UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
AT LOS ANGELES
"S
PREFACE.
Within the whole range of human endeavoi
there has been no more brilliant accomplish-
ment than that which has, in the course of scien-
tific evolution, given to the world the beautiful
and marvelous science of photography, and in a
form so simple that the students of the art, with
the exercise of a little patience, application and
ordinary intelligence, can more than share the
laurels which in all ages have graced the brows
of those illustrious masters of brush and
palette, whose towering genius has transmitted
to the civilization of our clay an enduring record
of every emotion of the human heart : of its
hopes and fears, its joys and sorrows; its am-
bitions and despair ; its love and hate ; its faith,
its glorious charity, its splendid courage and
lofty heroism ; all told in language of form and
color, of lights and shades, which, yielding to the
magic touch of inspiration, send forth down
through the long vista of the centuries, their
messages of love.
From all the great galleries of the world gaze
down upon us in silent splendor the ideal crea-
tions of great artists ; likewise the shadows of
departed celebrity who once trod the real stage
of life's weird drama. And in vivid realism there
glides in panoramic beauty before our enraptured
vision the cloudless suns and orange groves, the
snow-capped Alpine peaks and violet valleys of
fair Italy, whilst imposing temples, massive am-
4 PREFACE
phitheaters, giant monuments and palaces, which
once echoed the lascivious notes of the lute, as
the proud sons of the haughty Roman Empire
reveled in the pleasures of Bacchanalian feasts,
invoke our admiration for the genius which has
preserved for us all these grandeurs of hoary an-
tiquity.
With the fullest measure of recognition for the
inestimable boon which the artists of the past
have conferred upon our race, and a generous
acknowledgment of our debt of gratitude to
them and which is the highest tribute to their
virtue and talent which we can lay at their feet,
the fact can no longer be ignored that the art
which has crowned them with a halo of enduring
§lory has been supplanted by another ART AND
CIENCE. COMBINED, and one which is not
only a science in itself, but an indispensable aux-
iliary to every other science, art, trade and pro-
fession. THIS CANNOT BE SAID OF ANY
OTHER SCIENCE.
Not only is photography a ranking profession
which invites the best scientific talent within its
fold, both as a consideration of advantage in the
battle of life, in the sense of emolument and pro-
fessional distinction, but it offers to the amateur
of artistic taste a field of scientific research,
coupled with healthful and delightful recreation,
which the nature of o other profession can pos-
sibly provide.
The rapid evolution within the last few years
in the manufacture of photographic apparatus
has placed it within the power of every one to
acquire this most interesting and fascinating art.
With the advent of the hand camera all ob-
stacles to the pursuit of photography as a pas-
time have been removed ; for the hand camera
PREFACE 5
is a portable instrument of simple construction
and tor its successful operation requires only an
intelligent comprehension and faithful compli-
ance with the instructions given in this work.
There is no more deplorable truth engraven
upon the tablets of human experience than the
appalling disproportion of the successes in life to
the failures. With the cause — whether environ-
ment of the individual, lack of opportunity, vio-
lation of ethical laws, imperfect economic condi-
tions, or whatever it may be — I am not here
concerned ; but the fact is irrefutable, and is
borne out by universal experience and the con-
sensus of thought, that the successful man is he
who invites opportunity and opens his arms and
heart to Fortune when the fickle goddess stands
before him shaking her silver locks in his face.
The value in life of a useful application of
leisure moments can never be too forcibly urged,
and some of the most notable instances of suc-
cess are to be found amongst those who, whilst
following distasteful occupations, gradually ac-
quired a profession which enabled them to con-
tribute to the sum of human happiness and en-
shrine their names in enduring honor and fame.
Among these, a great French physician studied
his profession under the hall lamp while serving
as a waiter in a Parisian restaurant, and the re-
markable life of the blacksmith astronomer is
not very ancient history.
But there is no profession which offers such
opportunities as photography; first, because the
avenues for its application are many-fold, and
then again its simplicity, with reasonable dili-
gence, insures rapid progress from the embryonic
stage of the amateur to the highest plane of per-
fection attained by the full-fledged operator and
6 PREFACE
expert. The professions and many lines of cem-
mercial business in which photography has be-
come a necessity and the sciences to which it is
now an indispensable aid and adjunct are too
numerous to mention here ; but a few citations
may tend to impress my readers with the impor-
tance of this science par excellence.
In the practice of law it is a leading factor in
the presentation of a certain character of evi-
dence. In surgery, as exemplified in the X-ray,
its performance is the marvel of the century. In
every department of engineering it is employed
to record the progress of the work. In engrav-
ing and printing it has become a prime requisite.
In the service of the police it is the mute agent
which restores the missing to loving friends, and
it brings the malefactor to the bar of justice. In
every branch of commerce, on land and sea, the
speechless camera heralds the steady progress
of industrial development. It makes all the peo-
ples of the earth familiar with the lives and
habits of each other. It carries to the Icelander
the warm scenes of the tropics, with their sunny
skies and luxuriant flora, and to the simple chil-
dren of the Amazon it portrays the rugged, rock-
ribbed shores of Labrador and the vast fields of
ice and monster bergs, which rear their crystal
peaks high into the dreary silence of the Arctic
circle.
To the microscopist it is his chief dependence
for accurate registration. But not until we con-
sider its relation to astronomy, that queen of
sciences, does the transcending value of pho-
tography blaze out, like a flashing meteor in the
sky. With the modern telescope it penetrates
the depths of space, and in one night obtains
plates of the constellation of the Pleiades more
PREFACE 7
rigidly accurate than patient astronomers have
been able to obtain in a score of years without
its aid. It wrests from the solar mass the secrets
of ages, and records the stupendous convulsions
and explosions which occur upon its surface and
preserves the immutable data of this wonderful
phenomena for generations yet to come that they
may be brought, through the instrumentality of
photography, into that relation with the celestial
bodies which will enable the coming higher man
to solve the great problems of human life.
T. STITH BALDWIN.
Chicago, November, 1902.
Note. — The thanks of the author are extended
to Mr. O. W. Hodges of the M. A. Seed Dry
Plate Company, and to the Eastman Kodak Com-
pany for much valuable data taken by permis-
sion from books of their publication.
TABLE OF CONTENTS .
CHAPTER I.
Apparatus Required.
CHAPTER II.
Hand Cameras. Kodaks.
CHAPTER III.
Viewing Cameras.
Features of Cameras.— The Swing Back. The
Reversible Back. Rising and Falling Front. The
Rack and Pinion. The Focusing Screen.
CHAPTER IV.
Photographic Lenses. — Fixed Focus Lenses.
Diaphragms or Stops. Definition of terms ap-
plied to Lenses.
CHAPTER V.
Photographic Shutters. Shutters for Portrait
Work.
CHAPTER VI.
The Plate Holder. The Film Holder. The
Cartridge Roll Holder. The Tripod. The Focus-
ing Cloth. The Carrying Case.
CHAPTER VII.
The Developing and Printing Outfit — The
Ruby Lamp. The Developing Tray. The Toning
Tray. The Scales. The Graduated Glass Meas-
ure. The Printing Frame.
10 CONTENTS
CHAPTER VIII.
Dry Plates. Cut Films. Cartridge Film.
CHAPTER IX.
Operation of the Camera. — Loading the Film
Camera. Loading the Roll Holder. Loading the
Plate Holder.
CHAPTER X.
Landscape Photography. — Lighting and Com-
position. Exposing. Architectural Subjects.
CHAPTER XI.
Portrait Photography. — Portraiture at home.
Illustrations. Out Door Portraiture. Portraiture
in the Studio. Lighting.
CHAPTER XII.
Photographing Interiors. — Lighting. Approxi-
mate Time Needed for Exposures.
CHAPTER XIII.
Flash Light Photography. — Preparation of the
Flash Light. Taking the Picture. The Powder.
Portraits. Groups. The Background. Using
Flash Cartridges. Using Flash Sheets. Second-
ary uses of the Flash Light.
CHAPTER XIV.
MISCELLANEOUS BRANCHES OF PHOTOGRAPHY.
Snapshot Photography. — Photographing Mov-
ing Objects. Copying. Reducing. Enlarging.
Stereoscopic Photography. Trick Photography.
X-Rays and their uses. Moving Picture Machines
and Motion Photography.
CHAPTER XV.
Development and Completion of the Negative.
— Equipment and arrangement of the Dark
CONTENTS II
Room. The Choice of a Developer. Developing
a Negative. Recognition and Correction of Under
and Over Exposure. Intensifying a Negative.
Reducing a Negative. Drying Negatives. Varn-
ishing Negatives. Retouching. Storing Negatives.
Defects in Negatives and their Remedies. De-
veloping Cartridge Films. The Chemistry of
Development. General Information.
CHAPTER XVI.
Printing. — Production and Finishing of Prints
on Gelatine, Collodion. Developing, Blue Print
and Sepia Papers. Vignetting. Mounting. Glace
Prints.
CHAPTER XVII.
Platinum Printing.
CHAPTER XVIII.
Carbon Printing.
CHAPTER XIX.
Contact Printing with Bromide Paper.
CHAPTER XX.
Bromide Enlargements.
CHAPTER XXI.
Lantern Slide and Transparency Making. Uses
of Lantern Slides.
CHAPTER XXII.
The Gum Bi-Chromate Process.
CHAPTER XXIII.
The Sensitizing and Use of Plain Papers.
CHAPTER XXIV.
Useful Formulae. Weights and Measures.
CHAPTER XXV.
Helpful Hints.
CHAPTER I.
THE APPARATUS REQUIRED.
Cameras adapted for the amateur's use are di-
vided into two classes: Hand cameras and view-
ing cameras. These classes are again sub-
divided into many styles and varieties of instru-
ments. Before it is practicable to enter intelli-
gently into a practical photographic training the
amateur should provide himself with the neces-
sary apparatus and he should, therefore, select
one or the other of these two classes of instru-
ments. This selection of an instrument should
invariably be determined by the character of the
work which the embryo photographer has in con-
templation, i. e., whether his object is to provide
himself with agreeable diversion and recreation
or with a scientific art which may be employed
as a profession to insure permanent occupation
and revenue.
Upon the selection of the first instrument
much depends, and while advising the novice in
this respect certain considerations should be
borne in mind as tending to his ultimate success
and these are his personality, tastes, environment
and financial ability. Yet one rule can safely be
laid down. If the camera is to be used by the
traveler or by anyone not having access to a
dark room, a film camera should be used. An
exclusively plate camera is suitable for gallery
work and viewing.
For the amateur's use it is well to have an in-
strument that will use film as well as plates.
Films in light-proof rolls weigh only one-twen-
13
14 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
tieth as much as glass plates and the necessary
plate holders ; they are non-breakable, are as easy
to develop as plates and in rapidity and quality
equal the best plates made.
In every kind of amateur photographic work,
where it is not desired to make a negative larger
than 5x7, transparent film is rapidly becoming
more popular and its use is increasing daily. The
reasons are obvious. Film is a thin, light, roll-
able and non-breakable substance. Plates are
heavy, fragile glass. To the tourist, where the
transportation problem is to be faced, the use of
film frequently means success versus failure.
Films and plates are, nevertheless, more nearly
alike than those not familiar with the subject
would imagine. Indeed, they are identical, ex-
cept in the support upon which the sensitive ma-
terial (emulsion) is coated.
When this emulsion is coated on glass we have
"plates." When coated on a thin, flexible sup-
port it is called "film."
Neither the glass nor this flexible, transparent
material does more than furnish a support for the
emulsion which is to take the picture. When
exposed in the camera, the results are identical,
and when the pictures are made they are indis-
tinguishable.
Whatever style of instrument the amateur may
select he will require the following articles to
complete his working apparatus :
Camera, complete with Plate Holder, Lens and
Shutter and a Developing and Printing Outfit,
consisting of Developing and Toning Trays,
Graduated Measuring Glass, Printing Frame,
Ruby Lamp, and if he should select the Viewing
Camera, the above list must be augmented by the
addition of a Tripod and Focusing Cloth.
A MOKI REBELLION, ARIZONA, ON THE SANTA FB.
Photo by W. H. Simpson, Chicago.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 15
Chemicals for making the developing and ton-
ing solutions and paper and dry plates will also
be required, particulars concerning which will be
treated elsewhere in this work. The articles
mentioned in the above list may be purchased
separately or they may be bought in the form of
a complete equipment. In addition there are
many other pieces of apparatus, such as washing
appliances, drying racks, plate lifters ; but they
are not absolutely essential, and their purchase
may be deferred until the beginner has achieved
some progress and feels justified in making the
additional outlay. The cost of photographic
apparatus varies considerably, according to qual-
ity, but as the cost of the plates and papers used
in both cameras of good and inferior quality is
the same, it is more economical in the end for the
beginner to provide himself with the best appar-
atus that he can afford.
CHAPTER II.
HAND CAMERAS.
As indicated by its name, a "hand" camera is
one that is intended primarily to be used when
held by the hands, and, therefore, except on rare
occasions, such an instrument does not require a
tripod as in the case of the view camera. As it is
practically impossible to hold a camera in the
hand with sufficient steadiness to give an expo-
sure of more than about the tenth-part of a sec-
ond, all hand cameras are provided with a shutter
so as to insure quick exposure.
The most popular size for a hand camera is
4x5, though instruments of this kind are made
to take much smaller pictures ; some users are not
satisfied with so small a picture as 4x5, and pre-
fer a 5x7 instrument or even 6j/>x8^ or 8xio. As
a rule, a 4x5 or 5x7 camera will be found quite
large enough for all ordinary amateur work. It
is not many years ago that a hand camera was re-
garded as a toy rather than as an instrument for
serious picture-taking; but this opinion no lon-
ger exists, owing to the development of this most
useful instrument from the original crude box to
the present perfect apparatus.
A hand camera is even better than its proto-
type on a tripod, in depicting street scenes. In
this class of work a tripod camera, erected in a
busy thoroughfare, would not only obstruct traf-
fic, but might in the case of some operators be
objected to as rendering them disagreeably con-
spicuous. With a hand camera the amateur can
stroll about when and where he will and take a
16
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 17
shot here and a shot there, without attracting
undue notice or inconveniencing anybody. For
cyclists, too, a hand camera is most convenient,
as it is compact, easily carried, and can be used
at a moment's notice during a ride.
Hand cameras may be divided into four
classes, as follows:
FIG. 1. MAGAZINE CAMERA.
Class i. Magazine Cameras. (See Fig. I.) —
Those in which' a number of plates or cut films
are stored in a chamber or magazine, the plates
being changed after each exposure by means of
mechanism. These are known as Magazine
Cameras.
In this class the plates are usually placed in
metal carriers, and as a rule each camera holds
twelve plates. Several forms of hand cameras
are made on this principle. This class of camera
possesses the advantage of enabling the user to
make several exposures in quick succession, and
in many cases this feature is a decided conve-
nience.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
FKJ. 2. FOLDING FOCCSIXG CAMEISA.
Class 2. Folding Focusing Cameras. (See
Fig. 2.) — Those which are so constructed that
when not in use are self contained in a neat
leather covered box, but when desired, by press-
ing a concealed button one side of the box is
caused to be lowered, forming a bed upon which
the camera front containing the lens and shutter
is drawn out, rendering the instrument adaptable
for instant use. This style is known as the
Folding Hand Camera. They are provided
with ground glass screen, tripod sockets, and
focusing scale and can be used either as a Hand
Camera or upon a tripod as a regular Viewing
Camera. In them can be used either dry-plates,
sheet films or films in rolls, the various holders
required being interchangeable.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. IQ
A camera of the class of style 2, with plate
holders, is specially suitable when a varied range
of work is to be done, as plates of different
speeds can be carried in the holders and a fast or
slow plate can thus be selected according to the
needs of the subject to be taken. A plentiful sup-
ply of plates is not always a blessing to the hand
camera worker, for he is then often tempted to
spend a plate on a subject of little or no interest,
whereas, if only a smaller supply of plates was
available greater care in the selection of the view
would be expended.
FIG. 3. FiXKI) IOC IS BOX CAMERA.
Class 3. Fixed Focus Box Cameras. (See
F'1S- 3-) — Those known as Fixed Focus or Box
style, in which the plates are contained in plate
holders.
The cameras in this class are usually provided
with space for three double plate holders, taking
six plates. In some instruments there is space
for carrying all three holders in the body of the
20
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
camera while in others there is only room for one
holder, the other two being carried in the pocket.
(See Fig. 3.)
FIG. 4. NO. 3 FOLDING POCKET Fit
KODAK WITH B. & L.
AUTOMATIC SHUTTER.
FOI.nr.VG POCKET
KODAK.
Class 4. Kodaks. (See Figs. 4 and 5.) — Cam-
eras in which flexible films in rolls are used in-
stead of glass plates, the film being wound on
spools or rollers. The action of winding up the
exposed portion of the film unwinds a fresh por-
tion ready for the next exposure.
The cameras in class 4 appeal perhaps most
strongly to the tourist and holiday-maker as they
enable material for a large number of exposures
to be carried with very little weight. There are
some most excellent instruments of this kind on
the market, which are well worth attention.
Many styles are made in such compact form as
to permit of their being carried in any ordinary
coat pocket. These are known as Folding Pocket
Kodaks.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 21
With a focusing camera the operator is en-
abled to compose or arrange his view on the
ground-glass focusing screen ; but in a strictly
hand camera this process is performed by means
of a little appliance termed a view finder.
All hand cameras using rectangular shaped
plates should be provided with either two view
findersorareversible finder, to enable the operator
to compose both horizontal pictures and vertical
pictures. Many hand cameras are of the "fixed-
focus" type. This means that everything beyond
a certain distance (usually about 7 to 9 feet) from
the camera is in correct focus on the plate, and
for the majority of snap-shot pictures a camera
of this kind will do all that is required.
If the amateur wishes to go in for portraits
and figure studies, however, he should obtain a
camera with a focusing arrangement so that
nearer subjects can be successfully taken. Ap-
paratus of this kind is described under class 2.
This focusing can be performed by examining
the picture on a focusing screen and then racking
the camera in or out until it appears perfectly
sharp, or by judging or measuring the distance
at which the subject is placed from the camera
and then racking the camera front out until it is
set for that distance, as indicated on a small grad-
uated scale termed the focusing scale.
With portraits and figure studies the focusing
adjustment is specially required so as to enable
the figures to be taken of sufficient size.
On the cheaper kinds of hand cameras single
lenses are usually fitted, and, for landscape work
such lenses are suitable, but one with a rapid
rectilinear lens is to be preferred, if the extra
cost can be afforded.
22 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
The shutters supplied with hand cameras are
extremely varied in design. The shutter should
be both set and released from the outside of the
camera, and the latter operation should be per-
formed without the necessity for undue move-
ment or pressure. It should be capable of being
adjusted for various speeds, and should have an
indicator to show the various speeds at which
it works. The range of adjustment should be
from about one-tenth of a second to not less than
one-fiftieth, and the shutter should also be ca-
pable of giving time exposures if necessary.
When it is desired to give a time exposure with
a hand camera, it is usual to rest the instrument
on a convenient fence or post, or else on a tripod.
A further point with regard to the shutter is
that it should not uncover the plate when being
set. For ordinary snap-shot work a shutter speed
of about one-twenty-fifth of a second is generally
sufficient. The higher the speed of the shutter,
the greater the danger of under-exposure.
As far as possible, all the movements should
be accessible from the outside of the camera and
the various working parts should be easily acces-
sible for cleaning, adjustment, and repair. A
numerical indicator should be connected to the
plate-changing mechanism, in the case of Maga-
zine Cameras, to show how many plates have
been exposed, and it should be possible to remove
the exposed plates at any time without interfer-
ing with those which may still be unexposed.
It is now almost a universal practice among
Hand Camera makers to furnish their apparatus'
complete with lens, shutter and plate holder, thus
saving the prospective purchaser the trouble of
selecting each item separately.
CHAPTER III.
VIEWING CAMERAS. FEATURES OF
CAMERAS.
Size of the Outfit. — Camera manufacturers
have adopted a series of standard sixes for their
instruments. Very large cameras may be left
out of the question, as unsuited to the general
requirements of amateur workers, and the fol-
lowing sizes may be considered as those from
which a selection should be made. The figures
given are the dimensions of the largest picture
which each camera is capable of taking:
5x7-in., 5x8-in., 6j/Sx8>S-in., Sxio-in.
23
24 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
Of the foregoing sizes there are two the use of
which largely preponderates. These are 5x7 and
63^x8^2. If the reader wishes to keep both his
initial and working expenses as low as possible,
he should content himself with the smaller of
these two sizes. When he has gained some ex-
perience and is fairly proficient, he may perhaps
feel tempted to employ a 6l/2y&l/2 camera. All
things considered, however, a 5x7 instrument is
the best size for the beginner to commence with.
By a simple contrivance known as a "'kit" smaller
pictures can be taken with a 5x7 or larger cam-
era, so that if the reader wishes to experiment in
a small way at the start, it is a very easy matter
for him to do so.
The Points of a Good Viewing Camera. — A
knowledge of the features which a good camera
should possess will be of service to the reader
when selecting an instrument. Since the camera
has to be carried about from place to place it
should be as light as possible, and it should fold
up into a small compass. These qualities, how-
ever, should not be obtained at the sacrifice of
rigidity, for it is upon the firmness of the camera
and its support, that the sharpness of the result-
ant picture largely depends. The front of the
camera should be provided with a rising and
falling adjustment, so that the lens may be
moved above or below the level of the center
of the plate, though it should be exactly opposite
this point when in its normal position.
The bellows should be made of leather or bel-
lows cloth, and may be either parallel or tapering
in shape. The latter kind is known as a "con-
ical" bellows, and is generally preferred on ac-
count of the saving in weight which their use
allows. (See Fig. 6.) When a conical bellows is
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 25
fitted, the purchaser should satisfy himself that
if the back of the camera is moved close up to
the front, as is the case when using a short-focus
lens, no part of the picture on the plate is cut off.
It is essential for good work that the camera
should be provided with what is termed a
"swing-back," and the amateur will also find it of
great advantage to have a camera with a re-
versing back, that is a back which will fit in botli
a horizontal and a vertical position. As will be
seen from the foregoing list of standard sizes the
plates are made oblong in shape, and the re-
versing back enables the plate to be used either
vertically or horizontally, as required.
\Yith a 6j/2x8}/2 camera, sufficient adjustment
should be provided to enable an extension of not
less than 16 or 17 inches to be made. The wood-
work of the camera should be of well-seasoned
mahogany.
Features of Cameras. — In the foregoing pages
the terms: swing-back, view-finder, etc., have
been used and the reader will derive a full com-
prehension of a definition of the meaning- of these
terms from the following detailed explanation :
The Swing Back. — In making pictures of
buildings or of any subject
other than purely landscape
ones, the sensitive plate should
be in a perfectly perpendicu-
lar plane with the subject in
order to obtain good results.
The purpose of a swing-back
FIG. 7. is to kt ep the place always ab-
solutely perpendicular. (See Fig. 7.) To include
the top of a tall building or church spire, or se-
cure more of a subject than can be obtained with
the camera in its normal position, it is often nee-
26 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
essary to tilt it, and under such conditions, with
a rigid back, the lines of the resulting photo-
graph will converge more or less at the top, as
the plate will be at an angle with the subject. If,
however, the back of the camera is made to
move or ''swing" independently, then, even
though the camera is not level, the sensitive plate
can be placed parallel with the subject and
straight lines secured — or, in photographic par-
lance, there would be no distortion, but a perfect
rectilinear effect. A swing-back is not absolutely
essential for hand work and in fact is not used to
so great an extent with 4x5 cameras as with
larger sizes. Nevertheless it will be found very
convenient for tripod exposures, and indispen-
sable under conditions noted above.
The Rising and Falling Front. — The purpose
of a rising and falling front is to shift the lens
FIG. 8. RISING AND FALLING Fin. 9. DOUBLE SLIDING
FRONT. FRONT.
above or below the center of the sensitive plate —
its normal position — in order to include more or
less foreground. (See Figs. 8-9.) It will also
be found an aid in securing the upper part of a
building or similar subject, which could not be
covered by the lens if at the center.
The Reversible Back. — A reversible back cam-
era, to the casual observer, does not differ in
appearance from the ordinary type, but it has de-
cided advantages. The back frame which carries
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
the sensitive plate can be placed either upright or
horizontal at will — without changing position of
the camera — a decided advantage, especially
when making tripod exposure. Fig. 10 shows the
camera back with a plate in a horizontal posi-
FIG. 10.
FIG. 11.
tion ; a portion of the subject being cut off. By
reversing the back the plate will be vertical, as
in Fig. ii — the whole subject included, and often
a more artistic effect obtained.
Rack and Pinion. — This is a metal roller de-
vice working in a milled track used on the bed for
moving the front of camera, to which lens and
shutters are attached, backward or forward, until
the proper focus is obtained.
In the cheaper apparatus this is accomplished
by means of a lever or hook ; but this method is
inconvenient as compared with the use of the
rack.
The View Finder is in reality similar to a min-
iature camera, consisting of a lens and reflecting
mirrors. Its purpose is to give an exact repro-
duction, in miniature size, of the view as it will
appear on the negative. Finders are made in
various forms, adaptable to use upon either fold-
ing or non-folding cameras, as the case may be.
The Ground Glass or "Focusing" Screen. — At
the back of a tripod camera there is a frame in
28 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
which is fixed a sheet of ground glass. This
glass is termed the "focusing screen." On this
the picture to be taken is arranged and focused.
When the camera is first set up and pointed at
the object to be taken, the picture will probably
appear very indistinct and fuzzy. The amateur
may be surprised also to find that the picture
appears upside down on the glass ; but this is the
natural result of the action of the lens, and is a
peculiarity to which he will soon get quite accus-
tomed. The front of the camera is then moved
in or out by means of a rack and pinion move-
ment until the picture appears sharp on the
ground glass.
CHAPTER IV.
LENSES: DIAPHRAGMS OR STOPS.—
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN
DESCRIBING LENSES.
Lenses. — The next member of a complete pho-
tographic apparatus to receive attention is the
lens. Lenses of many names, mystifying in the
extreme to the novice, are advertised ; but these
may be divided into five classes, four of which
are in general use. The fifth (the Tele-Photo)
is at present but little understood. The four in
general use are : First, the Single Lens (single
combination) : second, the Rapid Rectilinear
Lens (Double combination) ; third, the Wide
Angle Lens (Double combination) ; fourth, the
Portrait Lens (Double combination).
Single Lenses are made in two
forms, meniscus (see Figs. 12-13)
and piano convex. The menis-
cus form is always employed ex-
cept in the cheapest class of cam-
eras. These lenses are always
mounted behind the diaphragm
FIG. 12. FIG. 13. which controls the amount of
PLANO- MENIS- light to be admitted through the
CONVEX. cus. kns
A Single Combination lens, as its name im-
plies, contains but one "combination," a com-
bination being two or more glass elements
cemented together with Canada balsam.
The chief advantage which the single lens
offers to amateur workers is that it is con-
siderably lower in price than the other types
29
3O MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
and is used in cameras making pictures 4x5
inches or less in size. For landscape photography
and for figure studies, a good single lens will
prove very satisfactory. To the amateur, how-
ever, who wishes to do as great a variety of
work as possible with one lens, the single type
has a great disadvantage in that it is entirely un-
suited for taking any subject where straight lines
have to be included, such as in photographs of
buildings, copying drawings, etc. ; for in such
cases it distorts the straight lines into a more or
less curved form, hence this type of lens is not
suitable for making pictures larger than 4x5
inches.
14.
A Rapid Rectilinear or Double Achromatic
Lens is composed of two single achromatic
lens combinations mounted one in each end of
the lens tube, placed face to face. (See Fig. 14.)
When a stop is placed in front of a single lens
the image produced is "barrel shaped," and
when the stop is placed back of the lens the im-
age is "pin-cushion" shape. The stop in the
rectilinear lens being placed between the two
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 31
combinations is, of course, in front of the back,
and back of the front combinations. It is very
evident, then, that the distortion of the one
would be counteracted by the distortion of the
other, and hence the result — a straight line. This
defect of the one being- counteracted or corrected
by the defect of the other permits of a large aper-
ture being used in comparison with that of the
single lens, hence the name Rapid Rectilinear.
Undoub t e d 1 y
the best kind of
lens for all-round
work is the rapid
rectilinear, as the
'pictures taken
with a lens of this
type are absolute-
ly free from dis-
torted or curved
lines.
A further advantage of this lens over the single
lens is that it is much quicker in working. A
rapid rectilinear lens may be used with good re-
sults for any of the following classes of work :
Landscape, architectural subjects, copying,
portraits, groups, and figure studies. It is also
very suitable for instantaneous and snap-shot
pictures.
Rapid rectilinear lenses are made in many
grades and of many types, and are marketed
under various names, such as Rectilinears, Anas-
tigmats, Symmetricals, etc., the double Anastig-
mats being the highest grade.
The Stigmatic and Anastigmatic Lenses (See
Fig. 15), of which there are a number of different
series manufactured, are a new form of lens of
comparatively recent invention. They are cer-
32 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
tainly of the highest plane to which the photo-
raphic optician has obtained. They are made of
the new Jena glass and the various series are
composed of from two to eight lenses.
They are of convertible form and they may be
used with either front or back combinations sep-
arately. By so doing three different focal lengths
are obtained and the possessor of these lenses
has in reality three lenses combined in one.
FIG. 16.
FIG. 17.
The Wide Angle Lens is very similar in form
and the same in principle as that of the Rapid
Rectilinear ; the chief difference being that the
lens combinations are mounted closer together
and the curvature greater in the same focal
length of lens.
Fig. 16 represents one of the most common
forms of wide angle lenses. It will readily be
seen by the construction of the lens-mount that it
will permit of a very wide angle of view to pass
through to the plate, while in the Rapid Recti-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 33
linear (Fig. 17) the angle would be cut off by the
length of the barrel.
It must not be understood that because one is
the possessor of a wide angle lens he will be able
to obtain the angle desired on any size of plate he
may wish to use. A wide angle lens is so called
because its angular capacity is large in propor-
tion to its focal length. But if we have a lens of,
say, six inches focus, with an angular capacity of
100 degrees and a 4x5 plate be used, it will read-
ily be seen that we do not utilize the full capacity
of the lens, and hence only a comparatively nar-
H
FIG. 18.
row angle of view is obtained. In Fig. 18 the
lines ab and cd indicate the angular capacity of
the lens. A 4x5 plate being used, the base line,
or 5 inch side, H K represents the angle obtained,
which is less than half the capacity of the lens.
A wide angle lens is intended for use in con-
fined positions, and for photographing high
buildings in narrow thoroughfares, for interiors
of small rooms, and for similar work, it is almost
indispensable. A disadvantage attaches to its
34 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
use, however, in the fact that the perspective of
the view so taken appears exaggerated and dis-
pleasing to the eye ; but since there is no means
of taking many subjects except by the aid of such
a lens, this alteration in the appearance of the
perspective must be accepted.
The Portrait Lens. — A Portrait Lens may be
considered one of the crowning successes of the
photographic optician. Although invented a
number of years ago, no photographer's outfit of
the present day would be considered complete
without one. They are specially designed for
very short exposure and are from four to six
times as quick working as the ordinary rapid
rectilinear lens. They cover a very small plate in
proportion to their focal length and conse-
quently possess a narrow angle. The image pro-
duced is very soft and pleasing to the eye and the
most artistic results in portraiture are produced
with them. The lenses of the back combination
are separated by an air space which, together
with their extremely large apertures, produce the
fine soft effect.
Lenses of this type are intended for Portrait
work only and they are of little use for any other
class of work.
The Tele-Photo is a distinct type of lens of
which a brief description is given on account
of its distinction from the other lenses
and its usefulness in the production of long-
distance views. It is composed of two
individual combinations ; a collective or positive
combination and a dispersive or negative com-
bination. The office of the collective lens is to
collect as many as possible of the rays of light
which are reflected from the object to be photo-
graphed, and to focus them within the radius of
>
if
PHOTOGRAPHY. 35
the dispersive combination, which projects an
enlarged image upon the plate. In this manner
a large image of a distinct object may be ob-
tained with a comparatively very short bellows
draw. They are very useful in photographing
distant mountain scenery, vessels far out at sea
and various animals for the study of naturalists,
pictures of which it would be impossible to ob-
tain at close range.
B A
Flu. 19.
Fixed Focus Lens. — The repeated mention of
this lens in catalogues and advertisements has
created an impression that it is some distinct
kind of lens, with the extraordinary power of
focusing all objects near and far in one plane.
There is no inherent quality in any lens that
makes it "fixed focus" ; it is such when it is im-
movable and that is all. Any lens can, therefore,
be made "fixed focus" but the extent to which
it will focus all objects in one plane depends
upon its length of focus and size of stop or
diaphragm used, and upon that only.
The reason for this is that the rays of light
from near and far objects do not focus at the
same point. For instance, we will assume that
B, in Fig. 19, is the point at which objects one
hundred feet distant will focus and that A is
where objects 10 feet distant will focus. Now the
distance between A and B will vary in ratio to
36 MODERN' PHOTOGRAPHY.
the focal length of the lens. In a lens of 3 inches
focus it is ascertained mathematically to be
3-16 of an inch and in one of 12 inches focus,
Ij4 inches. Hence if using a 3 inch focus lens
the sensitive surface is placed between A and
B the object at 100 feet and beyond (all objects
beyond 100 feet come practically within one
focus) and objects 10 feet distant will none of
them be more than 3-32 out of focus, which, with
the size of stop ordinarily used for snap work,
creates so slight a blurring of the image that it
cannot be detected. Experience has shown that
the limit of focus for a lens which is to be em-
ployed for snap shot work with the focus fixed
is under 5^/2 inches; in other words thata3j4*4M
plate is about the largest that can be used to
advantage under such circumstances. It is prob-
ably true that for cameras of this size and under,
nothing can be gained by having the focus ad-
justable and that, on the other hand, better aver-
age results will be obtained with a fixed focus,
owing to the fact that there is no adjustment
that will allow the lens to be put out of focus
by a mistake in measuring distances.
Diaphragms or Stops. — All lenses are provided
with "diaphragms" or "stops," for the purpose
of regulating the size of the aperture through
which light can pass. There are three kinds
of diaphragms fitted to lenses, viz. : Waterhouse
diaphragms. Iris diaphragms and rotary or
wheel diaphragms. A Waterhouse diaphragm
is a small piece of sheet metal, having a circular
hole made in the center. This is inserted in a
slot cut in the brass lens mount and blocks out
all the light except that which passes through
the hole. A set of these is provided, having dif-
ferent sized holes. An Iris diaphragm consists
of a set of thin plates overlapping one another
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 37
and fixed inside the lens mount. These are so
arranged that when a circular ring that is fitted
to the outside of the mount is rotated, the plates
move in or out and so vary the size of the open-
ing in the center, the action being very similar
to the action of the iris of the human eye. A
Rotary diaphragm takes the form of a circular
disc, with several different sized holes therein.
This is pivoted on the lens mount, and as it is
rotated one or the other of the various holes
comes opposite the center of the lens opening.
The two former kinds of diaphragms are those
most commonly used, and for general conveni-
ence the Iris pattern is greatly preferred. It has
the advantage of being in one with the lens
mount, so that it cannot be mislaid or left be-
hind as is the case with the Waterhouse type.
An Iris diaphragm is a little more expensive, but
its extra quality justifies the investment. Ro-
tary diaphragms are often used for hand camera
lenses.
A volume might be written on the subject of
stops, but a few lines will suffice to give the
amateur an idea of why they are necessary,
and how they should be used.
The best part of a lens is its center, i. e., those
rays of light which pass through the lens at or
near the center will be correctly refracted and
will therefore give the image clear and sharp on
the ground glass, while the rays which pass
through the outer edges of the lens will not make
such a clear and distinct image. It can thus be
seen that the smaller the stop opening the
sharper the picture, because the outside rays
will be cut off. But it will be discovered that
with a small diaphragm or stop opening the light
146023
38 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
is to a great extent cut down. If the beginner
has a camera with focusing glass it will be well
for him to focus on some object on the ground
glass, using the largest diaphragm and care-
fully noting the lines to see if they are sharp.
Then let him put a smaller stop in position, not-
ing the increase in sharpness and the decrease in
light. The better the lens the larger the stop
opening which can be successfully used, and
consequently the "faster" the lens. Suppose one
lens of 8-inch focus is employed and that in a
given light a clear, shaip picture is made in 5
seconds with a stop one inch in diameter, while
with another lens of same focal length a stop
only one-half inch in diameter must be used
in order to get a sharp picture. How would they
compare in speed? Nine people out of ten will
jump at conclusions and say that the lens with
the half-inch opening must be given 10 seconds.
In this case the first impression is not correct.
Four times the time or 20 seconds must be given
because the area of the one-inch stop is four
times that of the half-inch stop. A simple little
rule can be deduced from this, and if the correct
exposure with one stop is known the correct ex-
posure for the others can readily be ascertained.
The time variation between two stops is in-
versely as the square of their diameters.
With most single-lens cameras there are stop-
openings of three sizes, the largest, for ordinary
snap shots, the second (which has about 2-3 the
diameter of the largest), for snap shots on the
water and in tropical or semi-tropical climates or
for time exposures indoors, and the smallest, or-
dinarily used for time exposures out of doors —
never for snap shots.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 39
With the double lenses there is a greater num-
ber of stop openings and they are arranged upon
what is known as the Uniform System, com-
monly abbreviated to "U. S."
Of course when in a general way it is said that
the speed of a lens depends upon the diameter
of the stop opening it is not meant, for instance,
that a Pocket Kodak stop opening must be as
large as the diaphragm in the lens of an 8 x 10
camera in order to have the same speed<^but it
must be as large in proportion, and that propor-
tion is based upon the length of focus (the dis-
tance between lens and plate) of the lens. The
proportionate size or the "value" of the stop
opening is designated by /, and is the quotient
obtained by dividing the focal length of the lens
by the diameter of the stop. For instance : a
lens of 8-inch focus with a stop one inch in
diameter gives 8-f-i=8. Hence, 8 is the /
value of the stop and would be designated: /8.
Suppose the stop is *4 inch in diameter, then
8-M=/32.
For convenience the Uniform System of mark-
ing stop openings has been adopted by nearly all
manufacturers of Iris diaphragms and the fol-
lowing table will help the amateur to understand
the meaning of these markings by giving the f
value for each one :
U.S. 4 = f 8
U.S. 8 = f 11.3
U.S. i6 = /i6
U.S. 32 = / 22.6
U.S. 64=^32
U.S. 128 = / 45-2
The convenience of the U. S. system is at once
apparent when it is understood that each higher
4O MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
number stands for an opening- having half the
area of the preceding opening. Between each
number, therefore, the time is doubled. If stop
No. 16 is used twice is given or if No. 32 four
times the time of the table, while with stop No. 4
only one-half the time of the table would be
given.
Ordinarily the appended table is a good one to
follow in the use of the stops with a rapid rec-
tilinear lens, but there are some exceptions :
No. 4. — For instantaneous exposures in slight-
ly cloudy weather and for portraits. Instan-
taneous exposures on dark, cloudy days should
not be attempted.
No. 8. — For all ordinary instantaneous expos-
ures when the sun shines.
No. 16. — For instantaneous exposures when
the sunlight is unusually strong and there are
no heavy shadows ; such as views on the seashore
or on the water, or in tropical or semi-tropical
climates : also for interior time exposures.
Nos. 32 and 64. — For interiors. Never for in-
stantaneous exposures.
No. 128. — For time exposures outdoors in
cloudy weather. Never for instantaneous expos-
ures. The time required for time exposures on
cloudy days with smallest stop will range from
l/2 second to 5 seconds, according to the light.
The smaller the stop the sharper the picture.
If the smallest stop is used for instantaneous
exposures, absolute failure will result.
The No. 4 stop is not to be used when absolute
sharpness is desired, as the opening is so large
that few lenses will have a good "depth of focus"
with it— i. e., only the objects at the exact dis-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 4!
tance focused will be sharp, those nearer by or
farther away being more or less "out of focus."
Sharpness is extremely desirable in a picture ;
but what is called "roundness" and "atmosphere"
is perhaps fully as important. What is meant
by these rather vague terms is sometimes puz-
zling to the beginner and they are, perhaps, best
explained as referring to that quality in a pic-
ture which gives the proper idea of both distance
and perspective — that quality which is the oppo-
site of the silhouette; which makes every object
appear in proper relation to every other object
and gives life and character to the picture. "At-
mosphere" and "roundness" are somewhat lost by
using too small a stop. The largest opening
which will give a sharp picture should therefore
be used.
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN DE-
SCRIPTION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC
LENSES.
Achromatic. — White light passed through a
prism or a single lens will be separated into
colors, the same as those of the "rainbow."
These colors are called Chromatic. A lens
that is so corrected that it does not sep-
arate the light into colors is called Achro-
matic. This correction is made by placing
together two lenses, one a converging and
the other a diverging lens ; these two lenses
together are called a single combination. A
double combination consists of two of these
combinations in the same lens system or
same lens barrel.
42 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
Anastigmatic (See Stigmatic). — Indicates that
the lens would not reproduce a perfect point,
but has been corrected and made to do so.
Angular Capacity. — All that a lens can take, the
diagonal of the largest plate it will cover.
Aperture. — The entire surface of the lens.
Bi-Concave. — A lens with both sides curved in is
called Bi-Concave. It is thinner in the cen-
ter than at the edges.
Bi-Convex. — A lens with both sides curved out
is called Bi-Convex. It is thicker in the cen-
ter than at the edges.
Combination. — Single, Double (See Achro-
matic).
Convergent. — Lines or rays of light coming to-
gether at a point are called Convergent.
Concave. — The inner side of a curve.
Convex. — The outer side of a curve.
Definition. — The markings which go to make up
a picture. Good definition shows all the
markings; poor definition shows only a part
of them.
Degree. — One of the 360 parts into which a circle
is divided.
— Diaphragm. — Any instrument or device used to
cut down the amount of light passing
through a lens is called a diaphragm or stop.
Diffusion. — A separation or a breaking up — mix-
ing together. Diffusion of focus, a separa-
tion of the rays of light so as not to produce
a sharp focus.
Distorted. — Drawn out of the proper shape.
Divergent. — Separating. Lines proceeding from
a point within a half circle are called diverg-
ent.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 43
Elements. — Each separate lens which goes to
make up a lens combination is called an ele-
ment of that lens.
Ellipse.— A flattened circle.
Focus. — The point where convergent lines or
rays of light cross, after passing through the
lens, is called the Focus.
Intensity. — The size of the opening of a lens ad-
mitting the light to the plate is called its
working intensity.
Lens-Mount. — The casing into which a lens is
fastened is called the Lens-Mount.
Objective. — A lens or lens combination.
Piano-Convex. — A term used to indicate that one
face of a lens is flat and the other convex.
Piano-Concave. — Indicates that one face of a lens
is flat and the other concave.
Posterior. — Farthest toward the rear, as the back
lens.
Ray. — A single line of light coming from a point.
Rectilinear. — Indicates a straight line. A lens is
said to be rectilinear when it will produce
straight lines anywhere on a plate.
Stop. — (See Diaphragm.)
Stigmatic. — From stigma, a point. A lens is
called stigmatic, when it will reproduce per-
fect points, or both horizontal and perpen-
dicular lines, sharp all over the plate at the
same time.
Simple. — Composed of one only.
44 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
Tele-Photo.— From Tele,— afar off, and Photo,—
an abbreviation of photograph. A Tele-
photo lens is a lens specially constructed for
photographing objects a long distance away.
AMERICAN FALLS FROM GOAT ISLAND.
Courtesy of Michigan Central Ry.
CHAPTER V.
SHUTTERS.
If the reader wishes to take photographs of
moving objects, a shutter must be obtained. For
all ordinary work requiring exposures of y> sec-
ond and upward, such an article is not abso-
lutely necessary.
FIG. 21.
The shutter is usually attached to the lens,
and in its most simple form may consist of a
piece of wood or metal, in which an opening is
cut, and which slides up and down in a frame
Supported by the lens. As the opening in the
slide passes in front of the lens, the exposure is
made, the duration of which depends on the size
of the aperture and the speed at which the slide
is moving. In most shutters of this type, the
motion is obtained by allowing the sliding piece
to fall by its own weight when released, though
the speed thus obtained may be considerably in-
45
46 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
creased by using an extended India rubber band
to exert a pull. In more expensive forms of
shutters, such as the Thornton-Pickard, roller-
blinds are used with excellent results, the shutter
being set by simply pulling a cord and the re-
lease being made by squeezing an India rubber
bulb attached to a closed tube, this action re-
leasing the spring mechanism which actuates
the blind. The characteristics of a good shutter
are as follows :
It should be light and not unwieldly in shape.
It should work quietly and without imparting
vibration or jar to the camera. It should be ad-
justable for various speeds and for time and in-
stantaneous exposures. It should be certain in
its action and it should enable the operator to ef-
fect the release without taking his eyes off the
object to be photographed. A good; though not
absolutely essential feature, is that the shutter
should be capable of being set without the neces-
sity of covering the plate during the operation.
If the shutter does not admit of this being done,
the difficulty can easily be overcome by setting
the shutter before drawing the slide of the plate.
When photographing children or animals, the
best results are obtained with a shutter which
works as noiselessly as possible.
Excellent forms of shutters are those supplied
with Iris diaphragm and which are provided
with the mechanism for making instantaneous
time and bulb exposures. There are several
forms of these now on the market and all are
provided with both finger and pneumatic bulb
release, and work automatically for instantane-
ous exposures from i-ioo to one second or over.
Figs. 20 and 21 are illustrations of most popular
forms.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 47
Portrait Shutters. — In doing portrait work in
the studio with the special portrait apparatus the
lens used is generally a regular portrait objective
and is too large in diameter to permit of its being
fitted to any of the ordinary forms of shutters
which are applied to viewing lenses.
To overcome this difficulty and to permit of
instantaneous work being done with lenses of
this type, special portrait shutters, known as
Lens Board Shutters (see Fig. 22) have been de-
vised. These are designed to be fitted to the
back of the lens board of the camera, directly be-
hind the lens. Because of their large size, how-
ever, they are adaptable for use only in cameras
having large lens (front) boards.
Portrait shutters are also made to fit over the
tube of the lens at the front but as this form is
cumbersome their use is generally confined to
cases where the photographer possesses a cam-
era with too small a lens-board to permit the
use of a lens-board shutter and a lens too large
in diameter to be fitted with a diaphragm shut-
ter.
CHAPTER VI.
THE PLATE HOLDER — THE ROLL
HOLDER— THE TRIPOD— THE FO-
CUSING CLOTH— THE CARRY-
ING CASE.
The Plate Holder. (See Figs. 23-24.)— The
plate holder holds the plate for exposure and
fits the camera-back between the ground glass
screen and the camera body. It is not placed
in position until after the picture has been
focused on the ground-glass screen. Then
when the plate holder is inserted and the
slide drawn, the sensitive side of the plate
FIG. 23. Flu. 24.
Adjustable Plate Holder.
occupies exactly the same position as the
ground-glass screen. Plate holders are generally
made to hold two plates back to back, with a
fixed opaque-division piece of sheet metal or
cardboard in between. This prevents the light
which falls on one plate during exposure from
injuring the plate behind.
48
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 49
When an exposure has been made on one of
the plates the holder is removed from the cam-
era, until it is necessary to make the next ex-
posure. It is then replaced in a reversed posi-
tion, thus enabling the second plate to be used.
Most cameras as sold are provided with one
double plate holder, but it is advisable to pur-
chase at least two extra, so that when a day's
photographic outing is made, enough plates for
six pictures can be taken. If three holders are
bought, they should be numbered consecutively
on both sides — I and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6, so that
the exposures may be recorded as made and the
plates subsequently identified in the dark room.
The Cut Film Holder. — This holder is identical
in external appearance with the plate holder.
It, however, differs somewhat in internal con-
struction.
Cut films being much thinner than glass plates
and being flexible the inner arrangement of the
holder for them is made to suit their peculiari-
ties.
In loading holders with cut films and in ex-
posing films in the camera the directions are
exactly like those given for dry plates.
The Cartridge Roll Holder. (See Fig. 25.) —
This is a special holder in which is used film
wound upon spools and known as film cartridges.
These cartridges are light-proof and dust-proof
and can be loaded into the roll holder and taken
from same in broad daylight, thus rendering ac-
cess to a dark room unnecessary for these opera-
tions. The cartridge roll holder is intended for
use with hand cameras and when applied to a
plate camera is interchangeable with the plate
holders and cut film holders ordinarily used with
the apparatus.
5O MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
The application of a roll holder to a plate
camera converts the instrument into a combina-
tion plate and film camera, a most useful and
desirable apparatus.
The Tripod. (Fig. 26.) — In choosing a tripod
the great point to study is rigidity, and also
worthy of consideration, though of lesser im-
portance, is the question of compactness and
portability. The fewer the joints in a tripod, the
Fio. 25.
more rigid it is likely to be, and for this reason a
two-fold is likely to be better than a three-fold
one, though the latter can be packed into a more
convenient form for carrying. The tripod is pro-
vided with a top or head, of either triangular or
circular shape, and to this head the baseboard of
the camera is attached by means of a thumb-
screw.
Of all the pieces in the amateur's kit. there is
not one which is so liable to get lost or left be-
hind as this tripod screw, and therefore it should
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 51
be attached by means of a string or light chain
to the tripod head. The tripod head should be
covered with felt or leather, as the camera can
then be screwed down without receiving
scratches or other damage.
FIG. 26.
Focusing Cloth. — A focusing cloth will be re-
quired to shut out the light from around the
ground glass screen when focusing, to enable the
operator to see his subject on the glass to ad-
vantage. A focusing cloth may be of gossamer,
rubber or ladies cloth and be purchased ready-
made.
Carrying Case. — Having collected the various
pieces of his outfit, the amateur will require a
case to carry them. For ordinary traveling, a
canvas case is sufficient, but if the case is to con-
tain the entire apparatus, it should be provided
with a broad strap and grip handle.
CHAPTER VII.
THE DEVELOPING AND PRINTING OUT-
FIT.
The Ruby Lamp. — As will be explained in an-
other chapter, the sensitive plates upon which the
photographs are taken must not be allowed to re-
FIG. 28.
FIG. 27.
ceive the faintest trace of white light or daylight
except that which reaches them when the expos-
ure is made in the camera. They are, however,
practically unaffected by a deep ruby-colored
light, and, therefore, the operation of opening a
packet of plates to fill the camera, and the later
52
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 53
operations of developing and fixing, must either
be carried on in perfect darkness or by the aid of
a lamp fitted with ruby-colored glass. An al-
ternative method, when the above operations are
performed in the daytime, is to cover the window
of the room used for this purpose with a ruby
cloth or fabric, but as this will be referred to
again in the chapter on development, I will at
present only consider the question of lamps. The
cheapest form of ruby lamp has a metal top and
bottom, the body being made of a square metal
frame, covered with ruby cloth or fabric. The
top and bottom portions of this lamp can be taken
off, and the body folded up flat, so that the whole
thing can be packed in a shallow cardboard box.
The light is obtained by placing inside the lamp
a small night lamp or the end of a candle. This
form of lamp is very useful for changing plates
or for occasional developing when traveling, but
it is hardly substantial enough for everyday
work. It is better to buy a lamp with a good
metal body and fitted with a burner for oil. It
should be capable of holding a fair supply of oil
and the device for raising the wick should be
accessible from the outside of the lamp. (See
Figs. 27-28.)
Although the color of the glass in the lamp
may be red, it does not necessarily follow that
the light which passes through it does not affect
the plate to some degree. In order to determine
whether or not the light is actually safe, the fol-
lowing plan may be adopted: Place a plate in
the plate holder in the usual way. Then close
the holder and draw the slide so that four-fifths
of the plate are exposed to the rays of the lamp.
Leave the slide in this position for, say, two min-
54 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
utes. Then push the slide in so that only three-
fifths of the plate are exposed, and leave for an-
other two minutes. Then again push the slide
in so that only two-fifths are exposed, and leave
for four minutes this time. Then push the slide
so that it leaves only one-fifth of the plate ex-
posed, and leave this open for another' ten min-
utes. Thus one portion of the plate has not been
exposed at all, the next has had two minutes' ex-
posure, the next four minutes, the next eight
minutes and the last eighteen minutes. The plate
should then be developed in the ordinary way, as
explained in Chapter on Developing, and it will
be readily seen by comparison with the appear-
ance of the exposed part how far the light has af-
fected the remaining portions of the sensitive
surface. The actual time that a plate is exposed
to the light of the lamp during an ordinary case
of development is not above, say, two minutes, so
that if this exposure to the lamp produces no in-
jurious effect the light may be regarded as fairly
safe. The process of developing and fixing of
course takes longer than two minutes, but all
careful workers make a point of keeping the plate
carefully screened from the direct rays of the
lamp, except when a close scrutiny of the image
is necessarv.
FIG. 29.
Developing Trays. — The smallest number of
dishes which will be required for developing the
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 55
negative is two, one for the developing solution
and one for the fixing solution ; but an extra dish
should be procured, however, as in some in-
stances an alum bath is required. These dishes
are made in various materials, such as porcelain,
fibre and rubber. It does not matter very much
which of these materials is selected. Fibre
dishes are, perhaps, as cheap as any, and they
are also very light. The dishes chosen may be
purchased stamped with the letters T, D and F,
which mean : Toning, Fixing, Developing.
(See Fig. 29.) This will make it easy to always
keep the same dish for the same purpose — a pre-
caution which should invariably be adopted.
FIG. 30.
Toning Trays. — The dishes employed for ton-
ing should be deeper than those used for devel-
oping, as it is usual to tone a number of prints
together in the same dish, and there should be
plenty of room for the prints to be always kept
on the move. Perhaps rubber or fibre dishes are
the best for this purpose, and to facilitate manip-
ulation of the prints the dishes should preferably
be a size or two larger than those used for de-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
velopment. (See Fig. 30.) Two dishes will be
required, one for fixing and one for toning. In
thus stating the number of dishes required it is
assumed that the amateur will be able to obtain
the use of some large sized domestic dishes,
which are very useful for washing plates and
papers. If this cannot be done, a few large trays
for this purpose should be purchased.
Scales. (See Fig. 31.) — For the purpose of
weighing out the various chemicals employed in
mixing solutions, the
amateur will require a
small pair of scales.
The chief point to be
considered is that the
pan in which the sub-
stance to be weighed
is placed should be
made of glass. Glass
is preferable to brass
in that it is not likely
to have any contami-
nating effect on the
substance placed therein, and
also it is much easier to keep
clean.
Graduated Glass Measures.
— These are required for
measuring and mixing solu-
tions, and two of different ca-
pacities should be obtained.
Usually a two-ounce meas-
ure and a four-ounce meas-
ure are all that will be re-
quired. FIG. 32.
OIL FIELDS OF BEAUMONT. TEXAS. ON LINE OF
SOUTHERN PACIFIC1 RAILROAD.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 57
Printing Frame. — When a plate has been ex-
posed and developed, it is termed a negative,
and from the negative thus produced, paper pos-
itives, or "prints," are made by placing the sen-
sitive surface of a piece of
prepared paper in contact
with the negative and expos-
ing it to daylight. To facil-
itate this operation a "print-
ing-frame" is employed,
made something like an or-
dinary picture frame, but
with a removable back. The
back is pressed down byj
springs, and thus keep's the
paper in close contact with
the negative. In most print-*
ing frames the back is made
in" halves, so that one-half
can be raised occasionally
during the printing pro-
cess, to ascertain what
progress the printing is making. (See Fig. 33.)
Printing frames are generally made of some hard-
wood, and that portion of the frame whereon the
negative rests should be perfectly Hat, otherwise
the pressure of the springs may cause the glass
to fracture.
Fio. 3:!.
CHAPTER VIII.
DRY PLATES — SHEET FILMS — FILM
CARTRIDGES
Dry Plates and Celluloid Films.— A photo-
graphic plate depends for its action upon the fact
that the salt known to chemists as bromide of
silver, when associated with some organic mat-
ter such as gelatine, has conferred upon it by
even a momentary flash of light the property of
turning to metallic silver when subjected to
the action of certain chemicals. That is to say,
when a piece of glass, coated with bromide of
silver and gelatine, is exposed in a photographic
camera, all those portions upon which the light
has fallen are, in some subtle manner, which no
one understands, changed in nature, so that when
treated with a chemical solution, called the "de-
veloper," they are darkened, while those parts
which have not been affected by light remain in
their pristine whiteness.
It should be pointed out here that red light
has little power over a photographic plate. \Yhite
li^ht is composed of all the colors of the rain-
bow, mixed in certain definite proportions, and
also of a certain amount of light which is in-
visible— light which is of such deep red color
that to our eyes it appears simply black, and the
light which is so highly violet, as it were, that we
cannot see it at all. The violet rays and the ultra
violet rays have the greatest effect upon the
photographic plate, and the power of the rays
diminishes as you get farther away from the
violet end of the spectrum, until — -except under
58
MOUKRN PHOTOGRAPHY. 59
certain conditions, which will be explained later
on — you come to the yellow, orange, red and in-
fra red, where the effect is almost nil. A photo-
graphic plate is not materially affected by red
light, and this peculiarity gives the photographer
an opportunity of conducting all those operations
which would otherwise have to be gone through
in the dark, by the aid of a light with which he
is able to see what he is doing.
The photographer should decide at the outset
upon one brand of plates and stick to it until
he has mastered the initial stages of his art. He
should not blame the results of his own faults
upon the plate-maker and try his luck with an-
other brand, for that leads to confusion.
Each different kind has its peculiarities, which
must be studied to be understood, and this un-
derstanding will never be arrived at by changing
from one brand to another in the hope of find-
ing one upon which a careless photographer will
be able to produce a good negative. The no-
madic photographer — and most amateurs come
under this head, for, in the practice of their art.
they wander about the country in search of the
picturesque — should decide upon a popular make
of plate that he is reasonably sure he can pro-
cure in any out-of-the-way town.
When the photographic student sees for the
first time a certain make of plates advertised un-
der the name of "Orthochromatic," he is quite
at a loss to understand what particular peculiari-
ties are implied by this curious title. Nor will he
be much enlightened if he be told that the alter-
native name for precisely the same thing is "Iso-
chromatic." The former word signifies "correct
color," while the meaning of the latter is "equal
color," and as photography up to the present is
60 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
quite independent of color of any description, it
being unable to reproduce any of the various
tints and shades of nature by a direct photo-
graphic process — it is difficult to see just where
the application of these words comes in.
The idea that these adjectives are intended to
convey when applied to a photographic plate, is
that it is capable of reproducing colored objects
in their correct tone-relation to one another.
Everybody knows who has had a photograph ta-
ken that ordinary photography is not able to do
this. Not only does it translate all color into
sober monochrome, but the tints which it chooses
in representing any given hue are generally of a
very different shade from that which we would
select as being of equivalent light-value. A lady
who goes to the photographer to have her por-
trait taken, in a bright red dress, finds, to her
dismay, when the proofs come home, that, as far
as that garment is concerned, she appears to be
in deepest mourning, while her peacock-blue
bonnet is represented as being nearly white.
But if the photographer who has to depict so
trying a subject were to use isochromatic plates
the red dress would appear of an equivalent
shade of gray instead of black, while the blue,
instead of appearing white or nearly so, would
be of a somewhat lighter shade of grey — in fact,
the colors would be reproduced just as a painter
would show them if told to translate the subject
into black and white.
This result is brought about by treating the
plates in the course of their manufacture to a
staining process with one of the yellow aniline
dyes which gives to the bromide of silver emul-
sion a much lighter degree of sensitiveness to
yellow and red light. Still, the most highly
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 6l
color-sensitized plates are far more susceptible
to the action of what are generally called the
actinic rays — those which form the blue and
violet portions of the spectrum — and before such
plates can be made to yield correctly-toned
photographs, this super-activity of the blue and
violet rays must be reduced to a proportionate
potential by filtering out a great number of them
and allowing only a suitable quantity to pass.
A piece of what we call yellow glass only ap-
pears to us to be yellow because it has the power
of stopping all the ravs of which light is made
up, except those which produce the effect which
we describe as yellow, and from these rays, which
are the only ones to reach our eyes, we get the
impression that the piece of glass is yellow.
Now, if a piece of pale yellow glass, or stained
gelatine be placed in the lens of the camera in
such a way that all the light has to filter through
it, a large proportion of the blue and violet light
coming from the objects being photographed
will be absorbed, and a very much smaller quan-
tity will reach the photographic plate, while the
red and yellow ravs will pass unobstructed.
Then, if a plate be used which has been rendered
sensitive to the yellow rays in the manner al-
ready mentioned, a photograph will be produced
in which the various colors of nature will be rep-
resented by different shades of grey of a tone-
value which will appear to be equivalent to the
tone-values of the original colors.
This process refutes the charge that photog-
raphy cannot produce colors in their equivalent
shade of monochrome. P>y its aid all branches of
photography are improved. Landscapes are ren-
dered in a far more life-like and natural man-
ner, for the bright green trees do not appeal in
62 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
the old photography. But it is more in photo-
graphing flowers or copying paintings that the
funereal aspect which was characteristic of
orthochromatic process appears to best advan-
tage ; for in these the colors are of a more lively
nature and of a kind to aggravate the faults of
the ordinary photography.
The introduction of a yellow screen into the
lens prolongs the necessary exposure to light
to about twice to four times the time it would
otherwise require, because it filters out man}' of
the more active rays. This is one thing which
is to be borne in mind when using the process,
and the other is that the plates, being far more
sensitive to red light than those of the ordinary
kind, very much greater care is required in hand-
ling them in the dark-room. Only a very small
amount of light of the deepest ruby color obtain-
able must be allowed to reach the sensitive sur-
face at any time until after development is com-
pleted, and this necessity for working in such
deep gloom is certainly a great drawback to the
process. But where paintings and flowers have
to be% photographed, or it is desired to reproduce
special effects in nature where the colors are of
a kind to be spoiled if ordinary plates are used,
the disadvantages of the process are well \vorth
braving.
Celluloid Films are coated with the sensitive
emulsion, as well as glass plates, and in many
cases the traveling photographer will do well to
employ them, for they have some advantages
over plates. They are much lighter, and a gross
of cut films occupies but little more space than
a dozen glass plates. Glass plates and celluloid
films can in many cases be procured from the
same makers and may be treated exactly alike,
both as regards exposure and development.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 63
These films are put up in two forms, viz. : Cut
(or sheet) films and film cartridges.
The cut films are exactly like dry plates, ex-
cept that as a support for the sensitive emulsion
a sheet of celluloid is used instead of glass.
These films are cut into standard sizes and are
put up one dozen in a package in exactly the
same manner as dry plates. They are used by
means of cut film holders and are loaded into the
holders and exposed in the camera in exactly
the same manner as are dry plates.
Film Cartridges. — These are adaptable for use
only in that class of hand cameras generally de-
scribed as Kodaks and in cartridge roll holders.
,S;.vr .w-:-.. . It is upon tin- him cartridge that
Mthe success of the Kodak system is
based. It is this that has made pocket
photography practical and has made it
possible to do away with the dark
s :% ,<..-. / room in unloading' the camera.
j^Mrt^ A wooden spool with a flange on
HI I each end, between which flanges is
I wound a long strip of black paper, is
K the simple principle of the film cart-
JB HI ridge. (See Fig. 34.) Attached to
^BBSP^ the inner side of the black paper is a
FIG. 34. strip of film ; the film strip, however,
is several inches shorter than the paper strip,
and when all is wound on the spool no light can
touch the film.
When all the exposures in the cartridge have
been made the exposed cartridge is removed in
daylight without danger of injury.
The black paper running the full length of the
film, extending beyond each end and threading
into the "carrying spool" and into the "winding
reel," takes all the tension. There is no strain
6_t MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
on the film (which is carried along by the black
paper), and there are no joints of film and paper
to give way under the pull of the winding reel.
Cartridge films are procurable containing
either two, four, six or twelve exposures, or
"double-two." The "double-two" cartridges, as
the name implies, contain film for four exposures,
but are so wound that two exposures may be
made and then removed in daylight and the re-
maining two exposures threaded up for further
use ; or, if preferred, the operator may make the
entire four exposures with a single loading, and
he has the option, until making ready for the
third exposure, of handling the film in either
way.
Exposures with cartridge film are the same as
given for plates and cut films. Development of
the negative is practically the same as instruc-
tions given for developing plates. However,
some special instructions in regard to handling
them are necessary, and these appear in Chapter
on "Developing."
CHAPTER IX.
LOADING THE FILM CAMERA AND
ROLL HOLDER — LOADING THE
PLATE-HOLDER—FOCUSING.
Let it now be assumed that the embryo pho-
tographer has provided himself with the various
component parts of his equipment and is anxious
to begin active operations. The first step is to
Get Acquainted with the Camera. — "How shall
it be loaded?" This is the first question which
suggests itself to ninety-nine people out of one
hundred, and the answer is, "Do not load it — at
least, not until its workings are fully under-
stood."
The shutter should first be tried and worked
several times for both time and instantaneous
exposures, until perfect familiarity with its ac-
tion is obtained. Careful note of the diaphragms
or stops should be made, and the fact will be dis-
closed that with the largest opening the greatest
quantity of light will pass through the lens in
a given time. This will demonstrate why the
larger openings for snapshots and the smaller
ones for time exposures are used. Having mas-
tered the shutter and the focusing arrangement,
if there is one on the camera used, and having
obtained a slight idea of the conditions neces-
sary for successful picture taking, the instrument
may be loaded.
Camera (or Plate Holder) Loading. — With a
kodak or cartridge roll holder this operation is
performed in daylight and is very simple. The
film is put up in light-tight rolls, and extending
65
66 MODKRX PHOTOGRAPHY.
the full length of the strip of film and several
inches beyond each end is a strip of black paper,
which, in connection with the flanges on the
spool, forms a light-proof cartridge.
After inserting the spool and threading up the
black paper the camera is closed and the key
turned until the black paper has been reeled off
and the sensitive film brought into place in the
focal plane. The black paper runs with and be-
hind the film, and at proper intervals is marked
in white with the number of the section of film,
i, 2, 3, etc. In the back of the camera is a small
red window, through which the figures appear
as the key is turned. These figures show just
how far to turn the key and how many expos-
ures have been made. After all the exposures
have been made a few extra turns of the key
entirely covers the film with black paper, and
the camera may be unloaded in daylight.
It is all very simple, and with each camera
is a manual for the guidance of the student. The
amateur must bear constantly in mind, however,
that the black paper must be kept tightly rolled
about the film all of the time until it is in place
and the camera closed, for should the film be ex-
posed to daylight for even a hundredth part of
a second its ruin would be accomplished.
Loading with Plates. — Assuming that the am-
ateur is operating a plate camera, and has de-
cided upon the brand of plates or films he will
use, he should be reminded that the treatment
foi sheet films is precisely the same as that
for plates, concerning loading and exposures,
and the following instructions will there-
fore apply to both unless otherwise stated.
The first thing to do is to place the plate
or film in the plate-holder. Remember, the
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 67
plate is very sensitive to light — sensitive in
a way that few beginners can understand or cal-
culate. Very great care should be taken that
the dark room is safe, that no extraneous light
is allowed to enter, for if it does all future ef-
forts will be useless. The best test is for the
operator to shut himself up in a dark room until
his eyes have become accustomed to the gloom,
and if he then detects no light filtering into the
room he may consider it "safe," but if any rays or
gleams are observed entering under the door or
through crevices around the blocked up window
the apertures should be tightly closed.
The lamp by whose light the operations are to
be conducted must not necessarily be considered
"safe" because it is glazed with red glass, but it
must shed a particular quality of red light and
not too much of it.
First dust out the inside of all the plate-holders,
for every grain of dust that settles on the plates
will leave a little white speck upon the finished
negative. Then, as far away from the red light
as practicable to see, open the packet of plates.
Every pair will be face to face, with a piece of
card at the edges to prevent them from actually
touching one another. If there is any doubt as
to which is the face, remember that the shiny
side is the plain glass — or celluloid film, as the
case may be — and that, of course, is the back.
Put them in the plate-holder, one in each side.
The sensitized side of the plate has to face the
lens of the camera, so that the plate must be
placed in the plate-holder with the dull side next
the slide.
All the holders having been charged in this
manner and securely closed before leaving the
shelter of the dark room, the photographer is
68 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
ready for work, and for a beginner the subject
should be a landscape or something of that char-
acter, as portraiture is the most difficult branch
of photography.
Focusing. — Before proceeding to compose the
picture or to make the exposures it is necessary
for the amateur to learn what this much used
word "focus" signifies. The term focus means
bringing the rays of light forming the picture
through the lens to a point where they are
shown clear and distinct upon the ground glass
or similar surface. In a scene or image slightly
out of focus the lines will be blurred and run
into each other, appearing to the naked eye some-
what like a house seen in the distance through a
very heavy fog. \Yith a fixed focus camera the
lens is constructed and adjusted in the camera
by the manufacturer so that all objects that come
within the range of the lens will be in focus
where the plate-holder is placed. The adjust-
able focus camera is constructed with a ground
glass screen at the back of the camera and be-
tween it and the lens is a flexible bellows which
can be operated to bring the lens and ground
glass nearer together or farther apart as the case
may require. For instance, where the objects
to be photographed are close at hand, the lens
and ground glass -should be extended ; for ob-
jects farther away the lens and ground glass
should be brought nearer together. In making
this adjustment it is necessary to examine the
image or picture on the ground glass to deter-
mine when it is clear and sharp. The image will
appear to better advantage if the light is ex-
cluded between the eye and the ground glass
screen. This is accomplished by putting the
camera on a tripod and placing a cloth over the
AN APACHE INDIAN P.AHY, ARIZONA, ON THE
SANTA KK.
Photo by W. II. Simpson, Chicago.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 69
head and camera, excluding the light; this is
commonly called a "focusing cloth." The opera-
tion is called focusing. (See Fig. 35.) In order
to get as sharp a negative on the plate as ap-
pears on the ground glass it is absolutely neces-
sary that the plate, when inserted in the camera
box, be placed exactly the same distance from
FIG. 35.
the lens to the ground glass as it was at the time
of focusing. The squares of ground glass in
frames and plate-holders are supposed to be ac-
curately adjusted in harmony with each other to
produce this effect ; where such is not the case,
as sometimes happens, it will be necessary to
have the register between the two accurately re-
adjusted.
CHAPTER X.
LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY— ARCHI-
TECTURAL SUBJECTS.
Lighting and Composition. — The next pro-
gressive step in the ama-
teur's experience is the
arrangement or composi-
tion of his picture. Into
this the proper lighting of
his subject enters as a
most important factor.
A rule may be laid
down and followed in re-
gard to lighting. The
principal source of light
should come either from
the upper right or the
left of the scene. A scene
photographed with the
sun directly at the back of
the camera will usually be
flat or tame in photo-
graphic effect, because no
shadows are visible ; nei-
ther should the sun be di-
rectly in front of the lens,
as the scene would consist
of nearly all shadows. An
exception to this rule can
GEAND CANON OF ARIZONA, be applied to marine
Negative by T. S. Baldwin. views J the greatest
amount of shadow obtain-
able in these gives the boldest results.
70
FIG
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
7'
Painters say that the trouble with photog-
raphy is that it reproduces with perfect fidelity
the unimportant details of nature, but fails to
portray her strength and character, her subtle
moods, her broad effects. But occasionally the
camera falls into the hands of an artist who han-
dles it with the master's touch, and painters and
sculptors and critics must applaud.
Too much detail is the weak point in nine out
of every ten landscape photographs. The aim
of the artistic photographer should be to pre-
serve in his pictures that freedom from inappro-
priate objects and superfluity of detail which, by
detracting from their simplicity, destroy their
real strength and value.
A "pretty bit" is always preferable to a "gen-
eral view." It centers the interest. A whole
township on a single plate is inartistic unless
the township consists of a towering peak which
of itself is a picture. (See Figs. 36-37.)
Avoid giving the pic-
ture a mechanical look by
breaking up, so far as pos-
sible, the straight lines,
yet preserving enough of
them so that it will not be
a jumble. Do not bring
the horizon line, especial-
Iv if it be unbroken, across
the center of the picture,
but have it either above or
below the center. On the
other hand, to be success-
ful, a picture must be well
balanced in light :.:nd
, , .. .,, fe UK! TRAIN IN THE
shade, or it will appear to WOODS
be "lop-sided." Some Negative by T. S. Baldwin.
72 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
workers, and good ones, too, claim that in composi-
tion certain geometrical figures must be followed —
the triangle, the semicircle, etc. — -but if the forego-
ing hints be borne in mind they will suffice for the
beginner, will start him in the right direction and
later on, when he has had a few lessons in the
school of experience, he can if he likes, take up a
more detailed study of the rules of composition.
Exposing. — The first difficulty which presents
itself is the length of exposure. How long shall
the shutter be allowed to remain open? is the
question, and it is a most difficult one to an-
swer. Assuming that the photographer pos-
sesses only one lens, that he has decided to keep
to one size of stop for the present — say F-32 —
and that he intends only to use one speed of
plates, three of the several factors which govern
the length of the exposure are fixed and the mat-
ter is considerably simplified, but the chief fac-
tors which .remain are the nature of the subject
and the quality of the light with which it is illu-
minated.
An old adage says that exposure should be
made for the shadows and let the high lights
take care of themselves. The darkest portions
are to be found among the trees, and as a gen-
eral rule it may be taken that the nearer the
object is to the camera the longer will be the
exposure it will require, for there is less of that
ever-present haze between it and the lens, and
that haze, often invisible, reflects into the camera
, a considerable quantity of the kind of light
X which affects the plate. Let it be assumed that
a summer's day has been chosen, and the ex-
posure is to be made somewhere towards noon.
The stop is F-32, and the plate a slow one. An
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 73
exposure of three seconds should be about right,
but there are so many things which have a modi-
fying effect upon it that it is quite impossible
to give more than the merest idea of its length.
To expose correctly can only be learned by con-
siderable experience, by repeated trials and care-
ful comparisons of the results. Full directions
will be given in the chapter in which develop-
ment comes under consideration, by which the
novice can tell whether he has erred on the side
of over or under exposure, and. he will soon learn
to estimate pretty correctly the approximate ex-
tent of the error. A few trials made with intelli-
gence will speedily give him a very good idea
as to the duration of the exposure for a given
subject under given conditions, and from the
knowledge thus gained he will be able to calcu- ^
late the correct exposures for other conditions.
This same view made the subject of a photo-
graph at midday in the winter would require an
exposure of longer duration, according to the
quality of the light. Or, again, towards evening,
even in the middle of summer, when the sun is
in the west, and the whole landscape is bathed
in the reddening rays of the setting sun, the
three seconds' exposure may be multiplied with-
out fear of the picture being overdone. It is im- K
possible to teach the art of correct exposure ; it
will only come as the result of experience. The
beginner should do his best to keep the condi-
tions as invariable as possible ; that is to say,
he should, just at first, keep to one class of sub-
ject and one time of day, as well as to one lens
and one plate. Then he can get his exposure
right with very little trouble for that one set of
factors.
It is desirable that the finished photograph
should show a fair amount of detail, but in secur-
74 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
ing this result care must be exercised in order
not to over-expose the distant hills so that they
become merged in the sky and get lost. If in
the developed negative the landscape stands out
almost white, while the sky is a dense black, and
the hills much too plainly marked, the exposure
has been too short, and the result is extreme con-
trasts of black and white, with no delicate half-
tones and an absolute lack of detail in all the
deeper shadows. If, on the other hand, there is
any amount of detail in the landscape, while the
sky is a thin gray, with the hills invisible, and
there is a general dullness and lack of contrast
about the whole thing, it may be safely surmised
that over-exposure is the fault. This matter will
be more fully dealt with in the chapter on "de-
veloping." For the present I will confine myself
to again hinting that it is better to over th'an to
under expose, for this defect can often be com-
pensated for in development, while for the other
there is no cure, and we will imagine that the ex-
posure of this particular subject has been mas-
tered so that we can pass on to the consideration
Xof others.
In an open view, where there are no heavy
shadows in the foreground, the necessary ex-
posure will be much shorter, and where a land-
scape is taken from the top of a hill or high
building, the time should be very short, indeed,
for all portions of the view are distant. In a
view of this description, where there is already
a great lack of contrast, full advantage should be
taken of the fact that under-exposure, accom-
panied by judicious "forcing" in development,
tends to increase of contrast. Photographs taken
in woods and wherever there are dense masses
of foliage, will require a much longer exposure
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 75
than at first sight would seem necessary, owing
to the fact that the green light which finds its
way through the interstices of the trees is to a
great extent robbed of its actinic power, and is
no longer able to affect the sensitive plate to the
same degree.
Architectural Subjects. — Architectural sub-
jects are deservedly great favorites with many
photographers, for it is in the making of pictures
that come under this heading that photography
finds one of its most pleasing features. Its prac-
tice is not attended with any particular difficul-
ties, but it is one of those branches of the art
which will reward, by conferring the ability to
produce fresh beauties, the painstaking labor of
the most highly accomplished photographer.
Although the merest tyro may begin on archi-
tectural work at once if he please, yet it is almost
impossible to attain the highest plane of excel-
lence, for very rarely is a photograph of a given
building produced so perfect that, under certain
conditions, a better one could not be made.
FIG. 38.
Fia. 39.
These two views (Figs. 38-39) of the same
building illustrate the importance of shadows.
They were made from the same point of view.
The one at the right was photographed at 10 a.
76 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
in., the camera pointing northeast. Observe the
shadows, giving the proper projection to the
architecture.
The picture at the left was taken at i p. in.,
with the sun almost directly behind the camera.
It is thus almost devoid of shadow, resulting in a
flat and imperfect photograph.
All architecture is full of straight lines ; there-
fore it is necessary to use, when portraying it,
more than in anything else, apparatus which will
not give distortion. In the first place, a Recti-
linear lens is a necessity for reasons already
stated (see Chapter on "Lenses"), and then
again the rising front and the swing back with
which the camera is fitted, but which, up to the
present, has been somewhat of a mystery, be-
comes an important adjunct.
USE OF THE SWING BACK.
Suppose it is desired to take a photograph of
the exterior of a high building. In order to in-
clude the upper portion in the picture it will be
necessary to tilt the camera upwards. Now the
upper parts will be farther away from the lens
than the lower portions, consequently they will
be reproduced smaller in proportion, and all
parallel lines running upwards will follow the
venal law of perspective and appear to converge.
But artists do not recognize that parallel lines
running upwards in a high building must appear
in the eye of an observer stationed below to con-
verge towards the top, and buildings are so often
portrayed with the vertical lines drawn strictly
parallel that a photograph in which they are
shown convergent gives to the building a top-
pling-down appearance which is not pleasing to
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 77
the artistic eye. It is the function of the swing
back to overcome this defect. The back of the
camera should always be kept strictly vertical
when photographing- architectural subjects, and
the upright lines in the original will be pro-
duced upright in the resulting picture. Another
method by which the same result may be
brought about to a modified extent is by the em-
ployment of the rising and falling post. This
method has the disadvantage, however, that in
extreme cases it may be necessary to raise the
lens to such an extent that the light passing
through it cannot reach the lower portion of the
plate, which is therefore left blank. As regards
the actual length of exposure where architectural
subjects are concerned, this is governed in much
the same manner as in the case of landscape, but
as a general rule the times should be shorter. A
new white building will only require about half
the time that would be necessary for a landscape
view under similar conditions as to lighting, and
so on, while one that is built of red brick or
that has become blackened with age will neces-
sitate a correspondingly longer exposure.
CHAPTER XI.
PORTRAIT PHOTOGRAPHY.
Portraiture at Home. — There is no more inter-
esting branch of picture making than portraiture,
and the required acces-
sories can be found in
every home. To attain
good results it may
take a little patience
and study, but for all
this the amateur will be
well repaid in the satis-
faction brought by his
first successes. The
first element to be
taken into considera-
tion is the light. A
north light is prefera-
ble, and it should, if
possible, be unobstruct-
ed by trees or build-
ings: but where this
cannot be avoided the
disadvantage should be
compensated for by
giving additional time,
to exposure. The light
should also 'be a top
light — that is, it should
be above the head of the sitter, a result easily ac-
complished by opening blinds and shades to their
full limit and then pinning a cloth over the lower
half of the window.
78
A PROFILE PORTRAIT.
Photographed in an ordinary sit-
ting room with arrangement of
light, camera and subject ac-
cording to illustration Fig. 40.
Negative by T. S. Baldwin.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. jg
Cross Light to Be Avoided. — All light should
come from one source, otherwise the shadows
will be so cut up as to lend a disagreeable and
unnatural appearance to the face.
A room with a large window should be chosen
as the place for operations, and a day when the
sun is not shining through the window, but when
its light is reflected in by a white cloud or a light-
painted house opposite. Place the sitter about
three or four feet from the window and slightly
behind it, so that the majority of the light will
fall upon his face from the front and from above.
This will probably leave the other side of the
face in deep shadow — a grave fault, which must
be removed by the aid of a white screen, such as
can be improvised by hanging a white sheet over
a clothes-horse. This reflector should be
placed beside the sitter, but slightly in front
on the opposite side to the window, and
its position may be varied and the quantity and
direction of the light from the window modified
by drawing the curtains from place to place, un-
til that kind of illumination is obtained which is
calculated to give the best effect to the sitter's
particular style of features. In portraiture, as
in most indoor photography, there is a tendency
to very high contrasts in the resultant print. A
face which is much more brightly lighted on one
side than on the other, though not sufficiently so
as to seem objectionable, will appear in the pho-
tograph perfectly white and absolutely black —
like so much chalk and soot. Everything should
be done to lessen the contrasts by carefully ar-
ranging the light before exposure, and no haste
should be made to put the cap on the lens or to
close the shutter, for a full exposure will ma-
terially help to get the desired effect. Of course,
80 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
it should not be overdone. There should be con-
siderably more light on one side of the face than
on the other, or it will appear perfectly flat and
chalky, with many of the features invisible alto-
gether. It is only necessary to remember that
in indoor portraiture the contrasts are liable to
exaggeration, and precautions should be taken
against an undue hardness in the resulting print.
How the sitter is to be placed depends largely
upon the features. Care should be taken to have
the eyes in an easy and natural position and
looking very nearly straight ahead. If turned
decidedly to either side they will give a disagree-
able expression, a sort of caricature of slyness.
The background should be appropriate and
simple and should form a contrast with the sitter.
A portiere hung against the wall makes a very
satisfactory dark background, and where a light
one is desirable a sheet will answer the purpose ;
but in case it is used the assistance of a third
party should be called in to keep the sheet in mo-
tion during exposure, so that it will be out of
focus. A good light background may frequently
be obtained by posing the subject in front of a
lace window curtain, the shades, of course, being
drawn down in such a case. As a rule, however,
the dark backgrounds are more desirable, and
prints from negatives made with them are more
readily handled by the amateur than those with
light backgrounds, which require vignetting.
After the first experiments the student will
learn to study his sitter's face critically and will
become able to judge by a rapid scanning of the
features whether a profile, a half or a full front
will give the most artistic results.
The largest stop that will cut the picture
sharply should be employed, thus making a short
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 8l
exposure possible, for the shorter the exposure
the more natural will be the expression on the
face of the sitter. No matter if the background
is out of focus ; that is merely a necessary evil
in the picture and will divert less attention from
the subject if a trifle subdued by indistinctness.
In the case of a portrait taken in the interior
of an ordinary room, the larger lens aperture is
a positive necessity, for the exposure necessary
with a smaller one would be so inordinately long
as to tire out the most patient sitter.
It is difficult to give an idea of what would
be the correct exposure for a portrait in
an ordinary room ; there are so many vary-
ing conditions, to be considered that any at-
tempt to take them into account in imagination
would only be confusing. There is nothing for
it but for the tyro to make a guess at its length
and then to correct it according to results. Then,
having ascertained what length of time will yield
satisfactory results under a certain set of con-
ditions, its estimation for varying cases is as
much a matter of calculation as anything else.
However, an approximate idea of the length of
exposure necessary may be gathered from the
table, given under the chapter, "Photograph-
ing Interiors.'' Remember that when you double
the diameter of the aperture of the lens you in-
crease its size four-fold, so that it will pass four
times as much light and the photograph taken
with it will only require one-quarter the time of
exposure. The length of the exposure is in-
versely as the square of the diameter of the lens
aperture.
Illustrations. — The following illustrations
(Fig. 40) will greatly assist the amateur to a
82 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
clear understanding of the arrangement of the
room and the effect of light and shade on the
sitter.
This illustration shows a room 16x20 feet,
containing two windows, both fronting south.
The window at the right is completely covered
by an opaque curtain, and the other window has
FIG. 40.
its lower half covered by a black cloth, leaving
the upper half open, thus admitting the light to
make the portrait. Background and chair were
placed as shown in illustration. The child's por-
trait (Fig. 41) was produced as shown in Fig.
40. The black line on the floor shows the posi-
tion of the reflector, which was three and one-
half feet from the child. The chair in which she
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 83
was sitting was two and one-half feet from the
window, and the background was three feet be-
hind the child.
The portrait shown in Fig. 42 was taken in a
room with three windows. Two of these were
closed, admitting no light. The window at the
right of the child, and on the casing of which
the child rests its hand, was closed by a dark
FIG. 41.
curtain up to a point even with the child's head.
The light producing the portrait conies only
from the upper part of this window. The re-
flector used to soften the shadow side of the face
was a sheet of white cloth about five feet square
tacked to the tops of two high-backed chairs
about three and one-half feet from the child. It
stood at an angle of about 45 degrees to a line
84 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
drawn between the child and the camera. The
walls of the room served as a background.
The portrait shown in Fig. 43 is that of a
young lady taken in the same position as por-
trait of child shown in Fig. 41, .with no change
of either background, reilector, light or camera.
FIG. 42.
The portrait shown in Fig. 44 was made under
the same conditions, except that the background
was moved nearer to the wall, the camera was
moved farther over to the middle of the room,
and the reflector was placed nearer to the sitter.
A white background should not be used, for the
reason that it reflects so much white light.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 85
The silhouette (Fig. 45) was made by placing
the sitter at an ordinary window, with the cam-
era lower than the head. A snapshot exposure
was made, the window or sky serving as back-
ground.
What is known as a Rembrandt lighting is
often very effective and is obtained by photo-
graphing from the shaded instead of from the
lighted side of the face. The relative proportion
of the shaded and lighted sides of the face can
FIG. 43. FIG. 44.
be changed by simply turning the sitter's head
toward or away from the light. A slight change
in position makes a wonderful change in the light-
ing, and the sitter's face should IDC carefully
studied to obtain the best effects.
In "A Rembrandt Portrait" (Sec Fig. 46) we
give a marked case of this lighting. In "The
Chorister" (See Fig. 47) the artist has used the
Rembrandt lighting but a trifle. Between these
two extremes many effects can be obtained that
are also desirable.
86
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
Outdoor Portraiture. — Portraits can be taken
very well in the open air, and, indeed, provided
certain precautions be observed, this method is
FIG. 45.
FIG. 46.
more likely to give quite as satisfactory results in
the hands of an amateur who does not possess
a regular studio as \vill indoor work. In open
air portraiture, to cut off the light which comes
in the directions in which it is not required in
order to give value to that which falls in the
right direction, the sitter should be placed in an
angle of a wall so that the building shields him
from the light on one side, and if there be any
means of cutting off some of the top light, so
Xmuch the better. As an idea of the exposure
required in such a case, between five and six
seconds may be quoted, where the F-32 lens
aperture is retained with the slow plates on a
fine day in summer. This should be only taken
as a basis from which the exposure may be cal-
jXculated ; for in a general way it will be better
to employ a larger lens aperture and faster plate
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 87
and give a proportionately shorter exposure. A
stop of four times the diameter, which would be
called F-8, would necessitate an exposure, as al-
ready explained, only one-sixteenth as long, or
FIG. 47.
under half a second; and in this time the sitter
1 will have little chance of moving, while the pho-
tographer has the opportunity of seizing that
moment for exposure when the subject appears
88 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
at his best, without being- obliged to run the risk
of spoiling everything by giving warning that
he- is ready to take the picture.
Portraits should not be made in the sunlight.
However, where figures are merely accessories
to a landscape, or a part of some interesting
scene, there is no harm in snapping them in a
bright light, but where the face is the central
point of interest in the picture it must be in the
shade. Strong sunlight destroys the expression
of the eyes, while the heavy shadows cast by
the nose and other features, or by the hat, if one
be worn, will entirely distort the face, and while
a likeness may remain, it will certainly be an
unkind one. Outdoor portraits should, there-
fore, be taken in the shade of a veranda or tree
and made by time exposure. The time to be
given must be learned by experience, depending
largely as it does on the amount of reflected
light, the hour of the day and the time of year.
After a few trials the amateur will be able to
properly judge the light and time the exposure,
but he should understand that it is easier to
save an overexposed than an underexposed nega-
tive, and he should therefore be sure to give time
enough.
Of one thing, however, he should be careful.
Many a good portrait has been ruined by an in-
appropriate background, and there is no more
unsightly or more commonly used background
than the clapboarded side of a house. The regu-
lar lines crossing the picture are most trying to
the eyes and are most inartistic. Backgrounds
as a rule should form a contrast with the sitter
and should not be a prominent feature of the
picture. A trellis of vines, the dense shade of a
grove back of the subject, or a grassy slope all
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
make appropriate backgrounds when properly
handled.
Portraiture in the Studio. — The requisite
FIG. 49.
necessary to produce good portraits is a proper-
ly adjusted light. The half tone cuts under the
sub-caption "Lighting" which follows will
give an approximate idea of portrait light-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
ing, the light for which should come from
one source only, and that above the head,
to the right or left, as the case may be. A suit-
able background should be used, which consists
of some tinted or painted material of a semi-
gray or neutral color, usually placed a couple
of feet back of the subject, and a reflector or
grading screen consisting of white muslin
stretched smoothly on a frame at least four to
six feet square, placed at an angle of 45 degrees
FIG. 50.
to the imaginary line between the lens and the
subject, and the proper distance from the model.
Lighting. — Long before photography was
known the old masters of painting discovered
the true system of so lighting the human face
as to display its most striking characteristics.
The painter, however, could modify the lights
and shades with brush and colors, while the pho-
tographer must light his subjects in the exact
proportions he desires to reproduce.
The portrait shown in Fig. 50 illustrates what
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
is called artists' lighting. It was taken in an
ordinary studio, with curtains arranged as shown
in Fig. 49. The relative positions of sitter, back-
ground, camera and reflector are shown in Dia-
gram No. i, Fig. 53.
The portrait shown in Fig. 51 was taken with
the sitter and the light in the
same relative positions as for the
portrait shown in Fig. 50. but
the camera, the reflector and the
background were changed to the
positions shown in Diagram No.
2, Fig. 53-
The portrait shown in Fig. 52,
showing the dark line down the
entire profile, was photograped
in the same room as Figs. 50 and
51. but was changed to the other side of the light,
as shown in Diagram No. 3, Fig. 53, no reflector
being used.
Many other pleasing effects can be obtained by ar-
ranging camera, background and subject accord-
ing to Diagrams 4 and 5 of Fig. 53.
FIG. 52.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
DIAGRAMNo.4
i ••
D/AGRAMNo.S
FIG. 53.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 93
Studio Portrait Equipment.
CHAPTER XIT.
PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIORS.
Lighting. — In photographing interiors it is
necessary to give greatly increased exposures,
varied, of course, accord-
ing to the illumination,
the color of the walls, fur-
niture, etc. Even in well
lighted rooms exposures
should seldom be less
than ten to twenty sec-
onds, and others from
twenty-five seconds to
hours, as in the case of
some churches with col-
ored glass windows,
where light is subdued by
the glass. The best re-
sults in this class of pho-
tography are obtained
by plates specially prepared, called "non-hala-
tion," or "double-coated," which admit of a wide
latitude of exposure. \Yhen the exposure has
been correct the most perfect and beautiful re-
sults can be obtained by proper development.
Photographing interiors and portraiture in or-
dinary rooms are closely allied, for in many re-
spects there are marked points of similarity. For
instance, there is a decided tendency to the ex-
aggeration of the contrasts, which has to be over-
come in the same manner in one case as in the
other, by equalizing the illumination as much as
possible, reducing the depth of the shadows and
94
CORRIOOU OF COXGRES
SIGNAL LIBRARY,
WASHINGTON*, D. C.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 95
toning down the brilliancy of the high lights, and
by giving exposures of amply sufficient length.
As a general rule it may be taken that in the
photography of interiors it is better to use a
small stop in the lens and to give a correspond-
ingly long exposure. This will tend to reduce the
inordinate contrasts, and there is seldom any
reason why the time should be unduly hurried,
as is often required in the case of portraiture.
The first thing to be considered in regard to
interior photography, as in most other branches
of the art, is the point of view from which the
picture shall be taken. In the case of a small
room it is impossible to take in anything but
just one corner of it — unless a wide-angle lens is
employed — and the difficulty which immediately
presents itself is to make that one corner appear
in the photograph as representative of the whole
as possible. A wide-angle lens is an instrument
which has been designed to overcome this dif-
ficulty in connection with the small angle of view
which the ordinary lens is able to embrace. It is
a lens of very short focus in relation to the size
of the plate which it will cover, and consequently
it gives much smaller images and can throw a
large quantity of them onto a plate of given size.
However, the result is also very apt to be that
the lines of perspective are very much distorted
in a photograph taken in this manner, and a
small room is made to appear like a long gallery
filled with horribly disproportionate furniture.
It is perhaps better to be contented with an in-
complete but true representation of an interior
than to produce a view which shows more but
shows it incorrectly. In a general way it is best
to take up a position for the camera in one cor-
ner of the room, for in a square room this gives
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 95
toning down the brilliancy of the high lights, and
by giving exposures of amply sufficient length.
As a general rule it may be taken that in the
photography of interiors it is better to use a
small stop in the lens and to give a correspond-
ingly long exposure. This will tend to reduce the
inordinate contrasts, and there is seldom any
reason why the time should be unduly hurried,
as is often required in the case of portraiture.
The first thing to be considered in regard to
interior photography, as in most other branches
of the art, is the point of view from which the
picture shall be taken. In the case of a small
room it is impossible to take in anything but
just one corner of it — unless a wide-angle lens is
employed — and the difficulty which immediately
presents itself is to make that one corner appear
in the photograph as representative of the whole
as possible. A wide-angle lens is an instrument
which has been designed to overcome this dif-
ficulty in connection with the small angle of view
which the ordinary lens is able to embrace. It is
a lens of very short focus in relation to the size
of the plate which it will cover, and consequently
it gives much smaller images and can throw a
large quantity of them onto a plate of given size.
However, the result is also very apt to be that
the lines of perspective are very much distorted
in a photograph taken in this manner, and a
small room is made to appear like a long gallery
filled with horribly disproportionate furniture.
It is perhaps better to be contented with an in-
complete but true representation of an interior
than to produce a view which shows more but
shows it incorrectly. In a general way it is best
to take up a position for the camera in one cor-
ner of the room, for in a square room this gives
96 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
a greater distance, and the opposite corner has
better pictorial possibilities than a flat wall
would have. The camera should be placed as
nearly as possible at the height of the eye, so
that the resulting photograph will represent the
view as it would be seen by a person standing
at the point whence the photograph was taken.
Again, as regards exposure, it is impossible to
' give any definite instructions, for it may vary to
any extent from half a minute to half an hour,
and under difficult conditions may easily reach
half a clay or even more. The only thing in the
nature of a suggestion which I can give is that
the beginner try an exposure about ten times as
long as that which he would guess to be correct,
and he probably will not be far out. Unless non-
halation plates are used he should be very care-
ful that no windows form any portion of the
picture, unless it is absolutely impossible to leave
them out of it, for these, being far more brilliant-
ly lighted than the other portions, will be suffi-
ciently exposed when the rest of the picture re-
^.' quires a hundred times as long. The result of
including them would be that the extra exposure,
as it were, would, by the action known as hala-
tion, spread to the surrounding portions of the
picture and fog them in that distressing manner
sometimes seen in photographs of churches and
other similar subjects. If the light from the
window which must appear in the picture can
be blocked out by such means as drawing a
heavy blind or hanging a thick sheet outside —
the interior course receiving its illumination
from some other source — there is no reason why
' the result should not be satisfactory, and other-
wise a great deal may be done bv the use of some
form of non-halation or "backed" plates.
Care should also be taken that no polished metal
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 97
objects are allowed to reflect light directly into
the camera, for if they do, except where the spe-
cially prepared plates are used, such things will
appear surrounded with a halo which will not
add to their beauty.
Approximate Time Needed for Interior Ex-
posures.— The following table is an excellent
guide for making interior exposures, and is based
upon the time needed for exposures with the
stop ordinarily used for snapshots in single lens
cameras, and with the No. 8 stop in all rapid rec-
tilinear lenses. When a smaller stop is used the
time must be increased proportionately:
White walls and more than one window —
Bright sun outside, 2 seconds ; hazy sun, 5 sec-
onds ; cloudy bright, 10 seconds ; cloudy dull, 20
seconds.
White walls and only one window — Bright
sun outside, 3 seconds: hazy sun, 8 seconds;
cloudy bright, 15 seconds; cloudy dull, 30 sec-
onds.
Medium colored walls and hangings and more
than one window — Bright sun outside, 4 sec-
onds; hazy sun, 10 seconds; cloudy bright, 20
seconds: cloudy dull, 40 seconds.
Medium colored walls and hangings and
only one window — Bright sun outside, 6 sec-
onds; hazy sun, 15 seconds: cloudy bright, 30
seconds ; cloudy dull, 60 seconds.
Dark colored walls and hangings and more
than one window — Bright sun outside, 10 sec-
onds: hazy sun, 20 seconds: cloudy bright, 40
seconds : cloudy dull, I minute 20 seconds.
Dark colored walls and hangings and only one
window — Bright sun outside, 20 seconds; hazy
sun, 40 seconds; cloudy bright, 80 seconds;
cloudy dull, 2 minutes 40 seconds.
98 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
The foregoing is calculated for rooms whose
windows get the direct light from the sky from
three hours after sunrise until three hours before
sunset. If earlier or later the time required will
be longer.
CHAPTER XIII.
FLASHLIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY.
Pictures by Flashlight. — The rays of old Sol,
once an all-important factor in picture making,
are no longer an essential for indoor work. For
capturing the beauties of the landscape we still
depend upon him, but for interior work, espe-
cially at night, man's ingenuity has supplied a
substitute for the sun's rays equally effective and
more manageable. For many purposes, in fact,
the flashlight is more desirable than sunlight. It
can always be depended upon to shine when
wanted and with just the proper brilliancy; it
can always be depended upon to shine when
ows fall in the desired direction, and, photo-
graphically speaking, it turns night into day.
To the amateur "bottled sunlight" is an especial
convenience, for his photographic work is fre-
quently confined to the night time, to say noth-
ing of the many times that he brings the flash-
light into play in photographing his friends at
evening gatherings. Indeed, it is as a means of
photographing one's friends on such occasions
that the flashlight is most commonly used, but
the experienced amateur knows of many other
ways in which to avail himself of its actinic
powers.
Frequently it is desired to take a photograph
of an interior which, by reason of a lack of illu-
mination, or because some window which can-
not be covered comes within range of the cam-
era, is impracticable by daylight. In such cases
a charge of flash powder solves the problem.
99
100
MODERX PHOTOGRAPHY.
Again, it is desired to photograph a very large
room which is lighted from only one side by
d?ylight. To get a full time exposure in the
darkest corner of the room would cause a de-
FIG. 54.
cided overexposure near the windows. A flash
of powder, concealed from direct line with the
lens by some article of furniture or by a screen,
illuminates the dark corner and gives a prop-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. IOI
erly lighted exposure of the entire room. These
are the ordinary uses of the flashlight, and by
following the simple rules laid down the ama-
teur can make pictures with as great an assur-
ance of success as when making snapshots out
of doors. l;or the production of unusual effects,
however, one must study all the conditions,
weighing carefully cause and effect, and must
not yield to disappointment if success be not at-
tained at first. There are many ways in which
the flash may be made to co-operate with other
artificial light, or with daylight, to produce a
unique or artistic effect, and to the serious
worker it offers another means to the end most
desired by all photographic workers — pictorial
effect.
Flash powders are put up in three ways: In
bottled form for use in the flash lamp, in cart-
ridges having fuses and requiring no extras, and
in flash sheets, which are used by simply pin-
ning them up against a cardboard on the wall
and igniting the lower corner.
The same general rules will apply whether the
lamp, the cartridge or the flash sheet be used.
Preparation of the Flashlight. — The light
should always be placed two feet behind and two
to three feet to one side of the camera. If placed
in front of or on a line with the front of camera,
the flash would strike the lens and blur the pic-
ture. It should be placed at one side as well as
behind, so as to throw a shadow and give a little
relief in lighting. The flash should be at the
same height or a little higher than the camera.
A piece of cardboard a foot square placed under
the powder will prevent any sparks from the
flash doing damage. A sheet of white cardboard
102 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
set up behind the flash will act as a reflector and
increase the strength of the picture.
Taking the Picture. — Having the camera and
the powder both in position, the camera should
be set shutter open, as for a time exposure, but
the stop ordinarily employed for snapshots
should be employed. When the powder is ig-
nited there will be a bright flash, which will in-
stantly impress the picture on the sensitive film.
Then close the shutter.
The Powder. — The amount of powder re-
quired to light a room varies with the distance
of the object farthest away from the camera and
the color of the walls and hangings.
TABLE.
For 10 feet distance and light walls and hang-
ings, use I cartridge No. 2, I even teaspoonful ; I
flash sheet.
For 10 feet distance and dark walls and hang-
ings, use 2 cartridges No. 2, 2 even teaspoonfuls ;
2 flash sheets.
For 15 feet distance and light walls and hang-
ings, use 2 cartridges No. 2, 2 even teaspoonfuls ;
2 flash sheets.
For 15 feet distance and dark walls and hang-
ings, use 3 cartridges No. 2, 3 even teaspoonfuls ;
3 flash sheets.
For 25 feet distance and light walls and hang-
ings, use 3 cartridges No. 2, 3 even teaspoonfuls ;
3 flash sheets.
For 25 feet distance and dark walls and hang-
ings, use 4 cartridges No. 2, 4 even teaspoonfuls ;
4 flash sheets.
Note. — 'The No. i cartridges hold 50 per cent
more powder and the No. 3 about half as much
as the No. 2, and should be used accordingly.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 103
X Portraits. — Place the sitter in a chair partly
facing the camera (which should be at the height
of an ordinary table), and turn the face slightly
towards the camera. The proper distance from
the camera to the subject can be ascertained by
looking at the image in the finder.
The powder should be on the side of the cam-
era away from the face — that is, the sitter should
not face the flash.
Groups. — Arrange the chairs in the form of a
semi-circle, facing the camera, so that each chair
will be exactly the same distance from the cam-
era. Half the persons composing the group
should be seated and the rest should stand be-
hind the chairs. In case any of the subjects are
seated on the floor the limbs should be drawn
up close to the body, not extended towards the
camera.
The Background. — In making single portraits
or groups care should be taken to have a suit-
able background against which the figures will
show in relief; a light background is better than
a dark one, and often a single figure or two will
show up well against a lace curtain. For larger
groups a medium light will be suitable.
The finder on the camera will help the oper-
ator to compose the group so as to get the best
effect. In order to make the image visible in the
finder the room should be well lighted with ordi-
nary lamplight, which may be left on while the
picture is being made, provided none of the
lights are so placed that they show in the finder,
or if a focusing camera is used employ the
ground glass screen in the usual manner.
When Using Flash Cartridges. — Remove the
cover from the cartridge and place it upon a
cardboard. All being in readiness, as before de-
104 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
scribed, open the camera shutter, ignite the fuse
while at arm's length, protecting the eyes in the
meantime from the brilliant flash. Close the
camera shutter.
If two cartridges are to be used the contents
of one of them can be poured into the other,
care being taken, however, that if any of the
powder spills over it does not lie in such
a position as to practically shorten the fuse.
Fuses used on these cartridges are very quick.
When Using Flash Sheets. — Pin a flash sheet
by one corner to a piece of cardboard which has
previously been fixed in a perpendicular position.
If the cardboard is white it will act as a reflector
and increase the strength of the picture. All be-
ing in readiness, as before described, open the
camera shutter, stand at arm's length and touch
a match to the lower corner of the flash sheet.
Close the camera shutter.
When two or more sheets are to be used they
should be pinned to the cardboard, one above
the other, the corners slightly overlapping.
As a matter of precaution, place a .piece of
cardboard beneath as well as one behind the
flash sheet, so that in case a piece of burning
powder should fall it will do no injury.
In General. — In portrait work it is always best
to have the room well lighted when making the
flash, if it can be done in such a way that none
of the lights come within the range of the lens.
If the room is darkened the sudden flash of the
powder so strains the eyes of the sitters that it
almost invariably gives them a staring look,
whereas if the room is already well illuminated
/by gas or lamplight the strain is not great and
^•the eyes will have a natural expression. Of
course, where the room is brightly lighted the
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. IO5
shutter should not be opened until the instant
before the flash is made, and should be closed
quickly after the flash is over.
When more than one flashlight is to be taken
the windows should be opened and time allowed
between each flash to free the room thoroughly
from smoke, otherwise all of the pictures after
the first one are liable to have a "foggy" effect.
Good flash powders give a minimum of smoke,
but the lens is even keener than the eye, and
what will seem to be but little smoke in a room
will oftentimes have a decided effect upon tlv.>
picture.
When, for any reason, it is necessary that the
shutter remain closed until the instant the flash
is discharged and be closed again instantly after-
ward, it is well to use a flash lamp, as by so
doing the shutter can be operated with one hand
and the flash with the other, and their action
thus made simultaneous.
In using the flash sheets it should be borne in
mind that they are not instantaneous, and in por-
trait work the subjects should, therefore, be
warned to remain still the same as if for a time
exposure. For photographing voting children or
large groups these sheets are not recommended,
.owing to the fact that it is difficult to keep the
subjects quiet during exposure. About one and
one-half seconds are consumed in burning a sin-
gle sheet, and the light is much less brilliant
' than is the instantaneous flash. This is a decided
advantage where the subjects can be depended
upon to keep quiet, as the eyes are not strained
by the flash and do not have the staring effect
.\so often seen in flashlight pictures.
Secondary Uses of the Flashlight. — The ama*
teur ambitious of securing pictorial effects will
IO6 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
often find an opportunity to use the flash in con-
nection with some other light, either artificial
or daylight. Fig. 54, at the beginning of this
chapter, shows a picture taken in one of the
Eastman Kodak Company's dark rooms by
means of the flash in conjunction with the in-
candescent lights. In the dark room these lights
are covered with orange paper, but for this occa-
sion the paper was removed from one side, so
that a strong light would be thrown upon each
operator as he stood at his developing tray. Two
charges of flash powder of about one thimbleful
each were then arranged, one near the camera
and the other behind a screen about half way
down the room. The subjects being posed, two
minutes' exposure was given by the electric
lights, followed by the firing of two small
charges of flash powder to bring out just a trifle
of detail in the shadows. To the eyes of those
familiar with the gloom of the dark room this
picture is strikingly effective, especially when
the lights and high lights are given an orange
tint.
The portrait of the well-fed monk, entitled
"Come We to This?" (See Fig. 55) is another
illustration of what can be accomplished through
a combination of artificial lights. After arrang-
ing the subject and accessories a bicycle lamp,
put inside a box which stood between the skull
and scroll, was so placed that it threw a pow-
erful light on the subject's face, and was in a
line toward the candle. After two minutes' ex-
posure the box and lamp were quickly removed,
the candle lighted, a weak flashlight made and
the shutter closed.
These two illustrations are given merely to
show the possibilities of producing pictorial re-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
107
suits by a combination of the flash with other
artificial lights. They will suggest to the ama-
teur many ways in which this light can be util-
ized in producing artistic effects — the light from
FIG. 55.
a reading lamp, or from the grate fire, the light
from the moon — can all be made to work in such
harmony with the flash as to produce photo-
graphs which are not only unusual and novel
IO8 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
but have also a lifelikeness and fidelity to nature
that make them pictures. The flashlight is one
more agent that assists in making the photog-
rapher the master of his camera. Having con-
trol, not only of his lens, shutter and chemicals,
but of the source and volume of his light, his
work becomes creative, and even the devotees of
palette and brush must acknowledge, if his re-
sults are pictorial, that he is an artist, not a
"mere copyist."
Warning! Where Using a Flashlight Lamp
always turn the burner away from the flash pan
when the latter is being filled.
Never fill the pan when the burner is lighted
and toward the pan.
Never light the burner when it is over the
powder.
Never pour the powder from the bottle di-
rectly into the pan.
Always use spoon or measuring cup.
Never hold bulb in hand when turning burner
over powder. An accidental squeeze of bulb
would discharge the flash.
Never use flashlight powder in magazine
lamps.
CHAPTER XIV.
MISCELLANEOUS BRANCHES OF PHO-
TOGRAPHY.
Snapshots and Instantaneous Photography. —
There is a great deal of misconception in the
public mind with regard to what is called instan-
taneous photography. Many people seem to
consider that it is quite a distinct invention, and
that it requires a peculiar set of apparatus. It is
not so. If you possess a lens which is sufficient-
ly perfect to enable you to use a large aperture
without seriously impairing its denning powers,
and you use a rapid plate, you will simply re-
quire a mechanical contrivance to uncover the
lens and cover it up again very quickly, in order
to blossom out as a full-blown instantaneous
photographer, only you must confine yourself to
brilliantly lighted subjects. It is here that the
difference lies. An instantaneous photograph
can only be taken in a good light.
There is a strong temptation towards indis-
criminate snapshotting when using a hand cam-
era, for a new plate is so easily brought into po-
sition and exposed that the user is often inclined
to waste it on an unworthy subject. Care and
thought should always be bestowed upon every
photograph that is taken, whether it be an 8xio
landscape or a 4x5 snapshot, and the knowledge
which has been gained in landscape and similar
work should be applied to the apparently much
simpler hand camera photography. A street
scene can only be successfully taken in the
109
110 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
brightest hours near noon, because it contains all
those elements — heavy shadows in the fore-
ground, etc. — which in landscape work necessitate
a longer exposure, and as in this case the time
cannot be drawn out because of the moving ob-
jects in the picture, the other factor — -light —
must be increased in compensation. Out in the
country, however, where the light is not partially
absorbed by a heavy pall of smoke, those pleas-
ing little studies of children and "grown-ups"
and of pastoral life generally, of which the hand
camera is such an excellent portrayer, may be
successfully attempted in spring or autumn,
while sea and sky effects — the brightest things
in nature — can be photographed in midwinter,
and even skating scenes, when the sun is shin-
ing, and there is plenty of snow about to reflect
its light, come just within the scope of the hand
camera bearer.
The tv/o great things to bear in mind when
contemplating instantaneous exposures are :
Hold the camera perfectly still, for the least
tremor is disastrous, and be quite sure there is
sufficient light upon the subject. Then with
rapid plates and a quick lens and an eye well
enough trained to choose a good position, a good
subject, and to seize the right moment for ex-
posure, a satisfactory photograph can hardly fail
to result.
Photographing Moving Objects. — There is
probably nothing in picture taking in which the
amateur asks more unreasonable things than in
the making of snapshots of rapidly moving ob-
jects. If, for instance, he is an enthusiastic bi-
cyclist, he takes his camera to the first race meet,
secures a position alongside the tape, and as the
riders finish, sprinting at a 1 140 clip, he takes a
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. I I I
broadside of them from a distance of ten feet
and is disappointed in the resulting blur, for he
has nothing else. Now, let us see the reason
ix for this.
If he has a double lens instrument with pneu-
matic shutter it has worked in approximately
1-50 of a second, an apparently very short space
of time, but we find on figuring it out that a bi-
cyclist riding at the rate of a mile in one minute
forty seconds covers 52.8 feet in a second, or over
twelve inches in 1-50 of a second, the time the
shutter is open — a sufficient distance to ruin the
image. The distance the image will move on the
plate during exposure is to the distance the ob-
ject moves, as the focal length of lens is to dis-
tance from lens to object. In this case we will
suppose the focus of lens to be six inches, and
we know the distance from lens to object to
be ten feet (120 inches) and the distance the ob-
ject moves approximately twelve inches. We
will let X stand for distance image moves on the
plate and it gives us the following equation :
X : 12 : : 6 : 120 — 6-10. Of course, the object
moving 6-10 of an inch on the plate ruins the
picture. We find then that in order to take
pictures of moving objects at right angles there
are two factors of prime importance — the speed
of shutter and the distance from the object.
In the ordinary amateur outfit the shutter speed
cannot be materially increased and he must there-
fore take the picture from further away. Ex-
periment has proven that in order to successfully
take pictures of rapidly moving horses, etc., from
a position near by and at right angles the shutter
must work in from 1-500 to i-iooo of a second
(Muybridge claimed to have used a shutter work-
ing in 1-2000 of a second) and this extreme speed
112 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
necessitates a special camera and lens as well
as a special shutter, and then the resulting photo-
graphs are mere silhouettes, because with the
present speed of plates and films there is not
X'time to get any detail. But there are tricks in
' all trades and satisfactory pictures of rapidly
moving objects can be readily made by photo-
graphing them from partly in front as well as
from a reasonable distance. The accompanying
picture (Fig. 56), a railroad train moving at full
speed, shows plainly what can be done in this
FIG. 50.
direction. It was made with a small kodak and
is a good illustration of what can be accom-
plished by taking the picture from a point at a
considerable distance from the object and also
-somewhat ahead of it. By acting on this hint
the amateur can soon learn to take pictures of
rapidly moving objects, and in such a manner
as to avoid materially the disagreeable effect of
blurring.
Copying. — Tt occasionally happens that the
amateur mav wish to make a photographic copy
of a painting or engraving of another photo-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. llj
graph which has acquired value owing to the
death, perhaps, of the original of the portrait.
Where any quantity of such work has to be
done special apparatus should be employed,
whereby the camera may be always retained with
its optical axis exactly at right angles to the
plane of the picture to be copied, but for the
occasional requirements of the amateur a more
makeshift method will be found to answer the
purpose. The picture to be copied should be
attached by any ready means to a vertical board
placed as near as possible to a window through
which a strong diffused light shines upon it.
A very good plan is to attach it to the folding
shutter of the window, if it has one, for that can
be placed at different angles until a position is
found where the light falls upon it in the most
suitable direction. The camera, which must be
of the long bellows variety, so as to admit of
being racked out to a considerable extent, is
placed exactly opposite it, both as regards height
and lateral position, and it will be found that
some considerable maneuvering is necessary in
order to bring the image into the desired posi-
tion on the ground glass screen and of the right
size and in good focus. When this is satisfac-
torily accomplished the smallest stop should be
inserted in the lens and a rather long exposure
given.
Care should be taken that the lighting is not
too much from the side of the grain of the paper,
or the brush marks, as the case may be, will be
painfully apparent on the finished copy; but, on
the other hand, the light must not fall too per-
pendicularly upon the work, or some of it will
be reflected directly into the lens from the shiny
surface, which last state is worse than the first.
114 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
In the case of engravings or other pictures hav-
ing black lines on a white ground, the exposure
should be comparatively short, in order to avoid
the flatness which results from weakness of con-
trast in the negative, and in copying paintings
and all colored objects very great advantage will
accrue from the use of orthochromatic plates in
conjunction with a yellow screen, the uses of
which have been fully explained in another chap-
ter.
Reducing and Enlarging. — The same rule as
given for copying can be applied to these pro-
cesses. Assuming that it is desired to obtain a
small negative from a larger print, the print is
placed in position as outlined above and the
camera is moved from it until the image shown
on the ground glass is of the desired size. The
camera is then focused and the exposure made.
The same rule applies to the making of a nega-
tive larger than the print from which it is copied.
If the amateur has an 8xio camera and desires to
make an 8xio negative from a 4x5 print, the print
is placed in position according to directions
given for copying. The camera is moved toward
same and roughly focused until the image shown
on the ground glass covers the glass completely.
kThe camera is then sharply focused and exposure
made.
How to Make an Enlarged Negative. — If the
operator with the Sxio camera desires to make,
say, a 14x17 negative the process of making the
enlargement is entirely different.
A means by which the user of a small camera
can turn out large pictures is by making an en-
larged negative and printing the picture direct
from it by contact, according to any of the print-
ing methods in general use. The making of an
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 115
enlarged negative is a very similar operation to
the production of an enlarged bromide print
(See Chapter XX), the chief difference being
that a large sheet of glass is handled instead of
a piece of paper.
The number of operations required is doubled,
for two negatives and two positives have to
be made before the photograph is finished. How-
ever, it is not feasible to make a direct photo-
graphic enlargement on platinotype or any of the
printing-out papers, and therefore it occasionally
happens that an enlarged negative is a neces-
sity.
The first step is to make by contact a really
good positive print on glass — -a transparency
which, like a good negative, has that due pro-
portion of detail to density ; not too much or too
little of either one or the other. This is called
good printing quality. It is not necessary to
enter into details as to how this is accomplished.
Follow method given elsewhere for making lan-
tern slides by contact (Chapter XXI). It is
better to employ a glass plate specially pre-
pared for positive transparency work, such as
a lantern plate, and to use one of the developers
recommended for positives rather than for
negatives. The ferrous oxalate developer, of
which the formula is given in connection with
bromide paper, will be found to yield excellent
transparencies if the instructions as to clearing,
etc., be carefully carried out. It should be
used in a stronger form than that recommended
for the bromide paper, say one part of the iron
solution to four, or even less, of the oxalate, the
former being, of course, poured into the latter
and not in the opposite order. Or the hydro-
Il6 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
quinone developer, of which a formula is ob-
tained from the makers of the plates, may be used
with results that cannot be surpassed.
The sensitive glass plate upon which the en-
larged negative is to be taken may also with ad-
vantage be of the transparency variety, though
in this case it may be developed with pyro or
any other reducing agent which may happen
to be the particular favorite of the photographer,
provided always that it is suitable to the pe-
culiarities of the plate used. The plate is at-
tached to an easel ju*st as it would be if it were
bromide paper, except that drawing pins be-
ing inadmissible, some other method of fasten-
ing must be adopted. A very good plan is to
drive three wire nails into the woodwork of the
easel, two of them on a line with one another
and sloping slightly upwards, while the third
is considerably higher on, say, the righthand
side, with its head inclined towards the left.
The lower edge of the plate rests on the two
lower nails and is pushed up against the remain-
ing one so that it is prevented from falling for-
ward. With regard to the exposure, some idea
of its length will have been gained from previous
experience with bromide paper, but a preliminary
experiment or two should be made on a smaller
plate of the same make, for these large ones are
expensive.
Development is conducted in a precisely simi-
lar manner as in the case of an original nega-
tive, having regard to the particular printing
process for which it is intended. Thus, for plati-
num paper it should not be at all yellow and need
not be of quite so plucky a character as if it is
required for printing upon printing-out paper or
other similarly constituted medium.
MODIiRX PHOTOGRAPHY.
117
Stereoscopic Photography. — It would no doubt
occasion surprise were I to state that it is habit-
ual for a person to "see double" ; yet it is true.
If a book is held edgeways before the eyes one
side will be seen with one eye and the reverse
side with the other. The same thing occurs to
some extent with every object viewed. One eye
sees a little more of one side and a little less of
the other of every solid object that the eye can
FIG. 57.
embrace. There is not much difference, I admit,
but there is a little, and it is that difference which
enables you to tell that an object is solid without
walking around it. If you stand perfectly still
and look at an ordinary landscape you can be
quite certain that some portions of it are nearer
to you than others, and you can even make a
pretty accurate guess as to the relative distances
of different objects. P»ut if you look at a photo-
graph or painting of that landscape yon will soon
be able to find some details in it which you can-
Il8 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
not for the life of you tell which are nearer and
which farther away from the observer, while only
those things which you know from previous ex-
perience must be solid can you with certainty
invest with that quality.
But if you take two photographs of that land-
scape from standpoints separated from one an-
other by about the distance there is between
your two eyes and place them side by side and
look at the righthand one with the right eye and
lefthand one with the other these two pictures
will be blended together when the impression
reaches your brain, and you will get an idea of
solidity and differential distance just as if you
were looking at the original natural landscape.
But there are very few persons who have ac-
quired the art of looking at two different pictures
with their two eyes separately, and the majority
are obliged to have recourse to a specially-con-
structed instrument known as a "stereoscope,"
so called because it enables you to "see solid."
It is not such a very long time since no fash-
ionable drawing-room was deemed complete
without its stereoscope and set of photographs
for the same, and even now, in many homes, the
instrument is to be found enthroned — for at one
time this most beautiful branch of photography
enjoyed immense popularity. However, its star
waned, unfortunately, though the signs of the
times are that it is once more in the ascendant.
Meanwhile there are many devotees who recog-
nize the marvelously beautiful results which are
possible with the stereoscope, and who, by their
patient work and excellent photography, will be
the means of placing the neglected art once more
on its former pedestal.
Stereoscopic photographs are not very difficult
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 1 1C)
to make. A special camera is required, having
two lenses exactly alike, separated from one an-
other by about three inches, and each casting an
image upon one photographic plate of a suitable
shape to receive them side by side. (See Fig. 58.)
The interior of the camera is divided into two
compartments, so that one picture shall not en-
croach upon the space reserved for the other.
Stereoscopic lenses have to be accurately paired
in order to produce pictures of exactly similar
character as regards the size of the objects de-
picted, for lenses of the same make are rarely
identical as regards focal length unless specially
selected. The two lenses are attached together
by a specially-designed duplex shutter. All these
things can be obtained from the photographic
dealers, so that the amateur who aspires to
stereoscopic work — and he can hardly have a
nobler ambition — will not find any difficulties in
procuring the materials he will require.
It is easy to see that some subjects are far
I2O MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
more suitable to stereoscopic treatment than
others, and success in this branch of photography
is largely a matter of the judicious choice of
subjects. For instance, an open landscape view,
in which all portions are of considerable distance
from the camera, will not have its effect at all
heightened by stereoscopic treatment, for there
are no objects in the foreground round which the
camera can look, as it were, and all the constitu-
ent parts are so distant and so much of one plane
that there is nothing to which solidity can be
given. In stereoscopic photography distance
does not lend enchantment to the view, unless
there is something in the foreground to accentu-
ate that distance and to give it effect. Choose
a subject in which there are several planes, one
behind another, clearly defined by some conspicu-
ous object in each, and then the full and mar-
velous effect of this ''solid-seeing" photography
will be brought out.
But there is one thing in connection with it
which must have particular attention, and that
is the great importance of ensuring that that pic-
ture which in nature would be seen with the right
eye is placed in the righthand half of the stereo-
scope, or else the whole landscape will appear
to be turned inside out. ft is easy to under-
stand that if one eye receives the impression
that ought to go to the other the brain, whose
duty it is to combine the two, gets considerably
muddled up between them, and the result is a
most peculiar mixture.
The two pictures fall side bv side upon the
photographic plate, the lefthand one on the left
side and the right on the other, but each picture
is. of course, sepnratelv inverted as regards left
and right as well as top and bottom. Then,
5? =
^- c
r t
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 121
when a print is made from the compound nega-
tive, the lateral inversion is corrected ; that is to
say, the righthand side of each picture appears
upon the right, but both are still upside down.
That is easily corrected, you will say, by turn-
ing the whole thing the other way up. Yes, that
is so. But in doing so you will reverse the rela-
tive positions of the pictures, and put that one
which has been taken with the lefthand lens upon
the righthand side, which is just what I warned
you against. The photographs will require
transposing; the print must be cut in half along
the central line, and the positions of the halves
reversed. The operation, of course, is simply
equivalent to taking the two pictures — which
were produced upside down in the camera — and
separately turning them right way up. If it
be particularly required to print upon one piece
of paper the negative itself may be cut in two
and its two halves transposed.
Trick Photography. — In addition to its more
serious picture-making uses, the camera is ca-
pable of affording the amateur photographer
many opportunities of amusing and mystifying
his friends. For instance, so-called "spirit" photo-
graphs : The sitter should be posed and the
camera arranged all ready for the exposure in
the usual way. The spirit or ghost must then
take up his position in some expressive attitude
behind the sitter, and, using a small stop, a very
short exposure should be given. The spirit then
moves away, and without any movement of
either camera or sitter a second exposure of
longer duration should be made. On develop-
ment of the negative it will be found that the
spirit comes out as a shadowy, transparent form,
while the remainder of the picture is precisely
122 MODERN' PHOTOGRAPHY.
the same as an ordinary photograph. A more
hazy appearance may be imparted to the spirit
by placing a piece of fine muslin gauze in front
of the lens during the first exposure. A photo-
graph by this plan can only be made by conniv-
ance with a sitter. If, however, the photographer
wishes to obtain a similar result, without the
sitter knowing what is being done, the first ex-
posure on the "spirit" may be made some hours
or even days before the actual portrait of the
I sitter is taken, though, of course, the same plate
/^ should be used for both exposures.
Some interesting photographic pictures may
be obtained by the use of one or more mirrors,
and, indeed, by standing opposite a mirror, the
amateur may perpetuate his own portrait. By
placing a sitter between a pair of parallel mir-
rors, arranged at a certain angle, so as not to re-
flect either the camera or operator, an interesting
multiple portrait may be obtained, the one indi-
vidual blossoming out into a whole row of ex-
actly similar people. Also by arranging mirrors
at proper angles the full face and right and left
profile views of a person can be obtained on the
same plate at one exposure. The distorted
images presented by concave and convex mirrors
may also be humorously turned to photographic
account.
Probably some of my readers have seen photo-
graphs of a man playing cards with himself, or
of a man about to cut his own head off. These
pictures are termed "doubles," and are produced
by the aid of an arrangement with two shutters
which fits on to the front of the camera and which
allows only half the plate to be exposed at once.
The card player seats himself at one side of the
card table and poses ready for the exposure. The
MODERN' 1'IIOTOCRAI'IIY. 123
righthand shutter on the exposing apparatus is
then opened and one-half of the plate exposed.
The man then moves to the other side of the
table, and when he has placed himself in proper
position the lefthand shutter is opened and the.
other half of the plate exposed. A simpler way
of effecting the same result is to use a little de-
vice, procurable from any dealer in photographic
supplies, known as a duplicator, or to cut a small
disc of black cardboard just to fit inside the front
end of the brass lens mount. A segment of this
disc of sufficient size to expose rather more than
half the plate is then cut off this disc. The
lens mount is not screwed tight home in its
flange on the camera front, but is left just loose
so that it can easily be revolved half a turn with-
out disturbing the camera. The subject should
first be focused, and then the cue disc placed in
position with the straight edge vertical. The
sitter is then posed and an exposure made. The
lens mount is then turned round through half a
revolution, the sitter changes his place to the re-
quired position, and a second exposure is made.
In each case, of course, the sitter should be di-
rectly in front of the uncovered portion of the
lens.
Caricature portraits may be made in several
different ways. For instance, take two photo-
graphs of a friend, one of the head alone and the
other of the whole figure ; but the latter should
be on a much smaller scale than the former.
Take a print from each negative, and then neatly
cut out the large head from the first print and
paste it on to the shoulders of the small figure
in the second print. From the composite picture
thus obtained make another negative, and then
any number of prints can be obtained from this,
124 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
showing your friend with a very big head on a
very small body. Another plan is to make a
comical drawing on a sheet of cardboard of a
body and a pair of legs. Then the sitter who
is to be caricatured should hold this drawing in
front of him, and, placing his head just over
the shoulders in the drawing, should be photo-
graphed in this position.
An amusing departure from the orthodox style
of portraiture may be made by presenting a
friend with a picture of himself inside a bottle.
This should be prepared as follows: First photo-
graph the individual on a sufficiently small scale
to fit in with the size of the bottle. In this pic-
ture surrounding objects should not be allowed
to appear. Then the bottle is photographed large
enough to contain the man. and then by the
i combined use of the two negatives the finished
S^print is made.
X-Rays and Their Uses. — At the beginning of
the year 1896 the whole world, both scientists
and laymen, were startled by the announcement
that a means had been discovered of photograph-
ing the living human skeleton. And when a few
days later the statement was substantiated by
the actual photographs of the bones of the living
hand popular excitement rose to a height which
has rarely been reached on account of a scientific
discovery.
Professor Roentgen, of Wurtzburg, was ex-
perimenting with some high vacuum electrical
apparatus called, after the inventor, "Crookcs'
Tubes," and he happened to have some sensitive
photographic plates lying upon the table, and he
found that, by some means he did not under-
stand, these plates, though securely guarded
against the action of light in the usual manner
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 125
by black paper wrappings, became fogged, just
as if light had access to them. He, therefore,
tried a few experiments with them, and these
led to those curious and valuable results which
have now made his name famous all the world
over. He discovered that there was an invisible
radiation from these Crookes' tubes which is not
light, or at any rate is not light of the kind with
which we are familiar, for it obeys none of the
natural laws which govern all kinds of light,
visible and invisible, with which we have ever
had to do. The fact that this "New Photog-
raphy," as it has been termed, has awakened so
much interest is largely due to the happy thought
which suggested that the effect of the new rays
should be tried upon the human hand, when it
was found that they would penetrate the flesh,
but they could not pass the bones. Conse-
quently, upon a photographic plate placed be-
hind, the curious result was obtained of a shadow
photograph of part of the living skeleton.
But there are many other substances besides
flesh and blood towards which these unknown
rays — they are called "X-Rays," because their
nature is not known — behave in a peculiar man-
ner; in fact, their effect upon the majority of
things is quite different to what might have
been expected from our previous experience in
relation to ordinary light. For instance, glass
is very nearly opaque to this mysterious radia-
tion, while wood and cardboard are almost per-
fectly transparent. An ordinary photographic
lens with which to bring these rays to a focus
is, of course, out of the question, but that does
not matter much, for, if glass were ever so trans-
parent to them, it would not have the desired
effect, for the rays cannot be refracted. So it
126 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
will be seen these "New Photographs" are not
taken by means of light, as far as we can make
out, and they are certainly not taken with a
camera. They are "shadowgraphs," pure and
simple, and the agency by which they are made
is probably some form of radiant electricity.
In making these "electrographs," as we might
call them, a large Rhumkorff induction coil is
employed in connection with an electric battery
or other source of low tension electricity to
furnish the high potential current required to
actuate the Crookes' tube. The active rays
spring from the negative electrode of the tube
when excited by the electricity, and in the best
forms of tube for this special purpose they arc
received upon a little mirror of platinum, placed
just opposite the cathode — as the negative plate
is termed — and so inclined that they are reflected
downwards towards the sensitive plate placed
beneath.
Let us suppose that what up to the present
has been the most popular of all subjects has been
chosen to he electrographed — the living hand. A
large sensitive plate of the ordinary kind is
wrapped up in a black paper envelope, which
will protect it from the access of light, so that the
operation may be conducted in a well-lighted
room with impunity. The hand whose bones it
is desired to shadowgraph is then laid on the
plate, and the vacuum tube arranged at a height
of about six inches over it. Then, the owner of
the hand having been cautioned to keep it as
still as possible, the electric current is turned
on and the invisible radiations from the tube
allowed to act upon the plate for a period of
five minutes down to half a minute, or even less,
according to the size and power of the coil. Then
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
127
the plate is taken to a dark room and developed
in the ordinary manner, and, all being well, it
will show the flesh of the hand of a dark gray
on a black background, upon which the bones
stand out plainly revealed and almost white,
while any metallic objects, such as rings, being
absolutely opaque to the rays, will show up with
brilliant whiteness.
MOVING PICTURE MACHINES AND MO-
TION PHOTOGRAPHY.
In the year 1887 the idea occurred to that great
inventive genius Thomas A. Edison, to devise an
Givins front view of th<> Kdison Projecting Kim-ins ••< |ir.
IMioostat on the rifiht. Mght centerr-d on Stcreoptlcon !«••.*.
which is shown adjusted to its position on the left-hand edge
of I lie' carrying case.
instrument which should do for the eye what
the Phonograph does for the ear. This idea was
partially accomplished in the production of the
128 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
first motion picture machine, the original Kineto-
scope. The early Kinetoscope was a ponderous
and high-priced apparatus. It may be briefly de-
scribed as a box with a peephole in the top. With
this machine only one person at a time could
enjoy the moving picture, owing to mechanical
limitations.
The moving picture projecting machine of
to-day, as the name implies, is an apparatus for
throwing apparently living pictures and actual
scenes upon a canvas or screen.
Owing to the simplifying of the apparatus and
to the fact that the best machines are now so con-
structed that in them can be used not only the
flexible film for projecting upon a screen the life-
like image of objects in motion, but also the lan-
tern slides for making stationary pictures, the
form of entertainment made possible by the use
of these machines has, in the past few years,
grown enormously popular.
This marvelous instrument represents the very
highest development in the art of photography —
that of bringing before the eye an exact life-size
reproduction of life motion, with all its accom-
panying effects of light, shade and expression.
By means of a transparent picture film, an intense
light and proper arrangement of lenses, the pic-
tures are projected upon a screen one after an-
other, in such rapid succession that the eye can-
not perceive any intermission between them, thus
producing a perfect illusion of continuous motion.
The Principle of the Moving Picture Machine
is the same as the Stereopticon or Magic Lan-
tern, only that the pictures appear on a transpar-
ent film and pass before the lenses in rapid suc-
cession.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
I29
The picture film is a long- strip of celluloid ift
inches in width and in length from 25 feet up-
ward, according to the subject. The usual length
of a film is from 50 to 100 feet. One minute is
required to run a 5o-foot
film through the exhibi-
tion machine. The size of
each photograph is ^4
inch by I inch wide. Each
5o-foot film consists of
about 800 instantaneous
photographs, each slight-
ly different from the
other, taken while the film
is passing the lens at a
rate of about 15 to 25
photographs per second.
To produce the animated
movements the film must
be moved past the pro-
jecting lens of the motion
picture machine at the
same rate of speed. From
the beginning to the end
of the film all the movements will be recorded
that have been exhibited before the machine
when the picture was taken. For each sub-
ject a separate film is necessary. The edges of
the film are perforated, to pass over the sprocket
device carrying the film while the subject is pho-
tographed. Similar sprocket wheels in the pro-
jecting machine carry the film in front of an im-
tense light, which projects the picture upon the
screen, thus both magnifying and illuminating the
photograph.
So life-like, so true to nature and so perfect in
THE BATH.
Sample of Moving Picture
Film, exact size.
130 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
every detail, with such life-like motions are the
pictures as projected by these machines, that the
observer can scarcely realize that what is before
him is but a picture and not reality.
In the commercial world the use of the moving
picture machine is growing. Manufacturers of
heavy machinery and of mechanisms not easily
portable, can send a picture demonstration to the
uttermost parts of the world, at small expense.
Thus the exact working of a piece of machinery
can be shown to a prospective customer in South
Africa, with as much clearness of detail as if the
purchaser were examining .he machine itself.
The moving picture machine has, as stated be-
fore, grown rapidly in popular favor of recent
years. It amuses and it teaches. It combines
profitable instruction with delightful entertain-
ment. The list of films now at the disposal of
buyers covers a wide variety of topics, some of
them of great historical value. Many of the sub-
jects will attain value as pictorial history which
cannot be estimated in money. Such films as the
Launching of the "Meteor," the Funeral of Queen
Victoria, President McKinley's Last Speech, the
Funeral Ceremonies at Buffalo, Washington and
Canton, will offer material for accurate descrip-
tion that was impossible previous to the inven-
tion of the motion picture machine and moving
pictures.
There are many languages upon this earth of
ours, but pictures are the universal language,
and future students of the historical will have
reason for gratitude because of the invention of
the moving picture machine, for by its aid his-
tory is being recorded every dav. Miles of films
are being filed away each month in the archives
of historical societies and national museums, to
MODERN 1'lJOTOGKAl'HY. 13!
be brought forth for the instruction of future
generations.
At the present time the making of moving pic-
ture films, both negatives and positives, is alto-
gether beyond the possibilities of the ordinary
photographer. The long strips of film for mak-
ing the negatives must be exposed by means of
cameras of special construction ; apparatus nec-
essarily high priced and of no general use to the
possessor because of its being designed for the
specific purpose for which it is used.
The positives which are used in the exhibition
machines, are printed from the negatives in a
manner similar to that in which a lantern slide
is produced, except that instead of a printing
frame being used to hold the negative in contact
with the sensitive film, an automatic printing ma-
chine is used. The great length of the strips of
film render developing them in the ordinary man-
ner absolutely impossible. Hence, to accomplish
development, recourse is had to the use of large
drums, which revolve in troughs containing the
necessary developing and fixing solutions.
Around these drums the exposed film is wound.
The drums being revolved, the film is brought
in contact with the solutions contained in the
troughs and development and fixation is thus ac-
complished. A further process in the completion
of the films is the perforation of the edges. This
is accomplished by a perforating machine which
punches small holes at regular intervals along
both edges, in which the teeth of the sprocket
wheels of the projecting machine engage while
the film is being exhibited. Thus it will be seen
that the completion of a moving picture film
ready to be used in the projecting machine ne-
132 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
cessitates not only a very high degree of knowl-
edge of this particular work, but requires, like-
wise, apparatus and an establishment altogether
beyond the possibilities of expenditure of the or-
dinary photographer. Hence, the making of these
films is confined to a very few well equipped con-
cerns, with whom the business is a regularly es-
tablished commercial venture.
CHAPTER XV.
DEVELOPMENT AND COMPLETION OF
THE NEGATIVE.
Equipment and Arrangement of the Dark
Room.— As pointed out in a previous chapter,
the process of developing the negative has to
be carried on by the aid of the light from a ruby
lamp, and since all other light must be excluded
the room which is devoted to this work is usually
termed the "dark room." If the reader is for-
tunate enough to possess a spare room at home,
which can be set apart solely for photographic
operations, his path of progress will be rendered
considerably more comfortable than if he has
to develop his negatives when and where he can.
It is quite a mistake to imagine that any cup-
board will do for the dark room, even if it is
big enough for the photographer to get inside.
Unless the work can be done comfortably, it
is hardly likely to be satisfactory, and therefore
it is much the best policy to select a room where
both fresh air and elbow space exist in plenty. If
the amateur has a room which he can devote en-
tirely to photography, he will find the following
items of furniture and fittings useful :
A table on which to do the developing, though
better still than this would be a specially-made
developing sink ; a cupboard or chest of drawers,
in which to keep his stock of plates, papers and
various pieces of apparatus ; and a set of shelves
fixed on the wall, close to the developing table
or sink, on which should be placed bottles of the
133
134 MODERN1 PHOTOGRAPHY.
various chemicals and solutions required for de-
velopment. If gas is available, the burner
bracket should be fixed just over the develop-
ing table ; and if the convenience of a continu-
ous water supply is also to be had the tap should
be in an equally handy position. If a continu-
ous water supply is not available a small tank
fixed to the wall above the sink may be made
to answer the purpose. Failing this, a bucket
or large jug of fresh water should be kept at
hand.
If a separate photographic room is not at the
operator's command, the next best in order of
convenience is the bathroom, and an excellent
substitute it makes. In either case daylight may
be excluded by a light structure of wood of such
a size as to just fit into the frame of the window,
and covered with some opaque material. I say
opaque, for even in the daytime it is better to
develop by artificial light, as daylight is continu-
ally varying in intensity, and thus makes it dif-
ficult to judge the density of the negatives. If,
however, the reader prefers to work by daylight
he can secure a fairly safe light by substituting
for the opaque material two thicknesses of col-
ored fabric, one thickness being a ruby color and
the other a deep canary or orange. If this plan
be adopted the screen thus made should be as
little exposed to sunlight as possible, otherwise
the color will rapidly deteriorate, and the screen
will be thereby rendered unsafe. Such a screen
should be tested from time to time.
Having thus prevented the admission of white
light through the window, attention should be
paid to the door, and any stray light finding its
way through the 1-cvbole or crevices should be
promptly checked by brown paper. While, how-
A SNAP SHOT. FRENCH LICK SPRTNOS.
Taken by an amateur during a trip over the Monon Route.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 135
ever, the room should be made perfectly light-
tight, it should not be air tight, for unless the
bad air is permitted to escape and be replaced
by pure air the atmosphere will soon become op-
pressive and even injurious.
In the event of neither of the above-mentioned
rooms being available, the amateur must make
the best of the accommodation afforded by one
of the ordinary rooms of the house. In such
case, of course, he must exercise especial care
and cleanliness in handling his various solutions,
so as not to damage the carpet or furniture.
The Choice of a Developer. — A "developer"
may be defined as a chemical solution which,
when applied to a plate which has been suitably
exposed in the camera, will bring out or make
visible the image produced by the action of the
light on the silver bromide in the sensitive emul-
sion with which the plate is covered. That
image is invisible until the plate has been sub-
jected to the action of the developer, so that
when the amateur removes his exposed plates
from the plate holder they will appear precisely
the same as when first placed in the holder ready
for exposure. In making the image visible, what
the developer really does is to reduce the opaque
metallic silver — those parts of the silver bromide
which have been affected by the light — and to
leave unaltered those portions upon which the
light has not acted. When the plate has been
developed, and the latent image has been brought
out, it has to be "fixed" before it can safely be
allowed to make an appearance in daylight again.
Immediately the plate has been developed it is
subjected to a short washing in clean water and
is then immersed in a "fixing" bath. After hav-
ing been ''fixed" the plate is unaffected in any
136 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
further way by exposure to light, and all that
remains to be done is to thoroughly wash it and
let it dry.
But this explanation is carrying me ahead of
my subject, for my present purpose is to indicate
the nature and uses of the various developing
agents commonly employed. This information
may, perhaps, best be imparted in the following
form :
Amidol. — This developer is chiefly used for two
classes of work ; snap-shot negatives and devel-
oping papers. It is very energetic in its action
and is a good developer for bringing out detail.
When used for bromide papers no clearing bath
is required.
Eikonogen. — Very suitable for snap-shots and
for portrait negatives. It is, however, but slight-
ly soluble in water, and is, therefore, usually
made up in quantity. It is rather difficult to ob-
tain full density with this developer unless very
pure crystals are employed and the exposure
of the plate has been reasonably correct. If com-
bined with a density-giving developer, such as
quinol, good results mav be secured.
Ferrous Oxalate. — This is a developer which
at one time was very popular for negatives, but
of late has been largely superseded by other
substances. To secure the best results the ex-
posure of the negative must be as nearly correct
as possible.
Glycin. — This is a slow developer, giving gray-
black images free from fog. It is much used
for negatives for photo-mechanical processes.
Hydroquinone or Quinol. — This developer is a
great favorite among amateurs on account of the
cleanliness and ease with which it may be used.
It gives blackish negatives and may be used
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 137
repeatedly until exhausted. It is liable to pro-
duce harsh contrasts with an insufficiency of de-
tail, and is slower in operation than some of the
other developing- agents. It is very suitable for
bromide papers.
Metol. — Metol is one of the most energetic of
modern developers and with short exposures pro-
duces negatives of extreme softness. A com-
bination of metol and hydroquinone makes a very
satisfactory developer.
Pyrogallic or Pyro. — Of all developers this is
the one which is most widely known and has
the longest reputation. By suitably modifying
the constituents of the solution employed, pyro
enables excellent negatives to be obtained, even
in cases where the exposure has been far from
correct, and in the hands of an intelligent user
this power becomes of considerable value and
importance. Further than this, it is fairly rapid
in its action, any amount of density can be ob-
tained, and the resultant negatives are of good
printing quality. As an all-round developer for
negatives pyro is still without a superior.
Rodinal. — Another name under which rodinal
is sometimes sold is paramidophenol. It is
chiefly used for developing hand camera nega-
tives; but, while it brings out plenty of detail,
there is occasionally trouble in obtaining satis-
factory density. It is also a useful developer
for bromide papers.
Agents. — The chemical substances mentioned in
the above list are termed "agents," and are not
used by themselves to produce development, but
are mixed in certain proportions with a substance
termed the ''alkali," and with a bromide termed
the "restrainer." The various portions of agent,
alkali and restrainer are dissolved in a suitable
138 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
amount of water to form the developing solu-
tion. Where these are all mixed together the
developer thus formed is termed a "one-solution"
developer. As, however, modifications in the
relative proportions of the constituents will en-
able the operator to produce corresponding
modifications in the character of the resultirg
negative, it is often a convenience to have two
solutions mixed up, one containing the agent
and the other the alkali. Then, by taking more
of the one solution and less of the other, or vice
versa, the development of the negative may be
had more fully under control. Thus the rate of
development may be hastened or retarded, and
the contrasts in the negative accordingly in-
creased or diminished. At the present moment
the reader may not fully understand the sig-
nificance of these facts, but the matter will be
made clearer to him when I come to deal with
the actual process of development. From the
list of developing agents which I have just given
the reader will see that he has a pretty wide
field from which to choose. With a developer,
as with the particular brand of plate, once the
selection has been made it should be adhered
to and its capabilities and peculiarities thorough-
ly mastered. Now, different makers of plates
recommend different formulae for development,
even though the same constituents may be em-
ployed in each, and whatever the brand of plates
selected, while the general facts will still hold
good, the particular formulae recommended by
the makers of those plates should be adhered
to when mixing the developer.
How to Mix the Developer. — The various
chemicals of which the developers are com-
posed are usually supplied in powders or crystals,
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 139
anJ they should be stored in glass bottles, with
close-fitting corks. India rubber corks should al-
ways be used in the case of potash or soda. Each
bottle should be carefully and accurately labeled
with the name of the substance contained there-
in, and the label should be as far as possible in-
destructible. That is. the inscription should be
either sand-blasted onto the glass or should be
written on a gummed label, which should be
afterwards sized and varnished. Xo chemical or
solution should be placed in a bottle which has
previously contained another substance, unless
the bottle has first been thoroughly washed out.
On no account should any solution be poured
ir.to a labelless bottle, as the amateur will almost
certainly forget just what the composition of
the solution was, and when that is the case, it is
useless to him. If space is limited, developers
may be purchased in the form of powders. These
developing powders are put up in small pack-
?g^s. occupying very little room, and when a
developing solution is required it is simply neces-
sary to dissolve one or more powders in water,
according to instructions.
The dissolving of solid substances in water
may be hastened by two methods : Firstly, by
crushing the substance into a powder or very
small pieces, and secondly, by using hot water
instead of cold. The solution should, however,
always be allowed to cool before it is used to
develop with, otherwise the film of the plate will
be injuriously affected.
How to Develop a Negative. — I will now as-
sume that the reader has exposed a plate in the
camera, and that he is ready to make his first
essay at development. I will further assume
he has prepared the solutions required according
I4O MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
to the special instructions contained in the pack-
age of dry plates that he has used, or according
to some one of the formulae given in Chapter
XXIV., or that possibly he has obtained his so-
lution ready prepared from a stock dealer. He
must then proceed as follows : Light the ruby
lamp and place the developing dish about twelve
inches in front, or at such a distance as you can
just see what you are doing. Next open the
plate-holder, take out the exposed plate, and after
lightly brushing it with a flat camel's hair brush
to remove any particles of dust place it film side
uppermost in the developing dish. Then, with
a steady, sweeping motion, pour the developer
over the surface of the plate. It is absolutely
essential that the developer should cover the
whole plate and that no air bubbles should be
allowed to remain, otherwise the negative will
be disfigured by markings due to unequal de-
velopment. No signs of the picture will appear
for about a minute or so, but the dish should be
gently rocked during this period to keep the de-
veloper in motion. If the exposure has been
about correct the plate will then gradually darken
in places. Now watch closely. The development
of an exposed dry plate is a process which cannot
fail to deeply interest the most careless person.
As the first faint outlines appear, under the influ-
ence of the developer, wonder grows into amaze-
ment at the change going on under one's very
eyes. Outlines of familiar objects come out, as
first the mast, then the hull, then the rigging and
the cords of a great vessel comes to us from out
the dimness of a fog.
In a portrait, the white shirt front and
collar will first appear, to be quickly followed
by the face. The reader should remember
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 14!
that in a negative everything is reversed —
that is, a white collar comes out black, while a
black hat will show white, or rather almost
clear glass, in the finished negative. This being
clearly borne in mind, the reader will be better
able to follow the progress of the development.
After the whitest portions of a picture, or the
"high lights," as they are termed, have appeared,
they will be followed by the half-tones, and ulti-
mately by the shadows. If the picture appears
gradually, in these successive stages, the develop-
ment should be allowed to continue until all the
details are fully brought out. If the plate is
then held up to the ruby lamp and examined the
high lights should be nearly opaque, while the
deepest shadows should be transparent, but
should clearly show the details. In a landscape,
for example, the opaque part should be the sky,
or the side of a whitewashed cottage, while the
transparent part should be in heavy foliage on
trees or bushes, but the leaves and branches visi-
ble in the negative ; i. e., the deepest shadows
should not appear as absolutely unaltered patches
of the film. The edges of the plate which have
been held by the rebate of the plate-holder will,
of course, remain perfectly white, and it is a
fairly safe rule to continue development until
every part of the plate which has been exposed
turns slightly gray, while the edges remain
clear white.
The moment these edges show any signs of
becoming gray, the plate should be removed
from the developer and washed. \Yith most
plates there is another means of ascertaining
if development has been carried far enough, and
this is to examine the negative from the glass
side, or back, by reflected light. If the develop-
142 MODERN' PHOTOGRAPHY.
ment is sufficient the high lights and the less
deep half tones will be visible from this side.
Until the development has been completed the
dish should be rocked from time to time as men-
tioned.
After the plate has been developed it should
be washed under the tap, or in a dish of clean
water, and should then be immersed in a fixirg-
bath, composed as follows :
Hyposulphite of soda. . 16 ozs. or 20 parts
Water up to 80 ozs. or 100 parts
Hyposulphite of soda is commonly referred to
as "hypo."
The above quantity of solution will serve for
fixing a large number of plates, and if only a
small quantity is required for a few plates it
can be easily mixed, provided the same propor-
tions are maintained, viz., four parts of water
to one part of hypo.
The hypo bath does not take very long to pre-
pare, and may be mixed, if preferred, just before
development is commenced. The plate should
be placed in the fixing bath and left
there until it is completely fixed. This may be
readily judged by examining the back of the
negative by reflected light. If any of the un-
altered silver bromide is still undissolved, it will
appear as a creamy white patch, and until the
whole of this has been dissolved away and noth-
ing but the picture on the clear glass remains,
the fixing process should be continued.
After the negative has been fixed it should be
thoroughly washed, either in running water or
in several changes, the period required to elimi-
nate all the hypo being about one hour, provided
a thorough and continual change of the water
is arranged for.
MODERN PIIOTOCRAl'HY. 143
When washed the negative may be allowed
to dry. Heat should not be applied to effect this
quickly, as the gelatine will be in great danger
of becoming melted. The negative should be
placed in an almost upright position in a dry,
cool place, where no dust is likely to collect.
How to Recognize and Correct Under- and
Overexposure. — The foregoing description of
the progress and development was based on the
assumption that the exposure of the plate in the
camera had been fairly correct. It is, however,
extremely likely that the beginner will for some
time, at anv rate, make numerous mistakes in
judging the correct exposure, and I will, there-
fore, now proceed to explain how such mistakes
may be compensated for by a modification of the
development. The reader will remember that I
said the high lights in the picture would first
begin to appear about a minute after the com-
mencement of the development, if the exposure
had been approximately correct. We will now
suppose, however, that at the expiration of that
time no indication of the picture appeared, and
that, in fact, two or three minutes had elapsed
before the plate first began to darken. If, after
this, the high lights and half-tones came up
quickly, and yet, in spite of a prolongation of de-
velopment, no detail appeared in the shadows,
it is a pretty sure sign that the plate was under-
exposed. The opposite case to this, viz., over-
exposure, is indicated by the picture appearing
considerably before the expiration of a minute,
and. instead of coming out regularly and gradu-
ally, it makes its full appearance in a very short
space of time. Tn cases of gross ovcrexposure
the whole picture seems to Hash out at once,
almost directly the developer is poured over the
144 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
surface, and the film appears to gc gray and
foggy. Of the above faults underexposure is
the more serious, as in many cases it is impossi-
ble to bring detail out in the underexposed parts,
no matter how the development may be modi-
fied. With care all but very extreme cases of
overexposure can be sufficiently controlled to
enable a satisfactory negative to be obtained.
If the negative appears to suffer from under-
exposure, as indicated above, the following pro-
cedure should be adopted :
Pour the developer back into the cup or mix-
ing glass, and replace it in the developing dish
with clean water. The developer must then be
weakened or diluted with about an equal bulk
of water. Pour off the water from the dish and
continue the development with the weakened
developer. The developer should be allowed to
act until the high-lights have become quite
opaque, and probably by that time a good deal
of the details in the shadows will have appeared.
I may here give the reader a hint as to alter-
ing the strength or proportions of the developer
in use in the developing dish. This should never
be done by adding the water or fresh solution
to the developer while it is in the dish, as it is
impossible for a thorough mixture to take place
in this way. and unequal or patchy development
of the plate will result. The developer should
first be poured off into the mixing glass, and
the requisite addition made. It can be then
returned to the dish with comparative safety.
The correction of overexposnre will require
more prompt attention than that of underex-
posure, for in the former case the mischief is
soon accomplished. As soon as there is an indi-
cation that overexposure is the fault, the de-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 145
veloper should be at once poured back into the
graduate glass, and very greatly reduced in
strength by adding water. Also put in a few
drops of a strong solution of bromide of
potassium. The development can then be con-
tinued until the contrasts appear likely to be
about normal, or until the action of the solution
appears to be less vigorous.
To Intensify a Negative. — The reader will
sometimes find that a negative,^ after develop-
ment and fixing, appears thin ; that is, there is
plenty of detail and graduation, but the image
is not sufficiently opaque to yield satisfactory
prints. This may be due to one of several causes.
For instance, it may be caused by overexposure ;
by removal from the developer before sufficient
density was obtained : or by the thinness of the
emulsion with which the plate was coated. A
negative of this kind may be considerably im-
proved by the process known as "Intensifica-
tion." The following is the method of proced-
ure :
After the negative has been fixed it must be
thoroughly washed and then placed in a strong
alum bath for about ten minutes. After a fur-
ther washing it is placed in the intensifying so-
lution, made as follows :
Bi-Chloride of mercury.^ oz. or 5 parts
Hydrochloric acid. . . .45 grains or I part
Water 10 ozs. or 100 parts
A note of warning with regard to bi-chloride
of mercury : This is a strong poison and is some-
times known as corrosive sublimate or mercuric
chloride. It should not be allowed to come into
contact with any cuts, etc., on the hands or ./
fingers.
146 MODERN I'll <)T<
The negative should be kept in the above so-
lution till it becomes a grayish white all over
and then thoroughly washed and placed in a sec-
ond bath composed of :
Liq. ammonia ( C. S. P.) I oz
Water up to 20 ozs
When the action of this bath is completed, as
may be noted by the cessation of a visible change
in the color of the negative, the latter is taken
out and thoroughly washed and dried.
To Reduce a Negative. — In contradistinction
to the foregoing, a process called "reduction"
may be necessitated, if the negative should be
so dense as to make it difficult to obtain a print.
This is usually caused by the development hav-
ing been too prolorged. The following is the
method of obtaining a reduction of this excessive
density :
The negative must be thoroughly washed after
fixing, and should then be placed in a dish and
covered with a clean solution of hypo. A solu-
tion of potassium ferricyanide is then made, as
follows :
Potassium ferricyanide i oz
Water up to 10 ozs
Pour off the hypo from the dish into a measur-
ing dish, add a few drops of the above solution
and again pour over the plate. Reduction will
at once commence and will proceed pretty rapid-
ly, the rate depending upon the amount of fer-
ricyanide added. As soon as the negative is
nearly reduced enough take it out of the bath
and thoroughly wash. The image will be re-
duced a little more during washing1.
Drying Negatives. — Negatives should be dried
as rapidly as possible : this is most conveniently
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 147
done by having a regular negative-drying rack.
(See Fig. 62.) The ideal \vay is to place this
rack holding negatives three or four feet away
from an electric fan in motion ; where this is
not possible, the rack of negatives can be placed
in the best draft of air possible in the house ;
never in the sun, particularly in summer. When
the negative is dried too slowly in a close, warm
room it will be of a different character and when
dry will be thickened and verv heavy in high
lights ; this is caused by the moisture on the plate
Fio. c>-2.
being heated by the air up to 85 to 90 degrees
Fahr., thereby dissolving some of the minute
sacs of gelatine in the film, permitting several
atoms of silver to come together and form one
mass ; this going on all over the plate makes
what is called a coarse-grained negative.
Varnishing Negatives. — All negatives should
be varnished as a matter of protection. It is
quite permissible to take prints from an unvar-
nished negative, and, indeed, there are many
workers who will not take the trouble to protect
their negatives by a coating of varnish. As,
however, there are many negatives obtained
148 MODERX PHOTOGRAPHY.
which, from the nature of the subject, it is im-
possible to replace, 1 think the practice of var-
nishing- is not an extravagant precaution to take
against possible injuries from stray splashes of
liquids, or the effects of a damp atmosphere. All
photographic dealers supply a clear hard varnish
for this purpose, and the method of its appli-
cation is as follows :
First warm your negative by gently and evenly
applying heat until it feels quite hot to the
hand. Then hold the negative horizontally, film
side upwards, on the finger tips, and pour a pool
of varnish in the center. The negative should
then be slightly tilted, first one way and then the
other, until the varnish has traversed every por-
tion of the surface of the film. Then tilt the
negative up at a considerable angle and drain
off the surplus varnish into the bottle. The
negative may then be gently dried in front of a
fire and allowed to cool.
Retouching Negatives. — Retouching means im-
proving the negative by mechanical methods,
either with a lead pencil or sable brush. Land-
scape negatives can be sometimes improved, es-
pecially where the negative is thin in sky. by
smoking the glass side over a candle flame or by
printing through a yellow tissue paper: this is
not necessary in well-balanced negatives. Por-
trait negatives can very often be improved by
retouching, as the unretouched negatives show
facial defects in greater prominence than they
really are. This is done by using a fine-pointed
lead pencil on the surface of the film to blot out,
modify or remove them and the deep shadows,
particularly those at the corners of the mouth,
crowsfeet. freckles, etc. Retouching is a profes-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 149
sion of itself and to become proficient in the same
requires an instructor.
Storing Plate Negatives.— When the amateur
has made some progress in the practice of photog-
raphy he will begin to accumulate a number of
negatives of value and interest, and the question
will arise as to how these may best be classi-
fied and kept. A simple and inexpensive method
is to place each negative inside a plain envel-
ope, and on the outside of this inscribe the sub-
ject and the circumstances under which the
picture was taken. For example, one inscription
might read thus: "Lake steamer entering Chi-
cago harbor. June 25. 1902. - — 's ' ' plate.
Stop l;-ii. Exposure, one-thirtieth sec." De-
tails such as these often prove of service for fu-
ture reference. The negatives thus encased may
be stored in ordinary cardboard boxes, and each
box labeled outside with the nature of its con-
tents, thus: "Summer Holiday, 1902. Chicago
and neighborhood." Some readers may prefer
to buy negative boxes ready made, and these
can be obtained at a comparatively smal? cost.
They are provided with grooves into which the
negatives drop, and each box contains space
for from twenty-five to one hundred plates. If
these are numbered and a list of the subjects
pasted inside the box lid any desired negative
can quickly be found.
DEFECTS IN DRY-PLATE NEGATIVES
AND THEIR REMEDIES.
Flat Negatives. — While flat negatives are fre-
quently due to flat lighting of the subject, they
are sometimes caused by too warm developer.
Developer should not be allowed to get over 70
I5O MODERN" PHOTOGRAPHY.
degrees Fal-r. An unsuitable developing light
will destroy the brightness of the shadows, caus-
ing the negative to appear flat.
Softening of Film. — Keep the developer at
about 70 degrees Fahr. and no frilling in hot
weather will result. Softening of the film can be
avoided, however, even though the conditions of
temperature are not perfect. After development
rinse and place the negative in a saturated alum
bath for five minutes. After fixing in a plain
fixing bath place again in the alum solution for
a few minutes; and the washing and drying,
though warm, will not injure the film.
Weakness of Image is often the result of too
cold development, but is generally due to under-
development, or developer too weak in pyro, or
whatever agent is used.
Slowness of Development is caused by a cold
developing room, smoky lens, dirty skylight, or
decomposed developer. Hydroquinone is a slow
developer, especially in cold weather.
Too Much Contrast is generally caused by too
contrasty lighting of subject. Underexposure,
the use of a restrainer in developer, or a devel-
oper too weak in sal soda may cause the same
trouble.
Fog and Its Causes. — Fog on a negative may
result from several causes. It may be caused
by defective light from the dark room lamp ; by a
leaky plate-holder allowing daylight access to
the plate ; by gross overexposure : or from de-
fective emulsion on the plate. To protect plates
as much as possible from the first of the above
causes it is a good plan to cover the developing
dish over during the greater part of the time
development is proceeding, only removing the
cover for the purpose of examination, or of alter-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 15!
ing the developer. To avoid fog from the sec-
ond cause, plate-holders containing plates should
be kept out of sunlight, or direct daylight, as
much as possible, and also should be covered
round by the focusing cloth, while the slide is
drawn during exposure. A kind of fog known as
"green fog" sometimes occurs, and usually this
may be traced to either using too much alkali
in the composition of the developer or to the
action of the impure atmosphere in which the
plates may have been stored. A remedy for
green fog is the application of the reducer, as
described above, and a subsequent intensifica-
tion of the negative.
Spots. — Numerous round and very small spots
are generally due to rinsing the plate before de-
veloping. Carefully avoid this. Large, round
spots, but less numerous, are caused usually by
using water containing vegetable matter, produc-
ing bubbles in the developer. Melted ice, dis-
tilled or well water only should be used. Angu-
lar spots are due to dust on the plate at the time
of exposure. Plates should be dusted with a
camel's hair brush before development and the
plate-holder and camera kept scrupulously clean.
The dusting may electrify the plate if done too
vigorously. Twice drawn gently over the plate
is sufficient. Glass splinters are often the cause
of spots when a number of plates are developed
together and the tray shaken in order to more
rapidly cover the plates with developer. Tri-
angular transparent spots are caused by using a
developer /on which a scum has formed. It
should not be used without filtering. The scum
forms rapidly if the room is warm and the water
used contains organic matter. Opaque spots and
lines are caused by allowing pyro, hypo, or sal
152 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
soda to get on the dusting brush. The dark
room should be kept absolutely clean ; and care-
fully avoid spilling hypo or other solutions, for
after drying the chemicals will float about in the
air and cause endless trouble.
Granularity of Negative. — This trouble usually
appears in warm weather, and is due to two
causes — insufficient mixing of the developer, es-
pecially if too strong and too warm. Too much
alum in the fixing bath may also cause granular
negatives. Do not use a muddy fixing bath.
Filter it.
Opaque Finger Marks.— Finger marks are gen-
erally caused by placing the exposed plates all
film down in a box, while awaiting development.
After exposure and before development always
place the plates film to film, or keep them entirely
separate in a grooved box.
Pinholes. — Pins may not appear to have a
very direct connection with photography, but I
imagine that the beginner will not have produced
very many negatives before he discovers the na-
ture of "pinholes." These are tiny transparent
spots which make their appearance on the film
during the development and fixing of the nega-
tive. These transparent spots, of course, allow
light to pass through freely, and, therefore, when
a print is taken from the negative every pin-
hole is represented by a little dark spot on the
print. The chief cause of pinholes is dust on the
plate during exposure, and the surest way to
prevent their appearance is to dust out the plate-
holders every time plates are to be put in, and
also to lightly dust the surface of the plates them-
selves before putting them in the holders. This
operation is best performed with a broad, flat
camel's hair brush, which should be perfectly
MODF.RX PHOTOGRAPHY. 153
clean and dry. If pinholes do occur in a nega-
tive in spite of all precautions, the best way to
nullify their ill effects is to touch or spot them
out by carefully working over them with a lead
pencil. Transparent spots of a larger kind than
pinholes may be caused by the presence of air
bubbles in the developer, and as these are more
difficult to remedy than the pinholes great care
should be taken when developing to see that no
such air bubbles are allowed to exist.
Halation. — Halation or spreading of the high
lights usually occurs in negatives of subjects in
which high lights and very deep shadows occur,
as, for instance, in an interior of a building, where
a strongly-lighted window has to be included on
the same plate as a dimly-lighted portion of the
room. For the shadows a long exposure must
be given, and this exposure, being far in excess
of that required for the window, the light from
the Matter seems to spread and form a mist or
halo round that portion of the plate. This misty
appearance is caused by the reflection of some
of the high light which has managed to pass
through the film to the back of the plate. There
are two ways out of the difficulty; one is to use
specially coated plates — non-halation plates — and
the other to "back" ordinary plates. To "back"
a plate means to coat the glass side of the plate
with some substance which will absorb any light
which falls upon it, and thus prevent it being re-
flected back again. The following is a useful
formula for preparing this "backing" mixture :
Rurnt sienna 2 ozs
Caramel i 07.
Gum mucilage T 07.
Grind the above constituents together thor-
oughly and then add 2 ozs. of methylated spirit.
154 MOniiRX PHOTOGRAPHY.
This mixture may be easily applied to the back
of the plate with a soft brush or a piece of cotton
wool. It can be readily wiped off again, prior
to development. The operation of backing the
plates must, of course, be performed by the aid
of the ruby lamp in the dark room.
TO DEVELOP CARTRIDGE FILMS.
Film, to avoid curling', must always be devel-
oped face down, otherwise it is handled in much
the same manner as plates, except, of course, that
it must be cut up before printing.
For all cartridge rolls smaller than 4x5 devel-
opment should be started in the strip, as this
method removes the possibility of cutting
through the negatives. The same method may
be used with the larger sizes, but owing to their
length is, perhaps, not quite so convenient as to
cut up the film before development is started.
Having shut out all extraneous light from the
dark room and lighted the dark room lamp,
a. Unroll the film and detach the entire strip
from the black paper.
b. Pass the film through a tray of clean cold
water as shown in Fig. 63. holding one end in
each hand. Pass through the water several times,
that there may be no bubbles remaining on the
film. When it is thoroughly wet, with no air
bubbles, place the strip of film in a tray of water,
immersing it fully but not folding tightly so as
to crack it.
c. Prepare the developer as described in chap-
ter XXIV.
d. Now pass the film through the developer in
the same manner as described for wetting it and
shown in Fig. 63. Keep it constantly in motion.
HAVASUPAI INDIAN CHIEF, CATARACT i 'AN YON,
ARIZONA. ON TIIK SANTA FE.
Photo by W. H. Simpson, Chicago.
MODERX rilOTOr.KAI'IIY.
155
and in about one minute the high lights will be-
gin to darken and you will readily be able to dis-
tinguish the unexposed sections between the
negatives.
e. With a pair of shears cut the negatives apart
and place them face clown in the tray of clear
water.
The negatives may now be immersed in the
developer one section at a time, and developed
Fie. 03.
and fixed according to instructions given for dry
plates and sheet film.
This method must always be followed with the
cartridge roll holder rolls, but they may first be
cut in two at point where perforations occur in
the middle of strip.
Another Way. — I. Unroll the film and cut the
exposures apart as shown in Fig. 64. In unroll-
ing the film preparatory to development care
156
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
must be taken that the end be not allowed to
roll over the paper. The exposures should be
cut apart with the paper on top. Fig. 65 shows
a cartridge unrolled with the film on top. To
correct this simply turn back the film as indi-
cated by the dotted lines, thus bringing the film
under the paper.
2. Fill a tray nearly full of water, and put
into it the exposures, one by one, face down ;
FIG. 64.
put them in edgewise, to avoid air bells, and im-
merse them fully. Cover the tray with a bit of
brown paper to keep out the light from the
lamp.
3. Prepare a developer according to instruc-
tions in chapter XXIV.
4. Take one of the exposures from the water
and immerse it face down in a second tray. Rock
it back and forth to prevent streaks and air bub-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
157
bles ; in about one minute the film will begin to
darken in spots, representing- the lights of the
picture, and in about two minutes the operator
will be able to distinguish objects in the picture.
Incorrect Method.
FlG. 05.
The developer should be allowed to act 5 to 10
minutes. The progress of the development may
be watched by holding the negative, from time
to time, up to the lamp. (See Fig. 66.)
FIG. GO.
5. Transfer the developed film to a third tray
and rinse two or three times with water, leaving
it to soak while the next film is being developed.
Only one negative should be developed at a time
until the operator becomes expert ; then he can
158 MODERN' PHOTOGRAPHY.
manage three or four in the tray at one time and
the developer will answer for a dozen films be-
fore being exhausted. As each successive nega-
tive is developed it should be put, with the pre-
ceding negatives, in the washing tray and the
water changed twice to prevent the developer re-
maining in the films from staining them.
6. Put two tablespoonfuls of hyppsulphite of
soda into a fourth tray, fill two-thirds full of
water, and stir until dissolved. This is called the
fixing bath.
7. Immerse the negatives one by one irr the
fixing bath until they are entirely clear of white
spots and are transparent instead of milky by
transmitted light. This will require about 10
minutes.
8. The red or yellow glass can be removed
from the lamp as soon as all the exposures have
been fixed.
9. Pour off the fixing solution into the slop
bucket and fill the tray with clear, cold water ;
repeat this at intervals of five minutes, five or
six times, keeping the negatives in motion or
transferring them back and forth to tray No.
3, one by one, to ensure the water acting evenly
upon them. The fixing solution must only be
used in tray Xo. 4, and the negatives, after fixing,
must not be put in either No. I or No. 2 trays.
Neither must any of the fixing solution be al-
lowed to touch the films through the agency of
the fingers or otherwise, until they are ready to
go into the fixing bath, otherwise they will be
spotted or blackened so as to be useless.
10. When the negatives are thoroughly washed
put one-half ounce of glycerine into one pint
of water (four portions measured with the grad-
uate glass), stir well and soak the negatives in
MODERX PHOTOGRAPHY. 159
the solution for 5 minutes ; then remove them
and wipe oft" the surplus moisture with a soft,
damp cloth, and pin them by the four corners
face up to a flat surface to dry. The glycerine
solution may be used repeatedly. The trays and
measuring glass should now be rinsed out and
set away to drain and dry. When the negatives
are dry they are ready for printing.
Defective Negatives. — By following closely the
foregoing directions the novice can make seventy-
five per cent or upwards of good negatives. Some-
times, however, the directions are not followed
and failures 'result. In such cases the instruc-
tions given for the correction of faults in dry
plate negatives may safely be followed to correct
like faults in film negatives.
THE CHEMISTRY OF DEVELOPMENT.
Constantly changing conditions of light and
temperature may make it necessary at times to
change the proportions of the different chemicals
given in developing formulas. We therefore
give the effect of each ingredient on the plate :
Pyro is the agent that gives strength.
Sulphite of soda preserves the pyro and pre-
vents the negative from staining yellow.
Sal soda gives detail by softening and open-
ing the pores of the film, causing the pyro to
penetrate and act more vigorously.
If pyro alone were used the development would
be very slow and decomposition of the pyro
and stain of the negative, due to the absence
of the sulphite, would prevent full development
of the details.
The addition of sulphite of soda alone would
simply enable the development to be continued
l6o MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
to a greater extent without stain, but would give
a contrasty negative, wanting in detail.
Pyro, sulphite of soda and sal soda, in the
proper proportions, the negative correctly timed,
and the temperature of room from 70 to 75 de-
grees Fahr. should give you a good negative in
four minutes' development. If in that time your
negative is too strong and wanting in detail it
is a proof that, under your condition of light, you
have used too much pyro — -try 25 per cent less.
If, however, the high lights are not too strong and
the detail is wanting, the exposure was too short.
This also might be overcome by a timely addi-
tional of sal soda at the early part of the develop-
ment. Again, if at the end of four minutes your
negative appears all over nearly alike (weak and
too much detail), then it is overtimed; or, if
the film appears soft, too much sal soda has been
used.
If the development has continued six, eight
or ten minutes, and the result is a flat, weak neg-
ative, either your developer is too weak in all its
ingredients or the chemicals are impure, or, per-
haps, the room is too cold.
Too much pyro gives contrast with proper
time of development.
Too little pyro gives a weak negative with
longer development.
Too much sal soda clogs up the negative with
quick development.
Too little sal soda causes contrast and slow
development.
GENERAL INFORMATION.
Color of Negative. — Gray negatives make weak
prints and are the result of too much sulphite
of soda in the developer.
COTTON ON THE WIIAKK AT NK\V OUI.KANS. LA.. ON-
LINE OF ILLINOIS CKNTHAL KAILIIOAI).
MODI-:RX I-IIOTOCRAIMIY. 161
Blue-black and grayish-black negatives are
quite pleasing to the eye, but do not give the best
prints, as the delicate definition in the negative
becomes a blank shadow in the print, thus giving
a contrasty appearance not noticeable in the nega-
tive.
Greenish brown or yellowish black are the
most desirable colors in the negative. From a
negative of either of these colors you get in the
print all you see in the negative, and the defini-
tion will print out clear and bold. "\Yith these
colors, however, the negative should not be made
so strong. Precautions must be taken to use
water free from organic and other injurious mat-
ter (s«^e article on water), and also to use neutral
sulphite of soda or some in which the" alkali has
been neutralized (see sulphite soda). If the nega-
tive' should develop too blue or grav use less
sulphite. Too much sulphite gives gray; too lit-
tle gives yellow.
Water. — If distilled water onlv was used in
making solutions of developer, half the troubles
in development would be avoided. Distilled
water is oftentimes not easilv procurable, and
so the water at hand must be used. If river
water is taken it should be boiled, cooled and
filtered before mixing, as it generally contains
much vegetable and other organic matter. \Yell
water that is free from iron and sulphur and not
too alkaline may be used without boiling. If it
contains any of these it should be boiled and
filtered. Melted ice is good, but should be fil-
tered.
Sulphite of Soda. — Keep in a cool, dry place
and in a well-corked bottle. If kept in a warm
place the crystals melt and run together, and if
exposed to the air the water of crystali/.ation
1 62 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
evaporates, leaving a white powder ; it is then un-
fit for use, being changed into a sulphate through
this contact with air. Owing to the many brands
of sulphite of soda on the market and their
various degrees of alkalinity, it is necessary to
test it before using as directed by our formulas.
Dissolve 4 ounces of sulphite of soda in 16 ounces
of water and then add 20 drops of sulphuric acid.
If this solution turns red litmus paper blue the
sulphite of soda is too alkaline. To neutralize the
alkali set aside 5 ounces of the solution and to
the remainder add sulphuric acid (C. P.) until
the blue litmus paper turns slightly red. It may
be necessary to add 100 drops, more or less. Then
add the 5 ounces set aside and the solution is
ready for use.
CHAPTER XVI.
PRINTING, TONING, MOUNTING AND
FINISHING OF MISCELLANEOUS
PAPERS— VIGNETTING.
The novice in the mysteries of photography has
now been carried in imagination through all the
operations necessary in the making of the nega-
tive. He is the possessor of several first-class
but imaginary negatives — pictures in which all
those portions which should be white are black
and those which should be black are represented
by clear glass. He will recognize that this is mere-
ly a means to an end, and that the way to produce
a positive picture from a negative is to place a
sensitive surface in contact with it, and to expose
to the action of light so that the rays passing
through all those portions of the negative which
are transparent will turn the sensitive surface
black in those places, while the dark parts of the
negative will protect it from the darkening in-
fluence, and so form a print which is positive —
which has its lights and shades in the correct
relation to one another. The process by which
this result is obtained is known as Photographic
Printing, and the resultant positives, made on
sensitized or printing papers, are called prints.
Until quite recently Albumen Paper was used
almost exclusively by the photographer, but while
this paper yields most excellent and permanent
results, it is extremely tedious and troublesome
in manipulation, and of late years the field which
it held so long has been almost entirely pre-
2mpted by the ready prepared products.
163
164 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
These prepared papers are of many kinds, and
are generally known as Emulsion or Aristotype
papers. The word Aristotype, however, covers a
very broad field, as nearly all the products are
made after different formulae and each brand has
little peculiarities of its own that require special
treatment in manipulation. For this reason it is
impossible to outline a method of operation that
will exactly suit all kinds, and the instructions
herewith given are but general.
These various papers are known generally as
Collodion, Gelatine, Bromide, Ferro-Prussiate,
etc. They are divided into two great classes,
known as Printing-Out papers and Developing
papers. From the large number of brands on
the market it is possible to obtain almost any
grade or texture desired, such as smooth or
glossy surface, mat surface, etc.
The various manufacturers enclose with each
package of their product specific instructions for
manipulation, and the amateur will do well to
follow same closely.
By Printing-Out papers is meant those kinds
on which all details of the negative are printed
fully out, the paper afterward being subjected to
the toning and fixing processes presently de-
scribed.
Developing papers are those with which the
details of the negative, instead of being printed
out, as with printing-out papers, are exposed in
contact with a negative and after exposure are
developed and fixed in a manner very similar to
that in which a negative is produced. Platino-
type and kindred papers partake of the nature of
both Printing-Out and strictly Developing pa-
pers, as in their use they are printed out to a
dim outline and afterward developed. Develop-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 165
ing papers are many times quicker than any
Printing-Out paper. Those who have but little
time in daylight for photographic work, instead
of spending hours in printing, washing, toning,
etc., can in a very few moments make all their
prints by exposure to any artificial light, and in
an equally short time develop and finish them,
thus leaving all the sunshiny hours for other pur-
suits.
Of the many papers offered probably the most
desirable, for the beginner at any rate, is a Gela-
tino-Chloride (chloride of silver in an emulsion of
gelatine) printing-out paper. In the negative we
have learned that the image is latent until
brought out by chemical action. In the printing-
out paper the image "prints-out" at once. Before
it is toned and fixed it is in the same condition
as a proof received from the photographer. The
chemical action clears the high lights and shad-
ows, gives the proper tone and "fixes" the print,
i. e., makes it permanent.
The processes of toning and fixing may be
combined in one bath or may be done separately.
For convenience the combined bath can be used,
but care should be exercised not to overwork
the bath. Toning with an overworked bath will
not yield permanent results and no attempt to
economize by overworking the toning bath
should be made, as disappointment will be the
inevitable result.
Printing. — In order to hold the paper in contact
with the negative during the operation of print-
ing, a special frame is employed, with a hinged
back and springs to hold it down.thisbeingknown
as a printing frame. The back is hinged so that
while one half of the print in progress is firmly
held by one spring in its position behind the
l66 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
negative, the other half can be turned back by
the printer in order to see what progress has
been made, with the full assurance that it will
drop back exactly into position for further ex-
posure, if that should be necessary.
Though printing-out paper is sensitive to the
action of the light, it is not so to anything like the
same degree that a photographic plate or film
or developing paper is. For instance, gas light
has practically no effect whatever upon it, and
all the operations of placing it in the printing
frames and so on can be conducted in weak day-
light with impunity instead of in the dark room.
To make a print, the first thing to do is to re-
move the back from the printing frame by shift-
ing aside the two pressure springs and lifting it
out, when, the frame being laid face downwards
on a table, the negative to be printed is placed
in it, with the film side uppermost. Then a piece
of sensitized paper is placed in position on the
negative, with its shiny side downward, so that
the two films are in contact with one another, the
back is replaced, the springs brought to bear
upon it and the whole placed in some position
where plenty of light will fall upon it. On an
ordinary bright summer day printing frames
placed on the window sill on that side of the
house on which the sun is not shining will, with
negatives of average density, yield prints of good
quality at a fair rate of printing. Of course, the
amount of exposure which a given print will re-
quire depends not only upon the quality and
brilliancy of the light, but also very considerably
upon the density and color of the negative under
which it is exposed. Moreover, the speed at
which a print is made affects its ultimate quality
to a marked extent, and a long exposure in a
MODERN I'HOTOGUAl'IIY. 167
poor light, tending to brilliancy in the resultant
print, will give a more plucky picture, with
higher contrasts, from the same negative than
one in which the exposure has been a short one
to a brilliant light. Extra brilliancy is not al-
ways desirable, as, for instance, when the con-
trasts in the negative are already as high as is
at all necessary, and in this case a short exposure
to a very bright light — even to direct sun-
light, in extreme cases — will give the best re-
sults. On the other hand, when the negative is
unduly thin and weak, as when it has been over-
exposed, a brighter plate than would normally
result may be obtained by slow printing in a
very weak light, or by allowing the light to filter
through a piece of tissue paper placed over the
printing frame.
Prints upon printing-out papers should always
be more deeply printed than it is desired that
the finished picture shall be, for they always
fade more or less in the subsequent toning and
fixing operations. It is difficult to give definite
directions for the exact extent to which this extra
printing should be carried, especially as it varies
for different papers and different toning solu-
tions; but a little experience will soon reveal the
amount of fading which has to be guarded
against with any particular materials and pre-
cautions can be taken accordingly.
Toning. — \Yhen the prints are taken from the
frame they are of a bright red color, not alto-
gether a displeasing hue. if it could be retained,
but it can not, for the effect of the necessary fix-
ing bath is to transform it into a horrible bilious
brown. In order to avoid this objectionable fea-
ture recourse is had to what is called the "toning
bath," a very dilute solution of chloride of gold,
l68 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
in which the prints are placed, the effect of which
is to throw down on all those portions of the
print in which there is already a deposit of silver
a thin film of metallic gold, which imparts to it
the proper tone.
As the toning operation is a somewhat tedi-
ous one, giving very nearly as much trouble
where only two prints are concerned as for two
dozen, it is expedient to postpone it until there
are a sufficient number of photographs to be
toned to make it worth while. Albeit, the treat-
ment should not be put off for too long, as the
prints deteriorate with the lapse of time. A week
or so, however, will have no appreciable deter-
rent effect if prints are kept in an absolutely dark
receptacle.
The formulae and treatment recommended by
the manufacturer — who, it is only natural to sup-
pose, knows more about the peculiarities of his
own products than any one else — should be
strictly adhered to. In the sheet of instructions
issued with every packet of paper there is given
an extremely simple and excellent recipe for a
toning bath, although it is generally pointed out
that any of the recognized formulae for this class
of paper may be used.
All photographic chemicals may be very much
deteriorated by accidental admixture with for-
eign substances, but none are so sensitive to con-
tamination as the toning bath. A separate dish
should be reserved for toning, and never on any
account used for anything else. Successful ton-
ing can only be accomplished by observing the
greatest cleanliness in all the operations and all
the materials and vessels used, for the smallest
quantity of hvpo. for instance, will have a very
detrimental effect upon the results.
MOK1 INDIAN* WKAVKIt. ITKI'.I.O OK OKAII'.I. AIM-
ZONA. ON TIIK SANTA KE.
I'boto by W. II. Simpson,
MODKR.X 1'IIOTOGRAI'IIY. 169
Chloride of gold is a component part of nearly
all toning baths and it is advisable for the ama-
teur to have always prepared a quantity of gold
solution, ready for immediate use.
This chemical (chloride of gold) being a very
precious salt, and, moreover, being deliquescent —
that is, liable to take up moisture from the air
and become liquid — is sold for photographic pur-
poses in tiny, hermetically-sealed tubes holding
15 grains apiece. This small quantity of the tiny
crystals being practically unweighable by ordi-
nary mortals, it will be found convenient to mix
it with water, which can then be conveniently
measured. Procure a i6-ounce stoppered bot-
tle, put 15 ounces of water in it, together with
the tube of gold, from which the label must be
previously washed with warm water, then in-
sert the stopper and shake the bottle until the
tube breaks. You will then have a solution of
gold chloride in which every ounce contains one
grain of the precious chemical, which can be
easily measured out into the required quantities
by means of a graduated glass.
It will be found that some formulae require
the use of a certain number of ounces of gold
solution. Others state that a certain number
of grains of gold must be used. These appar-
ently conflicting requirements need not prove
confusing to the amateur if he will remember
that, when made up according to directions
given above, each ounce of the gold solution con-
tains one grain of pure chloride of gold. Hence,
when the formula he intends following calls
for, say, 7' /> grains of gold he must use 7'1» ounces
of the gold solution.
Having thus prepared his gold solution, the
amateur is ready to make up his toning bath ac-
I/O MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
cording to the special instructions accompanying
the particular brand of paper he is using or ac-
cording' to instructions herein given.
DIRECTIONS FOR TONING WITH THE
COMBINED BATH.
Place prints without previous washing in the
following combined toning and fixing bath :
Stock Solution.
A — Hyposulphite of soda 8 oz.
Alum (crystals) 6 oz.
Sugar (granulated ) 2 oz.
Water 80 oz.
Dissolve above in cold water and
When dissolved add borax 2 oz.
Dissolved in hot water 8 oz.
Let stand over night and decant clear liquid.
Stock Solution.
B — Purs chloride of gold j}/2 grains
Acetate of lead (sugar of lead). .64 grains
Water 8 oz.
Solution B should be shaken up before using
and not filtered.
To tone fifteen 4x5 prints take :
Stock Solution A 8 oz.
Stock Solution B I oz.
Pour the toning solution into a suitable tray
and immerse the prints one after another. Sev-
eral prints can be toned at once if they are kept
in motion and not allowed to lie in contact. Turn
the prints all face down and then face up and
repeat this all the time they are toning. The
prints will begin to change color almost imme-
diately from reddish brown to reddish yellow,
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 17!
then to brown and finally to purple. The change
will be gradual from one shade to another and
the toning should be stopped when the print gets
the shade desired.
When the proper shade has been obtained in
toning bath the prints should be transferred for
five minutes to the following salt solution to stop
the toning:
Salt i oz.
Water 32 oz.
The extra fixing Ixith should be used to en-
sure thorough fixing.
After the salt bath give one change of cold
water and fix for ten minutes in the
Extra Fixing Bath.
Hyposulphite of soda I oz.
Sulphite of soda (crystals) 60 grains
Borax *4 oz.
Water 20 oz.
Wash one hour in running cold water or in
sixteen changes of cold water, when prints may
be mounted.
The combined bath must be started cold, not
above 50 degrees Fahr., and must not be allowed
to rise to temperature above 60 degrees Fahr.
This condition can be obtained by placing a piece
of ice in the bath when toning. If the bath is
too warm, you will get yellow prints with a
greenish cast in the half tones.
Use a thermometer and keep it in toning bath
all the time.
The combined bath is an acid solution. The
borax neutralizes only the excess of acid in the
alum. Any attempt to neutralize the bath will
precipitate the alum.
I~2 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
The combined bath should not be used a sec-
ond time.
Clean trays once a week with nitric acid or
sulphuric acid and water to prevent white spots
or blotches on the prints.
TONING BY THE SEPARATE TONING
AND FIXING METHOD.
The method of toning and fixing just described
is by means of the combined bath. That is a
solution in which the chemicals for toning the
prints and those for fixing (rendering them per-
manent) are combined in the one solution.
The combined bath has as its chief claim to
consideration the fact that when it is used the
operations of toning, fixing and washing are ren-
dered much less tedious than when the separate
method is used. However, very few combined
baths will produce permanent prints, hence the
photographer has recourse to what is known as
the separate method of toning and fixing, which,
when properly used, will render absolutely per-
manent prints.
To use the separate methods mix as follows :
Toning Bath.
Chloride of gold i grain
Water 40 oz.
Alkali (saturated solution of borax
or bicarbonate of soda) 10 drops
To obtain warm tones use less alkali. To ob-
tain cold tones use more alkali.
Having mixed up the toning bath, put it aside
while you give the prints their preliminary wash-
ing. Place them one by one, taking care that
each is submerged before the next is put in, into
MODERN PHOTOCRAI'IIY. IJ$
a large basin full of clean, cold water and as soo:<
as all are in transfer them one at a time to an-
other similar bath of water and then again to th<
third and so on until all have been washed ii-
several changes of water for at least ten min-
utes.
When the prints are ready for toning they
should be removed from the washing water, for
too much soaking is not good for them, and put
in a heap to drain. Then one at a time they
are placed in the toning bath and kept moving
about in the solution until there are about a
dozen under treatment. This is about as many
as can be comfortably attended to, and by this
time the first ones should be nearly toned. As
soon as this stage is reached the print should be
transferred to another dish of clean, cold water,
to stop further action, and a fresh one can be put
into the toning bath to take its place. Mean-
while all the prints in the toning solution must
be kept in constant motion to avoid unequal ac-
tion, from which patchy pictures would result ;
the best plan is to keep continually drawing the
bottom print out of the liquid and placing it on
the top, taking each one from the bath as it is
seen to be finished and replacing it with a fresh
one from the heap.
When all the prints have been through this
operation the fixing bath should be prepared.
The fixing bath is much weaker than that used
for negative work, and should always be freshly
mixed for each batch of prints. The following
strength is recommended, though the propor-
tions need not be very exactly measured :
Fixing Bath.
Hyposulphite of soda $ oz.
Water 20 oz.
174 MODERN" PHOTOGRAPHY.
1 en minutes will suffice to complete the opera-
tion and again care should be taken to prevent
the prints sticking too closely to one another
and so interfere with the action of the hypo. The
final washing, whose duty, as in the case of the
negatives, is to remove all trace of the hypo and
which must, therefore, be most thoroughly per-
formed, for upon its thoroughness the perma-
nency of the prints almost entirely depends, takes
at least fifty minutes, and is best accomplished
in a print washer in running water, if possible, or,
failing that, in continual changes, one print at a
time.
PRINTING ON DEVELOPING PAPER.
For the amateur there is perhaps no more sat-
isfactory printing process than that offered by
the use of developing paper. There are many
brands of this kind of paper on the market which
are familiar to most users of the camera, viz. :
Yelox, Dekko, Argo, etc. Papers of this class
are many times as rapid as printing-out paper.
Prints made by this process give soft platinum
effects with a minimum of trouble and expense.
Printing may be done by either artificial light
or daylight and the print then developed by sub-
dued daylight or lamp light. If daylight be used
the amateur should simply pull down all of the
window shades and, having filled the printing
frame in the usual manner, step to the window,
raise the shade a trifle, give the required ex-
posure, pull down the shade and proceed with
development. If exposure is made by gas light
he should turn up the jet to its full capacity for
the required time and when ready for developing
simply turn the gas low, so as to subdue the
light, and then work directly under it. To the
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 175
amateur who has no regularly equipped dark
room this feature of the paper is a great con-
venience, as the bath room or kitchen can be
readily utilized for the work either by day or
night, without the necessity of pinning blankets
over doors and windows to stop each stray ray of
light.
When rilling the printing frame the paper not
used should be promptly replaced in its envelope
and put away in a dark drawer.
Exposure. — As papers of this class vary in
sensitiveness the instructions given, so far as
duration of exposure is concerned, are but gen-
eral. The special instructions inclosed in every
package of paper must be accepted in preference
to any general rule. To print from a negative
of average density expose two minutes, six inches
from an ordinary six-foot gas burner. A very
thin negative will print in about one minute and
a very dense one would require from four .to
five minutes, but the average exposures will be
from two to three minutes by this light. If ex-
posed to direct sunlight an exposure of from one
to five seconds will suffice. As a general rule
printing by artificial light will give better re-
sults, and after the first two or three experiments
it can be determined by the appearance of a
negative just how much time will be required
for printing.
Development. — Developing papers do not print
out. but the image is latent and must be devel-
oped the same as with a negative or a bromide
print.
For your developer make up a stock solution
as follows:
J76 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
Hydro-Metol Developer.
Water 12 oz.
Metol 71/2 grains
Hydrochinonc 30 grains
Sodium sulphite, crystals pure. 218 grains
Sodium carbonate (crystals) . . . 163 grains
Dissolve and add about 25 drops of a solution
composed of bromide of potassium ]/2 oz., water
5 oz. This solution is to be used without dilut-
ing.
Olive green tones may be obtained by diluting
developer with two or three ounces of water
and adding 12 to 15 drops of the bromide of
potassium.
Soak for a few seconds in cold water, then
place face up in tray and pour on developer. If
the print has been properly exposed development
will be very rapid. The instant print reaches
the required density it should be transferred di-
rectly (without washing) to the
Hypo Bath.
Hyposulphite soda i oz.
Acetic acid (or alum ^4 oz-) 4 drops
Water 5 oz.
Keep print moving during first few seconds
of immersion.
Wash thoroughly for one hour in at least
twelve changes of water and hang up to dry.
Four ounces of the diluted developer will an-
swer for half a dozen 4x5 prints, then it should
be thrown away and a new developer prepared
from the stock solution.
Failures and Their Causes. — Weak prints are
caused by underexposure or weak developer.
Overdark prints are the result of too long ex-
posure or too strong developer.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 177
Muddy whites are usually from lack of bromide
in developer, but may be caused by paper being
light-struck, by forcing development of under-
timed prints or by failure to move prints in hypo
bath.
Greenish-brown tones are the result of too
much bromide in the developer or of the use of
old or weak developer.
Yellow stains come usually from insufficient
washing or fixing, but are sometimes the result
of not completely immersing the print in de-
veloper or of not keeping them moving for a few
seconds when first put into hypo.
Brown or purple stains sometimes result from
incomplete fixing or from failure to keep prints
moving in the hypo. The remedy is obvious.
White spots are the result of bubbles on the
paper while in the developer.
Making Blue Prints and Sepia Prints. — Print
making on Ferro-Prussiate (blue print) paper is
simple in the extreme, no chemicals whatever be-
ing required. Make prints in the same manner
as described for making gelatine prints, but con-
tinue until a shade darker than the finished print
should be, then wash the print for ten minutes
in clean water. The resulting picture is of a very
agreeable, bright blue color on a white ground
and is as permanent as the paper itself.
Blue prints should not be burnished.
The paper known under various names as Sepia
matt is handled almost in exactly similar man-
ner as the blue print paper and produces most
beautiful matt surface prints of a warm sepia
brown tone.
Printing-In Clouds. — The time is past and gone
when a landscape photograph having a plain
white sky is considered complete. It has been
178 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
recognized that a photograph, like any other
picture, must show clouds of some sort, if it has
any sky at all, and, as clouds — requiring a very
much shorter exposure than the majority of ter-
restrial objects — rarely appear upon a landscape
negative, it is necessary to introduce them into
the print by a second exposure to light under
a special cloud negative. The amateur will do
well to make for himself a set of negatives of
different kinds of clouds so that he will have a
number to select from, and will be able to find
one to suit any picture he may take. Attention
should be paid to the direction of lighting of
the clouds, so that a landscape lighted from one
side may not be wedded to a cloud on which
the sun is shining from the opposite direction.
The recently introduced Ray Filters and Ray
Filtergraphs render the making of cloud nega-
tives comparatively easy, as they are constructed
primarily for this work.
If the black space representing the sky on the
landscape negative be not sufficiently dense to
prevent the light from darkening the paper be-
hind during printing, it must be painted out or
masked to make it so, and this is most easily
done in the following manner : Make a rough
print upon any kind of printing-out paper and,
with a pair of scissors, cut carefully along the
line of demarkation between the landscape and
the sky portion. Put both pieces in the sunlight
to, darken, and attach the sky half to the glass
side of the negative in the right position to make
the sky perfectly opaque, taking care that it does
not overlap other portions of the picture. Then
make the print in the usual manner, and after-
wards print in the sky from a suitable cloud nega-
tive, using the other half of the divided photo-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 179
graph as a shield for the landscape portion al-
ready printed, in the same manner.
Trimming. — The prints should be neatly
trimmed before toning, taking off the blank edges
caused by the printing frame.
The majority of views are improved by trim-
ming off a liberal margin ; especially is this true
of views where some central object really com-
prises the picture.
A good guide for trimming is the glass form,
as by its use you can see where to trim to best
advantage.
Place the print, with face up, on a clean sheet
of glass, and on the print place the glass form.
Press down firmly on the form with one hand,
and with the other cut along each edge of the
form with a sharp knife. An ordinary pocket
knife will answer. The knife should be kept
well sharpened.
A better method is to use any of the regular
print trimmers as sold by dealers in photo ma-
terials.
Trim your prints freely. It is safe to say that
three pictures out of every four can be improved
by a judicious use of the shears. One picture
has too much sky, another too much foreground
and another one a whole side with nothing in
it worth keeping. When a portion of a picture
has nothing in it that is interesting or necessary
to the balance of the picture, cut it out. Take
two cards and experiment with your photographs,
laying the cards on them in such a way as to cut
out from view what seem to be undesirable parts ;
then apply the shears. An experiment of this
kind will soon satisfy you that the shears can
be used to advantage.
Vignetting. — Portraits are sometimes printed
l8o MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
in such a manner that the picture gradually fades
away towards the edges where there is perfectly
white paper. This "artful fakement" is called
vignetting, and is accomplished, as will be im--
agined, by shielding the edges during exposure
or printing by means of a suitable mask. Vig-
netters, as they are called, can be purchased from
any dealer in photographic accessories, but as
nearly every different picture or portrait requires
a mask of different shape or size, it is less ex-
pensive for the amateur to make his own vig-
netting shapes as he requires them. Take a
piece of card of the size of the negative to be
vignetted and cut a hole in it of oval or other
shape, as the case may be, and rather smaller
i than that area of the picture which is to be un-
A affected by the shielding. Then with a pair of
scissors snip out V-shaped pieces so that the
hole is serrated all around inside like the edge
of a saw. Place this card in the printing frame
before you put the negative in, and bulge it out
so that the teeth stand out in front of the glass
to the extent of about half an inch. Then print
in the ordinary manner, but in well diffused light,
and the result should be a nicely graduated vig-
nette without a trace of the serrated edges being
apparent.
Mounting. — After the prints are washed they
are ready for mounting on cardboard, or, as usu-
ally called, card-mounts ; this operation is very
simple.
Remove the prints from the water one by one,
drain off all surplus water, and place in a pile,
with faces down, on a clean sheet of glass.
Apply a thin coat of paste to the back of
upper print, using a bristle brush for that pur-
pose ; place the print carefully on the card-mount,
MOUliUX I'HOTOCiRAlMIY. l8l
working from the center to the ends so as to be
free from air bubbles. Place a piece of cheese
cloth over the print to prevent it from becom-
ing rubbed or torn, and rub the paper with the
palm of the hand until the print lies perfectly
smooth.
If the prints are not required to be mounted
at once on leaving the water, they should be
dried, and when mounted subsequently they
should be thrown into clean water until they
lie Hat, and then mount as usual. Do not try
to mount them while dry.
One of the best articles for making prints lie
smooth is a small squeegee roller, which is sold
by all dealers in photographic materials.
After being properly mounted and thoroughly
dried the prints should be burnished by running
them through a Ihirnisher.
Card Mounts. — -In choosing card mounts for
prints great attention should be paid to the par-
ticular character of the picture to be mounted.
The beauty of a photograph is also very much
enhanced by the harmony of its surroundings as
to color, etc., when hung. This is not the place,
however, to enter discursively into a subject
which is largely a matter of taste.
As regards the mount itself, in its relation to
the picture, it is difficult to lay down any general
rules as to its choice, but it will be safe to sav
that it should be chosen with a view to heighten-
ing the effectiveness of the picture it is to con-
tain and of lending importance and dignity to its
salient features. For instance, if the picture con-
tains high lights which require accentuating, a
heavy mass of dark color in the mount — if it be
not included in the picture itself — -will be found
to lend vigor and brilliancy.
l82 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
Where the photographs are arranged in albums
the same variety of choice of environment is not
practicable ; but even here there is scope for the
exercise of the photographer's good taste, for
much may be accomplished in a negative kind of
way, by the careful choice of neighbors, so that
incongruity of fellowship may be avoided ; for
the telling qualities of a picture are considerably
enhanced by placing it among others whose par-
ticular qualities tend by contrast to bring out
its full beauty.
I!
Very convenient albums known as Squeegees
have lately been introduced, in which unmounted
photographs may be inserted into the thickness
of the pages, as it were, in much the same manner
as cabinets are slipped in the old-fashioned por-
trait albums. Photographic mounts, either plain
or ornamented, with seasonable legendary in-
kscriptions, suitable to Christmas time, etc., built
upon the same principle, can also be obtained.
Glossy Prints. — Few amateurs care to go to
the expense or trouble of burnishing their own
prints, but they can readily obtain a beautiful
glace finish in a simple manner by drying prints
on a ferrotype plate in the following manner :
MODERN 1'110'RKJKAl'IIV. 183
1. Clean the ferrotype plate with hot water
each time it is used. Polish with a soft cloth
until plate is absolutely free from dirt or specks
of any description. Swab with a tuft of soft
cloth or cotton batting, wet with a solution com-
posed of benzine i oz., paraffine 10 gr. Rub dry
with a clean cloth and polish with a chamois
skin or very soft cloth. Use a soft brush to re-
move particles of dust from plate.
2. Lay the wet print on the ferrotype plate. It
must be in perfect contact to produce a uniform
glossy surface. This contact is better secured
by avoiding- air bells in laying the print down
than by endeavoring to expel them by heavy
pressure — -light rolling with a print roller (with
cloth between) is all that is required — heavy
pressure being liable to make prints stick in
spots.
3. When surface is dry brush over the back
of print (while still on the plate) with a thin
solution of white glue.
4. \Yhen "bone" dry strip the print from the
plate and lay the print on a mount, the face of
which has been well moistened with a wet sponge.
5. Rub down with a dry blotter, then dry face
up. free from dust.
Note. — Prints finished by the above process can
be kept very nicely unmounted if so desired, the
glue on the backs preventing curling.
CHAPTER XVII.
PLATINUM PRINTING.
So far all the printing methods that have been
described depend upon the fact that certain of
the salts of silver are sensitive to light ; that is
to say, they are either directly darkened by the
action of light, or they have conferred upon
them the susceptibility of the blackening in-
fluence of a subsequent chemical operation called
development. But one of the most beautiful
of all the printing processes is that in which
the chemical salt of the metal platinum is sub-
stituted for that of silver, and so pleasing are
the prints made by this process that it has come
to be recognized even by the lay mind as some-
thing distinct from the usual application of
scientific processes, and "platinotypes" come in
for a large share of admiration everywhere.
Of all the modern printing processes at the
command of the photographer, whether amateur
or professional, none deserves to be more popu-
lar than the platinum. The simplicity of manip-
ulation combined with the beauty of the results
obtained with it is enough to recommend it to
every photographer. And above all, the prints
produced by this method are as permanent as the
paper which supports the image.
Its range of yielding the strongest blacks with
pure lights and a long scale of intermediate half-
tones or grays is only equaled by the carbon
process. The platinum print has an undescrib-
able charm, suggesting atmosphere, though the
184
MODERN' PHOTOGRAPHY. l8S
negative printed on another medium may be en-
tirely devoid of this valuable pictorial quality.
Notwithstanding these decided beauties and
charms, the great majority of photographers, and
especially beginners, imagine that platinum print-
ing belongs to the advanced stage of photogra-
phy.
Excluding the process of producing blue prints,
none is so easy and simple and none requires so
few chemicals and so little time and trouble to
produce a finished print.
There is no toning to be looked after, a little
very dilute acid answers for the fixing, and there
is only short washing.
In printing, the image is only partially visible
and it takes a little experience in overcoming the
difficulty in judging how far to go. This factor
has undoubtedly been the great bugbear of this
otherwise almost ideal photographic printing
process, and has been the cause which frightens
the beginner who has generally accustomed him-
self to some of the printing-out silver papers.
But in consideration of the fact that the difficulty
is often more imaginary than real, and that the
manipulations of developing, cleaning and wash-
ing hardly take more than a few minutes, is it
not worth while to at least try this mode of
printing?
As stated, platinotype printing presents no
special difficulties when once its little peculiari-
ties are understood ; but there is one thing about
it which demands most careful attention, for
upon that depends, in a very great measure, the
success or failure of the process. The sensitive
paper, both before and during printing, is most
susceptible to the influence of damp, which, if
it has been allowed to affect the paper, will in-
l86 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
evitably cause it to yield muddy and degraded-
looking prints, which are unsatisfactory and un-
profitable.
Platinotype paper can be obtained from most
dealers, together with all the accessories required
in the working of the process. It is manufac-
tured in sheets 20x26 inches, but can be bought
in any desired size, packed in dozens in a tin
tube. The writer wishes to warn the beginner
not to buy the paper in any way but in tins, for
otherwise he will not receive it in proper condi-
tion. The advice of some dealers in this matter
is ruinous. The paper is packed in tin tubes,
as it is extremely sensitive to damp, which spoils
it. Each tin contains a bit of cotton-wool, en-
closing a small piece of asbestos, saturated with
calcium chloride, which absorbs all traces of
moisture apt to get into the tube and which
would otherwise attack the paper.
In a fairly cool place it keeps for months. Ex-
cessive heat will deteriorate it rapidly, so that
in a very hot climate it is best to keep it in a
refrigerator.
Inasmuch as the paper is more sensitive to
light than the gelatine and collodion silver papers
in the market, it must be handled in subdued
light ; that is, not too near a window nor out of
doors.
After opening a tube and taking out a sheet
for printing purposes, pack away the balance
exactly as originally packed, and the sheets can
be kept in good condition until wanted.
As a further precaution against the evil-work-
ing influence of dampness it is necessary to place
between the pads of the printing frame and the
sensitive paper during exposure a sheet of thin
vulcanized India rubber, and it is most im-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 187
portant that the pads themselves should be per-
fectly dry. Indeed, that word "dry" is the key-
note of the whole thing; every part of the ap-
paratus used and every bit of paper right up to
the process of development must be thoroughly
dry if the best results are to be secured.
The only difficulty about the process is as re-
gards the exposure, for not being, strictly speak-
ing, a printing-out paper, a certain amount of
experience and skill is necessary in order to
judge when the operation is complete. It is
not so much a case of estimating beforehand the
length of exposure necessary as, for instance,
where bromide paper and other processes of
printing by development are concerned, for,"
after the light has done its work, there is a dis-
tinct image of the picture upon the paper, from
which an experienced printer can tell in a mo-
ment whether the operation has been carried
sufficiently far or not. It is much more nearly
allied to the use of printing-out paper, for an
ordinary printing frame with its hinged back is
employed, and the length of time required is
determined, not by previous calculation, but by
examining the progress of the print from time
to time during exposure.
The paper, when first taken from its tin case,
is of a pale canary-yellow color, which, by ex-
posure to light, becomes modified into a light
grayish brown.
In printing it is exposed in the usual way to
daylight (sunlight preferably, according to the
writer's opinion), and is examined from time to
time to note the progress of the printing. This
must be done with the back to the window. The
image is only partially visible. A little practice
will teach the student how far to print ; actin-
1 88 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
ometers, as recommended by some, being entirely
unnecessary.
Care should be taken with the prints in all the
stages prior to the development that they do not
become unduly exposed to light, for its action
upon the paper does not manifest itself until
afterwards. It is more sensitive than any of the
printing-out papers, and must be guarded ac-
cordingly. When first taken from the frames,
unless the prints are destined for immediate de-
velopment, they should be quickly placed in the
tube to protect them from the action of the damp
air. Then, when the time comes to develop
them, they are floated one by one, face down-
wards, on the surface of the solution, and the
operation takes thirty seconds or possibly more.
There is another method of development which
has great artistic possibilities in clever hands,
and that is by applying the solution, re-strained
with glycerine in order to make it slower in its
action, by means of a camel's hair brush. Very
beautiful effects can be gained by this method,
especially if advantage is taken of the re-strain-
ing power of pure glycerine to hold back those
portions of the picture which are not required
of such depth as the remainder.
The color of a platinum print is essentially
black, but this tone can be modified to a small
extent by making the developer very slightly
alkaline for a warm black, or acid when cold
tones are desired.
The developing is done by immersing the print
in a solution of oxalate of potash, which brings
out the image in its full strength nearly instan-
taneously.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. l8(J
Oxalate of potash solution, nor-
mal strength; i. e., i lb., dis-
solved in 50 oz. water i part
Water 2 parts
The makers usually recommend a special sub-
stance which they call by various names for the
development of their papers. But as the treat-
ment of the prints where this developer is used
differs in no essential way from the other case,
it will be unnecessary to further mention same.
As soon as development is complete the print
is transferred to a fixing- bath composed of:
Hydrochloric acid (pure) i part
Water 60 parts
Immerse the print face downwards in this bath
contained in a porcelain dish, and leave it there
for five minutes or so, or until all the prints of
the batch have been developed and placed in this
clearing, or fixing bath. Then, when the last
one has had its five minutes' soak, they are all
transferred to a second, precisely similar, bath,
where they must remain for, say, ten minutes,
when they are again transferred to a third bath,
compounded in exactly the same manner, and
there left for a quarter of an hour. This triple
clearing is followed by a good washing in three
changes of water — to the second of which a little
washing soda may be added to neutralize any
acid remaining in the prints — and after fifteen
minutes or so they are readv for drying.
Full particulars and detailed instructions are
enclosed in every tube of paper.
The paper comes in various varieties, which
are marked as follows :
*AA (smooth, thin).
BB (smooth, stout).
CC (rough, very stout).
IQO MODERX PHOTOGRAPHY.
These are the cold bath papers which are in
general use here in the United States, and which
give pictures of a black image.
Besides this class, the Platinotype Company
manufactures the "Sepia" papers, which are de-
veloped hot, and give a rich brown print. They
also come in the various varieties of smooth and
rough.
The most popular of all these grades is that
known as CC ; it is a tough heavy paper, with a
decided tooth or grain like a rough drawing
medium. It also has better keeping qualities
than any of the others.
It cannot be impressed too forcibly upon the
beginner that moisture is the greatest enemy
of the process, and that it is necessary for him to
keep printing frames, pads and negatives per-
fectly dry, if he is aiming at superior results.
For certain effects it is sometimes desirable to
allow the paper to absorb some moisture, but this
will hardly be in the line of a beginner. It is
therefore to be recommended before starting a
day's printing to dry the printing frames and
pads in the kitchen or in some dry place, and
even to dry the negatives if the air is laden with
humidity. Gelatine is very hygroscopic : that is,
it readily absorbs moisture. It might also be
pointed out that with paper which is old and
perhaps slightly damp printing need not be car-
ried as far as with fresh and dry paper.
Most photographers have an idea that the
platinotype process requires a so-called ''plucky"
and "brilliant" negative. This is not the case.
Any negative which gives a good result with
other papers will yield good prints with plati-
num.
In using the cold bath paper it is at times ad-
MODIiUN PHOTOGRAPHY. .IQI
vantageous to develop it hot. This can be done
in case one is printing from a rather harsh nega-
tive, which, if developed in the ordinary way,
would yield a print devoid of all graduation or
half-tone. If developed hot the same print will
come out with considerably more softness ; that
is, yielding more half-tones.
In other words, the temperature of the devel-
oping bath has a decided influence on the tonality
of the print, as also on the color of the image.
The colder the bath, the colder the image may
be set down as a rule. The warmer the bath,
the warmer the image. Thus, one is enabled
at will to produce either a cold blue-black pic-
ture or one of a warm black, the resulting color
depending entirely upon the temperature of the
'oxalate solution.
Dampish paper yields prints of a brownish-
black color, with a tendency to mealiness.
At times it is desirable to increase the vigor
of a print, and in order to accomplish that result
the print must be developed in the following de-
veloper, recommended by Horsley Hinton :
Oxalate of potash i Ib.
Phosphate of potash 4 oz.
Sulphate of potash ^2 oz.
Water 6 pints
This solution develops the prints rather slowly,
and is especially suitable for prints from very
flat negatives.
It may be remarked that although the Platino-
type Company recommends its own developer for
use ,with their paper. I have found the pure
neutral oxalate of potash fully its equal. Their
salts undoubtedly contain some phosphate of
potash besides the oxalate.
192- MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
Platinum prints may be toned in various ways.
The most common is the "Uranium/' which
changes the color to a rich brown or red-brown.
The ordinary uranium intensifier may be used
for this purpose, the print simply being- im-
mersed in it for a time.
An excellent method for uranium toning- is
given by A. Horsley Hinton :
Solution i.
Uranium nitrate 48 grains
Glacial acetic acid 48 minims
Water i oz.
Solution 2.
Potassium ferricyanide 48 grains
Water i oz.
Solution 3.
Ammonium sulphocyanide... .y2 oz.
Water i oz.
For use take y± oz. of each Nos. i, 2 and 3 and
25 oz. water.
A finished unmounted platinotype print, thor-
oughly cleared from all iron salts, is placed in a
flat dish and flooded with the above solution
and the dish rocked continuously.
The color of the print will gradually change ;
the toning should be carried on a little further
than when the desired tint^has been reached, as
the picture will dry out a little colder in color
than it appears in the toning bath. It is now
brought into a dish of water containing a few
drops of glacial acetic acid. The water must
not be alkaline, as it would dissolve the uranium
compounds deposited on the print and thus
change its color again. This property of alkaline
water mav be made use of in case the desired
By courtesy
FHKNCII LICK SI'IMNCS.
of Frank J. Keed, Gen. Pass. Agt. Monou Koute.
IQ2- MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
Platinum prints may be toned in various ways.
The most common is the "Uranium," which
changes the color to a rich brown or red-brown.
The ordinary uranium intensifier may be used
for this purpose, the print simply being- im-
mersed in it for a time.
An excellent method for uranium toning is
given by A. Horsley Hinton :
Solution i.
Uranium nitrate 48 grains
Glacial acetic acid 48 minims
Water I oz.
Solution 2.
Potassium ferricyanide ... .48 grains
Water I oz..
Solution 3.
Ammonium sulphocyanide... . */2 oz.
Water I oz.
For use take j4 °z- °f each Nos. i, 2 and 3 and
25 oz. water.
A finished unmounted platinotype print, thor-
oughly cleared from all iron salts, is placed in a
flat dish and flooded with the above solution
and the dish rocked continuously.
The color of the print will gradually change ;
the toning should be carried on a little further
than when the desired tint^has been reached, as
the picture will dry out a little colder in color
than it appears in the toning bath. It is now
brought into a dish of water containing a few
drops of glacial acetic acid. The water must
not be alkaline, as it would dissolve the uranium
compounds deposited on the print and thus
change its color again. This property of alkaline
water mav be made use of in case the desired
FUKNTII T.K'K Sl'KINCS
By courtesy of Frank J. Reed. Gen. I 'ass AKt M«"".n Uoute-
MODEKX I'HOTOGKAiMIY. J 0,3
color of the toned print is unsatisfactory, and one
wishes to get it back into its original condition.
It has as yet not been conclusively proven that
platinum prints treated with uranium are perma-
nent.
Besides the usual method of developing plati-
num prints, there is one which is especially fasci-
nating for the more advanced worker who wishes
to control every part of his print; that is, by
local development.
This can be accomplished by using" the glycer-
ine method referred to in the platinotype instruc-
tions.
It consists essentially of painting the image by
means of the oxalate solution, using a brush for
the purpose, the paper having first been exposed
to light under the negative in the ordinary way.
The method is so full of latitude that prints
have been produced by its means that look like
fine wash drawings.
In short, it will be seen by the various matters
referred to in this short resume of the platinotype
process that it is beyond doubt the printing
method par excellence for the amateur.
An entirely new platinum paper recently put
upon the market is Eastman's \YD (water-de-
veloping) platinum paper.
Extreme simplicity of manipulation, pure plnti-
num tones, absolute permanence and rapid print-
ing are qualities which commend this paper to
every amateur. It requires nothing but water
and acid for the entire process of developing and
clearing, yet is not only like platinum, but is
platinum.
Print until shadows are a deep canary color
and high lights are slightly visible. When
printed immerse print in hot water (no degrees
194 MODERX PHOTOGRAPHY.
Fahr.), face up, sliding it in edgewise to avoid
air bells. Development will require but a few
seconds, after which the print is to be plunged
into the
Clearing Bath.
Cold Water 15 ozs.
Muriatic Acid (C. P.) j4 oz-
Soak print face down for five minutes each in
two changes of clearing bath. Wash for fifteen
minutes in running water or in five changes of
clear water, five minutes in each change.
Paper should be developed as soon as possible
after printing — -never later than the same day.
This paper is packed in tubes and should be
kept dry and cool. What has been said regard-
ing keeping and printing with ordinary platinum
applies also to the water development paper.
CHAPTER XVIII.
CARBON PRINTING.
It is very doubtful whether any process so com-
pletely fills the requirements of the artistic pho-
tographer as does the carbon process. Its long
scale, reproducing perfectly every gradation ot
the original negative, its permanence, its great
variety of color, its wonderful transparency in
the deepest shadows, and its adaptability to any
surface, all combine to render it the most per-
fect of photographic printing methods. Some-
times, indeed, its very perfection is a barrier to
its use. If we have to print from a flat, thin
negative in carbon we shall certainly obtain a
.flat, thin result, but for a negative with a very
full scale of gradation, especially large and en-
larged negatives, it is the process par excellence.
Year by year it gains steadily in favor, and our
exhibitions have greatly improved in general ap-
pearance by the variety of color it has given to
their walls. In this short article it is my inten-
tion to give a brief outline of the process, em-
bodying the salient points, which, if followed by
the tyro, should insure his success, but at the
same time I would recommend him, after he has
mastered the initial difficulties, to read some text
book and make himself thoroughly acquainted
with all the details and higher branches of the
subject. Carbon printing, as we know it today,
is based on the fact that a mixture of gelatine,
with a chromic salt, is gradually hardened and
rendered insoluble on exposure to light. If, there-
195
196 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
fore, paper is coated with such a mixture of sensi-
tized gelatine, containing any permanent pig-
ment— carbon was originally used, hence the
name of the process — and if this paper is placed
underneath a negative and exposed to actinic
light, we shall have a positive image formed con-
sisting of soluble and insoluble gelatine ; in-
soluble in exact proportion as the light has
reached the surface of the pigmented compound.
Development consists in washing away with hot
water those portions of gelatine which the light
has not affected sufficiently to render insoluble.
Now, without going more minutely into details
at this stage and perhaps frightening the be-
ginner with imaginery difficulties, I would assure
him that the process only needs care, cleanli-
ness and exactness at every stage in order to
insure success.
To those taking up carbon printing for the
first time a start should be made with the "sin-
gle transfer process." This is the simplest form
and has some advantages over the "double trans-
fer" because less manipulation is required, and,
moreover, it is easier to produce prints on rough
drawing papers by its means. The only objec-
tion to it is that everything becomes reversed :
what was on the righthand side of the original
is now on the lefthand side of the print, but this
is of little moment for purely artistic work. Of
course, where enlarged negatives are required,
specially for carbon printing, they are usually
made reversed and such will give a true result
after printing by the single transfer process.
Eastman films may be printed through the film
itself: i. e., with the celluloid side in contact with
the "tissue" — as the pigmented printing paper is
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 197
technically called — and the resulting print \vill
render the picture in its correct aspect.
Requirements for the Single Transfer Process.
Carbon Tissue.
Black Varnish or Lantern Slide Hinders.
Single Transfer Paper, a little larger than i.he
negative.
A Flat Squeegee — not roller.
Squeegeeing Board.
Bichromate of Potash.
Camel's Hair Mop Brush.
Thermometer.
Alum.
Actinometer.
Blotting Paper.
Three Dishes (two for cold water and one for
Alum Solution).
One Developing Tank or large basin to hold
hot water.
Sensitizing the Carbon Tissue. — Carbon tissue
is the name given to the paper coated with pig-
mented gelatine and may be purchased from the
photographic stock dealers in almost any de-
sired color. When insensitive it will keep in n
dry place almost indefinitely. Should the begin-
ner be able to purchase it ready sensitized, he i.s
advised to do so, because tissue sensitized in the
making is usually manufactured from softer gela-
tine and consequently development is easier and
quicker. Sensitizing is, however, a very simple
operation, and if done at night the tissue is ready
for use when dry the following morning and
will keep in good condition for about a fort-
night, although, when preserved in a calcium
tin, such as is used for platinotype paper, its
longevity is very greatly prolonged.
198 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
The sensitizing solution is made as follows :
Potassium bichromate I oz.
Water 20 oz.
Ammonia 5 drops
The temperature of this solution should not be
over 65 degrees Fahr. In summer it may be
necessary to cool it with ice. A dish, somewhat
larger than the tissue, should be filled to the
depth of about one inch with solution. The tis-
sue is now immersed in it, care being taken to
avoid air bubbles as much as possible ; but,
should they occur, either on the back or front
of the tissue, they must be quickly removed by
lightly brushing the surface with the camel's
hair mop. The usual time for immersion is abgut
three minutes, but this varies greatly according
to the temperature of the solution. A good plan
is to remove the tissue immediately it becomes
limp, placing it surface side downwards on a
squeegeeing board — a plain board covered with
sheet zinc — and then removing the surplus moist-
ure with a stroke of the squeegee. Should a
squeegeeing board not be available, a sheet of
plate glass forms an efficient substitute. The
tissue is now raised from the board and hung
up to dry by means of clips. The tissue does
not become sensitive till nearly dry.
Drying the Tissue. — The greatest care must
be taken that this operation is carried out under
suitable conditions, for after all success depends
very largely upon it. It is advisable to dry the
tissue as quickly as possible and in an atmosphere
free from all impurities. A properly constructed
drying cupboard is very useful for the purpose,
although an ordinary room in which the fire has
been burning during the day and which has been
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 199
darkened to prevent the entrance of white light
will do just as well, and tissue left there at night
will be ready for use the following morning.
Care should be taken not to expose the tissue to
even the weakest actinic light, because it is more
sensitive than silver paper, and, moreover, any
light action set up continues when the tissue is
placed in a dark place. The tissue being quite
dry, it is stored in a pressure box ready for use.
Preparing the Negative. — Negatives for carbon
printing should be vigorous and full of gradation.
Do not attempt your first print from a flat, thin
negative. Each negative must be provided with
what is termed a "safe edge/' This is made by
painting round the edge of the negative with
black varnish, or by sticking a strip of black or
yellow paper round the negative on the glass
side. Commercial lantern slide binders are very
convenient for this purpose because they can
be affixed in a few moments. Without this safe
edge there is great danger of the insoluble gela-
tine picture leaving its support during develop-
ment.
Printing. — The Actinometer. — The negative
being prepared, we have only to place it in a
printing frame, with a piece of the sensitized
tissue in contact, and expose to daylight as in
any ordinary printing process. Now, as we are
printing on a dark-colored surface, it is evident
that we must have some means for calculating the
necessary exposure. Instruments for this pur-
pose are known as actinometers, and any of the
commercial forms will be found quite simple
in use after one or two trials. An alternative
to their use is to take a negative of equal density
to that we are printing in carbon, and, placing it
in a frame with a small strip of Solio paper, ex-
200 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
pose the frames simultaneously to daylight.
When the strip of Solio paper is printed to the
"pretty" stage — i. e., lighter than it would be for
toning — we may consider our carbon print is fin-
ished and ready for development.
If we pause for a moment to think of what has
taken place during printing we shall see that the
image of insoluble gelatine lies on the surface
of the pigmented film instead of in contact with
the paper supporting it. It follows therefore
that if we place the "tissue" in hot water the gela-
tine between the image and the paper will be dis-
solved and the insoluble film forming the picture
will float away and be lost. Of course, this diffi-
culty might be overcome by printing through the
paper, but this procedure would give rise to
other troubles. The grain of the paper, the long
time taken in printing — even when the paper is
oiled— and the loss in definition, are serious ob-
stacles to the success of this method. The diffi-
culty has been met in a simple manner. If the
printed tissue is placed in water for a few mo-
ments and then brought into contact with a flat
surface excluding air it will adhere during devel-
opment. We therefore prepare wood, paper or
other material on which we desire to transfer
our image by coating it with a layer of insoluble
gelatine. Single transfer papers, smooth or
rough, white or tinted, may be obtained ready
for use, but probably the ideas of the photog-
rapher lead him to sometimes require something
different to the commercial article and he will
prefer to prepare his own. For this purpose take
Nelson's No. I gelatine i oz.
Water 2 oz.
and after letting it soak for some hours, dissolve
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 2OI
by gentle heat. Add to this solution very grad-
ually 20 grains of chrome alum, dissolved in 2
oz. water, stirring vigorously all the time.
With a stiff brush or sponge the chromated
gelatine is applied to the surface of the wood or
paper and allowed to dry. Ordinary papers re-
quire two coats, but Whatman and other rough
drawing papers should have three. Should Nel-
son's gelatine not be procurable, any other make
may be used in its place, but if they are harder
the alum must be greatly reduced. Should
Heinrich's hard gelatine be used, about four
grains of alum would be sufficient. A larger
quantity might cause coagulation during mixing.
Development. — The print being ready for de-
velopment, we prepare two dishes of cold water,
one dish of 5 per cent alum solution, a tank or
basin of hot water about 100 degrees Fahr., a
squeegee and squeegeeing board. Taking a
piece of the single transfer paper, rather larger
than the print, we immerse it in one of the dishes
of cold water for a few minutes. (Whatman and
other rough drawing papers should soak for
hours, or else be placed in the hot water develop-
ing tank for half an hour before use.) The
printed tissue is taken from the frame and placed
in the dish of cold water, which contains the
transfer paper, bubbles being carefully avoided.
It usually commences to curl up and then gradu-
ally unfolds itself again. When nearly unfolded
it should be brought into position, film down-
wards, into contact with the prepared surface of
the transfer paper. Lifting both tissue and
transfer paper by the one edge, drag them out of
the water over the end of the dish and lay them
"tissue" side uppermost on the squeegeeing board.
Now apply the squeegee vigorously to the back
202 MODERN" PHOTOGRAPHY.
of the tissue in order to expel all the water be-
tween the two surfaces. The transfer paper with
the adhering tissue is now gently lifted and
placed between blotting boards and kept under
slight pressure for about twenty minutes. At
the end of this time the transfer paper with the
adhering tissue is placed in the tank of hot water
at 100 degrees Fahr. In a few minutes we shall
see small quantities of soluble gelatine exuding
round the edges of the tissue. We now take
one corner of the tissue and lift it right away
from the transfer paper. Unless it comes quite
easily and without force, it should be allowed
to soak longer. The tissue being removed, a
dirty mass is seen on the single transfer paper.
All we have to do is to leave this mass with the
hot water till development is complete. It is
well to have a sheet of zinc or glass on which to
support the picture during this operation or the
paper support may get damaged. Errors of ex-
posure may be partially compensated at this
point. Overexposed prints may be reduced by
raising the temperature of the hot water to 120
degrees or 130 degrees Fahr.; while underex-
posed ones should be left to automatically de-
velop, face downwards, at a temperature of 90
degrees Fahr. When the print is developed it
only requires a rinse in cold water, immersion
in the 5 per cent alum solution for 10 minutes
to harden the film and remove the bichromate
salt, a final wash to remove the alum and the
print is then hung up to dry by means of clips.
When dry the prints may be mounted with any
good monntant or starch paste.
Double Transfer Process. — As pointed out
earlier in this article, the foregoing method re-
verses the picture unless a negative has been
MODERN PHOTOGRAI'IIY. 203
specially made for single transfer in the first in-
stance. For direct prints where reversal would
be objectionable we must use the double transfer
process, which is quite as easy to work as the
single transfer, but involves one more operation.
The additional materials required are :
Temporary Support.
Final Support.
\Yaxing Solution.
With this process the procedure is exactly the
same as regards the printing and development,
the only difference being that a temporary sup-
port takes the place of the single transfer paper.
A flexible temporary support is manufactured
specially for this purpose. If it cannot be pro-
cured, a sheet of finely ground opal will serve
the purpose equally well, provided the print is
to be finally transferred to paper or other flexible
surface. Whichever is used the surface must
be first prepared with waxing solution. This is
composed of:
Yellow resin 36 grains
Pure beeswax 12 grains
Ether 2 oz.
After melting the wax add the resin and thor-
oughly mix, remove from the fire and add the
Ether.
A small pool of the waxing solution must be
poured in the center of the opal or flexible tem-
porary support, and this is then rubbed all over
the surface with a piece of clean flannel. Allow
to stand for a few minutes and then lightly pol-
ish with another piece of flannel. Directly the
smell of the Ether has gone, the support is ready
for use and may be kept in this condition.
The print being developed, alumed, washed
204 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
and dried, on the temporary support, is ready for
the final operation. We cut a piece of the final
support, a paper somewhat similar to single
transfer paper, but coated with a thicker couch
of more soluble gelatine, and place it in a 2 per
cent alum solution about an hour before required
for use. The print on its temporary support is
now immersed in tepid water, 70 degrees Fahr. ;
the final support if withdrawn from the alum
solution, lowered into the tepid water, avoiding
bubbles, so that the gelatinous side conies in
contact with the print. The temporary and final
supports are now withdrawn from the water to-
gether, placed on the squeegeeing board, the
final support being uppermost, and brought into
perfect contact by the vigorous action of the
squeegee. When perfectly dry the print will
leave the temporary support without difficulty,
indeed if dried in a warm current of air it will
probably fall off without our aid.
Where opal is used it may be necessary to
insert a knife at the edge of the print. The
temporary supports are not damaged by these
operations and may be used for a large number
of times if waxed after each time of using.
In conclusion, I would urge everv serious
photographer to master this fascinating process,
for, till he has done so, he must be unaware of
many of the possibilities of his art.
CHAPTER XIX.
CONTACT PRINTING WITH PERMANENT
BROMIDE PAPER.
The amateur who has learned to properly de-
velop his negative will rind little difficulty in the
handling of bromide paper. There is nothing
complicated in the process ; development is sim-
ple and easy.
Bromide paper, unlike the comparatively slow
printing-out papers, cannot he handled in day-
light, but must be as strictly guarded from white
light as a film or glass plate. In nature it is simi-
lar, in fact, to films or plates as the image ap-
pears only with development and no toning is
required.
Sensitiveness. — Bromide paper is about one-
twentieth as sensitive as a good dry plate or
film.
With such paper, of course, printing is ac-
complished with a very short exposure indeed,
followed by development, but no toning. The
work can all be done in an evening by artificial
light, which is often a great advantage to the
amateur who likes to devote all the daylight
hours at his disposal to the making of negatives
which cannot be done at any other time. A
bromide print is a study in black and white, and
it is very greatly preferred on this account by
many people to the warmer-hucd pictures on
chloride paper. That, of course, is purely a mat-
ter of taste, and the choice of a printing process
must depend upon the particular predilections
205
2O6 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
of the printer, when no other factors have to
be taken into consideration. But bromide pa-
per does not do justice to the majority of small
negatives. It is very well in those of the larger
growth, where a certain amount of depth of treat-
ment, as the artists call it, does not involve a
loss of more essential qualities, but for very
small pictures, the lack of brilliancy, which is
inseparable from this method of printing, and
the loss, or rather suppression, of detail which
it involves makes it not to be recommended for
many subjects.
Some pictures there are which are greatly
improved by being printed in this manner, for
they neither contain nor require much wealth
of detail. It is one of the things which the pho-
tographer will realize as he gets more familiar
with his art, that the choice of a printing medi-
um must depend largely upon the nature of the
picture which it is to bear, for it will very greatly
affect its quality and artistic value.
It will not be necessary to go very extensively
into the details of this process, for the photog-
rapher is already well acquainted with the treat-
ment of dry plates and the paper merely re-
quires humoring in a very similar manner. At-
tention must be paid to the different require-
ments of a positive as compared with a negative,
and great care must be taken to prevent the
paper from becoming at all fogged, either by
stray light or any other cause, but as bromide
paper is coated with a much less sensitive emul-
sion than that used for plates — except where a
specially rapid variety is required for enlarg-
ing, as' explained in another chapter— there is
but little difficulty in fulfilling this condition.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 2O7
Light. — In contact printing with bromide pa-
per the exposure is preferably made by artificial
light to insure uniformity, and to avoid overex-
posure. Place the paper in a printing frame
in the same manner as when using printing-out
papers.
Exposure. — The exposure varies with the in-
tensity of the negative, and the quality and in-
tensity of the light, but may be approximately
stated to be, using as thin a glass or transparent
film negative as will make a good print, one-
quarter second by diffused daylight, or ten sec-
onds at a distance of one foot from a No. 2 kero-
sene burner. Very thin negatives should be
printed by weak yellow light, like that obtained
from a kerosene lamp turned down a little below
the normal intensity. In this way a strong, vig-
orous print may be obtained from a negative that
would otherwise be too thin and flat. Strong,
intense negatives are best printed by daylight.
Development. — It is in the development that
the chief difference lies between the treatment
of bromide paper and plates, for a different kind
of result is expected. In negative work it does
not matter if the brightest portions are a little
veiled — indeed, they generally are — it merely in-
creases the time required in the subsequent
printing to a slight extent, which is a matter of
no moment. But in a print the high lights must
be absolutely white, a condition which could
scarcely be fulfilled by any of the reducing agents
in common use for negative work.
Owing to this requirement the choice of devel-
opers is somewhat limited. It will suffice here
to describe the one which is generally recognized
208 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
as the best for the purpose. It is in two solu-
tions, as follows :
No. i.
Neutral oxalate of potash, i Ib. avoirdupois
Bromide of ammonium. . .20 grains
Water (warm) 64 oz.
No. 2.
Sulphate of iron i Ib. avoirdupois
Sulphuric acid i drachm
Water (warm) 48 oz.
Both solutions should be filtered, and will be
ready for use when cold. For use add one ounce
of No. 2 to six ounces of No. i, but not vice
versa, or a heavy yellow precipitate will be
thrown down, and the solution will be unfit for
use. The developer when mixed should be of a
brilliant red color, like so much red ink, and
clear, or it is rot in good condition. Both in-
gredients, when separate, are colorless.
The paper is exposed behind a negative in a
printing frame to the action of the light of an
ordinary gas flame for a few seconds, the length
of time required, depending upon the distance
and the brilliancy of the source of light, the
density of the negative, and the rapidity of the
particular brand of paper used. As a rough esti-
mate, ten seconds' exposure may be given for
slow bromide paper, a negative of average
density — which is necessarily a vague definition —
and a gas burned at a distance of about eighteen
inches. Rapid bromide paper is usually about
five or six times as quick as the slow. Tf you
doubt the distance of the source of light, you
must quadruple the length of exposure, multiply
the distance by three, and' the exposure time
must be ninefold. You will in each case be giv-
MODERN 1'IIOTOGRAI'IIV. 2CK)
ing an exposure of equivalent value, but with
the longest time and the poorest light you will
produce the brightest and most "plucky" points.
Bromide printing is in any case inclined to yield
results in which there is a tendency to higher
contrasts than a chloride print would show, so
that with fairly bright negatives a short ex-
posure close up to the light is the thing to be
generally aimed for.
Place the exposed print straight into the de-
veloping solution without any previous rinsing,
and keep it there until the image with all its de-
tails appears fully out, but do not continue the
operation long enough for the high lights to be-
come at all degraded. \Yhen the development
is judged to be complete, transfer the print, again
without any washing, to a clearing bath made
up by adding half an ounce of acetic acid to
eighty ounces of water. It should remain in this
bath — whose function is to dissolve out the lin-
gering developer, which, if allowed to come in
contact with plain water, would deposit an in-
soluble yellow precipitate in the thickness of the
film — for three or four minutes, and then, after
a thorough washing to remove all traces of the
acid, it is ready for fixing. The hypo should
be freshly mixed for each batch of prints and
should be of the strength of one pound to two
quarts of water, in which bath fifteen minutes'
soaking will be sufficient to insure perfect fix-
ation. The washing and drying operations are
the same as in the case of gelatino-chloride prints,
and mounting may also be accomplished in a
similar manner.
Bromide paper is made in several varieties,
such as rough slow, rough rapid, smooth slow,
2IO MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
smooth rapid, etc. The choice between the rough
and the smooth-surfaced papers should be de-
cided by the nature of the subject to be printed
thereon. For negatives with plenty of fine de-
tail a smooth paper is to be preferred.
CHAPTER XX.
BROMIDE ENLARGEMENTS.
General Remarks on Bromide Enlarging. — The
first thing to consider is whether what you con-
template enlarging is altogether worthy of the
treatment. It should possess some other dis-
tinct merit besides mere technical excellence ;
something which shall give it a claim upon others
besides its producer; some value of association;
the pictorial record of a holiday, for instance,
or it may be the portrait of a friend, and there-
fore valuable for that friend's sake, or, best
of all, it may be artistic in itself, a thing of
beauty, which it is pleasant to look upon and
which will be valued for its own sake.
Secondly, there is the consideration, is the
negative sufficiently perfect technically, to admit
of satisfactory enlargement? All the tiny flaws,
all the little scratches, pinholes and dust marks,
even those that are invisible as far as the naked
eye is concerned on the original negative, will
be produced upon the enlargement with terri-
ble fidelity, and a photograph which is capable
of producing a passably satisfactory print may
fail utterly in yielding anything but an execrable
patchwork when subjected to the searching proc-
ess of enlargement.
Enlarging by Daylight. — It could hardly be an
exaggeration to say that three-quarters of all
the photographs taken by the amateurs of the
world are, owing to the very great popularity
of the hand camera, of the size known as
212 M ODER N P II OTOGR A PHY.
4x5 or smaller. The universal use of the hand
camera is largely responsible for this state
of things. It is of very great advantage to the
traveling" amateur to carry about with-him plates
of the smallest convenient size, for not only
is there by so doing a considerable saving of ex-
pense and bulk in the matter of plates alone, but
the size of camera and all the rest of the para-
phernalia should be considered. P>ut 4x5 prints
are small and generally fail to satisfy the am-
bitious cravings of the photographer, so the
question presents itself whether it would be bet-
ter to go in for larger apparatus and face the
difficulties of weight, bulk and expense, or by en-
larging them incur the expense and inconveni-
ence.
The enlarging method has many very great
advantages. Not only does it admit of carry-
ing smaller equipments, which usually means
that the photographer will be enabled to travel
farther afield, but the small negatives which he
produces are available for enlargement to any
reasonable size and dimensions, so that he is not
confined to one size of picture.
It is not generally known that large and beau-
tiful pictures can be made from amateur nega-
tives, and it is still less understood that these can
be made by the amateur himself and without ad-
ditional apparatus other than one or two large
disJies for developing: in other words, the cam-
era can be pressed into service as an Enlarging
Camera, and play a part for which in the first
place it was not intended.
The process is very simple and inexpensive.
All that is required is a small room with a win-
dow, preferably facing the north, through which
the light can come without being obstructed by
MODERN PHOTUGKAl'lIY.
2I3
any building or trees. All light should he ex-
cluded by means of a wooden shutter to fit the
window frame (brown papers answer equally
well secured by drawing pins). In this shutter
an opening should be cut somewhat larger than
the negative to be enlarged from. On either side
of the opening grooves should be arranged in
which to slide the negative. If the enlarger is
so fortunate as to have a room with a window
high enough to escape surrounding objects and
FIG. G7.
have a sky back-ground, it will not be necessary
to use a reflecting mirror; should, however, the
window not look directly upon the sky, a mirror
30 inches long by 24 inches wide, at an -angle oi
45 degrees, should be arranged outside the win-
dow so as to throw the light above onto the
ground glas, mentoned below. (See Fig. 67.)
If a film negative is to be enlarged from, it
must be placed between a piece of ground glass
and a piece of plain glass, the ground surface
214 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
being on the outside and the film side of the neg-
ative being next to the plain piece of glass. The
negative should then be placed in position with
the ground glass next to the light. The negative
should be inserted upside down, thereby giving
an upright image on the screen.
Folding cameras, having an opening the full
size of the negatives they make, are especially
adapted to use as enlarging cameras. Simply
place the back of the camera to the opening con--
taining the negative (first, of course, removing
the ground glass, etc., from the camera) and
focus by moving the lens back and forth in the
usual way.
On a table or shelf, adjusted below the opening
in the window, place your camera, having it so
as to leave the back quite open. The camera
should be placed in such a position that the back
of it covers the negative and with lens pointing
toward the easel.
The only other article now required is a sup-
port for carrying the sensitive paper during the
exposure. If an easel capable of being placed
perpendicularly is at hand, that will best answer
the purpose, but an ordinary drawing board
strapped to a box of suitable size and placed
upon the table will answer very well.
Having covered this drawing board with a
sheet of white paper, open the shutter of the
camera as directed for time exposures, when you
will see the image of the negative projected upon
the paper. The easel will have to be moved until
the enlargement is of the desired size, and the
focusing done on the plain sheet of paper by
using the focusing arrangement. Focus with the"
full aperture of the lens, but before exposure
place the second or third stop in position.
MODERN 1'IIOTOGRAl'IIV. 215
The only light that should now enter the room
should be that passing through the negative and
through the lens. Should any light escape be-
tween the camera and the opening in shutter, a
focusing cloth can be thrown over to keep it out.
Everything is now ready to make the ex-
posure, and having secured a sharp image of the
proper size, place the cap upon the lens, or close
the shutter if your lens is one having shutter af-
fixed, or throw a focusing cloth over it to exclude
all light, and then on the plain paper used to
focus upon, place the sensitive paper by pinning
the corners to the board, care being taken that
the paper is lying flat.
Xo hard and fast line can be laid down as to
the correct time of exposure, as the light is con-
stantly changing, so it is advisable for a begin-
ner to make a test exposure upon a narrow strip
of the paper he proposes to use, placed diag-
onally across the focused image. Having cov-
ered up three-fourths of this strip, give an ex-
posure of one-half minute, then uncover another
fourth, which will leave half the strip exposed,
and give another half minute's exposure. Repeat
the operation with the remaining two-fourths
and then close shutter on the lens. It will be
evident that this test strip has now received four
different exposures. The first fourth exposure
has now had two minutes, the second one and a
half, the third one, and the last portion 30 sec-
onds. Upon developing this strip it is easy to
NOTE.— As a help in getting the paper in the riglit place.
a lens cap, which, instead of being opaque, is fitted with a
little window of yellow glass, will be found very advan-
tageous, for it will allow sufficient non-actinic light to pass
to show the outlines of the picture.
2l6 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
judge which, or between which of these ex-
posures is correct.
It will be a very dense negative that will re-
quire an exposure exceeding two minutes, and a
very thin one that will need less than 30 seconds.
Having ascertained the time necessary, pin a
piece of the Bromide paper of the desired size to
the face of the easel, being careful to have it lie
perfectly flat. Open the lens and give the proper
exposure. Close the lens. The enlargement is
now ready for development.
T,he time of exposure required in making an
enlargement on Bromide paper is necessarily un-
certain, especially when daylight is used, and is
dependent on many circumstances.
1. The intensity of the light.
2. The strength or density of the negative.
3. The size of the enlarged picture.
4. The size of the camera.
5. The size of diaphragm or stop used in the
lens.
6. The Bromide paper used.
The amateur must not be appalled by this
seemingly formidable array of conditions, and
need not for a minute despair of ever judging
correctly in every instance.
\Yhile it is true that in order to obtain the
very finest results, a knowledge of all these is
necessary — and such a knowledge as can only
come to one by careful observation and practical
experience — perfectly satisfactory pictures can be
made by the beginner. A very few trials will
narrow the exercise of judgment down to the in-
tensity of the light.
Vignetting. — The operator standing at the left
of and half-facing the easel should screen the lens
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 21J
with a piece of straw-board about 16x20 inches,
having a hole of proper shape for the vignette
cut in the center. Having uncapped the lens
the vignetter should be moved back and forth
from the lens towards the easel so as to allow
the head and shoulders of the image to appear
on the screen. The movement out should be
sufficient to show the image almost to the edge
of the kit, and in far enough to cut close to the
head and shoulders. This movement to and fro
should continue through the entire exposure,
which should not be less than twenty or thirty
seconds, the lens being stopped down, if neces-
sary, to get sufficient time to operate the
vignetter.
To get a soft, evenly blended vignette requires
some little practice, but the knack once acquired
it becomes quite easy.
Extra Printing. — Faces and light drapery often
require, to get detail, extra time in exposure.
This is accomplished by using a card having a
smaller aperture after using the vignetting card,
and passing it over the portions requiring extra
time. By keeping the spot of light moving al-
most any amount of additional detail may be
obtained locally. Occasionally in a half or full
length subject, a hand may require less exposure
than the rest of the picture ; in this case a small
piece of cardboard, cut to the proper shape and
stuck on the end of a knitting needle, can be
used to screen that part of the image.
The paper lends itself to innumerable dodges
which may be practiced in a similar manner, the
operator being able to see just what he is doing
from his position near the easel.
Soft Effects in Enlargements. — Wonderful
2l8 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
softness and breadth can be obtained in enlarg-
ing on Royal Bromide paper by making the en-
largement through a silk bolting cloth screen.
The screen breaks up the intensity of the blacks,
adds to the breadth of the half tones and when
prints so made are given a sepia tone they have
the appearance of rare old etchings. The screen
can be most conveniently used by stretching on
a strainer or frame.
The screen may be used in direct contact with
the paper, in which case the enlargement has
the effect of being made on fine meshed canvas,
or greater diffusion of light may be given by
placing the screen at a distance of about %-inch
from the paper ; the farther the screen is re-
moved the greater the diffusion of light. The use
of the screen increases the length of exposure
about one-third.
With "smooth" paper the fine mesh or medium
bolting cloth should be used. With "rough"
paper use coarse mesh.
Silk bolting cloth for this purpose can be ob-
tained of any dealer in photographic supplies.
Development. — Having made the exposure, the
next step is to develop the picture, the process
being much the same as in the development of a
negative. Fill a tray nearly full of water and put
the exposed sheets of paper into it one by one,
face down. Put them in edgewise, to avoid air
bells, and immerse them fully. Cover the tray
with a bit of brown paper to keep out the light
from the lamp. Mix the developer according to
the following formulae for
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 219
Oxalate Developer.
Formula No. i.
Oxalate of potash 8 oz.
Hot water 24 oz.
Acetic acid (or citric acid ?4 oz.) . il/2 drams
No. 2.
Proto-sulphate of iron 8 oz.
Hot water 16 oz.
Acetic acid (or citric acid J/£ oz.) . . .>4 dram
No. 3.
Bromide potassium l/2 oz.
Water 16 oz.
These solutions keep separately, but must be
mixed only for immediate use. They are to be
used cold.
To Develop. — Take in a suitable tray: No. i. 3
oz. : Xo. 2, }/2 oz. : No. 3. '4 dram. When neces-
sary to use a larger quantity of solution, mix in
this proportion.
Take one of the exposures from the water and
lay it, face up, in the second tray and pour upon
it the developer. Rock it back and forth to pre-
vent streaks and air bubbles. In about two min-
utes it will begin to darken in spots, representing
the shadows, and in about three minutes the
operator will be able to distinguish objects in the
picture. The developer should be allowed to act
until the picture is of the required depth.
The image should appear slowly and should de-
velop up strong, clear and brilliant. When the
shadows arc sufficiently black pour off the de-
veloper and flood the print with
Clearing Solution.
Acetic acid >j dram
Water 16 oz.
22O MOUERX PHOTOGRAPHY.
Do not wash the print after pouring off the de-
veloper and before applying the clearing solu-
tion.
Use a sufficient quantity to flow over the print,
say 2 ounces for an 8xio. Allow it to act for one
minute and then pour it off and apply a fresh
portion ; repeat the operation a third time, then
rinse in four changes of pure water and immerse
for ten minutes in the
Fixing Bath.
Hypo-sulphite soda 3 oz.
Water 16 oz.
While in fixing bath move prints about five or
six times to insure even action of hypo.
After fixing, wash thoroughly two hours, in at
least twelve changes of water and hang up to
dry. Use fresh developer for each batch of
prints. With a glass bottomed or rubber lined
tray, seven ounces of developer are sufficient for
a 25x30 print.
Object of Clearing Solution. — The object of
the clearing solution is to prevent the precipita-
tion of the iron from the developer into the fiber
of the paper. This can only be done by keeping
the paper acid while washing out the developer.
Citric acid may be used instead of acetic in
the clearing solution, in which case use }/% ounce
to the quart of water. Citric acid is less liable
to cause blisters.
Blisters sometimes appear in bromide paper,
and may be avoided by using a little common salt
in the first washing water after fixing. The hypo
must not be stronger than three ounces to the
pint of water.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 221
ROYAL BROMIDE PAPER.
The method of developing given above and the
Ferrous-Oxalate solution is suitable for any bro-
mide paper except that brand known as'Kast-
inan's Royal. The following formula is espe-
cially recommended for use with the Royal P.ro-
mide paper and may, if desired, be used with any
of the others.
Directions for using
Amidol Developer (Concentrated Solution).—
The concentrated stock solution is prepared In-
dissolving1 in succession in
Water 12 oz.
Sodium sulphite, crystal 3 <>/.
Amidol ]/2 07..
Enough of this stock solution should be pre-
pared at one time for one day's use.
To Develop. — Take in a suitable tray :
Concentrated stock solution \}/2 07..
10 per cent solut'n b'mide potas'm 8 drops
Water 6 oz.
Use cold. After exposure, soak the paper in
water until limp and brush lightly over the sur-
face while wet with a tuft of cotton ; then flood
print with the developer.
The image should appear slowly and should
develop up strong, clear and brilliant. When
the shadows are sufficiently black, pour off the
developer and rinse the print thoroughly with
pure water. Tf the print has been over-exposed
a small additional quantity of a solution of bro-
mide of potassium should be used as a restrainer.
XOTK : The above developer can be used over by (he
addition from time to lime of some fresh developer. It.
however, the restrainer solution lias bce-i added to it the
developer should not be used a -ruin except for prints that
are known to have heen over exposed.
222 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
Fixing Bath.
Immerse prints for ten minutes in the
Hypo-sulphite soda 3 oz.
Water 16 oz,
After fixing, wash thoroughly two hours and
hang up to dry.
Sepia Tones, with Royal Bromide, Enameled,
Matte-Enamel or Platino Bromide Paper. — By
using the following formula rich brown and sepia
tones can be readily obtained with prints on
Royal, Enameled, Matte-Enamel or Platino Bro-
mide paper after they have been developed and
fixed. The tones produced are believed to be
permanent and not subject to the bronzing in the
shadows which occur in bromide tones in Ura-
nium. Where warm sepia tones are desired the
Royal paper gives best results if slightly over-
exposed and under-developed.
Hypo-sulphite of soda 20 oz.
Ground alum 4 oz.
Hot water 2 gal.
Dissolve the hypo in the water first, then add
the alum slowly : when all is dissolved the solu-
tion should be milk white. Allow it to settle,
then decant the clear solution and use cold.
To Tone. — After prints are developed and fixed
wash in three or four changes of water and then
immerse in the cold toning bath, being careful
to remove all air bells. The print or prints should
be handled over occasionally during the first four
or five hours and may then be left in the bath over
night or until the desired tone is acquired.
After toning wash thoroughly two hours and
hang up to dry.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 223
Details. — L5e sure and fix thoroughly before
toning.
Prints should be toned face up.
Solution may be used repeatedly by adding
fresh bath occasionally.
A number of prints can be toned in the same
bath at the same time.
Spots or unevenness in the tone will disappear
if print is left in the bath and occasionally moved.
The toning takes from fifteen to twenty hours.
FIG. 68.
Bromide Enlargements by Artificial Light. —
But all amateurs cannot afford to devote daylight
hours to the making of enlargements, and some
are so placed that it is not convenient to knock
holes in the window shutters, and various other
objections may occasionally arise to render this
method of enlarging a scarcelv desirable one, and
to cause a good means of enlarging by artificial
light to be regarded as a consummation devoutly
to be wished.
Either an ordinarv magic, or, as it is now called,
224 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
"optical," lantern, or, better still, one specially
built with this object in view, will be necessary.
(See Fig. 68.)
Such lanterns can be had, fitted either with a
good kerosene lamp or with the much more per-
fect limelight. Incandescent gas light, too. is
much recommended for the purpose, and some
are loud in their praises of acetylene gas, which
as now produced, and used by means of the mod-
ern acetylene generator and burner bids fair to
oust all competitors from the field except lime-
light and electricity. When a lantern is used for
enlarging work the condensing lenses of the
instrument — (the large lenses directly in front of
the light) — must be at least one inch larger in di-
ameter than the plate measures at its greatest
length. Thus, for enlarging from 4x5 negatives,
the apparatus should have condensing lenses six
inches in diameter. For enlarging from 5x7 nega-
tives the condenser should be eight inches in di-
ameter, etc.
The proper method of procedure in using the
enlarging lantern is as follows : Take a smooth
board about 30x36 inches — a drawing board is
best for the purpose — cover it with white paper
and hang it against the wall with picture cord so
that it will hang perfectly straight. Place the
lantern on a portable table at a distance of about
three feet, with the lens directly opposite to the
center of the board. The lamp should then be
lighted. Any other light in the room should then
be turned out.
Place in the lantern just behind the condenser,
between the light and the lens, a sheet of fine
ground glass. This will diffuse and soften the
light before it reaches the negative and will,
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 225
without any reduction in the size of the lens
aperture, yield a much more satisfactory and
pleasing picture.
Then place the negative, film side out, in the
negative carrier frame and insert in the stage of
the lantern so that the negative will be close to
the condensing lens. Focus the negative on the
white paper. The size of the enlargement must
then be determined by moving the table on which
the lantern stands. When the size is determined
it must be again carefully focused and the screws
that bind the rods tightened.
The lens should be stopped down if the image
is not sufficiently sharp.
The place where the bromide paper is to be
placed should now be marked on the board. Then
place the cap on the lens, and by the light from
a ruby lamp fix the bromide paper on the board
with thumb tacks in the space marked. Now
make the exposure by removing the cap from the
lens.
The exposure is regulated by the density of the
negative, the size of the lens diaphragm used and
the size of the enlargement.
The following is given as a guide for exposure ;
An enlargement 11x14 from a clear 4x5 negative
with a medium size stop will require about three
minutes. A dense negative or a larger enlarge-
ment will require more exposure.
After the exposure has been made the paper
is then developed in the manner already de-
scribed.
WHAT PAPER TO USE.
Royal Bromide Paper.— Is particularly recom-
mended for use where 14x17 or larger prints are
to be made. When enlarged through bolting
226 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
cloth and sepia toned, prints on this paper have
the breadth and softness of rare old etchings,
having dark, Sketchy backgrounds, deep shadows
and snappy high lights. When using bolting
cloth screen the time of exposure should be in-
creased about one-third.
Standard Bromide Paper. — Is a natural surface
bromide paper, which is especially adapted to all
kinds of enlargements, particularly copies on
which crayon or pastel work is to be done.
The emulsion is coated on three different
weights of paper — A, thin smooth ; B, heavy
smooth ; C, heavy rough.
Platino-Bromide Paper. — Platino-Bromide is a
new argentic bromide paper, giving soft, rich ef-
fects, velvety blacks, absolutely pure whites and
having a dead surface like platinum. Unlike plat-
inum paper, however, it will keep before and after
exposure, and can be printed by lamplight. Pic-
tures made on it are permanent as the paper it-
self.
Enameled Bromide Paper. — Prints on Enam-
eled Bromide paper, when untoned, combine the
soft effects of a platinum or bromide tone with
a highly enameled surface. This paper has a
slightly pink tint which especially commends it-
self to those who object to the coldness of an or-
dinary bromide tone.
Prints on Enameled Bromide paper, when
toned with the hypo toning bath and dried on
ferrotype plates, are in no wise inferior to the
best aristo prints in richness of tone and depth of
detail and gloss, hence enlargements made in this
way from good negatives are fully equal to con-
tact prints and require no finishing.
Matte-Enamel Bromide Paper. — This paper
combines the brilliancy of an enameled paper
MODERN I'IIOTOCRAI-HY. 227
with rich carbon blacks. Like the enameled, it is
lent warmth by its slightly pink tint and is capa-
ble of taking a beautiful sepia tone.
Two Grades — Hard and Soft. — The Bromide
papers, except Royal, are made in two grades,
"Hard" and "Soft." The "Hard" paper is espe-
cially adapted to use with sunlight, and should
therefore be used for enlarging by daylight,
while the "Soft" paper should be used for con-
tact printing and for enlarging by artificial light,
as it is especially adapted to work with artificial
light.
HINTS.
Mealy Mottled Prints. — Over-exposure and
short development.
Greenish tones are obtained by over-exposure
and too much bromide.
Face of permanent bromide paper can always
be distinguished by its curling in. Convex side
is always the back.
Fixing. — The operator can tell when a bromide
print is fixed by looking through it or upon it in
a good light ; unfixed portions will be a greenish
yellow.
Yellow Prints. — Prolonged development will
cause yellow prints. The exposure must be cor-
rect, so as to allow of quick development.
Forcing development does not give good re-
sults for the above reason.
Running water is not so sure a means for wash-
ing prints as changing them from one tray to
another, allowing them to soak at least ten min-
utes in each fresh water ; twelve changes are suf-
ficient— no less.
Retouching negatives. — Coarse grinding for re-
touching should be avoided and the retouching
228 MODKRN PHOTOGRAPHY.
"burned in" to the varnish over a spirit lamp to
avoid having- the scratches show in the enlarge-
ment.
Clean Dishes, Clean Hands. — The faintest
trace of hypo-sulphite of soda or of pyrogallic
acid is fatal to good results with Bromide paper,
and the operator cannot be too careful to avoid
any contamination. The tray used for develop-
ing with oxalate should never be used for any-
thing else.
To avoid yellow prints four things are abso-
lutely necessary.
1. The developer must be acid.
2. The clearing solution must be used as di
rected.
3. Fresh hypo solution is required for fixing
each batch of prints.
4. The washing must be thorough after fixing.
Cleaning the Prints. — The surface of Enameled
Bromide paper is extremely delicate and liable to
abrasion, which shows in hair-like lines like pen-
cil marks after development. Fortunately they
can be easily removed after the dry print before
mounting by rubbing with a tuft of wet cotton.
Flexible Prints. — Permanent bromide prints
soaked in a mixture of glycerine five ounces, of
water twentv-five ounces, and dried, will not curl
and may be used for book illustrations un-
mounted. The heavier papers, B and C, are es-
pecially adapted for this purpose.
Straightening Unmounted Prints. — After dry-
ing, prints may be straightened by the scraping
action of a sharp-edged ruler applied to the back,
the corner behind the ruler being lifted as the
ruler is passed along.
Glossy Prints Without a Burnisher. — Beauti-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 22Q
ful glossy prints may be made on Enameled Bro-
mide paper by using ferrotype plates by follow-
ing instructions given for this process in the
treatment of Gelatine paper.
Another Method. — A fine gloss may be given
Enameled Bromide Prints by coating the mount-
ed print with a solution of gum arabic I ounce,
water 4 ounces ; filter through chamois skin each
time before using. Apply smoothly with a cam-
el's hair brush. Jf too thick to spread smoothly,
thin with water to proper consistency.
Mounting on Card. — Bromide prints may be
mounted wet or dry ; the prints should not be
dried between blotters, like chloride paper, but
should be hung over a line, or laid back down
upon glass or clean paper. To mount, brush over
the back with thin starch paste, lay the print on
the mount and rub into contact with soft cloth.
Prints on Enameled paper may be rolled or
burnished or dried on ferrotype plates.
For burnishing the print must be quite dry and
a dry lubricator used, castile soap answering for
that purpose.
"C" paper and the Royal Bromide papers are
intended to retain their rough surface and should
not be rolled.
DON'T.
Don't use old hypo for fixing.
Don't use the developing dish for fixing.
Don't put the prints between blotters to dry.
Don't fail to rock the tray well while develop-
ing.
Don't rock in one direction only, unless you
want streaky prints.
Don't fail to lift the print up and turn it over
in the clearing solution.
23° MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
Don't let a jet of water play on the paper while
washing; it will cause blisters.
Don't use old developer on large prints for
the sake of economy; use it fresh every time.
Don't use twice as much acid as directed in the
developer or clearing solution ; enough is enough.
Don't say you can't work bromide paper be-
cause you fail to get a good result the first time.
Perseverance in all things.
Don't expect that the light reflected from a red
brick wall will be sufficient for enlarging. Un-
less your enlarging window has an unbroken hori-
zon use a reflector.
Don't suppose that a permanent bromide print
is liable to fade because the paper turns yellow.
All paner will become yellow after exposure to
light and air. For example, see any old engrav-
ing or etching. This yellowing or mellowing of
the paper has nothing whatever to do with fad-
ing.
CHAPTER XXI.
LANTERN SLIDE and TRANSPARENCY
MAKING.
Xo book on photography would approach any-
thing like completion without due attention be-
ing paid to transparency work, for that- is not
only one of the most beautiful of the processes
at the amateur's disposal, but it is one of the most
useful for various decorative purposes.
By far the largest number of photographic
transparencies take the form of lantern slides :
for this represents a method by which the ama-
teur can exhibit his photographs to the very best
advantage, and in such a manner that they will
be pleasing and interesting to all his friends —
which cannot always be said of a set of miscel-
laneous prints. i It might seem to the superficial
observer that transparencies designed for lantern
work and those intended merely for visual pur-
poses would differ only in point of size and not
necessarily in that. Rut that is not so. There is
considerable difference in the quality of trans-
parency required for the two purposes, a«d one
which would be most effective for window deco-
ration, say, would be almost useless for lantern
work, while a perfect lantern slide when held up
and examined in the ordinary way, appears to be
lacking in "pluck" and vigor and all those bril-
liant qualities which give to photographic trans-
parencies their chief charm.
The reason for this is. of course, the very dif-
ferent conditions under which the two are viewed.
231
232
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
In the case of the window transparency, the pic-
ture is seen direct by brilliant light pouring- right
through it and going straight to the eyes, conse-
quently, considerable density and depth of de-
tail are requisite
to give it effect,
'while with the lan-
tern slide the light,
after passing
through the slide,
is spread out over
a large white sheet
and reflected by
that into the eyes,
so that a very
slight deposit upon
the transparency is
sufficient to make
a marked differ-
ence in the amount
of the illumination.
The most: desir-
able qualities in a
lantern slide are
extreme transpar-
ency, so that as
much light as pos-
sible may be al-
lowed to reach the
sheet, consistent
with a sufficiency
of contrast between
the lights and shades ; and good definition, for
the slight diffusion of focus, which is often a dis-
tinct artistic gain in the ordinary photograph
upon paper or other* opaque support, is quite in-
admissable in a lantern slide, where such a very
Window Transparency.
FlG. 69.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 233
great magnification would make the lack of fo-
cus seem abominable. Those faults in a negative
which, though almost invisible and unnoticeable
in a direct paper print by contact, show up in a
terrible manner when the picture is subjected to
the tremendous magnification of an optical lan-
tern. Therefore, a grain of dust, a gnat, a wan-
dering hair will appear respectively like a huge
boulder, an elephant, and a sea-serpent, it follows
that only negatives which are microscopically
sharp and technically perfect or nearly so, are
eligible for the purpose of lantern slide making.
Lantern Slide Making by Contact. — Optically
speaking, there are two methods of making lan-
tern slides — leaving the chemical part of the sub-
ject out of the question altogether at present.
They are called respectively, the contact method
and the reduction method — terms which will
hardly require an explanation, for they are self-
explanatory. Lantern slides by contact can, of
course, only be made of the same size as the
negative from which they are printed., that is to
say, the objects which are shown in the negative
will be reproduced in the lantern slide of the
same size, and if the negative be larger than the
lantern plate only a certain portion of the picture
can be included in the transparency.* Lantern
slides are now always made of one standard size,
namely, 3/4 X4 inches, and if that portion of your
negative which you wish to include in the slide
be larger than three inches across, the only plan
will be to adopt the reduction method.
However, the majority of photographs taken
by amateurs are of the 4x5-in. size, and most of
these will be of such a character that, by sacrific-
ing half an inch from either side — often not a
234 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
considerable loss — -the}- are available for lantern
siide purposes without further trouble. To make
a lantern slide by contact, place the negative face
uppermost in a printing frame — we will suppose
that it is a 4x5 one, for the sake of argument —
and place over it, film to film, one of the special
lantern plates sold by any of the good makers.
Hold the frame up to the light of a red lamp
while selecting the best portion of the picture for
reproduction, and when the lantern plate has
been placed in position satisfactorily, fasten in
the back and expose to gaslight or lamp light.
The character of the results upon lantern
plates can be very considerably modified by
varying the conditions under which exposure is
made ; a long exposure to a poor light tending to
high contrasts or harshness, while an equivalent
exposure under the opposite conditions tends to
softness or lack of brilliancy.
Lantern Slide Making by Reduction — Day- /
light. — But the lantern picture-maker will prob-v
ably soon find that he is considerably hampered
by this necessity to reproduce his negatives in
fac-simile as regards size, for he will constantly
find that he is obliged to cut out portions that
are really valuable as pictorial constituents, and
that many of his best vie\vs are ruined by the
limitation of the process.* For even 4x5 negatives
?.re not always amenable to being ruthlessly cut
off to the square of their smaller diameter,
though they have been specially taken with a
view to be ultimately made into lantern slides,
while those larger yield themselves up to the
treatment less and less, in proportion to their
size. » So that if much lantern slide work has to
be done, some method of reducing the picture to
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 235
the standard size soon becomes more or less of a
necessity.
" Again, the subject is divisible into two prin-
cipal methods of procedure, which come under
the heads of Daylight and Artificial light. We
will take them in the order named. If the reader
will refer to a diagram which I gave in connec-
tion with the subject of enlargement upon bro-
mide paper he will see/for that work the light of
the sky is reflected by means of a mirror or a
suitable substitute through a hole in the shutter
of a darkened room, thence through the negative
from which the picture is to be made, and after-
wards through an ordinary photographic lens by
which the image is projected upon the sensitive
surface placed to receive it. The size of the re-
sulting picture depends upon the distance of that
sensitive surface from the optical svstem. Xow
suppose that the sensitive film be moved so close
up to theTens that the image of the negative, in-
stead of being enlarged, is actually reduced i'i
size, and that the bromide paper is replaced by
a lantern pJate. Then you have all the elements
for a daylight apparatus for making lantern
slides by reduction.' But it will be much more
convenient in this case to turn the camera
around so that the lantern plate can be contained
in the plate holder instead of the negative to be
copied, for that can easily be held in a frame at-
tached to the shutter in which the hole is cut.
The negative to be reduced, then, is supported .
in front of a hole cut in the shutter of a dark-
room, and outside of that shutter there is a
mirror or other reflector, by which diffused day-
light shines through all parts of the negative
equally. Opposite is a photograph camera con-
236 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
taining a sensitive plate, and a positive picture
of lantern slide size to be made from that nega-
tive. Thus it is simply an ordinary photographic
^operation. The camera must be of the long focus
variety, cap'able of racking out to twice the usual
length and it would be as well to draw upon the
ground glass a circle or a square to indicate the
position which the lantern plate will occupy
fc when the plate holder is inserted. Focus the
image as carefully as possible with the full aper-
ture of the lens, and use a small stop for the ex-
posure. It would be misleading to attempt to
° convey an idea of the length of time required.
There are too many factors to be taken into con-
sideration that cannot be reckoned with before-
hand. A few trials will soon show the exposure
*" required, and when found, make a note of it.
The making of lantern slides by reduction has
many distinct advantages over the contact
method, which has not yet been touched upon.
In the first place it yields far more perfect re-
sults as far as good definition is concerned, and
that, it must be remembered, is a very important
matter in connection with lantern slides. Then
it admits of adding suitable skies to photographic
transparencies. The amateur has been advised
to make for himself a stock of useful cloud nega-
tives for use in connection with his various land-
scape photographs as occasion may arise. Let
him make from these, by contact pr reduction,
as he likes (for if they are 4x5 negatives it does
not much matter) a series of sky pictures, upon
lantern plates just as if those plates 'already con-
tained landscape views to which it w,as desired to
add clouds. Every lantern slide, and, indeed, all
other transparencies, are finished, by being
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 237
mounted with a plain glass in front of them to
protect the films from injury. Therefore the
easiest way to add clouds to one of these is to
print the sky upon that cover glass by a separate
photographic operation, and this method has this
advantage, that you can "try on" a number of
different cloud effects upon the landscape pic-
ture until you find one that suits. Another ad-
vantage of the reduction method of making slides
is that it permits the more readily of that judi-
cious "faking" that may often be the means of
so greatly improving the artistic value of a lan-
tern picture.
Lantern Slides by Reduction — Artificial Light.
— A word or two respecting the reduction method
of making lantern slides by artificial light : If
reference will be made to that portion of this
work which is devoted to bromide enlarging with
a lantern, it will be found that the negative to be
operated upon is placed in the slide stage of that
instrument. Now, if the front lens of that lan-
tern be removed, and the photographic camera,
prepared for lantern slide making, exactly as in
the last-considered case, be put in its place, a
reduced image of that negative will be thrown
upon the ground glass, and that image, falling
upon a lantern plate, will afford the means of
producing a slide by reduction with artificial
light.
When used for reducing, remove the bellows
of the lantern from the frame at the back. Then
take away the whole front, including bellows,
front and rods. Place a ground glass in the nega-
tive holder first, then the negative, and insert
the negative holder in the stage in the usual man-
ner and light the lamp. Then take the ordinary
238 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
camera and point its lens opposite the negative,
focus sharply to the desired size, then insert the
plate holder, containing a kit, with the lantern
slide plate or transparency plate, and make the
exposure.
As regards all the other proceedings, they are
similar to those which pertain to reducing by
daylight.
Developing Lantern Slides. — In developing
a lantern slide, the main thing to be borne in
mind is that the greatest transparency possible
must be obtained, while at the same time the
other essentials are not to be neglected. All por-
tions of the picture which represent white, thai
is, all the high lights, must consist of absolutelv
clear glass. They must not merely appear white
by comparison with other portions of the slide,
but there must be actually no deposit upon the
film, and the tegt is to lay the slide down upon a
sheet of white paper, and if the high lights do
not then appear to be at all veiled, the slide may
be pronounced a good one as far as this most
important particular is concerned. But that alone
is not sufficient to insure a technically perfect
lantern slide. It will not do at all if the shadows
be all represented by dense, impenetrable black :
for then the clearness of the high lights would
be only an aggravation of the terrible sootiness
of everything else. No portion of a lantern slide
should be so dense that the print of a newspaper
cannot be read through it if both are held up to
the light. "^-Remember that the density of a lan-
tern slide appears upon the screen to be exag-
gerated, and exposure and development must be
regulated accordingly ; but it does not by any
means follow that the height of the contrasts is
MODERN 1'HOTOGUAl'lIY. 239
increased to any extent. A slide must be full of
"pluck" and vigor; but those qualities must be
attained rather by the extreme whiteness of the
lights than by the heaviness of the darker por-
tions.
i/ As regards the choice of a developer, that
should be decided by the recommendations of
the makers of the particular plates being used,
just as in the case of negative plates or any other
commercially-supplied sensitized commodity. As
a general rule, hydroquinone, as a developing
agent, is one of the best that can be employed,
but it requires to be used with care and discre-
tion, for the very qualities which make it valu-
able to the clever worker (the power which, it
gives him of obtaining sufficient density from
even the most unpromising weak negatives, and
so on) are of the kind to make it unmanageable
in the hands of those who have not taken the
trouble to master its peculiarities. Here is a
formula which will be found to suit nearly every
plate :
A.
Hydroquinone 240 grains
Potassium meta bisulphite 240 grains
Potassium bromide 60 grains
Distilled water 15 ozs.
B.
Potassium hydrate (sticks) 600 grains
Distilled water 15 ozs.
For use, take of A and B each one part and
mix with six parts of water. If this developer
does not appear to quite suit the plates, try using
a little more water, and that will probably maki-
it rifht. I have found it to work very well with
24O MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
all the lantern plates that I have used, and that
is why I recommend it, but all the same, you
cannot do better than stick to the one recom-
mended by the plate maker, unless upon trial
you find this to yield better results in your hands.
For there is no doubt that different workers se-
cure their best results with different developers,
even when they are using the same brand of
plates Mnit the developer, whatever it is, must be
one that suits the particular peculiarities of the
plates with which it is used.
Covering, Binding, and Finishing Slides. — T
have already hinted that before a lantern slide
is actually finished, it must be mounted by bind-
ing it to a protecting cover glass. These cover
glasses can be bought ready cut to size and care-
fully selected so as to be as free as possible
from any bubbles or other flaw^s in the glass.
That the glass, both of the slide and the cover,
should be very thin, will go without saying when
it is remembered that there are two to be
mounted together, and it is hardly necessary to
again point out how terribly exaggerated are all
little specks and flaws when the slides are sub-
jected to the immense magnification of an optical
lantern. However, the beginner need not trouble
much about these cover glasses at first, because,
for every slide that he turns out which will be
worthy of mounting, he will in all probability
spoil at least one lantern plate, and so, by clean-
ing off his failures he will be supplied with a
sufficient number of cover glasses to mount his
successes. The simplest way to remove the films
from spoiled plates is to soak them for a while
in dilute hydrochloric acid, when the gelatine
will float away, leaving the glass support per-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 24!
fectly clean. It then merely requires rinsing in
plenty of clean cold water, drying on old linen
and subsequently polishing.
Between the photographic slide and its pro-
tective cover a paper mask is placed to form a
kind of framework to the picture, and also, inci-
dentally, to prevent the two touching each other
so that the film might possibly become chafed
after considerable use. It is one of the most im-
portant things as regards the ultimate effective-
ness of the picture in the lantern, that this mask
should be so chosen and that it suits the shape
and character of the photograph. Color, of
course, does not enter into the question at all
as it does in considering the framing and mount-
ing of an ordinary picture, for the mask must, of
necessity, appear black upon the screen ; but
masks of all manner of shapes and sizes can be
bought and should lie carefully chosen for each
picture, while for out-of-the-way cases, it is not
a very difficult matter to cut a special mask out
of black, opaque paper.
Having chosen a suitable mask and placed the
cover glass in position, or if necessary, a cover
glass bearing clouds of description to fit the
view, the next thing is to bind the whole to-
gether. Again, the fore-sighted manufacturer
comes to your aid with strips of gummed paper,
called lantern slide binders. It is quite possible
that you will experience some difficulty in mak-
ing these sticky strips adhere to the glass, in
which case strong starch paste, in which a little
sugar has been dissolved, applied to them in-
stead of water, will generally be found to over-
come the difficulty. Lay the strip, gummy side
uppermost, upon a sheet of newspaper, apply the
242 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
paste evenly with a stiff brush, rubbing it in sev-
eral times till the paper is quite limp, and then,
beginning right up at the left-hand side, place
the compound slide and cover glass in center of
the strip and press it down. The next movement
I can only describe by asking you to imagine
that the glasses are circular instead of square,
for it is analogous to rolling them — together, of
course, along the length of the strip, so that they
pick it up as they go. In reality, this movement
is performed one side at a time, and when the
third side is lowermost, the paper attached to the
first can be folded over and pressed down with
the har.d, so that at that edge the two glasses
are bound firmly together. Then it is moved on
to one more place and the second side treated
in a similar manner, and so on, until all four
are finished. The operation seems somewhat dif-
ficult at first, but the knack of it comes with a lit-
tle practice.
Photographic Transparencies for Home
Decoration. — If you hold up a technically-per-
fect lantern slide and look at it by transmitted
light you will see that it is not by any means to
be regarded as a perfect transparency for viewing
in that manner. It will appear thin and weak by
contrast. But by this time, it is to be hoped you
will be a sufficiently good photographer to over-
come that defect when you want to make trans-
parencies for direct visual purposes, such as for
the decoration of windows and the like. It is
really only a matter of judicious development. A
transparency that is required for other purposes
than lantern work should be carried farther in
the developing process, in all other respects, its
treatment is precisely the same.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 243
Few people have any idea of the great possi-
bilities as regards home decoration which are
opened up to them by photography, especially
through the channel of good transparencies.
Such pictures come in for a great variety of
decorative uses, the number of which, it might
also be said, is only limited to the photographer's
ingenuity. Lamp shades, fire screens, window
blinds and many other things which are often
so exceedingly unsightly in themselves, can be
turned into things of beauty by the tasteful use
of photographic pictures in this form. • Trans-
parencies intended for such uses should, as T
have already said, be specially made upon trans-
parency plates, and backed with a sheet of
ground glass in order to heighten the effect, and
lantern slides which are often too dense to be
really serviceable in 'their original capacity, can
be turned to account, in this manner.. They may
be hung around opal glass lamp globes, for in-
stance, where, besides serving the useful pur-
poses of shielding the eyes from the glare, they
form a very pretty ornamentation/Tint numbers
of such uses will at once suggest themselves to
the fertile imagination of the photographic ama-
teur. It will be quite unnecessary to do more
than throw out this suggestion.
CHAPTER XXII.
THE GUM-BICHROMATE PROCESS.
When a photographer has had the courage to
go through some technical article on the work-
ing of a new printing process he feels the con-
viction that on following closely the author's in-
structions he will be able to produce a good
print by the process described ; at any rate he
knows beforehand what qualities this standard
print ought to have. I do not see the way to
produce this happy confidence in the present
case, for although I think I am capable of giving
a definition of what a good albumen or gelatino-
chloride print ought to be, by comparison with
a bad one, I am quite unable to define the good
gum-bichromate print, and no instructions of
mine will enable even an ardent worker to pro-
duce what a true artist will call a good gum-
bichromate print. All that I can do is to enable
him to produce a sheet of coated paper, the coat-
ing of which will dissolve and disappear in the
places where light has not caused insolubility,
while in other parts the coating will remain more
or less adherent, according to the quantity of
light admitted.
This is the definition of the process in a nut-
shell : \Yhat we want is a film — a colored coat-
ing which, after exposure to light under a nega-
tive, will give us a surface quite soluble in
some parts, partly soluble in others, totally in-
soluble in the rest. If we succeed in manufac-
turing this sheet of coated paper we shall have
244
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 245
in our hands the foundation of a good gum-
bichromate print — it rests with us to make a pic-
ture out of this, or a daub, or simply a common-
place, faithful, photographic print.
For in the gum-bichromate process we cannot
work with the same standards as in other pro-
cesses. For example, in the silver printing pro-
cess, under-exposure gives a very bad print of a
dirty color without strength or contrast. With
gum-bichromate, considerable under-exposure
means total absence of image. One cannot say
that the print is a bad one, for in this case there
is no print whatever, all the coating will disap-
pear in the developing. Similar with great over-
exposure ; in this case the paper remains just as
it was before printing — a dull surface of black,
brown or red. But whenever an image has been
developed and has remained on the paper the
resulting print may be good, for it can be made
into a picture and a fine picture, too, if the man
who works at it is an artist and knows what he
is about.
My meaning is that if the color used for coat-
ing is well chosen and sufficiently deep, its na-
ture will not be affected subsequently as it is by
toning or developing from white to black in
other printing processes, so most of the condi-
tions which cause failure in silver chloride, bro-
mide or in platinum papers are not to be taken
into account with this special method, for color
and depth of color have both been chosen before
printing and developing. In other words, as we
work from dark to light, the conditions of ordi-
nary printing are naturally reversed. What we
aim at is to keep the color that we have already
applied instead of striving to build it up.
246 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
The materials are simple: gum arabic, bichro-
mate of potash, and the cheapest of all pigments
— earths. The gum need not be pure white gum,
the ordinary red gum arabic works just as well
as the purer samples. I have tried both and
found no difference whatever in the results.
Bichromate of potash can be had of any drug-
gist. Any sort of paper is suitable provided it
is sized ; all drawing and water-color papers are
good, so are most writing papers, but highly
glazed paper is most difficult to coat properly,
though it works well when this difficulty has
been surmounted.
Powdered colors may be used successfully —
they are cheaper than most tubes, but they are
not ground so fine. To make the three conven-
tional tints of monochrome work, the following
colors are necessary :
Lampblack, umber and burnt umber, sienna
and burnt sienna, Vandyke brown, bistre, yellow
and brown ocre, red ocre, brown red, Venetian
red. indigo. These colors are permanent. They
can be mixed in different proportions, according
to the taste of the worker. No colors should be
used pure, the result is generally displeasing.
A saturated solution of bichromate of potash
(10 per cent) is made with hot water and another
of gum arabic and cold water which has to be
worked up to a density marking 18 to 20 degrees
by the saccharometer or densitometer. The
bichromate solution keeps indefinitely. The gum
solution turns acid after a few days and seems to
give better results in this state. If it thickens
by evaporation or gets thinner by fermentation,
a small quantity of water or a denser solution
must be added until it registers a new 18 to 20
MODERN I'HOTOOKAI'HV. 247
degrees. Ten cubic centimeters of this gum
solution are mixed with pigment and four cubic
centimeters of bichromate are added to the gum
and pigment. It must be understood that these
measures are purely approximate. According to
the depth of color or to the nature of the pig-
ment more or less gum or more or less bichro-
mate will have to be added. The photographer
will be guided by the behavior of the sensitive
mixture which must allow of rapid and even
coating. For example., if he uses Venetian red
as pigment the resulting mixture will be thin
compared to a mixture prepared with Vandyke
brown, for the coloring power of the first pig-
ment is greatly superior to that of the latter, con-
sequently there will be much more pigment in
bulk in the second case than in the first and a
few drops of bichromate and one or two drops
of gum will have to be added. In reality every
proportion is constantly varying in this process,
the only important and unvarying factor should
be the thickness of the sensitive mixture, for
smooth and even coating is a necessity, and only
a certain thickness will allow of proper coating.
This is a matter of experience to be acquired by
a few preliminarv trials, though I have worked
at the process for several years and it is rare in-
deed when I do not find it necessary to thicken
or dilute the sensitive mixture before beginning
to coat.
Now two methods of working are open to the
photographer, either he may sensitize his paper
in a 10 per cent solution of bichromate by immer-
sion during one or two minutes, dry, and then
coat with gum and pigment, adding to the mix-
ture a proportion of water equal to the quantity
248 MODERN PHOTOGRAPH y.
of fluid that the bichromate solution would have
brought if it had been added to the gum and pig-
ment, or he may coat his paper direct with gum,
pigment and bichromate in the proportions de-
scribed above. In both cases the degree of thick-
ness of the mixture must be tried before coating,
and this operation must only be performed when
the mixture has shown a satisfactory behavior
under his preliminary trial. It is not difficult to
judge. A mixture clinging to the brush and
forming ridges which cannot be softened by re-
peated brushings must be diluted — while if it
runs over the paper, refuses to set and follows
the brush in waves, gum must be added.
I do not say anything about the proportion of
pigment — this is a question of personal taste.
Coat your paper in full diffused light or by
bright gas light. Pin the dry sheet on a drawing
board, take a flat hogs-hair brush (the fan-shape
seems to be the most convenient) smear the sur-
face roughly with the sensitive mixture, taking
care not to use more than is necessary for the
complete covering of the sheet, or else the coat-
ing will be too thick. This rough coating is cov-
ered with ridges and irregular brush marks ; do
not let the marks set, but take up a goats-hair
softener and give a few strong downward verti-
cal strokes which will change the irregular
ridges into vertical parallel lines — break these
lines by several horizontal strokes perpendicular
to the first — the lines will merge into one
another and disappear. A few rapid and light
touches here and there will finish the operation,
which ought to be rapid and decisive.
Pin the paper up to dry in a dark place — abso-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 249
lute darkness is not necessary — and when thor-
oughly dry, expose.
Correct exposure — I mean the right exposure
for the desired effect — is the delicate point of
the process. It can only be obtained by com-
parative trials. I have seen men disgusted by
their constant failures, who, as 1 found out later
on, had never made these comparative trials on
the same negative. They had tried every possi-
ble change in their way of coating and their pro-
portions of mixture, but had never had the idea
of trying two exposures — one of ten minutes and
one of two hours — to ascertain how gum-bichro-
mate paper acted under extremes. It is, notwith-
standing, the only sure way. An actinometer is
necessary, of course, and the bands, numbered,
may be kept for future reference.
The average exposure in summer by diffused
light for a thin negative should be twenty min-
utes to half an hour. Length of exposure is in-
fluenced not only by the quality of the light, the
color and density of the negative, but also by
the thickness of the sensitive coating. It is of
course in direct ratio to this thickness.
To be able to fully understand the importance
of control in the development of a gum-bichro-
mate print we must realize that the film or coat-
ing on which we are going to operate is com-
posed of a substance uniform in appearance, but
entirely soluble or semi-soluble in some parts,
and insoluble, or nearly, in others. If we im-
merse this coated paper in a dish of water and
let the solvent act undisturbed on the whole sur-
face of this coating, it will dissolve it proportion-
ately to the extent it has previously been rend-
ered insoluble, and it will give us a positive
250 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
duplicate of the original negative. If, on the con-
trary, we apply the solvent irregularity to differ-
ent parts of the coated paper, if we use hot water
here and cold water there ; if, going even further
in our personal intervention, we add local fric-
tion to the dissolving action of water locally ap-
plied, we produce a positive which has not been
developed in proportion to its solubility, but pro-
portionately to the temperature of the agent used
in developing and to the force and frequency of
its application — consequently it is not a dupli-
cate of the original negative as to tone and
values ; but the result, good or bad, of our own
judgment.
In reality the technical or photographical part
of the process is at an end when development be-
gins. Development requires no chemicals, and
no formula to mix them. All you have to do is to
wash away, rub away, or scrape away, according
to your mood, the more or less soft pigment at-
tached to the paper. You can develop in ten
minutes or several hours, wash away one side of
your picture before developing the other, work
with a brush, a spurt of water, or a gentle flow.
So there are no rules for developing save those
by which artists of all crafts ought to be guided.
The only indications which could be useful to
a beginner are the following: Always develop
the print out of the bath of water ; if it is im-
mersed, it stands to reason that local develop-
ment is impossible. Place the sheet of paper on
a glass plate propped up at one end by some
sort of wooden contrivance, the other resting on
the bottom of the developing tray. Always be-
gin by cold water, and never use higher tempera-
tures until you have ascertained that a low tem-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 251
perature has no effect whatever. Develop slowly,
and do not let an ounce of water flow over the
film without a definite intention calculated to
produce a definite effect. If hot water does not
reduce the heaviest shadows use a very soft, flat
sable brush, but not until the print is completely
developed in other parts — then work carefully,
and bear in mind that the deepest blacks are the
foundation of your picture, and that should they
be overreduced the whole balance of the com-
position will be upset. Do not imagine that after
having successfully (from a technical point of
view) developed a gum-bichromate print you
have got all that you can get out of the negative ;
print another proof and yet another. Try differ-
ent exposures, modify the temperature of your
bath, change the scheme of tone, use another
batch of paper coated with a mixture of different
proportions, and you will be astonished at the
variety of effects thus obtained. Each one.
though quite different from the others, will give
a true and pleasing impression if the relative
values have been kept in harmony in the various
schemes of tone adopted.
Failures may be divided into four classes.
1. The coating is completely washed away in a
few minutes, or, after being successfully devel-
oped, seems to lose all cohesion, and instead of
drying, melts and spreads, ruining the print abso-
lutely. Cause : Underexposure.
2. The coating is absolutely insoluble or only a
trace of image is visible. Cause : Overexposure.
3. Development proceeds normally, but the
whites are stained or marked with granular spots
of color. First case, color-stained whites. Cause :
Excess of liquid, bichromate or water in the sen-
252 MODERN" PHOTOGRAPHY.
sitive mixture. Second case, granular deposit.
Cause : Excess of pigment.
4. The coating, on developing, breaks into
scales. Cause : Extra thick film, to which extra
exposure has not been given. We must not for-
get that the time of exposure is regulated not
only by the color and the density of the negative
and the amount of actinic light, but also by the
degree of thickness of the coating. A thick coat-
ing will always produce scaly development when
the same exposure has been given as if the coat-
ing was of normal thickness.
Gum-bichromate prints may be dried before a
fire or over a gas stove, if the color does not ex-
hibit any symptoms of spreading. If it is in the
least tender, accelerate evaporation by fanning.
As a rule, however, I prefer to let the print dry
naturally, for many successful alterations in value
can be made when the coating has thickened
somewhat and is less delicate under the brush.
The prints when quite dry must be nassed for a
few minutes in a clearing bath of water and bi-
sulphite of soda (i per cent) to eliminate the last
traces of bichromate.
Is it useless to add, before finishing, that we
do not consider a photographic print to be beauti-
ful simply because it is printed by the gum-
bichromate method. We like the process and we
cire doing our utmost to popularize it, only be-
cause it allows of great control over tones and
values and because in the hands of men who
have acquired and cultivated artistic vision it
can give an astonishing range of varied effects.
The opening paragraph of this article may have
seemed paradoxical to the reader at first sight : if
he has gone through the whole of it he will
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 253
acknowledge that success in the technical part of
the process lies in the manufacturing of a sheet
of coated paper, the coating of which is able to
disappear in certain parts only under the action
of washing or friction, while other parts retain
their color. This paper will give us an image,
but it is the artist who will do the rest. He will
make the picture.
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE SENSITIZING AND USE OF PLAIN
PAPERS.
When I say plain papers I mean, of course,
papers without a superficial coating of gelatine
or albumen. In the choice of these for salting
and sensitizing there is no restriction except that
of chemical purity, and no difficulties in manipu-
lation greater than will be met with in any other
printing-out process.
Bromide '"matt" papers do not come under this
heading, since the gelatine surface is only made
"matt," or free from glaze, by the use of starch,
resin or other admixture in the coating of the
paper. Platinotype is a typical example of a
"plain" paper, and similar results may be ob-
tained by the use of silver salts instead of plati-
num, with the additional advantage of a far
wider range of color and texture than is possible
in that process.
Choice of Papers. — Your paper should be chem-
ically pure and particularly free from iron spots
(which, when the paper is sensitized, will spread
out like asterisks), and at the same time it should
be selected with an ultimate aim as to effect. The
purest I have found, next to "Rives." on which
platinotype is coated, and for the matter of that
most silver papers, too, is Whatman, which is
sold in three grades, viz. : H. P.. hot pressed or
smooth ; N., not, and R., rough : and then come
Arnold. Harding and Hollingworth, all of which
may be obtained from the principal artists' sup-
254
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 255
ply depots without any difficulty and in various
sizes. "Royal" measures 24x20 in. and Imperial
31x22 in. These sheets can be cut up to the sizes
you wish to print, allowing a little margin to
handle them by in salting and sensitizing.
Salting and Sizing. — Having decided upon the
paper you wish to use, a salting bath is made up
as follows :
Common salt 50 to 100 grains
Gelatine 10 grains
AYater 10 ounces
But this again is a variable quantity, soft and
porous papers requiring more gelatine to size
them than hard, rough surfaces will take up. The
bath should be used hot, so that it is thoroughly
absorbed. The exact time of immersion — for the
paper is put in bodily, not floated — <loes not mat-
ter, and it will often be found necessary to let
the first sizing dry and then to give a second bath
later on, that the pores of the paper may be well
filled up.
You can salt half a dozen or more sheets at
once, turning them over from time to time and
then hanging them up by wood clips to dry.
At this stage the paper will keep indefinitely,
but it is as well to keep it under pressure that it
may be easier to manipulate in the subsequent
process of sensitizing. The stronger the salting
the weaker may be the sensitizing, and there is
room for considerable variation in both, accord-
ing to the character of the negative you are going
to print from and the result you want to get.
The paper is now ready for sensitizing, and
256 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
this is done on any of the ordinary silver baths
used for albunienized papers, the standard being
60 grains nitrate of silver
to
i oz. of water (preferably distilled)
and
15 grains of citric acid.
This, with occasional strengthening, will last
for a long time kept in a dark place and in a well
corked bottle.
Sensitizing. — Take the salted paper by the right
hand corner and float it on the bath, using gentle
pressure at the same time to exclude air bubbles
(which would come out as insensitive spots in
printing), leaving it floating for two or three min-
utes, then hang up to dry in a moderately dark
room until it is ready for use.
I have found it always better to sensitize paper
slightly damp, since one can get a more even
coating, and the edges do not curl up in the pro-
voking manner common to papers when dry, but
care should be exercised to avoid the sensitizing
solution coming on to the back of the paper.
Printing. — This is done in the ordinary manner
in a pressure frame, but the image may be taken
rather darker than with ordinary albumenized
papers to compensate for subsequent loss in ton-
ing and fixing. But be sure to varnish the nega-
tives before printing, to avoid staining them. I
cannot explain it. but the fact remains that al-
though I have never had staining occur with
albumenized papers, with the use of strongly
salted and sensitized drawing papers, such an
occurrence has been frequent, and although there
are several reputed cures for such staining. I have
never vet found a satisfactorv one.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 257
Toning. — Any hath that will tone albumenized
prints will act perfectly well with nlain salted
papers, but to obtain a rich red brown with what
are called "juicy" depths in the shadows and un-
degraded whites in the high lights, use the fol-
lowing stock solution :
15 grains chloro-platinite of potassium
in
y'2 07.. of water.
Then, when the prints are to be toned, take
from it one dram mixed with 4 oz. of water with
a few drops, say 5 of 6, of nitric acid.
This bath will be found to tone very rapidly
and it will keep fairly well. Toning being com-
pleted, wash for a minute or two and neutralize
prints in a weak bath of carbonate of soda ; they
are then ready for fixing in the usual way.
Fixing. — Hypo-sulphite of soda 4 oz.
Water 20 oz.
I look upon thorough fixing as necessary to in-
sure permanency as is thorough washing in run-
ning water afterwards, and prints should be left
in the fixing bath for at least 15 minutes before
they are put in the washing trough, where they
should remain for at least a couple of hours.
I came across a print on plain "Saxe" paper
made by an artist at least thirty years ago and it
was as' fresh and bright as on the day it was
made. It was a practice with this artist to dab
each separate print with a sponge under running
water, back and front, for a considerable length
of time, and I have never seen such little change
in color of silver prints as are to be noticed in his.
When prints are well washed T take it that
permanency has been obtained as near as that
258 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
unstable metal, silver, will allow, and although
the directions for the manipulation of plain paper
seem formidable enough, they are not really more
so than would be required for the intelligent use
and practice of any other printing-out process.
There is another method of obtaining prints on
plain paper, developing an underprinted picture
with a saturated solution of gallic acid or pyro-
gallol solution acidified with acetic acid. I would
also recommend the use of a pure unbleached
paper in preference to any other. This is made
of linen fiber instead of cotton rags and is free
from chlorine or bleach in any form.
CHAPTER XXIV.
USEFUL FORMULAE — WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES.
DEVELOPING FORMULAS FOR DRV PLATES AND NEGA-
TIVE FILMS.
Pyro ABC Developer.
BY WEIGHT.
A. Water 10 oz.
Sulphite of soda crystals l/2 oz.
Add enough pure acetic acid to this to turn blue
litmus paper slightly red, then add :
Pyro i oz.
B. Water i6oz.
Sulphite of soda crystals 4 oz.
C. Water 16 oz.
Sal soda crystals 4 oz.
To develop take of
A 1/207..
B i oz.
C i oz.
* Water 8 oz.
Apothecaries' weights are intended to be used
in the above formulas.
More water gives softness, and less water con-
trast. Use less water in cold weather.
*For double-coated plates use 18 oz. of water.
259
26O MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
PYRO ABC DEVELOPER — HYDROMETER TEST.
A. Water 10 oz.
Sulphite of soda crystals l/> oz.
Add enough pure acetic acid to this to turn blue
litmus paper slightly red, then add :
Pyro i oz.
B. Sulphite of soda solution to test 60
C. Sal soda solution to test 40
To develop take of
A y2oz.
B i oz.
C i oz.
Water 8 oz.
Less of B will give a warmer tone to negative.
If negatives are too yellow, use more of B. If it
is found during the summer months and in the
south that acetic acid softens the film too much,
substitute sulphuric acid.
The hydrometers referred to are often called
actinometers, and were formerly much used to
test the strength of silver baths. They are sel-
dom accurate, and it is best for each operator to
make up a set of the solutions according to
weight, and then, noting the reading on his hy-
drometer, making" future solutions accordingly.
EIKONOGEN-HYDROCHINONE DEVELOPER.
No. i. Distilled or pure well water. . . 32 oz.
Sodium sulphite (crystals) 4 oz.
Eikonogen 240 gr.
Hydrochinone 60 gr.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 26l
No. 2. Water 32 oz.
Carbonate of potash 4 oz.
To develop take
No. i 2oz.
Xo. 2 i oz.
* Water I oz.
By Hydrometer:
No. i. Sodium sulphite sol'n to test 30. 34 oz.
Eikonogen 240 gr.
Hydrochinone 60 gr.
No. 2. Carbonate of potash solution to test 50
To develop take of
Xo. i 2 oz.
Xo. 2 i oz.
* Water i oz.
More water gives less contrast and density.
EIKOXOGEN DEVELOPER.
No. i solution :
Eikonogen 40 gr.
Sodium sulphite 40 gr.
Water up to 10 oz.
No. 2 solution :
Sodium carbonate 200 gr.
Potassium hydrate 25 gr.
Water up to 10 oz.
For developing, take equal parts of No. i and
No. 2.
HYDROCHINONE DEVELOPER.
A. TTydrochinone i ox.
Sulphite of soda (crystals) 5 oz.
'For double-coated plates use 5 oz. of water.
264 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
than our metol-hydrochinone formula gives, is as
follows :
A. Distilled water 20 oz.
Sulphite of soda (crystals) , I oz.
Citric acid 2O gr.
Eikonogen 120 gr.
Hydrochinone 60 gr.
B. Distilled water 20 gr.
Caustic potash (fresh and dry) . . 120 gr.
(Or caustic soda.)
Bromide potash 120 gr.
Use 2 of A to i of B. Can be used repeatedly.
Expose somewhat longer than for the metol
hydrochinone developer. Temperature of devel-
oper should be from 70 deg. F. to 75 deg. F.
Always develop to a good intensity, as plates
developed with hydrochinone fix out somewhat.
Rinse and fix.
FERROUS OXALATE DEVELOPER.
A two-solution of ferrous oxalate developer can
be made up as follows :
No. i. Oxalate of potash /j.oz.
Water up to 16 oz.
No. 2. Ferrous-sulphate i oz.
Boiled water up to 4 oz.
Sulphuric acid 3 drops.
For use, add i oz. of No. i solution to 3 oz. of
No. 2.
General Formulas.
TO STRIP FILM FROM ORDINARY PLATES.
(jive negatives two coats of 2 per cent collo-
dion. The following formula yields good results;
Negative cotton 30 gr. (2 grm.)
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 265
Ether I oz. 6 drm. (50 c. c.)
Alcohol i oz. 6 drm. (50 c. c.)
Allow the first coat to dry before applying the
second, and when second coating has set, place
immediately in cold water until greasiness has
disappeared, then place in a bath of
Sodium fluoride (com.) .5 drm. (20 grm.)
Water 5 oz. ( 160 c. c.)
When thoroughly saturated with this solution,
which will take at least an hour, place, without
washing, in
Water 7 oz. (196 c. c.)
Sulphuric acid i drm. (4 c. c.)
Rubber trays should be used for this and the
fluoride bath. When film begins to loosen, lay a
piece of writing paper or celluloid upon it as a
support, and separate the two from the glass.
After washing well under tap, it can be trans-
ferred to a permanent support.
The following will answer for this purpose:
Rub a clean glass plate with French chalk and,
after dusting, coat with
Gelatine 2jX oz. (75 grm.)
Water 16 oz. (500 c. c.)
Glycerine 3 drm. (10 c. c.)
Filter, before coating, through canton flannel,
and avoid air bubbles. Coat on a leveling stand
as thick as the plate will hold : allow to set and
dry.
CLEARING BATH FOR PYRO.
Perhaps the most effective clearing bath for
abstracting the yellow color left by pyro is :
Iron sulphate i1/* ounces
Water l/a 1»"t
Sulphuric acid i dram
Alum Bounce
266 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
But bear in mind that a negative is sometimes
shorn of half its beauty by being robbed of its yel-
low tint. Take a print from it before you tamper
with it.
INTENSIFIER.
The fixed and well-washed negative is allowed
to remain in the following mercuric-chloride bath
until the film is thoroughly whitened :
Mercuric-chloride I part
Potassium bromide I part
Water 50 parts
The bleaching being completed, the mercuric
solution is rinsed off and the negative is im-
mersed in a mixture of equal parts of saturated
solution of sodium-sulphite and water. The dark-
ening action will be seen to take place steadily
and slowly, just as when ammonia is used. Wash
away the excess of sulphite.
REDUCER.
No. i. Water I oz.
Red prussiate of potassium 15 gr.
No. 2. Water 16 oz.
Hypo-soda 240 gr.
Take of No. i 4 drams and add to No. 2.
When the negative is thoroughly fixed and
washed, lay into the above solution until suffi-
ciently reduced. Wash after immersion.
MOUNTANT FOR PRINTS.
Dissolve 2 oz. of gelatine in / oz. of water. To
this add first )/, oz. of glycerine and then 3 oz. of
methylated spirits. The mountant should be ap-
plied to the back of the print with a stiff brush
and the print should then be placed in position on
the mount and rubbed or rolled firmlv down.
MODERN 1'IIOTOGRAl'HY. 267
RETOUCHING MEDIUM.
When touching out "pinholes" or other blem-
ishes in a negative, the reader will find some little
difficulty in making the pencil "bite" the film so
as to produce the desired effect. To avoid the
trouble, a retouching medium should first be ap-
plied to the place where it is desired to work
upon. To prepare such a medium take :
Sandarac y2 ounce
Castor oil 40 grains
Methylated spirits 3 ounces
The tip of the finger should be moistened with
this mixture, and then applied to the negative
and rubbed lightly thereon until it commences to
grip or stick. The desired retouching may then
be readily carried out.
BRASS — TO BLACKEN.
The amateur often requires to reblacken stops
or other portions of the brass work of his appar-
atus which have seen considerable use. The old
black should first be cleaned off with a piece of
fine emery cloth, and the metal should then be
dipped in a mixture of equal parts of the follow-
ing solutions :
No. i. Silver nitrate 40 grains
Water 100 minims
Xo. i. Copper nitrate 40 grains
Water 100 minims
When the stops are removed from the above
they should be allowed to dry. and then should be
uniformly and gradually heated until they as-
sume the desired black color.
268 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
TO CLEAN GLASS.
A useful recipe for a glass-cleaning mixture is
the following:
Pumice stone (powdered) 2 oz.
Whiting (powdered) 3 oz.
Soft water 2 oz.
Ammonia, .880 i oz.
This should be applied to the glass with a piece
of chamois leather, and a final polishing may be
given with a tuft of tissue paper.
BLACK FOR COATING INSIDE OF CAMERAS, DARK-
SLIDES, ETC.
The following is a useful black mixture for
coating the inside of cameras, or dark-slides, lens
mounts, parts of shutters, etc., or any portion of
photographic apparatus which requires a dead-
black surface : Take I oz. of gold size and i oz.
of lamp black, and grind or rub these together
thoroughly. Then add y2 oz. of methylated spirit
and 8 oz. of turpentine. It may be applied with
a fine piece of sponge or a soft brush.
TO HARDEN FILM DURING DEVELOPMENT IN HOT
CLIMATES.
Sulphate of magnesium i oz.
Water i oz.
Add y2 oz. to each 16 oz. of developer.
TEN PER CENT SOLUTIONS.
Strictly speaking, a 10 per cent solution is a
solution which consists of a liquid having some
substance dissolved therein, and of each part, by
weight, of the liquid, one-tenth is represented by
the weight of dissolved cubstance contained in
that part. For photographic purposes, however,
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 269
a 10 per cent solution is taken to indicate that in
a fluid ounce of 480 minims there should be 48
grains of the dissolved substance. To make a 10
per cent solution of, say, pyro, take I oz. of this
substance and add water to make up not ten fluid
ounces, but nine fluid ounces, 55 minims. The
advantage of such a solution is that a required
weight of pyro can readily be measured out with-
out weighing, for if 15 grains are required, then
150 minims of the solution will contain the de-
sired amount, and may quickly be poured out ex-
actly and without trouble.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Apothecaries' Weight.
SOLID MEASURE.
20 Grains - i Scruple = 20 Grains
3 Scruples == i Drachm = 60 Grains
8 Drachms = - i Ounce 480 Grains
12 Ounces = i Pound 5,760 Grains
FLUID.
60 Minims i Fluid Drachm
8 Drachms i Ounce
16 Ounces i Pint
8 Pints i Gallon
The above weights are those usually adopted
in formulas.
All chemicals are usually sold by avoirdupois
weight, in which there are 437J/ grains to the
ounce.
The precious metals, such as silver and gold,
are sold by troy weight, containing 480 grains
to the ounce.
In changing a formula from the metric system
270 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
to the apothecaries' system, the following- equiva-
lents are near enough for all practical purposes.
30 Grammes i Solid Ounce
30 Cubic Centimeters I Fluid Ounce
I Gramme 15 Grains
In an emergency coins can be used as weights.
The weights given in the following table are near
enough for all ordinary purposes.
Dime 40 Grains
Cent 50 Grains
Nickel 80 Grains
l/4 Dollar 100 Grains
y2 Dollar 200 Grains
I Dollar 400 Grains
By simple addition and subtraction a great
many different weights can be made with these
coins. For instance, to obtain a weight of ten
grains, place a cent on one side of the scales and
a dime on the other and then add enough of the
chemical to balance it.
Avoirdupois Weight.
27 11-32 grains equal i drachm.
1 6 drachms (i ounce) equal 437^ grains.
1 6 ounces (i pound) equal 7,000 grains.
CHAPTER XXV.
HELPFUL HINTS.
Don't use a hypo tray for anything but hypo.
Look on the ground glass, not through it.
Keep films, plates and paper in a cool, dry
place.
Label chemical bottles and keep them well
corked.
Always dust out plate holders and dust plates
well before loading. A speck of dirt will leave a
transparent spot which will in turn leave a black-
spot on the print.
Film cartridges are dirt as well as light proof
and so the film requires no dusting. Dust will,
however, sometimes settle on the sections of film
in the focal plane inside the camera if a long time
elapses between winding the film into position
and making the exposure. A famous lecturer
and photographer overcomes this difficulty when
cycling over very dusty roads by not turning the
key until he sees a picture that he wants to take.
Dust on the film or plate after exposure does
little harm, as it cuts off no light.
When in doubt, overexpose. It is easier to
restrain than to force development.
Do not develop in warm water, as it is likely
to cause frilling. The developer should be about
60 degrees Fahr.
A saturated solution is one in which the liquid
has taken up all of the solid which it can.
Keep dry plates in a dry, cool place.
Pyro stains on the fingers can be removed by
271
2J2
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
washing- in a strong solution of chloride of lime
and then in a dilute solution of citric acid.
A weak solution of perchloride of iron will re-
move yellow stains from negatives.
Old and dirty hypo solution will stain the film.
Do not use it.
Do not dry negatives in a room having a close
atmosphere, but give them a little draught.
Drain the hypo from the plate before washing.
It sometimes causes softening of the film.
If unable to locate cause of your failure do not
condemn plate, but write the manufacturers full
particulars.
TABLE OF COMPARATIVE EXPOSURE.
Hour*
\. M?
>f Day.
"pTnT
§
3
*»
II
T -l
A?
ll
IS
41
i
1
11
i
1
T
"T
2
2i
f .
4
5
10
2
1
11
ii
3
5
6
9
3
1
i
11
2
4
*12
*16
8
4
1)
}2
9"
3
*10
7
5
2
I
3
*6
6
6
21
*3
*6
7
*5
*6
4
8
*12
Example. — If it is necessary to give l/2 second
exposure in June, 12 m., under like conditions in
December, 12 m., it will require 2 seconds ex-
posure.
In the use of a color screen no rule can be
given. The color and depth of color are impor-
tant factors in governing the amount of increase
in exposure. A very dark screen is not to be rec-
ommended, for, besides unduly prolonging the
exposure, it may also give an exaggerated ortha-
*The accuracy of these figures would be affected by yel-
low sunset.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 273
chromatic effect ; for instance, in a landscape it
will tend to destroy the perspective and make
the clouds too promin.ent.
Developing Light. — One thickness of ruby
glass and one of orange glass, with the addition
of one light of ground glass make an excellent
developing light.
To Test Developing Light. — Put a plate in the
plate holder in perfect darkness ; then place the
holder where you generally develop, draw the
slide half across the plate and expose to the de-
veloping light as long as it generally takes to de-
velop a negative ; then develop the plate in per-
fect darkness the usual time, wash and fix. If
any difference is then found between the exposed
and unexposed part of the plate, it is proof that
the light is not safe for very sensitive plates.
Speed of Plates. — The sensitometer number on
each box of plates indicates the rapidity of the
same. The higher the number, the quicker the
plate. The difference between one number and
the other of the same brand is 25 per cent. So. if
one number requires two seconds, the next one
higher would require 1^2 seconds, arid so with
each successive number.
Plates — To Dry Quickly. — If it is desired to
dry a negative with especial quickness after it
has been developed and fixed, the following plan
may be adopted : First thoroughly wash the
negative and then drain off as much of the water
as possible. Next immerse it in a bath of pure
methylated spirits or alcohol for about five min-
utes. Then take it out, drain off the alcohol and
stand the negative up on end to dry. Drying will
be completed in from five to ten minutes, accord-
ing to the strength of the spirit.
274 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
The warmer the air in which negatives are
dried, the more intense they become.
Dark Room. — If you spill hypo or any similar
substance in your dark room, don't leave it to
dry up ; wipe it up with a cloth at once, otherwise
it will evaporate, leaving fine crystals, which will
float about as dust and be sure to spoil something
or other and you will look in vain for the cause.
To Clean a Lens. — First spread upon a table a
clean sheet of paper, take the lens carefully apart,
now dust with camel hair brush each lens on both
sides ; then take a clean graduate, pour in two
ounces of distilled water, one ounce of alcohol
and three drops of nitric acid (C. P.) ; mix well
and with a tuft of filtering cotton dipped in this
solution rub the lens on both sides, polish with
a clean chamois, which is kept for this purpose
only, which, when not in use, put away in a clean
paper bag. After the lenses are all polished, be-
fore putting together, wipe out carefully the
brass tube, then dust each lens with camel hair
brush (never blow on them) and put together. A
lens cleaned in this way will keep clean much
longer than it would if simply wiped with a
chamois.
Cleaning Bottles. — Wash with benzine or with
a solution of permanganate of potash, to which
has been added some concentrated hydrochloric
acid. The disengaged chlorine destroys the fatty
matter, which then disappears by washing in
water. Bottles that have contained resinous sub-
stances : Wash with potash or soda and rinse
with alcohol. Bottles having contained essences :
Wash with sulphuric acid, then with water. —
Wilson's Photo Magazine.
Ruby Glass — A Substitute For. — If the ama-
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 275
teur requires a large piece of ruby glass or has
the misfortune to break his ruby lamp, the fol-
lowing hint may prove useful : Procure two
sheets of ruby tissue paper and stick one on top
of the other by means of a coating of varnish, so
as to form a double thickness. If a very deep
ruby is required, add an extra sheet in the same
way, or, better still, a sheet of orange paper.
Focusing Screen — Substitute For. — If you
have the misfortune to break your focusing
screen, an efficient substitute may be made in
the following way: Obtain a piece of thin, clear
glass, of exactly the size of the original screen.
Then take some negative varnish, dilute consid-
erably with methylated spirit and varnish the
glass in a manner precisely similar to that of
varnishing a negative. The glass should then
be allowed to cool, and when the varnish has suf-
ficiently hardened, the latter should be rubbed
gently with the finger until it loosens in the form
of a whitish powder. When this treatment has
been applied all over the powder should be care-
fully brushed away and the screen is complete.
Cracked Negatives— To Print From.— If the
reader be unfortunate enough to crack a valua-
ble negative, he may still obtain a satisfactory
print therefrom, provided the film remains unin-
jured. The negative should be carefully placed
in the printing frame in the usual way and the
latter should be covered over with tissue paper
or ground glass, so as to diffuse the light as
much as possible. The frame should also be con-
tinually rotated during printing. If these pre-
cautions are taken, the crack in the glass will
practically have no effect on the resultant print.
Spoiled Negatives — To Remove Film From. —
276 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
The reader may sometimes require a piece of
clean glass, and such is readily obtainable by
stripping the film from a spoiled negative. To do
this, immerse it in a weak solution of hydro-flu-
oric acid and before long the film will leave the
glass. If the acid solution is not available at the
moment, put the negative, film side up, under the
hot water tap. In a few minutes it will be in such
a condition as to require but little trouble to re-
move it.
Stoppers — To Remove When Tight. — In the
case of bottles with glass stoppers, trouble may
sometimes arise through the stopper sticking and
refusing to come out when wanted. Prevention
is better than cure, and the way to prevent such
an occurrence is to wipe just a suspicion of vase-
line round the part of the stopper which enters
the bottle. "When, however, a stopper does stick,
the neck of the bottle should be heated evenly
all round, either by the friction of a piece of
string drawn rapidly backward and forward, one
turn being made round the neck, or by the direct
heat of a taper or match. This alone will not
loosen the stopper, but it causes the neck of the
bottle to slightly expand and the stopper can then
probably be worked loose with the finger and
thumb. In obstinate cases, a stick of wood witli
an oblong hole cut in it to fit the stopper should
be fixed thereon and a steady twisting strain ap-
plied.
HOW TO CONSTRUCT AN OPERATING
ROOM.
We consider the operating room the most im-
portant one, and the first to be considered by a
photographer who aims at all times to do the
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
277
best work. The room should not he less than
20x40 feet, if possible larger. The skylight should
be ground glass. It is astonishing what a beau-
tiful light this will give, especially by the use of
the movable screen, as shown in sketch. (See
Fig. 70.) The screen is made of cheese cloth.
Operating Room.
FIG. 70.
If troubled with too much sun, it is better to
shade the skylight on the outside thai* on the in-
side: it keeps the room cooler in summer. Ven-
tilators may be placed at the highest points on
each side of the skylight. The most satisfactory
light, as everyone knows, is from the north, and
much should be sacrificed to obtain this. Keep
278 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
the light clean, as thereby more uniformly good
negatives can be produced. A very good plan is
to have a pipe run from the dark room to the roof
and right across the top of the skylight. Have a
line of holes to allow the water to shoot down
upon the glass, which cools the room at the same
time. This can be operated from the dark room.
In winter it would be necessary to have a drain
from the pipe.
General Instructions for Operating Folding
Hand Cameras. — The instructions given below
will have to be modified somewhat to suit the
peculiarities of the camera used, but as nearly all
folding cameras are of the same general con-
struction the necessary modifications will not be
material.
Hold camera in left hand. With thumb or
finger of right hand press concealed button on
top, which will release the bed. Lower to a
horizontal position until the side arms snap into
place, take the bulb and tube from its position
and place over the front of bed.
With the thumb and forefinger release the
small hook-shaped lever directly under shutter
by a slight turn from right to left. Gently pull
on same, drawing the bellows and front of
camera out upon the bed until the index on left
side of front indicates the desired distance, as
shown on focusing scale from your position to
the object to be photographed, which has previ-
ously been measured or estimated. All objects
100 feet or more away are in focus when index is
set on the loo-foot mark on scale.
Take the loaded plate holder from the carrying
case, insert it in back of camera in front of ground
glass. Gently move until it snaps into position.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 279
Withdraw the slide nearest the front of the
camera. Set the shutter as per instructions, com-
posing the view by aid of the view-finder, holding
the camera perfectly level. Press the bulb and
the exposure is made. Insert the slide in the
holder (placing the black side of handle nearest
the front of camera, which is an indication that
the plate in that side of the holder has been ex-
posed), inserting the slide perfectly even — not
one corner at a time. "Withdraw holder by using
the right hand, drawing slightly toward the rear,
reverse holcLr and proceed as before.
Having completed the exposures desired, with-
draw the plate holder from in front of the ground
glass, placing it in the space allotted to it in the
carrying case. Release the hook-shaped lever and
gently press the front back to position within the
camera box, tightening the lever by turning from
left to right. Place tubing around shutter, allow-
ing the bulb to rest on the opposite side from the
view-finder. Holding the camera with both
hands, gently press with both thumbs on the side
arms, which will release them and close the bed
to its original position.
Tn using the camera with a tripod, set up the
tripod, place the camera on top, inserting the tri-
pod screw in the socket of the camera, screwing
tight. Open camera as per instructions when
using by hand. Manipulate the legs of tripod
until the camera is level. Turn button in back
of camera, which will open panel, exposing the
ground glass to view. Set the shutter and turn
dial to letter T and press bulb once, thereby open-
ing shutter. Look upon the ground glass and
the view may be plainly seen. A focusing cloth
mav be used if desired, which will greatly aid in
280 MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
composing the view. With the right hand man-
ipulate the front of camera by drawing the bel-
lows forward and back until the correct focus is
obtained. When instrument is supplied with rack
and pinion, use same when focusing instead of
the lever. (Remove focusing cloth if one has been
used.) Close the panel in back of camera and
press bulb once to close shutter.
Turn the dial of shutter to the required posi-
tion for time, bulb or instantaneous exposure.
Set shutter and make the exposure. When all
exposures desired are made, close the camera as
previously instructed, unscrew it from tripod and
place in the carrying case.
The rising front is' used when as little fore-
ground as possible is desired. By turning the
milled head screw on the side of front and rais-
ing the bellows, together with lens and shutter,
the result is obtained and can be better under-
stood by raising and lowering the lens while ob-
serving the view on the ground glass.
Always readjust the rising front to the origi-
nal position before attempting to close the
camera.
The entire back, containing ground glass, may
be removed by pressing down on the small spring
at top of same and gently drawing the back from
the camera. This is used only when a roll holder
is being adjusted.
The Swing Back is used to assist in bringing
into focus nearby objects at the same time as
those at a distance, and to correct distortions.
Should it become necessary to tip the camera in
a downward position to get the views, swing top
of back out and bottom in. If camera is tipped
upward, reverse position of swing, the top in and
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 28 1
bottom out. The plate in consequence is nearly
perpendicular and the distortion is obviated. It
would also apply when back is reversed for up-
right pictures, the plate 'in a vertical position, for
photographing tall buildings, churches, etc., when
it becomes necessary to tip camera up, press top
of back in and bottom out. The side swing is
used when photographing parallel objects. For
illustration, when by the side of a long bridge,
when all cannot be brought into focus. By swing-
ing one side of the plate nearer the lens, the other
farther from the lens, the correct focus is ob-
tained. To operate, open the end door and press
the two concealed buttons at the rear, opening
the top of the camera. "\Yith one hand release
the swing and with the other hand grasp top of
the swing and move to the desired position.
The Horizontal Swing is manipulated by press-
ing the lower catch on bottom of camera
and with the other hand grasp the swing at the
bottom and move to desired position. Always
straighten the back or swings after using and be-
fore attempting to close the camera.
The Principal Object of the Tele-Photo, or
long-draw camera, is that objects at a distance
can be made nearly double in size in the picture.
This is accomplished by unscrewing the front
combination of the lens from the shutter, using
the back lens only. The use of the rack and
pinion and focusing on the ground glass will be
necessary.
A WORD TO PROFESSIONAL AND AMA-
TEUR PHOTOGRAPHERS.
The incomparable opportunities and advantages
offered by the great railway lines of the United
States to both professional and amateur photog-
raphers in the pursuit of interesting and imposing
subjects deserve, par excellence, their most earnest
and serious attention.
Anyone interested in the instructive and profita-
ble art and science of photography cannot fail to be
impressed with the kaleidoscopic variety and mar-
velous scenic effect of the subjects^vhich can be se-
cured, at a comparatively trifling expense»and with
the highest degree of comfort and convenience along
the lines of our great railway systems, . as > their
sumptuous trains are speeding on the wings of the
wind) over great stretches of matchless country.
First, over vast plains of green velvet sward ; then.,
skirting rugged mountains which bathe their feet in
limpid streams ; next the labyrinths of the canyon
echo the thunder of 'the iron horse ; then again it
shoots out of the zone of the cataract's roar ; now,
in quick succession, through glens and dales it
flies, past placid lakes, and onward, plunging into
dense forests, hung with moss through which the
noon day sun never filters. Then the train mingles
its rumble with the hum swelling from the giant
structures of industry, as it rushes by village and
town and into the heart of great cities.
A knowledge of his own country's inexhaustible
resources cannot be too powerfully urged upon the
283 MODERN PHOTOGRAPH V.
amateur photographer, who actuated by the love of
his art, is searching for magnificent subjects, be
they for stcrcopticon t\.'ork, lantern slides or adver-
tising purposes; and it is along the lines of our
great railways that these subjects can be had with
a facility which is a source of perpetual wonder and
amazement to those, even, whose lives are spent
in constant travel and change of scene. With an
earnest conviction that a lasting benefit will be con-
ferred upon the amateur photographers who have
not yet sought this most fertile of all fields for the
successful pursuit of their art, the author has repro-
duced in this work a number of photographs taken
by enthusiastic and successful amateurs along the
lines with which the following gentlemen arc offi-
cially connected, and through whose gracious cour-
tesy he has been permitted to present the views:
Mr. W. B. Kniskern, C. & X. W. R. R. ; Mr. F.
A. Miller, G. P. A., C. M. & St. P. R. R. ; Mr. \V.
H. Simpson. Adv. Agent, A. T. & S. F. R. R. ; Mr.
Frank J. Reed, G. P. A., Monon Route; Mr. George
A. Cullen, G. W. P. A., Lackawanna Line ; Mr. A.
H. Hanson, G. P. A., Illinois Central R. R. ; Mr.
George J. Charlton, G. P. A., C. & A. R. R. ; Mr.
O. W. Ruggles, G. P. A.. Michigan Central R. R. ;
Mr. M. L. Robbins, G. P. A., Southern Pacific R. R.
Manifestly, then, from a careful study of these
photographs as represented in this work, it will read-
ily be perceived that it is the amateur who devotes
his leisure time to travel who is most favored with
both opportunity and success. Xot only are the
scenes which we reproduce in this work happily se-
lected, but they are beautiful in detail and execution,
portraying with wonderful fidelity a few of the
myriad transformation scenes in landscape, water,
industrial progress and the types of human and ani-
mal life, with which our great land abounds in such
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 284
generous profusion. Notably among this splendid
group of amateur photographs, which the author has
introduced into this work with an abiding confidence
that their excellence and high order of merit will
engender in his readers a desire to travel and stim-
ulate and encourage ambition in all young aspirants
to excel in this beautiful art, is a series of Indian pic-
tures which we owe to the skill of Mr. W. II. Simp-
son, of the A. T. & S. F. R. R.. who secured the
subjects during a summer outing with his family
over that line.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES
THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
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