers and imitators ; but they have long since been
forgotten. Nevertheless they paved the way for the great schools of Mozart and
Beethoven, dementi and Dussek ; for the great names of Hies, Weber, Moscheles,
Mendelssohn, and Bennett ; and for the more marvellous schools of Thalberg, Henselt,
Chopin, and Liszt.
" Though the French taste for frippery, in place of awaiting in his tomb the moment when he should come
solid science, and the Italian instinct for rhythmical and forth and assist in the recovery of his olden heritage : and
easy melody, so o'erswept the European schools of instru- to-day he stands before us, vigorous, gigantic, and as un-
mental music for a time, that even some among the family damaged by time as the youngest enthusiast who hastens
of the grand old fuguist did not escape the infection, and to do him honour." This excellent remark is taken from
his " Well-tempered Clavier" was forgotten for the flimsier a charming article on the Pianoforte Composers by H. F.
works of Hullmandel, Schobert, and Paradies, it was but Chorley, Esq. which appeared some few years ago in one
for a time. The honest old organist was, after a period of of the monthly or quarterly magazines. We have the
usurpation .and famine, sought for and found-like the article, but have unfortunately mislaid the reference,
champions of the Swiss superstition with grave patience
THE EARLY COMPOSERS FOE INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS. 233
These few remarks are intended only as introductions to the following selection
of ancient pieces for keyed-stringed-instruments. For believing in Sir Joshua
Reynolds's remark, that " art is best taught by examples," we have been at some pains
to select only such pieces as will show the progress of what may be termed " pianoforte"
playing at different epochs of the art. Most of the pieces are of the utmost rarity,
and we have been careful to give them in all their original integrity.
4
They comprise
1. Gloria Tibi Trinitas William Blitheman.
(Gentleman and Organist of Queen Elizabeth's Chapel. His epitaph is given in Stow's Survey of London,
edit. 1633, from which it appears that he died in 1591.)
From Thomas Mulliner's Booke for y e Virginalls, collated with another copy
in Lady Neville's Virginal Book ; both MSS. in the possession of the author.
2. Sellenger's Round William Byrd.
(Gentleman and Organist of Edward the Sixth's Chapel ; born about 1538, died July 4, 1623.)
From Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cam-
bridge, collated with another copy in the Earl of Leicester's Virginal Book in the
possession of the author.
3. The King's Hunting Jigg Dr. John Bull.
(Born about the year 1563. He succeeded Blitheman as Organist of the Chapel Royal in 1591, and died
March 12 or 13, 1628, at Antwerp.)
From a MS. volume of Virginal Music, transcribed by Sir John Hawkins, in
the possession of the author.
4. Les Buffons Dr. John Bull.
From the same MS.
5. Courante Jewell Dr. John Bull.
From a Dutch MS. of Dr. Bull's compositions, written between 1621 and 1628,
formerly in the library of Queen Caroline, Consort of George II.
6. Capriccio del Soggetto sopra 1'Aria di Roggiero ........ Girolamo Frescobaldi.
(Organist of St. Peter's, at Rome. Born about 1591, died in 1640.)
From Toccate e partite d'intavolatura di Cembalo. Rome, 1615. Folio.
H H
234 THE EARLY COMPOSERS FOR INSTRUMENTS OF THE PIANOFORTE CLASS.
7. Suite de Pieces . H. Dumont.
(Born at Liege in 1610, died in 1684. He was Chapel Master to Louis XIV.)
From Meslanges a 2, 3, 4, et 5 Parties,avec la basse-continuee, contenant plusieurs
Chansons, Motets, Magnificats, Preludes, Allemandes, 8$c. Paris, 1657. 4to.
8. Suite de Pieces Chambonnieres.
(Andre Champion of Chambonni&res was born about 1610, and died in 1670.)
From Les Pieces de Clavesin de Monsieur de Chambonnieres. Paris, 1670.
Oblong 4to.
9. Suite de Pieces Jean Baptiste Lully.
(Born at Florence in 1634 ; died at Paris on March 22nd, 1(187.)
From Lessons for the Harpsichord or Spinnet. Printed by Daniel Wright,
next the Tun Tavern, corner of Brook Street, Holborn (1698). Ob. folio.
10. Prelude and Airs Henry Purcell.
(Born in 1658, died in 1695.)
From A Choice Collection of Lessons for the Harpsichord or Spinnet. Printed
on Copper Plates for Mrs. Frances Purcell, Executrix of the Author. London,
1696. Small oblong.
11. Variationes super Cantilenam F. X. A. Miirshhauser.
(Born at Alsace in 1670 ; died at Munich in 1733.)
From Octi-tonium Novum Organicum, octo Tonis Ecclesiasticis, ad Psalmos, et
Magnificat, adhiberi solitis, respondens. Augsburg, 1696. Ob. folio.
12. Sonata Johann Kuhnau.
(Born, at Geysing, on the frontiers of Bohemia, in 1667 ; and died at Leipzig in 1722.)
From a MS. entitled Histoires tirees de la Bible, avec les explications, en six
sonates. 1700.
13. Suite de Pieces John Mattheson.
(Born at Hamburg, September 28, 1681 ; died at the same place in 1764.;
From Sonates pour le Clavecin. Hamburg, 1713. Folio.
14. Sonata in A minor Domenico Scarlatti.
(Born at Naples in 1683 ; died at Madrid in 1757.)
From a magnificently written MS. volume of pieces (mostly unpublished) in the
possession of the author, entitled Libra de XLIV Sonatas modernas, para
THE EARLY COMPOSERS FOR INSTRUMENTS OP THE PIANOFORTE CLASS. 235
Clavicordio. Compuestas per il Senor D. Domingo Scarlatti, Cabaliero del Orden
de Santiago, y Maestro de los Reyes Catolicos, D. Fernando el VI, y Dona
Maria Barbara.
15. Sonata in G Domenico Scarlatti.
From the same MS.
16. Suites de Pieces Fra^ois Couperin.
(Born in 1668; died in 1733.)
From Pieces de Clavecin. Paris, 1713-19. Folio.
17. Capriccio J. Seb. Bach.
(Born in 1685 ; died in 1750.)
From C. F. Becker's Hausmusik in Deutschland in dem 16, 17, und 18.
Jahrhunderte. Leipzig, 1840. 4to.
18. Capriccio in G Handel.
(Born in 1685 ; died in 1759.)
From a beautiful MS. volume in the hand- writing of Smith ; said to have been
written for the Princess Amelia. Many of the pieces (including the one now
published for theirs* time) are unknown.
19. Fantaisie Theofilo Muffat.
(Clavecin Master to the Imperial Family at Vienna, at the end of the seventeenth century.)
From Componimenti musicali per il Cembalo. Vienna, 1727. Oblong folio.
20. Air . Theofilo Muffat.
From the same work.
21. Allemand Theofilo Muffat.
From a MS. in the author's library.
22. Introduction and Toccata De Mondonville.
(Born at Narbonne, December 24, 1715 ; died in 1773.)
From a contemporary MS. presented to the author by the late J. B. Cramer.
23. Rondo in E flat Carl Philip Emanuel Bach.
(Born in 1714; died in 1788.)
From Clavier Sonaten und Freye Fantasien nebst einigen Rondos furs Forte-
piano, 8$c. Leipzig, 1787. Oblong folio,
24. Fantasia C. P. E. Bach.
From the same work.
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APPENDIX I.
HINTS TO THOSE WHO HAVE THE CARE OF PIANOFORTES.
General Dircctwnt.
WHEN we take into consideration the great variety of woods, metals, leathers, &c. used in the
construction of the pianoforte, it will be obvious that the instrument should be zealously preserved from
dampness and currents of air. All sonorous musical instruments are extremely susceptible on these
points, and we cannot be too particular in our care of them.
1. A pianoforte should always stand in a place perfectly dry, and of mean temperature. It must
never be placed on a damp ground floor; or between two windows; or between a door and a window.
An instrument will never stand in tune, if exposed to draughts or currents of air.
2. A pianoforte should never be left open when it is not being used ; and when the room is being
cleaned, it would be well to cover the entire instrument with a baize, or skin -case, fitted to its shape.
3. A pianoforte should never be placed too near a stove, chimney, or fire-place. Extreme heat is
particularly injurious, and often causes the warping of some of the delicate machinery.
4. The instrument should always be kept clean and free from dust. No light substance, as a
needle, pin, a bead, a crumb of bread, &c. should be suffered (in a square or grand pianoforte) to lie on
the sounding-board or the strings of the instrument, as they will in all probability produce a disagreeable
jingling or whizzing sound, the cause of which it is not always easy to detect.
5. It is also important to remark that the lid or top of the instrument should not be loaded
with books, music, and other objects. All weights placed in this manner are calculated to injure the
tone of the pianoforte, and to produce an unpleasant jarring during performance.
6. Keep the instrument always in tune, and fully drawn up to concert pitch. A pianoforte
ought to be tuned once every six weeks, if much played on ; and oftener, if new. Metal strings are
generally a little too sharp in dry frosty weather, because the cold condenses their material and increases
their tension. In hot summer weather, they are somewhat too flat. New strings require to be drawn up
several times before they will stand well in tune. When a string breaks, it must be replaced by another
of exactly similar thickness.
A A A
370 APPENDIX I.
How to place a Pianoforte for Effect.
The walls, floor, and ceiling, echo every sound which is produced in a room, and increase by
resonance its volume and length. It is of the utmost importance that buildings designed for audiences,
particularly music rooms, should be so constructed that there may be no perceptible echo from the walls,
but a sufficient resonance to give tone and volume to the sounds. The best form for the interior of
such rooms is that their length be about two thirds greater than their breadth, in order that the sounds
reflected from the side walls may mingle with the direct sounds and strengthen them. The height
should somewhat exceed the breadth ; and the ceiling is better when coved- that is, made in the shape
of a coach roof. If a room has too great an echo, drapery should be hung upon the walls. Venetian
shutters are excellent preventives of echo, especially when they are drawn forward. Carpets, matting,
or any soft covering on the floor, absorbs reverberation ; because the echo, which would otherwise
combine with the direct sound and swell it, is smothered amidst the fibres.
The pianoforte, when possible, should be placed away from the wall, and as much in the room
as convenient. The floor then, if hollow, acts as a large sounding board, and greatly enhances the
effect. The reason of this is, that the sonorous vibrations created by the pianoforte puts the wood of
the flooring upon which it is placed into a similar state of vibration, and its simultaneous shocks against
the superincumbent air adds to the original tone and renders it more audible.
In Italy, orchestras are constructed with especial reference to the advantage to be derived from a
reciprocating floor ; but in this country, such things are paid but little attention to ; the practical part
of acoustics being sadly neglected.
How to prevent the Sounds of the Pianoforte from being heard in the adjoining Chambers.
We have many of us experienced, and are still experiencing, the intolerable nuisance of our next-
door neighbours, on each side, right and left, practising the pianoforte at all hours, seasonable and
unseasonable. Now all this might easily be remedied by constructing the walls of our dwelling-houses
with hollow bricks, which are known to be non-conductors of sound. The reason of this is, that the
hollow portion being filled with rarefied air, every sound which finds its way into such a mass is
effectually buried there, and cannot penetrate to the outer surface. If the space between the two
surfaces of the partition walls, and that between the ceiling of one room and the flooring of another,
were filled with brown paper, gummed over with flock or sawdust, it would aid materially to deaden
the sound. Or if the space were filled with shavings, tow, or cut straw, it would probably have the
APPENDIX I. 371
same effect . All these substances are bad conductors of sound ; because they shut up a huge quantity
of air between their minute detached parts, so that they cannot readily transmit an impulse. The sound
is thus entangled, as it were, and, being no longer able to preserve its regular outline, becomes deadened,
if not altogether lost.
The Rev. Dr. Brown, from whose little volume on Sound and tit Phenomena (Longmans, 1854)
we gather much of our knowledge of these matters, says, " It is truly surprising that no ingenious
mechanic has yet contrived a substance for partition-walls, where cheapness and lightness are especially
considered. Nothing, for example, could be easier than to make panels with two sheets of common
pasteboard or tarpauling, separated from each other by wooden blocks. Sawdust should be thickly
strewed over the inner surfaces, and the intervening space be well filled with coarse tow or cut straw.
A wooden " upright" of the thickness of the blocks would hold the panels in their place, especially if
the edges were made to lie over the supporters. Such a partition wall would be a real boon in hotels,
&c. where chambers are often separated by half-inch wood, or by simple canvass."
We have somewhere read, that if the walls of rooms were covered with a solution of gutta percha
before papering, it would effectually deaden all sounds from the adjoining chambers. Or, we believe,
a substitute for this is the gutta percha lining, extensively used of late years in covering damp walls.
A A A 2
APPENDIX II.
ON TUNING.
THE system of tuning here explained is that of Equal Temperament, which is now universally
adopted throughout Europe. Its inestimable advantage is, that it enables us to employ all the twelve
major and minor scales with equal freedom, and without a fear of offending the ear in any of them more
than in another; thus giving unlimited room of play to all the wonders of modern harmony.
The chief difficulty in tuning consists in making what is termed the partition ; that is, so to tune
the twelve semitones of an octave, that they may become a basis for tuning the rest of the instrument.
By a peculiarity in the musical scale, if thirteen notes were tuned perfectly true, advancing by fifths
(beginning, for instance, from C), the thirteenth note, a sharp forming the twelfth fifth, would not be
a true octave to the first C, but would be found to be a little higher. It follows, therefore, that a
pianoforte tuned in this manner would be false at the end of the operation. Hence the necessity of
diminishing a little the elevation of each filth an operation to which has been given the name of
Temperament.
The intervals of most use in tuning are the unison, the octave, the fifth, and the major and minor
thirds.
The Unison.
The unison, or identical sound, is the easiest interval for the student to commence with. In
instruments which have only two strings to each note, as in square, cabinet, and cottage pianofortes,
one half the strings are always tuned by means of unisons ; and in grand pianos, of three strings to
each note, whether horizontal or upright, two thirds of the strings are so tuned. Hence, the unison,
or identical sound, is the interval, if it may be so called, which most frequently occurs in tuning, and
which it is of the highest importance should be tuned with perfect accuracy.
We will suppose that the student has provided himself with a tuning hammer, and that he has
seated himself at the instrument. Let him then strike any note in the middle of the key-board ;
APPENDIX II. 373
m= = f r example; and we shall at first suppose this note to be accurately in tune. If he
t/ -o_
listen attentively to the vibration of the strings, he will hear a steady, pure, continuous sound, such as
is produced from a single string when struck alone. Then let him place his tuning hammer on one of
the pins or pegs round which one of the strings belonging to the note C is coiled or twisted, and turn
the hammer a very little towards the left : this, by relaxing the tension of the string, will sensibly
_jj
flatten or depress its pitch ; so that, instead of sounding |F= E , the pitch of the string thus
depressed will approach nearly to that of || - , the note next below it. If he now strikes the
*^ TT~
C, he will hear nothing but a confused collision of harsh and jarring sounds, such as we are sensible of
when we touch a note that is much out of tune. After striking the note thus purposely put out of tune
several times, let him then turn the hammer to the right, gently and by almost imperceptible degrees,
and, if he listens attentively as the pitch of the two strings approaches more and more nearly towards
coincidence, he will at first hear several strong and quick beats, which, as he proceeds, will gradually
become slower and slower, and fainter and fainter, till they subside into mere gentle wavings, or undu-
lations of sound ; and these, as he proceeds, will at length disappear, and give place to one steady, pure,
and apparently single sound, which constitutes the real unison.
The student will at first experience considerable difficulty in tracing this progression from confusing
and jarring sounds to beats, at first quick and strong, and then gradually slower and fainter, till they
insensibly degenerate into mere waves, or gentle undulations of sound, and ultimately disappear, and
give place to one pure and uninterrupted sound.*
Considerable practice is required to gain flexibility of wrist, so as to turn the hammer by extremely
minute degrees. These gradations supply the only mechanical helps of which the tuner can avail
himself ; and without a distinct perception of them through their various degrees, it is impossible, even
with the finest musical ear, to tune a pianoforte tolerably.
The Octave.
After the student is able to tune a perfect unison, he may proceed to the octave, which is the next
interval to the unison in point of importance and facility. Here the sounds, though no longer identical,
have so strong a resemblance to each other, that, when struck together and perfectly in tune, they seem
The cause of this phenomenon is beautifully explained See also Hamilton's Art of Tuning, to which valuable
in An Essay on the Theory and Practice of Tuning, &c. little work we have to acknowledge our obligations in draw-
published by Robert Cocks and Co. 1853, p. 34, et leg. ing up the above rules.
374 APPENDIX II.
to form but one single sound, the lower note, as it were, seeming to swallow up or absorb the upper
one.
In tuning this interval, the student will discover the same progressive gradations of beats, waves,
and final coincidence of tone, as in the unison.
For the purpose of tuning one note an octave to another, it becomes necessary to stop the vibra-
tions of one of the strings belonging to the note to be tuned, in square, cottage, and cabinet pianos ;
and two of those strings in grand instruments. In square pianos, this is done by means of a little bit
of leather, card, or even paper, which is called a damper, and which must be inserted between the string
of which we wish to stop the vibration and the adjacent string, belonging to the next note to it. In
cabinet and cottage pianos, the pedal, which is placed under the left side of the key-board, when pressed
down by the foot, shifts the whole key-board a little to the right, so that the hammer strikes only one
string belonging to each note throughout the instrument. In grand pianos of three strings, when the
pedal is pressed down, the hammers will still strike two strings, uuless the small vertical bolt which
moves up and down in a groove on the right side of the key-board be first drawn up ; and then, when
the pedal is pressed down, the hammers will strike only one string belonging to each note.
"When the student has tuned an octave, by striking the notes together, let him also try these in
quick succession ; thus :
T T
at the same time holding the bottom note down : for the ear is apt to fancy them in tune, while they
are in reality still too flat ; and this striking them one after another will greatly assist him in detecting
any mistake in this respect.
In tuning octaves in the bass, the student must be careful not to strike the notes too hard, par-
ticularly in the very low notes.
The Fifth.
When this concord is perfectly in tune, the ear cannot detect either waves or leak ; but both
notes unite in one pure, agreeable, uninterrupted complex sound. It will be desirable at first to tune
the fifth perfect, though we shall presently show that it is not so tuned in practice.
Major and Minor Thirds.
The major and minor thirds are the most agreeable concords in music. In tuning, however, they
are only employed as tests of the accuracy with which the other intervals have been tuned. When
perfectly in tune, they have neither beat nor wave, but coalesce in one pure, agreeable, uninterrupted
complex sound.
APPENDIX II.
375
On Laying tke Bearing* by Meant of Fifth*.
In studying the following diagram, or scheme for tuning the pianoforte, it must be borne in mind
that the white note iu each bar is already tuned, the black one remains to be adjusted.
Note given by
t A the Tuning-fork. 1st Fifth.
f o
2 S
1
4
t
-9-
fr. 1
1
a 1
1
1 * '
1
1
/ o 6 7
8
1
Back Fifths
1 D 9
1
10
1
fci
11
f 1
* j # 1 9
=i* n
H tp
(to
H 5-
Explanation of the Scheme.
In the above scheme it will be observed that the only intervals employed are the octave and the
fifth. As it is more easy to tune the notes situated in the middle of the key-board with accuracy, than
those which are placed towards the extreme ends of the instrument, the scheme is so devised as to
include all the notes between _
~ and
The first note 5
: is obtained by means of a C tuning fork*.
*^
The octave, in our modern system of keyed-stringed-instruments, being divided into twelve
semitones, and only one of these notes being given us by the tuning fork, the remaining eleven notes
123458 7 8
must be obtained by means of a circle or series of eleven fifths, as C, G, D, A, E, B, F#, C#, G#
8 9 10 11
(tuned before) ; or Ab, Eb, Bb, F, C. The order in which the eleven fifths are tuned is indicated
* James Broadwood (the son of the first Broadwood)
was the author of a Practical Method of Tuning, called
" Broadwood's Temperament of the Musical Scale." He
says, after mentioning that most tuners begin their operations
with the note C, " I prefer tuning from A, the second space
in the treble clef, as being less remote from the finishing
fifths, than any other point of departure : the A being
tuned to the fork, tune A below, an octave ; then E above
that octave, a fifth ; then B above a fifth ; then B below,
an octave ; the Ftf a fifth above ; then its octave FjJ below ;
then Ctt, its fifth above ; then GJ, its fifth above; and
then Gtt, its octave below. We then take a fresh departure
from A, tuning D, its fifth below ; then G, its fifth below ;
then G, its octave above ; then C, its fifth below ; then C,
its octave above ; then F, its fifth below ; then Bb, its fifth
below ; then B[>, its octave above ; then Eb, its fifth below.
The five fifths tuned from notes below are to be tuned
flatter than the perfect fifth ; and the six fifths tuned from
tones above must be made sharper than the perfect fifth."
This is similar to the equal temperament.
376
APPENDIX II.
by the figures 1, 2, 3, &c. All octaves are to be tuned absolutely perfect. All the fifths are to be tuned
a very little flatter than perfect. This, as we have already explained, is called tempering them.
When we arrive at the eighth fifth of the series, instead of proceeding onwards in the circle to Djf or
Eb, it will be better to return to C, and tune the remaining fifths backwards, as shown in the scheme.
In adjusting these latter fifths, marked 9, 10, 11, the student must first tune the bottom note so as to
form a perfect fifth with the upper note, and then sharpen it by exactly the same quantity as he
depressed the upper notes of the fifths which were tuned forwards. By this means the interval of the
fifth is still diminished or flattened, as the lower extremity is brought nearer to the upper one.
The operation we have thus explained is called laying the bearings ; it forms the most delicate and
important step in tuning, as all the other notes on the instrument are tuned to these notes by means
of octaves above or below.
It is not, however, necessary to tune the whole circle of fifths before we have the means of
trying the accuracy of what has already been done. As soon as we arrive at the fifth numbered 4
in the scheme, we may try the major third 7E . If this third is properly in tune that is,
cT g
if it is somewhat sharper than perfect, but still very harmonious and agreeable we may be sure
that so far all is correctly adjusted. A similar test must be applied to all the subsequent fifths.
These triads may be represented in notes, as follows :
4th Fifth of series.
5th Fifth.
6th Fifth.
7th Fifth.
-It fc.
8th Fifth.
9th Fifth.
10th Fifth.
llth Fifth.
When the bearings are laid with sufficient accuracy, it only remains to tune the remaining notes
on the instrument in the relation of octaves to those already adjusted. This must be done in the
following manner :
APPENDIX II.
377
Jftfet to bt Tuned,
|B * 1
-m
#*
ftc. to the
JVofc* already Tuned.
"" fto H/5
IK
^M
fr . I
b-
" lutranuBt.
I" 9 ; *r. to h
Notei to be Tuned.
3!
fr * ~fr -
KB Instrument
After having tuned the bass notes, it is desirable to go over the octaves in the treble again, as they
are apt to fall in pitch while the bass notes are being tuned. And, finally, before we consider the
instrument as thoroughly in tune, each note should be compared with its octave and double octave
below; thus:
* fe: : fe
&c.
ee
In tuning a cottage, or semi-cottage, or piccolo piano, it will be desirable to adjust first the whole
series of notes upon one string, and then to tune all the second strings in unison to those of the first
series.
In a grand piano, after the second set of strings is tuned, we must tune the third set in unison to
the first and second. In square pianos, the second string to each note must necessarily be tuned before
we proceed to another note.
We do not intend to notice the various systems of unequal temperament that have been proposed,
as they have long since been abandoned. The system of equal temperament is that which now prevails
throughout Europe.
It is perhaps desirable to mention another method of laying the bearings, which has been adopted
by some eminent tuners. The method is by fifths and fourths, omitting tuning the octaves until the
groundwork is laid, as follows :
1 3 5 7 8 9 10
o ^ '-.
IB
11
The fifths are tuned a little flat ; and, by the same rule, the fourths a little sharp.
B B B
378 APPENDIX II.
In the above scheme, we shall have tuned the following notes within the circle of the octave ; thus :
JB "'
and have avoided the possibility, when tuning the octaves between the fifths, as in other methods, of not
getting the octaves true. Besides which, the grouud-work or bearings will be sooner laid down. The
trials would be :
4 or 5 6 7 or 8 9 11
The great difficulty in tuning is the necessity of tempering the fifths. In this, professional tuners
are guided by habit ; but artists and amateurs who do not possess this practical skill are obliged to feel
their way as they can, and by their repeated experiments, increasing and diminishing the tension of the
strings, always injure their tone, and frequently end by breaking, without having the means of replacing
them.
With a view to remove these objections, MM. Boiler and Blanchet, of Paris, invented, in 1827,
an instrument, to which they gave the name of Chromametre, by the help of which a pianoforte can be
tuned without the trouble of temperament. The instrument consists of a vertical monochord, which is
sounded by means of a hammer placed internally, and which is put in motion by a key similar to that of
a pianoforte. Its total length is thirty inches ; its greatest breadth, four inches and a quarter ; and its
thickness, three quarters of an inch. The handle is furnished with a copper plate, divided into twelve
degrees, which, like the heads of the jacks in a pianoforte, are inscribed with the initials C, C sharp, D, D
sharp, E, F, F sharp, G, G sharp, A, A sharp, and B. The string is fastened to a pin at the upper end,
and at the lower to a brass hook, mounted upon a screw, which works up or down with an easy action :
by means of this, the pitch is gently raised or lowered at pleasure, steadily, and without effort. A bridge with
a spring, which can be fixed at will upon either of the degrees, modifies the intonation, and according
as it is placed on C, C sharp, or D, gives the C, C sharp, or D, and so on with the rest, continuing
to B. After this, nothing remains but to tune each of these notes at the octave, to the two extremities
of the piano.
The back of the Chromametre is disposed in such a manner as to be adapted to all pianofortes at
the height of the key-board ; so that the note of this instrument, and that of the instrument intended
to be tuned in unison, may be touched simultaneously.
The idea of such a regulator, however, was not entirely new. Francis Loulie, a French musician,
had already proposed something of a similar kind, as far back as 1698, in a work entitled Nouveau
Systeme de Musigue, avec la, description du Sana-metre, instrument & cordes d'une nouvelle invention pour
APPENDIX II. 379
apprendre a accorder le clavecin. But this Sonomitre being mounted with several strings, was obliged
to be tuned beforehand, by which means it rendered all the expected results illusory.
Ambrose Warren, " a lover of musick," in the next century, invented an instrument which he
called a Tonometer. A full description of it was printed in a now rare tract, entitled The Tonometer ;
Explaining and Demonstrating, by an easie Method, in Numbers and Proportion, all the 82 distinct
and different Notes, Adjuncts or Supplements contained in each of Four Octaves inclusive, of the Gamut,
or Common Scale of Musick. With their exact Difference and Distance. Whereby the Practitioner
on any Ke/d or Fretted Instrument, may easily know how to Tune the same, 8fc. London, 1725.
Scheibler's apparatus for tuning pianofortes, consisting of a series of pulsatory tuning forks,
answering exactly to the twelve semitones of the equalized scale, and the octave of the tonic, is the only
satisfactory invention that has yet appeared. This ingenious artist has succeeded in providing for the
musical world a measure of sound which, in regard to accuracy, surpasses the most rigorous demands
that can be made upon it, whilst its application is as easy as it is free from the possibility of a mistake.
We strongly recommend the perusal of An Essay on the Theory and Practice of Tuning in General, and
on Scheibler's Invention of Tuning Pianofortes and Organs by the Metronome a lucid and charmingly
written little tract, published by Robert Cocks and Co. in 1853.
At the recent meeting of the British Association (Aberdeen, Sept. 1859), the Abbe Moigno made
known a discovery which promises to be of the highest importance to musical science. He laid before
the section of Physical Science a collection of sheets of paper in which were registered the sounds of the
human voice, organ pipes, and the tuning fork, to the amount of 500 or 1,000 vibrations. So accurate
a self-registration has never before been made, and was judged almost impossible by the great masters of
science, and its success was greeted with enthusiastic admiration.
This continued euregistration forms an undulatory curve so perfectly and distinctly traced that the
naked eye can easily reckon the innumerable vibrations, especially when it is divided in periods by the
periodical intervention of a chronometer. It is very interesting to examine the variations which the
curves undergo when the sounds are the results of the component parts of different harmony : for
instance, a note with its octave, third, fourth, or fifth, or any other consonant relation, as the 17th or 19th.
When the sounds are very nearly in harmony, but not in perfect accord, their simultaneous resonance
produces beats, and these beats are perfectly indicated or made known to the naked eye.
B B B 2
APPENDIX III.
HOW TO EEGULATE DEFECTS IN THE MECHANISM OF THE PIANOFOETE.
MOST musical instruments are liable to defects, from various causes ; but more especially the
pianoforte, from the delicate and complicated nature of the machinery appertaining to the " action."
The following brief directions have been carefully gleaned from those whose experience entitles them
to consideration. They are not put forth with a view to supersede the professional regulator. Far
from it. They have been compiled solely for the purpose of aiding and assisting those who, from cir-
cumstance or situation, are unable to secure the services of the experienced in these matters ; and as
mere " hints," they may probably prove acceptable to many.
Tlie Sticking of the Keys.
The causes of some of the accidents that take place in the key department of the pianoforte are as
follows : 1. When either pin is too tight in the mortices. 2. When the hopper spring is too strong.
3. When the end of the hopper that touches the under hammer is rough. 4. When one key sticks
against another. 5. When a key touches the front slip. 6. When a pin, needle, or any other detached
substance, is between two keys. 7. When a key touches the cheeks of the key-frame. 8. When a
key touches the pillar of the hammer-rail. 9. When any glutinous substance is under a key, or betwixt
two keys. 10. When the leather on the under hammer is rough.
How remedied,
(1.) File the mortice carefully. (2.) Weaken the spring by straining it a little from the hopper.
(3.) Black lead it, and rub the inner edge with a hard stick. (4.) First consider whether the pins are
in a proper position ; if so, plane a little off where the keys touch ; or if a key is considerably warped,
bend it back with a warm iron; press it very gently, in case the mortice is weak. (5.) Incline the slip
outwards by putting a piece of paper or card between that and the frame. (6 and 7.) The defects here
mentioned can be remedied without directions. (8.) Hollow out carefully a' large spaee.
Great care must be used in all these operations, particularly in opening the mortices or pin-holes.
For the latter, a very fine key-file must be used a flat one for the square hole, and a round or rat-tail
APPENDIX III. 381
file for the round hole under the key. In taking out a key, great caution must be used. Draw the
front block or blade of the hopper forward with your finger, to prevent its touching the under hammer,
while with your other hand you gently lift up the key and pull it out. The same care is requisite
in replacing it.
The Clicking or Battling of the Keys
Takes place from the following causes : 1. When the pin-holes are too large. 2. By friction of
one key against another. 3. By friction of the key against the front slip. 4. By friction of the key
against one of the pillars that support the hammer-rail. 5. When the key touches the balance-rail.
6. When the ivory or ebony is loose. 7. When the lead with which the key is loaded is loose.
8. When the key is unsound. 9. When the cloth or baize under the key is not sufficiently soft.
10. When some hard detached substance lies betweeu the key and the cloth or baize. 11. When the
key-frame is not firmly attached to the bottom. 12. When a loose splinter is in the pin-hole.
18. When a pin is rough, at or near the head. 14. W T hen the metal of a pin has communicated itself
to the hole which has become too hard or corroded. 15. When the further end of the key touches two
damper levers. 16. When a key touches a cheek of the hammer-rail. 17. When a key touches a
cheek of the case. 18. When a key touches the name-board. 19. When the ivory or ebony touches
that of the next key. 20. When the leather at the further end of the key is too hard, causing it to rattle
against the damper lever. 21. When the further end of the ebony touches the front of the name-
board. 22. When a key touches any hard substance at the further end near the damper lever.
23. When any hard detached substance is on a key. 24. When a hopper or hopper-guard is loose.
How remedied.
(1.) Wedge the key on one or both sides of the mortices ; when this defect occurs in all the keys,
it is better to introduce thicker pins. An extremely thin chisel, bevelled on both sides, is necessary for
this purpose. (2.) Plane a little off where the keys touch. (3.) Incline the slip outwards, and place
a piece of paper or card between that and the frame. (4.) Hollow out carefully a large space.
(5.) Hollow it underneath. (6.) Carefully remove it and clean away the glue, and reglue it with strong
glue, and a small quantity. (7.) Hammer it till firm. (8.) Glue it. (9.) Renew it. (10.) Remove
it. (11.) First examine the screws; if they are tight, place some brown paper betwixt the rail and
bottom, where the vacancy occurs. The screws may require to be replaced by larger ones. (12.) Re-
move it. (13.) Polish off the roughness. (14.) File the mortice and clean the pin. (15.) Reduce
the key. (10 and 17.) Reduce the parts touching. (18.) Raise the latter and place some cloth under
it. (19.) File it very smoothly., or perhaps the key may require wedging. (20.) Renew the leather.
5482 APPENDIX III.
(21.) Saw or file it off very carefully. (22 and 23.) Remove the causes; most likely accidental.
(24.) The hopper may require a new hinge, or to be reglued.
An unpleasant Sound in the Hoppers.
The chief causes are as follows : 1. A looseness of the spring. 2. The friction of the spring against
the groove. 3. A looseness of the hinge. 4. A looseness of the check. 5. A looseness of the
tennant. 6. A roughness in that part which touches the under-hammer. 7. A sudden blow against a
hard under-hammer. 8. By touching the next hammer. 9. By touching the next hopper. 10. When
the regulating screw is loose. 11. When the cloth is too hard.
These defects can easily be remedied without any particular directions.
A Noise in the Upper Hammers.
Produced by 1. Looseness or unsoundness of the hinges. 2. Hardness of the leather under the
block. 3. Looseness or unsoundness of the head. 4. Friction of the head against the damper socket.
5. Unsoundness of the shank. 6. Friction of loose glue against the hammer-rail near the hinge.
7. Looseness or unsoundness of the block. 8. Looseness of the leather under the block. 9. The
upper coat of the hammer being too hard. 10. A hammer in the box action touching the wrest-plank
at the back, or the sound-board.
In upright pianofortes, the upper hammer rattles occasionally at the centre. This occurs from
various causes when the hole is too large, or badly clothed when the head or shank is unsound
when the shank is loose when the bed of the centre wire is broken or gulled. The hammers occa-
sionally stick when the centre wire is too tight in the hole, or when the butt is confined in the notches,
or when the hammer is caught between two wires, or when it catches the damper in its return.
How remedied.
The only causes requiring directions are the following : (9.) Prick the upper coat with a marking
awl. If there is no substance in the leather to admit of this being done, it must be replaced by new
leather. (10.) The part of the hammer touching should be marked, the action taken out, and the
part reduced, to free it.
A Noise in the Dampers
Happens in various ways : 1 . When a damper wire is too close to the string. 2. When the
damper is loose in the head. 3. When the damper wire is loose in the button, or detnched from it.
APPENDIX III. 383
4. When the whole or chief part of the socket-holes are misplaced. 5. When the socket-hole is not
well lined, or the cloth too hard. 6. When the socket-hole is broken. 7. When the damper head
touches the top. 8. Or, in grands, when it touches the iron arches.
How remedied.
(1.) Bend the wire, or loosen the cloth from the socket-hole, on that side of the damper wire that
touches the string. Perhaps the string may require to be removed from the damper wire, by bending
the bridge pins. Both operations require the greatest care. (2.) Plug up the hole, and bore a fresh
one. (3.) If the wire does not hold properly, plug up the button-hole, and bore a new one, or intro-
duce another damper wire. (4.) The socket must be detached and placed in a better position, by
planing or other means, as may seem best. (5.) Prick the cloth with a marking awl, or unscrew the
damper, and line the socket-hole with new cloth, removing the old. Paste, or very thin glue, is best
for this purpose. (6.) Glue some cloth or leather round it. (7 and 8.) Screw the damper further in.
A Noite in the Damper Levers
Frequently occurs from the following causes: 1. When the lever touches any hard substance.
2. When the last lever touches the frame-cheek. 3. When the hinge is loose or unsound. 4. When
one lever touches another from being badly hinged. 5. When the leather, if any, is too hard.
6. When the wood touches the slip. 7. When the wood is unsound. 8. When there is glue betwixt
the hinge and the edge of the slip.
These defects are easily remedied, and require no particular directions.
Defects in the Damping
Are likely to occur 1 . When the damper is not sufficiently screwed down. 2. When the damper
cloth is too hard. 3. When the damper cloth does not bear equally on two strings. 4. When the
damper cloth touches the next string. 5. When two wires are not of the same height under the damper.
6. When two wires are of different tlu'cknesses. 7. When the damper wire does not play in the socket-
hole. 8. When the pedal-wire is too long, or other obstructions prevent the damper-action falling to
its place.
The remedies suggest themselves.
The Sticking of a Damper
Occurs sometimes 1. In the socket-hole. 2. When the lever does not descend. 3. When the
pedal-wire does not act properly. 4. When the pedal-foot sticks.
384 APPENDIX III.
How remedied.
(1.) Open it, or unscrew the damper-wire, and rub the wire with leather. The other remedies
require no directions.
The Sticking of a Hopper
Occurs sometimes 1. Against the under-hammer. 2. When the top of the hopper is rough.
3. When the hopper-spring does not operate in the groove. 4. When it is displaced to one side of the
hammer. 5. When the spring is too strong. 6. When the regulator touches the hole of the front
block. 7. When any part of the hopper is loose.
How remedied.
(1.) Examine the leather and hopper-spring. (2.) Black lead it, and rub with a hard stick. The
other remedies suggest themselves.
The Sticking of a Damper Lever.
1. Against another. 2. Against the key frame. 3. Against any detached substance.
The Sticking of a Hammer.
1. Against the wrest-plank. 2. Against the damper-socket. 3. Against the next hammer head.
4. Against a damper-wire. 5. Against the sound-board. 6. From any glutinous substance adhering
to it,
How remedied.
(1.) When this is the case, pare off as^uch leather from the hammer as it may seem to require ;
alter the position of the hammer, or press it with a warm iron. The other causes are easily remedied.
The Blocking of a Hammer.
1. When the hopper-spring is too weak. 2. When the hopper-cheek is too high. 3. When the
top of the hopper is not smooth, particularly on the inner edge. 4. When any part of the hopper is
loose. 5. When the hopper strikes but one side of the under-hammer. 6. When the hopper is too
far under the hammer. 7. When the leather of the under hammer is not firm. 8. When the
regulating-button is turned too far in.
How remedied.
All the directions required are : (1,) Bend it, to give it strength. This is done by removing it
from its place to the side of the hopper, and bending it downward in a curve ; then replace it and
APPENDIX III. 385
try its strength. (2.) Reduce it. (3.) Black lead it, and rub the inner edge with a hard stick.
(5.) Place it in its right position. (6.) Unscrew it till the hammer falls from the string, about a
quarter of an inch.
The Jarring of the Wires
Takes place from the following causes. 1. When two or more strings touch each other. 2. When
a string is not firm on the bridges. 8. When the damper-wire is too close to the string. 4. When a
string touches a wrest-pin. 5. When the centre bridge is loose. 6. When the sound-board is unglued.
7. When the barring is loose. 8. When the instrument is not firmly placed on the floor. 9. When
any hard detached substance is on the sound-board. 10. When one string is thinner than the other.
11. When a string is confined by the pins on the sound-bridge. 12. When there is not sufficient side
bearing. 13. When a bridge-pin is loose. 14. When a covered string is loose. 15. When the
vibration of the strings is not sufficiently damped by the cloth betwixt the sound-bridge and right block.
16. When a damper-cloth is too hard. 17. When a wire is unsound. 18. When a wire touches the
break of the treble string, 19. When a wire touches the name-board.
The remedies suggest themselves.
Hammers touching the wrong Strings.
When this occurs, it is from the following causes. From the hammer-head being too large.
2. From its not being properly hinged. 8. When, from the action not being properly adjusted, the
majority of the hammers strike in a wrong place.
How remedied.
(1.) Cut it; this is done by removing the action, or holding up firmly the hammer with a loop of
wire while cutting. (2.) Eehinge. (3.) The hammers will generally require to be wedged to the
right from left-hand cheek of the hammer-rail.
Defects in the Wrest-pins.
1. When the wrest-pin starts or jumps. 2. When too close to another, thereby hindering the
proper use of the tuning-hammer. (3.) When the wire is twisted too high or too low on the wrest-pin.
4. When a wrest-pin is too close to the next string. 5. When the wresi-pin is too small for the hole.
How remedied.
(1.) Probably caused by an unseasoned wrest-plank ; or perhaps by the wire having been wound on
the pin with a damp hand. A little chalk filled in the hole, will sometimes remedy this. The other
defects are easily removed.
C C
386 APPENDIX III.
Defects in the Pedal.
1. When the pedal wire is too short to raise the dampers to their proper height. 2. When, by
being too long, it raises them too high. 3. When the pedal foot is too light. 4. When the pedal
foot-pin is too tight. 5. When the pedal foot is too close to the floor. 6. When a rattling is
caused by the pedal foot being too loose.
The remedies suggest themselves.
How to alter the Touch.
1. When the touch is too shallow, place brown paper under the balance-rail, near the screws, till
you obtain the requisite depth. If the hoppers are too near the under hammers, plane the bottom of
the front rail. When the alteration in touch is accomplished, reduce the hopper cheeks if too high.
2. When the touch is too deep, place some paper under the front rail, near the screws. If the hopper
cheeks should be found too low, glue some thicker leather on them. 3. When any part of a key is
deeper or shallower in touch than the rest, you must operate as directed above, on that particular part
of the key alone. 4. When one key is higher than the rest, reduce it on the balance-rail; with sand-
paper. 5. When any key is shallower in touch than the rest, raise it on the balance-rail by placing a
thin piece of paper on the balance-pin under the cloth. 6. When the hoppers are too short, raise them
by putting another piece of cloth under the end rail. 7. When the hammer falls off too far from the
strings, rectify it by turning the hopper-pin to the right. 9. When the hopper is high, and the front
of the key too low, plane off a little under the further end of the key.
In grand pianofortes the touch is generally altered by moveable blocks or brackets under the
balance-rail, screwed up and down, as required ; or by placing pieces of paper, or card, under the blocks.
New Leathering the Hammers.
The result of this process is very uncertain. When the hammers have become hard merely by
much use, new leathering will succeed. When they are hardened by imbibing damp, the instrument
fwill be found to have suffered irremediable injury from the same cause, and any attempt to restore the
tone by new leathering the hammers, will be unsuccessful. It is rather a difficult matter to ascertain
which of these two causes may have affected a pianoforte ; but by careful inspection we may discover
small blue specks upon the sounding-board of the instrument, which are sure indications of damp. If
the sounding-board be free from these marks, and the hammers be deeply sulcated with the wires, it is
probable that new leathering will, in a considerable degree, restore the tone.
APPENDIX IV.
A GLOSSAEY OF THE PRINCIPAL TERMS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
THE PIANOFORTE.
ACTION (The). The key-frame, with all its apparatus of hammers, hoppers, keys, &c. In other words,
the machinery through which the impulse given by the finger of the performer is transmitted to
the string. It is this part of the pianoforte that taxes the ingenuity of various makers.
.<EOLIAN ATTACHMENT. An addition to the pianoforte, the object of which is to sustain and graduate
the tone, without the assistance of reeds, pipes, or any vibrating bodies, other than the string.
The principle (an invention of M. Isoard, an engineer and mechanician) consists in causing a
current of air to act on the string, which prolongs its vibration somewhat on the principle of an
aeolian harp. For this purpose there is an opening opposite to each string, through which a stream
of air passes from a bellows, when a valve, corresponding to the given note, is opened by the key.
The bellows are moved by pedals, in the same manner as those of the seraphine or harmonium.
ALBION GRAND PIANOFORTE. The peculiarity of this instrument is that it has a down-striking action.
It has no metallic bracing, and affords a good example of how much the introduction of the down-
striking principle would cheapen the instruments of this form. It was patented by Wornum in 1 842.
BEADING (The). The direction the strings take from pin to pin ; that from the bridge to the long block
is called the side bearing.
BELLY i. e. the sounding-board of the pianoforte. See SOUNDING-BOARD.
BELLT-BRIDGE. The bridge on the sounding-board.
BICHORD PIANOFORTE. Any instrument with two strings to each note.
c c c 2
388 APPENDIX IV.
BOUDOIR COTTAGE PIANOFORTE. A name given to those small instruments extending in width at the
back, the bass strings of which run obliquely, thereby increasing the richness of the bass.
BOUDOIR GRAND PIANOFORTE. A small horizontal grand piano, generally with two strings to each note.
BRASS OPEN COVERED STRINGS. First introduced for the bass notes of square and other pianofortes.
BRASS WIRE. Formerly used (and still by the French) for the higher portion of the bass notes : by
some makers, throughout the instrument.
BRIDGES. There are two bridges : that on the sounding-board varies in form, according to the scale of
the different makers. It is glued and screwed to the sounding-board, with wooden nuts underneath,
before the latter is fixed on the case. That on the long block is glued and pinned, and sometimes
screwed to it. Some pianofortes, not having the metallic plate, have a third bridge that is, a slip
of wood near the hitch-pin.
, V
BUTTON. A circular piece of leather or wood, moving upon a screw wire ; for regulating purposes.
CABINET PIANOFORTE . A form of upright instrument, invented and patented by William Southwell, in
1807. The name still remains; but the invention has long since been superseded and laid aside.
CHECK. Only used in grand and double-action instruments. It is a small projection fixed at the back
end of the key, serving to prevent the reiteration of the hammer, by catching and firmly holding
it when freed from the string.
CLOSE-COVERED STRINGS. These strings, lately introduced in England, for the entire bass are of steel,
covered with copper. The largest of them are now, for the extreme low notes, double lapped
with thick copper wire. The wrapping too is close, like that of the fourth string of the violin ;
whereas, formerly, it was open, like the worm of a corkscrew. The best pianoforte wire is made,
expressly for the purpose, by Mr. Webster, of Penu's Mills, near Birmingham.
COMPACT SquARE PIANOFORTE. An instrument six or eight inches shorter than the ordinary square ;
hence the name. The action is " down-striking," and exceedingly simple. Stodart introduced the
inverted mechanism into square pianofortes some ten or twelve years ago. The present invention
was by Greiner, who exhibited it in 1851.
APPENDIX IV. 389
COMPENSATION GRAND PIANOFORTE. This instrument has a frame-work of metal tubes, extending from
end to end, to withstand the tension of the strings, which have always a tendency to depress the
sounding-board and curve the frame- work upward. This invention, patented by Stodart in 1820,
was an appliance to prevent the tendency referred to.
CONSOLE PIANOFORTE. A small upright instrument, a little more than three feet high ; the top projecting
only a few inches above the box enclosing the key-frame. It has the appearance of a cheffonier,
and is very effective for its size. The sound-board is made to extend over the whole vertical area
of the instrument ; whereas, in ordinary uprights, it is of necessity limited to the area occupied by
the strings alone. On this account, the tone of the console piano is remarkable for so small an
instrument. It is the invention of M. Pape, of Paris.
COPPER WIRE. At one time used by Broadwood, and some other makers, for a few notes in the bass.
COTTAGE PIANOFORTE. The original name of the short upright pianoforte.
DAMPER. A silencing agent to stop the vibration of the strings when the fingers are lifted from the
keys. It consists of several folds of soft cloth, which press against the strings when at rest, but
are lifted off by the back end of the key when the front end is pressed down. The grand pianoforte
damper originally consisted of a simple rod, headed with cloth, and rising vertically between the
strings. But little alteration has been made in this, except that, as the strings were made heavier,
and the vibration became stronger, the force with which the damper was held against the strings
required to be increased, and the damping surface of cloth extended. The damper movement is
variously disposed by different makers, sometimes above the strings, sometimes beneath them.
DAMPER-CRANK. A hinged or centred lever, raised by the key, and connected with the damper-head
by a fine wire.
DAMPER-SLIP. The slip to which the damper is hinged.
DAMPER-STICK. A stick running through a rack-rail, simply raised by the end of the key ; formerly
made of wood, latterly of wire ; also connected or unconnected with the damper-lever.
DOUBLE-GRAND PIANOFORTE. An instrument consisting of two grands, enclosed in one large oblong
rectangular case the players sitting at the two opposite ends, facing each other. One string-plate
390 APPENDIX IV.
serves for both instruments, the short strings of one coming in a line with the long strings of the
other. Invented by Mr. Pirsson, of New York, and shown in the Great Industrial Exhibition of 1851.
ESCAPEMENT. That part of the hopper which, moving on a hinge or centre, is pressed to its raising
. power by a spring, and by means of the regulating screw (acting upon a bevelled point) is nicely
adjusted to cause the hammer to leave the string at the instant of impact. It is in this particular
part of the action that makers, who claim invention, so widely differ.
EUPHONICON PIANOFORTE. An upright pianoforte invented by J. Steward, Esq. in 1841. The com-
pass is seven octaves, and its frame, wholly of iron, highly japanned, beautifully ornamented with
pearl and gold pencilling on black, blue, or crimson grounds, and embellished with exquisitely
chased ormoulu designs, produces an extremely light and elegant appearance. The left portion
of the instrument is much higher than the right. To the upper part of the former are attached
the three lower octaves of the strings, which are exposed to view ; thus combining the appearance
of harp and piano. It has three sounding-boards treble, tenor, and bass, corresponding to the
violin, tenor, and violoncello. It is not now under manufacture.
GRAND PIANOFORTE. The largest sized horizontal instrument, with three strings to each note.
GRAND SQUARE PIANOFORTE. Similar to the common square, but having the sounding-board the
whole length of the instrument, and the action the same as the grand. Generally made a few
inches wider, from back to front, than the common square.
HAMMER. The striking lever, moving upon a centre. The covering of the face of the hammer was
formerly of buff leather; now it is made of a fine kind of felt, prepared expressly for the
purpose, which gives a much superior quality of tone, and is much more regular in its structure.
HAMMER-BUTT. The part of the hammer-lever which is centred, and the point upon which the hopper acts.
HAMMER-RAIL. A rail extending from end to end of the action, into which the butts of the hammer-
lever are centred or hinged.
HARMONIC BAR. A metallic bar firmly attached to the edge of the wrest-plank, through which the
treble strings pass, in lieu of over the solid pin-bridge. By this means a bearing upwards, instead
of downwards (as formerly), is attained, giving a more firm and clear tone to the grand pianoforte.
APPENDIX IV. 391
HITCH-PIN. The pin in which the eye or noose of the string is hitched.
HITCH-PIN BLOCK. The block in which the hitch-pin is inserted, at the opposite end or side to the
wrest-plaok, now generally covered with a metal plate.
HOPPER. A spring medium between the key and hammer, with an escapement to let the hammer fall
from the string. It is well explained by Mr. Pole : " It was a jointed upright piece, attached to
the back end of the key, and used to lift the hammer, in place of the stiff wire and button of the
former mechanism. When the key was pressed down, the hopper, engaging in a notch on the
under side of the hammer, lifted it to within a very short distance of the string so near, in fact,
that almost the slightest pressure would cause it to strike ; but at this moment, while the key was
still pressed down, the jointed part of the hopper coming in contact with a fixed button as it rose,
escaped from, or ' hopped' out of, the notch, and let the hammer fall clear away from the string.
This mechanism, as applied with trifling variation to the square pianoforte, was called the ' double
action,' and is extensively in use for this and the upright form at the present day."
HOPPER-LEVER. A delicately adjusted lever, with double centres, upon which the hopper action is
centred ; acting upon the damper action by reverse motion. It is used in Erard's action.
HOPPER-SPRINQ. A fine brass spring to keep the hopper to its bearing.
JEU CELESTE. A soft pedal, interposing cloth between the hammers and the strings. It is used in
many of the French pianos, in addition to the ordinary soft and loud pedals.
KEY (CLAVIER). The lever upon which the finger acts, giving motion to all other parts of the action.
KEY-FRAME. The frame upon which the keys act (moveable in grands), made always of wainscot, formed
of three rails ; the front and centre to receive the key-pins, the back (lined with green baize) to
receive the balanced end of the key. In grands, and usually in Broadwood's upright instruments,
this frame is made to slide to the right by means of the left pedal. In many transposing pianos,
the key-frame is made to move to the right or left by some simple mechanism. See TRANS-
POSING PIANOFORTE.
KIT-GKAND PIANOFORTE. The smallest size of grand-shaped instruments.
392 APPENDIX IV.
LYRA PIANOFORTE. An instrument of the upright shape, the back of which is intended to be turned
towards the centre of the room, and is formed like a lyre, with openings covered with silk ; the
object being to throw the sound outwards. The piano stands on a raised platform or sound-
conductor, into which the bass strings descend, and which also elevates the stool for the player.
It has three pedals, the additional one being a soft one on the French principle, viz. introducing
a thickness of soft cloth between the hammer and the string. Invented by Messrs. Hund and
Son, and exhibited in 1851.
MICROCHORDON PIANOFORTE. An upright instrument, in size between the piccolo and cottage.
OBLIQUE COTTAGE PIANOFORTE. A small upright instrument, having the strings placed obliquely,
thereby obtaining greater length and power of vibration. These pianos are generally wider than
ordinary piccolos, and usually with three strings through the upper part of the compass. A
very superior and powerful description of small-class piano.
PKDALIER (The). A kind of armoire, placed upright against the wall, and played by means of a
pedal-board under the feet of the performer. The instrument has its own strings, hammer,
and peculiar mechanism, and is totally independent of the pianoforte, which is placed before it.
Its height allows its strings to be unusually long and thick ; while the dimensions of the sounding-
board, proportionably large for a pedal-board of two octaves and a half, imparts a peculiar richness
and power to its tones. The gravity of the thick strings is modified by their being united with
finer strings, which produce at the same time the octave next above. This valuable instrument, so
desirable for playing a pedal obbligato, is the recent invention of M. Auguste Wolff, of the
house of Pleyel and Co. Paris.
PEDALS (The). The forte pedal, usually on the right side of the instrument, is used to lift off the
dampers from the strings. By touching the pedal-foot, a wire or stick, is set in motion, which
raises the damper frame. The piano pedal moves the entire action along the strings, causing the
hammer to strike on one of two, or on two of three strings.
PICCOLO ACTION. The double or ' piccolo action' was the invention of Mr. Wornum. It is now
universally used on the Continent for upright pianofortes.
PICCOLO PIANOFORTE. A very small upright instrument, generally 3 feet 9 inches high, 4 feet wide,
and 2 feet 2 inches deep.
APPENDIX IV. 393
PINS. There are six sorts of pins -.the wrarf-pins, or tuning-pins ; the bridge-pins ; the AtfcA-pins,
on which the strings are hooked ; the %-pins ; the Aopper-pjna ; and the pedal-pins.
PIN-BEIDGES. Either single or double : the latter, generally used in the grand pianoforte and harp-
sichord, has a reversed bearing. These bridges serve to give the founding length of the string ;
one placed near where the string is struck, on the edge of the wrest-plank solid ; the other on the
most sonorous point of the sound-board.
PITCH. The acuteness or gravity of any particular sound, or of the tuning of any instrument. Any
sound less acute than some other sound, is said to be of lower pitch than that other sound, and
vice verscl.
POCKET GRAND PIANOFORTB. A small semi-grand instrument, generally with two strings to each note.
KAIL AND SOCKET. A rail of wood covered with cloth, extending from end to end of the action, under
the hammers, midway, as a fixed point of rest to which the hopper is regulated.
REGULATING SCREW. Variously used to adjust the point of escapement of the hammer in the hopper
movement.
REPETITION ACTION. " In the ordinary action," says Mr. Pole, " after the hammer has fallen, the key
must rise to its position of rest before the hopper will engage again in the notch of the hammer,
so as to be ready for another stroke ; and hence a note cannot be repeated without not only
requiring the finger to be lifted through the entire height of the key's motion, but also demanding
a length of time between the repetitions, sufficient to allow of its full rise. The contrivances
by which this inconvenience has been overcome, are of various kinds, according to the fancy or
the ingenuity of the makers ; but they all act on the same principle, namely, by holding up the
hammer at a certain height while the key returns ; by which means the hammer is allowed to
engage itself under the hopper earlier, and to reproduce the note in less time, and with less labour
to the finger, than before."
ROYAL ALBERT TRANSPOSING PIANOFORTE. The invention of Messrs. Addisou and Co. A " Piccolo
upright," capable of transposing music upwards or downwards. For instance, if a song be played
. D D D
394 APPENDIX IV.
on the keys as if in C, it can be made to sound either in the key of C sharp, D, E flat, B, B flat,
or A ; i. e. in any key within a range of three semitones above or below the original one.
EULEE. A rail lined with cloth, used in the old actions, as also in harpsichords, spinets, &c. to prevent
the jacks and dampers from jerking out.
SCALE (The). The distance between each wire ; in fact, the general plan of the instrument. Each
maker has his particular scale. Formerly the wires were much thinner than they are at present j
consequently the distance from one bridge to the other was greater ; for the longer the measure,
the thinner the wire must be, and vice versa.
SEMI-COTTAGE PIANOFORTE. A somewhat shorter instrument than the ordinary Cottage Piano.
SEMI-GRAND PIANOFORTE. The next size smaller to the grand instrument, and with a somewhat
different action.
SOSTINENTE. The application of a cylinder and silk loops to an upright pianoforte. The loops were
attached to the strings and the cylinder, which, being moved by the foot, bowed them : the tones
came forth somewhat like the tones of a seraphine. It was the invention of Mr. Mott.
SOUNDING-BOARD. Often called the " belly." It is that smooth thin board over which the strings are
distended, and which, by its vibrations, greatly contributes to the tone of the instrument. It is
analogous to the belly of the violin, and is composed of the best Swiss pine, perfectly free from
knots orimperfections, cut in a particular direction of the grain, and thoroughly seasoned.
SQUARE PIANOFORTE. The shape of the first pianoforte introduced into this country. Its inferiority,
even in its present improved state, to the grand instrument, consists in the comparative weakness
of its tones, consequent to its having only two, instead of three sets of strings, and the body of the
instrument being so much smaller than that of the latter. Very few instruments of this shape are
now made in this country.
SQUARE SEMI-GRAND PIANOFORTE. This instrument, invented by the Messrs. Collard, has precisely
the same action as that used for semi-grands ; whereas the ordinary grand-square has only an
adaptation of the peculiarities of the grand action to that of the square.
APPENDIX IT. 395
STEEL AHOHES. Used in old grand pianos to counteract the tension.
STEEL SPUN-WIRE. Used for the lapped strings of the lower part of the pianoforte.
STEEL WIRE. Used, of various thicknesses, for the upper four and a half octaves of the pianoforte.
STICKER. A medium of communication between the w^fer-hammer and the butt of the hammer ; used
in the action of the upright pianofortes.
STRING-PLATE. A metal plate, partially extending over the hitch-pin block, to obviate the fault of the
hitch-pin's tendency to draw out. It was first introduced by the Messrs. Broadwood.
STRINGS. Of various metals, substance, and manufacture. See STBEL WIRB, BRASS WIRE, COPPER
WIRE, BRASS OPEN COVERED STRINGS, CLOSB COVERED STRINGS.
STUD. A metallic application to grand and other superior pianofortes, screwed into the wrest-plank to
obtain an upward bearing of the string, instead of a downward one over the pin-bridge, by whicli
clearness of tone is attained.
TABLE PIANO. An instrument having the size and appearance of an ordinary drawing-room table ; one
end being lifted up, the keys slide out in a sort of drawer, and the table is converted at once into
a pianoforte. The action is down-striking, and the hammers are directly under the front end of
the keys ; the strings are brought up to the front, and cross each other in two different planes, by
which the necessary length for the lower notes is obtained. The sounding-board extends over the
whole instrument. It was invented by M. Pape, of Paris.
TENNANT. A small groove in the middle of the key, into which the hopper is inserted.
TENSION. The force employed in stretching a string to the required degree.
TEMPERAMENT. A small, and to the ear almost imperceptible, deviation from the absolute purity of
intervals. In its more limited sense, it denotes that arrangement of a system of musical sounds
by which a minute quantity is abstracted from the original purity or magnitude of some or most of
the intervals which may be formed by them.
D D D 2
396 APPENDIX IY.
TRANSPOSING PIANOFORTE. The object of this instrument is to transpose music to suit voices of different
compasses. The key-board and action, or the strings and framing, are shifted laterally, so as to
make one hammer strike different strings, according to its position. See ROYAL ALBERT TRANS-
POSING PIANO.
TRANSVERSE BAR. Part of the bracing so called.
TUNING FORK. A steel utensil, about three inches long, consisting of two prongs and a handle,
and which, being struck against a table or any other substance, produces the tone to which itself
was originally set. There are various tones or pitches ; but the A and C forks are most generally
used.
TUNING HAMMER. A steel or iron utensil used by pianoforte tuners. It is about four inches long,
and formed like a common hammer. "With the head of the hammer the pegs round which the
ends of the wires are twisted are driven into the sockets ; and the bottom of the handle is furnished
with a square or oblong hole, in a longitudinal direction, which, being of a size to fit the tops of
the pegs, enables the hand to turn them, and thereby to relax or extend the wires.
UNACHORD. Any instrument with one string to each note.
UNDER-HAMMER. A hinged lever, similar to the damper lever, to which the hopper is adjusted ; used
in upright pianofortes.
UNDER-HAMMER SLIP. The slip to which the under-hammer is hinged.
UTILITARIAN BOUDOIR PIANO. A small piccolo upright instrument, with one string to each note. The keys
are shorter and project less, by which the legs or scrolls usually put under the key-frame are saved.
The action consists of a simple projection at the end of the key, which lifts the tail of the hammer
directly, without the intervention of any hopper. It is, in short, a return -to the old single action,
with which the pianoforte was first made ; the only difference being the variation in form necessary
to adapt it to the upright instrument.
WREST-PIN. Iron pins upon which the strings are strained. They are not screws, but have sufficient
APPENDIX IV. 397
tendency to draw themselves in tightly, when turned to the right. They protrude about an inch
from the wrest-plank, having an oblong or square upper end, by which they are turned.
WREST-PLAHK. Usually formed of two or more kinds of wood, joined together in the flat, with the
grains running in opposite directions ; the upper one of wainscot oak endwise, to resist the great
tension of the strings, usually veneered with holly or other white wood. It receives the wrest-pins,
on which the wires are stretched to their necessary tension. Its situation differs according to the
kind of pianoforte. In the grand, it is placed in the front of the instrument, immediately above
the keys ; in the upright, at the top of the instrument, above the action ; in the tqvare, (originally
at the right end) latterly at the back, behind the keys.
ADDITIONAL NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page 15. In summing up our information upon the musical acquirements of those extraordinary people, the ancient
Egyptians, we extract the following passage from Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson's recent volume on The Egyptians in the
time of the Pharoahs, 8vo. 1857. "Their bands were often composed of a harp, lyre, and guitar, a double pipe, and
tambourine ; of a fourteen-stringed harp, a double pipe, and a lyre of seventeen chords, with voices ; of two harps, a
flute, and voices ; of a harp, a guitar, and a double pipe or of two flutes ; of harp and two guitars, with a double pipe,
and the clapping of hands ; of two harps, and a jingling instrument which may correspond to the crescent-crowned bells
of our military bands ; besides many other combinations. * * To discover, rather than to invent, these simple
instruments, required little skill ; but, before they could devise the means of obtaining various notes from a small number
of strings, by shortening them on a neck, as in our modern guitar and violin, considerable experience was required; and
this could only have resulted from an attentive study of musical sounds. The three-stringed guitar, therefore, proves
that the Egyptians had acquired a knowlege of music at a very remote time, for, though not represented in a band of
music earlier than the eighteenth dynasty, it is found among the hieroglyphics upwards of 600 years before that period as
the initial of the word nofr, ' good." The guitar had a long neck, about twice the length of its oval body, which last
was a hollow case of wood with leather or parchment strained over it, having small holes to allow the sound to escape-
It was played with the plectrum; and as the cithara of Greece was smaller than the other Greek lyres, the guitar of
the Egyptians was of less power than their lyre. Women generally played it ; men rarely. It was supported on the
right arm, and even by a strap over the shoulder, like the Spanish guitar ; while the strings were shortened by the left
hand ; and the performer occasionally danced to its sound."
Page 28, line 18. Catgut is the name applied to strings made from the peritoneal covering of the intestines of
sheep. The greatest care is necessary in preparing these strings for musical instruments, to secure the strength necessary
for the great tension required for the high notes. The best strings are made at Naples, because the sheep, from their
leanness, afford the best raw material ; it is a well-ascertained fact that the membranes of lean animals are much tougher
than those of animals in high condition.
Page 33, line 1. Du Sommerard, in his Album of Archaeology, engraves a Clavichorde with " cordes de laiton,''
which belonged to one of the dames d" honneur of Catherine de Medicis, and was preserved in the Hotel Richelieu till
1791. The " strings of brass " strongly favour our theory.
Page 34, line 15. We are not quite clear upon the point that the monochord of the middle ages was not used in
the performance of music. Since writing the passage in the text, we have noticed in the second volume of Gerbert's
De Cantu et Musica Sacra, plate 34., the figure of a man evidently playing upon an instrument of this description. See
also plate 26, of the same work.
Page 48, line 22. Gold and silver compounded and rendered elastic would undoubtedly produce beautiful tones. A
gold string or wire will sound stronger than a silver one ; those of brass and steel give feebler sounds than those of gold
and silver. Silk strings were made of the single threads of the silk worm, a sufficient number of them being taken to
form a chord of the required thickness ; these were smeared over with the white of eggs, which was rendered consistent
by passing the threads through heated oil. The string was exceedingly uniform in its thickness, but produced a tone
which the performer called tubby.
ADDITIONAL NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
It seems probable that when Josephus speaks of the musical instruments belonging to the Temple as being " made
of a composition between gold and silver,'' he alluded to the strings or wires.
Page 48, line 11. The following advertisement appeared in The Time* newspaper, July 8, 1858 :
" A MUMCAL CURKWITT. A magnificent and historical HARPSICHORD may be seen, for a few days, at No. 6,
Arundel Street, Haymarket. It has belonged to the old and princely house of De Medicis, Dukes of Florence, and is
the great work of Marco Sadre, who flourished in the sixteenth century. There are fire octaves and a half, and the keys
still have their original sweetness. In front of the keys are three authentic portraits chiselled in gold, surrounded with
the following relative inscriptions :" Francis Medices Florent Senaraum; the other " Carolus Galliorum Rex Cristianis,
1565 " (who was the son of Henry IV and Catherine de Medicis) ; and the last, " Joanna Princ, Florent, Senar, Arcid "
(who was the wife of Francis de Medicis). Besides, there is the name of the great manufacturer, and the year (1565) in
which he made this work."
Upon inspecting this " musical curiosity," it proved to be a very small virginal, of sweet tone, and in the most
perfect state of preservation ; its compass, from below the bass staff to F in alt, four octaves and one note. Th maker's
name is Marco Jadrae (not Sadre as printed in the Times), concerning whom nothing seems to be known. After
making considerable research for some particulars of this early maker without success, we wrote to Count Pepoli upon
the subject, and were favoured with the following answer :
" I believe that ' Opus Marci Jadra,' id est, ' Opera di Marco Jadra,' or di Jadra, is the name of the artist Marco
dai Cembali, or Marco dalle Spinette ; and that Jadra or Jadera was the name (being the latter one) used very often
instead of Zara. And it was the fashion to call the artistes after the names of their towns : Coreggio, Bassano,
])' Arpino, &c. This is my opinion ; but ' valeat quantum valerc potest"
This interesting instrument was purchased in Rome, by the present possessor, from an old monk of the Cornaro
family. The price put upon it by the advertiser was 500 !
A small virginal of German make, bearing date 1600 (called a spinet in the description), was lately exhibited in
the Art Department of the South Kensington Museum ; its compass was from G, the lowest note of the bass staff,
to A above the treble staff, three octaves and one note.
Page 57, line 16 " A man whose facultie in profession is a maker of Virginalls, going to the brick kilns, at the
upper end of Golding Lane, to seek Ravens feather*, which he putteth to some use in his handy craft," &c. Anthony
Munday's View of Sundry Examples, 1580. 4to. (Shaketpeare Society's reprint, p. 93.)
Page 58, line 19. Queen Elizabeth's virginal was purchased at Lord Spencer Chichester's sale at Fisherwick, by
Mr. Jonah Child, a painter, of Dudley in Worcestershire. Shaw, in his History of Staffordshire, article Fisherwick
(vol i, p. 369), gives a minute description of the instrument.
Page 64, line 10. Among the Howard papers, Lady Arabella Stuart, writing to the Earl of Shrewsbury from
Broad Street, June 17, 1609, says : " But now from doctrine to miracles ; I assure you within these few dayes I saw a
paire of virginalles make good musick without help of any hand, but of one that did nothing but warme, not move, a
glass some five or six foote from them. And if I thought these great folkes invisibly and farre off worke in matters to
tune them as they please, I pray your Lordship forgive me ; and I hope God will, to whose holy protection I humbly
recommend your Lordship,'' &c. How was this virginal made to play without the " help of hand " ? The passage
affords an early example of scientific knowledge. We have in vain searched for a more minute account of this wonder.
Page 65, line 2. The following extracts from the Obituary of Richard Smyth (printed by the Camden Society
in 1848), relate to a virginal-maker whose name had escaped our notice;
" 1660. Janua. 5. Tho. White, virginal maker in Old Jury, buried."
" 1665. Septem. 2. Mary White, ye relict of Thorn. White, virginall maker, my late tennant in Old Jury, buried,
ex peste."
Page 65, note. The interesting virginal mentioned in the note as being in the possession of T. Macltinlay, Esq. is
now the property of the author of the present volume. It was made in the year 1666, by Adam Leversidge, and is in
400 ADDITIONAL NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
an excellent state of preservation. The painting, embossing, and gilding, are all as fresh as if they had recently come
from the hands of the manufacturer.
Page 69, line 8. Baker Harris was an eminent maker of spinets in the latter half of the eighteenth century. We
saw one by this maker at a broker's shop in Great St. Andrew's Street, Seven Dials, in April 1858. It had white
keys, and was dated 1776.
Page 77, line 29. A book very little known and imperfectly described by Forkel and Lichtenthal, in their Musica.
Bibliographies, contains some singular descriptions of musical instruments constructed in the seventeenth century, upon
principles which, after having been lost and forgotten, were brought forward again as new at a later period. This book
is entitled Dichiaratone delta Gakria Armonica eretta in Roma da Michele Todini, Piemontese di Saluzzo, nella sua
habitatione, posta all area della Ciambella, printed at Rome by Francesco Tizzoni, 1676, ninety-two pages, 12mo.
Forkel and Lichtenthal mention this book only by the abridged title of La Gakria Armonica, and do not appear to
have been aware of its real contents ; for they cite it merely as a description of an ingenious organ which had cost Todini
eighteen years to complete ; whereas it is not only a description of the organ, but of several other musical instruments
and curious pieces of mechanism, which Todini had constructed and placed in those apartments of his dwelling-house to
which he gave the designation of an Harmonic Gallery. In the first room were some curious and complicated specimens
of clocks ; in the second, a mechanical representation of the story of Polypheme and Galatea, in which tritons and sea
gods played several tunes on a harpsichord, and Polypheme himself performed on a kind of bagpipe, the sounds of which
were produced by a key-board under that of the harpsichord.
It was in the third chamber that the most curious of Todini's inventions in the construction of musical instruments
were deposited ; and these, considering the period at which they were manufactured, are really astonishing. Amongst
them were two violins, the pitch of one of which could, by an ingenious mechanical contrivance, be at once heightened a
whole tone, a third, or even a fifth ; the other, under the usual strings, had a second set of strings, like those of a kit,
tuned in the octave above, and was so contrived that the violin and kit might either be played separately or both together,
at the pleasure of the performer.
In the twenty-third chapter of this tract is a description of a viol-di-gamba, so contrived that, without shifting the
neck, all the four kinds of violins, namely, the treble violin, the contralto (or viola bastarda), the tenor, and bass viol,
could be played upon it. Todini had originally given the bass of this instrument an unusual depth ; but he abandoned
that when he invented the double bass, which instrument he was the first to introduce and play upon in oratorios,
concerts, and serenades.
Todini also invented and manufactured two harpsichords; on one of which, 'by an ingenious contrivance, the three
genera of the ancients, the diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic, could be played without any multiplied or inconvenient
division of the keys.
In this third room of the gallery was also his grand organ, which had cost so many years' labour, and in the con-
struction of which were many contrivances that have since been revived and called new inventions. This organ contained
seven instruments of different kinds, any number of which might be played on separately or united, at the pleasure of
the performer. The organ had numerous stops, which could be adjusted, combined, or separated, without the necessity
of the player taking his hands off the keys. There were an harpsichord, an octave spinet, a small theorbo, a violin, and
a kind of bass violin with fifteen strings, then in use, and called the lyra or accordo. Todini had invented a mechanism
by whieh the effect of the bow on these instruments was perfectly produced. It is well known how many attempts were
made to produce this effect, a detailed account of which has been given in our earlier pages ; but what is worthy of notice
in Todini's instrument is, that the same key-board served for the organ with all its stops, the harpsichord, spinet,
theorbo, and violins ; and that they might not only all be played, as above mentioned, either separately or united at
pleasure, but without the performer being at any time obliged to lift his hands from the keys.
Todini wrote his book when all these inventions of his were completed, and invites all musicians to satisfy them-
selves, by ocular inspection and examination, of their advantages. There can be no doubt, therefore, of their reality,
even if Lichtenthal had not expressly said that the organ was still in existence, at Home, in his time.
ADDITIONAL NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 401
Page 84, line 12. The earliest harpsichord made in England which we hare seen was lately exhibited in the Art
Department of the South Kensington Museum. It consisted of a mere shell, the inside being entirely gone, with the
inscription on the name-board, "Johannes Asard, 1622."
Page 91 . To the note on this page add the following :
" The Harpsichord, an instrument of power and compass, is now going out of use. The guitar, a trifling instru-
ment in itself, and generally now taught in the most ignorant and trifling manner, is adopted in its place ; while the
theorbo and lute, the noblest because the most expressive and pathetic of all accompaniments, are altogether laid aside.
What is the reason of this ? Because the guitar is a plaything for a child, the harpsichord and lute require application."
Dr. Brown's Estimate of the Manner* and Principles of the Times, vol. ii, p. 77, edit 1758.
Page 93, line 32. In addition to the English makers of the middle of the eighteenth century which we have
noticed, we may add the names of " Mr. Mahoon, Harpsichord-maker to His Majesty," and " Mr. Sells, Harpsichord-
maker," both of which appear among the subscribers to Travers's Canzonets.
Page 147, line 17- In the Quarterly Musical Register, edited by A. F. C. Kollman (of which we believe only
two numbers were published), No. 1, January 1, 1812, is an interesting article, giving a "Retrospect of the state of
Music in Great Britain, since the year 1789," from which we extract what relates to the various inventions which have
been introduced in the pianoforte :
" 1 . Additional Keys, above the former high F, three lines and a space over the treble stave ; and below the
former low F, four lines under the bass stave. In regard to these, it is certain that, though any rational extension of the
compass of the scale is an improvement in an instrument, the modern rage for additional keys without end seems to
carry the art of invention too far in that respect. For no great composer for keyed instruments, or great performer on
them, has reason to complain of their limited compass, even when they contained but five octaves, from F to F ; and to
them a good tone, with a mechanism that admits of a highly finished, as well as an expressive performance, always will
remain the first consideration. To- this must be added, that too great an extension of the scale of keyed instruments
renders their construction precarious in regard to an equality of tone throughout ; as well as the instruments themselves
too unwieldy for a removal, and too large for a room of moderate size. It might therefore be wished that the compass of
pianofortes would not be enlarged beyond six octaves.
" 2. Hammers with different sorts of double actions. These have been universally considered as real improve-
ments of the pianoforte.
"3. Varieties of dampers. In regard to these, every good player knows how much there depends on dampers
which take away the sound perfectly and promptly without occasioning a noise or jarring. Every improvement of this
kind, therefore, ought also to be considered as very useful and desirable.
" 4. Square pianofortes, with the sound-board extending over the whole instrument, have been made for some years
by Messrs. Broadwood ; and they seemed to depend on the principle of giving a firmness to the instrument at the top,
where it is particularly wanted ; but their unremitted attention to the improvements of those instruments seems to have
made them discover a method by which that support at the top can be dispensed with, for which reason they have discon-
tinued making them in the above manner.
" 5. Other sorts of square pianofortes, apparently on a similar principle to the above, have also been made by other
manufacturers ; one of which were those with a slender wooden beam at the top along the lowest bass string, similar to-
that in front of the harp. This invention greatly improved the firmness of the instrument, without injuring its tone.
But it has not been generally adopted.
" A variation of the same principle seemed to be Mr. Hawkins's pianoforte, with a metal frame all around the
strings, as well as with a metal supporter along the midst of them ; which, however, appeared as being too stiff for the
necessary vibration, and as spoiling the tone.
" And, as another variation of the principle, we consider the square pianoforte by Mr. Scott, which were equally
firm and closed up in front, as behind ; and the keys to be pulled out, in a manner as at some organs. This construction
E E E
402 ADDITIONAL NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
seemed to be very natural, and not disadvantageous to the sound of the instrument ; but the required sliding of the keys
apparently rendered the mechanism of the action less certain than otherwise. And we are not sure whether this kind of
instrument is still manufactured.
" 6. A few years ago, a Mr. Riley, of Hull, brought out a patent pianoforte, constructed so that the whole set of
keys could be shifted towards the right or left, in order to transpose the same keys into a higher or lower scale. This
was very useful for the accommodation of singers, though it conld be of no advantage to good players ; but we have also
not heard of these instruments lately.
" 7. Upright grand pianofortes have been brought to a great perfection by several of the first makers, and they are
very useful for saving room ; but, we must confess, that, though in regard to a fullness of tone, we think them highly
preferable to square pianofortes, we cannot, for several reasons, consider them as equal to horizontal grand pianofortes.
" 8. A smaller sort of upright pianoforte, with only two strings to each key, called cabinet pianofortes, have lately
been brought forward by Messrs. Wilkinson and Wornum, but are also manufactured by the other makers. Whether
they will be adopted as preferable to the square pianoforte, time must show."
Page 159, line 18. The New York Exhibition, of 1853, brought into notice a number of pianoforte makers, whose
names deserve to be placed on record ; viz. William Hall and Son ; Hazelton and Brother ; Bennett and Co. ; Grovesteen
and Co. ; Lighte and Newton ; Charles J. Holden ; Jean Lankota ; A. Bassford ; Firth, Pond and Co. ; John Ruck ; and
W. H. Bowden; all of New York. Hallet, Davies and Co. ; George Hews, and Gilbert; all of Boston. Schomaker and
Co. of Philadelphia ; and Knare, and Gahele and Co. of Baltimore. 'Science and Mechanism; illustrated by Examples
in the New York Exhibition, 1853-4.. Edited by C. R. Goodrich, Esq. 4to. Putnam, New York, 1854, p. 250.
Page 171, line 10. " Some philosophers have imagined that there are certain fibres in a sounding-board which
vibrate to one tone, and others which vibrate to another, and that in no case the entire board can be made to sympathise
with any particular sound. From M. Savart's experiments it is evident that the board in every instance becomes a part
of a vibratory system, and acts in unison with every note, although much more perfectly with some than with others.
To this philosopher much honour is due for the accurate and ingenious manner in which his experiments were made, as
well as for the splendid results he obtained ; but it ought in fairness to be stated that the fact here alluded to was first
observed by M. Perrole."
In stringed instruments the sound is not produced by the vibration of the strings alone, but by the communication
of these vibrations to the substances that surround them ; and experiments have been made to prove the absolute
vibration of the entire body of an instrument. See Mr. Higgins's charming volume on The Philosophy of Sound, 12mo.
1838.
Page 188, line 9. The old way of producing the soft tone was to shift the action so that the hammers would strike
two strings instead of three, or one instead of two ; the French method is now often adopted of interposing a piece of
soft cloth between the hammer and the string, which deadens the blow, and produces a very pleasing effect, without the
risk of putting the instrument out of .tune by striking upon only one string.
" One of the recent American improvements is the " dolce campana " pedal, by which the sound is prolonged and
the quality changed to that of sweet bells or harps. The mechanism is simple, being merely a number of weights
arranged, by a lever pedal, to fall, when required, upon an equal number of screws fixed in the sounding-board ; this,
of course, alters the vibrations, and, in connexion with the other pedals, produces great brilliancy and delicacy of tone,
like the chimes of distant bells, whence its name." Science and Mechanism, 4to. Putnam, New York, 1854, p. 250.
Page 206, line 11. A more minute account of Hohlfeld's claims to 'having perfected an instrument for noting
down music is given in Professor Beckmann's History of Discoveries, Inventions, and Origins, edit. 1846, vol. i,
p. 12, from which we extract the following :
After noticing Creed's proposition, he goes on to say, "In the year 1745, John Frederic Unger, then land-bailiff
and burgomaster of Einbec, and who is known by several learned works, fell upon the same invention without the
ADDITIONAL NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 403
smallest knowledge of the idea published in England. This invention, however, owing to the variety of hii occupations,
he did not make known till the year 1752, when he transmitted a short account of it, accompanied with figure*, to the
Academy of Sciences at Berlin. The Academy highly approved of it, and it was soon celebrated in several gazettes ; but
a description of it was never printed.
" A few days after Euler had read this paper of Unger's before the Academy, M. SuLzer informed Hoblfeld of the
invention, and advised him to exert his ingenuity in constructing such a machine. In two weeks this untaugh
mechanic, without having read Unger's paper, and even without inspecting the figures, completed the machine, which
linger himself had not been able to execute, through want of an artist capable of following his ideas.
" Unger's own description of his invention was printed with copper-plates at Brunswick, in the year 1774, together
with the correspondence between him and Euler, and other documents. A description of Hoblfeld's machine, illustrated
with figures, was published after his death by Sulzer, in the New Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin, 1771, under the
title of ' Description of a machine for noting down pieces of music as fast as they are played upon the harpsichord.'
Sulzer there remarks that Hoblfeld had not followed the plan sketched out by Unger, and that the two machines differed
in this that Unger's formed one piece with the harpsichord, while (hat of Hohlfeld could be applied to any harpsichord
whatever.
" When Dr. Burney visited Berlin, he was made acquainted with Hohlfeld's machine by M. Marpurg, and has been
so ungenerous, or rather unjust, as to say, in bis ' Musical Travels,' that it is an English invention, and that it had been
before fully described in the Philosophical Transactions. This falsehood M. Unger has fully refuted. Without repeating
his proofs, I shall here content myself with quoting his own words in the following passage : ' How can Burney wish
to deprive our ingenious Hohlfeld of the honour of being the sole author of that invention, and to make an Englishman
share it with biro, because our German happened to execute successfully what his countryman, Creed, only suggested ?
Such an attempt is as unjust in its consequences as it is dishonourable to the English nation and the English artists.
When we reflect on the high estimation in which music is held in England, the liberality of the English nobility, and
their readiness to spare no expenses in bringing forward any useful invention a property peculiar to the English, it
affords just matter of surprise that the English artists should have suffered themselves to be anticipated by a German
journeyman lace-maker. To our Hohlfeld, therefore, will incontestibly remain the lasting honour of having executed a
German invention ; and the Germans may contentedly wait to see whether Burney will find an English mechanic capable
of constructing this machine from the information given by his countryman Creed.' ''
E E E 2
405
INDEX.
See also the Gloitary of Termt uted in the Mamtfacturc of the Pianoforte (p. 887), the references to which are not included
in the present Index.
A.
Action, explanation of the 184 etseq.
various diagrams of the 187 et teq.
Actions, downward, of various makers 194 et teq.
Adam, G. pianoforte maker 220
Addison, R. pianoforte maker 217
Additional keys to the pianoforte 141, 401
Aerts, F. G. pianoforte maker 218
Aggio, G. H. pianoforte maker 218
Agricola, Martin, his Musica Inttrumentalii 49
Akerman, W. H. pianoforte maker 217
Allen, William, pianoforte maker 162, 164, 168
Allison, Messrs, pianoforte makers 217
Alwood, an early composer for the virginals 228
Amphion, adds three strings to the lyre 6
Ancients, knowledge of counterpoint possessed by the 11
Anemochorde 203
Anne, Queen, her spinet bequeathed to the Chapel
Royal 68
Apollodorus, his account of the lyre r 2
Archicembalo, a harpsichord with six rows of keys 77
Artusi, his Imperfettioni delta moderna Musica 67, 77
Asard, John, harpsichord maker 401
Ashur, an instrument of the Jews 18, 15
Aston, Hugh, an early composer for the virginals 228
Athcmeus, his notice of the simicum and the epigonium 35
Aucher and Son, pianoforte makers 219
B.
Bach, Carl Philip Emanuel, his pianoforte works 232, 235
his performance on the
clarichord 81
John Christian, his arrival in England 181
Sebastian, his visit to Frederick the Great 118
- his opinion of the clavichord 81
Capriccio by 235
Backers, Americus, an early pianoforte maker 89, 131
Balbastre, M. his Ruckers harpsichord 76
Ball, James, pianoforte maker 150, 167
Barbitos, a name for the lyre 8
Barbetta, Giulio Cesare, an early performer on the
harpsichord, &c 228
Bartholomeus, his de ProprietatHnu Rerum 20, 29
his description of the cithara 29
Page.
Barton, William, an improver of the harpsichord... 86, 149
Baudin, a maker of spinets, &c 69, 86
Bauer, his transposing piano 207
Beck, pianoforte maker 147
Becker, John Conrad, musical instrument maker 161
Bemctzrieder, Antonins, patent for improvements in the
pianoforte 161
Berden, Messrs. F. and C. pianoforte makers 218
Berlin Museum, ancient lyre preserved in the 6
BessaluS, H. P. pianoforte maker 169, 220
Bindella of Treviso, a celebrated performer on the
harpsichord, &c 228
Blanche!.*, family of the, eminent musical instrument
makers of Paris 81
Blitheman, William, his compositions for the virginals
69, 228, 238
Boccaccio's Decameron, Important passage In 86
Bochet, Henry du, patent taken out by 166
Bologna, Jacopo di, an early composer 42, 226
Bonanni, his Gabinetto Armonico 84, 67, 77
Bord, pianoforte maker 219
Boulognc-sur-mer, ancient MS. in the library of. 19
Bow-shaped harps 8
Bowman, Robert, virginal player in the Courts of
Edward VI, and Queen Mary 65
Brass tongues used in the place of quills 82
Breitkhopf and Hand, pianoforte makers 220
Breton, Nicholas, his Flmirih upon Fancie....- 60
Brewer, Dr. on Sound and it* Phenomena 171, 174
Brickler, Miss, her benefit at Covent Garden Theatre. 133
Bridge, uses of the, explained 182
Brinsmead, J. pianoforte maker 217
British Museum, MSS. quoted 26
Broadwood, John, the founder of the eminent firm
139, 160, 167
James Shudi, his Son 140, 158, 154
his Practice of Tuning 876
- Henry Fowler, grandson of John Broadwood 160
Messrs., Ruckers harpsichord in their pos-
session 74
their metallic bracing 167
number of Instruments made by
them annually 211
their pianofortes in the Great Ex-
hibition 217
406
INDEX.
Page.
Bruce, his account of the harps in the tomb of Biban el
Molook 9, 10, 11
Buchner, Johann, a famous performer on the harp-
sichord, &c _ 228
Buff leather, a substitute for quill 81
Buff, stop in the harpsichord 81
Bull, Dr. John, his virginal compositions 59, 233
Bull, harpsichord maker 74
Buntebart (or Buntlebart), pianoforte maker 132
Buntlebart and Sievcrs, pianoforte makers 147
Burel, his account of the Queen of James VI entering.
Edinburgh gll
Buret, a writer of harpsichord music 231
Burkinyoung, Frederick Handell, patent taken out by.. 156
Burney, Dr. his account of the Theban harps 11
Reflections on the construction of ancient
Musical Instruments 17
his notice of the difficulties of Queen
Elizabeth's virginal book 69
his notice of the spinet 69
his account of the harpsichord makers of
Antwerp 73
account of his visit to M. Balbastre 76
account of his visit to Farinelli 83
his notice of Tschudi and other contem-
porary harpsichord makers 89
on the excellence of English harpsichords 93
his account of the progress of the piano-
forte in Germany 120
Burney, Mr. pianist to Drury Lane Theatre 139
Buttery, George, pianoforte maker 151 167
Byrd, William, his virginal compositions 59, 233
C.
Cabinet Pianoforte 157
Cadby, C. pianoforte maker 173, 217
Calanson, Giraud de, his Consetts au Jonoler 36
Camden, his account of Queen Elizabeth's love of music 55
Canareggio, Andrea de, an early performer on the
harpsichord, &c 228
Canticum or psaltery 18
Caracci, Annibal, his painted harpsichord 75
Carreyre, M. inventor of a melographic piano 206
Carleton, Richard, an early composer for the virginals. 228
Carli, Count G. R. his account of Cristofali's invention
of the pianoforte 94
Castel, Louis Bertrand, the inventor of the Ocular
Harpsichord 82
Castello, Paulo de, an early performer on the harp-
sichord, &c 228
Catgut strings 398
Catgut used for the Egptian harps 9
Catherine of Spain, entertainment to 43
Caxton, his Knyght of the Tome 42
Cazalet, Rev. W. W. his Lecture on the Musical Depart-
ment of the Great Exhibition 211
Celestina 199
Celestina stop 153
Celestial harp 93
Celestinettes 199
Cembalo, Boccaccio's mention of the 36
the term explained 38
Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, article on the Pianoforte 161
Chambonnieres, his harpsichord works 230, 234
Champion, Jacques, an early composer for the harp-
sichord, &c 230
Chapel Royal, old spinet belonging to the 68
Chaucer, his Knight's Tale 26
Check action 135
Chelys, a name for the lyre 3
Chetham Library, Manchester, curious broadsides in .86, 88
Chichering, Messrs, of Boston, pianoforte makers 159, 217
their metallic framing 168
Choron, A. his notice of the difficulties of Queen Eliza-
beth's virginal book 59
Chorley, H. F. his article on the Pianoforte Composers 232
Chounter, Anthony, virginal player in the Courts of
Edward VI and Queen Mary 55
Cithara, a name for the lyre 3
described by Bartholomeus 29
of the middle ages 19
Citole, description of the 25
Ckanoon, an instrument used in modern Egypt 24
Clariodus and Meliades, a MS. romance 41
Clarion 33
Clark, Joseph, patent taken out by 165
Clavecin a" Amour 82
Clavecin viole 197
Clavecins a Maillets, invented by Marius 103
Clavichord, notice of the 29
its mechanism 31, 41, 399
origin of the name 31
its distinction from the clarichord 32
Clavicymbal, the origin of the harpsichord 33
Clavicytherium 28, 29, 79
dementi, Muzio, biographical notice of 143
Clementi and Collard, their bridge of reverberation 182
their self-acting pianoforte 206
Cloth used in place of the quill in harpsichords 79
Coleman, Obed. Mitchell, patent taken out by 156
Collard, Frederic William, the founder of the house of
Collard and Collard. ..146, 152, 153, 158
Messrs, their mode of stringing 178
their patent grand action, diagram of... 190
number of instruments made by them
annually 211
their instruments in the Great Ex-
hibition 217
Collin, pianoforte maker 219
Cologne, Johann von, a celebrated performer on the
harpsichord, &c 228
Concerts, Bach and Abel's (note) 132
Confessio Amantis, Gower's 26
INDEX.
407
Page.
Conrad of Spire, a famous performer on the harp-
sichord, &c 228
Cornish, William, his Treatite between Trouth and Infor-
mation 44
Correggio, Claudio di, an early performer on the harp-
sichord, &c 228
Corrie, pianoforte maker 147
Cortecia, Francesco, an early clavichord performer 227
Cottage pianoforte 157
Couchct, a maker of spinets 68
Counterpoint, whether known to the ancients (note) 11
Couperin, Francois, his harpsichord works 281, 235
Coxe, Archdeacon, his Anecdotes of Handel and Smith ... 74
Creed, Rev. Mr. his plan for a Melographic piano ...205, 402
Crisp, Samuel, Esq. biographical notice of (note) 180
Cristofali, Bartolommeo, the inventor of the pianoforte
94 et *eq.
Cromwell, Samuel Thomas, patent taken out by 156
Cropet, pianoforte maker 219
Crotone, an Italian harpsichord maker 79
Cuijpers, J. F. pianoforte maker 220
Custom House rates in 1545 49
Cymbals, the ancient, described 38, 40
their use in churches 41
Cymbal octave, and cymbal regal, ancient stops in the organ 4 1
D.
Danchell, Frederick Ludwig Hahn, musical instrument
maker 164
D'Anglebart, a writer of harpsichord music 281
Davie, Adam, his metrical Life of Alexander 25
Davis, John, organ builder 160
Samuel, musical instrument maker 161
Day, Francis, his patent for improvements in the piano-
forte..
164
John, improves musical instruments 152, 157
Deacon, pianoforte maker 217
Deakin, Francis, improves musical instruments 158
Debain,'Alexandrc, pianoforte maker 167, 219
his contrivance to supersede barrels 207
Deffaux, pianoforte maker 218
Delf Anima e del Corpo, an oratorio performed in 1600 78
Dennis, Jean, a celebrated maker of spinets 68
Denon, his drawings of the Theban harps 9
Deiis and Co. pianoforte makers.. 219
Dibdin, Charles, biographical sketch of 188
his notice of Garrick's old virginals .... 66
Dicttmar, William, pianoforte maker 154
Dieudonn and Bladel, pianoforte makers 220
Dietz, M. inventor of the Polyplectron 202
Dimoline, A. pianoforte maker 218
Diruta, Geronimo, his 11 Tramilvano....'. 228
Dodd, his article on the pianoforte 177
Edward, musical instrument maker 154, 166
Dolce Campana pedal 402
Domeny, L. F. pianoforte maker 219
Page.
Done, Joshua, pianoforte maker 147
Dormer, F. pianoforte maker 169, 220
Douce, Francis, his description of the clavichord 80
Douglas, Gawain, his I'alice of Honour 22
Downward actions 194 a tty.
Dreaper, pianoforte maker 171
Dreschke, Tbeopbile Auguste, patent taken out by }M
Driggg, Menu, of New York, pianoforte makers 169
Spencer, his newly -constructed square pianoforte 169
Dulcimer 28, 24 88
Dulcino 28
'Dulcken, J. Dan, harpsichord maker 78
Dulsacordis 28
Dumont, H. his virginal compositions 284
Dulzain 28
E.
Early composers for instruments of the pianoforte class. 223
East, Peter, instrument maker 149
Edward the Sixth's virginal players 56
Edwards, Richard, his compositions for the virginals . 228
Egyptians, Ancient, their knowledge of music 15, 898
Elizabeth, Queen, her love of music 56
. virginals belonging to 68
her virginal book, in the Fitzwilliam
Museum, Cambridge 58
Elizabeth, of York, her Privy Purse Expenses 48
Elsche, V'anden, harpsichord maker 74
Elwick, pianoforte maker 147
English action 169
English harpsichords, the excellence of 98
Ennever and Steedman, pianoforte makers .^. 217
Epigonium, Atlienacus's description of the 86
Erard, Sebastian, Memoir of 122 et teq.
Patents for improvements on the
pianoforte .....161, 162, 167
Diagram of his patent grand action... 190
Pierre, patents taken out by, &c. 163, 165, 157, 217, 219
Messrs, their metallic bracing, 168
Enler, Dr. his account of a melograpbic pianoforte (note) 206
Eurydice, a drama performed at Florence in 1600 78
Evelyn, John, his account of a harpsichord 198
F.
Faber, Daniel, clavichord maker 47
Faggia, Enrico Rodesca da, an early performer on the
harpsichord, &c 228
Farinclli's harpsichords '
Farini, an Italian harpsichord maker 79
Farnaby, Giles, composer of the virginals 69
Farrant, Richard, his compositions for the virginals .... 228
Fattorini,an early clavichord performer 227
Fenton, a maker of spinets, 4c 69, K
Fetis, F. J. his Sketch of the Ilutory of the Pianoforte, Ac. 28
his description of the Cembalo, mentioned
by Boccaccio 87
408
INDEX.
Fetis, F. J. ceremony in honour of, at Brussels (note) ... 38
on the origin of the virginal 48
on Italian harpsichords 79
his notice of Cristofali (note) 95
his La Musigue Mist a la Portee de tout le
Monde 208
his remarks on C. P. E. Bach '. 232
Fiebeg, inventor of an instrument to sustain the
sounds 203
Fisher, Pierre Frederic, patent taken out by 154, 155
Florence, drawing of harps preserved in the museum of 813 _
Fliigel, the German name for the harpsichord 72
Forkel, Dr. his Life of Back 113
Forte, stop iu the harpsichord 81
Tranche, C. pianoforte maker 219
Frederici, Christian Ernest, the maker of the first square
pianoforte 119
Frescobaldi, Girolamo, the celebrated organist of St.
Peter's at Rome 229, 233
Froberger, the celebrated organist 229
G.
Gabrielli, Andrea, composer and performer on the
harpsichord 227, 229
Galilei, Vincenzio, his Dialogo della Musica Antica e
Moderna 35, 71
Gama, M . inventor of the Plectroeuphon 202
Ganer, pianoforte maker 147
Garbrecht, inventor of a piano to sustain the sound 203
Garcka, John, pianoforte maker 150 157
Gardiner, William, of Leicester 138
Garrick's "old virginals" 65
Gautier, a writer of harpischord music 231
Gebauhr, pianoforte maker 220
Gerbert, the Abb, biographical notice of 19
German mechanics arrive in England 131
German mechanism of the pianoforte 118
Gerli, a machinist of Milan 200
Geronimo, of Florence, pianoforte maker 129
Gherardi, of Parma, pianoforte maker 129
Gibbons, Orlando, composer for the virginals 69
Gieb, John, the inventor of the grasshopper action
140, 160, 157
Gilbert and Co. pianoforte makers 218
Gillespy, Samuel, harpsichord maker 150
Giornale de' lAtterati d' Italia 95
Gluck's pianoforte, described by Thalberg (note) 133
Godwin, John, pianoforte maker 155
Gower's Confessio Amantis 26
Graces used in old harpsichord music 231
Grainer, inventor of a piano to sustain the sound 203
Grassineau, his Musical Dictionary 21
his description of the cymbal 39
Greeks, musical instruments of the 6
Greff, Valentine, a celebrated performer on the harp-
sichord, &c 228
Page
Greiner, Frederick George, pianoforte maker 154
Greiner, J. F. pianoforte maker 217
Greville, Fulke, Esq. biographical notice of 130
Guami, Giuseppe, an early composer for the harpsichord 229
Guido, said to have invented the Clavier or key-board ... 35
Guitar, favour of the, in this country 91, 401
Gunter, John Henry Anthony, pianoforte maker 154
Gurike, B. pianoforte maker 220
Guynemer, Charles, patent taken out by 165
H.
Hackbret drawing of the 24
Hackel, inventor of a piano to sustain the sounds 203
Halliwell, J. 0. Esq. his Collection of Proclamations,
Broadsides, &c. in the Chetham Library 86
Hamilton's Art of Tuning 373
Hancock, pianoforte maker 147
Hancock, John Crang, organ builder 160, 150
Handel, Capriccio by 235
Handel's harpsichord 74
Hardelle, a writer of harpsichord music 231
Harmonic Chambers 171
Harp 7
drawings of the, in the tomb of Biban el Molook 9, 10
Harpsichord 70
its use in the public theatres of London .... 85
belonging to Salvator Rosa 75
belonging to Handel 74
- pedal 84
vertical 79
Harpsichords, painted 75
with three rows of keys 80
transposing 84
Harris, Baker, a maker of spinets 400
Harris, John, a celebrated harpsichord maker... 85, 86, 149
Harrison, J. pianoforte maker 217
Harwar, J. pianoforte maker 217
Hattersley, William, pianoforte maker 156
Haward, Charles, a maker of spinets and harpsichords 68
Hawes, Stephen, his Pastime of Pleasure 43
Hawkina, John Isaac, pianoforte maker 168, 402
Hawkins, inventor of a piano to sustain the sounds 203
Hawkins, J. S. hisMS. on the Troubadours and Provencal
Poets 226
Hawley, John, patent taken out by 155
Hayward, John, harpsichord maker 84
Haxby, Thomas, harpsichord maker 149
Heath, an early composer for the virginals 228
Hebrew musical instruments 7, 12
Heitermeyer, T. pianoforte maker 159, 220
Helmingham Hall, Suffolk, ancient virginals at 58
Hengrave Hall, ancient inventory of musical instru-
ments at 60
Henry the Seventh's Privy Purse Expenses 43
Henry the Eighth 61
INDEX.
409
Page.
Henry the Eighth, the Venetian Ambassador's account
of the Court of 62
Privy Purse Expenses of 68
Herberth and Co. pianoforte makers 218
Herculaneum, representations of musical instruments
found at , 4, 8
Herding, pianoforte maker 219
Hermes, see MERCURY
Herz, H. pianoforte maker 159, 219
Hews, G. pianoforte maker 218
Heyden, John, inventor of the " Oeigen Clavycymbal" 197
Heywood, John, the virginal player 66
Higgins, J. M. his work on Sound 18
Hildebrand, John Godfrey, a famous maker of musical
instruments 119, 122
Hitchcock, John, a maker of spinets and harpsichords G8
Hoff haimer, Paul, organist to the Emperor Maximilian 227
Hogarth, George, his History of the Pianoforte 96
Hohlfeld, of Berlin, his bowed harpsichord 198
his melographic piano 206, 402
Holderness, C. pianoforte maker 217
Holland, his poem of The Houlute 22
Hollinshed, his notice of Henry the Eighth's fondness
for music 51
Hopkinron, an improver of the harpsichord 82
John, pianoforte maker 157, 168
Messrs, their repetition and tremolo action 186
their pianofortes in the Great Exhi-
bition 217
Hopper, explanation of the 184
Horn, clavichord maker 47
Hornung, C. C. pianoforte maker 169, 168, 219
Houston and Co. pianoforte makers 147
Hosa, of Vienna, pianoforte maker 169, 218
Hullmandel, N. J. his article Clavecin, in the Encyclopedic
Methodique 41
Hund, F. and Son, pianoforte makers 217
Hiini and Hubert, pianoforte makers 219
Hunt, F. pianoforte maker 217
I.
II Desiderio, curious notice of musical instruments in a
work BO called 77
Inglott, William, composer for the virginals 69
Isoard, M. the engineer and mechanician 203
Italian harpsichords of the 16th century 76
of the 18th century 93
Italian Orchestra as shown in Festa, fatta in Roma, alii
25 di Feb. 1634 : 79
J.
Jack, description of the 57, 72
Lord Oxford's allusion to the 67
allusions to the, by the old dramatists 57
alluded to by John Strangways 68
Jadra, Marco, an early virginal maker 399
Page.
Jastrztbski, F. pianoforte maker 218
Jaulin, J. pianoforte maker -Jl'j
Jebb, liuv. John, his Literal Translation of the Soot of
Ptalau 12. 15
Jenkins, W. & Son, pianoforte makers U17
Johnson, Edward, composer for the virginals 69
Richard, his compositions for the virginals.... 228
Hobert, composer for the virginals 59
Jones, Griffith, pianist to Coveiit Garden Theatre 139
J. C. and Co. pianoforte makers 217
Joyce, George, instrument maker 149
Julyan, F. J. his pianoforte with sustained sounds 204
Juvenal, bis notice of musical instruments 7
K.
Kalkbrenner 129
Keen, Stephen, virginal, spinet, and harpsichord maker
63, 69, 86
Kelly, Michael 189
Kenilworth Castle, the Earl of Leicester's musical
instruments at 60
Kircher, Father, his Mtuurgia UniverttUe 13, 198
Kirk, William, pianoforte maker 156
Kirkman, Jacob, the eminent harpsichord maker 89,
140 el teg.
Abraham, bis nephew 91, 140, 147
Joseph, his grand nephew... 91, 140, 162, 166, 168
Kirkman and Son, pianoforte makers 217
Kinnor, a form of lyre 8, 18
Kirnberger, John Philip, his performance upon the
clavichord 121
Kitarus, or cithara 18
Kleinjaaper, J. F. pianoforte maker 210
Klems, J. B. pianoforte maker 220
Kniykfi Tale 26
Koch, H. C. his Mtaikaluchet Lexikon (note) 110
Kollman, George Augustus, his improved pianofortes
168, 166
Kotter, Johann, a famous performer on the harpsi-
chord, Ac 228
Kramer, of Gottingen, clavichord maker 47
Kuhmst, G. pianofore maker 220
Kuhnau, Johann, his harpsichord works 284
Kiitzing, pianoforte maker 219
L.
La Barre, a writer of harpsichord music iTl
Lambert, Thomas, musical instrument maker 156, 217
Lampe, Frederic Adolph, his work /> CynJaUi Vetemm 89
Landini, Francesco, alias Franctico Cieco, an erly
composer .
_.
Landreth, John, musical instrument maker 160, 167
Lange, M. his invention of the .^olodilton 201
Lardner, I)r. his Popular Euayi on Scientific Subject*
186, 193, 209
F F F
410
INDEX.
Page.
Lasz, Roland Von, Chapel Master to Duke Albert of
Bavaria 47
Launfal, the romance of 26
Layard, Dr. his discoveries at Nineveh 15
Lemme, Carl, clavichord maker 47
Lenkler, Christopher Michael, of Rudolstadt, an in-
genious pianoforte maker 120
Leversidge, Adam, virginal maker 400
Lichtenthal, M. pianoforte maker 159, 220
Lidel, Joseph, patent taken out by 155
Lapp, R. R. pianoforte maker 220
Livy, his notice of musical instruments ,.... 7
Loesehman, David, pianoforte maker 152, 180
Longman and Broderip, dementi's predecessors in the
pianoforte trade 145, 147, 158
Loosemore, John, virginal maker 63, 64
Lorris, Guillaume de, his Roman de la Rose 25
Loud, Thomas, musical instrument maker 152
Louli4, Francis, his Nouveau Systeme de Musique 378
Luff and Son, pianoforte makers 217
Lully, Jean Baptiste, his harpsichord lessons 234
Luscinius, Ottomarus, his Musurgia sen Praxis Musictz
described 23
Luthiers, makers of musical instruments of Paris 124
Luzaschi, an early composer for the harpsichord, &c.... 229
Lydgate, his Poem on Reson and Sensualitie 26
Lyre 2
- Egyptian 1, 4
preserved in the Berlin Museum 5
figure of aTheban 5
Greek 6
Lyres, drawings of, copied from vases found at Her-
culaneum 6
Lyrichord 88, 199
Lytton, Sir B. Bulwer, ancient virginals in his posses-
sion 58
M.
Mace, Thomas, his "pedal harpsicon" 84
Mack, clavichord maker 47
Mackinlay, Thomas, Esq. virginals in his possession 64 ,399
M'Culloch, pianoforte maker 218
Maffei, Scipione, his account of Cristofali's invention of
the pianoforte 95
Mahoon, harpsichord maker 401
Manichord, description of the 45, 46
Marius, M. his claim to the invention of the pianoforte
102 et seq.
his clavecin vielle 198
Marot, Clement, his mention of the spinet 67
Mary, Queen, her love of music 54
her Privy Purse Expenses when Princess 55
Mason, William, biographical notice of 184
... description of the mechanism said to
be invented by 137
Page.
Mason, William, his celestinettes 199
Materials used in the construction of pianofortes. 215 et seq.
Mathews, W. pianoforte maker 218
Matheson, John, his harpsichord works 234
Mechanical contrivances to obtain sustained sounds. 197 et seq.
pianos 205 et seq.
Medieval Instruments that preceded the invention of
the key-board 17
Melographic pianos 205 et seq.
Melville, Francis, pianoforte maker 153
Melvil, Sir James, his account of Queen Elizabeth's
virginal playing 56
Mercier, Sebastien, pianoforte maker 156, 219
Mercury, legend of the lyre concerning 2
Merlin, Joseph, a celebrated harpischord maker and
mechanist 93, 138, 150, 157
Mersennus, Marin, biographical notice of 13
his description of the manichorde ... 46
his description of the spinet 66
his description of the harpischord.... 72
Merulo, Claudio, an early clavichord performer ... 227, 229
Metallic bracing 165
Metals, used in place of the quill, in harpsichords 87
used in the manufacture of pianofortes 216
Metzler, George, pianoforte maker 217
Meyer, Conrad, pianoforte maker 132, 218
- inventor of a piano to sustain the sounds 203
Milleville, Alessandro, an early performer on the
harpischord, &c 228, 229
Moigno, the Abbe\ his discoveries in musical science ... 379
Mondonville, De, Toccata by 236
Monochord of the middle ages 35, 398
of the 16th and 17th centuries 34
Monocordo, an instrument of the clavichord kind 31
Mental, C. pianoforte maker 219
Moore and Co. pianoforte makers 217
Morley, Thomas, composer for the virginals 59
Montfaucon, his examination of the ancient musical
instruments 17
Montgomery, James, patent taken out by 157
Mott, Isaac Henry Robert, pianoforte maker 156, 217
inventor of the sostinente
pianoforte 152, 158, 200
Mozart, his notices of Stein's pianofortes 115
his early performance on the pianoforte (note). . 117
correspondence relative to his pianoforte, in the
Neue Berliner Muaik-Zeitung (note) 117
Muffat, Teofilo, his compositions for the harpsichord 235
Mulcaster, Richard, his eulogy of Queen Elizabeth 57
Miiller, inventor of a piano to sustain the sound 203
Mulliner, Thomas, his Book for the Virginals, MS. temp.
Henry VIII 228
Mundy, John, his compositions for the virginals. ... 59, 228
Miirshhauser, F. X. A. his harpsichord works 234
Musical Directory for 1794 147
Musick's Hand-maid. 63
INDEX.
411
N.
Page.
Nabulum of the middle ages 21
Naubauer, Frederick, harpsichord maker 88
Nebel, the Hebrew 8, 18, 16
Newman, an early composer for the virginals 228
Neysidler, Melchier, a celebrated performer on the
harpsichord, &c 228
Nickels, Benjamin, patent taken out by 156
Nineveh, recent discoveries at 16
Nunns and Clark, pianoforte makers 169, 218
0.
Octave stop to the pianoforte 168
Ocular harpsichord 82
Oetzman and Plumb, pianoforte makers 217
Oldfleld, Thomas, composer for the virginals 69
Orchestra of the London Theatres in 1667 85
Orfeo, an opera performed in 1607 78
Organi, Francesco dcgli, an early performer on the
clavichord 42
Overberg, Van, pianoforte maker 219
P.
Pace, Richard, his Letter to Cardinal Wolsey 45
Painted harpsichords 76
Palace of Honour, quotation from 22
Pandoron, a musical instrument of the lute kind 80
Panormo, Francis, the first suggester of additional keys
to the pianoforte 141
Pape, M. pianoforte maker 168, 159, 172, 194, 219
Paris, MS. in the Imperial library of. 19, 21
Parker, William Phillip, patent taken out by 167
Parthenia Inviolata, or Mayden Mueickefor the Virginallt
and Bau Viol 68
Parthenia, or the Maydenhead of thefirtt mtuicke that ever
u>a> printed for the Virginatti 60, 62
Paston, Mr. Princess Mary's teacher on the virginals ... 64
Pasquino, Bernard, a writer of harpsichord music 281
Ercole, a writer of harpsichord music 231
Patents, list of, chronologically arranged 149 et teq.
Paulmann, Conrad, an early organ performer 227
Pausanius, his notice of music 6
Peachey, George, pianoforte maker 217
Pedals of the pianoforte 188,402
Peerson, Martin, composer for the virginals 69
Pepys, his notice of the virginals at the lire of London. 64
Perne, M. de, inventor of the Organon-Lyricon 200
Perronard, a French harpsichord maker 81
Pesarese, Domenico, an early spinet and harpsichord
maker 68
Pether, George, pianoforte maker 147
Petzold, pianoforte maker 169
Pfeiffer, pianoforte maker 159
Philips, J. B. pianoforte maker 218
Phillips, Peter, composer for the virginals 69
Pianoforte, claimants to the invention of the 94 et teg.
Pianoforte, its progress on the Continent 112 ft *q.
its introduction and progress in England... 180
it* first introduction on thepublic stage 188
its construction 162 rite?.
Action 168
original scale of the 141
to regulate defects in its mechanism. 880 et teg.
how to place it for effect 870
how to prevent its sounds from penetrating
into an adjoining chamber 370
Pianofortes, bints to those who have the care of 869
in the Great Exhibition of 1861 217
annual estimate of those made in London. . 211
Piccolo pianoforte 167
I'ii'tri, Giovanni, composer for the virginals 60
Pirsson, James, pianoforte maker 159, 218
Player, a maker of spinets, Ac 69, 83
Plectrum described (note) 4
Plenius, Rutgerus, a celebrated harpsichord maker. 87, 131,
149
Pleyel, Ignace, biographical Notice of. 127 ttteq.
Camille, pianoforte maker 129, 169
I'olil man, John, an early pianoforte maker 188
Pole, William, Esq. on the Musical Instruments in the
Great Exhibition of 1861 162, 166, 168, 170, 179.
184, 196, 212, 221
Poli-Toni-Clavichordium,* musical instrument invented
by Stein (note) 116
Polythongum , an instrument of the lyre kind 17
Pottje, J. pianoforte maker .-. 218
Pouleau, M. inventor of the Orchettrina 200
Praetorius, his description of the monochord or clavi-
chord 84
his Syntagma Mtaieum described (note) 34
Prices of pianofortes 212
Proposto, Nicolo del, an early composer 42, 228
Provencal poets 226
Proverbs at Leckingfleld 44, 49
Psaltery of the Jews 16
of the middle ages 18, 19
of a later period, described by Bartholomew ... 20
of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries 21
Purcell, Henry, his harpsichord works 284
Pythagorean Monochord 35
Qnagliati, an early composer for the virginals 229
Quilling a harpsichord (note) 82
Quintilian, his notice of ancient musical instruments.... 17
Rafael a" Urbino, Farinclli's pianoforte so called 88
Bedford, John, an early composer for the virginals 228
Repetition action 168, 186
412
INDEX.
Page.
Reverberation, the bridge of 182
Richard, a French harpsichord maker 79
Richard, a writer of harpsichord music 231
Richardson, Ferdinand, composer for the virginals 59
Rigoli, a Florentine harpsichord maker 79
Rimbault, Dr. E. F. his Lit/le Book of Songs and Ballads
from Ancient Mustek Books 226
Rolfe, William, musical instrument maker... 151, 154, 157
and Son, pianoforte makers 217
Roller, M. his transposing piano 207
Roller and Blanchet, pianoforte makers 219
Roman de la Rose 25
Romans, musical instruments of the: 6
Rosa, Salvator, his harpsichord 75
Rosellini, harps copiedfrom 8, 14
his Description de F Egypte 9
Roussier, The Abbe, his account of Erard's mechanical
harpsichord 123
Royal Albert transposing piano 208
Ruckers family of Antwerp 68
Hans , 72, 76
Jean 73
Andreas 73, 74
Riihms, H. pianoforte maker 159, 219
Rust, pianoforte maker 170
Ryley, Edward, pianoforte maker 151, 403
S.
Sambuc, or Sambuca, a musical instrument of the Jews,
13, 16, 17, 23
Sautry, mentioned by Chaucer (note) 21
Sautter, Charles Maurice Elizee, patent taken out by... 156
Savart, M 403
Scaliger, Julius Csesar, his description of the Simicum... 33
Scarlatti, Domenico, his harpsichord works 232, 234
his harpsichord given to Farinelli 83
Schachinger, a celebrated organist at Padua 228
Scheel, C. pianoforte maker 220
Scheibler, his apparatus for timing pianofortes 379
Schiedmayer and Son, pianoforte makers 220
Schmidt, pianoforte maker 200
Schneider, J. pianoforte maker 218
Schnell, pianoforte maker 203
Schobert, his harpsichord with a double bottom 81
Schott and Son, pianoforte makers 220
Scholtus, pianoforte maker 219
Schroter, Christopher Gottlieb, his claim to the invention
of the pianoforte 108 el seg.
Schroder, C. H. pianoforte maker, 220
Schroeter, J. S. an early pianoforte player, mistakes
concerning 142
Schwieso, John Charles, musical instrument maker 154
Scotland, Lord High Treasurer's Accounts quoted 42
Scott, Robert, John, and Alexander, pianoforte makers
151, 402
Self-acting pianos, &c 206 et seg.
Sells, harpsichord maker 401
Seuffert, Francis Ignace, eminent pianoforte maker 120
E. pianoforte maker 218
Shakespeare, his Sonnet on the virginal 62
his Tempest as acted in 1667 85
Shelbye, an early composer for the virginals 228
Sheminith, a harp of eight strings .' 12
Shepperd, John, an early composer for the virginals.... 228
Shudi, Burkat 147, 149
Shudi, see TSCHUDI.
Silbermann, Godfrey, of Frcyberg, pianoforte maker 81, 82
Silbermann, Godfrey, the invention of the pianoforte
erroneously ascribed to him 112
Simicum, description of the 83, 35
Simmons, William, an improver of musical instruments 152
Skelton's poem, A Comely Cayttrowne 44
Slade, a maker of spinets, &c 69
Smart, Henry, pianoforte maker.; 153
Smith, Joseph, improves the bracing 151
J. S. his Musica Antigua 226
Smith and Roberts, pianoforte makers 218
Snetzler, the eminent organ builder 89
Soft stop in the harpsichord 81
Soufleto, pianoforte maker 219
Sounding-board 171, 402
Southwell, William, pianoforte maker. 151, 152, 153, 155,
157, 189, 217
Spaett, or Spaeth, John Adam, a celebrated maker of
musical instruments 119
Spear, John, patent taken out by 157
Spenser, his allusion to the virginal 61
Sperling, Rev. Mr. ancient virginals in his possession... 58
Spinet, description of the 33, 66
Sprecher and Beer, pianoforte makers 219
Squarcialupi, Antonio, surnamed Antonio degli Organi. . 227
Squire of Ijowe Degree 22
Stanhope, Lord, his method of stringing 179
Statistics of pianoforte manufacturing 209
Steel wire 183
Stein, John Andrew, of Augsburg, harpsichord and
pianoforte maker 82, 115, 120
Sternberg, L. pianoforte maker 218
Stewart, James, pianoforte maker 153, 154, 155, 156
Stodart, Robert, the founder of the firm. 140, 147, 150, 161,
157
Messrs, their metallic bracing 165 et seg.
and Son, their pianofortes in the Great Exhi-
bition 217
Stops in harpsichords 81
Streicher, John Andrew, pianoforte maker 115, 120
Striggio, Alessandro, an early clavichord performer 227
String, stretched, first canon of the 175
second canon of the 176
tl, ird canon of the 177
Stringed instruments, the particular names of which are
unknown 12
INDEX.
413
Page.
Stringing 1 T4
Messrs. Collard's method of 179
Lord Stanhope's method of. 179
Erard's improved method of, for grand hori-
zontal pianos 183
Strings of Egyptian harps 9
of the clavichord 80
thin wire, of the old pianofortes 178
of one size and tension 180
gold and silver 898
Strogers, Nicholas, composer for the virginals 69
Stumpff, Johann Andreas, musical instrument maker... 165
Summary of pianofortes in the Great Exhibition of 1861. 220
Swellinck, J. P. composer for the virginals 69
T.
Tabel, harpsichord maker 88
Table of pianofortes in the Great Exhibition of 1851 ... 217
Tallis, his compositions for the virginals ..., 69, 228
Taskin, Paschal, harpsichord maker of Paris 81
Taverner, his compositions for the virginals 228
Taxis, Count, his transposing harpsichord 83, 84
Tension, equal, of strings 180 et itq.
Terpander adds several strings to the lyre 6
Testudo, a name for the lyre 8
Thalberg, S. his BemarTci vpon the Pianoforte! in the
Great Exhibition of 1861 .... 110, 159, 192
his Description of Gluck's pianoforte (note) 133
Theban lyre, drawing of 5
harps, drawings of 8
Theophilus, /> JUentura Oymbalorum . 40
Thorn, James, pianoforte maker v 152, 158
Thompson, Simon, his improvements in the pianoforte.. 154
Tisdall, W. composer for the virginals 69
Todd, Thomas, organ builder 163
Todini, Michele, musical instrument maker 77, 400
Tomkins, Thomas, composer for the virginals 69
Tortoise, the origin of the lyre 2
Towns and Packer, Messrs. pianoforte makers 217
Transposing harpsichords 84
Transposing pianos 204 et teg.
Trentia, Abbe Grcgorio, inventor of the Violicembalo ... 201
Trevisa, his translation of Bartholomew! 20
Trumpet Marine of the 16th and 17th centuries 84
Troubadours 223
Trouflant, M. his letter on the inventions of M. Paschal
Tasquin (note) 81
Tschudi, Burkat or Burckhardt, the founder of the
house of Broadwood and Sons 88
Tuning explained 372 ft leg.
An Essay on the Theory and Practice of. .... 373, 879
Twining, Mr., Ruckcrs harpsichord in the possession of.. 74
Tye, Dr. his compositions for the virginals 228
Tympanum, or timpano, of the Italians 87
u.
Unachord instruments jgo
Unger, John Frederick, inventor of a melographic piano
206, 408
Upright grand pianoforte i;,7
pianofortes, diagrams of the framing of. 1(M
V.
Vallc, Pietro della, his Ditcmtne on tke Mvtie of hi, on
TVM 67
Vander-Noodt, his Theatre for Voluptuous WorWing,... 66
Vensky, clavichord maker 47
Verhasselt, pianoforte maker 218
Verospi Palace at Rome, musical instrument* in the. 77, 401
Vertical harpsichord 79
Viasky, J. pianoforte maker 218
Viator, an early pianoforte maker 181
Vienna Action 169, 192
Vincentino, Don Nicola, famous harpsichord made by. . 77
Violine-eolU 208
Virbes, the Sieur, his " harpsichord imitating fourteen
wind and chorded instruments " 80
Virginal or Virginals 48,899
etymology of the name 61
made " harp fashion " 68
Queen Elizabeth's 68
self-acting 64
painted, Mary Queen of Scots' 76
Vit-a-vu harpsichord 82
Vittoria of Bologna, an early performer on the harpsi-
chord, &c 228
Vogelsang, Messrs, pianoforte makers ..: 218
W.
Wace, his Brut f Angltttrre 21, 8C
Walesby, Mr. his trum|>et marine 84
Walker, Adam, his Olettina 149, 168, 199
Edward Lesley, patent taken out by 15
Wallace Pianoforte Company 169
Walton, Humphrey, musical instrument maker ... 150, 167
Warren, Ambrose, his Tonometer 879
Warrock, Thomas, composer for the virginals 69
Webster's steel wire 188
Westcrmann and Co. pianoforte makers 220
Wheatstone, William, patent taken out by 168
and Co. pianoforte makers 217
White, Thomas, virginal maker 899
Wiegleb, musical instrument maker 82
Wilder, Philip Van, Biographical notice of (note) 54
musical instruments in the charge
of, on the death of Henry VIII 46, 68
Wilhelm, of Cassel, clavichord maker 47
Wilkinson, Sir J. Gardner 2, 8, 9, 18
Wire, steel and brass 188
Berlin I 88
414
INDEX.
Page.
Wood, Father, the maker of the first pianoforte seen in
England 130
Woodcroft, Professor, his Indexes to the Patents
(note) 148
Wood, James S. pianoforte maker 218
Woods, George, improves musical instruments 1 52
Woods used in pianoforte manufacture 215
Woollen fabrics used in pianoforte manufacture 215
Woolley, F. pianoforte maker 218
Woolley, Thomas, pianoforte maker 165
Wolf, Robert, pianoforte maker 155
Workmen employed in the manufacture of pianofortes
213, et seq.
Page.
Wornum, Kobert, pianoforte maker .... 152, 153, 154, 156,
167, 180, 190, 191, 217, 402
Wrest pins 163
Z.
Zanetti, a Venetian harpsichord maker 79
Zarlino, his spinet with quarter tones 68
Zeiger, pianoforte maker 219
Zeitter, Jacob Frederick, pianoforte maker 164, 191
Zeitter and Winkelmann, pianoforte makers 220
Zipoli, a writer of harpsichord music 232
Zump6, John, a celebrated pianoforte maker 132
INDEX TO THE SPECIMENS OF MUSIC.
B.
Bach, C. P. E. Rondo in E flat 857
Fantasia 363
Bach, J. S. Capriccio '. 332
Blitheman, William, Gloria Tibi, Trinitas 237
Bull, Dr. John, The King's Hunting Jigg 245
LesBuffons 248
Courante Jewell 253
Byrd, William, Sellenger's Round 240
C.
Chambonnieres, Suite de Pi&ces 265
Couperin, Francois, Suite de Pieces 316
D.
Dumont, H. Suites de Pieces 262
F.
Frescobaldi, Girolamo, Capriccio del Soggetto sopra
1'Ariadi Roggiero 257
H.
Handel, G. F. Capriccio in G 340
K.
Kuhnau, Johann, Sonata 292
L.
Lully, Jean Baptiste, Suite de Pieces 268
M.
Mattheson, John, Suite de Pieces 299
Mondonville, De, Introduction and Toccata 351
Muffat, Teofilo, Fantaisie 344
Air 348
Allemand 350
Murshhauser, F. X. A. Variationes super Cantilenam... 284
P.
Purcell, Henry, Prelude and Airs 278
S.
Scarlatti, Domenico, Sonata in A minor 306
Sonata in G 310
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Atkins, E. A. Esq. Organist of the Cathedral, St. Asaph.
Augener and Co. Messrs. Newgate Street.
Banister, Henry C. Esq. Professor at the Royal Academy of Music.
Barry, Mr. W. 12, College Street, Belfast
Beaumont, J. F. Esq. Whaddon, near Royston.
Beevor, Charles, Esq. 41, Upper Harley Street.
Bennett, W. Esq. Organist, Andover.
Blackshaw, Edward, Esq. Professor of Music, 8, Lansdowne Terrace, South Lambeth.
Browne, Mr. R. Music Warehouse, Lowestoft.
Bunnett, E. Esq. Mus. Bac. Cantab. Assistant Organist of Norwich Cathedral,
Upper Close, Norwich.
Caldecutt, Thomas, Esq.
Causton, W. S. Esq, Professor of Music, Woodbridge.
Chappell, Wm. Esq. F.S.A. 3, Harley Place.
Chippendale, A. Esq. 10, John Street, Adelphi.
Clarke, Mr. Joseph, Musicseller, next Reynolds's Mill, Skirbeck, Boston.
Cole, J. Parry, Arundel, Sussex.
Collard and Collard, Messrs. 16 and 17, Grosvenor Street, W. &nd 26 Cheapeide.
Cooper, Rev. Allen T. University Club, Suffolk Street, Pall Mall.
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Dimoline, Mr. A. Music Warehouse, Bristol.
Dixon, Wm. Esq. Organist, Grantham.
Duncan, James, Esq. Professor of the Pianoforte, Perth, N. B.
Dyer, J. P. Esq. Organist, Warminster.
Emery, J. Jun. Esq. Professor of Music, High Street, Hanley.
En never and Co. Messrs. Soho Square.
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Fowler, C. Esq. Professor of Music, Torquay.
French, Thomas, Esq. 2 Copies.
Gardner, C. Jun. Esq. Pimlico.
Gilbert, Messrs. S. and T. Booksellers, 4, Copthall Buildings, City.
Gilbert, Bennett, Esq. 13, Berners Street.
Gilmore, Mr. George, Musicseller, Clones, Co. Tyrone.
Glover, Professor, Royal Irish Institution, College Street, Dublin.
Gordon, Sir Henry, Chelsea College.
Gough, James, Esq. 37, Prospect Place, Hull, Yorkshire.
Green, William, Esq. 1, Foley Place, Gloucester.
Griffiths, George R. Esq. Organist, St. Paul's, Hammersmith.
Grosvenor, S. Esq. Mus. Bac. Oxon. Organist, Dudley.
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Hoist, Matthias von, Esq. Professor of Music, Worcester.
Hopkins, J. Esq. Organist, Rochester
Hopkinson, Mr. James, Leeds.
Hopkinson, Mr. John, Pianoforte Manufacturer, Regent Street, London.
Howard, The Honourable Miss, Oatlands Park, Surrey.
Howell, Miss, Professor of Music, Chippenham, Wilts.
Huchtin, Madame Louise, Madison, Wisconsin, United States, America.
Hyde, Major T. C. S. Twickenham, Middlesex.
Inglis, Mr. James, Music Warehouse, Greenock.
Jackson, Miss Monymia, Onslow Square, Bromptonia, London.
Jackson, Mr. Musicseller, Bradford.
Jacob, F. K. Esq. Professor of Music, St. Leonard's-on-Sea.
Jewson, Frederick Bowen, Esq. London.
Jewson, Mr. Musicseller, Stockton-on-Tees.
Jones, Mr. C. 21, Soho Square.
Jungenfeld, Anna Fraeulein von, Mayence.
King, Mr. H. Bookseller, 8, Spring Street, Hyde Park.
Kinkee, F. Esq. Organist and Choir-master, St. Paul's, Knightsbridge ; 38, Sloane St
Kippax, Mr. J. Retford.
Kraus, Conrad, Esq. Architect, Mayence.
Kurtz, A. G. Esq. Liverpool.
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Longley, George, Esq. Organist of Fitzwilliam Street Church, Huddersfield.
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Pennsylvania, U. S. America.
Mellor, Mr. Charles C. Organist of St. James's Church, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
U. S. America.
Mellor, Mr. James, Dealer in Pianofortes, Wheeling, Virginia, U. S. America.
Mellor, Mr. Joseph S. Teacher of the Pianoforte, Wheeling, Virginia, U. S. America.
Mellor, Mr. Levi, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U. S. America.
Mellor, Mr. Samuel C. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U. S. America.
Messiter, A. Esq. Organist, Worthing.
Monk, W. H. Esq. Glebe Field Houses, Stoke Newington ; and King's College, Strand.
Moore, Messrs. John and Henry, Pianoforte Manufacturers, 104, Bishopsgate Street,
Within
Moore, Mr. J. General Music Repository, Huddersfield.
/
Norbury, John, Jun. Esq. 5, Finsbury Square.
Norwood, Mr. Professor of Music, Preston.
Nunn, R. Esq. Organist, Bury St. Edmunds.
Oakeley, H. S. Esq.
Ouseley, Sir Frederick A. Gore, Bart. M.A. Mus. Doc. Prsecentor of Hereford, and
Professor of Music in the University of Oxford.
Pearce, George, Esq. Pau, Basses-Pyrenees.
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Pringle, George, R. G. Esq. Professor of Music, Melbourne, Victoria.
Prior, George, Esq. Professor of Music, Wantage.
Rhodes, Jeremiah, Esq. Organist, Pontefract.
Rhodes, John, Esq. Organist and Director of the Choir, Parish Church, Croydon.
Richards, Brinley, Esq. Member of the Royal Academy of Music, London.
Robinson, George, Esq. Professor of Music, Gainsborough.
Roe, John, Esq. Pianoforte Tutor to the French Royal Families, Claremont;
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Rogers, J. Esq. Organist, Doncaster.
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Winn, Mr. Thomas, Jun. Music Warehouse, Rochdale.
Wood, Samuel, Esq. Professor of Music, Clitheroe.
Woodward, Mr. Musicseller, Cheltenham.
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Wrighton, A. J. Esq. Dundee, N. B.
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Y eomans, A. Esq. Professor of Music, Stourbridge.
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Broadwood, Messrs. John and Sons,
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The following Erratum hat been kindly pointed out by Mr. ROBEBT STODABT.
PAGE 140, line 9, instead of " John> William ami Matthew Stodart," read " Matthew and Willinn
Stodart," omitting the name John.
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