PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE
OF
AMERICAN CITIES
1935
AMERICAN SOCIETY
OF PLANNING OFFICIALS
Plans and Planting
L Committee
S Community Arts Association
From the collection of the
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TD V m
Jrrejinger
v JLjibrary
San Francisco, California
2006
PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE
OF AMERICAN CITIES
Proceedings of
THE JOINT CONFERENCE ON CITY,
REGIONAL, STATE AND NATIONAL PLANNING
May 20, 21 and 22, 1935
Cincinnati, Ohio
American City Planning institute
American Civic Association
American Society of Planning Officials
National Conference on City Planning
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF PLANNING OFFICIALS
850 East Fifty-Eighth Street Chicago, Illinois
PREFACE
The first joint conference of all organisations interested in the plan'
ning of our Cities, States, Regions, and the Nation was held in the
City of Cincinnati during May of 1935. Participating were the Ameri'
can City Planning Institute, the American Society of Planning Offi-
cials, the American Civic Association, and the National Conference
on City Planning. As a result of action taken at the Conference, the
last two organisations have since merged.
The desire and intent of the organisers of the American Society
of Planning Officials to cooperate with other planning organisations
in the interest of better planning were written into the records of the
organisation meeting in the following words: "It was the consensus
of the meeting that the planning officials present recognised the im-
portance to the planning movement of citisen support for, and pub-
lic education concerning planning; and that the activities of the
organisation of officials should be directed so as not to impede the
work of groups such as the National Conference on City Planning,
and the American Civic Association. It was suggested that the organ-
isation of officials might well hold its annual meeting jointly with
these other groups."
The National Conference on City Planning has published the pro-
ceedings of the annual planning conferences since 1911. These pub-
lications provide a record of planning thought in this country during
the past twenty-five years, and trace the advances in planning tech-
niques during that period. Requests have come from many of our
members that we continue the record of proceedings. Our book is
uniform in sise and similar in format to preceding issues of the
Conference proceedings.
A number of the outstanding papers of this Conference were dis-
tributed to its members in mimeographed form by the American
Society of Planning Officials the week following the Conference.
These published proceedings are therefore being issued to continue
the permanent "record."
Due to the lateness of this form of publication, the Editing Com-
mittee has not returned the comments of the speakers for revision.
The Committee hopes that any errors will be overlooked and merely
offers as a possible explanation the fact that the record was notable
for its omissions.
WALTER H. BLUCHER
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
Introduction 1
Population and Industrial Trends, L. Segoe 2
Discussion 13
Faulty Urban Land Policies, Philip H. Cornick 15
Discussion 23
Economic and Social Factors in City Planning, William
Haber 25
Discussion 32
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
Introduction 36
The Urban and Rural Land-Use Survey, A. R. Mann 37
Discussion 44
Geography and Its Function in Regional Planning, G. Don-
ald Hudson 45
Discussion 49
The Making of the Plan, Russell V. Black 50
Discussion 55
The Functioning of the Plan: Public Works and Uses, C. A.
Dykstra 57
The Functioning of the Plan: Subdivision Control, Earl O.
Mills 60
A Zoning Primer, Joseph T. Woodruff 66
Discussion 68
REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT: A CO-
OPERATIVE ENTERPRISE
Introduction 73
The Share of the Planner and the Lawyer, Walter H.
Blucher 74
Discussion 78
The Share of the Sociologist, Edwin S. Burdell 79
Discussion 89
The Share of the Realtor, Herbert U. Nelson 90
Discussion 94
The Share of the City Administrator, Ernest J. Bohn 95
Discussion . .. 97
TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued
STATE PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNITIES
What Planning Can Contribute to the Governmental Reor-
ganization of Urban Areas, Charles E. Merriam 101
State Planning and Leagues of Municipalities, Morton L.
Wallerstein 104
New Approaches to Urban Planning, Charles W. Eliot, 2d.. 110
Discussion 113
FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN PLANNING
Introduction 116
Federal Assistance to Local Planning Projects, Robert H.
Randall 117
Discussion 1 19
Building Houses and Building Cities, Jacob L. Crane, Jr 121
Discussion 123
An Urban Bureau in The Federal Government, John E.
Willmott 125
Discussion 130
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
The Planning Commission: Its Functions and Method, Al-
fred Bettman 131
An Educational Program for Planning, Marshall N. Dana.... 139
The Place of Planning in Municipal Administration, H. B.
Steeg 146
The Place of Planning in State Administration, William E.
O^Brien 149
The Place of Planning in Public Administration, Charles
B. Whitnall 156
CLOSING DINNER SESSION
State Planning, Paul V. McNutt 165
Discussion 171
Government and Housing, Harold L. Ickes 172
National Planning in Practice, Charles E. Merriam 180
RESOLUTIONS OF THE CONFERENCE 185
INDEX . - 188
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
CHAIRMAN'S INTRODUCTION
MR. ALFRED BETTMAN, Cincinnati, Ohio, Chairman of the Confer-
ence: Planning for the urban area has, until recently, been neglected
due to the emphasis laid upon state and national planning activities.
It has been through our state, regional, and national planning however,
that we have come to the realization that the problem of the urban
area is not a separate problem from that of the non-urban area of
whatever size or character. For this reason the central topic of this
Conference is : the urban area — with its allied aspects of decline, pro-
tection, rehabilitation, population distribution, and State and Federal
cooperation in its planning.
One of the most important factors in the consideration of the pos-
sible decay of the American city is the present trend in industry and
population and its effect upon our social and economic policies. Mr.
Segoe, who was for many years engineer for the City Planning Com-
mission of Cincinnati and who is now consultant to the Ohio State
Planning Board and the Tennessee Valley Authority, will open the
discussion on urban decline.
POPULATION AND INDUSTRIAL TRENDS
L. SEGOE, Planning Consultant, Cincinnati, Ohio
In a series of discussions of "The Future American Cities," if this
be lifted out of the realm of pure speculation, the factors which will
likely exert major influence on the future of our cities must first be
recognized and any probable changes in these factors appraised. This
accomplished one might cautiously proceed to evaluate the probable
effects of anticipated changes in such basic factors on the future of
our cities and, from them, to the formulation of policies and processes
best suited to prepare them for the effects of such changes.
Population and its distribution, both in quantitative and qualitative
aspects, and the relationship between population and national re'
sources, on the one hand, and the physical environmental pattern, on
the other hand, are ultimate factors determining national and com-
munity life. City, regional, state and national planning to be dis-
cussed during this Conference have the common basic objective of
furthering and achieving better balance and adjustment between these
determining factors — the population and the environmental pattern —
as a means to greater and more enduring social welfare.
Therefore, population trends, and, in our highly developed indus-
trial society, the related trends in the growth and distribution of
manufacturing industries, are factors of controlling importance in
planning for the future of our cities and Nation.
This paper is limited to the discussion of these factors and to the
first two or three suggested phases of the inquiry, namely, the tracing
of the trends in these factors and the sketching of some of the prob'
able effects of such trends on our cities, leaving to the other speakers
the discussion of ways in which planning can contribute to the solu-
tion of the present day problems and to the shaping of a better future
for our communities.
Population Trends
(A) Population Growth and Distribution
The most competent authorities on population problems generally
agree that there is to be a very pronounced slowing up in the growth
of the population of the United States; that the maximum is likely
to be reached within the next 30 to 40 years; and that this maximum
will probably fall between 140 and 145 millions. Such growth would
represent at the most an increase of 17 per cent in the next 30 years,
in contrast with 61.5 per cent between 1900 and 1930.
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 3
The urban population, of principal interest in this discussion,
showed phenomenal increase during the last few decades. From a
little over 30 millions in 1900 it increased by 1930 to over 68 mil-
lions. The increase during the last census decade in the urban popu-
lation amounted to 14,600,000 in contrast with an increase of only
2,400,000 in the rural population. It has been estimated that the
urban population may reach 75 millions by about 1960 and may
decline thereafter to about 67 millions by 1980, less by about a mil-
lion than in 1930. The significant implications of these prognostica-
tions are that in contrast with an increase of 108.5 per cent in urban
population during the past 30 years, only an 8.4 per cent increase is
expected in the next 30 years; and that a greater decline is indicated
for the 20 years following 1960 than the expected increase during
the preceding 30 years.
The generally unfamiliar sound of declining urban population may
be made more credible, although perhaps no less surprising or un-
pleasant to some people, by noting that during the last census decade
one-eighth of all cities between 10,000 and 250,000 and one-fifth of
those smaller than 10,000 (a total of 532 cities) have actually lost
population; that in many of our cities the birth rate is inadequate to
maintain the present population; that the flow of population from
farm to city, whether temporary or not, has been reversed probably
already in 1930, so that in contrast with an average annual gain for
the cities from the farm-city inter-change of nearly two million be-
tween 1920 and 1930, in 1931 the cities lost about 200,000 and in
1932 about 500,000 population to the farms.
The relative growth of communities of various sues and types re-
flects rather closely the general dynamics of urban growth in recent
decades; from rural to urban areas and, within urban regions, from
central cities to suburban areas and satellite communities. Taken as a
group, the population of the latter type of cities increased between
1920 and 1930 by 36.2 per cent, while that of the non-satellite cities
only by 19.4 per cent.
It is of interest to note that there appears to exist a fairly close
inverse relation between the size of the satellite cities and their rates
of growth — the smaller the city the higher the rate of increase. For
non-satellite cities, on the other hand, size and growth tend to be in
direct relation up to 25,000; after this size the relation is inverse.
Considering size alone, cities under 100,000 have maintained since
1880, with the exception of the 1890 to 1900 decade, a consistently
higher rate of increase than the cities over 100,000. Except for the
group of cities of one million population or over, which between
4 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
1890 and 1930 increased its proportion of the total urban population
by 6.5 per cent (from 5.8 per cent to 12.3 per cent), the 25,000 to
100,000 group increased its proportion the most, during this period,
by 3.7 per cent (from 6.8 per cent to 10.5 per cent). Furthermore
the gain of the one million and over group would have been much
lower had it not been for Los Angeles and Detroit entering this group
during this period. However, it is the group of cities between 25,000
and 50,000 that showed the largest consistent rate of increase since
1910, indicating that communities of medium size contained in this
group benefited relatively most in point of growth by the industrial
expansion during and since the War. The second largest rate of
consistent gain during the past two census decades was for cities of
15,000 and under which, even more so than the first group, contain a
very large number of satellite communities, obviously another mani'
festation of the decentralization of population and manufactures in
metropolitan regions.
The cities under 100,000 are expected to continue to increase at a
somewhat faster rate than the larger cities. The rate of increase of
the former group has been estimated at 9.2 per cent in the next 30
years as against 5.3 per cent in the group over 100,000 population.
It is the remarkable growth of the satellite communities and subur-
ban areas rather than that of the large cities themselves that is the
most striking phenomenon in the growth of urban communities dur-
ing the past census decade. Of the metropolitan districts of one mil-
lion population or over, the suburban areas within the Metropolitan
District of Detroit increased in population twice as fast as in Detroit;
similarly in the San Francisco- Oakland District; three times as fast in
the Chicago and Pittsburgh District and in the New York-N. E. New
Jersey District; six times as fast in the Philadelphia District; more
than ten times as fast around St. Louis; and nearly eleven times as
fast in the Cleveland District. All metropolitan districts of 300,000
population or more, with the exception of Louisville, showed a larger
rate of increase in the suburban areas than in the central city. In all
85 Metropolitan Districts under one million population, as a class,
the rate of increase in the suburban areas was almost exactly twice
that of the central cities.
Today the metropolitan district is drawing its population not only
from the rural areas but also from other cities, as evidenced by the
increasing number of cities losing population: 532 in 1930 compared
with 393 during the preceding decade. Within the metropolitan
district decentralization is proceeding at a phenomenal rate and, thus
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 5
far at least, there are few evidences of the slackening or reversal of
this trend.
Briefly then: "In the nation at large it is the urban trend; in the
urban population itself it is a metropolitan district trend; in the
metropolitan district it is the suburban trend. Perhaps then instead
of characterizing our national tendency as urban we should say
suburban." 1
(B) Age Composition
Equally significant are the expected changes in the age composi-
tion of the population. The anticipated radical slowing up of the
growth of the total population being due in the most part to the
alarmingly rapid decline in the birth rate (13 per cent between 1900
and 1920, and 23 per cent during the last census decade) and to
immigration restrictions, the latter having a double effect on popula-
tion growth because of its influence on the birth rate, it is only
natural that with fewer children born and with the continuous in-
crease of life expectancy, the population should be rapidly growing
older. It has been estimated, for example, that the number of per-
sons under 20 years of age may be 13 per cent less 50 years hence
than it was in 1930, and, on the other hand, that persons 45 years
old or older will probably constitute nearly 38 per cent of the total
population in 1980, as against 23 per cent in 1930.
Granting that all population prognostications are no more than
careful calculations based on specific assumptions concerning trends
in the birth rate, immigration and life expectancy and certain sec-
ondary factors, and subject to revision with any changes in such
trends, nevertheless the best evidence available appears to support
such and even more conservative population prognostications as were
used, largely for the sake of illustration, in this discussion. There is
no reason to believe that the birth rate will suddenly cease to decline
after it has been doing so since 1800, by almost one-third since 1900,
and already in the last four years more than assumed for the next
50 years by the more optimistic prognosticators; nor is there any
reason to believe that the doors will again be thrown open to unre-
stricted immigration or even that the present immigration regulations
are likely to be substantially liberalized.
Therefore, whatever margin of error population prognostications
are subject to, it is certain that, in comparison with the unprece-
dented growth of the past 30 years, in the next 30 years the Nation
1 W. Ruesel Tylor, in the "Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics" February, 1933.
6 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
as a whole and the cities also will appear to be standing still in point
of growth. A stationary or even a declining population within the
next 30 to 50 years does not appear to be improbable, and the rapid
change in the age composition of population towards the dominance
of the older age groups is almost sure to occur.
An appraisal of the probable effects on our cities of these changes
in the trends of population growth, distribution and age composition,
which should influence our policies with regard to the planning for
their physical and social future, will now be attempted.
(1) The basic reason for the great rise in real estate values in our cities
during the last few decades has been the very rapid increase of their
population. A substantially slower city growth, not to mention a sta'
tionary or declining population, may be expected to have pronounced
effects on these values. Whatever the modifying influence of purchas'
ing power on real estate values in different communities of approxi'
mately the same population, on the whole and especially for certain
types of properties, real estate values unquestionably are a function
of population.
The effects of slower growth are likely to be less pronounced on resi'
dential properties, firstly, because the values of such properties are
relatively stable, and, secondly, because the number of families will
probably increase faster than population and may continue to increase
even in a stationary population due to the dwindling size of families
(4.7 persons per family in 1900 and 4.1 persons in 1930). Industrial
properties, the value of which tend to increase in direct proportion
with the population, should for this and other reasons be more
seriously affected. Business properties, particularly properties in the
central business districts, arc the ones, however, that will probably
feel most severely the effects of the declining rate of urban growth.
In an increasing population, land values, especially of business and
industrial properties, are rising as a result of both population growth
and increased purchasing power. In a stationary population, the rise
of land values in general will be dependent on the increase of living
standards and purchasing power.
As a result of these probable effects on real estate values the following
changes may be anticipated:
(a) A new attitude towards real estate as a long-time investment or
an acquisition for immediate use, instead of an article of specu'
lation.
(b) A system of real estate taxation based on income rather than
assessed valuation, and the increased dependence of the com'
munity on sources of taxation other than real estate.
(c) Slowing up or stoppage of vertical expansion in central business
districts.
(d) Improvement in the standard of new developments, as quality
will become increasingly more important for attracting purchasing
power.
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 7
(e) Possibilities of a permanent open belt around the city devoted
to uses of extremely open type in public or private ownership.
(f) An intelligent attack on the rehabilitation of blighted areas may
become possible with the liquidation of inflated values through a
rapidly diminishing demand and increasingly severe competition.
Rehabilitation based on functional fitness may supplant the pre-
vailing confusion with respect to slum clearance and low-cost
housing.
(g) Higher standards of living (reasonable to anticipate in a slow
growing or stationary population) should increase the demand
for higher quality of land and neighborhood. Over-crowded,
badly laid out, unattractive sections will depreciate; spacious,
well'planned developments with attractive outlook and natural
beauty will be increasingly in demand and should appreciate
in value.
(2) Much of the land held for commercial and industrial expansion will
not be needed for these purposes. Because of the concentration of
population, as a result of the increasing number of older people and
smaller families, to a lesser extent the same may be expected in resi'
dential areas. The problem now faced in the blighted districts will
thus arise in other parts of the community — namely, what is the best
and most appropriate use to be made of such districts.
(3) The demand for detached single family homes is likely to decrease
and that for apartments increase, due to changes in age composition
and to smaller families.
(4) Greater physical and social stability of neighborhoods may result from
the lack of replacements at the bottom and through increasing public
control.
(?) On the whole, the demand for extending public facilities and conse-
quently the expenditures therefor, may be expected to decrease. Fewer
new school buildings, fewer institutions for the care of children may
be needed, there should be less demand for additions to the water-
works and utility main extensions; on the other hand, more institu'
tions for old people, and of the cultural-recreational type, more parks,
libraries, museums, art galleries will be required.
(6) In a more compact and more stable community the cost of public
services ought to be lower.
(7) The declining number of births should allow better provision for
maternity and infant welfare.
(8) Opportunity for extended education and vocational guidance should
increase. •
(9) Old age pensions will likely be provided with more pressing need due
to fewer children to depend upon, and with older people in control
of social and economic policies.
(10) The present tendency in industry to reduce continually the age limit
of workers it employs will have to be modified. Unfortunately, this
cannot be expected to relieve the problem of the industrial unemploy
ables because of the rapidly aging population.
8 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
(11) Contingent on increasing economic security through social insurance,
greater expenditures for consumption goods and personal services,
especially of the cultural-recreational type, appear to be likely, due
to the change in the age composition, a higher standard of living and
lower expenditures for capital equipment.
(12) Growing conservatism in political and social policies would appear
natural with the aging of the population.
(13) Increased interest in cultural and civic affairs is probable in a society
of more mature people, as well as the focusing of attention on the
quality of life in the community instead of opportunities for material
gain or mere size.
Industrial Trends2
Trends in the growth and distribution of manufacturing industries
are, of course, intimately inter- related with population trends. Each
exerts a potent influence on the other, although in recent years the
influence of manufactures grew progressively stronger. This is re'
fleeted by the increasing similarity between the population pattern
and the distribution of manufactures. The manufacturing industries
followed the migration of population westward from the Atlantic
coast states at an accelerated rate, as they freed themselves of the
limitations of factors controlling industrial location.
Measured by the movement of the "center of gravity" of manu-
factures, in 70 years, from 1849 to 1919, manufactures worked west-
ward about 330 miles along the fortieth parallel of latitude, deviat-
ing but slightly north and south. The center of population during the
same period moved in the same direction but 290 miles. In 1849
the population center was situated about 203 miles to the west and
118 miles to the south of the center of manufactures; by 1919 the
center of population was only 163 miles to the west and only 90
miles to the south. The increasing rate at which the center of manu-
factures is approaching the center of population, due to the rapid
industrial development of the western and southern states, is shown
by the shift of 72 miles westward during the first 20 years of the
century of the former compared with only about 49 miles of the
latter. The center of manufactures for 1929, when computed, will
undoubtedly show a still more rapid approach. In brief, while the
population center has held consistently at a considerable distance west
and south of the center of manufactures, the distance between the
two is rapidly decreasing — a perfectly natural occurrence with 61
per cent of all persons gainfully employed in production reported
by the manufacturing and mechanical industries.
2 Reference is made to "Location of Manufactures, 1899' 1929" by U. S. Bureau of the
Census, which was used freely in developing this phase of the inquiry.
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 9
With respect to the distribution of manufactures and its trend, in
spite of the growth of industry in the South and West, only the East
North Central Division has been able to challenge seriously the in-
dustrial supremacy of the manufacturing East, composed of the New
England and Middle Atlantic states. These three divisions reported
75 per cent of all factory wage jobs at the beginning of the century
and over 70 per cent 30 years later. Within these divisions, as else-
where, manufacturing is concentrated in the relatively small number
of industrial regions.
The ten industrial regions containing the ten largest cities, with
one-quarter of the Nation's population, accounted in 1929 for more
than one-third of all wage jobs in the manufacturing industry.
The 93 cities of 100,000 population or more, including the coun-
ties in which these cities are located, plus 47 other counties belonging
in what the Bureau of Census defines as "industrial areas," reported
in 1929 nearly 65 per cent of all manufacturing wage jobs. The re-
mainder of the country contained only a little over 35 per cent of
such wage jobs.
A recent study by the Bureau of the Census analyzes in some detail
the trends of industrial distribution in the industrial regions contain-
ing the ten most populous cities. These ten cities fell far short dur-
ing the 30 years, from 1899 to 1929, of keeping step with the increase
of manufactures in the country as a whole (68.4 per cent as against
87.5 per cent), although their population increased far more rapidly
(118.4 per cent as compared with 61.6 per cent). The percentage of
the total wage jobs located within these ten cities remained practi-
cally stationary (62.2 in 1899 and 62.3 in 1929), while their pro-
portions of population increased from 22 per cent to 30 per cent.
The proportion of wage jobs in the group of ten smaller cities, of
100,000 and over, located within the areas dominated by the ten most
populous cities, declined severely (from 9.2 to 7.7 per cent). The
regions within the ten industrial areas outside of these 20 cities, on
the other hand, increased their proportion of industrial development
(from 28.6 per cent to 30 per cent), although at a much slower rate
than the growth of manufactures in the country at large (77 per cent
against 87.5 per cent).
Taking all 93 cities of 100,000 or over, these approximately held
their own, having lost but slightly in their share of manufactures dur-
ing the 30 years (from 44.6 to 43.8 per cent). However, the 73 of
this group of cities not within the industrial regions dominated by
the ten largest cities substantially increased their proportionate share
(from 15.8 to 19.4 per cent), and show a relative increase in wage
10 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
jobs much greater than the country as a whole (118 per cent com'
pared with 87.5 per cent).
Briefly, there appears to be a definable trend toward manufacturing
dispersion of which the surroundings of the largest industrial centers
and medium size communities located away from such centers are
the main beneficiaries. Similar to population, the trend here appears
to be more suburban than urban.
From the standpoint of this discussion both the national trends
and the distribution within industrial regions are significant. These
are likely to be influenced by the same factors that controlled indus'
trial location in the past: raw materials, labor, fuel and power, mar-
kets, capital and transportation. All of these factors are tending to
have a progressively lessening influence, although markets and ma-
terials are yielding more slowly and transportation is almost as potent
as before the ending of the hegemony of the railroads.
It is commonly known that the railroad freight-rate structure, un-
duly favorable to the eastern seaboard cities, has perhaps more than
any other factor, made it possible for these cities to dominate the
industrial pattern up to the present. Only the special advantages with
respect to the other factors controlling industrial location enabled
the western and southern cities to overcome the artificial handicap
imposed by this rate structure. There is every reason to believe that
this obstacle to the wider distribution of manufacturing industries is
soon to be removed. We are on the threshold of a general reorgan-
ization of our transport system: the consolidation of like transporta-
tion agencies and the coordination of the several types, rail, water,
highway, air, etc., including a complete revision of rates (probably
on the basis of cost of service). Should this materialize, most signifi-
cant changes may follow in the location of manufacturing industries
in regard to national distribution as well as in the industrial regions.
The westward movement of manufactures is likely to become
greatly accelerated, for proximity to materials and especially to mar-
kets would then become the controlling economic factor. Decen-
tralization within industrial regions would likely be encouraged also.
Both of these results would tend to produce better balance in the
distribution of population and in community development with bene-
ficial effect on public services and facilities.
With greater freedom in the selection of locations to be gained by
industry through the reorganization of transportation and the wider
distribution of power, social considerations should have greater influ-
ence than heretofore on locating industrial plants. The type and
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 11
size of community in which the workers are to live should play a
more important part in making the selection.
The rehousing on a desirable standard of that part of the indus'
trial population now concentrated in the congested central areas of
our large cities, in our notorious slums, should be facilitated by the
wider distribution of manufacturing industries and their decentraliza-
tion within industrial regions.
Lessening of congestion of bulk freight movements in the central
areas would ensue directly from such decentralization. The removal
of the multitude of freight depots handling merchandise freight and
other railroad facilities from the congested central areas to outlying
freight concentration terminals would be encouraged and in turn
encouraging to such decentralization. Directly and indirectly these
changes may be assumed to bring substantial relief to congestion of
both rail and street facilities caused by the present methods of freight
handling in terminal areas. A better balanced and therefore more
effective use of passenger transit facilities and streets should also
result from a better balanced distribution of manufactures in the com-
munity or region.
Thus the decentralization of manufactures and the corollary re-
articulation of traffic holds out the promise of reducing the enormous
expenditures for street improvements which, during the past decade
or so, consumed the major share of the financial resources of our
larger communities.
The removal of manufacturing establishments, freight depots and
other railroad facilities from congested districts, should offer oppor-
tunities to the communities for providing public open spaces in these
districts (for recreation, for adequate setting of public buildings and
for improving their generally uninspiring appearance), for which
most communities neglected to make provision during the stress and
strain of early developments.
In view of the probability of such trends in the distribution of
manufactures there is obviously need for careful industrial planning
if we are to make the most of an opportunity for obtaining in our
cities a balanced and properly articulated industrial development.
The already manifest trend in the largest industrial regions to move
from the central city to outlying areas, directs attention to the need
for more effective control than practiced heretofore of industrial
locations in such districts, from the standpoint of physical and social
development, as well as tax revenues and economy of public admin-
istration.
12 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
Concluding this exploration, it is well to remember that, because
of the many uncertainties and the wide amplitude of deviations from
the general trend in recent years, it is very hazardous to make prog'
nostications just now. Nevertheless, the broad general trends are
clear enough — at least for the next two or three decades. After that,
entrance upon a new economic epoch may alter the outlook entirely
as did the Industrial Revolution a century or so ago. It is clear
enough also that, whatever gains may have ensued from the unprece-
dented rapid rate of our population growth, due to our failure to
direct this growth towards social objectives, there was no lack of
direction to other ends; a severely unbalanced distribution developed,
probably one of the principal causes in land planning, as in other
fields, of our problems.
Many of our cities have grown beyond their ability to assure decent
living conditions to their populations, because of the great concen-
tration of people on too small an area, with the attendant many
forms of congestion and the waste of material and human values
resulting therefrom. In many rural areas, on the other hand, the
population is too widely scattered to provide for itself a satisfactory
standard of public services and to make possible desirable social ex-
istence.
In the cities great population concentrations in the center are in
sharp contrast with the often unduly scattered settlements in the
outskirts; huge masses of buildings on a few properties of enormous
value with large deteriorating areas nearby for which nobody seems
to find use. Even in the slums the bad distribution of open spaces,
rather than the aggregate amount, is one of the principal causes of
undesirable living conditions.
If the city were a biological organism or if it were governed by
as yet largely unexplained integrating forces such as direct the archi-
tecture of and community life in the beehive or in the nests of ants
or termites, there would be no need for community planning. There
is no reason to be concerned about the over- development of the child's
lungs crowding out his heart, or that the beehive may become so
congested as not to leave adequate room for the proper raising of
the young. Unfortunately the urban community is a synthetic,
heterogeneous organism in which the forces of differentiation are
rampant, where the interests of individuals and groups predominate,
and where the integrating influences must be applied artificially.
Thence the need for community planning.
Yet planning alone will not be sufficient. Referring again to the
insect societies, pulled as we are by the mysterious operation of the
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 13
forces that control them, one common characteristic seems to stand
out which one cannot help associating with their remarkable success:
the subordination of individual and group interests to the welfare of
the hive or the swarm. Aside from the perfection of the art itself,
the success or failure of planning, it is believed, will depend largely
on how far we are willing to emulate these other societies in substi-
tuting in place of the immediate individual and group gain the sus-
tained welfare of the community and Nation, on which in the long
run, the well-being of all of us and that of future generations depends.
DISCUSSION
MR. ROBERT WRITTEN, New York: I heartily agree with most of the
statements that Mr. Segoe has made. Of course, at first I was somewhat im-
pressed with the thought that he was proposing that we were coming to a
rather stabilized situation in which it would be comparatively easy to plan
everything because we would know how many people we were to provide for
and how many of each age and so forth; and then as Mr. Segoe got into his
subject he showed very clearly that we were not coming into a stabilized condi-
tion, but into a really more dynamic condition in which changes may be even
more radical than they have been in the past.
We have been going along having these accretions of population and
thinking about how big the population is going to be in ten years, and now
it seems that we must go very carefully about the redistribution of this popula-
tion, the readjustments that are being made and are going to be made in-
creasingly in the future.
I did perhaps doubt a little the estimate that while there would be an in-
crease of some 17 per cent in the population of the United States as a whole,
there would be an increase of only eight per cent in the urban population.
That may be if we include in the rural population all the population that will
be outside of the urban communities of specified size, say 2,500; but if we
are thinking not of the urban population, or the population that is within the
boundaries of urban communities, but rather of the non-farm population, the
population that gains its livelihood really from urban occupations, I think that
estimate is probably false because from the long-term trend of things the very
nature of the industrial process itself requires fewer and fewer people to do
the productive labor of the country. This applies to farm as well as to in-
dustrial occupations, and if that is true it is almost inevitable that there will
be a continuing drift of man power away from the farms.
A good deal of this population will be located outside of urban areas along
the good roads within 10 or 15 miles of the city, but it will not be strictly
a farming population. There will be, and I think it is going to add a lot of
Eroblems to the development of our communities, this stringing out of popu-
ition along the main roads between the farms and residences. That at present
will probably be all right, but in the future will undoubtedly bring us problems
of scattered development and of shoestring areas without much cohesion.
In New York State only 5J/2 per cent of the population of the state in 1930
lived on farms and during the period 1900 to 1930 all but one-half of one
per cent of the increase in the population of the state could be accounted for
by the increase in the population of the seven metropolitan areas.
14 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
I agree with Mr. Segoe that the trend is suburban, that there is an increase
in die suburban or metropolitan areas and that die trend seems likely to con-
tinue. There probably will be declines in die population of die smaller cities
that are out of the boundaries of suburban areas, of metropolitan areas or
future metropolitan areas.
Mr. Segoe referred to die fact that an increased standard of living, increased
purchasing power, will have very vital effects upon die structure of the city,
upon land values in the city and upon other factors. With die higher standard
of living we wiU require a more specific development, and that higher standard
of living will in itself produce many changes in our city structure, and will
require readjustments, reorganizations all along the line.
I am not so sure about die statement that we may expect less emphasis on
vertical experiments in the submarginal business districts. With a higher
standard of living there wifl be the necessity, even with the same population,
I think, to produce more goods to support the population. There will be, as
there has been in the past few years especially, an increase in die service popu-
lations and clerical populations, in die population that is more or less housed
in die central business districts, and this may very well continue die urge for
vertical experiments.
The number of persons employed in die manufacturing industries is tending
to decline or limit strangely, and even in the period from 1900 to 1930 the
growth in cities from, say 30,000, as Mr. Segoe said, to 68,000, was caused
not by the increase in die number of persons employed in manufacturing in'
dustries, but by the increase in other occupations, the service trends, clerical
occupations and so forth.
FAULTY URBAN LAND POLICIES
•L
•f
*i Qty
A oty K die focal point of
the people who KI* in it. TV bud
into two M^hfrJ dasKS of mi
QK tWO CB9BES Of bOu, 2Du OF QIC
of tne aita^ staiidaids of bring,
Land More Than a
What function does land itself «rve m a city? The most
is to provide foundations for the wads of mam.
New Orleans is buOt CD sw;
deep. CVmffadrrabie parts of New York City,
appear that almost any part of the more than
square mil
Sbmes wffl save that purpose.
Does that mean ami a city may be budt anywhere? Apparently
15
16 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
defined by the Bureau of the Census, cover only about 1 5 acres out of
every ten thousand in our total area. Even if we include the sprawl-
ing satellites which surround these central cities, some with average
densities of less than one inhabitant for every four acres, we find
that our metropolitan districts, which house 44.6 per cent of our
population, cover only about 120 acres out of every ten thousand.
Is this concentration of population the result of chance, or was it
determined by the existence of characteristics which inhere in urban
sites?
Urban Sites Limited
A classification by location of the 96 metropolitan districts shows
that 23, with almost one-half the metropolitan population, are located
on seaports; 13 grew up along the route of the Erie Canal and on
the Great Lakes; 13 are distributed along the Mississippi River and
its navigable tributaries. The locations of this group of 49, with more
than three- fourths of the country's metropolitan population, and
more than one-third of its total population, were predetermined by
the topography of the continent, in combination with climate and
the distribution of natural resources. These factors, all beyond the
control of man, determined not only the natural trade routes along
which commerce would flow, but also the sites along these routes
where cities would develop. With few exceptions, those sites were
used as permanent or occasional trading posts one, two, or three
centuries ago. Since the flow of commerce through them began,
sailing vessels and canoes have been replaced by steamships; ox-carts,
pack animals, and stage coaches gave way first to horsedrawn canal
boats, and then to railways, motor vehicles, and airplanes; the stream
of commodities which consisted at first largely of furs in exchange
for trinkets, now includes all the varied products of farm, forest,
mine, and factory, drawn from all the continents. These changes
have not affected the unique advantages in the sites except to in-
tensify them.
We have an important group of metropolitan districts, 18 of which
are located on or near minerals; for example coal, iron, petroleum,
copper, gold, silver, and clay deposits. Some of these, such as in
Pittsburgh, have a history which antedates the development of large-
scale extractive industries on the continent. They had an earlier
existence as centers of commerce along established trade routes run-
ning from the Atlantic seaboard to the great interior valley. The
topographic features of this group of routes made it second in im-
portance only to the Erie Canal-Great Lakes route. When the min-
eral deposits were developed near the trading posts along it, the
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 17
enormous increase in tonnage offset the topographic handicaps under
which it labored, and converted its major and minor variants into
effective rivals of the dominant route.
These, and other factors, helped to create a network of trade
routes extending from the Atlantic ports between Boston and Nor'
folk to the ports on the Great Lakes, and on the Mississippi and
Ohio Rivers. Where the lines in this network crossed one another,
or, where, as in the case of some of the inland metropoli in New
England, available water power early became a factor, other cities
grew up. Eighteen metropolitan districts of this type exist in the
interiors of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, and Illinois. Chance played as small a part
in the selection of their sites as it did in the case of the groups we
have discussed earlier.
We have now accounted for 85 of the 96 metropolitan districts,
and for more than 96 per cent of the metropolitan population. Of
the remaining 1 1 districts, Atlantic City is located on tidewater but
has no port. It exists solely as a resort city, and its livelihood de-
pends on the fact that its beaches are easily accessible to the mil-
lions of people living in the great cities near it. The others are
inland trade centers located at the intersections of two or more rail
lines, or where river and rail lines meet. Three — Atlanta, Nashville,
and Roanoke — are in the southern states. The remaining seven are
concentrated in four of the 22 states west of the Mississippi River.
Records are not available for an adequate analysis of the thou-
sands of ambitious plans for the founding of metropoli throughout
the nation which have come to naught. Portland, Maine; Ports-
mouth, N. H.; Charleston, S. C.; Mobile; Galveston; Eureka, Cal.;
Astoria, Oregon; and other projected centers had excellent harbors,
but nature had interposed obstacles which prevented the development
of trade routes to the interior. In the interior itself, a succession of
promoters during the past century and a half pinned their hopes on
thousands of sites, but topographic, geologic, or climatic conditions
were such that some exist today merely as names on old maps, others
as local centers of trade and manufacture on minor tributaries of
the great national and international streams of commerce.
Relative Values of Urban and Rural Lands
Without pursuing the matter further, we are justified, I think, in
assuming that urban sites have been endowed by nature with cer-
tain economic potentialities which far outweigh those which inhere
in other land areas. Can the relationship be stated quantitatively?
18 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
Facts suitable for the purpose are incomplete and far from precise.
We have, for example, the assessed valuations of real estate for 1930,
for the 48 states and the District of Columbia. We have also the
assessed valuations of real estate in the same year for the 197 munici-
palities with populations of 30,000 and over, which are reported in
Financial Statistics of Cities, and which are included within the
limits of the 96 metropolitan districts we have been discussing. That
leaves unaccounted for, however, the satellites included in metro-
politan districts, which have less than 30,000 population each, but
which have an aggregate population of twelve and a half million.
If we impute to these minor satellite areas an assessed valuation of
$1,000 per capita — a figure somewhat less than the average for the
country as a whole — we have a rough basis for a quantitative com'
parison between the values of real estate in metropolitan districts
and in areas outside. Real estate in the metropolitan districts is-
assessed at 79 billion dollars as compared with slightly less than 50
billions of dollars in all the rest of the country. An average square
mile in the metropolitan districts is the economic equivalent of more
than 125 square miles in the remainder of the country.
Startling as this comparison of average values is, it does not begin
to express the capacity for variation in value between different types
of urban land, or between urban and rural lands. A tract of land
located at the southeast corner of Broadway and Wall Streets in
New York City is reported to have changed hands twice at a price
approximating $640 per square foot. This is a bare land price, and
the fact that a considerable period elapsed between the two transac-
tions warrants the conclusion that it represents a stabilized capitaliza-
tion of its net annual rental. The assessed valuation of the small
corner parcel involved, before it was merged with a larger adjoin-
ing tract, was not far from that figure. In the borough of Queens,
there are lands which the department of taxes and assessments values
at one and a half cents per square foot. We find here a variation of
almost 43,000 to one in the values assigned to a given area of land.
One single square foot of the most valuable parcel in New York City
is the equivalent in value of more than two and a half acres of bare
land in the best general farming area in the State of Iowa — a spread
of more than 100,000 to one. The same square foot is also the
equivalent in value of an entire square mile of grazing land in our
semi-arid west, or of the same area of denuded forest land in some
of the sections of the country which are not adaptable for general
farming. In these cases, the ratio between the high and low values
for equal areas of land mounts to almost 28 millions to one.
In these ratios between the economic capacities of equal areas of
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 19
lands at various levels of use to produce net annual incomes in excess
of the costs of capital and labor expended in production, we find the
basic causes of the pressures which disrupt the best' laid plans for the
orderly development of lands. But even these figures, which have
been based as nearly as available statistics will permit on land value —
that is, on the capitalized value of the net economic rent of bare
land — do not illustrate fully either the extent or the nature of the
disruptive forces with which we are dealing. In a nation such as
ours, characterized by a steady and long- continued growth in popu-
lation, by a progressive development of natural resources, by constant
shifts in the location of the center of population, and by the attend-
ant changes in the relative importance of primary trade routes, spec-
ulation in future increases in land rents comes into play. Land
prices, rather than land values, become the dominant factors in the
thinking and the activities of men with respect to land. As I have
endeavored to show elsewhere,1 these prices consist of two elements:
the capitalized value of current land rents, plus the present dis-
counted value of anticipated future increases in land rents. For
long periods and over large areas, the value of the first of these ele-
ments in a land price may stand at or near zero, with the result that
the price may consist wholly or in large part of the speculative second
element.
Shifts in Land Prices from Time to Time
There is available, so far as I know, only one study which measures
the shifts in the prices of a given area of land over a period of time :
Homer Hoyt's study of land prices in Chicago.2 A table in that
book indicates that in 1833, when the completion of the Erie Canal
had made the development of Chicago possible, the entire area of
211 square miles now included within the limits of the City of Chi-
cago might have been bought for $168,000. Three years later, when
the State of Illinois had embarked on its ambitious project to open a
waterway between Chicago and the Mississippi River, the same land
had a price of $10,500,000. In 1842 — only six years later — when
the State of Illinois found itself unable to pay the interest on its canal
debt, and work on the proposed canal had ceased, the price dropped
to $1,400,000. Fourteen years later, in 1856, when the railway had
replaced the canal in popular imagination as the best means for stimu-
lating increases in land prices, and when counties and townships were
issuing railway aid bonds in large volume, the price increased to
1 See Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics, August, 1934; Land Prices in a. Com'
modify Price System, by Philip H. Cornick.
2 One Hundred fears of Land Values in Chicago, by Homer Hoyt; University of Chicago
Press, 1933.
20 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
$125,000,000. The following year, the structure of public and pri-
vate debt, erected largely on the unstable base of speculative land
prices, crumbled. The City of Chicago was forced into default. By
1861, the land prices had shrunk to less than one-half of what they
had been five years earlier.
After a succession of similar rises and falls during the booms and
depressions which followed the Civil War, the land prices for the
same 211 square miles stood at an estimated one billion in 1897.
Thereafter the price mounted steadily until, in 1926, it reached the
sum of five billions. Public and private credit mounted similarly, and
provided a reservoir sufficient to finance between 1922 and 1928, not
only the erection of new buildings along 580 miles of street front-
age, but also all the public improvements needed to serve those build-
ings and the large vacant areas lying in new subdivisions. By 1933,
60 per cent of the land prices of 1926 had evaporated; some of the
overlapping municipal governments were again in default; payments
had been suspended on mortgage bonds and certificates; and 163
banks had closed their doors.
I am indebted for all of these facts to the admirable work by Mr.
Hoyt to which I have already referred. They seem to me to consti-
tute an outstanding contribution to the body of facts on which our
future concepts of economic history and of economic theoiy must
rest. Of the long series of booms which took place during the cen-
tury subjected to scrutiny by Mr. Hoyt, two followed immediately
on the heels of credit inflations incident to the conduct of great wars.
I find nothing in Mr. Hoyt's exhaustive and orderly compilation of
pertinent material which runs counter to the hypothesis that all of
the remaining booms in the series generated the bases for their own
progressive inflations of credit by widespread increases in the specu-
lative prices of land. I find nothing to indicate that many of the dis-
astrous effects of the inevitable deflations following all of the booms,
including those which came as the aftermath of wars, are not
traceable directly and indirectly to the mountainous debts incurred
for unwise or premature construction of man-made attachments to
public and private lands while the credit inflations lasted; debts
which, when they were created, seemed conservative alike to borrow
ers and lenders, to statesmen and demagogues, to wise men and fools.
Until Mr. Hoyt, or other patient and discerning delvers into the
foundations of our economic life, shall produce facts to the contrary,
we seem justified in advancing the hypothesis that land prices, under
our existing system of tenure, have constituted a basic cause of the
violently disruptive series of inflations and deflations which have char-
acterised our history. If that hypothesis proves to be tenable, it goes
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 21
to the heart of the problems confronting the city planners. Cities
exist because of and along the great streams of national and inter-
national commerce. It is only through the agency of these streams
that our cities can discharge their proper and beneficent functions in
the life of the world. How can intelligent planning proceed on any
level when those streams are now torrents, which tax the capacity of
our man-made attachments to public and private lands, and now
trickles which leave those facilities wholly or partly idle and the men
who operate them unemployed?
Ineffective Plans for Control
We have developed and applied three instruments designed to cor-
rect our faulty urban land policies: the comprehensive master plan,
the zoning ordinance, and subdivision control. Can any planner
here, out of his own experience, point out instances where they have
been more than partially successful?
Our master plans, where they have become official, consist in gen-
eral of compromises between what the planner, after intensive and
detached study, felt was best for the city as a whole, and what the
individual land owners felt was best for their own interests. The
promulgation of the compromise plan itself has all too frequently
raised obstacles in the way of its effectuation by stimulating specu-
lative increases in the prices of the lands necessary for carrying it out.
Our zoning ordinances have had a similar history. Starting out as
compromises, satisfactory neither to the experts who drafted them,
nor to some of the land owners who had to operate under them, they
became, during the boom in some of our cities, new sources of tur-
moil and log-rolling in the city councils. Amendment followed amend-
ment, almost invariably increasing the already excessive areas set aside
for the more intensive uses in the compromise draft originally en-
acted.
Actual results in subdivision control have been even more disap-
pointing. In the great majority of the places where such control has
been exercised, it has been effective chiefly in eliminating obvious
errors in the width and alignment of streets and in the shapes and
sizes of blocks and lots. It Lad little or no retarding effect on the rate
at which unneeded building lots were created during the boom, nor
on the abandon with which new public indebtedness was incurred
for street improvements which have turned out to be worse than
useless. Cincinnati is almost the sole exception to this statement.
Partly because of an unusually wise, tactful and courageous admin-
istration in the planning field, partly also perhaps because a rela-
22 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
tively low rate of increase in population had weakened the intense
speculative urge which prevailed elsewhere, subdivision control here
succeeded in holding surplus lots and wasted public improvements
to a minimum.
Summary and Conclusions
What is the bearing of this series of facts — of these abc's of city
growth — on the problem of faulty urban land policies?
We have seen that the sites on which cities can grow are limited
by nature. We have developed, if not precise data, then at least
rough approximations, which indicate that equal areas of physically
similar but economically dissimilar lands vary widely at a given time
in their capacities to produce net rents. We have seen that the
economic rent of a given piece of land may vary widely from time
to time. We have seen that these variations from one period to an'
other lead men to capitalize anticipated future increases in land
rents into present prices, and that the desire of men to realize on
these prices places obstacles in the way of utilizing successfully those
instruments which have been devised for the formulation and control
of land policies. We have observed facts which support the hypo'
thesis that shifts in the speculative prices of lands lead to alternate
expansions and contractions of the basis of public and private credit;
and that the consequent series of booms and depressions disrupt the
orderly operations of those essential economic processes which alone
justify the existence of cities, and which provide their sole legitimate
means of livelihood. In this series of facts, it would seem, there-
fore, that we have found the basic causes which underlie our faulty
policies with respect not only to urban land but to all land.
In 1879, at the close of the last great depression comparable to
that from which we now seem to be emerging, Henry George pub'
lished a volume under the title Progress and Poverty. Long before the
art of city planning had been elevated in this country to the status of
an organized profession, that book presented a searching inquiry into
the problems discussed in this paper. No unprejudiced mind can ap-
proach that work without being impressed by its freshness and its
direct applicability to the problems of today. The statistics on which
I have drawn, none of them available when he wrote, as well as
other series of economic facts which have been produced since his
death, buttress the foundation which he built up laboriously from
isolated facts collected by personal observation and by reading, and
substantiate the basic conclusions which he erected on that foundation.
He argued passionately that land is a common heritage of the
races; that our system of land tenure made speculation in future in-
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 23
creases in rent inevitable; that that speculation paved the way for
industrial depressions. He came to the conclusion that private initi'
ative among individuals under conditions of economic equality was
essential to the orderly progress of civilization, and that the private
use of land was therefore an essential element in the factors under'
lying progress. He proposed to absorb in taxation the net economic
rent of land for the purpose of restoring the rights of men in their
common heritage, but to preserve the benefits of private initiative
by leaving lands in private possession. He contended that only by
this device could industrial booms and depressions be avoided, and
an orderly plan of land'use developed and maintained. Stated in
terms which have come into general use only since he wrote, he con-
tended further that his proposal offered the only escape from a com'
munist dictatorship on the one hand or a fascist dictatorship on the
other.
As an humble witness, whose testimony may or may not carry
weight, I can only say that I can see no major flaws in his logic,
and that the chief obstacles which now stand in the way of attain'
ing the objective to which the members of this Conference are devot'
ing their lives can be removed most easily if we adopt the proposals
made by Henry George more than fifty years ago.
DISCUSSION
MR. TRACY B. AUGUR, Tennessee Valley Authority: You are spared a pre'
pared discussion because, in travelling around, the paper to be discussed and
I did not come together until last evening, and even then I was prevented from
giving it mature consideration by the excellent tenor singing of the chairman!
At any rate, I wasn't able to give thorough attention to the paper and prepare
a commentary on it, I think it and the preceding paper are an excellent start
on this Conference. They both have given us very meaty, interesting discus'
sions and I find myself in great agreement with Mr. Cornick: that of all the
many faults in urban land policies the one which is the root of them all is the
speculative interest in land and all the ills that it creates.
I am inclined to disagree slightly, however, that the forces which have
created this condition are going to continue in the future as they have in the
past. He mentions major trends in the great metropolitan areas which rest on
two conditions: the first and largest being distribution; the second being the
location of the resources of industry, mineral resources. While those forces
will undoubtedly continue for many years to have much the same weight that
they now have I believe we are on the eve of a distribution of resources which
will change the currents or trend which we know today.
It is significant that the continental airplane routes ignore fairly high moun'
tain ranges by going to great heights, and by so doing geography is perfectly
controlled. The earlier flights of planes, because of technically limited factors,
avoided the high altitudes and followed less direct trade routes. We also know
that motor truck and motor traffic have developed new fields which the rail'
roads never have developed and that the process is continuing.
24 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
On the question of industrial resources, we perhaps are entering an era
when we will be less dependent on the deposit of minerals and more dependent
on the manufactured products that come from agricultural and timber re'
sources, so that great areas and farm lands may be just as important or more
important than deposits of coal or iron.
Now, the net result is that the existing great centers, the centers that have
been built up by the past importance of the location of resources, no longer
hold the monopoly which they have held up to the present time. Although
we may be looking 50 years or 100 or 200 years ahead, I think we can look
to the time when the monopolistic position of the present great urban sites
will be completely broken, which means that many new areas which are not
now available for urban location will come into the market. That fact in itself
will break down the high values which city lands in existing centers now
have, and will tend to dissipate values and to give opportunity for new de'
velopments.
I look upon this as rather a hopeful thing and it may help us to overcome
the conditions we now have arising out of the high speculative land values
in cities because, if the demand for the present sites is lessened, then the
price values of those present sites also will be lessened and it will be less
necessary to take measures to combat them.
I agree with Mr. Cornick that it is necessary to combat the speculative
interest in land and that device is one of the most fertile means of making the
combat. There are perhaps other means which are worth trying. I was always
interested in the device in effect in the City of Radburn, Tennessee, to do away
with the speculative interest in land and still retain private ownership. The
device there was to sell residential land so highly restricted that there was
very little value in it and to control the commercial land within the com'
munity with a business corporation representing the community. We have the
English scheme of having a community corporation control the entire site.
It has been intensely interesting to me in the past year and a half to be
working in the Tennessee Valley where we have built a small community
where the land is held on the same plan. The town of Norris, as you know,
was built as a construction camp community at the Norris dam, being de'
signed to become a permanent small community by leasing. The land was later
bought and is owned by the United States Government and under the present
leases it is impossible to sell that land to individuals.
As I have talked to many people in the community I have been delighted to
find that the prevailing wish there is to maintain that condition regardless of
any changes in the local situation; that they are interested in maintaining the
security accorded in one central ownership and in merely leasing the sites for
residences and industry and commerce to individuals, so that the increase in
land value in that town, if the present situation is maintained, will go to the
community and not to individuals. I put that forward as another means of
accomplishing the same result that Mr. Cornick advocates through new systems
of taxation.
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FACTORS IN CITY
PLANNING
WILLIAM HABER, Michigan Relief Administrator
Those advocates of planning who have recognized the full scope of
their problem, have always recognized that the economic factor must
be given attention along with the engineering and the social factor.
The sociologist, the economist, as well as the public administrator
have contributed to the city planning movement, but, quite naturally,
the most concrete and visible aspects of engineering have usually
received most attention.
The layman's idea of planning is probably centered rather nar-
rowly on those aspects which make it possible for the community,
state, region, or nation to control the developments on its land, the
specific uses to which it is put, its location in relation to the rest of
the community both structurally and functionally.
Many problems of planning involve the control of space relation'
ships which can be plotted on a map or master plan. Ultimately,
however, the effectiveness of a plan is measured not in terms of struc-
tures and material services alone, but in terms of the general well-
being, the health, security, and welfare which are promoted by
sound use and other factors which can be subjected to constructive
direction. Here and there, we are beginning to deal positively with
economic and human factors which in the long run determine the
effectiveness of any adjustments of past relationships and material
services. Among these factors, for example, are questions of income,
education, occupational adjustment, industrial change and unemploy-
ment. The best of plans must fail if any large group in the popula-
tion is subject to inadequate and unstable income, or if industrial
changes create an unforeseen turn in the direction of population
growth.
The development of the metropolitan community, with its influ-
ences extending far beyond its borders, has created a new way of
living for the majority of the people in the United States. And for
most of the residents of the great cities that have grown up, this
way of living has been an unsatisfactory one. Built haphazardly and
chaotically, the city has been primarily a mechanism for commerce.
Poverty, ugliness and squalor, disease and inconvenience, were in-
evitable concomitants of blind growth. There is no technical reason
why our cities should be scarred with slums and blighted areas.
There is every reason, from the social point of view, why we should
begin the strenuous task of creating a new type of city.
25
26 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
Many technical changes have, of course, been responsible for the
difficult problems which cities are facing. The progressive concen-
tration of population in cities has been accompanied by an increas-
ing ease and efficiency of travel. The city's influence has been ex'
tended to rural areas; metropolitan or regional factors, trade areas,
zones of influence, both commercial and cultural, are as important
from the planning viewpoint as the city proper.
Motor transportation has, in enlarging the trade and community
areas and in shifting population outward, created special and diffi'
cult problems for the city. The exodus of the upper economic
classes, the lowering of land values, the leaving behind of blighted
lands, are results too well known to most American communities.
Social and economic factors are more difficult to measure ac-
curately, than factors of vocation and technical desirability. No ade-
quate plan for a city region can be developed, however, without
taking them into consideration. The city's problems cannot be solved
in terms of the limited approach alone, as important as these are,
but require for their practical treatment, a full consideration of the
broader but closely related aspects such as unemployment, housing,
income and standards of living. These are social and economic prob-
lems. All are difficult to solve, but all contribute, in determining the
character of the city. These problems often play havoc with the
planner's blue-print. Technical changes and market shifts have
created long-time labor surpluses in many large cities which have
specialized in one or two basic industries. Detroit for automobiles,
Grand Rapids for furniture, the copper country in the Upper Penin-
sula of Michigan, the textile industry in New England — these are
instances of the significant influence which broad economic changes
have had on planning and the need for giving new weight to these
issues.
Unquestionably the difficulties faced by many cities — difficulties
which relief subsidies for the population and grants for construc-
tion and improvement of services with relief labor have for the
time being minimized — can be traced to the changes and require-
ments of industry. Machine production, the sources of raw materials,
the location of new trade areas, general economic depression — long-
time factors all of them — have introduced causes of decay and im-
poverishment to many cities and chaotic growth to others.
It is not likely that these changes will decrease in significance in
the years immediately ahead. The dynamic character of American
industries will undoubtedly continue as it has in the past. We must
be prepared, therefore, to contemplate long-time unemployment at
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 27
levels considerably higher than they were before 1929. Many cities
will as a result of this unemployment and these industrial factors,
have to undergo drastic revision in many of their technical plans, in
zoning, in taxation, in the importance of recreational areas, and in
their ideas concerning future growth.
Quite apart from industrial changes, population trends are also
of vital importance in influencing the city plan. The optimistic
booster has not always been the best guide to the city's growth in the
past, and is likely not to be its best guide in the future. Evidences of
changes in population trends have been emphasized in the past
several years. Such changes, whether related to the sum total of
population growth or its character as influenced by the changed
immigration policy, are of vital importance to the kind of plan which
is developed and a determining factor in the progress or decay of the
city in the future.
Mistaken estimates of future growth are responsible for areas
of under-use around the margins of our cities; anyone who has seen
the vast areas of almost empty subdivisions around the margins of
Detroit is inevitably impressed with the amount of wasted money
and labor which was used to create pavements and sewers for a
population which will never come. Mistaken estimates of commer-
cial and industrial expansion are similarly responsible for blighted
areas, where residential uses are prematurely abandoned for other
uses which do not expand as has been expected.
The importance of other social and economic factors — notably
family income — is especially evident in connection with problems of
housing and slum clearance. The slum is not simply a case of unwise
land-use — it is one of the visible effects of poverty and insecurity upon
urban society. New construction of housing available for low-income
groups, as we know, has been inadequate for many years, especially
since the depression began. Residential building has declined more
rapidly than non-residential, and the volume of general construction
suffered an astounding decline from $3,805 million in 1925 to $1,049
million in 1931, and down to $274 million per year in 1933-34 — less
than 8 per cent of the 1925 peak.
In the final analysis, this collapse of residential building can be
traced to an income structure which made a vast sector of our popu-
lation, in the lower economic groups, dependent (even before 1929)
on incomes so low that only a very small part could be devoted to
shelter and home maintenance. Economists of the Brookings Insti-
tution, in their study of Americas Capacity to Consume, have
pointed out that low-income groups spend a large share of their
28 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
income for food and have little surplus to devote to shelter, attire,
and general living (recreation, etc.). In higher income groups, the
amount available for non-food expenses increases, so that families
with incomes above $5,000 spend more for shelter and home than
for food.
The amount of income which the low-income groups can devote
to rental or purchase of homes is thus relatively small. The so-called
"subsistence ;and poverty" group — families with incomes of less
than $1,500 per year — accounted for only 17 per cent of the total
expenditure for shelter and home maintenance in 1929. Half of the
total expenditure for this purpose was made by the two upper tenths
of the salary range. Construction has been primarily aimed at this
upper class market, and private initiative has been unable or un-
willing to provide decent homes for the poorer groups.
The unsanitary and unfit housing in a slum area is, from one
point of view, less significant than the low and unstable incomes which
make the slum-dweller unable to pay for better housing. The real
purpose of slum clearance is not merely to eliminate slums from a
few acres of ground, but to rehabilitate the slum family by wiping
out some of the economic conditions from which crime and other
social evils are derived. If the rentals on our new housing projects
are not adjusted to fit the income of the poorer families, it will mean
that we clear slums, but do not eliminate them — the slum dwellers,
and with them the slum's problems, will merely move elsewhere.
The same relationship between income and housing conditions was
clearly shown by data obtained in the Financial Survey of Urban
Housing made under the Civil Works Administration. This survey
covered a carefully stratified sample of 15 per cent of the families
in 64 cities, and provided nearly half a million usable schedules.
The results, as D. L. Wickens has pointed out, "suggest that there
are practicable limits to the amount chargeable for rents." The ratio
of rent delinquency is closely related to the ratio of rent to family
income. Only 16 per cent of the families with rent-income ratios
between 15 and 20 per cent were delinquent; when rental repre-
sented 35 to 40 per cent of income, 34 per cent were delinquent.
Housing conditions are determined by a chain of factors, growing
worse as income is lowered by low wages and unemployment.
It may be that, in order to provide adequate housing for the lower
income groups, we must accept one of the following alternatives:
subsidizing low-cost housing to make accommodations available
at less than cost, or strenuous steps to raise the effective income of the
lower groups. The first alternative would involve abandonment of
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 29
the idea that housing projects must be self -liquidating, and the use
of taxation of the higher income groups to maintain the general level
of health and decency in the community, as has been done effectively
in Vienna. The second alternative involves the horizon of economic
planning on a national scale.
Slum clearance, ultimately, depends on our success in achieving a
minimum standard of income, education, and health for our whole
population. Low incomes, in many cases, result from unemployment
or low earning power which can be traced back to socially prevent'
able causes — malnutrition and preventable illness in childhood, or
early entrance into "blind alley" occupations because of economic
pressure. The amount of slums which will exist 20 years from now
may depend as much upon these "social causes" of poverty as upon
present success in housing construction. Minimum standards of
housing are one aspect of an achievable social goal: minimum stand-
ards of general welfare for all citizens.
Many students of our economic problems have been impressed by
the characteristic dependence of urban workers upon industrial em-
ployment, and their lack of protection in periods of depression and
industrial collapse. As an alternative to urban insecurity, they stress
the possibilities of attaining security by decentralization of industry
and the establishment of workers on the land, with the opportunity
to augment their wage-income by small-scale farming for their own
consumption. In addition to its service as a cushion against unem-
ployment, other advantages are attributed to the subsistence home-
stead: a more varied diet, better conditions for the rearing of chil-
dren, a closer association with nature, and a range of more wholesome
leisure-time activities. To clinch the argument, it is alleged that "a
vast decentralization of industry is already under way." Whether
true or not — and many doubt if it is true — it promises to introduce
additional problems for the city. Moving people to suburban areas
will undoubtedly have immediate effect on trade areas, on taxation,
income and related problems.
Decentralization, however, is by no means accepted unanimously
as a cure for insecurity. Several students of population movement
have vigorously questioned the basic arguments advanced in its
favor. Carter Goodrich emphasizes the fact that the past three dec-
ades have brought a spreading, rather than a true decentralization of
industry. The percentage of manufacturing done in major cities has
declined, it is true, from 40 per cent in 1899 to 35 per cent in 1931,
but these losses have gone almost entirely to suburban sections around
the major cities and to "important industrial counties" of more mod-
erate concentration. The 2,800 remaining counties, which contain
30 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
half the Nation's population and 90 per cent of its farmers, actually
provided a smaller proportion of total manufacturing employment in
1931 than in 1899!
Such "back to the farm" movements as have occurred since 1930
may be temporary rather than permanent trends. It is significant, in
this connection, that the estimates of net migration between farm and
city, made by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, show a net
movement of 227,000 persons from country to city in 1933, the first
year of "recovery" — this in contrast to a net city-to-country move-
ment of 214,000 persons in 1931, and 533,000 persons in 1932.
An even more serious question is this: Will decentralization really
bring security to the worker? Part-time farming, without doubt,
provides a useful cushion against joblessness, but at the same time it
decreases the worker's mobility, his opportunity for solidarity with
other workers, and his social contacts. If the situation is such as to
make workers in a given community dependent on a single employer,
the effect upon bargaining power may be a serious risk. As Good-
rich says, "It does not take company-owned houses and deputy sher-
iffs to produce the dependence that is the essential feature of the
company town." Except in the outskirts of metropolitan regions,
where diversified employment opportunities exist, this loss of mobil-
ity is a risk to be reckoned with.
The same point is put even more strongly by Ware and Powell in
their article "Planning for Permanent Poverty": "The homestead
project offers the industrialist a population of selected home owners
driven by the fear of unemployment and the certainty that the world
outside is barren of jobs. Though personally free, the homesteader is
actually bound — he cannot move."
Another problem, bearing directly on the future of present manu-
facturing areas, is the question of who is to get the decentralized
employment. If decentralization means moving city workers to the
country, it offers little to the rural population; if it means bringing
supplementary income to impoverished or standard rural popula-
tions, it will not help urban workers. Obviously the solution of our
economic problems lies in increased and stabilized production of goods.
Mere movement of employment from one place to another may im-
prove living conditions for some workers, but general welfare will
require more complete utilization of our unused productive capacity
and labor power. Technologically, decentralization has advantages
only for a few industries and if, as might occur, it becomes a vehicle
by which manufacturers escape from high urban wages and labor
organization, it may actually decrease the aggregate purchasing power
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 31
of those classes whose present low purchasing power is responsible
for our present failure to consume what we could produce. It is an
important task of regional planners to see that decentralization leads
to increased aggregate consumption; this it may accomplish, if care'
fully controlled, by bringing rural purchasing power more nearly in
line with urban purchasing power.
For the great mass of our population, despite some industrial de-
velopment in rural areas, the most desirable — and probably inevitable
— way of life seems to be connected with the metropolitan com-
munity of the future. This metropolitan unit will not be co-terminous
with the political city; it will represent a "super-community," built
up by the absorption of numbers of local communities into a single
economic and cultural unit. The greater possibility of specialization
in its commercial, economic, and cultural activities makes this type
of organization a logical outgrowth of the machine, rapid transit,
and perfected communication. Within such communities, the space
arrangement of industrial, residential, and recreational areas will
probably be far different from what we have known in the past —
with residence more evenly distributed, industry "decentralized"
within the metropolitan area, and recreational facilities and park
lands expanded to meet the needs of a full life for all citizens. In all
these changes, the need for technical, social, and economic planning
will be enormous.
In brief, the city must be viewed as an integral part of the econ-
omy. The development of the city must be. related to the social
resources of the community. The hope of the city lies in the broad'
est concept of planning. Without regional or national planning,
without a deliberate determination of objectives which have in mind
institutional control over unemployment, low incomes, and low stand'
ards of living, poor housing — these and related factors — city plan-
ning will of necessity be limited to the field which the individual
community alone can control. This field is full of opportunity, how-
ever; most of the plans are subject to the terrific insecurity of be-
coming obsolete due to the social and economic factors broader than
the city and calling for the best ideas of the region and the Nation.
City planning in the future, in addition to its conventional prob-
lems, will have to integrate its plans with the regional and national
program. It will have to deal with unemployment and the care of
the unemployed, with the growth of social service, with the develop-
ment of new industries, with a vocational re-training of its un-
adaptable idle labor power, with the development of recreational
activity necessitated by the growth of leisure, with the re-organization
32 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
of its labor market facilities. In brief, with factors economic and
social rather than engineering and technical.
DISCUSSION
DR. YNGVE LARSSON, Stockholm, Sweden: In Europe, and especially in
Sweden, these same trends in population development are very formidable and
have been recognized a longer time, perhaps, than in this country. We also
have, at home, this falling off of the birth rate. There it has gone much far'
ther than in this country, especially in the bigger towns and in the areas which
you call the metropolitan areas. We are expecting this same development
which you are looking forward to in the next decades.
I would like to stress some results of this development which we have been
compelled to regard in planning our housing and town planning policies.
Population is increasing very slowly due to the falling off of the birth rate. In
Stockholm we reckon that from 1945 the population will be stabilized to a
certain level. The population is getting older and its productive ages are in'
creasing in relation to the whole population. The result has been that the
demand for new houses is increasing at a more rapid rate than that of the
whole population.
Our experience after the War was that the demand for new houses and the
production of new houses has been greater than an uncritical examination of
the population increase would indicate.
I think you must reckon with these tendencies in the planning of your resi'
dential areas. We feel compelled in Stockholm in our municipal policy and
in our town planning policy to reckon with this tendency and accordingly,
though the population is increasing at a rather slow rate, to provide for a
rapid development of the residential areas. At home we plan our city with
outlying districts such as you saw described last month in the T^etu Tor\ Times.
There the houses are designed along lines resembling the subsistence home'
stead principle.
Our town planning policy is founded upon municipal land ownership. The
municipality of Stockholm itself owns practically the whole land surrounding
the city and it is our policy to lease this land. It is perhaps impossible to
control and guide the housing conditions in a city without being in a dominant
position with regard to land values and with regard to development of new
land. It is a town planning scheme for leasing out properties in the extensions
of the city. The city will always have these lands, will always be holding
them; but in most cases it is a rather poor compromise between the often con'
flicting private land'owning interests and those of public interests. Accord'
ingly, in Stockholm, we have for 30 years been acquiring the outlying districts
around the municipality which are needed for the development of the city,
and we have followed this policy not only in those outlying districts but also
in the center of the municipality, because in an old city like Stockholm — I
think in new cities, too — you have always the necessity for clearance for new
thoroughfares, etc., in residential as well as slum areas. Although we have
rather effective town planning legislation, we feel, and I think it is a general
feeling everywhere without regard to parties, that town planning must com'
plement a very active land policy.
MR. EDWARD M. BASSETT, New York City: A year and a half ago I at'
tempted to look into the subject of housing, especially the housing of poorer
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 33
classes of people throughout the Scandinavian cities. I had the great privilege
of spending quite a bit of time in Stockholm where I went about with the
city topographer who is a friend of this Conference, and inquired especially
whether every building made some contribution either by taxation or otherwise
to the expenses of the city.
I couldn't find that any residential building was entirely free from a con-
tribution either by taxation or in some way and I think it is a great opportunity
to have here Mr. Larsson, who is so well informed on this subject, and I wish
that he would say a word about the subject of tax exemption in Stockholm.
DR. YNGVE LARSSON, Stockholm, Sweden: Every property in Stockholm
pays its municipal taxes as a matter of course. Perhaps I don't quite under'
stand the question, but it has not occurred to us that there are any reasons
for exemptions of special properties from the municipal tax.
We are paying on what is rated as the rentable value. This is supposed to
be the income from that property or what ought to be the income from that
property. According to that supposition a certain ratable value is fixed on the
property and every property pays its taxes.
In addition to that, when we are expanding a road or widening a street, the
adjoining properties are compelled to pay their share of the cost. It is about
the same principle as I think you will find everywhere in this country, too.
MR. JOHN IHLDER, Washington, D. C.: There are two points that were
made in the papers this morning that I think should be very definitely empha'
sized or commented upon. The first Mr. Larsson brought up, but I should
like to add to his comments. We should, in my belief, use every opportunity
to secure for the public land which becomes available through tax delinquencies
or in any other way, in order that we may be in a position in our cities to deal
effectively with housing needs without being handicapped by speculative land
values.
The other point that I think should be commented upon pertains to exemp'
tions. I was surprised to find an economist advocating that we should sub'
sidize our houses. Great evils are going to appear if we follow that easy
suggestion. One of my social worker friends said to me not long ago that
from one'half to three-quarters of his time is spent in undoing the mistakes
made years before — mistakes made with the best intentions in the world, but
without a careful consideration of the problems.
We are going to do that same thing today. We are under an urge to do
things a little differently than in the past and we are making heavy exemp'
tions. One way to deal with the housing problem and with the social problem
is to subsidize the houses, but in my belief if we do- that we are not entering
upon a bright era. We are going to have all kinds of trouble as a result. If
we have got to subsidize, then let us subsidize the family; do it through relief,
but have the housing stand on its own feet economically.
MR. HERBERT U. NELSON, Chicago, Illinois: I was very much interested in
Mr. Cornick's suggestion that taxation be used as a means of controlling
speculation in the use of land. For some years we have been searching for
ways and means by which we could more adequately control land use, and of
course we considered this question of taxation very seriously.
Those who advocate the system of taxation of Henry George probably don't
realize that for a good many years we have had it. The Department of Com'
34 MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY?
merce in 1930 quoted some very interesting figures on the income of real
property throughout the United States. Their calculations check with our
own which are, in effect, that the income of all of the real estate in the United
States, including the computed rental value of all the farms that are owned
and the computed rental value of all the homes that are occupied by their
owners, is something under five billion dollars per year — actually about four
billion, eight hundred million.
The tax burden on real property for local government in this country is
something in excess of five billion dollars per year, so that taxation today
does, as a matter of fact, take all of the income of real property if you con-
sider the real estate plant of the nation as a whole. Now it is true, of course,
that some properties are profitable and sometimes will show a net income, but
that is always offset by losses elsewhere. This applies to income on land as
well as to income on the improvements.
Some eight years ago Dr. Richard T. Ely, economist, whom you probably
know about, went to Vienna to attend a conference on taxation at which
there was a large group in favor of the single tax. When he got through
describing what we have in the United States they said, "Well, all we want
is what you have."
Dr. Herbert Simpson of Northwestern University made a study some time
ago of agricultural lands in Cook County. If you own a farm there you can't
continue to farm it. You have to do something with it; so you try to sub'
divide it, and land ownership — profitable land ownership — becomes a race
between the carrying charges and attempts to unload on someone else. Thus
land is forced into unwise use. We feel that a successful system of controlling
the use of land certainly does not lie in the direction of increasing the tax load
on land. We must find other and more intelligent methods.
MR. NEWELL L. NUSSBAUMER, Buffalo, New York: I want to ask Mr.
Cornick a question, if I may, on the matter of taxation. I am interested at
the present time in finding some relief for properties of a commercial and
business nature whose use has depreciated to something lower than their
highest use. In the past few years their assessed values have remained about
the same; consequently the present tenants, or the tenants of a few years
back, move out and go to other quarters. The question of revenue seems
to be one of the vital points because, if the taxes and assessed values in these
particular cases could be reduced, the person would be able to rent the
properties to tenants with smaller paying ability and still maintain the proper'
ties in a usable condition, self'sustaining and useful to the community.
Perhaps Mr. Cornick can suggest a way by which the reduction in assessed
values or taxes on this particular property might be spread over the rest of
the city. I realize, of course, that difficulties would arise through the reaction
against spreading the load on the part of the voters.
MR. PHILIP H. CORNICK, New York City: In the situations that have been
described here the high tax burden is doing to a very large extent what fixed
charges are doing to the debt burden we incurred for improvements on
publicly owned lands. The taxes were levied to support the debt incurred
for those public improvements and is not being met for the reason that we
have an extensive tax delinquency everywhere. It is the fact that taxes have
not been paid that has forced the City of Chicago into default. Chicago
incurred too much in the way of future obligations for those improvements
which were made at the request of individual land owners.
MUST AMERICAN CITIES DECAY? 35
It is a very difficult matter to readjust taxes today to support all the things
that real estate itself has refused to support and can't support — and that our
industries can't support either. Everything is dropped into the lap of the
municipality, and it is expected to pay all the bills out of one tax rate.
MR. HARLAND BARTHOLOMEW, St. Louis, Missouri: I think we can consider
the general topic, Must American Cities Decay? from the standpoint of
the large American city in particular, for the process of decay about which
we have spoken is applicable only to the very largest cities. All of the papers
this morning turned about the changing processes in the large cities. We
don't have many of these problems in the smaller cities. One of the reasons
why these things have become so acute is because population has reacted
against living conditions in the large city, with a resultant decentralizing to
the suburban areas.
In the last few years we have heard much about decentralization and a
return to the smaller communities. The population does not particularly de'
sire this; nor does industry, which is dependent upon large populations and
markets. These changes are occurring, however, because we have failed to
establish the policies which make it satisfactory for industry and population
to stay within the large city.
Every time we get into a discussion of this sort it seems that we spend an
amazing amount of time considering what has happened. When we get to
the problem of what should be done we go off into such large questions as
are bound up in the single tax. In discussing these problems we should
remember that while they are large and significant, there are many things
we can do that we have failed to do, but should do in order to deal effec-
tively with these problems. These are matters which have not been discussed
to any extent here this morning and which I think are very vital. One is a
revision of our zoning ordinances. The other is that we do not enforce
sufficiently high standards in our building and sanitary codes.
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
CHAIRMAN'S INTRODUCTION
MR. JACOB L. CRANE, JR., Chicago, Illinois: This morning you
heard discussions of the various problems that have to do with the
question Must American Cities Decay! It was brought out very
clearly that in considering such a question the destiny of our cities,
in relation to the great natural resources of the country, is an essen'
tial part of city planning. We must have some means by which we
can estimate and to some degree guide the major movements and opera-
tions. As this involves to some extent the location and distribution
of industry it means that regional, state, and national planning must
lie behind our city planning.
In looking over this program it occurred to me that much of what
is going on — much of what has received such great stimulus these
days — got its first impetus before the New Deal. I am thinking par-
ticularly of the National Land Use Planning Committee which was
organized under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture about
five years ago and which, in its discussions and publications, laid the
groundwork for a great amount of what is now going on with in-
creased acceleration. In that early movement, as in the current move-
ment, Provost Mann of Cornell University and Cornell University
itself played a large part. The State of New York has forged the
techniques and methods upon which judgments can be based and plans
given formulation.
Starting with Dr. Mann we shall discuss, this afternoon, procedures
beginning with the survey and ending with the actual implementation
of plans. We shall view these procedures and planning techniques
both from the standpoint of the country and the city.
36
THE URBAN AND RURAL LAND-USE
SURVEY
A. R. MANN, New York State Planning Council
Long'time planning, whether in urban or rural areas, is much con'
cerned with land-use, since the land is the underlying and fixed re'
quirement for human abode and occupation. Among the data which
are basic to the planning of any area are the trends in land prices,
value and utilization, the present and prospective values and uses,
and the factors which determine price, value and intensity of use
to which the land is adapted. Land'use surveys are therefore widely
employed by planning agencies.
The Urban Survey
In urban planning a first requirement is a real property inventory,
which should be obtained and analyzed in much detail, preferably
block by block. As an example of method and objective we may fol'
low the procedure used by the Mayor's planning organization in the
City of New York. The information to be obtained, all of which
will reflect land values and uses and make possible the preparation
of land'use maps, is here found to include such items as the follow
ing: the predominant existing use of the land, whether vacant block,
residential block, or non-residential block; the predominant residen'
tial building in each block, as to type, age, condition, number of fam-
ily quarters, number and per cent of vacancies, average rooms per
quarters, population, rental cost, and the like; for non'residential
buildings the predominant type, whether office, store, loft, ware-
house, factory, etc., whether publicly or privately owned, condition,
day population, and the like. With such data in hand it is possible
to prepare citywide maps showing for each block all of the more
essential factors which establish land-use and affect the intrinsic val-
ues, such as the predominant type of building, the predominant age
of buildings, the predominant condition, the percentage of vacancies,
the population density, the predominant family rentals, the density
of working population in each block, and the like. Data as to land
values are usually based on the most recent assessments.
When such city-wide maps have been prepared they will set out
clearly the boundaries of land-use areas of like characteristics. The
essential purpose of the land-use maps is to project the picture of
the area in order to focus and facilitate detailed studies and investiga-
tions of highly specialized problems within the areas of like charac-
teristics and of changing characteristics. Locating and describing the
37
38 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
areas of homogeneous use reveal the problems of the several areas
with a degree of accuracy and force which is impossible in the ab-
sence of the facts supplied by such surveys. When the facts are thus
revealed the problems requiring attention are at least broadly indi'
cated and defined and some of their common elements are known.
They may then be taken up systematically and detailed solutions
attempted.
The land-use surveys will, of course, be supplemented by other
economic and social data necessary to complete the picture, including
the location and condition of the streets, transportation systems, sew-
ers, water mains, and other matters.
The Rural Survey
In planning an area such as a state or a natural topographic region,
a knowledge of rural land uses is of paramount importance. It affects
every other item in the program, and without such knowledge little of
permanent value can be accomplished. The character of the rural
land conditions what manner of life and of livelihood is possible. It
vitally affects the social organization and the economic pattern and
competence of the population. It creates problems of government
and administration. It influences the culture of the people. The
nature of the land and of its use is the dominating element in rural
America. The rural land-use survey is therefore the first step in
the rural planning process; and the nature of the agriculture and
the rural life of an area affects powerfully the character of the urban
life in that area.
The purpose of the rural land-use survey is to assemble the facts
necessary to establish a sound classification and inventory of land
resources according to their nearly permanent characteristics consid-
ered both with reference to present uses and to the probable if not
the inevitable future uses. Lands differ widely in their chemical,
physical, and biological character as well as in topography, elevation,
and other characteristics. These natural physical differences determine
the uses for which the lands by nature are best suited. Some lands
are well adapted to agricultural production, some are not at all
adapted to fanning, and there are all manner of gradations between
these extremes. The fact that many lands, especially in rough or very
hilly country, were cleared of their forests and put into farms, is of
itself no evidence that such areas are suited for farming under pres-
ent conditions or any future conditions that can now be foreseen,
or that they should remain in farms. A bit of historical perspective
is needed in order properly to assess the changes that have taken
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 39
place and that are in progress which have caused or are causing such
lands to be abandoned.
An Historical Perspective of Land'Use
By way of example we may cite conditions in the northeast. In
the early settlement of this Nation the concentration of population
was on the eastern seaboard. Before railroad transportation devel-
oped and the west was opened, there was relatively heavy pressure
on the lands near at hand. In consequence, the incentive was to clear
the forests and to bring all the land under the plow or into gracing
areas in order to supply the nearby markets with food and raw
materials. While the scant virgin fertility and the supplemental in-
come from lumber enabled a modest living to be gleaned from the
vast areas of rugged hill lands, the crop yields from those lands were
never very good and over most of the area they steadily declined.
As penetration of lands to the west went forward, and as railroad
transportation developed and made possible competition with the
more remote but more fertile lands, farming on many of these east'
ern hill lands became unprofitable and decadent. Settlement of such
lands had scarcely been completed before abandonment began. The
abandonment was due to soil characteristics, to topography, slope,
elevation, difficulty of access, climate, and to changed economic con-
ditions. Every advance in agricultural technique and practice accel-
erated the movement down from the steeper hill lands toward the
level and more fertile valleys or to fresh lands to the west. The
development of under- drainage of farm lands, of commercial fer-
tilizers, of more rapid transportation to markets, and especially of
the use of machinery for all manner of farm operations hastened
the movement. It was an economically sound and socially desirable
shift. But it left in its wake vast stretches of cut-over, waste, and
often denuded lands which are today serving little or no economic
or social purpose.
As settlement moved westward and population rapidly increased,
the process was repeated in the regions to the west. Destructive
lumbering added to the areas of waste and other conditions contrib-
uted. Now, when we approach maturity as a nation, throughout
much of the United States there has been and continues to be a
consistent decline in the acreage in farms, leaving large areas unused.
Through the processes of soil erosion these lands have continued to
deteriorate where they have not been protected by a vegetative cover.
Furthermore, as the lands were abandoned for commercial agri-
culture, there was a tendency for indigent families or families unfa-
40 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
miliar with the requirements of farming to move on to those cheap
lands. Tragic human losses and suffering have been sustained on
many such lands. Wherever people dwell, even though the popula-
tion may be scanty and the economic resources negligible, the Ameri'
can policy and conscience is to maintain for them roads, schools,
rural mail delivery and other public services which impose a heavy
tax on the whole population. In a large proportion of the areas
which are submarginal for farming, acute problems of local govern-
ment arise. With a low density of population, low property valua-
tion, low income, there are associated relatively high costs for roads,
schools, and other public services, necessitating a high percentage of
public or state aid. The returns from submarginal lands will not
support the social services and institutions necessary for even the
most modest requirements today, so that public subsidies are necessi-
tated. Where the facilities are so provided the subsidies may run
into large sums and are drawn heavily from urban population.
Land Classification and Its Uses
In order to study the adaptation of use to the character of the
rural land, the land must first be classified. The basis of the rural land-
use classification is the soil survey to determine the natural physical
characteristics of the land. These natural characteristics largely de-
termine what the land can produce and whether or not it is suited
to agricultural production. The physical soil survey, which describes
the physical characteristics, must be supplemented by an economic
and social survey which assembles all pertinent economic and social
facts, so as to reach a conclusion whether it is economically or socially
profitable to farm the lands even though physically farming of a sort
may be practicable. As a result of the surveys there is obtained
both a physical and an economic classification and inventory of the
lands, the combination of which helps to make clear the desirable use
of the land. As rural land varies in the intensity of use to which it
is adapted, it varies also in its ability to purchase, to use, and to
benefit from modern services.
When the lands have been classified and mapped, the areas will
be located and defined which are superior for agriculture, those which
are submarginal and have passed or are passing out of agricultural
use, and the various categories which fall between these extremes.
Such classification and inventory is the basis for all further plan-
ning for the development of these areas. When the lands have been
classified, the various land classes can be compared with respect to
public or private ownership, resident or absentee ownership, size of
business and income of operated farms, assessed values, tax delin-
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 41
quency, cost of farm fire insurance, cost of farm mortgage credit,
cost of relief, cost of education in rural schools and other items.
For all lands which it appears are to remain permanent in agri-
culture it is essential that all of the farms shall be served by improved
highways, readily usable at all times of the year. For much of the
country this implies hard surface roads. As rapidly as possible the
farms should also be served with electric power lines and telephone
lines. From the surveys the remaining mileage of improved roads and
of rural electric and telephone lines to be constructed can readily
be determined and decision as to their location facilitated. These
are the areas in which such facilities will have the greatest number
of users and should generally first be constructed. There are areas
of higher economic returns, better wages, greater frequency of eco'
nomic and social intercourse with neighboring urban centers and
therefore more ready and more able to support improvements in social
services and institutions and the amenities of comfortable living.
The land-use survey throws clear light on the question as to
whether the individual farm units are of adequate size for economic
success under the types of farming which the soil character and
location permit. They therefore contribute toward reorganization of
such units where it is desirable.
For the lands submarginal for agriculture and which have been
abandoned or which are in process of abandonment, considerable
mileages of roads may be abandoned and their upkeep saved, and
other needed roads may frequently be maintained as dirt or gravel
roads for less frequent access to the areas, according to the new uses
to which the lands may be put. Public utility companies can be saved
possibly large expenditures for lines into areas which seem destined
to pass out of agricultural use.
The fact that the lands are submarginal for agriculture does not
mean that they are incapable of serving other important economic
or social purposes. These alternative uses are chiefly for the produc-
tion of timber, for water control and conservation, for wild life pre-
serves and fishing and hunting, for public parks and other recrea-
tional uses, and for the beautification of the countryside; but still
other alternative uses may be considered. Among them is the pro-
duction of secondary and derived forest products, providing building
stone, sand, clay, salt, oil, gas and other mineral products, and pro-
viding research and demonstration areas and the conservation of
areas of unusual scenic or historic interest. There is little land that
cannot be put to some worth while use. Often multiple uses can be
worked out for single tracts. For arriving at these alternative uses
42 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
and mapping the areas for which they are adapted the land-use sur-
vey is a first essential.
The land'use survey may reveal tracts of low productivity which
should be retained in farming because of certain compensating eco-
nomic advantages in location or type of farming; and, on the other
hand, it may reveal areas of good farm land which should be retired
permanently from cultivation because of greater social or economic
values to be derived from their use for some other purpose, such as
special need or utility for public recreation for adjacent urban cen-
ters. There will also be located areas suitable for farming but not
at present so used because they may require certain improvements,
as by irrigation or drainage.
In the western range states there have developed extensive areas
of steadily decreasing utility because of improper range management,
and other areas which have been ruined or are rapidly being ruined
by over-gracing and washing. The land-use survey establishes the
location, extent, and seriousness of these misuses and points to the
remedies.
The Land Survey and the Water Resources
The problems of water supplies, flood control, stream regulation,
soil erosion, water power, the location of water supply, irrigation
and power reservoirs, the recreational uses of the public waters, and
related questions are becoming growingly acute in many parts of the
country. The relation of the use of land to water control and con-
servation is very intimate. The protection of the upland watersheds
of the principal river systems must everywhere receive careful atten-
tion. The present and prospective needs for water are so great that
insofar as physically and economically possible the rainfall of the
more elevated hill and mountain regions should be carefully conserved.
The land-use survey will locate the areas where the problems are
acute, indicate why they are acute, and make evident at least some
of the remedies to be applied. Such land survey is indispensable in
dealing with the recurring menace of great floods and the appalling
losses of soil caused by uncontrolled erosion.
Other Products of the Land-Use Survey
Tax delinquency on farm and cut -over forest lands has reached
great proportions, and in some areas the reversion of lands to public
ownership as a result of such delinquency has become a major prob-
lem of government. The survey not only enables the mapping of
such areas but also the determination of their common characteristics
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 43
insofar as the physical character and the possibilities of economic
utilisation of the lands are factors in causing the delinquency.
For land settlement projects and the zoning of areas against reset-
tlement in order to avoid governmental costs in providing the essen-
tial public services to such areas, or for other reasons, the land-use
survey is an essential implement.
The land-use survey has obvious contributions to make to indus-
trial location and relocation, particularly when the production of raw
materials for industrial uses is considered or when the development of
suburban homes for industrial workers is contemplated.
The survey provides facts relating to the extent and location of
rural non-farm homes and part-time farms, a recent development of
rapidly expanding proportions adjacent to urban centers and one
bringing in its wake many important planning problems and govern-
mental responsibilities, as well as many economic and social ad'
vantages.
Because the land-use survey throws light on changing uses, and
especially on the extent and process of abandonment for agricultural
uses, it raises sharply the question as to what changes in local gov-
ernment and in the provision of public aid for roads, schools, and
the like are desirable in view of the probable future uses of such
lands. Vast savings can be effected when lands submarginal for
agriculture are withdrawn from fanning and when foresight is exer-
cised as to probable future changes in use.
Finally, the survey is perhaps the first essential step in formulat-
ing or modifying public policies in relation to land and to agriculture.
The situation confronting agriculture in this country and the vast
and growing domain of lands formerly productively used but now
lying idle show clearly the urgent need for new public land policies
better adapted to a nation approaching maturity, in whose youth
many sins have been committed for which amends must yet be made.
It will be recognised that, in conjunction with the land-use survey
and the utilization of facts derived therefrom, there must be consid-
ered what are the requirements of the nation for land for each of
the various major uses. In reaching conclusions as to such require-
ments consideration must be given to such matters as the outlook for
population growth, occupation, and distribution, changing industrial
conditions and the prospects for employment in industry, the effect
of further mechanization of agriculture and the applications of sci'
ence on the human requirements in agriculture, the land requirements
in relation to the actual land resources in the nation as a whole, and
44 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
any other matters which will assist in ascertaining the needs of the
nation for lands for any of the larger purposes for which land is
requisite.
Considerations such as the foregoing are quite as important for
the future development of our cities as for the future utilisation of the
open country. The future development of both is inextricably inter'
woven by countless economic and social phenomena. The changing
outlook for one affects the outlook for the other. The cities have
always rested heavily on the economic and the social welfare of the
surrounding, and to a degree the supporting, land areas about them.
With the tendency toward a more nearly stable population, with
the automobile and the hard surface roads, with the ready transmis-
sion of power and the development of transportation almost every-
where, with the concentration of population in urban centers creat-
ing increasingly urgent needs and desires for ready access to recrea-
tion areas in the open country, and with the possibility of seriously
altered employment conditions arising from changed economic condi-
tions, and especially from changes and limitations in international
trade, the more intelligently planned utilization of the rural lands
promises to be nearly as important for the future dwellers in our
cities as for the future of those who reside in the open country.
DISCUSSION
MR. JACOB L. CRANE, JR., Chicago, Illinois: Provost Mann has made a
very convincing demonstration of the simple fact that in dealing with the re-
planning of American development we must understand the individual farm
situation, the county situation, and the state and national situation. He has
brought out very well the relationship between land utilization and other ele-
ments of development and redevelopment. He finds — as we all find these
days — that there is a necessity in these planning processes for a re-integration
of techniques which, until recently, have been widely divergent.
For the first time in this country there is a chance for the economist, the
sociologist, the landscape architect and the geographer to play a part in the
re-integration of these sciences toward the end of determining our program
for development and redevelopment. Until now the geographer has had little
chance, and in my experience he has, in many cases, not wanted to take the
chance. He has been an academic figure not altogether willing to stick his
neck out by permitting findings from his material to be used for public policy.
Mr. G. Donald Hudson, chief of the Geography Section, Division of Land
Planning and Housing of the Tennessee Valley Authority, has consented to
express his opinion on what part the geographer can play in the wide field
of regional planning and he is, I think I can say, sticking his neck out in
doing so He will show in what ways his technique may be useful and the
hazards which befall the technician once he leaves the academic fold.
GEOGRAPHY AND ITS FUNCTION
IN REGIONAL PLANNING
G. DONALD HUDSON, Tennessee Valley Authority
One of the more interesting places in which I have lived is Beirut,
Syria, the port of the old inland trading city of Damascus. As my
medical brother used to say, there is a lot of geography out there. Of
course there is a lot of geography everywhere. The point is that life in
Syria is sufficiently simple to make some features of the geography
area readily observed.
Let me give you an example. Beirut stands on a point of land.
This point of land turns slightly toward the north, partially encircling
a body of water that forms St. Georges Bay. This bay is the only
protected body of water for miles up and down the coast. It is
nearer to Damascus than any other such bay. This fact largely ex'
plains why Beirut is the most important port city of Syria. This
explanation is geographic.
Have you ever admired the symmetry and neatness of French
vineyards? Each row of vines is neatly trained on a low, sturdy
arbor. Each season vines are carefully trimmed so that the grapes
are exposed to the warm sunshine. When I first saw the famous
vineyards of the Lebanon Mountains, I thought the Syrians were
about the most shiftless farmers I had ever seen. Not a vine grew
on an arbor. They were allowed to lie on the ground, a carpet of
intermingled vines and leaves. I learned later that my first impres-
sions were not justified. When I was in the vineyards the next sea-
son I lifted the leaves here and there to find beautiful bunches of juicy
grapes on the dry ground under the shade of the carpet of leaves.
Where a bunch of grapes protruded into the sunshine, the portion
of the bunch exposed was shriveled into small, undeveloped, dried
grapes. This difference in the vineyards of France and the Lebanon
Mountains is related primarily to conditions of climate. The best
wines of France are produced during years of relatively low rain-
fall and relatively abundant sunshine. The French lay out their
vineyards so that the ground is shaded as little as possible and the
grapes can benefit as much as possible from the sunshine. In the
Lebanon Mountains, on the other hand, rainfall is light and the con-
tinuous succession of sunny days together with the high altitude make
it necessary to conserve moisture and protect the grapes from the
sun. This is accomplished by allowing the vines to grow along the
ground, the leaves forming a protective canopy for both the soil and
45
46 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
the grapes. These relationships between methods of grape culture
and climatic conditions are geographic in quality.
It is an old principle in shipping that the farther inland ships can
go, the better. Thus we have Philadelphia, Quebec, Mobile, Buenos
Aires, Seattle, and many other ports at inland points of arms of the
sea. Montreal was hindered in its development because above Que-
bec the St. Lawrence is too shallow for the traditional type of trans-
atlantic liners. The river cannot be deepened because the bottom is
solid rock. So what happened? A ship builder sliced the bottom off
the liners. A cross section of one of these liners forms a "U" instead
of the traditional "V." Now Montreal is visited regularly by the
"Dutchess1" boats of the Canadian Pacific. That adjustment of ves-
sel design to the contours of the bed of the St. Lawrence represents
a geographic relationship.
When you glide down the St. Lawrence on one of these "Dutch-
ess" boats you may notice the strings of farmsteads along the river
and the relative absence of farmsteads back on the hills. Each farm
has its cultivated fields on the relatively level land near the river,
its pastures on the hillsides behind the farmstead, and its woodlots
on the hill crests still higher up. The relationship of farm pattern
to topography catches the eye. It is geography.
Most people think of Illinois as a state of rich agricultural re-
sources. Not all of the state produces great agricultural wealth.
Some sections have only recently come into their own. Calhoun
County is one of these sections. It is tucked between the Illinois and
Mississippi rivers, only its northern boundary of thirty-odd miles
being a land boundary. The county could be classified justly as sub-
marginal. The lack of development, the county's sub-marginality,
was related mainly to two things. In the first place, the topography
was relatively rough. In the second place the county was relatively
inaccessible. No railroad or highway bridge crossed either the Illi-
nois or Mississippi. No highway reached into the county from the
north. Whatever agricultural development took place had to be suffi-
ciently specialized to be adjusted to relatively rough topography and
to overcome the disadvantages of relative inaccessibility.
One man brought Calhoun County into its own. The story of
his work is full of drama. He saw in Calhoun County the oppor-
tunity to produce apples. Soil, climate, and topography were favor-
able. In addition, apples constituted a product high in unit value,
and, therefore, able to pay their way to a market relatively hard to
reach. Also, apples do not have to be hurried to market. Therefore,
they were suited to the means of transportation at hand; namely,
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 47
the river highways to the St. Louis metropolitan area. The possible
development was greater than the market of St. Louis warranted.
The problem then was to remove the disadvantages of relative inac-
cessibility. A spur railroad was constructed to the east bank of the
Illinois River and a highway bridge thrown across the river at that
point. With these facilities available, development could go ahead,
the county occupying a strategic position between St. Louis and Chi-
cago. This strategic position was further utilised by the extension of
a highway into the county from the north. Calhoun County is today
raised from the sub-marginal class to the excellent class. The story of
its development consists of a series of adjustments between the agri-
cultural activities of the people of Calhoun county and the factors
of the natural environment. The study of these adjustments is in the
field of geography.
Tucked back on the foothills of the Shenandoah Mountains is a
cement factory. After driving along the road that winds through
wooded hills and past mountain brooks, one comes upon this busy
industrial spot without ample warning. You feel that it is out of place
in its mountain glen. But there were very good reasons for putting
a cement factory at this point. One of the main reasons was that at
that particular place excellent limestone beds and good shale were
in juxtaposition. This adjustment of plant location to limestone and
shale is geographic. If the plant were being located today, it would
be nearer its market. We have found that cement can be made from
other materials than limestone and shale. But the plant continues to
operate where it is, carried forward by geographic inertia.
And so we could go on and on, picking out additional evidence
that geography is everywhere. The warm sunny climate of California
winters, together with mountain snows in the form of irrigation
water, help to produce fresh vegetables for the dinner tables of cold,
wintry New York. It takes four minutes to cook a "three minute"
egg in the dining car kitchen when it is lifted over the high altitudes
of the Rockies. Farmers of the cotton belt terrace their fields against
the erosive effects of rains. More United States wheat goes out of
Montreal than New York, and more Canadian wheat goes out of
New York than Montreal, largely because ice has blocked, the St.
Lawrence by the time the Canadian wheat is ready for shipment.
We yearn for cool spots when temperatures are high and seek warmth
when temperatures are low. When it rains, department stores move
their umbrella racks to the front doors.
Yes, geography is everywhere. One can see it if he learns to see
geographically. Dr. Mann is seeing geographically when he says,
"The land is one of the underlying and fixed requirements for human
48 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
abode and occupation." The theme that runs through the illustra-
tions I have noted, runs through his statement, too. On the one
hand are the activities of man — the building of a harbor, the develop-
ment of a port, the application of certain methods to the growing of
grapes, the building of transatlantic liners with "U" shaped hulls;
in other words, man's abode and occupation. On the other hand are
the factors of nature — a protected bay, an arm of the sea, a sunny
climate, a shallow stream.
Human activities the world over form a pattern. Here is a mine
shaft; there is a factory; here is a farmer moving with his team and
plow across a field; there is a herdsman and his flock; and here is a
housewife hanging out her clothes. Let us call this pattern of human
activities the cultural pattern. Into that pattern Dr. Mann would
put his items of human abode and occupation.
In like manner, the items of the natural environment the world
over form a pattern. Here are coal fields; there are limestone and
shale lying close together; here are the prairies of Iowa; there are
the rugged slopes of Switzerland; and here are drying winds and
bright sunshine. This is the natural pattern. Into this pattern Dr.
Mann would place his items concerning the land, its topography, its
elevation, its soil, and the conditions of drainage and erosion.
These two great patterns are related to each other. They are
related through the use that man makes of nature. Sometimes these
relationships are easily discovered. Sometimes they can be discov-
ered only after long and arduous study. The discovery and under-
standing of these relationships between man and nature is recog-
nized by the sciences as the function of geography.
Thus we come from the simple geographic relationship between the
port city of Beirut and a protected bay to the complex study of the
geographic relationships between the cultural pattern and the natural
pattern of a region.
Are these geographic relationships of significance to regional plan-
ning? Dr. Mann answers this question many times in the affirma-
tive. Let me give my answer affirmatively, too.
The history of mankind, both past and present, is full of many sins
of omission and commission. People have tried to develop ports
where they should not be developed, and they have not developed
ports where they should be developed. They have tried to grow
grapes where they should not be grown and they have not grown
grapes where they should be grown. In other words, there have not
always been satisfactory adjustments between man and nature. If
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 49
man had always known and always knew how to adjust his activi-
ties to his natural environment, there would never have arisen the
need for regional planning.
In order to adjust his activities to nature, man must discover and
understand the relationships between his activities and the re-
sources nature has to offer. Geographers have devised certain techni-
cal ways and means of discovering these relationships, that is, tech-
niques of gathering, analyzing, measuring and otherwise treating cul-
tural and natural data. Geographers have developed a scientific
philosophy for the purpose of promoting a regional understanding
of these relationships. Geographic relationships, that is, the relation-
ships between man and nature, must be discovered and understood
regionally if human activities are to be rearranged so that haphazard,
unplanned, and unintegrated social and industrial development can
be replaced by order, design, and forethought — the aim of regional
planning.
DISCUSSION
MR. JACOB L. CRANE, JR., Chicago, Illinois: There comes to the planner's
hand then, material derived by the geographer, the geologist, several different
kinds of economists, sociologists, and engineers, and the landscape architect.
All of them display different techniques and approaches to the many prob-
lems of an area. The planner must bring them together. He can't know less
and less about more and more; he must know enough about the whole field
to be able to coordinate all the factors for use by the public agencies which
actually determine the policies and carry them out. We are aware that the
destiny of our cities is inwrapped with that of the larger regions of the nation.
The data, with their recommendations and suggestions to executive and legis-
lative bodies, must, therefore, be put together in such a way that they form
the basis for sensible policies. This is the planner's job.
Russell Black will tell us how to do it. He has had wide experience as an
engineer and landscape architect in various cities and states; he has been
concerned with regional planning projects; and he has tried the "back-to'the-
land" movement. He is a sub-regional farmer and in his rural retreat can
think out from the heights this whole question, carefully fitting together all
of the techniques.
THE MAKING OF THE PLAN
RUSSELL V. BLACK, Planning Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania
Planning is a process. The moving of a plan, whether for a city,
state, or nation, is a step in that process. Viewed over a period of
years, a plan is or should be a product of evolution. It has many
protean characteristics. A plan prepared today is to the city or
state of tomorrow as the acorn is to the oak. In the plan there should
be the vital germs of form and direction, with inherent capacity for
adjustment to circumstances. As the embryo oak must be adaptable to
unforeseeable environment, ranging from deep forest to open field
and from low plain to mountain-side, so must the plan for a city
or state be adaptable to evolving customs and to changing economic
and social requirements and demands.
Such statement of premise is made lest planning be regarded too
much as an exact science or the plan be thought of as too static a
portrayal of objectives. A plan may be positive for today's require-
ments, depending in soundness upon the degree to which those re-
quirements are understood and adapted to unavoidable limitations.
The applicability of today's plan may be extended into future years
to whatever extent current trends may be successfully interpreted. It
seems probable that scientific and social development is such as to
place planners in better position than ever before to appraise future
conditions and needs. But sufficient scientific and social fluidity re'
main to compel a kinetic quality in plan.
This by no means is intended to imply that planning is a futile
enterprise. A highway-planning engineer for a state important in
highway construction has frequently said to the writer that it is
impossible to plan state highways as much as five years ahead. He is
wrong. Many contingencies cannot be foreseen. Others are dis-
cernible through broad analyses of conditions and trends. The state
highway structure should be given conscious form. To fail in at-
tempting that because new and better principles of design may be
evolved five or ten years hence is merely foolish evasion. This is the
era of highway building. Essential form and system are now in the
process of crystallization. As with railroads, the opportunity for
good planning will never come again. As incomplete and fallible
as foresight may be, that foresight should be applied to the best of
human ability through the process of planning and through the
agency of a comprehensive plan. A little foresight is better than no
foresight at all. A good motto might be that which has been said
in better words to the effect that: Let us do our damndest today
50
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 51
with minds turned always, and not too remorsefully, toward the
future.
Planning directed toward the making of a city, state, or national
plan, is something of a science, a little of an art, and a great deal of
an applied point-of-view founded upon informed good judgment
and common sense. Planning is neither engineering, architecture,
economics, law, nor sociology, but a well-balanced blending of all of
these, overlaid with an appreciation of the all-inclusive art of living.
Some of this may sound a little nebulous or abstruse when applied
to an activity of such high claims to practicality as are those of plan-
ning. There is no desire to confuse. I am attempting merely to
establish a groundwork of planning objectives and to give some defi-
nition to its limitations. It must be recognized from the beginning that
plan-making is not quite as simple or as easy as it looks. Being an
inexact science, the results of planning, and in this instance the plan,
cannot be checked in entirety by rule or formulae. To the extent
that planning is an art, the appraisal of its product is subject to all
the inexactitudes of the judgment of other arts. The quality of judg-
ment and common-sense applied may be determined surely only by
the showings of time.
Because of its apparent simplicity, because of the difficulties of
adequate appraisal of the product of planning, and because of the
resulting lack of tested criteria, planning, as a guide for modern
progressive development, tends to become anybody's plaything —
subject sometimes to either conscious or unconscious exploitation —
but, more often, an object of suspicion. In other words, given an
awakened enthusiasm and nothing else to do, almost anybody will
undertake the making of a city plan and, because of the ill-defined
and narrowly known earmarks of good planning, few are the public
administrators and fewer are the private citizens who can separate
the "sheep-plans" from the "goat-plans." A badly constructed bridge
falls with an accusing roar much to the confusion of its would-be
designer. The people of a badly planned city live in blissful ignor-
ance of better, cheaper, and equally possible alternatives.
As one rather inadequate illustration: 183 New Jersey municipali-
ties proudly boast of adopted zoning ordinances and plans. A con-
siderable proportion of these ordinances have been drawn by "yard-
stick" methods without benefit of a background of comprehensive
planning study. Many of them have been made by lay committees
through a process of assembling or copying miscellaneous clauses from
grab-bag ordinances of other cities. It is probably not an unfair
estimate that 50 per cent of these zoned municipalities would be
52 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
almost if not quite better off with no zoning than with the kind of
zoning plans they now have.
More often than not, the village lawyer or the neighborhood grocer
will unhesitating take on the drafting of a zoning ordinance and
the making of a zoning plan. The task seems simple, especially if the
ordinances of cities A and X are at hand to copy from. The job is
simple compared with the making of a comprehensive plan for a city
in complicated environment — much more so in comparison with
tackling a plan for a region or for a state. But zoning and planning
are more than skin deep. Underneath all planning, and too fre-
quently unobserved, lie the complications and inter-relationships of
numerous social and economic implications and objectives. Plans for
no single element in a community's physical structure or social exist-
ence can be well made without taking all other elements into con-
sideration.
Now, planning is beginning to assume some rank as a great Ameri'
can pastime. Perhaps only a few more years of depression are needed
to assure to planning that position. Already, school children in school
exercises are reported as making better plans than produced by pro-
fessional planners. Both modesty and chagrin make it difficult for
me to offer refutation. The butcher, the baker, and the candle-stick
maker, distinguished by appointment to a planning commission, romp
joyously into plan-making, sometimes, it is true, returning a bit crest-
fallen through experience, but, sometimes never learning — never know-
ing. A hundred and fifty miscellaneous advisers to a planning project
become overnight a hundred and fifty able planners. There is some'
thing about this plannnig business that touches a very responsive chord
in the human make-up. Like gardening, perhaps, it seems to offer
a fleeting opportunity to assume man's birthright, the image of God,
without wearisome pre- preparation and without danger of really
serious or recognizable blunders. Unlike gardening, there is more at
stake in planning than color harmony or an adequate supply of fresh
green asparagus.
This is a long way around to saying that not all of the so-called
planning is remedial. Planning, per se, may be good, bad, or indif-
ferent, depending upon how it is done, what it is, and how it is used.
The above is not intended to belittle the invaluable part played
by planning commissioners in the making and administering of plans,
nor to discourage the entrance into the professional planning field
of sorely needed new and additional talent. Nor is it intended to
imply that planning is being approached any more amateurishly than
are many other governmental activities in this country — not especially
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 53
since 1932 — but habitually and traditionally. I am trying to drive
home the fact that plan'making is a much more complicated thing
than usually appears on the surface, requiring in its successful appli-
cation much of experience and well-balanced judgment.
A plan is as good as the directing intelligence under which it is
made, whether that intelligence is vested in one man or in ten. The
present-day social and economic structure, whether evidenced in city
or state, is too extensive and too involved to be completely mastered
in all its parts by any single individual. The thought and findings of
many men, directly or indirectly, must go into the making of a plan.
Usually, however, one man acting as interpreter and coordinator must
be relied upon to give unity, form, and direction to the plan. This
man is the planner or plan-director. He is a planner not because
he is an architect, engineer, sociologist, or economist but because, by
reason of experience or peculiar capacity, he has sufficient grasp of
all basic requirements and considerations and sufficient judgment, to
weave the many elements of plan into a desirable and workable whole.
The importance of adequate direction extends through the entire
planning process from the making of basic maps and surveys, through
planning studies, to the making of the plan and its administration.
Pointed discrimination must be used in determining the kind and
scales of needed maps and in the selection of pertinent information.
Facts obtained must be analyzed and correlated in their direct and
indirect bearing upon the plan and its administration. Unsupported
by the authority of dictatorship, planned development is considerably
dependent upon wide understanding and appreciation of its pro-
visions and objectives. Facts and their analyses must serve the dual
purpose of shaping and of supporting the plan. Their presentation
must have popular appeal and legibility as well as technical adequacy.
To the entire process of survey and plan-making there should be
imparted the symphonic qualities of scale, tone and balance. Too
much stress upon the bassoons of traffic and highways and too much
or too little upon the cellos of forest and park will serve only to
reproduce the cacaphony of the old order of unbalance with an im-
proved technique. Coordinated direction, therefore, calling for a
peculiar and perhaps specialized quality in directing personnel, is a
first essential in beneficially-effective plan-making.
This requirement of good planning procedure is particularly trou-
blesome at this time. Present disorders and their more or less obvious
causes have emphasized the need for planning. The necessity of pro-
viding useful public work for many men offers unparalleled oppor-
tunity to advance planning projects. Fairly adequate tools of almost
54 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
every kind, except sufficient experienced or otherwise qualified direc'
tion, are or can be made readily available. The finding of qualified
directing personnel is difficult. Undoubtedly there are thousands of
men in this country with inherent capacity to direct well the most
involved of planning jobs. But most of them are specialised and
busily occupied in other fields. Lacking close familiarity with plan-
ning procedure and objectives, knowing little or nothing of its
technique, and being preoccupied with other things, few of these
men are available to planning. Bringing them into and educating
them in the field of comprehensive planning is of necessity a rather
long process. Because of a deficiency in trained personnel, therefore,
it may be necessary to stop many current planning projects short of
actual comprehensive plan-making, confining activity for the time
being at least to such preliminary and basic work as the making of
maps and the compilation and presentation of significant factual data.
These items require a minimum of specialised direction. In the
absence of experienced direction there will be some lost motion but
not more in planning than in any other operation tied up with fit-
ting square pegs into round holes. Such temporary limitation of the
scope of a planning project, pending arrangements for adequate
direction, will not necessarily retard planning progress. A wide range
of dependable maps and fact compilations is essential to intelligent
and efficient planning. Most planning projects of the past have suf-
fered from the lack of this foundation material. Few cities are so
well equipped with such basic maps and assembled information that
bringing themselves up to date in these matters will not, of itself,
require months of concentrated effort. Full planning programs should,
of course, be undertaken wherever and whenever, by reason of suffi-
cient funds or other favorable circumstances, competent direction is
available or can be drafted into service.
Someone will now call attention to the presence and probable avail-
ability in all sizable cities, urban counties, and states, of the wide
array of competent technicians: street and highway engineers, sani-
tation engineers, park and conservation men, educators, statisticians,
lawyers, sociologists, administrators, and numerous others. That some-
one will go on to suggest that organized cooperation between these
men can be made to produce an adequate plan and that the setting
up of machinery to insure that cooperation is the only need. My
reply is that positive coordination and not cooperation alone is essen-
tial, and that this coordination must be initiated by a neutral agency
such as the planning board and its staff. Such coordination should be
directed toward the initiation of a comprehensive plan constructed
upon a much deeper and a much broader base than has hitherto been
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 55
applied in the disjointed development-procedure of the unplanned
city or state. Close cooperation between many specialists is essential
but this alone will not produce a well-balanced plan and works pro-
gram. The situation calls for one more specialist, the coordinator.
A further first essential to effective plan-making and administra-
tion is a strong, interested, and enthusiastic planning board. The plan-
ning board need not be comprised of technicians, although the in-
clusion of some technicians among its members will be found most
helpful and desirable. It is seldom the function of a planning board,
through direct membership activity, to do the technical planning. This
is a job for the board's paid staff. The primary function of the board,
and one no less important and exacting than the technical job of
plan-making, is that of bringing to bear upon the entire process that
matured judgment and vari-sided point of view essential to an assured
workability and suitability of plan. In addition to the competency of
matured judgment and balanced point of view the planning board
and its individual members should have sufficient position and pres-
tige in the community to command respectful hearing in all matters
within or affecting its jurisdiction.
I do not know just what the audience may have expected to be
produced under this subject, "Making of the Plan." Having set
planning up as a noble and specialised procedure, it has seemed
scarcely logical for me to follow that by an attempt to frame rules-
of -thumb covering technique and procedure. I also have my doubts
as to whether planning can be so packed, sealed, and delivered. I am
quite certain that the technique of plan-making is not a matter to
be confined effectively within the span of one short paper. More-
over so much has already been written on the subject that further
discussion of specialised planning technique seems relatively unim-
portant at this time and in this place. Given a good planning board,
willing and in position to devote time and thought to its job; quali-
fied directing personnel; ample funds; and a reasonably well trained
staff, planning presents no peculiar or insurmountable difficulties.
There remains to the planning process so implemented only one espe-
cially troublesome problem, that of shaping plans and policies toward
an economically sound and socially desirable end. We have all heard
of "the beautiful but dumb" and perhaps known "soulless perfection."
Plans can be that way too.
DISCUSSION
MR. JACOB L. CRANE, JR., Chicago, Illinois: If Russell Black is as persuasive
to all of you as he is to me, we might conclude that the show is over. We
have a better understanding now of the manner in which the destiny of our
cities is inwrapped with regional and national development.
56 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
I should like to say here that the kind of planning we are discussing is an
instrument for good public administration. The whole process is one of
understanding what we are about, of selecting objectives, of choosing a way
of preventing our cities from disintegrating and disappearing. We hold the
firm conviction that they need not and should not. There is the greatest
need that our energies be brought to bear upon a plan from which programs
laid in that direction can be derived. It leads to one thing as I see it: better
public administration. With better instrumentalities of planning to guide them,
cities and executives of cities and state and national governments can more
wisely carry on their affairs.
I hope you all saw a recent editorial in the Cincinnati Enquirer. It said, I
believe, "Planning [not just city planning] is not only useful but essential
to the operation of a municipality." In Cincinnati a high level of municipal
government has been attained with a city manager of outstanding ability and
the city manager system on the one hand, and the City Planning Commission
on the other.
The next division of our program, under which three papers will be pre'
sented, is entitled, obscurely I think, The Functioning of the Plan. Mr. Dyk'
stra will present the first paper of the series: "Public Works and Uses."
THE FUNCTIONING OF THE PLAN: PUBLIC
WORKS AND USES
C. A. DYKSTRA, City Manager, Cincinnati, Ohio
We have discussed the question: Must American cities decay? If
they must not, as has been indicated, how is that decay to be avoided?
The speakers here have indicated working through a planning proc-
ess. They suggest that we should make a plan for the rehabilitation
of cities as they are now — for the future of cities as they are to be.
They predict that we shall have much geography and many finely
drafted plans which will make of cities what those of us who have
vision wish them to be.
Then we come to that most prosaic consideration, the old problem
of finance. There is also the problem of the acceptance of plans by
those who have never lived under one, who perhaps do not care to.
Then, assuming some sort of public acceptance, there are those indi-
viduals and groups who appear before legislative and administrative
bodies to point out that the plan will conflict with their own personal
hopes and schemes.
One of the ways in which these conflicting interests may be brought
together in the administration of a plan, is through introducing into
the planning commission personnel representatives of those agencies
of the government which are to have part in the prosecution of the
plan. For instance, in the planning commission of this city there is
a member of the City Council chosen by that Council as ex officio
member of the commission who is also a member of the administrative
force — the city manager. Thus representatives from the legislative
as well as the administrative body sit with the planning commission
which is charged with the planning function of the community.
Such a set-up may produce friction or it may minimise it, depend'
ing upon personalities, individual convictions, or the time of day!
But there are informal ways of reaching conclusions, of discovering
differences of opinion, of ironing out difficulties. There are ways of
finding out how to avoid the rocks in the path of a plan or new
Zoning ordinance before action by the commission or legislative body
which has authority to put it into effect or to prevent its being carried
out. I think we have been successful here in doing this kind of
thing. A suggestion here and there to the community as to how cer-
tain difficulties may be avoided affects not only the local administra-
tive and legislative bodies but, under the impetus of regional, state
and national planning, is leaving its imprint on other levels of ad-
57
58 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
ministration as well. One of the discoveries we must make is how,
on a vertical line, the administration of all planning may be brought
together and integrated.
As an illustration of this point let us take the community that is
embarking upon public housing. You may have a local housing au-
thority of some kind. Here in this community the city planning
commission has taken a great interest and has played a large part
in seeing that a public housing development shall do its part in the
rehabilitation of certain districts in this community. But in the ad'
ministration of that program there have come to bear upon the scheme
not only local administrative officers, park and playground commis-
sioners, but all those who have to do with the national features of
this project as well. A local project not only has to run the gamut
of engineers and architects and financial authorities at Washington,
but has to be coordinated with a national plan. There are many
difficulties involved in that, so it takes a great deal of time to admin-
ister a program once it is set up as a local project.
Certainly that is true in the construction of a local Federal build-
ing. What will be done in such a case in your community? Is the
Federal Government going to work with the local planning authori-
ties in the determination of a Civic Center plan, and if so, are the
Treasury and Post Office departments going to participate in that
planning arrangement?
When we come to the administration of a plan, the problem is not
a local problem only. It may become a State problem if there are
certain facilities which the State will move into the community. It
may become a national problem. Therefore, if we are going to talk
about the integration of planning on these various levels of govern-
ment— local, state, regional and national — we must discuss the in-
tegration of the administration of plans on these various levels as
well. Unless we do that, we shall have a conflict of interests and
authority which will be a hindrance to carrying through in a practi-
cal administrative way all of the beautiful schemes and ideas we may
have considered as a program.
I take it that this is the reason for the suggestion that a national
body should study problems of taxation and collection of revenues
on the various levels of government. When we discover how an
integrated plan is to be financed, how it is to be administered; when
authorities are integrated vertically through all the administrative
forces of our government, then we can look forward to the success-
ful execution of our plans.
You have listened patiently to a discussion of plans of geography,
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 59
of the trouble with plans, and of the difficulties of administering
them. It is my belief that not only as planners, but as administrators,
we must find a way to correlate these two functions in such a way
that we can make proper progress in a proper way to a proper end.
That is why the question of who is to administer a plan, of how the
local, regional, and perhaps state and national planning commissions
are to be made up is of considerable importance. I suggest that it
might be worth while on all these levels to introduce into our plan-
ning agencies representatives of groups which will furnish both the
financial support for the making of the plans and the responsibility
of their administration. By such coordination and correlation I think
we shall make progress more quickly, more sanely and more surely.
Once that progress is made the community will support not only
the plan but its administration.
THE FUNCTIONING OF THE PLAN:
SUBDIVISION CONTROL
EARL O. MILLS, Planning Consultant, Saint Louis, Missouri
Subdivision control has been a major topic of discussion at the
meetings of the National Planning Conference for the past quarter
of a century. Indeed, little has been left unsaid regarding the in-
evitable consequences of an unregulated patchwork of independent
subdivisions, which appear in the form of poor street arrangements,
inadequate lot sizes and a woeful lack of open space for schools and
recreation. Interesting and conclusive facts also have been presented
to illustrate the enormous sums expended in the poorly planned areas
to provide increased street, school, and recreational areas in accord-
ance with the requirements of modern community life.
Largely as a consequence of the constructive suggestions elicited by
this Conference, many subdivision laws have been enacted and a
marked degree of progress has been made in the method and control
of land subdivision. Though the exact number of municipalities
possessing and diligently enforcing modern platting regulations is
not readily ascertainable, it no doubt includes a substantial part, if
not a majority, of the approximately 800 planning commissions now
in existence. Similarly gratifying is the statement contained in that
enlightening publication "Our Cities Today and Tomorrow" by Mr.
and Mrs. Hubbard of Harvard University. According to a state-
ment contained therein, nearly half of the states have authorized
municipalities to exercise extra-territorial control of subdivisions vary-
ing in extent from one-half to ten miles beyond their corporate limits.
Through the application of more scientific principles in land plat-
ting, creditable achievements have been obtained in a better adapta-
tion of street arrangement to topography, more economical and ra-
tional use of street space, larger and more practical lot sizes, some
provision for recreation, and a greater recognition and acceptance of
modern thoroughfare planning.
The vast mileage of major thoroughfares acquired without cost,
through comprehensive planning and subdivision control, represents
one of the most effective and economic products in the field of plan-
ning achievements. Among the numerous notable accomplishments
illustrating the economic wisdom of farsighted planning, which our
more "practical" community builders like to think of as the day
dream of a benighted theorist, is the experience of Los Angeles
County. According to a report issued by the Los Angeles Regional
Planning Commission in July, 1932, it had secured over a period of
60
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 61
years, "the dedication absolutely free, of 165 miles of highways.
During the same period, the auditor's books show the County con-
demned 24.6 miles of highway right-of-way at a cost of $118,000
per mile. At this rate the 165 miles secured through planning would
have cost nearly $20,000,000."
These figures for Los Angeles County, where planning precedes
development, afford a striking comparison with the regrettable and
costly experience of the City of Los Angeles, which grew and then
planned. Obviously, if the City of Los Angeles had exercised the
same foresight several decades ago, that has been followed in Los
Angeles County during the past decade, the vast majority of the
City's one hundred million dollar program for major thoroughfare
improvements could have been prevented. Numerous other cogent
demonstrations could be recounted, but this alone should be suffi-
cient to sustain the contention that farsighted planning pays big
dividends.
Notwithstanding the fact that meritorious progress has been
achieved in subdivision control. as a part of comprehensive planning,
certain serious evils still prevail. The root of these evils, which have
persisted virtually since the beginning of community development,
can be attributed in large measure to the unfailing belief that land
is a commodity to be bought and sold for profit rather than devoted
to its most logical and wholesome use.
Few, if any, communities have escaped the blighting and detri-
mental effects of land exploitation in the form of excessive and
unwarranted subdivided areas. The disastrous consequences of these
false attempts at the urbanization of land yet unripe for develop-
ment are not, and cannot be, fully realized in the absence of more
complete and authentic information. The editors of the magazine
Fortune, however, throw some light on this dilemma in their excel-
lent publication "Housing America," in which they say:
"The American Continent was whittled down from the lap of
God to the corner lot in a man's lifetime. And the waste of that
process lies about our cities now in slag heaps of houseless subdi-
visions and tailings of high-priced acres like the refuse around a
careless mill. Chicago was said to have enough newly plotted subur-
ban land five years ago to house 10 million people. There are enough
lots staked off on Long Island to make suburbanites of the inhab-
itants of the five Boroughs of New York. One hundred and seventy-
five thousand of Cleveland's 375,000 lots, or 47 per cent, were
vacant in 1929. Detroit suburbs have been staked 30 per cent in
advance of requirements for the last thirty years. Seventy-five per
62 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
cent of the total plotted area of Burbank, California, and 53 per
cent of the plotted land throughout Los Angeles County are vacant.
Fifty (50) per cent of the land of Portland, Maine, 66 per cent of
the lot area of Duluth and 30 per cent of the plotted area of El
Paso, stand empty."
Another indication of the fallacious and almost ludicrous situa-
tion, which has arisen through unbridled land gambling, can be
gained from a rough approximation of the probable total number
of vacant lots existing throughout the country. For instance, if the
average amount of vacant platted land known to exist in several
representative communities, is indicative of the average for all urban
regions, there are now sufficient vacant lots to accommodate a total
urban population considerably more than double that of 1930, which
was 69 millions. Contrast this with the population studies in the
recent report of the National Resources Board, which anticipates
that the nation's maximum population will be attained about the
year 1960 with a total of slightly more than 140 million. According
to the details of these population estimates, if the migration from
rural to urban areas continues at the same pace as it did from 1920
to 1930, which is exceedingly doubtful, the maximum increase in
urban population will scarcely exceed 13 millions, or only about
15 or 20 per cent of the amount needed to absorb the now existing
vacant lots. It cannot be assumed that the entire increase in urban
population will seek the lots already subdivided. There are many
areas relatively closer in and more attractive that could and should
be developed, notwithstanding that the present surplus far exceeds
all reasonable future demand. This would indicate that the vast
majority of the surplus subdivided areas will forever remain idle
unless some readjustment is effected.
It is to be regretted that sufficient data is not now available for
a fair approximation of the tremendous useless expenditures made
for streets, utilities, and other facilities now serving vacant lots.
Certain figures pertaining to this subject from the Los Angeles Re'
gional Planning Commission, however, are most illuminating. It is
reported that in Los Angeles County there are 2,220 miles of streets
serving the frontage of vacant lots and the annual charge for street
maintenance in front of these vacant lots alone is $1,435,869. It also
is stated that the increased cost of government made necessary solely
because of the existence of these vacant lots is 3J/2 million dollars
annually.
Another testimony to the folly of surplus land platting, is the
resultant and fictitious increase in land values. From a few approxi'
mate estimates it is clearly evident that for the entire Nation such
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 63
inflated values would run into billions of dollars, being in excess of
J/4 billion in each of the Chicago and Los Angeles regions alone. Un-
doubtedly careful research would disclose that these false incre-
ments in land values exert a more profound and distressing effect
upon governmental finance than is generally realised. It should be
apparent that in no other phase of urban planning is there greater
need for research and study than in the social and economic conse-
quences of indiscriminate land platting.
The immediate problem of urban land planning might be said to
be concerned chiefly with the urban slums, and the sparsely built
areas between the developed sections and the open country. In the
urban slum areas, it has long since been conceded that the only
practical solution to this vexatious problem of rehabilitation is the
consolidation of individual parcels of land and the construction of
neighborhood units sufficiently large to create and maintain their
own environment. This, of course, involves several serious obstacles
which heretofore have been regarded as almost insurmountable. The
present slum-clearance and low-cost housing program of the Federal
Government, however, recognizes the above principle and should
presage the solution to our slum problems.
It can scarcely be denied that the sparsely built areas constitute
one of the greatest present-day challenges to the ingenuity of the
planning profession. With a scattered surplus of vacant subdivided
property, most of which will never be needed for building purposes —
some of it improved and much of it held in small parcels — the prob-
lem is indeed a most complex one and one which under present inade-
quate legal authority seems almost insoluble. Yet if metropolitan
areas are to be well-balanced and reflect some semblance of order,
economy and efficiency, certain readjustments are inevitable. To be
sure, any plans for the intelligent reorganization of these areas will
necessitate a more comprehensive survey and analysis of present con-
ditions than are now available.
One of the difficulties in curbing the premature platting of land
has been the failure or inability to substantiate previous predictions
with complete and conclusive facts. Though some partial and inter-
esting studies have been made in certain localities, further enlighten-
ment is needed upon such matters as:
(1) The cost of installation and maintenance of streets, sewers, water, gas,
electricity, transportation, schools, fire, police, health, and similar
facilities, now serving vacant lots.
(2) The losses sustained in carrying charges, such as interest and taxes, and
the effect of vacant lots upon the problem of tax delinquency.
64 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
(3) The greater financial risk involved, for which the unsuspecting pur-
chasers pay, where agricultural lands are prematurely platted into
building lots and remain idle indefinitely or eternally.
(4) The fictitious property values created by designating rural land for
urban purposes in advance of need thereby enhancing its assessed
value and establishing a false security upon which the community
bonded limit is legally determined.
Factual information of this character would not only serve to
emphasise the need for broader regulatory powers, but would also
facilitate the reorganisation and planning of these areas. Obviously
any plan for readjustment should take into account opportunities for
converting tax delinquent lands into park and school sites, and the
replatting of vacant unimproved subdivisions for residence, business,
subsistence homestead, and other appropriate uses.
To secure an orderly reorganisation of the sparsely built areas,
it is essential that a thoroughfare plan and zoning regulations pre'
cede the platting or replatting of land. In states where county
Zoning may be difficult to obtain, "extra-territorial zoning" might be
resorted to, as is permissible in certain cities in Kentucky and Ten-
nessee. Density regulations under zoning ordinances, if used more
extensively and effectively, would contribute immeasurably to the
solution of the problem of indiscriminate land platting and the pre'
vention of suburban slums. For example, it is quite generally con-
ceded and should be recognised in planning that greater open space
should be the compensating factor for greater distance in travel.
Generally speaking, building sites should be increased somewhat in
proportion to their distance from the center of high values. Beyond
the limits where scientific studies indicate that the subdivision of land
into lots of less than an acre or two should terminate, only large
estates, agricultural uses, subsistence homesteads, parks, and the like,
should be permitted.
Such an attempt to control more rigidly the distribution of popu-
lation and wild-cat subdivisions may seem a questionable extension of
the zoning principle, but we need only to be reminded that in the
short span of less than twenty years we have witnessed the extension
of the application of zoning regulations from the skyscrapers of New
York to the cut-over lands of Wisconsin, where the permanent use
of certain lands is specifically prohibited. Moreover, in view of our
serious land problems both rural and urban, we may reasonably ex-
pect a more widespread use and continued refinement of zoning
regulations to effect, among other things, a more rational and whole-
some distribution of population.
Such regulations would serve to correct many evils in land plat-
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 65
ting and tend to bring about a better and saner understanding of
our future population growth in the urban regions. Too much stress,
however, cannot be placed upon the dire need of direct legal au-
thority to control excess subdivision and the sale of subdivided prop'
erty by metes and bounds. The installation of improvements and
utilities as a condition of approval of plats is now in effect in a lim-
ited number of communities. Though not a panacea for all ills, this
is a commendable practice and one that should be more extensively
used. In Memphis, Tennessee, an interesting law has been in opera-
tion for the past decade, which provides that a deed to a lot of less
than two acres within the city or five miles beyond, cannot be re-
corded unless it abuts upon a public thoroughfare or is approved by
the City Plan Commission. In other communities instances are re-
corded where building permits or utilities are refused for lots in
unapproved subdivisions, and while such a procedure may possess
some merit, it can, at best, be regarded only as an expedient of ques-
tionable practical value under our democratic form of government.
Obviously these problems must be corrected at their source if subse-
quent and aggravating complications are to be avoided.
A gratifying degree of progress has been made in subdivision con-
trol, especially in the matter of design, though too little attention
has been given to the final appearance of completed projects. A great
deal can be achieved through such devices as density regulations under
Zoning ordinances — requiring the installation of improvements and
prohibiting the conveyance of property in unapproved subdivisions,
but there is admittedly a crying need for exhaustive research and
study to reveal a true and comprehensive picture of the colossal
waste and unwholesome conditions resulting from unbridled land
speculation. With such supporting facts there is every reason to be-
lieve that, through the renewed interest in all phases of planning now
being stimulated by the National Resources Board, together with
the increasingly favorable attitude of the courts toward the necessity
of broader regulations to meet our changing social and economic
conditions, suitable legislation can be procured and sustained.
A ZONING PRIMER
JOSEPH T. WOODRUFF, Consultant, New England Regional Planning
Commission
We might just as well start right off and look zoning in the face.
Its face is proud, as it should be; it has done things. But in spite of
the fact that the Supreme Court has given it a pretty clean bill of
health, it is not what it used to be. It started out with enabling leg-
islation that said, usually, that zoning must be based on a compre-
hensive plan, that it should be designed to promote general welfare,
to prevent the spread of fire and congestion on the streets, to pro-
mote safety and to sponsor all the other things that would be achieved
if zoning were truly the legal background for the comprehensive
plan that it should be, and a medium to prevent decay.
The fact is that zoning, as it exists today, is far from that goal.
In many instances the quantitative relationships between business,
residential and industrial areas are all awry. Much zoning was done
in times of belief that the sky was the limit, whereas fairly recently
most of us have been there and found that it isn't. Much zoning
was not preceded by any plan at all. Business zones adequate for
800,000 people are found in cities of 140,000; areas in towns already
troubled with delinquency, fire hazard and other congestion, are
zoned so that density in that area may be greatly increased; marshy
lands that can't economically be sewered are zoned for multiple
dwellings; taxes are assessed by tax boards without reference to zon-
ing; fire districts prescribe regulations for construction with no ref-
erence to areas zoned for specific uses; Boards of Appeal nibble at
the existing zoning giving special privileges to the chosen few, while
they should be interested only in relieving unnecessary hardship in
the strict enforcement of the ordinance.
You have probably heard of the discouraged squire who said that
he had had so many messes in the family he was having a mop put
on the coat of arms. What we need is a mop. The mopping isn't
going to be easy, for zoning has been set long enough for us to have
learned not only its bad habits, but to resent changing them. Yet it
can be done.
Only recently sections of the Boston Post Road in Darien, Con-
necticut, have been reclaimed from a business to a residential use
through a program of education based on a newly-made compre-
hensive plan and extensive studies by the Fairfield County Planning
Association. Streets in Bridgeport, Connecticut, have been reclaimed
where sporadic business uses had not done too great damage. Mont-
66
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 67
clair, New Jersey, has restudied her ordinance in the light of
changed conditions. Springfield, Massachusetts, is restudying her
ordinance as she has done every five years, and you know of many
other instances where the mop is working.
We will all admit that we have fathered and mothered zoning. We
have to be good parents; children are natural mimics. They act like
their parents in spite of every effort to teach them good manners.
This is zoning as she is: too ambitious without balance, too change-
able without a plan, too undisciplined under proper appeal, but young
— so young that we can forgive her. She is only waiting to be mar-
ried to her planned lover to lead a fuller and more useful life.
A friend of mine says that some people have no respect for age —
unless it's bottled. But zoning isn't too old to be criticized, nor is it
bottled up. It is probably on the verge of the greatest opportunity to
be of real use.
Its highest function is to promote health, safety, and general wel-
fare through the intelligent exercise of the police power by setting
aside certain uses of land, heights, bulk, and coverage of buildings,
population density provisions, etc., according to a comprehensive plan.
Where is the plan? The enabling acts call for a plan, but do not
require the production of a plan before and as a part of the evidence
incidental to the adoption of the ordinance.
Zoning can so apportion the quantity of business, residence and
industrial uses that they will not only be suitable to the land areas
but, what is more important, will be balanced to fit the compre-
hensive plan for the community. Zoning can prohibit residence,
where sound background of health and safety reasons can be shown,
on areas unsuited for such use. This principle has been used on
marsh lands of Connecticut shore towns and on Connecticut River
areas subject to annual floods.
The heroic efforts of this Administration, through the National
Resources Board, are resulting in the making of more thorough and
complete studies of existing and potential land-uses than have ever
been made for this or any other country. Its labors are resulting also
in the making of town, city, state and regional plans. Plans are being
made for cities and towns that were zoned without a plan, and data
are being assembled for whole areas of rural lands indicating their
highest use. County and regional zoning should turn these data to
good use.
In recapitulation let us say:
(1) Zoning should form the legal control and support for a com-
prehensive plan, be it for town, city or region.
68 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
(2) Much of present zoning has been done without a plan.
(3) Much of present zoning should be redone.
(4) Before present zoning is redone up-to-date plans should be
made.
(5) Comprehensive plans should be required before adoption of
Zoning plans.
(6) The quantitative balance of land-uses in relation to popula-
tion trends should be stated on the zoning map and in the ordinance
at the time of adoption, so that the people who are adopting the
ordinance know what they are getting. A city should know whether
it is providing today business areas for ten times its present popula-
tion, or whether it is really getting some reasonable degree of pro'
tection.
(7) Taxation methods, building codes, fire districts should be
inter-related and conform to a general plan.
But this is a Primer, and its third part, on how to accomplish bet-
ter zoning, has yet to be discussed. My impression is that though
she's been a flighty youngster, zoning had better recognize the well-
meaning advances of her comprehensive plan lover. The sooner they
are married the better. An intelligent girl is one who knows how
to refuse a kiss without being deprived of it.
DISCUSSION
MR. JACOB L. CRANE, JR., Chicago, Illinois: I was very glad to learn that
Hugh R. Pomeroy was coming on from California to talk about zoning. I
have known Hugh Pomeroy for a good many years. This morning a stranger
approached me and said he was Hugh Pomeroy. I had no way of defending
myself on that matter. This gentleman still insists he is Hugh Pomeroy. I do
know Hugh Pomeroy has done some very interesting things in zoning in
California. If that gentleman will come forward and present himself he
assumes the responsibility, not I.
MR. HUGH R. POMEROY, San Jose, California: My well-meaning attempts
to give a little dignity to the planning profession back in California by facial
re-forestation was met with singular disrespect on the part of my colleagues.
I simply have to do the best I can in letting nature take its course.
Having decided only Thursday morning that I could come, and having
driven the distance in three days, there has been no opportunity for me to
go over the papers. I have, however, a few notes on the discussions and
comments which have been made today.
We had outlined for us this morning the effects which result in rural,
city and national development from three primary causes: faulty land utiliza-
tion, faulty distribution of population with resultant population density, and
faulty site planning. We have as an objective in planning, therefore, whether
it be city, state or national, the effectuation of a pattern of sound land utiliza-
tion, sound distribution and density of population and sound site planning.
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 69
It is necessary that we interpret our data in the light of an adequate philosophy
and evaluate it in the light of what has taken place. We need a philosophy
that is sound socially and economically and directed toward the development
of sound patterns.
I do not agree entirely with Mr. Hudson in his statement that if we knew
how to integrate our development with geographical factors we would not
need regional planning. The accomplishment of the objectives which have
been mentioned is, of course, the purpose of planning; and the very integra'
tion to which he refers is planning itself.
We have seen during the past few years a reaching down, or a reaching
in as it were, toward the broader aspects of planning which characterize
our search for a constructive national policy in forestry and agriculture. At
the same time we have seen in a reaching out into urban planning an attempt
to provide satisfactorily for the city dweller pleasant driving conditions along
the highways by means of roadside control. This reaching out into the
broader aspects of planning is now being met with, particularly in the fields
of county and state planning. We have seen some interesting experiments
along that line.
Mr. Bartholomew referred this morning to the necessity of undertaking
the practical task of working over our existing zoning. While Los Angeles
has accomplished a great deal in subdivision control in Los Angeles County,
the fact remains that over 50 per cent of all its subdivided lots are still vacant,
and that one out of every three lots in Los Angeles is zoned for some par'
ticular purpose. Our urban zoning patterns must be redrafted in an attempt
to develop a technique that will reach beyond urban limits as we know them.
We are endeavoring to do certain things in California counties which are,
frankly, experimental insofar as techniques are concerned. The County of
San Mateo is undertaking to write broad laws in order to make planning an
essential function of the county government, providing also that the plan
as it is developed will not become what has been described here today as
something beautiful but dumb. We hope that the plan will become an actual
part of the working policy and program of the county development. In our
opinion, it is the duty of the county government to determine the means for
effectuating the conditions of the plan as the plan is developed. Zoning is
not called "zoning" in San Mateo County, but is referred to as "Land'Use
Planning" and the ordinance is known as the "Land'Use Plan Ordinance."
This ordinance does the thing which a good city is supposed to do: It sets
up an urban district which reaches out into the rural areas of the county
bringing roadside control to the larger thoroughfares in terms of rural rather
than urban classification. It sets out frankly to protect the scenic areas of
the country and even to encompass the problem of erosion control. The
intention in San Mateo County, then, is to extend the zoning process to
the point where it will definitely control the ultimate land utilization and,
extent of occupancy, and will protect the scenic areas of the county.
There is no local precedent for what we are doing. However, Mr. Bett-
man's words, spoken at the Pittsburgh Conference of 1932, are ringing
through parts of California. Speaking as a lawyer, he expressed the hope that
we planners would forget the law in making sure that our programs were
solely for human betterment. The lawyer's job, he said, would be to keep
up with us. So with more courage, possibly, than good sense, we are pro'
ceeding to find means whereby we may utilize the zoning process to effectuate
a pattern of sound land utilization, of proper population distribution and
site design in some of our California communities.
70 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
MR. ALFRED BETTMAN, Cincinnati, Ohio: Some subdivision regulations —
not everywhere, but certainly in enough places to permit a general assertion
— seem to have been successfully devised to accomplish that which the par-
ticular ordinance or law set out to do. We have limited subdivision reguh'
tion largely to the adequacies and set'up of the commission. Outside of
small contributions to recreational space and increased efficiency in street lay
out, we do not seem to have applied the division device technically to sub'
division regulation. In our minds, if not to any great degree in the law, we
have reached the point of willingness to prohibit the premature and excessive
subdividing of land by means of subdivision regulation. Proof of its value
is apparent in statistics. A question arises in my mind, however, which I
wish I were technically better qualified to examine. Can we apply this
technique or device of subdivision regulation to meet the conditions described
in our morning paper? That is, can we, through subdivisional regulation and
zoning (for they are allied techniques) accomplish something along the line
of Mr. Pomeroy's suggestion? For instance, if we have a probable, practical
plan for the replanning and rebuilding of the blighted central area, how
far can we go? Is it theoretically possible, is it politically and practically pos'
sible to use the device of subdivision regulation to exclude from certain areas
those types of development which we wish to divert to our rehabilitated and
replanned central areas? Or, if we have a land administration program which
goes into considerable detail, possibly into more detail than the zoning ordi'
nance in regard to land administration within the urban district, is it sound
to conceive of the practicability of using this device not only negatively to
prevent vacancies, but positively to develop the city?
MR. HERBERT U. NELSON, Chicago, Illinois: The National Association of
Real Estate Boards is intensely interested in a practical plan or method of
subdivision control. It is spoken of here as something already in existence
Personally, I know of no established method of effective subdivision control.
Our Association has been greatly concerned with and has repeatedly in'
vestigated the subject. I can give you facts and cite instances of the evils of
excessive subdivision that are much more convincing than anything you have
heard today. In our opinion, there is nothing worse for a city or for the
public than wildcat subdivision. At one time we hoped that the city plan'
ning commission would ultimately be vested with the authority to control
such tendencies, but so far we have not seen a city planning commission
willing enough to use the powers already delegated to it. Zoning as it has
been discussed here, as a part of regional activity, seems to us to be in the
future.
We may again witness subdivision activity within the next two or three
years. We are anxious, therefore, to see a device developed or suggested by
you who are technically skilled in this field and who are studying these prob'
lems; a solution that will give immediate, even stop'gap, control. Other'
wise we will go through another five or ten years of intense real estate
activity and all of the things that we see and don't like now will be a great
deal worse than they are at present. A plan for dealing adequately with the
subdivision problem does not now exist, so far as I know, in any community.
If anyone in this group will undertake to develop a practical method of sub'
division control, I assure you that it will be welcomed by every responsible
man in our Association as well as by the many cities that are studying this
problem.
MR. JACOB L. CRANE, JR., Chicago, Illinois: I should like to suggest that
one or more members of the organizations represented here undertake to
prepare a statement of what now seems to be a sensible and practicable way
THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY 71
of going about this problem of subdivision control. In fact all of you might
undertake to comment on this subject.
Mr. Pomeroy of California has what on the face of it appears to be a very
effective subdivision control law so far as controlling the layout of a sub-
division is concerned. He has described a method which includes density of
occupation control, site control and zoning. It does not control subdivision
quantitatively. When the law was adopted in that form in 1929 the provision
was forced into it that any subdivision not approved by the planning com'
mission within 30 days could be sold thereafter. In other words, subdivision
control law in the State of California contains within itself the specific means
for its own nullification. The only way we have been able to get around that
is in adopting by ordinance the plan of the subdivision that should be put
into effect. This method has been used in very few cases, however, because
the mere threat of it has generally been effective.
MR. GEORGE H. GRAY, Hartford, Connecticut: I should like to say that I
have studied the San Mateo action and it seems to me to be far in advance
of anything else we have in zoning. I should like to recommend that either
this organization, or some other, print this material in such form as to be
available to everyone in the country. It is, to me, one of the classic jobs of
its kind and, if published, would be an extremely valuable contribution to
planning.
MR. EDWARD M. BASSETT, New York City: The State of New York has,
for several years, had on its statute books laws to control planning and sub'
division. One of these laws is in the general town law, another in the village
law, and a third in the city law. In each case they are the same. Many
villages, some towns and a number of cities have taken advantage of these
permissive laws. They are not mandatory, and they are working rather well
under a great deal of experimentation. One good thing about them is that
they do not penalize non-compliance. Nor do they prohibit the filing of
deeds in recording offices. Mr. Mills spoke of such prohibition unless the
plat was approved. That, we think, is dangerous because whether there is
a plat or not a man should be able to make an assignment of a driveway or
deed two feet of land to his neighbor. The recording officer can't distinguish
if there is a blanket prohibition. In other words, land should always be kept
alienable. We can get at all these things without prohibiting the recording
of deeds.
MR. AARON B. HORWITZ, Duluth, Minnesota: Mr. Mills spoke of the dearth
of quantitative facts pertaining to subdivision. It may be of interest to give
the experience of Duluth two years ago. We wanted our legislature to give
us planning control so we surveyed our local conditions and checked the
investment cost in streets, sewer, water and gas improvements. We did not
include privatelyowned utilities, electricity or telephones. We found we had
an investment of 25 million dollars in these publiclyowned improvements of
which 15 millions were along occupied frontage and some 10 millions along
unoccupied frontage. As a result of the information which was presented in
graphic form, the State Legislature of 1935 passed an act giving the Duluth
Planning Commission the authority to control subdivision planning.
I don't know how the regulations which we adopted are actually going to
work out under extreme pressure at the time of a boom. We have had very
little fighting so far, and we haven't had to meet the problem of popular
pressure. An advantage we do have lies in the fact that the citizens' com*
mission is not subject either to elections or other political forces.
72 THE PLANNING PROCESS AS A REMEDY
MR. JACOB L. CRANE, JR., Chicago, Illinois: May I ask, Mr. Horwitz,
whether or not your Commission has the power to refuse permission to
subdivide land?
MR. AARON B. HORWITZ, Duluth, Minnesota: No, it does not. We are
hoping that proper planning will be effected through control of improvement
requirements and their costs so that speculative planning will not be possible.
It will be impossible to do shoestring planning as has been done previously
in Duluth.
MR. RUSSELL O. KOENIG, Saginaw, Michigan: There has been some talk
about discovering what can be done by zoning the rural areas, and I am
wondering whether or not the permission could be constituted as land'Use.
Suppose a given area is zoned in a rural section for residence purposes —
whether for residential purposes governing large areas or for small town lots
makes little difference. Could provisions be incorporated into the zoning
ordinance covering, not only the use of that land, but the method of sub'
dividing and planning it as well? Must there be a record of that deed by
subdivision plat or by metes and bounds?
REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED
DISTRICT: A COOPERATIVE ENTERPRISE
CHAIRMAN'S INTRODUCTION
MR. ALFRED BETTMAN, Cincinnati, Ohio, Chairman of the Con'
ference: We have heard the meaty papers which were presented this
morning and this afternoon. We have heard discussed data regard'
ing population and industrial trends, faulty urban land policies; and
we have had described for us the social and economic factors which
intensify the problem of the urban area. Reasons have been given
for integrating the planning of the city with the region, the state,
and the Nation. We have had our attention drawn to the need of
planning the city in such a way as to counteract certain social and
economic forces, particular attention being paid to the trend toward
a decreasing rate of growth of the American population, a reduction
in the birth rate and an increase in the average of the population as
well as other factors.
We know that the most obvious effect of the conditions we have
discussed is the increase of blighted districts in the heart of the Ameri-
can city. We know that it is an immediate and serious problem. The
blighted district — within which term the slum is included — is an
urgent challenge to the planning profession and to other branches of
the social and physical sciences as well.
Whereas the morning's program was concerned with data regard-
ing the factors of decay of American cities and the afternoon session
with the planning process as a remedy and means to counteract the
forces which bring about the decline of the city, this evening we shall
attack the most serious angle of the problem and the most urgent part
of the remedy. The general topic is The Rehabilitation of the Blighted
District, presented as a cooperative enterprise from differing intel-
lectual and official viewpoints. In our first speaker two of these are
found in combination — the planning approach joined with legal tech-
nique. Mr. Walter H. Blucher is a man with special experience in
both fields, proceeding from his connection as City Planner of the
City of Detroit and as Consultant to the Michigan State Planning
Commission.
73
THE SHARE OF THE PLANNER AND THE
LAWYER
WALTER H. BLUCHER, Executive Director
American Society of Planning Officials
Many of the people in this country are still under the delusion
that the rehabilitation of blighted areas involves only new housing in
those areas. If we approached the problem of rehabilitation properly,
it would become apparent that the best use of the property in many
communities might be for commercial or industrial purposes or for
parks or open spaces. Even if we finally conclude that housing is
the best and highest use for particular property in blighted areas, it
is utterly impossible to determine what kind of housing is needed
in the community and in the particular area without first having a
plan for the city. Since housing is being given most consideration as
a factor in rehabilitation at this time, I propose to discuss that as'
pect of the problem first.
Why is it that we in America resist experience? It is 17 years since
the Government entered upon its war housing program. That pro-
gram taught us certain lessons which we proceeded to forget as rapidly
as possible. We were left a collection of data which has had little
improvement in the 17 years that have elapsed.
Housing in those days was truly an emergency measure. In the
hurry to get homes under way for workers engaged in war-indus-
tries it would have been reasonable to assume that planning aspects
might properly be overlooked. As a matter of fact, in spite of the
emergency, we were left with a few well'planned communities —
communities which today, because of adequate planning, are able to
maintain themselves as desirable neighborhoods. Little of the so-
called site planning of recent years has equalled that of the war-
housing, much less excelled it.
I will say nothing about the problems which were created in main-
taining and operating the war-housing communities. They do not
leave pleasant memories, but that too seems to have been forgotten.
We have now been engaged in a Federal housing program for about
two years and the greater part of the country has not, to all appear-
ances, learned the elementary principles of housing policy, principles
which I have been repeating for many months; principles which you
all know and which constitute the A-B-C of housing.
Some of those elementary principles are:
74
REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT 75
(1) Every slum area is not necessarily an area to be rebuilt with new types
of housing.
(2) Every blighted area should not of necessity be developed for housing
purposes.
(3) Cheap land alone will not serve as the only basis for a housing pro'
gram.
(4) The mere incidence of high rate of juvenile delinquency, felonious
homicides, tuberculosis deaths, pneumonia deaths, infant mortality, tax
delinquency, etc., etc., does not prove that the area should necessarily
be rebuilt with housing.
(5) There can be no suitable housing program in any community without
first having a "land pattern" or a "concept of the community. This
may be called the "plan" for the community.
(6) All large-scale housing should be constructed as a part of a neighbor'
hood or community plan and all public housing in blighted areas
should contribute to the rebuilding of the community.
(7) Suitable housing will not ordinarily be obtained if a site is selected
without relation to the "land pattern" with later attempts to justify
that selection on a so'called "planning basis."
What I say is not in criticism of public housing. My stand on that
matter is sufficiently well known. Some of us will disagree as to the
policy of Federal or public housing, but all of us, I am sure, wish, if
there is to be public housing, that every effort be made to insure
that it will be adequate and successful public housing. If we criticise,
it is because we feel that essential factors are being overlooked, fac-
tors which, if missing, may prevent the consummation of a successful
housing project.
I do not come here as a preacher for the abstract or theoretical
cause of planning. I do not believe in planning for planning's sake.
I believe that without planning we can have no successful govern'
mental housing operations.
I quote from a public address of a Federal official.
"We have heard it stated that a housing program must be incidental to
a city plan. While I fully agree that all housing development should be a
part of a city plan, I can assure you that we would never get started on
housing if we were to sit down and wait for the planning bodies to organ-
ise or be organized and work up plans for their cities. I do not mean to
imply that sufficient interest has been lacking on the part of planning
officials, but rather that the housing issue has been brought to a head in
advance of planning progress in many cities. This is substantiated by our
fact-finding questionnaires which are in effect, cross examinations in plan'
ning. Many times months are consumed in digging out necessary facts
which would be immediately available in well-ordered, well-planned com-
munities. Unquestionably, the housing movement will stimulate city
planning activities."
I am forced to disagree with that statement. There is only one
way to approach a housing study; that is to approach it not as a hous-
76 REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT
ing study at all. We are no longer talking of housing as an emergency
measure to prime the pump. It is part of a long-time program to pro-
vide a better physical environment for the people of this country.
The only way to approach urban housing is on the basis of a study
for the building of a suitable community.
The City of Toronto recently made an extensive survey in that
community. It determined that proper housing could not be
done without relating the projects to a plan for the development of
the community. The first recommendation of the special committee
was that a City Planning Commission be established immediately for
Toronto. The Report uses the following language:
"It is essential that a City Planning Commission be established forth-
with. This would be desirable even if there Were no problems of housing
in existence. The lack of a single body to plan and guide urban develop-
ment should be a matter of concern to all citizens of Toronto. It is re-
markable that property owners, industrialists, business men, taxpayers and
voters, should so long have permitted their interests to remain unguarded.
For there is no citizen who does not stand to profit, in the long run, from
a beautiful, orderly and conveniently planned city; there is none who does
not stand to lose from the waste of a city which sprawls haphazard at its
outskirts and which decays in congestion at its heart. But when we add to
the need for a body to plan and guide future development the immediate
necessity for reconstructing certain areas where housing conditions are be-
yond the toleration of civic conscience and civic pride alike, then the case
for a City Planning Commission becomes overwhelming. To undertake the
reconstruction of these areas, at considerable trouble and expense, without
ensuring that development of the city would be such as to improve, rather
than degrade, their surroundings or that equally obnoxious conditions would
not develop elsewhere — such a policy would be to reject the light which is
available and to leap wilfully into the dark."
Because I am to be followed by the Sociologist, the Realtor, and
the Administrator, and because I am to shed my robes of Dr. Jekyll
to become Mr. Hyde, I will only touch upon some of the studies
which must be obtained or made, before we can properly consider
housing :
For the entire community, the region around it, and the state, we
must know about population, its shifts and trends, what has been
and what probably will be. The same information must be obtained
for industry.
Also on a city wide basis there should be studies of :
(a) Assessed valuations and trends
(b) Tax delinquency and trends
(c) Streets and thoroughfares
(d) Parks and recreation
REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT 77
(e) Schools
(f) Transportation
(g) Residential buildings, condition, age and vacancies
It will be claimed that housing cannot wait for a comprehensive
plan. My answer is that a so-called comprehensive plan is not needed,
that with a properly equipped and directed planning organization, all
the information listed can be obtained in a reasonable time; that hous-
ing has not been constructed in unplanned communities in less time
than is required for these studies and that it would be much better
to delay housing projects a few months than to gamble upon con-
structing buildings in inappropriate places.
A word of caution here might not be inappropriate. It is easy to
reach false conclusions from some of the data collected. An area with
a high rate of tax delinquency denotes more than physical blight.
It often denotes low economic status of the residents. Place those
people in the best area in the city, give them the same wages or lack
of wages, and you will find the same high rate of tax delinquency,
the same welfare load, and the same demand upon health agencies.
Strangely enough, we find high rates of tax delinquency in some of
our best areas but there has been no suggestion that these areas are
blighted or that they ought to be replaced with low-cost or low-in-
come or low-rental homes.
After the city-wide studies have been made and are properly
analyzed, areas of the community will stand out as potential housing
districts. More detailed studies can and should be made here. These
will include various economic and social surveys, such as family in-
come, size of families, place of work, etc., etc. Of course, you will
want the usual surveys of crime, juvenile delinquency, deaths, etc.,
etc. Although not nearly so important as other data they do make
good propaganda.
It is desirable and often informative to have comparisons of the
economic and social status of relief clients in the selected areas to
compare with averages for the whole community.
I had not intended to prepare an outline for a housing study; I am
merely trying to show that it is impossible to do housing without first
knowing in what kind of community it is to be placed.
Irrespective of the type of housing work to be done in a community,
the lawyer — unfortunately — comes into the picture. There will be
some discussion this evening of rehabilitation through the instrument
of private property owners. Certain additional powers will have to
be granted if successful rehabilitation is to be carried out. Perhaps
78 REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT
we will have to give to the majority of property owners, or to a pub-
lic agency acting in their behalf, limited powers of eminent domain.
In the field of public housing every step of the work is directed
by lawyers. They prepare agreements for the sale of property; ex-
amine titles; institute condemnation proceedings; and execute deeds.
It has also been necessary for them to appear before the courts to get
a determination of the legality of public housing procedure.
I confess frankly that my interest in planning aspects of rehabilita-
tion is greater than my interest in the legal aspects. I venture to say,
however, that if planning is not given adequate consideration at the
outset the lawyers of the future will be kept very busy settling all
of the difficulties which are sure to be created by unplanned housing
developments.
DISCUSSION
MR. ALFRED BETTMAN, Cincinnati, Ohio: Mr. Blucher has said a great
deal which will stimulate disagreement and I hope that time will be left before
we adjourn for the expression of that disagreement from the floor.
Our next speaker is a sociologist. It is possibly a little dangerous for one
who is not a sociologist to attempt to define just what a sociologist is. Obvi'
ously, before one can know how much is within control of the administra'
tion and the law, one must know the forces which create the conditions re-
quiring correction. One must know what the limitations upon those social
forces are which are inherent in the large urban areas. One must have access
to expert knowledge of social forces in order to estimate the probabilities of
success for the proposed methods of dealing with the complex situation under
review. This, I assume, is the work of the sociologist.
THE SHARE OF THE SOCIOLOGIST
EDWIN S. BURDELL, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
The fact that the sociologist has a share in this program does not
assure by any means that he has had or will have any very real share
in the rehabilitation of the blighted districts now being studied in
American cities. What has the sociologist to contribute to the field
of city planning and housing — a field which was long ago pre-empted
by those trained in the physical sciences and technology? It is a
unique position which I occupy at Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology; namely, that of sociologist. Perhaps by reason of the fact that
I am a Tech man myself, and speak their language as it were, I am
accepted more readily there. And I should like to think that, by vir-
tue of my eleven years1 service on the zoning board of Columbus,
Ohio, and my long membership in the Ohio State Planning Confer-
ence and recent membership in the National Conference, I might be
accepted here as one who speaks your language, though perhaps with
a different accent.
The sociologist's part in the rehabilitation of a blighted area should
begin with the fact-finding process. The collecting of social data rela-
tive to specific areas under consideration should be done at least in
consultation with persons trained in the technique as well as the
theory of urban social studies. A mere census or count is of rela-
tively little value. For instance, census tracts, now become such
convenient frames of reference, may or may not have any real sig-
nificance depending on their relation to the so-called natural areas
upon which they are super-imposed. Having had something to do
with fitting such a frame upon the capital city of this State of Ohio,
I haven't a great deal of confidence in the adequacy of this device,
which to engineers might appear to be entirely satisfactory. The set-
ting up of field surveys, the use of the schedule and the questionnaire,
the use of attitude measuring scales involve rather highly special-
ized techniques that should be launched under the supervision of a
person thoroughly trained in such matters. Neither is knowledge of
mathematical statistics sufficient.
The other day I was consulted by a graduate student in the Col-
lege of Education in one of our leading eastern colleges, as to method
in a current college graduate unemployment study. I was amazed
to find that he had had no training in the planning of a social in-
vestigation, had no idea of determining the proper scope of his
study or the difference in the use of, or the results obtained by the
schedule as against the questionnaire, yet he could talk glibly about
79
80 REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT
coefficients of correlation, time series, harmonic mean and the like.
Another type of "researcher" that I have come across during the
depression is one who winnows the World Almanacs, the Federal
statistical services on down to police and fire department annual re'
ports, and arrives at something that is usually more chaff than wheat.
Yet by reason of ample footnotes and documentation it looks im-
pressive, especially if it proves the point the board or the committee
wants to make.
Perhaps I am a bit too cynical, but I know that with plenty of
white-collar relief labor available to city planning and housing boards,
there is a real temptation to turn loose some energetic and resource-
ful ex-clerk or real estate salesman and bring in six weeks later a
comprehensive survey of housing conditions in Pleasantville, Ohio.
I speak feelingly on this score, for in the summer of 1933 Dr. Wil-
liam J. Blackburn of the Ohio State University and I put on a sur-
vey of nine blighted areas in Columbus involving 3,734 households.
The problems proved to be much more formidable than could have
been suspected. In the first place, we had to construct a schedule and
instruction sheet that was fool-proof in the hands of relief labor.
Next, we had to train seven or eight crews because of the small
number of hours of work any one man was then allotted. A check-
up had to be devised to see whether or not areas had been com-
pletely enumerated, and finally, the problem of editing, coding, tab-
ulating, text writing and preparation of the manuscript for printing
had to be met by close and constant supervision by one or the other
or both of us. I want to make clear this thought, namely, that the
specialised training of the sociologist and social surveyor can be
turned to good use in making preliminary studies and presenting
facts preceding the policy-making and the action-taking.
I am going to assume, for purposes of discussion that there are
usually three possible lines of action in rehabilitating a blighted area.
The first situation might conceivably involve principally repair, re-
conditioning, moving families out of basement apartments, ferret-
ing out over-crowded tenements and breaking up combinations of
families that for economy's sake had doubled up or tripled up. En'
forcement of the sanitary laws, building codes, fire escape provisions
may do much to save an area from passing from blight to slum. I
am assuming that we all agree that we have here a distinction as well
as a difference. In this first situation, where neither demolition nor
rebuilding is indicated, the sociologist is able to advise on specific sit-
uations that may be factors leading to social disorganization. The
trained social investigator, family case worker, and group worker
acting as the eyes and ears of the sociologist and reporting to him,
REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT 81
place the sociologist in a much better position to make recommenda-
tions than the architect and engineer who see only structural defi-
ciencies or who more likely might overlook situations of over-crowd'
ing, the latent threat of single boarders and lodgers in families with
growing children, the essential lack of privacy where there is an
intermingling of sexes in the use of toilet and bathing facilities, how
ever perfectly such facilities might comply with the requirements of
the plumbing code. The architect and engineer may quite naturally
dismiss inherently bad social situations simply because outrageous
filth, vice and depravity are not too obtrusive. As a rule, they are not
trained to see the more subtle social dangers and demoralizing fac-
tors that the sociologist, who has had field training in social work
and social administration, can readily put his finger on.
Mere statistics of over- crowding, ratios of persons per room, may
not mean very much to the public taxpayer who is putting up the
money or to the hard-pressed public works manager who is trying
to make that money put as many people to work as possible. Both
must interpolate the social situations that lie back of these figures.
They must realize that children get less sleep when they are put to
bed in rooms where grown-ups are stirring about and that the adults
cannot entertain friends, especially the teen age members of the fam-
ily cannot, where children are supposed to be asleep. With over-
crowding and uncleanliness go drab furnishings, unsightly walls, pro-
ducing a total complex so uninviting and unlovely that the father
and older children, the more mobile members of the family, are
almost forced to spend their leisure time in pool rooms, taverns,
dance halls and loitering places. Exposure of the youth and the
temptations of the adults to unsocial and criminal behavior become
a certainty.
An attack upon the state of repair and living conditions probably
offers not only the most immediate possibilities for better housing
conditions, but also is the method that would extend better housing
to the largest number of people. Many of the houses in the blighted
areas are very well built, as is attested to by the years of abuse that
they have survived. An architect and engineer could readily de-
termine the structural safety, the cost of repairs and remodeling, if
needed. I have in mind room rearrangement to eliminate the window-
less rooms and to provide a private toilet and bathing facilities for
each family. To be sure, the thoroughly bad "dumb bell" tenements
so common in New York do not lend themselves to much rearrange-
ment unless perhaps by a combination of two or more buildings. I
am aware that this suggestion of rehabilitation of existing buildings
will not appeal to a considerable number of you. Architects, by the
82 REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT
necessity of requiring larger fees on a higher percentage basis for
remodeling as against their fees for new construction, give some hint
of their basic opposition to this form of improvement. Nevertheless,
if we want to be realistic about getting improved conditions for the
greatest number in the shortest possible time, this method has much
to recommend itself.
I would not for a moment rehabilitate the rickety old arks that
characterise so much of the low-rental areas of our large cities.
Therefore, I believe that the second possible situation may be de-
scribed as one that lies between mere repair on the one hand and
complete rehousing on the other. I submit this second alternative
partially in reply to a recent query from Mr. Flavel Shurtleff, the
secretary of this Conference, in the matter of the wisdom of a whole-
sale destruction of slum properties. I believe that his point is well
taken, namely, that to dislodge a considerable number of families at
one time might lead to serious social difficulties. He raises the ques-
tion whether the rehabilitation process will not have better results,
if in slum areas only properties here and there are entirely demol-
ished and model dwellings put up in their place, using renovation
for other properties in the neighborhood. Since it is not conceivable
that there will be money or even time enough completely to rebuild
blighted areas, I offer an emphatic affirmative to Mr. ShurtlefFs query.
Yes, I do believe that the reformative factor of a few rehousing
schemes will be important.
We Jmow from experience that spot Boning is bad. It would be
interesting to know whether spot housing is good; that is, would
isolated good housing prove to be effective? The recent report of
the Rosenwald Foundation on five years' operation of the Michi-
gan Boulevard negro apartments in Chicago says in part: "The
Apartments have beneficially influenced property values throughout
the surrounding territory. In many instances, it can be pointed out
that competitive real estate owners and managers in this area have
patterned some of their services and practices after those of the
buildings, with the result that there has been general improvement
in the facilities, management, and appearance of other properties." l
The Federal Government cannot hope to offer the cities anything
more than isolated demonstration projects. The most ambitious Fed-
eral program could actually rehouse only a fraction of the urban
population needing it. Very properly the Federal authorities indi-
cate at the outset that they expect the municipalities will take over
the job as quickly as possible. Even though we had the funds, it
1 Five Year Report of the Michigan Boulevard Garden Apt. Bldg. Corp., Chicago, Feb., 1935.
REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT 83
might take some years to get national and state laws enacted, much
less enforced, similar to the British, which make it an offense to
house persons in overcrowded and substandard dwellings. The
strong central influence of the Ministry of Health in the British
Government has accomplished in a decade the adoption of an atti-
tude of mind as well as a willingness on the part of the British tax'
payer to support such measures.2 We have a long, long way to go
before we shall have any such national program in this country. In
the meantime, we may learn much by a trial of spot housing.
The sociologist believes in the power of limitation as a social force.
He has observed and experimented with it. He has reason to believe
that normal people in our contemporary western civilization really
prefer cleanliness to dirt, quiet to noise, warmth to cold, dryness to
dampness, activity to idleness, happy, healthy children to cross,
sickly ones, wives and husbands adequate to meet life's problems in
a self 'Sufficient independent way as against doles, charities and insti'
tutions. Believing this, the sociologist has no hesitation in predicting
that a few examples of good housing correctly interpreted to the com'
munity and the concrete evidence of the happier and more adequate
living that goes along with it, will have a leavening effect on the
lump of apathy, indifference and ignorance that accounts for the
complacent acceptance of such frightful housing conditions on the
part of those subjected to them.
I have in mind the splendid work being done in the South End,
Boston, by Mr. Albert Stoneman, head resident of venerable South
End House. Mr. Stoneman is a worthy successor to Robert Woods
in that he is following a program of creating a community con-
sciousness of housing, clean streets and alleys, vice and crime on the
part of his neighborhood. Although Mr. Stoneman has not the
remotest idea of being able physically to clear out the dilapidated
rookeries in his district, the shabby remnants of the fashionable homes
of Boston of the mid 19th century, still he is doing much that the
architect, engineer and city planner may marvel at in the way of
arousing local interest. He has also aroused local energy in improv-
ing housing in a manner suggested in what I called situation number
one, namely, repair, paint, sanitation, reduction of crowding and the
like. I know that he feels that one good example of adequate hous-
ing at rents within the reach of his people would be a tremendous
boost to his program of social reform and amelioration.
I agree with Dr. Aronovici that we have evidence from European
sources that we can depend to some extent upon the voluntary vacat-
2 Particulars of Slum Clearance Programmes, Housing Act 1930. Presented by Minister of
Health to Parliament March, 1934. Published by His Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1934.
84 REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT
ing of the slums provided we afford the tenants an opportunity to
occupy at reasonable rents dwellings in the suburbs or in the out-
lying urban districts.3 Here in the United States Mr. Harland Bar'
tholomew finds that the Bowery population of Manhattan had lost
53 per cent of its population between 1910 and 1930. His report
goes on to say: "With the present conditions of obsolescent build'
ings, inadequate open space for light and air, insufficient recreational
areas and numerous other unfavorable factors which are largely
responsible for the great losses in population, it appears necessary
to rebuild the entire area or major portions thereof, if the present
unfortunate social and economic conditions are to be corrected." 4
The savings banks and insurance companies who hold the mortgages
and who were also "holding the bag" discovered this all too late. The
landlords had killed the Goose that Laid the Golden Eggs. The Goose
really hadn't been such a goose after all. The landlords of Harlem,
Queens, Long Island City and City Point, however, now have a
chance to repeat the blunders just mentioned. But I have a feeling
that these isolated Federal demonstration projects, if properly operated
and adequately interpreted to the community, will bring even the
dullest as well as the most rapacious landlord to his senses.
I know what is in the minds of many of you, at least those who
don't remember what I said at the Baltimore meeting of this Con-
ference in 1933. Some of you may recall that I paraphrased the for-
mer title of the paper I presented to you at that time to "The So-
ciologist's Answer to the Coal-in-the-Bath-Tub Menace." It is to
this familiar chord that I would return for a moment. Of course,
coal and vegetables will go into the bath-tub, and even doorframes
may be broken up into kindling wood if the families know of no
better use for them. Bewildered, demoralized, poverty-stricken peo-
ple who have scampered from one rabbit warren to another, who have
perhaps moved to the city during the late lamented boom times from
remote rural or mountain settlements need more than anything else
the assistance of a helping hand, the sympathy of the friendly neigh-
bor; in a word, those services which the trained settlement house
worker is able to furnish. I want to emphasize the fact that merely
transplanting families from basement tenements, shanties and rickety
old arks to decent, clean, sanitary dwellings will not in and of itself
work any miracles. Miracles do still happen in social relations, but
they happen because we use our heads in figuring out a solution that
is a complete solution. In other words, a complete solution of rehabili-
tation is not merely a brick and mortar proposition of a building, a
park or a playground. It must necessarily include an educational
3 Law and Contemporary Problems. School of Law, Duke University, March, 1934, p. 152.
* Flans for Major Traffic Thorofares and Transit, Lower East Side, N. Y., 1932, p. 25.
REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT 85
program and by educational I do not mean classes and textbooks in
the conventional sense. The only education worthy of the name is
one of teaching by living — the heart and soul of the settlement move'
ment from Barnett, Toynbee and Woods down to date.
The sociologist reads with interest and approval the details of the
plans5 of Mr. Ernest Bonn's group, the National Association of
Housing Officials, to inaugurate a training school for the managers
of the new Federal housing projects. There seems to be every reason
in support of training for management. Neither a glorified janitor, nor
a hard 'boiled rent collector is sufficiently qualified to cope with the
exacting responsibilities — physical, financial and social. Premature
deterioration and careless financial control on these first few public
projects will very effectively kill the chances of anything like a really
comprehensive national program having the enthusiastic support of
the public that it has in Great Britain. The sociologist, insofar as he
is interested in the creation of a favorable public opinion toward bet'
ter housing, is interested in the adequacy of the management. We
simply cannot afford to let these first efforts fail. If, in order to avoid
direct subsidy, the Federal or local authorities resort to long periods
of amortisation, say 75 or 80 years, the physical upkeep will be no
insignificant item.
Equally important is the securing of the maximum social return for
the money invested. This implies a sympathetic landlord plus a
friendly neighbor, a combination indeed rare when looked for among
persons who are equally good as maintenance men and rent collec'
tors. Adequate social administration will be predicated somewhat
on the manager's understanding of the economic and social problems
of low-income families, specifically such problems as distribution of
family incomes, family budgets and expenditures; housing policies
of relief agencies, standards and habits of living of different racial
and nationality groups; the influence of churches, schools, fraternal
orders and the like; adult education, handicrafts and hobbies, recrea-
tion of one kind or another; and especially the recognition of the
importance of the trend of the short hour day and the short work-
week in planning leisure time activity for the prevention of antisocial
habits and debilitating amusements.
As to the third possible situation, one involving wholesale demoli-
tion and complete rehousing on the site, I believe the sociologist has
some advice to give in the matter of handling groups, of adjusting re-
lationships between widely divergent national or ethnic folkways, of
making provision for adult leisure-time activities, of securing the co-
5 Letter from Mr. Bohn dated March 6, 1935, Chicago, Illinois.
86 REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT
operation of the health forces of the community in making an intel-
ligent attack as well as defense in preventing sickness and epidemics.
In other words, I feel that the sociologist may be permitted the right
to speak with authority when it comes to coordinating the totality
of life within a great rehousing project. The problem simply cannot
be attacked piecemeal. The brick and mortar program of the archi-
tect is good as far as it goes, the health worker's program is important,
the recreation leader is indispensable, the small garden adviser is use-
ful, the family case worker will still be needed to straighten out
marital and familial difficulties, new and desirable patterns of which
are not going to be acquired right off, I can assure you, with the new
stove or bath-tub. Of all these, the so-called neighborhood worker,
trained by years of service in our best American settlement houses,
comes the nearest to seeing the situation in its totality as the sociolo-
gist sees it. The Germans have a word for it, "Gestalt," which con-
veys that concept of the complete configuration which embraces all
of the elements.
I think many of these plans of rehousing are much too elaborate.
They require too great change and too many adaptations for many
of the poorest of our slum families to make. Perhaps it is unwise to
pick out specific items, but it strikes me that electric refrigeration is
expensive equipment that could be dispensed with. Monel metal
sinks and tile baths, which I have seen proposed in some plans, appear
to me as being too far beyond the needs of the people who will use
them, assuming, of course, that we are talking now about the re-
housing of the lowest third of our income group, those for whom
outright subsidy seems inevitable. If, as in Holland, a family so
improves its social and economic adjustments that it can cope with
more elaborate facilities, then it is time enough to consider the desira-
bility of creating housing of medium standard of comfort. I can see
absolutely no excuse at this time for creating housing of anything
more than a minimum standard of decency. The philanthropic
groups, the limited dividend corporations, may be induced to become
more active in this medium standard field. The Federal Govern-
ment should confine itself for the time being to the minimum hous-
ing requirement of the group that is contributing most alarmingly
to our jails, asylums, hospitals and relief burdens.
I do not mean to imply, however* that I favor the erection of
drab barrack-like quarters, however dry, clean or sanitary they
might be. I recollect a story told my class at Technology the other
day in a course on social and economic factors in city planning and
housing by Eva Whiting White, head resident of Peabody House in
Boston. She was called in consultation by the trustees of a great
REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT 87
publisher's philanthropic trust to tell them why a certain model
housing project of theirs would not rent when it met every require'
ment of the housing code and was well above the minimum require'
ments for decency and health. Mrs. White told us that the first
trouble was that the trustees had failed to take into consideration
the social history of the block. In other words, the rehousing was
done in an area that had for generations been identified by everyone
in the West End with the most outrageous vice conditions. The
very name of the street was synonymous with prostitution and de'
generacy. But Mrs. White went on to say that the stark austerity
of the interior of the apartments was its most serious drawback —
everything was cement and metal, everything was painted a dull
gray, everything was glased, enameled — scratch proof. Rooms were
reduced to cell-like simplicity. As usually happens, her suggestions
led to her appointment on the board of trustees. Her remedies, how
ever, were simple: brighter paints, skillful color combinations, more
built-in cupboards, counters, and shelves were about all that was
needed to make the interiors attractive. The overcoming of the bad
social reputation of the street and number was accomplished by the
care with which the families were selected and the upbuilding of
public approval for those that lived in that street by seeing to it
that none of them did revert to the old ways of vice and by en-
couraging participation of the new tenants in the neighborhood
activities.
In closing, I want to recognize what is undoubtedly in the minds
of some of you, namely, a sort of disgust with a program such as
I have outlined as being too patronizing, too solicitous, involving too
many interferences with personal and family independence. What
justification do I have to offer? Simply this, that the people who are
occupying our blighted areas are right now the object of control and
manipulation by an even larger number of agencies and function-
aries than I have suggested. Let me refer you to the report of the
Cleveland Metropolitan Housing Authority prepared with the coun-
sel of Howard Whipple Green, which revealed that in 1932 the pub-
lic agencies expended $1,132,000 and private agencies $615,000 in an
area of 333 acres housing 22,236 persons. The financial return from
this area was only $225,000 that same year, whereas the figures for
that 0.7 per cent of the land area and 2.5 per cent of the population
of Cleveland reveal 21 per cent of the murders, 26 per cent of the
prostitution, 10 per cent of the illegitimate births, and 12 per cent
of the deaths from tuberculosis.
Another way of showing that you and I and our friends who
are taxpayers in our respective communities are now and have been
88 REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT
putting up a scandalous lot of money to maintain slums, is to quote
again from the Cleveland study as follows: "The tax rate income
to the City of Cleveland from the slum area amounted to $10.12
per capita while the cost to the city of operating the area was $61.22
per capita." The private agencies spent $27.68 per capita or a total
of $78.78 per capita, or $315 per family of four persons.
Let me point also to a study in Boston under the auspices of the
ERA and the Planning Board which revealed that while the business
district yielded to the city a net profit of $110,000 per net acre and
the Back Bay, high grade rental district, $17,000 per net acre, the
South Boston slum cost the city $15,000 per net acre.
There is no use doing the ostrich act any longer so far as costs
are concerned, and I believe that such studies as those cited are
having a beneficial effect on the practical minded brethren. I still
believe, however, that many people have suspicions about the need
for all this "fancy" kind of management, this friendly neighbor
business.
I have presented to you the reasons I think that the framing of
an adequate social plan is quite as important as your legal, engineer-
ing and financial plans. I believe that the real threat to the success
of the present Federal projects and future state and municipal
projects is the possibility of inadequate social management. Let
occur a few spectacular cases of rape, brawling, gambling, destruc-
tion of property; a serious epidemic, racial or nationalistic feuds in
the public projects. The press will pick them up and the whole coun-
try will shake its head sadly and say, "I told you so." Instead of the
"coal-in-the-bath-tub menace," we shall hear about the "manufactories
of crime"; worse still, of the "hot beds of radicalism." Even the best
of our citizenry has its marital troubles, its delinquencies and de-
baucheries— only they are more successful in keeping them hushed
up. How much more are slum dwellers, people living in the freedom
of the anonymity of the great city and habituated to dirt and dilapi-
dation, likely to fail to recognize the same patterns of behavior that
the rest of us observe or claim that we do? Suggestion and help
along these lines, therefore, does not constitute mollycoddling, offi-
ciousness nor interference.
It has been assumed that by some hocus pocus fine streets, civic
centers, parks and rehousing will result in improved standards of liv-
ing, more stable and happier family life, and consequently less vice,
crime, poverty and disease. Let us make a "sure thing" out of our
ambitious and high-minded efforts along these lines by making as
rigorous demands upon the social sciences as we have made upon the
REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT 89
physical sciences. We insist on science and technology in industry
and building; why not require at least the same scientific approach
to the social reconstruction of our blighted areas? Those thoroughly
trained in the knowledge of the structure and processes of society as
well as in the technique of the collection and interpretation of social
data can be useful to you.
DISCUSSION
MR. ALFRED BETTMAN, Cincinnati, Ohio: Again we shall leave discussion
of what was a most interesting paper until the close of this session.
There are serious economic factors as well as social factors to be dealt with
in studying the blighted area, and as the sociologist has a contribution to
make with regard to this problem so has the economist.
Real estate is a business whose members have occasion to deal with certain
economic factors, such as land values, building costs, buying and selling, land'
lord and tenant relationships, etc. In the person of Mr. Herbert U. Nelson,
the Executive Secretary of the National Association of Real Estate Boards,
we have a realtor who has taken a keen interest in planning.
THE SHARE OF THE REALTOR
HERBERT U. NELSON, National Association of Real Estate Boards
I think we must admit that there are limitations to comprehensive
planning, and that the function of the planner is a great deal like
that of the physician who can study the growing child and can do
some things to provide for his good health, but certainly cannot
create it.
We need to break down this concept of planning, it seems to me,
into some of its narrow segments so that we may study them in detail.
One of them is industry. I have looked with keen interest on the suc-
cessful operation of the clearing of the industrial district in Chicago
and the northwest terminal district in Minneapolis; there is here an
enormous field where the technique of the engineer should be applied.
There are other functions that should be studied separately and
analysed so that they may be understood. We know that every finan-
cial district tends to concentration resulting in high buildings. It is
possible that type of activity demands a concentration that no other
does.
When it comes to housing in the blighted districts we are on
more familiar ground, possibly because we have thought about it a
little longer. Our group began to think of this question about seven
years ago and appointed some committees to make studies and as-
semble facts. We have spent most of that time in trying to find the
answer. We have no answer yet, but we have drafted a suggestion
or memorandum from which we propose to start. This memorandum
we have turned over to Mr. Harland Bartholomew, who is a con-
sultant of the Association in this matter and who is, with some
legal help in St. Louis, preparing a preliminary draft of what we hope
will be a State Enabling Act to help us cope with the problem of the
blighted district.
We recognize that the flight to the suburbs, which we have wit-
nessed during the past ten or fifteen years, and which has caused
the suburbs to grow at about three times the rate of the city, was
caused not necessarily by speculation in land but by the desire of
people to preserve the home environment. Those who were able left
the city and went to the suburbs where they could control their home
conditions. This has left us in our cities with almost a third of the
privately-owned land standing vacant, which entails an enormous
carrying cost on the local government.
90
REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT 91
The Boning ordinances which were designed to create some protec-
tion for homes and residential districts came too late. To a large
extent they were imposed upon the basis of existing use. While they
saved some residential districts from destruction, they could not save
those which already had been penetrated by inharmonious uses, and
people had no confidence in building their homes in the districts even
though they were soned.
We believe, on the whole, that it is better for us who are citizens,
as well as for those of us who are in the real estate business, to try
to correct the errors we have made and to rebuild our cities more
wisely on the basis of experience, rather than to go still farther out
and spread the American city over a larger area.
We feel that we should give those who have the greatest stake in
this problem — people who own property in the districts that have
been deserted and are now blighted because of inharmonious uses —
some chance to fight their own battles by providing the mechanism
through which they can do it. We doubt if any efforts to impose a
plan for blighted districts can suffice, but we believe that given an
opportunity to save themselves, they will do it.
We suggest an enabling act to be enacted by State legislatures
which would authorise local city governments to create Neighborhood
Improvement Districts. We suggest the boundaries for such Districts
would be tentatively outlined by the City Council with the advice
of the City Planning Commission; and when more than half of the
property-owners, owning more than half of the assessed value, agree
to the creation of such a District, there should then be issued for such
District a Charter for a Neighborhood Improvement District Associa-
tion in which all property-owners in the District would automati-
cally hold membership.
We suggest the creation of such an association because it would
take advantage of something that already exists. I do not know how
many neighborhood improvement associations there are now. They
represent a feeble effort on the part of the home owner to protect
his environment. So far, these improvement associations have fought
a losing battle. If, however, they are definitely recognised by the
Government and given a status and certain powers, it may be that
they can make a successful fight.
We further suggest that the District organisation, when created,
elect Trustees whose powers would be clearly defined in the Char-
ter. Hearings would be held in the District as to the final definition
of its boundaries, and a plan for the resoning of the District would
92 REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT
be prepared by the Trustees in cooperation with the City Planning
Commission and submitted to the City Council.
We recognize that the first point of attack is resoning. After the
City Council, by appropriate resolution or ordinance, approved the
plan for rezoning and the boundaries of the District, the District
would be declared established. Whenever such a District was estab-
lished, all of it thenceforth would be reserved for residential uses
only, except for such specified lots as may be set aside for neighbor-
hood business and other activities necessary to serve the residents
of the District.
This enabling act should further provide that where a Neighbor-
hood Improvement District is established and the plan for re^oning
approved, all non-conforming uses must cease completely within a
period of ten or fifteen years. This is known as restrictive zoning.
Where deemed necessary or desirable for the protection of the de-
velopment of the District, the City Council could, upon request of
the District Association, acquire by purchase or condemnation any
properties devoted to a non- con forming use; properties which are
obsolete and detrimental to neighborhood values; vacant property
when necessary for replanning or replotting the District or any por-
tion of it in conformity with the approved plan.
The costs of such acquisitions should be assessed by the City Coun-
cil against all property in the District in proportion to its taxable
value. The city should have power to issue its bonds, pay out its
funds, or otherwise use its credit for such acquisitions. The city
should not, however, continue to own such properties. It should
dispose of them, after the replanning and replotting and other neces-
sary measures have been taken to insure the carrying out of neigh-
borhood plans, to the highest responsible bidder who covenants to
carry forward improvements of the character needed in the neigh-
borhood and approved by the Neighborhood Improvement District
Association.
The Neighborhood Improvement District Association should, with
the aid of the City Planning Commission, develop plans for the Dis-
trict. Such plans, when approved by the Planning Commission and
the District Association, should be regarded as recommendations to
all property-owners in the District but should not have legal or
binding force. The District Association should also, after consulta-
tion with the City Planning Commission, have the right to make
official recommendations to the City Council with regard to land-
uses and the uses of improvements. When such recommendations
REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT 93
are approved by the City Council (in other words, substantially
they would be amendments to the zoning ordinance), they should
become a part of the Neighborhood Improvement District Ordi-
nance for that District and should be binding upon all property'
owners. Such recommendations would include the establishment of
building lines, side yards, rear yards, building heights, etc.
We suggest that the Neighborhood Improvement District Asso-
ciation should also recommend that it be authorized to carry on cer-
tain neighborhood services in addition to those conducted by the city.
These might include such matters as planting, landscaping, servic-
ing trees, shrubs, playgrounds, collection of rubbish, cutting of
grass and weeds on neglected vacant property, etc. These are activi-
ties which are, at present, carried on by local improvement associa-
tions through a system of voluntary assessments.
When the City Council by appropriate resolution or ordinance
authorizes the District Association to carry on such services and the
budget presented by the trustees of the Association is approved, the
Council should assess the costs of such services against all the prop-
erty-owners in the District.
With respect to architecture of new buildings and buildings that
are reconstructed, the District Association should have the right to
make recommendations. The District Trustees should be notified of
all applications for building permits and have access to the plans. If
the District Trustees give notice that they wish to be heard with
reference to plans for any specific property, no permit should be
granted until reasonable opportunity for such hearing has been given.
The hearing should be conducted by the City Planning Commission.
If the City Planning Commission finds the architecture of the pro-
posed improvement is of a nature which would be clearly detrimen-
tal to the values of surrounding property, the Commission might
recommend to the City Council that a building permit be refused.
If the Council concurred in the recommendation of the Planning
Commission, it should issue instructions to the Building Department
to refuse a permit for construction until new plans have been sub-
mitted to which no objection is made.
Obviously a plan of this kind suggests objections which, naturally,
we have considered very seriously. It involves a large degree of de-
centralization at a time when a good many students of administrative
law and public affairs feel that a larger degree of centralization is
wise and necessary. It has been our observation, however, that to
try to concentrate the function of planning in one group of men —
a planning commission or a few officials — leads to neglect of the
94 REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT
local problem and to a lack of constructive action in preserving the
neighborhood unit as such. The central city government may suggest
plans, but we must have smaller districts to carry them out.
DISCUSSION
MR. ALFRED BETTMAN, Cincinnati, Ohio: To deal properly with the re-
habilitation of the blighted district we require another type of knowledge or
activity — that of the city legislative, or administrative, official. No matter
what the nature of the plan, it will involve action on the part of the govern'
ment either in contribution of property or in approval of levies. So con'
sideration of the problem, by one whose official position has enabled him to
observe the bearing of municipal administration on the question, is a neces-
sary adjunct to this program.
Mr. Ernest J. Bohn has been active in the promotion of better housing in
Cleveland. He has conducted his local campaign from the position of Chair-
man of the Housing Committee of the City Council of Cleveland, thereby
having exceptional contact with the local administration and legislative prob-
lem. And, as you know, he is President of the National Association of Hous-
ing Officials.
THE SHARE OF THE CITY ADMINISTRATOR
ERNEST J. BOHN, President
National Association of Housing Officials
I had occasion recently to comment on the fact that perhaps no
group of persons should take the blame for the lack of planning in
this country more than the city planner. I think it is all his fault.
The city planner should sell planning to the public. Someone raised
the question as to whether this is the job of the administrator. He
should go out in the highways and byways and tell the public it is
necessary. Isn't it a fact that the principal reason planning has not
gone any farther in this country is that the public has not been told
about the necessity for planning?
You have your society for this and society for that, this planning
conference and that, and what do you do? You go into a small room
year after year and tell what a great thing planning is, but the
real way and the only way in which you can put planning into
effect is to convince the administrator and the legislators — the per'
sons who have the power to accomplish the things that need to be
done — that planning is practical.
When the finance committee of the City Council makes appro-
priations it finds that money is scarce and that there is not enough
to take care of the policemen and firemen and the planning commis-
sion too. What is done? Of course funds are taken away from the
planning commission, because the public has not been made to recog-
nize that planning is as essential as we know it is.
Planning has come more to the front with the National Resources
Board during the last year than it ever has before. Why? Because
the administrator has had to take the bit in his own teeth and say,
"Since the planner cannot do anything about it, we, the Govern-
ment, must."
What are the principal reasons for discussing blighted areas from
the viewpoint of the administrator? Some have said, "Let us have
zoning laws." That was a wave that went over the country. How
were the original planning zones made? We had public hearings to
prepare the zoning districts and now we find, in my city of Cleve-
land, that we have enough property zoned for business to take care
not only of Cleveland but of the whole State of Ohio as well. Yet,
every Monday night, there is legislation pending in Council: to do
what? To amend that comprehensive zoning law made some time ago
in order to zone more property for business.
95
96 REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT
What is the poor legislator or Council member to do? If he listens
to the poor widow whose earnings are in that piece of property which
she owns and on which she is informed she may not have a grocery
store although the property-owner across the street may, what is the
legislator going to do? Vote to amend that zoning law to allow
more property for business purposes?
And there is the problem of blighted areas. I live on a street that,
at one time, was one of the finest in the city. Someone had the
zoning law amended so as to be able to put up an apartment house
and immediately in that area — probably not right at the moment,
but soon — someone else puts up an apartment house next door to me.
So in rooms for which I pay about twenty dollars a month, I can
stretch my arm out of the window and touch the apartment next door.
You had a law in this city that permitted the creation of so-
called sanitary districts. It has been amended so that they may be
created by the county commissioners who are then administrators of
that sanitary district, and by virtue of the fact receive an additional
salary. This led to an increase in sanitary districts out into the
countrysides where assessments were made against the abutting prop-
erty. Now there is a resolution to wipe out these assessments. And
the public pays for all of it.
There is a very definite place here for the lawyer. He should be
thinking about this condition. What is the planning function of one
of my own profession? For I do call it a profession. The politician
has a profession; it is not a lucrative one, but it is a profession. If I
were to make my speech in one sentence, I should say that the
administrator or the legislator should have the courage and good sense
to take advantage of the ideas which you have discussed today; and
the lawyers should have sense enough not to be too far ahead of the
public, but to make use of the studies that are available.
The administration and the legislature have to provide the money
to do all these things which you have mentioned. We must have
money and we are gradually arriving at the point where the Govern-
ment is looked to to provide it. Here is a great opportunity for the
planner to point the way,
I know that Harland Bartholomew is circulating a proposal to
provide a tax. I think we should give consideration to a public sub-
sidy for housing. We administrators and public officials should also
give our attention to propositions such as Mr. Nelson has just de-
scribed.
When I was in Newark, N. J., a short time ago, I noticed that
REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT 97
the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company had bought several blocks
of land, retained enough on which to build their structures, and had
sold the rest to the citizens for recreational purposes. Why should the
tenant who lives on land abutting that recreational center bear the
cost, rather than all the public?
DISCUSSION
MR. OWEN CUNNINGHAM, Des Moines, Iowa: I am sorry that only a few
lines were devoted to the part of the lawyer in "The Share of the Planner
and the Lawyer." I feel that in a gathering of this kind the lawyers of the
community, who spend their time in the organization and development of
plans, and on the programs of the city planner, should be given due credit
and a word of praise. Gentlemen like Mr. Bettman and Mr. Bassett are
lawyers and are well able to maintain their standing as gentlemen. I think
a word of praise should be given them for their having had the ability to
maintain that status over a long period of years.
I can give you, in a very few words, what I consider the function of the
lawyer in planning and rehabilitation programs. Every city planning com'
mission has one or more members who are lawyers. Why? One reason, of
course, is because they feel they have a public service to perform, and being
public'spirited wish to carry out that duty. They have expert advice to
offer on planning and zoning which the city gets for nothing. It is good
advice because the men who spend their time on city planning and zoning
have a serious purpose. I believe the lawyer is the logical coordinator be'
tween the administration at large and the committee of experts represented
in the plan commission.
MR. ALFRED BETTMAN, Cincinnati, Ohio: I should like at this time to ask
Mr. John B. Spilker to express his opinion on this discussion of blighted area
rehabilitation. Mr. Spilker is a realtor, a member of the Cincinnati Metro'
politan Housing Authority, and is active in connection with the Federal
Housing Authority here. He is now and has been for many years instructor
in real estate at the University of Cincinnati.
MR. JOHN B. SPILKER, Cincinnati, Ohio: I do not intend to suggest any
plan, but I do want to say a few words to those of you who are interested
in planning and housing; to tell you about some of the reactions of the
realtor and the real estate owners with whom we come into intimate contact.
While some of the situations are humorous there are others more serious
which describe in a crude way perhaps certain ideas which can be satisfac'
torily explained if we take the pains to try, and do not merely ignore them
in our city planning and housing activities.
A year and a half spent in close connection with the Cincinnati Metro'
politan Housing Authority has given me a slant on the tremendous job which
we are trying to do. Coordination of the many phases you have heard about
this evening is the biggest problem we have to face. I think, however, that
in that coordination we must not overlook the real estate owners who own
property in this area and who are trying to rehabilitate it. We cannot ignore
them; they are citizens who have invested their money in our community and
the least we can do is to try to understand their viewpoint.
We have asked ourselves the question: What is the cause of the blighted
98 REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT
area? Is it merely the aging of the houses? Is it improper zoning, or lack
of zoning? There is growing concern over whether the problem of blight
does not go down very deep into our economic, social and political condi'
tions and possibly even deeper than that into human nature.
The realtor Wonders whether you are going to cure the blighted area by
building new houses and whether those new houses will not become blighted
too if conditions which cause blight have not been changed. He questions
whether Government housing subsidies, long'term amortization, low interest
will deal with these properties. Will they pay for themselves or will they be
thrown on the Government for use in whatever way the Government sees
fit — as free housing for example. The realtor is interested in these questions
because he has experienced difficulty with his investments and he is now
looking around to see whether this proposition, Government housing, will
work out in a practical way and whether it will be self'sustaining.
Another problem is occupying the attention of the real estate owner. The
theory of valuation for taxation of real estate is based upon the theory of
capital investment, less depreciation. This means that what a house costs, less
depreciation, is its taxable value; even though it is misplaced, even though it
has lost its usefulness. The real estate owner wants to know why it is pos'
sible to tax him on one valuation, using another as a basis for condemnation
purposes. Why should property be condemned by a different method, the
method of income? I do not believe it is right to tax by one method and
condemn by another.
Our real estate owner is also wondering whether slum clearance is going
to benefit only the low'income group or whether it is going to stretch out
to houses in the country. He is concerned with that because he knows that
he has no chance to compete with governmental housing. Such competition
will mean the destruction of his investment. If you are not going to limit
room rents or if the Government builds houses that rent for 10, 20, or 30
dollars a month obviously he will be seriously affected.
I am not going to attempt answers to these questions. I am merely out-
lining them as they appear in the mind of the property owner. .
He is also perplexed on the question of how this housing will be man'
aged, of how the difficulties and problems of rent collection will be met,
how to get people to keep their premises sanitary and clean. How is coordina'
tion of the social activities with the business management to be obtained?
The owner of property admits the importance of zoning, but he hears
rumors that zoning may be used as a means to limit the value on the eve
of condemnation and he is opposed to this. He believes that it is an injustice
to zone an area solely to drive its value down for condemnation purposes, by
limiting its use.
I believe there is a great opportunity for this type of housing and I be'
lieve that through a coordination of legal knowledge, city planning and
zoning knowledge, the practical knowledge of our realtors, architects and
engineers with the knowledge of the sociologist we shall accomplish some'
thing of enduring benefit to our communities.
MR. WALTER H. BLUCHER, Chicago, Illinois: Because the contribution of the
lawyer is so obvious I spent little time on it. May I say further that because
Mr. Bettman is Mr. Bettman and Mr. Bassett is Mr. Bassett there is nothing
that could be added to the praises brought to them by their own actions.
REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT 99
MR. ALFRED BETTMAN, Cincinnati, Ohio: I am surprised that a number of
people have not risen to challenge Mr. Nelson. If I understood him correctly
he referred to piecemeal zoning desired by a certain group of people in a
particular area. I frankly question that rezoning if it be done without any
relationship to the rezoning of the entire community, and I am particularly
interested that we shall set up no new taxing areas.
MR. TRACY AUGUR, Tennessee Valley Authority: Anyone who has lived
in Detroit cannot help but come away with a great deal of respect for the
real estate men. I once took occasion to count the lots that had been planned
in Detroit and found the real estate men of that area had "planned" a city
of at least 10 million. From Detroit I went to Muscle Shoals where I found
Woodward Avenue and other streets just as in Detroit. I discovered that
quite a sizable metropolis has been planned down there for 780 families.
Mr. Nelson brings up the subject of local improvement districts as though
it were something new. In the Detroit area his friends have, for some time,
been adopting that plan in the form of school districts provided with power
to make improvements, build sewers, etc. The public pays for these improve-
ments, but I do not see that that has anything to do with this proposal wherein
the public bonds itself so that the property may be sold on the open market.
Wherein does the present proposal vary from the previous practice of ere'
ating districts to build schools in municipalities as they have done in the past?
MR. BLEECKER MARQUETTE, Cincinnati, Ohio: I wish to say a word in ap'
preciation of the valuable services Mr. Spilker has rendered to the cause of
housing in Cincinnati. When Mr. Spilker became a member of the Housing
Authority I confess I was a little anxious as to what his views might be.
He has shown himself, however, to be most broad'minded. He has brought
here tonight a number of practical questions for those interested in the prob'
lem to answer. In putting their thoughts together and seeing both sides of
a question, I think other cities would benefit from such services as Mr.
Spilker has rendered in Cincinnati.
MR. L. SEGOE, Cincinnati, Ohio: I was not here when Mr. Blucher spoke
so he may have touched on the point I wish to raise. I know if I had been
here I might have reminded him of this and he could have covered it much
better than I am able to.
In listening to the other speakers it struck me as rather strange how far
away from the fundamental questions the specialist started. One proposal of
Mr. Burdell dealt with the blighted residential area as a residential settle'
ment where the efforts of the combined facilities of the planner, the sociologist
and the realtor are required to determine which of the three methods he
mentioned is applicable to the various questions. The question has been
raised whether it is a matter of doing away with those areas which are most
dilapidated to provide for the others more light, more air, more open space
for recreation, etc., or whether the district under scrutiny is so far gone that
it should be torn down and replaced by an entirely new housing development.
Mr. Nelson proposes that we accept these blighted residential areas for
residential purposes; that the city council at the request of certain neighbor'
hood districts determine the limits of the districts. Then by intelligent plan'
ning, agreed upon by the property owners in the district, the procedure is to
permit the planning commission to cooperate with the municipality holding
the bag at the financial end.
Someone raised the question whether or not the particular blighted resi'
dential area under review is fundamentally fit for the prescribed purpose.
100 REHABILITATION OF THE BLIGHTED DISTRICT
Should it be used for residential purposes or should it be cleared without
any thought of replacing it with a residential type of use?
We are still interchanging the two terms — slum clearance and low'cost
housing. I suppose Mr. Blucher spoke on that and I wish also to comment
on it for a few minutes. I have been repeating for three years, and find I
have made little headway, that a study of the entire area should be made to
discover especially what are the needs of that community in the case of
areas of various financial types; and how far those needs can rationally be
met in the blighted districts. Careful studies must be made of the blighted
areas to determine for each and every section of them the most appropriate
uses, considering all the while their value and relationship to the community
plan as a whole; and considering, too, the requirements of the community
for additional areas of the type of use to which it has formerly been put.
STATE PLANNING AND URBAN
COMMUNITIES
WHAT PLANNING CAN CONTRIBUTE TO THE
GOVERNMENTAL REORGANIZATION
OF URBAN AREAS
CHARLES E. MERRIAM
Member, National Resources Committee
I have been greatly concerned with the governmental reorganization
of cities, usually with those of larger size, and most particularly with
one on Lake Michigan. There are many questions in setting up gov-
ernmental reorganization in a metropolitan area; many questions to
raise, many to direct at those who are what we might call the regu-
larly licensed and authenticated planners. The type of questions we
now raise differ from those of earlier times when, as in Chicago for
example, the Burnham plan was developed under the auspices of my
colleague, Mr. Delano, and others.
In 1935 we asked the planners: What shall be the areas for which
you wish us to plan a governmental organization? Planners may reply,
of course: The corporate limits of the city — Chicago, Cincinnati or
New York. Obviously that is not a complete answer, for it is neces-
sary to go outside the limits of New York, Chicago and Cincinnati
and build some extra-mural type of political set-up. So we further
ask: What is it that constitutes the kind of unit with regard to the
density of population or with respect to other characteristics you may
develop? What is the unit for which the governmental costume
should be designed? Those of us in the governmental field are rais-
ing that question not alone in regard to the larger metropolitan cities,
but all along the line. We are raising the question even in the smaller
units — towns of three to five thousand population. If you take a
town of five thousand, how far outside that do you go? What is the
social area for which you wish us to set up a governmental plan?
A city is a bundle of services, labeled "Governmental Services,"
with a peculiar brand and type of power. These governmental serv-
ices are set in a net-work of larger social services which require much
sharper definitions and more elaboration than we now have in order
to make clear that the particular thing we label a city has the popula-
tion and the area best adapted to certain types of social or service
grouping.
101
102 STATE PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNITIES
From another point of view we question you with regard to the
data upon which we plan unions or combinations of cities. Before
we can plan successfully from a government point of view we must
have social and economic data indicating the kind of service which
might best be performed by the particular municipal corporation or
political authority to be set up. Thus far such social and economic
data are largely missing. Is it the function of the economist, the stU'
dent of populations, or the function of the social element to collect
these data which are the necessary pre-condition to the governmental
structural plan? Possibly the planner himself must become somewhat
more of a student of populations, of economic and social forces than
he has been hitherto.
Planning came out of architecture and engineering largely, and
remarkable results have been achieved, but others remain to be accom-
plished. In the next stage of our development we are going to require
from someone — the economist, the sociologist, the planner — more elab-
orate data because inevitably we shall have to consider the national
aspects of the question: What is the place of the urban community
in the national economy? If we ask you planners what are the data
upon which we, as students of government, should build; or if we
suggest the relation between the cities and the United States Govern-
ment, what will your answer be? You may answer, "You tell us!"
We can tell you of the variety of services that are being rendered
for the municipalities by the Federal Government above and beyond
emergency services. We can supply the necessary administrative and
political data. The larger question, however, we cannot answer; and
it is here we must appeal to some group of planners.
Is it desirable to build larger cities? Already there are 96 metro-
politan regions containing 45 per cent of the population within their
area. From the national viewpoint what should be the policy? Shall
we build our large cities still larger, so that in time we may have
75 cities containing 75 per cent of the population? Or shall we
contract them, even to the extreme of making a United States built up
of a federation of subsistence homesteads and small towns? Before
we can plan our cities governmentally we must know in which di-
rection the general trend lies. So far it has been in the line of
drift. Legally a Federal policy does exist, but there is no general
understanding in the United States as to whether we wish to build
cities greater or whether we wish to build them of a different size.
Are we to have industrial centralization or industrial decentraliza-
tion? There also is the problem for which persons interested in gov-
ernmental structure for cities must seek help, in the future, from
STATE PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNITIES 103
planners. Can you give us the larger line of direction? Can you tell
us whether we must look forward in our housing problem to cen-
tering our activities in the larger cities, the smaller cities? Shall we
develop some sort of satellite or belt-around-the-city type of develop-
ment? Shall we tend toward an industrial type of city? You may
say that no one can answer these questions; that if he could he would
not have the power to put his answer into practice. That is
true enough, but all countries in the world, particularly in western
Europe, are thinking seriously about their urban policies. The Ger-
mans have reached a paper conclusion to return in large measure
to the land, veering sharply from too great an urban industrial civ-
ilization. The British are already working out a large planned area,
the outcome of which is difficult to predict.
It is not impossible, of course, that the hard and fast line between
urban and rural communities may, to some extent, be broken down
in the future. With the growth of transportation a double system
of residence embracing both town and country, may become a more
general practice. The planners must help us in determining the val-
ues involved.
I have proposed here what may seem a large outline of data. To
me, however, these are types of data that some group of people,
whether they are planners or not, must collect and analyze for us.
Whatever type of urban service is put into a plan of government,
whether for the little city, the middle-sized city or the metropolitan
city, the fact is evident that our planners have not recognized clearly
that inner connection between the urban and the rural ways of liv-
ing. It is this lack of perception which lies at the base of much of our
modern confusion in the construction of an urban government.
My suggestions are not novel, but I present them to the profes-
sional planners in the hope that they will not only continue to give
us their splendid advice on landscape architecture, engineering and
the general aspect of the city, but will help us even more in the
collection of population, economic and social data; facts in regard
to land-use, plant location, industrial centralization; and a larger
and richer measure of those facts upon which the governmentalists
can proceed in building an urban structure.
STATE PLANNING AND LEAGUES OF
MUNICIPALITIES
MORTON L. WALLERSTEIN, Chairman
Virginia State Planning Board
In order that you will not take too seriously what I have to say,
I must first confess my double complicity in the crime of being both
the Chairman of our State Planning Board and the Executive Sec-
retary of the League of Virginia Municipalities. The latter crime
was committed by the conspiracy of one Louis Brownlow, then both
City Manager of Petersburg, and President of the Virginia League.
In the former, I became implicated by appointment of Governor
Pollard to our unofficial Planning Board, since made official, however.
It seems a strange anomaly that several months of my time were spent
in educating my appointer, Governor Pollard, as to the duties of his
appointee, only to have him retire from office after he had begun to
understand something about the ramifications of state planning. I
then began to educate his successor, my re-appointer, Governor
Peery. Very modestly, of course, I admit having succeeded in both
cases. Only recently I had the pleasure of forwarding to Mr. Eliot
a copy of a veritable gem of an address on state planning delivered
by Governor Peery at a meeting in Lynchburg. He tied up state
planning with the Gospel according to St. Luke. That even antedates
the planning activities of our distinguished chairman, Mr. Delano.
Here is what our Governor claims St. Luke said: "For which of
you, intending to build a tower, sitteth not down first and counteth
the cost whether he have sufficient to finish it? Lest haply after he
hath laid the foundation and is not able to finish it, all that behold
it begin to mock him, saying, This man began to build, and was
not able to finish.1 v
Many of you will recall that our great philosopher on public ad-
ministration, Dr. Charles E. Merriam, at a luncheon at last ye&r's ses-
sion of this Conference counseled you planners to bring your respec-
tive state municipal leagues strongly into your state planning activities.
When, over a decade ago, a half dozen league secretaries organized
themselves into the American Municipal Association, the group was
not too small for Dr. Merriam to meet with us and to encourage
us in our endeavors. He foresaw perhaps better than the secretaries
the possibilities of the state municipal leagues of which 41 have since
developed. He is an annual fixture at our meetings and it must be
a source of gratification to him to observe our growth.
104
STATE PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNITIES 105
Over seas these unions of cities are important organizations in the
field of public administration. It is fortunate that today in this
country they are becoming more and more potent. While I realize
that it is probably unnecessary for me to point out to this group
what these municipal leagues are, nevertheless it may not be amiss
to touch the high spots of their activities.
Just as it has assisted the American Society of Planning Officials,
so, too, the Spelman Fund has furnished liberal aid to some of the
state municipal leagues. I believe that Fund acts upon the principle
that one of the best ways of improving government is to aid the
organizations of the public officials themselves. Of such organizations,
state municipal leagues are typical. While they are not organizations
of public officials, because the state municipal leagues are supported
through financial appropriations made out of the municipal treasuries,
they must necessarily function through the public officials who are
the representatives of those governments.
Let us take Virginia as having a typical municipal league and
briefly sketch some of its activities. Perhaps its most important, al-
though least spectacular, function is the day-to-day furnishing of
information on any municipal question at the request of any official.
For our long-time research projects, we have set up at the University
of Virginia what we term the Bureau of Public Administration which,
through the use of a Director and graduate students, aids us on many
of those problems, the Bureau being operated jointly by the Uni-
versity and the League. Many of our state municipal leagues enjoy
intimate contacts with the state universities. During legislative ses-
sions, following the adoption of a legislative program which we feel
is both fair and progressive, we send out daily bullletins advising
all of our cities and towns as to the status of legislation affecting
their interests. This enables them promptly and propitiously to
contact their own legislative representatives. During the past several
years we have trained in a three year course 2,500 policemen and fire-
men in Virginia and this year will train 500 water works operators.
We conduct a radio series on various stations throughout the State
enabling public officials to inform the public on various phases of our
activities and of the activities of the city and town governments.
Planning discourses have frequently been included in these series.
We publish a monthly magazine with a circulation among all of
our municipal officials and many of the State and county officials,
carrying current problems of interest. We answer legal, accounting
and auditing questions. We hold an annual convention, at the last
one of which the vice-chairman of the State Planning Board led one
106 STATE PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNITIES
of the most interesting discussions on state planning. We have en-
deavored to represent the public in many utilities matters, and have
a field representative who travels among the smaller municipalities
and definitely assists them.
These leagues are both a sword and a shield in furthering munici-
pal interests. The slogan of the Kansas League is "Substituting Facts
for Guesses in Municipal Government." The league function is to
translate these facts into action. I had always known that these
leagues were for the most part independent organizations whose
sole purpose was the furtherance of the public interest, but it took
our consultant-director, Major Calrow of the State Planning Board,
to bring to me the idea that a league is primarily a planning organ-
ization. Because of the insistence of these leagues that facts are tough
animals — not chameleons — our planning boards have the same com-
mon purpose. Having such a purpose — one in the local field and one
in the state-wide field — an harmonious, cooperative relationship of
your planning board and your league would seem both logical and
essential.
Let us then direct our attention to whether such a relationship ex-
ists. I have endeavored to secure a summary of just how it has been
worked out in some of our states. I selected state municipal leagues
in 13 states including our own as representing a cross section. As a
result of this survey, what do we find? In the 13 states, two league
secretaries have been chairmen of the state planning boards, although
one of them has been smart enough to resign, due to the fact, I be-
lieve, that he was on leave for a year. On two of the state planning
boards appear the presidents of their respective leagues, and on one
of them, the secretary. The two chairmen are in Minnesota and
Virginia, the two presidents in Oregon and Illinois and the secretary
in Michigan.
It is significant that when the state planning boards had a quick
yet thorough job to do, that, in connection with the projected public
works program, nine of the 1 3 leagues took an active cooperative part
along with the state planning boards, notably California, Kansas,
Kentucky, Michigan, Colorado, Oklahoma, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
Virginia. A close relationship between the leagues of municipalities
and the state planning boards according to my report exists in all
of the 13 states. For example, in California the League officials sit
in at the various conferences of the planning board. In Kentucky
they are of constant aid in securing the answers to questionnaires.
In Kansas they have taken an active part on the public works pro-
gram. In Oregon the League Secretary is chairman of the section of
STATE PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNITIES 107
the Planning Board on Legislation. In Michigan they are in continu-
ous cooperation. In Colorado a large section of their program at their
annual convention was devoted to state planning, and they have run
articles on state planning in their magazine. Oklahoma forwarded
an educational program on state planning at eight district meetings
throughout the State, all done through the state municipal league. In
Arkansas the state planning board has aided in a joint endeavor to
build up a library on city planning and the board has aided the
Arkansas League in establishing many city planning commissions.
New York has frequently furnished much factual data to the state
planning board and included a speaker on state planning in its radio
series. Wisconsin has also supplied various data to the planning board
as has Minnesota, besides the league secretary acting as chairman of
a sub'committeee on taxation for the state planning board.
The Virginia experience with which I am most familiar may prove
interesting. For over a year, our planning board was forced to
operate without funds except for the furnishing of a consultant by
the National Resources Board. After nearly a year's operation we
succeeded in persuading the Governor to furnish us with a stenog-
rapher and some stamps. Both the State Chamber of Commerce and
the League of Municipalities did much of the mimeograph work be-
sides undertaking considerable of the correspondence. I paid for
some of my state planning trips out of the treasury of the League of
Virginia Municipalities. When I reported this fact to my executive
committee with a statement that should they feel it advisable I was
ready to reimburse the League, I was much heartened to hear this
committee approve of my efforts on behalf of the state planning board
and to give its entire ratification to the expenses incurred with the
further authorization to incur such reasonable expenses as I deemed
proper in connection with the Planning Board. This certainly is
tangible evidence of the genuine interest of a municipal league in
state planning. Since that time, due to a fortunate grant our plan-
ning board received from the Spelman Fund, we are able to operate
on an adequate basis.
Although I have hastily sketched the cooperation existing between
the State Boards and the Municipal Leagues, if you were to ask me
from the survey made as to whether there had been adequate co-
operation between the planning boards and the municipal leagues, my
answer would unquestionably be no. If you further asked me whether
a close relationship should exist the answer would unquestionably
be yes. For whatever they may be worth in at least furnishing a basis
for discussion, I would make the following suggestions : First, that in
every state, if feasible to do so, the executive secretary or other execu-
108 STATE PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNITIES
tive director of the state municipal league in that state, be a member
of the planning board. My reason for suggesting the administrative
head of the League is that league presidents come and go, but league
secretaries seem to go on forever. Both leagues and planning boards
bid fair to continue as permanent governmental departments. Second,
that cooperation from the local municipal governing units in the local
objectives of state planning can best be secured through the state
municipal league. That being so, the state planning boards may not
only secure much of their information as well as giving much in-
formation through these leagues, but translate into action their sug-
gestions. The State Departments in Virginia have wisely taken ad-
vantage of the fact that their best mode of securing cooperation where
desired of municipal officials is for the most part by working through
the municipal league. This may well be emulated by the state plan-
ning boards. Third, wherever possible, sub-committees on taxation,
municipal government, and various other germane subjects should
contain representatives of the leagues of municipalities. Fourth, active
cooperation should be secured by the state board through the munici-
pal leagues in an effort to further the establishment of local plan-
ning commissions. Fifth, state planning boards, as at present organ-
ised, being merely fact-finding bodies, must necessarily rely on such
public organisation as municipal leagues to translate their findings
into action. Sixth, the National Resources Board, the American
Municipal Association, being the national federation of the state
municipal leagues, and the American Society of Planning Officials,
in my opinion, should work out a technique for the exact lines of
cooperation between the state planning boards, the league of munici-
palities, the planning association and the federal board. The munici-
pal official as a rule is proud of his state municipal league. It is his
own organisation. The best way therefore to receive municipal sup-
port of a state planning program is through the local official's own
organisation.
Bear in mind, if you will, in tracing the history of planning and
soning legislation, that it was the state municipal leagues for the most
part which were successful in securing this enabling legislation.
Sometimes I almost forget that it was only a decade ago that a dis-
tinguished old Confederate soldier and lawyer, buttressed by a state
senator who was then president of the Outdoor Advertising Associa-
tion, made a stirring plea against the infringement on property rights.
Little did either of them then realise that property rights were being
best protected through soning and planning laws. Nevertheless, al-
most single-handed, we were able within two years to secure modern
and progressive soning and planning legislation. Compare this, if you
STATE PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNITIES 109
will, with what happened at the last session of our general assembly.
Mr. Harland Bartholomew, one of the members of the Richmond
City Planning Commission, and myself adapted to Virginia the act
which was proposed and unfortunately defeated in the Legislature
of Missouri. It is perhaps the most progressive city planning legis-
lation enacted anywhere. Our municipal league made that legisla-
tion a part of its legislative program. Contrasted with the bitter
experience of over a decade ago, it passed through the General As-
sembly without a dissenting vote in either branch. If the state munici-
pal leagues are liberal, public-minded organisations representative of
the best public interests, if they are truly planning organizations, if
they are organisations that work upon the thesis that given the facts
the public will face those facts and arrive at more or less of a proper
conclusion, then certainly it appears that there is no stronger ally of
a state planning board than its state municipal league, nor cor-
respondingly is there any body which can aid in building up our
leagues more than these planning boards.
By such coordination and assistance we can in some measure re-
alise one of the objectives set forth in the executive order creating
the original National Planning Board nearly two years ago, so aptly
stated in this language: "The analysis of projects for coordination
in location and sequence in order to prevent duplication of wasteful
overlaps and to obtain the maximum amount of cooperation and cor-
relation of effect among the departments, bureaus and agencies of the
Federal, State and local governments."
NEW APPROACHES TO URBAN PLANNING
CHARLES W. ELIOT, 2o
Executive Officer, National Resources Committee
Last fall at the Planning Conference in St. Louis we focused our
attention on problems of extensive rural land areas. We discussed
plans for land'use, for agriculture, forestry, recreation and other
subjects which were later reviewed and expanded in the December
report of the National Resources Board. Now we are called together
to consider the future of our urban areas. Almost one-half of the
total population in this country is concentrated in a few small areas.
Rough figures show that 47 per cent of the total population occupy
less than 1 per cent of the land area of the United States. In this
small area is concentrated a large part of the personal wealth of the
country, and, according to recent figures, at least 60 per cent of the
relief cases are located in cities of over 2,500 population.
Planning as forethought for the future, has taken on much new
meaning since these National Conferences on Planning were inaugu-
rated in 1909. At the last two National Conferences I tried to make
some contribution to the re-definition of the term and to supply new
words to describe different aspects of planning work. I do not want
to frighten any of those of you who heard me make those sugges-
tions either by making additional ones or by re-hashing previous
ideas, but I do want to impress upon you that the need for re-defini-
tion of planning in relation to the problem of our American cities
is acute. Perhaps I can best illustrate what I mean by suggesting a
few contrasts or different ways of approaching the whole subject of
urban planning.
First of all, what I have to say refers not to town, city or metro-
politan areas, but to problems of urban communities as contrasted to
rural problems. In thinking about city planning we need to differen-
tiate between urban and rural life, instead of considering particular
plots of grounds and jurisdictions. You must know, as I do, people
who sincerely prefer to live with sidewalks, street cars, traffic and
the other excitements, noises and attractions that go with city life.
Personally, I don't understand their point of view very well, but I
have been forced to recognize their existence.
Civilization to my mind has been too long synonymous with urban-
ism. We have learned, I hope, that opportunities for the abundant
life and other incentives to progress are not monopolies of the cities.
Neither city nor country has any corner on either the good things
110
STATE PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNITIES 111
or on the problems of civilization. We have heard talk, for instance,
in recent years, of the "Barbarian Flow," as Benton McKaye described
the extension of billboards, gas stations and shack towns along our
interurban highways, and we are all familiar with the uncivilized
intrusion of urban characteristics into healthier rural surroundings.
On the other hand, persons in high places predict "grass in our city
streets" as though a spot of green amidst our tenements was a sign
of deterioration instead of something devoutly to be sought.
Can we not find a happy balance and understanding of mutual
dependence between city and rural conditions? Can we not find a
new approach to the city problem by thinking out some idealized
mode of life which we want to make possible for those, who by
choice or by force of economic circumstances, live in areas of con'
centrated population?
In the past we have started with the obvious and acute problems
which were immediately facing us — problems of our physical sur-
roundings with which we are all familiar. Do not suppose that I
deprecate such a practical line of approach, but let me also point
out that from that stage we have been led on to consider other mat-
ters which in many cases apparently frustrated our efforts in physi-
cal planning. We have come smack up against social and economic
conditions or governmental tangles which made our physical plan-
ning programs impossible or fruitless. What better example could I
give than the choked entrances to our cities, where, because of the
change of jurisdiction between city and suburb, both the will and
the means to provide adequate entrances to the urban areas have
been missing. Is it not time to look at the whole problem the other
way around, to examine more closely, more intensively the social-
economic limitations and the governmental procedures and methods
which limit and influence the kind of plans which are both desirable
and practicable?
Besides thinking of this problem in terms of how we live or might
live in cities, and with stress on the organization of society to make
possible better physical surroundings, we must add another defini-
tion to our new approach to urban planning. We are not consider-
ing just the physical arrangement of things. We must design. We
must have design implying understanding and organization of the
forces behind the plan. It must not be just an architectural group of
buildings, but a functional, dynamic force. It must be designed in
the larger setting of the general, working back to the particular. Too
long we have approached planning from the point of view of a
geometric progression — the house lot, subdivision, small town, city,
112 STATE PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNITIES
and metropolitan area. We are in danger of seeing nothing but house
lots, of being unable to see the woods for the trees.
I have had occasion in recent weeks to go over inventories of pub-
lic works and other proposals, and have heard people saying, "Here
is a complete plan." I have felt called upon to ask them, "Since when
did two and two make five?" It is a dangerous error to suppose that
a compilation of a whole lot of good things is a plan, when the miss-
ing element, the design — the force binding the combination — is miss-
ing. If we are to have a real plan we must have the proposals put
together in the proper order, plus a design.
It seems to me we must again examine all the influences of com-
merce, transportation facilities, power and natural resources, in-
dustry, government, art, recreation, invention, individual genius — all
those things which in one form or another caused the original settle-
ment of a town, village or city and which cause or do not cause its
growth. Let us go back and re-analyze the forces which cause these
concentrations of population. We would do well to analyze further
the power of tradition and the various economic forces that cause our
cities to grow or decline, for in planning we are concerned primarily
with direction of those forces, and if we are to direct them we must
have increasing knowledge of their operation and their possibilities.
Without for a moment minimizing the constant uncertainties in this
world, we should seek out the forces that seem to follow a predict-
able course with a view to using them as tools in planning. We must
recognize living and changing forces, such as new inventions, but
we must fight against the idea that we are hostages to fortune and sub-
stitute a determination to be masters in some limited degree of our
own destiny.
When I talk of tools that we can use, I am really discussing the
approaches to urban planning which are made up of three main ele-
ments: a positive element, a negative element and an organization
element.
Among the positive elements, it seems to me, we ought to make
special efforts in the next few years, to study the influence of trans-
portation on the growth and decline of cities. I have been interested,
for instance, in the dependence of cities on the rate structure and on
its possibilities as a means of stimulating or retarding growth. Just
imagine what would be the effect of a single railroad system on many
cities which have grown up primarily because of competition between
railroads! Another element on the positive side is the public works
program and still another example is the reservation of lands in ad-
vance, whether for park or for urban development; a fourth element
STATE PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNITIES 113
which requires re-analysis is our taxation system which we all recog-
nize as a motive power for development.
Among the negative elements which influence urban development
I include zoning, limitations on the borrowing capacity of cities, and
tax limitations.
Finally, with reference to governmental organization : You all know
that we now have 45 state planning boards. Perhaps you don't know
that we have 26 legislative enactments and two legislative resolutions
to establish those boards on a permanent basis. We expect four or
five more states to pass similar legislation in the next month or two.
There are great possibilities of developing, through state planning
boards, a new technique of relationship between the state govern-
ments and the municipalities. It seems to me that a primary responsi-
bility of state planning boards should be to develop local planning
organizations, to encourage their growth, to give them direction and
guidance. That is the next step in our city planning program.
But in any talk about the tools of the planner I should not mini-
mize one other aspect of the work. Planning is not static — if it is,
it is dead. It must be a dynamic and continuous force. It is an
approach and not a finality.
In summary then, I am advocating an approach to urban planning
which, by my own definition, means an approach to an approach, or a
plan for a plan. Is that not what we need most in the field of city
planning: A new interpretation of what we are trying to do. To
make such a statement is one of the goals of the National Resources
Board for the next year.
DISCUSSION
MR. FREDERIC A. DELANO, Washington, D. C.: If I may take advantage
of my position to say a few words, I think Dr. Merriam and Mr. Eliot both
hinted at a fact that is old in medicine and is, I think, equally true in eco-
nomics; that is, almost every disease has the seed of its own cure concealed
within it. Our cities are a good deal in the position that many corporations
got into of being over-capitalized, having spent too much for unproductive
investments. New York is not alone in the position of having to spend 4? cents
out of every tax dollar on interest and the amortization of her public debt.
For 20 or more years Manhattan, the center, core and heart of New York,
has been diminishing in population. I mean the night population. The day
population has been steadily increasing. Yet, so unwilling are we to face
these facts that Mr. Thomas Adams, who was director of planning and
regional planning of New York, had to invent a new word. He couldn't apply
the words "deflated by natural causes" to New York, for he would have
aroused a storm of opposition. So he invented the word "reflation." He per-
ceived that while the center of this great city was being deflated it could
spring up again in "reflation" into centers of community life of the less
114 STATE PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNITIES
crowded suburbs. I imagine that this is the sort of thing that is going to go
on, but, as Dr. Merriam hinted, in the problems of the great city the burden
of maintaining a great city and how it is to be solved is a very difficult
question indeed. Parts of our big cities are being blighted and people are
leaving, not because they are being driven out but because they want to get
out. The cities have got to find some way of maintaining their lure and with'
out a constantly increasing taxation. The City of Paris attempted a system
that has always seemed grotesque to us Americans, when we are over there,
of a duty that the country pays for trading in the city. I don't know whether
we shall ever come to anything like that, but that is one way for the city
to get even with the country.
MR. HAROLD S. BUTTENHEIM, New York City: We have heard a great
deal of the importance of cooperation between the planning groups and other
official groups, as represented by the municipal governments and leagues of
municipalities. I wonder if emphasis should not be given to the importance
of cooperation in planning by the unofficial groups. In the early days of
planning, a great deal of original planning was financed by local chambers
of commerce, women's clubs, etc. They were some of the principal origin'
ators for the support of professional planning. I believe at the present time,
and in this desire to secure greater action and better public education on the
need of plans, that the planners and municipal officials should take advantage
of that sort of cooperation. I believe it is within the power of the planners
to show the chambers of commerce that planning has a real business implica'
tion of great importance in addition to its civic implications, and that CO'
operation of that kind might be secured successfully.
MR. RUSSELL V. BLACK, New Hope, Pennsylvania: As Mr. Eliot has re-
minded Dr. Merriam many in this audience have given a great deal of
thought to the question of possible limitation of the size of the city, the best
social and economic size of the city. I think many of us have come to our
own conclusions as to approximately what size a city should be. I think,
however, that Dr. Merriam cannot rely entirely on this particular group to
produce all of the essential facts in support of our theories. We will have
to go back to Dr. Merriam himself to answer one of the most fundamental
questions: that is, what size city can be most economically administered?
MR. JOHN NOLEN, Cambridge, Massachusetts: I think we must keep in
mind that the problems are not only vast, but are exceedingly varied. They
are complex and there is not, of course, only one solution. The solutions must
be exceedingly varied and there is no possibility of a rapid change. Vested
conditions and vested interests cannot successfully be interrupted. There is a
wide gap at the present time between the best that we know and the best
that we do. I believe we should not stress too emphatically the necessity for
perfect or nearly perfect effort in view of the success we have enjoyed and
may continue to enjoy in working gradually.
MR. MARSHALL N. DANA, Portland, Oregon: I find myself intensely inter'
ested in the proposed relationship between the local and state planning organ'
izations. In my experience city planning antedates state, regional and national
planning. Now we are confronted, however, with the problem of assimilating,
through state organizations, a large number of rapidly organized local plan'
ning groups, some city planning groups, and some county and district plan'
ning groups. It seems to me, looking at the matter from the viewpoint of the
state planning board, that the first item is the bringing into relationship of
the local planning organization with the state planning board; then the legal
establishment of those local groups by the passage of state laws establishing
STATE PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNITIES 115
the authority for city, county or district planning; and likewise the passage of
laws providing for zoning authority. Beyond that you come to the question
of cooperation which Mr. Eliot mentioned.
In my mind cooperation is even more the key to successful planning and
planning relationships than laws because, after all, the people themselves
begin the planning process. It was achieved by labor; and by professional
men who acted as labor, who have little by little, through the years, inter'
ested official agencies until at last we have more or less of an authoritative
planning idea. To me the planning organization is dependent upon coopera'
tion almost to the same extent that the executive is dependent upon a board
of directors. The board of directors in this case is comprised of the public
members who took an active and intelligent interest in planning, supported
it with their funds and their understanding.
MR. FREDERIC A. DELANO, Washington, D. C. : I wish to make one refer'
ence to what Mr. Dana has said. It is true, very true, that interest in this
subject began with the cities. I think you must remember that the reason
it began with the cities was because we had become more and more con'
scious of the terrible mistakes which had been made in the past and we
wanted to prevent a recurrence of those mistakes in the future. We also
found that the cost of correcting some of those mistakes would be enormous.
Now the heartening thing about planning in the open country is that we
don't have to spend a lot of money in correcting mistakes and that, from our
experience in the cities, we can make real contributions to the development of
the smaller communities and the county. I think that is how the two sub'
jects are related to each other.
FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN
PLANNING
CHAIRMAN'S INTRODUCTION
MR. JOHN NOLEN, Cambridge, Massachusetts: We have come
this evening to the most essential and encouraging approach to our
municipal problems that we have had. It is a little difficult to
appraise our many forms of government at the various levels —
the municipal, the state and the Federal. I have a strong feeling
myself that the Federal Government, to speak of the highest level,
has employed qualities of idealism, of science and certain ele'
ments of efficiency in its attack on the problems which it attempts to
assist the state and local governments to find solutions for. I believe
that a Federal contribution is being made to local governments and
to our sovereign states which, for one reason or another not easy to
explain, is one that cannot come from any other source.
I am sure that those of us who have had the opportunity — and I
think it is really a privilege to sit on a session such as we had this
afternoon with representatives of the National Resources Board — to
see the approach, the desire for definite and helpful action, feel greatly
encouraged thereby.
One of the things we have learned from these sessions is that there
must be a plan. I think that we are pretty well convinced that the
word "comprehensive" is significant; that serious limitation in our
planning and welfare programs and expenditures is represented by
the word "piecemeal."
Another point stands out that has come as our experience en-
larged, which I would call the conviction that we must have a new
type of city and that there must be a new technique to produce it.
Our existing situation will continue for some years with only grad-
ual alterations, but we are moving toward this new type with con-
siderable success. This transformation will mean a city adapted to
modern life, to new conditions, to new ideals, to new potentialities
related to newlydeveloped resources, or from a new attitude to old
resources.
I recall very well a quotation in a book I read recently. It seems
to me to express the point in a clear manner. It said, "Cities, when
one regards them impersonally, are so ugly and ill'proportioned that
one wonders that specialized men could have constructed them." The
fact is, specialized men did not construct them. They simply grew by
the addition of one private and unrelated contrivance after another
until today cities stand as examples of our haste and our failure to
use intelligent forethought.
116
FEDERAL ASSISTANCE TO LOCAL PLANNING
PROJECTS
ROBERT H. RANDALL
Consultant, National Resources Committee
Any discussion of Federal aid and planning projects must neces-
sarily involve first a consideration of the organisation of city projects
and second the duties of the planning staffs so organized as they relate
to the work program.
In the matter of organization, I may say that it is anticipated that
applications for projects and for staffs to be supplied to state planning
boards will be made to the State Works Progress Administrator in
each state and by that State Works Administrator will be forwarded
to Washington, where it is expected that a representative of the Re-
sources Board staff will review such applications.
In regard to applications for staff aid to local planning commis-
sions, these will also go to the State Works Progress administration
and will, in all probability, be subjected to a review in each state by the
State's Planning Board if one has been organized. Details of the pro-
cedure implied in the method of project application are being worked
out tentatively at the present time, by the Works Progress Adminis-
tration and by the National Resources Board in Washington.
It is expected that in general the procedure will be quite similar to
that followed previously up to this date by the Federal Emergency
Relief Administration in relationship to State and local planning
boards. Specific instructions as to how to make these applications will
be forthcoming in the near future. Also, the form of application
blank is expected to be ready shortly.
Just a few more words as to how to make these applications. While
it is a matter for your individual judgment, I should advise those of
you who are interested in making application for Federal aid to
delay making actual application until the forms for the purpose are
ready. When they are ready, they will be distributed to State plan-
ning boards.
In the meantime, if I might suggest, it would seem to be proper to
prepare all the facts which will be the basic makeup of your applica-
tions when the blanks are available. That fact basis, of course, should
include a statement of exactly what you want the additional staff
for. That statement should not be simply a general argument for the
117
1 18 FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN PLANNING
need of a planning staff. It should include some of that, of course,
but in the main it should be a specific list of the activities which you
hope to undertake with the staff.
It will probably also be required that each governmental unit, the
city, the state or county, whichever the case may be, make a state-
ment of the participation, of the cooperation which the unit is pre'
pared to extend. That should cover the degree of local supervision
there will be because I think you will find it is to be assumed that in
each case competent local supervision is provided.
It should also cover the positions, the actual positions which you
would like to have filled. Now, the salaries of these positions are not
known. All that anyone knows at the present time, I believe, is what
we see in the papers as to the limitations of the work-relief financing.
So much for the method of making application. I would like to
discuss now, if you will bear with me a moment longer, the relation-
ship of the state and local planning board to the work program. It is
very properly not only concerned with long-range planning and re-
search which is a typical activity of most planning boards now, but
it should also be concerned with projects for immediate operation.
Quite a few in this audience heard Colonel Waite talk this afternoon
about the wisdom of directing planning forces in a very practical way
through the work program.
Four billion dollars are to be spent in putting people to work. In
doing that, it occurs to me that the state and local planning boards
can be of service in creating a reservoir of projects, each project being
designed to take its place in the coherent program of community im-
provements. If our planning boards fill that function without neg-
lecting their ordinary planning activities, I think we can expect full
support from the Federal agencies.
So far, I have spent the time on the relationship of the Federal
Works Progress Administration to the state planning board in the
matter of planning projects. I would like to bring another matter to
your attention. That is the method by means of which the projects
developed by your state and local planning boards may be brought
into the best use.
The Public Works Administration in Washington and the Works
Progress Administration in conference with the National Resources
Board is working upon forms for construction and other projects. I
think quite a few of you are familiar with the forms in use by the
Public Works Administration and I believe that I am correct in
FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN PLANNING 1 19
saying that what was done in this regard by the Public Works Ad-
ministration project will be followed. In other words, a provision is
made for recording the opinion of the planning board concerned.
In the operation of the Works Progress Administration there is
to be a series of forms. The first one will be a Progress announce-
ment, which will be more comprehensive and in more detail than the
former Progress application which was used by the Federal Adminis-
tration.
It is anticipated — and again I must say that the details of this
have not finally been settled — that on this project analysis sheet, there
will be space for recording the opinion of the proper state, city,
county or town planning agency. It is also expected, on the Works
Progress form — probably to be called "Application Form No. 1" —
which follows the project analysis sheet, that the planning commis-
sion's action also will be recorded.
So far I have confined myself pretty rigidly to a statement of the
procedure by which we hope that Federal aid may be extended to
planning. As those of you who have read the report of the National
Resources Board know, it is very definitely the purpose of the
Board and I believe of the other Federal agencies cooperating, to
make planning a part of the method of this work program. While it
is as yet not possible to speak with finality and while the reports and
the blanks for application are not, as I have said, yet complete, I
think we may hope that planning will have a real place, with real
cooperation on the parts of the Public Works Administration and the
Works Progress Administration.
I shall not take up additional time because I would like to leave
insofar as possible, a clear picture of what is known to date and also
what is not yet decided upon. My final recommendation to you all
would be this: Get your facts together. Get clearly in mind exactly
what it is that you would like to do. Get in touch with your state
and your local relief administration and, as soon as it is organized,
your Works Progress Administration. Make your application and I
believe that you will find on the part of that administration and all
Federal agencies a most hearty desire to cooperate with you in mak-
ing planning a real factor in the program.
DISCUSSION
MR. JOHN NOLEN, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The subject next under con-
sideration under the heading Federal Activities and Urban Planning, is a most
important one and one which many of our foreign planning friends feel has
been greatly neglected in the American approach to planning.
120 FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN PLANNING
I saw a statement recently to the effect that the building of houses consti'
tutes the major architectural work of every civilization. A new house cannot
be conceived except in terms of the community. The houses in our country
are great masses of obsolete and dilapidated equipment. In the housing which
is to be so important a part of the communities of the future, light and air
and recreational space should be available to every resident to an extent that
only the wealthy, advantaged groups have enjoyed hitherto.
In our housing endeavors we must take the same broad view that is ac-
corded to public works, Federal and state highways, pipe lines and schemes,
or to any corresponding major activities. Housing needs for its program those
who see the several subjects and see them in their true relationship. This is
not a subject which can be attacked from and solved by a narrow point of
view. We need in this broad planning not narrow men, but broad men sharp-
ened to a point, who will apply at a particular place the broad, related knowl-
edge necessary to provide a satisfactory and permanent solution.
Our next speaker is a planner who has this broad and related approach
proceeding out of his fund of knowledge, his keen observation and understand-
ing of values and a sense of proportion. Planning requires also — and I am
thinking of Mr. Crane here — a characteristic ascribed to the men of Labrador
who, when they are given a choice of action, always choose the most venture-
BUILDING HOUSES AND BUILDING CITIES
JACOB L. CRANE, JR., President
American City Planning Institute
In this paper I am offering one proposition. The proposition is
predicated upon one assumption. The assumption is that the country
is not going to fall to pieces. I am assuming that we can successfully
readjust our collective affairs, readjust the distribution of purchasing
power, re-establish and expand our tremendous potential production
capacity. Assuming that these eventualities are in prospect, I submit
that the current interest in housing on a large scale heralds the begin'
ning of the greatest enterprise ever undertaken by the American
people. I submit that we are undertaking to rebuild our cities.
And I feel that all of our housing activities must be considered
as elements in the vast project of rebuilding the cities of this
country. We should understand this thing that we are undertaking
and each housing policy and each housing job should be fitted into
that concept. We must measure all the urban housing work we do
by this question: "How will it be as a part of the rebuilt American
city?"
The evidence that we are beginning the rebuilding of our cities is
plainly visible on every side. Thousands of dwellings are being de-
molished. As rapidly as means can be found, hundreds of thousands
of people are fleeing from the huge, jerry-built, ugly, blighted areas.
If we grow rich again, as I assume we shall, how little of these big
cities will be acceptable as an environment for living? What family
or what individual will endure the crowded, noisy, dirty, ugly, un-
economic, shoddy camps which we call cities, — vast stretches of dis-
organized brick and stone so barren that a crow would have to carry
his lunch in flying over them? Who can conceive that the full expres-
sion of American life demands less than the almost complete rebuild-
ing of these overgrown towns? I contend that the cities will not die
or disappear, but that we will rebuild them. The present many-
sided attack on urban housing problems represents the beginning of
that reconstruction.
A bigger project would be difficult to imagine. To reconstruct on a
reasonably decent basis the unlivable and uneconomic portions of our
bigger cities means, at present costs, an expenditure of something in
the range of fifty billion dollars! I insert that figure here so that
the shock may wear off before the next speaker is called upon. Two
billion dollars per year for twenty-five years! If it is work and the
121
122 FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN PLANNING
exchange of goods that creates purchasing power, and if our cities
and their dwellings constitute one of our most important elements of
capital, this is a project to rouse all of us from any lethargy and social
paralysis we may feel. Here is by all odds the greatest single oppor-
tunity for utilising our natural resources, our equipment and our man
power.
Now, in rebuilding our cities we will be giving expression to the
culmination of our ideals. We will be registering our concept of
the art of living. We will give visible evidence of our American
standards. This is not just a matter of piling up bricks. It is our state-
ment of the American ideal of life and of the framework for the
American arts of living.
The policies which we formulate and follow lie at the foundation
of all our future living arrangements. Possibly it is too soon to speak
of policies which we formulate, since there is now so much feeling
that with a complex of more or less conflicting policies there can be
no central policy to follow. When the pickpocket dashed into an
office and asked to be concealed from the cops, the office girl said,
"Jump into our filing system, nobody can ever find anything there."
Our housing policies, what ought to be city rebuilding policies, are
buried, not in one, but in a dozen different filing systems. They
should be brought out, dusted off, polished up, and put into the pot
by a Federal Housing Policy Board. That Board could then build
up the necessary general research, hear all sides of the case, and in
a while produce a set of coordinate policies which could sensibly
guide the federal, state and local governments, and out of which
sensible and practicable programs could be developed — programs
which recognise what we are actually undertaking and the difficulties
to be overcome. Several separate agencies are doing this now for their
own operations. The total resultant, when all are put together, still
constitutes a confused picture.
An underlying question of policy is that having to do with stand-
ards. Is it possible that the prospects in America are so poor that
we must pare housing down to the bare bones of three and a half
rooms per family? I don't know. But I hope that our preoccupation
with repayment, rigid limits upon subsidy, and depression incomes,
will not blind us to the great potentialities we possess for building
open, ample, full-scale cities.
Likewise, I hope that we have the courage and ingenuity really to
tackle the gorgon of irrational land policies which still tends to frus-
trate the valiant efforts of those wrestling with it. We shall have
to formulate some central policies and some new measures. Virtually
every other industrialised nation has gone far ahead of us here.
FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN PLANNING 123
We must lay the ghost of public versus private enterprise in hous-
ing. I am convinced that there is a huge field for both, once the fields
are analysed and defined by a Housing Policy Board. Meanwhile it
is clear that large housing programs, in reality city rebuilding pro-
grams, involve problems which can be solved only through the par'
ticipation of our collective agent, the Government. Even where purely
private funds and private enterprise are utilised — I should say partial'
larly where they are utilised — both the public interest and the pri-
vate interest must be drawn in to plan and to stabilise the develop'
ment.
Finally, while we don't know enough yet to institute a full-scale,
long'range program, and while our instruments are still not perfectly
adapted to our purposes, it can be clearly seen that we require as a
part of our central policies for city rebuilding: first, sensibly drawn,
complete city and metropolitan plans; secondly, procedures for fit-
ting any single project into such a broad city plan; and thirdly, pro-
cedures for designing each project and its site in such a way that the
city we are rebuilding will find the project appropriate and right
after it is completed.
We are undertaking to rebuild our cities. This is a principal sig-
nificance in our large-scale housing work. Our policies, our programs,
our procedures, the perfection of our techniques may all be directed
toward that purpose. "Bigamy," says a school boy, "is wrong, be-
cause no man can serve two masters." The objective we cannot deny,
the objective from which we should not deviate, is the objective of
rebuilding the American city.
DISCUSSION
MR. JOHN NOLEN, Cambridge, Massachusetts: We probably will get more
out of this discussion of housing — a subject which appears only at this place
on the program — if we take time now for discussion. Mr. Crane has kindly
consented to answer any questions and to discuss any opposing views or con-
trasting opinions.
MR. HARRISON, Indianapolis, Indiana: We just went through a planning
program on slum clearance in Indianapolis and it is interesting and enlighten-
ing to hear about other approaches.
About ten years ago it was my privilege to attend a conference on city
planning in Cincinnati. At that time I learned something about the neighbor-
hood unit. When you approach the replanning of areas from the slum clear-
ance standpoint you are right back to the neighborhood unit; it has all the
elements by means of which the proper development of a city may take place.
One of the worst problems we have to contend with is that of land acquisi-
tion. If some way could be provided so that land could be obtained economi-
cally without paying for the structures on the land that have to be demolished,
we could make greater progress in this direction.
124 FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN PLANNING
Minds have begun to concentrate all over the country on these housing
projects. The manufacturers are awake to the situation and I believe that
ultimately we will realize something far beyond our present treatment of the
problem of housing and rebuilding our cities.
MR. JOHN NOLEN, Cambridge, Massachusetts: We have time for one more
speech if there is someone who would like to comment on this particular
matter.
MR. L. SEGOE, Cincinnati, Ohio: We have heard a great deal about land
costs as an obstruction to low-cost housing. We have been told that lowcost
houses could only be built if the land were obtained at a reasonable cost.
Anyone who has had the disappointing experience of trying to figure out how
that might be possible has made the discovery that, as a matter of fact, if
someone were to make us a present of the blighted area, we might use it for
any other purpose for which land is being used in the community except to
provide housing for our lowest income people. The explanation for this is that
the cost of these areas is still too high to provide a decent standard of housing
for those with the lowest income; the simple fact is that their wages are not
high enough.
Now then, the question faces us, how can the slum clearance problem be
distinct and different from the housing problem? I am emphasizing this since
we are so used to intermingling the two terms. There are instances, of course,
where slums might be cleared and houses built on the area. But there are a
great many other ways of clearing the slums. In the capitol city of this State,
Columbus, you will find that a most effective clearance resulted from the con-
struction of an inspiring city center. Nevertheless, slum clearance and the
erection of lowcost housing are different and distinct problems.
In this city, many houses in the blighted area were demolished to provide
an approach to the new station. A sum of four or five hundred dollars was
paid for every room in these obsolete houses. If the cost of the rooms de-
molished is added to the cost of providing new rooms, it is impossible to house
those of the lowest income or even those of somewhat higher income in houses
they can afford. If we were to require the same standards of light, air, and
sanitation in the old buildings and districts that we require in new buildings,
the building department would be able to hold up a large proportion of these
buildings, and there is nothing to prevent a community held to a low income
from having the proper sanitary conditions.
MR. JOHN NOLEN, Cambridge, Massachusetts: When I heard there was the
prospect of having Louis Brownlow, Director of the Public Administration
Clearing House of Chicago, on our program there flashed into my mind many
things about him — his connection with planning work and all sorts of enter-
prises. I thought particularly of what someone has said of his social judg-
ment and wisdom: that it represents that harmonious combination of clear
thought and warm feeling which is so necessary a factor in the efforts being
made by individuals and groups of individuals to bring about greatly needed
alterations and improvements in public administration. I also thought of the
mastery Mr. Brownlow has acquired, through a long and varied career, in the
engineering of human consent, the most difficult engineering job of all. We
are unfortunate in that Mr. Brownlow cannot, after all, be here. We are
fortunate, however, that the same topic which he was to discuss will be covered
by Mr. John F. Willmott of the Municipal Finance Officers' Association of
Chicago.
AN URBAN BUREAU IN THE FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
JOHN F. WILLMOTT
Municipal Finance Officers' Association
We have listened this evening to two outstanding addresses both
of which have emphasised Federal participation in local planning
projects growing out of the changing relationships between the
Federal Government and state and local governments.
Changing Relationships
This change in relationship is not confined to planning but touches
other functions and activities as well. Indeed, the circumstances in
which many local units now find themselves may bring about still
further changes in the traditional pattern of government. Faced with
a sharp decrease in assessed valuations on the one hand and the
restrictions of tax limitations and high tax delinquency on the other,
many local governments are caught like miners in a flooded mine
shaft and are being driven to the higher levels of government to seek
assistance in maintaining public services through either
(1) a transfer of functions or debts to the broader shoulders of
the larger units of government,
(2) a reorganization and consolidation of the small units,
(3) aid from state collected locally shared taxes, or
(4) grantS'in-aid for specific purposes.
In at least one instance, namely Key West, we find the city and the
county and the school district pooling their administrative and finan-
cial resources under the leadership of the Federal Government, in an
arrangement which is called the Key West Administration.
No one knows how far this process of changing relationships will
go and, for reasons to which I shall refer in a moment, no one knows
how far it should go. But whether present trends are accelerated or
retarded, whether we have more federal participation or less, one
thing we may predict with assurance and that is that the old pat'
tern of federal, state and local governments, existing in water tight
compartments, making their plans and conducting their affairs with-
out regard for the policies or problems or requirements of the other
levels of government — that pattern is a thing of the past. Looking
125
126 FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN PLANNING
from where we now stand to the farthest horizon, we can see no
road that would carry us back to that order of things.
Fact Basis Needed
It is not too much to say that this changing relationship between
the different levels of government is the distinguishing characteristic
of the present decade for the political scientist, the planner and the
administrator. That fact is now quite commonly recognized. But it
holds certain implications that are as yet only dimly perceived. And
of these, there is one which I commend to your most earnest consid-
eration: namely, the need for a fact basis for the determination and
administration of national plans and policies which affect, and are
affected by, the finances, activities and policies of the state and local
governments. Indeed, without this, there is real danger that what
should be a thoroughly harmonious and cooperative relationship may
result in friction, misunderstanding and bitter controversy.
The cities and states are reasonably well equipped with facilities
for keeping in touch with what the Federal Government has done,
is doing and proposes to do. We have in Chicago seventeen national
organizations of public officials, including the American Society of
Planning Officials. These organizations are located in the same
building and there is the closest cooperation between them. Coordi-
nation of their activities in order to prevent overlapping of program
and duplication of effort is brought about through Public Administra-
tion Clearing House, of which Mr. Brownlow is the Director.
The Federal Government, on the other hand, is inadequately sup-
plied with information concerning the state and local governments.
For a number of years, various federal bureaus — notably the Bureau
of Census, the Office of Education and the Bureau of Public Roads —
have been gathering statistics of state and local governments. Dur-
ing the past two years there has been a marked increase in the num-
ber of such compilations until, at the present time, we can count at
least a dozen federal agencies collecting state and municipal data of
one sort or another, and, if we were to include those agencies which
are interested in only minor aspects of local government or whose
interest is only temporary, their number would increase to a surpris-
ing figure.
Many of these federal agencies are doing excellent work under
great handicaps — financial and otherwise. Yet with all this activity,
much essential information is nowhere available and that which is
available is scattered in numerous patches here, there and everywhere
in various nooks and crannies of federal bureaus with little or no
FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN PLANNING 127
coordination. Some of this information does not appear for almost
two years after the period to which it relates. And of course, by
that time, the data may reflect a set of conditions which no longer
exists. There is no one place in the entire Federal Government where
complete and up-to-date information may be obtained regarding the
financial condition, the transactions and the activities of our state
and local governments.
Bureau of Information Needed
For a number of years leaders in the municipal field have been
urging the establishment of a bureau of state and municipal informa-
tion in the Federal Government for bringing together in one place
complete, accurate and up-to-date information concerning state and
local taxes, tax delinquency, receipts, current expenditures, capital out-
lays, budgets and balance sheets, together with data regarding state
and local organisation, personnel, facilities and activities.
Presumably, the proposed bureau would be developed out of some
existing federal agency which is already engaged in the compilation
of state and local data, but with expanded facilities and revised pro-
cedure. Such a bureau should undertake the following activities:
1. It should serve as a central clearing house of information regarding
state and local government for all federal agencies.
2. It should coordinate the activities of the various federal statistical and
information services insofar as they deal with state and local govern'
ment.
3. It should itself compile data where such data cannot be obtained in
satisfactory form from other federal agencies.
4. It should establish a monthly bulletin service for bringing together the
following current information regarding states and municipalities:
gasoline, sales, tobacco and liquor tax collections; expenditures for relief
and mothers' pensions; public construction; current and capital flota-
tions; new defaults; number of public employees, and amount of pay-
rolls, etc. This would involve little or no compilation, since most of
this information is already available in one form or another — sometimes
in several conflicting forms.
5. It should enlist the cooperation of the various state departments of
municipal statistics in order to bring about better coordination of their
activities.
6. It should carry on an active research program for studying the work of
all state, regional and federal agencies engaged in compiling state and
municipal data in order to develop new and improved techniques for its
own use and for the use of others.
7. Finally, such a bureau should furnish information and advice to local
communities where necessary.
128 FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN PLANNING
Advice to Local Units
This latter function may sound like paternalism. May I remind
you, however, that the Federal Government has persuaded a large
number of the smaller communities to embark in new and unfamiliar
ventures, such as sewer systems, light plants, hospitals, etc., as a
part of the national recovery program. Left to themselves, many of
these communities would not have undertaken these activities for
years to come. When the operation of these unfamiliar services
develops perplexing questions for which their customary procedure
makes no provision, they naturally turn to the Federal Government
for advice.
Furthermore, the Federal Government has lent them money to
finance the greater portion of the capital cost of these undertakings,
which loans it expects to collect. Furnishing advice to the borrower
is a traditional function of the money lender. The merchant con'
suits his banker concerning the conduct of his business, and, if he
fails to do so, the banker may offer such advice voluntarily and even
insistently in order to protect his investment. The Federal Govern-
ment, having assumed the role of banker, will find it necessary to
furnish advice and information to many of the local units to which
it has granted loans, especially the smaller units, in order to protect
its investment. Obviously, it cannot furnish information which it
does not possess. Accordingly, it seems clear that, if and when a
bureau of state and municipal information is established, it should
not be confined to statistics but should gather information regarding
administrative and financial methods and make this information
available to the local communities.
State Bureaus
A number of the states already have bureaus of municipal statis-
tics. The establishment of a federal bureau of state and municipal
information need not duplicate the splendid work which they are
doing. The federal bureau should coordinate their activities and pro-
mote the use of uniform classifications and standard procedures.
Eight of the states, which already have fair compilations of munici-
pal statistics, contain one-third of all the cities of over 30,000 popu-
lation. Were uniformity to become a fact in these eight states, the
Federal Government could accept the state-compiled figures in such
states and concentrate its energies on the states where the informa-
tion is not so well organized. Mr. A. M. Hillhouse, Research Direc-
tor of the Municipal Finance Officers' Association, has recently com-
pleted studies of state reporting in two states and the association is,
FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN PLANNING 129
at the present time, in contact with two additional states where there
is considerable interest in uniform reporting of municipal statistics.
Advantages
The establishment of a federal bureau of state and municipal in'
formation with an active program and using standard techniques
would be of great assistance to the Federal Government in passing
upon applications for grants to state and local units for relief, public
works and other purposes, in passing upon applications for loans,
in supervising such loans after they are made and in determining
national policies — particularly those governing federal-state and fed'
eral-municipal relationships. It would also assist the state and local
governments, in comparing their relative standing and in determining
their policies — especially those affecting their relationships with the
Federal Government and with each other. A coordinated program
would also tend to reduce the flood of questionnaires which is an'
noying local officials.
There need be no fear on the part of the states or the municipals
ties that this program will invade their prerogatives or hamper their
freedom of action. They have nothing to lose and everything to gain
by encouraging the Federal Government to obtain complete informa'
tion regarding their finances, their activities and their plans. The
more information of this sort the Federal Government possesses, the
more likely it is to understand the problems of the states and the
local units of government and the less likely it is to take uninformed
and arbitrary action detrimental of their interests. This program is,
therefore, an effective bulwark against "bureaucracy."
I know of no group which should be more interested in the estab'
lishment of an adequate fact basis for these new relationships between
our levels of government than those engaged in city, regional, state
and national planning. For if these relationships are allowed to de-
velop haphazardly, resulting in friction and misunderstanding, a
highly emotional atmosphere will be created which will be most
unfavorable for the success of the planning movement, based as it is
upon an appeal to reason.
While a certain amount of misunderstanding and even controversy
is inevitable, this process of adjustment can be materially facilitated if
conscious development and design, based on complete knowledge of
the facts, are substituted for mere accident and circumstance. And
that, I take it, is the beginning and middle and ending of planning.
It is for this reason that I feel that those who are engaged in plan'
ning have a substantial opportunity — and therefore a substantial
130 FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND URBAN PLANNING
responsibility — for bringing this about. I commend this thought to
your most earnest consideration.
DISCUSSION
MR. JOHN NOLEN, Cambridge, Massachusetts: We are grateful to Mr.
Willmott and to the other speakers for what I think has been a very profitable
and illuminating evening devoted to the subject, Federal Activities and Urban
Planning. It is a sufficiently general subject and I believe we can profit from
the experience of other nations, so I would like very much to hear the com'
ments of Dr. Larsson who has had experience in other countries and wide
observation in our own.
MR. YNGVE LARSSON, Stockholm, Sweden: There is a problem with which,
as explained this evening, we have had some experience in Stockholm; not
at all in the same degree, however, as you have had to deal with it in your
big cities. It is the problem of slum clearance. We have had slums —
dwelling places and tenement houses which were bad and did not correspond
to fixed standards and which, accordingly, had to be demolished.
I think the point of this question is the one emphasized by Mr. Segoe.
That is the fact we must look in the eye. We always have in big cities large
numbers of poor people who cannot afford to pay an economic rent. After
demolishing their old houses we can build others to replace them. We can
build new houses but we cannot re-house these people without bringing
another element into the picture: Costs of these new houses should be
obtained on a basis of the capital. This problem can be met in two ways.
We can try to cut down costs, although we cannot go very far in that direc-
tion. We have tried to do it at home — and I think many other countries
have also tried it — through constructing buildings of lower type. These
buildings, however, deteriorate quickly and will soon form new slums.
Now we are in a happy position in Sweden. The municipality itself owns
most of the housing projects and it owns, on a large scale, the unbuilt-upon
land in the city. Accordingly, we have leased this land to the individuals
who live on it and in that way it has been possible for us to lower our rents
about 30 per cent under the standard rent. This is, of course, one thing we
have been able to accomplish, but I don't think it is enough. I think that in
the long run we must face the fact that public authorities must pay a certain
portion of the rent for their poorest people. I don't think it is possible to
solve the problem in any other way. That is the trend in Sweden.
With regard to the problem which was the subject of the concluding paper
this evening, conditions in Sweden and America are not comparable. Al'
though we have in the Swedish municipality a commission which resembles
the Federal bureau outlined a few minutes ago, the solution of the problem
is much simpler in a country with a population of only six million than it is
in a country which forms a continent.
From this meeting, as from many other experiences in America, I have
the impression that you are going rather fast along the way we have been
going. I think that in Europe too the state and municipalities are growing
and their tasks increasing, and that the methods of meeting these changes
of city and state are assuming new forms.
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
THE PLANNING COMMISSION: ITS FUNCTIONS
AND METHOD
ALFRED BETTMAN, President
American Society of Planning Officials
Planning has been talked and written about to such an extent as
to give the impression that planning has a definite meaning in our
minds, and that this meaning and its actual application in practice
have become an established tradition. Those who frankly face the
facts realise that we are still far from any such stage. The ease with
which local planning commissions were mowed down in the early
skirmishes of budget reductions, and the rather small extent to which
state and national plans have been actually applied in the selection of
public works may be evidence that planning, as a concept, is far
from having either definiteness or the strength which comes from
acceptance and deep roots. We are still in the period in which the
meaning, the purpose, the justification, the function, the methods of
planning are open to challenge and discussion.
The planning of which we are speaking, namely city, county, state,
regional and national planning of the developments on and the uses
of the land, contemplates the performance of this planning function
largely by public action through public governmental instrumentali-
ties. To be effective in attaining influence upon governmental con-
duct, any concept must be represented by some organism or agency
in the governmental set-up. No amount of learning about con'
tagious disease and the value of quarantine is effective unless the ap-
plication of this learning is committed to some organism in the struc-
ture of the government, such as a board of health. In order that the
theories and principles of planning can be translated into actual influ-
ences upon or controls of the uses to be made of the land of the
city, region, state or nation, there must be organisms within the local,
state and national governmental structure whose special function it
is to nurse and apply these theories and principles. The challenge
directed at the planning commission, as when, in the interest of so-
called economy, the appropriation for the expenses of the commis-
sion are withdrawn, is necessarily a challenge to the planning con-
cept to justify itself. If planning be a necessary functional or val-
131
132 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
uable activity, then the necessity for or value of the creation, preserva-
tion and strengthening of the planning agency follows as a matter
of course.
What, then, is the special function of planning which none of the
traditional governmental activities supplies and without which the
other governmental activities will fail to produce effective results in
terms of social welfare? Planning renders at least three types of
service, none of which are or can be rendered by other forms of
governmental activity.
One of these is in supplying the factor of adjustment or coordina'
tion among the multiplicity of ideas, activities, interests, specialties
and emphases which, by reason of variations in fields of learn-
ing, experience, and economic or intellectual interest, the people and
officials of any community possess, apply and press. Numerous ex-
amples will occur to any of us. For instance, the coordination be'
tween street location and the zoning system. In the case of any pro-
posed street there are special interests, knowledge or enthusiasms
concerning the street which cause an emphasis upon a proposed loca'
tion of the street. These conflict with the views of those more intent
upon maintaining the efficacy of the zoning. The result is likely to
be uneconomic in terms of both material and social costs, unless there
is an adjustment based upon some intelligent principle which is more
than mere guesswork. It is the function of planning to furnish and
apply the principles of adjustment among a multiplicity of conflict-
ing interests and special municipal requirements which bear upon
every proposal involving the distribution of the uses of the land
within the corporate area.
A second necessary element in the making of decisions, without
which the results will fail to yield the attainable social and material
benefits, is that of foreseeing the future rather than allowing the
decision to be based only upon factors which are immediately visible.
We know the pressure which is brought upon legislative bodies, such
as municipal councils, to treat the existing developments as decisive
or to treat something new as valuable because it produces an increase
of one item in the tax duplicate. A counteracting influence opposing
this pressure is a necessity. Otherwise these problems will not be
solved in such a way as to produce stable and valuable results. Many
illustrations come to mind. One session of this Conference was de-
voted to the subject of the blighted district. The blighted district
problem was treated exclusively as a housing problem. But the rede-
velopment of a blighted district cannot be solved intelligently with-
out gathering and interpreting the data and making some decisions
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 133
concerning the future location and distribution of industry. How
can one know whether the redevelopment of the blighted district
should or should not be for housing unless one knows where indus-
tries are to be located. Consideration of the future as it relates to
the decisions of the present is another necessary element furnished
by planning.
A third service is that of gathering and studying data and informa-
tion under conditions of freedom, and detachment from pressure for
speed or compromise. Administrative and legislative officials are
exceedingly busy. Each day's problems must be solved by them under
time pressure. The environment furnishes no opportunity for what
we may call research. In order that information which they should
have for intelligent decision may be available to them, some agency
must be free to engage in thorough and intellectually honest research.
This is, of course, a function of planning.
The need for planning, therefore, the justification for it as a con'
cept and as a method, arises from the necessity that these three ele-
ments or factors of adjustment or coordination, of injection of the
thought of the future into the problems of the present, and of the
free research into the facts of present and future; these three at least
should be applied to the actual day-to-day decisions regarding the
uses of the lands and the waters and the resources of our cities,
regions, states and nation.
Planning principles apply to situations of what might be called
tension; not necessarily open or angry tension, but the more or less
conscious or militant tension which is produced by the fact that the
individuals concerned in the making or results of each decision have
different economic and intellectual interests, training in different
fields, different enthusiasms. For example, the city or the state gov-
ernment has many administrative departments, each of which has a
special knowledge in and enthusiasm for its own field. A proposed
street location may conflict with a proposed playground or invade a
park which the park department believes should remain free from
the invasion. The very existence of administrative departmental
subdivision tends to produce division rather than coordination. Then
several governmental units may operate in the same territorial units.
The state's highway system enters the territory of the city and is
capable of interfering with the zone plan of that city. These con'
flicts of interest or enthusiasm or knowledge require that there be
a planning agency with the position and information to qualify it as
a harmonizing process.
Then there is in every question the conflict or tension between
134 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
the present and future. For instance, when a bad traffic situation
has developed on a certain street, the traffic department is likely to
see in that situation the present inadequacy of the width of that
street and to press for a widening there. The study of the future,
however, might show that inadequacy to be merely a temporary
situation for which a future development at some other point is a
better remedy. Pressure of unemployment relief might point to plac-
ing a housing development on a site visibly dilapidated where the
practical details of getting that site and building new houses can be
quickly carried out. A more careful study might show that condi-
tions elsewhere in the city, together with discoverable trends, will
speedily produce new blight of the proposed site and that, in the
long run, more stable good housing and better municipal economy
would be obtained by a slower and more thorough process of select-
ing the site by means of the methods of planning.
There is always present, at every moment of the day and night, in
city hall, state house, national capitol and everywhere else, the conflict
between political considerations and scientific or expert considerations.
By "political" I do not mean "partisan," but the hearkening to the
clamor of the moment, decisions made by easy compromise between
pressure groups. In order that the mistakes in these decisions may be
reduced, the factor of expertness of science needs to be injected to a
greater degree.
The time available for the program of this Conference is too short
to allow further elaboration of this analysis. Perhaps this brief state-
ment of the necessity for and the justification of planning as a part
of governmental activity has been sufficient to demonstrate that if
we are to obtain from the administrative and legislative activities of
our national, state and local governments results which, in terms of
material or social costs and benefits, justify the expenditure of the
monies and energies which go into the processes of government, there
is a necessity both for the performance of this function of planning
and for the creation and activity of special organisms within the
structure of our various governmental units for carrying out this
function.
This is of the greatest importance to all of us, at least to those of
us who wish to preserve a fundamentally democratic method of
conducting public affairs. The complexity of the problems of today,
urban and rural, the capacity which all sorts of groups and interests
have for making themselves heard and the tendency to treat each
question as an emergency, will break down the democratic method
of operation unless city councils, state legislatures, the national con-
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 135
gress, city, state and national administrations and the public are
willing that the application of the principles and methods of what
we call planning be injected into the governmental process. Planning,
if recognized and accepted and given its place, will be a preservative
of our traditional democratic political constitution.
The type of agency which has been developed for this planning
function is the planning commission. It may or may not prove to be
the best form in the long run, but at the present stage it is in most
places, no doubt, the best form of agency. When a new type of activ-
ity is required, the older governmental agencies are not prepared, psy'
chologically or technically, for its acceptance. But the development
of its use as a custom and tradition can be promoted widely by means
of a new agency. For instance, the Civil Service Commission was a
necessity in the establishment and gradual acceptance of the merit
system as the traditional and customary method of the selection of
civil servants. Here and there this tradition may reach such a degree
of permanence and strength that the commission form of agency is no
longer needed, and the application of the merit system can be placed
in the personnel department of the administration. But in the long
period of recognition, acceptance, and developing of methods and
tradition, this special commission type of agency is most practicable.
The planning department, as a coordinating agency for all admin-
istrative departments, obviously needs to be separate from these de-
partments. There is seldom in the structure of any government a
single executive who is the chief executive of all administrative de-
partments and to whom the planning department can be attached and
still perform its function. This may not be true in the Nation, for in
the Presidency we have an office which heads all administrative activi-
ties. It is practically never true in the cities or in the counties and, of
course, cannot occur in the region. For instance, the City of Cincin-
nati has a city manager form of government with an exceptional
degree of centralization of executive authority; but even there some
administrative departments are not under the manager.
The planning commission is an advisory or research agency for the
legislative branch as well as for the administrative. There is no single
governmental unit which has the entire jurisdiction over the develop-
ment of any territory. Here where we sit today the land is more or
less subject to control by a city government, a county government, a
school government, a state government and a national government,
and the coordination of their decisions through planning principles
and methods is necessary. At the present stage of the planning move-
ment and with the present governmental organization, the best struc-
136 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
tural arrangement would seem to be a planning department of the
commission type and separate from any other department. It might
be well, however, under conditions existing in special places to experi'
ment with the single head type; that is, a planning department with
a single head like other departments.
Time does not permit extensive detailed consideration of the com'
position of the planning agency. In the city or other local unit, the
mixture of ex officio and citizen members is practical. The meeting
place being within easy reach, the citizen member can be active, and
the contact as between citizen and ex officio member fruitful. In the
state, the problems of the composition of the commission is more diffi-
cult. The citizen members are apt to live at a distance from the
meeting place and therefore to attend less frequently, thus giving ex
officio members a disproportionate power. The state planning move'
ment is still too young to have furnished sufficient experience for
solving this problem. So far the national government has furnished
in most states all the expert and staff services. The states have not
been put to much of a test as to the strength of the recognition and
establishment of planning as a regular part of their governmental
process. For the time being, we must experiment with the planning
commission composed largely of the citizen members with some ex
officio representation of the administration and possibly of the legis-
lature.
Without the public planning agency there can be no making of
the plan. But the mere making of the plan, even if the community
has sufficient wisdom and character to go that far, is not enough.
The drawing up of programs is insufficient if their effectiveness is
to depend entirely upon the willingness of others to read and use
them. Something more must be a part of the process than the mere
drawing up of the plans or the sending of advice when advice is
sought. There is need for some process or system by which, with a
considerable degree of regularity, the advice must be sought and con-
sidered. This is the purpose of those provisions of the model plan-
ning laws and of many actual statutes which specify that the legis-
lative and administrative organs shall not have power to decide
finally on locations of new public improvements or places or of zon-
ing amendments or the like without receiving and considering the
advice of the planning board.
The application of the state planning commission to specific proj-
ects presents greater difficulties than in the case of the localities. As
yet there has not been sufficient experience upon which to base opin-
ion and prophecy. The model laws which have been drafted and the
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 137
statutes which have been enacted define the scope of the state plan,
but leave its application largely to the chance that, by reason of the
personality of the commissioners and the moral and intellectual qual-
ity of their work, planning techniques will be sought and followed by
the governors, the executive department and the general assemblies.
An experimental beginning has been made in the field of state plan-
ning. It has produced the exceedingly valuable reports of the state
planning consultants. There is still a stage of trial and error to go
through in the matters of the composition, powers and methods of
state planning agencies.
In the case of the Nation, the answer is simpler and is contained
in the bill now before the United States Senate, which attaches the
planning board to the office of the President and leaves to him the
uses to be made of its reports and advices.
The provisions of the planning laws which require, before final de-
cision be made on the location and extent of any public improvement
or zoning change, that the report of the planning commission must
be sought and received and a two-thirds vote of the legislative body
must be obtained for over-ruling the advice of the planning commis-
sion, have been criticized as grants of administrative power to the
planning board. Whether this accusation is correct turns entirely
upon one's definition of the word "administrative," and if the ac-
cuser uses "administrative" to include the power granted to the plan-
ning commission, there still remains the question whether the grant is
good or bad. However, where an agency does not possess the power
of final decision, that agency's power is, in the last analysis, advisory.
If a national planning board writes a report setting up a program for
waterways development during the following fifty years, to which
program the governmental departments which make the decisions as
to what shall or shall not be built give such influence as they choose
and no more; or if the planning board of, say Pittsburgh, advises
that the ordinance which will be before the city council in the fol-
lowing week be amended so as to make Jones Street 60 feet wide
instead of 50 feet, which advice the council is not required to follow —
is not the function of these planning boards essentially advisory in
both instances? The fact that the one board writes its fifty-year
advice in one report, whereas the other board sends its advices
weekly, does not disprove the essentially advisory nature of the per-
formance of both boards.
The justification for the continuous, week-to-week advices must
come from the fact that this additional agency, the planning board,
has something valuable to contribute which is not possessed by and
cannot, in the nature of things, be possessed by the other agencies.
138 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
That means that the planning commission should develop a compre'
hensive plan to serve as the basis upon which its specific pieces of
advice upon specific projects are developed. If its data and its methods
were the same as those of the legislative and administrative depart-
ments, then this additional agency would not be justified. If, for in-
stance, in passing upon a zoning amendment it counts the neighbor-
hood pro-noses and the neighborhood con-noses and possesses no
general plan or planning standards, then it would be a superfluous
duplicate. It should have upon its staff one who, by virtue of his
education and experience, is a specialist in the planning approaches
and techniques, as distinguished from the approaches and techniques
usually present in and appropriate to the administrative departments.
Comprehensive planning as the basis for the integration applied to
many specific proposals, a planning staff equipped with special train-
ing, and a fund of useful and very valuable data, and all this set up
as an advisory and informational agency negates the charge that the
grant to planning commissions of the right to participate in the
application of plans and planning to administrative decisions makes
the planning organ just another administrative agency.
AN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM FOR
PLANNING
MARSHALL N. DANA
Chairman, District No. 11, National Resources Committee
The addition of planning to education and of education to plan-
ning has become a more emphasised necessity as experience length-
ens and broadens. Education can, however, be a cooperative, contrib-
utive and creative agency in planning only as its instruction, student
guidance and objectives are expertly harmonised with planning. As a
training process it may well be a part of a planning process for itself
and for its products.
The search for facts and the adventuring for truth that people may
know and use knowledge in organising materials, setting up the con-
trols, and weaving government, business and trade into a mechanism
sufficient for progress — these compelling incentives become inspir-
ing expectations not only to the student in school, but to the student
of life.
A program of education for planning ought to be the next step in
the planning program. It calls for the planning of education. It
argues for direct and definite inclusion of educational divisions in
planning organisations. It should go beyond the school room and
include the public. Careful distinction should be made between edu-
cation and propaganda.
The education of educators and citisens to be planners is not
enough. The education of planners to be educators is desirable.
Planners ought to be freed from the impatience so often roused by
the crass notion that research properly may be linked to application.
They may even realise that the pure delights of graphic charts are
legitimate parents to the dam and the riveting machine. .Scientific
investigation may suitably produce the water conservation program
and the project of land redemption.
Planning must gain the common touch. In necessary sequence are
public understanding, confidence and support, beyond which planners,
no matter how eager, may go only far enough to mark the way. Only
informed people can plan well and use well the means of abundance.
To the National Resources Board a suggestion is therefore sub-
mitted. The National Resources Board has performed a work of
commanding and historic importance, both to present and future
generations, in its inventory of water and land and other physical
139
140 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
resources, and its studied program of development for the benefit of
the American people.
Let the National Resources Board now set up an educational plan'
ning project. Let it be done on the level of the water inventory and
land classification. Let it summon the best qualified persons in the
country to prepare a program of education for planning, accurate
pedagogically, but likewise alive and challenging to the mass mind.
Let it be a program national in scope but intimately related to di-
visional and local needs.
An educational program for planning will infer that orderly de-
velopment and use of physical and human resources have been made
permanently a part of the processes of government and the practices of
the people. It will mean that planning is more than a spasm or an
impulse, and that the vitality of the idea today will live in the values
of tomorrow. It will aid in the planning of government. It will
necessitate the planning and coordination of education. It will help
convince legislatures and other financing agencies of the practical
values of education and educational institutions.
An educational program for planning will deal with tomorrow's
users of the facilities created today. It will create in them an aware-
ness of opportunity, reduce the abruptness of transition from school
to life and give them less feeling of strangeness upon entry into the
world of work. It will go farther. It will impart to the mature per-
sons in the thick of action an understanding of the meaning and
the inter-relationships of research and development.
It will present planning as essentially a community affair, protec-
tive of the home and the neighborhood as the primary groups upon
which so much of the American tradition is founded. It may aid in
the accomplishment of a necessity constantly more imperative in the
view of those who seek an improved order not by scrapping, but by
using the machinery of democracy effectively and in accord with
original purpose. It may aid in reinterpretation of the profit motive
to include recognition that the well-being of the individual may best
be had cooperatively and by way of the well-being of others. Here
is drawn in a modern community the distinction between truly civil-
ized persons and barbarians wearing the trappings of civilization.
A program of education for planning would naturally suggest the
production of trained leadership, but it ought to suggest another
element equally valuable — an informed following.
It will support the effort to meet immediate needs. One of these
is security. Another is defense against state and municipal graft. A
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 141
third is the coordination of agencies. Separate agencies may plan
for themselves, but only public policy and controls can hitch all forces
to the same end of the wagon of progress.
A planning project naturally evolves from scientific research and
analysis into campaigns for accomplishment. A charted course will
be clearest and safest. Basic and essential facts and truth will be more
easily discerned. As a newspaperman I have found that if a thing is
needed, if it is right, if the word about it is spread systematically
and persistently, if one keeps his temper, refuses a house to skepti-
cism and discouragement, if he employs the vital energy of enthusi-
asm and keeps at it everlastingly, it will be done. Effort at first seems
futile, the public apathetic. But sentiment will be aroused. Then it
will amaze even the crusader with its energy, its generosity and its
momentum. That is when causes become vogues — and whether they
are cast into policy, practice and institution will be settled by
whether they stand the test of results.
An educational program for planning will be contributive not only
in the school and college course, but in public understanding. It may
train a few to be professional planners; it should train all to under-
stand the value of planning. The prospect is then for comradeship
in effort on the part of educators, scientists and laymen. And I speak
again for emphasis of the value of designating the vocations most use-
ful in studied research and development, as well as the approximate
number of trained persons needed in each. An orderly technology
ought to find essential work for every qualified person.
The Problem
A program of education for planning presents problems. Our
teachers, many of whom were trained fifteen to twenty-five years ago,
are called upon for revision of methods. The direct relation of edu-
cation to life's activities is not always readily seen. Dr. John Dewey
recently said that the correction of error and the prevention of repe-
tition are duties that may be shared by the teaching profession. And
he added:
"Teachers have been slow to recognise this fact. They have felt that the
character of their work gave them a special position, marked off from that of
the persons who work with their hands. In spite of the fact that the great
mass of their pupils come from those who work with their hands on faTns,
in shops and in factories, they have maintained an aloof attitude toward the
primary economic and political interests of the latter. . . . the business of
teachers is to produce the goods of character, intelligence and skill."
The texts of education for planning are yet largely to be writ-
ten. Guidance of students is new, perhaps fortunately. Certainly
142 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
we will agree that the breadth of planning calls for broad general
training in order to contribute to the instincts for coordination. To
build specialization on a broad foundation will prevent the loss of
wide view and tolerance.
The interweaving of planning with vocational training should pro-
duce positive values. The planners of today fall into their work
mostly from engineering, architecture, landscaping, agriculture, city
planning, political science and economics. Many planners will con-
tinue to come from these specialized fields, but they should come with
broad knowledge of planning as a whole, and of its relationships to
their specialties.
Educators must decide where planning fits best, but is there any
reason for arbitrary delimitation? And should texts be restricted to
pedagogical tomes? May they not include such reports as the Na-
tional Resources Board has made, the record of planning conferences,
surveys, briefs, newspapers, magazines, radio and every other form
of the written and spoken word? How can education better meet its
duty to present instructionally and create inspiringly an awareness
of opportunity? And a text for planning may be a power dam in
full use, a city well built, or a nation with a recovery program gov-
erned by plan.
Education Enters
Let me voice appreciation.
Education is beginning to give evidence of realization that plan-
ning is a factor in national, state and local government and economic
and social programs. Its intrinsic purpose is not changed by plan-
ning.
The purpose of education is to prepare people for useful and
happy lives.
The purpose of planning is to attain these ends by orderly processes
applied to natural and human resources.
Very early in the planning program for the Pacific Northwest we
were turned to the schools and colleges by our hope for successful
research and development of the Columbia Basin States. There we
found the men and women of scientific bent who had the disinter-
ested public viewpoint, and who, if they did not have, would be
the better for the common touch. There we found the boys and girls,
the young men and women, hundreds of thousands of them, who
would be the heirs and the users of the facilities to be created today.
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 143
To create in them a sense of familiarity with opportunity in its
specific terms promised the human link necessary to close the gap
between research and application.
And while seeking to accept idealism and altruism, it seemed de-
sirable to impart to planning a meat, bread and butter appeal that
would reach through to the man on the street. One reason I believe
in planning and in education for it is to bring a simple diagram of
effective and happy living nearer to plain people. It may be disarming
to ruthless individualism, but children may begin early to understand
the place that a noble and logical diagram may have in purpose and
accomplishment.
' Tis education forms the common mind,
Just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined."
A Pacific Northwest Experience
We have had the cooperation of all the institutions of higher learn-
ing and many of the schools in Montana, Idaho, Washington and
Oregon.
Colleges and universities have undertaken or discussed research
projects. We are preparing to generate large blocks of power. Study
of the effect of power upon general water and land use, forestry and
mineral development, upon homes, and cities, upon industry and
transportation — upon the area of individual opportunity — has become
a most practical necessity as construction proceeds. Application for
an industrial survey of power markets and general development was
substantially premised upon college and university cooperation.
The planning of a city, a county, or a locality, the planning of a
state, the planning of a region with state and federal cooperation, and
the planning and organisation of the people themselves — these were
the initial duties.
Educational participation was admirably set forth in the statement
by our regional consultant, Roy F. Bessey, in the report of the first
year's work of the Pacific Northwest Regional Planning Commission.
I recommend the reading of the whole, but quote two paragraphs:
"In connection with planning in general, education must gauge the move'
ment, estimate the needs of the present and the future, develop the indis'
pensable arts and sciences, and furnish leadership. Assuming that more
services and controls will be expected of government, education should aid in
meeting the need for higher standards and more scientific and professional
employment in civil service on all of the levels of government. Education
must recognize in advance the trends in industries of all kinds, in agriculture,
144 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
in the fields of public welfare, relief, health and safety, in social and
economic insurance, and in planning itself, and provide for vocational guid'
ance and for the training of personnel.
"It may be that the Pacific Northwest is entering upon a new era of
empire building, but it is not necessary that the industrialization process
include the grievous social, cultural and aesthetic errors of the past. A raw
empire can be built with less than the full manpower available. The basic
means, human and material, are at hand for aesthetic and cultural progress
to keep pace with physical and economic development. Much of the re'
sponsibility for such parallel movement rests upon education."
Homes of the Future
Through the Educational Committee, inquiry was instituted as to
the effect upon the area of individual opportunity to be anticipated
from the facilities and structures provided incident to the recovery
and planning programs.
We asked what would be the place of the home in the future of
the Pacific Northwest. It had been stated that the primary groups —
home, neighborhoods and communities — are being dissolved under the
pressure of modern civilization. That recent trends have been toward
their dissolution. That scientific inventory of these groups, partial'
larly the home, would be desirable, charting their values in relation
to various economic and social changes and trends.
The extended outline of this project was sent to numerous study
groups, women's organizations and schools throughout the Pacific
Northwest. There were prompted, in turn, addresses, conferences and
discussions that have tended to awaken understanding of the fact
that the primary groups should be stimulated and protected by the
program of construction and development if planning plays its proper
part.
Pointing the Way
Today, it must be confessed that to teach planning well we must
make more progress in planning in the schools and in our dealings
with the public. We haven't the qualified teachers in necessary num-
ber, but we yet may have. We haven't full complement of leaders, but
they will appear. We may emphasize geographic unity in the plan-
ning program. We may take up trade relationships and mutual needs.
We may make planning education graphic. Education may enjoy its
own benefits from well planned uses of the forests, the fisheries and
the development of power. It may help bring about the needed law
for public planning organization and for zoning, under the fine demo'
cratic principle that a man shall not be destructive to the rights and
safety of his neighbor.
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 145
Lastly, a program of education for planning, beginning with pro-
fessional planners, may lead to the popular conviction that real and
lasting values are to be had; that planning is better than chaos, and
that people can be happy doing the things that make happiness. We
can show that deep desires of human beings are within reach. That
water can be held from flood and erosion and made useful in sani-
tation, power, industry, transportation, recreation and domestic re-
quirements. That land may be used for its fertility, assured by study
and classification. That wasteful use of minerals and forests may be
substituted by a sane policy nationally applied. That when public
institutions are built, public works installed and facilities provided
for industry, trade and commerce, these may function smoothly
through coordination. That not to plan means losses in bread and
meat, and that to do so means life at a higher level of subsistence and
happiness.
An educational program for planning means a planning organiza-
tion devoted to education. Each person on staff or committee must
be an educator; hence each must constantly submit to educational
and expansive processes. Planning may be fixed only in principle.
It must be flexible in practice.
Closely associated with education in planning are the programs
of research and the plans for use that go along with the building of
facilities. Only planning can properly relate the uses and functions of
plants and facilities necessary to the activities and satisfactions of the
people.
Until planning is allowed its proper place in the educational pro-
gram, we must plan more in the realm of theory than of practice,
and the energy spent in planning must continue to be out of propor-
tion to the results obtained.
And although a program of education for planning will command
the sciences and technics, it is as simple and true in its goals as the
most ancient hope of man. It deals with the instinct for home, the
desire for a piece of good ground, the hope for a paying job, the am-
bition to be independent and secure, the resistance to monopoly and
exploitation, the craving for change and play. It's the school room
widened, the old friendly neighborhood broadened, the appreciation of
beauty, and the love of kind expressed cooperatively. It is the inspir-
ing idea that people are not helpless but may create the conditions
that produce happiness and command destiny.
THE PLACE OF PLANNING IN MUNICIPAL
ADMINISTRATION
HENRY B. STEEG, City Civil Engineer, Indianapolis
In this paper it will be my purpose to evaluate the benefits de-
rived from and the necessity for proper planning in modern munici-
pal government as evidenced by actual experience in the city I have
the privilege of representing at this Conference.
Municipal government is each day growing more and more techni-
cal, and of consequence, more complex. A city is no longer a self-
contained unit, having none but purely local problems to consider.
We, who have interested ourselves in the practice of that science
called "city planning," realized many years ago that, for the purpose
of charting and guiding the growth of our communities, the area out-
side the corporate limits of our cities had to be investigated and studied
in order that we might plan more intelligently for the future of that
area within. Regional planning then, of necessity, had to come into
being. Regions themselves bore definite relationships to each other;
had problems that linked in with and were dependent upon the
problems of other regions. And so, from the small nucleus of a few
city planning commissions we have seen our country grow more
"planning conscious." Today we have hundreds of local planning
commissions, a growing number of state planning boards, and a na-
tional planning agency, all working together towards a common goal —
that of giving to each citizen of this country a better chance to pros'
per, to live more comfortably, and to be happy.
In this growing planning program, it is, in my opinion, the local
unit — the city planning commission — that plays the most vital role
of all. It is this agency which comes into more intimate contact
with the public; it is this body that is more closely associated with
the daily life and habits of our citizens; and it is this body, more
than any other, upon which the success of the entire program de-
pends. Therefore, the local commission must be constantly on
guard to prevent the alienation of public support by its own acts.
It can spend thousands of dollars to make studies and prepare com-
prehensive plans for re-planning of old sections and the development
of new ones. The final plan may be beautiful and well thought-out,
but so economically unsound and expensive that the community will
not be financially able to carry it out without bankrupting itself.
The commission cannot for one minute overlook the capacity of the
citizens to pay. Any idea suggested that cannot stand the light of
146
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 147
close inspection to prove its practicability and economic soundness
will result in unfavorable publicity and the cause of planning in that
community will suffer. The truth of this statement has been demon-
strated in several cities.
No one questions the need for sound, practical planning in the
make-up of our municipal governments. Its necessity is just as great
as that of a Police Department. Any citizen, or group of persons,
who permits the unplanned, haphazard development of a community
is just as guilty of a crime contrary to public law and order as is a
gang that raids a bank at the point of a machine gun. In both cases
there is a loss — but which is the greater? The loss in the bank raid
is trivial compared to the loss that is sustained by a community which
permits slums to develop; that neglects to furnish proper parks and
playgrounds for its citizens; that neglects to insure proper arteries
for its ever-increasing burden of traffic; and that hesitates to adopt
zoning laws for the safe-guarding of property values. The economic
loss that would be suffered by such a city is one that no munici-
pality possibly can afford. I believe that every city in this country,
large or small, should have an active planning commission, maintain-
ing if possible, a staff of one or more trained and qualified persons to
prepare and keep up-to-date a sound, practical, comprehensive plan
of long-range development, backed by the laws necessary to make the
plan workable. It is vital that the membership of the planning com'
mission be composed of intelligent, public-spirited men and women
who can and must give liberally of their time, and whose only com-
pensation will be the satisfaction of doing their duties so that all can
say — "A good job well done."
The benefits of a sound, practical plan are too many to enumerate.
Allow me to relate two examples which occurred in Indianapolis.
We have tried to develop a planning program that would be within
the capacity of the city to support financially. We have completed
several projects on a basis of pay-as-you-go — all that the city could
reasonably afford. Sometimes we were sorely disappointed that funds
would not permit us to move faster, but we kept working on definite
plans that would be available for immediate construction when and
as circumstances permitted. Then one day came the announcement
of the CWA program. On a Friday morning the Mayor announced
that we would have to put 5,000 men to work on useful public
projects the following Monday morning, and increase that number
during the ensuing week until a minimum of 10,000 men were at
work. The planning commission was ready. From our files we
pulled complete plans and two flood prevention projects that were
sorely needed which would give employment to more than 6,000
148 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
men. Other lesser projects were available and within ten days
Indianapolis had taken care of her quota of men — most of whom
were at work on projects that were of permanent value to Indian-
apolis, and were a part of the Commission's comprehensive plan.
Indianapolis took advantage of CWA to do useful work and I believe
that a large amount of credit is due the planning commission for
having been prepared.
The second example that I would like to cite occurred the follow-
ing year. The Chairman of our State Highway Commission called
us together one day and announced that by the provisions of the
Cartwright bill, which had just passed Congress, the Highway Com-
mission was authorised to spend $750,000.00 within the corporate
limits of Indianapolis. Could we suggest a program of construction?
Could we prepare the program within ten days? Within two days the
officials of Indianapolis not only had recommended projects utilizing
the money, but had submitted complete surveys and plans on the most
important parts of the work. As a result, the work in our city was
started long before similar work in other Indiana cities. One of the
projects completed has been universally accepted as the greatest
municipal improvement ever undertaken in Indianapolis.
I am sure that every city having an active planning commission
can relate incidents similar to the ones I have mentioned. Experience
has led me to believe that sound, practical planning practice is an in-
vestment in the present and future welfare of the modern city, and
that every dollar expended will return to that city dividends in the
way of healthful living conditions, beautiful communities, cheerful
working conditions and an efficient, economical administration.
THE PLACE OF PLANNING IN STATE
ADMINISTRATION
WILLIAM E. O'BRIEN, Chairman
Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission
The object of government is to plan wisely the use of the generous
gifts of nature to build for citizens a homogeneous state which will
be physically, economically, and socially sound. Achievement of this
result is dependent upon intelligent coordination of numerous factors
affecting the social and physical development of the state. Coordi'
nation has long been recognized as a fundamental principle of
planning.
Statesmanship anticipates the results that legislation will produce
upon society. In order to enact comprehensive laws, the legislature
should have all the available information as to the past and future
trends of population, transportation, education, health, recreation,
industry, taxation, and economic resources. It is necessary to have
an inventory of these subjects, in order to produce recommendations
which may be classified and known as city, county, and state plan'
ning.
The geographic background of the state includes studies relative to
location, geology, climate, rainfall, fertility of soil, deposits of min'
eral, timber resources, water power, transportation, potential mar'
kets, and recreational facilities. In short, a complete inventory of
the state should be made with a view to developing a potential wealth
and the conserving of the natural resources.
Population studies are of prime importance in all branches of
government. There is a constant shifting of the inhabitants of a dis'
trict, public improvements, building of schools, highways, recreational
areas, housing facilities, and all public enterprises which impose them'
selves for a long period of time, which necessitates not only an
analysis of population trends, but the existence of such trends over
a period of time. For example, in the case of schools, a study of the
age'group composition of the population is essential so that we shall
not arrive at a point where we have an abundance of schools and
few pupils.
Information on occupational trends and relief requirements in dis'
tricts, together with the economic status of the population, is neces-
sary before public officials can comprehensively plan relief work and
taxation, especially if the state relies upon income tax as a source of
revenue.
149
150 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
Taxation
Government is a great operating agency supplying public service
at cost. The administration of government is based on taxation-pro-
duced revenues with which to operate. Economic studies of taxation
should be based on a financial analysis of the smaller units of govern'
ment that go to make up the county, state, and nation. This type of
investigation in Wisconsin reveals several interesting facts. The prob-
lem — the excess state moneys raised in a given county, as against the
excess state aids received — was approached through the following
factors :
State aids received: Highway, educational, charitable, and forest
crop aids; poor relief aids from surtax; county fair aids; and the high-
way privilege tax.
State monies raised: Motor vehicle license fees, gas tax, based on
the percentage of motor vehicle license fees in dollars, utility tax, in-
heritance tax, emergency relief tax, teachers retirement surtax, malt
liquor tax, normal income tax and forest crop tax. In the compilation
of the figures in the 71 counties of the state, 33 raised more state
taxes than were needed for operation and 38 counties received the
benefit of this excess tax raised in the prosperous counties. The sur-
vey also indicated that the lowering of the real estate tax levy was
more prevalent in the counties receiving the greatest amount of state
aid.
It should be the aim and object of the government to create self-
sustaining smaller units. In order to do this it is necessary to make a
further study based on the following three points: First, the status
of the governmental cost. This can best be ascertained by a uniform
reporting to the State Tax Commission. Information should be
available as to the comparative basis for both receipts and expendi-
tures of all work performed by each political subdivision. This should
give the administrative officials of the smaller units correct knowledge
of administration and should help to correct any errors or inequalities
which may exist.
Second, are the smaller units now raising locally all the funds they
can reasonably be expected to produce on an equal level with other
counties not requiring aid? In answering this question the discovery
was made that some counties had decreased their local real estate tax
57 per cent, while others had decreased the tax levy three per cent.
From this we can draw the conclusion that either the counties with
the large reduction were once extravagant or that they are not now
raising enough money to meet their needs, thus depending upon state
aids to carry on their government.
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 151
Third, what plan can be developed to make these counties, including
all political subdivisions, self-sustaining? A county requiring outside
aid may have a large percentage of dependent area. If the dependent
area is segregated and plans made to develop it in the proper man'
ner, the remaining portion of the county will immediately become
self-supporting. If state-aid money is being spent in areas which are
not self-supporting, it should be with a view to carrying out a long-
time program which will produce the desired results. This naturally
leads to Boning. Otherwise all newcomers, as well as young people
now growing up, will face burdens which they have no chance of
carrying. This subject will be discussed later under the heading of
"Land-Use"; but as a general summation we might say that careful
planning is the only method of putting these areas to their proper
use so as to make them an asset to the state.
As a general rule government is a large business which has not de-
veloped or kept pace with our social and business advances. Our sys-
tem of township, village, city and county units remains the same as
originally founded, but the trend is for the small unit to depend more
and more on the larger unit of government for assistance. Now more
regulatory authority must be invested in the state and county units
in order to produce uniformity of records and expenditures. A cen-
tralisation of the responsibility of administrative authority will result.
Education
From the planning point of view, population in its composition and
movement and its effect upon the selection of proper school sites
comes within the scope of the program proposed by engineers who
direct or coordinate a city, county, or state plan. An efficient and
economical physical plan is a primary requisite for a sound educa-
tional system. Information must be assembled on the subject and
studies indicate that the matter of school aids, curricula, teaching
needs, housing, and finance are problems of such moment that they
must be boldly handled and analysed without sentiment.
In Wisconsin the most troublesome problem centers around the
rural district school and the high school without financial support.
Present transportation facilities make it possible to combine many
school districts with a considerable improvement in administration,
teaching and educational value to the students. Enrollment and at-
tendance at some of the schools is so small that excessive high costs
per pupil are unavoidable. Investigation reveals the fact that an
enrollment of from 26 to 35 pupils is most desirable. Consolidation
of rural schools on this basis would reduce the number of units by
152 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
about 1,750 at an annual saving of approximately one and one-half
million dollars.
The rural high school problem is most acute in the sparsely settled
areas, again raising the question of population trends, land-use, and
the planning of all types of rural education.
The Wisconsin Regional Plan Report of 1934 sets forth much
valuable information on public school finances, teacher training, the
supply of qualified instructors and school transportation, with defi-
nite ideas for the improvement of the public school system. In this
country we have accepted the idea that school boards should be free
from political influence, but there has grown up such a multiplicity
of boards and officers as to produce an unwieldy body of doubtful
value to the administration of the educational problem.
Quoting from the 1934 Regional Plan Report:
"The Wisconsin public school system is organized into approximately
7,400 school districts having an average area of seven square miles, involv-
ing approximately 20,000 educational positions and administered by approxi-
mately 25,000 school board members. In only two other states, namely New
York and Illinois, is the average area of school districts less than seven
square miles. The types of schools operated within the local school districts
are rural schools, state graded schools, high schools, village school systems,
and city school systems."
The educational problem needs a great deal of study and must be
solved along more simplified lines in order to give the same instruc-
tion with a decreased cost.
Public Health
Public health has a bearing upon every branch of governmental
activity. Health officials have much to their credit in the past and
now look to the future with confidence to solve new problems. A
campaign of public health education, especially among those of school
age, has been a practical program producing lasting results, inasmuch
as it has promoted intelligent public cooperation with the efforts of
the public health officials.
The present pressing problem in the health field is to control
stream pollution by villages, cities and industry. The solution lies
in a well-planned program with definite recommendations involving
chemical analysis, capital expenditures for plants, construction of
intercepting sewers, and sewerage reduction equipment. Other
branches of government might well follow the example of the health
officials in their educational campaign.
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 153
Industry
During the depression we have learned the value and position of
industry in our economic life. This phase of our social structure is
most interesting. The early history of Wisconsin shows that its
industries were founded and built upon the vast resources of the
virgin forests. Lacking a conservation program to protect the natural
resources of the state, the forests were finally depleted and with
them passed all the allied industries of lumber and woodworking
mills. The citizens who amassed fortunes from the Wisconsin for'
ests have nearly all left the state. The stumps of the once stately
pines and oaks are monuments to the greed of men, and ignorance
of the need and value of conservation of the natural resources of
the state. The lumber industry was succeeded by factories using
iron and steel as their basic raw materials, while the- cut-over lands
developed into dairy farms. Now Wisconsin is known both as an
industrial and agricultural state.
The prime factors in developing industry are wages, cost of liv
ing, labor supply, industrial power, taxing policy, and the quality
and aims of the governing body. A comparison of these factors in
one state with a competing state gives a great deal of valuable in-
formation. For example, the states of Michigan, Illinois, Ohio, Min-
nesota, and Wisconsin are very much alike in their agricultural and
industrial development; the only way to discover which is the most
advantageous to capital for future investments is in comparing the
factors named.
To follow this thought further: Wisconsin's constitution pro-
hibits issuing bonds for anything except military purposes; therefore
it has no outstanding obligations and its taxing policy is on a cash
basis. Our neighboring state to the south, Illinois, can bond for pub-
lic improvements, which it has done. The one state has no fixed
charges; its neighbor has a large carrying charge of interest and prin-
cipal to be paid. A comparison of factors such as these will show
which future location is the best from an industrial standpoint.
Land- Use
The 1934 Regional Plan Report of Wisconsin describes the physi-
cal basis of Wisconsin agriculture very definitely:
"The play of geological forces has made Wisconsin a most varied state.
Unlike the Corn Belt where there are large areas of similar soils and physical
conditions, our State has many and sharply defined areas. The glaciers over-
ran the northern and eastern parts, producing soils, topography, river sys-
tems, lakes and swamps peculiar to a glaciated region. On the other hand
they avoided the southwestern part. Here geological forces were permitted
154 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
to operate undisturbed and the 'Driftless Area' stands out in sharp con-
trast to the rest of the state with its plateau-like 'ridges,' steep hillsides and
deep-river valleys. Other features are responsible for the central plain,
glaciated at both the eastern and western ends, but the central portion once
formed the bed of 'Lake Wisconsin. ' The northern part, which is merely
a projection of the Laurentian Shield of Canada, is a highland region slop-
ing southward. In the north central part lies the Highland Lakes region
which is the source of seven rivers and, with only three other places on the
globe, shares the distinction of having more lakes to the square mile than
any other area. Finally there is the small Superior Lowland with short
drainage basins sloping northward."
In Wisconsin the land has been graded into four distinct classes:
Grade A has a range of 75 to 100 per cent of the assumed highest
value. The soils are in a limestone area where the growing season is
from 130 to 170 days and comprise 20 per cent of the area of the
state. Grade B has a range between 40 and 75 per cent of the as-
sumed highest value — the growing season is approximately 1 00 days —
and comprises about 25 per cent of the area of the state. Grade C
has a range between 10 and 40 per cent of the assumed highest
value with a growing season of 110 days and comprises 30 per cent
of the state area. Grade D land is non-agricultural, but has variable
values for forestry, recreational and other uses.
Using the above comparison, further studies show that the Grade
A and B areas contain 58 per cent of the land in farms, 68 per cent
of the crop value, and 60 per cent of the farm population. On the
other hand, the poor area is almost 4,000 square miles larger than
the best area and has 12 per cent of the land in farms, seven per
cent of the crop value, and 11 per cent of the farm population. In
other words, if 18 million acres of poor land in Wisconsin were
vacated and restored to forests it would affect less than 12 per cent
of the farm acreage, seven per cent of the crop value and 11 per
cent of the population. Wisconsin has approached this problem by
county zoning, setting up two classifications; namely, agricultural
and forest lands. This zoning ordinance prohibits establishing farms
except in the areas suited for farming, with a view to solving the
highway, school and taxation problems.
Transportation
Transportation which we know in terms of highways, airways,
waterways, and railroads is an important factor in our planning de-
velopment. The waterways and railroads are established and must
remain in their present locations. Highways, however, will become
more and more an economic factor as means of freight and passen-
ger transportation. The highway problem is dependent upon popu-
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 155
lation studies and industrial expansion. The loads to be carried, the
centers of population to be served and the future trends should gov-
ern the designs as to type and width of highway construction. The
advent of the higher speed trains will also have an effect on high'
way locations and act as means to safeguard the citizens.
Leaving out law enforcement and the administration of charitable
and penal institutions, I have tried to review briefly the major func-
tions of government in order to bring out the vast number of prob-
lems facing the state administrations. It does not seem reasonable
that the newly-elected legislator or state officer, who ran on a plat-
form drawn by a sub-committee of the last convention, can be fa-
miliar with all the ramifications of the subject matter presented in
a vast accumulation of bills proposed to be enacted into laws. Most
of our lawmakers at heart are honest in trying to do a good job and
are grateful for information bearing on proposed legislation.
One can review the past and speculate as to the future and cannot
avoid recognizing the necessity for a keen perception of the accumu-
lated facts and principles which come from research; but instead of
speculating it is more logical to plan for the future.
Every state should have a trained planning staff, independent of
all other departments and administered by the chief executive, which
will furnish coordinated information on all departments of govern-
ment, pertaining to the resources and conditions of all parts of the
state. Newton Baker said in an editorial that "to govern is to fore-
see." Successful administration depends on action based on concise
knowledge of all phases of problems confronting the government. A
properly trained and constituted planning staff is free to think in non-
political terms, to face all the facts and to make intelligent recom-
mendations along with studies as they are required by the executive
office. The successful continuation of a plan-policy from one admin-
istration to another can only be obtained through this method, where
the same objective is being sought year after year with regard to
state development.
THE PLACE OF PLANNING IN PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
CHARLES B. WHITNALL
President, Milwaukee Planning Commission
To speak to you on the subject assigned means to relate conclu-
sions arrived at through experience plus a few anticipations for the
future evolution of our Milwaukee plan.
Public administration covers all phases of public welfare, but we
have been accustomed to think of "city planning" as pertaining to
the physical development of the city only. While we still consider
the physical plan fundamental, we realise that for the human value
of a city plan, social and economic factors must be included. There'
fore, our plan involves the coordinated responsibility of every offi-
cial of an administration. From the start we have been as much
interested in the social and economic development as we have been
in the physical.
It occurs to me that to relate our experience quite briefly will be
more apt to disclose a few points of interest to you, than for me to
attempt to deliver a professional discourse, which would be rather
inappropriate from me.
About thirty years ago our city government created the Metro-
politan Commission, with appointed members, of which I was one.
The express purpose of this Commission was to lay out a boulevard
system. After a few months of deliberation, this Commission be-
came convinced that boulevards should bear some relation to other
features of a city's development. This induced a traffic study,
which led to a plan for a civic center. Before final approval of
this civic center plan, we invited Mr. Olmstead and Mr. Nolen
to criticise the same. Later, when we were working on "zoning" we
called on Mr. Bassett and Mr. Comey for assistance. The wisdom
absorbed from these four gentlemen has been cherished, and as we
continue in our local endeavor we appreciate their contribution more
and more.
We became impressed with the menace of congestion, not only
because of its obstruction to physical activities, but on account of the
inflated land values which it created and the large indirect tax which
it imposed, and which is borne unconsciously by the community.
The incentive for this increase of the unearned increment, so much
cherished by landlords and real estate brokers generally, had produced
156
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 157
many clusters of skyscrapers in our modern cities, which are a civic
burden. But they have developed legally and cannot be counteracted
by prohibition. However, the growth of Boning ordinances is an
encouraging indication that the bad effects of congestion have been
recognised. But we have not reached a "zoning control" that pre-
vents non-conforming uses, which create extensive blighted areas.
This means that planning has not, as yet, a secure position in public
administration.
We had fixed our building height limit at 125 feet. Soon after,
there came a high pressure demand for an additional few feet to
permit the erection of a much-talked-of hotel, which would not be
erected if the height limit was not increased. We finally amended
the ordinance to permit a greater height than 125 feet, if the build-
ing area on the ground is decreased, or, to state the matter more
accurately, if the cubical contents of the building are no greater
than the 125 feet multiplied by the dimensions of the lot. We felt
there might be some justification for a higher building if it were
afforded an appropriate setting in the landscape.
We realized that to stem the tide of avarice for the unearned
increment involved a tremendous task, largely because so few people
comprehend the dilemma we are in, as everyone has become accus-
tomed to the land values increasing under pressure of congestion,
augmented by advertising.
Regional planning offered an escape, and we determined to make
every effort to rescue the regions beyond our city and guide their
development, if possible, so as to conserve human values, and at the
same time afford greater efficiency in the conduct of business. We
made a study of the human value of our natural landscape, and
found the comparison something to ponder over, and presenting a
problem in social economics which convinced us that we must save
our natural landscape where it has not already escaped. It did not
require much of a survey to convince us that there is a serious waste
in the destruction of our natural landscape by the process of cutting
and filling in, which is the engineer's usual mode of exercising his
cleverness in providing as many lots for sale as possible at a price far
in excess of their real value, due largely to the cost of destroying
natural and wholesome contours.
This determination resulted in legislation which provided for a
County Park Commission. As we already had a law providing for
rural planning boards, the park law was made to provide that in
counties where a County Park Commission was established, it was
also to function as a rural planning board.
158 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
Shortly after this move, the City of Milwaukee concluded to keep
its sewerage out of Lake Michigan, which is the source of its water
supply. That necessitated intercepting sewers to prevent pollution
of the rivers. This work was no sooner begun than we realised that
all of our streams came into the city from the regions beyond and
carried the regional sewerage into our streams. So we went to the
Legislature again for a law creating the Metropolitan Sewerage Com'
mission, with jurisdiction over all the county drainage that flowed
into our Milwaukee rivers. We have three rivers and four creeks
in Milwaukee County, all but one of which flow through the City of
Milwaukee. Naturally enough the sewerage engineers decided upon
the stream valleys for the location of their trunk sewers, while the
County Park Commission immediately advocated the use of these
valleys for a parkway, and claimed that the acquirement of land
necessary would cost less than it would cost to build storm sewers.
Our arguments were convincing, and now by cooperation between
the County Park Commission and the Metropolitan Sewerage Com'
mission the trunk sewers are being laid along the stream valleys, of
which there are 84 miles.
The Parkway plan, following these 84 miles of streams, was at first
considered quite impractical by many, and too costly, and it required
some educational work before we got started. But after the first two-
mile unit paralleling our Menomonee River was completed, the plan
became very popular and we have proven our point that it is cheaper
to acquire this parkway land along the shores of the streams, and let
the streams take care of the storm water, than it would be to con-
struct storm sewers costing millions of dollars.
The parkways, with park areas along the streams, have created the
most attractive residential areas out of lands that had but a trifling
value for other uses, and the streams which had been used for the dis-
posal of all sorts of rubbish have become beauty spots, with a charm
that only a stream can claim.
About this time the county arterial traffic plan was introduced.
It was a plan to establish certain widths for the important arteries
of the county, and we made a special effort that the plan be under-
stood by everyone interested, and for this purpose we undertook a
real educational program.
For two winters we spent several evenings a week in conference
with the various political units within the county, before the project
was really understood and agreed to by the many officials interested
on behalf of their small communities. However, this care and pa-
tience on our part has proven its value, for we have encountered no
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 159
opposition or antagonism and the widening of these various roadways
has been progressing for the past ten years. As soon as the various
road widths were adopted, signs were put up at intervals along
the road, explaining the future width of the road and the action of
the county Board was recorded and became a part of the record of
the real estate affected, so that all purchasers of land were thus noti-
fied, and realised that no building could encroach upon the portion
eventually to be taken for highway purposes.
The plan has been highly successful, and because it is quite well
understood by everyone in the county that the arterial plan, as well
as the parkway plan, covers the whole county impartially, there has
been none of the jealousy and obstruction in their development that
are so often found in undertakings of this kind. We consider it a
most valuable feature of the undertaking that although there are
nineteen political units in Milwaukee County, they are all harmoni-
ous in relation to parks, parkways and highways. They all pay a
county tax, including the City of Milwaukee. In fact the city con'
tributes 80 per cent of the county taxes.
The regional county development has been of greater benefit to
the city than the accomplishments of the city itself — in fact the
county plans originated in the city hall, and the city and county
planning departments are neighborly.
One feature of the county parkway plan is proving to be extremely
important, so much so that a determined effort will be made shortly
to extend the same enterprise all the way into the city. I have ref-
erence to parking facilities.
Wherever there are attractions sufficient to induce the congrega-
tion of people, such as swimming pools and athletic sports, or nature
study trails, adequate parking spaces are provided. They are screened
by trees and shrubbery so as not to mar the landscape — they are a
relief to people. We have no trouble in prohibiting parking on the
main driveways, for we have provided something better. It has been
extremely gratifying to note how naturally the auto owners take to
this arrangement.
The City of Milwaukee was originally established in three units,
divided by water courses — there was Kilbourn Town, Juneau Town
and Walker's Point. Therefore, the city has never really been con-
fined to one "down town." After the feuds of the early settlers died
out, one local business area predominated, but since the planning
board has existed we have encouraged these subsidiary centers; more
particularly since we have studied zoning enforcement and growth
160 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
of blighted areas. We have now conceived the idea of making a
blight-clearance close to each one of these business areas and of estab-
lishing an automobile park, ample in size and attractively landscaped
to screen the residential area at one side, and facilitate business on
the other.
It must be understood that the success of the first venture of this
kind will create a demand that will necessitate the establishment of
eight more auto parks in rapid succession. We are quite firm in our
conclusion that it is the obligation of the city to provide space for
autos standing still as well as when in motion, and the makeshift of
parking at the curb defeats the utility of the auto.
We felt that we had done a pretty good job in Milwaukee County,
but soon realized we could not stop there — that we must reach out
beyond the county line.
Our Milwaukee River comes to us after flowing through three
other counties, and when we found that our authority ended at the
imaginary county line, we became convinced of the need of state
autonomy. So we went to the legislature once more and asked for
the creation of a State Planning Board. This we obtained, and the
law was recently amended to conform with the suggestions of the
Federal Government for State planning boards. In the state plan we
also put forth the claim that the river valley should be the plan unit.
A city is a part of a county, a county is part of a state, and the state
is composed of valleys, with their natural water system.
All of the natural forces on which we are so dependent for our
welfare function with reference to political boundaries of village,
town, city or county. Important projects cannot always be confined
within the limits of these political boundaries, and as projects of this
kind usually benefit a large area there must be an autonomy that is
greater than that granted to small communities. It is the responsibil-
ity of the state to accomplish that which its small subdivisions are
unable to do, but in which the smaller communities can cooperate.
Our State Planning Board is still in its infancy, and while it is organ-
ized and is busy preparing surveys and reports, there is little that it
has actually accomplished. But we are hopeful of its future work,
and feel certain of its value.
Our Planning Board's responsibility is more inclusive than is usual.
It is known as the Public Land Commission, and includes in its per-
sonnel of five commissioners, our City Engineer and our Commis-
sioner of Public Works, who are ex officio members under the law.
Among our employees are the City Real Estate Agent, and his assist-
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 161
ants. This very naturally broadens the comprehension of city affairs.
We have also had splendid cooperation from the Building Inspector,
and his department.
Milwaukee is governed by a Mayor and a Board of Aldermen, the
latter being composed of 27 aldermen, one representing each city
ward. Although the Common Council retains its own committees,
as it did before the creation of the Public Land Commission, every
item that pertains to the city's physical plan, such as the sale or pur-
chase of property, care of city property, zoning and platting, is re-
ferred to the Public Land Commission for advice before the Council
Committees give it consideration. But they may either approve or
reject our recommendations.
The Public Land Commission does not build bridges, roads, parks,
or furnish materials or equipment, yet all these tangible things are
inefficient and haphazard unless by proper planning they have been
placed where they will function efficiently and harmoniously.
We have found that public officials, with an impulse towards
economy, usually carry out that impulse by attacking the most vital
spot of good city government, and begin by cutting down the finan-
cial support of the planning department. It is as reckless for a city
government to weaken its planning department for the purpose of
economy, as it would be for a sea captain to sail without a compass
to save the expense of the instrument. If permitted to function co-
ordinately the planning department should be the directorate of the
city's physical, economic and social development.
Milwaukee was originally an agricultural center, but later de-
veloped into an industrial center of note, largely because a large
number of skilled mechanics from Europe were attracted to it and
settled there to make their homes. It is today the home of many
mechanics, who are unusually skilled and intelligent, and we trust
that by a careful adjustment of land-use in the city and its regions
beyond, the future generations of Milwaukee's citizens will not only
inherit the skill, intelligence and vigor of their forefathers, but, in
the congenial environment, made permanent by careful planning, will
advance to still greater achievement which should naturally follow
the higher standard of living which the right environment will give
them.
/
We have found that there is a greater economy in exerting our
efforts towards providing a wholesome alternative than simply in
prohibiting an existing menace. We are about ready to attack a prob-
162 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
lem of this kind in asking the completion of our arterial traffic sys'
tern. We have provided arteries, and have said that:
(1) They save enormous traffic expense.
(2) They save wear, tear and noise on residential streets.
(3) They save time, and the burdensome cost of inflated land
values due to congestion.
But by merely providing the arterial traffic system, and making no
provision for the parking of autos, we are defeating the very purpose
for which we provided the arteries. With parked cars filling both
sides of the artery lines traffic is impeded; there is danger to through
traffic from cars turning out to enter the traffic stream, and the width
of the artery is lessened by the parked cars. We have reached the
conclusion that any plan for arterial highways that does not provide
adequate and convenient parking areas will be lamentably incom-
plete. We must provide some place for the auto when it is not mov
ing. Most of our parking ordinances are an acknowledgment that
the arterial plan is incomplete.
Our encouragement of decentralisation during the past fifteen
years has made Milwaukee more definitely a city of subsidiary busi-
ness centers, of which there are now eight besides the original "down-
town." Autos are constantly parked in front of residences for a
block or more surrounding each of these centers, and are an annoy-
ance and a cause of blight. These conditions indicate what should
be provided for in the future, and should be heeded by those in
authority. It was a lack of foresight not to recognise some years ago
that the automobile not only had come to stay, but would grow in-
creasingly popular both for business and pleasure; and that provision
would have to be made for it both when moving and when stationary.
The time is rapidly approaching when we will find that we have
to meet the same kind of problem with reference to air traffic, unless
we heed our experience with the auto. We have a plan in Milwaukee
that provides for a long distance railway terminal which will func-
tion intimately with an airport, accommodating both amphibian and
land planes, and also with water traffic from Lake Michigan and the
interurban terminal.
As I have stated before, I feel that we should now undertake to
provide ample auto parks at each of our local business centers, and
our Commission is about to propose this.
There will, doubtless, be much spirited discussion — especially about
the expense. But we must keep in mind that there is no use having
PLANNING ADMINISTRATION 163
parking ordinances unless conveniences are provided which will
make it possible to observe desirable rules. Inasmuch as the com'
munity supporting the local business area will pay the cost even'
tually, why not now? This means actual auto parks in some places,
and buildings in others. The "Motor-in" markets of Los Angeles
are suggested. Where people congregate there will be autos, and to
keep them off the highway means that there must be provision for a
convenient auto park close by.
How shall these auto parks be financed? Shall they be financed
by the Highway Department out of a gasoline tax? But however it
is done, the community should not be put under interest'bearing
obligation. I feel very keenly that our bonded indebtedness is a real
menace to our communities, and I also feel that as planners we
should discourage such bondage. We should realize that the human
energy absorbed by the money lender is an indirect burden on a
community, as destructive to its tranquillity as was the old super'
stition of witchcraft.
In Milwaukee we have done our part towards overcoming the
burden of interest-bearing obligations — whether we will meet with
success I do not know, but we have sown the seed, and it seems to
be germinating. Two years ago the Common Council appointed a
special Committee on Taxation and Financial Problems. A member
of the Public Land Commission is on this Committee and is its chair-
man. The surveys made by this Committee have been intensely in-
teresting and have dealt largely with the city's financial problems. It
has sponsored the formula for the creation and use of Municipal
National Currency and at our instigation 29 other municipalities
have memorialized Congress, urging its adoption. The idea has also
been taken up by the National Monetary Conference, Inc., recently
organized, of which Robert L. Owen is the president. This organ-
ization has a following of several million thinking people who defend
monetary equity. This plan for Municipal National Currency would
do away with interest-bearing municipal obligations, and would save
many millions a year in interest.
The Committee on Taxation and Financial Problems has also been
studying the inter-relation of the various city departments, and from
its findings it is fair to assume that administrations almost invariably
direct the functioning of their various departments without any plan.
While we, of course, recognize the importance of specialization, we
are fast nearing the conclusion that no department of an administra-
tion should function as a little government of its own.
164 PLANNING ADMINISTRATION
A city administration, or a regional administration, has an indi'
viduality of its own which it should maintain, all departments within
it being subservient and functioning coordinately to make the city
itself greater as a whole, rather than to boost a particular department.
And only if, by coordination, each department head strives to per'
feet the mechanism of the whole administration can a city be truly
great.
This Committee also concluded that with good and complete plan-
ning, whether it be physical, social, or economic, an administration
should provide for a careful dissemination among the people of the
facts and pertinent data touching the administration. A successful
democracy, we feel, is dependent upon a more universal understand'
ing of the matters which touch community welfare. When we com'
pleted a report on taxation a year ago, we planned to print it. We
arranged with our Water Department, which is municipally owned,
to make the distribution. This department furnishes water to more
than ninety thousand users at an unusually low rate, and out of its
surplus earnings contributes about $800,000.00 annually to the gen-
eral city fund. The meter readers were to deliver these reports when
they made their quarterly readings. But our Common Council was-
too economically inclined to appropriate the money to cover the cost
of printing the reports. This is the sort of economy that perpetuates
inefficiency, and has no place in an administratoin of community
affairs.
CLOSING DINNER SESSION
STATE PLANNING
PAUL V. McNuTT, Governor of Indiana
About a decade ago, Ferrero, eminent historian of Rome, in an
amazing volume entitled "Words to the Deaf" wrote: "There have
been epochs more uncouth, poorer, and more ignorant than our own,
but they knew what they wanted."
"What do we want?" he asked. And then went on to say, "That
is the essential question. Every man and every epoch should keep
this question constantly before them, just as a lamp is kept burning
day and night in dark places."
Ferrero is right. This is the essential question. To know what
we want and need and to want what we need are the beginnings of
statesmanship.
Do we know what we want and need? Do we want what we need?
Ferrero thinks not. "On the contrary," he wrote, "our will is in a
state of complete confusion. Sometimes it splits in twain, at once de-
sirous of good and evil, or of benefits that are mutually exclusive.
Sometimes it cloaks itself in agreeable falsehoods, persuading itself
that it desires one thing, while all the time it desires something
different or even antithetical. Sometimes it entirely strays away
from reason and reality, lured on by a chimerical mirage."
Ferrero is a pessimist. I am not. Rather than choose the words
of Ferrero, or Spengler, or Henry Adams or any of the host of
major or minor Jeremiahs who are around us, I would choose the
words of the man who stood at Valley Forge, amidst hardships no
one of us could ever know, and kept his faith; kept his faith in his
men, in his God, in his nation which was to be. Washington said
then, and his words are particularly applicable now, "The game is yet
in our own hands. To play it well is all we have to do."
To play it well we need a planned economy. We have it in the
National Resources Board, the State Planning Boards and in the
City Planning Commissions. I wish to speak on a state plan.
It is evident that the fundamental objective of a state plan is the
provision for healthful, convenient, pleasant living conditions in
165
166 CLOSING DINNER SESSION
situations affording abundant opportunity for the proper utilization
of the talents and ability of all individuals in a manner profitable to
each. It embraces basic social and economic relationships, the de-
tails of which must be thoroughly understood before conclusions
recommending future developments may be reached.
During the life of the Republic collective thinking and the result-
ant activities of the people have figuratively ascended into the moun-
tains where the outlook was bright and difficulties faded into the dis-
tance, and then have descended into the valleys, where vision has
been limited and the future obscured. At times inflated optimism has
dulled human thinking upon social and economic needs. It has been
succeeded during depressions by fear, which has focused thought
upon social and economic ills, often in a frenzied manner which has
produced not only remedies, but evils as well.
Calm and deliberate thinking upon the needs of the entire popu-
lation is essential. The false influences of periods of prosperity and
want must both be avoided. A vast amount of erroneous thinking
prevails under situations of abnormality. In one instance vision is
limited by self-satisfaction and a false sense of security. In the other,
acute needs for bare essentials prevent a great portion of the popu-
lation from seeing clearly, and leaves the solution of the problem to
those who have the courage to rise above the apparent difficulties,
where the problem in its broad aspects may be seen and the influence
of frantic and often bitter thought avoided.
The economic security of the individual and the family must be
established in a manner which will withstand the exigencies occasioned
by the false and limited thinking prevalent in both booms and depres-
sions. In other words, the American family must be basically self-
sufficient. Such self-sufficiency is far different from the self-satisfied
complacency which exists when everyone has plenty of money. More-
over, it is a far cry from the want and woe prevalent during periods
of depression or the ability barely to balance the family budget dur-
ing such times. The more enlightened understanding of self-suffi-
ciency embraces absolute conviction that the provision of needs must
be accompanied by the opportunity to progress in proportion to the
intelligence, ability and talents of the individual. In no other man-
ner is it possible to construct an economic and social structure which
will be proof against the onslaughts of prosperity and depression.
As a primary step in the path to conclusions it is necessary to sur-
vey the various factors which aid or which retard the establishment
of a situation wherein the self-sufficiency of society, in all its
CLOSING DINNER SESSION 167
branches, is a natural result. The underlying stratum affecting the
activities of individuals engaged in all kinds of gainful occupations
is the great mass of natural resources. These resources are of two
kinds: Those which exist below the surface of the ground, includ-
ing rocks, minerals, clays, coal and oil; and those existing above the
geological deposits, including soils and the native growths thereon.
The assembly of existing information showing the location and ex-
tent of geological and soil deposits and natural growths and forests,
is the first step to be taken.
The collection of information as to the quantity and quality of
natural resources must be followed by a technical study of the pos-
sibilities for development of each and the role which each may play
in the struggle for self-sufficiency. This analysis will not only reveal
the potential value of each resource, but will also bring out the lack
of minerals which are essential to a well-balanced society. A poten-
tiality scale may be set up to rate each particular resource. The clay
deposits of a state, for example, have not been developed to their
greatest extent. A critical examination of their value for the produc-
tion of different articles may point the way to increased industrial
development. In certain sections of a state the soils are not being
utilized for their best purposes. Technical investigation will show
what are the best uses of each soil type. Such studies will further-
more determine what areas are submarginal in character due to the
deficiency of the soil itself. Such regions should be withdrawn from
agricultural development, unless the intelligent application of the
principles of soil management may improve soil productivity at a
cost which is not excessive. Fundamental analysis of natural re-
sources, simple in character, but requiring technical skill and a vast
amount of study and investigation, will result in the division of a
state into three great regions, each split into numerous large or small
areas. These regions are the mineral region, the farming region and
the recreational or public use region.
The mineral region will be divided into areas producing, or
capable of producing, different types of natural products, such as
building stone, gravel, pottery, clay, oil, coal, etc. Following the
designation of areas, consideration must be given to the potential
value of each, and conclusions reached as to the utmost use which
can be made of each type of material. Obviously, this study will
involve consideration of distribution of the raw product, including
markets; methods and costs of removal from the ground and trans-
portation to markets; labor required for mining and handling; sea-
sonal aspects of operations, especially as to working days during the
year and average annual net income of employees; and determination
168 CLOSING DINNER SESSION
of the value of the product as a replacement for an import into a
state. By comparison with agricultural land studies, conclusions may
be reached as to the wisdom of allocating land to mineral develop-
ment or to farm use.
Agricultural lands are divided into regions based upon types of
farming. Soil characteristics are a basic consideration in the de-
termination of the boundaries of such regions. Some regions are
largely of submarginal character. Others are almost devoid of poor
or worthless land. There are varying degrees of submarginality of
land. Soil type is not the only factor. Lack of understanding of the
possibilities of the soil, or of its proper management, or unwillingness
to follow progressive methods, contributes in great measure to the
fostering of submarginal conditions on individual farms or groups of
farms. Distance from markets, inadequate transportation facilities
or the absence of proper marketing methods may result in poor farms
in regions which are not otherwise submarginal. High taxes, result-
ing from inefficient or extravagant government, or from the lack of
a well-planned, long-term public works program, are often sufficient
to turn the net profit of the farm into a loss. Obviously, land which
is submarginal because of the basic deficiency of the soil, and in-
capable of improvement by wise management, should be withdrawn
from agriculture and assigned to the reservation region. Education,
resulting in increased understanding of agricultural operations, is the
remedy for lands which are capable of improvement. A knowledge of
marketing and distribution will contribute to the recovery of land
which is deficient because of lack of markets. The development of
sound methods of government, and especially the formulation of
long-term programs for public works will counteract the load of
taxes which has made otherwise good land unprofitable.
The classification of lands as good or submarginal involves an
understanding of social and economic factors. The degree of sub-
marginality may be evidenced by the existing social conditions and
by the state aid which is required for the maintenance of schools,
roads and other facilities. Careful consideration must be given to
idle time which might be utilized for part-time local industrial opera-
tions to supplement the income of farm families. This sort of aid to
rural families would be especially valuable to a state as a whole, and
to the community, if the operation utilized local natural resources,
such as forest, mineral or farm products, and particularly if thereby
an import were replaced.
The reservation, or public use region, broken up into many areas
scattered over a state, is formed from land unsuitable for farming
CLOSING DINNER SESSION 169
on account of soil deficiency, topography, erosion, or poor drainage,
or because of surpassing scenic advantages. Public use areas may be
devoted to recreation of various types, forests, water storage, catch-
ment areas for flood prevention, game preserves and wild life refu-
ges, and may include lakes and rivers.
It is evident that a wise use of natural resources of a state will
result in a greater degree of self-sufficiency for a large portion of
the population. Proper allocation of land to the uses for which it is
best adapated will eliminate the struggle for existence now being
waged on many farms wholly incapable of yielding a consistent profit,
sufficient to maintain a reasonable standard of living. Education and
the adoption of improved methods of farming and marketing will be
helpful to many who are now unable to farm profitably. But these
considerations directly affect only a portion of the population. The
great group of industrial employees and those engaged in business
and trade require assistance in the solution of their problem of self'
sufficiency. The old idea of self-sufficiency, applicable to the early
settlers presupposed the ability of the family to produce everything
it needed for its living and support. The pioneer was able to live in
that manner, but the march of civilisation has produced a change
from which a return is neither possible nor desirable. The farmer
must buy much to supply his needs, for no longer does he make his
own cloth or his implements, tools or equipment. The industrial
worker or the business man must buy his food, not directly from the
farmer as a rule, but after it has passed through several hands, each
of which exacts a profit but each of which provides employment. A
disturbance of the balance between the prices of manufactured articles
and farm products seriously affects the self-sufficiency of one group
or the other. Now, the measure of self-sufficiency is the ability of
the individual to utilize or sell his services and to produce a return
from which he may purchase the supplies which are needed to main-
tain himself and his family in a proper standard of living.
Manufacturing, absorbing the third great section of the population
in its activities, depends upon natural resources for its raw materials.
These elements may come directly from the ground or in the form
of crops or livestock grown on the ground. The character of manu-
facturing of a state usually reflects its natural resources. The growth
of manufacturing has not always made fullest use of local native
materials. Herein lies the greatest opportunity for industrial devel-
opment. A thorough study of the potential use of stone, minerals,
clays, coal and products of the farm will undoubtedly result in the
establishment of new factories for making articles not now in trade,
or which are imported from abroad. Lists of manufactured articles
170 CLOSING DINNER SESSION
should be compared with articles sold within the state to determine
those for which there is a demand and which could be made locally
in a profitable manner. Research to develop the possibilities of native
materials and products for manufacturing should proceed diligently.
Such thought and activity will be a great factor in the decentralize'
tion of industry. Decentralization does not mean, necessarily, remov'
ing industry a long distance from cities. The diversification of in-
dustry may take place properly within the city or near its borders.
The establishment of many new factories, to make entirely new
articles which will be valuable to people, and to utilise natural
resources, is the ideal solution of the problem of employment for
industrial workers. The combination of manufacturing of this
nature with part-time farming is sound and would be of great
value in promoting economic security and the self-sufficiency of both
the urban and rural populations, as well as those engaged in mineral
operations. Many examples can be cited of the development of en-
tirely new industrial processes using native materials. There are more
opportunities. Research should be encouraged so that natural re-
sources may be utilized to their fullest extent.
Transportation and power are two great factors in the develop-
ment of a state. The first cities in the Middle West were established
on the rivers, followed by others on the canals. The advent of rail-
roads encouraged the founding of more cities, where transportation
and power, dependent upon coal, were available. The extension of
superpower lines over the state and the building of highways, afford-
ing routes for trucks, will be strong influences to encourage decen-
tralization of industry and population. Transportation presents many
problems. The different types, rail and trucks particularly, are in
direct competition with each other. The railroads have been a great
factor in the upbuilding of the state. Trucks serve a very useful
purpose. All transportation should be coordinated and unfair com-
petition eliminated. Tax burdens should be adjusted and equalized
and each form of transportation utilized for the purposes for which
it is best suited.
The development of a ten-year program for public works is a
matter for serious consideration. This program would be for a
state as a whole, and for each of its political subdivisions. It must be
based upon intelligent consideration of needs for the future, accom-
panied by accurate estimates of cost and the setting up of a financial
program to meet the needs. Annual review of the program should
be made to extend it one year and to adjust it to the changing situa-
tion.
The primary consideration of State Planning is the development
CLOSING DINNER SESSION 171
of human resources. Natural resources and human endeavor contrib-
ute to the main objective and require understanding in order that
they may be coordinated as a substantial structure.
'The game is yet in our own hands. To play it well is all we
have to do.""
DISCUSSION
MR. FREDERIC A. DELANO, Washington, D. C.: I might say on the subject
of planning, which I hope has a widening interest with every one of you,
that it is generally conceded that planning may have, properly speaking, three
different departments. First, the department of investigation. Second, the
department for interpretation of the results of investigation. And, third, the
carrying out of the plans. I don't have to tell you that the man is rarely found
who possesses the qualifications necessary for all three. The executive of a
great corporation is really the man who will take the time to investigate details.
He usually has on his staff men and women who will analyze and sift the facts
for him. And even when it comes to interpretation he is glad to consult men
of wise judgment on whom he can rely. But we sometimes find men of the
gO'getter type who resent the delay that arises from the necessity of investiga'
tion and interpretation. I hope that by successful and wise planning we can
convince men of that type that the time taken to investigate and interpret is
not wasted. And, of course, it would be worth very little for any of us to
take the time to investigate and interpret were there not men to carry out
the projects.
The next speaker is a man of that type. It is due to him that 45 states in
the Union have set up planning boards. It is due to him that the Federal
Government has loaned to each of those states one or more consultants to
help them with their problems. It is due to him that other routines were set
up, in which a group of four or five or six states were studied as a group in
order to determine whether we could find useful data in that way.
So I have the very great pleasure in presenting to you the Chairman of
the National Resources Board, the Honorable Secretary of the Interior, Mr.
Harold L. Ickes.
MR. HAROLD L. ICKES, Washington, D. C. : There died yesterday in the
City of Chicago the world's greatest woman, one of the finest citizens of this
or any other country, Jane Addams.
I refer to her on this occasion because when she was in Washington some
three weeks ago she called my office and asked if she might come to see me.
I went to see her. During all the years I have known her and had the privi'
lege of being associated with her I have never failed to respond to any call
from Jane Addams.
What she wanted to talk to me about was slum clearance, particularly with
reference to our projects in Chicago.
To me it would be an inspiration to know that the last talk I ever had with
this great spirit was with reference to this subject that is so near my own
heart, and I am sure, is equally near the hearts of all of you.
I am sure you will not regard it amiss if I ask you to rise just momentarily
as a tribute to that woman, the like of whom we have never seen and the
like of whom we will never see again.
GOVERNMENT AND HOUSING
HAROLD L. ICKES, Secretary of the Interior
I am glad tonight to renew a happy acquaintance that I made
two years ago when I had the pleasure of attending your session at
Baltimore. My recollection is that on that former occasion I wan-
dered more or less all over map, touching points of common interest
here and there. It is great fun to stand before an indulgent audience
and casually redress all the wrongs and reform all the abuses from
which our social order is suffering. If one really concentrates on post-
prandial reform, he can accomplish wonders in fifteen or twenty
minutes and sit down with that feeling of smug self-satisfaction which
comes to a man who has been able to make the world all over again.
But tonight, by confining myself to certain phases of the subject of
better housing, I shall demonstrate that when any proposition of social
or economic reform is considered in detail, it is found not to be such
an easy matter to overcome the habits and prejudices that have been
ingrained over the course of centuries.
I have said on other occasions that slum clearance is nearer to
my heart than any other phase of the PWA program. I went to
Washington to be Secretary of the Interior and I was all eagerness
to attack the many human problems that make that Department
more interesting and attractive to me than any other in the Federal
Government. Later, -when I was named Public Works Administratoi
by the President, I discovered to my delighted surprise that undei
the broad powers with which I was invested, it would actually be
possible to start on a comprehensive plan of slum clearance in the
cities of the United States. Since that discovery, one of my major
interests has been the matter of clearing out reeking pestholes in
which fellow human beings like ourselves have been permitted to
live in squalid and unhealthy surroundings, and replacing them with
decent homes that would offer an opportunity to those who most
needed them, to live in a decent and healthful environment.
So the Housing Division, with the enthusiastic help of that fine
citizen of Cincinnati, Col. Henry M. Waite, was set up under PWA,
charged with the responsibility of carrying out this so worth while
social enterprise. Our object was to build decent housing at a price
that would make it possible to rent apartments and houses to those
in the lowest income groups for what they might be able to pay. It
was our ambition to make this new government housing self-liquidat-
ing in the belief that the taxpayers of the country would more en-
thusiastically support it if they could be assured that they would get
172
CLOSING DINNER SESSION 173
their money back. We wanted to be able to rent at approximately
five dollars a room if we could possibly do so. But we soon found our-
selves in difficulties. Even figuring in the thirty per cent grant which
PWA has been allowing on non-Federal public projects and taking
into account a low interest rate and a long period of amortization,
how could we possibly get rents down to a point within the ability
to pay of that class of our fellow citizens whom we sought to benefit?
After all, slum clearance meant, or at any rate was regarded as
meaning, the demolition of the human kennels that exist in practically
all of our cities and the building on the sites thus cleared of our low
rent housing projects.
It did not take us long to discover that, aside from the legal diffi'
culty of acquiring title to the parcels of land comprising the sites
on which we wished to build, the prices asked for the land and the
pitiful buildings occupying it were sometimes excessively high, added
to which the additional high costs for labor and materials created
an almost insuperable task. We found out that adequate housing
constructed on a profit basis could not compete in the price field with
obsolete fire traps or the shacks of shanty town. But there must be
some way out and we sought to discover it.
The word subsidy has always been an objectionable one to me, but
dodge the issue as I might, I finally could not avoid the conclusion
that if we were to build housing for those who most needed it, gov
ernment would have to provide a subsidy. Perhaps the lexicographers,
after the good old American fashion, might discover or invent a term
which, while meaning subsidy, would have the appearance of being
something else, but there is nothing to be gained from trying to fool
either ourselves or the people. Speaking for myself, and with no
slight intimation even that I am committing the National Adminis-
tration to a policy on housing, I am prepared for my part to accept
the issue, and frankly avow my belief that government should sub-
sidize low-rent housing to the extent necessary to make it available
for those in the lowest income groups.
On looking into the matter, I find that, without realizing it, we
actually have been subsidizing objectionable slums in generous fashion,
as I shall endeavor to demonstrate to you in a moment. That makes
it a horse of an entirely different color. If, consciously or uncon-
sciously, we have been subsidizing slums, why not execute a right
about face and subsidize slum clearance instead? No reasonable
human being, knowing the facts, would continue to support a policy
of government which, while denying financial aid to slum clearance,
would, year after year, continue to»dip into the treasury in order to
174 CLOSING DINNER SESSION
help maintain the noisome slums that are a mark of dishonor to our
American civilization.
Now to answer the question that undoubtedly took form in the
minds of at least those of you who have not studied the question,
when I made the statement that, wittingly or unwittingly, we have
been stupidly subsidizing slums. Let me give you a few demonstrable
facts.
In 1933 the Illinois Housing Commission made a cost analysis of
a square mile in Chicago, covering an area of moderate blight that
was predominantly residential. The Commission used 1930 cost and
income figures for specific reasons: first, we were then only enter-
ing the depression, and, second, tax collections three years after the
date of levy could be expected to be reasonably complete.
This analysis showed that the city of Chicago paid out approxi-
mately $3,200,000 to provide routine municipal services for this area
— that is, for schools, police and fire protection, street maintenance,
garbage removal and the like. On the other hand, the taxes levied in
this area could have returned only $1,191,352.28 but, three years
after the due date, had been collected only to the extent of $586,-
061.23. In other words, to service this area cost the city two and
one-half times the potential tax income, while actual tax receipts,
after three years, amounted to no more than one-sixth of the sum
paid out.
In Boston, the City Planning Board made an exhaustive survey
along the same lines, but based on the more spectacular figures of
1934. The cost and income statements of six typical districts were
compiled under various analyses. These were designated as follows:
business district, industrial district, high-rental district, suburban resi-
dential district, miscellaneous residential district, and low-rental resi-
dential district. For the purposes of this discussion I shall confine
myself to the facts relating to the last two districts.
The miscellaneous area contained average urban housing without
extremes of good or bad. The low-rental area was a slum, composed
of buildings of a type so familiar that I forbear to reiterate the de-
scription of them. To service the miscellaneous area, the city paid
out $469,178 and received in taxes $816,400. To service the slum
area, the city paid out $310,624 and in return received $44,800. In
other words, while the city made a profit of approximately 70 per
cent on the miscellaneous area, its loss on the slum was seven times
the income.
The comparison of cost per capita between these two districts is
of interest. In the miscellaneous area this cost was $65.10; in the
CLOSING DINNER SESSION 175
slum it amounted to $92.30. A final comparison is found in the net
deficits per capita for the whole city and for the slum. The city lost
$3.40 per capita on its services to the whole city. Yet each slum
dweller cost the taxpayers $79.00.
These are not isolated instances. In Minneapolis, it was found
that the average cost to the city for a fire run was $800. At this
rate the cost of fire protection for an area we had under considera-
tion for a housing project totalled $70,000 in 1932, for runs alone.
Compared to this, the total taxes assessed against all properties in the
neighborhood in 1932 amounted to $30,835 and in 1933 to $28,937.
The conclusion is obvious.
The same results were found in Cleveland. In one area surveyed,
municipal expenditures amounted to $1,357,000 annually, with tax
returns yielding $225,000, leaving a debit balance of $1,132,000 for
the other taxpayers to foot. Analysis of the figures showed that each
family living in that section was subsidized $333 annually out of tax
and private funds.
From a purely esthetic standpoint, the elimination of slums would
be an asset to our cities. Yet I am constantly amazed at the ap-
parently exclusive importance this consideration assumes in cities
that have filed applications with the Public Works Administration for
projects. Applicants from a large percentage of cities have based
their pleas for funds almost entirely on the argument that the slums
are an "eyesore," ignoring entirely the financial factors involved. Yet
it is to be hoped that this valid, although inconclusive argument for
slum renovation may, in the course of time, be met to the satisfaction
of those whose eyes, if not their hearts or pocketbooks, are affected
by the continued presence of misery.
Nor is the cost of a slum area to a city confined to the extra ex-
pense involved in servicing that area. There are indirect financial,
as well as social and moral costs, which in the aggregate far exceed
such differences between taxes collected and cost of services as I have
recited. The slums offer a fertile field for communicable diseases, and,
by the same token, due to a lack of adequate sunshine, fresh air and
open spaces for normal recreation, those living in the slums have
such a lowered resistance, as compared with people who dwell in
healthier surroundings, and their ability to combat disease is dis-
tinctly subnormal. Our slum areas are natural breeding grounds for
vice and crime and every anti-social tendency and activity. People
reared in the slums are not able to pull their weight in the boat, thus
throwing an undue burden upon their fellows who are required to
lay to with extra strength. These intangible costs may vary but their
176 CLOSING DINNER SESSION
total is large when reckoned as part of the aggregate subsidy for which
society is charging itself in order to maintain slum areas that, from
the point of view of esthetics and humanitarianism, ought to be abol-
ished even if they were capable of earning a money profit.
Having considered the heavy indirect subsidy that we are blithely
paying to maintain these areas, let us now look at the other side of
the ledger and frankly consider the question of a direct subsidy, open'
mindedly and deliberately paid, in order to make it possible to eradi-
cate the social festers that we know as the slums.
A study by our Housing Division of a slum clearance project in a
large city shows that three per cent interest, an amortization period
of 44 years for the building and no amortization for the land, plus
a 30 per cent grant on construction costs, would apparently make it
possible to provide decent quarters at a rent of $9.91 per room per
month with all services, or $6.97 per room per month without serv-
ices. The same project, figured without interest, with an amortiza-
tion period of 50 years for both land and building and without a
grant, would rent for $8.37 per room per month with, and $5.43
without services.
The rooms for which these rents would be charged would be of
ample size, arranged for that privacy which is now not known in our
slum areas, and with a maximum of light and air. The interior
walls would be plastered and the apartments equipped with bath-
rooms, sinks, electric stoves and refrigerators. The services referred
to would comprise hot and cold running water, steam heat and elec-
tricity for lighting, cooking and refrigeration.
Compare these figures with those now paid by citizens condemned
by an unheeding social order to live in the slums. For the services
for which we would charge $2.94 per room per month, the slum
tenant, if he had them, would have to pay in the average northern
city approximately $3.58 or an excess cost of 64 cents. Slum tenants
in such cities now pay approximately $5.00 per room per month for
badly-planned, poorly-lighted and fetid dwellings without any open
spaces except streets and alleys and areaways. This rent cost, plus the
$3.58 per month they would pay for adequate services, makes a total
of $8.58 a room. Under a plan to amortize the cost of land and con-
struction, without interest, over a period of 50 years, we could fur-
nish decent accommodations and services for $8.37 a room. But, in
addition to dwellings and services, we would furnish, without extra
cost, ample natural light, plenty of air and open spaces because ac-
cording to our plans for slum clearance projects, the area to be cov-
ered by buildings would not exceed 30 per cent of the total land.
CLOSING DINNER SESSION 177
Under present slum conditions, the built'Over area is often as much
as 70 per cent of the total.
There are respectable precedents for a government subsidy for
housing, but it is necessary to go to certain countries of Europe for
them. And so to Europe we will briefly go even if the facts to be
cited once again will make us realise how far behind some other coun-
tries we are in providing for the social needs of the people.
England has had a housing policy for some 70 years. There a pub-
lic works loan board advances money to municipalities at from four
to five per cent interest, the money to be amortized over a term of
60 years. In addition to this, there is an annual grant on rent from
the government at the discretion of Parliament which is conditioned
upon a further rent grant from the municipalities. This total grant
varies in amount from year to year, depending on local and national
economic conditions. At times it has amounted to as much as one-
third of the rent necessary to make a project self 'liquidating under
the general financial policy.
In Germany money is advanced by the government on a second
mortgage at one per cent interest. The fund out of which this loan
money comes is maintained from a special tax on old and outworn
housing. First mortgages at a higher rate of interest are secured
from semi-public bodies and private agencies. The actual work is done
by municipalities or semi-public organisations. It should be noted
that in Germany, as distinguished from England and the United
States, the cities own a tremendous amount of land on which hous-
ing is built without figuring in land costs. Berlin, for example, pos-
sesses a total area, including that owned outside of the city limits,
equal to one-third of its total holdings within the city limits. Thus in
Germany there is a combination of land subsidy and interest subsidy
to help out private capital.
In France and Belgium special funds have been set up to subsidise
interest at varying rates on housing projects. Social insurance funds
that have been earmarked for housing purposes have been in exist-
ence for more than 45 years.
In Vienna low- cost housing is built by the city itself. It is paid
for out of taxes so that there is no question of amortisation or of
rents necessary to meet amortisation.
While the Federal Government, as a part of its recovery program,
is not only willing, but glad to carry through its present plans for
slum clearance projects which will soon be rising in all parts of the
country, it would be unreasonable to expect us to carry this burden
178 CLOSING DINNER SESSION
for an indefinite length of time or for an indefinite amount of money
to be expended. States and cities and even private organizations of
citizens should and must do their part. We are willing to point the
way and we might even be willing to continue in this most worth
while social enterprise on a cooperative basis. At the moment we are
not only interested in the social benefits of the program; we are con'
cerned about putting men to work. To encourage our continued in'
terest, it would be well for states and municipalities to show a willing-
ness to fall in line with the Federal Government in order to carry on
the program after this depression is a thing of the past. I should like
to see a national housing conference called to which the governor of
every state and the mayor of every city would be invited, this confer-
ence to pay serious attention to this most pressing social and economic
problem, with a view to adopting a program that would have as its
ultimate aim the clearance of every slum area in every part of the
United States.
In the meanwhile, the cities should cooperate with the Federal
Government because the present program is primarily for the benefit
of the cities where it is proposed to build slum clearance projects.
They should approach this question not only from the point of view
of the social good that will result from cleaning out their slum areas,
but having in mind the actual financial profit that will follow the
discontinuance of the indirect subsidy that they have been paying
for slum maintenance.
The cities can help materially in this movement by establishing and
maintaining small parks and playgrounds, by providing adequate
school facilities and by aiding in the solution of the important and
pressing problem of utility facilities so that we may be assured of
gas, water, electricity and sewage services at rates which will make
it possible for us to accomplish our objective of providing dwellings
for those in the lowest income groups.
A sympathetic and actively cooperative local attitude is absolutely
essential if we are to make conspicuous headway. I should like to
cite as an outstanding example of such cooperation, the case of Cin-
cinnati. This progressive and well-governed city has given evidence
of its faith in the program of public housing. To aid in the effective
solution of its housing problem, it has set aside $1,000,000 for the
establishment of parks and playgrounds in connection with the
Federal project that will soon be under construction here. It will
also install all major utilities and take care of necessary street changes.
The Cincinnati project rests on the firm foundation of local in-
terest and support. The city has not accepted it as the product of a
distant and unfeeling bureaucracy; it has entered into it as the joint
CLOSING DINNER SESSION 179
enterprise of local and Federal governments that are pulling together
in perfect harmony.
I wish that other municipalities could show the same tangible ap-
preciation of our program. New York, Milwaukee, Miami, and Bir-
mingham, to mention only a few, have welcomed it to the fullest
extent of their present financial abilities. I am aware that many cities
are hard pressed at the moment and can offer little in the way of
substantial financial participation. But there is much that they can
and should do at little cost to aid in this work. The vacation of
streets, the waiving of fees, the establishment and maintenance of
community and recreational facilities, the enforcement of building
and zoning ordinances (a corollary activity that is essential to a
check of slum growth) are among the inexpensive yet vital contribu-
tions which every city can and must make if this movement is to
be successful.
In my judgment slum clearance is the most worth while social en-
terprise on a large scale that is being actively undertaken in the
United States today. Let us justify it and commend it to future gen-
erations for its continuance and completion by doing as fine and
worth while a job as, collectively and in association with each other,
we are capable of doing.
NATIONAL PLANNING IN PRACTICE
CHARLES E. MERRIAM
Member, National Resources Committee
This report of the President's National Resources Board brings
together, for the first time in our history, exhaustive studies by highly
competent inquirers into land use, water use, minerals, and related
public works in their relation to each other and to national planning.
The report lays the basis of a comprehensive long'range national
policy for the conservation and development of our fabulous natural
resources. If the recommendations are put into effect, it is believed
that they will end the untold waste of our national domain now,
and will measurably enrich and enlarge these national treasures as
time goes on.
This program contained many detailed recommendations, but, speak'
ing broadly, the following were perhaps the most important:
(1) A land'purchase program providing for the retirement of some five
million acres of sub'inarginal land yearly for some fifteen years, with
administration through a permanent land'planning section, cooperating
with state and local boards and authorities (with many collateral
recommendations) .
(2) A permanent water'planning section to proceed with detailed engineer'
ing, social, financial, and legal studies of seventeen major drainage
basins, and the preparation of constructive programs for their develop'
ment (with many collateral recommendations).
(3) In mineral industries, permanent regulation of competition, adequate to
control production, capacity, surplus stocks, and protection of the
workers. Consideration of retirement of marginal mines was also indi'
cated. Scientific research to foster mining technology was recommended.
For all these purposes, a permanent mineral policy committee is sug'
gested. A further report on this subject is in preparation, and also a
report on hydro'electric power.
(4) A permanent public works administration, preparing a six'year works
program, operating through lump sum appropriations by Congress, and
assuming the leadership in cooperation between national and local pub'
lie works authorities.
(5) Continued encouragement of and cooperation with state and regional
planning boards.
(6) Collection of basic data for planning, including a financial balance
sheet for the Federal Government, a mid'decennial census of popula'
tion and employment, completion of standard maps of the United States,
basic scientific studies of land and water resources.
(7) A permanent advisory national planning board to serve as a general
staff for the President. It was suggested that this board consist of not
more than five members appointed by and responsible to the President,
with a rotating panel of consultants and a skeleton staff made up of
government personnel and others brought in for special inquiries.
180
CLOSING DINNER SESSION 181
There are three outstanding considerations in looking at plans for
planning :
(1) The necessity and value of coordinating our national and local policies
instead of allowing them to drift apart or pull against each other, with
disastrous effect;
(2) The value of looking forward in national life, of considering in advance
rather than afterward, of preventive measures as well as remedial;
(3) The value of basing plans upon the most authentic collection and
analysis of the facts.
Down to the turn of the nineteenth century, no country had done
more extensive national planning than the United States. Our pro-
gram, first of all, was based on the greatest heresy of the time, namely,
that governmental arrangements or constitutions could be planned
and made. The program included the abolition of hereditary govern-
ment and the substitution of democracy, the adoption of the federal
system through the Constitution (itself a piece of economic-politi-
cal planning), a land system reaching from the abolition of primo-
geniture and entail to the homestead act, the American system of
tariff. After the Civil War, the United States led in large-scale
business planning through powerful industrial combinations.
It is an error to conclude that all planning involves regimentation
of a deadening nature. I am not referring now to the objections of
those who think of regimentation as an interference with their robber-
baron privilege of private exploitation and oppression, but to those
who sincerely believe that there is danger of sacrificing something
that is valuable in civilization. Dr. Wesley C. Mitchell has discussed
President Hoover's identification of planning and regimentation in
the December number of The Political Science Quarterly, and I have
done likewise in the February issue of The American Political Science
Review.
Wise planning makes provision for decentralization as well as for
unification, for territorial and individual decentralization, for inde-
pendent criticism, judgment, and initiative, for preserving and creat-
ing free areas of human activity. The zoning of power is as important
in political as in economic organization. We may plan indeed, for
fuller liberty — and indeed are now so planning.
Sound planning is not based on control of everything, but of certain
strategic points in a working system. Control of these points holds
the system in balance, reconciling order, justice, liberty. These points
change from time to time, sometimes peacefully and sometimes
violently.
At various times, political societies have found it necessary to deal
with landowners, with slavery, with army authorities, with the church,
182 CLOSING DINNER SESSION
with labor or industrial captains, with racial groups, readjusting the
power system of the new interests and values of the new time. This
is of the essence of political cohesion and function.
The best planning will find these strategic points, shown by the
social directives of the time, with least delay, and seise no more points
than are necessary for the purpose in mind.
What often happens is:
(1) change is too long delayed;
(2) the readjusters violently seize more than they need; and
(3) eventually the readjusters restore what they would not have
taken if they had been wiser.
We cannot have freedom if men tamely submit to what they be'
lieve is dangerous and wrong. There can be no greater threat to
liberty than absence of free and full discussion of opposing views,
political, social, and economic. Already consideration of public ques-
tions, and, if democratic states adopt the same policy, a new era
opens — an era when we abandon discussion for clubs and guns,
hoping in the rhythm of the club and the statistical sputter of the
machine-gun to find a better guide to action.
I am not unmindful of the complexities and difficulties in the way,
but dangers lie around as well as ahead, from non-action as well as
action. We cannot proceed as if nothing had happened in recent
years, or could ever happen again. Our doctrines of liberty, equality,
and democracy are not to be regarded merely as legal phrases to be
paraded and celebrated on memorial occasions.
No modern social structure is secure that does not promise more
to the body and soul of those who feel themselves disinherited by the
present order of things.
Every man is entitled to his own opinion, and I have no desire to
thrust my views on others, but perhaps I may be permitted to say
quietly as a student of government for a disgraceful number of years
and not by nature an alarmist, that especially since returning from
Europe last summer, I do not share the complaisance of those who
look forward to a world but little changed. But the way is open for
us to reconstruct a finer type of life, if we can pioneer our way
through, over, and around difficulties as nobly as did our fathers.
It is important accordingly that the scientific developments of the
present situation be fully and vividly portrayed, in order that man-
kind may be made aware of what lies ahead, assuming that adequate
CLOSING DINNER SESSION 183
social engineering can be found and can be supported by the masses
with whom the ultimate power of disposition lies.
A new world is well within our reach if we can organise and act
to obtain it. Men do not believe this; they do not see it; they do not
heed, perhaps, even the words in which such a picture is developed
before them.
If the coming generation can be equipped for the performance of
its social functions in the light of the opportunity in human organic
tion, the future of the world is bright with rich possibilities. The
obstacles that stand between us and the realisation of men's dreams
are those of social attitudes and social and political management. Of
the great burdens of humanity, pestilence, poverty, war and famine,
two have been driven back into their caves. Poverty and War
stalk abroad, resisting the nets thrown around them.
But there is no longer a valid excuse for poverty since the forces
of nature have been subdued, and the brutality of war is a surviving
witness reminding the human parvenu of his primitive origins. The
stream of scientific invention will roll on, in all human probability,
and if the devices of social invention are able to keep pace with the
scientific organisation of nature, the new world may be a fairyland
of human achievement. The burdens of hunger, disease, toil, fear,
may be lifted, the book of leisure may be opened, and treasures of
human appreciation and enjoyment may be made available to the
mass of mankind.
This is true not only of the mechanical contrivances which minis-
ter to our enjoyment of life in many ways, but also of the inner life
of the personality, so long filled with vile broods of haunting fears
and doubts and dreads. Science and social arrangement will conquer
these jungles also, and open them to the sunlight of happiness, hith-
erto unattainable no matter what the mechanical device or the pe-
cuniary success of an individual. Miracles have already been wrought,
and others are on the way, beyond any question of doubt. Science
will bring life and light and healing on its wings.
In moments of industrial insecurity and bitter distress, the possi-
bility of an infinitely richer and finer life for the mass of mankind
may seem a mocking mirage. But the continuance of ancient burdens
is impossible if the faculty of social and political contrivance is util-
ised as it might be by a generation sophisticated in the modern world
and prepared for entering into the kingdom. If there is affliction and
bitter distress, it is because we will not reach out and take the gift
of the gods in our day. There is food, shelter, clothing, adornment,
184 CLOSING DINNER SESSION
relief from physical and mental disease, leisure for the appreciation,
enjoyment, expression of the human personality in richest form, if
we are ready to reach out the hand and take them, through the social
economic, political arrangements that condition them.
And to produce the will, the skills, the attitudes and aptitudes, ade-
quate to the achievement of the promised land, is the supreme chal-
lenge of civic and social education.
If we can look the facts in the face and not deny what we do not
like; if we can consult our fears less and our hopes more; if we can
think more in terms of the present and future and less in terms of
the past; if we can show inventive ability in social and industrial
arrangements equal to that developed in technology advancement,
we can realise the promise of American life more fully than even
the prophets have ever dared to dream.
RESOLUTIONS
I
The Conference on City, Regional, State and National Planning, held in
Cincinnati on May 20 to 22, 1935, closes with the consciousness of having
had particularly valuable discussions of vital problems affecting the fields of
activity of the participating organizations, in sessions held in a city noted for
its sense of civic and social responsibility. The Conference acknowledges its
gratitude to the excellent leadership of Alfred Bettman, to the contributions
of those who have participated and to the arrangements for the Conference
made by the City of Cincinnati, and by the various cooperating public and
private agencies, and directs its Secretary to extend to all these an expression
of the appreciation of the Conference.
II
The recent death of J. C. Murphy of Louisville has terminated the life of
active service of one whose quiet, effective leadership has made an excellent
contribution to the development of his community. He was a member of the
National Conference on City Planning since its organization and was the first
and only Chairman of the Louisville City Planning Commission. The Con'
ference on City, Regional, State and National Planning, meeting in Cincinnati
on May 20 to 22, 1935, records its sorrow at his passing and extends its
sympathy to the City which he served and to his bereaved family and friends.
Ill
The work of the National Resources Board has advanced planning to a
place of recognition in the Nation and in the states and their local communi'
ties, which offers hope for the accomplishment of the objectives of the agencies
participating in the Conference on City, Regional, State and National Plan'
ning, meeting in Cincinnati on May 20 to 22, 1935. At the same time, the
National Resources Board has taken the effective first steps in a competent
evaluation of our national resources, rural and urban, toward laying the foun'
dation for orderly national development which shall be socially and economi'
tally sound. This Conference hereby expresses, first, its gratitude to the mem'
bers of the National Resources Board who have directed this work and to the
Staff who have conducted it, and, second, its confidence in the effective
national leadership which is thus being provided in this field.
IV
The Conference on City, Regional, State and National Planning, meeting in
Cincinnati on May 20 to 22, 1935, and representing the National Conference
on City Planning, the American Society of Planning Officials, the American
Civic Association and the American City Planning Institute, has devoted
185
186 RESOLUTIONS OF THE CONFERENCE
its sessions to a consideration of the future of American cities in our national
life. The Conference is conscious of the inability of the multitude of agencies,
public and private, whose interests are bound up in this problem to approach
it competently in the absence of data derived from comprehensive research in
the broad field of the place of urbanism in the economic and social structure
of the Nation. The Conference urges the National Resources Board to under'
take such research as a study urgently necessary and with the broadest impli'
cations in the national well'being.
The Conference on City, Regional, State and National Planning, meet'
ing in Cincinnati on May 20 to 22, 1935, has separately expressed its appre-
ciation of the efforts of the National Resources Board in the advancement of
planning and toward an orderly national development.
This Conference believes that the ultimate success of these efforts is de-
pendent upon the establishment of a National Planning Board as a permanent
agency of the Federal Government through appropriate congressional legisla'
tion; and urges its participating organizations to endeavor to secure the adop'
tion of such legislation. ,
VI
Broad plans of development for cities, counties, states, and regions are
essential to the execution of sound public works programs, and to the satis'
factory development of such areas. The full, practicable, social and material
utility from the expenditure of public works funds cannot effectively be at'
tained except on the basis of competent and comprehensive planning; and the
wise use of these funds depends upon the devotion of a reasonable portion of
them to the collection of the necessary data, and the preparation of effective
plans. The Conference on City, Regional, State and National Planning, meet-
ing in Cincinnati on May 20 to 22, 1935, and representing the American
City Planning Institute, the American Civic Association, the American Society
of Planning Officials and the National Conference on City Planning, urges
that an allocation of funds under the Work Relief Act, in an amount of from
$25,000,000 to $35,000,000 be definitely allotted for such planning projects
as the National Resources Board and its agencies may approve as suitably
organized and competently directed. It is further urged that the regulations
governing these projects be so drawn as to permit the provision of suitable
direction and technical supervision.
VII
Housing which is socially adequate and economically justifiable depends,
not alone upon satisfactory project design, but upon competent neighborhood
planning and the sound relation of the project to comprehensive considerations
of land utilization, population distribution and the desirable structure of the
community. Projects not taking these factors into account are not likely to
RESOLUTIONS OF THE CONFERENCE 187
succeed in the accomplishment of the objectives of the housing program of the
Federal Government and are in danger of perpetuating, in an initially pleas'
anter guise, some of the unsound features which have produced slums and
decadent areas in American cities. The Conference on City, Regional, State
and National Planning, meeting in Cincinnati on May 20 to 22, 1935, and
representing the National Conference on City Planning, the American Society
of Planning Officials, the American Civic Association and the American City
Planning Institute, believes that the desirability of and the possibility for sue'
cess of housing projects to be accomplished under the Federal Work Relief
program depend upon their formulation and evaluation in the light of plan'
ning principles and urges that more adequate provision be made for this in
the organization, and procedure of the various Federal organizations dealing
with housing. The Conference offers the services of its participating organ'
izations toward the accomplishment of this purpose.
OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS
OF THE
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF PLANNING OFFICIALS
ALFRED BETTMAN, PRESIDENT, Cincinnati
Chairman of the City Planning Commission, Cincinnati, Ohio;
Member of the Ohio State Planning Board; District Chairman
for the National Resources Committee.
MORTON L. WALLERSTEIN, VICE-PRESIDENT, Richmond
Executive Secretary of the League of Virginia Municipalities;
Chairman of the Virginia State Planning Board.
HAROLD S. BUTTENHEIM, New York City
Editor of the American City Magazine; Chairman of the Zoning
Board of Adjustment, Madison, N. J.
JACOB L. CRANE, JR., Chicago
Planning Consultant, National Resources Committee.
EARLE S. DRAPER, Knoxville
Director of Land Planning and Housing, Tennessee Valley
Authority.
CHARLES W. ELIOT 2d, Washington, D. C.
Executive Officer of the National Resources Committee.
C. A. McCLURE, Portland
Associate Consultant, Pacific Northwest Regional Planning Com-
mission.
JOHN NOLEN, Cambridge
Past President of the International Federation for Housing and
Town Planning; Consultant to Department of the Interior at
Large.
HENRY H. KILDEE, Ames
Dean of the College of Agriculture, Iowa State College; Chair-
man Iowa State Planning Board.
L. DEMING TILTON, Santa Barbara
Director of the California State Planning Board; County Plan-
ning Engineer.
SAMUEL WILSON, Topeka
Executive Officer of the Kansas State Planning Board; Secretary
of the Kansas State Chamber of Commerce.
CHARLES S. ASCHER, TREASURER OF THE SOCIETY, Chicago
Secretary of the Public Administration Clearing House; former
Executive Director of the National Association of Housing
Officials.
WALTER H. BLUCHER, EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, Chicago
Former City Planner and Secretary of the Detroit City Plan
Commission, former member of the Detroit City Housing Com-
mission; Planning Consultant, National Resources Board; Presi-
dent Michigan Planning Conference; Consultant to Housing
Division, P.W.A.
188
INDEX
ADDAMS, JANE, 171
Age Composition of Population, 5
American Municipal Association,
104, 108
American Society of Planning Offi'
cials, 105, 108
ARONOVICI, DR. CAROL, 83
AUGUR, TRACY B., 23, 99
B
"Back to the farm" Movement, 30
BARTHOLOMEW, HARLAND, 35
BASSETT, EDWARD M., 32, 71
BEIRUT, SYRIA, 45
BETTMAN, ALFRED, 1, 70, 73, 78,
89, 94, 97, 99, 131, 185
BLACK, RUSSELL VAN NEST,
50, 114
Blighted Districts, 73, 79, 90, 95,
132
BLUCHER, WALTER H., Pref., 74, 98
BOHN, ERNEST J., 85, 95
Boston City Planning Board, 88, 174
British Housing Laws, 83
Brookings Institution, 27
BURDELL, EDWIN S., 79
BUTTENHEIM, HAROLD S., 114
City, Definition of, 15, 101
City Planning, 13, 32, 110, 116
City Planning, Economic Factors, 25
City Planning, Social Factors, 25
Civil Works Administration, 28, 147
Conservation, 145, 149, 167
CORNICK, PHILIP H., 15, 34
County Planning, 69
CRANE, JACOB L, JR., 36, 44, 49, 55,
68, 70, 121
CUNNINGHAM, OWEN, 97
DANA, MARSHALL N., 114, 139
Decentralization of Manufactures,
9, 11, 30, 162
DELANO, FREDERIC A., 113, 115,
171
DYKSTRA, C. A., 57
Education, 114, 139, 151
ELIOT, CHARLES W., 2o., 110
"Extra'territorial" Zoning, 64
Family Income, 27
Federal Activities, 116
Federal Assistance, 117, 125
Federal Housing, 75, 82, 85, 123,
172
Geography in Regional Planning, 45
GEORGE, HENRY, 22, 33
Government and Housing, 172
Governmental Reorganization, 101
GRAY, GEORGE H., 71
H
HABER, WILLIAM, 25
HARRISON, MR., 123
HORWITZ, AARON B., 71
Housing, 27, 28, 34, 58, 74, 81, 86,
90, 121, 172, 186
Housing, Foreign, 130, 177
Housing, Principles of, 74, 97
HOYT, HOMER, 19, 20
HUDSON, G. DONALD, 45
I
ICKES, HAROLD L., 171, 172
IHLDER, JOHN, 33
Illinois Housing Commission, 174
Industrial Distribution, 9
Industrial Resources, 24
Industrial Trends, 8, 153
KOENIG, RUSSELL O., 72
Land Classification, 40, 168
Land Control, 21
Land, Function of, 15
Land Price Trends, 19
Land Settlement, 43
Land Speculation, 15, 23, 61
Land-Use, Rural, 37
Land-Use Surveys, 37, 153, 168
Land-Use Trends, 39
Land-Use, Urban, 37, 67
Larsson, Dr. Yngve, 32, 33, 130
League of Virginia Municipalities,
104
Los Angeles County, 60
Low-Cost Housing, 28, 80, 90, 100,
124
M
MANN, A. R., 37
MARQUETTE, BLEECKER, 99
Master Plan, 21, 67, 138
McNuTT, PAUL V., 165
MERRIAM, CHARLES E., 101, 180
MILLS, EARL O., 60
Municipal Auto Parks, 163
Municipal Land Ownership, 24, 32
MURPHY, J. C., 184
N
National Planning, 31, 180
National Resources, 167
National Resources Board, 62, 65,
67, 95, 107, 110, 117, 140, 180, 184
National Resources Board Program,
180
Neighborhood Improvement Dis-
tricts, 91
NELSON, HERBERT U., 33, 70, 90
NOLEN, JOHN, 114, 116, 119, 123
NUSSBAUMER, NfiWELL L., 34
O'BRIEN, WILLIAM, 149
Parkways, 157, 158
Permanent National Planning Board,
186
Plan Making, 50
Plan, the Function of, 57, 60, 69,
131
Planner and the City Administrator,
95
Planner and the Lawyer, 74, 97
Planner and the Realtor, 90, 97
Planner and the Sociologist, 79
Planning and Municipal Administra-
tion, 146
Planning and Public Administration,
156
Planning and State Administration
149
Planning Board Function, 55
Planning Board Personnel, 57, 136
Planning Commission, 131, 146
Platting, 62
POMEROY, HUGH R., 68
Population Trends, 2, 27, 32, 64, 76,
149
Public Health, 152
Public Officials, 161
Public Works, 30, 112, 118, 170
Public Works Administration, 172
Radburn City, 24
RANDALL, ROBERT H., 117
Real Estate Values, 6, 7
Rebuilding Our Cities, 121
Regional Planning, 31, 45, 146, 157
Rehabilitation, 80
Rehousing Areas, 85, 121
Residential Building, 27
Resolutions, 184
Restrictive Zoning, 92
Rezoning, 92, 99
Roadside Control, 69
Rural Land Classification, 168
Rural Land Values, 18
Rural Population, 30
Rural Survey, 38
San Mateo County, 69
Satellite Cities, 3, 16
SEGOE, L., 2, 99, 124
Slum Areas, 28, 63, 82, 84
Slum Clearance, 27, 29, 100, 123,
130, 172
Slums, Cost of, 75,87, 174
SPILKER, JOHN B., 97
State Bureaus, 127
State Planning, 101, 105, 165
State Planning Boards, 107, 117,
165
STEEG, HENRY B., 146
Stockholm, Sweden, 32, 33, 130
Subdivision Control, 21, 60, 70
Submarginal Lands, 41
Taxation, 6, 33, 68, 113, 125, 150,
163
Tax Delinquency, 42
Tennessee Valley Authority, 24
Toronto City Planning Commission,
76
Transportation, 23, 26, 103, 154,
170
U
Urban Areas, 101
Urban Bureau in the Federal Gov-
ernment, 125
Urban Growth, 3, 4, 22, 25
Urban Land Policies, 1 5
Urban Land Values, 6, 18
Urban Planning, 112
Urban Sites, 16, 23, 43, 74
Urban Survey, 37, 76
Urban Taxes, 33,34
Urban Trends, 3 1
W
WALLERSTEIN, MORTON L., 104
Water Resources, 42
WHITNALL, CHARLES B., 156
WHITTEN, ROBERT, 13
WILLMOTT, JOHN F., 125
WOODRUFF, JOSEPH T., 66
Works Progress Administration, 119
Zoning, 64, 66, 71, 91, 98, 108
Zoning, County, 64, 67, 69
Zoning, Function of, 67
Zoning Ordinance, 21, 35, 51, 57,
65, 157
Zoning Primer, 66
Zoning, Rural, 43, 72
Zoning, Spot, 82
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