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.■tMm^^ VOL. VII. .^
1-/0 0 0
N'tiW-YORK:
PUBLISHED BY MYRON FINCH, No. 9 SPRUCE STREET, FOR THE PROPUIETOE.
1855.
JOHN A. GRAY,
PRINTER,
9-5 & 97 Cliff, cor. Frankfort St.
INDEX TO VOLUME VII.
From July, 1854, to June, 1855.
The reader will please note the divisions pf the Index of this volume, as divided
according to the arrangement of the articles under its general heads. The first is of
treatises in the body of the work. The second includes what is treated of in the
Miscellaneous, Editorial Jottings, and the Mechanical Record. The third is an index
to American Patents, and the fourth to English Patents. Reference is made some-
times to the same topic under several of these , divisions. If a pai'ticular title is not
found in one it may be in another.
^
«0
Acids for the Mint, The Factory of, 740.
Adulteration of Manures, 227.
Agriculture of Japan, 141.
" Practical, 732.
" Science in, 385.
" State Patronage of, 648.
Agricultural Capacities of Texas, 586.
" Education in Ohio, 340.
" " in Tennessee, C04.
" Societies in Massachusetts, 91.
« " in N. Carolina, 333.
" " in Tennessee, 004.
" Statistics, 198.
Agriculturists in Palestine, American, 745.
Alloys, in Relation to their Chem. Comp., 235.
American and English Iron, '.i97.
" Gas Company, 361.
" Industry, 7<i, 641.
" Patents, 705.
" Pomological Society, 423.
" Solidified Milk, 501.
Amoskeag Machine Shop, l(l9.
Annual Fairs, Repi rts of, 286.
" " The Policy of, 449, 532, 577, C49.
Apples, Large, .508.
Architecture, 331, 388.
Armament of a Ship of War, 117.
Artiflcial Manures, 401, 4S5.
Asparagus, 32, 344.
Atlantic Cotton Mills, 487.
Baby Stiow in Springfield, O., 290.
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 460.
Barbadoes Tar for Horses, 542.
Bare-Footed Printer Boy, 602.
Barn, A model, 215.
Barn, The Sliaker, 38.
Beams, The Strength of, 409, 560.
Bee Hive, Or. Eddy's Protective, 356.
Bees, The Transfer of, 540.
Benefits of Fairs, 321, 649.
Biography of .lohn Stewart Skinner, 1.
" of Hon. M. P. Wilder, 472.
" of E. B. Bieelow, 545.
Birds, Their Utility, 230.
Blacksmithing, Science in, 359.
Bog Meadows Reclaimed, 607,
Boots and Shoes, New Kind of, 98.
Boyden's Place, Topsfield, Mass., 268.
Bread, Good Corn, 605.
" Corn, and Rye, and Indian, 8S6.
Breckenrid^e Cannel Coal, 33.
Brush, Machine for Chopping, 569.
Building Materials, 193,269, 461.
Butter Making, 679
Caen Stone, 461.
California, Stage Route to, 405.
Candle Making, 618.
Cane Field, Guano in the, 143.
jQannoD, Breech-loading, 744.
Car Ventilator, Lancaster's, 170.
Gary's Rotary Pump, 44.
Cashmere Goats, 496.
Cast Iron flouses, 498.
Cattle and the Prospect, 670.
Cattle, Experiments in Fattening, 277.
" Keep Iheni well Fed, 201,
" Breeds of, 725.
Charcoal a Disinfecting Agent, 404.
" Properties of, 021.
Cheap Candles, 211.
Chemical E.xamination of the Cob of Maize, 481.
" Effects of certain Fertilizers on the Po-
tato, 590.
Chalk, 611.
Chicago, Statistics of, 30.
Chloroform for Animals, 542.
Church Architecture— Trinity Chapel, 743.
Cinciimati Horticultural Society, 677.
Cincinnati and Charleston Railway, 169.
Climate, 657.
Coal, How they dig Anthracite, 354.
" Repeal of the Duty on, 470.
" Fields of the World, 138.
Coffee, Good, 490.
" at Moch,a, 211.
Colors of Hangings, Furniture, &c., 612.
Combined Steam, 220.
Commerce is King, 513.
Composition for Roofs, &c., 558.
Connecticut State Fair, 288.
Copper Mines in South Africa, 623.
Corn Cob, Chemical Examination of, 481.
Corn, Fine Field of, 402.
" forFodder, 212, 590.
" in New-Hampshire, 478.
" its culture, 595.
" Bread, Good, 565.
" and Rye and Indian Bread, 086.
" the Staple of Ohio, 398.
" Statistics in France, 482, 726.
Cotton and its Culture, 661.
•< Culture, Rotation in, 399.
" Crop, Importance of, 347.
« Gin, A new, 730.
Cows, Diseases of Uddf r and Teats of, 347.
" Succulent Food for MilcU, 345.
Cranberries on High Ground, 235.
Crescent Iron Works, 231.
Crops in Viginia 390, 480.
Cross' Patent Grape Frame, 293.
Cryptomeria Japonica, 736.
Crystal Palace, 49.
Cultivation of Sandy Soils, 486.
" What is it? 153.
Culture of Flax at the West, 280.
" of the Orange, 610.
" of the Pelargonium, 673.
" of the Potato, 594.
590642
ro
IV.
Index.
Culture of the Rose, 535.
" of the Tomato, 014.
" of the Verbena, in Pots, 2S1.
Curculio, Remedy lor the, 97.
Cure for Garget and for Wounds, 119.
Curiosities of British Census, 202.
Curious, Something for the, 351.
Cuttin? Met:ils, New iMachine for, 294.
Cylindrical Steam Valve, 502.
Cypress Vine, 872.
Daisy, Chrysanthemums, 38.
Dahlia, The, 89. 673.
Decomposition of Water and Steam by Heat., 682.
Delaware, Lackawanna and Western, Railroad, 73.
D'uvvood, the Residence of John J. Smith, Esq.,
Germantown, Pa., 714.
Detroit, 84.
Dilatation of Cast Iron by successive Heat, 166.
Dock Railway, Liver, lOo], 534.
Drought in Hawkins County, Tenn., .340.
" in Lamoille County, Vt., 177.
Drying Fruit, 204, 2S3.
Elastic Power Accumulators, 234.
Electricity, Weaving by, 229.
Electrotyptug, 175. v
Envelopes, Manufacture of, 223.
" " Stamped, 742.
Esse,\ County, Mass., Agr. Reports of, 456.
Experiments in Fattening Cattle, 277,
Fairs and Humbugs, 632,
" of 1654, List of State, 53.
" their Benefits, &c., 321, 577, 649,
Fall River Company, 21,
Farmers' Sales and City Prices, 525.
Farming, Wasteful, 533.
" Another Specimen of, 282.
" in E. Tennessee, 065,
" Profits ol, 720.
" on Tar River, 391.
Fat Hogs, 479.
Fattening Cattle, Experiments in, 277.
Feed, Turnips as.
Fence, A Good Wire, 417, 499,
Fis, The, 88.
Fires, Best Position of, 491.
First Milk, is it poisonous? 142.
Fisher's Steam Carriage, 116.
Flax, Culture of, 151, 581.
" at the West, Culture of, 280.
" Manufacture, 584.
Food, The Best Sort of, 351
Forest Trees, 28, 200, 271.
France, Wine Trade of, 523, -
Franklin County Agr. Society, 37,
Fruit, Take Care of your, 604.
" Drying ot, 205,283.
" Trees in 1854, Flowering of, 4S3.
" " Mulching ol, 510.
" " Preservation of, 226.
" " Raising, 152.
Galls on Horses, 408.
Garden, Vegetable, 672,
'' Flower, 672.
Garget, Cure for, 119,
Uas Stove, New, 497,
'• in the N. A. States, 624,
Gin, A new Cotton, 730.
Glass, Manufacture of Plate, 494.
Glue for Plants, 469.
Golden or Basket Willow, S9.
Grand National Cattle Shi.w, 31, 144.
Granite and Sienite BuildingStones, 269.
Grape, Culture of the, 293, 738.
" " in Ohio, 34L
Grapes in December, 617.
'' in Kssex Couuiy, Mass., 400.
Grease or Scratches, 146.
Great Mechanical Feat, 106.
Greatest Grain Port in the World, 605.
Grouping of Koses, 537.
GuaiiO in the Cane Field, 143, 731
'' on Potatoes, 353.
G Wynne's Pumps, 303.
Harrow, Universal Flexion, 235.
Hazel Rods, 2(58.
Health, Robust, 651.
Heaves or Broken Wind, 352.
Hemp, Water Rotted, 22.
Hereditary Spavin, 433.
Hous, Peas & Sweet Potatoes for fattening, 731,
Hoof-Bound, 544,
Homography, 360.
Honey, Improvement of, 724.
Hops in Lamoille County, Vt., 345.
Horn Ail. 541.
Horse, The, 407, 408, 544, 592, 683,
" How lo judge a, 726.
" To stop a Runaway; 276,
Horse shoeing, 592.
Horses, Barbadoes Tar for, 542.
" New Mode of Breaking, 407.
Horticultural, 672, 734.
" Society, Cincinnati, 677. '
How much Lime do Soils need? 471.
How Railroads Increase Wealth, 335.
Hydraulic Rams, Strode's, 418.
Illinois Marble, 21.
Illumination under Water, 405.
Importance of Farm Registers and Accounts, 063.
Improved Stereoscopes, 008,
« Suffolk Swine, 140.
Improvement in Rolling Railroad Bars, 221.
" of Honey, 724.
Indian Corn, Important Crop, 595, C43, 644,
" " Culture of in New-Hampshire, 478.
" " The Staple of Ohio, 398.
Industry, Results of American, 70.
Influence of Agricultural Societies, 136.
" and Improvement of the Subsoil, 420,
" of Taste in Rural Homes, 660.
International Transportation and Travel, 059.
Iron, English and American, 297,
" Houses, 111, 498,
" Manufacture, Renton Process, 366.
" Smelting, Theory ot, 103,
" Trade oi Sweden and Norway, 517,
" Works, Crescent, 231.
" and Zinc, Manulacture of Slags, 362.
Italian Rye Grass, 484.
Japan Cedar, 736.
Kislichy, a Beverage, 713,
Labor in the South, Respectability of, 133.
Large Apples, 508.
Largest Mill in the World, 309, 427,
Laws of Health, 717.
Lawton Blackberry, 210.
Lime, its Uses, &c., 355, 471.
Linen, 729.
Lines of Railroads between the E. and W., 587,
Lists of Patents, 62, 125, 189, 253, 319, 383, 447,
511, 575, 039, 702, 759.
London, How Smoke is made in, 62S.
Long Island, Sandy Soils of, 4t-6. 529,
Louisville, Mechanic Arts at, S37.
Lowell Wire Fence, 499.
Machine for Making Chain Links, 567.
" for Chopping Brush, 569.
" for Cutting Metals, 294.
" Winnowing, 233.
Management of Fairs, 321, 532, 577, 649.
Manufacture of Envelopes, 228.
" '' for Government, 742.
of Flax, 5S4.
" of Plate Glass, 494.
Manufactures, Value of, 493.
Manures, Artificial, 401, 485.
" Adulteration of, 227.
" Mineral, 93.
" Nascent, 606.
" their Use, 223.
Marble, for Buildin.g, 193.
« Illinois, 21,
Maryland State Soc, Proposed Premiums, 214,
Mechanics' Exhibition, Portland, 292.
Mechanic Arts at Louisville, 337.
Mechanics, Progress of, 40,
Memphis, Enterprise, &c,, 836.
Meteorological, 688.
Index.
Metropolitan Mechanics' Iiis=titute, 421
Michigan, Population of, 489.
Microscopic Plants, 461.
Milch Cows, Succulent Food for, 315
Milk in Bread, 528.
Mineral Resources of Virginia and N. Care, 176,
Minnesota, Condition and Prospects of, 493.
Mines, Minerals, and Manufactures in East Ten-
nessee, 219.
Mississippi Planter, The, 203.
" an Agricultural State, 145.
Mulchin? Fruit Trees, Spent Tan and Sawdust
for, 530.
Music, New, 61, 251, 316, 574, 702.
Musical, 441.
Musquit Tree, The, 419.
Musquitoes, Anatomy and Propagation of, 409.
Nascent Manures, 660.
National Cattle Show. 144.
Natural Coke in Va., 90.
Nemophila, The, 076.
New Booksj^ei, 124, ISO, 254, 316, 381, 442,509,
New-England Horse Show, 289.
New Gas Stove, 497.
New Music, 61, 254, 316, 574, 702.
New Tree, 85.
Nitrogen, Origin of, 433.
Observations on the Drought in Lamoille County,
Vt., 177. '
Ohio, Agricultural Education in, 340.
" Corn the Staple of. 898.
" Grape Culture and Wine Manu. in, 341.
Orange, Culture of the, 610.
Origin of Nitrogen, 433.
Osage Orange, 673.
Pacific Railroad, 65, 72, 131, 324, 393.
Paints for Buildings, 236.
Patents, Lists of, 6i, 125, 189, 255, 319, 333, 447,
511,575.639,702,759.
Paulownia Imperialis, 209.
Peach Trees Killed by Cold, 676, 737, 740
" Rot, 358.
Pear Blight, 99.
Peat on Potatoes, 353.
Pelargonium, The Culture of, 673.
Photography, 5Gi.
Pie Plant, 39.
Piggery, Description of a, 47.
Pike County, Illinois, 37.
Planting in iMississippi, 104.
Plate Glass, Manufacture of, 494.
Ploughs, their Construction, &e.,414.
Ploughing, Amount of travel in, 071.
Plum Trees, C78, 735.
Plumbago Larpentre, The, 675.
Policy of Annual Fairs, &c., 321, 449, 532.
Pomological Congress, Third, 338.
Post Oak Glade Land, 606.
Potato Culture, The, 590, 594.
Potomac, Waier Power of the, 559.
Poudrette, Home Manufacture of, 403.
Practical Science of Candle Making, 018.
Preservation of Wheat in Tennessee, 103.
Principles of Agriculture, 716.
Principles of this Journal, 54.
Printing, The Art of, 40.
Products of French Colonics in Algiers, at Paris,
Profits of Farming, 720.
Pruning Trees at Transplanting, 273.
Pumps, Gary's, 45.
" Gwynnes, .363.
Quick Lime in High Furnaces, Employment of.
Rags,- A substitute for, 406.
Railroad Bars, Improvement in Rolling, 221.
" Fares in Virginia, 139.
" Routes to the Pacific, 131, 324.
Railroads, Inventor of, 110.
*' How they Increase Wealth, 335.
" Security on, 110.
" Western, 464.
Railways in Russia, 589.
Railways to the Pacific, 393.
Railway, Royal Danish, 465.
Raising Fruit Trees, 152.
Remedy for the Curculio, 97.
Repeal of the Duty on Coal, 470.
Results of American Industry, 70.
Rose, Culture of the, 535.
Roses, Grouping of, 537.
Root Crops, How to Raise, 29.
" Value of, 216, 531.
Rotation in Cotton Culture, 399.
Rumination, 342.
Ruta Baga, 234.
■Sal Ammoniac, Employment of in Steam Boilers,
173.
Sandy Soils, Cultivation of, 480, 529.
Science and the People, 42.
" in Agriculture, 385.
" in Blacksmithing, 359.
Sculpture and Sculptors, 50, 113.
Security on Railroads, 110.
Shaker Barn, The, .38.
Sheep and "Wool, 389, 458, 603.
Shoe Business, 112.
Shrubbery, 357.
Skinner, Biographical Notice of John S., 1.
Social Position of the Farmer and Mechanic, 207.
Solidified Milk, 285.
Southern Crops, Why not more productive ? 652.
" Progress, 213.
Spice Orchard, A, 55.
Spider, The, 601.
Spiral Turning in a Common Lathe, 298.
State Fairs for 1654, 119.
" Patronage of Agriculture, 453, G48, 649.
Statistics of Chicago, 30.
" of Sonoma, 199.
" of St. Louis, 129.
" Valuable, 326, 543.
Statues. IIow Made, 107.
Steam Boilers, Use of Sal Ammoniac to prevent
Incrustations in, 173.
Steam Carriages and their Enemies, 156.
" " Fisher's, 116.
'' Valve, Bloomer's Cylindrical, 502.
Stereoscopes, Mascher's, 6(18, 687.
Stereotyping, The Art of, 41.
Strength of Beams, 409, 500.
Subsoil, Influence and improvement of the, 420.
Substitute for Rags in Paper-making, 406.
Suflolk Swine, Improved, 140.
Suspenders, 723.
Swine, 457.
Taste in Rural Homes, 660.
Telegraph round the World, 620.
" Submarine, 622.
Texas, Agricultural Capacities of, 586.
Transplanting in Autumn, 277.
" Pruning Trees at, 273.
Transportation and Travel, International, 659.
Trees and Shrubs, newer Deciduous, 80.
Turnips, as Feed, 492.
Turpentine Convention, 462.
U. Stales Agricultural Society, 456, 567.
Valuable Statistics, 826, 543.
Vegetable Physiology, 257.
" Garden, 672.
Verbena, Pot Culture of, 281.
Virginia, Crops in, 396, 480.
Wasteful Farming, 533.
Water Power on the Potomac, 559.
" Rotted Hemp, 22.
Weaving by Electricity, 229.
Welch Anhydrous Cement, 558.
Western Railroads, 464.
Wheat, 150.
Wheat in Tennessee, Preservation of, 103.
" The Neplus Ultra, 421.
White Golden Fhnt Wheat, 566.
Willimantic, Ct., and its Factories, 82.
Wine Trade of France, 523.
AVinuowing Machine, 233.
Wire Fence, New, 417, 499.
Wool, What Food Will produce most, 728.
VI.
Index.
mDEX TO MISCELLANY, EDITORS' JOTTINGS & MECHANICAL RECORD.
Agriculture in France, 634.
Algeria, Productions of, 432.
Americaa Wire, 60.
Anastatic Printing, 507.
Anoesthetic Agent, A New, 635,
Apples for Market, 429.
Arkansas, Progress in, 636.
Attaching Car Wheels to Axles, 57.
Baby Shows, 182, 482.
Bending Ship Timber, 634.
Black-Knot, Remedy for, 428.
Brass a Dull Black Color, To gire, 504.
Breckenridge and Cannel Coal Co., 253.
Breeding Ewes, Winter Feed foi-, 429.
Brown or Red Sandstone, 433.
Butter Sale, 245.
Bridge, An immense, 57.
Brilliant White -wash, 58.
Camden and Amboy Railroad, ISO.
Car Shops, 431.
Cashmere Shawls, 59.
Caulkins, John &., his Umbrellas, &c., 753,
Clock Manufiictory, Jerome's, 246.
Clothing Business in Boston, 123.
Coal in Indiana, 309.
" Mines in Tennessee, 571.
" Trade, 506.
Composition of Eggs, 430.
Concord Grape. 253.
Connecticut Wine, 253,
Copper in Tennessee, 432,
Corn Planters, 57.
Cotton Manufactories at the South-West, 123.
" Plaster and Guano for, 370.
Creeping Things, 121.
Crops in England and Ireland, 253.
Curculio, Fencing out the, 56.
Curious English Statistics, 252.
Deformed Roots, 571.
Dickens' Household Words, 372.
Drawbridge Signal.'lSO.
Durham Cattle, 570.
Earthquakes and Electricity, 670.
Eggs, Composition of, 430.
Embossing Telegraph, 503.
Employment for the Poor, 503.
Engines of the French ship Brandon, 250.
Engraving on Glas.s, 251.
Enlarging Vegetables, 428.
Ericsson's Trial Trip, The, 756,
Fair in Providence, 251.
Fairs, Management of, 430.
Fall River Route to Boston, 170, 433.
Pat Turkeys, 372.
Fencing out the Curculio, 56.
Fireflies, 633.
Fish, Growing, 370.
Fitchburg, Mass., 122,
Flax Thread, 687.
Flowers and Fruit, How to Keep, 252,
Fruit Trees Injured by Cold, 635,
Gas Coal, Preston, Va., 433.
Gas Lime as a Manure, 569.
Gas Tar in Horticulture, 369.
Georgia Marble, 699.
Gigantic Boring Machine, 57.
Glass Globes Unsuitable for Fish, 250.
Gold in S. Carolina, 120.
" in Virginia, 571.
Granaries, 429.
Grease tor Carriage Wheels, 571.
Great Bell of Vienna, 60.
Great Harvesting Machine, 301.
Greatest Steamer in the World, 249,
Guano and Plaster for Cotton, 370,
" for Sugar Cane, 369.
" what our Country pays for, 1S4.
Gutta Percha, New Treatment of, 507.
Hair and Feathers, 121.
Harlem Railroad, 180.
Hurd's Hair Restorer, 099.
Illinois, Minerals in, 570.
Important Discovery,' 300.
Improved Pianos, M. Alexander's, 181.
Interesting Presentation, 59.
Internal Improvement Convention at Norfolk, 249.
Iron and Steel, Maufacture of, 248, 506, 570,
" Trade, Yorkshire, 505.
Ironing, New Contrivance for, 250, 253.
Kaoleri, 253
Lawrence, Pacific Mill at, 369.
Lawton Blackberry, 087.
Lewis House, Binghampton, 087.
Light in Dyeing, 181.
Lightning Conductors, 433.
" Speed of, 60. ,
Lime Light bv Decompositson of Water, 503.
Liquid Glue, 250.
Live Stock Agency, Clement's 181.
Locomotion by Vacuum and Compression, 504.
Locomotives for High Grudes, 120.
Machinery in Farming, 247.
Marble, Silexian, 368.
" Testing, 185.
" Verd Antique, 308.
" Vermont, 371.
Mast, The, 301.
Mathematician, A Wonderful, 252.
ftleteorgraph, 61.
Minerals in Illinois, 570.
" in Tennessee, 181.
Monument and Fund Movement, 56, 753.
Mowing Machine, New, 185,
Mule Trade of Bourbon Co., Ky,, 2.51.
Musical Congress, Crystal Palace, 56.
" Grisi and Mario, 245, 441.
Musquitoes, 371.
Natural Printing Process, 58.
Needles, Manufacture of, 036.
New-England Enterprise, Warren, Mass., 429,
North Western Pomological Convention. 186.
Oakford's Hats, Philadelphia, Charles, 123.
Oblique Railroad Wheel", 183.
Orange Water Melon, 569.
Organ at Tremont Temple, Boston, 246.
Ozier Willow, 699.
Pacific Mill at Lawrence, 369, 427.
Panam;i Railroad, Opening of, 635.
Patent, A Wonderful, 252.
Peach, Hampton's, 247.
Peat for Fuel, 252.
Pennsylvania Railroad Tunnel, 181.
Perpetual Motion, 251.
Photography, Wax-paper Process, 367.
Piano Fortes, Hallet, Davis, & Co., ISO.
"• M. Alexander, 181,
" Premium, 635.
*' Woodward & Brown, 185, 253,
Pig, A Puzzled, 633.
Pittsburgh, Iron Foundries at, 248.
Plaster and Guano for Cotton, 370.
Polished Shirt Bosoms, 504.
Portable Screwing Tackle, 504.
Preservation of Meat, Flowers, and Fruits, 252
433, 508.
Printing Press, Stephen Brown's, 370.
Printing Press, Wilkinson's, 370.
Protection to Bank Notes, 129.
Index.
vii-
Protecting Hay Stacks, 122.
Puddling Iron, Improvements in, 570.
Purifying Gas, 251.
Quilting Frame, A new, CO.
Railroad Brake, 120.
" Camden and Amboy, 180.
" Harlem, 180.
" New-York and Erie, 179,
" Panama, 635.
" Phil., Wil., and Bait., 180.
" Reading, 59.
" speed, '252.
Rereads to Farmers, Benefits of, 634.
" in Maine, 756.
« in Ohio, 430.
Reciprocity Treaty, 248.
Remedy for the Black Knot, 428.
Running Gear for Carriage Wheels, 56.
School Furniture, 124.
Science turned peevish, 250,
Sea Monster, 300.
Secret Dispatches, 122.
Ship Building, 431.
Silexian Marble, 368.
Silk Worm, New Species, 430.
Sizes of Shoes, 571.
Skinner, J. S., Monument to, and Fund, 753.
Slag for Fictile Purposes, 504.
Sound of Bells, 123.
Speed of Lightning, 60.
Statistics of Trade, 248.
Steam Gun in England, 570,
Stove, Dining Room, 745.
Strawberries, Culture of, 183.
Strever's Double Acting Force Pumps, 179.
Sugar Trade of U. S., 756.
Telegraph Apparatus, 122.
" Embossing, 503.
Tennessee Copper, 432.
TerreU, Dr. Wm., 253.
Testing Marbles, 185.
Thermotypy, Impression by Heat, 36^.
Tomato Figs, 301
Tubular Iron Bridge, 59. 596 ,
Vegetable Mechanics, 121.
Verd Antique Marble, 368,
Vermin, How to rid Plants and Animals of, 186.
Vermont Machinery for England, 371.
" Marble, .^71, 432,
Victoria Bridge, 183.
Ware, Mass., Industry of, 758.
Warm Feed, 636.
Warren, Mass., 429.
Water in Blasting Operations, 249.
Weights of Grain, 429.
West Lincoln Agr. and Hort. See-, Maine, 60.
Wisconsin Harvest, 123.
Why do Teeth Decay, 699.
Vlll.
Index.
INDEX TO AMERICAN PATENTS.
Ames's Polygraph, or Duplicate Writing Machine,
692.
Brush for Washing Bottles, 241.
Calcium Light, 374.
Carts, Self-loading and dumping, 748.
Cultivator, Rol)inson's Hand, 746.
Cutting Wood Screws, 373.
Fast VVood Screw Machine, 302.
Gas Heating Apparatus, 374.
Horse Shoes, Improvement in, 747.
Improved Lathe, 243.
" Process in treatment of Paint, 243.
" Burfjlar's Alarm, 244.
" Method of turning Casks from solid
Pieces, 244.
" Arrangement for Lathe Chuck, 627,
« Bevelling Plane, 304.
" Calipers, 308.
" Carriage Axle, 308.
" Douhle Acting Force Pump, 307.
" Machine for Uniting Plates of Metal of
unequal thickness, 623.
" Printing Press, 373.
" Sawing Machine,. 375, 690.
" Bucket for Chain-Pumps, 689,
" Tires for Carriage Wheels, 626.
" mode of constructing Iron Build'gs, 750.
" " of securing Hubs to Axles, 752.
" arrangement of means for working and
stopping Chain ('ahles, 752.
ImprOTBinent in Combing Cotton or other Fibrous
Material, 303, 624.
" in C rdage Machinery, 304.
" in Preparation of Collodion for Pho-
tographic Pictures, 304,
" in Ornamenting Metallic Buttons,
304.
" in Folding and Measuring Cloth,305.
" in Padlocks, 306.
" in Furnaces of Steam Boilers, 306.
" in Gas and Liquid Regulators, 306.
" in Bank Locks, 307.
" in Gas Burners, 307.
" inManufactureofVVooden Buttons,
307.
•' in Machines for Cutting Brads, 308.
" in the Preparation of Archil, 308.
" in Self-Acling Mules for Spinning,
375.
" in Machines for Pegging Boots and
Shoes, 375.
" in Fire Arms, 624, 628, 749.
Improvement in Tubular Bridges. 625.
" in Cotton Presses, 625.
" in Manufacturing Pigments from
Iron Ore, 625.
" in Pvadiators, 626.
" in Air Heating Stoves, 626.
" in Compositions for Bleaching and
Stuffing Leather, 627.
« in Working Lime Vats in Tanneries,
627.
" in Sola Bedsteads, 628.
" in Railroad Car Windows, 628.
" in Steam Generators, 242.
" in Feathering Paddle Wheels, 242,
" in Seed Planters, 242,
" in Carriages, 243.
" in Harvesters, 243.
" in Paint Composition, 243.
" in Weaving Double Cloth, 243,
" in Vehicles, 747.
" in Horse Shoes, 747.
" in Machine for sticking Card Teeth,
748.
" in Machines for Moulding Crackers,
750.
" in Lasting Instruments, 750.
" in Machines for graduating Carpen-
ters' Squares, 751.
'•' in Polishing Wheels, 751,
" in Warping and Dressing Yarn, 751.
" in Buggies, 752.
" in Machines for turning Irregular
Forms, 752.
Iron Buildings, Improved mode of constructing,
750.
Interesting to Bricklayers and Builders.
Irresistible Horse-Bit, 627.
Lubricating Material, 625.
Machine for Cleaning and Watering Slreets,241,
Mettiod of Coating Iron with Brass or Copper,
626.
Morris's Improved Buckets for Chain Pumps, 689,
Oil Socket and Screw Plug, 695.
Prince's Protean Fountain Pen, 695.
Process of Engraving or Painting on G'ass, 808,
372.
Self-loading and dumping Carts, 748.
Sewing Machine, Robinson's, 690.
Vehicles, Improvement in, 747.
Victoria Bridge, Montreal. 752.
Water Pressure Engines, 754.
INDEX TO ENGLISH PATENTS,
Application of Gluten to Bread and other Articlcg
of Food, 434.
Bleaching and Scouring, 238.
Boiling OiU in a Vacuum, 311.
Castings of Malleable Iron, 313.
Direct Action Oscillating Engines, 377.
Dock Railway, Liverpool, 436.
Double Acting Threshing Machine, 309,
Effect of Light on the Compass, 437.
Files, Rasps, and Edge Tools, 239.
Fire Place, Dr. Arnott's, 309.
Foundations nf Houses, 379.
Grain Mills, 379.
Imitation Leather, 311.
Improved Steam Piston, Ramsbottom's,210.
" Wheels and Axles, 237.
Ingram's Cast Steel Rifle-barrels and Bullet-
Moulds, 695.
Irish Flax Production, 309.
Journal Bearings, 435.
Lappet Loom, 440.
Life Size Sun Portraits, 311,
Manufacture of Caoutchouc, 635.
" of Iron and Steel, 239.
«' of Ornamental Fabrics, 238, 240.
Mining Engines and Machinery, 439.
New Build of Steamer, 310.
New Mordant in Dyeing, 436.
Ornamental Fabrics, 238, 240.
Ornamentation of Pottery and Glass, 623.
Patent Hydrostatic Cranes, 438.
Pendulum Test of the Earth's Mass, 632.
Preparing Skins for Tanning, 311.
Preservation of Iron by Stauno plumbatiug, 630.
Printing Surfaces, 378.
Pvailway Wheels, 313.
' " and Alarm Signals, 379.
Renewing the Teeth of Files, 813.
Revolver Fire Arms, 573.
Rocket Bullet, 753.
Safety Apparatus for Steam Boilers, 237.
Safely Floating Dress, 314.
Self Air-Heating Blast Furnace, 376.
Steam Boiler Apparatus, 441.
Steam Engines and Boilers for Screw Propellers,
376.
Thermography, 311.
Thistle Paper, 698.
Twin Dredger of 30 Horse Power, 437.
Ventilating Case for Mill-Stones, 240.
Wood-VVookiug Machinery, Slater & Tails', 696
^/00<f
\ \\)t %u% anil ti)f Jlituil.
Vol. VII. JANUARY, 1855. No. 7.
SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE. •
In our November number, we gave a full account of the arguments, on
one side and the other, -which are derived solely from experiments, on the
question, " Whence do plants derive their nitrogen ?" And v/e have repeatedly
given it as our opinion that, if the ground is in a proper condition, every
plant will find this element without difficulty. We can not doubt this, and
would by no means therefore commend the heavy outlays of millions of
dollars annually, in this country, to obtain what the atmosphere, and rains,
and brooks contain in abundant quantities, and readily supply without cost.
But this is by no means the only department of agricultural science on which
there is a diversity of opinion. The number of unquestionable facts, touching
the cultivation of the soil, is exceedingly limited.
Thus, it is one of our "received" doctrines that the soil must contain what
the plant requires, and yet if the nitrogen of the plant is furnished from the
air and from water, this is, at least, one exception. Another element is, no
doubt, supplied from other sources, to wit : the carbon. From the state-
ments presently cited, as well as from other sources, we may conclusively
draw the inference, that the soil itself can not furnish the am.ount of carbon
contained in the growing plant. Hence the statement of this general principle
should be modified so far as to say that of the inorganic elements, the soil is
the only known reservoir.
We ought perhaps to add, in this connection, for the sake of avoiding
apparent inconsistencies between these statements, and those made by us
elsewhere, that the conditions belonging to a " fertile soil" are, undoubleJIy,
required for the most productive crops. The only question is, Why such con-
ditions are required ? For it is also true that, while the most successful culti-
vation peremptorily requires the presence of all these conditions, it still does
not necessarily follow that the soil itself conveys, from its own substance into
the plant, a single one of its elements. Such an inference would no more
be logical than to infer from the fact that some persons can sleep best on a
bed of down, that the down furnishes and cor. iiiiimicattis substantial elements
from its own material, in the producti&c. cf sleep. Because any given phy-
sical arrangements are of great utility, or even absolutely essential in furnish-
ing facilities for certain operations, it does not necessarily follow that those
arrangements are themselves immediately efficient in performing these opera-
tions. They may be merely the staging, by the aid of which other materials
are combined into an organized structure.
But we do not purpose to extend this discussion here, but lay out the
ground and partially illustrate the present condition of agricultural science,
by the passages already referred to, from a very learned German writer.
VOL. VIL 25
386 SCIENCE IN AGRICULTUHE.
^*'The goodness of the soil," he says, "depends upon its inorganic con-
stituents— so far at least as they are soluble in water, or throuffhconliaued
action of carbonic acid ; and the more abundant and various these solutions,
the more fruitful is the ground." Arguing from this view, it is not richness
of soil or humus that produces the multiplied varieties of alpine plants in
Germany, or the absence of it that produces but few. " Soluble mineral con-
stituents" are shown to be the characteristic of our cultivated field ; and "an
agricultural plant" is defined as one "distinguished from wild individuals of
the same species, by peculiar qualities, which constitute its fitness in culture,
and which depend upon a modification of chemical action." The amazing
jield of Indian corn in Mexico — from two hundred to six hundred fold — is
something which, with all our skill, we can not accomplish, and is a fact in
favor of the argument, "that in no case do the organic substances contained
in tlje ground perform any direct part of the nutrition of plants." The annual
destruction of organic matter all over the earth is estimated at 145 billions
of pounds, equal to 2^ billions of cubic feet ; and if all vegetation depends on
organic matter for nutrition to satisfy this consumption, " there must have
been, five thousand years back, ten feet deep of pure organic substance on its
surface." Another illustration is furnished by taking the number of cattle
and other animals in France in a given year, (1844,) and observing the amount
of food they consume. The process of nutrition would require '70,789,000,000
pounds of organic matter — six times more than the whole number contribute
of organic matter toward the reproduction; and in 100 years "the whole
organic material of the country would be consumed !"
^ Again, look at a farm. How much more is carried ofi:' from it than it
gives back again ; generally the amount of its yield is three times greater
than that of the organic matter it receives : while of the manure applied, the
greater part is not taken up, but imperceptibly decomposed. Carbon is the
most important of the constituents of plants. An acre of sugar plantation
produces 7500 pounds of cane, of which 1200 pounds are carbon; and yet
sugar plantations are rarely manured, and then only with the ashes of the
burnt canes. With bananas, the result is still more striking; the yield is
98,000 pounds of fruit in a year from a single acre; and of this 'l 7,000
pounds, more than a fifth, is carbon ; and the same acre will give the same
return, year after year, for twenty or thirty years ; and the ground at the
end of that time will be richer than at the commencement, from nothing
more than the decay of the leaves of the plant. Here in Europe, too, the
•difference in weight and in carbon between the seed and the produce has
often been noted: in wheat, 89 per cent; in red clovei; 158 per cent; in
peas, 361 per cent. These facts afford evidence of a sujiply of carbon derived
from other sources than those commonly supposed to exist ; and while we
know that seeds will germinate and become vigorous plants in pure quartzose
sand, or in cotton wool, or on a board, we seem to have proof that the chief
source of supply is the atmosphere. This is an interesting point, which
further research will verify. Schleiken shows the process to be eminently
simple. He says in his work : According to Link, Schwartz, and others, an
acre of water meadow contains 4400 pounds of hay; which, when dry, con-
tains 4f per cent of carbon. The hay then yields 1000 pounds of carbon,
to which 1000 pounds may be added in the portion of the year in which the
grass is not cut, and the roots. To produce these 8000 pounds of carbon,
10,980 pounds of carbonic acid are requisite, which may be raised to 12,000
|)0unds to compensate for the uightly expiration. Now Scliubier has shown
SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE. 387
that an acre of so wretched a grass as Poa annua, exhaled in 120 days of
active vegetatiou, 6,000,000 pounds of water. To supply the exie'encies
of the plants, therefore, it is only necessary for the meadow to imbibe 3^,
grains of carbonic acid with every pound of water.
Mr. Lawes has found also, in a plant of any one of our ordinarj' crops,
more than 200 grains of water mast pass through it for a single grain of
solid substance to accumulate within it. He states that au evaporation from
an acre of wheat during the period of its growth, to be 114,800 o-allons, or
73,510,000 gallons per square mile. Wi'th clover it is rather more; with
peas and barley less. When we apply these calculations to a county or a
kingdom, we are lost in the magnitude of the processes by which nature
works, but we see the more clearly that on such a scale the quantity of
material supplied by the air, though minute to the individual, becomes vastiu
the aggregate. We, see moreover, the necessity of understanding the rela-
tions between the evaporation and rate of growth, and the laws and effects of
absorption in soils. A thousand pounds of dry calcareous sand will gain two
pounds in weight in twelve hours, when the air is moist, while pure agricul-
tural clay will gain thirty-six pounds.
The source of nitrogen comes next to be considered ; and this also is seen ic)
be independent of manures. Hereupon it is observed, that " our domestic
plants do not require a greater supply than in a state of nature. A water
meadow which has never received any dung, yields from forty to fifty pounds
of nitrogen, while the best ploughed land yields only about thirty-one pounds.
The plants for Avhich must dung is used, as potatoes and turnips, are in fact
proportionally the poorest in nitrogen." That there is a supply independent
of the soil is further seen in the millions of hides furnished every year by the
cattle of the Pampas, without any diminution of produce; and in the "great
quantity of nitrogenous matters, hay, butter, and cheese, carried oft" from
pasture land, far more than is returned by the animals fed thereon. Exoeri-
ments with various kinds of plants, on various soils, have satisfactorily
demonstrated that increase of nitrogen in the land and in the crop, does take
place quite irrespective of supplies of manure.
With respect to ammonia, " it appears that one thirteenth of a grain in
every pound of water is sufficient for the exigencies of vegetation, and there
is perhaps no spring water in the universe which contains so little." Then
as to sul[)hur and phosphorus, which are also among the constituents of
plants, the quantity needed in proportion to the time of vegetation is so
small, that one 51-0,000th of a grain of sulphuretted hydrogen per cubic foot,
diffused through the atmosphere to a height of 3000 feet is all that is
required. The consideration that cereals would soon disappear from the
north of Europe, if not cultivated, and perhaps from nearly the whole of this
quarter of the globe, adds weight to the arguments in favor of enligiitencd
attention to the inorganic constituents of plants. The point is to bnn,(»- the
soil into harmony with the conditions by which growth may best be pro-
moted. Much depends on the nature of the soil ; the darkest colored lands are
generally the highest in temperature, hence the advantage of vegetable mould,
while deep light sands and clay, which turn almost to stone in dry weather,
weary and vex the cultivator by their unprofitableness. It is to be remembered^
however, that soils which have the highest temperatures of their own, may not
be those most susceptible of receiving heat— that is, from the sun, because
some lands are warmed by the springs that irrigate them. Here we have
an explanation of the phenomena of certain soils, which are warm in winter
ARCHITECTURE.
and cool in summer. The application of humus evolves heat by the process
of coiubu^tion, and sand, lime, clay, and humus are the combinations needed,
the clay being in a proportion of forty to fifty per cent ; if less than ten per
cent, the land will ba too light and poor.
ARCHITECTURE.
In a former number, in illustrating the social influence of architecture, we
referred to the change of the hearthstone for the close stove, or the register,
and the briglit and cheerful fire for the distant and invisil)le furnace. IIow
great is that change ! It removes one of the elements which had an import-
ant influence in binding families together, in past generations, and it brings
in its stead — nothing. We can ill aftbrd to lose so important a check
upon the wayward tendencies of youth. It makes home far less attractive.
This is one point in whicb we have lost much. There are others in
which we neglect our opportunity to gain much. We quote from Ruskin :
" Have not these words, pinnacle, turret, belfry, spire, tower, a pleasant sound
in all your ears ? I do not speak of your scenery, I do not ask you how
much you feel that it owes to the gray battlements that frown through the
woods of Craig Millar, to the pointed turrets that flank the front of Holy-
rood, or to the massy keeps of your Ciichtoun and Bosthwick, and other
border towers. But look merely through your poetry and your romances ;
take away out of your ballads the word tower wherever it occurs, and the
ideas connected with it, and what will become of the ballad? See how Sir
Walter Scott can not even get through a description of Highland scenery
without help from the idea :
'Each purple peak, each flinty spire,
Was bathed in floods of living fire."
Take away from Scott's romances the word or idea turret, and see how much
you would lose. Suppose, for instance, when young Osbaldistone is leaving
Osbaldistone Hall, instead of saying ' The old clock struck two from a turret
adjoining my bed-chamber,' he had said, ' The old clock struck two from the
landing at the top of the stairs,' what would become of the passage ? and
can you really suppose that what has so much power over, you in words has
no power over you in reality ? Do you think there is any group of words
which would thus interest you, when the things expressed by them are unin-
teresting? For instance, you know that for an immense time back, all your
public buildings have been built with a row of pillars supporting a triangu-
lar thing called a pediment. You see this form every day in your banks,
and club-houses, and. churches, and chapels; you are told it is the perfection
of architectural beauty, and yet suppose Sir Walter Scott, instead of writing
' Each purple peak, each flinty spire,' had written ' Each purple peak, each
flinty pediment,' would you have thought the poem improved ? And if not,
why would it be spoiled ? Simply because the idea is no longer of any value
to you ; the thing spoken of is a nonentity.
These pediments, or stylobates and architraves, never excited a single
pleasurable feeling in you — never will to the end of time. They are ever-
more dead, hfeloss, and useless, in art as in poetry, and though you built as
ARCHITECTURE. 389
many of them as there are slates on your house-roofs, you will never care for
them."
It may be said that all this is poetry. Granted, if you please, only acknow-
ledge that it is reality. If it is poetry, it is something we can ill afford to
lose. Our developments of cold, business, acquisitive, delving, debasing ten-
dencies are monstrous. If we let go what little there is of poetical, imagi-
native, devotional, in us, we shall be monsters indeed.
What ends are to be gained by architectural structures ? Why build any
houses or churches? The first answer is, for utihty and comfort; we need
protection from the elements, whether by night or by day. But these
objects will be equally well secured by much cheaper structures than are
built even in our economical times. This end is not obtained by means of
architraves or pediments, pilasters or porticoes. An open shed is even a better
defense than a handsome balcony, and many a barn is a better protection
against cold than some much more costly arrangements. We know of
nothing more comfortable in a cold day — it is one of our boyish reminis-
cences—than a nice, sweet " hay-mow." " Yes, but we also want the c^^ur-
tesics and refinements of cultivated life." We admit it, and contend that
few things have a more decided influence in this respect than tasteful archi-
tecture. Why do you buy a mahijgany or rose-wood bedstead ? Would
not pine do just as well? Polishing and painting can not secure a good
night's sleep. No, but that gentleness, that kindness, that love of all things
beantifal and true, which is prompted by tasteful designs, carved out and
combined gracefully and truthfidly, are points of incalculable importance in
the formation of the character of the young and also of the old. The man-
ners of the roughest clown will be somewhat subdued as soon as he enters
the threshold, erected and furnished by a refined taste.
There are certain things very trivial in some respects, which show in bold
relief the truth of the doctrine we infurce. We refer to those barbarous
designs — designs barbarous in their origin, at any rate — which represent
soTue little image of gold or bronze, which is so often seen holding up the
bowl of a large lamp, or the branches of a candelabrum or of a gas-burner.
What child has not remarked upon the fatigue which such a little baby-boy
must inevitably suffer? How different the effect, if this same sculptured
little boy were only climbing up after a branch of grapes, or some other
delicious fruit ? We referred, some months since, to a very elegant church
in this city, on the Fifth avenue, in which the entire weight of the ceiling rests
on human heads. Was any thing ever more absurd? AVhat if the idea is
copied from an old master of the fifteenth century ? It proves that, great as
he was, he could blunder; — that the feat has not yet been witnessed, of an
architect who has risen by his own genius, perfect in all his proportions, out
of the depths of the dark ages. That he has exhibited so few such weak-
nesses, is one of the greatest of wonders. And modern times show too often
how much easier it is to copy errors than to copy truths. We remember
another similar remnant of those same dark ages. In the beautiful chapel of
the New-York University, you may see, high up on the walls, some chubby
little fellov.'s, secured in their places by having their limbs below the knees,
(the knees being bent at right angles,) set into the solid wall. As we have
listened to some eloquent lecturer in the desk, and our eyes have strayed
upward to those chiseled forms, we have felt sincere pity for them, and have
wondered why they were doomed to so painful "a posture. Besides, if the
strength of their knees should fail them, they would swing as on a hinge, and
dash their breasts and faces against the wall below, to the ruin not onl\- of
390
AKCHITECTURE.
tbis over- tasked joint, but of their whole persons. Scholars should be more
humane.
We are now prepared for a further reply to the question, "What ends are
to be trained by architectural structures?" and we say, secondly, to open the
■way for the grac^^s and amenities of re6aed society. Whoever admits this,
will hold no controversy with us. If any one should be disposed to deny
this, we are at a loss to know on what ground he would favor the customs
universally prevalent, to a greater or less extent, in civilized communities.
Such a man would be contented with a country where the groves and woods
were formed in light lines and rectangles, after the fashion of a diagram
given in a former number, and which we here repeat for his especial benefit.
And can any one tell lis why living matter should always — always, exhibit
some form of the pointed or arched style, any more than dead forms 1 Yes ;
convenience. It would be inconvenient, sometimes, to carry out thoroughly
this feature, so universal in God's arcliitecture ; and this is the only excep-
tion that is admissible. It is not proper that utility should be sacrificed to
appearances. Wherever the law of necessity docs not command a different
course, let not the law of good taste be violated. In the whole universe of
nature there can not be found a specimen of rectangular architecture. The
sun, and moon, and stars, are bounded by arched walls. The constellations
are grouped in various forms, so that when variously connected, at pleasure,
they will present an indefinite variety of figpres; and yet, it would be diffi-
cult to find any four prominent stars that, when grouped, would make a
perfect rectangular figure. We do not allude to this as a fact of .very grave
authority on ihe subject before us, but only to show that this style is pecu-
liarly a device of our own invention, and therefore very likely to be inferior,
in some essential particular, to the devices of Him who is of infinite wisdom
and of perfect truth.
Who would not as soon have devised square plates, and square and cubic
forms for a tea service, as square windows ? But we need not dwell further
on this point. There are greater evils to contend against. Our architecture
is scarcely more than a bap-hazard mixture of many crudities and meannesses.
We shall endeavor hereafter to bring some of them to the light, that they
FARMING ON' TAR EIVER. 891
may be destroyed. But we would endeavor to have some correct principle
to stand upon, ere we undertake any important step in the progress of the
science, that, if need be, we may safely retrace our steps and secure a right
direction.
FARMING- ON TAR RIYER.
Mr. Editor : Facts are sometimes stubborn things, and some men are stub-
born farmers, and cultivate stubborn soils, and complain of their Maker,
because he does not send genial showers and favorable seasons, and make
them good crops.
Who is to blame, the soil or the farmers ? No one but those stubborn
and self-conceited farmers, who will not read and learn, because, forsooth,
no one can teach them any thing about their avocation !
Now, I have contended for years, that any planter tolerably well situated
for the purpose, on the ordinary up-lands of the oldest settled portions of the
South, can make more ma.nure and manure more land in a, year, than he
can clear and take into cultivation from the forest, and the manured land will
make more corn and cotton, one year with another, than the cleared land.
There is no doubt about this, and 1 can produce many witnesses to prove it.
But let one suffice, iu this instance, and speak for himself from Tar Eii/er.
I quote an extraot from Mr. John S. Daucy's letter published in the Far-
mers^ Journal, at Kaleigh, for July.
He says, " I give you an account of our preparations for the crop of '54.
In the first place, our laboring force on Panola consists of 34 horses, of
various sizes, ages and qualifications ; 20 head of mules, and 3 yoke of oxen.
During the year 1853, we had two wagons constantly employed in hauling
up materials for manure making, besides taking advantage of every day,
(when the condition of the growing crop would justify it,) to make compost
with our entire force. The interval between laying by the crop, and the
beginning of the fodder-pulling and cotton-picking season, (usually from two
to three weeks,) was busily devoted to the making of compost and filling up
our cattle and hog lots.
After housing our crops of corn, cotton, and peas, which we last fall com-
pleted by the 10th December, we again set to work, composting cottuu-seed,
and ditch bank, stable manure and low-ground soil, and hauling again into
the cattle and hog lots. This was kept up (with an occasional hindrance in
packing cotton) by nearly all hands and teams, till we commenced plough-
ing, about the middle of January, with six double teams, using the Maryland
or Patuxent plough, procured from Sinclair & Co., Baltimore.
After the ploughing season began, the remainder of our hands and teams
continued to make manure in the difierent way-s I have mentioned, till the
28th February, when we commenced the troublesome and laborious job of
hauling out what we had collected during the twelve months past. We
finished the work of hauling out on the 25th April, being near two months
engaged at it, and according to our plan of manuring, one load for every
twenty feet square, or 110 loads to the acre, we hauled out compost enough
to put on 350 acres of land, or over 35,000 loads, (one-horse cart-loads, five
bushels to the load.)
Beside this, we applied twelve tons of Peruvian guano to cot'on, corn,
392 FARMING ON TAR RIVER.
and oats. Some of the compost previously mentioned, had two hundred
pounds of guano mixed in each acre-heap, so that, altogether, we have
manured over 400 acres of land for the crop of 1854, at the rate of 110 loads
to the acre.
Our crop consists of 220 acres of cotton, all manured; 225 in corn, 150
of it manured ; 30 in oats, and 8 in sweet potatoes, manured. The cotton
crop to date looks promising, (the weather at this time is, however, very
unfavorable for the cotton plant, and a few days of it will alter the appear-
ance of things.) The corn crop is backward and indifferent, and presents an
irregular appearance, owing to the cold snaps the latter part of April, when
much of it had to be ploughed up and replanted.
Having detailed to you clearly, I hope, our pre2Mrations^ I will now tell
you our calculations, and when the crops are gathered, I will give you and
your readers the results, so that you may see how far I miss the mark.
YoM must bear in mind that this is our third crop on Panola, and the process
of making poor land fertile is the work of years, long years. The land we
have now in cultivation, when we took charge of the farm in .January, 1852,
would have made, in my opinion, without manure, not exceeding 400 pounds
of seed-cotton, or two barrels of corn per acre. Our calculation this year is
to make 900 or 1000 pounds to the acre of cotton, and four barrels of cor?7.
if an average season prevails.
I will try and recollect to prepare for your January number, the resuli-,
of our operations for 1854."
Here are four hundred acres of land manured in one year, and a ciop
made beside. j!^ow, how long would it require to clear 400 acres of such
land as he cultivates, and put it in the condition to make the crop he calcu-
lates on ?
2Iore than one year, and after it is brought to the highest state of cultiva-
tion, the virgin soil would not produce exceeding 500 pounds of seed-cotton,
and 20 bushels of corn, per acre. And after a few years of cropping, it
would not produce near that amount, without manure. Here, then, is an
illustration of the benefits of manuring that can not be disputed ; and I could
name many men in Edgecomb, who have brought about similar results by
manuring.
I have seen a great many manure heaps, in my travels in the new and old
world, but I never saw manure piles until I saw them in North-Carolina;
and what did these piles do ? They made old barren pine-fields, turned out
as worthless, produce 20 bushels of corn, and 1200 pounds of cotton per
acre. When I first saw those fields, I could scarcely believe my senses, and
recognize them. I looked at the land and then at the cotton. The land
looked as poor as ever, but the cotton looked like our black lime-land cotton,
branching from the ground, spreading far and wide, and as full of bolls as
persimmon trees, that matured early and opened well.
By the side of this cotton, now and then, 1 could recognize an old friend,
a sap-wccd, growing like a pine tree, all body and no limbs, and but little
fruif, and that little maturing late, and much of it killed by frost. How is
this, I asked ? I was told the good cotton had manure in the drill, and the
sorry cotton had none. Before the discovery of shell-marl there, a few years
since, and the commencement of the manuring system, many of the Edge-
comb lands were lying idle, and but a little cotton cultivated. Cotton cul-
ture was abandoned in a manner, because the lands and climate were not
considered adapted to its production ; but they have discovered that manure
adapts both the land and climate to its culture, and Tar River and Pedee
RAILWAY TO THE PACIFIC. 893
are beating many of the cotton lands of Georgia and Alabama for making
cotton. They have this advantage over lis — no boll-worms or caterpillers to
destroy their cotton.
A little manure, I venture to say, would change the production of many
of our soils, and make our old fields here snowy with cotton. Try it, stub-
born farmers f T. N. SORSBT.
Forkland, Ala., 1854.
— From Soil of the Soutli.
RAILWAY TO THE PACIFIC.
It is certain that such a road will be built — the only questions involving
much uncertainty regarding tlie time and the route. It is in respect to the
latter that we make a few suggestions.
With a given and limited amount of business, length of route is an obstacle
to an undertaking, of most imposing magnitude. But where the length of
the road is onh' proportioned to the amount of business, length is not an evil
but a help. A long road Avith large business, is better property than a short
one with little business. Tbe expenses of conducting a road of fifty miles are
much larger per mile, than those of a road of five hundred.
Routes on the seaboard are comparativel}' expensive. All large streams
are to be crossed, and the bridges must bo of an expensive kind. "Where
the track is parallel with the streams of the territory, the cost is essentially
diminished.
Way business is one of the important elements which give value to a road.
Applying these principles to the Pacitic Kailroad, we shall be forced to
certain conclusions, in reference to the several proposed routes to the Pacific.
Let us look at them for a moment.
The most Southern route possible, necessarily contemplates the crossing of
all the rivers in Texas, large and small, and where Spanish territory is entered
upon, though the route is indefinite, there are, at the best, no advantages
gained by pursuing the courses of rivers, for all run in the wrong direction ;
and though the streams themselves are small, the physical formations, the val-
leys, and the highlands, are all adverse. But how is it in the higher latitudes ?
Starting from St, Louis, the physical formation of the surface is entirely
favorable. The Kansas, the Platte, the upper portions of the Arkansas, and
some smaller streams, if required, furnish a natural route to the very foot of
the Rocky Mountains. On the western slope, the Colorado and other rivers
may be used with equal advantage. But look at the second point.
The extreme Southern route passes through a foreign state, not yet pos-
sessed of the higher forms of civilization, where the arts do not flourish, and
can not so long as the government is what it is, and where, of necessity, the
population is very limited and trade nearly nominal. But how is it in more
northern latitudes ? A westv?ard course from St. Louis towards the State of
Missouri, the Kansas territory, and Utah, a territory sufficiently large for four
or five extensive States, consisting of excellent soil, well watered, and with a
fine climate, and capable, of course, of sustaining an immense population.
Besides, the materials for the road may be chiefly obtained in the vicinity of
the route, in which respect it has a decided advantage over the extreme
S94 RAILWAY TO THE PACIFIC.
Southern road. Ilence, also, a third requisite is secured — a large way
business.
la all routes, as stated in a previous article, the idea of profit must be
regarded only in a somewhat distant future, but that future .is as certain as
a mathematical demonstration. To doubt this, would be as absurd as to
doubt whether one of our genuine progress-men would refuse a capital farm
when offered him for nothing.
But there is'another consideration of no small importance. A road " ultra-
Southern," must ever remain comparatively unimportant to all the States
lying in higher latitudes. San Francisco, the Arkansas, St. Louis, etc., are
all in the neighborhood of the 38th parallel of latitude. For the sake of this
■ultra-Southern connection, goods and passengers must be brought down some
six hundred miles, or ten degrees of latitude, and then be transported back
again, perhaps an equal distance, without an eastern progress of a single
mile. There can be no roads branching towards the north, through New-
Mexico, nor Texas, the direction of the streams and the necessary formation
of the land utterly forbidding any such structures. The Mississippi is the first
point from which any connections could be built uniting this with the more
Northern roads.
On the other hand, the line of the main track through Kansas, Missouri,
lUinois, etc., would be, and is, in fact, already to some considerable extent,
connected by branches with every State in the Union, and without any con-
siderable waste of travel. Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, etc., are already
connecting themselves with the States of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, while "
way travel and freight will soon pay, if they do not already, all the expenses
of the connecting roads.
If this is so, the upper route is the only one that can be successfully carried
throvigh. We would not, however, decide too hastily such important ques-
tions, but we throw out hints that can not be overlooked by those who may
have the management of this immense interest, or who may be called upon
to lend their aid in behalf of so great an enterprise.
Having thus expressed more fully the ideas suggested in our October num-
l>er, we will lay before our readers a few statements, from an address by
Thos. H. Benton, in reference to the character of the country crossed by the
upper route, going to prove that the country near the latitude of 38° is
*• remarkably adapted fur the construction of railroads, and that it is travers-
able in all directions." If this is so, we should consider these facts decisive
on this question. On this point he says :
" I have some direct and positive testimony on this head, which the import-
ance of the subject, and the value of the testimony itself, requires to be pro-
duced. I speak of the last expedition of Colonel Fremont — his winter expe-
dition of 1853-54 — and of the success which attended it, and of the value
of the information which it afforded. He chose the dead of winter for his
exploration, that he might see the worst — see the real difficulties, and deter-
mine whether they could be vanquished. He believed in the practicability of
the road, and that his miscarriage in 1848-49, was the fault of his guide,
not of the country ; and he was determined to solve those questions by the
test of actual experiment.
With these views he set out, taking the winter for his time, the west for
his course, a straight line his object, the mouth of the Kansas for his point of
departure, St. Louis and San Francisco the points to be connected. The paral-
lels of 38° and 39° covered his course, and between these he continued to
move west until he reached the Little Sj It Lake — within three hundred miles
RAILWAY TO THE PACIFIC. 895
of the California line ; after that, upon a slight deflection to the south,
between the parallels 37° and 38°, until he entered California. This may be
called a straight line ; and so fulfills a primary condition of every kind of
road, and especially of a railroad, where a speed of a hundred, miles an hour
may be as easily attained and as safely run as the third of that velocity in a
road of crooks and curvatures.
Snow was the next consideration, and of that he found none on any part
of the route to impede any kind of travelling. On the Kansas, the Upper
Arkansas, and the Huerfano, he found none at all ; in the Sand Hill Pass of
the Sierra Bianca, none ; in the Coochatope Pass, four inches ! and none if
he had crossed the day before ; and that was the 14th day of December, cor-
responding with the time, and almost in view of the place, where he had
been buried in snow five years before. This solved the question of snow in
the passes of the mountains, and showed his miscarriage had been the mis-
take of the guide, and not the fault of the country. After that — after cross-
ing the Eocky Mountains — the climate changes. A great amelioration takes
place, which he knew before, and then fully experienced. The remainder of the
route, as has been shown in the view of the country, may be said to have
been found free from snow — a hundred miles at a time in one place without
finding any ; and when found at all, both thin and transient.
And that this was the common winter state of the pass, and not an occa-
sional exception, has been shown by Mr. Antoine Leroux and others, and cor-
responded with his own theory of snow in the passes.
The Sierra Nevada was the last range of mountain; and there not a par-
ticle of snow was found in the pass which he traversed, while the mountain
itself was deeply covered. And this disposes of the objection of snow on.
this route, so formidable in the view of those who have nothing but an imagin-
ary view of it. Smoothness of surface, or freedom from abrupt inequalities
in the ground, is the next consideration, and here the reality exceeded the
expectation and even hopes, and challenges incredulity.
Here is a section of the route, above seven hundred miles long, being
more than half the distance to California, in which there is no elevation to
arrest the vision — in which you might look down in the wide distance, (if the
ej'-e-sigbt was long enough,) and see the frontier of Missouri from the mouth
of the first pass in the first mountain — being more than half the length of the
road. This would do for a start. It would satisfy the call for a fair surface
at the commencement. This first pass is called the Sand Hill, or Robidoux,
through which Fremont entered the valley of San Luis ; and the way so low
and level as to be seen through. And through that valley, and its continu-
ation, (the Sahwatah,) to the Coochatope, the ground is so smooth as so pre-
sent no exception to its level but the natural curvature of the earth.
More than forty loaded wagons went through it in the summer of 1853,
twenty of them guided by Leroux for Captam Gunnison, the rest by emi-
grant families, without guides. But more than that — the bufi:aloes have
travelled it always.
This is enough to show that the Rocky Mountains may be passed with-
out crossing a hill — that loaded wagons may cross it at all seasons of the year.
In a word, there is no difficulty about passes ; the only bother is to choose
out of so many all so good, both in themselves and in their approaches.
This is enough for the passes ; with respect to the whole mountain region,
and the difficulty of going through it, and upon difierent lines, we have also
the evidence of facts which dispense with speculation and assertion. That
396 CROPS IN VIRGINIA.
region was three times traversed, and on different routes, by Messrs. Beale
and Heap, in the summer of 1853.
It hajipened thus : When they had reach the east fork of the Great
Colorado of the West, and were crossing it, they lost, by the accident of an
overturned canoe, their supply of munitions, both for the gun aud the mouth,
and were forced to send back to the nearest settlement for a further supply.
That nearest settlement was Taos, in New-Mexico, distant three hundred and
thirty miles ; and that distance to be made upon mules, finding their own
food, which had already travelled, on the same condition, one thousand miles
from the frontier of Missouri ; and these mules, (thus already travelled long
and hard, without other food than the grass afforded,) now made the double
distance at the rate of forty miles a day, still finding their own food, and on
the return, bringing packs on their backs. This performance must stand for
a proof that the whole mountain region between the Upper Colorado and
the valley of the Upper Del Norte is well adapted to travelling ; and that in
a state of nature; and also well supplied with nutritious grass; and this
clears us of the Rocky Mountains, from which to the Little'Salt Lake it is
all an open practicable way, not limited to a track, but traversable on any line.
Loaded wagons travel it in a state of nature. The valley of the Colorado is
either level or rolling ; the Wahsatch and Anterria ranges are perforated
by incessant valleys; and from the Little Salt Lake to the Great Sierra
Nevada, as explored by Fremont last winter, the way is nearly level — a suc-
cession of valleys between the mountains — and terminated by a superb pass,
debouching into the valley of San Joaquin,
This completes all that is necessary to be shown in favor of the smooth-
ness of the way — its equality of surface, throughout the whole line ; although
it attains a great elevation, and lands you in California, in the rich and set-
tled valley of San Joaquin, proximate to the southern end of the gold mines.
Not a tunnel tu be made, a mountain to be climbed, a hill to be crossed, a
swamp to be seen, or a desert or movable sand to be encountered in the
whole distance."
We shall be glad to publish any suggestions, on this subject, from any
quarter.
rOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ISVIL.
CROPS IN VIRGINIA.
Messrs. Editors : It is several months since I last addressed you. Bleak
winter has driven me within doors, and now, with the mercury standing at
16^ Farenheit, I seat myself, not to give you an essay on agriculture, but
to write of things past, present, and in prospect, in our beautiful valley.
This portion of our valley has not sutiered from drought so much as the
counties below us. The crop of wheat in the upper part of our county was
a full average, and of fine quality. The counties of Augusta, Rockingham,
Shenandoah,Pfige, Jefferson, etc., if lam correctly informed, fell short one third
to half crops. The corn crop was equally short, and taking the valley range,
will not average half crops. Grass was also very short. Upon those crops
the graziers are dependent, and as a necessary consequence, there will not be
fed in the lower part of the valley over one half to two thirds of stock cattle
usually wintered there. It is computed that last year some 40,000 head of
CKOPS IN VIRGINIA. 397
-• — — — — —
stock cattle were driven clown the country. This year about 28,000 passed
through our county, and several thousand of them were driven back for want
of a market. It is fair, however, to presume, that the stock on hand this
year in the lower part of the State is better than that of last year, with much
less to feed them. For some weeks past, many lots of very tine beeves have
been passing down to the Baltimore market from the counties of Botetourt,
Roanoke, Wythe, Montgomery, Pulaski, etc., etc., which counties are famed
for the finest cattle raised in Virginia. The Cloyd's, Kent's, Crocket's, with
many other gentlemen in the south-western part of the State, are celebrated
for their fine stock. Many of their beeves would average net 1000 lbs.,
finely fatted, and command the highest prices. There is also much fine
beef driven from the counties of Rockbridge and Augusta, with the entire
range of valley counties. Last year every description of cattle was high and
in great demand. This year there is little incpiry, and prices for stock-
cattle have fallen oti'froni one fourth to one third, and, notwithstanding every
description of produce is high, there appears a pressure in money matters.
Speculation has run too high. Time will bring things right. The price of
bread-stuffs has ruled high all season, contrary to my expectations, and
from present indications, will continue to do so till spring, and it may be till
the coming harvest. Your canals are, I suppose, now closed with ice ; your
supplies will bo cut off from the West. The surplus here is small, and
owing to the continued dry weather, and now the freeze, the stock of flour
on hand must run short ; and I am deceived if prices do not continue to go
up. You may rely on it. The stock on hand here is inconsiderable. The
high prices heretofore have induced farmers to push off their stock as fast as
they could get it ground. I own a Merchant mill. My stock on hand will
be out before Christmas, and I do not know where I can buy 1000 bushels
of wheat. I hear that this is the case with the mills around me. Wheat
commands in the interior $1.50 per bushel ; corn, 70 to 75 cents, and in some
places $1 ; oats, 45 cents; rye, 75 cents; all scarce, and in demand. Pork worth
$5 to |!6 as in quality. Should the winter prove severe, I fear there will be
suffering before grass comes again. The stocks of cattle, horses, hogs, and
sheep are about as usual, with less to feed them. There has been an
unusual number of sheep driven down the valley the past season, from the
western part of the State, from Tennessee, and the mountainous parts of
North-Carolina. They were mostly a common article, bought at an average
of II per head to $1.25, and sold at 11.75 to 13.50 ; 40,000 were supposed to
have been driven through our county. It is a matter of surprise that the
farmers of East-Tennessee, and the northern portions of North-Carolina do
not pay more attention to stock raising. They send in hordes of things here —
two, three, four, and five years old, remarkable only for stag-heads and horns,
with bandy legs, of small bone — any thing but comely animals. Our good
farmers don't like to buy them, and will not when they can do better. One
of Kent's fine beeves at the same age, is worth two of them. They are driven
mainly to Eastern Virginia, and generally at four years old fatten well, but
grow but little. There may be exceptions, and no doubt are, but I speak of
this as applying to most of the cattle driven from East-Tennessee, and the
border of North-Carolina adjoining.
I informed you some time since, that we were building a Branch Canal
from the James River and Kanawha improvement, a distance of twenty
miles. We have completed that work to within six and a half miles of Lex-
ington. Owing to the pressure on the money market, our work is now pro-
gressing slowly ; we are dependent for funds for the completion of the Canal
CORN THE STAPLE CROP OF OHIO.
on bonds guaranteed by the James River & Kanawha Co. The payment
of those bonds is based upon the tolls over the entire hne on produce pass-
ing over our Canal. First paying the James River Co. $5000 per annum.
It is computed that the surplus tolls will pay principal and interest in thir-
teen years from this date. From an experience of one year's business, we
do not hesitate to say that an investment in those bonds is equal to Virginia
State stocks. The interest will be paid semi-annuall}'^, and the redeemed
within the next thirteen years. Last y<!ar the tolls amounted to near $1 G,000,
and they will continue to increase as the canal is completed. We want
capital here to occupy some of our fine sites for water power. Can you not
send out some of your surplus funds, and energetic citizens, to build up our
waste places? We want furnaces, forges, and factories. Much of the raw
material is here. We lack capital to make it available.
Your obedient servant, etc., H. B. Jones.
Rochhridge Co., Va., near JBrownsburg, Bee. 5, 1854.
P.S. — Mercury down to 10° ; at sunrise, 22^; at 4 P.Af., and at 5 P.M.,
19° ; wind high for two days. The night will be cold. Cih, mercury I'/o.
CORN THE STAPLE CROP OF OHIO.
Mr. Mansfield, in an address to the Highland County (0.) Agricultural
Society, at its late Fair, thus speaks of their great staple, and the necessity for
improvement in its culture :
" In this State, and in the whole Valley of the Ohio, Indian corn is the most
important staple. In the five States of Ohio, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, and
Tennessee, are raised 280,000,000 bushels of corn — one half of the whole
raised in the United States, and three times as much as are raised in the
same States of wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes, together. Corn is, therefore,
the great staple of the Ohio Valley ; and if we can improve its culture, we
■ add more than in any other way to the products of agriculture. Is that
impossible ? In examining the statistics of this State you will find some facts
bearing strongly on this })oint, and quite startling to the curious inquirer.
We find, _/i/-s/, that the average product per acre is 37 bushels, namely,
1,604,429 acres, producing 61, 1*71,282 bushels; the highest being 50 per
acre, in the counties of Butler, Warren, ifnd Fayette ; and the lowest 20
bushels, in the counties of Huron, Wayne, and Williams.
We next find, by turning to the proceedings of agricultural societies, that
150 "bushels per acre have been repeatedly raised, and that 100 bushels is no
uncommon crop. Thus we have two facts worth consideration, the sum of
which is, that the average corn crop of Ohio is only one fourth ofiohat it ■might
be under high cultivation, on the same breadth of land. Is this a state of
things that ought to exist 2 But some one will ask in the popular language,
Will this superior cultivation ;5ay.^ Will superior cultivation pay its costa?
If it will not, your agricultural societies ought not to exist. No premiums
should ever be offered, and you should contented to let dock, thistles, and
iron weed grow where they will, and leave nature alone to raise your crops.
Wh}^, gentlemen, it is only on the supposition that superior cultivation is valu-
able, that you attempt any agricultural improvement.
But it is not to be denied, that in the Pioneer State, in the period when
EOTATIOlsr IN COTTON-CULTURE. 39^
lands were clearing up, it ?ms the doctrine, that nature should be left to dO'
the work of growth ; for lands were cheap and labor dear. But Ohio ha&
passed that period — at least as regards farms. Fanning land is worth ii?20
per acre, on an average, and there is too much capital in land to He idle. The
time has come for high cultivation, the time has come when it will pay ; when,,
if rightly applied, culture put on land will pay better than any other Species
of human labor."
ROTATION IN COTTON-CULTTJRE.
The richest soils, if not properly cultivated, will lose more or less of their
fertility. Every one of the older States, north and south, is suffering from
this depreciation in the value of their soils. At the same time, it is true
that tliere is no necessity for suffering such a state of things to exist, and it is
now in the power of the landholder, everywhere, to improve the condition of
his lands, and that, too, without any immediate and excessive expenditure.
The following is the substance of a system of rotation by which the impove-
rishment of the soil is effectually prevented, which has stood the test of
several years of practice.
One hand is allowed to every twenty acres. The land is divided into
four parts. Grade and ditch as circumstances may require. Next, allot
five acres to each hand in cotton, ten acres in grain, and let five acres lie ia
fallow. Plant cotton on the same land once in four years, and always on fal-
low land, with a dressing of five hundred bushels of compost or stock-yard
manure per acre, spread on the land broadcast, and incorporated with the
soil uniformly in the process of bedding out the rows. The residue of the
cotton-stalks, leaves, burs, blooms, and limbs, with the seed, except for plant-
ing, are all returned back to the same land where they grew. Upon this
land the next year plant corn, manuring it with cotton-seed. But to the
corn crop, the most important on the plantation, add two acres of the land
which was in corn last year, thus giving seven acres in corn to each hand.
On the other three acres of that poition that was in corn last year, sow
small grain, which upon land thus treated will furnish a sufficiency of oats,
rye, and wheat, for the wants of the plantation. Then we have lying in
fallow for the next year's cotton crop the three acres that were in small grain
last year, and two acres that w^ere in corn.
The following reasons for commending this course we give as set forth by
Dr. Cloud in the American Farmer :
"In the first place, it embraces all the conditions necessary to sustain the
cotton-planting interest within itself, independent of external or foreign aid.
To this feature I think there can not be too much importance attached.
Again : the several crops succeed each other to better advantage, both as to
their culture and healthy growth, than in any other way that we have seen
or attempted. It may not be generally understood by planters from practice,
because it is not a common practice ; indeed, it is of the rarest occurrence,
how well cotton grows after one year's rest or fallow. I conceive it to be^
in its healthy, vigorous growth, and exemption from insects, more like grow-
ing cotton on fresh land. Nor will this be difficult for any planter to com-
prehend, when he recollects that on the fallow I spread five hundred bushels
per acre of good stock-yard compost, or its equivalent.
400 EOTATION IN COTTON-CULTUKE.
I am sure I shall have no difficulty in persuading any planter that corn
grows better, bears better, and is less trouble to cultivate after cotton than
after any other crop. So well, indeed, does it do after a crop of cotton that
has received a dressing of five hundred bushels per acre of manure, that it is
yet a matter of uncertainty with me, after twelve years' experience, whether
or not a good corn crop is not more certain without than with the seed ; and
if we have drought it is certainly best not to use the seed on corn thus treated.
Then we have the seed to add to our compost heap for our cotton. Then
again, the effect of the corn and small grain crops on the land being about
the same, I prefer placing the small grain after the corn, as it does better
after com than corn does after it. After the small grain, the land lies one
year in fallow. I have a theory about this four years' shift and one year in
fallow, in regard to its curative influence upon the diseases of the cotton-
plant. Of course I can not go into its explanation here, but I give it as my
opinion that if the same land throughout the country was planted in cotton
but once in four years, it would prevent the insect of rust ; I am sure it
would of lice, and I think it altogether probable it would do much toward
relieving it from the injury of the boll-worm.
Under this treatment the plantation is every year improving. From the
extent of pasturage which it affords, and the large amount of corn raised on
the plantation, an average of two hundred and fifty bushels per hand, there
will be no manner of difliculty in raising all the stock — hogs, mules, and
cattle — that are needed on the plantation. It has been objected to this
system, that in the extent of pasturage afforded, prairie and clay land would
become too much trod by the stock, causing such land to run together and
break n\> cloddy. I am confident the objection is unfounded, as the great
object of the system is to accumulate on the land the largest possible amount
of vegetable matter, which, while it keeps the land loose and friable, contri-
butes so largely to the luxuriant and healthy growth of cotton. These objec-
ctions, that fail to stand the theory and science of agriculture, fall to the ground
as impotent and futile when we examine the same system (in principle) in suc-
cessful practice in the States of Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, etc., on calcareous
clay lands, raising by pasturage, etc., not only mules, horses, hogs, and cattle
for home consumption, but for all our cotton planters. There is an incom-
patibility here certainly. The only precaution necessary is to prevent stock
running on the land while wet with rainwater standing on it.
There is nothing more easy than to account for this false alarm among
cotton-planters. See the sedulous care, if you please, with which they have
drained the vegetable strata of their fields for the last forty yeai's ; each row
is a perfect drain, not of water alone, but of vegetable mould, the Hfe's-blood
of the land; the cotton and cornstalks generally burned ; thus denuded and
leached, it is not surprising that the hoof of a hungry cow should poison it !
It is further objected, by those otherwise approving the system, that it will
not make cotton enough ; that it does not lot sufiicient land to secure every
year a full crop of cotton. To this objection we simply oppose at first this
fact. No man in this country, on the same quality of land, has realized from
1844 to 1853 inclusive, to the same proportion of hands which I have, not-
withstanding I have been experimenting all the time. If I have not made
as many bales of cotton, which is improbable, I have raised that which cotton
had to supply necessarily. This is obvious in the substantial improvements
on the land, and its increased value, at least five hundred per cent; not that
I could simply sell it for that much over and above its cost twelve years ago,
ARTIFICIAL MANURES. 401
but it is its absolute annual production. Nor does it possess any artificial
advantages of railroad or city value, as land in sight of it of the same quality,
and just as valuable in 1843, under the " kiifand cripple policy" of the
country, sold last year at less than $6.25 per acre."
ARTIFICIAL MANURES.
We have often alluded to the strong temptation to fraud in the manufac-
ture of various fertilizers, and have advocated the policy of sworn exami-
ners to mark every box and bag of it according to its merits. There is no
force whatever in the pretense so shamefully urged by some of those who
are interested, that self-interest will lead them to be honest. Such consider-
ations are no more effective with the makers and sellers of phosphates than
with makers and sellers of watches, or of any other article. Selfishness is
the most miserable motive to be honest that a man could devise, while fraud
can seldom if ever be detected by ordinary means. Those who rest their
own character on such a plea, ought not to be trusted beyond the length of
a halter.
We are led to refer again to this subject, by noticing some very conclusive
statements in reference to the subject in a recent Country Gentleman, and
we heartily commend the advice which is given at the close of the extract by
our learned and judicious brother :
"From the Transactions of the Highland Agricultural Society of Scot-
land, we learn that a Mr. G. W. Hay, of Roxburghshire, being desirous of
trying experiments with various manures, put himself in communication with
a dealer or dealers in ' agricultural manures.' Among the substances to be
employed by Mr. Hay were super-phosphate of lime, nitrate of soda, phosphate
of soda, sulphate of potash, phosphate of magnesia, sulphate of ammonia,
and muriate of ammonia. When the parcels of chemicals furnished by the
respectable peo[>le of whom they were bought, came to be examined, the
nitrate of soda was found to contain only 56 lbs. of that substance in every
100 lbs. ; the phosphate of soda only 6 lbs. in the 100 lbs. ; the sulphate of
potash 60 lbs. ; the sulphate of ammonia not quite 9f lbs.; the nitrate of
potash (saltpetre of commerce) about 11.} lbs.; the phosphate of magnesia
2% lbs. (! !) ; and the muriate of ammonia 5i4 lbs. only. As to the super-
phosphate of lime, as it was called, it contained only 4 per cent of soluble
phosphate of lime ; the other 96 lbs. consisting of water, gypsum, siliceous
matter, some kind of free acid, and insoluble phosphate of lime, a perfectly
useless substance.
When Mr. Hay ventured to complain of the fraud thus practised upon
him, he was coolly informed by the dealers that they could not think of taking
their rubbish back. They staled that what be had bought of themwas ' the
usual quality for agricultural purposcs^^ and contained 'the quantities suit-
able for plants.' That is to say, in the opinion of the dealers, the quantity
which is suitable for 2'>lants is 2|- lbs. in every hundred of phosphate of mag-
gnesia, 9f lbs. of sulphate of ammonia, 4 lbs. of super-phosphate of lime, and
6 lbs. of phosphate of soda. This insolent answer is pretty good proof that
some, perhaps most, dealers in ' agricultural manures ' take it for granted
402 A FINE YIELD OF CORN.
that the agricultural community are easily imposed upon, and may be
cheated and fleeced to almost any extent.
By every case of detection and exposure of such frauds, farmers will be
more and more persuaded of the expediency of manufacturing their fertilizing
substances, as much as possible, at home. They will turn their attention
more and more to saving, and putting into available or usable forms, all the
urine and excrements upon their premises ; to saving their barn-yard manure
from the wasting influences of exposure to winds, and rains, and sun ; to
composting ; and to the manufacture of chemical manures under their own
eye. That this latter can be done to same extent is evident from the direc-
tions given in the last volume of The Country Gentleman in regard to the
composition and domestic manufacture of what is known in Great Britain by
the name of 'Economical Manure.' By every case of exposure of such
frauds, the number will be diminished of those who purchase annually various
quantities of guana, super-phosphate of lime, poudrette, etc., while the guano
of their own hens and all the animal excretions on the premises are allowed
to go entirely to waste."
A FINE YIELD OF CORN.
Mr. John Q. Hewlett, who has a farm about four miles from this city,
on the Frederick road, has just measured the corn gathered from three acres
of a field of eighteen acres. The corn was heaped and shaken twice, in
accordance with the old rule ; twice before and once after Christmas. The
product of the three acres was 46 barrels, or 15^ barrels, or '76| bushels, per
acre.
The field had heretofore been improved by a liberal dressing of animal
manure^, the ploughing in of a green crop, and the application of one hun-
dred bushels of oyster-shell lime, and had been set in timothy. Last year,
owing to the lowness of the ground, and the thorough manuring which it
had previously received, a heavy second growth, or after-math of timothy,
grew up, fell down, and, by the force of its smother, destroyed the timothy,
which was followed by a luxuriant crop of blue grass. Last fall the blue
grass was ploughed in some eight or ten inches in depth, and the inverted
soil left exposed to the meliorating influence of the winter's frosts. This
spring the field was rolled, harrowed until a perfectly fine tilth was obtained,
and then planted with corn, ivithout any manure. The result of the pro-
duct of three of the eighteen acres we have already detailed, and we will add
tbat it is estimated that the remaining fifteen acres will yield ten barrels on
an average to the acre.
Now, what think you enabled this field to yield so luxuriant a crop of
corn during the past season of drought ? Why, the thorough system of
improvement to which it had been subjected some years since ; to the appli-
cation of concentrated organic manures; to turning in green crops ; to liming
and to deep ploughing, thorough pulverization and judicious culture of the
corn.
The crop of timothy cut in 1853 yielded more than two tons to the acre;
its produce of corn in 1854 we Jiave already stated, and jet this field in 1849,
when the farm came into its present owner's possession, would not have
brought more than four barrels of corn to the acre !
Can any one, after this plain statement of facts, doubt the policy of
HOME MANUFACTUEE OF POUDRETTE. 403
thorougbly improving land ? Can they doubt that true economy is thereby
conserved ? Can they doubt that inouey thus laid out will not came back —
not only the principal, but with a heavy interest ? We think that no one
who is capable of forming a correct oi)inion can entertain 'the slightest doubt
upon the subject. We know that every dollar judiciously laid out in the
improvement of land will pay, and pay well. — A7nerican {Baltimore) Farmer.
■HOME MANUFACTUEE OP POUDRETTE.
The contents of privies, commonly known under the name of night-soils,
furnish exceedingly powerful manure when properly manufactured ; and under
right management, the process will destroy all the effluvia arising from those
deposits, and render the closet entirely inoffensive.
When a reservoir or small stream of water is at command, so that a cur-
rent may be made to sweep through several times a day and carry off the
contents into the manure-yard, or into a covered bed of peat, or a compost
heap, this forms perhaps the most perfect mode of removal. An essential
requisite, however, is freedom from the influence of frost, and the closet
should therefore be connected with the dwelling where the reservoir of water
may be kept from freezing, and fioni which there should be an underground
channel of considerable size and slope. We have known all this to be per-
fectly accomplished by means of a lead cistern in the upper story, which was
kept supplied with rain-water at all times from the broad roof of the house,
and which was sufficient beside for baths, washing, and all other domestic
purposes.
AVhen a current of water can not be used, the next best contrivance is to
form a tight box, of matched pine plank, and give it two or three coats of
coal-tar, so as to render it durable, and proof against moisture and warping.
It is to be placed on two runners like that of a sled, made of plank or scant-
ling, to the forward end of which a chain and iron hook are attached, so that
it may readily be drawn off by a horse. This box must be pf such a size as
to fit a cavity made on purpose under the building.
The next thing is to provide a supply of some efficient deodorizing sub-
stance. Dry saw-dust or thoroughly dried peat does tolerably well, with the
occasional addition of ashes and powdered charcoal. Charcoal dust alone is
much better, and if daily applied in small quantities, will nearly destroy all
smell; but it is absolutely essential to success that a full supply of this
material be kept near at hand in a large box or hogshead in a shed or out-
house, where it shall be always dry and in a condition to apply every day,
summer and winter. Animal charcoal is still more efficient than common
charcoal, and may be made to form a portion of a material made as follows :
Make a pile of peat, turf, old straw and brush, mix with tanner's shavings and
broken bones ; let the pile become dry enough to burn, and then cover it
with sods and set it on fire. It should be suffered to burn with a slow,
smothered combustion, so as to char without consuming the materials. When
the process is completed, the whole heap, including the turf covering, should"
be well mixed together and broken fine, and then placed in a large box under
shelter, for daily use. Any portion of clay introduced by means of the turf,
and well dried, forms a poweiful absorbent of fetid matter. As often as may
404 CHARCOAL A DISINFECTING AGENT.
be convenient, a horse is hitched to the hook and chain, and the whole is
drawn off into the barn-yard, where it is quickly discharged by turning the
box upside down ; and after covering the bottom and sides with the prepared
material already described, it is replaced as before. The strong manure thus
obtained, will, if well mixed, possess but little odor and may be used directly,
or may be mixed with common manure in the compost heap. Durable
plank should be placed under the runners, to prevent their sinking into the
earth, and enable the horse to start the box easily. It is said that those who
are employed to obtain the materials for the whole^^ale manufacture of pou-
drette, throw in, before commencing operations, a few quarts of a strong solu-
tion of copperas, which immediately neutralizes effluvia, and adds to the value
of the manure.
Since the above was written, we have received the fallowing :
"The different modes of saving as well as making manure, very properly
engage the attention of agriculturists to a great extent. There is one mode
of saving manure, however, which is very much overlooked. The farmers
generally, in building a 'palace' for the accommodation of the household,
either dig a pit to a great depth, or a shallow one with a movable building,
to be removed as often as the pit becomes filled. In the former case, there
is^ fitted up a complete nuisance (after a year's existence) and a trap to
frighten mothers and nurses. The latter is a nuisance from the beginning,
and a subject of complaint almost everywhere. The plan I have adopted is
simple and cheap — leaving the ' palace' as sweet as any chamber in the
house, and productive yearly of a tank of manure worth tvventy-fivc dollars —
a species of poudrette, I venture to say, more fertilizing than any that can be
purchased.
^ I have sunk a tank or pit, ten feet square and four feet deep, and lined
■with plank ; stone or brick walls would perhaps be better. Upon transverse
beams is built the ' palace,' five feet square. From the kitchen and wash-
house, I have underground sewers emptying into this tank, through which
all the slops of every description pass. The seat is fixed on hinges so that
the whole top may be opened up, and at this opening is deposited all the dirt
accruing about the house including the ashes from two fires. The dirt and
ashes absorb all the slops and moisture, and prevent the slight(*fet unpleasant
smell. This tank may be filled once or twice a year, and each filling would
be worth to the garden the sum before mentioned. It is astonishing that
this is so much neglected by persons even who know the value of manures,
and can appreciate cleanliness and convenience. — Country Gentleman.
CHARCOAL A DISINFECTING AGENT.
We have often made suggestions on the use of charcoal in stables, closets,
etc., and copy some experiments below, made by an English gentleman, and
reported in the London Journal of the Society of Arts. The account is as
follows :
"My attention was particularly drawn to the impoitance of charcoal as a
disinfecting agent by my friend John Turnbull, Esq., of Glasgow, Scotland,
the well-known extensive chemical manufacturer. Mr. Turnbull, about nine
months ago, placed the bodies of two dogs in a wooden box, on a layer of
charcoal powder a few inches in depth, and covered them over with a quan-
ILLUMINATION UNDER WATER. 405
tity of the same material. Though the box was quite open, and kept in his
laboratory, no effluvium was ever perceptible ; and on examining the bodies
of the animals at the end of six months, scarcely any thing remained of them
except the bones. Mr. Turnbull sent me a portion of the charcoal-powder
which had been most closely in contact with the bodies of the dogs. I sub-
mitted it for examination to one of my pupils, Mr. Turner, who found it
contained comparatively little ammonia, not a trace of sulphuretted hydro-
gen, but very appreciable quantities of nitric sulphuric acids, with acid phos-
phate of lime.
Mr. Turner subsequently, about three months ago, buried two rats in
about two inches of charcoal-powder, and a few days afterward the body of
a full-grown cat was similarly treated. Though the bodies of these animals
are now in a highly putrid state, not the slightest odor is perceptible in the
laboratory.
From this short statement of facts, the utility of charcoal-powder, as a
means of preventing noxious effluvia from churchyards, and from dead
bodies in other situations, such as on board a ship, is sufficiently evident.
Covering a churchyard to the depth of from two to three inches with coarsely
powdered charcoal, would prevent any putrid exhalations ever finding their
way into the atmosphere. Charcoal-powder also greatly favors the rapid
decomposition of the dead bodies with which it is in contact, so that in the
course of six or eight months little is left except the bones.
In all the modern systems of chemistry, such, for instance, as the last
edition of Turner's ' Elements,' charc*)al is clescribed as possessing anti-septic
properties, while the very reverse is the fact. Common salt, nitre, corrosive
sublimate, arsenious acid, alcohol, camphor, creosote, and most essential oils,
are certainly anti-septic substances, and therefore retard the decay of animal
and vegetable matters. Charcoal, on the contrary, as we have just seen,
greatly facilitates the decomposition of any organic substances with which it
is in contact. It is, therefore, the very opposite of an anti-septic."
ILLUMINATION UNDER WATER.
That science is progressive is apparent on all sides. Among other sub-
jects of great interest, this has received its share of attention. The November-
number of the American Journal of Science and the Arts contains interesting
statements on this subject. We are informed that at the Lake D'Enghien,
M. Duboscq, the successor of Soleil, performed an experiment of this kind
before many competent observers. Ihe electrodes of carbon were placed in
a glass globe, being connected with one of Duboscq's regulators, which com-
municated with the battery by a copper wire covered with gutta-percha.
The globe, submerged to the depth of sixteen and one half feet, spread light
over a circle of sixty-six feet diameter, and it remained constant for two
hours, after which the carbon required replacing.
The idea of this process was suggested by an agent of a company that
had been engaged in exploring the bottom of the Mediterranean wheie the
battle of Navarino took place. The diver usually remained beneath the
water three quarters of an hour, after which he came up to breathe and rest;
his hght was an oil lamp placed on the head of the diver, and fed with air
proceeding from his respiration, whence it was in a variable current, and was
40G SUBSTITUTE FOR RAGS IN PAPER-MAKING.
often extiDo;uis}ied, requiring him to go up and relight. Duboscq's arrange-
ment was devised to avoid these inconveniences. It is made light, so that
the diver may carry it in his hand; and at the same time it is strong, and
well secured hermetically, to resist a pressure of one hundred and eighty
feet of sea-water. It consists of a cylinder of strong glass secured to a brass
foot, and surrounded with a gutta-percha sack. The light pai?ses out through
Ji large plano-convex lens, the convexity being inward, the focus being so
arranged that the rays escape nearly parallel. As the lamp is movable, the
diver walks about with it, and places it where he wishes to make a search ;
and as it is only necessary to bring the electrodes near one another to light
it, the diver need only to turn a small screw to continue the light for two
hours, which is more than twice as long as he can remain at the bottom.
This beautiful invention supplies a want which has always been felt by
persons engaged in operations wnth the diving-bell. A vast quantity of
property now lying on the bottom of our large rivers, bays, and lakes, may
be recovered by the use of submarine armor and these electric lamps. In
seeking for nuggets of gold in the deep pools of streams in California, these
lamps may also be advantageously employed. They will likewise materially
aid the engineer in arranging the foundation of works that are to be erected
in deep water. In recovering the body of a person who has been drowned,
they will be eminently useful ; in short, the introduction into use of this sub-
marine lamp is another of the beautiful contributions that science is constantly
oftering to man for the promotion of his happiness and prosperity.
SUBSTITUTE FOR RAGS IN" PAPER-MAKING.
Our exchanges from the Atlantic States contain favorable notices of the newly-
discovered paper plant which grows spontaneously and abundantly in Canada.
We do not entertain a doubt that this plant, which appears to have as many
aliases as a pickpocket, will supply the material for the manufacture of paper
that will surpass in quality and economy that now made from rags. In
Canada, the name commonly given to the plant is " Cudweed," another is
" Life-everlasting." In the notice we now give, which is taken from a Savan-
nah paper, the botanical name is said to be " Gnaphaluno." The writer of
this notice, as will be seen, speaks very favorably of this plant as a substitute
for rags in paper-making :.
" It is said that the experiment to make paper out of an American plant
called 'white top,' or 'immortelle,' has been successful. The botanical name
is Gnaphaluno, and the paper is therefore called 'gnaphahc paper.' The
plant is very abundant in Canada. The paper is glossy, smootb, and thin,
and evidently much stronger than that kind in the manufacture of which
cotton is so largely used. The stalk as well as the flower of the plant may
be employed, but from the white silky flowers alone a finer and whiter article
can of course be produced. The manufacturers assert that, without taking
into consideration the difl'erence of the cost of materials, paper may be made
from this plant at 12^ per cent less expense than rags. The adhesive quali-
ties of the plant are such that in the manufacture of the paper no animal
matter need be used, and a good surface is obtained without sizing."
We find the foregoing in the Louisville Journal. We do not know about
NEW PLAN OF BREAKING-IN" HORSES. 407
the aliases spoken of, except so far as some compositor or proof-reader is
responsible. The true name is Gnapiialium, and it grows " everywhere."
The lu7io must have been contrived by some moon-stiiick typo. The com-
mon, or English names of plants are never reliable. Every locality has its
own nomenclature. The " Ladies' Slipper " of one region, is " The Toad
Flax" of another, and so on.
We have not the confidence of our learned brother at Louisville, in the
matter of substituting any thing for Jlax in the manufacture of paper, but
quere whether an economical process may not perhaps be devised for making
paper from the vegetable itself, without a previous operation for converting
it into Jlax, or still more into a web. Perhaps, too, something maybe accom-
plished by mixing raw cotton and prepared flax together.
NEW PLAN OF BREAKING -IN HORSES.
A NEW system of breaking-in horses, by means of a very few lessons, and
so as to preserve all their precious qualities, has come into use, and what is
singular is that the author of it is a lady, named Isabelle. Having a great
liking for horses, Madame Isabelle some yeai-s ago began studying the differ-
ent systems employed in breaking-in horses, and came to the conclusion
that they were all more or less defective. She then sought for a plan of her
own, which should render the horse more tractable, by developing its intelli-
gence ; and she succeeded in discovering one so perfect that the most restive
horse is reduced to obedience in a very short time, and without the slightest
ill-treatment. Her plan, as is almost always the case Avith things really use-
ful, is very simple. She begins by making the horse carry his head high,
and perpendicularly, whereby she prevents the weakness caused by the con-
staut binding of the neck, gives free play to the muscles in the neck, and
allows full action to be exercised over the mouth. Then she places on the
horse a surcingle, surmounted by an iron rod about fifteen inches long, which
is bent about four inches forward at the summit. On each side of the rod
are placed four rings, destined to receive the rtins according to the height
that may be desired. The horse soon gets accustomed to this check, and it
exercises a great moral effect on him. He places his head in such a manner
as not to sufter from the bit in the mouth, and thereby soon gets accustomed
to being held in hand by his rider or driver. The surcingle also promptly
accustoms him to adopt the best movements, and to advance when desired
without offering any resistance. The breaker-in remains at the left of the
horse, and is armed with a whip with a spur in it. After forming her sys-
tem, Madame Isabelle went into Germany, and practised it with marked suc-
cess on horses belonging to Prince de Lichtenstein, at Vienna. From Vienna
she went to Russia, and there stopped two years. In the course of that time
she rendered completely docile all the most restive horses of model cavalry
regiment at St. Petersburg, as well as those of the Emperor Nicholas. Re-
cently she returned to France, and, having explained her plan and stated its
results to the Minister of War, she was, by the special direction of the Em-
peror, who was consulted, authorized to practise it on a number of young
horses of the regiment of guides, and with an equal number of recruits who
had recently joined the regiment. The lessons were given under her direc-
408 GALLS OlSr HORSES.
tion at the riding-scbool of the Ecole Imperiale d'Application d'Etat Major-
After the fifteenth lesson the horses manoeuvred with the tranquillity and
precision of old troop horses. A few days ago, Colonel Fleury, who com-
mands the regiment, manoeuvred the horses and recruits, and every one of
the usual cavalry movements was admirably executed. — Mark-Lane Express.
GALLS ON HORSES.
Some horses are more predisposed to galls than others, but even the most
liable to injury in this respect may by care be kept perfectly sound. Bad
harness is the great cause of galls. In order to save a few shillings in re-stuff-
ing an old collar, getting camel's-hair pads, or, perhaps, a new collar, many
a valuable horse has been materially injured, and ever afterwards particularly
liable to sore shoulders. The collar should be frequently examined, inasmuch
as it is very likely to become hard and lumpy. A little pounding will gene-
rally remove the difficulty, and render the collar soft. If the horse is known
to be predisposed to sore shoulders, camel's-hair pads should always be used.
Heavy and unsteady work is also a frequent cause of galls. A man unused
to labor can easily blister or gall his hands, while he who labors habitually
suffers no inconvenience. So it is with horses; they have, perhaps, done
little or nothing during the winter, and, when the busy season comes on,
they are put to " breaking up," or other heavy work, and, as a natural con-
sequence, their shoulders are galled. Could any other result be expected ?
Light work, till their shoulders are hardened, would be a more humane and
profitable course.
Bathing with salt and water is a good thing to harden the shoulders.
Some prefer to bathe the shoulders in the morning, previous to going to
work ; but we think it is better to do it at night, and wash it off with cold
spring water in the morning. Otherwise the particles of salt are apt to
adhere to the collar or to the hair, and act somewhat as would fine sand in
a person's boot. Of course, the poor horse is allowed to rest his weary limbs
on the Sabbath ; for, as experience has fully demonstrated, neither man nor
beast can labor seven days in the week with impunity. On Saturday night,
therefore, the shoulders should be thoroughly bathed with a saturated solu-
tion of salt and water, washing it off on Monday morning before commencing
work. These precautions are particularly necessary where the skin exhibits
tenderness, or becomes knotty or thickened. A few minutes' labor, night
and morning, is all that is required, and it can not be better applied.
In case of actual sores, or where the skin is broken, it is desirable that the
horse be allowed to rest a few days ; but if this is impossible, the collar must
be so padded as not to touch the sore. It would seem essential that the
sore be covered in some way, so as to keep out the dust and prevent flies
from troubling it. We never found any thing answer the purpose in this
particular. If any of our readers have been more fortunate, we should like
to hear from them. A solution of alum is good to bathe the sore with, but
we prefer white vitriol, (sulphate of zinc.) "We know of nothing so cooling
and healing, A tea-spoonful should be dissolved in a pint of water, and the
sore be kept constantly moist with it. For this purpose, it will be necessary
to take a bottle of it into the field with you, and to keep a moistened rag
on the sore all the time. Act on these hints, and your teams shall praise
you. — Rural New-Yorker.
THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 409
ANATOMY AND PROPAGATION OF MOSQUITOES.
At a recent meeting of the Society of Natural Histor}^ in Boston, Dr.
Durkee, of that city, exhibited under the microscope the rostrum or sting of
the common Mosquito, {Culex pipiens.) The Doctor remarked that one of
the most remarkable features in the anatomy of the mosquito is that the
parts which constitute the mouth are elongated, so as to form a bealc extend-
ing horizontally, Hke that of some birds. The beak or sting is about half
the length of the body, and to the unassisted eye appears to be very simple
in its structure. When examined with the microscope, however, it is found
to be composed of seven different parts, which are comparatively stout on
one edge. These parts vary in length, and can be separated from each other
without much difficulty. They are broad at the upper part, where they are
united to the head, and they gradually taper to a point. One of the parts
is a tu'jular canal or groove, in which the others are lodged when the pro-
boscis is not in use. "Dr. D. stated that he had not been able to find any
appearance of teeth, except on the two longest pieces ; in these he had found
them near the tip. The two longest pieces, also, are marked by transverse
lines, extending from one edge to the other, throughout their whole length.
Cuvier and others state that the male mosquito does not suck blood.
From repeated examinations, Dr. D. has satisfied himself that the male has
no sting, and consequently can not draw blood. The female alone is en-
dowed with this organ. The male lives upon the juices of flowers and plants.
Mosquitoes are propagated only where there is water. The eggs, deposited
in water, go through the larva and pupa state, small collections of shallow
water being most favorable for their development. Most of them die in the
fall of the year, but some hybernate in cellars and other warm retreats, sup-
ported by the oil which they have accumulated during the summer, and
with which they are distended in the fall of the year.
FOR TUE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND TUB ANVIL.
THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
"When the ordinary mechanic looks into those books which are professedly
written for his own especial benefit, and sees there the armies of x\Igebra and
the Calculus drawn up in battle array, presenting at him their bristling
weapons of squares, and abscissas, and integrals, he starts back dismayed.
There, he knows, is hidden the treasure which he seeks ; but his heart sinks
within him as he thinks of the tremendous and to him almost hopeless eflbrt
required to break down the guard that surrounds it. It is a mistake to suppose
that such treatises are immediately useful to the mechanic. They are suitable
only for those who, in early fife, have enjoyed better advantages than he ;
who have had more time and opportunities for study than he can generally
command. He is a plain hard-working man, with brain quick enough
to comprehend and at once realize any thing that is practical and ordinary,
but who turns hopelessly from a complicated series of misty mathematical
reasonings. The results of these reasonings must be popularized for him.
The technicalities of the mathematicians must be removed, and their formuhe
translated into his own tongue. It is in the hope of so doing, to a certain
410 THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
extent, that this is written, and if any one herefrom gets a clearer idea of the
very important subject discussed, the writer will feel abundantly repaid.
THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF THE CALCULATION OF THE STRENGTH OF
BEAMS.
To simplify the reasoning, we will suppose for the present that the beam
itself weighs nothing, and consider only the effect upon it of the imposed load.
There are three strains to which a beam may be exposed. 1st. Of exten-
sion, as when a weight is suspended from the end of a perpendicular beam.
The ties of a bridge-truss sutler a strain of extension. 2d. Of compression,
as when a weight rests upon the top of a beam. The braces of a bridge-truss,
or ordinary columns are instances of this strain ; and 3d, a transverse strain
— that sustained for instance by the chords of a bridge-truss. The first two
act in the direction of the fibres of the wood, and the third at right angles to
them. It is evident that the first depends directly upon the number of fibres
composing the beam, without regard to its length, and therefore the tensile
strength of beams are as the areas of their cross-sections ; that is, if one beam
of a certain area will sustain 100 lbs,, another beam of twice that area will
sustain 200 lbs. The second also depends directly upon the number of fibres;
but here enters another element. It is evident that if the beam can be pre-
vented from flexure, and retained in such a position that the weight shall
always act in the direction of the fibres, the length is immaterial. But after
the beam is elongated beyond a certain point, (which practically is about
seven times the diameter of its base,) it is found difficult to retain it in such a
position, and this difficulty increases with its length ; therefore the strength of
beams, to resist a compressive force, varies directly as the areas of their cross-
sections and inversely as their length. Resistance to a legitimate crushing
force depends upon the lateral adhesion of the fibres, which may be re-
sembled to a bundle of rods, which would not fail if bound firmly together.
Thus, for a brace or post, straight-grained is better than cross-grained timber.
A fir post will carry three times as much as one of oak ; although to resist a
strain by extension, oak is much the stronger. _
The third, or transverse strain, is in a measure a combination of the first
two.
It is easy to find by experiment the strength of a single beam, but
in the experiment, the beam is generally destroyed, and besides, a series of
experiments can not be entered upon to ascertain the strength of every
portion of each one of the myriad structures which the ever-increasing wants
of a restless industrial progress demand. A way must be devised by which,
from an experiment on one beam, we can determine at all times and readily
the value of any similar beam. And this is the province of the mathema-
tician. Into his formuUe enter always and chief the results of the practical
experiment, and the constant must be known thoroughly and truly, or the
formula is useless. Let us endeavor to see how the two are connected.
If a beam is supported at each end and loaded in the middle, the conse-
quence is a deflection more or less from the horizontal. In this deflection
different parts of the beam sustain different strains. Of a vertical section
taken transversely through the middle, those fibres at the top of the beam
■will suffer a strain of compression, while those at the bottom will suffer a
strain of extension. It is similar to the case of a bended bow, the string of
which is stretched taut while the fibres of the bow itself are crushed into each
other longitudinally. If we examine the section of fracture of a beam broken
across, we shall find the fibres at the bottom literally torn asunder, while
THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 411
those at the top are forced into each other. It is evident that as these
diverse strains approach, they gradually neutralize each other, until finally
meeting they harmonize in a line within the beam, in which there is neither
compression nor extension. This is called the Neutral Axis, and in regularly
shaped beams is generally at or near the centre. It is important in esti-
mating the power of a beam, to ascertain as nearly as may be its exact
position; for the strength of the beam is limited ta that of its weakest part.
For instance : if the resistance to compression is represented by 100, while
that to extension is but 50, then the strength of the beam is but 50. Thus,
the ultimate tensile strength, that is, the power of the cohesive attraction of
the particles, which must be overcome in tearing them asunder, of cast-iron
is about 6.5 tons per square inch, while its compressive strength is about 48
tons per square inch. To construct, therefore, a cast-iron bar in the strongest
possible form, the quantity of material in the bottom must exceed that in the
top, in the ratio of 48 to 6.5 ; that is, the neutral axis must be located nearly
eight times as far from the bottom as from the top.
This, however,'for the most part depends upon the material composing the
beam, and as such, does not properly.come within the limits of this paper.
We will take the case of a beam, the neutral axis of which is in the middle^
and the re«istance of which to compression is equal to its resistance to exten-
sion. This is a perfectly balanced beam, and in the strongest possible form.
A beam may be varied in either or all of its three dimenbions, length,
breadth, and thickness.
It is evident that the longer a beam is, the other dimensions remaining
constant, the weaker it is, and this in direct proportion to its length ; that is,
if the length be doubled, the strength is halved. Therefore the strength is
said to be inversely as the length. Suppose a beam, fastened at each end in
a wall, and loaded in the middle. The pressure from the weight is communi-
cated by the particles composing the beam to each other, and so is trans-
mitted to the abutments, or end-supports. It is manifest that the pressure
and the resistance to it are equal on each side of the weight and at each end
of the beam. Therefore if we calculate the effect of half the weight on half
the beam, it will be as though we had calculated the effect of the whole
weight on the whole beam, and will be much more simple and comprehensible.
Suppose then the
beam A D, loaded at
the centre E with
the weight 2 W, be
divided through the
point E, and the part
E D with half the
weight be removed.
What will be the
effect of the remain-
ing weight W upon the part B E? {-^'i'/- !•)
B E may be considered as a lever, of which W is the powtr, and A B
the fulcrum. And, therefore, the strain at A B is equal to the product of
the length of the lever into the power == W Z in which l = B E. But W is
constant, therefore the strain varies with the length, and hence, as above, the
strength is inversely as the length.
Now, to resist this strain we have the inherent strength of the section at
A B. At A, as we have seen above, is the greatest strain of extensiun, and
at B the greatest of compression, while at / the neutral axis is no strain
412
THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
whatever. Suppose the beam to Le cut by a number of parallel horizontal
planes through the points
a h cf d e g, and that each
of these planes represents a
layer of the fibres of the
beam. Then the strain sus-
fa'ned by the extreme out-
side fibres at F G, will con-
tinually diminish until it be-
comes nothing at the neu-
'^'' ' tral axis /, and the strain
upon any intermediate layer of fibres depends upon its distance from /.
Therefore, if the strain upon the outside be represented by the line F G,
the strain upon the Avhole section of extension will be equal to the triangle
F / G ; and correspondingly that upon the section of compression by tlie
trinngle H/L Now, the entire sum of the forces of these triangles may be
considered as accumulated at their respective centres of gravity x and y.
Let us at present consider that part of the beam affected by extension alone :
/is the point at which there is no
strain ; E the end of the beam to
which is attached the weight W,
and X is the focus of the triangle
of extension : a; / E may then be
considered as a bent lever, of which
/ is the fulcrum. The effect of the
„. weight W is to turn the point x
'"' ' around the point /. This is coun-
teracted by the power P, representing the resistance to extension of the beam.
Suppose that the arm / E of the lever is four times as long as that of/ x,
then P=E W ; for by the principles of the lever the products of the arms
into their respective weights must equal each other — that is, /E x W=xf
.V P, which is the equation of equilibrium. If a; /be doubled, P must be
halved, in order to maintain the integrity of equation. The same is true of
the triangle of compression. Where / E and AV remain constant, the P
varies as/.-r ; or the power of resistance is as the line/rr, or the distance of
the neutral axis from the centre of gravity of the resisting triangle. This
distance, which is the leverage with which the resistance acts, depends, of
course, upon the depth of the beam. If the depth is doubled this leverage
is doubled, and thus the resistance doubled. But by doubling the depth of
the beam, the entire number of fibres is doubled, and this also doubles the
resistance. Hence, by doubling the depth of the beam the strength is qua-
drupled— that is, the strength of beams varies directly as the squares of their
depths.
If the breadth of the beam be doubled, the leverage of resistance, as above
explained, will not, as is readily perceived, be effected. But the number of
fibres Avill be doubled, and with them the strength, which, therefore, will
vary directly as the breadth.
We have seen the results of changes and modifications in all the dimen-
sions of a beam — its length, depth, and breadth. Combining them all, and
representing the length by I, the depth by d, and the breadth by b, we see
that the strength of beams varies as ^-y^ ; which may be taken for the ex-
pression of the strength. Now, let us find the weight that will break this
beam.
THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 413
Suppose that we have made experiments on a beam of certain dimensions
— for instance, one each side of which is a square inch — and" have found that
a certain weight C will just bieak it.. This is its ultimate strength. From
the result of this experiment, we wish to estimate the strength of other
beams, of various dimensions and of similar material. By using the breaking-
weight C of this beam, as a unit of comparison with any other whose brcak-
ing-weiglit W we wish to tind, we see that the strength of the beam experi-
mented upon is to the strength of the given beam as the breaking-weight
known is to the breaking weight sought ; or,
bd -
I
: (
w
=
i
W — whence
C.
Rule. — That is, to ascertain the breaking weight of any rectangular piece of
timber, fastened at one end and loaded at the other, multiply the product of
the breadth and the square of the depth in inches, by the weight necessary to
break a piece of similar timber, whose length, breadth, and depth are each
one inch, and divide this by the length in inches.
In cylindrical beams the strength is as the cube of the diameter, and in
square beams, as the cube of the depth or breath — for it is evident that in
both these cases 6=c?.
From a great variety of experiments the value of C has been deduced, and
tables are given by authors shov/ing the experimental strength of diii'erent
timbers when exposed to a transverse strain. The following is compiled from
Cresy's Encyclopedia of Engineering. The numbers set opposite each kind
of material is the breaking weight of a stick one inch in each of its dimen-
sions, or the value of C as above explained :
Alder, ... - 1590 lbs.
Oak, - - - - le'ze lbs
Ash, - - - - 2355 "
" (Canadian,) - - llGQ "
Beach, .... 1556 "
Pine, (pitch,) - - - 1632 "
Elm, - - - - 1620 "
" (red,)- - - 1341 "
Fir, (Norway,) - - 2576 "
Poplar, - - - - 981 "
« (N. England,) - 1102 "
Sycamore, - - - 1008 "
" (Spruce^,) - - - 1395 "
By this table, what is the breaking-weight of a beam of oak, the breadth
of which is 10 inches, the depth 12 in
ches, and the length 14 feet ?
W = V^' X 1072 = 14,331 lbs.
This is its ultimate strength. In practice it should never be subjected to
more than one fourth of its breaking weight.
The above formula is applicable to a beam subjected to the aforesaid con-
ditions alone — that is, to a beam fastened at one end and loaded at the other ;
or what is the same thing, to a beam fastened at each end and loaded in the
middle. A departure from these limitations necessitates a change in the
formula. It is true, however, that this position of the load subjects the beam
to the severest strain to which it can ever be liable ; and, therefore, if it be
strong enough to resist this, it may be safely trusted to bear the same load
in any other position in which it may be placed.
By a reference to fig. 1, it will be seen that the principal transverse
strain sustained by the beam A D, loaded by the weight 2 W, is in the
middle E, because there the leverage is the greatest. From here it continu-
414 ploughs: their construction, etc.
ally dirninishes toward the abutments. The philopophy and extent of this
diminution, the effects of a change in the position of the load — of a uniformly
distributed load — of a movable or variable load, and other such important
matters, will be considered hereafter. C. E.
PLOUGHS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION, ETC.
'" We have taken up our pen, with the purpose of preparing an article that
shall be of practical value, in respect to this important implement. But it is
exceedingly difScult to do justice to our own ideas upon this subject, for the
want of means, geometrical diagrams but iraperf^^ctly representing some of
the principles involved. The most that we shall assume to. undertake, just
now, is to open the subject for future elucidation, and we shall be " right
glad" if our readers will give us the benefit of their thoughts in relation to it.
Ploughmakers have a direct interest in the subject.
At almost every annual fair, we used to find that premiums were given for
the " best plough." Now, all are fully persuaded that no one plough is
"the best," for all uses, in the same soil, nor for the same service in diflerent
soils. It is equally obvious that different services are required of the plough
in the same field, at different states of the seasons and of the crop.
What are these services ?
1. The sward, or matter consisting of matted roots and soil, variously mingled,
are to be turned up. The roots are not to be torn asunder, nor the soil pul-
verized, but the whole object of the farmer is gained simply by turning a few
inches of the soil bottom upwards. If old grass lands are ploughed in the
fall and are to remain untouched till spring, the fanner's desire is fully realized
by this one process, and all power applied beyond this is labor lost.
2. It may be that the same kind of surface is to be prepared by a single
ploughing, in spring, for the reception of the seed. Then a certain degree
of pulverization is desired. But how much ?
If the soil is san\ly and dry, too much pulverization will prove fatal to the
germination of the seed. All the moisture is evaporated. In such cases, a
plough is wanted that will turn the furrow without entirely destroying the
slight adhesion that exists among the sandy particles.
But other soils are more adhesive, and more moist. In such, the plough
should be so constructed as more completely to separate the particles of soil ;
or in other words, to pulverize the soil more effectually.
A difference of great importance also regards the depth of furrow. One
shape is best for a shallow furrow, and another for a deeper; or rather a
plough that operates well in a shallow furrow, does not of necessity w^ork as
welPwhen it turns a deeper furrow. A plough may be built to turn equally
well a furrow of any desired depth.
Then, there is the cutting of the soil, preparatory to turning it, and the
direction of the draught.
All these points are of practical importance. Not one can be overlooked
withoiit loss. And we might, perhaps, add one more at least, for extra deep
ploughing, to wit, the pulverization of the soil without regard to any change
in its position. The object then is merely to stir up, to loosen, without bring-
ing lower strata to the surface, or burying the surface soil beneath the lower
ploughs: their construction, etc. 415
strata. After all these, must be considered the best mode of adapting the
handles of the plough, to secure the most perfect control of it.
The mere act of cutting calls for the exercise of science. Go into a book-
binder's shop and see the hands at \vork rapidly cutting up the sheets, per-
haps with a piece of bone or horn that is so far from having a sharp " edge,"
that an insect might crawl on any part of it, and yet the sheets are not torn.
If you attempt to use the same tool, you spoil half the paper. Many of our
readers have had experience of this sort, in attempts to cut the leaves of books
and pamphlets. Some of our readers complain of us that we do not " cut
open the leaves." It would be convenient for them, perhaps, but if they w\\{
apply a little science, as we intend by and by to explain it, they will not find
it a very severe nor hazardous task.
After the soil is properly cut, in two directions, then the process of turning
the furrow commences. The wedge is to be driven, the furrow is to be lifted,
simultaneously or successively. Shall these two processes be carried on at
the same instant, or one at a time ? The latter, of course, requires less power
at any one moment, than if the double service were required. Propelling the
plough forward one foot involves several distinct actions — that of a wedge
in aljorizontal direction, lifting it perpendicularly, and also a proper amount
of pulverization. The inventor of a plough has regard for each of these
results, and must adapt his tool to all the different kinds of soil. For what
-will thoroughly pulverize sand, will scarcely break a clod of other soil.
To accomplish these various results in different soils, and to_ any given
extent, different mechanical contrivances are requisite. For turning furrow-
slices unbroken, in loose soils, certain gentle curves are requisite. For a
thorough breaking up and separation of the masses of earth, bolder curves and
shorter mould-boards are required.
So far as the resistances to be overcome are concerned, all may be
resolved into two terms, adhesion and friction, while on most soils the latter
consumes a large portion of the power demanded in this work. Ilence,
other things being equal, that plough which accomplishes the service required
with the least friction, is the best plough ; and this friction is determined by
mathematical calculation. Here is one of the most important questions for
the investigations of the man of science. Experiment must test his correct-
ness, for perhaps in his calculations, which are right as far as the}' go, he
has overlooked some one factor or requisite, which will render all his calcu-
lations worthless.
First, the requisites of a good cutter. A thin cutting edge, of course, can
be driven through soil with less force than would be required to tear it open.
But, besides this, the position of the blade is also important. Apply a thin
ivory blade, or a table-knife, to the fold of a newspaper, at right angles to it,
and exert a little force, and you tear the paper anywhere else rather than at
the point to which it is applied, and if the paper should be separated in the
right place, it will present very rough torn edges. Hold the blade obliquely
and apply force, and the roughness of the edges will be sensibly diminished.
If the handle is further from yuu than the point of the blade, and the motion
is longitudinal, so that the cutting point constantly moves from the handle to
the other end of the blade, while you push from you, there is still improve-
ment in the condition of the cut edge. But if the handle is much nearer to
you than the blade, say at 45° with the fold of the paper which is to be cut,
and the knife is drawn towards you, while it is also forced against the paper,
you will make a smooth edge when you cut. One who shaves himself
416 PLOUGHS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION', ETC.
may experiment upon these modes of operation, and will scarcely doubt
their importance.
In a plough, there is no opportunity for the sliding motion — that is, none
has ever been devised. But regard is had to the position of the knife. It
should not be perpendicular to the surface, but cut obliquely. It should also
cut to the bottom of the furrow. The horizontal blade, or that which severs
the bottom of the furrow-slice from the stratum below it, is governed, of
course, by the same rules. There is, however, one point of uitierence. If
the furrow-slice is to be turned unbroken and retain its place on the field,
without lapping over the next furrow-slice in one place, and leaving a gap in
another, it is desirable to leave a short space uncut, that it may act as a
hinge on which the furrow-shce may 'turn with due regularity. This is not
obviously to gain power, but rather at a slight loss of it, for the sake of
another good.
The turning of the furrow-slice. If the width of the plough is too great
in proportion to its length, making the wedge too blunt, the furrow will be
broken into pieces and be laid irregularly. If the wedge is too long, the
plough will not be so easily managed, and the furrow-slice will not probably be
well laid. The furrow-slice should notjeave the mould-board till it has been
carefully turned considerably beyond a perpendicular, so that it may drop
regularly into its place. If the plough is too short, the extreme pressuio
of the soil against the mould-board will drive the plough to the land-slide,
and produce irregularities in the line of its direction and in the position of
the slice.
The great question then comes up. What should be the shape of a plough-
share in order to secure all these points? Some are concave through nearly
their whole extent, thereby increasing friction unnece.-sarily ; some are
decidedly convex, breaking the fmTOw by lifting it too suddenly ; some others
are concave in one direction, and straight in another.
This seems to us the best form for general work, while each of the others
may have their merits for some special service. The boldly convex will pul-
verize the soil most eifectually, while it requires most strength of team. But
as suggested in the beginning, no two states of the same soil are best suited
by thie same plough. General principles only can be inculcated.
If A B and A C are the
mould-boards of two ploughs
of the same vvidth, the resist-
ance which each encounters is
in proportion to the perpen-
diculars B 6 and G c. Hence,
the smaller the angle formed
by the mould-board with the ^g^a^Mfc
line of the furrow, the less will 1 i ' istance.
But this is only one view of the subject. We regard the mouhl-board as
a flat surface, in the above proportion, while in all ploughs, we have more or
less of curved lines in this part of the implement. The amount of curve, its
direction, and the shape of the board, are all questions of great practical
importance. The eifects of these different shapes, we propose to consider
hereafter.
So also the form and length of the beam, or, in other words, the connec-
tion of the plough with the driving power, and the length, connection, and
adaptation of the handles, are essential items in considering this question.
What ploughs, in fact, possess the requisite proportions in the greatest
A NEW AND GOOD MODE OF WIRE-FENCE. 417
degree, with the best line of draught, etc., is a separate brancli of inquiry,
which we have not the means to pursue. If any of the difFareut manufac-
turers, or their friends, will furnish statements or descriptions il ustraling this
subject, we will cheerfully give them jilace.
A NEW AND GOOD MODE OF WIRE-FENCE.
The agriculturists of the United States have been looking long and anxi-
ously for some better mode of fence than auy now in vogue. Our forests
are steadily retiring before the advancing wavie of civilization ; and wood,
the most common material for fencing, is daily becoming more scarce and
expensive. Many of our States have no stone^ so that we can find little
relief from the growing scarcity of wood in wall-fences. Nor can hedges or
live-fences avail us ; our soil, climate, and physical geography being inimical
to them. One of the most eminent agricultural writers in the country
recently stated, that in all his travels east, west, north, and south, he had
found but one good live farm fence ; " and that," sai.l he, " was supported
on one side by a board-fence, and on the other by a rail-fence."
So expensive, indeed, have all our present modes of fencing been found,
that Burnap, a well-known agricultural writer, has demonstrated that " the
fences of this country cost more than twenty times the amount of all the
specie that is in it. In some States — for instance, Texas, where rough cypress
boards are sold for seventy dollars per thousand feet — the expense of fencing
a farm is two or three times greater than the first cost of the farm itself.
These long-established facts long since led many of our leading agricul-
tural and mechanical journals, lecturers, writers, and associations, and espe-
cially the New-York Society of Agricultural Debates, to the conclusion that
iron or loire would eventually be adopted as the staple material for fences.
But the difliculty heretofore has been found in the want of a machine for
the manufacture of wire or other iron into fencing. That machine has now
been invented, patented, started, and the netting made by it successfully and
extensively tried for fencing. The inventor was John Nesmith, Esq., of
Lowell, Mass. ; and the Lowell Wire-Fence Company are the manufacturers
of this fencing, which they claim to be, and perhaps correctly, the cheapest,
considering its strength, closeness, durability, and beauty, in the world.
Thus has the great necessity of American agriculture been supplied, by an
invention which will, without doubt, produce, at least in some sections of
country, a considerable revolution in our system of fencing.
By different machines, constructed, however, on the same general princi-
ples, all kinds of this netting have been produced, adapted equally as a fence
for cattle, sheep, pigs, fowls, roads, lawns, gardens, ornamental fences, vine-
trelisses, netting in lieu of bed-cords in bedsteads^ window-netting, bird-
cages, hen-coops, etc. The netting is furnished in neat and portable rolls,
at from seventy-five cents to two dollars per rod ; some being varnished
black with asphaltum varnish, some painted of whatever color, and some
galvanized, in order to beautify and preserve it from rust ; the width or
height of this netting, the size of the wire of which it is composed, and the
meshes or spaces between the wires, all vary to suit the tastes of purchasers.
Some of the netting is two feet, some three feet, and some four feet in height.
VOL. VII. 26
418 stroDe's hydraulic ram.
The sizes of the wire are from No. 20 to No. 10 ; and the meshes are from
one to six inches. Any farmer has skill enough to apply it to his own uses.
The fencing is ftistcned to posts, set from ten to fifteen feet apart, by nails,
brads, or iron or wire-staples ; the upper edge of the netting being kept on
a level from one terminus to another ; and no rails are necessary, though
some farmers use a top-rail occasionally.
This fence is particularly adapted to those districts which are periodically
subjected to hurricanes and floods^ offering no resistance to wind or water.
While other fences cover from one to four feet of the soil throughout their
length, this occupies no space at all, and shuts out none of the genial rays
of the sun. While other iron-fences are seriously iujui-ed by the alternate
expansion and contraction, occasioned by the changes incident to the tempera-
ture of the atmosphere, this, by the novel and ingenious manner in which
its wires are knit or woven together, is enabled to undergo these changes of
temperature, and the expansion and contraction occasioned thereby, without
the slightest deterioration or injiuy. It requires little and unfrequent repair,
and is calculated to last a century or more. The farmer who has not a
surplus of wood or stone on his farm, can find no fence so admirably adapted
to his wants, by cheapness, strength, portability, durableness, beauty, and
economy, as this. By an outlay of less than a dollar and a half per rod,
•with a little personal labor, and a few posts, he can erect a substantial farm-
fence, impassable to cattle, sheep, or pigs, which will survive when he is no
more, to his children and his children's children.
We propose, in a future article, to present suitable drawings of this re-
markable mode of fence, with additional descriptions of the same. Mean-
while, we will be happy to answer inquiries, and can send printed specimens
of the different patterns or styles, if so requested.
STRODE'S HYDRAULIC RAM.
Mr. Strode, of Philadelphia, has been engaged several years in the manu-
facture and erection of water-rams, in which he has made several valuable
improvements, secured by various patents. He has received premiums at the
Pennsylvania State Fair, 1854, and at the Franklin Institute, 1854.
His first improvement consists in laying the driving-pipe, which conveys
the water from the head to the ram, in the brachysto-chroue curve, which is
the curve in which a body will descend from one point to another point in
the shortest time, and therefore with the greatest mean velocity. By this
property of the above curve, a greater quantity of water can be raised by a
machine of a given size, than can be raised with the driving-pipe laid in any
other directioa; and in consequence of the increased reaction of the water
thus produced, the discharge- valve is opened with more rapidity and cer-
tainty. A second improvement consists in the carrying of a pipe from the
upper valve-seat of the puppet-valve to the bottom of the air-chamber,
'for the purpose of transferring the shock produced by the rising of the puppet-
valve to the air-chamber; and also in placing a series of short vertical lubes,
extending from the upper valve-seat of the puppet-valve to the external air.
By these improvements, the puppet-valves of hydraulic rams can be made
THE MUSQUIT TREE. 419
to slide in perfect contact with the top of the chamber, without producing a
destructive shock on the metallic parts of the chamber, and without the pup-
pet-valves sticking to the upper seat, by reason of a partial vacuum there.
He has also made a further improvement in the arrangement of these valves, '
whereby as the puppet-valve rises, the water inclosed between the top of the
puppet-valve and the valve-seat, is made to escape at the side of the puppet-
valve down into the valve-chamber, by which arrangement the shock of the
valve and its sticking are entirely obviated, without any additional tubes or
complication of apparatus. By means of these improvements, he can construct
rams which will be free from lability to derangement; and rams of the largest
size can be constructed, which shall be equally durable, efficient, and simple
in construction, as rams of the smallest size.
THE MUSQUIT TREE.
A Texas paper contains the following interesting account of the tree con-
cerning which so much has been said as alfording a gum which it is thought
will prove an excellent substitute for gum arable, and the getting of which
it believed, will, ere long, prove a profitable employment for the Indians of
the West :
" This is a very abundant timber in many portions of Western Texas, pos-
sessing some remarkable and valuable properties. It deserves attention. Al-
though a very compact and heavy wood, and generally free from rot, yet the
centre portion is generally shivered in circles often as near as two or three inches
to the surface. It splits with remarkable accuracy through the centre, and,
although a scrubby low growth, its great durability renders it valuable for
jjosts and fencing material. A considerable amount of timber may be procured
from it, and for furniture there is scarcely any wood superior to it. It takes a
beautiful smooth polish, never shrinks, although put together green. The
color is at first a bright brown, and with age assumes a deeper bright brown.
Perhaps no wood yields greater heat than this when seasoned. The sap
portion is very thin, often not more than one fourth of an inch thick. If the
tree is hacked in the months of June or July, a gum issues in considerable
quantities, and hardens from the action of the sun, having all the properties
of gum arable. The decayed wood by being burnt under cover yields a
large amount of benzoic acid. The burning of this wood in stoves is very
destructive to them; the grating and sides are rapidly corroded both by the
heat of the grate and acid vapor of the burning fuel. To the soap-maker
it furnishes a material of importance. The ashes, instead of containing pot-
ash, as most hard woods do, are carbonic acid and soda combined ; and by
putting say a peck — and half a bushel would. do no damage — of fresh-burnt
quick lime to the barrel of ashes, it will yield caustic soda-lye that will make
the very best soap. Cattle are very fond of the ashes, as they lick them up
whenever a tree is burnt upon the prairies. Another use, it is probable,
could be made of the ashes; which is to scatter say half a bushel through
each load of corn as it is housed, to destroy the weavil. It would certainly
do no mischief, and would improve the shucks. As a fertilizer there is no
doubt it would give valuable results upon worn-out soils; but it is not probable
that the application will be made for many yeai-s, for the soil upon which the
musquit grows is invariably fertile and of great depth. This tree belongs to
the family of acacias."
420 INFLUENCE AND IMPROVEMENT OF SUB-SOIL.
INFLUENCE AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE SUB-SOIL.
The influence of the sub-soil is of great importance. It may entirely
control the fertility or barrenness of a given tract. Hence its actual and
relative conditions should be carefully studied, For example : Let us first
suppose a sandy surface with a clay sub-soil. The hard clay is impervious
to the rains, and the sand above it has but little power to retain them.
Hence, if the surface-soil is shallow, aud if the waters falling upon it are not
retained by the natural formation of the surface around, in a dry season it
must be dry and comparatively unproductive. But let this sub-soil be
thoroughly brohen up, and rendered so porous as to absorb the rains which
fall upon it. Clav having the power to retain moisture in an eminent degree
a reservoir is here provided for a season of drought, which may secure good
crops, which would otherwise be a comparative failure. For this clay, being
well furnished with moisture, as the surface becomes dry and hot, will gra-
dually yield up this valuable deposit, in the form of water or of vapor, ac-
cording to circumstances. If the season is wet, large quantities of rain fall-
ing upon it, which are not absorbed, m\l themselves dissolve the more solu-
ble parts, and running off to waste, greatly impoverish the land. If the
season is wet, a part at least of the excess of moisture is absorbed by the
prepared sub-soil, and the surface is proportionally benefited.
If the land in question is inclosed on all sides by higher surfaces, so as
to prevent the escape of the rains descending upon it, of course it will be
cold and wet, and comparatively worthless. Under such circumstances, a
thorough breaking up of the clay beneath would open a way of escape for
the excess of water, the clay retaining a considerable portion of it, which
would, as before, become available in time of need.
If both soil and sub-soil are porous, the tendency will be to render the
whole too dry in ordinary seasons. Under such circumstances, deep plough-
ing is not desirable.
If the soil is clay for a considerable depth, including what is usually
termed soil and sub-soil, shallow ploughing will only produce a cold and wet
surface, unless there are ample facilities for draining. And if these latter
conditions exist, then the soil may be well moistened by the rains, but it
speedily becomes hard and dry, the roots can not penetrate into it, and the
plant dwindles and is comparatively worthless. If this clay were thoroughly
pulverized to a great depth, the excess of water would speedily disappear,
and the soil might still remain in a fixvorable condition for the growth of
plants.
A gravelly sub-soil exerts a similar and favorable effect on a clay soil. If
the latter is well cultivated, the sub-soil, retaining a bountiful supply of water,
though less than if it were clay, yields it up as it is required, and tends to
secure a good growth on the surface.
A sandy sub-soil, being incapable of retaining any thing, acts as a leach
in depriving the soil, not only of its moisture, but of every thing that may
be held in solution, which as readily escapes to still lower depths, or is other-
wise eft'ectually cut off from contact with the roots of the crop. Hence, to
benefit such soils, the first step must be to render not only the soil but the
sub-soil retentive of moisture. To this end, lime, gypsum, charcoal, and
other substances of the same character should be freely used, and thoroughly
mixed with the soil to as great a depth as is practicable.
METROPOLITAN MECHANICS' INSTITUTE. 421
While this process is going on, it should also, as indeed in all cases, be
remembered that one great point in all cultivation is to produce a soil of fine
minute grains or particles. The particles of soils differ in this respect as
essentially as do the fibres of wool in fineness, or of hair. As a frequent
and continued application of the comb and brush will make the most stub-
born head of hair to become soft and pliable, so will proper cultivation im-
prove, in these respects, the character of our soils.
The ploughing in of green crops, or of vegetable matter but partially
decomposed, tends very strongly to recover a soil that is too hard and dry.
For a clay soil, compost, well mixed, in which sand is a predominant ele-
ment, will also be found very useful. So horse-dung is an efficient applica-
tion for such lands, not acting as a proper manure, so much as an amend-
ment, its effect being physical rather than chemical.
THE "NE PLUS ULTRA" WHEAT.
For several seasons past, much interest has been excited in this neighbor-
hood, in the result of experiments made by Mr. Harradine, of Needingworth,
near St. Ives, Huntingdonshire, in the growth of a new description of wheat,
and which, if " it giveth forth its increase" at the rate of multiplication that
has attended it hitherto, bids fair to create a revolution in the agricultural
world. One ear of it was sown in 1849, on the land of Mr. Harradine, and
the produce of this again in 1850 and 1851, when it yielded at the extraordi-
nary rate (especially for those years) of 19 combs, 1 bushel, and 1 peck per
acre, (77;^ bushels.) It has been sown on almost every available description
of soil, and introduced in every imaginable change of crops. It was sown
after Tartarian oats, clover, seeds, peas, and tares, on soil of various composi-
tions, fen and highland ; in all cases the quantity of seed was restricted to
four pecks per acre ; but the result was the same, the yield reaching that
previously realized by Mr. Harradine. It has been sown after wheat, clover,
barley, beans, oats, and fallow, and sustained its reputation through these
trials : it has been sown in winter and in spring, drill, broadcast, and dibbled,
with the same results, some put in in February showing no diminution in the
yield. The preparation of the land may be the same as for ordinary wheat,
and the same rate of increase in the yield over ordinary sorts may be ex-
pected.
[The above is from the Cambridge (Eng.) Chronicle, and if reliable, is
certainly worth the attention of agriculturists.
METROPOLITAN MECHANICS' INSTITUTE.
The Second Exhibition of the Metropolitan Mechanics' Institute, for the
promotion of Manufactures, Commerce, and the Mechanic and Useful Art-^,
will be opened in the city of Washington, on Thursday, February 8, 1855,
in the new and splendid hall of the Smithsonian Institute. The rules adopted
by the Committee are as follows :
RULES.
1st. The hall will be opened for the reception of goods on Monday, the
29th day of January ; and on the evening of Thursday, the 8th of February,
422 METROPOLITAN MECHANICS' INSTITUTE.
at 1 o'clock, the exliibition will be formally opened for tlae reception of visit"
ors, and continue open about four weeks.
2d. No article deposited after Saturday night, 3d of February, can be
entered upon the Judges' lists for competition or premium, except such as
the Committee sliall be satisfied were dispatched from a distance in time to
have reached the hall by that day, but failed to arrive from unavoidable
detention.
3d. Articles designed Jbr exhibition only will be received, //-ee of charge,
until Tuesday night, 6th of February, at 10 o'clock, after which time de-
2)Ositors ivill be nubject to a charge of from 50 cents to $1, for each article
deposited.
4th. Apprentices and minors who contribute articles of their own make
or invention shall specify their age, and the time they may have served at
their business.
5th. All articles deposited for competition and premium must be of Ame-
rican manufacture, conspicuously labeled with appropriate names ; the name
of the maker and inventor, if known, and the name of the depositor ; a copy
of which label must be furnished the Clerk at the time of bringing the
goods for entry on the record. Prices may be affixed, or not, at the option
of the exhibitor.
6th. Depositors, at the time of entiy, will receive a ticket of title to their
goods, which ticket will also admit them to the Exhibition at all times, when
open to the public.
'7th. This ticket or check shall only be used by the depositor, and when
found in the hands of another person, will be stopped at the door, and the
depositor deprived of its use.
8th. No article can be removed from the Exhibition until its close, without
permission of the Committee.
9th. The Machinery Department will be under the care of a special
Superintendent, and the Committee ofter every facility of steam-power, fix-
tures, labor, etc., free of expense, hoping that this portion of the display will
be unusually varied and attractive.
10th. The time of delivery of the Opening and Annual Addresses will be
announced hereafter. The Closing Address will be delivered, and the Pre-
miums announced on the closing day, by the President of tbe Institute.
11th. The Judges will be appointed about the time of the opening of the
Exhibition, and the hours before 10 o'clock, each morning, will be appro-
priated, exclusively to them to examine the articles. Before 10 o'clock, there-
fore, no owner, agent, depositor, or visitor loill be admitted to the hall, unless
the Judges require some explanation, in which case all the competitors in the
same class shall be duly notified to attend.
12th. Where objections are raised, proof of origin may be required by
the Judges or Committee on Awards.
13th. All articles will be at the risk of the owner or depositor, who is
expected to be present during the hours of exhibition. In the intervening
time, and at all times, the Committee will use every efibrt for their preserva-
tion.
14th. Proper order will at all times be preserved by an efficient police,
who will be present to prevent offenses against contributors and visitors.
15th. Season tickets to the Exhibition will admit the owner and a lady or
two children at all exhibition hours. A season ticket will make its holder a
member of the Institute, and will be received, at the close of the Exhibition,
in payment for his initiation fee and one years subscription.
AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 423
Members or junior members who transfer tlie use of their tickets, shall
be deprived of the privileges of the Exhibition.
N. B. — Goods should be addressed as follows : "JSxhibition of the Metro-
poUtan Mechanics'' Instihcte, Washington City^'' and should have the nature
of the articles, and the name of the party sending them, distinctly marked
on the package. They should also be accompanied by a detailed invoice.
Any further information will be given by applying, post-paid, to the Super-
intendent, to whom all communications on the business of the Exhibition
should be addressed. Thomas C. CosTNOLLy, Superintendent.
The following is the list of officers :
President^
Joseph Henry.
Vice- 1^ residents,
JoHK W. Maury,-* C. F. Wood,
W. B. Todd, F. MohuxX.*
J. C. Brent, . . . Corresponding Secreianj.
P. M. Pearson,* . . . Recording Secretary^
W. H. Ward, . . . Financial Secretary.
Joseph Bryan,* . . . Treasurer.
HoLLis Amidon,* . . . Librarian.
Directors,
Geo. H. Plant,* Jas. A. Tail,* Wm. H. Baldwin,*
Z. M. P. King,* Jos. H. Bradley,* Thos. B. Entwisle,*
Thos. Greaser,* F. Mattingly,* Martin Buell,*
Jas. O'Neill,* H. Polkinhorn,* • W. F. Bayly,
F. Y. Naylor,* W. D. Brackenridge,* Chas. Edmonston,
W. Ashdown,* David Hepburn,* Almon Baldwin,
Wm. Dougherty,* John Sessford, Sr.,* John Clarke.
H. N. Easby,-^
*
AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
third session and fifth MEETINa. BOSTON, SEPT. 13, 14, 15, 1854.
Br the courtesy of Hon. M. P. Wilder, the President, we have received a
copy of the proceedings of this Society. It forms a pamphlet of 258 pages
of 8vo size, and is executed in very handsome style, worthy of the Massachu-
setts Horticultural Society, by whom and at whose expense it was published.
AVe gave in our last number a short extract from one or two of the addresses,
as brought to our notice in some newspaper report, and we now give, as we
purpose to do hereafter, further extracts.
Mr. Wilder, the President, in his admirable address, spoke as follows in
relation to
THE PRODUCTION OF SEEDLINGS.
My next suggestion relates to the production from seed of neio varieties of
fruits adapted to particulax localities, or to general cultivation.
The immense loss to American cultivators, from the importation of foreign
varieties, in many instances not well adapted to the countries from which
* Those marked with an asterisk compose the Exhibition Committee.
424 AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
they come, and often still less adapted to our soil and climate, suggests the
importance of raising from seed, native sorts which, in most instances, possess
peculiar advantages. It is now generally conceded that the trees and plants
of a given country, like its aboriginal inhabitants, will flourish better at home
than in most foreign localities.
We rejoice that public attention has been turned to this subject by some
of our horticultural journalists, and that many cultivators and amateurs are
engaged in this interesting and promising department. The success which
has crowned their exertions aff'ords great encouragement to perseverance.
Witness, for instance, thirty or more varieties of the cherry, by Dr.' Kirtland,
of Ohio, which appear adapted to our eastern climate, and some of them of
superior excellence. Witness the numerous varieties of the raspberry, by
Dr. Brinckle, Ex-President of this Society, of which some have endured,
without covering, the severities of the last winter in the New-England States,
and which also promise to be valuable contributions to American pomology.
In addition to these, how many new varieties of the apple, the pear, the
plum, and the grape have recently been added to the list of American fruits !
How many new and excellent varieties of the strawberry have appeared since
the introduction of Mr. Hovey's Seedlings !
These are sure indications of the success which will reward future efforts
to obtain valuable and native varieties of fruit; and they point to the fulfill-
ment of the prediction of the celebrated Van Mons, " that the time will come
when our best fruits will be derived from seedlings." He gives the following
sage counsel to his correspondents to whom he had sent trees : "aSom; your
seed and jjersevere luithout interruption, and you will obtain even better fruit
than miney
Among pioneers in this department I am happy to notice a gentleman
(now residing among us) the pupil and friend of Van Mons, one who has
adopted our country as his future home, and who has already transplanted
to our soil many thousands choice seedlings of the pear, which have come
into his possession from the collections of that gentleman and the celebrated
Esperen.
As to the best method of producing fine varieties from seed, the opinions
of distinguished pomologists are not uniform.
Duhamel, among the French, from causes which seem to us irreconcilable
with nature and experience, entertained serious doubts of the practicability
of any method for obtaining new and valuable varieties from seed, especially
of the pear, because he had tried various experiments without success for
fifty years.
Dr. Van Mons, of Belgium, instead of saving the seed of the finest varie-
ties, selected those of inferior sorts, upon the principle that a kind having
arrived at the highest state of perfection must deteriorate, while an inferior
one would improve by successive reproductions. He also held that hybrid-
izcition tended to degeneracy and imperfection. Thus he assumes the doc-
trine that a perfect variety necessarily deteriorates, and also overlooks the
fact, observed by other distinguished men, that the improvement or deterio-
ration of which he speaks may result from natural impregnation by the
pollen of other varieties, conveyed by the air or insects, and therefore that
tbe seed of a good variety may produce either a better or a worse, and that
of a bad either a worse or a better.
Mr. Knight's system of obtaining new and improved varieties depended
entirely on hybridization, or artificial impregnation, so lightly esteemed by
Dr. Van Mons. This is somewhat difficult to practise, on account of natural
AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 425
fertilization by insects and the wind ; but it has the merit of depending on
a truly philosophical principle, and with very particular attention may yet
prove as available for the improvement of our fruits as it has for the produc-
tion of fine varieties in the vegetable and floral kingdom, or as the corre-
sponding principle has in the crossing of the breeds of domestic animals.
The results of Mr. Knight's experience disprove the tendency to degene-
racy, inasmuch as many of his fruits, obtained by hybridization, are among
the most durable and hardy varieties, as the Eyewood and Dunmore Pears ;
the Black Eagle, and other Cherries.
Many cultivators, as Esperen, Bivort, Berckmans, and others, both in this and
foreign countries, have sown seeds in vaiiety, and have obtained some valuable
sorts. But I am confirmed in the opinion that the best means of producing
new and excellent varieties, suited either to general cultivation or to particu-
lar localities, is to plant the most mature and perfect seed, of the most hardy^
vigorous, and vaduable sorts ; on the general pathological principle that like
produces like, and upon the conviction that immature seed, although the
embryo may be siifiiciently formed to vegetate, yet, not having all its ele-
ments in perfection, it will not produce a vigorous and healthy off':?pring.
Dr. Lindley, commenting upon this practice, justly remarks : "All experience
shows that in every kind of created thing, be it man, or beast, or bird, the
mysterious principle called life remains during the whole period of existence
what it was at first. If vitality is feeble in the beginning, so it remains. Weak
parents produce weak children, and their children's children are weaker still,
as imperial dynasties have sadly shown." With him, we believe this theory
as applicable to the vegetable as to the animal kingdom. May not a disre-
gard for this doctrine account for the great number of feeble, sickly, early-
defoliated trees often found in our grounds by the side of those that are
vigorous, healthful, and persistent in foliage ? Is not the theory we advocate
as important in the production of fruit-trees as in the raising of cereal grains ?
The skillful agriculturist saves the best seed of his various crop?, and selects
the best animals from his flocks and herds for breeders. Why should not
this law of reproduction regulate the practice of the pomologist as well as of
the farmer ? Has the All-wise and Infinite enacted several laws where one
would subserve the purpose ?
To the doctrine of Van Mons, and other distinguished writers, respecting
deterioration by age, and after a variety has reached its perfection, there
seem to be some exceptions. From the accounts of Oriental travellers, may
we not believe that the grapes of Eschol are as perfect now as when the chiefs
of Israel plucked their rich clusters three thousand years ago ; and that the
same variety of the fig, the olive, and the pomegranate are as perfect in
Syria to-day as in the period of David and Solomon ? It is worthy of inquiry
whether the native grapes on the banks of our rivers have deteriorated since
the day when the red men of the forest refreshed themselves with the fruit
from those vines, and whether the orange, the lemon, the bananna, and the
fruits of southern latitudes, evince any more signs of decay than they did
centuries ago ; in a word, whether this doctrine of deterioration is as applica-
ble to the native as to the foreign fruit of a country ?
Why may we not expect to obtain natural varieties of the apple and other
fruit as durable and far more valuable than those which have passed their
second centennial, as the Endicott and Stuyvesant Pears ? From meteorolo-
gical, or other causes which we do not at present understand, particular
varieties may deteriorate in a given locahty for a season, and afterward
revive ; or they may show signs of decay in one locality, and flourish well
426 AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
in others not very remote, as the White Doyenne, -which has been considered,
for many years, by some in this vicinity on the decline, while it is perfect in
several places in Maine, New-Hampshire, Vermont, and other States. Fruit-
bearing may exhaust the vital energy of the tree, and hasten decay, but still
the variety may remain. We have among fruit-trees no example of longevity
equal to that of the new Taxodium, found in California, supposed to be three
thousand years old. Our object is not to controvert the opinions of those
who believe in the running-out of varieties, whether their duration be limited
to one hundred or one thousand years, but to enforce the importance of
raising new varieties from seed, especially adapted to our own location.
^ At this meeting a Report was made by Dr. Harris, the eminent entomolo-
gist of " the Diseases and Insects affecting Fruit-trees and Vines." This we
intend to publish as soon as we can obtain engravings of these insects, of a
reliable character. We have already taken measures to secure them.
A large portion of the pamphlet before us is taken up with the discussion
on the lists of fruits worthy of general cultivation, of those that promise well,
and those that are rejected from the lists. .
The following is the corrected hst of
FRUITS WORTHY OF GENERAL CULTIVATION.
Apples. — American Summer Pearmain, Baldwin, Bullock's Pippin, Dan-
ver's Winter Sweet, Early Harvest, Early Strawberry, Fall Pippin, Fameuse,
Gravenstein, Hubbardston Nonesuch, Lady Apple, Ladies' Sweet, Large
Yellow Bough, Melon, Minister, Porter, Red Astrachan, Rhode-Island Green-
ing, Roxbury Russet, Summer Rose, Swaar, Vandervere, White Seek-no-
Further, William's Favorite, (except for light soils,) Wine Apple or Hays,
Winesap.
Pears. — Ananas d'Ete, Andrews, Belle Lucrative or Fondante d'Automne,
Beurre d'Anjou, Beurre d'Aremburg, Beurre Die], Beurre Bosc, Bloodgood,
Buffum, Dearborn's Seedling, Doyenne d'Ete, Flemish Beauty, Fulton, Golden
Beurre of Bilboa, Lawrence, Louise Bonne de Jersey, Madeline, Manning's
Ehzabeth, Paradise d'Automne, Rostiezer, Seckel, Tyson, Urbaniste, Uve-
dale's St. Germain, (for baking,) Vicar of Winkfield, William's Bon Chretien
or Bartlett, Winter Nelis.
for cultivation on quince STOCKS.
Pears. — Belle Lucrative, Beurre d'Amalis, Beurre d'Anjou, Beurre
d'Aremberg, Beurre Diel, Catillac, Duchesse d'Angouleme, Easter Beurre,
Figue d'Alengon, Glout Morceau, Long Green of Cox, Louise Bonne de Jer-
sey, Napoleon, Nouveaii Poiteau, Rostiezer, Beurre Langelier, Soldat Labo-
reur, St. Michael Archange, Triomphe de Jododigne, Urbaniste, XJvedale's
St. Germain or Belle Angevine,(for baking,) Vicar of Winkfield, White Do-
yenne.
Plums. — ^Bleecker's Gage, Coe's Golden Drop, Frost Gage, Green Gage,
Jefferson, Lawrence's Favorite, McLaughlin, Purple Gage, Purple Favorite,
Eeine Claude de Bavay, Smith's Orleans, Washington.
Cherries. — Belle Magnifique, Black Eagle, Black Tartarian, Downer's
Late, Downton, Elton, Early Richmond, (for cooking,) Grafficfn or Bigarreau,
Knight's Early Black, May Duke.
Apricots. — Breda, Large Early, Moorpark.
Nectarines. — Downton, Early Violet, Elruge.
■THE LARGEST. MILL IN THE WORLD." 427
Peaches. — Bergen's Yellow, Cooledge's Favorite, Crawford's Late, Early
York, (serrated,) Early York, (large,) George IV., Grosse Mio'uonne, Morris
White, Old Mixon Free.
Grapes, (under ffhss.)— Black Hamburg, Black Frontignan, Black Prince?
Chasselas de Fontainebleau, Grizzly Frontignan, White Frontignan, White
Muscat of Alexandria. (02)en culture.) — Catawba, Diana, Isabella.
Raspberries. — Fastolf, Franconia, Knevet's Giant, Red Antwerp, Yellow
Antwerp.
Strawberries. — Boston Pine, Hovey's Seedling, Large Early Scarlet.
Currants. — Black Naples, May's Victoria, Red Dutch, White Dutch,
White Grape.
Gooseberries. — Crown Bob, Early Sulphur, Green Gage, Green Walnut,
Houghton's Seedling, Iron-Monger, Laurel, Red Champagne, Warrington,
Woodward's White Smith.
Blackberries. — Lawson's New-Rochelle.
"THE LARGEST illLL IN THE WORLD."
Perhaps we ought to' have been more careful than to have extended the
circulation of a mistake of the nature, of that referred to below. Had we
gone into any " calculation," we should have discovered the error. But find-
ing it with a responsible indorser, and that it was an item of general inter-
est, we used the scissors at once, scarcely reading it through, and thought no
more about it. We thank our correspondent for his favor, which we insert
below, and should like to receive statistical or other information from him at
all seasons. Though it comes anonymously — so that. we owe no body for it —
the handwriting is quite familiar to us. — Eds. P., L., & A.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THH ANVIL.
Messrs. Editors : On page 369, No. 6, of your useful periodical, you
have copied from the LoiueU Courier, and as your journal goes broadcast
over the land, you have given extensive publicity to a very considerable
blunder. You say that at the " Pacific Mills," in Lawrence, the largest in
the world^ (not yet, they may be one of these days,) Mr. Clapp, the pay-
master, pays out to the operatives, 2000 in number, $500,000 for wages
every month. Now, $.500,000 per month are equal to $0,000,000 per
annum, and $6,000,000 per annum, divided among 2000 operatives, give
$3000 per annum to each. Only think of that — each Yankee boy and
girl, and each Irish boy and girl — of these " largest mills in the loorld" earn-
ing $3000 a piece per annum. Come hither, ye poor desolate men and women
of_ all trades, and grades, and professions ; come, ye pulpitless ministers, ye
brietless lawyers, ye patientless doctors, ye starving needlewomen, needless is
it for you to go any longei- without money and without price ; hasten to the
♦'largest mills in the world," and sell your services at the glorious price of
"$3000 a piece per annum." And here it may be asked, if the operatives
get that, what does the treasurer get, what the agent, what the book-keepers,
428 MISCELLANEOUS.
and paymaster ? Why, they must pile it up so thick, that the stockholders
will run the chance of getting precious thin pickings.
The fact is, your friend of the Lowell Courier put on just one cipher too
much to his $500,000 per month. It should have read $50,000, and would
not be right then, for their monthly pay-roll has never yet exceeded
$35,000. Perhaps it will be $50,000 as soon as they get to be "the largest
mill in the world." At $50,000, the average pay per annum of the opera-
tives would drop down to $300, and out of this they must pay their board.
Again, it is stated, as something remarkable, that Mr. Clapp appropriates
" to each the exact amount she has earned." Of course he does, and so
does every paymaster in every mill in the whole world. He would neither
pay more or less. Is there any thing wonderful in paying a person just
what he or she earns ? There are time-tables, and clerks, and pay-rolls in all
mills, and this monthly exact payment is the commonest thing in the world.
The Pacific Mills are very fine and very large, and are spending a good
deal of money. The time for the first dividend is not yet fixed by the Direc-
tors, but it may come ofi" in due season.
As to their being the largest in the world now, it is not true, since the
Atlantic Cotton Mills are 70 feet longer in the main mill, and the Bay State
Mills undoubtedly cover more space. It is expected that the Pacific Mills,
when finished, will be the largest in the world. At present the main mill
is but 500 feet long ; they are intended to be, one of these fine days, 800
feet long. Yours truly,
Lawrence, Bee. 16, 1854. Old Millwright.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Enlarging Vegetables. — Upon an average, only one half the size is attained
for all vegetables grown which might easily be had by an improved mode of
culture. If every thing was doubled in size, without saying any thing about
the increase otherwise in the amount of crops, what a vast gain it would be
to the farmer. Every body is struck with the improved value given to grain,
as well as roots and esculents, by increased size. Then why don't eveiy body
try to increase their own ? Take, for example, the common garden pea, and
try the following experiment :
Plant it in very rich ground; allow it 'to bear tlie first year say half-a-
dozen pods only ; save the largest the foKowing year, and retain of the pro-
duce three pods only ; sow the largest the following year, and retain one
pod ; again select the largest, and the next year the sort will have trebled its
size and weight. Ever afterward sow the largest seed, and by these means
you will get peas, or any thing else, of a bulk of which we at present have
no conception.
Select wheat in the same way, and after three years you will be astonished
at the result.
Remedy /for the Black-Knot. — A correspondent of the Cultivator says
that he has never found any thing that will compare in efficacy for preventing
black excrescences on the plum-tree to a strong solution of chloride of lime,
applied to the wounds made by their removal. He has tried this remedy
for two years, and in no instance has it failed to prevent the fungus from
bursting out again from the wound. A trial was made this year on about
MISCELLANEOUS. 429
fifty young trees, from a portion of whicli the knots were cut off early in
summer, and no application made to the wound ; to a second portion strong
lime was applied, and to a third chloride of lime. In numerous instances
the excrescence burst out again in the first two cases ; in the latter none.
Salt has been strongly recommended, but the superiority of the chloride was
very decided.
Weights of Grain, etc. — We are indebted to our friend Col. Buckner
for the following weights, regulated by the laws of Kentucky, of grain, etc.,
per bushel: Wheat, 60 pounds; corn, shelled, 56 pounds; rye, 56 pounds;
potatoes, 60 pounds; beans, 60 pounds; clover seed, 60 pounds; oats, 33^
pounds ; corn-meal, 50 pounds ; bran, 20 pounds ; barley, 48 pounds ; onions,
5*7 pounds; buckwheat, 52 pounds; salt, 50 pounds; flax seed, 56 pounds;
hemp seed, 44 pounds ; timothy seed, 45 pounds. The above is taken from
the revised statute laws of Kentucky.
Apples for Market. — We see it stated that Mr, James Upton, of Monroe
county, N.Y., has shipped twenty thousand barrels of apples to New-York,
by canal, this season, and has now several boats loading with the same fruit.
He purchases apples at all points accessible to the canal. The crop this
year is an excellent one, better than those of several previous years, and the
demand for the fruit abroad makes it a profitable one.
New-England Enterprise. — We have often alluded to the prosperity of
the towns and villages of these States. We find the following statement in
reference to the industry of one of these small communities. The whole
township, by the last census, has a population of only 1776 inhabitants.
Warren. — Among the many towns which furnish the Boston market with,
the necessaries of life, AA'arren holds a prominent rank. The people are
intelligent, enterprising, and active. The farms are well adapted to grazing,
and are almost exclusively devoted to that purpose. Since the first of May
last, there have been sent from Warren to Boston 218,004 pounds of cheese,
and 589,994 gallons of milk; and during the month of November, the
same city received 73,128 pounds of pork from Warren and vicinity. Efforts
are making to secure a course of lectures during the winter, and, though late,
it is hoped the endeavors will succeed. The Warren Cotton Mills Co. are
completing a large brick factory over one hundred feet long, and four stories
high.
Granaries for the Storing of Corn. — The Messrs. Huart, the great
millers of Cambrai, have patented a peculiar kind of granary which they
have in use for the storing of their corn. In this arrangement the corn fills
completely the space in which it is to be preserved, and is kept in constant
motion by means of a steam-engine. The grain is lifted up and siirred round
by means of a helix, and from thence falls upon an apparatus where, by means
of a fan, the chatf, dust, and other foreign substances are removed, and the
insects and their larvai destroyed. The corn is then carried back to the same
inclosed space again, and the operation from time to time repeated. These
granaries are considered to be adapted not only for the preservation of corn
in good condition, but for that which is already damaged. — Le Genie Indus-
triel, France.
Winter Feed of Breeding Ewes. — Until two or three weeks preceding
lambing, it is only necessary that breeding ewes, like other store sheep, be
kept in good plump ordinary condition. Nor are any separate arrangements
necessary for them, after that period, in a chmate where they obtain succu-
430 MISCELLANEOUS.
lent food to provide for proper secretion of milk. In backward seasons in the
north, where the grass does not start prior to the lambing time, careful flock-
masters feed tbeirewes with chopped roots, or roots mixed with oat or pea-meal.
This, in my judgment, is excellent economy. For the efiect of the various
esculents on the quantity and quality of the milk, see Liebig's Animal
Chemistry. — Sheep Husbandry.
Kailroads IX Ohio. — This enterprising State contains 2181 miles of
railroad completed, and 1576 miles in progress. It is said that of these,
300 miles will be completed in 1855. There are four great trunks across
the State from north to south, and four from east to west. These eight lines
pass through forty county seats.
Management of Fairs. — We have on our table a communication from
our old friend and contributor, Durant, whom we welcome back again to our
pages, on the Management of Fairs, called forth by views which we have
recently given on that subject; but it came too late for this number. We
shall give it a place in our next. We mentio^i this fact, contrary to our
general usage, because we wish to keep the subject on the minds of our
readers, and again to invite further discussion. We are just beginning, in
our opinion, to take correct observation of our true place on this subject, and
it is second in importance to very few.
Composition of Eggs. — The investigation has been made of late by
several distinguished anatomists, and a part of the results is given in the
present number of the American Journal of Arts, and Sciences. From this
Tve gather the following facts :
An examination of the eggs of numerous animals proves that these bodies
are as varied as the animals which they produce. They differ in the ele-
ments present, in their organisms, and in their structure. Some of them do
not harden by exposure in boiling water. In the eggs of some birds, the
white is almost fluid ; in others, it is gelatinous. The color of the white of
a hen's egg, after boiling, is pure, opaque, white, and solid. That of the
lapwing, after cooking, becomes transparent, opaline, greenish, and so hard
that it may be cut into little stones, used in some parts of Germany for
common jewelry. The chemical constitution of the eggs of various birds
differs very materially.
Turning to the eggs of fishes, it is found that the new-laid egg of the ray
is covered with a shell of a bronzed-green, whose tissue is made up' of short,
felty fibres ; its general form is rectangular, more or less elongated and
curved on both sides. The internal organism is also peculiar, and among
other differences it is found that the yellow is not separated from the white
by any membrane. The white also differs from the white of a bird's Qgg in
its chemical properties.
The eggs of a bounce shark are rectangular, much longer but much nar-
rower than those of the ray. Its shell is hard, resisting, yellowish, horny.
The vitellus or yolk occupies the greater part of it, and the white is more
viscous than that of the ray.
These and other differences are pointed out, somewhat extensively, in the
treatise before us, but the subject is not one of sufficient general interest to
■warrant us in occupying much space with these details.
A New Species of Silk-Worm. — Experiments have been made in France
to acclimate the Bomhyx cynthia, a silk-worm of India, which, according to
Koxbuigh, furnishes a silk so firm that clothes made of it will last a hfe-
time. These experiments, thus far, are very favorable.
MISCELLANEOUS. 481
C, C. & C, AND C. & E. Car-Shops, under the Superintendence of
N. H, March. — Last Friday we visited the large car-shop under the superin-
tendence of N. H. March, on the Lake Shore Road, and spent an hour or
more in examining it.
The building is a large one. It is some two hundred and ten feet long
and about sixty wide. Near by is Geo. W. Sizer's foundry. There are
employed in the car-shop, or connected with it, 117 men, (a large majority of
whom are married,) and 20 in the foundry.
These buildings are devoted to the construction of cars of every descrip-
tion, and the repairing of them.
The lower room iu the " large brick" of the shop is taken up with the iron
and wood work, and adjoining is a complete blacksmith's establishment. We
noticed all the improved machinery for manufacturing cars. The whole was
driven by an engine of sixty-horse power. The upper room is devoted to
cabinet-work, finishing, upholstering, etc., etc. ; and connected with the main,
building is a large paint-shop under the charge of Charles Reipleir, a master
in ornamental painting. In this department all are Germans. Opposite is a
lumber-yard, and a large building for storing lumber.
We found on the track, just turned out, six new cars and a baggage-car,
by all odds the most perfect we have seen. They are ten inches wider, giving
three inches more on each seat and four inches in the aisle. Their bodies are
thrown on to steel and India-rubber springs, which it is believed, will make
them easier every way. The trucks are far stouter than heretofore. One
improvement we were glad to notice. The breaks are very much improved,
both in power and in speed of application — for, as arranged in these cars, one
man may break upon two sets of cars. In the baggage-car we observed
also another improvement. The doors were constructed to fold round into a
recess so as to prevent accident to the men inside, or to lessen the chances of
injury to them in case of accident. — Cleveland Weekly Leader.
Snip-BuiLDiNa. — The Boston Journal published recently a detailed
account of the ship-building in lioston and its vicinity during the year 1854.
The Journal of Commerce^ on Tuesday, published a similar account of ship-
building in New- York and vicinity. From these statistics it appears, that
for the first time, the amount of tonnage built in the District of Boston, dur-
ing the year 1854, was greater than in the District of New-York. But in
both districts the business is now nearly at a stand-still, thouoh it has been
unusually large. In New-York, it is said that not more than 1000 hands are
now employed in the ship-yards, against 3500 or 4000 employed in pros-
perous seasons. And that though the year has been one of unusual activity
in the ship-yards, it has yet been an unfortunate one to builders, owing to
the advance in building materials and labor ; and several builders of long
standing and acknowledged ability have been compelled to succumb to the
pressure of the times, and stop business. In New- York, there have been
launched during the year 88 vessels of all descriptions, representing 80,130
tons, (of which 26 were full rigged ships, and 4 were steamships,) which have
cost, at the estimate of $65 a ton, not less than $5,200,000. While the
number of ships built this year exceeds the number in 1853 by eiglit, the
number of steamships built this year is six less than it was last year. About
"70 steamships in all have been built in New- York, mostly of large size, at an
estimated cost of about $14,000,000.
In Boston and vicinity, during the year, there have been built 57 vessels,
of which 45 were ships, S were barques, 3 were steamers of from 150 to 350
432 MISCELLANEOUS.
tons, and 1 was a schooner. The aggregate tonnage of these vessels was
68,282, and the estimated cost of the "whole, at $65 a ton, was $4,483,430.
Rutland County Makble and Slate. — At the late Agricultural Meet-
ing at Rutland, Vt., Charles Sheldon, Esq., of West-Rutland, said that in
1850, there was quarried at West-Rutland, $190,000 worth of marble; in
1853, $360,000 worth; in 1854, probably $400,000 worth. From other
towns in the county, he thought that $200,000 worth of marble would be
exported this year. The value of the marble sold is twice as great as the
wool clip of the county in 1850. It exceeds the value of the wool and dairy
products of the county. At the West-Rutland quarry, there are consumed
annually 150 tons of hay, 6000 bushels of potatoes, 6 tons of butter, and
6000 bushels of corn. Of the value of the marble exported, three fourths is
added to the wealth of the county.
The demand has always exceeded the supply. There is no fear of a de-
crease of the demand. To increase the supply, more capital should be
invested in quarrying and sawing marble. Rutland can furnish, annually,
marble to the amount of $1,500,000. He said that the quality of the slate
in this county was equal to that of any part of the world. It was inexhaust-
ible in quantity, and the demand for it was far greater than the supply. He
thought that, this year, not less than $300,000 worth of slate would be quar-
ried in Rutland count}".
Tennessee Copper. — The Knoxvillc Register states that recent discoveries
afford proof of the existence of one continuous vein of rich copper ore be-
tween the Polk-county mine in East-Tennessee, and the mine recently dis-
covered in Carroll county, Virginia, In the Tennessee vein, the miners have
reached the yellow sulphuret of copper, which is considered an infallible
indication of the great extent and richness of the mines in which it abounds.
The discoverv of this metal has infused a new impetus into mining operations,
and several weeks since there were sales of three quarter sections of raining
land, at about $1,250,000. The Register states that some five thousand tons
of rich copper ore are taken from the mines monthly, netting at least half a
million of dullars. The amount will doubtless be increased when the shafts
which are being sunk penetrate the rich sulphuret.
Moral of the Baby Show, — We, at our cattle shows, give prizes to the
man who produces the best food for the people's eating. The Americans give
prizes for the mouths best adapted to eat the food which is so bountifully
prepared for them on their vast continent. The two nations typify their
differences in this manner. Our great desire is to find ample food for our
population. The Americans are only desirous of a large population to con-
sume their food, — London Times.
Productions of Algeria, — This colony promises to take a prominent
rank among countries which derive their principal wealth from the produc-
tion of silk. The success of the cochineal insect at Algiers is no longer
doubtful. The madder of Algiers is more highly esteemed than that of
Cyprus. The cotton of that colony took eleven prizes at the London Exhi-
bition. The olive-tree grows there to the height of our largest forest-trees.
Certain countiies are covered with it. Species of cork-oak constitute a large
part of the forests. There are also forests of cedar, pine, juniper, arbor vitre,
black walnut, etc. These statements are contained in an official report to
the French orovernment.
MISCELLANEOUS, 433
The Fall-River Route. — This Company still retain their unrivalled re-
putation. Their new boat will be ready with the return of the next seasont
and will be in advance of any thing yet seen in our waters. The workmen
are busily engaged in iSnishing the interior apartments, which will so unie,
elegance and comfort as to satisfy the most extravagant demands of the travel-
ler. We have recently been shown over every part of it, and must say that
we have. never seen any steamboat that was so completely furnished with
every thing that comfort, luxury, or taste could conceive. The following de-
tails show not only her mammoth size but thorough provision for all suppos-
able necessities :
Her length is 345 feet, (or more than — of a mile.)
Beam, 47 feet.
Width from guard to guard, 80 feet 11 inches.
Hold, depth, 16 feet 11 inches.
Tons measurement, 2300.
Height of ceiling in cabin, 11 feet 6 inches.
Steering-wheel, 1 feet diameter, 3 rims.
Water-wheels, 43 " " 14 feet length of buckets.
She has 108 inches cylinder.
She has 95 state-rooms, of which 18 have each four berths, etc., and 18 of
them have berths of extra width. There are also 400 open berths, furnishing
comfortable accommodations for YoO persons.
She is also provided, on a level with the upper saloon, with an apartment
for ladies, in which they may arrange their toilets, etc. Water-closets are
provided on both decks. Her name is The Metropolis, and she will be
commanded by Captain Brown, now of the ' Bay State.'
Building Stones : Brown or Red Sandstone. — We have not forgotten
our promise to give our readers some information on this subject, in continu-
ation of what we have written of marble and granite. We shall probably
do so in the next number.
Origin of Nitrogen. — M. Boussingault has published the details of
other experiments upon the vegetation of several plants, confirming his
views as recently presented in this journal. He also promises another me-
moir on the same subject.
Lightning Conductors. — Mr. Nasmyth has described, before the British
Association, an improved arrangement for a lightning conductor for chim-
neys. Instead of fixing it outside by metal hold-fasts, he would suspend it
in the middle of the chimney by branching supports fixed on the top. "x\n
experience of eighteen years has tested the superiority of the plan." In the
discussion. Professor Faraday recommended that the lightning conductors
should bo placed inside instead of outside of all buildings. He considered
the shape of the conductor, whether flat or round, as immaterial.
Preservation of Meat. — Carbonic acid is very efficient in retarding
putrefaction. Beef in contact with carbonic oxide for the space of three
weeks was found perfectly fresh, and of a fine red color.
Gas Coal. — The coal near Preston, Va., is found to be of great value for
the production of gas, superior to any other coal in this country. It lies
adjacent to the Ohio & Baltimore Railroad. So says the Cumberland
Journal.
484 NEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
APPLICATION OF GLUTEN TO BREAD AND OTHER ARTICLES OF FOOD.
J, H, Johnson, 47 Lincoln's Inn Fields, and Glasgow. — This British patent
has been taken out on behalf of M. Durand of Toulouse, who has occupied
himself for several years back with expei'iments as to the best modes of treat-
ing gluten so as to obtain a palatable bread from it. . Gluten is obtainable
from various vegetables, being their essential nutritive component ; but it is
to that obtained from wheat that M. Durand's improvements more particu-
larly refer. The invention consists, in the first place, in preparing gluten
bread by baking it in moulds fitted with loose lids which rest upon the gluten,
and rise with the gluten as it expands by the action of the heat. The bread
formed from gluten possesses great nutritive quality, and will keep for a long
period of time without injury. This substance may be employed in various
proportions with farinaceous substances of all kinds, and is also found advan-
tageous in the manufacture of chocolate and vermicelli. In making gluten-
chocolate, a small quantity of muriatic acid may be added. In baking
gluten-bread, the inventor employs moulds of a square section and slightly
conical, that is to say, slightly contracted at the base, in order to facilitate the
removal of the bread after it is baked. When the paste is introduced into
the mould, it is covered with a movable lid, which rests upon it, in order
that its development may be progressive. The weight of this lid should be
proportioned to the degree of purity of the gluten. Two rods of iron fitted
at each extremity serve to prevent the lid or cover from falling off, and to
limit the rising of the paste ; this being most essential, as the heat having a
great influence over the gluten, the rising or development of this matter
would become too great, and deteriorate the bread if not forcibly restrained.
For the same reason, the baking should be accomplished in a moderately-
heated oven, and for the preparation of wheat-gluten no leaven need be
employed. The kneading ought to be eflfected by manual labor, and as
actively as possible. To proceed with that operation it is necessary to choose
a favorable moment, which will be known by the degree of moisture of the
substance, this luoisture always agreeing with the amount of flour to be mixed
with the gluten. Bread thus made presents the appearance of bread well
worked ; it is exceedingly light, and of an agreeable flavor. It is rather
elastic when it is first made, but hardens in a few hours. It may be heated
after being cut into slices when required for consumption ; it then becomes
more brittle, and is more easily masticated. It may be also kept for a long
period without any deterioration whatever. The following are the proportions
which are employed in the mixture of gluten with other alimentary sub-
stances, and from which the best results have been obtained :
1. Bread composed of pure wheat-gluten, with the addition of one per
cent of salt.
2. Bread composed of ninety per cent of moist gluten, ten per cent of
wheat-flour, and one per cent of salt.
3. Bread composed of eighty per cent of moist gluten, twenty per cent of
wheat-flour, and one per cent of salt.
4. Bread composed of seventy per cent of moist gluten, thirty per cent of
corn-flour, and one per cent of salt.
6. Bread composed of sixty per cent of moist gluten, forty per cent of corn-
flour, and one per cent of salt.
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS. 435
6. The same kinds of bread, with the addition of three per cent, five per
cent, ei2;ht per cent, or ten per cent of fresh butter.
For chocolate, the following proportions are employed :
1. Gluten-chocolate made in the ordinary manner, and composed of about
two parts of cocoa, and one part of gluten-bread reduced to an impalpable
powder.
2. Gluten chocolate made in the same manner, and composed of two parts
of cocoa, two parts of sugar, and one part of gluten-bread reduced to a fine
powder. /• i • j
3. Four parts of cocoa, five parts of sugar, and one part of pulverized
gluten-bread.
4. Gluten-chocolate composed of two parts of cocoa, two parts of sugar,
and one part of pure gluten-flour, also reduced to an impalpable powder.
Each of the parts composing this chocolate should be well and carefully tritu-
rated and operated upon separately.
5. Gluten-chocolate, in which the fresh gluten is rendered less adhesive
by the addition of one half of its weight in water with 0-002 of pure muriatic
acid, and dried at a stove, the proportions being two parts of cocoa, two parts
of sugar, and one part of moist gluten. The chocolate may be also prepared
without any admixture with the acid.
Vermicelli may be prepared by means of any of the various breads already
described. To manufacture it dry bread is used, and it is only after it has
been submitted to the action of heat that it can be pulverized.
For gluten-bread made of Indian-corn flour, the same treatment must be
adopted as for gluten-bread from wheat, with the addition of a leaven com-
posed of two thirds of wheat- flour and one third of pure water.
Manufacture of Caoutchouc. J. H. Johnson, London and Glasgow.
— This French invention, which has been patented in England on behalf of
MM. Guibal & Cumenge, relates to the recovery and utihzation of the volatile
ingredients used in dissolving caoutchouc in the process of manufacturing it,
instead of allowing these ingredients to be lost by evaporation. This great
saving is efi"ected by placing the soft caoutchouc upon traversing cloths iu
closed chambers, provided at the top with a means of condensing the vapors,
and carrying off the products, the material being heated by suitable apparatus
beneath the traversing cloth. The caoutchouc, as it leaves the spreading
rollers, is traversed over a horizontal table, consisting of upper and lower cast-
iron plates, with an intervening place for the introduction of steam, hot water,
or heated air. This table is covered in by a roofing of metal plates, set at
convenient angles, the chamber being closed in at each end by_ triangular
metal plates, placed vertically. The roof is covered with felt, which iskept
constantly saturated with cold water, supplied by a duct above, and which is
again collected by gutters running along the lower edges of the roof-plates.
The vapor rising from the material is condensed upon the under sides of the
roof-plates, and° trickling down, is collected in suitable gutters ; these gutters
being carried completely round the chamber, and across the end-plates, so as
to prevent any of the products of condensation from falling upon the caout-
chouc beneath. The gutters communicate with suitable receptacles, into
which the condensed matter passes ; and this matter can be used over again
repeatedly in the manufacture of the caoutchuc, thereby considerably reduc-
ing the cost.
Journal Bearings. A. Barclay, Kilmarnock.— With a view of econo-
mizing the oil used in lubricating the journal bearings of horizontal shafts,
436 NEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
by enabling it to be repeatedly reused, Mr. Barclay has designed the improve-
ments forming the subject of the present patent, and which, by preventing
the too rapid escape of the lubricating oil from between the rubbing surfaces,
also renders the lubrication of the shaft much more efficient. In carryiuo- out
this invention, according to one modification, the shaft is formed with a project-
ing collar upon it, of the length of the intended bearing, and the brasses are
formed to suit this modification. Each brass extends considerably past each
edge of the collar, and is slightly turned out or recessed, so that the angles of
the collar shall be slightly overlapped by the brass. Beyond this overlap on
each side, the extension of the brass is hollowed out internally, to form an
annular cup for the reception of oil, and these edge-cup pieces are well
overhung, and brought close to the plain part of the shaft to prevent the
entry of dirt. The inner face of the upper brass is inclined upwards from
each side towards the centre, instead of being square across as usual ; and
the result is, that the oil supplied from the top, in the usual way, is well
spread over the frictional surfaces, and, flowing down, it is caught by the
annular cups of the brasses, and retained therein for continued use ; or the
same effect may be obtained by beveling the inner edge or edges of the
inner brass alone, the upper brass being made square across, as usual. The
continued use of the oil is effected by the action of the bearing collar on the
shaft, for, as this revolves, its edges gather films of oil from the annular cups,
and bring up the oil so collected to the top brass. Here the revolving collar
edges apply the oil to the corresponding edges of the upper brass, and, owing
to the duplex interior incline thereon, the oil is thence conveyed towards the
centre of the bearing, whence it is well distributed over the whole rubbing
surfaces. Instead of a plain collar projection, other forms of journals may be
employed with the same result, or a couple of rings may be set fast on the
shaft, so as to carry up the oil in a similar manner.
New Mordant in Dyeing. — A Swede named Rydin, has published a
method of obtaining a fine blue, of excellent tint, for cotton, by employing as
a mordant the oxide of chromium, dissolved in an acid ; in place of this
oxide, a double salt may be used, such as the double sulphate of chromium
and potash. This salt is obtained by mixing one part of a solution of bichro-
mate of potash, and one part and a half, or two parts, of sulphuric acid.
Alcohol, sugar, or any other substance capable of converting the chronic acid
into an oxide of chromium, may be added. The oxide is added to a decoc-
tion of logwood, and the dyeing may be effected in one operation, by putting
together the salt, the decoction, and the cotton, and heating the whole. Or
the cotton can be treated with the salt, hot or cold, and may then be placed
in the decoction until the desired color is obtained. By varying the propor-
tions of the salt to the decoction, very delicate shades of gray and lilac may
be obtained.
Dock Railway, Liverpool. — At the last meeting of the British Associa-
tion, there was exhibited a large model of a high level railway, which it is
proposed to carry along the east side of the whole line of docks at Liverpool.
The construction will consist of iron frame-work supporting two platforms.
The lower will be about 52 feet wide and 20 feet above the present quays,
designed entirely for goods traffic, having four lines of railway — the two
nearest the docks to be used as sidings for trucks while loading and unload-
ing, and the other two as up and down lines for trucks in motion. The upper
platform is to be about 23 feet wide, and to have two lines of railway,
intended for passengers only. The lower platforin will be provided with
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS. 437
hydraulic cranes, whicli will transfer goods either from or to the vessels or
the trucks, as well as work through the hatchways in the platform to the
quays. The scheme embraces the construction of deposit and transit- sheds,
a connection with existing or future railways, and with private warehouses,
and the erection of passenger-stations. The great thoroughfares will be
crossed by bridges, and the line will be equally applicable for horses or loco-
motive power. The cost is estimated at less than £250,000 a mile. This
includes hydraulic cranes and platforms, with stationary steam power to work
them. On the other hand, it is calculated that the value of the quay space
gained by the platforms of the railway, at the low^ rate of £5 a yard, will
yield a return of about £210,000 a mile, not much below the estimated
expenditure.
Effect of Light upon the Compass. — Attention was called, by Sir
John Eoss, at Liverpool, to the omission of any notice in the Admiralty
Manual of Scientific Inquiry, of the effect which light exerted upon the mag-
netic needle. The Swedish philosopher, Wrede, totally excluded light from his
magnetic observatory, with the exception of a subdued light at a considerable
elevation vertical to the horizontal needle, while the arc was read oft" by a tele-
scope, at a distance of several yards from the instrument. Means, with the same
end in view, ought to be adopted in every magnetic observatory ; otherwise, no
reliance could be placed on the observations. It was evident that the more
deliberately the magnetic needle was suspended, the more obnoxious it would
be to the efiect of artificial light in the operation of reading off the instru-
ment. In proof of the effect of every description of light on the magnet, Sir
John mentioned that, during his last voyage in the J^elix, when frozen in.
about TOO miles north of the magnetic pole, he concentrated the rays of the
full moon on the magnetic needle, when he found it was five degrees attracted
by it.
Twin-Dredger of Thirty Horse Power. By J. W. Hoby & Co., En-
gineers, Renfrew. — This powerful dredging machine was constructed for the
Commissioners of Leith Harbor, the designs furnished by the makers being
approved of by Mr. Rendel, the engineer. It has been a very successful
machine, its performances being at the rate of 1840 tons discharged per day
of ten hours. A deviation from the ordinary system of construction was
adopted in it, on account of certain peculiarities of the locality for which the
dredger was destined.
The hull is of plate-iron, and is ninety feet long, thirty feet wide, and eight
feet six inches deep. A large well is formed in the centre of the vessel for
the passage of the two endless chains of buckets, and for the introduction of
the ladders upon which the buckets are supported. These ladders are upheld
at one end by the main shafts, by means of which the buckets are driven, the
other extremities of the ladders being slung to a hoisting apparatus at the
other end of the vessel, so that they may be elevated or lowered to suit the
level of the bottom to be deepened. The machinery is driven by a pair of
oscillating cyhnders, each twenty-five inches in diameter, and placed imme-
diately below the main driving shaft, which is at the upper end of the
bucket-ladders. These cylinders are supplied with steam from two boilers
near the longitudinal centre of the vessel, and j)laced one on each side of the
central well. The motion is first communicated to a transverse horizontal
shaft immediately over the steam-cylinders. This shaft carries two very
heavy fly-wheels, and has bevel-pinions upon its overhanging ends, and con-
nected to it by frictional couplings, so as to yield to any inordinate strain.
438 KEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
These bevel-pinions gear with bevel-wheels keyed upon vertical shafts, which
carry bevel-pinions upon their upper ends in gear with large bevel-wheels on
the main driving-shafts. The bevel-pinions on the upper ends of the vertical
shafts can be engaged with, or disengaged from, their shafts by means of
adjustable clutch-boxes. Connections are likewise provided to enable the
engines to drive the several winches for lifting the lower ends of the bucket-
ladders, for warping the vessel into a new position, and for other purposes.
The sand or mud raised by the buckets is discharged into a shoot or duct
of plate-iron, which conveys it into the pontoon-hopper, or lighter, placed
across the end of the vessel to receive it.
Patent HrDROSTATic Cranes. By J. Robertson, Engineer, Ardrossan*
— These hydrostatic machines will be found useful in the operations of the
civil engineer, and in engineering work-shops, in all cases in which heavy
bodies have to be lifted or moved, and particularly where, from the nature
of the ground or the position of the object to be lifted, it is difficult to apply
ordinary winch or crane power. One of these cranes can be attached as
easily as the ordinary block-tackle, whilst it has the advantage of being
worked so as to exert its full power directly in the line of the centres of
attachment, the machine simply acting as a contracting connecting link in
the lifting-chain with no lateral strain whatever, such as is occasioned by
the drawing end of the rope in block-tackles.
In common with all machines of this class, great power is obtained in a
very small compass, and the working of it can be easily changed to suit the
load, a quick speed being employed for a light body, and a slow speed with
great power for a heavy one.
The essential feature of the apparatus is the use of a working cylinder, of
the pendulous kind, fitted with a piston to be actuated by water pressure.
For example, in a warehouse or vork-shop, the working-cylinder may be
slung or suspended, in an inverted position, from any convenient over-head
beam, by a rope, link, or joint attached at its closed end. In this way the
piston-rod works through a stuffing-box at the lower end of the cylinder, and
the projecting end of the rod carries a hook, or other connection, for attach-
ment to the actual hauling-chain. The actuating fluid is conveyed into the
cylinder by a flexible pipe, so that the vibration of the cylinder can not afiect
the pressure flow. By attaching a suitable valve to the workiog-cylinder, the
pressure fluid may be directed to either side of the piston, so that the upper
end of the cylinder answers as a convenient reserroir for the fluid. The fluid
pressure may be obtained from various sources, as from natural head-columns,
or from pumping apparatus ; and in using pumps, these details may be
either at a distance from, or attached to, the side of the working-cylinder.
Where long strokes or lifts are required, this may either be efiected by
suitable pulley or lever arrangements in connection with the working piston-
rod, or by the adoption of a telescopic arrangement of the working-cylinder,
one cylinder being placed inside the other, the traversing-cylinder inside the
external one being formed to work as a piston ; this internal cylinder again
having a piston within it, so that a long stroke is obtainable from this duplex
action ; and, instead of using one cylinder only as the lifting movement, two
or more may be suspended side by side. Travelling cranes may also be con-
structed on this principle, the working-cylinder in such case being disposed
horizontally upon the cross-beam of the crane-framing, and being imme-
diately supported by a traversing carriage, so that the lifting apparatus can
be run back or forward at will, to suit the requirements of the time, whilst
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS. 439
the travelling frame itself further adds to this power of removal ; such a car-
riage may also have upoa it the actuating pump. In such hoisting apparatus,
the stop-valve of the lifting-cylinder, by holding the fluid-column, acts as a
certain holder of any weight which may be upon the crane. Such cranes
are made to indicate the weight upon them, by attaching to the main work-
ing-cylinder a smaller cyhnder bored to two slightly diflerent diameters. A
single piston-rod has upon it two pistons, one for each of these two diameters,
and the working fluid from the main cylinder has access to the space included
between these two pistons. The difference in the area of the pistons being
extremely slight, the larger piston is caused to traverse, in proportion to its
greater area, against the resistance of a spring fastened to the piston-rod.
This rod carries an index bearing upon a graduated scale, and the suspended
weight is thus at once pointed out.
Mining Engines and Machinery. A Barclat, Kilmarnock. Patent
dated March 2, 1854. — A portion of the improvements comprehended in
this patent relate to the so arranging the winding engines of coal and other
mines, that they may be more safely managed than at present, whilst all
chance of "over-winding" and injury to the mining mechanism may be
avoided. These improvements are effected by adapting the ordinary and
well-known " link motion" to the hand-gear of the engine, so that the attend-
ant can easily stop and reverse his engine at the exact moment re*quired in
the action of winding. To do this, the engine-man has only to work a hand-
lever up or down ; and this lever being suitably connected with the " link-
motion," correspondingly afiects the portion of such motion, and thereby
either stops or reverses the engine, as is at present done in locomotive and
marine engines. By such a system of gearing, the motion is entirely
unbroken, and the attendant has always a safe and perfect command over his
engine ; and to add still further to the safe working of the system, a self-act-
ing movement is contrived to come into play at the precise moment required,
for the purpose of stopping or reversing the engine, in case the engine-man
should be careless or absent at the proper time. For this purpose a tumbler
is so connnected with the engine or winding mechanism, that it shall be
slowly wound up, or elevated to its falling centre, at the time that the motion
of the engine is to be changed. Thus, as this tumbler falls over, it acts
through suitable connections upon the reversing or stopping-link, and effects
the intended movement. Various means may be adopted for securing the
self-acting effect, disengaging pins or stoj^s being so set as to actuate the. link-
movement at the proper time.
As adapted to direct-acting horizontal cylinder winding and pumping
engines, for instance a small shaft passes away back from the main-shaft to
the steam-cylinder, at which end this small shaft carries a worm in gear with
a vsrorm-wheel set on a horizontal stud. This wheel has a ring-groove in its
side to receive adjustable stud-pins, which are set at the proper distances in
the wheel, so as to act upon the adjusting lever of the valve-link motion.
Provision is also made, by a separate adjusting slide or bolt, for allowing the
engine-man to set the engine to go constantly in one direction, as when used
for pumping. When so set the adjustable-pins of the worm wheel no longer
aftect the engine, so as to set the valves for back or forward actions, or the
up and down winding. Shoidd the engine accidently run slightly beyond
the intended point, an eccentric piece on the stud-spindle carrying the worm-
wheel acts upon a sliding piece carried round by the wheel, and this move-
ment, acting upon the under side of the valve-link lever, sets this lever to its
440 NEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
central position, so as to prevent the return of the engine. These gearintr
details are obviously capable of being modified in various -svavs, and the
arrangements are suitable for beam or other kinds of engines. " To prevent
accidents from the main gearing getting disengaged, a fnction-brake appa-
ratus is provided, to stop the engine's movement. Thus, should the wheels
fly out of gear — owing, for instance, to the attendant's leaving out the fast-
ening-key when changing from pumping to winding — this friction-stra]) will
be brought into play to prevent the engine from running away. The brake-
pulley is set upon the shaft, which is liable to slip back, and being loosely
encircled by a friction-stiap, the lateral traverse, owing to the disengage-
ment, makes the pulley press itself hard against the interior of the strap.
This strap encircles three fourths of the wheel, and is workable as well from
both its ends. These two opposite ends are each connected to one of the two
opposite cages, that is, the ascending and descending cages. For instance,
when one of the cages arrives at its proper stopping point, it acts upon a pin or
stop in connection with one end of the friction-strap, and draws the strap tight
around the pulley in the direction of the revolution of the pulley at the time
being. Hence, whichever way the engine is running, the friction-strap has a
tendency to be forced down into frictional contact by the pully movement
when once started. The engine-man can also work such friction-brake by a
separate hand or foot-gear movement.
Lappet Loom. J. Smith, Glasgow. Patent dated February 21, 1854.
— This invention relates to the manufacture of goods of the " lappet "
class, a portion of the improvements being in substitution of the ordi-
nary pattern ratchet-wheel, whilst the nsual "whip" rolls are superseded
by another branch of the invention. Instead of the pattern-wheel, a small
cylinder or barrel is used, carrying an endless chain, composed of small slips
of wood, gutta percha, or other "material capable of being shaped to the
required foi-ra of link, and hard enough to withstand the working action. Or,
instead of this contrivance, a framework, or combination of plates, or slips of
iron, wood, or other material, may be used, such pieces being acted upon by
a cylinder with perforated cards, so as to produce the required pattern, by
acting upon the usual figuring mechanism of the loom. This movement is
on the principle of the jacquard. In the endless chain arrangement, the
links of the chain are formed and arranged to suit the intended pattern to be
woven. The pattern, or figure, is engraved or formed, either in intaglio or
in relievo, w^ovi the external face of the chain, as many lines of pattern, or
figure, being used as there are needle-frames. These pattern-lines extend
continuously over the chain, and a pike, or catch, from each needle-slide, is
connected with, or enters into, each of such pattern-lines. The endless chain
is made to traverse to suit the loom action, and the needle-frames, govern-
ing the figuring movements, are thus made to traverse for the figuring action.
In addition to this movement, the endless chain carries a secondary figure
actuating a set of cranked pieces, which communicate with the lines of
needles, so as to throw in or out such sets of needles as the pattern may
require.
In dispensing with the " whip" rolls, the cops, or bobbins of whip material,
are applied directly to the loom. This whip-yarn is used, either twisted, or
in its natural untwined condition, and as many ends or lines of yarn are
passed up in combination from the cops, as may be necessary for the produc-
tion of the required figuring-thread. These lines of yarn, in passing from
the cops, are kept at a regular even tension, by being passed between fric-
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS. 441
tional spring-holdei-s, or elastic clips, so as to dispense with any other
mechanism, the yarn being guided uniformly to the fabric as the weavino-
goes on. The improved processes considerably extend the capabilities of the
lappet loom, affording a greater horizontal range for the needle-rods, so that
an increased number may be used with convenience. Thus a greater width
or greater complexity of design, is easily attainable, whilst any length is
secured by adding to the chain or to the perforated cards.
Steam Boiler Apparatus. J. IIousTOff, Glasgow. — These improvements
consist in regulating the supply of steam-boilers by the aid of a float, actino-
by means of suitable connections, passing through the boiler-case upon the
stop-cock of the water-supply pipe. In marine boilers, this float is made to
work in a chamber or casing communicating with the main boiler space by
a small aperture, so that any motion of the mass of the water in the boiler
may only affect the float very slightly. Another branch of the improvements
relate to the adjustment of the flue-damper of a steam-boiler furnace, by
means of a piston acted upon by the steam pressure, and arranged to open
or shut a water-supply cock in connection with the damper movement.
Musical. — Grisi and Mario, New- York Philadelphia, and Boston. Those
who have not heard these renowned artists, know not what they have lost.
Mario, as a tenor, certainly has no superior, among all whose fame has
reached us, and no equal has appeared in this community. But Grisi
stands far above competition. As a vocalist, she has few equals ; as a tragic
actress, she has at least ho superior. Certainly, the union of so great power
in these two departments, gives her a prominent place among the most emi-
nent artists in the history of the stage. She honors her profession never
descends to clap-trap and trick. She has fewer ornaments than many of
our own vocalists, and therein she proves her greatness. Like Sontao- she
dares to sing a simple melody as it is written. Every time she is listened
to in tragic opera, she gains in her power over you. We shall never pro-
bably be favored with such an opportunity again. As we write this these
artists are announced as soon to appear in Philadelphia and in Boston. We
charge every one of our readers who can appreciate the music of the opera
in the very highest style the world has known, to take the earliest opportunity
to hear them.
The Orange Water-Melon. — Mr. Peabody, editor of the Soil of the
South, Columbus, Ga., has lately introduced a new kind of water-melon,
and_ which, from its singular properties, he calls the orange water-melon. By
cutting the rind, as you peel an orange, the entire skin may be taken off,
leaving the pulp unbroken, which, with a little care, may be divided as you
would an orange. The flavor is said to be very fine, and it has proved
itself perfectly hardy in this State. Mr. P. will, on receipt of a dollar, for-
ward pre-paid packages of the seed.
442 NEW BOOKS.
Gexekal Agency. — The publisher of The Plough, the Loom^ and the Anvily
believing it in his power to be of essential service to the readers of that journal,
in the purchase or sale of various articles, and the transaction of various kinds of
business, would announce to theui that he is ready to execute any such commis-
sion which he may receive, including the purcliase of books of any description ;
implements connected with agricultural, manufacturing, or mechanical opera-
tions; artificial manures; farm and garden seeds, etc., etc. One of the gentle-
men connected with the journal is a proficient in music, and experienced in the
selection of piano-fortes, flutes, etc., and will execute orders in that department.
He will also act as agent in the purchase and sale of Real Estate.
J^^Farticular attention to business connected with the Patent-Office.
Letters of inquiry on these matters will be promptly attended to.
ScHOOL-TEAcnERS. — Having had occasion to furnish teachers for some
of our Southern friends, we have been fortunate enough to learn of several
young ladies who are admirably well qualified for fiimilies or schools, and if any
are in need of such, a letter addressed to us will receive immediate answer. "We
shall not fear to guarantee that any reasonable expectations will be fully met.
Some of them are desirous of going South.
NEW BOOKS.
Literary Recreations and MiscELLANrES. By Joim G. Whittier. Boston: Ticknor
& Fields. 1854. 431 pages.
Mb,. Whittihb's numerous friends ■will be highly gratified with this collection of prose
and poetry, by this gifted author. Most of the pieces have already appeared in various
journals, but being selected from a large number of his writings, pubJi?hed at different
and distant times, they raay be regarded as possessing, iff the writer's view, pecuUar
merits compared with others that were passed by, and as especially illustrative of his
peculiar but highly cultivated mind. The volume is handsomely executed, and does
honor to the enterprising publishers,
MEMORABtE Women, the Story of their Lives. By Mrs. Newton Crossland. With
eight illustrations by Blrket Foster. Boston: Ticknor <fc Fields. 1854. 355 pages.
This book will be read with great interest. It describes women, several of whom
were very prominent in their day, and whose characters and social position secure for
them universal regard. Among them are Lady Rachel Russell, Mrs. Thrale, Fanny
Burney, etc. Their biographies introduce us to the most learned and most celebrated
circles of those times, and give an insight into the private life and manners of some of
the most cultivated minds in England.
Home Stories.
John P. Jewett & Co., Boston, have recently published a series of four small volumes,
for children, written by Phcebe Harris Phelps, which are handsomely printed and neatly
bound, as follows :
Henry Day Learning to Obey Bible Commands.
Henry Day'ss Story-Book.
Mary Day Forming Good Habits.
Mary Day's Story-Book.
These stories are well-written and short, and each inculcates very clearly some import-
ant moral or religious truth. The plan is excellent, and is very well executed. With
juvenile libraries consisting of books like these, and the little work below, in all our
schools, we might anticipate no small improvement in the conduct of our cliildren.
NEW BOOKS. 443
Rose and Lillib Stanhope ; or, the Power of Conscience. By M. J, McIntosh. New-
York: D. Appleton & Co. 1854.
This little book is a gem. Not a line of it needs mending ; not a paragraph could be
spared. The story is well devised for illustrating the necessiiy of conscience, and its tre-
mendous power, when properly enlightened, over the conduct of children. Pai'ents and
teachers might read this story with great profit. No juvenile or Sabbath-school library
should be without it.
Sabbath Morning Readings in the Old Te'stament. By Rev. John CtrainNG, D.D.,
F.R.S.E., Minister of the Scottish National Church, Crown-Ci)urt, Covent Garden, Lon-
don. Book of Genesis and book of Exodus. Boston: John P. Jewett & Co. 1854.
pp, 385 and 871.
These volumes contain the substance of the exposition of the Scripture lesson of the
morning service, to his own people. His object is not so much learned criticism as the
solution of diiBculties, and to impress the truth of the passage on the heart and mind and
conscience. We need not say that the plan is ably carried out. In fact, these volumes
are exactly what the inielligent reader of the Bible needs, and the want of which has
been seriously felt. It is not a dry, doctrinal skeleton, but living Scripture truth, ably
set forth, and will secure the attention of every intelligent reader. For sale by Jew-
ett, Proctor & Worthiugton, Cleveland, Ohio ; and Sheldon, Lamport, &, Blakeman, New-
York.
Amabel; a Family History. By Mart Elizabeth Wormlet. New- York: Buncq tt
Brother.
This is a remarkable book. In every part of it, the story excites the deepest sympa-
thies of the reader. The character of Amabel is drawn with great skill, and is well sus-
tained from beginning to end. The plot is quite complicate, but the progress of events
seems ptrfectly natural, and the story has an air of truth and reality quite unusual in this
kind of literature. Some of the scenes exhibit great power, especially near the close of
the book. The account of the storm and wreck it would be difficult to match from any
female writer. The story is rather a sad one ; but there are generally palliating circum-
stances, or, at least, there is a bright light in the distant future, relieving the darkness of
the past. The final scenes are very adroitly conceived, and equally surprise and delight
the reader.
We may certainly be proud of some of our female writers.
Investigation of the Alleged Official Misconduct of the Late Sdpkrintendfnt
OF the Philadelphia, Wjlmington & Baltimore Railroad Co. Vol. I. Pho-
nographically reported by Arthur Cannon. Philadelphia. 1854.
This ponderous volume of more than a thousand octavo pages, besides seventy-two
pages of appendix, contains the evidence adduced by both parties to this contioversy,
before a committee appointed by the Board of Directors of this Company to make such
investigation. At the close of the text, we find, "The testimony being concluded, the
Committee went into private session." When they report their proceedings, probably
the second volume will be issued.
Te.\nsactions of the New-York State Agricultural Society; with an Abstract of
the Proceedings of the County Agricultural Societies. Vol. XIII., 1853. Albany.
1854. 783 pages, 8vo.
We tender our thanks to Mr. Johnson, the Cor. Secretary of this Society, for this valu-
able book. We shall avail ourselves of its highly useful information in our future
numbers.
The Biography of Self-T aught Men; with au Introductory Essay. Boston: Perkins
& Whipple. 1850 and 1852.
Two small, volumes have been publislfed at different times. One volume was pre-
pared ahnoat entirely by that accomplished scholar, the late B. B. Edwards. In this,
twenty-seven distinguished characters are given, and eighteen in the second volume.
We need not say that they are well written, nor that they are worthy of notice. We
commend them to general attention, and especially to young men, for whom these ex-
amples are peculiarly profitable. Fine likenesses of Nathl Bowditch and of Roger
Sherman form the frontispiece. The successors of these publishers are the firm of S.
K. Whipple & Co., 100 Washington street.
444 NEW BOOKS.
Romanism in Ameeica. By Rev. Rufus W. Clark. Boston: S. K. Whipple <t Co-
1855. 271 pages.
The title describes the character of this volume. Tlie origin and progress of Roman-
ism, its principles, etc., as contrasted with Protestantism, are described in Mr. Clark's
pleasing style. It discusses also, at length, the propriety of the claims of this denomina-
tion in reference to school-books and kindred matters. So far as we have examined it,
it is free from the use of opprobrious language, and shows a candid, kindly spirit. These
subjects deserve investigation, and indeed demand not only consideration, but decisive
actioD.
The Science and Art of Et.ocdtion and Okatoey ; containing Specimen? of the Elo-
quence of the Pulpit, the Bar, the Stage, the Legislative Hall, and the Battle-Field.
By Worthy Putnam, Professor of the Science of Elocution, and Practical Instructor
in the Art. Auburn and Buffiilo : Miller, Orton & Mulligan.
This is a good selection from the best of authors, from Mrs. Sigourney to Daniel Web-
ster. It is in three parts. Part 1st, theoretic and scientific, contains rules and princi-
ples, illustrating thejorgans of speech, the elementary sounds of the language, inflections,
attitudes, etc., occupying about fifty pages. The 2d part is rhetorical, classical, and
poetical, one hundred and fifty pages; and the 3d part, comical and musical, another
hundred pages. The volume is well printed and bound in cloth. For sale by Appleton
<feCo.
The Complete Manual for the Cultivation of the Strawberry; with a Descrip-
tion of the Best Varieties. Also, Notices of the Raspberry, Blackberry, Cui-rant,
Gooseberry, and Grape, with directions for their cultivation and the selection of the
best varieties. By R. G. Pardee. With a valuable Appendix containing the observa-
tions and experience of the most successful cultivators of these fruits in our country.
New- York : C. M. Saxton. 1854. 144 pages.
This long title tells its own story. It is the result of actual experiments, long and
carefully tried both in Northern and Southern climates, and deserves the attention not
only of the amateur, but of the professional gardener. Price, 50 cents.
Practical Mechanic?' Journal. Glasgow.
The recent numbers of this journal have been received, and they commend themselves
to the attention of all mechanics. The chapters devoted to American patents are full
and scientific. Stringer & Townsend, Agents.
Harper's Gazetteer of the World.
We have already commended the earlier numbers of this able work to the attention
of our readers. The first six have been laid on our table. They are admirably exe-
cuted. The matter is well digested. The statistics are so condensed as to comprise
much information in a small compass. Ten numbers are to complete the set. Price, 50
cents each number,
Ruth Hall ; a Domestic Tale of the Present Time. By Fanny Fern. New- York ;
Mason Brotheri, 400 pages.
This volume is peculiarly a family story. The heroine, her parents and brothf^r, her
husband and his parents are the chief characters. They are skillfully drawn, and some
of them are decidedly rich. But the book is peculiar. The author appears to have
seated herself to this tale, with the single view of exhibiting every one of these relatives
in the most odious light possible, while the heroine is lauded to the skies. Unlike other
writers of fiction, who are content to allow actions to speak for themselves, she interrupts
her narrative to introduce accumulative testimony to the meanness and cold-heartednees
of these persons. She acts the part of a state's attorney in a criminal court, who endea-
vors to array all the witnesses he can find, to make out his prisoner as bad as be can.
This peculiarity and certain well-known resemblances have led some to suppose that
Fanny is the heroine of her own story. Nothing but ])ersonal antipathies, it is supposed,
and not without reason, would lead one, in ordinary cases, to conceive such a plot, or to
dishonor so holy relations, or to bring into ridicule religious professions, as does the con-
ception which brought into being this story. We think she has erred also in her cxcc^s-
ive commendations of the heroine, who, if a rational woman, must revolt at such gross
flatteries. No friend was ever guilty of such fulsome stuff. But it may be that the
whole is a work of fancy. If so, she certainly has a peculiar taste, peculiar ideas of
filial afifection, or, at least, peculiar modes of showing and inculcating it, as well as a
NEW BOOKS. 445
peculiarly unchristianized, not to say uncivilized, style of imagination. But in this ag®
of morbid appetite for family scandal, whether real or imaginary, however they may
affect her reputation as a woman, these very peculiarities will cause her book to be read,
and will increase not only her own, but also the profits of the publishers.
Ladies' Guide or Skillful Housewife ; or Complete Guide to Domestic Cookery,
Taste, Comfort, and Economy ; embracing 650 receipts. By Mrs. L. G. Abell Thirty-
Fifth Thousand. 1855. C. M. Saxton, New-York,
This little work contains almost every thing connected with the duties of a house-
keeper, including directions for preparing meats, breads, cakes, puddings, pies, etc., for
curing the diseases and dressing the wounds to which families are particiJarly exposed,
and many other things that every body ought to know. All for 25 cents. Send for it. '
Annual Illustrated Register, C, M. Saxton.
A vert pretty annual, well worth the 25 cents at which it is sold.
Among the many elegant and valuable Books for Holiday Gifts, published by Messrs.
R. Carter & Brothers, 285 Broadway, may be found the following:
The Auto-Biographt and Reminiscences of the Rev. William Jay, 2 vol"? l^mo
$2.50. In 1 vol., full gilt, ?3 ; half-calf, $3 ; full calf, $4.50. "' " '
"Few names are so extensively known in the Christian communities of Great Britain
and the United States as that of William Jay. His Morniug and Evening Exercises is
in the great niajority of Christian families, the Auto-biography is written in a style of
great simplicity and pleasantness. The reminiscences, by Mr. Jay, of prominent indi-
viduals with whom he was well acquainted— as John Newton, Richard Cecil, Robert
Hall, Wilham Wilberforce, and others, are graphic and entertaining, and replete with
anecdote," ^
Evening Hours with mt Children ; or. Conversations on the Gospel Story, Illus-
trated with twelve large Illustrations, (quarto size,) colored and plain,
Kitto's Dailt Bible Illustrations. 8 vols., 12mo. Cloth, $8; in half-calf, $12,
j-^'^^^ ^^f^^ °^ ^^'^ ^"^^"^ '^ *° ^^'^® "P°° passages of Scripture that are obscure, or
ditticult to be understood, particularly from their allusions to ancient places or customs
or persons or thmgs, and throw upon them the light of history. Beginning in the first
volume, with the Antediluvians and Patriarchs, the reader is led on, day by day through
the historic records of Moses and the Judges, Saul and David, Solomon and the Kings
Job and the poetical writers, Isaiah and the Prophets, and thence to the New-Testament
characters and times, everywhere gathering new facts, and discovering the breadth and
beauty of new truths."
Scotia's Bards ; comprising the choicest productions of Scottish Poets, illustrated with
more than fifty elegant engravings in the highest style of the art, with Frontispiece
and Vignette by Ritchie. 8vo. Cloth, $3 ; full gilt, |4; Turkey Morocco, $6.50.
" Scotland, rich in the treasures of Theology, History, and Philosophy, here stands
before us with her long array of Poets, such as any country might be proud to acknow-
ledge as its own," ^ o r
Palet's Evidences of Christianity. With Notes and Additions by Charles Murray
Nairne, M.A,
This is one of the best popular treatises upon the external evidences of Christian Faith.
The Land of the Forum and the Vatican; or, Thoughts and Sketches during an
Eastern Pilgrimage. By Newman Hall, B.A,
This is a truthful record of the author's impressions and opinions formed by a careful
study of scenes and places that he visited, and in his best style of composition,
Fritz Harold; or, The Temptation, By Sarah A. Myers.
Jeanie Morrison ; or, the Discipline of Life. By the Author of « The Pastor's Family.'
Words to Win Souls. Twelve Sermons preached in 1620 and 1650. By Eminent
Divines of the Church of England. Revised and abridged by the Rev. Thomas S.
Mellington.
446 2irEW BOOKS.
The Millineks' and Dress-Makers' Guide.
This work 13 issued on the first of every other month, at $" per annum, by Samuel T.
Taylor, 407 Broadway. Mr. Taylor enables the subiscriber to cut and make dresses
from diagrams sent with the work. It is richly embellished with four large colored
fashion plates in each number, obtained directly from Paris. The Maryland Institute
and the Crystal Palace have awarded Mr. Taylor Prize Medals for the excellency of his
system of cutting, as taught in the Guide. We commend the Guide to all housekeepers
and others having families, as one of the most useful and practical publications of the
day.
Peteeson's Ladies' National Magazine.
Mrs. Stephens, the editress of this popular monthly, is a lady of great talent, and the
writer of several very valuable books, which are eagerly sought for by the reading pub-
lic. Her magazine, which is produced with much taste, is filled with choice reading, at
a reduced rate of subscription, only f 2 per annum. Should the reader desire other lite-
rary works of a popular character, he will find a supply rarely surpassed in richness and
variety, at Peterson's, 102 Chestnut street, Philadelphia, the publication office of the La-
dies' National.
Arthur's Home Magazine.
The idea conceived by Mr. Arthur a few years ago, of imposing the reading matter of
his Gazette in the form of a monthly, seems to have taken well with the public. This
magazine is among our most popular periodicals, and we take pleasure in commending
it to our readers. It is riclily embellished, and furnished at $2 a year.
The Life of Horace Greeley, Editor of the New- York Tribune. By J. Parton.
New- York : Mason Brothers. 1855. 442 pages.
There are many things in the framework of this book which we should regard as of
doubtful expediency, and there are opinions defended, incidentally, for which we have
no sympathy. But, on the whole, the plan adopted gives a more thorough view of the
man than any other. It is not a eulogy, but a plain narrative. The history of Mr.
Greeley necessarily includes a history of the daily press in this city, and throws much
light on the history of political parties during a period of many years. Much of the
volume would be very entertaining to all parties, and no one can read the whole with-
out the conviction that, however erroneous his views may be regarded, he is at least
honest, thoroughly honest ; and a life more persevering, untiring, and unyielding, even in
the face of formidable obstacles, without the aid of friends or patronage, is seldom the
subject of any biography. A true friend of the working classes, which is, in. fact, syno-
nymous with being the friend of the whole community, he certainly is ; and if his advice
is not always the best, we but have in this fact, the evidence that he is not infallible.
His boyhood and youth may be a useful example to others in that period of life, and is
a severe commentary on the utter failure of thousands who have utterly failed with
vastly greater facilities for winning the prize. •
Godey's Ladj's Book.
The January number of this journal, received in advance of its date, furnishes abund-
ant evidence of the determination of the publisher to deserve the reputation whirh he
has already secured, and the extensive patronage he has long received. His illustra-
tions are abundant. Terms, $3 a year.
The Land of the Saracens; or. Pictures of Palestine. Asia Minor, Sicily, and Spain.
By Bayard Taylor. New- York : G. P. Putnam & Co. 1855.
Mr. Taylor's extensive travels in the most remarkable countries on the globe furnish
him an iutxiiaustible supply of material for interesting narrative. This volume is the
second portion of a series of travels, of which the "Journey to Central Africa," already
noticed, is the first part. No portion of his travel is more fruitful of interesting topics
than this. A few titles of his chapters furnish proof of this. For example: 2. The Coast
of Palestine ; 3. From Jaffa to Jerusalem ; 4. The Dead Sea and the River Jordan ; 9.
Pictures of Damascus; 10. The Visions of Hasheesh; 31. The Eruption of Mount Etna,
etc., etc. We need not say Mr. T.'s pecuUar gift in description especially qualifies him
for such work, and guarantees fresh interest even where numerous travellers have pre-
ceded him.
LIST OF PATENTS.
447
Me. Rutherford's Children. 2d vol, New- York : G. P. Putnam. 1855.
This volume ia intended for "Ellen Montgomery's Book-Shelf," and is by the author
of " The Wide, Wide World," " Dollars and Cents," etc. The first volume was published
isome years ago. It is very handsomely printed, and is done up in very neat binding,
for a gift-book. The contents are sprightly and entertaining.
The Shaksperean Oracle. Edited by John Crcger Mills. Jfew-York: Bunce &
Brother. 1855.
This is a very neatly executed little volume of 147 pages, more especially designed
for young ladies and young gentlemen. Thirteen questions, of veri/ interesthir/ nature,
in certain conditions of things, are each answered by a reference to any chosen one of
fifty answers, all gathered from Shakspeare.
List of Patents Issued
FROM NOV, 14 TO DEC. 5.
Edwin Allen, of South-Windham, Ct., improve-
ment in machinery for carving stone.
Levi B. Ball, Putnam, Ohio, improvement in
smut-machines.
Wm. Brancroft, of Whiteford, Ohio, improve-
ment in cultivators.
Henry Bates, New-London,improvement in slide-
valves tor the exhaust steam.
William Beebe, New- York, improvement in dou-
ble cylinder boilers for hot-water apparatus.
Martin Bell, of Sabbath Rest, and Edward B.
Isett, of Cold Spring Forge, Tyrone city. Pa., im-
provement in furnaces for making iron direct fiom
the ore.
Wm. Bell, Boston, improved lamp-caps.
Job Brown, Lawn Eidge, III., improvement in
cultivators.
Thos. M. Chapman, Oldtown, Me., improved de-
vice for adjusting mill-saws.
Matthias P. Coons, Brooklyn, multigrade iron
lence.
Horace J. Crandall, East-Boston, improved me-
thod of adjusting vessels upon the keel-blocks of
dry sectional or railway dock.
George Crampton, Worcester, improvement in
looms for weaving figured fabrics.
Daniel Harris, Boston, assignor to John P. Bow-
ker, Jr., of same place, improvement in sewing ma-
chmes.
Jonathan Hibbs, Tullytown, Pa., improvement
J a ploughs.
Geo. Hodgkinson, Cincinnati, improved pegging-
raachines. i oo &
George T. Leach, Boston, improvement in the
method of engaging and disengaging self-acting car-
brakes.
Fras. Maton, New-York, improvement in breach
loading fire-arm.
Wm. Morris, Philadelphia, improvement in om-
nibus registers.
Joseph Miller, Olean, N. Y., improvement in rail-
road car coupling.
Wm. Moore, Belleville, Ohio, improvement in
grain-winnowera.
Alpheus Myers, Logansport, for tape-worm trap.
Alpheus Myers, Logansport, for tape-worm ope-
ration. ^
C. B. Normand, Havre, France, mode of controll-
ing and guiding logs in saw-mills, without a car-
nage. Patented in England, 27th Oct., 1S52 Pa-
tented in France, Nov. 5, 1S52.
C. B. Normand, Havre, France, for improved
method of hanging saws for mills.
C. B. Normand, Havre, Prance, for improved
method of controlling the log for curved and bevel
sawing. Patented in Francej Nov. 5, 1852 • Eng-
lish patent, Oct. 27, 1852. °
Julius A. Peas, New-York, improvement in India-
rubber over-shoes.
Charles A. Robbing, Iowa City, Improved excava-
tor and ditching plough.
Geo. D. Stillbon, Rochester, improved excavating
machine.
Wm. Stoddard, Lowell, for shingle-machine.
Jacob Swartz, Buffalo, improvement in grain and
grass harvesters.
Benj. James Tarman, Philadelphia, improvement
in machinery for stretching and drying cloth.
Orson Westgate, Riceville, Pa., for saw-gauge.
Leon Jarosson, Jersey City, improved method
of constructing printing blocks.
George Bruce, New-York, improvement in cast-
ing types.
John A. Robling, Trenton, N. J., improvement
in steam-boilers.
Michael Shimer, Union Township, Pa., improve-
ment in railroad car-brakes.
James E, i^impson, East-Boston, for improve-
ment in dry docks.
Thomas J. Sloan, New- York, improvement in
casting metal window-sashes.
David G. Smith, Carbondale, improvement in
running gear of railroad cars.
Mathew Stev.'art, Philadelphia, improvement in
the manufacture of brushes.
Amasa St.wie, Philadelphia county, for method
of extinguishing tire in accessible places.
Thomas T. Tasker, Philadelphia, for mode of
regulating the furnace of hot water apparatus.
James Taylor, Newark, N. J., improvement in
covering cotton thread with wool.
Wm. D. Titus, Brooklyn, for improvement in lan-
terns.
Ellis Webb, Parkersville, Pa., for hydraulic ram.
Elbridge AVebber, Gardiner, Me., improvement
in churns.
Cyrenus Whee'er, Jr., Poplar Ridge, N. J., im-
provement in grain and grass harvesters;
Franklin Darracott, Boston, assignor to Geo.
Darracot, same place, improvements in dry gas
meters.
John Pepper, Jr., Portsmouth, N. H., assignor to
the Franklin Mills, i'>auklin, N. H., improvement
in knittiug-machifies.
Joshua Register, Baltimore, assignor to Ellas
Clampitt and Joshua Register, of same place, im-
proved lubricating apparatus.
John AV. Cochran, New- York, improved quartz-
crusher. Patented in England, Nov. 21, 1853.
George Thompson and Menell A. Furbush, of
us
LIST OF PATENTS.
Worcester,iraprovemeut in rollers for pattern chairs
for looms.
Jonathan W. CaUlweU, Rochester, improved ar-
rangement of lever and catch for tow-lines of canal
boats.
Jno. Absteidam, Boston, Mass., improvement in
lubricatini? the cylinders of steam-engine".
Clark Alvord, Syracuse, N. Y., for hand brick-
moulds.
H. F. Baker, Centreville, Ind., improvement in
paperinfT walls.
H. F. David, Ipava, 111., improvement in sauce-
pans.
Chas. O. Everitt, Brooklyn, N. Y., improvement
in machines fur closina; sheet-metal boxes.
Jas. Freeland, Allegheny, Pa., improvement in
valve gear for locomotive engines.
Samuel Greene, VVoousocket, R. I., cleaning
cards of carding-engiues.
Adoniram Kendall, Cleveland, Ohio, improve-
ments in shingle-machine.
.Terome B. King, New-York, kettle for calcining
piaster of Paris.
G. W. Lee, Ercildown, Pa., improvement in seed-
planters.
D. B. Martin, Washington, N. J., improvement
in packing slide-valves in steam-engines.
R. I. Nelson, Ocala, Florida, improvement in at-
taching life-preservers to vests.
Mighill Nutting, Portland, Me., for arrangement
of pencils for drawing-machine.
Chas. Parham, Philadelphia, Pa., improvement in
sewing-machines.
Wni. Perry, Graniteville, S. C, improvement in
spinning-frames.
J. A. Roebling, Trenton, N. J., improvement in
manufacturing wire rope.
Elliott Savage, Berlin, Ct., improvement in ma-
chines for threading screw-blanks.
J. I/. Stevens, Kensington, England, improve-
ment in furnaces. Patented in England, Oct. 1,
1852.
S. H. T. Tilghman, Snow Hill, Md., improvement
in inhaling apparatus.
W. H. Towers, Philadelphia, Pa., for clothes-
clamp.
T. \V. Trussell, Winchester, Va., for improvement
in dressing mill-stones. •
Isaac Van Bensehoten, New-York, improvement
in lamps.
Milan Waterbury, Cuba, N. Y., improvement in
aeed-planters.
William Watt, Glasgow, North-Britain, improve-
ment in hemp-rotting processes. Patented in Eng-
land, May 23, 1S32.
Mary Ann Loomis, executrix of Josh. G. Loomis,
deceased, late of Philadelphia, Pa., (assignor to W.
A. Gardiner, of Philadelphia,) for improvement in
aurgical furceps.
T. C. Ball, Shelburne Falls, Mass., (assignor to
Nath'l Lamson,) for improved scythe fastening.
Harvey Snow, Dubuijue, Iowa, (assignor to Jas.
A. Woodbury (Winchester, Mass.,) improved presser
bar for pla ing-machines.
Stephen Woodward, Sutton, N. H., (assignor to
himself, J. P. Nelson, and A. C. Carroll,) improved
apparatus for drying clothes.
Sylvanus Miller, Urbana, Ohio, improved rake
harvestii:g-machine.
Alden Adam, Jerseyvillc, Illinois, improvement
in hay and cotton presses.
Gottlieb I'ackstein, Philadelphia, improved ar-
rangement of devices for applying power to fire-en-
gines.
Jno. Cram, Bostorj, improvement in the towel-
stand, or clothes-horse.
A. B. Crawford, Wooster, Ohio, improvement in
clov.cr-hullcrs.
Augustus Eliaers, Boston, improvement in seats
for public buildings.
Fletcher Felter, Perth Amboy, improvement in
feathering paddle-wheels.
C. B. Gallagher, San Francisco, improvement in
converting reciprocating into rotary motion.
Elias A. Hibbard, Winchester, Va., rotary cook-
ing stove.
Jos. IloUen, White Township, Pa., improvement
in knitting-machines.
Whitteu E. Kidd, New- York, improvement in
moulds lor pressing bonnet fronts.
Daniel B. Martin, Washington, N. J., improve-
ment in steam-boilers.
Angus W. McDonald, New Creek Depot, Va.,
improvements in tanks and cisterns for supplying
locomotives.
Jordan L. Mott, Mott Haven, N. Y., improvement
in stoves.
James Newman, Birmingham, England, imi)rove-
ment in making mclal rods and tubes. Dated No-
vember 28, 186i. Patented in England, March 23,
1854.
A. D. Perry, Newark, improvement in breech-
loading fire-arms.
E. K. Root, Hartford, improved machine for bor-
ing chambers in the cylinders of fire-arms.
Daniel II. Shirley, of Boston, impruved piano-
forte action.
Nathaniel Spence, New-York, improvement in
moulds tor pressing bonnet frames. Dated Novem-
ber 28, 1S54. Ante-dated Nov. 10, 1S54.
Wm. Talbot, Sandford, Me., improvements in
looms for weaving bags.
Wm. Tinsley, Glenn's Falls, improved mitre-box.
Edward H. Tracy, New- York, inclined sliding-
valve?.
George Tugnot, New-York, improved rotary
lathe.
Daniel Van Fleet, Sandusky iCity, planing-ma-
chine.
Wm. Wakely, Homer, improvement in metal
drills.
Theodore E. Weed, Williamsburgh, improve-
ment in sewing-machines.
Wm. Wheeler, Acton, Mass., improvement in
washing-machines.
Henry Richards and Charles F. Winsor, Boston,
improvement in windlasses.
Osgood G. Boynton, Haverhill, assignor to Nehe-
miah Hunt, of same place — improvemeiit in bind-
ing guiiles for sewing-machines. Dated November
2S, 1854 ; ante-dated June 1, 1854.
Thomas J. W. Robertson, New-York, assignor to
himself and Alfred E. Beach, of same place — im-
provement in sewing-machines.
Arad Woodworth, 3d, Boston, and Geo. Chara-
berlin, Olean — improvement in machinery for mak-
ing rope and cordage.
Aaron H. Allen, Boston, for improvement in seats
for public buildings.
Gardner S. Blodgett and Paul T. Sweet, Eurhng-
ton, N. J., improved oven for baking.
P. Clark, Eahway, N. J., for improvement in
steam-boiler alarms.
Horace J. Craiidall, East-Boston, improved ar-
rangements for re fing top-sails.
Joseph D. Crowed, Boston, improvement in steer-
ing apparatus.
Joshua Gray, Boston, for rotary pump.
John T. Haramltt, Philadelphia, improvement in
railroad switches.
Samuel B. Kittle, Buffalo, improvement in rail-
road switches.
John Lilley, Birkenhead. England, impiwement
in machinery for separating the fibre from the
woody portion of tropical plants. Patented in Eng-
land, July 21, 1S53.
Leonard F. Markham, Cambridgeport, improved
machine for rounding the back of books.
Obadiah Marland, Boston, improvement in pa-
per-making nachines. Patented in England, Sep-
tember 28, 1854.
Wm. H. Miller, Brandenburgh, Ky., improve-
ment in wash-stands.
Henry R. Miller, Louisville, improved mill for
shelling and grinding corn.
Wm. H. Plumb, New-York, improved machine
for crushing ores.
Clje |l0ttgl)^ tl)e f 00111, anJi tl)e Ml
Vol. VII. FEBRUARY, 1855, No. 8.
ANNUAL FAIRS— THE POLICY OF, ETC.
Two months since, we gave our views, somewhat concisely, on tlie policy
of these institutions. We have received one reply, which will be found in
connection with these remarks, and which, we think, brings out distinctly the
essential facts and principles which belong to the discussion of this subject.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AKD THE ASVIL,
Messrs. Editors : The benefits of agricultural fairs have become so well
known among all classes, that a repetition of their valuable results among all
classes, hardly need be made at present. Yet the manner in which they are
conducted appears to claim more of the attention of the public now than the
principle on which they are sustained. That fairs, both agricultural and me-
chanical, should always be held in connection with each other, all must see
and admit at once. But their management in detail is another consideration,
which we all are or should be interested in. Now, the question is, how to
obtain from these annual " fairs" the greatest amount of good. During the
last twelve or fifteen years, in connection with the "New-Haven County So-
ciety," we (with others that we could name) have had some experience in the
management of " fairs," and the interest taken in them by the people. Our
out-door exhibition was always held in such a way that it was "free" for all
to look on and learn as much from the exhibition as they might feel disposed
to. But that was not the end of it. When we came to foot up the expenses,
and pay the " premiums," we always found ourselves " short" of means, and
an empty treasury to begin the next year. By the in-door exhibition, which
was held usually in connection with the " Horticultural Society," we obtained
some six cents a menaber — a mere nominal sum. But as the out-door exhi-
bition was " free" for all, it was a mere matter of fancy whether farmers be-
came members or not; as in case they became members of the Society, they
paid their " dollar ;" if not, of course they paid nothing. Of course, all we
had to depend on to pay our " premiums" were the amounts received from
farmers who paid their dollar, except a small sum we received from the State
on condition we raised the same sum in the county. If all, or even a major-
ity of the farmers in the county would pay their annual dollar tax, we should
then have means enough to pay the " premiums," and have a snug sum left
to begin the next year. But as it was optional with farmers whether they
became regular members or not, there was no dependence to be placed on .
the amount of means . to be obtained in that way. Many farmers will pay
their dollar if there is a chance of getting it back in a " premium," with
two or three times as much. These ideas have led us to see that there
must be some other plan adopted to raise means in order to make these
VOL. VII. 28
450 ANNUAL FAIRS,
annual exhibitions permanently successful. The plan that has been adopted
by some societies, of buying or hiring a piece of land of sufficient size and
extent for the annual exhibition, is a good one. This plan, of course, "will
make the county exhibition a permanent fixture in one place, then the
inclosing of the grounds with a substantial board fence, and erecting such
buildings as are wanted for the present and future exhibitions. This plan, of
course, secures an " entrance-fee" at the gates, which is right and just, as we
understand it ; and in this way a handsome sum can be raised to pay the
" premiums," leaving, perhaps, a balance in the treasury to begin another
year. When a State or county fair is holding its first exhibition, perhaps a
twenty-five cent charge at the gates might not be out of place ; but after this
we think a twelve-and-a-half cent charge after the plan of the New- York
State Fair, would eventually leave more money in the treasury than a higher
charge. Of course, this plan of a permanent exhibition can not apply to a
State society, as they must change the place of these exhibitions each season,
according to circumstances. But as to free fairs for every body to look on
without any expense, we have but little confidence in them. Of course, every
reasonable man should understand that a "fair" can not be got up and sus-
tained without much labor and a great deal of expense. And, further, they
should understand that if a fair is worth any thing at all, it is worth paying
for, and that this " tax" to support and sustain the fair should not come out
of the pockets of the few, but from the hands of the many. Our experience
has shown us that, when farmers have become interested enough in the
" fair" to become permanent members, that then they would, in reality, begin
to learn something from the exhibition. But as long as they stood as mere
lookers-on, as " outsiders," it was a matter of indifl:erence whether they gained
any profit or not. And this rule, we believe, will hold good with the masses ;
that the extra " shilling" that is paid at the gate is, in reality, of no particu-
lar consequence; that if they go to the "fair" for the object of getting
instruction and learning something, they can do so always.
It should be ever borne in mind that, to carry out these annual fairs
requires a great deal of labor and much money. Hence the idea of carrying
the " fair" into the " rural districts," among a sparse population, we think
could only be thought of by having beforehand an overflowing " treasury" to
start with. Because, when you get through with the exhibition, the "mo-
ney" has got to be raised to pay off. If, after you have got through with the
exhibition, you find that you have only means enough to pay the premiums,
to say nothing of the current expenses, where are you ? Echo will answer,
" where ?" Of course, it would be a very fine idea for every section through-
out the State, if they could, once in a series of years, have the fair in their
own locahty ; but then, as we said before, who is going to pay for it ? It is
very evident that, if these fairs are sustained at all, it must be done by the
people at large. Then, if this be the case, it is very evident that the fair
must go where the people are, or where they would be likely to come. Then
again, it must be held at some point where the multitude can be accommo-
dated for two or four days, or during the exhibition.
So it will be seen that all these ideas must be taken into consideration in
locating the " fair" from year to year, in order to insure success. These ideas
have been thrown out by seeing some remarks on the " Benefit of Fairs," in
the December number of The Plough, the Loom, and the Anvil. As we
have said before, the idea of the spectator paying a small fee to see the exhi-
bition, we consider of no consequence whatever, so far as the " looker-on" is
concerned, although in the receipts of the treasury it might make a vast dif-
ANNUAL FAIRS. 451
ference. We have found, in our experience, that farmers were even more
indifferent toward becoming members of the society, where they could have
the whole out-door exhibition open to every body, than when managed^ on
the present plan. In regard to the general benefits of fairs, it is impossible
to enumerate them ; their name is legion, and it would require many sheets
of paper to name them all. That there can be great improvements made in
their management hereafter, no one can doubt. Still, in whatever way or
shape these exhibitions are managed or held, all will depend on the people
themselves, whether they learn any thing from the exhibition or not. They
can spend their time to good advantage, or spend it in a listless, careless way,
as they see fit. Yours, etc.,
Derhv, Ct, December, 1854. L. DuRAND.
We propose now to give these questions of policy a more careful consider-
ation, and inquire —
1. Are fairs designed for the especial benefit of those who receive the pre-
miums ? Decidedly not. The premiums themselves are awarded, or rather
are offered, to induce competition. But competition among whom ? Among
two or three of the best farmers in the country ? By no means. This com-
petition is for all, for the purpose of raising the entire mass of farmers, of
emancipating farm-labor from the bondage of inefficiency, ignorance, misap-
prehension, and miscalculation, that the laborer may work wisely and effi-
ciently on sound theories and correct principles, and become the man he
ought to be.
Hence the premium is merely one of the moving agencies which are to
give efficiency to the fair, and may he comparatively unimportant. It is one
of the inducements held out to cultivators of the soil to improve their own
husbandry. It has an effect ; but to what extent ?
Suppose no articles brought to the notice of the committees on premiums
were to be seen by any body at the show. The animals are all confined in
stables, and the specimens of crops grown are shut up in private apartments.
None are allowed to look at any thing, except at the few choice specimens
for which a premium has been awarded, while all these are arrayed in a very
conspicuous place. How many tickets of admission could be sold ? Scarcely
one to a thousand. Nay, how many competitors for those premiums would
there be ? Not one where there are now a hundred.
Where were the crowds at our own State fair, last fall ? Gazing at the
few things which obtained the premium ? No. Pressing to see the scores
of roadsters in swift pace in the ring — perhaps fifty competitors to a prize ;
or listening to the explanations of the owner of some new machine, which
was on exhibition ; or thronging the tent filled with flowers and fruits, very
few specimens out of hundreds obtaining any premium.
Nay, more than this. If every article to which a premium is awarded
were removed from view — burnt up or destroyed — how much would our
fairs suffer? Very often, the loss would scarcely be noticed. There would
be still, in almost every such collection, a good show left ; and a show of ^ as
good things, or very nearly as good — so good that the two rivals must lie side
by side ere the superiority of either can be appreciated. We ask again, then,
for whose benefit are fairs instituted ?
2. Are they ^designed for the especial benefit of those who, in fact, exhibit ?
We admit that such do, very often, receive great benefit from fairs. It is
the very best way, in many cases, of getting the attention of the public to the
article in their possession. We recently invited one whom we found exhibit-
452 ANNUAL FAIRS.
ing an ingenious invention to advertise in our journal. " No, sir," said he ;
" this is the only way we advertise." He was wrong. After seeing the thing
on the grounds, under the excitement of the scene, and after looking at scores
of other things equally new, and perhaps more curious, the mind of the spec-
tator is bewildered, and while the exhibitor may think that all leave him sen-
sibly impressed with the wonders of his invention, the fact is, the next ma-
chine they look at drives out all others, and this will presently be made to
give place to another. But when they come to sit down coolly at home, and
read a description of the same thing, and perhaps an editorial commendation,
they are far more open to receive abiding impressions — far more so than if
thev had not made a personal examination at the fair.
While inventors and producers thus gain much by an exhibition of the
articles they may have on sale, the impression is made on the mind <rf the
spectator. The change is only on him. The exhibitor is a gainer thereby,
because his object is to impress the people with a conviction that he furnishes
a better article than any other.
This is more completely and entirely the case in exhibitions of machinery
or implements, but is essentially true of field-crops and animals. Why does
A or B exhibit his basket of corn ? To show that he has done better than
others, has pursued methods and plans that were more successful ; and to
those who see that corn, the evidence of the senses outweighs all others. To
those who do not see, the award of a premium is evidence, and this award is
good for nothing else, except as it was required as a means of procuring that
corn for the committee's tables. The offer of a premium, then, is only a
means of securing, not so much better crops, but the evidence that better
crops may be grown than are usually obtained ; and that many, not one or
two, but many, do, in fact, secure such crops, and find it to their advantage
so to do.
If every body would raise crops as good as those which obtain the first
premium, it miffht be that no premium would be expedient. JESTo premium
would be expedient unless something still better, not yet attained, was to be
looked for.
We are brought back, therefore, to the fact that the ultimate aim of all
shows is, to effect, through the senses, the mass of the people. We say
through the senses, though not necessarily or exclusively at the fair. The
fair is the first only of a series of more private exhibitions and conversations
and discussions. If mere reading an account of such and such productions
was all that is required, all fairs might be dispensed with. Then a few itin-
erant committees, appointed and paid by the State, might be the very best
thing ; and we shall, indeed, have something to say on that matter before we
are through with this subject.
We come, then, to the inquiry, whether, in itself considered, it is best to
tax this same public with such an assessment as will hinder them from seeing
that show. The answer is perfectly obvious. Such a plan is suicidal and
without excuse. Whether a demand of six, twelve, or twenty cents will have
this eff'ect, we do not now stop to inquire.
But money must be had, premiums must be paid, various expenses must
be incurred, and the fair is indispensable to rapid improvement in agricul-
ture. Men are so free from selfishness, that they will not look after their own
interest, unless the effort is accompanied with some Dodworth's band — some-^
thing, at least, to make some kind of a noise. Hence noise has become of
very great consideration in civilized communities. It not only keeps Louis
Napoleon on his throne, but is of very great importance in rearing calves
ANNUAL FAIRS. 453
and raising potatoes. The only question is, What is the best method of
making the noise, or who shall pay for the powder ? Let us examine this
question.
The first inquiry, as it occurs to us, is whether these institutions are among
the " benevolent," so called, or the self or mutual-improving. We should
place them among the latter, the mutual-improvement class, which, by the
way, is a very numerous one. If we are right in this, oiu- investigation will
be very short. For among all these, it is proper and usual for them to pay
in common their own expenses. A parish library is to be bought for the
mutual benefit of all. Then the parish must pay for it, by tax or contribu-
tion. The former plan is always just, the latter sometimes expedient. A
mutual insurance company is to be carried on. Who foots the bills ? Each
member, pro rata. Illustrations are needless, the theory is so plain. Those
who choose to go into the enterprise must stand in their lot. But many will
not do so. They " can't aftord it." Then the ordinary modes of proceeding
must be abandoned, and the next best means attempted, or the plan must be
dropped. Voluntary subscription is next in order.
Now, why should A and B and C, each give more than his share? Be-
cause he has it to give, and feels the importance of the subject. At whose
cost is the temperance reform sustained ? At the cost of those who totally
abstain, and who do not need the reform. Who sustain all the isms of the
day ? Those who are sufficiently persuaded of their importance to open their
purse-strings in their behalf. The agricultural reform being one of this class,
those who feel its importance, and they alone, can be relied upon to sustain
it. But suppose this reliance fails you, what then ? Take the third best
means ? It may be so, or it may not be so. Perhaps it "svould be better to
wait awhile, and bring up the people to a better state of feeling on the sub-
ject. But the trouble then would be, that the fair is one of the most efficient
means for giving vitality and power to the truth on this very subject. This
fact, then, should be allowed its proper influence on the minds of those who
have hitherto refused to subscribe for this object.
We have been somewhat celebrated in our day for our advocacy of the
doctrine of Protection to American Industry. Our views of principles have
not changed one iota, though our hopes and expectations are essentially
modified. But we venture here a
Novel Form of Industrial Protection.
If the State is benefited by the progress of American industrj^, as it surely
is ; if it is the State which is reformed in all such progress as that now solicit-
ing our attention, as it certainly is, then the State is, in fact, the community
which should tax itself, and the people have no cause of complaint for any
such assessment. It is equally true that all outsiders have nothing to do
with the thing; and if they "come in" at all, it must be on our own terms.
Now, suppose we should agree that any may come in, provided a certain
amount or per centage of the articles thus brought in and sold shall be put
into our own treasury, to form a Fund to be expended for our own improve-
ment, to enable us to produce the very best specimens of the article in ques-
tion in the very best manner. It is unquestionably better that each unit,
whether individual or social, should be independent of all others, so far, at
least, as these necessary products of labor are concerned. It is desirable that
no " neighbor" should be obliged to ask favors of another, to enable him to
carry on successfully his own legitimate, regular, and desirable and even indis-
454: ANNUAL FAIRS.
pensable calling, whether this necessity involve one or one hundred items.
Tills seems clear.
These outsiders would like to sell us lots of linen goods, iron in various
forms, etc., etc. We have agreed to sufter them to do so at certain rates.
Now, let the committee of arrangements at Washington, who say that things
must remain as they are, so arrange the matter that all or a certain share of
the profits of these sales of the property of outsiders, shall be given to our
State societies, (there, perhaps, to be further subdivided,) to be expended in
instructing us how to produce the highest and best specimens of the same
kind among ourselves. In other words, our Society will admit outsiders to
sell on our own grounds and in our warehouses, provided they will pay us
what we consider a fair price for this right, in competition with our own pro-
ducts. While we are unwilling to tax ourselves for self-improvement, this
plan would work out magnificent results. Minute calculations and apportion-
ments would be too tedious, of course ; but we might make a general appor-
tionment. The essential point of the thing is, that the management at Wash-
ington shall secure to the State societies, as trustees, an amount for agricul-
tural and mechanical improvement at home, which shall be a fair equivalent
for any loss by the competition of outsiders, which may be permitted on our
own soil. If we shall prove ourselves incompetent to the work of producing
the very best qualities, and in indefinite amounts, after a fair trial, then let all
the gates of our inclosure be thrown down, and all our fairs, through all our
States and territories, be turned into commons. • Would not any farmer justly
complain if he was obliged to furnish the necessary facilities in his own build-
ings, for a rival from a distance to sell the very same articles he produces, and
in which competition is hazardous to himself?
But the form in which we have presented this may be thought " too poli-
tical." In fact, we think it entirely politic, and we will be content if, in any
form, our political governments — who do almost every thing because it is
politic or policy, and not because it is just — will carry out a plan of this sort ;
and we do strenuously contend that our national and State governments
ought to furnish liberal provision for expenditures of this description. It
might reasonably be required, that all kinds of useful industry should be alike
encouraged by premiums and otherwise ; and then we can see no reason why
the measure should be deemed undesirable or impracticable. All that is
necessary is, that the farming and manufacturing industry of the country
should demand this for themselves, and the thing is done. One million of
dollars apportioned among the States, would give an average of more than
$30,000 to each State, and even much more than this might be given. Our
national treasury is running over, but no one dreams of distributing of its
profusion among the farmers and mechanics, for the improvement of their
several crafts, though these are the very men who sustain the institutions of
the country.
We have said that premiums are or may be comparatively unimportant
among the instrumentalities used for this object. Perhaps it would be better
to say that they should be regarded chiefly as the indirect means of good,
rather than as having any value of their own. Thus, when premiums and
other means of power over men's curiosity, selfishness, love of gain, etc., have
done their work, of securing the attention of the public in one or several
places of convocation, then let us have the benefit of carefully-drawn state-
ments of the processes adopted, all the circumstances involved, with the errors
of previous years ; the details of experiments, whether successful or unsuc-
cessful ; oroDositions for future experiments ; suggestions in regard to new
ANNUAL FAIRS. 455
macbinery and new applications; specimens of very high styles of products
of any kind, as of printing, weaving, paper-making, etc., etc. Thus all may
be alike encouraged to emulate these higher specimens of skill, and a general
attention, at the same time, be secured at these annual or semi-annual convo-
cations, which might continue for several successive days. Were no other
expenditures demanded in such cases, this amount of time and labor would
be cheerfully given, and, no doubt, prove very profitable.
The actual view of fine products of the farm, or shop, or mill, we think, oi
vastly higher value than the most eloquent harangue on theories or on facts.
The premium is only valuable as it leads to this other and greater good.
Hence the influence of the latter should be as widely extended as possible.
The boy, in his teens, may be essentially afiected for a whole life as a farmer
by such an exhibition. Many a fruit-grower or raiser of cattle would then be
stimulated to adopt practices of vital importance in the improvement of our
stock. Many a dairy-maid might there be inspired with a sort of esprit de
corps, which would exert a controlling influence upon these products of the
farm. This kind of training might awaken a ^jri't/e of production in every
department of farm work, which would deserve the name of revolution, when
contrasted with the general indiflerence now prevalent among a large major-
ity of our citizens.
We have often said that our farmers need not information half so much as
means, to place them all among our men of progress. One form in which
capital might be used to very great advantage, through the agency of agri-
cultural societies, is by loaning money, with or without interest, for a term of
two or three years, to enable farmers of small means to cultivate their lands.
Increased products would furnish the means of repayment and leave them in
possession of fertile acres in place of barren, worn-out wastes. The loan might
be repaid by a certain amount of each year's crop, or by the excess of all
over so much per acre, when expended under direction, and thus more be
received than was given, while the farmer also has more, beside his improved
lands. We are by no means sure that the money now paid as premium?, if
laid out as interest for money hired, even from the banks, for such uses,
would not accomplish more good than it does now. Certainly it is true thai
a Capital of a hundred thousand dollars of State stocks, might be created,
costing no man a farthing, but the whole manufactured out of a quire of
paper, and at the only possible cost of the State's name. We can see no
objection whatever to such an operation, to any reasonable amount. It is not
fictitious issue for currency, but a State loan for a specific purpose. AH that
the State could be liable for could be most abundantly secured in various
ways, so that no loss, in any event, would be anticipated. But on the other
hand, a fund of actual value to an indefinite extent might, in due time, be
acquired by the payments of instalments, from time to time, by those who
have had the benefit of the loans. Then the whole operation would be, not
more safe, but become a solid and substantial fund, the very erection of
which has already renovated, perhaps half the farms of the State, and its
future operations secure constant ancl important progress in every branch of
home industry, whether on the farm or in the shop.
There is another form of service, which, we think, our agricultural societies
might render at a trifling cost. When we had the honor of presiding over a
school, we did much by honorary marks. Not only each boy might earn
them, but a series of benches — that is, the occupants of them — was also enti-
tled to them. Thus the more orderly, or more gentlemanly half, as the east-
ern a«id western, received, each week, some valued distinction. So our com-
456 UNITED STATES AGRIOULTUEAL SOCIETY.
mittees might do with towns or districts. Some men have a measure of tOAvn
pride, who have no love of self-reform. They like to belong to a handsome
company, military or any thing else ; though they have no love for tactics or
strict discipline. When the best town team is honored with a premium, as it
is in many counties in Massachusetts, a farmer may buy a yoke of good oxen,
from this sort of pride, when he would not do so from any love of good cat-
tle. So the general condition of the several districts or towns in each and
all the several points of good husbandry might, at least, be given in a care-
fully-drawn report, the facts being determined by actual observation. Thus
we have work for a traveUing committee, named in the former part of this
paper, on whom also the weekly or monthly supervision of all farms entered
for premium as the " best-managed farms" would naturally devolve. The
same committee might also inspect, with little additional trouble, all experi-
ments going on under the auspices of the society. In fact, the difficulty
would consist in making the selection of those services which should seem
most urgent, rather than in finding out how to occupy such a committee to
advantage. This labor would now seem premature in some communities.
When we have advanced far enough to employ such committees, many ques-
tions will naturally present themselves as to the duties to be required of them.
It is only just, however, to suggest that several societies in New-England, and
perhaps elsewhere, have had such committees for several years.
UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
The Third Annual Meeting of the United States Agricultural Society will
be held at Washington, D. C, on Wednesday, February 28, 1855. Business
of importance will come before the meeting. A new election of officers is
to be made, in which it is desirable that every State and territory should
be represented. Lectures and interesting discussions are expected on sub-
jects pertaining to the objects of the Association, by distinguished scientific
and practical agriculturists. The various Agricultural Societies of the coun-
try are respectfully requested to send delegates to this meeting ; and all gen-
tlemen who are interested in the welfare of American agriculture, who would
promote a more cordial spirit of intercourse between the different sections of
our land, and who would elevate this most important pursuit to a position of
greater usefulness and honor, are also invited to be present on this occasion.
W. S. King, Secretary. Marshall P. Wilder, PresH.
REPORT OF ESSEX COUNTY (MASS.) AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
By the courtesy of Hon. J. W. Proctor, we have recei-ved a copy of the
Transactions of the Essex County (Mass.) Agricultural Society. This county,
the home of Pickering and his compeers, is not famous in its political renown
alone; it raises men. And though not remarkable, generally, for the quality
of its soil, it can show a list of farms, and farmers, and farm products, that
would honor any county in New-England. But we took up our pen to com-
mend and make extracts from some of these reports ; and first from that on
ESSEX COUNTY AGEICULTU'RAL SOCIETY. 457
SWINE.
"' It may be, and may remain a general truth, that, in the language of the
Ohairman of the Hampshire County Committee of last year, ' No one breed
is best adapted to all locations and circumstances.' It can hardly be credited,
however, for a moment, that the answers to inquiries of the United States
Commissioner of Patents, some two years ago, making a different and dis-
tinct breed necessary for almost every State, are to be taken as literally true.
May it not be fairly questioned whether there are really as many distinct
breeds of swine as there appear to be ?
And might not a better knowledge of animal physiology aid us in account-
ing for the fact that different breeds of swine are so often recommended for
the same or a neighboring locality ? Or to be more explicit, has it not often
been found true, that of the same litter of pigs some die and some live — and
of those that live, a part shall do well and the rest shall not ? And what
butcher of swine is not familiar with the fact, that the 2^ost mortem examina-
tion often reveals the diseased liver, with its large or small ulcers, or worms
in the intestines requiring a considerable part of the food taken by the ani-
mal for their support ; or other diseased organs, not easily detected, even
when the animal is slaughtered, and almost always unsuspected till then ? In
short, may not adventitious circumstances have often, most undeservedly,
given complexion to our ideas of the value of our breeds of swine ?"
"The following from the Agriculture of Massachusetts, for 1853, compiled
by our indefatigable Secretary, Mr. Flint, page 364, will show how little reli-
ance can be placed upon opinions often formed and expressed upon this sub-
ject. The question put to gentlemen in different parts of the country, con-
tained in the United States Commissioner's circular, was, ' What is the best
breed of hogs V and says the writer, New-Hampshire answers ' The Suffolk ;'
Connecticut, ' A mixture of the old-fashioned hog with Berkshire and the
China breed does very well ;' New- York, by three of her citizens, separately,
says, ' Berkshires and Leicesters ;' New-Jersey answers, ' A cross with the
Berkshire ;' Pennsylvania says, ' A cross of the Berkshires and Chester Coun-
ty;' Virginia says, 'Irish Grazier and mixed Berkshire are our common
stock;' Georgia answers, 'The best breeds for the climate are the Woburn
and Grazier ;' Mississippi says, ' The best hogs I have tried are the Berk-
shires;' Texas, 'Irish Grazier;' Tennessee says, 'The common old Grazier
mixed with the Hindoo breed.' And without following the language too
literally, it may be added, that while Kentucky is satisfied with the ' Wo-
burn' only, her more voracious neighbor, Ohio, must have the 'Leicester,'
' Bedford,' ' Chinese,' and the ' Calcutta ;' and while Missouri takes a cross of
the ' black Berkshire' and the ' white Irish,' Florida says that ' for the range,
or shift-for-yourself system, the long-nosed Pike stands A No. 1.'
And when it appears as it does from the same source, that a hundred
pounds of corn yield in some cases ' but eight pounds of pork,' and in others
' forty pounds,' it would seem that there must be something moie than the
peculiarities of breed to be taken into the account in explaining these results.
Not indeed, let it be distinctly understood, that the accidents of diseased
organs, etc., referred to, would account for all this variety of opinion ; and
least of all would we intimate that gentlemen answer the Commissioner with-
out suitable reflection. But great as is the confusion and apparent nnmbei*
of breeds, and the mixing up of breeds, there might be found to be less of
both, we think, if the ' accidents' were fewer, or if we were better able to
detect them.
458 ESSEX COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
It is a fair question, and an important one to begin with, What and how
many breeds of hogs are there really distinct ? Some are so, clearly — but
the question is not easily determined, and no discussion of it is proposed in
this report. The generally received opinion is, that the Suffolk is a distinct,
original breed. Let it be so considered. Now, is it the best breed for getie-
ral use in the county of Essex ? It is not, even though it is true that the
pork of this breed is much esteemed, and generally commands from one to
two cents a pound extra in Boston market. The reason is obvious ; they
come to maturity at a very early age, and never, or rarely weigh more than
250 to 300 pounds. There is a real difficulty in keeping them from taking
on fat, it is said, in order to their getting any considerable growth at all. Dr.
J. Kittredge informed the Committee, while examining his pure Suffolk boars,
that he could with difficulty keep them low enough in flesh to answer for
breeders or to bring to the show. Their keeping had been one quart of meal
a day, with the house slops, and raw apples, both sweet and sour ; and upon
this keeping they were fat, notwithstanding the large one had served for forty-
two sows, and the small one for twenty to thirty, since last spring. It seems
therefore now clear, that the Suffolks, being easy to fat, (indeed, being always
fat, it is said, after being a month old,) are a suitable breed to cross with.
The only remaining difficulty is, to know and obtain the best breed for
crossing with them. And first, it should not be the Chinese, because they
incline to fatten too much on the belly and too little on the back, and besides,
according to Youatt, they are too oily, and do not make good bacon. Nei-
ther should they cross with either the Berkshire or Byfiekl, because both are
too small and snug-boned, to make a large hog. But probably, to put a case
within the reach of all, almost any of the large kind, the 'old-fashioned
kind,' would make a good crossing with the Suffolk."
" As the ' Agriculture of Massachusetts' by Mr. Flint, referred to in the
early part of this Report, is not likely to be seen by all who may see our
County Society's Transactions, it may not be amiss to draw upon the Report
of the Norfolk County Society's Committee on Swine, for last year, in rela-
tion to one point. It is a report prepared with great care, and contains,
moreover, a treatise upon swine, by Sanford Howard, of unusual value.
The point about to be mentioned, taken from the report, referred to, is
discussed by another writer. This writer starts the idea, and refers to ' Giles,
in Philosophical Transactions for 1821,' as an authority for the theory, thai
the male, hy whom the female is destined to receive her first progeny, stamps
a character upon every subsequent produce, even hy other males ! As no facts
are cited in support of this theory, it will be doubted by many, of course. If,
hovrever, it should have the effect of inducing those having valuable sows, to
be careful in selecting the boar to which the young sow shall go for the first
time, the hint will not be lost. And to apply the rule in our county, it
would seem a clear case, that, if those having large-framed sows of any breed,
and living within a reasonable distance of a pure-blooded Suffolk, would take
the pains to carry them to such boars, they would be well compensated by
the extra price they would obtain for their pigs, or by the quantity and qual-
ity of the pork if they should keep them, or sell them at market."
Another admirable report, by Thos. E. Payson, Esq., deserves careful
attention, especially from the farmers of New-England. We refer to that on
In discussing the question whether sheep are profitable there, and what is
the best breed of sheep, he proceeds as follows :
ESSEX COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. . 459
"But why speculate upon a matter which is capable of proof; and that,
too, by the best evidence possible — the testimony of experience ? This testi-
mony is all one way, so far as the information of your committee extends,
and that is, that sheep are very profitable animals in Essex county, to the
general farmer. Not only has this been the case since the demand for lamb
and mutton has increased — and the prices of wool have sometimes ranged
high — but taking all things into the account, it has always been true. A
member of our Board of Trustees, lately deceased, whose opinions always
received, as they deserved, great consideration, and were seldom found to be
wrong, used to say that a pasture which would carry twenty head of full-
grown cattle, and for which that number was sufficient, would carry twenty
^heep besides, without detriment to the cattle, and with positive benefit to the
pasture. However this may be, it is conceded on all hands that a small flock
of sheep are as profitable as any stock a farmer can keep. Admit this to be
so, and it is easy to make them far more profitable.
We have had, heretofore, with very few exceptions, what are termed the
old-fashioned breed of sheep, v.'hich is no breed at all, or rather a mongrel
intermingling of several breeds ; some with long wool, more with short wool,
others between long and short — 'but all of them deficient in what is most anil
permanently profitable, to wit, weight of carcase. The raising of sheep for
their loool mainly, or exclusively, must be left to districts of country where
pasturage abounds, and which are remote from markets. With us the car-
case is to be looked to, rather than the fleece. This deficiency of carcase can
be entirely remedied with very little trouble or expense. Sheep of improved
breeds — introduced from England by men of ample means and enlarged
views, have become so numerous that any farmer can improve his flock
almost without money — certainly at a very moderate price. The Leicesters
and South-Downs, or grade animals largely impregnated with their respective
blood, can be obtained anywhere — and any of them would give increased
value to the progeny of our ordinary sheep. The Leicesters have long
headed the list of English sheep, but recently either some of the less aristo-
cratic families have stolen a march upon them or the taste of John Bull has
changed ; for the mutton of the black-faced breeds is worth in Smithfield mar-
ket half pence per pound more than the Leicesters. We take it that tlie
Enghsh are the best judges; and, following them, South-Downs are to be
recommended as more valuable to us here than Leicesters. They certainly
are to be so recommended, if the fashion of feeding or more properly starv-
ing sheep, hitherto often practised, is to be continued, for they have ' a pa-
tience of occasional short keep, and an endurance of hard stocking equal to
any other sheep.'
But the best sheep, (in the opinion of those of your committee who have
seen them,) which have yet been introduced to the United States, are those
lately imported by Mr. Fay, of Lynn — a gentleman to whom our Society, for
his pecuniary liberality, is under many obligations ; for the benefit of his
suggestions and examples far more. After very particular and extensive ob-
servation of different breeds and different flocks of the same breed, Mr. Fay
selected these, as in his opinion, the best English sheep to send to his farm
in Essex county, both for profit and improvement. These sheep have been
by him named ' Oxfordshire Downs.' They are cross-bred between the Cots-
wold and pure South-Down, inheriting from the former a carcase exceeding
in weight that of the South-Down from one fifth to one quarter — a fleece, the
fibre of which is somewhat coarser and stronger, it is true — but weightier
than the South-Down by one third to one half; from the latter, the rotund-
460 . ESSEX COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
ity of form and fullness of muscle in the more valuable parts, witli the brown
face and legs, so that they may not be very inaptly termed, South-Downs,
enlarged and improved. We should suppose that the live weight of either
of Mr. Fay's imported bucks would exceed two hundred pounds. The owes
are larger than pure South-Down ewes, in like proportion. We recommend
to those farmers of the county who are interested in sheep-breeding, to look
at these sheep. The sight will well repay the expense of a visit from any
part of the Commonwealth.
With these various and abundant materials for improvement within our
reach, and with the certainty that the raising of sheep, even unimproved, is
profitable, we must be blind to our interests not to take advantage of the
opportunities within our reach. Hundreds of acres of pasture-land in the
county, partially worn out, and full of shrubs which the cattle reject, may be
improved by stocking with sheep. At the same time the animals themselves
will probably pay a better profit than any other farm stock."
" Every farm is not adapted to sheep-breeding. Those best adapted to the
purpose ai6 whcic there is an extent of elevated pasture, such as we see in
all parts of the county, being over-run with moss and worthless bushes. The
improvement of such would add much to the agricultural value of the county.
In the opinion of your committee, the stocking of sheep would bring about
this result.
In short, your committee recommend to every farmer, whose land is
adapted to them, to make trial of a few sheep. Give them a fair chance in
summer — bestow upon them moderate care at all seasons — but at yeaning
time give them your undivided attention — feed well afterwards, particularly
if the lambs are dropped early in the year, and we think they will amply
repay the pains and expense which may be bestowed upon them."
GRAPES.
We learn from the report on this subject, that Mr. Blood, of NcAvburyport,
presented grapes for premium, which were produced from the seeds of Ma-
laga raisins. They are cultivated in the open air, and ripen by the last of
August. The vines have been in bearing nine years, and have never failed
to produce a good crop in the natural soil, without any nursing, such as
bone-manures, guano, etc. Slips from them have proved as productive in
Vermont and New-Hampshire, and ripen as early as in Essex county. The
committee say that the fruit was "juicy, sweet, and pleasant, but lacked
sprightliness and flavor." But they do not consider the fruit so " superior"
to others as to deserve a premium under the rules of the Society.
Other reports will receive attention in another issue, our space being lim-
ited. One on Poultry, by H. K. Oliver, Esq., is wonderfully full of classic
quotations from Euglish and Latin poetry, the former ranging from Mother
Goose's Melodies to Milton, and all alike overflowing with fun and wit. No
man but a good scholar could write it, and no man who is injured by a real
abdominal laugh should dare to read it. We commend it to all who are
dyspeptic. But let no devoted lover of Shanghais read it. He would at
once call " coffee and pistols for two."
A Report on Farm Implements, by J. W. Proctor, Esq., urges the import-
ance of what we have so strenuously advocated — the more liberal use of
implements on the farm. We wish our excellent friend would give us his
views more in defail in these pages, and in a practical foi'm. Will he please
consider himself notified accordingly?
BUILDING MATERIAIiS. 461
BUILDING MATERIALS.
Caen Stone. — We present, in this number, but a single one of the
important building stones not already described, and that a new stone in this
country, and not very well understood. It is from Caen, in Normandy, and •
is extensively used across the Atlantic. Its more noticeable properties are as
follows :
It is a species' of yellow limestone, a mingling of yellow or cream color
and white. It yields with great facility to the mallet and chisel ; and when
the surface is fresh, it may even be cut with a knife. As it is longer exposed
to the air, it becomes harder. From its appearance, there might be some
doubt as to its durability. Its grain is less compact than our marbles ; and
if it should be found so porous as to absorb moisture too freely, it might
receive damage from our severe frosts. Still we have, at least, the experience
of the present winter, and find, as yet, no such result. The Nassau Bank,
the whole surface of which is of this stone, exhibits no sign of disintegration
that we can discover. Several buildings in this city, recently erected, are con-
structed with this material. Some dwelling-houses in Ninth street and ia
Sixteenth street, have fronts of the Caen stone. A new building on the Fifth
avenue, opposite Madison Square, is now going up, of the same material.
The Unitarian church, still unfinished, corner of Fourth avenue and Twenti-
eth street, partly of this material, is of peculiar construction. The outer sur-
face on all sides consists of alternate layers of Caen stone, yellow of course,
and of brick, of the usual red. What the origin of this idea is, we can not
say. The stripes of the zebra, etc., run the other way, or perpendicularly,
while these are horizontal. Some caviller has uncourteously hinted at a bar-
ber's pole. It is an immediate copy, we understand, of " an elegant church
on the Continent ;" and this, to many minds, is explanation and recommend-
ation quite sufficient. But we purpose simply to describe, without any
attempt at defense. These Caen stones are some twelve inches deep, and
these are succeeded by an equal height of bricks ; and thus these two, the
bricks and the stone, alternate from foundation to the coving. The entire
style of architecture of this church is novel in this country, and will deserve
special mention, no doubt, when it is completed. But our present business
only relates to the material employed.
In the new Trinity Chapel, which, by the way, is a very large church, yet
unfinished, near Fifth Avenue, and on Twenty-fifth street, we believe, the
Caen stone is used for the interior lining. We should think it admirably
adapted for this purpose. It is light and pleasant to the eye, which can not
be said of the brown sandstone so much in use both for exterior and interior
walls, and it is also comparatively cheap. It is brought here as ballast, at a
trifling expense, and being very easily worked, it may be made to present any
■shapes that the fancy of the architect may prefer, whether in the forms of
mouldings or more labored and more fanciful chisellings.
Microscopic Plants. — It is stated that a French gardener has reversed
the order of things, and instead of producing colossal vegetables, has suc-
ceeded in growing microscopic specimens, which are said to contain as much
®.f the nutritious principle as vegetables several times their size.
462 TUKPENTINE CONVENTION.
TURPENTINE CONVENTION.
A Convention of gentlemen interested in the jiroduction of turpentine has
recently been held in Mobile, Ala. Col. J. S. Deas was President, and A. C.
Blount, Esq., Secretary. Able committees were appointed on different
branches of the subject. Col. R. D. James presented the following as to the
BEST MODE OF MAKING AND PREPARING TURPENTINE.
The committee to whom was referred the resolution of Col. James, upon
the subject of the cultivation of turpentine, etc., beg leave to make the follow-
ing report : That the character of the soil best adapted to the production of
the turpentine pine should be of light and porous nature, with a subsoil of
clay, capable of retaining moisture. The pine should be of an extended low-
growing top, with thick bark and sap-wood — the trees not to stand so thickly
upon the land as to be too much shaded by the overgrowing foliage. The
number of boxes to be cut in a tree should be governed by the size of the
same. As a general rule for cutting boxes, the committee recommend the
following standard : the box to be thirteen inches in horizontal width, three
and a half inches in horizontal depth, and seven inches in perpendiculsur
depth ; this will produce a box of the capacity of one and a quarter quarto,
which, after a few years' use, will be reduced to a box capable of containing
a full quart only ; which, from experience, your committee believe to be the
most profitable size. Taking a tree capable of sustaining two boxes, they
would recommend that the boxes be cut side by side, with a life-streak of
bark of foUr inches intervening between them, in preference to cutting them
opposite to each other, and that one third or more of the bark should be left
for the support of the tree, the boxes to be cut just at the bulge of the tree
near the root of the same. The corners of the boxes should be cut out with
the inclination of the face of the box, and to extend in a line perpendicular
to the outer corners of the same, so as to show a line horizontal and the top
of the box — the object of chipping being to expose a new surface of the pores
for the exudation of the turpentine. The cut of the hacker should extend a
half inch in depth into the tree, and one fourth in altitude, and the chipping
should be renewed once a week. The best instrument for the purpose is the
hacker with a small bowl, to be kept exceedingly sharp, and the best instru-
ment for sharpening the same is the stone known as the Siam hone or slip.
Your committee have nothing new to suggest or recommend as to the best
mode of dipping, or the best instrument for that purpose ; but, in reference
to the scrape or hard turpentine, they would advise the use of cloths instead
of the old-fashioned box for receiving the same. The committee would
recommend the light iron axle two-horse wagon, as the most expeditious and
econorliical for hauling turpentine. The frame for the barrels should be
made of 4 x 6-inch scantling, with segments of circles cut therein, one half
across the upper face of the same to receive the ends of the barrels, with two
interior parallel rails, so that when either end of a barrel is removed from the
concave which it occupies, it can be rolled from the wagon on a smooth sur-
face. The committee would recommend that when the distiller can avail
himself of a hill-side, the simplest plan to elevate turpentine to the still, is to
extend a railway frotai the top of the hill to the platform. If upon a level
plain, the use of the machine employed by flour-mills to elevate their sacks
and barrels to the upper stories of the mill, the said machine being a plat-
form, with four upright posts, with a roller in the head of each, two ropes
TURPENTINE CONTENTION. 463
from the roof of the still-house, passing beneath said rollers, (one on each
side,) thence through sheave-blocks and around a cylinder, turned by a
crank from below. In regard to preparing the turpentine for distillation, we
refer you to the explanation aiade by a member of this committee, as to the
style best adapted to making the best article of rosin. The experience of
your committee would lead them to decide in favor of a small-size still, or
with a flat and greatly extended surface. The committee would recommend
that, in distilling, the still should be charged to only two thirds its capacity,
to allow for the expansion of the material during ebullition. The amount of
water to be supplied should be equivalent to the amount condensed m the
still-worm, and kept in the same ratio so long as the spirit comes over ; and
should the still have a tendency to boil over, an increased amount of fuel is
to be supplied until the excessive ebullition ceases; the heat is then to be
diminished, and the still run regularly as before. Your committee deem it
unnecessary to enlarge on this point, as they presume that in all cases of new
beo-inners, a practical distiller will be employed. Your committee recom-
mend that in addition to the usual mode of glueing the spirit-casks, that the
casks being partially drained after each glueing, be placed upon a horizontal
plane, each head alternately placed upon said plane, and would further
recommend the use of the Scotch glue, in all cases in which the distiller is
unable to manufacture his own glue from good sound bides. The commit-
tee would recommend that, in making barrels and casks, the staves and head-
ing should be fully dressed, ready for the truss-hoop, and be permitted to
remain some time, previous to being made into barrels, for the purpose of
allowing the staves, etc., to shrink. By adopting this course, the barrels are
less liable to leakage. The staves for turpentine barrels should be thirty-two
inches in length, the head to be worked in a twenty-inch truss-hoop. The
spirit-cask should contain forty-five gallons, and in case oak heading can not
be obtained, we would recommend the substitution of poplar instead.
From statements made during the discussions of the Convention, it ap-
pears that more than a million of acres of land are in partial cultivation in
turpentin(i, and that from the commencement, this business has more than
doubled itself annually.
The average product of a laborer is said to be much greater than in the
culture of cotton. The following statement was embodied in one of the
reports:
The average product of the laborers in making cotton may be said to be
at a maximum of four bales ; upon which the receivers in Mobile would real-
ize $10. The same laborers engaged in turpentine will produce IVO barrels
of rosin and 30 casks of spirits, the handling of which in the city will produce,
ilnder the varioi^ charges of wharfage, drayage, storage, insurance, cooper-
age, and commissions, $8Y.60— $45 on the spirits, and $42.50 on the rosin.
And we would further suggest that the laborer in turpentine will consume of
the merchandise of Mobile to an amount equivalent to five hands engaged in
cotton, from the fact that his occupation precludes the possibility of his pro-
ducing any of the necessaries of life. The amount used in painting the four
millions of dwelling-houses in the United States, or the exceeding great
amount of this, together with other naval stores, used in painting and pre-
serving our vast shipping and steamboat marine, your committee have no
means of correctly stating. The amount of spirits used in the printing busi-
ness (there being 2800 presses in this country at a pint per day each) at a
low estimate is 2600 casks, containing 112,000 gallons. The manufacture of
464 WESTERN RAILROADS.
India-rubber (but yet in its infancy) consumes 4650 casks, containing 187,000
gallons ; this business, it is estimated by those conversant with the subject,
will, in the course of five years, increase to the amount of $;1 5,000,000 ; in
importation of the raw material of caoutchouc, reaching now the sum of
$5,000,000, The extent of its use in gas, caraphene, burning-fluid, and for
chemical and medical purposes in this country, and the exact amount ex-
ported for foreign consumption in these and various other branches of manu-
facture, your committee have no correct data upon which to base an estimate.
Your committee are advised and are aware that an immense amount of rosin
is used in the manufacture of rosin oil, the amount of 36,000 barrels being
converted into this article in one factory alone in the city of New- York. A
similar amoimt, nearly (say 24,000 barrels) being converted into this oil in
the State of North-Carolina, besides a large amount at Norfolk and various
other factories in the United States; the exact quantity used by these is not
definitely known. The consumption of rosin in the lighting of cities and
private residences, also affords an outlet for a very considerable amount ; the -
Capitol of the United States, and some of our best hotels, being lighted exclu-
sively with gas made from it. The extent of the soap-making business in
which rosin enters in the ratio of about fifty per cent, is an interest of nO'
insignificant magnitude, and is a source of the greatest consumption, and yet
the largest portion of this article consumed seems, from the shipments abroad,,
to enter into the manufactures of foreign countries. And, in conclusion, we
would remark that under no circumstances can the price of spirits fall below
thirty cents per gallon ; for in that event it will be used to an unlimited extent
in the production of gas ; and it is produced in no other country to any great
extent, except the United States.
WESTERN RAILROADS.
The following continuous routes are in progress, and are regarded as cet^
tain of an early completion :
Memphis to Hopkinsville, ----- 203 miles.
Hopkinsville to Henderson, - - - - - 72 "
. Henderson to Evansville, - - - - - 12"
Evans ville to the Ohio & Mississippi road, - - 55 "
Point of junction to Cincinnati, - - - - 155"
Total — Memphis to Cincinnati, _ . . 49Y
On this subject, the Louisville Journal says : " The most rapid communi-
cation we now have with the South and South-west is by steamboats, which,
on an average, occupy three days in a run from Memphis to Louisville.
When the line of road I have described shall have been completed, a speed
of but twenty-five miles per hour will make the travelling time from Memphis
to Cincinnati, twenty hours.
Thus the opportunity will be presented at Memphis, to business men wish-
ing to make purchases in Louisville or Cincinnati, to reach the latter city by
railroad -in twenty hours, remain there thirty-two hours, and return to Mem
phis — all during the three days that would be necessary simply to convey-
A STAGE ROUTE TO CALIFORNIA. 465
them by steamboat to Louisville. If we will contribute our aid toward the
construction of a liundred and sixty-nine miles of railroad on the air-line
route to Memphis, we can save our city in spite of all competitors. Such an
improvement will place us within fourteen hours' run of Memphis, and will
even fix for ever, as the shortest route from that city to Cincinnati, the one
throuffh our own borders."
A STAGE ROUTE TO CALIFORNIA.
Gentlemen of St. Louis and elsewhere are endeavoring to establish a daily
or "weekly line of stages between Missouri and California. They wish to
organize a company, with capital to sustain the line a year. The means being
made sure of, the Company would obtain a force of men, stages, and horses,
adopt a line across the plains and through the mountains, and locate stations
iifteen, twenty, or thirty miles apart, as the character of the country might
admit, and improve the same by permanent tenements, stables, and inclo-
sures, with men at each station to guard the property and take care of the
stock, and sufficient horses or mules for changes and relays. Ten through-
passengers daily, at llOO each, would produce $730,000. The way-business
would add to this, according to the statement of Mr. Mitchell, and an im-
mense amount of gold would pass over the line at a heavy freight. The
mails, they say, could be carried in twelve days from Kansas to Sacramento,
and of course the line would be employed to carry the mails. These views
were detailed with minuteness. F. P. Blair followed in a clear and con-
vincing review of the great merits of the enterprise. Col. Mitchell, an expe-
rienced " mountain man," approved of the project, and said that his experi-
ence satisfied him that the stage in the mountains would not more materially
be obstructed by snows in winter than the stage lines in New- York and Mas-
sachusetts. Col. Campbell confirmed this statement. He had spent three
winters near the mouth of the Yellow Stone, and there was no snow to hin-
der any kind of travel. Col. Campbell said that the grass of the mountains
did not rot in the fall, but dried and became hay, and could be used by stock.
K. M'Kenzie, another " mountain man," confirmed these statements.
Mr. Holiday, of California, who had driven stock over the route, believed
in the entire practicability of the project, and said the " Californians would
meet Missouri half-way." Finally, resolutions were adopted for making
application to the Legislature for charter for this great project; and we are
encouraged to believe, says the Illinois Weekly Journal, which gives this
account, that those persons have taken hold of the measure who will be likely
to carry it through.
Royal Danish Railway — The important section of this railway, connect-
ing the Baltic and the North Sea, has been announced. The entire line,
including the Rendsburg Branch, forming the junction with the Kiel, Altona,
and other lines, will be open early this month, and the undertaking will thus
be finished before the stipulated period. Messrs. Peto, Brassey, and Betts,
the contractors, have obtained a lease of the line for fourteen years, at a mini-
mum dividend of six per cent on the capital, £540,000, with an equal divi-
sion of all surplus profits. The Company, however, has power to put an end
to the agreement in five or ten years.
466 BALTIMOEE AND OHIO RAILROAD.
BALTIMORE AND OHIO RAILROAD.
This Road is a great work. Its importance as a means of travel between
New-York and Cincinnati, and other points at the West and South- West, is
beginning to be appreciated, especially since the opening of the Ohio Cen-
tral Road.
At an election for President, held in December, Wm. G. Harrison, Esq.,
who has so long and so satisfactorily served the Company in that capacity,
was reelected over two powerful competitors for the office.
We append a few statistical tables, and some other items of information
gleaned from the Report just published, prepared by John H. Done, Esq.,
the acting Superintendent of the road.
REVENUE FOR NOVEMBER.
The revenue for the month of November has been as follows :
Main stem. Wash. Br. Totals.
For passengers, . . $52,600 15 $23,&5l 82 $'76,258 51
For freight, . . . 264,170 11 7,443 59 271,613 70
$316,770 86 $31,101 41 $347,872 27
There was an increase of nearly $9000 for passengers on the Main Stem,
as compared with November of last year, which shows the advantage already
resulting to the road from the opening of the Ohio Central Railroad.
A summary of the receipts of both the Main Stem and the Washington
Branch roads during the fiscal year ending on the 30th of September, 1854,
presents the following :
From From .p^j^j
Passengers. Tonnage.
Main Stem, . . $569,091 51 $3,076,517 92 $3,645,609 43
Washington Branch, 278,302 11 94,927 50 369,229 61
$846,393 62 $3,167,445 42 $4,014,839 04
PASSENGER BUSINESS.
Mr Done, in alluding to the foregoing statement, calls attention to the fact
that "of the entire revenue for the year — amounting to $3,645,609.43, only
$569,091.51, or 15.6 per cent, has been derived from passengers — a result
so different from the expectations which were formed before the opening of
the road, as to surprise even the best-informed upon the subject."
The continued and unprecedented low water in the Ohio, has rendered the
magnificent line of steamers constructed by the enterprise of the citizens of
Wheeling, of little or no avail, as to the increase of the number of passengers,
they having been able to run but a few months continuously since the open-
ing of the road to the Ohio.
The condition of the Ohio River at various periods, very seriously aff"ects the
revenue of the road, as regards both freight and passengers. The navigation
is obstructed by ice or low water for more than one half of the year. The
report indulges in some just remarks as to future prospects from the opening
of the Ohio Central Road, and also the Cleveland & Pittsburgh Road from
Wellsville to Wheeling.
OF THE TRADE IN LIVE STOCK.
This important branch of trade has been quite active, and appears to be
steadily on the increase, especially from Moundsville, Cameron, and other
stations on the western division of the Road. The following statement will
BALTIMORE AND OHIO RAILROAD.
467
show the extent of this trade, giving the quantities of each description of
stock transported during the year ending the 30th of September, 1854 :
119,699 Hogs, Weighing 10,201.1.3.5
31,631 Sheep,
3,522 Horses and Mules,
10,017 Horned Cattle,
1,800,10.0.0
1,762.0.0.0
5,013.0.0.15
164869
Tons, 18,776,11.3.20
OF THE FLOUR TRADE.
The great importance of the Baltimore & Ohio Raih-oad is seen in the
following table, which shows the amount of flour brought to Baltimore during
the yea^ with the number of barrels from the principal points of shipment :
Wheel-
ing.
10,440
23,592
28,559
20,746
35,680
12,352
12,266
8,267
11,369
4,341
1,060
1,435
Mounds-
viUe.
1,812
570
6,815
358
1,501
1,680
601
90
Cumber-
land.
95
577
852
1,319
2,377
503
110
Months
October, .
November,
December,
JaBuary, .
February,
March,
April,
May,
Jane,
July,
August, . . . 1,060 203
September, . . 1,435 2,257
Total, . . . 170,147 15,887 5,833 27,406i 229,966
Total from the above point? • 529,160*
« " all other points on the Main Stem .... 180,334^
709,495
42,754
Martins-
burg.
4,128
3,614
2,847
3,274
2,379
1,777
2,391
546
437
1,290
3,090^
2,633
Harper's
Ferry.
28,905
28,288
26,185
21,197
21,951
20,498
13,798
10,680
9,235
4,699
22,964
21,556
Freder-
ick.
5,902
10,765
8,284
12,602
12,080
10,106
4,746
2,948
2,518
1,804
3,609
4,460
79,921
bbls.
From the Washington Branch Road, .
Total number,
FREIGHT FROM WHEELING.
752,249
The whole report of Mr. Done abounds in important and well-arranged
statistical statements, the latter of which we regret are too voluminous for
our limits. There is one statement, however, showing the description and
amount of commodities transported from Wheeling to Baltimore from the 1st
of March to the 30th of September, 1853, and from the 1st of October 1853,
to the 30th of September, 1854, a period of nineteen months, which we con-
dense, showing the following results :
Flour, barrels,
202,545
Cotton, bales, . . . .
3,612
Grain, bag?,
, .
15,735
Hemp, bales,
18,686
Seed, barrels,
,
6,849
Wool, bale,s.
6,086
Butter, barrels.
1,986
Tallow, barrels, .
2,286
kegs,
5,099
Feathers, bags, . .
4,393
Lard, tierces,
11,530
Tobacco, hhds.
22,754
" barrels,
. 37,801
Hides, ....
10,843
" kegs, .
. 43,317
Leather, rolls.
9,527
Oil, barrels, .
. 11,125
Soap and Candles, boxes,
11,883
Pork, barrels.
58,621
Cheese, boxes,
5,264
Bacon, casks.
39,030
Apples, barrels, .
7,825
" boxes,
. 28,935
Dried Fruit, bags,
9,192
Hams, tierces.
19,693
Horses,
510
Beef, barrels,
7,000
Miscellaneous packages,
64,920
Whiskey, barrels,
. 26,536
468 BALTIMORE AND OHIO RAILROAD.
The total number of pounds, in all the above articles from Wheeling alone^
is stated at 222,703,675.
This table is interesting as showing " the amount and description of the
Western produce which has passed over the road from Wheeling to Baltimore,
since the commencement of through-transportation, say 1st March, 1853. It
is interesting as showing the character of the trade, as well as its amount and
value to the city of Baltimore. Its irregularity also, comparing one month
with another, illustrates fully the disadvantage we have labored under from
the fluctuations in the river, and the frequent and long interruptions of navi-
gation."
THE COAL TRADE.
The following statement will show the quantities of Coal transported during
the year ending 30th September, 1854, from Cumberland, Piedmont, and
Fairmont, the three points at -svhich this trade originates, and showing the
respective quantities delivered at Locust Point, in the city, and at way-sta-
tions :
Point of
Delivered at
Delivered in Delivered at
For Com-
Total from
departure.
Locust Point.
the city. Way-Stations.
pany's Use.
each Region.
Cumberland, .
274,273 06
24,134 18 5,262 08
9,112 17
312,783 09
Piedmont,
99,903 02
14,530 01 13,176 10
46,614 12
174,224 05
Fairmont,
21,149 17
10,825 16 157 05
5,294 13
61,022 02
37,437 11
Total, .
395 326 05
49,490 15 18,606 OS
524,445 05
The statement show* the quantity which paid freight to have been
463,423 tons.
During the prev
ious year the amount was
...
308,890 "
Increase,
154,533 "
or 50 per cent.
The revenue from coal during the year amounts to $1,134,628.46. The
coal trade was almost entirely confined to nine months of the fiscal year.
During the mouths of January^ February^ and March^ the operations of
nearly all the mines were stopped^ by reason of a strike of the miners ; and
whilst it continued there was almost a total suspension of the trade. Had
this not been the case, the amount transported during the year would probably
have reached 550,000 tons.
The demands of the trade at the present time are very urgent ; almost
every ojieratcr in the coal region is pressing for larger accommodations, and
new and important mines are about commendng business, with the capacity
to mine and send down large quantities of coal. Full employment could be
found for at least 60 per cent more machinery in that trade than is now or
can be, with the present equipment of the road, appropriated to it. From
these facts it will be seen that the advance in freight of 50 cents per ton from
Cumberland, and 56 cents from Piedmont, made on the 1st November, 1853,
has not operated to check or limit the business.
The road department of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company, is not
less worthily administered than is its transportation affairs. This branch of
the service though less before the public eye, from the nature of its opera-
tions, is of vital concern. The skill, experience, energy, and sound judgment
of its head, Wendel Bollman, the inventor of the much approved Railroad
bridge, insure the best results to the Company. His annual report, con-
taining much valuable information, is also just published, and may be found
in the pamphlet containing the report of the President of the Road, and heads
of its several departments.
BALTIMORE AND OHIO RAILROAD. 469
During the past year twenty -one miles of the second track liave been
added, and various new sidings put in. Fifty miles of old string-timber track
have been removed from the east end of the line, and substituted by new and
heavy T rail on cross-ties. Several new bridges, depot buildings, etc., etc.,
have also been added. m
Dr. T. C. Atkinson and Mr. John L. Wilson, are Mr. Bollraan's eflBcient
chief assistants.
The machinery departmeut is of deep importance also to the successful
working of a great road like this, and, upon its careful and energetic admin-
istration much depends. The report of Mr. S. J. Hayes, the worthy master
of machinery, shows that the Company owns 208 locomotives, of all kinds,
which are mostly in a good state of repair. A number of superior ten-wheeled
monster engines have been built by the Company during the last two years,
after patterns furnished by Mr. Hayes, and are working most satisfactorily on
the Mountain Division, between Piedmont and Newburg. A number of old
locomotives have been rebuilt in the same time for passenger uses, and every
thing scfcms to cvldanco a judicious supsrvioioi;. IL: Hi.ycs is said to have
arisen from an humble apprentice in the Company's shops, to its chief ma-
chinist, and as such is now in command of some twelve or fifteen hundred
workmen in various capacities. Mr. D. P. Rennie is the Company's assistant
master of machinery.
This subject is one of general interest, affecting almost every locality in
the Union. No one can glance at the tables presented by Mr. Done in
his able report, and not feel that in the agricultural products and the coal,
passing over this great road, every consumer of these articles is deeply in-
terested. Baltimore must soon become one of the largest coal marts in the
country, from the transportation facilities afibrded by this road. The ready
means for shipment at that point are quite equal to those of Philadelphia,
and can not fail to be of much importance in keeping the country at large
supplied with this necessary article of fuel.
It has been our pleasure to pass over this road several times during the
past year. We shall only reiterate what is the testimony of every one at all
informed on the subject, when we say that every thing connected with the
road is under the very best management. Two passenger-trains are now
running daily between Baltimore and Wheeling, passing over the whole dis-
tance, 380 miles, in a little more than sixteen hours. The opening of the
Ohio Central Road furnishes a complete hne to Cincinnati and points further
west, and is fast commanding a heavy travel. We take pleasure in com-
mending this route to the 'travelling public, as one in which speed, comfort,
and romantic scenery are combined in a remarkable degree. It must become
at no distant day the route to Cincinnati and the great West.
Glue for Plants. — Here is a fact for our horticultural readers. It has
been discovered in France, that, for the generality of flowers, and more espe-
cially for pelargoniums, and the most delicate specimens of the lily tribe, com-
mon glue, diluted with a sufficient portion of water, forms a richer manure
than guano, or any other yet discovered ; plants placed in sand, or the worst
soils, displaying more beauty and vigor, when watered with this composition,
than those grown in the richest mould, and only sprinkled with water.
470 REPiiAL OF THE DUTY ON COAL.
REPEAL OF THE DUTY ON" COAL.
This is truly a progressive age, but the progress is not all in one way.
We deny to-day what we urge as indispensable,||io-morrow, and the next day's
behef will depend upon circumstances. We are by no means disposed to
deny the sincerity of those who dare to revise their opinions ; but we do wish
sometimes that men would be sure that what they advocate is the clear voice
of reason, and not the dictate of prejudice or of social instincts merely, and
then a change of circumstances might not overturn all their theories. It used
to be called a sound doctrine with those with whom we were associated, that
those measures were alone safe and reliable, which made us independent of
the aid of others. This, to us, has always seemed reasonable. It never
occurred to us that time and effort, even a considerable outlay reckoned in
dollars and cents, expended in teaching a child to walk, was an absolute Igiss,
not even if those engaged in various pursuits were called upon for their pro-
portional contributions in this behalf. And what if the pupil became refrac-
tory, and kicked his patient and benevolent instructors ? Why, he must be
punished, but not by being suffered to grow up unable to help himself.
Others are nearly as much interested as he in his acquiring this art.
Now, you may call this refractory child what you please, Carlos or Oar-
bon; names are nothing. We would have all our juveniles fully instructed
and confirmed in this indispensable tuition. But what do we mean by this
figurative allusion ?
Immense quantities of ink have been expended in urging the necessity of
fostering our native productions, that is, of teaching our juveniles to go alone.
And we have thought, on all hands, that among all our possibilities the coal
interest was one of the most valuable. The successful operation of this
reaches all classes and conditions among the people. The rich and the poor
are aifected alike, and no one of any craft or trade or pursuit has not in it a
direct personal interest.
But the question is gravely agitated whether it is not best to allow the
importation of coal, duty free. We are not surprised that this project should
find advocates in certain quarters, but we are surprised at finding certain
advocates on that side of the question.
The project may succeed. The duties may be repealed. If so, what will
be the consequence ? We hazard little in uttering the words of prophecy.
We shall witness, in substance, the following state of things.
The first result is, a large importation of foreign coal, with constantly
descending prices. Very soon, one after another of our own mining compa-
nies will be obliged to abandon their work. The entire supply falls then,
essentially, into the hands of foreigners of large capital, able to endure tem-
porary losses. Then the price will rise. Coals will be higher than we have
known for years. But if our own mining companies shall venture to reopen
their abandoned shafts, these foreign capitalists will again fall in their prices
and ruin those who engage in the enterprise. This is just what has been
done, over and over again, within the memory of many not among the oldest
inhabitants.
What is required by any enterprise which demands such immense outlays
in advance, ere they can secure the confidence of the money market ? Not
immense profits. Our cotton manufacturers taught us this, years ago. Their
large profits were almost their ruin. No, not their ruin, but the ruin of
scores who engaged in that business, and who, in the rusli of competition,
REPEAL OP THE DUTY ON" COAL.
-^1
were victims of extravagant promises. What is required, and what is surest,
safest, and, on all hands, most desirable, is, moderate but certain profit ; a
market that can be measured, and valued, and relied upon beforehand, a
market that is essentially controlled by a regular, healthful, and compara-
tively constant demand. Fancy stocks, rising and falling with the success or
failure of a few stock-jobbers, who create, or who fail to do so, a fictitious
value to-day that will be essentially changed to-morrow, this will never estab-
lish an enterprise of this description. Read the brief history of the Pennsyl-
vania iron furnaces, and the importance of a steady, sound, healthful condi-
tion of the market is perfectly obvious.
Our coal mines have not yet paid high dividends. The older and better
established, if convenient to market, have promised well. They are and have
been doing well. With increased facilities of transportation, many others
will do well, and those facilities are constantly increasing. Some of those
recently commenced are in a very favorable condition. Let the duty on coal
be repealed, and many of these companies will be "repealed," too. They
may bear a moderate and gradual reduction in the price of coal, even from
the last year's prices, when they are fairly under way, with cheap convey-
ances to seaboard, but they must understand the market. They must know
what they can reasonably anticipate, and then make their arrangements
accordingly.
" But they have conspired together to raise the price of coal, and the peo-
ple sufter severely." Well, so have flour-dealers; what will you do with
them ? So have drovers. What will you do with them ? So have three
fourths, and almost four fourths of all our craftsmen, and men of all avoca-
tions, from money-lenders to hotel-keepers. What is the penalty ? " But
they were obliged to do so." Is this excuse satisfactory ? If so, before you
condemn colliers, see whether they were not in the same category.
But this is all volunteer defense. The fact is denied by the parties con-
cerned, and the fault is thrown back upon the operatives, who struck for
higher wages. It is a hard lesson to learn, to bear unusual prosperity. How
often have we seen very marked success in business turn a Uberal man into a
miser, at least so far as to lead him to crave more and more earnestly with
every increase of the past and present.
If any craft, or any members of any craft, do conspire to over-reach or fore-
stall the market, the law is open. The offense is indictable, and if the com-
mon law does not furnish the means for getting at some modern forms of
this offense, call in the aid of legislatures. We can have it our own way.
But Itt us not punish ourselves in trying to punish our oppressors.
How Much Lime do Soils Ne^ed ?— Professor Emmons, in his Report on
the Geological Survey of North-Carolina, says : " If we may appeal to obser-
vation and experiment, it is established that a small per centage of lime only
is necessary to the highest degree of fertility; and yet this small per centage
is necessary. If there is present one half of one per cent, it seems to be suf-
ficient ; for it is rare to find a larger quantity in productive soils." Prof. E.
is a chemist and geologist of long experience, and was one of the first — per-
haps the first — to ascertain that some of the most productive soils for wheat
in Western New-York contain comparatively little lime.
4:1% BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN.
BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN.
Some months ago, we announced to our readers our intention to place upon
our pages biographical notices of gentlemen eminent as agriculturists, or as
mechanics, and this purpose we have delayed longer than we then intended.
We begin the discharge of this assumed obligation in the following pages,
being assisted in this service by an interesting portion of a sketch in the last
number of Hunt''s Merchants' Magazine^ which is also accompanied with a
well-executed portrait. Whether we regard Mr. Wilder's public position in
agricultural, horticultural, and pomological societies, or his private character,
and the general estimation in which he is held by a very large circle of
friends, we certainly could not commence with a more suitable subject. We
are therefore very happy to be able to commence our series with a sketch of
the life of
Hosi. ITIarsSiall Pinckuey H^ilder,
DORCHESTER, MASS.
Mr. Wilder was born in Rindge, a rbugh and rocky town in Cheshire Co.,
New-Hampshire. His father was Samuel L. Wilder, a highly respectable
farmer and merchant of that place. His grandfather was a member of the
Massachusetts Convention of 1*787, which voted to adopt the Constitution of
the United States. The family were held in very great respect, and filled
many important offices. When nearly prepared for admission to college, the
subject of our sketch was allowed to follow his own inclinations in a free
choice between a learned profession, and the mercantile and agricultural
duties of his father. He preferred the latter, and labored on his father's farm,
and also assisted in his fiither's store, commencing as the youngest apprentice —
a candidate for future promotion, as his abilities and opportunity might per-
mit. Here he had a training which was of fundamental importance in pre-
paring him for a constantly successful and healthful progress in after-years.
At twenty-one years of age, he became a partner with his father. In 1825,
he commenced business in Boston, in the firm of Wilder & Payson, and
afterward was engaged as a partner in the firm of Wilder & Smith, and still
later of Parker, Blanchard & Wilder, and Parker, Wilder & Parker, and
now under the name of Parker, Wilder &; Co., one of the most distinguished
and extensive commission-houses in Boston, engaged exclusively in the sale
of domestic manufactures, their goods being wrought in mills, of which they
are either owners or agents.
It Avould be to us a very grateful task to follow Mr. Wilder into his own
dwelling, surrounded by his affectionate, accomplished, and well-instructed
children, where every thing betokens both refinement and efiiciency, and pre-
sents a fine model for imitation. But, however pleasant this might be for us,
it would require much space, and compel us to be more brief in that depart-
ment in which our readers are more particularly interested. We therefore
leave this track to our own delightful personal recollections, and to the grate-
ful remembrances of all his acquaintances and occasional visitors. It is
chiefly in the marvellous products of the earth, its flowers and its fruits, nur-
tured under his skillful supervision, that we are to present him to our read-
ers. It is in connection with his gardens, his vines, his nurseries, and his
orchards, that we must draw our picture.
It was in 1832 that Mr. W. established himself in his present residence,
and here he has brought into being one of those little kingdoms of Flora, so
BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN.
frequently occurring in the suburbs of Boston. In this departnient he is olie
of the inost distinguished and successful. He was among the first who intro-
duced the new camellias from Europe, and for some species he paid immense
sums. - Five "or six guineas for each was the price of several, having only
as many leaves. He entered upon the practice of hybridization of these
splendid plants upon the principles laid down by Herbert, and has produced
some very remarkable varieties. Among these maybe named C.-Wilderi,
Mrs. Abby ^yilder, Maria Louisa, Glory, and others. He now has in his
possession the mother plant of C. Floyi, raised some thirty years ago, by
Mr. Floy, of this city, and for which he paid the price of two hundred and
fifty dollars.
But this is not especially his forte. Others, in that beautiful neighbor-
hood, can, perhaps, make in this department as fine a display as he. Flora
is not sole queen on that soil ; Pomona has a still higher throne. And two
such realms on the same territory, both triumphantly rejoicing in constant
and successive victory, without defeat, it may be diflncult to discover.
Pears are Mr. Wilder's hobby. He has been styled the Pear King. For
many years, by importations and other means, he has secured whatever has
been produced that was worth possessing. His collection embraces from six
to eight hundred varieties. He has had on exhibition, at one time, three
hundred and sixty-seven varieties of this fruit. Several of the most valuable
now grown in this country, were imported by him. For this he had peculiar
facilities, being in constant correspondence with the leading amateurs and
nurserymen of Europe, who have orders to send him every thing new and
desirable as soon as promulgated. He is also an honorary or corresponding-
member of the principal horticultural societies in Europe. Hence he has the
means of obtaining the earliest information on this subject. He has recently
been appointed Commissioner of the Belgian Royal Poraological Society for
the United States. These facts show also the estimation in which he is held
abroad. Indeed, his name is known in Europe almost as extensively as in
this country.
This correspondence, to which we have alluded, and the copious notes,
memoranda, etc., etc., naturally accumulating from" his constant study and
numerous experiments, and successful culture, have produced a mass of manu-
script, from which he might prepare a work of great value on this subject,
and we hope we may, ere long, be favored by its publication.
We have, more than once, heard farmers complain that they did not
receive that degree of general respect which was their right. That they were
passed by unnoticed, while professional men were placed in important, honor-
able, and lucrative posts. On this complaint the subject of this sketch is a
complete commentary, and also a thorough refutation of it. For while Mr.
W. is both merchant and farmer, it is not to his eminence in the mercantile
line that he owes most of his reputation. Though he deservedly stands high
in that capacity, there are scores about him whom he regards as his equals,
accomplished, educated, efficient, all competitors for this same prize, and not
a few of them are worthy rivals of the greatest and best. Of that class, in
the city of Boston, it is emphatically true that "there are giants in the land."
Nor is it, we admit, from the mere fact that he is a farmer, that he is honored,
but because, when appearing as such, he exhibits the qualities and powers of
a MAN — an edittated, efficient, determined, upright, honorable, honest man.
He has within him, and everywhere and always exhibits, the urbanity and
kindness and liberality which adorn man. It was on the resolution hereaf-
ter cited, offered and passed unanimously at a magnificent pomological
474 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN.
levee, given by Mr. W. at the Revere House, that Mr, Lines, of Connecticut,
said:
" It was due to the gentleman who has presided over the discussions of the
Society with so much dignity and ability. He considered that Che position in
pomology which the president had reached, conferred more honor upon him
than the Presidency of the United States could do. A gentleman who con-
fers such -immense benefits upon the whole country — he might say the world
— as Hon. Mr. Wilder does, is entitled to distinguished honors. He hoped
this resolution would be passed by a standing vote." Several other gentlemen
offered remarks in the highest degree complimentary.
On the formation of the Norfolk County Agricultural Societ}^, in 1849, we
think, Mr. W. was chosen President, and, in the year following, gave the first
annual address, full of valuable thoughts, on the subject of agricultural edu-
cation. It was at the dinner, after the close of that address, that we enjoyed
a greater intellectual treat than often falls to the lot of one in any country,
or under any circumstances. We heard, at this one table, addresses from Mr.
Wilder, who presided ; Levi Lincoln, Horace Mann, George Briggs, Josiah
Quincy, Josiah Quincy, Jr., Robert C. Winthrop, Edward Everett, and Dan-
iel Webster ! Mr. W. has been President of the Norfolk County Society for
six years.
Nor does the preeminence freely acceded to Mr. Wilder result from the fact
that he is in the midst of small men in the department of agricultural reform.
It is precisely the reverse. Anywhere else, almost, many of his associates
would be head and shoulders above all competitors. Among his near neigh-
bors, and in the same small county of Norfolk, are Messrs. Samuel Walker,
known and acknowledged as a host in himself, anywhere and everywhere ;
Benjamin V. French, the great Apple King, and one of the best and most
intelligent farmers in the State; Thomas Motley, Jr., not more distinguished
for his splendid cows and other imported animals, than for his equally sj^len-
did cultivation, and others deservedly distinguished ; and these, with a more
numerous list of associates, in different sections of the State, form a body of
men, who, for personal worth and personal influence, are not exceeded by
those of any other profession.
Let our farmers, as a body, be, and show themselves to be, men — yes,
MEN — able to sustain the interests they represent, and then let them demand
the concurrence of the State or national legislatures in those measures which
are deemed of especial importance, and we shall no longer hear such mean-
ings and lamentations from a forgotten or unthought-of and " dumb" portion
of the community.
In 1851, on the formation of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, Mr.
Wilder was elected its first presiding ofBcer. At the formation of the
United States Agricultural Society, at Washington, in 1852, Mr. Wilder
was made President, and still holds that office. He also held, for eight
years, the office of President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and
is still one of its directors. This Society holds weekly exhibitions of fruits and
flowers, the year round, at Horticultural Hall, in School street, opposite the
City Hal), and often collects a large concourse of people to admire the rich
display. He is now President of the American Pomological Society. He
has also held the office of President of the Massachusetts Senate, and has
been a member of the Governor's Council. He has often pfesided over large
deliberative assemblies, and always with remarkable success.* Who would
* We cut from a Boston paper the following paragraph :
" United States Senatoeship. — "We regret to learn that the Hon. Marshall P. Wil-
der, whose name has been prominently before the public for this office, desires not to be
BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN. 475
not covet such distinctions rather than the noisy honors of a mere politician ?
The most popular achievements of the latter are often of little permanent
value, sometimes positively harmful, and seldom last beyond a brief term.
Such honors as we have depicted are incorporated in the very soil, bloom in
the flowers, and bear fruit year by year. Even the child who enjoys these
luxuries, which are often appropriated as a daily lunch, has occasion, day by
day, to give honor to such men. They have their reward. They will not
soon be forgotten. His virtues have a practical existence, benefiting and en-
noblino- the whole community, and his name will fill a page in history that
will suflfer no detriment by the lapse of years, and which will have its inter-
preter on every hill-side, and in every valley where rural taste and refinement
are found.
Perhaps we can not better occupy the space devoted to this subject, than
by presenting the following extract from the well-written and truthful sketch
referred to on a preceding page. After giving a very commendatory account
of Mr. W., but more especially as a merchant, the writer proceeds thus :
" You pass through Roxbury to his place, which is the first house in Dor-
chester, on the road to Milton and Quincy. It is called Hawthorne Grove,
and is one of the most delightful suburban residences in the vicinity of Bos-
ton.
Here he conducts you to the plants which you are curious to examine, and
speaks to you of their history and habits. He guides you through his con-
servatories, deservedly ranked among the best furnished in the country ; and
with the plants therein he appears as familiar as Cyrus was with the soldiers
in his vast army, calling them by name, and giving at pleasure their locality
and family connections. We will suppose that you pass on through these
conservatories into his garden, tastefully laid out and adorned, and thence
into his nurseries, which cover about ten acres in the highest state of culti-
vation, and which contain many thousands of young fruit trees, particularly
the pear. For the last species of fruit his grounds are as distinguished as his
green-houses are for the best varieties and the most extensive collection of
camelias. Of the pear, he has exhibited, at one time, three hundred and
seventy-five varieties.
When you have accomplished the object of your mission and taken your
departure, reflection suggests the inquiry how a gentleman engaged in a mer-
cantile business so extensive, can have acquired a fund of information so
varied and extensive, a knowledge so profound of the sciences of horticulture,
agriculture, and kindred arts. A word of caution is needful before we answer
this question. It may not be wise nor safe for every merchant to prosecute
so many and such varied subordinate pursuits. Singleness of purpose and
concentration of energy are the general rules of success. All have not the
same versatility of genius, the same adherence to system, the same inclina-
tion, taste, and indomitable perseverance. Each must study himself, and
thus ascertain what he can attempt with safety, and with a reasonable pros-
pect of prosperity and happiness. So much variety in the objects of pursuit,
while it would probably distract or perplex most persons, would utterly dis-
qualify some for business, and insure their loss of health, fortune, and life.
A more familiar acqua)intance with Mr. Wilder's natural endowments and
considered a candidate. In common with his numerous friends, we sympathize tenderly
with him in the repeated domestic bereavements with which he has been visited the last
year ; and especially in the recent aflfliction under which he now mourns the recent death
,if a son. His decision is one which our readers, many of our merchants, and the farmers
throughout the country, will deeply regret."
476 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN.
private habits, discloses the manner in whicb he has been enabled to make so
extensive attainments, and to pursue objects so various. Blessed by nature
with quick perceptive faculties, and unusual versatility of mind, he acquires
with ease and rapidity, and readily applies his acquisitions to his numerous
and varied employments. Besides, he is a rigid economist of time, a close
adherent to system. Every hour has its appropriate business, which is
attended to in its appointed season. In the evening, and at early dawn, he
is in his well- selected and valuable library, either investigating subjects which
the labors and scenes of the past day have suggested, or planning the busi-
ness of the approaching day.
When his gardeners, nurserymen, and others employed on his place pre-
sent themselves at however early an hour in the morning, his rule is to meet
them, and assign to each company its appropriate business, under its respect-
ive foreman, who receives the requisite instruction and orders. Away they
go to their work, and he returns to breakfast with his family, and with them
to acknowledge the Giver of all their mercies.
Next he goes forth to see that each man is at his post, performing his duty
in the best manner, to drop a word of encouragement to the industrious and
faithful, and by his own example to encourage and instruct them, now train-
ing a vine or giving a finishing touch to a bouquet, then wielding the spade
or the pruning-knife, hybridizing a cameha, planting a tree, inserting a bud,
sketching a flower, or gathering the first fruit of a new variety of pear for
subsequent study, delineation, and description. At ten o'clock, or thereabout,
he doffs his garden robes, and is attired — in his carriage — and on his way to
Boston, where the rest of the day is devoted to his mercantile business. This
system he has steadily pursued for a long course of years ; and in his strict
adherence to it lies the secret of his success, and of his elevation to the dis-
tinguished position which he holds as a merchant, a horticulturist, and an
agriculturist.
Hitherto we have spoken of him principally in the first of these capacities.
But we must also notice his progress in the others, related to the former in
his multifarious business, as the planets to the central orb around which they
revolve.
When Mr. Wilder moved from Boston to his present residence, he was
associated with gentlemen of taste in the Massachusetts Horticultural Soci-
ety, with such men as Dearborn, Phinney, Fessenden, Lowell, Manning,
Story, Everett, and AVebster, and with others of fair fame who still live.
The object of this organization was the promotion of horticulture ; and as a
means to that end, it contemplated the publication of its transactions, a
library, exhibitions of fruits and flowers, an experimental garden, and a rural
cemetery. The two latter of these it sought to realize by the purchase of
Mount Auburn. But many of the proprietors in this Pere la Chaise of Amer-
ica felt little interest in the legitimate object of the Association. At length it
was deemed expedient to give exclusive control of the Cemetery, while the
original organization should confine its efforts to horticulture.
But a large sum had been invested in this purchase, and a considerable
annual income was accruing from the sale of lots. On the motion of Mr.
Wilder, the terms for the separation of the cemetery interest from the Horti-
cultural Society were referred to a joint committee, and after much delibera-
tion were agreed upon. By these, the Horticultural Association received one
fourth part of the income of the Mount Auburn Cemetery from the sale of
lots, an arrangement that has proved in the highest degree beneficial to both
BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN. 477
bodies, and for which the Horticultural Society are much indebted to Mr.
Wilder and his associate, Hon. Elijah Vose.
In 1840, he was elected President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Soci-
ety, an office which he filled with honor to himself and to that Association for
eight years. During his administration, it greatly increased in the number
of its members, in its resources, usefulness, and respectability. It erected its
beautiful hall in School street, at the laying of thetcorner-stone and the dedi-
cation of which he delivered appropriate speeches.* It held two triennial
festivals in Faueuil Hall, occasions which congregated the elite of city and
country, and which will long be remembered for their luxurious entertain-
ments, and for their soul-stirring speeches from Webster, Everett, and other
chief masters of eloquence. When he retired from the office, the Society
accompanied its resolutions of thanks with a silver service, as a substantial
testimonial of its gratitude for his valuable labors.
Both before and since that period, he has contributed largely for the ad-
vancement of pomology by the annual importation of fruit trees from the
chief European cultivators ; by the encouragement of nurserymen ; by the cul-
tivation of trees and plants in variety in his own grounds ; by his extensive
correspondence with fruit-growers ; and by his addresses and communications
devoted to this interest. Hence, upon the organization of the American
Pomological Society, a national institution, embracing the various States and
territories of our Union, he was elected President of that body, an ofiice to
which he has been elected for the third time.
At its session in Philadelphia, September, 1852, he delivered, by appoint-
ment, a most eloquent eulogy on the life, labors, and death of his intimate
friend, Andrew Jackson Downing, the great rural architect and landscape
gardener of America, who perished in the conflagration of the steamer Henry
Clay, on the twenty-eighth of the preceding July ; a gentleman who was an
honor to his country, and was honored by her, and was distinguished on
both sides of the Atlantic for his numerous publications and valuable ser-
vices.
The closing paragraph of that production we will quote as an illustration
of the force of Mr. Wilder's diction, the beauty of his style, and the range of
his thoughts :
' Downing is dead ! Yet how little of such men can perish ! The clayey
tenement may indeed fall and crumble ; but to him who dwelt in it, a place
is assigned in the firmament of American genius, far above the storms and
convulsions of earth, in that clear upper sky, where he shall shine for ever to
illumine the path of intelligence, enterprise, and virtue, and henceforth to
enkindle in the human mind a love of order, taste, and beauty. We rank
him with those who start improvements which advance ages after they are
dead, and who are justly entitled to the consideration and gratitude of man-
kind. Washington and his illustrious associates are dead ; but the liberty
which they achieved still lives and marches in triumph and glory through
the earth. Franklin is dead; but the spark which his miraculous wand
'drew from heaven speaks with tongues of fire and electrifies the globe. Ful-
ton is dead ; but he awoke the spirit of invention which turns the machinery
of man — aye, he awoke also the genius of navigation —
'And heaven-inspired
To love of useful glory, roused mankind,
And in unbounded commerce mixed the world.'
* See its Transactions for 1845.
478 CORX IN NEW-HAMPSHIRE.
Downing also is dead ; but the principles of artistic propriety and ornament,
of rural economy and domestic comfort, wliich he revealed, await a more full
and perfect development ; and as they advance toward their glorious con-
summation, grateful millions will honor and cherish his name. His memory
shall live for ever.'*
At the recent meeting of the Pomological Association in Boston, Mr. Wil-
der was reelected its president, and delivered an able address on the arts of
cultivation, and other topics, embodying the results of his long and valuable
experience.
In conclusion, he exhorted the members to diligence and perseverance, and
said : " Gentlemen, go on. Prosecute the work you have so honorably com-
menced. Sow the seeds of your best fruits, raise new varieties, ply the arts
of judicious cultivation, study the laws of nature, and extend your researches
and labors, till our beloved land shall be adorned with orchards, vineyards,
and gardens, and man shall realize the poet's idea of Paradise Regained."!
During the sessions, which lasted three days, Mr. Wilder gave a magnifi-
cent Pomological Levee, at which about two hundred gentlemen were pre-
sent, including his Excellency the Governor of the Commonwealth, and other
distinguished guests. The editors of the Horticulturist^ in their description
of the occasion, say : ' The table was the richest and most tasteful we have
ever seen ;' and this was the expression of many who have attended the most
brilliant affairs of this kind ever given in Boston. The occasion was free from
formalities. Sentiments were given by the host, and responded to in brief
speeches. At the close of the session, Hon. Mr. Benson, M. C. from Maine,
proposed the following resolution :
^Resolved, That the thanks of the Society are most cordially presented to
the President, Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, for the prompt, able, and impartial
manner in which he has presided over its deliberations ; and we hereby
assure him that the members will long cherish a lively recollection of the
pleasure enjoyed at his bountiful and brilliant festive entertainment with
which he comphmented the Society.' "
We do not prepare this paper so much for the purpose of doing justice to
the subject of it — the testimony is not shut up in our pages — but partly
because it is a most pleasing task, and still more because we would add our
little word of encouragement to those who, with strong powers, and perhaps
not unfavorable circumstances, have it in their power, with the blessing of
Heaven, to exercise an influence on their associates and successors that shall
one day work out an earthly paradise.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THB LOOM, AKD THE ANVIL.
CORN IN NEW-HAMPSHIRE,
Messrs. Editors : The cultivation of Indian corn does not receive the atten-
tion that it deserves from the farmers of the North. It might rank next to
the grass crop, which is undoubtedly the first in the Northern States. It is
not an uncommon thing to hear sensible farmers talk about its costing one
dollar per bushel to produce this grain, but this talk is all moonshine. No
one that has kept debt and credit will make such a statement. Large crops
* ProceediBgs at American Pomological Congress, 1852. f Transactions for 1854.
CORN IN NEW-HAMPSHIRE. 479
of this grain can be produced among the rugged hills of.jSTew-Hampshire, by
judicious cultivation, and with less injury to the soil than is occasioned by
most other white crops, while it furnishes the largest amount of feed for- stock,
which can be returned back again to the soil in manure.
The unprecedented drought of the past season reduced our crop of corn,
perhaps one third from that of the previous year, which was uncommonly
laro-e, ranging from thirty to over one hundred bushels per acre in our vici-
nity, on well-cultivated land.
Since my remembrance, our vicinity furnished corn for market. Now they
buy largely, while the soil is equal to any in the county of Rockingham, for
producing this grain. We might and ought to produce our own bread, if
we would but come up to the work. What has been done can be done
again. Good soil is a good thing, but good cultivation is better.
Our opinion is, that manuring for a series of crops for the raising of this
grain is the best system, all things considered. Corn is a great feeder, and is
seldom injured by high manuring, as some other crops are. Our system is,
spread on the sod, and plough in late in the fall. On land that is liable to
wash, and of a dryish order, the furrow should run across the slope to pre-
vent it from washing. On moist land, plough in the fall; in the spring,
cart on and spread a good coat of fine manure, and give it thorough harrow-
ing. About the 20th of May, plant and keep clean through the season.
Allow no weeds to seed. The next year, sow to wheat and clover, then three
or four years in grass, then plough and manure again, and plant to corn. The
advantage of this system is this : The corn takes off the heat of the manure ;
the manure assists in readily decomposing the vegetable fibre in the soil, and
hastens on the crop to maturity, so that it escapes the early frosts, while a
crop sparingly manured will be a week or two later, and may be caught by
the frost.
The second year the land is in fine condition for a crop of wheat, nor will
it be so hkely to mildew as newly-manured land will. If it would not be out
of place, we would state the cost of growing a patch of corn the past season,
by estimation one acre :
66 bushels of corn, U1 20
Top stalks, etc., 25 00
Whole value of crop, S92 20
Whole cost of cultivation, interest on land, taxes, etc., - 32 50
Net income, $59 70
By the unprecedented drought, this crop was injured at least one third
from what it would have been, if we had had rain in the proper time. The
stalks were topped the last week in August, and harvested the third week in
September. The manure on a part of the piece proved an injury, owing to
the drought. We do not say that this is a great crop ; but, under all the
unfavorable circumstances, it is a paying one. The land is, at least, worth
twenty per cent more for the four next succeeding crops, than it was before
it was ploughed. D. L. Harvey.
Epping, N. H., January, 1855.
Fat Hogs. — David Robinson, of Russel, Geauga Co., sold in our market
the other day three hogs weighing 421, 480 and 680, respectively. The last
was a huge animal.
480 CROPS IN VIRGINIA.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.
CROPS IN VIRGINIA.— SOUTHERN PLOUGHS, ETC.
Messrs. Editors : Since my communication of the 6tli ult., we have had
an open winter, with httle or no snow. The first two weeks of December
were cold, giving a good supply of ice, and the ice-houses were generally
filled. The last forty days have been unusually pleasant for winter months,
and have been very favorable to our stock. Sheep, up to this date, have
scarcely been fed at all. My flock has not been fed a handful of any thing,
and have given me no trouble, further than salting once a week. My cattle
have not consumed half the usual quantity of feed ; and should the close of
the winter months continue favorable, we will be enabled to get through win-
ter full as well as in years past, when plentiful crops were made.
The farming community have availed themselves of the open winter, and
much ground has been ploughed for the corn crop. The Virginia State
Agricultural Society is to have a good influence on the farming community.
We are getting to plough better than formerly, and more attention is paid to
a regular rotation of crops ; and there is more attention paid to good stock.
Horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs are better attended to than formerly. The
three-horse plough is in more general use ; most of our best farmers use it.
The ground is deeper and better ploughed, which saves our rolling lands from
being as badly washed as under the old practice. Our lands also stand a
drought much better from being deeply cultivated. The subsoil plough is
but little used as yet. We have no good plough of this description amongst
us, so far as my knowledge extends. We have two kinds of hill-side ploughs :
one invented by. Bradley, and one introduced by Messrs. Leyburno, and now
manufactured by Messrs. Taylor & McDowell, all of our county, which do
pretty good work. The best plough we have is one introduced some fifteen
years since, of various numbers, from 1 to 4, by S. Bradley & Co., and called
the Livingston Plough. It is simple in its construction, and can be kept in
order by any ordinary ploughman. They are also cheap, ranging from $4 to
$8.50, cash, for one, two, and three horses. They have been put in competi-
tion with many of the best ploughs from the North ; and our real practical
men say, taking all things into account, they are equal, if not superior to and
plough ever introduced here. The cutters and land-sides, when worn out, are
easily replaced, and with a wooden pin that any one can make, are firmly
fitted and as good as new, till the mould-board is worn out. They are en
tirely of cast-iron, except the beam and handles, with two or three pins. This
plough is not easily broken, but may be butted up against fixed rock without
danger. More ploughs are broken by inexperienced ploughmen, by trying to
slide over rocks, than in any other way. A good ploughman, with a steady,
firm hold on his plough-handles, buts up against a rock or stump, then
draws back, and starting slow, with a steady team, ploughs all his. ground,
and rarely breaks a plough. But if you hop from rock to rock, to save the
plough, you often split the mould-board, lose half a day in going to the
foundry for a new one, and paying $1 to |2 to repair damages. There are
many other good ploughs in our valley, and I have examined samples manu-
factured in Richmond, Baltimore, the States of Massachusetts and New-
York — ploughs that cost more money, and withal more complicated — yet I
have seen none that I consider superior to the Livingston County plough.
The left-hand plough is generally in use with us. This plough took a pre-
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE COB OF MAIZE.
481
December 1, 28o
u
2, 32
u
3, 33
u
4, 26
u
5, 16
u
6, 17
((
V, 32
<(
8, 14
((
9, 15
«
10, 26
((
11, 38
((
12, 34
((
13, 38
((
14, 35
u
15, 32
«
16, 32
<(
17, 38
a
18, 36
January
2, 30
3, 36
4, 44
5, 44
Your obedient servant, etc.,
22i cTiwwary, 1865.
January 6, 38°
" 7, 54
mium at the cattle show and fair, held at Syracuse, September 29th and
30th, 1841. , • , .
We have had quite a gale since 2 P.M. yesterday, 21st; heavy rain, last
night, with thunder and lightning. The mercury is falling. From noon yes-
terday till noon to-day the mercury has fallen 26°, and still going down.
Annexed, I send you the state of the mercury at daylight, since 1st Decem-
ber, 1854:
December 19, 26®
" 20, 12
" 21, 30
« 22, 20
« 23, 26
" 24, 34
" 25, 44
" 26, 60
" 27, 50
" 28, 48
" 29, 38
" 30, 16
" 31, 34
1, 31
« 8, 36
" 9, 35
« 10, 36
« 11, 32
« 12, 42
" 13, 50
« 14, 22
" 15, 24
« 16, 32
" 17, 33
" 18, 40
»' 19, 25
" 20, 34
" 21, 40
« 22, 27
" 23, 16
Henry B, Jones.
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE COB OF MAIZE.
BT J. H. SALISBURY, M.D.
It is well known that the manure of an animal varies in quality with the
food which it eats ; and that, generally, manure is richer in nitrogen bodies,
and less rich in non-nitrogenized matter than the food consumed. Probably
a greater proportion (though I do not know as this has actually been demon-
strated) of 100 lbs. of nitrogen bodies would be assimilated by the system, if
it were mixed with 500 lbs. of non-nitrogenized matter ; and still more, if
mixed with 1000 lbs., than if taken into the system undiluted or alone. It
should be borne in mind that it is as essential for food to contain bodies des-
titute of nitrogen, (such as starch, sugar, oil, etc.,) or those that go to sup-
port animal heat and respiration in the body, as it is to have nitrogen com-
pounds to nourish or supply the waste of the living tissues. Hence, food
suited best to sustain animal life, is that which is made up of these two
classes of bodies mixed in the proper proportion. And a deficiency in the
one is equally as deleterious to the healthy existence of the animal, as a defi-
ciency of the other ; therefore we can hardly say that one of these classes is
in reality more essential to the maintenance of life than the other. They both
seem to perform equally important offices. If this view be taken, the cob
can not be regarded as deficient in those bodies which contribute to respira-
tion and nutrition. The following table shows about the amount of the seve-
29
482
CORN STATISTICS IN FRANCE.
ral T^ro: ' p-'''^ oror^r.'" bodi"'? thrown amy in roV'-'^^inr ^h'? -• '■ ' u.^ated
from the analysis ot the small wliite Hint variety; 1000 ids. of eaia contain
Hot far from 200 lbs. of cob and 800 lbs. of grain. These contain the follow-
ing bodies in the following proportions, expressed in pounds and decimals of
a pound :
Sugar and extract, - - - -
Starch, ---...
Fibre, - - - -
Oil,
Zein,
Matter separated by potash from fibre,
Albumen, - - . . .
Casein, ------
Dextrine, or gum, - - - .
Resin, ------
Glutinous matter, - - -
200 lbs. 800 lbs. 1000 lbs.
In the above table, the inorganic matter is not separately considered, it
being distributed among the several organic bodies. By rejecting the cobs
of 1000 lbs. of dry ears, about 200 lbs. of organic matter is lost, which con-
sists of 13 J lbs. of sugar, and extract 12*71- lbs. of fibre, 45-|- lbs. of matter,
separated from fibre by a weak solution of potash, 1|- lbs. of albumen, .288
of a pound of casein, 2.31 of gum or dextrine, 1.8 lbs. of resin, and 7.4 lbs.
of glutinous matter. Hence the cob, though not rich in nutritive matter,
can by no means be said to be destitute of those proximate principles which
go to support respiration and sustain animal heat, and those which are capa-
ble of being transformed into nerve, muscle, etc , and the phosphates which
contribute so largely to the formation of bone.
200 lbs. cob.
800 lbs. grain.
1000 lbs. ears.
13.582
115.320
128.902
.003
487.384
487.387
127.68V
7.712
135.399
....
39.824
39.824
....
31.856
31.856
45.404
61.856
97.260
1.518
37.136
38.654
.288
.688
.976
2.310
28.224
30.534
1.806
. • • •
1.806
7.402
7.402
CORN STATISTICS IN FRANCE.
The Siede says : " According to the latest statistical returns, the crop
of every kind of corn in an average year in France now amounts to about
180,000,000 of hectolitres. In wheat, our country produces 60,000,000
of hectolitres; rye, 26,000,000; barley, 19,000,000; Metiel, (a mixture of
wheat and rye,) 1,500,000 ; oats, 40,000,000 ; buckwheat, 8,000,000 ;
maize and millet, 7,000,000 ; small grain, pulse, etc., 2,500,000. The
crop of wheat is, therefore, in the proportion of 60 to 180; that of oats,
50 to 180; and that of rye, 23 to 180; that is to say, these three de-
scriptions of corn compared with all the others, are in the proportion of
103 to 77 only. This quantity of 180,000,000 of hectolitres of corn is not
all consumed; deducting 25,700,000 hectolitres, for seed, there remains
154,300,000 for the general consumption. As, however, oats, the net pro-
duction of which is 39,250,000 hectolitres, can not be reckoned as human
food, we find that the quantity remaining for the food of the people is
115,050,000 hectoHtres. If we now take the difierent crops by weight, which
is the best manner of estimating the nutritive value of each, it may be said
that the average weight of wheat is 75 kilogrammes per hectolitre, that of
rye 65 kilogrammes, barley 60 kilogrammes, Metiel 70 kilogiainmes, buck-
wheat GO kilogrammes, maize 78 kilogrammes, and dry pulse 80 kilo-
grammes. It follows, therefore, from these bases that with 51,500,000 hec-
HEREDITARY SPAVIN. 483
tolitres of wheat, weighing 3 millards of kilogrammes, and the oiher quantities
of corn in proportion, we have a total weight of 8,046,800,000 kilogrammes
of corn fit for consumption of man. It has been calculated that on an aver-
age including women, children, and old people, it requires 220 kilogrammes
of corn per year for the food of one person. This would, therefore, be
for France, where the population is reckoned at 36,000,000, a total of
7,920,000,000 kilogrammes. If, therefore, from 8,046,800,000 kilogrammes
calculated, as above stated, for human consumption, there be deducted the
7,920,000,000, which suffice for the consumption of France, the following
result which must be satisfactory to every one, is come to — namely, that
France, in an average year, has a crop of 127,000,000 kilogrammes of corn
beyond the wants of the people, and that she could still feed 600,000 inhab-
itants more than the present number of her population."
FLOWERING OF FRUIT TREES IN 1854.
We copy the following interesting table from the American Almanac for
1855. The work is replete with useful information. See our Notices of
New Books.
PLACES.
Cambridge, Mas?.,
PL0M.
April 30
PEAR.
April 30
PEACH.
May 3
CHERRY.
May 5
APPLE.
May 10
"Woodstock, Vt.,. . .
May 10
May 15
May 22
New-Haven, Ct., . .
April 25
May 6
Lambertville, N. J., .
April 24
April 24
May 1
Perth Amboy, K J., .
April 30
....
April 25
April 27
May 23
King George Co., Va.
*
April 8
Mar. 17-22
April 5
Ap'l 15
Savannab, G3.,f .
Feb. 15
Feb 15
«...
Mar. 1
Muscatiae, Iowa, . .
May 3
:May 6
May 3
May 1
May S
* The fruit was generally killed by the excessive cold weather in April, after a very mild March.
Snow and ice, April 15 ; frost, Mny 1.
+ Frost, early in April, killed the early fruit.
HEREDITARY SPAVIN— CAUSE, ETC.
The following article on " Hereditary Spavin in Horses," is taken from
the London Farmers' Magazine :
Spavin and other Ossific Enlargements, the predisposition to which
may be either constitutional or local, are compof'^'d of the earthy matters of
bone, chiefly invading the tissues low in the scale of organization, such as
cartilage and fibrous cartilaginous substance^ ; injuring the structure and func-
tions of the parts, by rendering them rigid and inelastic ; and causing partial or
complete lameness, depending on the situation and extent of the deposition.
It is perfectly well ascertained that the progeny of some horses inherit a
constitutional tendency to splints, epavins, ring-bones, and other bony deposits,
without exhibiting any peculiar conformation of limbs or joints to account
for it. There are instances of in ossific diathesis^ transmitted from parent to
oflfspring ; but, on the other hand, this hereditary predisposition more com-
monly depends on faulty or peculiar conformation.
Thus horses most disposed to spavins are those possessing short pointed
hocks, deficient in width and breadth below, and disproportionately small,
compared with the upper portion of the joint. Those most disposed to ring-
hones are horses with upright pasterns and high action ; and those most
484 ITALIAN RYE-GRASS.
liable to ossified cartilages are the heavy draught breeds ; so much so that
it is no uncommon case to find the cartilages of the feet of horses of this
character changed into bone at four and five years old. The reason of this
is evident enough ; concussion is easily produced in the joints of the character
of horses described ; inflammation of a slow chronic kind follows as a natural
consequence, and osseous eflusion is the result.
There is no diflBculty in establishing the hereditary character of those
diseases. Taking spavin as an example, we have numerous and unquestion-
able cases to produce. Some ten or a dozen years since a spavined thorough-
bred stallion served mares in the neighborhood of Truro, and in a few years
afterwards it was really astonishing to see the number of his stock that were
similarly diseased. One striking circumstance connected with this horse is
much to the purpose. A half-bred mare, one of the stock, exhibited spavins
at four years old, and, becoming unfit for fast work, was kept for breeding
purposes and occasional work on the farm. Two of the mare's stock also
exhibited spavins in a short time after the breaking.
There is a curious case recorded in the Veterinarian, by Mr. Percivall, of
a thorough-bred horse, called Dominie Sampson, that had run very success-
fully on the English turf, and, although fired in both hocks, was inconsid-
erately purchased for the East India Company, and was sent out as a cover-
ing stallion to the stud at Buxar, where for years he had forty mares
annually, and the whole of which generally proved with foal, but were
afiected either with curbs or spavins, and only one of his stock was passed
into the cavalry ; consequently he was discharged from the stud.
Curbs are frequently found in horses exhibiting the character of hock de-
scribed in the last example, and are generally caused by injury of the annu-
lar ligament from over-exertion, producing swelling and inflammation about
three inches below the point of the hock formed by the os calcis. The
peculiar form of this bone appears to be connected with the cause of the
disease. Its chief purpose is to act as a lever for the action of very powerful
muscles, the tendons of which are inserted into its extremity, and in propor-
tion to the projection of this bone will the muscular energy be increased by
which the joint is moved. On this account its length is a matter of consid-
erable importance. It is supposed also to assist indirectly in supporting the
superincumbent weight with the other bones of the hock, and materially
assists in preserving these parts from the effects of concussion. But when
the OS calcis is short, forming a pointed hock, the leverage or mechanical
power is injuriously diminished, leaving too much for the other parts of the
joint to perform, and concivssion is the common consequence, followed by
inflammation and lameness, som-^.times connected with curbs, at other times
spavins or thorough pins ; and it 'is not an uncommon case to see all three
of these diseases in the hock at one time. There are other formed hocks,
which even more dispose to curbs than the one just mentioned; such are
the " sickle-hock" or " cow hock." Wo can scarcely name any disease of
the horse which affords stronger evidence of a hereditary tendency derived
from peculiarity of structure than the one wt have been considering.
ITALIAN RYE-GRASS.
This grass, recently introduced into the United States, is either a native of
Italy or Germany, and is probably perennial. It differs from the common
kinds of rye-grass in many botanical particulars, which it is needless to enu-
AETIFICIAL MANURES. 485
merate, and wliicli are only intelligible to tlie scientific eye ; but to the ordi-
nary observer, it difiers very perceptibly in presenting a darker green color,
and in having much more abundant and broader foliage. It very commonly
attains the height of four feet, and sometimes more, and is not inclined to
spread on the ground. If sown in September, it may be cut in the following
May ; and if sown early in March, it will yield a heavy crop in July. "Whe-
ther given as green food or converted into hay, it is eaten with avidity by
cattle, which have, in various instances, manifested their preference of it to
the common sorts, which is accounted for by its superior succulence and soft-
ness. It braids much quicker than any other species of rye-grass known to
us, arrives sooner at maturity, and is in every respect superior to all of them.
As it overpowers clover if sown with it, it is useless to sow them at the same
time ; and the only chance of their doing well together would be on poor soil,
where the vacancies between the turfs of rye-grass might be filled with clo-
ver, to be available in the second or third mowings. It is sown in the usual
way after a harrowing, and covered with a bush-harrow and a roller, and the
quantity of seed for clean ground is about twenty-one pounds per acre.
Among its other good qualities, it is found to withstand the influence of frost
better than any other varieties of grass. In a word, it is a decided acqwsi'
tion to our agriculture. — Genesee Farmer.
This growth is very highly commended by those who have had exiensire
experience. Two or three growths may be cut in a single year. For soiling
it is very superior. — [Ed. P., L., & A.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THK ANVIL.
ARTIFICIAL MAl^URES.
Messrs. Editors : I have noticed, with much pleasure, the prompt and
decided stand you have taken in some of your late numbers, in exposing the
frauds that are practised in the manufacture and sale of artificial manures.
Every farmer who has made, or intends to make, use of these manures, will,
no doubt, feel their obligations to you for the exposure you have given, and
which will, in all future purchases, keep them on the look-out for frauds, to
which they are so often exposed.
From the article in your last issue, it appears that in an instance where the
purchaser complained to the vender of the impurity of the article bought, he
was consoled by the soothing assurance that it " contained the quantities suit-
able for plants." How kind it was in this vender to get up the article in just
the right proportion, and mix in so much foreign matter that " the 2}^C'nts'^
should not get an over-supply of that which was, no doubt, cracked up loudly
as something essential to their healthful growth !
jSTow, after many years' experience on the farm and among manures, we
have never seen an instance where farmers could not apply substances bene-
ficial to the soil in just the right quantities for plants, without being at the
extra expense arising from the purchase of adulterated articles ; and we know
of no reason why such unwarrantable frauds should be practised without ex-
posing their perpetrators to such punishments as swindling of the baser sort
demands.
What would be the result if the farmer should adulterate the articles of
produce he sends to market ? In the fii-st place, he would have to restore to
486 CULTIVATION OF SANDY SOILS.
the purchaser all moneys he received over the actual value of the article sold
and if he escaped without paying heavy damages for the imposition practised,
he might think himself fortunate ; and then, if such frauds became common,
laws of greater stringency would be passed in order to overcome such evils.
All this would be right — for farmers, like all others, should be honest ; and
when they show an inclination to the contrary, it should be checked, so that,
whatever temptations may await them, the power of law, where their own
love of right would not do it, should keep them in their legitimate bounds.
The same rule should apply to men in other employments. The farmer
should be protected from frauds as well as other men are, and in the manures
he jiurchases, as well as in other things ; for what he suffers in these matters
arises from a failure in his harvest, and, of course, in the loss of hard labor, as
well as in the cash he pays out for valueless, useless property, and through
his sufferings the community must suffer from deficient crops.
It is apparent enough, that the evils of these frauds in artificial manures are,
in each successive year, becoming more and more common in our country,
and all under the pretense of benefiting the farmer.
We know of but two ways of remedying this evil : One is to make it a
penal offense for any one to manufacture or sell adulterated artificial manures,
and to carry out this, a responsible and intelligent inspector should be ap-
pointed for every mart where such manures are offered for sale, whose duty it
should be to brand every parcel just in proportion to the purity of the article
it claims to be, whether first, second, or third quality, beyond which it should
be condemned.
In the second place, farmers should look more to their own resources, and
less to the manufactures for the means of improving their soils. Where is
the farmer, in all our country, that avails himself of all the means at his com-
mand for increasing both the quantity and value of his manure-heaps ? What
wastes of some sort are to be found, even on premises the most economically
managed ! How far can the manures offered as merchandise in the market
be manufactured at home, at less expense than they cost, and of a superior
quality ?
These are questions for each farmer to answer ; and in looking over the mat-
ter, the mass, if not all, we are sure, will find that available means, not
hilherto adopted, are within their reach of increasing their crops, and beauti-
fying their lands with luxuriant vegetation without having recourse to swin-
dlers and speculators, who, without conscience or remorse, will turn them off
with catch-penny commodities under the assumed names of fertilizers !
Yours truly, W. B.
FOR THB PLOOGH, THB LOOM, AND THE ASVIL.
CULTIVATION OF SANDY SOILS.— LONG-ISLAND.
Messrs. Editors : A large portion of the soil of the country is of this
class, and very little of it is under what may be called good cultivation. The
greater part is managed on the skinning or starvation system. That these
soils possess many advantages, has been long acknowledged by those who
have given the subject the ier.st consideration, whilst their peculiar adaptation
to the culture of root-crops ib now generally admitted. The absence of alu-
mina and their porous character rendering them unable, in a great measure,
to retain moisture, the best portions of manure are lost, either by percolation
ATLANTIC COTTON MILLS.
487
or evaporation; aid hence has arisen a great objection to the cultivation of
thi? cb?s of 7 '3, u: -a thsi- ;'r:.,.ne. , ca-^. ."i i. : g., ^nd ::..-.^7 L. _.i.-Dg
early crops, do not seem to have obviated. And yet that such soil can be
well and profitably cultivated has been long known ; witness the barren sand
of Belgium and the estates of Coke and Hatherton in England, or, nearer
home, the blowing sand near Albany, and some small portions of Long-Island.
Their' adaptation also for sheep husbandry is well known; and yet, withm a
few miles of this great city are thousands of acres, every way capable of sup-
porting immense flocks, with not a sheep on them. I have been led to make
these observations from a recent trip on the Long-Island Railroad, when, in
the space of about fifty miles, I did not see that number of sheep ; and, as a
friend with me observed, on passing Hempstead Plains, here are the Downs,
but where are the South-Downs ? Certainly not there. A great many sheep,
I understand, are raised on the north side of the island, and the stock is gene-
rally improving; Wm. Becar, W. W. Mills, and J. Smith having some fine
flocks. Still they are the exception, not the rule, and it is the latter that we
want. The arrowing taste for mutton, and the high price a good article will
always command, we think should stimulate the farmers of Long-Island to
push forward in what I consider a profitable branch of husbandry ; and
instead of being satisfied with raising from eight to ten bushels of rye to the
acre, and then carrying the straw off the farm, consume it on the farm, and
not rest satisfied till they can, from the same land, raise from five to six hun
dred bushels of turnips. That this can be done, we will endeavor, at some
future time to show. ^•
ATLANTIC COTTON MILLS, LAWRENCE.
President — J.' Wiley Edmunds.
Treasurer — Wm. Gray.
Agent — Henry K. Oliver.
Directors— Khhoii Lawrence, Nathan Appleton, John A. Lowell, G.. W.
Lyman, J. W. Edmunds, George H. Kuhn, Wm. Gray.
Superintendent — Jos. P. Battles.
Paymaster — Samuel C. Oliver. . . ,
This Company was incorporated in 1 846. Its capital is |1,800,000, divided
into 1800 shares, of $1000 each.
Ground was broken for the erection of these mills in 1846 ; and in May
1849, mill No. 1 went into operation. The mills which are situated between
the Pacific and Bay State, in ward 3, are popularly designated as Nos. 1,
(west building,) 2, (east building,) and 3, (centre.) The centre or main build-
ing was erected subsequently to Nos. 1 and 2, and between them, and they
nolv form one connected structure 577 feet in length. Nos. 1 and 2 are each
220 feet in front, 64 feet wide, and five stories high, including basement, be-
side attics. The height of each is 65 feet to the eaves. The centre mill No.
3, is 137 feet in length in front, 123 feet in rear, and 100 feet wide. _ It is
six stories high, including basement, or 78 feet to the eaves. Exclusive of
these buildings, are two picker-houses 75 feet, 8 inches, by 53 feet,_4 inches,
and three stories high ; two cotton-houses ; No. 1 being 200 feet in length,
50 feet in breadth, and 25 feet in height; No. 2, 120 feet in length, 50 feet
in breadth, and 25 feet in height; these buildings are capable of holding
10,000 bales of cotton ; a waste-house, 80 feet long, 23 wide, and 15 high ;
488 ATLANTIC COTTON MILLS.
a boiler-house, 42 feet square, with coal shed attached, 62 feet by 42. It has
at present four boilers, but is capable of containing six; steam-chimney 150
feet in height. Canal building, 805 feet long, 40 feet wide and two stories
high, exclusive of attic.
The counting-room is in the canal building, and beside a general recep-
tion-room, contains the respective offices of the agent, superintendent, pay-
master, and clerks.
In the same building is the repair-shop, including iron, carpenter, and
blacksmith shops ; also a store-room and cloth-room. The building contains
in addition, a 15-horse power steam-engine.
In the repair-shop 48 men are employed, under the superintendence of
John S. Stafford, head-machinist, and Perley Ayer, head-carpenter. In the
cloth-room 20 hands are employed under the direction of Lewis Young, over-
seer. The number of out-door hands is 25, of which Artemas Harmon is
overseer.
Mills Nos. 1 and 2 each contain a carding-room, spinning-room, dressing-
room, and upper and lower weaving-room, with the following number of per-
sons employed in each, namely :
Total number of males employed in Mill No. 1, 61 ; females, 290. The
average amount monthly paid to males in this mill is $1800; to females,
$4000.
Total number of males employed in Mill No. 1, 60; females, 281. The
average paid monthly for wages is, to males 1800 ; to females, $4000.
Total number of males employed in Mill No. 3, 84 ; females, 226. The
.average amount of wages paid monthly to males is 2100 ; to females, $4100.
The whole number of males employed by the corporation is 307 ; of females,
701 ; and total employed, 1104.
Machinery. — These Mills are thoroughly supplied with machinery of the
most approved kind and in best order, as follows : No. 1, 1 whipper ; 3 cal-
vert-openera ; 8 pickers; 78 breaker cards ; 62 finishers' oards ; 2 lappers;
1 lap-winder; 14 railways; 12 drawing frames; 13 speeders, carrying 258
spindles; 19 stretchers, carrying 936 spindles; 54 warp frames, with 128
spindles each; 50 filling frames, of 128 spindles each, and averaging 13,312
spindles; 18 warpers; 10 dressers; 398 looms.
Mill No. 2 contains the same machinery as No. 1.
Mill No. 3 contains 1 whipper ; 3 calvert-openers ; 8 pickers ; 76 breaker
cards ; 74 finisher do. ; 2 lappers, one for 42 cards, and one for 34 cards ; 8
railway heads for finishers, 8 cards each ; 18 fine speeders, 72 spindles each;
88 warp frames, 128 spindles each, carrying 11,264 spindles ; 26 mules, car-
rying 14,460 spindles — a total of 25,724; 18 warpers; 12 dressers; 530
looms. The whole number of looms in the above mills is 1326 ; of spindles,
52,348.
Beside the machinery contained in the above, there are 3 folding ma-
chines ; 3 hydraulic presses, and all sorts of machines necessary for repairing
at the mills ; also for making rolls, banding, belts, etc.
Thirteen thousand bales of cotton are annually used, averaging 450 lbs.
per bale. The goods made are Nos. 14 and 24, shirtings and sheetings, of
various widths ; 285,000 yards are manufactured weekly, or about 15,000,000
yards yearly — equivalent in length, for every year, to eight thousand miles,
or one third the circumference of the globe. The power is supplied by three
of Boyden''s iron Turbine wheels, 8 feet in diameter, and of 500-horse power
each. The surface embraced in the mill-site comprises an area of 300,000
feet
ATLANTIC COTTON MILLS. 489
The Company have six blocks of brick boarding-houses, three stories high,
exclusive of attics, containing spacious tenements. One half fronts on Me-
thuen street, and the other on Canal street. The houses are built in the most
substantial manner, in which taste and convenience are combined. Shade-
trees are planted on either side, thus giving them a pleasing and attractive
appearance.
In September, 1851, at a meeting of the overseers, a library association
was formed, and a library commenced by the donation of one hundred vol-
umes and a loan of fifty dollars from Gen. H. K. Oliver, the Agent. Subse-
quently $50 and 24 volumes of Littell's Living Age were presented by Wm.
Gray, Esq., Treasurer of Mills. Donations were afterward received from
Amos Lawrence, Esq., and the Lawrence Tract Society. Recently the direct-
ors have appropriated |500 for the library, and the Company will pay the
future expense of the same. It now consists of 1500 volumes, and is an-
nually increasing. It is kept in the Canal building, and is free to all in any
way connected with the mills.
Much attention has been paid to the social and moral condition of those
engaged in the mills, and the agent has been indefatigable in his efibrts to
promote the best welfare of all concerned. The regulations require a proper
observance of the Sabbath, and a regular attendance at some place of public
worship. The reception of company, or any rudeness or disorder is strictly
prohibited on that day in all the boarding-houses.
Altogether the Atlantic Mills are a model of neatness, order, and excel-
lence. The most perfect harmony exists between the various departments,
reflecting the highest credit upon the management of so extensive a corpora-
tion. As might be expected, this corporation is in a highly flourishing con-
dition, having for some time past declared semi-annual dividends.
While establishments like the one above described are thus successfully
contributing to the national wealth ; creating a home market and affording
employment to thousands, it is gratifying to know that they are conducted
with the highest regard to the best interests of the employed. And so long
as the social, moral, and intellectual wants of those connected with them are
duly considered and regarded so long should proprietors and agents receive
the meed of approbation from an enlightened and intelligent community.
We collate the above statement from a recent number of the Lawrence
Sentinel. But we are not willing to dismiss the topic without adding our
OWN testimony, from long and intimate acquaintance with the accomplished
agent, to his earnest endeavors to promote the welfare and happiness of his
operatives, as well as to advance the interests of the Company. When we
contrast his policy with what we have sometimes (but thank God, not often)
seen in some other establishments, in other places, we are prompted publicly
to thank Gen, Oliver for his noble and successful example. God bless him
and his, and all who follow in these his footsteps, and let every one of our
readers say, Amen.
Population of Michigan. — We have before us the population of Michi-
gan, taken this fall by State authority. It exhibits a very rapid growth. All
the counties are given except eight small ones, and the number is 518,698,
estimating the omitted counties. Four years ago, the census returns made
Michigan contains 397,967 ; increase in four years, 120,731, or 30 per cent.
The same rate of increase would elevate Michigan to about 700,000 in 1860.
490 GOOD COFFEE.
GOOD COFFEE.
There are comparatively few who can prepare a cup of good coffee. Iq
this, as in wines and liquors, the taste of the many is so depraved by use that
they do not relish the best specimens. We once knew a country wine-dealer
who returned, as unfit for his market, the onlt cask of imported wine ever
sent to him by his city correspondent. It would not be strange if similar
wisdom should be developed in the matter of coffee. " Who is to determine
what is best ?" We suppose they are to decide who are most devoted to the
business, and have been longest tinder the best instruction on the subject.
The Chinese best know how to use tea ; and those who acquire the art from
them are next in order. The Turks have been long famous for their coffee,
and so have the French. If any of us do not like such coffee, then we must
adopt our own plans. But we can not claim to be the only sensible people
on this subject. One might not relish a segar that would be pronounced
capital by au old Spaniard, and yet the Spaniard is by far the best judge of
what " good" tobacco is. So it is with all artificial preparations. Use may
accustom us to think almost any thing " the best." We go against the long
boiling of coffee or long steeping of tea. We thereby get an excessive pro-
portion of the hitter principle, which is no advantage to the flavor of the
beverage. It is not this which abounds in almost every plant that we desire,
but it is the peculiar flavor of the berry of the coffee, and of the leaf of the
tea. This flavor exists chiefly in its oil, its essential oil. When this is ob-
tained by the use of alcohol, it is called an essence. When this alcohol is
taken from the essence, the essential oil remains.
In Knighton's ^'■Forest Life in Ceylon^'' are the following hints on the pre-
paration of coffee, derived from long experience : " The subtle aroma which
resides in the essential oil of the coffee-berry is gradually dissipated after
roasting, and of course still more after being ground. In order to enjoy the
full flavor in perfection, the berry should pass at once from the roasting-pan
to the mill, and thence to the coffee-pot ; and again, after having been made
should be mixed when almost at a boiling point, with hot milk. It must be
very bad coffee, indeed, which, if these precautions be taken, will not afford
an agreeable and exhilarating drink. Two great evils are constantly perpe-
trated in England in its preparation, which are more guarded against in
almost all other countries, and which materially impair its flavor and strength —
keeping the coffee a considerable time roasting or grinding, by which its
strength is diminished, and its delicate and volatile aroma lost, and mixing
the milk with it after it has been allowed partially to cool."
He who can not indorse this from his own experience, has not entered
far into the mysteries of the culinary art, and yet how many families boil
their coffee and tea almost by the hour, " so as to get the strength out." We
had almost as lief drink an infusion of peas or of rye, as such coffee. Rather
than partake of this, we would secure what passes out of the nose of a boil-
ing coffee-pot. This vapor might be passed by a tube into a closed vessel
filled with hot water, from the top of which a tube should descend into the
liquid, as a safety-valve. x\fter long-continued boiling, we have no doubt
that this second vessel would contain a better-flftvored beverage than that in
the pot; and if the quantity of water was properly graduated, it might not
be very weak. It certainly would be worth saving and restoring to the pot.
But vr-hen the "coffee" is bought of the grocer, already burned and ground,
and then is prepared by long boiling in a coffee-pot, from which there is
BEST POSITION OF FIRES FOR WARMING APARTMENTS. 491
abundant evaporation, the wretched stuff is, at best, but a poor apology for well-
prepared coffee. Especially as it is often " settled" so very imperfectly as to
deposit large quantities of mud on the bottom of each cup. Under our per-
sonal or family direction, neither our coffee nor chocolate will present any
such evidence that any powdered or solid material has been employed in the
preparation. We think there is no part of the culinary art in which people
are so self-sufficient and yet so ill-informed.
BEST POSITION OF FIRES FOR WARMING APARTMENTS.
A VERY valuable paper on this subject has been read before the London
Society of Arts, by Dr. Arnott. He goes into a full exposition of several
popular errors on this subject, and then proceeds as follows :
" These explanations being premised, the two popular delusions respecting
the low fires become at once apparent.
1st. The supposition that fuel burnt in a low fire gives out more heat, has
arisen from the experimenter not reflecting that his hand held over the low
fire feels not only the heat radiated from the fire itself, but also that reflected
from the hearth close beneath it, which second portion, if the grate were high,
would have room to spread or radiate downward and outward to the more
distant floor or carpet, and so warm them.
2d. The notion that the fire, because near the floor, must warm the carpet
more, springs from what may be called an error in the logic of the reasoner,
who is assuming that the hearth, floor, and carpet, being parts of the same
level, are in the same predicament — the truth being, however, that, in such a
case, the hearth within the fender gets nearly all the downward rays, and the
carpet almost none — as a candle held before a looking-glass at a moderate
distance diffuses its heat pretty uniformly over the whole ; but if moved close
to one part of the glass, it overheats, and probably cracks that part, leaving
the rest unaffected. A low fire on a heated hearth is to the general floor or
carpet of a room nearly what the sun, at the moment of rising or setting, is
to the surface of a field. The rays are nearly all shooting upward from the
surface, and the few which approach it slant obliquely along or nearly paral-
lel to the surface, without touching, and therefore without warming it.
Striking proof of the facts here set forth is obtained by laying thermome-
ters on the floor of a room with a low fire, and of a room with the fire, as
usual of old, at a height of about fifteen or sixteen inches above the hearth.
An experiment tried in two such rooms, in both of which thermometers on
the piano-fortes, four feet above the floor, stood at 62°, showed the carpet,
not far from the hearth, to be at 56° with the low, and at 73° with the high
fire.
As would be anticipated by a person understanding the subject aright,
low fires make cold feet very common, unless to those who sit near the fire
with their feet on the fender ; but, deceived by their fallacious reasoning, the
advocates are disposed to blame the state of their health or the weather as
the cause, and they rejoice at having the low fire, which can quickly warm
their feet when placed near it. A company of such persons seen sitting close
around their fire, with thankfulness for its warmth near their feet, might sug-
gest the case of a party of good-natured people duped out of their property
by a swindler, and afterward gratefully accepting as charity from him a part
of their own property."
492 TURNIPS AS FEED.
These suggestions certainly commend themselves to our good judgment,
and would lead us to increase rather than diminish the height of our grates,
stoves, etc. For aught we can see, the reasoning would lead us to elevate
these fixtures to the highest point from which heat would radiate in very sen-
sible quantities to the surrounding floor. Thus the circle of attraction to
those having cold feet, would be very materially enlarged.
Our readers may remember some statements which we made in our num-
ber for April, 1853, in which we explained the mode by which our atmo-
sphere is warmed. The direct rays of the sun in passing through it are very
inefficient, while the temperature of the earth has a very important influence.
The notion that "heat rises," is not the controlling principle in this matter,
but the efiect is dependent on other and very difterent principles, which we
need not here repeat. We refer the reader to the article already described.
TURNIPS AS FEED.
While in attendance upon the late National Poultry Show at Barnum's
Museum, we spent a few minutes in the " Lecture-Room." Our friend Mr.
Solon Robinson was making remarks upon the use of turnips as feed, as
reported in some of the journals of the day. He took the position that they
were good for nothing as nutriment, and sustained himself by giving its
analysis. This is all very well, but unfortunately it is not in accordance Avith
well-known facts. We used to talk in the same way, but were obliged to
yield not simply to a few doubtful experiments, but to years of experience.
This the speaker seemed to feel, for he admitted that " in England it might
not be so." But we suppose a turnip in England is very much the same
thing as a turnip in New- York. He also added that they should be fed by
turning the cattle in upon them, as they are growing in the field. We can
not see the force or propriety of this distinction. Is it not the same worth-
less thing before it is pulled, as afterwards ? Must the cattle or sheep pull
it, or bite it ofi", to render it nutritious ? But even here there is no escape,
for the English practice is, after the animal has bit off" as much as is prac-
ticable, the root remaining in the ground is then lifted by a fork and le ft on
the top of the ground, for the cattle to eat at pleasure.
We are compelled to admit that there is something in this fact of nutri-
tion, that no doctrine of chemistry or physiology is able to explain. The
fact is unquestionable, that turnips are excellent for fattening sheep and
cattle, whether we can explain why it is so or not. It is equally true, as Mr.
R. stated in the same speech, that about 97 per cent of the flat turnip, as
shown by a chemical analysis, consists of water. These two facts, so appar-
ently contradictory, are entirely above and beyond contradiction. We sub-
join the following, on this subject, which appears in the Northern Farmer.
" The vegetable I wish to recommend as the best, all things considered,
for milch-cows in winter, is white flat turnips. Some, perhaps, will object to
the turnip, because it will aft'ect the taste of the milk and butter. So it does
if fed raw ; this can be avoided by boiling. For each cow, boil a half a
bushel of turnips soft ; while hot, add five or six quarts of shorts ; which
will swell, and you will get the full worth of it. A mess like this fed to a
cow once a day, will produce more milk of a good quality, than any other
feed at the same cost. Turnips fed in this way do not taint either milk of
VALUE OF MANUFACTURES. 493
butter. One thing in favor of turnips as feed for cows, is, that they can be
sown in August, or as late as the first of September. I sowed some as late
as September, last year, which were very fine. Turnips are also very profit-
able feed for pigs, when boiled in the same way as for cows."
FOR THIS PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THB ANVIL.
CONDITION AND PROSPECTS OF MINNESOTA.
I ONCE before mentioned something about threshing-machines. Illinois as
yet has furnished the best or most substantial and useful, that have been
brought to Minnesota. Elgin, III., has the praise of furnishing the best ma-
chines as yet. One machine has threshed 12,000 bushels of grain, and the
repairs have not amounted to five dollars. As Minnesota will be a great
farming country, a great number of machines will be wanted in this country.
Spring wheat is worth from $1 to $1.25 per bushel; oats, 40 to 45 cents per
bushel.
The crops, on an average, have been good. I hear of no failures of crops,
unless by negligence or improper culture. Potatoes have done well, and no
sign of rust as yet ; and I may say that Minnesota farmers are a happy peo-
ple. Taxes are light, and a ready market for all that farmers can raise of
every description ; cash in hand for all ; cattle, horses, pork, poultry, butter,
etc., in abundance. The bank panic has not afl'ected us much as yet, and we
feel confident that Minnesota has managed her afiairs so as to stand aloof
from the Eastern pressure in financial business.
There is so much good land in Minnesota, and so much of it is cultivated,
that systematic farming is little thought of. If a man's farm don't suit him,
all he has to do, is to move a few miles off, and find a farm that will suit him
better. We turn the sod over in June and July, and the spring following we
get from twenty to forty bushels per acre of spring wheat. Corn of most all
varieties does better here than in the Eastern States.
Your most obedient, P. Prescott.
Fort Snelling, Min., Jan., 1855.
VALUE OF MANUFACTURES.
We know of nothing which so forcibly illustrates the importance of encou-
raging HOME INDUSTRY, as the rise and progress of our manufacturing towns,
and among these the history of Lawrence is eminently worthy of attention.
We gather the following facts from a carefully-written article in the Lawrence
Sentinel.
The first town-meeting after the town charter was obtained, was held April
26, 1847. The whole number of votes for Moderator was six. The town
voted to raise 14500 for general expenses, $1200 for roads and bridges,
$2000 for schools, and $2000 for building two school-houses.
At the second annual meeting, $18,000 were appropriated for current ex-
penses, $4000 for schools, $30,000 to build a town-house, $12,500 to build a
brick school-house, $250 for another school-house, $1500 for Hook and Lad-
494 MANUFACTUEE OF PLATE-GLASS.
der Company; and July 1, $10,000 additional were appropriated for the
town-house.
At the third annual meeting, $25,000 were appropriated for the expenses
of the town, of which about $8500 were for schools and school-houses.
Thus progress and regard for education go hand in hand. In these mat-
ters it is emphatically true that " the liberal soul shall be made fat," while the
industry you cherish and protect is not only self-sustaining but is constantly
and increasingly aggressive upon all idleness, and ignorance, and the vices
that grow therefrom. It is, in many respects, the leaven that pervades the
entire mass.
MANUFACTURE OF PLATE- GLASS.
AVe find in the Polytechnic a very concise account of the process enjployed
in the manufacture of plate-glass. We have not yet been able to compete
with the English in this department, on account of the great expense with
which it is attended, and the necessity of great skill, which it requires. With-
out occupying space now, with its history, we copy the account given of its
present condition. The American invention, spoken of at the close of the
extract, is by the learned editor of the journal from which we copy.
" The best plate-glass now manufactured comes from St. Gobain, in France,
where the manufacture of cast plates was first established in 1689 ; the Eng^
lish plate is next in quality ; the German being liable to cloud ; the excellence
of the plates of St. Gobain is due, it is said, to the fact that it is a true chemi-
cal compound, consisting of one atom of trisilicate of soda, and one atom of
trisilicate of lime, with a small per-centage of alumina ; this manufacture is a
very good example of the advantage of employing the best chemical talent in
a manufacture where chemical compounds are used. The services of Gay
Lussac were engaged for a long time at these works, where his investigations
were in the highest degree valuable.
The manufacture of plate-glass, as at present conducted, requires a number
of workmen, and the greatest care, after the vitrification of the materials is
complete, which takes ordinarily about twenty hours. The glass is trans-
ferred from the pots in which it is made to a cistern, or as the French call it,
cuvette, made oblong, and so formed as to be readily transported. This cis-
tern is highly heated in a furnace, and the glass is ladled from the melting-
pot into it, and then stands till it is fined, and at a proper heat to work.
When the melted glass in the cistern is in the proper state for flowing readily
and equably, the cistern is taken out of the furnace by means of tongs, which
are made to embrace the cistern. It is then raised by a crane, placed upon
a low carriage, and removed to the casting-table. The outside of the cistern
is carefully cleaned, and the glass skimmed with a broad copper sabre, to
prevent any impurities from mixing with the glass on the casting-table. The
cistern is then wound up to a suificient height by means of a crane, and swung
over the upper end of the casting-table, which has been heated by hot coals
spread over it, and then wiped perfectly clean. The cistern being tilted over,
a torrent of melted glass is suddenly poured out on the surface of the table :
it is prevented from running off the sides by ribs of metal, one of which is
placed along the whole length of each side, their depth being the exact mea-
sure which is to be given to the thickness of the glass. When the cistern
has been emptied, a massive copper cylinder, three feet in diameter, extend
MANUFACTURE OF PLATE-GLASS. 495
ing entirely across the table, and resting on the side-ribs, is set in motion,
and spreads the glass out into a sheet of uniform breadth and thicliness. The
pouring out of the glass is a grand sight, and the variety of colors exhibited
by the plate, immediately after the roller has passed over it, is beautiful to
behold. In order to remove all impurity from the casting slab, a washer is
drawn immediately in front of the fluid glass ; the excess of glass pours over
the front edge into a trough, filled with water; the roller then passes off the
slab, and is received in grooves in front of the slab. The slab is then cleared
of any redundancy at the sides ; a thick flange of the still soft glass is turned
up at the end; and when this flange has become somewhat rigid, a rake-
shaped iron is applied to it, and the plate is forced forward into the annealing
oven, or thrust upon a wooden platform moving on wheels, and so conveyed
to the oven, where it remains about five days, in a horizontal position, ex-
posed to a gradually diminishing temperature.
Grinding and Polishing. — The plate being still hot, and yielding wheri it
is slid into the oven, takes an impression of the bricks of the oven upon which
it rests, while the upper surface is generally made smooth and bright from
the action of the fire, but it is not flat. The plates, as they come out of the
annealing furnace, are about half an inch thick, of an irregular mottled ap-
pearance. They are carefully examined, to see whether the glass is suffi-
ciently free from defects to admit of forming large plates, which, of course,
have a much greater comparative value than small ones. If the defects are
such as can not be removed by grinding, the plate must be cut up into
smaller plates, so that the defective portions maybe rejected. The plates
having been squared, next undergo the processes of grinding and polishing.
These were formerly done by hand, but of late years this laborious work is
almost entirely performed by machinery. The first object is to produce a
level surface, which is done by gfinding one plate upon another, a rough or
rolled surface being opposed to the comparatively smooth or casting-plate sur-
face. The grinding machines for large plates are arranged in pairs, consist-
ing of two benches of stone, fifteen feet long, eight feet wide, and eighteen
inches high. On the surface of each bench, one or more plates of glass are
imbedded in plaster of Paris, close together, and quite level. Other plates of
glass are cemented upon the lower faces of two swing-tables or runners, which
are made to traverse over the fixed beds by appropriate machinery, in such a
way that each runner is made to rotate around its own axis, and by a combi-
nation of two movements to change continually the relative position of the
fixed bench and runner. Such an arrangement tends to the mutual correc-
tion of the two surfaces of the glass, and greatly assists the equal distribution
of the sand and water. All the irregularities of the surface are first ground
out with sharp river-sand, which has been washed and sifted into three sizes :
the sand and water are thrown on by hand from time to time. When the
plates have been ground quite flat, the finer sand is employed ; this is fol-
lowed by one finer still, which removes the scratches made by the coarser.
The plates of glass are well washed between every change of sand ; and when
one side has been ground, the plates are reversed, and the other side ground.
When the plates become sufficiently smooth to require the application of
emery, there is a tendency to cohesion between the surfaces, which, travelling
over each other with moderate velocity, produce so much friction that one
surface will frequently tear the glass from the other. Hence it has not been
thought safe to trust the next process, namely, the smoothing, to machinery,
and hand-labor has been employed.
The polishing is completed by rubbers, covered with thick felt, and worked
496 MANUFACTURE OF PLATE-GLASS,
by machinery. The plates of glass are embedded close together, with their
surfaces quite level, upon movable platforms, fixed upon a traversino- bed.
The rubbers, which measure eight by six inches each, are attached, one foot
asunder, to reciprocating carriages, which drag the rubbers backward and
forward over the surface of the glass, while the latter traverses, beneath the
rubbers, a space equal to the distance between the two lines of rubbers, so as
to expose all parts of the glass equally to their action. Each rubber is made
to exert a pressure of about fifteen pounds, by means of lead weights. The
powder used for polishing is Venetian pink ; this contains only a small por-
tion of the oxide of iron mixed with earthy matter ; it admits of being mixed
with water, and thus reduces the friction, and prevents the glass becoming
heated by the action of the rubbers. Tripoli irocees, or putty-powder, used
with water, are too active to produce a high polish on glass ; but they may
be employed dry for the last finish in hand-polishing. In polishing by ma-
chinery, dry powders must be avoided on account of the friction and heat
evolved. Hand-polishing is very tedious, and is apt to produce a wavy ap-
pearance ; hence, machine-polished glass is to be preferred.
The grinding and polishing of the glass reduce their thickness as much as
one third, and in some cases one half. Should the glass be defective, the
polishing will only serve to heighten the defects ; hence, a second and more
careful examination and selection are now made. The defective ones are cut
up into smaller plates, and these are polished again ; the perfect ones are
reserved for silvering."
"A machine for making plate-glass has been invented by J. J. Greenougb,
and patented a short time since, which does away with almost all the mani-
pulations formerly required ; by it glass of any required magnitude can be
made, and at a cost very greatly reduced from the old method ; it consists in
taking the glass from the cistern or cuvette directly between two rollers, by
which it is drawn out into the form of a slab; descending perpendicularly, it
is again reduced to a thinner plate by a pair of rollers placed below the first
and made to draw sufiiciently for the purpose ; it then passes downward to a
third pair of rollers, and thence to any number found necessary, the sets of
rollers being sufficient in number to sustain and draw the glass, and hold it
till it gets suflSciently cool to sustain its own weight, when it descends into an
annealing oven below, where it is suspended till cool. By this means the
two sides of the plate are perfectly straight and parallel, requiring but little
polishing to prepare them for mirror plates, or other like purposes. It will
be seen that great rapidity of execution can be attained with this method ;
the quickest working glass, such as could not be used in the ordinary way,
may by this means be wrought at a very low cost. The rollers are kept cool
by a stream of cold water running through them to carry ofi" the superfluous
heat, and the temperature of the glass is thereby rapidly reduced to the pro-
per point for annealing.
There are many minor details in the manufacture which we have here not
enumerated ; but sufficient has been shown to demonstrate a greatly reduced
cost over the old method of making plate-glass, which it must eventually
supersede."
Cashmere Goats. — A pair of pure-bred Cashmere goats were recently
bought by some gentlemen in Eichmond, Va., for fifteen hundred dollars.
The wool from another pair of the same lot, when examined by a micro-
scope, compared precisely in fineness with the hair of a $2700 Cashmere
shawl.
NEW GAS STOVE. 497
NEW GAS STOVE.
A NEW method of obtaining heat from gas has been invented
by Mr. Shaw, of Boston.
The stove consists of three upright iron cylinders, the middle
one being about one half larger than the other two. Above
these is another cylinder of radiation, which shows the amount
of gas consumed. The engraving is a small representation of
its general appearance.
One of our exchanges says :
"Although very diminutive in size, it heats a room, in ten minutes, warm
enough for all practical purposes, when the flame can be reduced and an even
temperature maintained. When in full blast, it consumes about four cents'
worth of gas per hour ; but after the room is heated, one cent's worth of gas
per hour will amply suffice. It is easily managed ; indeed, there is nothing
complicated about it, and a servant who has sense enough not to attempt to
blow a gas-light out, can safely be intrusted with its care. The heat it pro-
duces is not a dry heat, but of an agreeable moisture, partly produced by the
usual pan of water, which should be attached to every stove, while the flame,
burning through asbestos, resembles so closely hot coals that the difi'erence is
scarcely perceptible." The following letter from Professor Hayes, who has
inspected and tested the stove, and who is very high authority in such mat-
ters, is quite explicit :
' The present invention is based upon the principle of burning a mixture of
illuminating gas with air, so as to develop the largest amount of heat which
the gas can afford.
Ordinary burners consume a current of gas in air, thereby producing light
and an ascending current, by which the heat generated is carried upward and
dispersed.
The iron structure, or stove, serves as an absorbent of the heat generated
by the perfect combustion of the mixture of gas and air. It then presents a
large heated surface, which warms the air in contact with it by conduction,
and also in a high degree all bodies near it, by radiation.
No danger exists in this mode of combustion ; the utmost amount of explo-
sion attending it is that which we observe, when we light gas, at the top of a
tall burner-chimney.
The products arising from the combustion are vapor of water, carbonic
acid, and nitrogen gas, and the amount or volume of these bodies is the same
as that produced from an equal number of gas-burners as arranged for aff"ord-
ing light.
It is a feature of economy shown in carrying out the application of the
principle, that has led the inventor to so arrange the parts that the heat pro-
duced is retained as long as possible low down in the space to be warmed.
The second or upper radiator has been added for this purpose, and it also
serves as an indicator of the amount of gas which should at any time be con-
sumed for v/arming the air of an apartment.
If after the first hour of the combustion the temperature of the exit-pipe
becomes higher than that of the hand, a portion of the gas may be shut ofi^,
and when the air of the room has become warmed, a small volume of gas
will maintain that temperature.
•iyb CAST-IKOX HOUSES.
I think the inventor has shown much judgment and skill in adapting the
parts to the scientific principle, and that his gas-stoves, without ventilation
for open rooms, and with ventilation for close rooms will prove a great addi-
tion to our means of comfort and convenience.
Respectfully,
(Signed) A. A. Hayes, M.D.
Assayer to the State of Massachusetts.^
II Boylston street, 22d Nov., 1854.
In a library, where dust is so injurious to books, its value is inestimable.
In the Merchants' Exchange, Boston, Mr. Shaw has placed one of the largest
size, which contains eight jets, and gives satisfiiction. To warm the room, it
requires that they all be lighted for the first half hour, after which four may
be shut off"
Cast-Iron Houses. — A most ingenious and practically useful application
of cast-iron has just been introduced by Mr. Chaplin, engineer and iron-house
builder, Glasgow, giving the material a wide scope in an extremely novel
direction. It consists in the adoption of cast-iron for house-building purposes,
in such a manner as to produce a close resemblance to stone. To this end,
the metal is cast in rectangular blocks, with back-flanges and strengthening
ribs, for bolting together into a solid mass, each separate detail being made
in the shape of ashlar-hewn stone, or brick. The pieces may obviously be of
any convenient size and shape, all, when erected, running in level courses,
and each numbered, in correspondence with its size and special form. In this
way a solid cast-iron mass is easily erected, the numbering system very much
facilitating the ordering and putting together of the pieces ; and, if desired, a
single plate may be made to resemble two or more stones, by being suitably
marked. An internal air-space, or non-conducting section, may also be
formed by an inner hning of wood, or lath and plaster; and the chimneys
and flues may be carried along in this space, as in stone or brick erections.
By this system an entire house, of large size may be erected with very few,
perhaps four or five, varieties of sizes and shapes of cast-iron pieces, or facti-
tious stones. No lintels are necessary for the windows and doors, as, by bolt-
ing together the flanges of the pieces, due support can be given, without
involving the use qf long pieces. A double shop, with an overhead dwelling,
recently erected by the patentee, exhibits the value of the plan in a most
favorable light. The roof, which is of arched corrugated iron plates, is con-
cealed by the projecting eaves ; and whilst the entire front is severe and plain
ashlar imitation, sufficient relief is given by the separate attachment of light
ornamental beads or mouldings — one at the top of the first course above the
windows, and one for the roof-gutter. The roof-gutter is fastened on outside
the wall face, and the edge of the roof is brought over the wall, so that no
dripping from leakage can find its way to the interior of the house. Either
new or old stone and brick buildings may be faced with thin plates of this
" imitation ashlar," Avhich is obviously more enduring, and less liable to injury,
than the best sandstone or cement; whilst the material admits of the most
elaborate ornamentation at a comparatively small cost.
THE LOWELL WIRE FENCE.
499
THE LOWELL WIRE FENCE ILLUSTRATED.
In our January number, we clironicled the invention, by John Nesmith,
Esq., of Lowell, Mass., of a machine for manufacturing wire-fence, and spoke
of the admirable adaptiveness of this mode of fencing to farms, gardens, roads,
railroads, canals, trellis-work, etc. We are now happy to present our readers
with some cuts illustrative of this novel and excellent fencing.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 represents the strongest kind of this fencing, four feet high ; the
mesh or squares six inches ; the straight or lateral wires of JSTo. 10 wire ; the
body of the fence of No. 12 wire, (or it may be of No. 15 wire ;) varnished
with asphaltum blacking, (or it may be coated with coal tar, or painted, or
galvanized,) for beauty and preservation. If re-varnished once in five or six
years, this fence will last a century or more, while the rflost durable post-and-
rail fence lasts but about thirty years. The price of this mode of fence is
from 75 cents to $1.10 per rod, according to the weight of the wire.
2. — This netting is of the same height as the former, with wire and
600
THE LOWELL WIEE FENCE.
mesh of the same sizes, but without the two lateral wires through the middle
of the fence. This varies in price from 60 to '95 cents per rod. Both these
make first-rate cattle fences.
Fig. 3 represents a different kind
of this netting, from sixteen inches
to four feet high, with mesh of three
inches. The outside wires are of
No. 10 wire ; the inside of No. 15 ;
the price from 75 cents to $1.50
per rod. It is a capital sheep, gar-
den, and poultry fence. This net-
ting, four feet high, is sufficient,
without covering, to "hold" hens.
All who have tried it attest its practicability. Richard S. Fay, Esq., the
popular agricultural lecturer, writes of it as follows :
"Charles Cowley, Esq., Agent of the Lowell "Wire Fence Co.:
SiE : Your favor of Jan. 2d is duly received. I have used the Lowell wire fence dur-
ing the past summer, for folding sheep at night on land that I wished to manure, shift-
ing once or more every week, and have found it answer the purpose perfectly. I have
also inclosed an acre or two of ground with it for the purpose of keeping a few sheep
separate from the flock. If properly set, it would hold any thing, and for smaller ani-
mals, particularly sheep, it is impossible that they should break it down or escape from
it. I have had some iron rods made with a double foot, which I drive into the ground
and attach the fence to it either by copper wire or stout twine. A man and a boy will
inclose a quarter of an acre in less than an hour, having these posts, which should be set
not more than a rod apart.
When I change the fence to a new spot, I unfasten it from the posts— throw it down —
begin at one end, and roll it up as you would a carpet. And so in re-setting, reverse the
process, rolling it out where it is to be set; drive down the posts, and then raise it and
attach it to them. My fence cost $1.50 per rod, and it is a cheap mode of hurdling or
inclosing at that price. I understand now that it is made much cheaper.
_ I am very truly yours, Richard S. Fat.
Boston, Jan. 5, 1855."
F\s. 41.
Fig. 47 represents the front door of a
house, arched with some of this netting as
a mode of trellis-work. It may be had of
any width, from sixteen inches to four
feet, and of any mesh, one, three, or six
inches. Light, cheap, elegant, and dura-
ble, this is the most admirable trellis-work
yet devised. Hon. Marshall P. Wil-
der, of Dorchester, Mass., President of the
United States Agricultural Society, who
has recently procured some of the four-
feet-wide, six-inch mesh netting for grape
trellises, writes as follows :
" Charles Cowlet, Esq., Agent, Etc. :
Dear Sir: I have recently examined some of
the netting of the Lowell Wire Fence Company,
for fences, trellises,, etc. From my own expe-
rience and that of others, I can not doubt that it
is perfectly practicable as a fence for fields and
gardens, or that it is well adapted to all uses
where a strong, close, elegant, economical, and
durable fence is required. Wlaere stone is not
abundant, or where lumber is expensive, as in
many of our States, I should deem it the most
practicable fence that could be procured. If
our railroads are hereafter to be inclosed, as
AMERICAN SOLIDIFIED MILK. 501
safety and economy demand, they can scarcely be fenced cheaper or better than by this
mode of fence. The stouter kinds of this netting are of such strength, that cattle could
not easily penetrate or pass it ; while the closeness of the lighter kinds renders them ad-
mirably available for garden uses, heneries, and poultry fences. Fencing like this has lor
some years been extensively used in Great Britain ; and, since it can now be made at a
much less cost, by machinery, it would seem to be equally adaptive to the United states.
1 know of no fencing so good as this, that can be procured for $1.50 per rod the highest
price asked for the most costly kinds of this netting; and this is, probably, the only
fencing of equal merit that can be bought for $1.50 per rod. , , . ■, t
As a material for rose-trellise?, grape-trellises, and ornamental work m gardens, 1
think it unequalled in cheapness, durability, and beauty, by any thing yet devised. It
will, without doubt, eventually be received into general use, when its merits are appre-
ciated by the public. Tours respectfully, Marshall P. Wilder.
Dorchester, Jan. 15, 1855."
Besides the kinds of this netting represented in these cuts, there are other
kinds— one of one-inch mesh, whicli is fast coming into use for window-net-
ting, bird-cages, etc., etc.
The enormous expense of constructing and repairing stone walls, post-and-
rail fences, and other modes of fence now in vogue, is such that many do not
hesitate to attribute to it the present backward state of American agriculture.
The well-known Mr. Biddle, some years ago estimated that the fences of
Pennsylvania alone cost $100,000,000, and the annual expenditure upon them
not less than $10,000,000. In all the other States, the '' fence-oppression, as
it has been called, weighs no less heavily than in Pennsylvania. In view ot
such facts, we regard Ue introduction of the fencing above portrayed as a
blessing to all the farmers in the country. That it will, in a great measure,
supersede all our present modes of fencing, is an opinion concurred in by its
inventor, by the Company organized to manufacture it, and by all, whether
practical agriculturists or scientific theorists, who have tried or examined it.
American Solidified Milk.— Mr. Blatchford has established a factory for
the purpose of carrying on this process at Armenia, N. Y. There the follow-
ing treatment is adopted : To 112 lbs. of milk, 28 lbs. of Stuart's white sugar
are added, and a trivial proportion of bicarbonate of soda— a teaspoonful,
merely enough to insure the neutrahzing of any acidity, which in the suna-
mer season is exhibited even a few minutes after milking. The sweet milk is
poured into evaporating pans of enamelled iron, embedded in warm water
heated by steam. To facihtate the evaporation by means of blowers and
other ingenious apparatus, a current of air is established between the covers
of the pans and the solidifying milk. Connected with the steam-engine is an
arrangement for stirrers, for agitating the milk slightly whilst evaporating,
and so gently as not to churn it. In about three hours the milk and sugar
assume a pasty consistency. By constant manipulating and warming, it is
reduced to a rich creamy-looking powder ; then exposed to the air to cool,
weighed into parcels of a pound each, and by a press, with the force of a ton
or two, it is made to assume the compact form of a tablet, (the size of a small
brick,) in which shape, covered with tinfoil, it is presented to the public. On
a recent examination of the routine, some of the solidified milk which had
been grated and dissolved in water the evening previous, was found covered
with a rich cream. This skimmed off, was soon convered into excellent but-
ter. Another solution was speedily converted into wine-whey, by a treatment
precisely similar to that employed in using ordinary milk.
502
bloomfield's cylindrical steam valve.
BLOOMFIELD'S CYLINDRICAL STEAM VALVE.
The annexed engravings represent a new valve for engines, invented by
Hosmer Bloomfiekl, of Springville, N. Y.
Fig. 2 is^ a side elevation of tlie valve, with the inlet pipe attached, and
the crank-pin, for oscillating the valve. Fig. 1 is a transverse vertical section
of the valve and the steam passages of the cylinder of an engine. A repre-
sents the cylindrical valve, which forms a steam-box, with head and bottom
like a cylinder. This valve extends to the outside of the valve-cover, C, and
is oscillated by the eccentric rod, which is attached to the pin of the arm
shown in Fig. 1. B is an opening in the roof of the valve, to counteract the
abutting force of the steam on the cylinder ftice. D is an oil-cup, and there
are channels cut in the valve to allow its whole surface to be lubricated. E
is a layer of vulcanized india-rubber packing, to render the cover, C, steam-
tight, la Fig. 1 the steam is exhausting from the steara-cylinder at the
right-hand end, and the engine is taking in steam by the left-hand port and
MISCELLANEOUS. 503
passage. This figure is taken through the length of the steam-cylinder, and
is consequently at right angles to Fig. 2, which shows the exhaust-pipe on
the steana-cylinder under the top inlet steam-pipe. The advantages claimed
for it by its author are : 1st, perfect freedom from unequal steam-pressure ;
2d, accessibility of all its parts to lubrication ; 3d, simplicity, 4th, even wear
of surface after it is ground in steam-tight.
More information respecting it may be obtained by letter addressed to
Mr. Bloorafield, at Springville.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Embossing TELEaRAPH. — Mr. E. S. Barnes, of South-Camden, N. J., pro-
fesses to have made certain discoveries which enable him to improve vastly
upon the present system of printing-telegraphs. He calls his invention the
" Embossing Telegraph," and sets forth in a circular the principal advantages
over other methods. Some of these are as follows :
The difficulties from atmospheric electricity are entirely removed, by a pro-
cess which needs to be seen to be properly understood. Suffice it here to
say, that however great the volume that may be discharged into the office,
there is a contrivance, no more complicated than a simple vessel of acidulated
water, to arrest and dissipate nearly, if not quite all the charge ; and any that
may pass, will not disturb the equilibrium of the magnet, at most, more than
momentarily, owing to a combination of a permanent with an electro mag-
net, the former of which will not be inductively affected by any amount of
water that can pass the vessel of acidulated water. And now to produce the
Roman letter, by a process combining simplicity of mechanical construction,
strength of operation, and ease of acquirement by any operator of ordinary
capacity. This I have done. But to set forth how, would be to give a
detailed description of the instrument, which is not here my intention. I will
endeavor to make it perfectly clear to any one who will be pleased to witness
the operation, at Camden, New-Jersey. There is another feature of great
advantage in this instrument — the " circuit-breaker," at the terminating sta-
tion, and the type-wheel, at the receiving station or stations, return to a given
starting-point at the completion of each letter, the instrument thereby adjust-
ing itself at every letter, and this without loss of time.
" Mr. Barnes," says the Louisville Journal, " resided here for a considerable
time a few years ago, and fci well remembered by many of our citizens. He
gave much attention to the subject of electro-telegraphs, and, by those who
knew him well, he was considered a great inventor. We have a strong hope
that his Embossing Telegraph will accomplish all that is expected of it.
Employment for the Poor. — We cheerfully give place to the following
by request of Mr. De Motte. The object is obvious to the reader. It was ori-
ginally addressed to the editor of the Sun :
The Address of the American and Foreign Emigrant Protective and Em-
ployment Society, which you kindly gave a place in your columns, has already
produced its anticipated fruits. Numerous letters have been received within
the last few days at the Society's office, requesting that portions of the sur-
plus labor of our city may be removed to the neighborhood of the writers.
These letters are on file, and open to the inspection of any disposed to exam-
ine them. The Board of Managers have to deplore an exhausted treasury.
604 MISCELLANEOUS.
One thousand dollars, placed in their hands, could be at once advantageously
employed to defray the travelling expenses of suitable persons, desirous of
obtaining employment, to the locations where their labor is desired and
needed. It would undoubtedly be the best investment of charitable funds
that could be made. In all cases the beneficiaries are required to refund the
amount thus advanced out of their future earnings, and their employers are
engaged to see that this is done. This very day a respectable American me-
chanic— a wheelwright— applied to the Society for aid to remove himself and
family to the country, where employment and a home awaited him, but the
boon could not be granted him.
The Managers take this opportunity of inviting the friends of humanity in
the country to aid in this work of benevolence. The support of the destitute
poor now in the pity of New- York, who can not be removed, is taxing to the
utmost the charity of the citizens. Let those communities where labor is
wanted form Associations, collect funds and remit them to the Society, and
the pledge will be given that, if not restricted to country or creed, careful
selections will be made of moral and industrious persons to fill the stations to
which they may be invited. A good opening is oflfered to those wanting
employment who have means sufficient for their removal, of doing so, as in
removing under the auspices of the Society, care will be taken to prevent im-
position or disappointment, and every facility and information will be ex-
tended to each. Mortimer de Motte, Cor. Sec.
Weiv-York, Jan. 12.
Slag as a Material for Fictile Purposes.— Some time ago, Mr. Elliott,
of Ellsworth, made a very satisfactory attempt to establish the manufacture
of bricks and tiles from the slag, or refuse cinder, of blast furnaces. Now,
we have a further movement towards a similar end, at the hands of Dr.
Smith, of Philadelphia, who, with a staff of chemical assistants, is at present
engaged in the matter at Merthyr. His experiments have been made with
the view of producing bottles, and domestic utensils of various kinds, as well
as tiles and paving-flags ; and this mode of converting the enormously-accu-
mulating cinder of the iron works has been decidedly successful. The new
bottles are tougher and more perfect in their anneal ment, than any of the
ordinary glass kind; but they are undistinguishable from glass ones in
external appearance. Lady Charlotte Guest has adopted the process, and
it is believed that not much time will elapse before the transmutation of what
has hitherto been a constantly-increasing waste mass, will be a commercially-
valuable fact.
To Give a Dull Black Color to Brass. — A dull black color, such as
is frequently employed for optical instruments, may be given to brass by first
carefully rubbing the object with tripoli, then washing it with a very dilute
solution of a mixture of one part of neutral nitrate of tin and two parts of
chloride of gold, and then wiping off the excess of liquid, after the lapse of
ten minutes, with a wet cloth. If there has been no excess of acid, the sur-
face of the metal will have assumed a dull black color. The neutral nitrate
of tin may be prepared by decomposing the perchloride with ammonia, and
dissolving the precipitated oxide thus obtained in nitric acid.
Locomotion by Means of a Vacuum and Compressed Air. — Mr. Som-
meiller, a Sardinian engineer, and director of the railway works of Turin, has
invented an ingenious aparatus, which he has patented in France and several
countries abroad, for the utilizing of natural waterfalls for the purpose of
MISCELLANEOUS. 505
compressing air into suitable receivers, or for producing a vacuum in such
receivers, and applying the same to locomotive purposes. The Sardinian
Government has just made a grant of 80,000 livres, for the purpose of
experimenting upon the invention, which will probably be applied to the
ascent of Mount Cenis and the Col de Tende.
Portable Screwing Tackle, — This form of sere wing-tackle possesses
the valuable feature of extreme portability. It is intended more especially
for gas and water-pipe fitters, or for other artisans whose avocations require
the carrying about of screwing apparatus to scattered jobs. The die-frame
is of cast-iron, with two diametrically-opposite bosses cast upon it, which are
bored up sufficiently far to receive the two wrought-iron handles. The boss-
holes are made with a slight taper, so that a tap will fasten the handles in
their places, whilst they can be at once knocked out when required. When
both handles are unshipped, the stock will go into a very small compass, so
as to be easily packed in an ordinary tool-basket or box.
Polished Shirt-Bosoms. — We have often endeavored to learn how this
work is done, but have met with little success. We are now able to give
the following as a process in use in some laundries :
To a quarter pound of starch add white spermacetti of the size of a walnut,
or say, half an ounce ; boil these together from one to three hours.
In ironing, when the flat is hot, rub the face of it rapidly with a piece of
white wax, taking care not to suflFer it to adhere too freely ; and this gives a
smoothness to its surface which is serviceable in heightening the polish of
the linen.
Since the above was written, we have seen the following in an exchange :
" We often hear ladies expressing a wish to know by what process the
gloss on new linens, shirt-bosoms, etc., is produced, and in order to gratify
them, we subjoin the following recipe :
" Take two ounces of fine white gum arable powder — put it in a pitcher,
and pour on a pint or more of boiling water, according to the degree of
strength you desire — and then, having covered it, let it stand all night. In
the morning pour it carefully from the dregs into a clean bottle, cork it, and
keep it for use. A table-spoonful of gum-water stirred into a pint of starch
made in the usual manner, will give lawn, either white or printed, a look of
newness, when nothing else can restore them after they have been washed.
The Water-Powee, Etc., Potomac. — We have received a pamphlet
and extensive maps, describing the water-power at the Great Falls and town
of Potomac, owned by the Great Falls Manufacturing Company, and in-
tended to give a particular account of it. But the pamphlet was mislaid,
and hence forgotten till our pages were full. We shall publish it in our
next number. Meanwhile, we merely remark that here are the means, if
properly used, for one of the largest and safest manufacturing establishments
in the United States.
Northen Farmer— Caution.— The editor of The Northern Farmer
recently complained of some of his contemporaries for not giving credit for
borrowed articles. But in his January number he has published an entire
article entitled, "Raising Forest-Trees," which we prepared for our own
journal, without any intimation that it is not editorial in his pages. This
example is not commendable.
Iron Trade, Yorkshire. — Since the recent discovery of iron-ore in the
Cleveland Hills, in the North Riding, the trade has made rapid progress.
506 MISCELLANEOUS.
E;g"'"t.aen "••!->■ ''••s- i t.-tiiV.' heu tbe^nseWcs ^r> tlie c"??' ;t!'^ of t!if '^7'? aii''
Tees, who will shortly have eighty-five furnaces in blast, producing 500,000
tons of iron per annum. Several of these are already at work ; others are
building. Sites for 300 houses, with a church, market-place, and other pub-
lic structures, have been laid out near Stockton, and the whole will be com-
pleted in two years. The new town will bear the name of North-Ormsby,
and this makes the second town erected since the discovery of ore.
Manufacture of Iron and Steel. — A Frenchman has been attempting
to instruct the Americans in the application of wood to the manufacture of
iron and steel. Wood can not be employed without previous preparation, on
account of the quantity of water it contains ; and he calls attention to the
methods which have been employed, for a short time, in Styria and Carinthia,
for driving off the water by heat, but stopping the distillation as soon as the
substances which escape begin to contain carbon. One method is this : The
gases coming from the fire-place are brought into immediate contact with the
wood, which is thereby raised to a temperature sufficiently high to yield its
moisture to them. In the second method, the gases are not brought into
contact with the wood, but are conducted through iron pipes, around which
the wood is piled. This is the more economical process, and does not render
the wood liable to spontaneous combustion, as the first is apt to do. The
carbonaceous residue is then applied to the puddling process, in which the
quantity of air introduced into the furnace is regulated, so that no more is ad-
mitted than is required. Under the old system it was found that mineral
combustibles were much better adapted than wood to the operations of the
puddling furnace ; they produced a more regular current of gas, and the
interstices between the pieces of wood permitted too much air to pass. But
now the dried wood and the current of air, by which ignition is supported, are
admitted separately into the laboratory, and hence the fire-place must have
quite different dimensions. It is very long vertically ; the grate is very low,
and composed only of a few bars to support the wood. The air does not
enter freely into the fire-place ; the bellows sends a graduated current of air
under the wood, and produces its distillation. On account of the j^ile which
the air is obliged to traverse, the distillation is gradual. The air admitted is
in proportion to the quantity of wood I'equired to be carbonized in a given
time. The current of combustible gas found in the wood passes into the
laboratory, where the puddling takes place, and is met by a regulated current
of air driven through a pipe. The laboratory thus obtains, instead of an
ordinary flame, a combustible gas, free from all traces of oxygen. It is
asserted that, by this process, the purification of the iron takes place under
very favorable circumstances, and that even impure kinds yield excellent
metal.
Coal Trade. — In the year 1853, 8,835,5*73 tons of coal, 40,142 tons of
cinders, and 195,269 tons of culm, in all 9,070,984 tons, were shipped at the
several ports of the United Kingdom, coastways, to other ports of the United
Kingdom. In the same year, 3,758,123 tons of coal, to the declared value of
£1,507,950, and 176,939 tons of cinders, to the declared value of £96,641,
were exported from the several ports of the United Kingdom to foreign coun-
tries, and to British settlements abroad. 4,026,985 tons of coal were brought
into the port of London during the year, of which 3,373,256 were brought
coastways, and 653,729 by inland navigation and land carriage. The export
of coals to Russia during the year 1853 amounted to 212,762 tons, the de-
clared value of which was £78,559. We glean this information from a par-
liamentary paper.
MISCELLANEOUS. 507
"Anastatic Printing," now a comparatively antique invention, is a
peculiar process, by which any design made on paper with prepared ink,
chalk, or other oleaginous matter, may be transferred from the paper to
a metal plate, which plate, in turn, may be used as the actual printing
surface for the production of an indefinite number of copies of the original
design.
The discovery of this interesting art occurred at Erfurt, in Germany,
some years ago ; but its introduction here is mainly due to Professor
Faraday, who gave an elaborate lecture on the subject, at the Royal Institu-
tion, in 1845. The term "anastatic" has been deduced from the Greek,
(dvdaramg, resurrection, or reproduction?! The plan is simply this : The
printed original, or the paper carrying the oleaginous device, however
produced, is laid face downwards, upon a clean zinc plate, and an acidulous
solution is then applied to the back of the paper, when the whole is passed
through a press. The presence of the oleaginous lines in contact with the
plate, prevents the acid from taking efTect at those parts, whilst the black
spaces, being quite unprotected, are fully and completely acted upon, or
" bitten" in by the acid. We have thus a reversed /ac-simjVe of the. original
device, the lines of such figure or letters being in relief. On the removal
of the paper, the plate is treated with a gummy solution to prevent the
adhesion of the printing-ink upon the blank spaces, and the plate is then
inked upon by rollers, and printed from — ^j'jst as a form of types would be
used.
In some instances, very old letter-press and drawings have been most per-
fectly re-produced in this way ; but, in the majority of cases, the comphcated
and uncertain chemical arrangements necessary for reviving the hard and ■
dry ink of old subjects, have been a complete bar to the application of the
new process to this purpose. Hence, Mr. Cowell, with other printers, has
been led to adapt the art to purposes of more general utility.
New Method of Treating Gutta Percha. — A new mode of treating
gutta percha, with the view of applying it to various new purposes, has been
lately patented in France. To render it liquid, a carburet of hydrogen, ob-
tained in the following manner, is made use of: Take of the fight oils from
the distillation of coal tar, (spec. grav. 20° to 30°,) and wash it well several
times, adding, the first time, a little sulphuric acid, for the purpose of remov-
ing matters injurious to the production of the carburet. The acid can be
removed by repeated washings with water, after which the oil must be dis-
tilled. To the distilled oil some lime in powder and sulphuret of carbon must
be added, and it is then subjected to a second distillation. A liquid, indi-
cating 28 or 30 degrees on the hydrometer, passes over. By means of this,
gutta percha may be liquefied, applied either cold or hot, the latter being
best. By adding a little alcohol to the carburet thus obtained, a liquid is
obtained of 32° or 33°, which will take away spots of grease from all kinds
of textile fabrics, even from silk, without altering the color, and it may be
used for cleansing gloves. Its unpleasant smell can be removed by adding a
little essence of lavender. An important application of the liquefied gutta
percha is for printing rollers, which are usually made of gelatine, or glue and
molasses mixed in different proportions, according to the temperature and the
season. If to these matters a small portion of liquefied gutta percha is added,
a very superior kind of roller is obtained. Liquefied gutta percha, mixed
with gum copal, dissolved in the carburet above described, produces an excel-
lent varnish for wood and metals, and applied to iron it prevents its oxydiza-
508 MISCELLANEOUS.
tion. All sorts of fabrics can be rendered water-proof by a single coating of
liquefied gutta percba. Wben intended to be used in a solid state, tbe gutta
percba should be well kneaded in a heated mortar, and then pulverized color-
ing matter is added. It is then kneaded again, in order to make the coloring
enter into every part of the mass. It is then passed between rollers. Thus
prepared, it resists from 140° to 160° Fahr. of heat. It is made use of in
the manufacture of all kinds of objects of art or industry, such as pipes, boxes,
vases, statuettes, casts, etc.
PRESERViNa Meat and Fruit. — The French have been experimenting
upon this subject, and it is reported that a mode of preserving meat and fruit
has been discovered, by which they are not altered in size or appearance, so
that at the end of six or eight months, when placed on the table, they would
be taken to be perfectly fresh. What is still more strange, the articles have
lost none of their original flavor. If all this is true, the discovery is a very
valuable one. MM. Delabarre and Bonnet have submitted to the French
Minister of War some samples of meat preserved by their method. This con-
sists in drying it by natural means, and then preparing it with materials fur-
nished by the animal. When the water which composes a large part of fresh
meat is driven off, the osmazome supplied by the animal is applied as a var-
nish to the increase of the nutritious properties of the meat. By desiccation
the meat is reduced in size and weight one half, and this is done Avithout the
application of artificial heat. It may be eaten in this state, and is not dis-
agreeable. When cooked, half an hour's immersion in hot water is sufficient
to increase its bulk to what it was originally, and to render it as palatable as
if fresh meat had been cooked. There has been such wholesale deception in
the preservation of meats, that the public is naturally suspicious in the mat-
ter; but we need not say that a cheap method of preserving meats in an
eflfectual manner, would be most valuable both to the inventor and the public.
Lime Light from the Decomposition of Water. — Professor Callan, of
Maynooth, has published, in a recent number of the London, Edinburgh,
and Dublin Philosophical Magazine, the results of a series of experiments on
the decomposition of water, with a view to obtain a constant and brilliant
lime light. He states, firstly, that he has invented a new apparatus for
applying with perfect safety the mixed gases, oxygen and hydrogen, to the
production of a flame of the most intense heat, which, when thrown on lime,
produces a most dazzing light. Secondly, that he has invented a new
voltameter to which a common jet may be screwed, and the gases inflamed
as they issue from it, without the smallest risk of injury, and by which the
full decomposing effect of a battery of 100 or 500 pairs, arranged in one
series, may be produced without exhausting the power of the battery more
rapidly than if it only contained three or four cells. Thirdly, that he has
discovered a new negative element, far cheaper, more durable, and one which
may be made to act more powerfully than the platinized silver used in Smee's
battery. Fourthly, that he has discovered a new mode of protecting iron
against the action of the weather, and of various corroding substances, so
that it may be used for all the purposes to which sheet-lead and galvanized
iron are applied. Fifthly, that he has discovered a new method of produc-
ing a brilliant intermittent lime light by means of a small galvanic battery ;
and, sixthly, a new mode of exhibiting dissolving views by means of the lime
light. Lastly, that he has invented a new sine galvanometer, the only
instrument yet made by which very powerful galvanic currents can be
measured.
NEW BOOKS. 509
A. C. RussEL, of Kirtland, one of the heaviest sheep men on the Reserve,
and who knows what a good sheep is, sent sonae of his best ewes to Brooklyn,
last week, to be tupped by " Tippecanoe," the celebrated buck owned by Jno.
Goes.
General Agency. — The publisher of The Plough, the Loom^ and the Anvil^
believing it in his power to be of essential service to the readers of that journal,
in the purchase or sale of various articles, and the transaction of various kinds of
business, would announce to them that he is ready to execute any such commis-
sion which he may receive, including the purchase of books of any description ;
implements connected with agricultural, manufacturing, or mechanical opera-
tions; artificial manures; farm and garden seeds, etc., etc. One of the gentle-
men connected with the journal is a proficient in music, and experienced in the
selection of piano-fortes, flutes, etc., and will execute orders in that department.
He will also act as agent in the purchase and sale of Real Estate.
j^^Particular attention to business connected with the Patent-Office.
Letters of inquiry on these matters will be promptly attended to.
School-Teachers. — Having had occasion to furnish teachers for some
of our Southern friends, we have been fortunate enough to learn of several
young ladies who are admirably well qualified for families or schools, and if any
are in need of such, a letter addressed to us will receive immediate answer. We
shall not fear to guarantee that any reasonable expectations will be fully met.
Some of them are desirous of going South.
NEW BOOKS.
Wm. Hall <fe Son's New Music.
Among the capital pieces of new music published by this well-known firm, are We-
molo Schottisch, by Wra. Vincent Wallace, very beautiful when nicely executed. It is
also a capital exercise for those who would acquire a fii'ra and vigorous touch.
Zme Or and Polka de Concert, by Wm. V. Wallace — very difficult, but very fine.
The Dream of Youth, song and quartet, by Wm. lueho — simple, natural, and
effective.
Down the River, down the Ohio, as sung at Christy's, by E. P. Christy — quite charac-
teristic.
Messrs. Hall <fe Son have recently produced a great excitement among the music
dealers, by offering all their music, not copy-righted, at about half pkice. Their idea is
to give music a value like other publications, not merely by the square foot, but by its
cost, modified somewhat by other considerations. Whether this is or is not a wise
policy, is not for us to decide, though we confess we do not see why an impression from
an old plate which has produced its thousands and tens of thousands of copies, and been
thrummed for years, should command as much price as new music, especially that for
which a large sum has been expended in the purchase of a copy-right. But one thing
we do know. This is a capital opportunity to obtain a large portfolio of good music
very cheap. This arrangemeat may be permanent, and it may not. Hence all should
avail themselves of it. Let any of our subscribers make out their lists, inclose their
costs at half price, " or thereabout," and send to us, and we will purchase and forward
immediately as ordered, without charga. And though we much prefer definite instruc-
tions, we will venture to assume the task of selection, provided the general character of
the pieces desired is sent to us with their cost. State also what proportion of vocal or
of instrumental is desired.
The Field-Book of Manures; or. The American Muck-Book, etc., etc. By D. J.
Beowne. New- York : C. M. Saxton.
We have before commended this book. We repeat the commendations before given.
It is literally full of valuable instruction in the making and using of all manures, ani-
510 NEW BOOKS.
mal and artificial. It is entirely reliable from beginning to end. It would be difficult
to improye it.
" Father Clark ;" or, The Pioneer Preacher. Sketches and Incidents of Rev. John
Clark. By au Old Pioneer. New- York: Sheldon, Lamport & Blakeman. 1855.
• Tuis title is doubled, if not somewhat twisted. The book is the first of a series of
" Pioneer Books," -written, it is said on the cover, by Rev. J. M. Peck. Why the author's
name is not on the title-page as well, we do not know. Father Clark -was the first
preacher who ventured into the Spanish country west of the Mississippi. His earlier
life was various — a sailor, privateer, a prisoner, a fugitive, shipwrecked, a teacher, and
a preacher in the South and West. He died in 1883.
The American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge, for 1855. Bos-
ton : Phillips, Sampson & Co.
This annual is filled, as usual, with a large amount of valuable information. The sta-
tistics are full and reliable. The execution of the volume is very creditable to the pub-
lishers.
Poems of the Orient. By Bayard Taylor. Boston: Ticknor & Fields. 1855.
203 pages.
This volume is handsomely executed, and it ought to be, for it contains some of the
finest things we have seen for many a day.
" And the poet knew the land of the East ;
His soul was native there."
The soul of our author is quite at home, whether he treats of the " Arab Warrior," " The
Temptation of Hassan Ben Khaled," or "The Birth of the Prophet." "The Shekh,"
from the Arabic, is a very beautiful effusion. There is certainly poetry, and of a high
order, and nature, perhaps unsanctified, in "In Articulo Mortes." There is much to com-
mend in this little volume.
De Bow's Review.
We have taken occasion repeatedly to commend this publication. It is chiefly statis-
tical, and of course less attractive as a mere amusement than many of far less value.
But Mr. De Bow is a worker, and he works to some purpose. His pages uniformly
exhibit proof of this. His connection with the census department gives him peculiar
facilities for a work of this description, and if his results are sometimes imperfect, it is
not from want of care on his part, but from errors in original documents. But other
matters beside statistics are always found in this journal, both from his own pen and
from contributors, and these contributors, for ability and information, will not suffer by
comparison with those of any other journal. It surely deserves a liberal patronage.
This Review has recently been enlarged. Each monthly number now contains 144
pages, and the editor will devote his time exclusively to it. It is published both at New-
Orleans and Washington.
Statistical View of the United States, Etc. ; being a Compendium of the Seventh
Census. By J. J). B. De Bow, Superintendent of U. S. Census. 1854.
This volume has just been sent us through the courtesy of Mr. De Bow. It is a House
document. The contents are prepared, evidently, with unusual care. Several tables
are added, not found in former volumes of this description. Mr. De Bow is a very indus-
trious and efficient officer.
A Universal and Critic 4l Dictionary of the English Language ; to which are
added Walkei's Key to the Pronunciation of Classical and Scripture Proper Names,
much enlarged and improved, and a Pronouncing Vocabulary of Modern Geographical
Names. By Joseph E. Worcester, LL.D. Boston: Jenks, Hickling & Swan, Pub-
lishers.
Johnson's Dictionary (Todd's Edition) and the words found therein, and in common
use, are without cited authority. To these have been added nearly twenty-seven thou-
sand words, and authorities given. Beside a complete dictionary, this volume comprises
the principles of pronunciation, orthography, English grammar, the history and origin
of the English language, Archaisms, provincialisms, and Americanisms. Also, Walker's
Key to the Classical Pronunciation of Greek, Latin, and Scripture Proper Names, and a
department devoted to the pronunciation of modern geographical names and European
languages, which are alike invaluable to the student and the common reader.
LIST OF PATENTS.
511
List of Patents Issued
FKOM DEC. 12, 1854, TO JAN. 2, 1855.
Nathan Ames, Saugas, improvement in poly-
graphs.
Nathau Ames, Saugus, for improved polygraph.
Qaetan Bonell, Turin, Sardinia, improvement in
operating looms by electricity. Patented in France,
Aug. 15, 1853.
B. F. Brown, Dorchester, Mass., improvement in
hanging carriage bodies.
Mathew Cridge and Samuel Wadsworth, Pitts-
burg, improvement of oscillating steam-engines.
Wm. F. Cumberland, Newark, improvement in
machines for bending metal. Patented in England,
Jan. 23, 1854.
Thos. 0. Cutler, New-York, improvement in ma-
chines for crushing and grinding minerals and
other substances.
Charles Danforth, Paterson, N. J., improvement
in throstles for spinning cotton.
George W. French and William Wagstaff,
Cambridge, improved method of destroying ver-
min.
Moses Gates, Gallipolis, improvement in hoes.
John Good, Philadelphia, improvement in cof-
fins.
E. L. Hagar, Frankfort, N. Y., improvements in
harrows.
J. W. Hoard, Providence, angler's combined float
and sinker.
Enoch Jackman, Portland, Ct., improvement in
securing carpets to floors.
Jacob Jenkins and John R. Cooke, Winsted, Ct.,
improvement in hub-bands for carriages.
Edward C. Johnson, Lowell, improvement in
flyers.
U. A. Luttgens, Paterson, N. J., improvement
in cut-off regulators for steam-engines.
J. W. Lovocraft, Rochester, feed motion for saw-
ing light lumber.
Wm. Lyon, Newark, improvement in sewing-
machines.
Henry H. Olds, New-Haven, improvements in
propulsion of vessels.
Eldridge H. Penfleld, Middletown Ct., improve-
ment in dock-holders for horses.
James Perry, New-York, improved gold-col-
lector.
Henry A. Roe, West-Andover, Ohio, improve-
ment in cheese-vats.
Joel n. Ross, New- York, improved hygrometric
regulator for hot- water apparatus.
George Ross, New-York, improvement in looms.
Geo. W. Stedman, Vienna, N. J., improvement
in sewing-machines.
Daniel W. Shares, Hamden, Ct., improvement in
seed-planters and cultivators.
Jeremiah Stever, Bristol, Ct., improvement in
machine for scraping metals.
Edward Stiercn, Alleghany county. Pa., improve-
ment in processes of treating the mother water of
salines.
Benjamin F. Taft, South-Boston, for boring ma-
chine.
Henry Waterman, Huason, improvement in con-
densers for steam-engines.
D. P. Weeks, Maiden, Mass., improved hot-air
furnace.
Jacob W'eimar, New-York, improvement in door-
locks.
C. W. Wyatt, New- York, machine for dressing
felloes.
Daniel L. Winsor, Duxbury, improvement in
ships' windlasses.
John Andrews, Winchester, Mass., assigned to
himself, Nathaniel A. Richardson, and Gardner
Symones, of same place, for improvement in seed-
planters.
M. J. Lieberman, New- York, assigned to George
S. Hanford, Solomon H. Handford, and John E.
Hanford, for improvement in water-proof cloths,
etc.
Henry and William Tiebe, Cincinnati, assignors
to themselves and Harmon H. Herman, same place,
for improvement in casting the spouts of tea-
pots.
Joseph Perkins, Salem, Mass., assignor to him-
self and Henry P. Upton, of same place, for im-
provement in trussing yards to vessels' masts.
Chas. P. Bailey, Zanesville, for feeding apparatus
to a machine for cutting irregular forms.
S. W. Brown, Lowell, improvement in conden-
sers.
T. J. Chubb, New-York, improvement in metal
separators.
Maj. B. Clarke, Newman, Ga., improvement in
cleaniDg seed-cotton and feeding it to the gin.
David W. Clark and Sylvester H. Gray, Bridge-
port, Ct., for double-acting force-pump.
Horace J. Crandall, Boston, improvement in bilge
supporters for holding vessels in docks.
Daniel Fitzgerald, Thos. Rogers, and Wm. C.
Walker, New-York, improvement in guards for
ferry-boats.
Jno. S. Gage, Cowagiac, Mich., improvement in
clover harvesters.
Geo. W. Grader and Benj. F. Cowen, Memphis,
improvement in grain mills.
Stephen Hadley, Jr., Lyman, N. H., for direct
action water-wheel.
Isaac B. Howe, Nortbfield, Vt., improvement in
machines for straightening heavy metal bars.
Wm. B. Leonard, New-York, improvement ia
dynemometers.
Chas. Merrill, Maiden., Mass., improvement in
sash-fasteners.
James Myers, Jr., New-York, improvement in
making sugar-moulds.
Geo. Keynolds, Bangor, improvement in compo-
sitions for tanning.
John P. Sherwood, Fort Edward, improvements
in cut-nail machines.
Jona. Smith, Neponset Tillage, Mass., improved
method of holding vessels by the keel in dry and
other docks.
John J. Speed, Jr., and John A. Bailey, Detroit,
for shingle-machine.
Louis Stein, New-York, improvement in revolving
fans for apartments.
Samuel Taggart, Indianapolis, for improved
clutch in machines for packing flour.
Nathan Thompson, Jr., AVilliams burgh, improve-
ment in life-preserving seats. Patented in Eng.,
Sept. 18, 1854.
Grey Uiley, Chapel Hill, N. C, improvement in
boot -crimping machines.
Daniel P. Weeks, Maiden, Mass., improved oven
cooking range.
Wendell Wright, New-York, improvement in
spring-bed bottom.
Robert Griffiths, Alleghany City, and Geo.
Shields, Cincinnati, assignors to Robert Griffiths,
aforesaid, improvement in machines for forging
horse-shoes
Wm. F. Ketchum, Buffalo, assignor to Rufus L.
512
LIST OF PATENTS.
Howard, improvement in grain and grass harvest-
ers.
Elisha Pratt, Salem, Mass., assignor to Elisha
Pratt and II. E. Upton, of same place, improve-
ment in leather-splitting machines.
Milton Roberts, lielfast, Me., assignor to Milton
Roberts, and Iliram E. Pierce, same place, im-
proved machine for turning prismatic forms.
Allen B. Wilson, Watertown, Ct., assignor to
W. P. N. Fitzgerald, Washington, D. C , improve-
ment in sewing-machines.
Norman Aylsworth, Rochester, improvements
in machines for boring, planing, and slotting
metals.
David Baldwin, Godwinville, N. J., improved
apparatus for feeding paper to printing-presses and
ruling-machines.
Wm, Ballard, New- York, improvement in con-
structing vessels.
Abram Brigham, Manchester, N. IT., improve-
ment in looms.
John E. Brown and Stephen S. Bartlett, Woon-
socket, E. I , improvement in grain and grass har-
vesters.
Thos. II. Burley, Cincinnati, dovetailing ma-
chine.
Marshall Burnett and Chas. Vander Woerd,
Boston, improvement in grain and grass harvest-
ers.
S. J. Butterfleld, Philadelphia, improvement in
locks for fire-arms,
J. Caffry, Paradise Township, Pa., improved
trap for catching animals.
Thos. J. Flanders, Manchester, N. H., construc-
tion and mode of driving circular saws.
Ezekiel Gore, Bennington, Vt., improvement in
churns.
Jesse W. Hatch and Henry Churchill, Rochester,
improvement in machines for cutting out boot and
shoe soles.
Chas. W. Hawkes, Boston, and Geo. P. Reed,
Waltham, improvement in compensation balances
for time-keepers.
Alex. Holstrom, New- York, improved apparatus
for atmospheric pile-driving.
James B. Harris, Cincinnati, improvement in
railroad chair machines.
■ Asa P. Keith, Bridgewater, Mass., improvement
in cotton-gins.
Julius H. Kroehl, New-York, improvement in
machines for forming flanges on wrought-iron
beams.
Hazard Knowls, New- York, for cutters for tongu-
i ng and grooving.
Westley M. Lee, New-York, improvement in
machines for forging car wheels.
Jean F. LeMovinier, New-York, improvement in
constructing pavements, etc.
Adrian V. K. Orr, Steeleville, Pa., for a shingle
machine.
Samuel Pearson, Jr., and Wm. H. Gardner, Rox-
bury, improvement in regulating the size of rov-
ing.
Obediah Rich, Cambridge, Mass., improvement
in processes for extracting tannin from leather.
H. J. Rogers, Baltimore, improvamentsin signal
flags.
Sylvanus Sawyer, Fitchburg, Mass., aacliine for
splitting rattans into strips.
Richard A. Tilghman, Philadelphia, improvement
in processes for making soap.
Farnham Z. Tucker, Brooklyn, improvement in
life-preserving rafts.
Henry G. Tyer and Jno. Holm, New-Brunswick,
improvement in processes for making India-rubber
cloth.
Wm. E. Ward, Fort Chester, improvement in
sheet-iron blinds.
Daniel T. Ward, Newark, improvement in sew-
ing-machines.
Edward A. Foote, Hartford, improvement in pro-
tecting slides and ways from dust.
RufuB Keeler, Rochester, assignor to Lewis C.
England, New-York, improvement in tanning pro
cesses.
Lewis Kech, New- York, assignor to Theodore
Pincus, same place, for machine for manufacturing
wooden boxes.
P. H. Nile?, Boston, assignor to himself and J. A.
Richards, same place, improvement in curtain fix-
tures.
A. H. Ward, Jr., Boston, assignor to himself and
Kirk Book, some place, improvement in composi-
tions for uuhairing hides,
Alex. Anderson, Markham, Canada, improve-
ment in seed-planters.
Robt. Arthur, Washington, improvement in self-
sealing preserve-cans.
S. B. Balchelder, Lowville, improvement in jour-
nal boxes for carriages.
Wm. H. Brown, Erie, improvement in suspended
purchases. Patented in England, Oct. 2, 1854.
Sharpless Clayton, West-Chester, Pa., improve-
ment in teeth.
Willard Cowles, Washington, improvement in
apparatus for stereotyping.
Levi Dedrick, Albany, improvement In ox-yokes.
St. John D'Doris, Philadelphia, for composition
for fuel.
Adolph Hammer, Philadelphia, improvement in
fermenting tuns for beer.
Emanuel Harmon, Washington, improvements in
flre-proof iron buildings.
M. G. Hubbard, New- York, improved mode of
hanging the knife in planing machines.
Jno. Imel, Liberty, Ind., improvement in culti-
vators.
Asa Keyes, Brattlehorough, improvement in ma-
chines for cutting and trimming slate.
Philip W. Mackenzie, Jersey City, for machine
for blowing blasts, etc.
Henry Miller, New- York, improvement in steam
railroad-car brakes.
Russell S. Morse, East-Dixfield, Me., improve-
ment in fruit-dryers.
Francis Randolph, New- York, improvement in
elevating scaffolds.
Emile Sirret, Buffalo, imnrovement in rakes.
John A. Taplin, Fishkill, improved method of
hanging a path-finding saw.
Cuno Werner, Philadelphia, improvement in
compositions for dressing leather.
Chapman Warner, New- York, improvement in
cast-iron pavements.
Wm. J. Warburton, Philadelphia^ improvement
in hats.
Warren Wadleigh, Hill, N. H,, improved mar
chine for cutting irregular forms.
Jos. S. Winsor, Providence, improvement in ma-
chine for making weaver's harness.
Lysander Wright, Newark, for sawing-machine.
Daniel Wells, Philadelphia, for burglar's alarm.
Stephen Brown, Syracuse, improved press for
printing different colors.
Warren S. Burgess, Norristown, Pa., improved
arrangement in double-piston steam-engines.
Sf Pulaski S. Gaboon and Samuel J. Ross, La
Grange, Me., approved chuck for turning elliptical
cylinders.
Amory Felton, Troy, improvement in grinding
mills.
Wm. Hicks, Steubenville, improved paint brush.
Sidney Kelsey, Erie, improved printing-press.
C. Locher, New-York, improvement in folding
life-boats.
Jas. Lewis, Prattville, N. Y., improved printing-
press.
Thos. Slaight, Newark, improvement in pad-
locks.
John Smith, of Cincinnati, improved crank con-
nection in double-piston steam engines.
Dwight Gibbons, Rochester, assignor to F. Starr,
same place, improved brace for piano frames.
Joshua Stevens, of Chicopee Palls, assignor to
Massachusetts Arms Company, of same place, im-
provement in repealing fire-arms.
Clje |l0M9lj, tij? |00m, anil tl)e Jlnull.
Vol. VII. MARCH, 1855. No. 9.
"COMMERCE IS KING"
So was Charles I., of England, and so is Francis Joseph, of Austria.
There are kings who have but little power of their own, and that little they
abuse. There are kings, who, distrustful of themselves, carry out the suo--
gestions of wise counsellors, and they have far more credit for intelligence
and energy than they really deserve. There are kings, whose crown is theirs
of right, whether reference is had to descent or to personal desert. There
are kings, whose authority is acknowledged with not a little of awe and re-
verence ; and there are kings who are permitted to retain their title and their
place because they do no harm, and allow every body to manage their own
aflfairs.
Without regarding the particular sense of the phrase, when this " com-
mon saying," which we have taken for our title, is uttered by one and an-
other of this or that nation, let us examine, in the light of facts, what is its
TRUE sense. How, and why, and where, is commerce king ? We could
point to countries and to regions of less extent, where, in a mistaken sense, it
is supposed that commerce reigns ; and we could show too, that sometimes
this reign is anything but just and kind. We could point out localities and
times when her iron heel is upon the head of those under her authority,
Avhile they all live and breathe only as she nods a contemptous permission.
But we can also point out the times and the places where she is as submis-
sive and unpretending a servant as any Ethiop. She has no will but that of
her subjects, and she ceases to labor only by their consent.
There are some phrases that seem to be chiselled into the very granite of
our social structure that are very indefinite in their meaning. But this does
not prevent their use on all occasions and for all purposes. They are heard
either as sigh or song in every breeze ; they are uttered in triumph or in
dismay, as they encounter one or another class of the community. Perhaps
what was commenced as a shout is echoed back in the note of despair.
*' Commerce is King" may be, by bare possibility, of this class.
This cry reminds us of a story told of more than one, but which describes
an actual scene in the life of an eccentric divine, of Berkshire County, Mass.
"In those days catne John the — Episcopalian ? No, that does not sound
right. In those days came John the— Presbyterian ? No, that is not it. In
those days came John the — the Baptist? Ah, yes ; 'John the Baptist.' So
you see, my hearers, John was a Baptist." So " Commerce is King." But
who is Commerce ? What is this king ? Is he a man ? a ship ? a class ? a
clan ? Does he live on land or on the sea ? Is his throne near by, or " afar
VOL. vir. 80
514 COMMERCE IS KING.
oflf?" Does he take cognizance of all, or only of the great ? Who is he, and
what is he ?
Commerce, says Webster, (we go for Webster,) is — " 1. An interchange or
mutual change of goods, wares, productions, or property of every kind, between
nations or individuals, either by barter or by purchase and sale; trade ; traf-
fic— foreign or inland. 2. Intercourse between individuals, interchange of
work, business, civilities, or amusements ; mutual dealings in common life."
And Daniel Webster has spoken of " a vast commerce of ideas,'"
Now in view of this definition, we confess ourself almost puzzled. We
hardly know what to say next. The thinff, the image, is almost as misty as
the form described in Milton's first book ; as formless as the spirit which we
can scarcely seem to see in the 4th chapter of Job. Its limits pervade all
space. Its motions are felt in every place. Its breath is heard wherever one
proposes a trade with his neighbor. His voice sounds loud in the auction-
room, in the market, and on 'change. Wherever men meet, and each re-
cognizes the existence of the other, there is commerce. Surely then, there
is at least one attribute of power. Commerce may be king. But look
again.
In the strictest, technical sense, commerce embraces "all exchange of
goods, wares, productions, or property of any kind." No proper definition
of the term can be given less comprehensive than this. Commerce with
foreign nations, trade on the sea, exchange of large values — these are no de-
finitions of commerce. No sane man ever so believed. These are parts,
branches, departments of commerce, nothing more. And as we dwell on the
subject, we are more than half persuaded, in spite of all that farmers, me-
chanics, or trades or crafts of any sort, can say, that "commerce is king."
But what does the phrase mean ? Who will tell us ? Is any one and
every one king, who carries on commerce ? Such a claim would be like that
of some anti-monarchists, which makes every citizen a monarch — a monarch
without the title, and destitute of power. Is this the case with King Com-
merce ? Poor King Commerce !
Perhaps we can come to some result by a series of negations. And it is
very clear that these words can not imply that the individuals, or any limited
combinations of persons interested in commerce, can make themselves kings.
Commerce is king ; and these caballers, these factionists, these conspirators
against the existing sovereignty, have no crown, no thrones, no court, no
paraphernalia of authority. The chair of state is occupied. What if each
owns a score of ships, or daily sells 10,000 barrels of flour, or every hour
sends a ship to a foreign port. They are not commerce, and commerce is
king ; and what is more, it is not in their power to dethrone him. Nor are
the small or the large, nor all the people interested in commerce, in any city,
state, country, or continent, identical with commerce. All that can be said
is that ihey live by it.
How far shall we pursue these negations ? Probably we have already
blown away some of the fog which rests on many minds in regard to this
great image. They perceive that those interested in a thing, must be essen-
tially and utterly, and in every part and particle, different from the thing in
which they have this interest, and by which they thrive. All the merchants,
traders, dealers, sellers, buyers, barterers, &c., <fec., in all the world, arc ?wt
commerce. Whatever is true, therefore, it is not true that those who trade
in any particular sorts of wares or merchandize, have the throne and reign,
of right, over others. It does not follow that "a merchant" can therefore
Zco't c?own on " a farmer " or " a mechanic." He is no more " commerce "
COMMERCE IS KING. 515
than they, and perhaps we may see, by and by, that the balance is, if any
where, the other way. If commerce is king, then "foreign commerce" is
but a foot or a leg, it may be only a toe. Let us see what the facts are,
bearing most directly on this subject.
1. The man engaged in foreign commerce has first to procure every thing
that he puts into trade, from those of other pursuits. Not a kernel of corn,
not a grain of wheat, not a seed of an apple, not a particle of anything, can
he have, even for himself] till he procures it, by the aid of, or through com-
merce, of the producer. His name goes through all the commercial ^papers
of the' country, as having sent out so many hundred thousand dollars' worth
of apples, pears, figs, oranges, and other fruits, such a value of spices, so
much cotton, tobacco, &c., &c. Where did he get it ? He had to buy every
mill's worth of the producers, the growers, the farmers. They had it, he
had none. Which position seems like that of a king here ? Bat have we
strained, or tortured, or misapplied the truth in this representation ? Surely
not.
2. The foreign trader may fail to purchase these articles. He will have
nothing to do with them. What then ? Must the producers starve ? By
no means. They will graduate the amount to be produced by the probable
demand, but they will be pretty sure to raise enough for their own use,^ so
that they are safe. But where is " our king," who sent these goods to foreign
nations ? He begs of those producers to let him have at least enough for
his personal necessities. Who is most like a king then ?
Is this declamation ? Is it mere theory ? Look at facts. Of all the
commerce of the world, it is fairly estimated that, in 100 parts
Trade among neighbors forms, 75
Trade among fellow-citizens, but living more remotely
from each other, ------ 20
Foreign trade, --------5
100
Which interest stands highest here ? This is not theory, nor speculation,
nor dogma, nor sect, nor party. It is the result of actual calculation. And
perhaps many persons will be surprised to learn that if all our foreign com-
merce were annihilated, the entire amount of trade would be directly dimin-
ished only by five parts in a hundred. Ninety-five per cent, would still
remain.
There is, however, another view of the subject, which changes, to some
extent, the appearance of this picture. In its essence, it is^ unchangeable.
The parts of it are fixed on the canvass beyond the power of art to change
them. We can, however, materially improve the shading.
Instead of adopting Adam Smith's division of labor into productive and
unproductive, we are inclined to consider all forms of industry (so called)
j^ productive, and arrange difterent craftsmen into those who — 1st, produce
valuable material, and those who — 2d, by a change of form or condition of
the material, add something to its value. Thus, by the labor of the farmer,
with a trifling cost of money, one bushel of grain, of trifling value, becomes
many, worth a large sum. This is his business, and he has no time for any
thing else. He attempts nothing else. The miller changes the form and
condition of this grain, and thus making it available for use as food, increases
to some extent its value. The baker does the same. They are producers of
the second sort. The second form may, in some cases, be quite as productive
516 COMMERCE IS KING.
as the first. Such is the case with the watchmaker, for example. Suppose
all these opportunities of useful industry are promptly and fully met, that
territory then may be said to be supplied with all the population it can sup-
port. It can feed no more. But a new thought is suggested. There is a
community "elsewhere," who, being otherwise occupied, do not produce this
useful article of food ; and it is ascertained that the producers, if they could
but convey the material to that community, would find a ready market at a
paying price. But who shall convey it? They have business enough in
producing it, and can not endure this additional labor. They may find a
third party, who will transport their merchandize for them, for a reasonable
cotnpensation. This third party is, then, the foieign merchant. The producer
pays him for his services ; they cultivate more land, secure greater crops, and
also supply the third party with his food, as he has no opportunity to pro-
duce it for himself, and thus they again have an increased demand for the
results of their labor. They call in help from abroad. Their sons, as they
grow up, are all engaged in the same labor, and both the communities arc
thus increased ; while the third party, the carrier, obtains a very important
position. He is dependent on them for his daily bread. They are dependent
on him for the profit that may be obtained from their surplus products. If
he abandons them, they must limit their products to their own wants, or he-
come tkeir 010)1 carriers ; and whether the one or the other would be the
more profitable, would depend entirely on circumstances.
It is true, however, that producers generally can not be carriers. If they
would get the profits of their increased production Avithout help from others,
they must induce the people to whom they have before conveyed their food,
to change their location, and to come and reside in their neighborhood.
When this is done, the only third party they will need is one of the younger
boys, who will drive the team to the neighboring village, and there leave
what has already been contracted for, or what will be called for as soon as it
arrives. And here we have the value of immigration, not the immigration of
rival producers, but of consumers ; not of farmers, but of artisans and ma-
nufacturers.
But "commerce is king," although our commercial hero of the third party
has abandoned the field, and is no more heard of. And how is "commerce"
king? Evidently thus. All these arrangements are made with a view to
increase the facilities of commerce. It is for this the merchant carrier was
dispensed with. His employment, as a business by itself, was abandoned, for
the very purpose of encouraging commerce. The interests of trade, that is,
of commerce, are promoted thereby, though at the ruin of the foreign ship-
per, and thus Commerce is King. Another view of a kindred topic will be
found in another page of this journal.
Treatment of Boots and Shoes when Burned. — In our juvenile days
we had occasion, too often, to need a cure for carelessness in burning our
boots, and we used to apply, with good effect, an application we have seen
recently recommended in a late exchange. Apply, very liberally, and in-
stantly, soft-soap to the burned leather, till it is peifeclly saturated. If not
too badly burned, the leather will be soft and pliable as before.
To Thaw Pcmps. — Procure a lead tube of convenient length to reach the
ice ; place the tube on the ice, and pour into it hot water, till the whole is
mtlted.
IRON TRADE OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 517
IRON TRADE OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
BY H. SCRIVENOR.
Sweden has been long celebrated for its mines and mineral productions,
particularly iron, which still forms one of the principal exports, although it
has much decreased of late years. By an account taken by the government
in the year 1748, we find that, at that time, there were 496 foundries, with
539 large hammers, and 971 small ones, for making bar and other manufac-
tures ofiron, Avhich produced 304,415 ship-pounds'*, or nearly 40,600 tons.
The government established an office in 1740 to promote the production
of iron, by lending money on the ore, even at so low a rate as 4 per cent. ;
a correct register was then made of the mines, which is still continued.
Each forge has its particular mark stamped on the bars of iron it produces,
which is correctly copied into the manuscript, with the name of the place
where the establishment is situated — the names of the proprietors of the
work — the commissioner or agent for the sale of the iron — the assortment
each makes, and to what country it is generally shipped — the quantity annu-
ally made by each work — the quantity which each work delivers to the gov-
erment (which is about 1 per cent, on the quantity of the iron produced) —
the estimation of the quality of the iron of each work, which is variable —
the place and province in which the works are situated — the place from
whence the iron is generally shipped, and how many hammers each work
has : all which particulars are regularly and alphabetically described and
arranged.
As the working of the mines is attended with considerable expense, and
the sale of the iron uncertain, the Bank of Stockholm receives that metal as
a proper security for a loan. The iron being duly appraised, and lodged in
the public warehouse, the proprietor receives three-fourths of its value, at the
interest of 3 per cent., and when he can find an opportunity to dispose of his
iron, it is again dehvered to him, on producing a certificate from the bank,
that the loan upon it is duly discharged.
The iron mine of Dannemora, the most celebrated in Sweden, is situated
in the province of Upland, about one English mile from Osterby, and thirty
English miles north of Upsala. This mine was discovered in the year 1448,
and though it has now been wrought for four centuries, it still yields abun-
dance of the best iron in Europe.
The iron mine is on a hill so little elevated above the surface of the neigh-
boring country as easily to escape observation. It is about two English
miles long, and nearly half a mile broad ; it is almost surrounded by lakes —
those of Dannemora, Films, and Grufve, lying quite contiguous to it. On
the side where there are no lakes there is a turf moss. The ore forms a
large vein in this hill, which stretches in a north-west and sonth-east direc-
tion. The mine was some years ago inundated by the water from the ad-
jacent lakes; a strong wall, however, has been built to keep off the water.
It is drained by two steam engines, kept at work by means of wood for fuel.
It was first wrought as a silver mine, the silver being extracted from ga-
lena. This source of emolument soon failing, or becoming unproductive, the
iron ore began to be extracted and smelted, and the excellent quality of the
iron gradually drew to it the attention of the public. At first it belonged to
the King of Swedes, but that monarch consigned it over to the Archbishop
* 7i to a ton. .
518 IRON TRADE OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
of Upsala as a part of his revenues ; at present it belongs to a number of
private individuals, who work it separately, each on his own account.
At the side of the mine is a large opening, about fifty fathoms deep, and
fifty wide, and at the lower part of this is the entrance to the mine, which
is wrought about thirty fathoms deeper than this opening. The mines are
thus described in " Coxe's Travels," who visited them in the year 1790: —
" The pits are deep excavations, like gravel pits, and form so many abysses
or gulfs. The descent is not, therefore, as is usual in mines, down a narrow,
subterraneous shaft. At the side of the mine I stepped into a bucket, and,
being suspended in the open air, in the same manner as if a person was
placed in a bucket at the top of Salisbury spire, was gradually let down to
the ground by a rope and pulley. The inspector accompanied me to the
bottom, and while I was placed at my ease in the inside upen a chair, he
seated himself on the rim of the bucket, with his legs extended to maintain
the equilibrium. He had in his hand a stick, with which he gently touched
the sides of the rock, and the rope of the ascending bucket, in order to pre-
vent our bucket from swepving against them, which must have infallibly
overset us.
While hung suspended in mid-air, and so giddy that I could not venture
to look down, I observed three girls standing on the edge of the ascending
bucket, knitting with as much unconcern as if they had been on terra firma ;
such is the efleot of custom. We were about five minutes in descending,
and the depth which we reached before I stepped out of my aerial seat was
500 feet. Not being a mineralogist, my curiosity was soon satisfied; I again
got into the bucket, and was drawn up in the same manner.
The inspector informed me that the richest ore yields 70 per cent, of iron,
the poorest 30; that, upon an average, the collective mass gives one-third of
pure material; that about 12,000 tons are annually drawn from the mines,
which yield about 4000 tons of bar-iron.
The mass of ore occupies a small compass. The length of the pits, con-
sidered as one, is 7G0 feet, and the breadth, from three to twelve. The ore
runs from east to west. The richest ore is near 500 feet in dejith. and the
Storoe Grube is not yet fathomed.
The matrix of the ore being a calcareous earth, consequently contains but
little sulphur, which is, perhaps, the reason of its superior quality."
The ore is blasted with gunpowder. The part of the vein which lies under
the great opening which forms the mouth of the mine, is called stor rymning ;
it constitutes by far the greatest portion of the mine. The next portion is
called j^'onZ grufca (earth mine), and it yields the ore of the very best quality.
The portion farthest south is called sodra grufva,, or southern mine ; it yields
the worst kind of ore of all the three, probably from being mixed with gale-
na and blende. The rock through which the vein runs is said to be quartz.
The substance immediately contiguous to the vein appeared to Dr. Thomson
to bo hornstone, and to contain hornblende. The ore itself contains lime-
stone, quartz, and actinolite, and affords from 25 to 75 per cent, of cast-iron.
In the worst kind of ore Dr. Thomson also perceived blende, fluor-spar, galena,
and amethyst, but in small quantities. Carbonate of lime, crystallized in
dodecahedrons, also occurs in this vein ; and likewise sulphate of barytes,
mountain cork, and the aplome of Ilaiiy.
The ore is broken into small pieces, and roasted ; it is then put into coni-
cal shaped furnaces, constructed of the slag from cast-iron. In these furnaces
it is mixed with the proper quantity of charcoal, and then melted and sepa-
rated from the slag. The cast-iron obtained in this manner is as white as
IRON TRADE OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 519
silver, completely crystallized, and very brittle. The cast-iron is reduced to
malleable iron by heating it in a bed of charcoal, and hammering it out into
bars. In this state it is whiter than common iron, and is less liable to rust,
is distinctly fibrous in its texture, and much stouter than any other iron.
Tlie cause of the superiority of the Dannemora iron has never been ex-
plained. Some chemists ascribe it to the presence of manganese. Berzelius
attributed it to the presence of the metal of silica, while others suppose it
to arise from the nature of the process employed. Dr. Thomson was assured
by one gentleman, who had bestowed particular attention to the subject,
that, by following a similar process, he has obtained as good iron from other
Swedish ores. But that something is due to the ore itself is evident from
the circumstance, that the quality of the iron, though the same process is
followed, differs a good deal, according to the part of the vein from which
the ore is taken.
In the neighborhood of the mines are establishments for forging the iron,
and for the accommodation of more than 300 workmen and their families.
Bach of the little villages has three or four regular streets, often planted
with trees, a church, a school, and a hospital.
In 1833 there were in the whole of Sweden from 330 to 340 smelting
furnaces, producing 90,000 to 95,000 tons of pig- iron; in converting this
into bar-iron, about 23 per cent, is allowed for waste, and, as near as can be
ascertained, the annual manufacture of this latter is 63,000 to 65,000 tons.
The number of iron works is about 420 to 430, having about 1100 forge-
hammers. The annual export of bar-irou, on an average of ten years, end-
ing 1831, vras 49,568 tons. The smelting furnaces and iron works are
licensed for a particular quantity, some being as low as 50 tons, others
as high as 400 to 500 tons per annum ; some few bar-iron works draw
licenses for 1000 tons each. The licenses are granted by the College of
Mines, which has a control over all iron works and mining operations. The
iron-masters make annual returns of their manufacture, which must not ex-
ceed their privilege, on pain of the overplus being confiscated, and the col-
lege has subordinate courts, called courts of mines, in every district, with
supervising officers of various ranks ; and no iron can be sent to any port of
shipment without being landed at the public weigh-house, the superintendent
of which is also a delegate of the college, and his duty is to register all that
arrives, and to send his report quarterly to the college. It is impossible for
an iron-master to send to market more than his license. Many, however,
sell at the forges to inland consumers, returns of which are never made, and
so far licenses are exceeded, but it is supposed this excess cannot be above
3000 tons.
There is no chance whatever of the mauufacture of iron in Sweden becom-
ing free ; on the contrary, there is much greater probability of its decrease ;
as in those parts of the country where iron works are established, there are
already as many forges as the neighboring forests can supply with charcoal.
If there are proprietors of forests on which they can prove that iron works
have not been privileged in former times, in that case the Government can
not refuse to grant the right of erecting works in proportion thereto ; but,
except either very ftir north, or far in the interior, there do not exist such
woods.
It does not always follow that the forests belong to the proprietors of the
iron works, but they have, nevertheless, the right of purch;\sing all the char-
coal sold from these woods. "We may consider the case in this manner : —
A person, a century back, who had 20,000 acres of forest, may have ob-
620 IRON TRADE OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
tained tlie privilege of manufacturing 200 tons of iron annually ; the estate
in the lapse of time has become divided amongst a number of heirs, or has
been sold in lots to different persons ; but the proprietor of the iron works
still retains the right to the charcoal of the whole, if any is made for sale.
There is no department in Sv/eden conducted with more fairness than the
College of Mines, which manages these matters.*
Average Produce. Average Exports.
Unvrroiight iron. Bar-Iron. Bar-Iron.
Years. Tons. Tons. Tone.
1833 to 1839 . . 89,610 73,592 58,766
1840 — 1844 . 105,485 84,041 66,046
1845 — 1849 . . 106,630 90,466 74,069
I860 — 1852 . 124,169 99,889 7.5,940
Important recent discoveries have had, and necessarily will have, a mate-
rial effect on the iron manufacture of Sweden. Dr. Ure may introduce the
subject to our readers in the following observations respecting Mr. Heath's
experiments in the manufacture of steel and their results :
" One of the greatest improvements which this valuable modification of
iron has ever received is due to Mr. Josiah M. Heath, who, after many elabo-
rate and costly researches upon both the small and the great scale, discovered
that, by the introduction of a small portion (1 per cent., and even less) of
carburet of manganese into the melting-pot, along with the usual broken
bars of blistered steel, a cast-steel was obtained after fusion, of a quality very
superior to what the bar-steel would have yielded without the manganese,
and, moreover, possessed of the new and peculiar property of being weldable,
either to itself or to wrought iron.
He also found that a common bar-steel, made from an inferior mark or
quality of Swedish or Russian iron, would, when so treated, produce an ex-
cellent cast-steel. One immediate consequence of this discovery has been
the reduction of the price of good steel in the Sheffield market by from 30
to 40 per cent., and likewise the manufacture of table-knives of cast-steel with
iron tangs welded to them ; whereas, till Mr. Heath's invention, table-knives
'were necessarily made of shear-steel, with unseemly wavy lines in them,
because cast-steel could not be welded to the tangs."
Mr. Heath obtained a patent for this and other kindred meritorious in-
vention?, on the 5th Apiil, 1839, "but, strange and melancholy to say,"
observes Dr. Ure, "he has never derived anything from his acknowledged
improvement but vexation and loss, in consequence of a numerous body of
Sheffield steel manufacturers having banded together to pirate his patent,
and to baffle him in our complex law courts." Whether the remarks on the
conduct of the steel manuf\icturers of Sheffield are just, is not important to
this inquiry ; the fact is, that various alterations and improvements have
been effected in the manufacture, not confining it to the use of Swedish or
Russian inferior marks, but to the use of English iion, and this to the extent
of attracting the notice of Mr. C. F. Woern, Junior, a member of the Swedish
Diet, who made it the subject of a motion in the Diet, 1853, 1854 : — " On
the repeal of the taxes on pig and bar-iron, as well as of the privileges still
existing in favor of the mining districts and iron works of Sweden."
" In several parts of Lapland, the protoxide of iion occuis in great beds, or im-
mense masses ; at Gillivara, 200 leagues north of Stockholm, towards the 67th degree
of latitude, it constitutes a considerable mountain. The iron is despatched in small
sledges drawn by reindeer, lo streams which fall into the Lutea, and thence, by
■water carriage, to the port of Lutea, where it is embarked for Stockholm.
88 lbs.
per head.
81
36
29
24
18
IH
11
IRON TRADE OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 521
Mr. Woern, in his Treatise — after a review of the iron trade in Sweden
during the last twenty years, and arriving at the conclusion that the home
consumption has certainly been on the increase, owing to the general growth
of population and trade between the years 1834 and 1851 — says: "Yet,
in comparison to the population, the consumption per man is very much
smaller than in other civilized countries ; accurate calculations on this sub-
ject show the following results — all kinds of iron being reduced into pig-
iron :
In North America the consumption is
Great Britain, ....
France,
Hanover and Oldenburg,
German Customs' Union, .
Switzerland, - . . . .
Sweden, .....
Austria, .....
Russia, 8 "
At present there is reason to believe that the Swedish consumption is 14 lbs.
per head."
He then speaks of the exports of bar and manufactured iron from Sweden,
which, during the same period, he calculates to have increased about 25 per
cent.
In order to show the insignificance of this increase, in comparison to
that which has taken place in other countries, he reviews the trade, and
speaks more particularly of the discoveries and improvements made from
1796 to 1851 in Scotland, and observes: "Instead of having been, as
before these discoveries and improvements were made, only two-fifths of the
Swedish production, it rose in Scotland in ten years to double the Swedish
production, and is now six times as large. In Wales we notice the same
thing, as well as in the United States, Belgium, Silesia, the German provinces
on the Rhine, and even France. If we compare the countries -which chiefly
produce iron for the last twenty years, we find that
Great Britain , . increased in
United States . . "
France ... "
Russia .... "
German Customs' Union "
Austria .... "
Belgium ... "
Sweden .... "
Norway ... "
and thus the production has increased more rapidly in every country than
in Sweden, with the single exception of Russia. Now, if we compare the
total production of these countries twenty years ago, and that of Sweden at
the same time, with what it is now, we find that the production of this
country has suffered a decrease from y\ to -g'g-."
He then goes on to the more important subject of the manufacture of En-
glish steel. He says : "I have found it impossible to obtain trustworthy
information as to the amount of manufacture or consumption of English steel
* Mr. Warn statfsthe make of pig-iron in France, in 1846, as 2,742;51 ship-lbs.
T. v., equal to 457,087 tons.
1850
244 pe
r cent.
u
471
a
1846*
141
u
1849—1851
20
11
1850
60
a
<(
130
u
u
217
i(
((
51
((
1841— 184c
, 62
a
522 IRON TRADE OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
iron ; but to a certain extent such a guide is found in the number of steel
furnaces in Sheffield and the neighborhood. I have had returns made at
four different periods. The first, of 1835, is found in Porter's ' Progress of
the Nation ; ' the second, of 1842, is given by Professor Le PJaj, iu his ex-
cellent treatise on the manufacture of steel in Yorkshire ; the third is of the
year 1846, and is part of the evidence of one of the largest manufacturers of
Sheffield, Mr. Henry Unwin, before a Committee of the House of Commons,
on the occasion of a railway being applied for to Sheffield ; and the fourth
is'the result of an account taken at my request by the same gentleman, in
July, this year, of existing furnaces, in which he says he is so much the more
sure of not having overstated the case, as he has separately noted the owner
and situation of each furnace.
According to these statements, there existed, in Sheffield and the immedi-
ate neighborhood, in
1835, 56 blistered-steel furnaces, and 554 cast-steel furnaces.
1842, 97 " 'f IU "
1846, lOS " « 974 "
1853, 160 " « 1,495 "
The new furnaces are built rather larger than the old ones, and Mr. Unwin
estimates their capacity of production at 300 tons annually, and the total
production of steel in England at 40,000 tons.
Porter estimates the manufacture of steel in Sheffield in 1835 at 15,000
tons, of which 2,000 tons were from English iron. The same amount is
given by Mr. Danielson, in his Treatise on the Manufacture of Steel in
England in 1844. Mr. G. Ekman, in his letter which refers to Professor Le
Play's work, estimates this production of 1845 at 3,000 tons; and, according
to Mr. Unwin's statement, giving 40,000 tons as the annual production of
steel in England, it must now amount to 7,200 tons, when the whole im-
port of foreign iron not re-exported has been deducted. The Unglish steel-
iron is, moreover^ universally known for its closeness and pureriess, and some
of the best sorts are so much liked, that they fetch a higher price than the
best Swedish marks."
Thus much as to the competition of British iron with Swedish, in Great
Britain, for the manufacture of steel. He then refers to the export to other
countries, and shows that of Great Britain to be five or six times as large as
it was, whilst that of Sweden has been almost stationary, — " that the latter
amounted to almost one-half of the export of Great Britain twenty years ago,
and in 1850 it was scarcely a tenth part of it, and must since then have
fallen ofl' still more."
The object of Mr. Woern's motion was to alleviate, if possible, this state of
aff'airs, by inducing the Government to remove all taxes and restrictions on
the manufacture of iron. But the greatest difficulty Sweden has to contend
against, as far as the increase of manufacture is concerned, is the want of coal.
Now comes a consideration, whether, with the immense abundance of rich
ore which Sweden possesses, there are not certain localities where it may be
shipped at a low rate of cost. Let the Swedish Government take off any
heavy restrictions on the export of this ore, and a valuable trade may be en-
couraged between Gottenberg, or other shipping ports, and the port of New-
castle, thus bringing the ore to the coal, and a more certain benefit might be
derived by Sweden than by an attempt at any great increase of the manu-
facture.
Oddy, in his work on " European Commerce," observes, that iron makes
THE WINE TRADE OF FRANCE.
523
no regular article of export from Norway ; yet there does not appear any
reason why they might not have cultivated this branch of manufactures as
well as Sweden. Wood they have m sufiacient abundance. There are
several foundries in Norway, but they have not been worked with spirit ;
their produce is, therefore, but small. Since the year 1'792 ihey have not
much extended their works. Moss, a town of a thousand inhabitants, con-
tains a principal iron work. Skaggerak is also in repute for its iron trade.
The iron mines of Norway he on the coasts of the Gulf of Christiana, and
on the side facing Jutland, principally at Arendal, at Krageroe, and the
neighborhood. The ores consist almost solely of black oxide of iron, which
forms beds in veins of from 4 to 60 feet thick, incased in gneiss. These iron
ores are reduced in a great many smelting forges situated on the same coast,
and particularly in the county of Laurwig. The annual product is about
"7,300 tons, in the form of cast-iron, bar-iron, sheet-iron, nails, etc., of which
one-half is exported.
AVERAGE MAKE OF BAR-IRON.
Years. Tons.
1831 to 1835, .... 3,645.
1836 — 1840, .... 3,898.
1841 — 1845, .... 3,7'72.
Average export, about 2,050 tons.
FROM hunt's MKECHASt'a MAOAZINB.
THE WINE TRADE OF FRANCE.
LETTER FROAI DR. GOODRICH, U. S. CONSUL AT LYONS.
I propose to give you, in this communication, some account of the staple
productions of France, that may be of interest to many of the readers of
the Merchant's Magazine, and especially so, as the vine culture is beginning
to attract attention in the Southern and South-western sections of our own
country.
As you are aware, the two principal products of France are wheat and
■wine — both entering largely into domestic consumption, and the latter yield-
ing a surplus for exportation.
The most productive wine districts of France are the South and South-
western, and the least productive is the North-western. The vine grows not
only on the level and undulating lands, but also on the hill-sides and moun-
tain summits. These lands are mostly stony, sandy, sterile, worn out, and
unfit for wheat growing. During the last three or four years a destructive
disease has attacked the vine not only in France, but in Italy, Spain, and
Portugal. This malady is of a fungoid character, and its preventive or
remedy has hitherto eluded the vigilance and researches of the chemist and
naturalist.
In the statistics I shall give you — and they will be official — I will, for
brevity, avoid the smallest numerals, as my object can be attained without
them. The number of acres of land under vine culture in France difiere but
a little from 5,000,000. There are about 2,000,000 of persons (mostly
females) employed in the cultivation of the vine and the manufacture of
wine, exclusive of 250,000 engaged in the transportation and sale of wines.
524 THE WINE TRADE OF FRANCE.
The average annual product is a little more than 800,000,000 gallons — for
obvious reasons I give you American rather than French terms. The domes-
tic or home value varies of course with the supply and demand, say from ten
to twenty cents a gallon. For the last two years, owing to the "disease," the
price has augmented from one to two hundred per cent, on former prices.
The annual value may be set down in round numbers at $100,000,000.
In the year 1849, which is probably the best for several years, the num-
ber of acres under cultivation w^as 5,500,000, producing 925,000,000 gallons
of wine. This was an increase of 115,000,000 over that of the last decade,
1839. Nearly 50,000,000 gallons are annually exported as French wines.
In 1849, 41,000,000 were exported ; in 1850, 42,000,000 ; in 1851, 49,500,-
000 ; in 1852, 53,200,000 ; in 1853, 43,500,000. Ninety millions of gal-
lons are annually distilled into brandy, although for the ensuing year, owing
to governmental restrictions, there will be but little French brandy exported
to the' United States except that made from American whiskey imported into
France. One-seventh, or about 133,000,000 gallons of wine, are annually
exported from France, either as wine or its distillations. The excise duty on
wine and its productions paid into the French Exchequer during the past year
was $22,800,000. This includes the ordinary excise, as also the " Octroi" or
city duty. There are, by estimate, 220,000,000 gallons of wine raanufac-.
tured into spirits, inclusive of the 90,000,000 made into brandy. This leaves
more than 700,000,000 gallons of wine for home consumption, or about 21
gallons for each inhabitant for the year.
Wine, as a beverage, is universally used here by all classes. The strong
liquors are chiefly for exportation ; hence, you see very little drunkenness in
la belle France.
The disease of the vine in France has for the last two years been very
destructive, and it has greatly diminished the production of wine. This is
on the increase, and fears are entertained that it may totally destroy the vine.
Under this apprehension, may not the subject of vine culture legitimately
and appropriately attract the attention of our Southern and South-western
planters ? Many of our Southern lands, I opine, are })eculiarly adapted to
the vine, and from natural sterility or other causes are unsuited to products
requiring I'icher and stronger soils. The lands of southern Europe employed
by the vine are light and sterile, unsuited to wheat and other grains.
If our Southern farmers would, at this time more especially, turn their
fvttention to this subject, would it not enure to their own individual interests,
enhance the national wealth, and be promotive of national temperance by the
introduction into general use of a cheap beverage, that would ultimately
root out those " villainous spirits," whose baneful influence is felt throughout
the length and breadth of our land ?
In regard to the vine and its diseases in Europe, should the present con-
dition of things continue for a few years, would it be the strangest fact in the
history of commerce, if our favored country should become the exporter
instead of the importer of wine? and may not the vine yet prove one of the
sources of our national wealth, as well as the promoter of a sound national
morality ?
Such a result would restore the vine to its pristine value, as one of the
good gifts of God. Yours, &c,,
CHARLES S. GOODRICH.
Lyons, Franca, September 1, 1854.
farmers' sales and city prices. 525
FARMERS' SALES AND CITY PRICES.
If some of our domestic animals knew their own strength, they might
forever free themselves from the state of servitude in which they are now
held. Like the lion and tiger, they might be their own masters, but they
would, at the same time, assume the responsibility of providing for them-
selves, and, on the whole, the exchange might not be an improvement in their
condition. Our farmers, however, year after year, live in voluntary bondage
to an army of greedy bloodsuckers, who draw out of them, at beggarly
prices, the hard earnings of the labor of months, while they remain ever
doomed to constant toil, and must themselves incur the risk of droughts, and
of floods, and of overstocked markets, and of blighted crops, with no one
bound to give them food or shelter for a single day. And this bondage is
the result, to a great extent, of their own inefficiency and indolent habits.
They scarcely feel their chains, or if they do, they have no idea that they can
possibly be shaken oft".
How is this? A complex, expensive, and artificial system is called into
being, having in special charge the interests of the producer, who is taxed
therefor from sixty to ninety per cent, of his possible profits. This system is
composed of carriers, brokers, commission agents, and men of various other
sorts, who make their entire living out of the profits on the products of the
farm, actually paid by the consumer. That consumers do pay cruelly high
prices under this system is a matter of actual experience. That farmers, at
the same time, obtain little or no advance over the prices of years gone by,
is equally a matter of experience.
What would our farmers think of receiving from 18 to 25 cents for their
beef? What castles would they not build, in imagination at least, if they
should realize eight or ten shillings a pair for their chickens, and three shil-
lings a dozen for their eggs ? prices paid every day in this market. They
now sell their chickens at three or four shilllings a pair, oftener the smaller
of these prices ; their eggs at twenty or twenty-five cents a dozen, paid in
groceries ; and so on through the chapter. Some services are required, wo
are aware, before the living animal is prepared for the operations of the cook.
But we remember when the hide, tallow, and oflal, paid the butcher for his
services, and suppose this would not be thought unworthy of the craft in
these later times ; and as to poultry, eggs, and the products of the dairy in
general, there is no occasion for extra services, requiring compensation, to fit
them for the stalls and shops of the retailer.
The difference between eight and ten cents a pound for pork is by no
means slight in the matter of profit ; twentj'^ per cent, does not tell half the
story. Probably the pork itself cost six cents. All the farmer's profit, then,
(save the manure,) is two cents, at the lower price, but is four cents at the
the higher ; and this increase from eight to ten cents, makes a diftereace in
the gain of exactly one hundred per cent. If they could get but ten cents
a pound, selling directly to the consumer, and sell for eight cents to the mid-
dle man, then they pay him just half their entire profits. Wall street men
could not afford to pay for services at that rate.
Every thing that the farmer produces, with very few exceptions, is subject
to the expense of a burdensome and complicated system. His butter and
eggs often go to the village grocer, in payment for goods at the highest rates.
526 farmers' sales and city prices.
which goods- are often and usually of an inferior quality, and for a sum vary-
ing from one-hair to three-fourths their fair price in the market. Milk is
sold to the cartmen, in a pure state, for about one-half (often less) of what
it brings in the city, after it is nearly or quite doubled in quantity by the
addition of the Croton, to say nothing of the chalk mixtures — and so runs
the whole story. The poor farmer toils on, overjoyed to get six or eight per
cent, on his investment, but, in a majority of cases, doomed to drag on from
year to year, subjecting his farm (for want of means) to a wretched system
of management, which is annually destroying its ability to produce — glad if
he can feed and clothe a family, every member of which toils, not Hke a
slave, but harder than he, while even his children can scarcely be spared to
go to school, even in winter. And all this for what ? Because the lazy
earth will not produce what she ought ? NO ! ! But, because farmers have
no means to feed her. She is feeble as old age itself. They are, year by
year, trying out, as by fire, the tat of the land, and the poor thing shows signs
of decay, not to be mistaken. And all this, while middle men, out of the
same products of the farm, are building splendid city mansions, and living
on the luxuries of the season, paid for, all of them, from the crops produced
by these poor farmers.
Horrible as is this picture, we thank God that we can perceive no difficultv
in producing an entire change in this system, if farmers shall so will it, so
that the profits that are made shall go into the pockets of those to whom they
properly belong — to wit, of the producers. And how can this be done?
To some extent, the way is clear, and without any hindrance. Tinae
might be required for perfecting the details of this important reform, but the
following are self-evident propositions.
So far as the large establishments of hotels and boarding-house?, in all our
cities and villages, are concerned, every man, who may be relied upon for
keeping his contract, might engage an almost indefinite amount of eggs,
milk, meats, his vegetables, and, if a good dairyman, his butter and cheese,
at prices much higher than are now received by first hands, though, perhaps,.
not quite so high as the consumers now pay. Our milk farms are scarcely
among the most profitable sources of income, while commissions or charges,
of some sort, ai-e paid to two or three middle men, who get a large part of
their income, perhaps the whole of it, from the profits which might be secured
to the producer.
Suppose the Astor House requires fifty gallons of milk, at regular periods.
Let an arrangement be made by which that quantity of milk, properly
secured, shall be sent by cars, or otherwise, at the times agreed upon. The
hotel keeper sends his porter, on its arrival, and takes possession, returning
the cans at the same time. How simple is this machinery. If the hotel or
boarding-house keeper does not wish the trouble of sending for it, let him.
pay one cent per gallon additional, or half that, according to circumstances,
while you engage a faithful porter to do this service at your cost.
The same arrangement is practicable with egg^, and most of the produc-
tions of the farm, including vegetables and perishable fruits. All that is re-
quired to accomplish this is enterprise, and a good article. Nor would
these establishments require a very limited supply. Hundreds, even thou-
sands, of contractors for the whole products of a farm, so far as several of
these articles are concerned, might be found, at once, in this cit}^ Other
cities would furnish customers in proportion to their size; and, by degrees, a
general system, relieved chiefly, if not entirely, of high-priced middle men,
might be put in operation, for the sale of all the varieties of products required
farmers' sales and city prices. 527
for our table?, and with very little trouble to any body. But if it were
otherwise ; if the labor were considerable, still that labor would have its
reward, and that is just what an active, efficient farmer would desire — an
increase of his labor, without au increase of required capital, which would
bring with it a proportional increase of profit.
We could refer producers to moderate sized boarding-houses — say families
of twelve to twenty persons, who would rejoice to make such an arrange-
ment. We have heard them express views in accordance with these sug-
gestions, and we have also known such plans in successful operation.
Nor would this be a small affair to the farming interest. At present rates,
probably, it would quadruple their profits ; and, at ordinary prices, it would
more iban double them. The farmer who now gets six or eight cents for
his pork, makes but a very small profit. Three or four cents increase on each
pound would be a very great gain. If he could himself receive twenty-five
and twenty-eight cents a pound, in cash, for his butter, which the speculator
now gets, he would, ere long, have money in the bank, after paying off his
mortgage, and buying improved stock. Twenty-five cents a gallon for milk
and water, even though it was only half-and-half, would enable him, if he
choose, to keep his pleasure carriage and fast horses ; and more than this
does many an unscrupulous city cheat get every day of the year, for a meaner
article, to say nothing of another large amount for chalk mixture, intended,
more particularly, for the poorer classes, who are obliged to buy where they
can.
This whole system of middle men grows, to a very great degree, out of
the indolence and inefficiency of the producer. Do we not hear it said in
reply, " the farmer does not wish to become a carrier, nor a porter, dancing
attendance at the doors of city aristocrats." Very well ; then let him be
content with his two to four per cent, profits on his most productive articles,
while his active and less conceited city neighbor takes these, his hard earn-
ings, and, by performing such services, pockets an additional twenty to
fifty per cent., and, by-and-by, becomes himself the city aristocrat. But why
should not the farmer do this service ? Is it less honorable to contract with
another for the sale of an article, delivery included, than it is to plough, and
hoe, and ditch, and make compost, in producing? Is it less honorable for
him to sell and deUver, than it is for our dealers in dry goods ? Very few,
we trust, will raise such objections. But they " do not want the increase
of care and attention such a plan would demand." In reply to this, we say,
if an increase of care is to be thus rejected, whatever it might return by way
of profit, then it would be better to sell half the farm, and thus, by confining
the labor of production to a few acres, and realizing from their products a
larger sum than is now obtained from the whole, and, with less care, secure
a greater income with less outlay. The value of this other half might then be
vested in safe and remunerative stocks.
Commercial agencies are very good things when they are wanted ; but they
are, generally, death to the producer. Their incomes, kept out of their
pockets by their own consent, and with their eyes wide open, and without
the use of chloroform, have built many a princely mansion in this and other
cities, and furnished their tables with all the luxuries of the season, while the
producer, who might have reaped this golden harvest, is shivering in a cold
kitchen, and sits at a table supplied with the less desirable products of his
own hog stye, toughened and possibly made unwholesome by saturation
with salt, and not merely villainous, but poisonous salt petre. Who sits
FOR THIS PICTURE?
528 MILK IN BREAD.
MILK IN" BREAD.;
We are sometimes forced to confess ourselves deficient in patience, wlien
we read some of the deliberate assertions of scientific men. They pronounce,
as from the seat of power, and the centre of all the wisdom, in favor of this,
and that, and the other, in the very teeth of a general and almost universal
experience. We are compelled to place a very hw of the solemn announce-
ments, even of the i^reat Liebig, in this category. He has proclaimed that
bread is rendered unhealthy by being moistened with milk, and though wo
cannot at this moment cite his words, there is no doubt that he intends to
teach this doctrine. Many of our journals have copied his language, and
also the following, without comment, which we regard as, at least, a partial
sanction of it :
Milk ix Bread. — I have more objection3 than one to milk in bread, but the most
eerious is, that persons of advanced age, who are in the daily use of millc-made bread,
will be expected to suffer from an over supply of osseous or bony matter, and par-
ticularly if their kidneys are affected. Bread should always be made with water,
and when so made it is suitable lor the aged and the young, the sick and the well.
And as for sour milk, a microscopic view would, I presume, present additional argu-
ments against its use. — Water Cure Journal.
Now, whatever may be said on this wise, we can not hesitate to pronounce
the principle here inculcated, as a general proposition, in our opinion, utterly
at variance with truth. We doubt not that there are persons, of all ages,
who can not digest milk, even when diluted. We have seen infants in that
condition. We are well acquainted with a very learned divine, who acquired
an ability to indulge in the use of milk, in his maturer years, only by first
diluting it very freely with water — perhaps nine parts water to one of milk.
We have no doubt that these v^riters, to whom we refer, have met with such
cases. But to pronounce that milk, in itself, is an unwholesome beverage, or
a substance that demands of rational men, not moderation, but abstinence, is
too ridiculous. What does the milk do to us, whether mingled in bread or
otherwise, to make us dread it ? Does it makes us too " bony ?" We, who
were brought up in the country, and who have used milk as drink, and in
bread, and in various modes besides, shall not easily be led to admit that
doctrine. We know of many more people who are apparently injured by
meats than by milk, in bread or out of it; and our friend of the " Water
Cure" is consistent in this, and forbids both.
Viewed in the light of "dietetics," why should milk in bread be unwhole-
some? Is it of doubtful expediency as a beverage? Whosays that? And
how is its nature changed when mingled in the bread ? As a chemist, we
venture to say, in nothing essential. Fermentation, when carried to excess,-
may affect portions of the milk, but it is not then unwholesome. Ask our
Southern friends what they think of sour milk, of bonny-clapper. Why
not eat bread moistened with milk before baking, as well as after? Is
not bread and milk wholesome? Does " bread and milk" cause us to suffer
from an "over-supply of osseous, or bony matter?" We have no patience
with such science. "A microscopic view would, I presume, present addi-
tional arguments against its use." Indeed I And how is it with water?
Does not a microscopic" view of that, too, " present arguments against its
use?'' We venture the opinion, that very f^w can view a drop of water Ixforo
a solar microscope, and straightway go away and drink it. And how does a
" microscopic view" affect the wholesomeness of vinegar? Fiiend Water
Cure, vegetarian as you are, your logic is surely out of joint ; for no one, of
SANDY SOILS — LONG ISLAND. 529
any considerable experience ia the use of optical instruments, can be ignorant
that a microscopic view of vegetables would present millions and billions of
"arguments against (their) use;" and nice, large, and plump ones, too.
We doubt whether you will make much on either of these tacks.
We have lived for years on milk-bread, and wish those glorious days might
return. And we are not very bony, nor troubled with the animalcules, so
far as we know. Some of our family connexions have continued to live in
the same style ever since, and they are not particularly bony. And when
we visit " the spot where we were born," or its neighborhood, we always go
back to these old habits, and eat our bread and milk, and milk-bread and
milk, too; and we generally come back with less apparent symtoras of too
much bone than we had before. We exhort our readers, one and all, who
are not already diseased, or in an ab-normal state, to get and eat as much
milk-bread as they can.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.
SANDY SOILS — LONG ISLAND.
Messrs. Editors : I was pleased to notice, in your last number, an article
over the signature of "L," calling the attention of your readers to Long
Island and its neglected soil. It is truly remarkable that the lands of Long
Island, so cheap, and so close to New-York, the best market in the world,
have been suffered so long to lay waste and unproductive.
_ The chief causes, no doubt, are, that immense tracts have belonged to
single families or individuals, and that cutting wood, catching oysters and
fish, instead of farming, have long been the principal occupation of the
inhabitants ; and, at the same time, there has prevailed a mistaken opinion
as the quality of the land and its fitness for agricultural purposes.
A gentleman of Islip informed me, not long since, that he had resided
forty years upon a farm on the south side, which was very productive ; but
that the great body of the land, in the middle of the Island and along the
railroad, was, until recently, considered worthless ; but that he had put'some
under cultivation near Suffolk Station, and was surprised at the result ; and
from experience he found it superior to the old farm.
There is a very erroneous opinion generally entertained about porous soils
losing the manure by percolation. A recent examination, by a gentleman of
Long Island, of a barn-yard where the soul was porous, showed that the dis-
coloration of the soil, underneath the barn-yard, had not extended but a little
depth ; and his opinion was that he lost but little of the strength of the
manure by percolation.
It is a well known property of water, in passing through the earth, to part
with all foreign matter held by it. Witness the purity of the springs on
sandy or gravelly soil, and the operation of artificial filters, as seen on a small
scale about our cities, and on a large scale in the water-works of London and
other European cities. Is it not a popular error that the manures are lost by
percolation ?
May there not also be an error about the loss of manures by evaporation,
when covered in the soil ? Evaporation carries off the moisture, it is true ;
converts the water into steam, but how can anything except moisture leave
the soil ? If you evaporate salt water the salt is left; if sweet water— sap of
the maple or juice of the cane — sugar is left.
31
580 SPENT TAN AND SAW-DUST FOR MULCHING TREES.
There are some well known facts that bear on this subject. One is, that
in very dry seasons porous soils suffer less than the close and clayey soils.
This was the case on Long Island last year, which was a very dry one. Long
Island suffered less than almost any other section of the country where the
drought prevailed equally.
The sandy soil allows early ploughing and sowing, and if thus worked and
properly manured the vegetation of the crop covers the soil before the sun
renders the surface too dry. The air penetrates the open, porous soil, and at
night deposits its moisture, with which on Long Island it comes richly laden
from the ocean or the Sound.
I will venture to predict that Long Island is destined at no distant day to
be a remarkably rich and productive agricultural country ; or rather, that it
will be one immense and teeming garden.
W. E. M.
Note. — Our correspondent is no doubt correct in his opinions above ex-
pressed iu relation to the percolation of manures on the soils of Long Island.
There are soils, however, which admit the passage of liquid manures through
them without any apparent loss. We make this remark lest some of our
readers should be led to suppose that we inculcate the doctrine that there is
no soil where the application of manure, in its present condition, seems quite
inexpedient. The subsoil has an important connection with this matter. We
have before given some specific directions iu regard to it. As to Long Island,
we know that good farms have been made there, and that thousands of acres
upon it, yet unimproved, could be made into fertile and paying farms.
FOa THK PLOUQH, THE LOOM, AND THB ASVIL.
SPENT TAN AND SAWDUST FOR MULCHING FRUIT-TREES.
Messrs. Editors : It may not be uninteresting to your readers to learn
that spent tan spread on the surface of the ground, under a tree which has
been recently transplanted, is one of its greatest protectors from drought.
In the spring of 1853, we set a quantity of fruit trees in a gentleman's gar-
den and fruit grounds. The soil was very dry and gravelly, and it was the
common opinion that they all would die from the drought.
The ground was prepared for setting in our usual way, with the addition
of loam to set the roots in. After setting the trees, the ground was covered
to the distance of two feet from the tree with common sawdust. There was
not one fruit-tree that suffered from the drought ; and last season several of
them bore and ripened fruit.
We set on the same grounds, also, about fifteen rods of arbor vita) hedge.
We mulched them also with sawdust, and there was not one failure.
Last June I set a quantity of arbor vita3 on a bank, close to a wall. I put
about two shovels full of spent tan around each tree ; and although they
were set just as the extremely dry season commenced, not one of them died,
although we did not water them.
Villages are frequently built on alluvial soil, and then it is often extremely
difficult to make trees flourish. Those who wish to ornament their gardens
will find that a liberal supply of sawdust or spent tan added to the soil, either
by mixing with it or as a top dressing, is very advantageous.
Either of the above substances, which are usually considered worthless, and
ROOT CROPS. 531
can be had in abundance near all our villages, will many times pay the ex-
pense of hauling and applying. Adopt this treatment, and those trees which
usually appear sickly in mid-summer will be of a darker hue, and their
broad leaves will shelter you from the scorching heat of a summer's sun.
I have no doubt that near almost every country village sufficient quantities
of sawdust and tan are wasted every year to top-dress the ground under five
thousand trees.
Let me advise you, then, to apply it to your alluvial soils, and your villages
will no longer have the appearance of being built in a desert, but rather in
the luxurious soil and in the balmy climate of the Indies.
Plant trees and make them flourish, and then the weary traveller will
admire your scenery, and will thank you for the rare pleasure which such
scenes impart ; while your own eyes constantly beholding the work of your
own hands, you will daily and hourly find occasion to rejoice in the pleasing
change.
L. H. Spear.
Brainton, VL, Feb. 5th, 1855.
ROOT-CROPS.— THE NEW-ENGLAND FARMER AND " WE," vs. THE COR-
RESPONDENT OF THE NEW-ENGLAND FARMER.
We are very happy to notice the commendation of the learned Editor of
the New-E*igland Farmer, with which he prefaces our article, taken from
our journal, entitled, "The Value of Root-Crops." We are gratified at this
for two reasons, one personal, and the other subjective. That is, we are glad
to have his endorsement as to the importance of Root- Crops, and of having
more light on the subject of fattening and muscle-producing food.
We are also glad to read the language quoted below, from a correspondent
of the N. E. F., who seems disposed to find fault with something, or else to
be troubled with what scholars call cacoethes scribendi — are thus glad, because
we think if there was unfavorable criticism to be made on that short essay,
this writer might have discovered it. But he represents us as taking a posi-
tion we never have taken, and then attacks it. Whether he carries even
that fiction, remains to be seen. Our language was as follows : " We are
inclined to explain it (a certain fact) on the principle that concentrated
nutriment is not so wholesome as that which is more diluted. The more di-
luted our food, provided we do not overtask the energies of the intestinal
canal, in the conveyance of it to its destination, the better for the health of
the animal. May not this be the rule ? In such cases the absorbents have
more time, and a better opportunity to possess themselves of what they
need, without sufi"ering anything to escape them. We do not assert this.
We on\j suggest, where no one appears to estabhsh anything."
But out of this doubly-guarded enquiry and " suggestion," this corres-
pondent, E. C. P., objects to us because — " among other objectional sentences,
(sentiments?) I can not help noting the following: ' The more diluted our
food, provided we do not overtask the energies of the intestinal canal, in the
conveyance of it to its destination, the better for the health of the animal.'
" Now this means, (says our critic,) if it means anything, that the less con-
centrated the food of animals, — that is, the greater proportion of bulk to nu-
triment,— the ' better for the health of the animal.' The writer does not
532 FAIRS AND HUMBUGS.
seem to perceive that, in carrying out his doctrine, he must inevitably run it
"into the ground ;" for it comes to this, that when food is discovered which
contains no nutriment at all, it is better adapted than any other for sustain-
ing animal life."
Really, tbis is singular logic. It reminds us of the so-well-known Paddy,
who, on the assumption that the use of a stove would save half the fuel, pro-
posed by buying two, to save it all. We can not seriously find fault with
such logic, even if we had asserted what the learned E. C. P. says we have,
but leave him in his glory ; nor shall we enquire how he can " dilute" nutri-
ment when there is none. It is not on account of such criticism that we
notice this writer, but, because we would give our own readers to understand,
that our opinions, as there expressed, are sustained by one of the best editors
in the United States, and, also, to renew our exhortation to them to cultivate
root-crops much more extensively, and to feed them to their stock quite
freely. Every week, almost, we find accumulative evidence on this subject.
We would not have the diet exclusively nor mainly such ; nor can we go
with this same E. C. P., of " Somerville," who commends " about sixty per
cent, of nutriment to forty per cent, of bulk !" that is, that the nutriment
(solid contents, of course,) should be fifty per cent, more than the bulk ; for
Ave are quite sure that far less than one hundred and fifty per cent, of nutri-
ment would be quite ruinous to the health of animals. Rather than this,
because cheaper, and the results the same, we would " buy two stoves," and
save all — the cost of nutriment.
[We publish the following communication without [any hesitation, al-
though we are surprised at the statements made by the writer, in respect to
exhibitors and committees. We have more to say on this subject, which
we perhaps may put into form in season for the present number. But we
wonder that any community should t©lerate, for a moment, any approach to
such practices as are described in the statements below. We must believe
that such occurrences are very unfrequent. — Eds. P. L. & A.]
FOR THE PLOUOH, THB LOOM, AND THK ANVIL.
FAIRS AND HUMBUGS.
Although we are said to be fond of being humbugged, yet I apprehend
that we may possibly overdo the thing, and become disgusted with it. In
fact, there are some men who already have become so, and declare that all
fairs are humbugs. The utility of fairs, in future, must depend on the
manner of conducting them, and the character of the articles and stock ex-
hibited in them, and the candor and honesty of the exhibitors and judges.
Few men who have been attendants on our fairs, have failed to notice the
attempts at deception practised by exhibitors; in fact, it has become so com-
mon, that honorable men are hardly expected to be perfectly reliable in these
matters.
The true friends of improvement have it in their power to prevent, in a
great measure, these evils, if they will set themselves about it in earnest.
It may require some time and effort to remove these evils, but the advan-
tages to be obtained are worth the eftbrt. We cannot afford to lose the
impulse that has been given to agriculture, and the improvement in stock
WASTEFUL FARMING. 533
and agricultural implements by fairs, because these are not conducted as
they should be, or because a few unprincipled men care for nothing but to
advance their own interest by imposing upon the credulous.
When a man presents a sheep on exhibition, that a committee are confi-
dent was shorn high stubble^ as it is called, which means, so shorn as to
leave the wool one inch long at shearing ; or paints them, so as to make
them appear like black-tops, when they are not so, let a committee report
what they believe to be the fact in a few such cases, and the effect will be
felt as far as the case becomes known.
True, this would require some independence in judges, but that is what
we ought to expect. If men have not that quality, they are not the men
we want for those places, and they had better not serve in them.
Shall a committee say to the public that an artide or an animal is worthy
of commendation, when they are confident it is not so ? Certainly not. By
so doing, they inflict a great injury on the cause they are chosen to advance.
Let every honest man sustain truthful reports, and set his face like flint
against impositions, and those that are guilty of such deception would aban-
don the fairs or their evil practices.
Although there is perhaps no other stock so liable to deceive as sheep,
yet, by over-feeding and other ways they are made to deceive the buyer, the
spectator, and perhaps the public.
In hopes that these few thoughts, imperfectly expressed, may do some-
thing to increase the utility of fairs, I leave them at your disposal.
w.
Ohio, Feb., 1855.
/■OR THK PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AKD THE ANVIL.
WASTEFUL FARMING.
Mr. Editor : — Each farm has within itself the means of its own improve-
ment. Science of late years has done much to improve the most ancient of
arts ; still there is much left to accomplish. The field of investigation is still
but partially explored. But there is, of late, a spirit of inquiry in most of our
farming communities, as to the best system to be pursued for the improve-
ment of the soil, which speaks for good.
There are but few pursuits that would suflfer the loss and waste to which
the farmer submits in manure, and other modes of wasteful management,
■without a failure. Our manure heap is our capital and bank of deposit.
Here refuse of all kinds should be safely placed to be converted by the labo-
ratory of Nature to some useful purpose. The farmer would be astonished
were he to know fully how little the system of reproduction is understood.
There is an immense loss in not yarding stock in a proper manner, and
supplying muck or turf to absorb the urine. Where barns have stood for
years without a cellar under them, and, for several generations, the manure
heaps have been deposited, all that is wanting is, that this soil be carted to
the field. Here is one of the many means of improvement.
Again we can see a great advantage in the the change of soil, by carting
from the most barren knoll soil of a diSerent character. The most wonderful
eflfects, sometimes, are thus produced. This process supplies to the soil that
which was wanting for the formation of a perfect plant. Here, again, ac-
534 DOCK RAILWAY, LIVERPOOL.
cording to my theory, we have within our reach the means of greatly adding
to the amount of our crops.
The larger the crop, if judiciously managed, the larger the manure heap,
and, on our system of reproduction, the better prepared for the next. By
pursuing this system, our lands will iucrease in fertility from year to year.
Another great loss the farmer is subject to is from the wrong application
of manure to his fields. Different soils require different applications ; while
the heavy, tenacious soil will require the manure on the top of the furrosv,
and the dryer soil that it be turned under. There can be no particular rules
laid down on paper for the application of manure. The practical tiller of
the soil must use his best judgment according to the nature of the soil, and
the crop he intends to raise. On this subject our farmers need much light,
which they should obtain by reading and experiment.
There is another lai-ge loss the farmer is subject to from the planting of a
particular crop on the wrong soil. A particular crop planted in a particular
location would prove a dead loss ; while, by planting it elsewhere, it might
drove a source of profit. Good cultivation will, generally, do much to insure
a good crop. One acre, well cultivated, will be of as much actual profit as
three, poorly done. It costs no more to cultivate one acre for a full crop
than it does for a half a crop — the acre proving a profit, and three a loss ;
while, by a good cultivation, the value of the one acre is increased, and, by
the poor cultivation, the value of the three is diminished.
We would not be understood to discountenance the purchasing of highly
concentrated fertilizers. On the application of these, at present, our farmers
need much light. But we would be understood that we do not make use of
one-half the means within cur reach for the improvement of our farms and
crops, and have, therefore, no reason to find fault, or be disappointed, if such
farming is not found profitable. D. L. Harvey.
Dock Railway, Liverpool. — At the last meeting of the British Associa-
tion, there was exhibited a large model of a high level railway, which it is
proposed to carry along the east side of the whole line of docks at Liverpool.
The construction will consist of iron frame-work supporting two platforms.
The lower Avill be about 52 feet wide and 20 feet above the present quays,
designed entirely for goods traffic, having four lines of railway — the two
nearest the docks to be used as sidings for trucks while loading and unload-
ing, and the other two as up and down lines for trucks in motion. The upper
platform is to be about 23 feet wide, and to have two lines of railway,
intended for passengers only. The lower platform will be provided with
hydraulic cranes, which will transfer goods either from or to the vessels or
the trucks, as well as work through the hatchways in the platform to the
quays. The scheme embraces the construction of deposit and transit-sheds,
a connection with existing or future railways, and with private warehouses,
and the erection of passenger-stations. The great thoroughfares will be
crossed by bridges, and the line will be equally applicable for horses or loco-
motive power. The cost is estimated at less than £250,000 a mile. This
includes hydraulic cranes and platforms, with stationary steam power to work
them. On the other hand, it is calculated that the value of the quay space
gained by the platforms of the railway, at the low rate of £5 a yard, will
yield a return of about £210,000 a mile, not much below the estimated
expenditure.
THE CULTURE OF THE ROSE. 635
HORTICULTURAL.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE AKVIL.
THE CULTURE OF THE ROSE.
The Rose, on account of its exquisite sweetness and surpassing beauty, is
often termed " The Queen of Flowers." Although there are some flowers
which may have a more gaudy appearance ; yet there is none which pos-
sesses so many excellent qualities as the Rose, and none so universally ad-
mired, or so generally cultivated. It is the universal favorite. No flov^er,
either, is of more easy cultivation, particularly in the Middle, Western, and
Southern States.
We can scarcely pass a house, however humble, without seeing one or
more of the family Rose, within the garden or about the door. These, dur-
ing the months of May and June, give a cheerful and an enlivening appear-
ance to every thing around, and are calculated to drive dull melancholy from
the most phlegmatic.
But why should the pleasure thus afforded be confined to the short season
of a month or two, when it might, with little trouble or expense, be extended
through eight or nine months in the year ? In this respect, the Rose sur-
passes every other flower which can be grown in the open air. There are
many varieties of this beautiful flower, which, under proper cultivation, will
bloom profusely from early spring until late autumn. And who that has a
taste for the sweet and the beautiful, would willingly forego this luxury of
nature ? This would argue, not only a want of refinement, but a want of
taste for Nature's works.
Many persons, no doubt, are deterred from the cultivation of fine roses,
from an apprehension that they are too tender for the climate, and require
more attention than they are willing to bestow upon them. But this is en-
tirely a mistake. The rose is much more hardy than many persons suppose.
It will stand the winters of the Middle and Western States, uninjured, almost
without protection. But as our winters are sometimes pretty severe, it is best
to guard against this contingency by throwing around the root of the rose a
little protection ; and this will require not more than one minute's labor to
the plant. I have found that to draw up the earth a few inches — say from
four to six — around the root of the rose, is quite sufficient. Indeed, this is a
better security than wrapping it up, and keeping it warm by putting manure
around it. This keeps it too warm, and causes it to throw up tender shoots
beneath the protection, Avhich never fail to be killed when exposed to the air.
There is more danger of killing roses by keeping them too warm than too
cold during winter. They should be kept sufliciently cool to prevent them
from vegetating until the frost is entirely over, and there is no danger. It is
true, the tops may be killed, but this is no serious disadvantage. A rose
must always put out a new growth before it blooms, even if the last year's
wood should not be killed ; and when the plant is killed down by the frost,
Oft cut with a knife, it will throw up more vigorous shoots, and grow better,
and bloom prettier, than if the old wood should remain untouched, either by
the frost or the knife. It is a great mistake to suppose that, because the rose
has been bitten down by the frost, that it is killed, or even injured. Protect
the root, and what is called the neck, or collar of the plant, and there is no
danger. I have had, growing in my garden, in the open ground, for several
536 THE CULTURE OF THE ROSE.
years, all the varieties of the ever-blooining rose, such as the Tea, Bengal,
Noisette, and Bourbon, and have never lost one by the cold weather, when
protected as I have described.
A good deal has been said on the different methods of propagating the
rose — whether it should be on its own roots, or on a foreign stock. Each
method, no doubt, has its advantages and disadvantages. Some will do best
■when budded on a good thrifty stock ; others, perhaps, will succeed better
on their own roots. There is a very general prejudice existing against budding
roses. There are two objections urged against it. One is, that the bud is
often inserted so high up on the stock that it cannot be protected, and con-
sequently is killed by the frost. There is great weight in this objection, and
I would advise my friends never to purchase a rose that has been budded
some distance above the ground, particularly if it belongs to any of the ten-
der families. A rose should always be budded as near to the surface of the
ground as possible ; and then, when transplanted, the point of inoculation
should be placed a little below the surface, and this point being protected
during the winter, there is not the least danger of its being killed. Sorae-
times, when planted in this way, roots will strike out from the bud, and then
it will have a double advantage.
Another objection to budded roses is, that the stocks are apt to throw up
suckers, which not only prove troublesome, but often draw the nourishment
from the rose. This, it is admitted, is sometimes the case ; but it is very-
easy to distinguish between the two, and the suckers should always be
removed as soon as they make their appearance.
I have had considerable experience on this subject, and can say, that in
many respects I prefer a rose budded on a hardy, strong-growing stock. It
is hardier, more thrifty, and blooms better. I have frequently lost roses in
the winter when on their own roots, although protected ; but never when
budded. The reason is obvious : for when the top of a rose is tender, the
rest is so too, in the same proportion ; and when a tender rose is on its own
roots, and the top should be killed, the root is very apt to be killed also.
But I find the prejudice against budded roses is so deeply rooted in the minds
of some people that no reasoning will remove it; and the old adage is
verified,
"Convince a man against hia will,
He's of the same opinion still."
Well, I suppose we must use another old adage, and say,
"What can't be cured
Must be endured."
I have sometimes been amused at persons when they would come into my
garden ; they would exclaim, " 0, what pretty roses !" and earnestly inquire,
" Why is it that your roses bloom so much better than mine ?" " 0," I would
answer, "it is because mine are budded.'''' I would then give my reasons for
believing a budded rose was better than one on its own roots ; and although
they seemed to be convinced of the truth of what I said, yet, when asked
which they would prefer, "O," they would say, " they never intended to have
a budded rose !" Thus you see it is of no use to reason with some persons.
The rose requires a strong, rich soil to bring it to perfection. If it is not
naturally rich, it must be made so. I have found that alluvial soil, with a
portion of sand, is well adapted to the growth of the rose; so also is well
rotted chip manure, leaf mould, or rich virgin soil from the woods. It is of
service to take up a rose every three or four years, and transplant it, trimming
the roots, and renewing the soil about it. This seems to give it new life and
THE GROUPING OF ROSES. 537
vigor. The surface around should be kept loose, and clear of weeds. I have
also found that mulching is of great service, particularly in summer. It pre-
vents the too rapid evaporation of the moisture, and keeps the ground in
good condition around it.
Roses should be kept well pruned. All the dead and sickly-looking
branches should be removed, and a proper shape given to the plant. This
not only improves it in appearance, but makes it more thrifty, and increases
its blooming qualities.
Nothing has a more beautiful appearance than a garden with roses of
different hues richly arranged in it. It seems to impart a cheerfulness to
everything around it. A garden is a pretty good index of the character of
the inmates of a dwelling; and I have often thought that I could determine,
with a good deal of accuracy, respecting the industry, good taste, and refine-
ment of a family, by taking a peep at the garden as I passed by their house.
It requires but little time or trouble to plant a few trees in a yard, or a few
flowers in a garden, and the pleasure thus afforded will more than balance
the trouble and expense of doing it. Besides, this greatly increases the in-
trinsic value of a place, and if a man wished to sell, he might expect to get
more for a place thus improved and ornamented, than he could get if there
were no such improvements.
A taste for these things should be encouraged in children — particularly in
females. The cultivation of flowers is particularly adapted to young ladies.
Indeed, I have thought that a female without a taste for the beauties of
Nature, was destitute of at least one distinguishing trait of female character.
To cultivate flowers is not only a pleasing employment, but it conduces
greatly to health. We know that a beautiful garden will attract the atten-
tion of females, and bring them out to the open air when they could not be
induced to leave their room were there no such attraction.
J. R. B.
Rosemont, near Nashville, Term.
THE GROUPING OF ROSES.
[We find in the Courier, published at Louisville, Ky., the following advice
in reference to the grouping of this splendid variety of plants in the embel-
lishment of grounds. We are not familiar with all these varieties, but we
know many of them to be as described, and we give the entire article a place
in our journal, as the opinion of a professed florist, who appears to under-
stand what he writes about. — Eds. P. L. & A.]
In our paper of Saturday, we endeavored to point out the rewards that
may be gained by a proper grouping of roses, and we promised to give some
aid towards this enjoyment by giving a list of such roses as may be relied
upon for this object. Those who carefully study the whole subject may give
an infinite variety of efi'ects by a judicious grouping. But we proceed to the
names and characters of roses for the purpose we have indicated :
We begin with the Remontants or hybrid perpetual Hoses. These should
be the favorite of the garden. They grow luxuriantly, bloom freely through
the season, have a variety of colors and a delightful fragrance. Among the
preferable ones of this class, we rank the following:
Baronne Prevost — Bright red, and very large.
538 THE GROUPING OF ROSES.
Cornet — Bright rose color, with odor of the Cabbage Rose.
Duchess of Sutherland — Light pink color, and ranked by the rose fanciers
of France as among the first.
Geant des Batailles — Brilliant crimson, superb in size and appearance, and
deemed nearly perfect by rose fanciers.
Jacques Lafitte — Deep brilliant rose color, and a splendid flower.
La jReine — Brilliant glossy rose, large and superb. This is a prime favor-
ite with rose cultivators.
Madame Laffoy — Dark crimson, very brilliant, large and splendid.
Marquise Bocella — Pale blush, dwarf.
Mrs. Elliott — Bright lilac, crimson.
Prince Albert — Rich velvetty crimson, one of the most beautiful of the
whole family of perpetuals. We have never seen any Remontant rose that
we preferred to this. We are glad to see that it is becoming a denizen of
Cave Hill Cemetery. It will be a beautiful gem in that city of the dead.
Rivers'' Perpetual — Is another great favorite of those who know the merits
of the Remontant roses. Its colors are very rich, and it is quite a prolific
bloomer.
Sidonie — A brilliant rose color, very perfect.
William Jesse — Light crimson, lilac tinge, large and very beautiful.
The name Remontant, meaning to grow again, indicates the character of
this variety. A succession of blooming periods may be looked for from the
Remontants. The perfection of the foliage, variety in the colors of the petals,
in the shape and size of the flowers, and the delightful fragrance of the Re-
montants have made them welcome guests in every flower garden.
Bourbon Roses. — The Bourbon Roses are well called ever-blooming plants.
They richly reward the cultivator. We name a few choice specimens :
Leveson Goioer — This is esteemed equal to any of the Rose family. It is
very large and double, and of a deep rose color. It is equal in form to the
Souvenir de Malmaison, and that is merit enough.
Hermosa — This is an old variety, but none of the new favorites have been
able to displace it. The flower is cupped, very double and perfect, and the
plant is one of the most prolific of bloomers ; color, a very delicate rose.
Queen of the Bourbons — The most indifferent person could not pass this
plant in bloom without pausing to do homage to its beauty. The flower is
a delicate fawn color, cupped beautifully, very fragrant, large, and its rich
glossy appearance makes it resemble wax-work. No group of roses can be
complete without it.
Souvenir de Malmaison — We are sure that no one who has properly cul-
tivated this rose ever hesitated in putting it at the very head of all roses. It
is perfect. The foliage is unsurpassed in richness, the flowers cupped, perfect
in form, very double, with thick velvety petals. The flower is the largest of
all the roses, but its petals are compact and shingled with perfect regularity.
The flowers are often from four to five inches in diameter, and their color is
an exceedingly delicate blush, tinged with cream. It is one of the most pro-
lific of bloomers, one of the earliest in the spring, and one of the last of the
autumnal bloomers. This is a deserved favorite in Cave Hill Cemetery, and
it flourishes there in all its perfection.
Raymond — A deep pink, tinged with purple.
Emile Courtier — Four cupped, double and perfect, and color a deep rose.
Enfant d'' Ajaccio — A rapid grower, making shoots from twelve to fifteen
feet in length. Flower double-cupped, very fragrant, and a brilliant scarlet
crimson.
THE GROUPING OF ROSES. 539
The Bourbon roses properly grouped witli the Remontant family, and well
cultivated, would be the pride and glory of any grounds, and we hope to see
Louisville extensively ornamented in this way. But the means of grouping
are not yet complete.
The China or Tea Roses are essential to a tasteful grouping of the plants.
These, like the Remontants and Bourbons, have perfections of their own.
We name such as will aid in making charming groups. They are peculiarly
adapted to bedding out upon a lawn, but also make rich pillar roses. An
Englishman, living in Rome, made a number of rose arcades, called Per-
goles, which he ornamented with the China rose. Andot, who was entranced
with the splendor of the beauty, says : " It is impossible to conceive a more
splendid bloom than that of these roses trained upon pergoles so graceful.
The foliage was hidden under the gorgeous drapery of the glittering roses."
The China roses should be kept free from weeds, and young shoots should
be kept pegged down, in order to make masses of foliage and bloom of
every variety of tint. Parsons, in his great work on the Rose, speaks cora-
mendingly of the adaptation of the China rose to the terraces of grounds.
The slopes should be planted with dwarf China roses, the shoots of which
should be pegged down. A magnificent mass of brilliant and various bloom
will reward the labor. But to the varieties.
Adam — Flowert cupped, double, very large, and perfect in form ; color,
rich glossy rose.
Agrippena de Cramoise — One of the oldest, but the principal favorite of
this class. It is beautifully formed, and its rich crimson color is unsurpassed.
It is hardy, and a prolific bloomer.
Devoniensis — A beautiful flower of immense size ; color, a fine creamy
white. The flower bud is the most beautiful of all with which we have any
acquaintance. The odor is very rich.
La Sylphida — A pale yellow, and very beautiful.
Barbat — Fawn colored flower, and superb.
Niphetoes — Large pure white, very splendid.
La Pactole — Form of flower, cu2)ped ; color, pale sulphur ; centre, deep
lemon yellow. An abundant bloomer, and quite hardy.
Saffrano — The half opened bud is one of the gems of floral beauty. It
is a rich fawn color. Of all the fawn colored roses this is the most beautiful.
Souvenir d^n Ami is ranked by rose fanciers as the queen of tea-scented
roses. It blooms freely, and its large imbricated flowers resemble those of
the ^falmaison ; color, a delicate crimson, shaded delicately with rose tints.
Triumphe de Luxembourg — An old but still a favorite variety. The plant
is of luxuriant growth, the flowers of immense size, rose and buff" color, and
very fragrant.
Noisette, or Climbing Roses. — Ami Vibert — A small fragrant, perfectly
double, pure white flower.
Belle — White, with rosy centre.
Fellenberg — Very prolific, bright crimson flowers.
Jaune Desprcz — Bright fawn color, and one of the most fragrant of all
the tea or Bengal roses.
Ophire — Bright salmon and fawn colored flowers ; one of the most beauti-
ful of its class.
Monstreuse — A fine blush, and a capital rose for pillars.
He that may study and cultivate these varieties will obtain rewards and
gratifications from which he will not be willing to part. And it must be re-
membered that a perfect feast of rose pleasures cannot be enjoyed without
having members of the four classes we have described to-day.
640 THE TRANSFER OF BEES.
» THE TRANSFER OF BEES.
Mr. Eddy gives the following information, with directions, in tlie Puritan
Eecorder, in reference to this subject. We think he understands the busi-
ness as well as anj'^ man :
"The reasons for a transfer are: — 1. The leaky condition of the hive; 2.
The bad condition of the comb. 3. The presence of the Bee-Moth. When
a transfer becomes necessary, and is decided upon, the method of performing
the operation is as follows : — 1. Close the Bee entrance with cotton batting;
2. Nail a thin piece of board over the same ; 3. Slide a zinc plate, or its equiv-
alent, between the bottom board and the base of the hive ; 4. Invert the hive
with the bottom board held in place; 5. Remove the bottom board ; 6. Set
the new hive upon the zinc plate ; 7. Adjust the hives so that no Bees can es-
cape when the zinc plate is removed ; 8. Withdraw the zinc plate ; 9. Rap
smartly upon every side of the hive, for twenty or thirty minutes, until the
Bees are thoroughly routed, and nearly all of them have ascended into the
new hive; 10. Slide the zinc plate between the two hives; 11. Set the new
hive precisely in the place of the old one; 12. Remove the zinc plate upon
which the new hive stands.
The operation is now complete, with the exception of a very few Bees
which remain in the old hive. These are now to be drummed out, at a short
distance in front of the new hive, and they will return to the familiar spot.
I choose to perform the operation in the after-part of the day. Care should
be taken that the Bees which are to be transferred, should occupy a stand by
themselves. This is a matter to be attended to early in Spring. One prime
object of the transfer is to get rid of the black comb which is no longer suit-
able for use. Of course I do not transfer this comb to the new hive. I lose,
and expect to lose, the young which are found in the brood comb, at the
time the transfer is made. For this loss, I receive more than an equivalent
in the new circumstances of prosperity in which the colony is placed. The
transfer should usually be made in the month of June. I prefer about the
middle of the month. If it is done later than this, suflBcient winter stores
may not be secured. For further particulars, relative to Bee management, I
would refer your readers to my book on " I3ee Culture ;" a copy of which
will be sent to individuals, free from postage, who may forward to my address
nine letter stamps."
New Mordant in Dyeing. — A Swede named Rydin, has published a
method of obtaining a fine blue, of excellent tint, for cotton, by employing as
a mordant the oxyd of chromium, dissolved in an acid; in place of this
oxide, a double salt may be used, such as the double sulphate of chromium
and potash. This salt is obtained by mixing one part of a solution of bichro-
mate of potash, and one part and a half, or two parts, of sulphuric acid.
Alcohol, sugar, or any other substance capable of converting the chromic acid
into an oxyd of chromium, may be added. The oxyd is added to a decoc-
tion of logwood, and the dyeing maybe effected in one operation, by putting
together the salt, the decoction, and the cotton, and heating the whole. Or
the cotton can be treated with the salt, hot or cold, and may then be placed
in the decoction until the desired color is obtained. By varying the propor-
tions of the salt to the decoction, very delicate shades of gray and lilac may
be obtained.
HORN AIL. 541
THEHORNAIL.
The notion that this was a specific disease has long been denied by skill-
ful surgeons and doctors. The opinions now prevalent, which are deemed
worthy of confidence, are well given by Dr Dadd, in his remarks at a late
legislative agricultural meeting in Boston. He remarked, that Veterinary
science had been too long neglected in this country. He commenced prac-
ticing the Veterinary art some twelve years ago in this city. There were
many who pretended to prescribe for diseases of animals, without knowing
anything about them, and would commence some very funny operations.
They would examine the horns, and would sometimes bore into them, and,
perhaps, let out a little pus, if they found the horn cold.
He considered, however, that heat or cold on the surface were only symp-
toms. If the surface was hot, the circulation of the system was active ; if
cold, the reverse was true.
There was communication from the horn to the nares, or nostril, and any
pus in the horn would, of course, run down through the nostril instead of
upwards into the horns !
Sometimes this might become tenacious, so as to stop the passage. Then
it was requisite to steam the nostril to make it run down. By penetrating
the living membrane, or by admitting the atmospheric air by boring, inflam-
mation was apt to ensue.
He maintained there was no such disease as " horn ail." Has examined
animals said to die of horn ail. Has found a softening of the brain. And
this arises often from an improper condition of the stomach. Many diseases
of the brain originate in the stomach.
He has some fine anatomical preparations of horns which he invites people
to examine. There is a perfect channel to the tip of every horn. There are
longitudinal divisions of the horn, and if, in boring, the gimlet hits one of
the partitions, it appears to be solid. If it chances to go between two of these
partitions, it would appear to be hollow.
The cold horn is really only a circumstance indicative of the state of cir-
culation in the system.
He was called to see a cow that had been driven ninety miles. Some of
the neighbors guessed she was constipated, and gave her a poimd of salt per
day for three days in succession. No eflfect was produced, and another ad-
vised thirty-six drops of Croton oil. A third caused a quarter of a pound of
gunpowder to be given. If some matches had been given with the gun-
powder it might have been heard from 1
^ He found the cow groaning, and recommended ending her misery at once
by killing. This the owner would not do. The cow died in a few hours,
and he found all these nostrums in her paunch.
Now if medicine be turned down a cow's throat very slowly, almost im-
perceptibly, the animal has the power to send it, and will send it, to the real
digesting stomach. It must be poured very slowly to get to this second
stomach, otherwise it goes into the paunch where it can do no good. The
stomach of the horse is quite dififerent.
It requires skill and science to prescribe properly for a dog or a horse as
well as for a man.
Many die of flatulent and spasmodic cholic. The intestines appear as if
knotted up. Without knowledge this cannot be cured. The seat of the
disease is in the nervous system. There are two sets of fibres in the intestine.
542 CHLOROFORM FOR ANIMALS.
the lorgitudinal and the circular. The contraction of these makes a me-
chanical obstruction, presenting this knotted appearance, and leaving the pas-
sage hardly as large as a goose-quill.
He contends that animals perspire as we do — that a great deal of matter
passes off by the "insensible perspiration." Hence we should rub them to
promote circulation on the surface and prevent congestion.
Kindness to cows is requisite. They do not return all the food from the
ruminating stomach ; only the coarser parts.
The Alderneys are very nervous. It annoys and injures them, especially,
to be ill-treated. Indigestion is the result.
BARBADOES TAR FOR HORSES.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL,
Messrs. Editors : When I first tried my luck as a physician, I had in
my possession a gallipot of Barbadoes tar, which I had purchased of the ex-
ecutors of a deceased physician. They did not kuow what the article was,
and I kept it a long time before I knew. The first use I made of it, was to
apply it to my horse's tail, after pricking ; it relieved the soreness to the ex-
tent, the tail might be turned over the back, and the horse would not move,
which was an indication that the movement of the tail was not painful.
It may not be known to every one, that Barbadoes tar, or rack oil, is the
principal ingredient in British oil, and oil spike. The oil from Seneca
Lake, N. Y., is an inferior article. In preparing this ingredient for use, I
melt the tar with an equal quantity of lard, mixed well.
Any person who will make a trial of the above, will derive a benefit. The
flesh of the horse is of a dry, inflammatory nature, and it is difficult to pro-
mote a discharge of pus ; and this article will promote this discharge more
eflectually than any other article known to me. When this point is attained,
the inflammation will cease, and the cure is much facilitated.
A. HUNTON.
Hyde Park, Vt, Feb. 11, 1855.
CHLOROFORM FOR ANIMALS.
Dr. Jacksox, of Boston, the first discoverer of the value of ether in sur-
gical operations, commends the use of a mixture of ether and chloroform in
operations on domestic animals. This mixture may be conveniently inhaled
by the animal, by wetting a sponge with it, and placing it on a basket or
muzzle, to be attached to the head, in the same manner as teamsters often
feed their horses with provender. The sponge should first be saturated with
water, squeezed dry, and then the mixture, one part of chloroform, and four
parts of ether, mixed in a bottle, may be poured upon the sponge as required,
supplying it anew as it evaporates.
This mixture Dr. J. regards as a safer application than ether alone. He
has never known a fatal accident from its use, where it was inhaled in con-
nection with atmospheric air. The latter is necessary in inspiration to sus-
tain the functions of life. Animals which perspire freely will bear strong
doses, while it should be given very cautiously to cats, dogs, etc. The Dr.
commends its use in shoeing refractory horses.
VALUABLE STATISTICS.
643
VALUABLE STATISTICS.
We select the following useful tables from the volume recently prepared
by Mr. De Bow, from the census returns. The title of each table explains
its special design. We shall probably have occasion to refer to them here-
after.
Land actually cultivated m the several Crops of the U. States, 1849-50.
Products.
Indian Corn
Meadow or pasture lands — that pro-
portioQ which is regarded improv-
ed, and exelusiTe of Ilay croj;
Hay
Wheat
Oats
Cotton
Rye
Peas and Beans
Irish Potatoes
Sweet Potatoes
Buckwheat
Acres.
31,000,000
20,000,000
13,01)0 000
11,000 000
7,500,000
5,000,OOU
1,200,000
1,000,001
l,0OU,UOi
750,000
600,000
Products.
Tobacco
Sugar
Barley
Rice
Hemp
Flax
Orchards
Gardens
Vineyards
Other products
Improved but not in actual cuUiva'n
Total improved lands
Acres.
400,000
400,000
30n,000
175,000
110,000
100,000
500,000
500,000
250,000
1,000,000
17,2i7,614
113,032,614
Imports of several leading articles into the U. States, 1821-1853.
1821
18-25
1830
1835
1S40
1845
1850
1851
3S52
1853
Cotton
manufac-
tures.
i7 ,589,711
12,509,516
7,81.2,326
15,307,585
6,504,484
13,863,2S-.i
211,103,719
22,161,442
19,689,496
27,731,313
Woollens.
Linen
manufac-
tures.
Silk manu-
factures.
$7,437,737
11,392,264
5,766,39b
17,834,424
9,071,184
10,666.176
17,151,509
19,507,309
17,673,694
27,621,911
$2,564,159
3,887,787
3,011,280
6,472,021
4,614,466
4,923,109
8,134,674
8,79i,742
8,515,709
10,236,037
Coffee.
.■§4,480,9241
10,290,7431
5.932,242
16,677,547
9,H35,7.J7
9 928,411
19,.596,858
28,026,268
23,6U9,279
33,048,542
Tea.
ic . ji Iron and
iSP-^if ^'"^ steel man-
^'^"'°«- ulactures.
$4,489,970
5,260,82^
4,227,021
10.715,466
8,546,222
6,243,5;i2
11,234,835
12,851,070
14,474,900
15,564,590
$3,553,895
4,232,602
4,630,922
6,806,425
5,; 8 1,428
4,780,720
7,5.58,554
13 845,940
14,718,359
14,993,003
51,322.6.36
3,728.9.35
2,425,018
4,-522,806
5,427,010
5,761,788]
4,719,232|
4,798,005:
7,285,817i
8.224,853!
$8,064,990
0,1.50,765
8,155,964
13,131,44"
8 882,813
4,070,242
4,028 972
5,4.53,592
5,505,044
4,201,382
$1,868,529
3,706416
3,655,848
5,351,610
3,184,900
5077,788
7,078,603
8,182,438
8,048,618
7,838,791
Exports of certain leading articles from the U. States, 1821-1853.
«•
1
Beef and
Cotton.
Tobacco.
Specie.
Rice.
Flour.
Fish Man^'^c-
*'^'^- tures-
Lumber.
pork, cat-
tle & hogs.
1821
$20157,484
36,846.649
$5,648,962
$10478,059
11.494,307
«4,298,043
$973,591
«2,584,916
$1,822,077
$2,052,439
1825
6,115,6-23
8,797,055
1,925,245
4,212,127
1,078,773
5,417,978
1,988,2-20
2,763,144
183(1
29,674,683
64,961,302
5,586,365
2,178,773
1,980,8-24
6,085,953
756,677
5,320,980
2,056,289
2,032,928
1835
8,250,.577
6,477,775
2.210,331
4,894,777
1,008,534
7,':94,07;)
3,402,9-24
2,415,493
1840
63,870,307
9,883,957
8,417,014
1,942,076
10.143.615
720,164
9,873,462
2.926,846
1845
51,739 643
7,469819
8,606,495
2,160,4.56
5,39.8,593
1,012,007
10,329,701
3,099,455
4,918,093
185(t
71,984,616
9,951,023
7,522,994
2,631,5.57
7,098,57(1
456,794
9,99-2,-! 44
4,493,658
9.155,895
1851
1i2,:h15,317
9,219,251
29,472,752
2,1709-27
10.524,331
481,66
21,296,49b
4,6H0,206
6,057,973
185''
87,955,73-2
10,031,283
42,674,115
2,470,029
11,869,143
453,010
19,987,430
4,991,184
5,265,699
1853
1,09456,404
11,319,319
27,486,875
1,657,656
14,783,394
461,016
22,721,660
4,996,014
8,416,878
544
BOUND-HOOFS.
Commerce of (he U. States loith several Foreign JVations, 1790-1853,
1790
1795
1800
1805
1810
18-21
1830
18-10
1850
1853
Great BritaiB and de-
pendencieB.
Imports. Exuorts,
30,972,215
4-2,577,590
29,277.938
26,804,984
39,I30.9'2I
85,117,477
113,219,200
9,246,5fi2
9,218,540
27.310,289
2.5,047,3ri6
10,555,488
20,522,-272
31,ij47,881
70,420,846
88,388,675
145.553,624
France and depen-
dencies.
Imports. Exports,
20.288.
9,044,
5 900
8,240
17,908.
27,036,
33,525
West Indies
generally.
Netherlands and
dependencies,
Imps. Exp'ts. Imports. Export.*
4,668.902
12,653.635' 85,186
5,163 833, 26,937
21. 072.7471
137,630
6.474.718
11.806,238
22,.349,154
20,183,094
27,044,479
3.727
9,417
l,.543 348i 3,699,615
115.631 7,132,6-2'
.3496 947
369,931
560,513
247,121
PT,934
98,125
2,934.272
1 3i6.765
2.3-26 896
2,732,561)
2594,619
47,240
2,884,817
5,669,016
17,835,216
174,078
7.6,-8.336
4,562,437
4.540.085
357 1.607
2,979,332
Hanse Tovnis.
Imports. Exports
1.663
4,998
990,
1 873
2,521,
8,7h7,
13,843
1790
1795
1800
1805
1810
1821
1830
Russia.
China.
Imports. Exports. Imports. Exports
1,168,715
1,524,995
1,852,199
1.621,8991
1840 2,.')72,427!l,
1850] 1.51 1.5721
18531,278,5012.
66,221'
71,372'
975.698:
628 894
416,575
,169,481
861,941
,456,653
1,144,
4,613,
3,111
3.878
6,640
6,593
10,573
1031,023,242
463|l. 047,385
322.075
319.479
4,290,560
742,193
1,009,968
1,605.217
3,736,892
Spain and depen-
dencies.
Imports. Exports
3,942,445
16,071,918
9,653,728
8.373,681
14,019.647
15,864,748
26,030,320
1,989.
4,714.
15.660.
12,672,
14,941.
7,218
6 049,
7,017,
9,931,
11,847.
Mexico.
Imports. Exports
.,235,241
,175,001
',135,366
1,167,9,-5
4.a37,4,-8
•2,515,.341
2,0I2,R27
3,558,824
Colombia, C. Amer-
ica, Brazil, Argen-
tine, Conf. and Chili.
Imports. Exports.
5,528 856
9,093,688
16,553,496
23,280,079
4,756,347
5,891,478
8,12.i,H25
8,577,131
HOOF-BOUND.
Dr. Dadd gives the following directions for this disease: "In all cases,
we must endeavor to give the frog a bearing on the ground ; and, in order
to do this, the shoe ought to be renooved. A dry, brittle, and contracted
hoof may be improved by repeated poulticing with soft-soap and rye-meal,
applied cold. So soon as the hoof softens, let it be dressed, night and morn-
ing, with turpentine, linseed oil, and powdered charcoal, equal parts. Yet,
after all, a run of grass in a soft pasture, the animal having nothing more
than tips on his feet, is the best treatment, A very popular notion exists,
that cow manure has a wonderful effect on a contracted hoof; but it is the
candid opinion of the author, and no doubt the reader will coincide, that filth
and dirt of every kind are unfavorable to healthy action. Such a remedy,
aside from its objection on the score of decency, savors too much of by-gone
days, when live eels were sent on an errand down horses' throats to unravel
their intestines. If any benefit belongs to such an objectionable application,
it is due to the property it possesses of retaining moisture ; therefore, cold poul-
ti3e3 and water are far superior. Clay and moist earth, placed in the stall
for the horse to stand on, are far inferior to stuffing of wet oakum, which can
be removed at pleasure. In order to keep it in contact with the sole, we have
only to insinuate two strips of wood between the sole and shoe ; one running
lengthwise and the other crosswise of the foot. It affords considerable pres-
sure to the foot, is cooling and cleanly, and is far superior to the above
articles."
BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN. 545
BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN
ERASTUS BRIGHAM BIGELOW.
The subject of this notice was born April 2cl, 1814, in West Boylston, a
small town of Massacliusetts, seven miles north of Worcester. His father
had a little farm, to the toils of which he added, with Yankee versatility, the
business of a wheelwright and that of a chair-maker. The boy was sent, of
course, to the district school. At the age of eight he asked his master to
put him into arithmetic and writing, but he was pronounced too young for
these high branches. He was not, however, to be headed off so. He took
up Pike's Arithmetic at home, performed, unassisted, every question as far as
the Rule of Three, and made a fair record of the whole. Who does not see
in this a promising outset?
But his school and his arithmetic engrossed only a fraction of his time.
His boyish activities showed early a mechanical tendency. With minute
fence of regular post and rail he inclosed a few yards of ground. This was
?us little farm. There might be seen a plough, a cart, a wagon complete in
every part, with other implements of husbandry, all of his own making, and
of a size to match. His live stock was a litter of kittens. To carry out his
idea, he must set them to work : a yoke was made, and two of these small
steers were attached to the cart. Finding that they insisted on pulling back-
ward, he turned their heads toward the cart. The wheels now went forward,
but the team could not be guided ; the experiment consequently failed.
Not content with being a farmer and a wheelwright, he went into the
chair line. Having made a chair-back, he so finiiied it with paint and bronze
and gold, that folks looked on with wonder, and predicted that the boy was
destined to become a great painter.
He contrived to get a violin, and it was not long before he could execute
with facility the then popular airs of " Bounding Billows," and " Away with
Melancholy." This was a new phase. His career, evidently, was to be a
musical one. Kind neighbors even suggested that he might hope ere long-
to find high and profitable employment in the orchestra of the Boston Mu-
seum, consisting at that time, if we remember rightly, of a fiddle and a hand-
organ.
John Temple, a neighbor of Mr. Bigelow, was a substantial farmer. He
had noticed the lad's capacity, and sometimes jokingly asked him to come
and live with him, and learn his occupation. Erastus regarded this proposi-
tion as a business matter. With him, an offer was an offer. Accordingly,
one Monday morning in early spring, this boy of ten years presented himself
at Mr. Temple's door and demanded employment. It was given him, with
no expectation that he would continue through the day. He worked on,
however, and at the end of the week suggested to Mr. T. that it would be
proper to come to some understanding in regard to wages. On being asked
his terms, he offered to work six months on condition of receiving at the
dose, a cosset lamb called "Dolly," to which he had taken a strong liking.
The moderate demand was of course acceeded to. But scarcely had a month
elapsed ere a difficulty arose. Dolly could not live without eating, and how
was he to provide for her ? His fellow laborers discovered the cause of his
anxiety, and teasingly aggravated it. At length he proposed and effected
546 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN.
an alteration in the contract. He relinquished his claim to Dolly, and Mr.
T. acjreed to furnish, instead, a pair of cow-hide boots, and sheepVgray cloth
sufficient for a suit of clothes. The agreement was fully carried out on both
sides. At the close ol" the period, an offer of four dollars a month for the
ensuing summer was made and accepted. The kind-hearted man, at parting,
gave the young farmer a silver dollar.
During the next two years he continued to work for Mr. Temple in the
summer, and to attend school in winter. The farmer urged him to stay till
he should be of age, and he offered to do so if, at the close of the term, he
could receive in compensation a small outlying farm belonging to his em-
ployer. Fortunately, this offer was declined. It was an escape not unlike
that of Daniel Webster from the clerkship of the county court.
In 1827, Mr. Bigelow removed to another part of the town, and engaged
in the manufacture of cotton yarn. Erastus was set to work in the mill. So
long as he found anything to study in the machinery and its working, he
was interested ; the occupation then became distasteful. While employed
in this drudgery of tending spindles, he was busy in framing plans for the
future. Ilis grand desire was to obtain a liberal education. As his parents,
from their limited circumstances, could not encourage him in this, he began
to consider in what way he might accomplish the object himself. He already
knew how to earn and to save. He had not only clothed himself by his toil,
but to his first silver dollar had added several more. Like Goldsmith, he now
turned his musical talents to account. In a community where critical con-
noisseurship was unknown, he passed for an accomplished performer. At all
balls and dancing parties for many miles around his services were in request.
After a long day of spinning, how tedious must have been a whole night of
fiddling! Often, doubtless, his eyelids grew heavy and his arm a-weary.
Who can think of the motive which nerved that arm, without respect for the
young violinist ?
x\bout this time he made his first invention. It was a hand-loom for
weaving suspender webbing. It accomplished the object ; but as the busi-
ness would not justify the employment of an^operative, he abandoned it, after
realizing from it a few dollars. His next invention was of more importance.
A ball of cotton cord, known in the market by the name of " piping cord,"
had been brought into the house for domestic use. On examination, he
found it to be of yarn hke that which he was spinning every day. On in-
quiry, he learned that it was made by hand, in the ordinary rope-walk. He
was sure that it could be formed more expeditiously and cheaply by auto-
matic machinery. In a few weeks he had matured the plan of a machine,
and within two months he had it in successful operation. It worked well —
earning for the youthful inventor In the course of a year about one hundred
dollars. At length the article fell greatly in price, and the working of the
machinery was abandoned.
These first developments of a peculiar genius were evidently called forth
by his burning desire for an education. They were temporary expedients to
enable him to pay his way. It should not be foigotten that they were the
achievements of a lad only fourteen years of age. Having now by his in-
dustry and ingenuity acquired a small fund, he obtained parental consent to
attend a neighboring academy, at his own expense. This was in 1830.
Here he entered on the study of Latin. His teacher was pleased, and wrote
to the father, recommending a collegiate course for the boy. ]3ut to the
cautious parent, a trade seemed safer and better. As the son preferred not
to engage again in the dull employment of the spinning mill, the matter was
BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN. 547
compromised, aad he was told that he might go to Boston and become a com-
mission merchant, if he could.
To Boston accordingly he went. He carried no letters — knew no one.
After a few inquiries from door to door, he found employment in the whole-
sale and retail dry-goods establishment of S. F. Morse & Co. The firm was
highly respectable, and the place was deemed a good one. But the charm
of novelty was soon over, and then the occupation of measuring and selling
ribbons and calicoes seemed petty and monotonous. He felt, he knew, that
he was made for something beyond that. The idea of a college course still
haunted him. On one occasion he walked out to Cambridge, and had a talk
with President Quincy. It only served to show that there was no chance yet
for him.
About this time a teacher of stenography came to Boston and gave les-
sons in the art. He drew much attention and formed Urge classes. Our
young clerk shared in the general interest, but the cost of a course (ten dol-
lars,) was beyond his means. So he got some books and taught himself.
He was surprised to find the art so simple, In a few days he could write
with ease in short-hand. A new thought struck him. If he could learn
stenography in this way so quickly and easily, why should not others — why
should not many avail themselves of the useful, labor-saving process ? The
rareness of the acquirement must be owing to the expense. He would ob-
viate that. He would write a book on short-hand, illustrated by plates, and
filled with rules and examples. Energetic and industrious — to resolve, with
him, was to act. In a short time his work — " The self-taught Stenographer"
— was ready for the press. To prosecute this new enterprise, he relinquished
his post behind the counter, much to the regret of his parents, who naturally
questioned the expediency of the step, and to that of his employers, too,
whom he had fully satisfied.
Having printed a small edition of his work he became his own bookseller,
and in ten days sold seventy-five dollars' worth in Boston alone. This greatly
encouraged him. Forgetting that Boston was peculiar and prepared ground,
he regarded his sales there as an exponent of the national demand, and im-
mediately ordered a large impression of the work. To meet the extensive
business now opening upon him he took a partner, a medical student, who
was anxious to see a little of the world before he settled down as a profes-
sional drudge. The young doctor was to pay the entire cost of printing, to
share equally in the labor and expense of distribution and sale, and to re-
ceive one-half of the profits. These hopeful adventurers set out at once upon
their commercial travels. They visited the most inviting portions of New-
England, New-York, New-Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Here the cholera,
then on its first terrible march through America, put a stop to their journey-
ings. They went home, having made about a hundred dollars. Four hun-
dred dollars were still due the printer, a large part of the edition was yet on
hand, and all the best ground had been canvassed. It looked decidedly
dark. Young Bigelosv without hesitation released his discouraged partner
from the pecuniary obligation.
Behold him now at the age of eighteen. His little educational fund has
vanished, all his schemes have failed, and he is four hundred dollars in debt.
His father, in the meantime, had been extending and diversifying his busi-
ness. He had formed a partnership with the celebrated " John Smith," and
a new mill had been erected for their operations. As the old mill now stood
idle, Erastus thought that he might turn it to some account. In this project
he found a person willing to join him. John Munroe was the name of h.h
548 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN.
second associate. Their business was the manufacture of twine. It was be-
ginning to be moderately successful, when a disagreement between Smith and
his partner put a stop to the operations of the younger firm.
Bigelow & Munroe then undertook to run a cotton factory in Wareham,
a place in the eastern part of Massachusetts. At the end of nine months
this arrangement terminated in a loss. As author and as manufacturer, he
was now obligated to the extent of fourteen hundred dollars. In Massachu-
setts his way seemed completely hedged up. But Massachusetts is not the
only place in the world. Soon after this we find our hero in the city of New-
York, taking lessons in penmanship of the renowned Professor Bristow.
His improvement astonishes even himself. A dozen exercises have trans-
formed a poor writer into an accomphshed penman. Then, for some time, he
supported himself by teaching the art. Newark, and several other large
towns in New-Jei-sey and on the North River, enjoyed the benefit of his in-
structions. He was not the person to be content with such a life. Indeed,
he soon became deeply dissatisfied with that and with himself. An import-
ant period of his existence was passing away in desultory and unprofitable
efforts. He was conscious of powers that needed discipline only to insure
him success. His literary aspirations returned in full force. But, alas ! what
could he do '
In this state of mind he returned home. His parents received him kindly,
but could not suppress their anxiety concerning his future. In that humble
family council many plans were started and rejected. At length, with unan-
imous approval, the youth resolves to become a physician. After a winter
passed in classical studies at Leicester Academy, he entered his name as a
student in medicine. This study he prosecuted with diligence for more than
a year, being much interested in the science, but constantly annoyed by a
sense of his imperfect literary preparation. Even then, could he but find the
means, he would go back, to start anew and aright. Again the stimulus
of this early and strong desire put him on the look-out for some source of
pecuniary gain. With his mind in this state, he happened, while on a visit,
to sleep under a knotted or Marseilles quilt. Years before he had seen sim-
ilar fabrics woven by the slow and costly process of the hand-loom. Why —
lie now asked himself — could not a power-loom be made to weave them ? It
was not until a year afterwards that he set himself in earnest to solve this
problem. Having suspended, for a time, his medical studies, he matured the
plan of a loom. With some pecuniary aid he was enabled to construct the
machine, which worked to the satisfaction of all.
But to prosecute the enterprise, capital must be had. In quest of this he
went to Boston. A sample of the fabric was shown to Messrs, Freeman,
Cobb & Co., who were large importers of the article. Satisfied that it must
succeed, they entered at once into an agreement, contracting to pay ail ex-
penses thus far incurred, to be at the cost of patents for this country and for
England, and to erect and furnish a mill that should meet all probable de-
mands of the market. In consideration of this contribution, the inventor
was to receive, free of expense to himself, one-quarter of the profits. A
brighter day had, at length dawned on the struggling youth. He had
reached the position so long sought. He could now secure a thorough edu-
cation. Accordingly he renewed his studies under the care of a clergyman,
who was in the habit of fitting young men for college. Must we state tha;
even this fair prospect was soon clouded ? Freeman, Cobb & Co. failed in
business. The period was one of commercial depression, and was, therefore,
no time to raise capital for new enterprises. To increase his embarrassments,
BIOGRAP'bY OF EMINENT MEN. 549
his father had been unsuccessful in bis affairs, and was now in declining
health. His own position and his sense of filial duty, left him no alternative.
The sternly-exacting present must be provided for. Postponing to an indefi-
nite future his half-realized schemes and hopes, he once more relinquished his
classical studies.
While, to meet the exigency, he was earnestly considering the question of
" ways and means," an incident of travel recurred to his memory. In his
stenographic journeying he had accidentally witnessed the process of weav-
ino- coach-lace. At the time, he had felt no interest in the matter — had
taken no note of the details. He only remembered that hand-looms were
employed. With this recollection, the idea of a power-loom immediately
presented itself. Two days' study convinced him that the thing could be
done. But another point must also be settled : would it pay 1 He was
wholly unacquainted with the character and extent of the coach-lace business.
Hiring of a neighboring farmer his work-horse and old yellow-bodied chaise,
he starts, with characteristic promptness, on a tour of inquiry. The carriage
makers of Worcester, Grafton, Framingham, Medway, and Dedham, were
successively visited and interrogated. The result was a general reference to
Messrs. Fairbanks, Loring & Co., of Boston, venders of the article, with whom
these mechanics all dealt. Into Boston accordingly went the yellow chaise.
Messrs. Fairbanks & Co. settled every doubt. A coach-lace power-lpom. they
said, would certainly do well ; but the thing had been often considered by
the principal lace-makers, and pronounced an impossibility. They expressed
a wish to join with him in case of his succeeding — though, as they afterwards
confessed, without the slightest faith in the project.
Mr. Bigelow went home, and with no other guide or help than a piece of
coach-lace set himself to the accompHshment of a task, which, up to that
time had been deemed impossible. Spurred on by necessity, and encouraged
by a confident hope of success, his mind became intensely active. To others,
indeed, he seemed to have grown suddenly stupid. When spoken to, he
appeared to listen, and yet showed by his silence or inapposite reply, that he
had not understood a word. One evening he was asked to show a visitor the
way out. To the surprise of the latter, he took an unlighted candle, marched
silently before him through a long, dark entry, and gravely bowed him from
the door. During this period of mental abstraction, he took no note of
time. He sat in the family circle with as little share in the conversation as
if he had been deaf and dumb. All hints about bed-time were thrown away
upon him, and the unmoved candle-stick, whose taper had expired m its
socket, usually showed in the morning that he must have gone oflF to his rest,
at some late hour, in the dark.
The fruits of this extraordinary application soon appeared. Within six
weeks from the time of its first conception, he had a power-loom in success-
ful operation. Let any one examine this beautiful and complicate piece of
mechanism, in which iron seems to act hke an intelligence, and exhibits a
dexterity which human fingers scarcely surpass. Let him consider that this
machine involved all the essential principles of a far more important one —
the Brussels carpet loom; that the inventor was a young man not twenty-
three years old, who had never even looked into a treatise on mechanics ;
and finally, that all this was accomplished in the brief space of forty days ;
and he will, at least, allow that the history of useful art exhibits few such
instances of mental and executive eflSciency.
Thus far we have traced, with some particularity, the ardent aspirings, the
varied etforts, the successive struggles and disappointments of a poor but
550 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN.
persevering j'outh. It shows what may be accomplished by high aims, a
fixed purpose, and resolute industry. It will appeal to the warm sympa-
thies of those who love to contemplate the development of mind and char-
acter under a discipHne of hardship. We have followed a rivulet from its
mountain spring. Obstacle after obstacle has opposed its progress. But
above, or round, or through them all, it has still forced its way. In one
bright flash it has just leaped over the last wall of rock. It becomes a deep,
broad river : its banks widen out and wave with fertihty. But we must not
be disappointed, if we miss, henceforth, the picturesqueness of its upper
course.
The complete success of the coach-lace loom brought the inventor at once
into notice. Fairbanks, Loring & Co., of Boston, John Wright, of Worces-
ter, Israel Langley, of Shirley, together with the inventor and his brother
Horatio, united for the purpose of building and running the looms. This
association afterwards became the "Clinton Company." Mr. B. was now in a
condition to carry out his early and long-cherished, though often frustrated
wish in regard to education. But the time for that scheme had, he felt,
gone by. He had become better acquainted with the nature and measure
of his own capacities. He saw opening before him a career of activity, suc-
cess, and usefulness. To this, accordingly, he resolved to devote his future
life.
Soon after the Clinton Company began its operations in Lancaster, the
affairs of Freeman, Cobb & Co., had becorne so far adjusted as to liberate
from its legal embarrassment the counterpane loom. One of the firm im-
mediately contracted with the inventor on terms highly favorable to the
latter, for a number of the looms. But Mr. Bigelow happening soon after to
be in New- York, saw there a new and different species of counterpane then
just introduced from England. An examination of this fabric convinced him
not only that it would be more marketable than the knotted counterpane,
but that it could be made at less cost. With a disinterestedness hardly less
rare than his ingenuity, he advised Mr. Roberts to give up the contract, and
thus ]^j aside entirely the very curious and perfectly successful loom already
made. He at the same time agreed to invent a power loom for weaving this
new fabric. Within six months from that time he had such a loom in suc-
cessful operation. A small mill in Lancaster was filled with the machinery,
and the business, steadily prosperous, has remunerated the inventor, and en-
riched, others.
After starting the coach-lace and counterpane establishments, Mr. Bigelow
took up the question of weaving the ingrain or Kidderminster carpet by
means of power-looms. It was no easy matter to produce a fabric in which
the figures should match, which should have a smooth, even face and perfect
selvedge, and do this with a rapidity so much beyond that of the hand-
loom as to make it an object. The hand-loom weaver can, to some extent,
meet these conditions by the exercise of his judgment. If the shuttle has
not fully done its work, he can give the weft-thread a pull with his fingers.
If, on measuring, he finds that the figure is getting to be too long, or too
short, he remedies the fault by putting either more or less force to the lathe,
as he beats up. If he perceives that the surface of the cloth is becoming-
rough, he regulates the tension of the warps. By the exercise of constant
vigilance, skill, and judgment, he can cq^proxhnate to the production of a
complete and regular fabric. But how shall these properties be imparted to
inert matter ? How shall iron be taught to observe, to judge, and to vary its
action with such modifications as the case may require ?
BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN. 561
To the achievemeut of this seeming impracticability our iuveutor now
addressed his extraordiuary powers of analysis and concentration. A short
study assured him that the idea was feasible. On the strength of this con-
viction— before he had made a model or even complete drawings of the ma-
cliine — he entered into a written contract with a company in Lowell, to
furnish them with power-looms for making ingrain carpets. His first loom
for two-ply carpets was set up within a year. In the matching of its figures,
in evenness of surface, and in the regularity of its selvedges, its product far
surpassed that of any hand-loom. Its average daily work was from ten to
twelve yards ; that of the hand-loom is about eight yards.
He must, he could, do better than that. A second loom, with various
modifications and improvements was ere long produced. By this the daily
product was raised to eighteen yards. Still he was not satisfied. A third
machine, with essential variations, at length appeared. This loom made,
with perfect ease, from twenty-five to twenty-seven yards a day. The others,
of course, like his first counterpane loom, were thrown aside. This loom
was started in the summer of 1841. In the autumn he went to England.
During this short visit the manufactures of that country naturally drew his
special regard. He at once saw that, in some important particulars, the
English manufactures were in advance of ours. His opinion to this effect,
frankly expressed on his return to Lowell, was received at first with mur-
murs of surprise and incredulity. It was not long, however, before the
practical adoption of his suggestions showed that they had taken full eftect.
In 1842 the several manufacturing corporations of Lowell paid a deserved
tribute to Mr. Bigelow's knowledge and skill, by creating a new office, with
a liberal salary, and appointing him to fill it. His duties were to make im-
provements and suggestions, and, generally, to advise and consult with the
agents of the respective companies. In this capacity he brought forward
some important improvements, which were adopted by all the cotton mills of
Lowell. Finding his new office too general in its character and duties to give
results satisfactory to himself, he resigned at the end of eighteen months, and
with his retirement the office itself expired. During this period he built,
for the Lowell Company, a mill to receive his power-looms ; and thus started
the first successful power-loom carpet fiictory recorded in the annals of manu-
facture.
Before quitting his post at Lowell, Mr. Bigelow had projected a new manu-
iiicturing establishment at Lancaster for the weaving of ginghams. A com-
pany was formed ; the required capital was promptly subscribed, and the
projector was charged with the execution of the design. At the same time
the Lowell Company resolved to build a large mill for the reception of their
carpet power-looms, and Mr. Bigelow was commissioned to design and erect
it. Both of these mills are of vast size, and in character perfectly unique.
The one last named, with its two hundred iron looms, is, in fact, a grand
carpet machine — the mill and its furniture being so combined, adjusted, and
adapted, as to produce the most harmonious action and the highest results.
The Lancaster mill is even more remarkable. Its connected structures, cover-
ing more than four acres of ground, are filled with machinery and apparatus
of the most perfect character, much of which was invented or adapted, and
all of which was arranged and adjusted by Mr. Bigelow. Of this mill, the
editor of the Merchants'' Magazine says : "It is deservedly rated as the most
perfect establishment in the United States." Of the dye-house connected
with it, he speaks as " probably the most perfect in the world ;" adding,
" that the entire arrangement is of the most perfect description, and in its
552 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT AIEX.
■ ^ _—
vast completeness stands a splendid monument to the genius and masterly
power of the mind of its projector." These immense structures, with their
numerous and various and complicated machines, many of which were new.
and nearly all of which were newly modified or adjusted, were carried on
simultaneously — the working plans for the buildings and the machinery beini;;
furnished as fast as the work advanced. These plans, once matured and put
into the hands of the workmen, were scarcely in a single instance changed ;
and the loss in this way was exceedingly small — a striking proof of Mr.
Bigelow's business talent, his constructive abilities, and far-reaching mental
vision. Contemporaneously with these labors, he superintended important
enlargements of the Counterpane Works, and of those belonging to the
Coach-lace Company. Nor was this all. During the three years thus occu-
pied, he made nine distinct, important, and patented inventions. It would
have been strange if, under a mental pressure so constant and intense, hi.s
health had not given way. Justly alarmed, at length, he fled from the toil
and care which would soon have ended all. A voyage to Europe, with his
family, and a continental journey, completely restored him.
On his return in 1848, he proceeded to develop and complete the Brussels
Carpet Loom. The basis of this machine was indeed contained in the loom
for coach-lace. But farther invention was needed to adapt it to the weaving
of wider fabrics, to the making of figures that match, and to the formation
of velvet-pile. This was fully accomplished. His power-looms weave rapidly
and perfectly the Brussels and the Wilton, the tapestry and velvet tapestry
carpets. They are competent, in fact, to every kind of looped and velvet-pik-
fabric known in the market.
In September, 1851, Mr. Bigelow took with him to England specimens of
his Brussels carpet. Their appearance at the E.vhibition, though late, drew
much attention, and largely increased the favor with which the British public
had already begun to look on the so long despised American Department.
The juries having then closed their labors, no prize could be awarded to these
fabrics. But in a supplement to the Report on Class XIX, we find the fol-
lowing :
" The specimens of Brussels carpeting exhibited by Mr. Bigelow are woven
by a power-loom, invented and patented by him, and are better and more
perfectly woven than any hand-loom goods that have come under the notice
of the jury. This, however, is a very small part of their merit, or rather of
that of Mr. Bigelow, who has completely triumphed over the numerous ob-
stacles that presented themselves, and succeeded in substituting steam-power
for manual labor in the manufacture of five-frame Brussels carpets. Several
patents have been taken out by difterent inventors in this country for efiect-
ing the same object ; but as yet none of them has been brought into suc-
cessful or extensive operation, and the honor of this achievement — one of
great practical difficulty, as well as of great commercial value, must be
awarded to a native of the United States."
The shrewd and practical manufacturers of England were quick to see and
prompt to acknowledge the value of the new machinery. An arrangement
Avas immediately made with Messrs. Crossly & Sons, for placing the looms in
their immense carpet manufactory at Halifax. Subsequently these gentlemen
purchased, and now hold, the patent-right for the United Kingdom.
Previously to the introduction of Mr. Bigelow's inventions, power-looms
had scarcely been used for anv but the plainest and simplest fabrics. These
improvements cover the whole higher range of textile art. If we except
such regal luxuries as the pictured tapestries of the Gobelins, there is no
BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN. 65e
complex, or useful, or beautiful texture produced by skill and patience in the
band-loom, to wbicb bis macbinery bas not been, or may not be, adapted.
As compared witb tbe plainer and more prosaic processes, tbis almost magi-
cal mecbanism, and its results of endless and beautiful variety, may be called,
not unaptly, tbe poetry of tbe loom. Witb sucb means at their command,
and aided by tbe untiring arm of falling or of expanding water, our modern
Penelopes are producing webs tbat rival tbe fabled labors of Aracbne, witb
a rapidity which Pallas migbt bave envied.
To appreciate the difficulties of tbis achievement, and tbe greatness of the
success, one must keep in view the nature and demands of the weaving art.
Eacb different fibre wbicb it uses bas its own peculiar properties, and whether
it be cotton, or wool, or llax, or silk, tbe macbinery must be adapted to
*bose pecuharities. The number of fabrics which differ essentially m their
t-xture is almost countless. To these considerations must be added the
constantly recurring changes in figure and in color required to meet a fickle
taste and ever-varying demand. He must be a good arithmetician who can
calculate tbe combinations required to produce by automatic machinery the
numerous dissimilar fabrics which fill up tbe long interval between plain
cloth and a Wilton carpet. More than all, perhaps, it deserves to be con-
sidered, that a power-loom for weaving tissues of the higher class, must bave
not only many and complex mechanical movements, but, to a certain extent,
also the capacity of self-adaptation— an ability, in fact, to meet exigencies as
they arise. . ^ e t
The extent of Mr. Bigelow's contributions to inventive art has otten_ been
misapprehended. Many think of him as the inventor of a single machine—
the carpet power-loom— and suppose tbis to be all. It is a great mistake.
The numerous and complex requirements of the textile art were not to be
met bv a single invention. Accordingly, Mr. Bigelow has, in this connec-
tion, twenty-two United States patents. Each of these is a distinct but ne-
cessary part in a closely-connected series of improvements, by means of which,
under appropriate modifications, every variety of fabric may be wrought by
power-looms. i • i
It is difficult, by mere description, to impart a clear idea ot mechanical
movements. All that we shall here attempt will, we trust, be intel igible to
any one who bas ever seen a loom in action. Tbe figure on coach lace is
formed by raising on tbe surface of the ground-cloth, a pile similar to that
of the Brussels carpet. It is made by looping the warps over fine wires
wbicb are inserted under such of them as bave been selected by the Jacquarcl
to form tbe fio-ure. These warps are then woven into the body of tbe cloth.
The wires are°now withdrawn, to be reinserted. In tbe Bigelow loom this
finger-work is executed by automatic pincers. There is something wonder-
• fully cunning in tbe movement of these nippers. Seizing tbe end ot the
wire, tbev draw it out from the loops, carry it back towards tbe lathe, thrust^
it into what is called tbe open shed, and there drop it. Tbe warp-threads,
which had been drawn apart, are now closed, and immediately reopened tor
the passage of the shuttle, which carries the woof to tie and bind the loops.
The pincers having dropped their wire, return to take another. As it is ne-
cessary to have a number of these wires, and as they lie close together, a
difficulty arose. It was clearly impossible to make tbe pincers so narrow,
and so exact in their discrimination, as to seize the proper wn-e, and not nio-
'lestits neiffbbors. Tbis was avoided by a mechanical contrivance on the
other side li the loom, which, just at the rigbt moment, gives a little push
to iust tbe ricrbt wire, and thus puts it in just tbe rigbt place for the waiting
554 BIOGRAPHY OP EMINENT MEN.
pincers. The curious meclianism by which these little rods are withdrawn
and replaced, must work, it is evident, in perfect harmony with that which
forms the figure.
The loom for Brussels and tapestry carpeting is the coach-lace loom full
grown. Nothing short of actual inspection can give any just idea of its
wonderful capacities and life-like action. Wires three feet or more in length
are here inserted and withdrawn with a precision and quickness which no
manual dexterity ever attained. Let us watch the operation. First, mark
that intruding knife or wedge, which, as it rises, separates from its compan-
ion the wire next to be taken, and guides the pusher, which shoves it along
towards the pincers. The pincers now walk up, grasp the wire, and draw it
entirely out. While this is doing, another set of nippers, hanging down
like two human hands, come forward, descend, and catch the wire at the
moment when the drawing pincers drop their prey. No sooner have they
seized the wire than they retreat to their original position, beneath which a
small, angular trough has just arrived. The fingers relax, and the wire
drops into the trough, which immediately returns. Last of all, a triangular
pusher rushing through the trough sends the rod into the open shed. Note,
also, the double action of the withdrawing pincers, which, while they attend
to their own special mission, perform, also, sergeant's duty, by constantly
bringing into line the straggling wires. Those bird-like, three-fingered claws,
which dart back and forth with such rapidity, are busy in plaiting the sel-
vedge, and their work is perfect. These, too, are " contrived a double debt
to'pay," for, whenever their thread breaks, they instantly stop the loom. In
this loom, and that for coach-lace, the mechanical contrivance for weighting
the warp-threads is the same, being one of the most ingenious, as well as
most important, of Mr. Bigelow's improvements.
What is this remarkable process which we call invention ? How does the
brain act while devising its wonders of mechanic skill ? These are questions
of interest to inquiring minds, and may well puzzle those to whom even the
witnessed action of complicate mechanism is a mystery impenetrable. By
some it is supposed to be a sort of hybrid process — a result in which chance
and calculation are about equally concerned. Accident has, doubtless, at
tinies, had something to do with'it. The slightest incident may start the
tram of thought which shall lead to some great discovery or invention.
But in that train of thought there is nothing random or accidental. The
mathematical element must, of necessity, figure largely. Yet in the mental
series it is not first in order, nor is it, in fact, more essential than another
faculty seldom associated with our ideas of machinery. The great mechani-
cal^ inventor is, perhaps, the only person who compels the Mathematics to
wait upon the Imagination. This power, and this alone, can supply him
with the means of accomplishing his purposes. For the effectual use of.
these means he depends on the science of number and quantity. That this
substantially was the process in those inventions to which our attention has
now been turned, appears from the following answer of Mr. Bigelow to an
inquiry on that point :
"I am not sure that I can convey to your mind a satisfactory idea of the
mventive process in my own case. One thing is certain, it is not chance.
Neither does it depend, to any great extent, on suggestive circumstances.
These may present the objects, but they are no guide to the invention itself.
The falling apple only suggested to Newton a subject of inquiry. All that
we know of the law of gravitation had to be reasoned out afterward.
My first step toward an invention has always been to get a clear idea of
BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN. 0D5
the object aimed at. I learn its requirements as a -whole, and also as com-
posed of separate parts. If, for example, that object be the weaving of coach-
lace, I ascertain the character of the several motions required, and the rela-
tions which these must sustain to each other in order to efiect a combined
result. Secondly, I devise means to produce these motions ; and, thirdly,
I combine these means, and reduce them to a state of harmonious co-opera-
tion.
To carry an invention through its first and second stages is comparatively
easy. The first is simply an investigation of f;\cts ; the second, as far as I
can trace the operations of my own mind, comes through the exercise of the
imagination. I am never at a loss for means, in the sense above explained.
On the contrary, my chief difticulty is to select from the variety always at
command those which are most appropriate. To make this choice of the
elementary means, and to combine them in unity and harmony — to conduct,
that is, an invention though its last or practical stage, constitutes the chief
labor.
In making this Tchoice of the elementary parts, one must reason from
what is known to what is not so — keeping in mind, at the same time, the
necessary combinations, examining each element, not only in reference to its
pecuhar function, but to its fitness, also, for becoming a part of the whole.
Each portion must be thus examined and re-examined, modified and re-
modified, until harmony and unity are fully established. From the severity
of this labor many inventors shrink, and this is the main reason why some
very ingenious men fail to obtain satisfactory results. In my own case, the
labor has not ended with the perfection of my looms ; other machines, pre-
paratory and auxiliar, were necessary to give full efl'ect to the inventions.
It is a well-known fact, complex inventions have not, as a general thing,
come at once into use. In many cases this has been because they were not
immediately brought into harmony with other things. In a state of natural
progress, things move on together, and become mutually adjusted. An im-
portant invention often disturbs these adjustments, and cannot be made to
work efficiently until other inventions and new arrangements have brought
all the related processes in accordance with it. This arduous duty I have
endeavored to perform for all my looms. Lee's hand stocking-loom was
invented several years before it was reduced to practice, and even this was
not eflected by the inventor. The comparatively simple power-loom for
weaving plain cloth was of very slow growth. A long time elapsed before
its organization was so far harmonized as to work at all, and, for several years
afterward, successive improvements only gave to it a moderate speed. Its
capacity, in this respect, has actually been doubled within the last fifteen
years. If my own more complex machines, for the production of figured
fabrics, have attained at once to a high state of perfection, I attribute it, in
part, to the fact that my attention has also been given to those processes
which are subordinate, preparatory, and collateral, and that these have been '
made to accord with the main invention. That this claim of success is not
extravagant will appear, I think, when it is considered that the cost of weav-
ing coach-lace was, at one stride, reduced from twenty-two cents to three
cents a yard, and that of Brussels carpet from thirty cents to four cents. Of
the fabric last named, my power-loom, under the easy tending of a single girl,
produces from twenty to twenty-five yards daily, and this of the best quality.
That mechanical possibilities do not reach much farther in this direction,
will be conceded, probably, by all who are acquainted with the peculiar char-
acter of the process.
556 'BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN.
I find no difficulty in effecting that concentration of thought which is so
necessary in pursuits like mine. Indeed, it is not easy for me to withdraw
my mind from any subject in which it has once become interested, until its
general bearings at least are fully ascertained. I always mature in my mind
the general plan of an invention before attempting to execute it, resorting
occasionally to sketches on paper for the more intricate parts. A draughts-
man prepares the working drawings from sketches furnished by me, which
indicate in figures the proportion of the parts. I never make anything with
my own hands. I do not like even drawing to a scale."
It has become almost a proverbial remark that great inventors seldom
reap the fruit of their ingenious toil. This has happened, not merely from
the fact referred to above, that they had failed to perfect their inventions by
meeting, as they ought, the new demands which their own improvements had
created, but, also, because they have too frequently been inventors on^y. Ab-
sorbed in their own pleasing projects, neglecting to avail themselves of what
they have actually accomplished, in their ardent zeal to achieve something
greater, they leave their rights unsecured, or sufter them to slip out of their
hands. They labor, and other men — far inferior men — enter into their la-
bors. To this rule, if it be one, Mr. Bigelow is a striking exception. He is
no dreaming genius, who needs a guardian to protect his rights and manage
his affairs. He is as much at home in matters of business as among the
wheels and levers of his looms. Several of his most important contracts,
drawn wholly by himself, have commanded the admiration of acute lawyers.
More than once his patents have been invaded ; but, in every case, the
offenders have yielded, either to his prudent firmness, or to the strong arm of
law. In a single instance — and then through the negligence of a legal agent
— he failed to obtain protection, in the English patent office, for some im-
portant principles. It was a serious injury.
In the ingrain-carpet power-looms of the great mills at Lowell, about
thirteen hundred thousand yards are made annually. The same fabric is
woven in large quantities by companies at Tariffville and Thorn psonville,
Ct., whose power-looms are worked under license from the Lowell Company.
Messrs. Higgins & Co. are using the Bigelow looms for tapestry and velvet-
tapestry carpets, in their establishment in New-York. Another Company,
in Troy, N. Y., is weaving the same article under license from Mr. Bigelow.
At Humphreysville, Ct, several looms are now employed in the manufacture
of silk brocatelle. Mr. B. adapted and constructed the machinery for this
beautiful fabric in 1851. Goods for which the hand-loom artisans of Lyons
get three francs a yard, are made here at a cost for labor of fifteen cents a
yard. The agent, Mr. Humaston, is entitled to much praise for the skill and
perseverance with which he has brought these works into successful opera-
tion.
In 1849, Clinton was made a township by legislative act. In 183*7, when
the brothers Bigelow went to this spot, that they might use one of its brooks
in operating the coach-lace loom, it was the least cultivated and least valued
part of the old and beautiful town of Lancaster. At that time it contained
some two hundred inhabitants ; it has now about four thousand. There may
be seen the great gingham mill, already named, producing annually nearly
five millions of yards ; the counterpane mill, which turns out yearly one
hundred and fifty thousand dollars' worth of goods ; the establishment of the
Chnton Company, where two million yards of coach-lace, tweeds, (fee, are
woven ; and that of the Bigelow Carpet Company, belonging to the two
Bigelows, and to H. P. Fairbanks, of Boston, the daily results of which are
BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT MEN. OOV
a thousand yards of Brussels and Wilton carpeting. The amount made by
this single establishment, now only three years old, is equal to the entire
importation of Brussels carpet from England, at the time when the works
were started. Though these looms run night and day, they are inadequate
to the constant demand.
We have seen, with admiration, on both sides of the ocean, many a village
and city which owed their prosperity, if not their existence, to the genius of
modern manufacture. But, to us, there is a charm in Clinton, which belongs
to no other place of the kind. As, from those gentle, woody heights, we
have surveyed its monuments of ingenuity, wealth, and enterprise — its nu-
merous evidences of industry and thrift — its pleasant homes of competence
and content — its institutions for learning and social improvement, and its
neat temples reared for God — all of it the magical creation of a few short
years — the spectacle certainly lost none of its interest, because we could trace
it directly to the efforts of a single mind. Clinton, with all its actual and
its prospective importance, was assuredly predestinated in that abode of hon-
orable poverty, those hours of toil and vigil, and that filial love, which gave
birth to the coach-lace loom. Happy he who may thus behold around him
the good which he has done ! While scattering " plenty o'er a smiling land,'"
he plants, also, in good ground, the blessed seeds of individual and domestic
happiness, of social progress, of education, and morals, and religion.
It would be a great injustice to omit in this reference to Clinton, one, who
deserves to be called its twin founder — Horatio N. Bigelow. At the very
outset, while success was yet uncertain, when he was himself poor and strug-
gling, he gave pecuniary aid to his brother in the patenting and building of
his inventions. All the mills in Clinton were started by him, and two of
them are still under his management. To his skill, industry, and business
talent, much of their success is undoubtedly due. It is not easy to estimate
the advantage derived by thejnventor from so able and so faithful an ex-
ecution of his plans.
Mr. Bigelow's father, for whose sustenance and comfort he gave up his
own cherished schemes, and devoted himself to invention, after aiding his son
in building the coach-lace loom, died, much to the son's regret, just before
its success was made certain. His mother, not yet very far advanced, lives
to share the prosperity and affection of her sons.* He has been twice mar-
ried. His first wife died early, leaving an infant child. This boy, of much
promise, survived his mother hardly seven years. His present wife is a
daughter of the late Col, David Means, of Amherst, N. H, They have one
child — a daughter.
Mr. B. is a man of middling stature, and slightly inclined to roundness.
The lineaments of his face and head are such as one might look for after
hearing his story.
The individual, whose well-directed labors have not only gained for him-
self reputation and fortune, but furnish employment and support to many
thousand persons, while they save annually for his native land millions of
dollars, is still under forty years of age. AVith such power of intellectual
analysis and combination, such energy and persistency of purpose, he cannot
yet have discharged the debt which he owes to his country and to mankind.
That he still intends to devote himself to the advancement of industrial art,
in all its interests, moral and material, we have the best reason to believe.
* This estimable lady died a few weeks since, at the house of her son, in Boston.
558 COMPOSITION FOR ROOFS, FLAGCHNGS, ETC.
WELCH ANHYDROUS COMPOSITION FOR ROOFS, FLAGGINGS, FRONTS, &c.
Whatever may be the firmness of the foundation, the massiveness or sym-
metry of the walls, and the elegance and tastefulness of external or internal
finish, a building without a permanent water-proof and fire-proof roof, is an
imperfect and defective structure. It is destitute of one of the most essential
qualities of a comfortable, safe, or durable edifice. Hence, a good roofino-
material has long been regarded as a very important and valuable matter.
Ingenuity has been taxed to invent some substantial, reliable, and economical
means of protecting persons and property from the annoyance, injury, and
perils, which are every where experienced from imperfect roofs.
In Europe, tiles are used ; but they are expensive and unreliable. In our
own country, shingles, slate, tin, zinc, copper, lead, brass, iron, and paper
covered with tar and gravel, all have their advocates, and yet none of them
exactly meet the exigencies of the case for which they are demanded. Shin-
gles are unsafe, and too often insecure. Slate is expensive, and inaccessible
to the great mass of our people. Tin requires great expense of painting, and
is constantly exposed to corrosion, and, besides this, it is difficult to repair,
and often, being too long neglected, till the roof leaks like a sieve, is beyond
the cure of solder and patching, and is, therefore, useless.
This article is rarely used for roofs in Great Britain, or on the continent of
Europe. Tarred and gravelled paper, which have been so extensively used in
various parts of the country, after a thorough experiment, have gone into almost
universal disrepute. All these adaptations for roofs have objections more or
less serious, either on account of the cost, security, combustibility, perishable-
ness, or failure in other respects, to answer their intended design.
The Anhydrous Composition, at the head of this article, seems to meet all
the exigencies of the case so much better than any other material, that if
half that is claimed for it is proved, it must eventually supersede all other
materials now employed for such purposes. Those who are conversant with
this composition claim for it as an effective and invaluable resistant of water ;
and, hence, a roof made of it can never leak. Being incombustible, it can
not take fire. Such is its nature, that it can never wear out or decay. It is
a non-conductor of heat and cold, and, hence, tends to secure a cool temper-
ature to upper rooms in the heat of summer, and a moderate temperature in
winter. As the materials that compose it are found in great abundance in
every state of the Union, it is universally accessible. It is cheaper than any
other permanent roof. It may be put on at all seasons of the year, and is
equally adapted to all climates, and to every temperature, both of cold and
hot ; both wet and dr}'. It may be manufactured by fixtures of very trifling
expense, in every city and principal district of tlie land. These excellent
qualities of this article may be regarded as facts established both by experi-
ment and the ordeal of scientific analysis. If broken by violence, or other
cause, it is easily repaired. On all other points, this composifion solicits the
careful and thorough scrutiny of the public.
It may be applied to roofs perfectly flat, or in situations where the water
may remain on them for any length of time, as the water will never pene-
trate the composition. Sods of grass may be placed on it, and seeds planted
and cultivated in the soil, and yet the dampness will not penetrate the roof.
It is readily applied, also, to leaky roofs in any situation, whether covered with
tin, shingles, sand, or other materials, without removing the old material ;
WATER-POWEE ON THE POTOMAC. 659
nor do roofs thus treated require any outlay for paint, or other substances,
with which to keep it in good order. Gutters as well as roofs are treated
with this composition. It is also useful for damp walls, to secure dryness ,
and in the construction of vaults under sidewalks, in cemeteries and cellars ,
and to repair them when injured by the dripping of water. If used under
sidewalks, and in other similar conditions, it prevents the percolation of
water and its pernicious consequences.
It is also well fitted for deafening floors, and thus preventing injury to
plastering by leakage of water through them.
This Anhydrous Composition, with a little variation of material, and differ-
ent preparation, may be made into a plaster, and apphed to the outside of
the walls of brick and wooden buildings, in imitation of granite, brown stone,
or any description of marble, white or clouded.
This is claiming a great deal for any material, applied for such purposes,
and it may, liereafLer, be found that we are in error in respect to it. But we
present the claims of those interested in it, {with some, abatement,) and so
far as evidence is furnished to us personally, that these claims are well
founded from the evidence furnished ns. From the evidence furnished us
we are induced to regard this a very valuable material. We ought, also'
to add that it is not costly, but is comparatively cheap, so far as first cost is
concerned.
THE WATER POWER ON THE POTOMAC.
We have recently received a pamphlet containing a minute description of
the Water-Power of " The Great Falls Manufacturing Company" on the Po-
tomac, opposite Washington and Georgetown, The legislature of Virginia
has incorporated the town of Potoiuac, at the Great Falls, The surface of
the territory thus incorporated is undulating, and abounds with springs of
the purest water, and the adjacent country is very beautiful. This town of
Potomac is, from Georgetown, fourteen miles ; from Washington C!ity, fifteen,
and from Alexandria about twenty miles. It includes quarries of building
stones, clay for bricks, and an al)uiidance of timbers. Lime and cement aro
easily procured.
The Water-Power is immense; the fall being nearly eighty feet. A wing
dam is also contemplated, raising it five feet more. The Manufacturing Com-
pany was incorporated in May, 1852, for h period of thirty years, and with a
capital of one million of dollars. The privileges granted them, besides those
named, are of very great value. Among these is a charter from the state of
Maryland, authorizing a toll bridge across the Potomac, uniting the town
with the Ohio and Chesapeake -Canal, and from Virginia, for a railroad to
intersect with the Orange and Alexandria railroad.
The area of the water way, at" Little Falls, is 2,040 square feet; the su-
perficial velocity, 68 feet per minute ; the true jnean velocity is 56 feet ; and.
hence, the quantity running is 114,240 cubic feet per minute. The property
has been surveyed ; the head-gates, guard-walls and dam, have been located
by skillful engineers, John and Stewart Chase, of Mass., and Asa Jackson, of
Leesburg, Va. Extensive maps are iiUached to the description, and the
whole is ready for any enterprising manufacturers, or capitalists, who will
unite in the improvement of this tremendous water-power, Mr. Hall Neilson,
of Washington, D. C, is President of the Company.
660
THE STKENGTH OF BEAMS.
THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
Ik tlie paper under this heading, iu tlie January number of this Journal, it
was found that the furmuhx for ihe strength of beams was
in which W= the breaking weight of the beam ; — /> = its breadth ; d =<=
its depth ; ^ = its length, and C = a constant quantity deduced from expe-
riment. This formula is applicable when the load is placed in the middle of the
beam. If the strength of the beam is just suflScient to sustain it when in the
Fig. 4. middle, it will be more than enough
when at any other point. For if
W (Fig. 4) be the greatest weight
that a beam of uniform section
will support in the middle, D, then
the greatest W, which it will sup-
port at any other point, P, will be
found by the proportion.
A P X P B : A D X D B :: W : W
W == W (^ P >< ^ ^)
(A P X P B)
Therefore, a beam of uniform section throughout, to be used for sustaining a
movable weight, as a bridge does a carriage, is unnecessarily strong at all
other points, when it is of just sufficient strength at the centre. Indeed, this
is evident at first sight ; for it is obvious that the leverage exerted by the
weight, W, acting at the distances D A and D B from the abutments, is
greater than that exerted by the same weight acting at the distances A P
and P B.
Theoretically, then, the area of the section of the beam should continually
diminish from the centre toward each end, in the ratio of the rectangles of
the segments ; that is, the section at the point P should be less than the
section at the point D, in the proportion that A P X P B is less than
A D X r> B ; so that at the abutments the beam Avould have tapered to a
point.
But here we come to the broad distinction existing between the strain
and the simple weight of the load, between the tendency toward the fracture
of the beam and the pressure upon the abutments. The load has a two-fold
effect, the former of which alone we have been considering. The one is the
simple action of the weight itself, while the other is the action of the weight
in conjunction with the leverage. Thus, suppose 50 lbs. to be suspended
from the end of a beam 10 feet long, the strain exerted will be 50 x 10 ===
500 lbs., while the tocif/ht which the abutment is called upon to sustain is
only 50 lbs. The strai/t, from a constant load, varies, of course, as its dis-
tance from the abutment, while the weight remains constant for any distance.
And the cross section of the beam must be of sufficient area to support this
weight; therefore, it cannot taper to a point, as the equation would seem to
indicate. Ilowever, as the weight is generally so small in proportion to the
strain, it is scientifically proper that a beam, intended for the support of
THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS.. 561
movable loads, should be smaller at the end than in the middle ; and this is
generally or often the case with bridge chords, &c.
We have hitherto supposed that the weight of the beam itself was no-
thing ; but, practically, we will hardly find this supposition a correct one.
The weight of the beam is to be taken into consideration, and many times is
a most important element in the calculation. Thus, the greatest load that
can ever in practice be placed upon the Britannia Tubular Bridge, over
Menai straits, would be a train of locomotive engines, extending from end to
end, and would weigh about 1,500 tons. But the weight of the bridge itself
is nearly 11,000 tons.
The effect of this weight is, of course, similar to that of a load equally
distributed throughout the entire length of the beam, and is to be estimated
as such. The weight of each half of the beam may be supposed to be col-
lected at its centre of gravity, i. e., half way between the abutment and the
centre of the beam, or at a distance of ^ Z from the abutment. Designating
the weight of the half beam by w, the expression for the strain will be
10 X -^ I = — That is, the strain resulting from the weight of the half
4
beam is equal to one-fourth the product of the length of the beam into its
weight.
Suppose the weight, w, to be accumulated at the middle of the beam. It
would then act with the leverage, ^ I, instead of ^l, as before, and the ex-
pression for the strain will become Therefore, a beam will sustain a
twice heavier load when equally distributed than when accumulated at the
centre.
This may be illustrated somewhat more practically by means of a dia-
gram, and as it shows the prime importance of taking the leverage into ac-
count in questions of this kind, it may be well so to explain it.
Fig. 5. Let A B (Fig. 5) be
a beam, resting upon
the supports, A and B,
at the ends. Let D C
and C E be weights,
resting upon chocks at
D, C, and E. It is evi-
dent that the effect is the same as though they were equally distributed over
the whole length of the beam. One-half of the weight D C, is sustained
at D, and the other half at C, and the like is true of the weight C E. ^ But
the parts sustained at D and E, immediately over the abutments, act without
leverage, and consequently exert no fracturing strain. The parts sustained
at C act with a leverage, A C, or its equal, C B, and, therefore, they alone
tend toward fracture. But the weight sustained at C is only half the entire
weight. The other half rests upon D and E ; therefore the beam Avill sup-
port a w^eight, if equally di?tributed, equal to twice that which it can sustain
if accumulated at the middle. . _ .
The weight of a single beam, as compared with the load which, in struc-
tures of various kinds, it is called on to sustain, is generally of trivial moment,
and may, in many instances, be safely omitted in the calculation. But in
large " built beams," such as bridges and trusses of any description, it is of
great importance, and must be carefully prepared for. In cases like this, an
estimate must first be made of the dimensions of the frame necessary for the
33
662 THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
support of its own weight, and then afterward those dimensions must be
motlified, so as to sustain, in addition, the load about to be imposed.
To illustrate the mode of doing this, let us take one or two examples.
An example given in the previous article was — What is the breaking
weight of a beam of oak, 10 inches broad, 12 inches deep, and 14 feet long?
The answer was found to be 14,331 lbs. This, of course, includes the weight
of the beam itself. We wish to find how much weight can be placed upon
the beam in addition to its own weight. Oak weighs about 36 lbs. per cubic
foot. The weight of the beam then will be about 420 lbs. This weight
being equally distributed, is equivalent to 210 lbs. placed at the centre. The
breaking weight proper then, that is, the weight of the imposed load, will be
14,331 — 210 = 14,121 lbs., or 28,242 lbs. equally distributed.
Take another example.
Seasoned pitch-pine weighs about 30 lbs. per cubic foot. What must be
the length of a stick of this material, 12 inches square, that the breaking-
weight, suspended from the middle, exclusive of its own weight, may be
h d ^
10,000 lbs? In the equation, W ^ C as applied to this case, all the
quantities are known, except Wand I; the first of which is the entire weight,
and the other, the length of the stick in feet. Since the sectional area of the
beam is a square foot, there will be as many cubic feet in its bulk as there
are linear feet in its length ; and each one of these weighing 30 lbs., the
weight of the beam will be represented by 30 I. But this weight, 30 I, is
equally distributed ; its effect is therefore equivalent to 15 Z, suspended from
the middle. The entire breaking-weight of the beam, therefore, will be
10,000 -f 15 Z. By the table given in the previous number, we find C ==
1,632. And substituting these values in the equation W = C, we have
10,000 -f 15 / = ll><ill 1632 = ^^^^ >< ^^^^
12 ; \2l
235008
~ I
15^ + 10,000^ = 235008
Z* X 606,66 Z= 15667.2 a quadratic equation, which,
being solved, gives
; = 22.7 ft.
In like manner, the equation may be solved for any other of the dimen-
sions ; as for instance, to find W, we have
W -f 15 X 22.7 = ^1^^ =10352.8
22.7
W = 10352.8 — 15 X 22.7 = 10,012.3 lbs., which
IB within a fraction of the value of W, as first given.
For trussed bridges, trussed frames, and such built beams, a shorter way
may be adopted.
Suppose a truss supported at each end, and loaded in the middle ; or what
is the same thing, for our purpose, supported at one end, and loaded at the
other. Let the imposed weight be represented by W, and the weight of the
truss itself by w. Let h be the height of the truss, and I its length. It is
required to find the ultimate strength of each of the two chords, upper and
lower == S.
THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 563
The effect of the load, W, acting at the distance, /, is represented by W I.
The effect of the weight, w, acting at the distance, \ I, (its centre of gravity)
is represented by — The sum of the two is W Z + —
It A
The effect of the strength or resistance, S, of the upper chord, acting at
the distance, ^ A, from the neutral axis, is represented by S X ^^ ; and that
Qf the lower chord is the same. The sum of the two (S X i ^) + (S X i ^i)
=S A, which "will be equivalent to the straining force of the entire load —
that is,
S A == W ^ + — : whence
2
( 2A ) _
It should be remarked that Z, as here employed, represents the length of
the truss supported at one end and loaded at the other. If the equation be
used with reference to a truss supported at both ends and loaded in the mid-
dle, I must be halved, and the equation will become
S == /(2 W + w)
( 4A )
To apply this equation, suppose we wish to ascertain the strength and size
of chord necessary for a truss bridge of 180 feet span, and weighing 240,000
!bs., and to bear an imposed load of 4,000 lbs. per lineal foot, (which is more
than twice as much as any ordinary bridge is ever required to sustain.) The
whole imposed load on the bridge will be 720,000 lbs., of which each truss
will support one half, or 360,000 lbs., and each half truss 180,000 lbs. (By
each half truss, is meant that part between one of the abutments and the
middle of the truss.) In this case, then, W = 180,000 and w = 240,000.
Let A = 18 ft. while ^=180 ft. Substituting these quantities in the
equation above, we have
S = 180 (360,000 + 240,000) _ ^^^ ^
( 72 ) '
S = 1,499,999 lbs.— say 1,500,000 lbs.
Assuming 8,000 lbs. per .square inch of sectional area as the breaking
weight of the chords, we have 187.5 square inches as the necessary area of
section of each chord at the middle.
The same equation can be solved for any one of the quantities contained
in it, when the rest are known.
The legitimate strain created by a movable load, such as a train of cars
passing over a bridge, is to be estimated like all other similar strains. It is
greatest when the load is at the middle, and diminishes as it approaches
either end, in the proportion above stated. The effect of the load at each
point in its progress can be easily found from the formulae before given.
The vibration necessarily attending the passage of such a burden as a heavy
train of cars, is to be estimated on other principles, that do not come within
,the scope of the present purpose. Provision is generally made against such
vibration by a system of stiffening and bracing. Therefore, the truss for a
bridge is necessarily somewhat more complicated than that for the support
of a roof, or any similar stationary permanent load.
Let us find, from the dimensions of the beam, and the breaking weight as
data, some formula which may serve as an expression for the strain per
square inch of sectional arefi.
56i
TilE STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
Fig. 6.
ii
be, therefore, ~ , which is equivalent
to
2d'
If W (Fig. 6) be the
breaking weight at the cen-
tre, then the load supported
by the half beam, B E, will
be ^ W. The length of
the whole beam, D B, is /,
and that of the half beam,
B E, is -^ /. The leverage
is equal to this length, di-
vided by the depth, A B
= f? of the beam, and will
The product of this lererage
into the weight, ^ W, will represent the entire strain on the cros^ section,
— ; X ^ W == — ■ , which, divided bv b d, the expression for the sectional
2d ^ Ad ' . ' r
area, will be the strain per square iuch ; and the formula will be
Wl
n
— that is
Ahd^
the strain, per square inch, equals the product of the length of the beam into
the entire weight lequired to break it at the centre, divided by four times the
product of the sectional area aod depth — all the dimensions being of the
same denomination, i. e., all ii> inches, or all in feet.
Take the example first given. A beam of oak, 14 feet long, 10 inchei'*
thick, and 12 inches deep, just breaks under a weight at the centre — including
its own — of 14,331 lbs. What is the strain per square inch of section?
XT 14,331 X (14 X 12) 2407608 ,.^ , . , •
H = — ^^ ~J = = 418 — which is
4 X 10 X 12' 5760
one-fourth of the number given as the value of the constant C for this mate-
rial. Indeed, we might have reached the same result from the equation
itself. For, substituting for W its value, as given in the formula
7 7 3
W = — - C, and, reducing, we find H = ^ C.
This is applicable for single, unassisted beams. But it is evident that a
disposition of several beams may be made, such that one may assist and
support the other. Such is the case in an ordinary truss. It may, perhaps,
♦ be well to explain the principles on which the simple but effectual frame is
constructed :
Fig. 7. A A (Fig. 7) and B
B are the chords, c c
c" &c., are the ties, and
d d' and d" are the
braces. Suppose a load
to be suspended from
the lower chord, A A.
It is communicated by
the tie, c, to the upper
chord, B B, where it is
divided and transferred
each way down the
brae..'?, cZ and c/, back. to the chonl, A A; here it is again carried to the
PHOTOGRAPHY. 565
upper chord by the ties, c and c\ whence it is again sent down by the braces,
d' and d\ and so on, until it reaches the abutments at each end. Thus, the
principle of the truss is simply that of distribution. Strain is not allowed to
concentrate itself at any one poi#t, but is continually shifted and scattered.
Hence it is obvious, that the standard for the strength of truss chords must
be very much higher than that for mere unassisted similar beams ; and the
beam which, single, Avould support one thousand pounds, may sufter with
safety the imposition of a far heavier load, if forming the chord of a, judi-
ciously constructed truss. Hence there is no necessary contradiction in_ the
assumption previously made of the strength, per square inch, of a bridge
chord at 8000 lbs. The beam itself is, of course, no stronger, or more
capable of endurance, but it is so disposed, that the load placed upon it is
shifted and thrown off. C. E.
p. s, — In my article in the January number occur two or three misprint«,
which rather interfere with a correct understanding of the text. On page
412, the words, " that of," in the twenty-ninth line from the top, should be
omitted. In the thirtieth line, for " E. W.," read " 4 W." In the thirty-
first and thirty-second lines, for "a;," between ".f/," and "P," and, also, be-
tween"/ E," and " W," read " X ," the sign of multiplication. In the thirty-
fourth line strike out the word " the," before " P ;" and in the thirty-fifth
line, insert " inversely," between " varies" and " as," and, also, between
"is" and "as."
PHOTOGRAPHY.
This art is now attracting much attention from the public, in virtue, not only
of the rare beauty of its results, but, of its diverse and infinite applicability to
the reproduction of every variety of object. Following appropriately in the
wake of the daguerreotype art, it has opened a new field, and awakened a
new interest in its growth and perpetuity. The first public dawning of the
daguerreotypic art was obscured by the clouds of prejudice and ignorance on
the one hand, and distrust and jealousy on the part of artists. It, however,
made its way, and, under the guidance of men of taste, skill, and energy, has
at length become a recognized and leading feature in the world-of art.^
It may not be uninteresting to some of our readers to detail the distinction
between the daguerreotypic and photographic processes. The daguerreo-
type, as is well known, is produced by the action of light upon a preparation
of chemicals upon the surface of a highly-polished, metallic plate. The re-
versal of the object daguerreotyped is a necessity of this process. _ The pro-
duction of photographs, though similar, differs in the respect that impression
is first taken upon a plain surface, and from thence transferred by the action
of light, to chemically prepared paper, the transfer again reversing the im-
pression, and thus bringing it back to its original position. The effect upon
the glass being durable, the number of impressions may be multiplied to_ an
indefinite extent, at a comparatively nominal expense. This feature is a
specially important one, as it affords to clubs, associations, or persons desirous
of possessing themselves of portraits of any distinguished individual, ample
facilities for doing so. So much for the modus operandi of the art. Its ad-
vantages, in point of merit, over the daguerreotype, are briefly these : A
more delicate softness of tint and transparency of shadow, and an entire free-
566 WHITE aoLDEN FLINT WHEAT.
dom from the reflected glare of the metallic plates. These, together with
certain technical advantages, familiar only to the artist, and the faculty of re-
duplication, constitute its chief claims to pne-eminence. Its applicability to
architectural views, scenery, mechanism, or any object requiring clearness, yet
delicacy of outline, is also a prominent feature of excellence.
We look forward, and not far in the future, to the time when the traveller's
paraphernalia will be incomplete without a photographic apparatus. Of
course the result of this wide practice of the art will be not only to familiarise
us with the architectural and scenic features of countries, of which we can
now know but little through the medium of verbal or engraved descriptions,
but to impel the artist to a more earnest study, and a more correct realiza-
tion of the importance of truth in art. For, with the perfection of photo-
graphic perspectives, the correct and delicate shading of its fairy pencil,
challenging their study, and provoking their emulation, artists can not fail
to approach nearer to the ultimate standard of excellence — truth.
Yet, notwithstanding the great capacity for good which the art pos-
sesses, it embodies in no less a degree the elements which may be turned
against the interests of art with fatal power. Its assumption by men whose
sole object is gain, and its consequent degradation, render it a convenient
vehicle for the dissemination and perpetuation of crude and uncultured ideas
of art. Unlike the daguerreotype, its susceptibility of being colored, either
in oil or water colors, enhances and aggravates the danger. For, if the in-
ferior execution, the degraded pandering to a ridiculous taste for high colors
is more generally sought, who can doubt but it will be readily obtained ; or
who can doubt that the result of such a condition of the photographic art,
would entail a serious injury upon the cherished interests of public taste, and
a fostering of the love for objects of the beautiful.
The studio of Mr. Brady, of this city, furnishes many fine specimens of the
daguerreian art, and this encourage us to hope that his attempts to perfect
this new discovery will not be in vain. Indeed, he has already produced
some excellent pictures. If he develops its wonderful capabilities, and ren-
ders it an aid to the sister arts, and a universal teacher of the true and the
beautiful, he will add another to the many laurels he has already won.
White Golden Flint Wheat. — A sample of this superior wheat was
exhibited by William Stavely, Esq., at the recent fair in Bucks county, and
attracted unusual attention and commendation. The grains were about
twice the size of the ordinary white wheat, round and plump; while the
color was about the same as the old, and with the millers, a favorite variety.
Mr. Stavely informs us that he sowed two bushels on an acre last fall, which
produced about twenty-five bushels last harvest. The ground upon which it
grew, he does not think the best, and is of opinion that it would have pro-
duced about the same amount of Mediterranean wheat. As an evidence of
the estimation in which he holds it, we may add that he has put the whole
twenty-five bushels in the ground for next year's crop. — Farm Journal.
Aldernev Cattle. — P. T. Barnum has imported two cows and a bull of
the Alderney breed. They came from London in the ship Splendid, and
are intended for his farm in Bridgeport, Ct.
MACHINE FOR MAKING CHAIN LINKS.
667
MACHINE FOR MAKING CHAIN LINKS.
The annexed engravings are views of an improved machine for making
chain links, and were sent to us by Mr. Arcalous WyckofF, Columbus, Ohio,
to whom a patent was granted on the 14th of last February.
Figure 1 is a side elevation of the machine; figure 2 is a detached view,
exhibiting on the under side the cutter and bender of the wire in its horizon-
tal movement ; figure 3 is a detached view of a portion of figure 1, to show
the action of the vertical bender, sleeve, and lever, giving the middle bend of
the link. Similar letters refer to like parts on the three figures.
This improvement in machines for making chains consists in giving the
grip and middle bend of the Unk, cutting the wire the requisite length, and
bending both ends of it simultaneously, and, by an automatic movement, de-
livering the formed link ready for joining in a continuous chain.
In figure 1, a; x represent a solid table. A is the pulley to which the
power is applied, carrying on its shaft a pinion, B, giving motion to the
driving wheel, C, on shaft, C ; D and E are cams on the horizontal shaft, C,
for operating the bars, O and N ; F is a large cam also on the shaft, C,
which, striking against the end of the bar, carrying rack, H, gives an inter-
mittent motion to the pinion, K, placed on a vertical shaft, which also carries
a bevel pinion (placed under K for giving motion to L, carrying a^sleeve,) on
the outer end of which is a bending arm, which, in its semi-revolution, forms
one eye of the link ; M is a pinion (driven by K) which is placed on a verti-
cal shaft, and also carrying a sleeve, on the end of which is secured the knife
or die,/, for cutting the wire into suitable lengths, and, likewise, for bending
568 LARGE apples:
the other eye of each link ; 0 is a bar moved by cam E, it operates a lever,
R, for giving the middle bend to the link, and holding or clamping the wire
while being cut by/ and stationary die, ^, also retaining it until the link is
formed ; N is a bar moved by cam, D, operating the pinion, M, by striking
a stud while the wire is cutting ; P is a gauge (operated on by a set screw,)
for graduating the pressure of the angular end of the slide bar, 0, on the
lever, R, in giving the middle bend and grip to the link t Y is a sliding bar
for closing the opening, 8, figure 2, through which the wire is fed ; it is
pressed by the back of the cutter, /J which contracts the helical spring, 10,
on the shank of Y ; this spring re-acts the moment the pressure is removed,
and the bar, Y, is forced back, and closes the opening, 8, while the eyes of
the link are forming ; T T are small, flat springs, having stub bolts or pins
working in inclined grooves in the ends of the sleeves or pinions, M and L ;
they are for the purpose of throwing off the link formed on the mandrels, c
and b. The mandrel, h, is the one around which the end of the wire is carried
horizontally by the die,/ in forming one eye ; c is the mandrel around which
the wire is carried vertically by the bender on the sleeve of L, simultaneously
with the formation of the other eye on & / G is a cam secured on the side of
cam F, and^in its revolutions, operating on lever, I, draws back the rack, H,
giving a -reverse movement to all the pinions except B, the rod, Y, being
moved by the back of the die,/," permits the wire to be fed in opening 8.
The operation is as follows : — A wire being introduced in opening 8, and
held at a slight angle, is forced against the adjustable stop, 12, passing
through a guide near to that side ; the angular projection, 4, on lever, R, is
brought to bear diagonally on the wire, and, forcing it up between the pins,
c and h, by means of cam, E, operating on bar, O, and forcing the angular
projection thereon under the lever, R, raises it, and thus gives the middle
bend to the wire, and securely clamping it between the pins, and against the
plates. The die,/j is now moved by the semi-revolution of pinion, M, acted
on by bar, N, and cam, D, and cuts off the wire rod the requisite length for
a link, at the same time carrying it horizontally around the pin or mandrel,
b, while the bender on the sleeve of pinion, L, simultaneously carries the
other end round the pin, c ; L receiving its motion from the miter wheel
under K, said wheel being actuated by the sliding rack, H, and cam, F, and
completes the link. The springs, T T, are now forced outwards by the pins
working in incMned grooves on the ends of the sleeves, and thus slide the eyes
off the pins or mandrels, c and b, and the link drops from the machine ready
for joining, which may be done by closing the eyes by hand, but much more
perfectly by machinery.
This machine, now in operation at Columbus, Ohio, makes about sixty
links per minute, or fifteen hundred pounds per day, and bends them ready
for use.
Large Apples. — Thomas Pritchard, Esq., of this city, has shown us the
finest specimens of apples we have ever seen in any country ; many of them
measured fifteen and sixteen inches in circumference, and weighed twenty-
eight and twenty-nine ounces. Fifteen or sixteen fill a half-bushel measure.
These apples were raised by Nathan Robinson of this county, on trees only
three years' growth. — Oregonian.
MISCELLANEOUS.
569-
MACHINE FOR CHOPPING BRUSH.
A CORRESPONDENT of the New-Eiigland Farmer gives the following
account of an invention of Mr. Daniels, of Vermont, (of Woodstock, we sup-
pose, the inventor of one of the best of hay-cutters,) which he saw in opera-
tion on the farm of Col. Stanley, of Methuen. AVe do not quite compre-
hend its form, but its efficiency seems very evident. The writer says :
Messrs. Eeitors : In passinof through Methuen, a few weeks since, I had
occasion to call on Col. Charles E. Stanley, of that town, when I was shown
by that gentleman a machine, or rather, cutter, belonging to him, to whicli
horse-power is applied, for the purpose of cutting limbs and brush at the
door. It is called " Daniel's Patent," of Vermont, being very much on the
principle of some hay-cutters, only on a much larger scale. Two huge
knives, about eighteen inches long, one-half .inch thick, and four and a halt
in width, are strongly fastened on the shaft roll. A good feed roll is also
applied. Hard wood limbs, without trimming, that are not more than three
inches, or pine that are not more than four and one-half inches through at
the butt, are cut with ease. By changing the gearing, they can be cut any
length desired, from four and one-half to one fourth of an inch in length.
When green pine limbs are cut two inches long and spread upon a floornot
more than ten inches in depth, they will dry so as to burn well in a week.
Col. Stanley says he can cut limbs and brush to the above degree of fine-
ness faster than a smart man, with a good yoke of oxen, can haul and diimp
them from one-fourth of a mile distant. The. advantage of cutting it so
fine is, that it brings much scraggy and otherwise worthless brush, up to
more than the value of its weight in solid wood, which, in these times of
scarcity and high prices of fuel, is an object of too much importance to be
overlooked. Col. Stanley's neighbors bring brush to him to be cut on equal
shares. As near as I- could judge, the machine will do the work of forty
men. „.,
The reason that the chips dry so quick, is, that they are not cut square ott,
but obliquely, one side being concave, and the other convex ; consequently they
are shattered to such a degree, that the air is admitted entirely t^^o^|J^^^|"^'
and the drying process imediately commences.
Danvers, Jan. 16, 1855.
MISCELLANEOUS.
The Orangx Water-Melon.— Mr. Peabody, editor of the Soil of the
South, Columbus, Ga., has lately introduced a new kind of water-melon,
and which, from its singular properties, he calls the orange water-melon. P>y
cutting the rind, as you peel an orange, the entire skin may be taken oft,
leaving the pulp unbroken, which, with a little care, may be divided as you
would an orange. The flavor is said to be rery fine, and it has proved
itself perfectly hardy in this State. Mr. P. will, on receipt of a dollar, for-
ward pre-paid packages of the seed.
GrAS Lime. — Who has tried gas lime as a manure, and what was the result ?
An answer to the above would be of service to many persons. ^ Who of our
agricultural chemists can give its virtues, and the method of using it ?
670 MISCELLANEOUS.
Illinois. — Inexhaustible coal mines are found in the south part of tho
State. Also lead, porcelain-clay, white and gray marble, saltpetre, salt
marshes, Epsom salts, and pure alum. Shortly the Illinois Central Rail-
road, a continuous line of 440 miles, will connect this region with Galena.
A fine quarry of slate is being opened hnU a mile from the Railroad
Depot in Northfield, upon the Land of B. F. Woodworth. It is very acces-
sible, and, we doubt not, of excellent quality for roofing. Some think, from
the dip and range, that it belongs to the same quarry with the slate west of
the mountain. Who knows the riches of our State ?
Steam Guk in England. — A London correspondent of the Hew- York
Spirit of the Times says, that among the many interesting experiments that
are daily performed in England, is Perkins' Steam Gun, which just now is
attracting great attention. The gun is fixed, and the experiments are made,
driving out balls at the rate of 300 to 400 a minute. Mr. Perkins has
offered to the English Government to erect a single steam gun that shall take
Sebastopol, or any other Russian stronghold, at a distance of five miles. He
proposes to send a ball of one ton weight that distance, and with much
greater efiect than with powder at one-fifth that distance. It is in contempla-
tion, I believe, by government, to give orders for the manufacture of this gun,
in order that the experiments may be tried.
Earthquakes and Electricity. — The Boston Traveller says, that during
the forenoon of the 8th instant, when shocks of earthquakes were felt in
Maine, New-Brunswick avd Nova Scotia, telegraphic lines in different sections
of the country were more or less disturbed by extraneous electric currents,
similar to those that uniformly accompany manifestations of the Aurora Bo-
realis ; but the disturbance was slight, compared with that which accom-
panied the eruption of Manna Loa, a volcano on one of the Sandwich Islands,
in February, 1852, at which time every telegraph line throughout the country,
from Halifax to New-Orleans, and from New- York to St. Louis, was rendered
completely inoperative.
Improvements in Puddling Iron. — James Nasmyth, of Patricroft, near
Manchester, England, has recently patented an improved operation in iron
manufacture, by subjecting the molten metal in the puddling or refining fur-
nace to the action of a current of steam, introduced at its lower portion,
diffusing upwards, and thus mechanically agitating the liquid metal, and ex-
posing fresh surface to the oxygen of the furnace atmosphere, which chemi-
cally combines with the carbon and sulphur contained in the iron, and deprives
it of those impurities. The hydrogen set free is thus in a state to combine
with any excess of sulphur, whether present in the iron, or as a product of
the combustion of the fuel. — Mining Journal.
Durham Cattle For Sale. — James W Pearse, of Lancaster, is now
in Marion county, with a lot of superior Short-horn Cattle for sale. Several
of them took premiums at the recent Fairfield show, and several of the best
breeders of that region certify as to their purity of blood and fine points.
We see by tho Zanesville papers that Jones, of the "Stacey House," pur-
chased of Mr. Pearse a thorough-bred heifer ; and Thos. Hall, of Wayne Town-
ship, Muskingum county, another. Mr. Pearse will be recognized as the
owner of the celebrated "C/ay Trustee," md also "/*nnc« ffal"
MISCELLANEOUS.
571
Sizes of Shoes.— The Lynn Directory, for 1851, says a size is the length
of one "barley-corn," or one-third of an inch. A size stick is thus formed :
Take a rule or piece of pine-wood, thirteen inches in length, and divide it into
thirty-nine equal parts of one-third of an inch each. The first thirteen are
left blank, and counted nothing. The second thirteen are called niens
and women's sizes ; each marked from one to thirteen. Thus, nine inches is
a man's size, No. 1 ; ten inches is No. 4 ; eleven inches, No. Y ; twelve inches,
No. 10.
The Great Bell of Vienna weighs 34,400 pounds, and a small family
could live conveniently under the immense structure. Eight men are re-
quired to ring it, as the clapper alone weighs 1,400 pounds. In the room
with the clock is stationed a roan to watch for the breaking out of fires in
the city and suburbs. He takes the angle by means of a fine telescope, and
on a chart, prepared for the purpose, finds the street and house ; and the
alarm is then given.
Gold Mines.— The Petersburg Intelligencer gives a list embracing fifteen
of the most important gold mines of the State, the aggregate value of which
is estimated at $1,700,000. Of these, five are not worked for want of
capital, and four, valued at $575,000, are owned by English companies. The
great drawback of gold mining in Virginia is the want of adequate ma-
chinery— or, in other words, the mines are not rich enough to be profitably
worked by the ordinary methods.
Deformed Roots. — English farmers are much troubled with deformed
roots, in their culture of carrots, parsnips, and other root crops. They form
what are called fingers and toes, instead of the conical and regular shapes
usual in successful root-growing. On a large scale this becomes a serious
evil. A great amount of discussion has been bad in their papers as to the
cause of this difiiculty, and the remedy for it.
A late writer in the Agricultural Gazette states that the difficulty is in the
seed-growing, and not in the root culture. His remedy is to cut out the
central umbel, in seed-growing, and thus distribute the sap into ^he lateral
ones, when a healthy seed -is produced. In this way, "fingers and toes"
never disturb him. In using the seed of the central and large umbels, he
always gets the deformed roots. — Prairie Farmer.
Tradesmen and Laborers. — If any of our readers can furnish employ-
ment for good workmen in any branch of industry, we shall be glad to send
to them men who are well recommended. Hundreds of good men are still
unemployed.
The Sketch of E. B. Bigelow, Esq. — The Biographical sketch of this
gentlemen, found in this number, is taken, with consent of the author, Nehe
miah Cleveland, Esq., from the pages of the Merchants'' Magazine.
Tennessee. — The coal mines at the Bluffs, seventy-five miles from Mem-
phis, (recently discovered) yield the best quality of coal, and are apparently
'nexhaustible.
672 NEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
Mining Engines and Machinery. A Barclay, Kilmarnock. Patent
dated March 2, 1854. — A portion of the improvements comprehended in
this patent relate to the so arranging the winding engines of coal and other
mines, that they may be more safely managed than at present, whilst all
chance of "over-winding" and injury to the mining mechanism may be
avoided. These improvements are effected by adapting the ordinary and
well-known " link motion" to the hand-gear of the engine, so that the attend-
ant can easily stop and reverse his engine at the exact moment required in
the action of winding. To do this, the engine-man has only to work a hand-
lever up or down ; and this lever being suitably connected with the "link-
motion," correspondingly affects the portion of such motion, and thereby
either stops or reverses the engine, as is at present done in locomotive and
marine engines. By such a system of gearing, the motion is entirely
unbroken, and the attendant has always a safe and perfect command over his
engine ; and to add still further to the safe working of the system, a self-act-
ing movement is contrived to come into play at the precise moment required,
for the purpose of stopping or reversing the engine, in case the engine-man
should be careless or absent at the proper time. For this purpose a tumbler
is so connnected with the engine or winding mechanism, that it shall be
slowly wound up, or elevated to its falling centre, at the time that the motion
of the engine is to be changed. Thus, as this tumbler falls over, it acts
' through suitable connections upon the reversing or stopping-link, and effects
the intended movement. Various means may be adopted for securing the
self-acting effect, disengaging pins or stops being so set as to actuate the link-
movement at the proper time.
As adapted to direct-acting horizontal cylinder winding and pumping
engines, for instance a small shaft passes away back from the main-shaft to
the steam-cylinder, at which end this small shaft carries a worm in gear with
a worm-wheel set on a horizontal stud. This wheel has a ring-groove in its
side to receive adjustable stud-pins, which are set at the proper distances in
■ the wheel, so as to act upon the adjusting lever of the valve-link motion.
Provision is also made, by a separate adjusting slide or bolt, for allowing the
engine-man to set the engine to go constantly in one direction, as when used
for pumping. When so set, the adjustable-pins of the worm wheel no longer
affect the engine, so as to set the valves for back or forward actions, or the
up and down winding. Should the engine accidently run slightly beyond
the intended point, an eccentric piece on the stud-spindle carrying the worm-
wheel acts upon a sliding piece carried round by the wheel, and this move-
ment, acting upon the under side of the valve-link lever, sets this lever to its
central position, so as to prevent the return of the engine. These gearing
details are obviously capable of being modified in various ways, and the
arrangements are suitable for beam or other kinds of engines. To prevent
accidents from the main gearing getting disengaged, a friction-brake appa-
ratus is provided, to stop the engine's movement. Thus, should the wheels
fly out of gear — owing, for instance, to the attendant's leaving out the fast-
ening-key when changing from pumping to winding — this friction-strap will
be brought into play to prevent the engine from running away. The brake-
pulley is set upon the shaft, which is liable to slip back, and being loosely
ercifcled by a friction-strap, the lateral traverse, owing to the disengage-
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS. 57^
ment, makes the pulley press itself hard against the interior of the strap.
This strap encircles three fourths of the wheel, and is workable as well from
both its ends. These two opposite ends are each connected to one of the two
opposite cages, that is, the ascending and descending cages. For instance,
when one of the cages arrives at its proper stopping point, it acts upon a pin or
stop in connection with one end of the friction-strap, and draws the strap tight
around the pulley in the direction of the revolution of the pulley at the time
being. Hence, whichever way the engine is running, the friction-strap has a
tendency to be forced down into frictional contact by the pully movement
when once started. The engine-man can also work such friction-brake by a
separate hand or foot-gear movement.
Revolver Fire-Arms. J. H. Johnson, 47 Lincoln's Inn Fields, and Glas-
gow.— The invention of M. Lefaucheux, of Paris, which is the subject of this
patent, relates to the class of fire-arms termed " revolvers," and consists chiefly
of an improved construction of revolving chamber cylinder, and of a new
arrangement of breech, to facilitate the loading of the weapon. The revolv-
ing piece is a cylinder, with six or any other convenient number of cylindrical
or slightly conical holes bored through it, to form the charge-chambers.
An additional hole is bored centrally through the cylinder, for the passage
of the spindle upon which it turns, and to which the barrel of the weapon is
attached. The charge- chambers are each notched through to the outside of
the cylinder at their back edges, to suit the particular description of cartridge
employed, this cartridge being made up with the percussion appliance attached
in such a manner as to enter and project through the notch of the charge-
chamber. The breech o-f the weapon is hemispherical in shape, and is formed
with a vertical groove, in which the hammer works, the hammer rising up
centrally from the stock. The face of the breech-piece is perfectly smooth
and flat, as is also the end of the charge-cylinder in contact with it. A chan-
nel is formed in the breech on one side, through which the cartridges are
introduced into the charge-chambers as these are brought round in succession,
and a filling-uj) piece is hinged to the breech to close the channel when the
chambers are not being charged, a spring-catch being provided to keep the
filling-up piece closed when necessary. In a slide, on one side of the barrel,
and in a line with the charging-channel in the breech-piece, is a rod for
forcing out the cartridges, if required, without exploding them, or for remov-
ing any matter left in the charge-chambers after a discharge. This rod is
prevented, by a blade spring, from falling out or moving, unless the hand
is applied. The rotation of the charge-cylinder is effected in the usual way,
by the action of a catch in connection with the hammer, upon a ratchet
formed upon the cylinder, and the cylinder is retained accurately in position
during each discharge by means of a catch, also acted upon by the ham-
mer, and made to enter a notch in the cylinder-face after each rotative move-
ment.
Journal Bearings. A. Barclay, Kilmarnock. — With a view of econo-
mizing the oil used in lubricating the journal bearings of horizontal shafts,
by enabling it to be repeatedly reiised, Mr. Barclay has designed the improve-
ments forming the subject of the present patent, and which, by preventing
the too rapid escape of the lubricating oil from between the rubbing surfjices,
also renders the lubrication of the shaft much more efScient. In carrying out
this invention, according to one modification, the shaft is formed with a project-
ing collar upon it, of the length of the intended bearing, and the brasses are
574 GENERAL AGENCY.
formed to suit this modification. Each brass extends considerably past eacli
edge of the collar, and is slightly turned out or recessed, so that the angles of
the collar shall be slightly overlapped by the brass. Beyond this overlap on
each side, the extension of the brass is hollowed out internally, to form an
annular cup for the reception of oil, and these edge-cup pieces are well
overhung, and brought close to the plain part of the shaft to prevent the
entry of dirt. The inner face of the upper brass is^inclined upwards from
each side towards the centre, instead of being square across as usual ; and
the result is, that the oil supplied from the top, in the usual way, is well
spread over the frictional surfaces, and, flowing down, it is caught by the
annular cups of the brasses, and retained therein for continued use ; or the
same effect may be obtained by beveling the inner edge or edges of the
inner brass alone, the upper* brass being made square across, as usual. The
continued use of the oil is effected by the action of the bearing collar on the
shaft, for, as this revolves, its edges gather films of oil from the annular cups,
and bring up the oil so collected to the top brass. Here the revolving collar
edges apply the oil to the corresponding edges of the upper brass, and, owing
to the duplex interior incline thereon, the oii is thence conveyed towards the
centre of the bearing, whence it is well distributed over the whole rubbing
surfaces. Instead of a plain collar projection, other forms of journals may be
employed with the same result, or a cuuple of rings may be set fast on the
shaft, so as to carry up the oil in a similar manner.
New Music. — Wm. Hall <fe Son. — We would again remind our readers
of the fine opportunity now offered of buying music very cheaply. Among
the publications offered at reduced prices, we present the following reprints,
and new pieces, with the reduced prices : Leonora, a polka ; Indiana, a
brilliant waltz; Olga Mazurka, by A. Goria; "I Wandered on the Sea-beat
Shore," by J. W. Cherry; "Cheer, Boys, Cheer," by Henry Russell; each
of which contains five pages, and each is sold at fifteen cents. " Swinging,
Swinging, All Day Long;" or. Song of the Old Hall Clock, is a very pretty
solo and chorus, by Wuitzel, copyright, at twenty-five cents, nett, five pages.
Gejteral Agency. — The publisher of Tlie Plough, the Loom, and the Anvil,
believing it in his power to be of essential service to the readers of that journal,
in the purchase or sale of various articles, and the transaction of various kinds of
business, would announce to them that he is ready to execute any such commis-
sion which he may receive, including the purchase of books of any description;
implements connected with agricultural, manufacturing, or mechanical opera-
tions; artificial manures; farm and garden seeds, etc., etc. One of the gentle-
men connected with the journal is a proficient in music, and experienced in the
selection of piano-fortes, flutes, etc., and will execute orders in that department.
He will also act as agent in the purchase and sale of Real Estate.
|W°Particular attention to business connected with the Patent-OfBce.
Letters of inquiry on these matters will be promptly attended to.
School-Teachers. — Having had occasion to furnish teachers for some
of our Southern friends, we have been fortimate enough to learn of several
young ladies who are admirably well qualified for families or schools, and if any
are in need of such, a letter addressed to us will receive immediate answer. We
shall not fear to guarantee that any reasonable expectations will be fully met.
Some of them are desirous of going South.
LIST OF PATENTS.
»
675
List of Patents Issued
FROM JAN. 2, TO FEB. 6, 1855
Thos. n. Barlow, Lexington, improvement in
Are -arms.
Jarvis Case, Springfield, Ohio, improvement in
seed-planters.
John S. Barden, New-IIaven, for water metre.
Jotham S. Conant, New-York, improvement in
sewing machines.
Wm. C. Hooper, of Pittsburgh, for bench plane.
Edward H. Graham, Biddeford, Me., improve-
ment in fire-arms.
John H. Allen, Bidleford, Me., improvement in
temples for looms.
John S. Addison, New-York, improved gold
washer and amalgamator.
Alfred C. C.irrait, Hanover, Mass., improvements
in plugs lor lubrical}ug axles.
Michael D. Dyott, Philadelphia, improvement in
lamp shades.
John C. Kline, Pittsburgh, improvement in door-
latch locks.
Arnton Smith, Macoupin county, III., improve-
ment in plows.
Samuel H. Robinson, Baltimore, improvement
in lime kilns.
Geo. M. Ramsey, Newark, for moulding machine.
Alonzo D. Perry, Newark, improvement in fire-
arms.
Lucius Paige, Cavendish, Vt., improvement in
brake blocks for railroad cars.
Jno. L. McPherson, New Vienna, 0., improve-
meui in scale.
Hezekiah B. Smith, Lowell, improvement in
sewing machine.
C. B. Morse, Rhinebeck, for moulding machine.
Elisba P. Beckwith, New-Londou, improvement
in spring balances.
Abijah R. Tewksbury, Boston, for improved
steering apparatus.
Parley Hutchins, Norwich, Mass., improved
handlruck.
0. B. Judd, Little Falls, improvement in grain
and grass harvesters.
John A. Pitts, Buffalo, improvement in straw
cutters.
R. L. Hawes, Worcester, for machine for making
boxes of paper.
Elijah Morgan, Morgantown, Va., improvement
in 6ted planters.
John F. Masscher, Philadelphia, for stereoscopic
medallion.
Hezekiah Conant, Hartford, improvement in
moulds lor casting projectiles.
John Sutton, New-York, lubricator for steam
engi nes.
Stephen L. Stockstill, and Pater H. Hume?
Brandt, 0., improvement in seed planters. '
Gustavus Wissenborn, New- York, improved ar-
rangement of filtering apparatus to prevent incrust-
atiou iu steam boilers.
John T. Willmarlh, Northbridge, Mass, im-
proved dies for making bolts.
Wendell Wright, New-York, improvement in
mode of connecting pipes for steam boilers.
Ambrose Poster, Portland, Wisconsin, and Eli-
zabeth A. Messinger, administratrix, and Wm.
Spencer, adminisirator of John A. Wessing^r'
deceased, of Milwaukie, Wisconsin, assignors'
through saia administratrix, and administrator to
Ambrose Foster, aforesaid, improved building
block.
Wm. Leighton, Cambridge, Mass., assignor to
the New-England Glass Company, of same place
improvements indoor A nobs. '
Wm. M. Bonwill, Camden, Del., improvement in
hernial trusses.
Wm. Shaw, Boston, improved gas heater.
Solomon G. Booth, New-York, inaprovement in
rollers for corrugating sheet metal.
George A. Brown, Widdletown, R. L, for hay-
making machine.
Henry J. Braaer, Nazareth, for improved instru-
ment for cutting out stone.
Dexter A. Chamberlain, and John Hartshorn,
Boston, improvement in rollers for curtain?.
George R. Comstock, Manhelm, New-York, im-
provement in carriage seats.
George R. Comstock, Manhelm, New-York, im-
provement in carriage seats.
George R. Comstock, Manhelm, New- York, im-
provement in carriages.
James Eccles, Philadelphia, improvement in
looms.
Henry A. Frost, Worcester, improvement in
means for holdmg window-blinds.
Louis Francis Groebl, Ph ladelphia, for improved
marquetry.
Michael Greenbaum, Chicago, for improved hot
air furnaces.
Wm. H. Harn, Carlisle, Pa., improved mill for
cutting and grindiag vegetables.
Wm. Ives, Buffalo, for book brace.
Samuel G. Jones, Fitzwater Town, Pa., improve-
ment in lifting jacks.
Charles Meitam, New- York, improvement in
rolling iron shutters.
Daniel Newton, Southamton, Conn., improve-
ment in metal folding machines.
Horace W. Peaslee, Maiden Bridge, New- York
improvrment in machine for washing paper stock.'
Patented in E igland, September 20, 1854.
Albert W. Roberts, Hartford, Conn., improve-
ment in fire engines.
E. K. Root, Hartford, for improved compound
rifling machines.
Eloy Schmiiz, New-York, for improved appara-
tus for supplying furnaces with pulverized metal.
R. P. Benton, Rochester, improvement in feed-
ing morticing machines.
Isaac J. Cole, Clermont, for improved compound
crowbar.
Abel W. Streeter, Shelburne Palls, Mass., im-
provement in fastening centre bits.
John Sutton, New-York, for lubrication of steam
maahiuery
576
LIST OF PATENTS.
Lewis Hoover, Jersey City, improvement in lan-
terns.
Henry Blakeley, New-York, improvemeut in
iron window blinds.
Geo. Copelaud, Lewiston, Me., improvemenl in
looms.
[saae Williams, and Isaac W. Bausman, Alle-
ghany county. Pa., improvement, in cotton seed
planters.
Samuel Huffman, Charleston, Illinois, assignor
to himself and Dennis 0'Hara, Washington, U. C. ,
improvement in repeating cannon.
Edmond Morris, Burlington, N. J., improve-
ment in buckets for chain pumps.
Leopold and Joseph Thomas, Alleghany City, for
match machine.
John U. VVallis, Dansville, New- York, improve-
ment in paddle wheels.
Geo. F. Wood, Ulysses, New-York, improve-
ment iu oscillating engines.
John M. Bull, Sidney, O., improvement inhand-
rails for stairs.
Newell A. Prince, Brooklyn, improved fountain
pen,
I, J. W. Adams, Sharptown, Md., improved im-
plements for boring wells.
Wm. Adamson, Philadelphia, improvement in
clarifying glue.
Abel H. Baxtlett, Kings Bridge, for hot air fur-
nace.
B. F. Rabbitt, New- York, for car ventilator.
John Blackwood, Franklin Co., Ohio, improve-
ment in seed planters.
Jacob Brown, Lawn Bridge, 111., improvement in
seed planters.
Dexter H. Chamberlain, and John Hartshorn,
Boston, fountain brush.
Alfred Doe, Concord, Improvement in plows.
Jas. Eaton, Townsend Harbor, Mass., improve-
ment in dies for cap-tube machines.
George Fowler, Northford, Ct., for double-acting
force pump.
Hezekiah Griswold, Hartford, improvement in
the yoke of shirts.
Jonathan Ilibbs, Tullytown, Pa., improvement
in clover hullers.
Alex. Hall, Lloydsville, Ohio, improvement in
■piano fortes.
John Hobbs, Hallowell, improvement in rain
staff screws for ship carpenters.
Washburn Race, and Birdsill Holly, Seneca
Falls, improvement in carriage wheels.
R. Jennings, Deep River, Ct., improvement in
augers.
Wm. H. McNamee, Philadelphia, improvement in
locking spindle door latches.
Sidq^y S. Middlebrook, Jas. E. Blakslee, and
Charles F. Blakslee, Newton, Ct., improvement in
machinery for felting hat bodies.
J. B. Nichols, Lynn, improvement in sewing
machines.
Aaron Palmer, Brockport, improvemfrt in the
construction of the frame of grass harvesters.
Elijah F. Parker, Proctorsville, Vt. improvement
in lantern frames.
Jesse Eeed, Marshfield, improvement in cable
stoppers.
Henry Rogers, Ferrisburgh, Vt., improved force-
;iump.
David Russell, Drewersburg, Ind., improvement
in harvester cutters.
Alex. O. H. P. Sehom, Murfreesboro, Tenn., im-
provement in portable fire-amis.
Thaddeus Selleck, Greenwich, Ct., improvement
in methods of working Franklinite ore.
John Skelley, Brooklyn, improvement in carriage
■wheels.
Geo. L. Squir, Chicopee Falls, improvement in
straw cutters.
Joseph Stockdale, Ypsilanti, improvement in
cultivator teeth.
Jonathan G. Trotter, Newark, N. J., improve-
ment in the construction of furnaces for zinc white.
Henry G. Tyler, aad John Helm, New-Bruns-
wick, N. J., improvement iu processes for making
india-rubber cloth.
Elisha Waters, Troy, improvement in cylindri-
cal boxes.
Salem Wilder, Lynn, improvement in wasing
thread in sewing machines.
Pinney Youngs, Milwaukie, Wis., improvement
in sewing machines.
James S. Ewbank, New- York, assignor to Wm.
Everdell Jr., of same place, improvement in spurs.
Edwin A. Morrison, LawrenceviUe, Va., assignor
to himself and Robt. J. Morrison, Richmond, Va.,
improvement in delivering apparatus of grain har-
vesters.
George A. Meacham, New- York, for ■window
washer.
John Bean, and Benj, Wright, Hudson, Mich.,
improvement in smut machines.
W. C. & J. S. Burnham, New- York, improve-
ments in double-acting force-pumps.
John H. Bloodgood, New- York, improvement in
manufacturing seamless felt goods.
David N. B. Coffin, Jr., Lyim, improved da-
guerreotype holder.
Nelson B. Carpenter, and John Powers, New-
York, improved lifiing jacks for moving rail bare.
Richard Deering, Sr., Louisville, for current wa-
ter-wheels.
Geo. W. Geisendorff, Indianapolis, and Jacob C.
Geisendorff, Cincinnati, O., improvement in axle
box rollers.
John S. Griffiths, Huntington, Pa., improved
corn and cob crusher.
F. B. Bant, and Ellis Nordyke, Richmond, Indj,
improved wire cloth bolt.
Birdsill Holly, Seneca Falls, improvement in
elliptical rotary pump.
Daniel Haldeman, Morgantown, Va., improved
burglar's alarm.
Alpheus Kimball, Fitchburg, Mass., improved
machine for repairing roads.
S. E. Peltee, Foxborough, Mass., improvement
in pressing hats and bonnets.
Robt. A. Smith, and John Hartman, Jr., Phila-
delphia, improved street-sweeping machine.
Wm. Mt. Storm, New- York, improvement in
steam generators.
Joel Weigle,Swan Station, Pa., improved crush-
ing and grinding mill.
Wm. B. Carpenter, New-Y'ork, improvement iu
the combined chair and crib for children.
John Cochrane, Baltimore, improvement in lo-
comotive trucks.
V, P. Corbet, Corbetsville, New- York, improve-
ment in constructing ships and other vessels.
Thomas Champion, Washington, improvement
in making steam boilers.
Henry Glynn , Baltimore, improvement in manu-
faeture of paper pulp.
James A. Gray, Albany, improved sounding-
board for piano fortes.
James H. Mayilole, and Albert W. Morse, Eaton,
N. Y., improvement in grass harvesters.
Isaac M. Singer, New-York, improvement in
sewing machines.
James A. Taylor, Alden, New-York, improve-
meut in mop-heads.
Isaiah M. Williams, Blanchester, 0., improve-
ment in butter workers.
Cyrenus Wheeler, Jr., Venice, New-York, im-
provement in grain and grass harvesters.
L. W. Fiske, Louisville, improvement in com-
positions for bleaching and stuffing leather.
L. W. Fiske, Louisville, improvement in work-
ing lime vats and tanneries.
Hazen Webster, Ogdensburg, improvemeiu in
churns.
Geo; B. Ketcham, Bedford, Ind., improvement
in mechanism for retaining cars upon the track.
J. G. McFarlane, Perry Co., Pa., improvement u
seed planters. Patented, March 14, 1S54.
Clje II0119I), tlie inm, anli tf)f ^nuil.
Vol. VII. APRIL, 1856. No. 10.
MANA.GEMENT OF FAIRS— SYSTEMS OF PREMIUMS— WHO DESERVE
THEM?
We gave our views on this subject at some length, in our February num-
ber, but rather in general than in detail. The subject of premiums was
discussed, and, in reference to the policy of the plan now generally adopted,
it was contended that premiums are not for the particular benefit of those
who obtain them, but that they are oifered for the sake of their influence in
securing a good exhibition. We now would very modestly suggest the ex-
pediency of a thorough change in this system of premiums.
But, before we enter farther upon the subject, we must insist on this:
That a plan which is the best here or there, may not be the best plan, or
even a good plan, everywhere. We are, by far, too much inclined to be
imitators. This tendency often is good ; sometimes ii is ruinous. It may
have been well, hitherto, to adopt the present system of premiums, but we
have little doubt that there are sections of country where a change of sys-
tem would operate beneficially. It may be that such sections are numerous
and extensive.
We have shown, we think, that the premium was originally proposed as
an inducement to those whose example was worth something, to attend our
fairs with the products of their industry. Perhaps those who were in ad-
vance of their neighbors, in their style of farming, etc., and who would not
expect to gain anything important at such gatherings, needed this almost
absolute guaranty that they should make something out of such attendance.
Men are selfish, even the best of them. But even selfishness exhibits itself
in different forms, and may be controlled by other propensities, good or bad.
Men are fond of showing the products of their own skill. How many there
are whose '' geese are all swans," who think no other person ever succeeded
in this, that, and the other, quite so well as themselves. This is a weakness.
But there a.re forms, variations, and modifications of this passion, sgme of
which are highly useful to others, and are destitute of any trace of wrong.
I'hese propensities may sometimes very properly be encouraged.
What is it, under the present system, which draws exhibitors to the fair ?
Sometimes it is the least commendable form of this conceit; the mere love
©f self-laudation. They did not adopt any improved mode of cultivation, but,
by some fortunate concurrence of favorable circumstances, the crop turns out
much better than the average, and the result is, an exhibition of it. The
VOL. VII. 34
578 MANAGEMENT OF FAIRS.
chance for a little money, in the shape of a premium, is also worth some-
thing, and, on the whole, the decision is in favor of the show.
Others make a calculation beforehand. They say, "here is good soil.
Now I will do my best — expend a little extra money in guano and super-
phosphates, and get it all back, and more, too, in the value of the crop and
the premiuna." This is better — it is good — positively commendable ; but
it is not the best.
^ The best and most worthy motive is, to become acquainted with, and to
disseminate, the true principles of crop-growing ; to develop the science of
farming; to make for one's self, and for others, substantial, permanent pro-
gress in agriculture. A large crop a single year is no proof of good farming.
But large cro^s for successive years, leaving the land in still better condition
for the year to come, this is the true application of science to agriculture. ■
What hinders the attendance of nine out of ten of those who produce
what is worthy of notoriety, and who yet absent themselves from our fairs ?
We do not hesitate to say, it is the expense which would thereby be incurred.
" It will not pay," is the common form of expression. But this does not
mean " it will not put money in my pocket ;" but it does mean " it will
take money out ;" and more money than the amount of gratification it will
secure is worth, or more than I can afford. If this is so, what is the plain,
the obvious mode of overcoming this objection ? Manifestly, to say to such,
" It shall not cost you a mill."
Here, then, you have our proposed modification of the system of premiums.
Say to all within your "jurisdiction," whoever will present anything on such
occasions, which the committee shall deem worthy of exhibition, shall have
all his necessary expenses paid to him on the spot : or his expenses on the
ground shall be paid by the society, without cost to the exhibitor, in the
time and manner they may have previously arranged, but his expenses in
arriving and returning shall be paid at the close of the fair.
A similar plan might be adopted in reference to still more useful opei'a-
tions. We refer to the proper management and accurate record of useful
experiments on a farm. Suppose, for example, the proper authorities should
seasonably announce that all exj^eriments, as to the most efficient mode of
rendering sandy soils, similar to those prevailing on Long Island, or those in
Georgia, fertile and productive for crops of wheat, or other given product,
of the details of which, with all its proper antecedents, a minute diary shall
be kept, as prescribed, duly authenticated, shall be entitled to so much, or to
a reasonable premium, how much more instructive those operations would be.
The experiments now given to the public, even by skillful farmers, are of
little value to science. So much is omitted that the importance of the facts
stated can not be properly estimated. By well known mathematical rules,
if three quantities, bearing certain relations to each other, are given, a fourth
can be found. But these experiments would have us determine a result,
hitherto unknown, by scarcely giving us one exact known quantity. They
tell us that the land was a " rich loam," or clayey, or peaty, and that they
put on certain manures. But they give us no analysis of the soil ; no care-
ful record of previous crops and former cultivations. Perhaps the application
now made rendered soluble some fertilizer, applied years ago, but in an in-
soluble form. Perhaps the very rocks have contributed valuable elements.
We have seen many instances of that kind, when not a spade or hoe had
been applied. The magnesian rock, or argillaceous slate, or the feldspar, or
something else, was doing much more than was dreamed of; or, perhaps,
some phosphate, hitherto insoluble, was now rendered efiicient : some lime-
MANAGEMENT OF FAIRS. 679
stone decomposed ; some — no matter what, so long as, whatever it is, small'
or great, all is unknown. There may have been no such agencies, but we do
not know that it is so. To farm by such science, with scarcely one known
quantity, is to tax the farmer with problems which the mathematician
would never attempt to work out. One might as w&ll write a correct
biography of a man, when he has only had an imperfect account of his ap-
pearance and deportment, for a few days only, from one not familiar with
the character of the subject to be described. Such, too often, is the actual
condition of our farmers in their daily toils by which they gather all their
income.
We have not wrought out the prominent idea here urged by an effort of
our inventive faculties in our own sanctum. The thought is suggested by
other operations that have proved eminently successful. For example.
What kind of lotteries are most eagerly sought for by the masses of the peo-
ple ? They are those which have, or profess to have, as many small prizes
as there are tickets. Those " gift enterprizes," all offer something to every
number — there are no blanks — and they are eagerly sought after, whenever
the people have confidence in the operators. We do not know of an ex-
ception among them all. In these, we admit, was the additional hope, the
one chance in a thousand or more, of getting something great. But the
features which made those people who never buy in other lotteries willing to
incur this " risk," was that feature in it which secured them, as they supposed,
from loss in any event. It is not the lottery alone which can array such
efficient motives before the minds of men. There is no magic power in the
lottery to urge men to action. The same controlling agency can as well be
applied to a cattle show, or exhibition of crops, or of machinery ; or, rather, we
would say, it can not rightfully be overlooked, whenever we would determine
the best method to excite the general attention of a community, especially
when they do not properly appreciate the more substantial benefits which
may be thereby secured.
Modifications of this plan might sometimes be desirable. If practicable, a
moderate list of premiums, as now offered, might be retained ; or even the
entire list, if there is money enough, but only in subordination to the other
mode of expenditure, and to be paid aftei- all such bills are satisfied. The
balance might then be divided, on some certain graduated scale, among
the most deserving contributors. " Honorable mention," and the like, might
also form a part of the system, as at present.
But what inducement has my neighbor. A., to offer anything at our fair,
when he has already been assured that neighbor B. has produced, and will
exhibit, something better ? Neighbor C. is in the same condition. Hence,
B. and C. both stay at home, and A. only exhibits ; and, as nobody but A.
exhibits, therefore nobody goes to see the exhibition. But, if A. and B. and
C, etc., were going to exhibit, and made some little noise about it, they ■
would awaken a general desire among the people to attend, and our fairs
would be thronged.
WHO DESERVES THE PREMIUM ?
We need not say, that it might happen that B. or C, whose products are
less valuable than A.'s, are both better entitled to a premium than he. Is
he the best farmer, who, in a single season, forces out of his grounds the
greatest cxo^l Br no means. A.'s grounds are in good condition. He
bought them recently of one who took proper care of them, and all he has
done is just to plant his seed, and, without especial skill or extra labor, let
580 MANAGEMENT OF FAIRS.
his crop grow. And he finds in the fall, taking the affidavit of his hired
man as evidence, that he has grown one hundred and twenty bushels of com
to the acre. Any fool might have done the same. Or, perhaps, he has
been lavi?H in his expenditures on a given lot, doing what no one but a very
rich man can do. But B. owns a farm consisting almost exclusively of sand.
Still he is resolved to make a good soil, and hence he collects his leaves, and
his turfs, and his clay, and his Hme and ashes, and mixing all these with
the strong products of his hog-pen, and with his manure-heap, and carrying
out a thorough system of ploughing, and mixing, and a judicious growth of
crops, on land that had produced only eight or ten bushels of wheat, or
twenty or thirty of corn, he has grown forty or fifty of wheat, and eighty or
ninety bushels of good corn. Who best deserves a premium for these crops ?
Who is entitled to the highest reward for good farming, from those who
would reform our agriculture?
Is it said " we have ofi"ered a premium for the greatest crop ?'" Indeed I
Do you give premiums, and " the highest premiums," for unwise, unscientific
farming — for farming that costs, in the end, more than the value of the crops
— for farming in which, if your hired man persisted, you would discharge
him?
Some exhibitors buy their'land already prepared for them, and thus se-
cure " the best crop." But why pay a man for buying a good farm, or why
reward a man for planting corn on good land, when he has it at command,
while he does not exhibit any skill in his calling. Of course, if he has good
land, he will use it; and, if he uses it at all, we might almost say, he will not
fail of a good crop. But reformers should not give honor to a man for mal-
practice. No reward should be given for that, which, in its production, does
not furnish evidence of peculiar skill, and is not worthy, eminently worthy
OF IMITATION. If A. has, for a series of years, kept his land in good trim, so
as always to produce good crops, reward him for it, if you will ; but we in-
sist that no "premium" should be paid for anything that is not, all things
considered, worthy of especial commendation. One may be willing to pay
expenses for a pleasing addition to a show, which otherwise may fail to
attract general attention, when he would not be willing, as an agriculturist
of skill and discernment, to declare that /or such a production^ \h% grower is
entitled to be singled out from all other competitors, and receive a pre-
mium, or be honored by a proclamation of " well done," to the neglect of a
score of others, more industrious, and better informed, and, in the end, more
successful, than he.
We have just laid down an exchange which illustrates our ideas on this
branch of the subject. The editor says, in substance, that he has taken pains
to get " the cream" of the doings of the agricultural societies, in his state,
(Vermont,) and then " making a report in part," he proceeds to- give a
statement of a few of the sums paid as premiums to sundry exhibitors, and
attempts nothing else. If this is " the cream," we .don't care for the skim
milk. But this is not the cream, nor even the skim milk. It is only the
old horse 'that brought the milk to market. He wholly misapprehends bis
business as a teacher of good systems of agricultural labor and production,
who teaches such doctrines. The premiums are the bait to draw pub-
lic attention. The mode of cultivation is the prize to be won ; and, if the
matter is so managed, that this is not worthy of attention, then the whole
concern is not worth a straw, and such societies may as well disband. ^
W^e do not think it well to honor with a medal, or its value in coin, the
mere production of an extraordinary growth. If one has, by skill, produced
FLAX. 581
a soil capable of honestly sustaining a wonderful crop, HONOR HIM. Be-
stow upon hioa that meed of praise of which kings may not be worthy.
Hence, we would not offer a premium for that cultivation that happens to
produce the greatest number of bushels, without reference to the antecedents.
That same state of Vermont, in the county of AVindsor, recently presented a
case bearing directly on this point. Two competitors for the prize, for the
greatest crop of corn, reported exactly the same quantity per acre. Which
shall have the " first prize ?" To us the problem is perfectly simple — he who
contended most skillfully against obstacles and embarrassments. But that
point does not appear even to have entered into the minds of that committee.
We know not where to stop in writing on this subject. We commend
these thoughts to all our agricultural societies. They have done like other
societies long enough. We are fully persuaded that our annual shows are
not managed as they should be ; that, besides the personal favoritism some-
times exhibited, there is great want of judgment displayed in assigning pre-
miums, and in awarding them ; there is a great want of preparatory labor on
the part of managers, in taking suitable measures to secure a good show,
which is a most crying sin ; and there is a great, even a fatal, want of means
to make the good secured useful to the community. Here, inviting dis-
cussion on this whole subject, we pause for the present.
FLAX.
We have often commended this growth to the attention of farmers, and
for the purpose of giving them the views of different writers, more or less
familiar with the subject, we take from the Valley Farmer the following
article, which we regard as worthy of careful attention. After commending
this crop as one promising large and certain profits, the writer proceeds thus :
"The usual practice is to raise on the same piece of land, a crop of wheat
one year, and the next year flax ; sowing the flax early, so as to have it out
of the way for the early wheat sowing, and after the wheat is taken off", the
stubble and a good stock of clover is turned under by a fall ploughing.
There are farmers that have pursued this course for twenty years, without
exhausting the soil, and always reaping profitable harvests every year, avoid-
ing the loss of every alternate year in summer fallowing, as is usual with
most farmers. The flax crop, when- sown thin, as is the practice when rais-
ing it for the seed, leaves the land in fine condition for almost any other
crop — a fact which is not generally known or appreciated.
It is a very common practice to sow barley and flax together, as they ma-
ture and are harvested at the same time, and can be thrashed together, and
the two very easily separated with suitable screens in the fan. This practice
is meeting with much favor, and is said to be a very profitable method of
cultivating both barley and flax-seed. Indeed, some farmers assert that the
yield of flax-seed is not diminished by the growth of the barley, nor is the
yield of the barley less on account of the flax-seed. But we give these
items, more for the expectation that every farmer will make tests for himself,
than that he will take the statements as settled facts for all kinds of farms in
all localities. But nothing can be more certain than that the farmers through-
out the entire West — the length and breadth of the Mississippi Valley can
make the cultivation of flax-seed a very profitable Crop, not second in value
582 FLAX.
to wheat, corn, or any other — the seed always commanding ready sale for
cash, at high prices. It is a remarkable fact, that the demand for flax-seed
has increased for the last year from one to two hundred per cent. The
"Latourette Oil Works," of this city, completed and in operation the last
year, are capable of consuming one hundred and fifty to two hundred thou-
sand bushels per annum. ' The proprietors of these works are offering to con-
tract largely, and offering every inducement to farmers to turn their attention
more generally to the cultivation of flax-seed. The Collier Lead and Oil
Works, of this city (H. T. Blow,) also consumes about as large a quantity of
flax-seed annually. In addition to this, there have been several oil mills
erected this past year, within the range of country trading with this city.
We subjoin some practical directions.
NATURE OF THE SOIL.
Almost any kind of soil will grow flax-seed successfully, especially such as
are adapted to wheat. If sown on rich bottom lands, you get a luxuriant
growth of straw, but not so much seed as when sown on upland. Clay,
hardpan, or sandy lands, are better for a good yield of seed, though rich
loam, or prairie lands are good, especially if they are rolling and well drained.
It must be borne in mind that a selection with a view to a good crop of seed
is quite different from one for a good crop of fibre — the one requiring a
harder, dryer soil ; while the other should have a low, rich, moist land. A
dry season is favorable to a crop of seed, while a wet season is almost indis-
pensable to a good crop of the fibre.
PREPARATION OF THE GROUND.
The ground for flax-seed should be ploughed the fall before, and again in
the spring, and finally pulverised with a heavy drag. Thorough deep plough-
ing and pulverising the earth, as far as possible, should never be neglected.
The seed should be sown broadcast, and should have as light a covering of
earth as possible, and, to this end, a brush should be used instead of a drag,
so as not to cover the seed too deep. The field should be laid off" in furrows
or lands, and trenches run with the plow to carry off" the surplus water.
TIME OF SOWING.
It may be sown as early in the spring as can be done with safety against
frost. Many persons pay no attention to frost, and sow quite early. Some
even sow it on the snow in February or March, as about nineteen cases in
twenty the frost does not injure it; but there is a particular stage of the
growth of the young sprout, when, if the frost takes it, it will perish, which
gives the preference to ordinary spring sowing. If not sown till rather late
in the spring, it frequently does not get suflficient growth before dry vreather
overtakes it. Therefore, sow late enough to avoid frost, and early enough
to secure early spring rains.
KIND OF SEED.
Particular attention should be taken to get large, full, and well-matured
seed for sowing. Where the crop has been very thick on the ground, the
stalk is pale and weakly, and does not afford sufficient maturity for the berry,
and seed from such a crop should always be avoided. The best plan is to
have one corner of a field sown on purpose to get seed for sowing tbe next
year ; and on this corner, the less seed you can get evenly scattered over the
FLAX. 583
ground, the more vigorous and matured will be the stalks and the seed.
There are different varieties of flax-seed, and some are preferable to others
for their seed yielding and oil producing qualities. But it is so diflficult to
get any pure species, it is, perhaps, better to disregard varieties, and select
seed for its apparent goodness. Always sow pure flax-seed, without any
mixture of foreign seeds. Too much care cannot be taken on this point.
Be particular to riddle out all yellow grass, cockle, mustard rape, or other
seeds, and starting with a pure seed, you will have no difficulty with foul
stuff", and will always have the greatest yield per acre, and obtain the highest
price when you market your seed.
QUANTITY OF SEED.
Much difference of opinion exists in regard to the quantity of seed to be
sown per acre, but the probability is, that the quantity should be varied
according to the condition of the ground, season, &c. The most successful
raisers practice very light sowing, some even as low as eight quarts per acre ;
but a fair average quantity, for all farms and all circumstances is, say from
twelve to twenty quarts, when the crop is cultivated exclusively for the seed
— thus securing plenty of room for the stalks to stand upon the ground and
spread out their branches, and give the sun access to their roots, and securing
strength of earth for nourishment and maturity of the stalk. When sown
thin, the stalk branches nearly down to the ground, and each branch is loaded
with bowls. When sown thick, the stalks are spindling and weak, and
often have but a single berry on the top, and, perhaps, no seed at all, besides
exhausting the soil to a wonderful rate. A. piece of ground that has been
burthened with a thick mass of flax fibre, is good for nothing for years after.
When sown thin for the seed, the fibre is very short and coarse ; and in the
new linen process, as well as for the paper mills, is quite equal to the fine
fibre. In Ireland, where the finest linen is produced, it is not uncommon to
see as much as twelve bushels of seed sown to the acre, so that the stalks are
little above fine threads, growing up through each other in a dense mass, and
producing no seed at all. In Russia, the German States, and other portions
of Europe, and in India, the quantity sown is regulated more to a view of
both seed and fibre, and the quantity ranges from 1:|- to 2f bushels per acre.
TIME OF HARVESTING.
Flax-seed should be cut before it is ripe, when the boils are beginning to
pass from the yellow to the brown color, and it is better to let it lie a few
hours if the weather is dry, before binding it up, so that the seed can fill and
ripen from the nutriment remaining in the stalk. If it is left standing till it
is quite ripe, a large proportion of the seed will be lost in gathering the crop.
MANNER or GATHERING.
The crop can be cut with the cradle, or in any of the usual modes. After
laying in the swath a few hours, it should be bound up in bundles and put
in stack, or barn, secure from the weather. Some farmers mow the crop the
same as hay, and handle it in bulk ; but the best way is to cradle, rake, and
bind in bundles.
THRESHING — TIME AND MODE.
It should be threshed as early in the fall as possible, and in a time of dry-
weather, for if it lies too long, the seed is apt to adhere to the shell, and is-.
more difficult to thresh and clean up, and for the same reason, it should not
be threshed in damp weather.
584 FLAX MANUFACTURE,
CLEANING UP AND MARKETING.
The seed should be cleaned up on a barn floor, and in still weather.
When it is cleaned up in the field, or when the wind is driving dust about,
the dust and dirt gets in with the seed, and a great deal adheres to the seed,
in spite of all efforts to clean it with the fan, causing it to look dull and
dusty, and the oil makers will not buy it as prime seed. When it is cleaned
up and ready for the market, it should be put into new, strong bags; for
there is no other seed, or grain, that will creep out of so small a hole, or that
is so likely to burst the bag. If the seed is 2:)lun]p and clean, and your half-
bushel is correct, you will find ihat it will more than hold out by weight.
The standard weight of a bushel is fifty-six pounds, and you will find that
prime seed will go sixty pounds."
THE FLAX MANUFACTURE.
The effect of the present European war on this great branch of agricultu-
ral products, was discussed at the annual meeting of the society for the pro-
motion and encouragement of the growth of flax in Ireland. The views
there presented ought to have an interest in the minds of our farmers. We
copy the following paragraph, in relation to this subject, from The Practical
Mechanic's Journal,
" The proceedings of the meeting just held at Belfast, under the presidency
of the Marquis of Donegal, hold a conspicuous position in the more import-
ant affairs of the day, embracing the several heads of the effects of the war
on our flax culture, and the proceedings taken by the committee thereon —
the Irish flax crop of 1854, the operations of the year, mai'kets in new dis-
tricts, saving of seed, the recently patented systems of steeping, unsteeped
flax fibre, conversion of flax tow into wool, scutching machines, new scutch
mills erected, new varieties of flax, intercourse with foreigners, exports of
Irisb flax and tow, and a special report by the " Belgian Instructor" on the
growth of hemp. The question as to the effects of the Russian war on this
trade, necessarily assumes a seiious aspect, when it is remembered that out
<yf an imported aggregate of 80,000 tons of flax, nearly 60,000 comes from
Eussia, whilst some three-fourths of the seed sown in Ireland also comes from
Riga. Prussia has, however, so far acted as an outlet of this Russian pro-
duce, so that we have not yet felt any change. Still, for '• profit and loss"
reasons on the part of the Irish farmers, the amount sown for the present year
in Ireland, is only 150,972 acres against 174,579 in 1853 ; but as the yield
in 1853 was inferior, it is believed that the marketable fibre this year will be
equal to the last crop. Its value is taken at about £2,000,000. The saved
seed is of much greater amount than formerly ; a single landed proprietor in
Cork having the produce of 2,400 acres, whilst a firm in Derry holds 2,000
barrels. Fourteen steeping establishments are now in operation in Ireland,
carrying out the modern patented methods of treatment. In some, a portion
of the flax is steeped in open air tanks, but all of them press the flax straw
between rollers after its removal from the steep, and from this reason the
fibre shows a marked improvement. The importance of the retteiy system,
as enabling the grower to sell his flax crop without getting involved in the
processes of steeping, drying, and scutching, is evinced in the fact, that large
FLAX MANUFACTURE. 585
retteries are now at work in England, Scotland, France, Belgium, Holland,
Austria, Prussia, and Bavaria. The present unmechanical process of scutch-
ing seeais to be now gaining some improvement, for the attention of very
many inventors has been drawn to the subject. The government returns
show the number of scutching mills in Ireland, in 1853, to have been 1,056,
with 5,871 stocks ; there having been in 1852 but 956 mills, with 5,871
stocks. The Belgian Instructor reports thus on the growth of hemp : —
' From personal observation, I have arrived at the opinion that hemp can
only be beneficially grown in Ireland in the following manner : It should be
sown after potatoes, the field being thoroughly cleansed while digging that
root. The hemp crop can be followed by a flax crop, as practised in Bel-
gium. The hemp should receive some artificial manure — such as guano, or
rape-cake dust — at the sowing period, to create a quick stimulus to the young
plant, the manure to be applied with the seed. The seed should not be
sown either broadcast or in drills, but with the usual corn-sowing machine,
and covered, crossways, with the roller ; or, still better, ploughed in, in the
same way as wheat, along with the artificial manure, so that the crop will be
in drills of three to four inches apart. As only 140 plants, at the most, per
square yard are required, and each pint contains 10,570 seeds, it follows that
thirty-two quarts would be a suflScient quantity of seed per statute acre ; but
I would recommend an increase of one fourth of that quantity for the follow-
ing reasons : Experience has shown me clearly, that, although the female
plant is the most vigorous at the ripening period, the male plant will take the
lead until it arrives in blossom ; that the male forms about a fourth of the
whole crop, and possess little fibre, and that of inferior quality, reaching ma-
turity fully four weeks before the female. By pulling the whole crop at the
ripening period of the female, the male plant becomes valueless. By taking
a medium — that is, two weeks after the ripening of the male, and two weeks
before that of the female — the valuable seed is sacrificed, and the straw
steeps unevenly, with a mixed fibre of inferior quality. To obviate these
evils, a very simple plan may be adopted. By sowing the crop in drills, as
described above, a fourth of the plants can be easily removed ; and as the
mail takes the lead, by simply pulling the most advanced plants at the time
the crop is six to twelve inches high, it will turn out an almost female
crop, securing the greatest yield in both seed and fibre, witliout any after
trouble in the treatment between the plants of each sex. The expetiments
have also convinced me of the possibility of taking ofi" the seed by the ordi-
nary thrashing machine, provided an even crop be obtained ; and that the
hemp straw can be scutched in the common flax scutching mill, by simply
having the diameter of the beaters, to which the wipers are attached, enlarged,
and the stock brought to an equal elevation, which can be done by excavat-
ing the ground where the stocks have to be uted for hemp scutching, though
attached to the same revolvino- shaft.' "
Sulphate of Lead as a Substitute for Oxide of Tin in Making
Enamel. — Albert Ungerer, of Pforzheim, states that if sulphate of lead,
which, as our readers know, is a substance produced as a secondary product
in many manufactures, be added to flint glass, to the extent of about 25 per
cent., a beautiful enamel glass will be obtained, which, although very heavy,
becomes much more fluid on being melted than the tin enamel, — Polytech-
nische Journal.
586
AGRICULTUEAL CAPACITIES OF TEXAS,
AGRICULTURAL CAPACITIES OF TEXAS.
The March number oi De Bow's Review contains an account of progress
in this state, which is truly remarkable :,
" The following table shows the pr^.ncipal items of taxation, their value,
etc., for each of the eight years, ending jvith 1853 :
Years.
1846 ..
1847...
1848...
1849...
1850...
1851 . . .
1852...
1853 . . .
Land.
No. acres
asaessficl.
31,967,4811
30.440,'>IO
32.160. ^4
32,890,887
3-'.640,4no
37.7.31.774
37.838,79^
39,175.858
Value.
Negroes.
No.
ass'd.
517.776,101 31,099
17,326 994 39,251
20,777,412 40,610
20.874,641 43.534
21,807.670 49,197
31,415,604 59,959
33, 1 16,77v' 68,77.1
39.259,412 78,713
Value.
$10,142,198
12,174,593
13.398,47(i
14,658,837
17,776,500
26.246 668
28 628,990
35,946,473
Ad.
valo.
Horses and cattle.
No. as-
sessed.
411,100
448,971
.581,251
631 649
750,35-2
901.794
41511,020,842
456,1,164,463
324
3101
323
837|
361
404
Value.
Other property.
Money at
interest,
goods in
•tore, &c.
$2 929,372 $3,543,501
3,392,7f'4| 4663,131
4,174,475! 5.461,666
5419,015! 5,847.616
5,222.270 6,675, 17.'^
6.638,115! 7,639 797
7.977,999. 11,030,423
10,217,499 13,734 530
Agjiregate
taxable,
property.
$34,891,175
37.562..505
4<.812,537
46,241, .589
51.814.515
69.739,.581
80,754,094
99.155,114
This is a most extraordinary result when we look back twenty years to the
meeting at Niblo's Garden, where the Hon, Daniel Webster addressed a large
meeting in relation to that then unknown region. The speculation in those
lands, then set on foot by Messrs. Swartwout, Curtis, and others, filled the
country with Texas land scrip, all of which, we believe, was considered ulti-
mately valueless. Nevertheless, that great country, in spite of disrepute,
bankruptcy, frauds, violence, war, and repudiation, was inoculated with the
American element of progi-ess, and we find her wealth tripled in eight years,
and those lands which General Hamilton, in 1840, vainly sought to pledge
for a loan ia France, at $3 per acre, have risen, in eight years, from $55 to
llOO per acre. The cattle have increased in number 700,000, but are
assessed at the low rate of $7,78 per head, having apparently not increased
in assessed value ; at that rate, the aggregate value has risen $7,300,000
among a population of 154,431 white.
Texas is, beyond all comparison, the best grazing country in the United
States, To a stock-raiser in the north, his herd are a dead expense for at
least one-half of the year. Hay and grain must be accumulated for their
sustenance, and stables, more or less expensive, must be prepared for their
protection during the winter months. Not so in Texas. Men whose cattle
mimber thousands of head, are at no great expense for feeding them. The
only expense attending the raising of cattle in Texas is that of salting them
occasionally to prevent their becoming too wild, and herding them during
the season of branding, and during the prevalence of severe " noj'thers.''
Nature, all-bountiful and propitious, spreads out upon the prairies her carpet
of perennial greenness, and there they roam, lowing and feeding, fat and
sleek. The increase of stock is very rapid, not less than thirty per cent,
yearly. A cow and a calf will sell at from $8 to $15, good oxen from $30
to $60 a pair, and a whole herd together will average $5 a head. To a man
virho has but small means, there can be no more certain road to wealth than
that of stock-raising in Texas. Before the lapse of ten years the increase
alone would amount to five hundred head annually, if he had made his pur-
chases judiciously at the commencement. Horses, mules, sheep, and swine,
are all raised with equal facility. The average expense of fetting a hog till
LINES OF EAILROAD. 587
it weighs from two to three hundred pounds is about two bushels of corn, all
the rest being effected by means of the pecans, and other food, which the
country produces spontaneously.
The number of slaves given in the census for 1850 was 58,161 ; number
assessed in that year was 49,191; since when they have increased 70 per
cent., with an increase of the price per head. Since 1846, it appears, under
a supply of 47,000 slaves, the assessed value has advanced from |324 to
$456 per head ; money at interest, it appears, has increased $10,200,000, or
three hundred per cent., and it may be borne in mind there are no banks m
Texas.
Certainly such a State as that ought to do something towards meeting, m
full, the obligations that she found takers for in the days of her adversity. If
there were those whose hopes for Texas outlived the news of the Alamo, they
may yet outlive the days of Texan dishonor."
LIKES OF RAILROAD CONNECTING BOSTON AND NEW -YORK WITH
THE WEST.
Commencing at Boston, and following the line of the Western Railroad
of Massachusetts to Albany, thence by the New- York Central Road to Buffa-
lo, thence by the Lake Shore Railroad to Cleveland, thence by the lines of
railway passing by Bellefontaine to Indianapolis, and thence to Terre Haute,
we shall have an aggregate of one thousand and thirty-four miles of railroad
in actual operation, crowded with business through the entire distance.
If we begin at Neiv-York, and pass over the Hudson River Railroad to
Albany, and thence follow the line above described, we shall find a distance
of nine hundred and seventy-eight miles of completed railroads ; or if from
New-York, we follow the New-York and Erie Railroad to Dunkirk, and
there intercept the above described line, we shall find a distance of nine hun-
dred and fifty-five miles of railroads in daily operation.
If we start from Philadelphia, and pass by the Pennsylvania _ Central
Railroad to Pittsburg, and thence by the Ohio and Pennsylvania Railroad to
its intersection at Crestline with the fine from Cleveland to Indianapolis, we
shall find a line of railroad eight hundred and eighteen miles in length to
Terre Haute, in actual operation.
If we start from Baltimore, and go by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
to Wheeling, and thence by the Central Ohio Railroad to Columbus, thence
by the line to Xenia and the Indiana Central Railroad to Indianapolis, and
thence to Terre Haute, we have a line of seven hundred and seventy miles
now in actual operation.
If we start from Cincinnati, and proceed by the railroad via Lawrence-
burg to Indianapolis, and thence to Terre Haute, we have a hue of one hun-
dred and eighty-two miles of railroad in operation.
Combining these different lines, and omitting such portions of them as are
common to two or more of the lines above named, we shall find an aggregate
of tioo thousand nine hundred and ninety-one miles of railroad now comple-
ted, and in daily and constant operation between Terre Haute and the cities
of the East.
Of the lines not completed, but now under construction, the Wabash Val-
ley Railroad will unite with our line at Paris, in Edgar County, one hundred
588 LINES OF RAILEOAD.
and fifty miles from Alton, and passing to the valley of the Wabash, will
proceed by Lafayette, Logansport, and Fort Wayne, to Toledo, where it will
unite witb the navigation of Lake Erie, and form the shortest connection be-
tween St. Louis and the Lake that is practicable. It will be about two hun-
dred and seventy miles in length, from Paris to Toledo, and will passthrougli
the most important section of the State of Indiana.
At Toledo, it will unite with the Cleveland and Toledo Railroad, and se-
cure, in the direction of Cleveland and thence to the' East, the connections
that will entitle it to be considered one of the great thoroughfares of the
business between the East and West. Nearly five millions of dollars have
already been expended upon this line, and nearly one-half of the whole will
be in operation by July of the present year.
It will l>e remembered that the junction of the Missouri and Mississippi
Rivers takes place opposite the city of Alton, and, consequently, the naviga-
tion of the Missouri is favorably carried on from this point.
I subjoin a recapitulation of the distances by Railroad, above referred to,
for convenience of reference.
Boston to Terre Haute, 1,034 miles. Miles.
Boston to Albany, by Western Railroad, &c., 200
Albany to Bufialo, by New-York Central Railroad, - - - 298
Buffalo to Cleveland, by Lake Shore Roads, - - - - - 183
Cjeveland to Indianapolis, by Bellefontaine Lines, - - - 281
Indianapolis to Terre Haute, - 72
Total, ----- 1,034
New-York to Terre Haute, hy New-York Central Railroad, 978 miles.
Miles.
New- York to Albany, by Hudson River Railroad, - - - - 144
Albany to Indianapolis, as above, - 762
Indianapolis to Terre Haute, 72
Total, - 978
New-York to Terre Haute, by New-York and Erie Railroad, 955 miles.
Milks.
New- York to Dunkirk, 460
Dunkirk to Cleveland, .--.__._ 142
Cleveland to Terre Haute, 353
Total, - - - - 955
Philadelphia to Terre Haute, 818 miles. Milbs.
Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, by Pennsylvania Central Railroad, - - 353
Pittsburgh to Crestline, by Pennsylvania and Ohio Railroad, - 187
Crestline to Indianapolis, by Bellefontaine Lines, - - - - 206
Indianapolis to Terre Haute, by Terre Haute and Richmond Railroad, 72
Total, - - 818
Baltimore to Terre Haute, 775 miles. Milks.
Baltimore to Wheeling, by Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, - - - 380
Wheeling to Columbus, by Ohio Central Railroad, . - - 141
Columbus to Indianapolis, by Indiana Central Railroad, &c., - - 182
Indianapolis to Terre Haute, 72
Total, 775
EAILWAYS IN KUSSIA. 689
Cincinnati to Terre Haute, 182 miles. Milbs.
Cincinnati and Indianapolis Railroad, - - - - - -110
Indianapolis to Terra Haute, 72
Total, - T 182
The above are the lines of railway completed and in operation, and include,
of distinct lines, 2,991 miles.
LINES UNDER CONSTRUCTION.
Miles.
Wabash Valley Railroad, Paris to Toledo, " 270
Cleveland and Toledo Railroad, via Sandusky, completed, - - 107
Cleveland and Toledo Railroad, via Norwalk, completed, - - - 112
Illinois Central Railroad, main hne, completed, - - - i 454
Illinois Central Railroad, Chicago Branch, 173
Connecting lines in progress, - - - - - -1,116
Which, added to the aggregate above, make a total oi four thousand,
one hundred and seven 7niles of railroads, connecting St. Louis with the
Atlantic cities.
RAILWAYS IN RUSSIA.
The carriage allotted for my special use was about ten feet square ; it was
furnished with two sofas and chairs, a small card table, and two side tables.
On the sofas I could have reclined at full length — a convenience very desi-
rable, and generally denied us on English railways — both [sofas and chairs
had air cushions, and were very comfortable. I looked into several first and
second class carriages, and they all appeared nicely fitted up, although not
like the one assigned to me ; the second class carriages had cushions superior
to those of the first class on English railways, and afforded plenty of room
to each individual, allowing of his sitting without cramping his knees upon
those of the person opposite to him. We left Moscow at 1 1 o'clock precise-
ly— Mr. Sherman, my servant, and myself, occupying this litte room to our-
selves ; our baggage was stowed away in another carriage. I was pleased
to perceive that there was no unnecessary hurry in the railway movements
such as those which annoy the English traveler ; plenty of time was allowed
at every station to the passengers to take their meals, and in each there Avas
all that could be required in the way of refreshments. The time allowed
for the train to pass from one station to another is carefully fixed for the dri-
ver, who dare not arrive a minute sooner or later ; so that, in some cases, we
had to go very slowly, in order not to arrive before the time. This, however,
is not unpleasant, as people on the continent do not give away to that ner-
vous hurry which fidgets us and shortens our lives. Who in England has
time to look around him ? Rich and poor seem to be urged along by an
impetus which prevents their thinking of anything except their next ap-
pointment, and as soon as that is kept, their thoughts fly to the next. —
English Prisoners in Russia.
590 CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF CERTAIN FERTILIZERS.
FOn THE PLOLOII, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF CERTAIN FERTILIZERS ON THE POTATO.
BY PROF. J. L. CAMPBELL, OF "WASHINGTON COLLEGE, VIRGINIA.
In tlae spring of 1852, I applied to a part of a small lot of potatoes a mix-
ture of wood ashes, gypsum, and common salt, using them in the proportion
of four bushels of recently leached ashes, one bushel of ground gypsum, and
half a gallon of salt. The application was made soon after the tops began
to malce their appearance above the surface of the ground. The mixture
was aj^lied to a part only of the lot, while, in other respects, the whole was
treated alike. That part to which the application was made, produced not
only a more abundant crop than the other, but, also, potatoes of much supe-
rior quality.
This led me to try a similar treatment of the greater portion of my little
crop in 1853. The fertilizing preparation was in this case varied, by using
double the quantity of salt previously used. By way of further experiment,
too, the mode of applying it was somewhat varied. To one part it was ap-
plied at the time of planting directly upon the tubers ; to another part, after
the tops appeared above ground. The result this year was more satisfactory,
in the soundness, quantity, and flavor of the potatoes, than it had been the
year before, although the season was far from being favorable. There was,
however, no perceptible difference between those having the fertilizers appHed
at the time of planting, and those having them subsequently applied upon
the surface of the ground.
Such was the influence of the ashes, plaster, and salt, that I resolved to
subject to chemical examination specimens cultivated both with and without
the use of these manures. This has been done in such a way as to give a
fair comparison of results.
Two small plots of ground, alike in character and fertility, were prepared
last spring (1854) for potatoes. The soil was broken up early, and exposed
to' the action of frost. At planting time — the latter part of April — it was
stirred, and laid off in trenches four inches deep, and two-and-a-half feet
apart. In the bottom of these the tubers were drilled, at the distance of six
or eight inches apart. The trenches were then filled up with a mixture of
broken straw and stable manure. JJp to this point both portions of ground
were treated precisely alike.
The mixture of ashes, gypsum, and salt, was now scattered along the
trenches on the manure in one of the plots of ground, while it was entirely
withheld from the other. The quantity applied was at the rate of about
twelve bushels to the acre. The whole was then covered with the soil.
The subsequent culture consisted in keeping the ground clear of weeds, and
in drawing a little earth to the tops in the early part of their growth — the
same mode of treatment being applied to both divisions. The resulting
crop was about as four to one in fiivor of that portion to which the mineral
fertilizers were applied.
It is deemed unnecessary to give further details as to mode of culture, re-
sults in quantity, etc., as the object in view was a chemical investigation.
The conclusions reached by this investigation will, doubtless, possess some
interest in the mind of the intelligent agriculturist, and will, I hope, lead
directly to more extended and more accurate practical experiments.
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF CERTAIN FERTILIZERS.
591
Specimens of the tubers from both portions of ground have been examined :
1. With respect to the relative quantities of solid, nutritious matter found
in each ; and, 2. With respect to the influence of the mineral fertilizer
upon the relative piroioortions of some of the elements in the ashes.
For the sake of brevity, let the specimen cuUivated with the ashes, plaster,
and salt, be designated by the letter A, and that cultivated with the organic
manures alone by B. — The kind of potato planted is tbat known here as the
Long Bed.
The specimen, A, carefully cleaned, cut into thin slices, and dried at 212,°
(F) lost 77.5 per centum of its weight, while B, treated in the same way,
lost 82.2 per centum. Thus A was found to contain nearly 5 per cent,
more of solid, nutritions matter ; that is, of starch, gum, etc., which give the
potato its value as an article of food.
The solid part of A, when thoroughly dried and burned, gave 4.15 per
cent of ashes, while B, under like circumstances, gave 4 per cent.
When subjected to analysis, the ashes of the specimens, A and B, were
found to vary considerably in the proportions of some of their elements.
They were examined especially with respect to the relative quantities of
potassa, soda, sulphuric acid, and chlorine, contained in each. It will be
remembered that ivood ashes afibrd, even after ordinary lixiviation, consid-
erable quantities of potassa, together with several other valuable fertilizing
substances, such as lime, phosphoric acid, etc. Gypsum is composed of
lime and sulphuric acid, iDoth of which are found in the ashes of the potato.
Common salt (chloride of sodium) is an abundant source of chlorine and
sodium, the metallic base of soda.
Without pretending to give any part of the process of analysis, I will
simply sum up the results in a condensed form. The following table will
give a comparative view of both specimens, together with similar results as
given in Norton's Scientific Agriculture. The columns marked A and B*
give the results of an analysis of the two specimens under consideration.
The third column gives the proportions of the same elements from Norton.
A.
B. Norton.
50.91
49.75| 51.50
3.49
65
a trace
9.60
6.27
7.10
3.30
1.98
2.70
67.30
58.65
61.30
100 grains of Ashes gave
Potassa, - - -
Soda, - - -
Sulphuric Acid, -
Chlorine,
From the relative quahties of nutritive matter found in the two specimens
differently cultivated, we may infer, that the presence of the inorganic ferti-
lizers rendered the growth of the organic part of the tubers more perfect,
and thus improved both the quantity and quality of the crop.
We may also infer from the above table, that the inorganic part, or ashes
of the potato, may be considerably modified in composition by an abundant
supply of certain elements of fertility, not generally existing (except in limi-
ted quantities) in soils that have been long under cultivation.
It will be seen by reference to the table, that potassa constitutes about
one-half of the weight of potato ashes ; hence the value of wood-ashes as a
manure for this crop. While soda does not seem to be essential to the
mature growth of the tubers, it is taken up by them when present in the
soil. I presume it is taken up chiefly as chloride of sodium ; and, in this
562 HORSE-SHOEING.
form, doubtless, it does much to promote the healthful and vigorous growth
of the plant.
Chlorine is always present in the potato, and, hence, may be regarded as
one of the elements in the soil designed by the Creator to aid in giving it
full maturity.
The sulphuric acid of plants is, doubtless, generally combined with some
one or more bases forming salts ; probably sulphates of lime and potassa
may exist together in the same plant. The presence of gypsum, in excess,
not only furnishes an abundance of sulphuric acid and lime, but serves, also,
to "fix the ammonia" of the organic manure used, of the soil, or of the
atmosphe.e. This may be regarded as a secondary function of gypsum.
Wood-ashes, too, may be regarded as doing more than simply providing
a supply of potash. They contain a very appreciable quantity of soluble
silica. This gives strength and a healthful growth to the stalks, and, hence,
tends to prevent some diseases, having their origin near the surface of the
ground, and often extending downward to the tubers. Ashes also furnish
small portions of phosphates ; but, as phosphoric acid is found in no incon-
siderable quantity in the ashes of the potato, I would recommend the addi-
tion of bones, in some form, to the other fertilizers used, especially on soils
that have been frequently planted with Indian corn and wheat. Burnt bones
are readily reduced to powder by beating or grinding ; though they are
more valuable, and their action more efficient, if dissolved in sulphuric acid.
The advantages of applying soluble fertilizers, in such a way that they
will be gradually carried to the roots of the growing plant by the rain, are
too obvious to require even a passing remark.
HORSE-SHOEING.
If to write anything worth reading, requires that one should be practically
acquainted with the subject, and understand what the conditions of the case
demand, then, what we write under this title may be passed over as worth-
less. We do not know what is the proper treatment of the case under our
notice ; and, what is still worse, is, we do not know of any who are much
above us in this respect. Nevertheless, what we do know, we are inclined to
state.
We know that horse-shoeing is a very important service, on which not
only the value of the horse is often dependent, but even the life of his rider.
We know, also, that skill in all the arts does not come by nature ; that ap-
prenticeship in all its essentials is absolutely indispensable in them. We also
know that our town and village blacksmiths, to a very considerable extent,
are practitioners in tliis department, without any especial training for it.
They learned what they know of some boss, who was very popular in his
own community, perhaps, for his general proficiency in the art which he
practiced, but who acquired his theories, if nothing more, from some master,
who, perhaps, commenced this work when he was ignorant of it as his ap-
prentice ; because he failed in some other employment, and had a natural
tact for it ; and so the list goes on — " an unbroken succession" — from one who
never spent an hour in the proper investigation of the subject. Hence, we
are not surprised to read that " American horses fail in the feet oftener than
those of other countries."
HORSE-SHOEING. 593
In some of our cities, our pavements are disgraceful in the eyes o
sible horses. Broadway might very accurately be defined, "a street arranged
so as to require' of all horses the greatest possible eifort to preserve their
standing." We seldom walk to our place of business, less than a mile and
a half, without seeing one or more instances of slipping ; and often, when a
complete fall is avoided, we notice many horses whose cramped motions re-
semble those of a smoothly-shod boy, who is taking his first lessons in walk-
ing on ice.
But as we pretend to no especial skill here, we give place to a writer in the
iV. Y. Courier^ who seems to understand at least something on this subject,
and " has had an experience of twenty years in the British cavalry," though
in what capacity we are not informed, and whose suggestions -may be useful
to those who have some personal responsibility in reference to this subject.
He writes as follows :
" Of winter or summer states of roadways, and the slipping, stumbling, and
faUing of horses, the writer cannot here more than observe that it is these
which dictate how the hoofs should be prepared and the shoes adapted. The
business of the farrier, as well of the hostler, should all be managed in direct
reference to them. An animal requires, in all states of the streets and roads,
foot-freedom and foothold ; and, in slippery states, extra care must be taken
that a good foothold is secured. All shoes and shoeing, however — and this
fundamental rule should never be lost sight of — must be subject to the na-
tural and elastic conditions of the foot, so as not in any manner to impede or
injure these. In states of nature, and when galloping at hberty over all kinds
of ground, soft and hard, rough and smooth, the horse has three sources of good
and sufficient foothold. The first is the concave form of the under surface of
the hoof; the second is the expansibility of the hoof, which opens at the heels
and quarters, and spreads at the base, under the super-weight and momentum
of motion ; and the third is the consequent and very effective stay derived
from the action of the wedge-hke frog on the surface or ground.
Let any mechanic examine the structure of the horse's foot, and he Avould
at once discover and pronounce it to be an organ whose construction and pro-
cesses were admirable, and well adapted it to be at once an expansive as well
as a protective covering for the motive and sensitive joints and tissues con-
tained within. He would furtber see and add that, if in circumstances of an
altered or domesticated state, an additional or artificial protection against tefir
or wear should be required, that this — whether of iron or aught else — must
be so applied and adjusted as not to interfere with, or limit, the expansive
properties of the hoof, on the penalty of fatal mischief.
Let us now inquire into facts. How are the shoes of horses — ^this addi-
tional protection — apphed ? Are their form and adjustments well and rightly
suited to their end and purpose? No ; for, first, the hoofs grow deep, dry,
hard, and inelastic ; second, the shoes promote this state, and further bind
and debar expansion ; third, instead of being concave to the ground, so as to
correspond to the concave form of the under surface of the hoof, the form of
the shoes are the reverse, and may be, therefore, likened to a skate, nailed on
in a manner to fix the parts; fourth, the frog is squeezed and diminished, and
is altogether disabled from usefully exercising its truly valuable functions.
In order to remedy one part of the evil, — slipping and falling — arising
from such shoes and shoeing, recourse is had to toe-pieces and caulkings.
These aggravate the general mischief ; for already ill-adjusted bearings of
the hoofs and shoes are straining the joints and ligaments, and this eflfect of
high caulking greatly tends to increase, as will be visible, if we observe ' the
35
594 POTATO CULTURE.
manner in which one caulking first takes the ground, and then how the ani-
mal's weight twists toward one on the other. Concussions and injuries to
the foot, pasterns, and fetlocks, and wrenches of the hock?, are continual
results. One kind of evil, substituted as the remedy for another, does not
abate the first. It is only a superadded evil. From all these causes flow
the almost universal prevalence of contracted, impaired, and unsound condi-
tions of the feet of horses ; the fore-feet in particular, which are more under
the centre of weight and motion.
Tos-pieces should never be used. Properly formed shoes never require
them. As a general rule, caulkings on the fore-shoes should seldom be re-
sorted to. When icy states of the streets or roads seem to exact them, a low
caulk on the outer heel of each shoe, only, should be used, and the web of
the inner heel should be drawn narrow and thick, in proportion to the height
of the caulk, so as to give an even and true bearing under the centre of the
animal's weight. The same rule should apply to the under heel of the hind-
shoes ; but a low caulk on the outer heel of each shoe, behind, is always
recommendable. The main and true defence, however, against toeing, trip-
ping, and stumbling, is ever to be sought in shoes and shoeing, mechanically
and physiologically adapted to preserve natural and healthy forms and con-
ditions of the hoofs and feet,"
THE POTATO CULTURE.
Various expedients have been tried, with more or less success, to prevent
the potato-rot, but we have not been forward in devising or commending
plans for selecting special soils, or using certain precautions, from the fact,
that we have had but little confidence in their success. Sometimes judicious
management has lessened the rate or extent of decay ; but when a crop is once
infected, or in that condition which is so called, alleviation is the only thing,
in our judgment, that can be done. It is like one far gone in consumption.
The philosophy which brought us to this result, be it true or false, is as
follows :
The tuber is not the organ on which vegetation seems to rely, as her main
dependence, in sustaining her succession of growths, but is only a duplicate
process, which is capable, to a limited extent, of increasing the production of
the species. At the same time, in its native condition, the plant never for-
gets its seeds. These are always the true reliance, and, we believe, the only
true reliance for the propagation of plants.
Analogy is also with us in this doctrine. How do we secure a permanent
succession of tuberose plants for our flower-gardens ? We always rely on
the product of seeds. We pot and repot tubers, but we always expect them
to deteriorate, and have occasion nearly, or quite every year, to resort to new
importations, or to the product of our own sowing. These importations, if
honestly conducted, are the products of the seed, and not of the division of
the tubers. We do not know why a greater permanency should be expected
of the tubers of a potato than of a hyacinth. We have carefully watched
this matter, not desiring to express an opinion too hastily, though we give it
now as an opinion only, while it seems to us based on sound piinciples in
philosophy.
INDIAN" CORN — ZEA MAYS. 595
If we are right, the true method for every farmer to adopt is to prepare his
grounds in the best possible manner, plant the best potatoes he can procure,
and give them his best attention, while he secures a good growth, and ripens
the seeds in the best manner, planting them in a soil equally well prepared
for them, and waits for his crop of seedlings. This should be done, to some
extent, every year.
INDIAN CORN — ZEA MAYS.
We regard this crop not only as tbe most valuable raised in this country,
on account of its immense amount, but as the most important to the producer.
It grows in various temperatures, varying from " 40° south latitude to 45°
north latitude," and will flourish even at the elevation of several thousand
feet above the sea. New species are occasionally introduced, which bear
greater degrees of cold than those hitherto cultivated. This, probably, is
dependent, at least to a great extent, upon its becoming acclimated, or to
adapting itself to the climate in which it is raised.
The entire product of corn in the United States, by the census of 1850,
as quoted on p. 326, of this volume, was 592,0*78,804 bushels. De Bow
estimates this as amounting, in value, to 1296,035,552, as seen on p. 327.
The chemical composition of corn varies with different species and diflfer-
ent latitudes. Sweet corn contains more of the phosphates. Southern and
" Oregon" corn contains more starch than Northern ; Rice and Pop corn
have it in the least proportion. Rice corn contains the greatest quantity of
oil. Pop corn contains its oil in small cells, and, by heat, this oil is decom-
posed, and assumes a gaseous form, by which process the cells are burst, and
the result, when produced suddenly, turns the grain completely inside out.
The Tuscarora corn is deficient in oil, and, hence, is not so useful in fatten-
ing animals, though it may make excellent bread. All corn contains gluten
in so limited a quantity, that it does not " rise" like the flour of wheat, on
the application of yeast. Yellow corn has ~ less bran than white corn ; it
is heavier, also.
MODE OF CULTURE.
Good crops of corn can be grown in almost every kind of soil, by proper
cultivation. But, judging from the rich crops produced in some parts of
Ohio, that best suited to the growth of corn is an alluvial deposit, rich in
vegetable matter, not stinted in its amount of moisture. It should be deep
and mellow, allowing the roots to extend themselves freely in all directions.
Corn will not. vegetate at a low temperature, and, hence, the condition of
the season can not be overlooked by the judicious farmer. Some seeds will
remain uninjured, if they do not actually vegetate, in a cold soil. Corn
requires a temperature of at least 50° or 55*. If reduced below this, there
is a tendency to decay.
The ground being well ploughed and pulverized, the hills should be pre-
pared at a distance of three or three and a half feet apart. The manure
may be broadcast, or placed on the hills. An excellent manure for the hill
is made by mixing one-fifth of hen manure, one-fifth of plaster, and three -
fifths of ashes, of which, after it is well mingled, and has been left to ferment,
a spoonful may be thrown into each hill. If manure is used broadcast, a
596 FOOT-ROT.
spoonful of gypsum in each hill, in most soils, is found very profitable. If
barn-yard manure is not at hand, the artificial preparations to which we have
so often referred, should be put in requisition. Decayed vegetable matter is
most desirable, and, after this, the various bone mixtures. Soaking the seed
before planting hastens its germination. Covering the seed with tar, and
then, for convenience in planting, rolling it in ashes or lime, will preserve
it from the attacks of crows or insects.
When the corn appears above ground, an occasional sprinkling of ashes
is useful, which may be applied at the hoeing.
Hilling corn is not recommended. All such elevations are unfavorable to
the influence of rains. Use a hoe, or a cultivator, or both, keeping down all
weeds, and making the soil soft and porous.
CORN FOR FODDER.
Corn is often planted for use as feed ; and we doubt not that farmers
would find it for their interest to make a more free use of this excellent feed.
Few products of the farm are more nutritious or more convenient. A single
acre will ordinarily produce five or six tons, and will keep four cows for
three months. But a much greater result has been sometimes obtained. In
1845, in Massachusetts, over thirty-one tons of green stalks were grown upon
an acre. The product of two acres and thirty-tv/o rods was estimated as
equivalent to fifteen tons of the best of hay. On this lot, ten bushels of corn
were sown. When it is to be used in this way, it should be sown in drills,
two and a half or three feet apart, sowing from three to four bushels to the
acre. After sowing, the ground should be harrowed. The Stowell & West
corn should be used. G-ood feed may thus be obtained by the end of June.
The stalks should be suffered to wilt before feeding. If they are to be dried,
or kept for winter, they should be cut in the tassel, and a little sprinkling of
salt is recommended. This tends to prevent them from moulding, and is
also agreeable to the cattle.
The stalks may be prepared by various processes. Sometimes they are
cut before the corn is ripe. This is for the benefit of the feed, and it saves
the cost of the corn. Sometimes they are left till after the corn is gathered,
when they are cut up from the roots. Which is best, on the whole, is yet a
question. We are disposed to think that, by the use of some well-arranged
cutters, the entire stalk may be consumed for feed. Every part of it is highly
nutritious, and we see not why the whole may not be so prepared, as to be
eagerly eaten by different kinds of stock.
Foot-rot. — ^The Coimtry Gentleman states that the following remedy
for the foot-rot in sheep has been used with great success by H. Howland,
of Aurora, Cayuga county, N. Y., for the last thirty years :
"Mix flour of sulphur with the salt given to the sheep, in a proportion
just sufficient to discolor perceptibly the salt, or about one-eighth part. Sul-
phur may be had at a wholesale price at a cost of not over two cents.
Where local applications are necessary, we should much prefer a solution of
chloride of Ume to any other application.''
UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 597
UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
The third annual session of this society commenced February 21st, 1855,
in the "East Room" of the Smithsonian Institution. Twenty-six States were
represented by accredited delegates from state and county societies, and there
was also a large number of individual members of the society.
The Hon. M. P. Wilder, of Mass., President of the Society, on taking the .
chair, delivered a pertinent address, in which he recapitulated the operations
of the society during the past year, including the cattle show at Springfield,
Ohio, The address was received with applause, and has been printed for
distribution in pamphlet form.
On motion of Mr. King, of New- York, a committee of one from eacli
state represented was chosen by the President, to nominate a board of officers
for the ensuing year.
A letter was read from Col. Selden, resigning his office as treasurer, and,
accompanied by securities for the funds of the society deposited in the bank,
was referred to Messrs. Wager, of New-York, Calvert of Maryland, and
Worthington, of Ohio. They subsequently reported, complimenting Col.
Selden for his integrity, and expressing confidence that the funds are secure.
Resolutions were offered by Messrs. Holcomb, of Delaware, and Kemmel,
of Maryland, which were sustained by Messrs. Calvert, Peck, and Kennedy,
of Maryland, King, of New- York, and Jones, of Delaware, and then laid on
the table for future discussion.
Messrs. Wager, of New-York, Kennedy, of Pennsylvania, Proctor, of Mas-
sachusetts, Steadman, of Ohio, and Jones, of Delaware, were appointed a
committee to receive and report on amendments to the constitution.
Mr. Calvert, of Maryland, offered a resolution recommending political
action on the part of agriculturists, and supported it by able remarks.
He was followed by Messrs, French, of New-Hampshire, Dyer, of Conn.,
and Kennedy of Pennsylvania, and the resolution was laid on the table for
future discussion.
Mr. Jones, of Delaware, presented a memorial, showing the effect of legis-
lation upon agriculture, and embracing a mass of historical facts.
After having been read, it was, on motion of Mr. King, of New- York,
placed on the files of the society.
Mr. Clenson, of Maryland, introduced a resolution recommending agricul-
tural education.
An informal discussion of the potato rot, deep ploughing, and other mat-
ters of great agricultural interest, followed, in which a large number of
gentlemen participated. Many facts of importance were elicited, as gentle-
men from various sections related their " experience," and the debate was con-
tinued until four o'clock.
In the evening, the Society were favored by a lecture from their Vice-Pre-
sident from Virginia, the venerable George Washington Parke Custis. His
eloquent narrative of the illustrious " Farmer of Mount Vernon" was listened
to with marked attention, by a large audience, and was warmly applauded.
After the lecture, a large number of ladies and gentlemen were introduced
by the President to the orator.
After the lecture, the officers and committees were unexpectedly enter-
tained at the National Hotel, by Col. C. B. Calvert, the proprietor of " Rivers-
dale." A sumptuous repast graced the festive board, and the festivities were
prolonged until a late hour.
598
UNITED STATES AG-RICULTURAL SOCIETY.
ECOND DAT
This morning the Society met at ten o'clock, and, after the report of Mr. ,
King, of New- York, chairman of the nominating committee, elected the
following
OFFICERS FOR 186 5.
PRESIDENT.
Marshall P. Wilder, of Massachusetts.
John D. Lang, Maine.,
H. F. French, N. H.,
Fred. Holbrook, Vt.,
B. V. French, Mass.,
Jos. J. Cooke, Rhode Island,
John T. Andrew, Conn.,
Henry "Wager, New-York,
Isaac Cornell, New-Jersey,
Isaac Newton, Pa.,
C. H. Holcomb, Delaware,
H. G. S. Key, Md.,
G. W. P. Custis, Va.,
Henry K. Burgwyn, N. C,
James Hopkinson, S. C,
D. A. Reese, Ga.,
A. P. Hatch, Ala.,
A. G. Brown, Miss.,
J. D. B. DeBow, La.,
Gen. Whitfield, Kansas,
VICE-PEESIDENTS.
Ji T. "Worthington, Ohio,
B. Gratz, Ky.,
M. P. Gentry, Tenn.,
Jos. Orr, Ind.,
J. A. Kinnicutt, 111.,
Thos. Allen, Mo.,
T. B. Flournoy, Ark.,
J. C. Holmes, Mich.,
Jackson Morton, Fla..
T. G. Rusk, Texas,
J. W. Grimes, Iowa,
B. 0. Eastham, Wis.,
J. M. Horner, Cal.,
Jos. H. Bradley, D. C,
S. M. Baird, New-Mexico,
H. H. Sibley, Minn.,
Joseph Lane, Oregon,
J. L. Hayes, Utah,
Mr. Gliddings, Nebraska.
EXKCUTIVE COMMITTE.
John A. King, New-York,
C. B. Calvert, Md.,
A. L. Elwyn, Penn.,
J. Wentworth, 111.,
B. Perley Poore, Mass.,
A. Watts, Ohio.,
John Jones, Del.
SECRETARY.
William S. King, Boston, Massachusetts.
TREASURER.
B. B. French, Washington, D. C.
On a report of the Executive Committee, Dr. Elwin, of Pennsylvania,
Henry Wager, of New- York, Dr. W. T. G. Morton, of Massachusetts, Col.
Anthony Kirarael, of Md., and Chas. L. Flint, of Massachusetts, were ap-
pointed delegates to attend the coming Industrial Exhibition at Paris.
After the election, the discussion upon the resolution offered by Mr. C. P.
Holcomb, of Delaware, on the "Reciprocity Treaty" as injurious to the
agricultural interests of the Republic, took place. Messrs. Holcomb, Peck,
King, and Jones participated in the discussion.
This evening the Hon G. P. Marsh lectured on "Notices of the Rural
Economy of Continental Europe."
thirdday.
After the election yesterday, the Society discussed a resolution offered the
day previous by Mr. C. B. Holcomb, of Delaware, denouncing the " R^ciprft-
city Treaty" as injurious to the agricultural interests of the public, Messrs.
Holcombj Peck, King, Waters, Elwyn, Kennedy, Steadman, Cowley, and
UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 599
other gentlemen participating. The resolution, as finally amended and
passed, reads :
Resolved, That we object to the doctrine of free trade for agriculture and
protection for other interests.
Col. Calvert, of Maryland, offered the following preamble and resolutions,
which he supported in an able and earnest manner, deprecating all applica-
tions to Congress, and urging action on the part of agriculturists, as calcu-
lated to coinmand success.
The resolutions, after having been discussed by Messrs. Kennedy, of Penn.,
Jones, of Delaware, and King, of New- York, were carried :
Whereas, The prosperity of a country is in proportion to the improvement
of its agriculture, therefore,
Resolved, That agriculture should be the first interest considered in legis-
lating for the general welfare, and that such legislation should be had as
will foster and protect this interest, which is paramount to all others.
Resolved, That the time has arrived for the agriculturists of the whole
country to meet in convention, and determine for themselves what legislation
is necessary for their protection.
Resolved, That such a convention, to be composed of delegates fiom each
State of the Union, be earnestly recommended by this society, in order that
an agricultural platform may be established, which will meet the views of,
and be sustained by the whole body of agriculturists as a profession.
Mr. Wagner, of New-York, submitted a report on the proposed amend-
ments to the constitution, which was discussed by Messrs. Fay and Waters,
of Massachusetts, Cooke, of Rhode Island, King, of New-York, Hamilton,
of New-Jersey, Calvert, of Maryland, and Worthington, of Ohio.
The constitution Avas so amended as to have the payment of ten dollars
constitute life-membership, and to change the time for holding the annual
meeting to the second Wednesday of January.
Various reports were read ; among them, one on the Chess in Wheat, from
the Smithsonian Institute ; on Agricultural History, by B. P. Poore ; on
Mr. Glover's Collection, by Mr. Peck; and on Western Fruits, by Dr.
Warden.
Mr. Peck, of Maryland, reported that the committee appointed to urge
upon Congress the purchase of Mr. Glover's collection of modelled fruits, had
had an interview with the proper committee of Congress, and received assur-
ances that the matter would receive their attention.
A communication from Professor Henry was read, detailing experiments
on the culture of the " Oregon pea," made under the direction of the Smith-
sonian Institution, at the request of the society. The results at Savannah
proved it worthless for that region.
A paper on "Alderney Cattle," by Dr. W. J. G. Morton, was read and
referred. Also, a paper on the " Potato Oat," from New-York.
Dr. Warden, of Cincinnati, exhibited over thirty different varieties of
Western apples, which he descanted upon with his wonted accuracy.
The invitation was received and accepted inviting the Society to visit the
Metropolitan Mechanics' Institute to-day at eleven o'clock. Invitations to
the office of the Coast Survey and the agriculture room at the Patent Ofiice,
were also accepted.
After some remarks by Mr. Custis, giving his experience in growing wheat
in Virginia, the Society adjourned until seven o'clock, when the Hon. G. P.
eoo
UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
Marsh had been invited to address them on the Rural Economy of Conti-
nental Europe.
The lecture was hstened to with great interest, embodying, as it did, a
great amount of original information, and its publication will constitute a
valuable addition to agricultural literature.
Dr. Warden followed, with an eloquent lecture on hedges, replete with
practical information.
Friday Morning, March 2.
The Society met at ten o'clock, and passed an hour in familiar conversa-
tion on agricultural subjects.
After a discussion on the appointment of Commissioners to the Industrial
Exhibition at Paris, the matter was referred to the Executive Committee.
On motion of Mr. Poore, of Massachusetts, it was unanimously.
Resolved, That the thanks of the United States Agricultural Society be
presented to the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, for the facilities
afforded in holding this session. The utility of this Institution, in thus serv-
ing as a nucleus, around which all useful associations can rally, at the capital
of our Republic, shows the wisdom of the course pursued by the present
Regents.
Col. Kimmel, of Maryland, read a curious extract from the Maryland
Gazette, of September 8th, 1784, showing that "cattle shows" were estab-
lished at Baltimore in that year.
On motion of Mr. Waters, of Massachusetts, it was unanimously
Resolved, That the thanks of this Society be proffered to Hon. George P.
Marsh, for the very beautifully written and exceedingly interesting lecture he
was so good as to present to us last evening, and that Professor Henry be
requested to wait on him and request a copy for publication.
On motion of Mr. Calvert of Maryland, it was unanim^isly
Resolved, That the thanks of this Society be presented to Dr. Warden, for
his interesting lecture on the cultivation of hedges, and that he be requested.
to present a copy of the same for publication in the transactions of the
Society.
At eleven o'clock, in accordance with their acceptance of the invitation,
the Society adjourned to visit the exhibition of the "Metropolitan Mechanics'
Institute."
After visiting the Exhibition yesterday, the Society returned to the " East
Room," and, on motion of Mr. King, of New York, it was
Resolved, That the thanks of the Society be presented to the officers of the
Metropolitan Mechanics' Institute, for their polite invitation to attend their
exhibition, which they have visited and examined with great pleasure.
After some debate, in which a strong desire for concerted action on the
part of American Agriculturists was manifested, it was, on motion of Col.
Calvert, of Maryland,
Resolved, That the first Friday after the next annual meeting of this So-
ciety, be fixed for the assembhng of the Agricultural Convention, and that
the press be requested to urge the importance of the subject.
Resolutions were passed complimenting the agricultural press, and urgjflg
its conductors to consider political economy, and urge united action on such
matters connected with it as their judgment may suggest.
On motion of Mr. Taylor, it was
THE SPIDER. 601
Resolved, That the thanks of the National Agricultural Society be ten-
dered to the Hon. Mr. Morton, of the United States Senate, for his able
Report upon the subject of an Agricultural Department.
Resolutions were passed complimentary to President Wilder ; to the Re-
gents of the Srai'ihsonian Institution ; to Lieutenant Maury, (for an invitation
to visit the Observatory ;) to Mr. King, the Secretary of the Society ; and to
Mr. Poore, of the executive committee. ^
Adjourning, after three days' session, in which, agriculturists from twenty-
six States participated with great harmony of feeling, the members of the
Society felt encouraged by this renewed and increased manifestation of the
great interest of the Republic to assert its position. h
In the evening many of the officers and members called upon Mr. Clayton,
to thank him for his speech of the previous evening.
THE SPIDER.
Why hate and shudder at spiders ? Because they entangle flies and kill
them ? That should entitle them to our gratitude, for flies, being troublesome
and injurious to man, any other insect that destroys them ought to be con-
sidered our ally, and taken into friendship. Are they not beautiful ? The
other day we observed one in the field. He was larger than a double-eagle
and as bright and yellow, having colors more striking, indeed, because har-
moniously variegated.
Few ladies could outvie him in personal ornaments, whicb, in his case,
were not of recent purchase, but came to him by inheritance in the line of
an ancient family. He had constructed one of his wonderful palaces of
regular dimensions and great size ; but, either seeing, as the New-York archi-
tects sometimes fail to do, that its foundations were insecure, or else disliking
the neighborhood, as nice people do rum-holes, blacksmith's and currier's
shops, French boarding-houses and American piggeries — for these, or some
other good reasons, he made up liis mind to remove his residence.
Now, as he had been at immense expense in building his capacious house,
like the Crystal Palace proprietors of New-York, and out of his own bowels
too, which they did not — for speculators and brokers are not supposed to
have any, purses being a complete substitute — having been at so much cost,
he did not like to go away and leave bis domicil behind him. For his stock
of materials for such structures is limited, as well as the funds of the opera-
tors in the Fancies. Nature, it is said, only supplies the spider family with
a certain quantity at first, which, if they are extravagant in spending, they
will have afterwards to make up by knitting, Schuylerizing or stealing — the
difference between which methods, we can not tarry to record, and might
not be able to do so, was ever so much time allowed us. In short, our spi-
der resolved, as the palace proprietors, who may have taken the hint from
him, are said to have determined on — he resolved to take his splendid dwell-
ing down.
So one morning he began in earnest to pull down, and, as far as we could
judge, at the point where he had ended in putting it up ; that is, the last
timbers he had placed in the building were the first to be removed. Pa-
tiently and carefully he worked, taking off" filament by filament of those long
beams and braces, which seemed single to the naked eye, but yet were dou-
602 THE BAREFOOTED PRINTER-BOY.
bled and trebled and quadrupled to afford sufficient strength for so large a
work. For tliis creature, it must be obsex'ved, li^s discovered no iron or other
new material to weave into his productions, but is obliged to labor with just
the same raw material as when he spun his web upon the grape vines of
Mrs. Eve. So if he wants augmented strength in any portion of his work,
he can only attain it by putting several timbers together.
By degrees, we could see, as he wrought, the main pillars and string-
pieces lessening in size, and at length disappearing one by one, till finally,
the whole habitation was invisible. What had become of" it? We kept a
sharp look-out at this juncture, for it was evidently the crisis of the enter-
prise. At last w*saw the spider hoist a pack upon his back in the shape of
a ball, and commence his journey. It was his house, which he was thus
transporting to erect in a more favorable locality. Like a snail, he was thus
carrying it upon his back, though, unlike that animal, he had the rough
stock of another in his belly, should this tenement of his be dissolved by the
hurricane, flood, or fire. The beautiful, industrious and provident creature
ran along as nimble as ^Eneas, with his father, Anchises, on his shoulders,
though under the burden of all his worldly goods. He made for a large
tree, where, notwithstanding all our vigilance, he forever disappeared. We
sent after him a sincere wish, that he might obtain an eligible lot iip-toivrif
whither he was going, on easy terms. — Newark Advertiser.
THE BAREFOOTED PRINTER-BOY.
The Pittsburgh Morning Ariel, under this caption, gives a short story of
a distinguished citizen of Pennsylvania, as follows :
Some thirty years ago, a barefooted boy floated down the Susquehannah
river on an humble raft, and arrived at Harri^burg, Pa. He came from the
North, and belonged to a large family, with all his worldly goods tied up in
a little pocket-handkerchief. He sought and obtained employment in a
printing office as an apprentice. From an apprentice to a journeyman, from
a journeyman to a reporter, then to an editor, the barefooted printer boy
worked his way against obstacles which the struggling poor only know. The
persevering follower in Franklin's steps began to realize the fruits of his
patient toil and privation. The young aspirant became Printer to the State,
and by frugal management was soon enabled to accomplish the object dearest
to his heart — the establishment of his mother in a home above* want — in the
possession of every comfort she could desire.
His brothers were next his care, and. like Napoleon, he had a strong arm
with which to aid them — an indomitable perseverance that nothing could long
sucessfuUy obstruct. In a few years, they too, with his sisters, were inde-
pendent of the world ; the once barefooted printer boy was in possession of
affluence, surrounded by a young and affectionate family. He did not stop
here. He was the friend of the friendless, the patron of merit, and the en-
courager of industry. He rose in honor and in office, until the poor bare-
footed boy, who entered a printing office in Harrisburgh, hungry and v/eary,
laid down his little bundle on a pile of wet paper and asked to become a
printer's apprentice, was elected Senator in Congress ! That man is Simon
Cameron, of Pennsylvania.
SHEEP AND WOOL. 603
SHEEP AND WOOL.
The annexed table, showing the number of sheep and pounds of wool pro-
duced in each of the States and Territories of the Union, according to the
Census of 1850, has been published in many of the papers. We have added,
in another column, at the right hand, the average yield of a sheep in pounds
and hundreths :
Av.
3,09
2,88
3,70
3,10
2,92
2,85
2,91
2,33
2,45
2,10
2,69
2,28
1,63
1,76
1,76
0,99
1,76
1,83
0,99
1,45
2,00
1,68
1,68
2,13
2,56
2,73
2,32
2,53
2,28
2,49
1,02
0,31
1,00
1,27
2,82
0,08
21,571,306 52,417,287 2,42
It appears that the average is higher, by six-tenths of a pound, in Ver-
mont, than in any other State. Massachusetts comes next, and then Maine.
These are the only States where it exceeds three pounds. In New-Mexico
and Cahfornia, probably, the sheep are raised for mutton and peltry, and few
States.
Sheep.
Lbs. Wool.
Maine,
440,953
1,362,986
New-Hampshire,
384,656
1,108,470
Vermont,
919,992
3,410,993
Massachusetts,
188,651
585,136
Ehode Island,
44,296
129,692
Connecticut,
174,181
497,454
New- York,
3,454,241
10,070,301
New-Jersey,
160,488
375,386
Pennsylvania,
1,822,356
4,481,570
Delaware,
27,503
57,768
Maryland,
177,902
480,226
Dist. of Columbia,
150
525
Virginia,
1,311,004
2,860,765
North Carolina,
595,249
970,738
South Carolina,
281,754
487,223
Georgia,
560,435
990,019
Florida,
23,311
23,247
Alabama,
371,800
659,118
Mississippi,
304,929
659,619
Louisiana,
110,333
109,897
Texas,
90,098
131,373
Arkansas,
91,256
182,595
Tennessee,
811,537
1,363,378
Kentucky,
1,070,303
2,283,685
Ohio,
3,937,086
10,111,288
Michigan,
746,435
2,043,283
Indiana,
1,122,484
2,610,287
Illinois,
894,043
2,150,113
Missouri,
756,309
1,615,860
Iowa,
149,960
373,898
Wisconsin,
124,893
253,963
California,
17,574
5,520
Minnesota Territory, 80
85
Oregon Territory,
15,382
28,686
Utah Territory,
3,262
9,222
New-Mexico,
377,271
30,901
604: AGRICULTURE AN^D EDUCATION IN TENNESSEE.
of them are sheared ; for though we find a very regular diminution in the
weight of fleeces as we proceed southward, it is not credible that fleeces actu-
ally sheared, should average only about five ounces in California, and only
about an ounce and a quarter in New-Mexico.
The weight of fleeces in Vermont is not owing wholly to the latitude or
temperature ; for if it were, New-Hampshire and Maine ought to yield heavier
fleeces still. It is, doubtless, in part, caused by the quality of the pasturage,
air, and water, of the Gi'een Mountain range ; an advantage in which Massa-
chusetts partakes. Another, and a principal cause is, the superiority of the
breeds raised here. Almost all the sheep there are descended from the best
flocks in Spain ; and it has been long since ascertained that, with decent
treatment, they do not deteriorate in Vermont. Not improbably, most parts
of the Alleghany range may be found nearly or quite as well adapted to the
same breeds.
The fleeces in Vermont are very nearly 20 per cent, heavier than those in
any other State, and 62 per cent, heavier than the average of the whole
United States. The profit of wool-growing, compared with lighter fleeces of
equal fineness, is about in the same pi'oportion ; for the rearing and support
of a poor sheep is as costly as of a good one. But, besides this, the fleeces
are much finer than the average of the whole country, and bring a higher
price per pound. It is plain, therefore, why the Vermont farmers go into
the business so much more generally and extensively than those of any other
State. It is plain, too, what farmers of other States must do, if they would
reap the same profits from this business.
There are towns in New-Hampshire, where sheep of the same breeds yield
the same profits ; and so in some other States. It is probable, however, that
in this staple the Northern States will always retain some advantage over
the Southern, and the mountains over the plains. — Boston Traveller.
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES AND EDUCATION IN TENNESSEE.
In an address delivered by Governor A. V. Brown, before the "Agricultu-
ral College and Mechanics' Institute," established by the State, for the im-
provement of that people, the following passage occurs :
" In no portion of the State would the results of that success be more
striking and gratifying thsn in East Tennessee. For more than half a cen-
tury you have been mountain-bound, and consequently excluded, save at vast
expense, from the great market places of the world. Deprived by the fiat of
nature of the usual stimulus to action, you have put forth no great agricul-
tural or mechanical exertion. Your houses were not promptly and neatly
repaired ; ypur orchards were left unpruned and neglected ; your best grass
and meadow-lands were unreclaimed ; your fields were cultivated with a slo-
venly indifierence, both as it regards durability and production. Indeed, the
whole aspect of your country was that of a dissatisfied and desponding peo-
ple, ready to seize the first opportunity to sell out and be oflT to some new
and more favored land. But now how changed the scene ! The genius of
internal improvement has waved his magic wand over you, and house, and
field, and orchard, all the splendid exhibitions of this day's fair, proclaim you
a contented, happy, and prosperous people. The traveler pauses and tells
THE GREATEST GRAIN PORT IN THE WORLD. 605
you in vain of the rich prairies of Texas, or the deep alluvion of the Arkan-
sas. Even his gorgeous description of the diamond-studded and gold-glitter-
ing California can extort from yom nothing more than the reply, ' East Ten-
nessee is good enough for me.' And so it is, my countrymen. After years
of travel and observation, I cordially endorse the sentiment, that East Ten-
.nessee is good enough for you — good enough for any body. Where, upon
this continent, can you gaze upon a more varied and lovely landscape than
now spreads out before you ! Hill and dale, forest and field, torrents gushino-
from the mountain side, and streamlets gently flowing through valleys fra-
grant with flowers of perpetual bloom ! Further ofi" in the distance, we be-
hold mountains in which lie imbedded, in close proximity, the largest supply
of coal and iron ore that the whole Appalachian chain can boast. In the oppo-
site direction, but in full view, lies another range of mountains, from whose bo-
som are daily borne inexhaustible treasures of copper, and other valuable
minerals. Between these mountains lie a succession of luxuriant valleys,
irrigated by streams of unrivalled purity, and capable of sustaining in elegance
and plenty tenfold their present population. Into these valleys the iron horse
is already making his resistless way, and -waking to his fiery tread the slum-
bering echoes of six thousand years. When to these mere geographical ad-
vantages we add the charms and attractiuns of a population of whom it may
be well said, without poetic hcense,
' Where Man is brave, and Women true,
And free as mountain air,'
who would exchange his own native or adopted East Tennessee for any other
land on the globe !" *
THE GREATEST GRAIN PORT IN THE WORLD.
The Democratic Press, printed in Chicago, claims that that city is the
greatest grain port in the world, and proceeds to give the evidence which
supports such a claim. The exports from European parts are given at an
average of several years :
" Those of St. Louis for the year 1853, those for Chicago and Milwaukie
for the current year, and those for New- York are, for the past eleven months,
of the same, year. With these explanations, it invites attention to the fol-
lowing table :
Wheat, In. Corn, Oats, Rye, Total,
bush. bush. and I3arley. bush.
Odessa, 5,600,000 1,400,000 7,040,000
Galatz and Ibrelia, - 2,400,000 5,600,000 320,000 8,320,000
Dantzig, 6,080,000 1,328,000 4,405,000
St. Petersburg, - - all kinds. 7,290,000
Archangel, - - - - « 2,528,000
Riga, " 4,000,000
St. Louis, 3,082,000 918,384 1,081,078 5,081,168
Milwaukie, - - - . 2,723,574 181,937 841,630 3,747,161
New-York, - - . - 5,802,452 3,627,883 9,430,335
Chicago, - - . - 2,996,924 6,745,588 4,834,216 13,786,727
By comparing the exports of the diflferent places mentioned in the above
606 POST OAK GLADE LAND.
table," says the Press, " it v?ill be seen that the grain exports of Chicago
exceeded those of New- York by 4,296,293 bushels ; those of St. Louis by
more than two hundred and fifty per cent. Turning to the great granaries
of Europe, Chicago nearly doubles St. Petersburg, the largest, and exceeds
Galatz and Ibrelia combined 5, 406, '727 bushels.
Twenty years ago, Chicago, as well as most of the country from whence
she now draws her immense supplies of breadstuffs, imported both flour and
wheat for home consumption ; now, she is the largest primary grain depot
in the world, and she leads all other ports in the world, also, in the quantity
and quality of her beef exports ! We say the largest primary grain depot
in the world, because it can not be denied that New- York, Liverpool, and
some other great commercial centres, receive more breadstuffs than Chicago
does in the course of the year, but none of them will compare with her, as
we have shown above, in the amount collected from the hands of the pro-
ducers.
What a practical illustration the above facts afford as to the wonderful,
the scarcely credible, progress of the west — what an index it furnishes to the
fertility of her soil, and to the industrious and enterprising character of our
people — what a prophecy of the destiny that awaits her, when every foot
of her long stretches of prairie, and her rich valleys, shall have been reduced
to a thoroughly scientific tillage !"
POST OAK GLADE LAND.
A farmer in Texas wishes to know " whether or not there is any method of
reclaiming what we call 'Post Oak Glade,' which is a wet land of whitish
or ashy color, most of the growth being Post Oak, with a few scattering
Pines." He further says : " Such lands are apt to bake after heavy rains."
A writer replies (in the Southern Cultivator) as follows : " I take it, this
quality of land is better adapted to cotton than any other crop. I suppose it
has too many silicates already without the use of hme.
Will 'A Subscriber' try ten acres on my plan ? It will cost him nothing.
Bed up the land in the spring, five inches deep, and that is very deep, (though
I do not suppose he will think it deep until he puts the rule to it,) elevating
his bed as high as a " dagon" plow of this depth will do ; plant on the top
of the bed, covering shallow. In this country, I would not plant his land
before the first of May ; with him, I advise him to plant at least one month
after other planters. In cultivation, never go more than one and a half
inches below the surface, and, in the latter part of cultivation, below one
inch from the surface; cultivate either with a cultivator or with a sweep,
cutting as deep at the outside of the wings as the point.
I am mistaken, if 'A Subscriber' will justly pursue this plan, if he does
not gather from 1000 to 3000 pounds per acre. I am also mistaken, from
his description of his ' Post Oak Glade Land in Texas,' if it is not the very
best cotton land in Texas. If I am right in the character of his land, it is a
cold land, one on which, by ordinary culture, a good stand of cotton can not
be obtained. *A Subscriber' must not plant this land until hot weather has
set in, and then only by elevating the plant above the level, and as far above
as he can, with five inches depth of bedding."
BOa MEADOWS EECLAIMED. - 607
BOG MEADOWS RECLAIMED.
The following account of a reclaimed bog describes one of the most suc-
cessful experiments we remember to have noticed. We find it in the Trans-
actions of the Middlesex County Society, (Ms.,) in the statement of Mr. Asa
G. Sheldon, of Wilmington, who is one of the enterprising farmers in that
region. Mr. Sheldon's statement is as follows :
'• The swamp land I offered for premium, in 1843, was blueberry swamp,
with tome few maples and white pine; value not more than ten dollais per
acre. I first dug a ditch through the centre of it, about forty rods in length,
which cost sixty cents per rod, making twenty dollars. Then I cut off the
wood and brush, which barely paid for cutting. In the fall, the manure was
taken from the slaughter-yard and barn-cellar, teamed to a side-hill near tbe
swamp, mixed one load of strong manure with three loads of blue clayey
gravel. This was done in September. In the winter, when tbe swamp was
frozen, this was teamed on, tipped up in loads, and tben covered with sand.
In April, 1844, it was all overhauled. In May, I commenced digging over
the swamp, and planting potatoes, putting a small shovel full of this compost in
a hill. I found the depth of mud to vary from eighteen inches to nine feet.
Where I found the mud deep and good digging, I dug five or six feet deep,
filling the holes with blackberry roots, small stumps, and hassocks, within
eighteen inches of the top, then covering it over with mud from the next
hole, planting potatoes on the same. The clearing and planting were both
done at once. The piece managed in this way was not less than two acres.
A man would clear and plant from four to six square rods per day. Wages,
at that time, were a dollar a day. Cost of clearing and planting, thirty-two
dollars per acre. Cost of ditch, ten dollars per acre, making, in all, forty-two
dollars per acre. The crop of potatoes was not less than two hundred
bushels per acre.
Grass-seed was sown on the ground when the potatoes were dug, and the
ground raked over. In 1845-6-7-8 and 9, making five years, it produced
as good a crop of English hay as I ever raised upon any ground, without
any manure except what was put on the first crop of potatoes. In 1850, the
cro]) of grass began to fail, and some wild grass came in. In September,
1850, I plowed it by hitching the plow behind a pair of wheels, so that the
oxen could walk on the grass. In the winter, when it was frozen, I teamed
on manure, all kinds being mixed, about four cords to the acre. I planted it
in 1851 with potatoes ; the crop was from three to five hundred bushels to
the acre. Finding this much more profitable than hay, I have managed it
in the same way until the present time. When the potatoes have been dug
early, before they got their full growth, I have not obtained so large a crop.
When they have been allowed to remain in the ground, they have never
failed of yielding three times as much as the upland.
The present season I invited the town clerk, with a number of other gentle-
men, to witness the measurement of the ground, and the digging and mea-
surement of the potatoes. From this, which I enclose, you w'ill see that the
crop can not be valued at less than three hundred dollars per acre, many
having now been sold for more than one dollar and fifty cents per bushel."
Wilmington, Oct. 2, 1854. -
60S IMPROVED STEREOSCOPE.
IMPROVED STEREOSCOPE.
J3 B
The above ia a perspective view of Masclier's Stereoscope Medallion, for
which a patent was granted January 16th, 1855. It is represented as open,
or as it is used for viewing the two stereoscopic daguerreotypes, or other
photographic pictures, which, by its optical arrangement, are made to appear
as one, and that not a mere flat representatien, but a form standing up out
of the substance on which it is drawn like a substantial, living thing.
The following is a description of the engraving at the head of this article:
C is the main central rim of a locket ; B B are two lids with daguerreotype
pictures, E E, on them ; these lids are hinged on each sid'e of the rim, C.
A A are two supplementary lids, each containing a lens, D D. These are
also hinged to rim C, as shown, but are fitted to fold within the picture lids,
B B, and are arranged in such relation to the same, that, upon being opened
and properly adjusted, the lenses, D D, will stand opposite to the pictures,
and convert the medallion into a stereoscope, by which a person looking
through the glasses, D D, will see but one picture, solid and life-like. The
patentee has applied double convex lenses to these medallions, the sides of
which are of unequal convexity, (as one to six,) according to Brewster, so that
the picture is rendered very cleai'. A medallion of this character can also
be used for a microscope and sua-glass.
This property of the stereoscope, of converting two flat pictures into one
raised, substantial, life-like statue, appears, as yet, to be but little understood,
and, consequently, but little appreciated by the public ; and we can assure
our readers, that they can form no adequate conception of the beauty of this
invention, until they have, with their own eyes, looked through the two lenses,
at the two portraits opposite them. The resulting picture looks no more
like either of its component pictures than a circle does like a globe. The
medallion is made of gold, and when folded up, it is impossible to distinguish
it from the locket commonly worn. When closed, it measures one and three
quarters inch diameter, and three-eighths of an inch thick. The engraving
represents a No. 9 medallion, which the inventor sells for $12 each, but he
has applied the same principle to No. 7 and 8, some of which, he informs us,
he will shortly have on sale, at $10 and 111 each, respectively.
This medallion, with pictures, together with a handsome morocco case, in
which it can be very safely kept, when not in use, weighs only three ounces,
•onsequently it is admirably suited to send by mail to distant fiiends or
relatives.
IMPROVED STEREOSCOPE. 609
'lliis locket exhibits tlie most extraordinary adaptation of means to ends
that we have ever witnessed. Every particle of room is occupied, and is a
most striking contrast to Prof. Wheatstone's first, and even to the most perfect
foreign stereoscopes which are sometimes imported, Theirs are boxes occupy-
ing one-half of a cubic foot, this, one-half inch ; the best imported ones magnify
very little, whereas this magnifies four times. Even the stereoscopic daguer-
reotype case, for which this same inventor also obtained a patent in 1853, is
much superior with respect to portability, magnifying power, easy manage-
ment, durability, and cheapness, to the best imported ones, but this last in-
vention is an improvement upon that. Mr. Mascher has turned the tables
upon the Europeans, for he informs us that he exports large quantities to
England, France, and the Spanish jiossessions.
We see by the report of the judges of the Metropolitan Mechanics' Insti-
tute, at Washington, that they entertain the same favorable opinions of this
invention that we do, for they have awarded to it the First Premium. A
similar acknowledgement was also made by the Franklin Institute of Phila-
delphia, last December, to the stereoscopic daguerreotype case, for they
awarded to it the first premium, besides recommending the inventor to the
Committee on Arts and Sciences, with a view to a still more favorable report,
a recommendation and award extended to no other depositor.
More information can be obtained by letter, by addressing I. F. Mascher,
No. 408 North Second Street, Philadelphia.
For the benefit of daguerreotypists who are not familiar with this beautiful
invention, we add the following directions, commending this style of preserv-
ing the very image of one's friends, to all who can afford this choice luxury.
For, we repeat it, the difference between this style of representation and the
common daguerreotype, is greater than between a common painting, and a
correct statue ; for in this is the appearance of life.
Directions to take and put up Pictures.
" Prepare two plates, of such size that the two, when pasted together, will
fit the size of case intended, ready for the camera, in the usual manner, and
if you have two cameras of the same size and quality, set them about two
feet apart, and at equal distance from the person or subject intended to be
taken. Draw the focus correctly in each, and take both pictures at the same
instant of time, finish them in the usual manner, and you will find that they
are not exactly alike, but each picture looks to opposite sides of the plates,
which is owing to the angle at which they are taken. Cut the plates so that
they will fit the size-border intended, and paste them together in such a man-
ner that both pictures look to the middle of the plates, taking care that both
pair of eyes are parallel with the sides of the glass and border. For this
purpose you must have a parallel ruler, which you can jJurchase at the opti-
cian's for 37^ cents. It is absolutely necessary that the pictures be parallel,
for if they are not, you will invariably see two indistinct pictures.
Some artists turn out pictures in which one picture is at least one quarter
of an inch lower down than the other. How is it possible to see such pic-
tures correctly ?
If you have only one camera, prepare your two plates as above, adjust the
' focus properly, and take one picture. Let the subject sit perfectly still until
you move the camera about two feet either to the right or left, re-adjust the
focus, and take the second. Finish and put them up as above.
Again, you can have a camera-stand made, having the table of which, say
36
610 CULTURE OF THE ORANGE.
two-and-a-half feet long, and as wide as your camera is long, say ten inclies.
Provide this table with one set of stops at each end Tor your camera to slide
against. Now, previous to taking the picture, adjust the table in such a
manner that the camera will be perfectly in focus at each end of the table.
Make a slide for your plate-holder, with an opening in, so that it will expose
half of the plate to the action of the camera. The camera is to be laid upon
one of its sides, and both pictures are taken on one plate.
Lay the camera on one end of the table, and take one picture ; put on the
cap, and quickly move the camera over to the other end of the table against
the other stops ; move the slide in the holder, in the same direction you
moved the camera, and the other half of the plate will be exposed; take off
the cap, and take the other picture. This plan is in successful operation, and
is yery convenient and good, but, it is believed, not so perfect as taking them
(pictures) with two cameras.
Lastly, you can take both pictures at one time, on one plate with an ordi-
nary camera, by means of two reflectors. Pictures have been taken this way
that are very good. This plan is very good, cheap, and convenient. For
full description of which, see page 348, vol. XVL SiUiinan''s Journal^
FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.
CULTURE OF THE ORANGE.
Messrs. Editors: — In your valuable journal I have never seen mention
of fruit-growing in Louisiana. Have you no correspondent in this fair spot
of our Union ? Or are the Louisianians so absorbed in sugar-making, than
they have no time to devote to this beautiful occupation ? There have been
very fine peaches ind pears raised in Louisiana; and I am sure that if one
would wish to write upon the subject, he would find enough to make quite
an interesting article for your paper. There is a fruit which I will introduce
to your notice, and to the journal also. Would that I could make you more
nearly acquainted with its sweet and delicious properties and qualities, than
by a mere article in the paper ! A rich, juicy, delicious Louisiana orange is
what no editor, but New-Orleans editors, often enjoy.
The portion of Louisiana best adapted to orange growing is the Parish of
Plaquemines, situated on each side of the Mississippi River, below New-
Orleans. There are several fine orange groves in this parish ; one in particu-
lar, consisting of three thousand trees. It is called " Eisayons ;" the motto
on the button of the U. S. Engineers — meaning " let us try." It was planted
by an engineer officer, and is now owned by his heirs. Fifteen hundred of
these trees are nine years old ; the rest are, some eight, some six years old.
Ten years is generally the time for a tree to mature. After this period they
are the most profitable crop a man can raise ; for a tree will produce from
fifteen hundred to two thousand oranges, which bring at his door |15 a
thousand sometimes ; never Icss than ^10. If you will count up the thou-
sands from the Essayons Grove at that rate, you will see that it will be quite
a small fortune after a while.
The orange, as well as the lemon and citron, never sheds a leaf of its
foliage. Every year adds new branches and new leaves. The same branch
will not bear two successive years. A tree, in the course of one year, will
CHALK. 611
sometimes, if luxuriant in its growth, put forth nine or ten branches, five or
six feet in length. The tree will mostly make wood till it is ten years old ;
after that it seems to reserve all its energies for the formation of the fruit.
The seed is first planted in a nursery, then transplanted, at the age of one or
two years, on the spot where it is destined to grow. The trees are put twenty
feet apart each way. Some plant them at fifteen ; but the best way is to
give them ample room for the roots to run. The roots are not more than
three inches from the smface of the ground, with the exception of the tap-root.
The plan now is not to trim at all, if possible. A tree left to its own natural
disposition, will make a most beautiful, symmetrical production. They re-
quire no manure, but the virgin soil of Louisiana seems to suit them admira-
bly. They will get scrubby in old soils.
Thei-e are some of the diseases which attack orange-trees -which are quite
unmanageable. I will mention two very frequent ones. The lice is a small,
blue insect, which covers the tree, bark, leaves and all. They will feed upon
the leaves, and, in n few mouths, disrobe an orchard of four or five hundred
trees, leaving them as bare as your hand. The tree, -at the end of a year or
so, will recuperate, and again put forth its leaves, and boar its wonted trea-
sures, but not in so great abundance. Another, and apparently irremediable-
trouble, is a kind of dry rot which attacks the trunk of the tree, at its base,
just where the root begins. It is at first a small spot, not mwe than a quar-
ter of an inch large, but soon runs in a ring all round the base of the trunk,
which brings a speedy death to the tree. The only remedy is to dig up the
invalid by the roots, and consign it to the embrace of the Father of" Waters,
putting in its stead a healthy tree, that will repay your care and labor.
If any of your subscribers can give us through your paper a remedy for
these evils, he will benefit a goodly interest in Louisiana. The Louisiana
orange is much superior to the Havana or Sicily, for the reason that these
have to be plucked green to be sent here, while ours are given us in all their
full, rich, native growth, and sweetness.
The best time to plant orange trees is in March, from the 15th to the last*
before that it is generally too cold. Anything which will improve the culture
of the orange will be quite acceptable in your columns to at least one of your
subscribers. ■ Respectfully yours, A. S.
Native Coffee.— The Calaveras Chronicle, Cal., says that wild coffee is
found in abundance in that neighborhood, similar to the plant cultivated in
Mexico, South and Central America. The berries resemble those of the
genuine coffee plant.
Chalk. — A specimen of this calcareous earth was shown us this week by
A._G. Lawrence, Esq., of Campo Seco. It forms the base of a hill in that
vicinity, the surface of wbich is a volcanic drift, containing a very rich gold
deposite, which pays from |3 to $10 a cart load. The chalk hill has not
been penetrated to any considerable depth, but it is likely that underneath
this deposite gold will be found. A curious phenomenon may be observed
at this hill — one part of it is composed' of chalk, while the other is the usual
red clay formation, the line of demarkatiou being plainfy visible. — Cah
Chronicle.
612 COLORS OF HANGINGS, FURNITURE, ETC.
COLORS OF HANGINGS, FUENITURE, ETC.
We have been exceedingly pleased with aa article upon " Color in Nature
and Art," written by one who proves himself well qualified for the task, in
a recent number of JBlackwood. We have hitherto acted on the belief that
cultivation of this sort is of great importance — scarcely less than the cultiva-
tion ordinarily discussed in agricultural journals. For lack of acquirements
of this sort, so many of our wealthy families are as utterly destitute of good
taste in their household arrangements, as they can well be. Many a poor
man's hovel, in rural districts, or in the city even, exhibits far greater profi-
ciency in these matters. Even our upholsterers have learned nothing, and
generally know nothing, about them. All they can do is to imitate their
predecessors, who were just as ignorant as themselves, or to imitate some-
body whom they accidentally met with, who did so-and-so, and, it may be,(
under totally different circumstances. Hence, we see what we see in our
gorgeous mansions — a genuine Indian display of brilliant colors, exhibiting
about as much science and skill as we should find in a medium Crow Indian.
Some of these natives, as our own eyes have had the evidence, have, by intu-
ition, a far more cultivated taste. But our object is only to present an ex-
tract, and commend it to general attention. After discussing sundry relative
topics, the writer proceeds thus :
" In coming to the furniture of our dwellings, it must be confessed that, so
innumerable are the possible combinations of color, it is impossible to lay
down many laws of general application. In large rooms, bright, contrasting'
colors may be employed ; whereas, in small rooms, the harmony should be
not of contrast, but of analogy ; in other words, the furniture of small rooms
should in general have but one predominant color, and the contrasts exhibi-
ted be only those of tone. On this principle, hangings with varied and
brilliant colors, representing flowers, birds, human figures, landscapes, etc.,
may be employed in the decorating of large rooms ; whereas, chintzes are
only suitable to small rooms, such as cabinets, boudoirs, etc. In bed-rooms,
the window-curtains and those of the bed should be similar ; and if there be
a divan, it may be similar also ; for we may remark, that it is conformable
with the object of boudoirs, and similar places, to diminish their extent to
the eye, by employing only one material for the hangings and chairs, instead
of seeking to fix the eye upon many separate objects.
Of hangings — and our remarks are almost equally applicable to the gene-
ral tone of a room — we may say that, in consequence of an apartment never
being too Jight, since we can diminish the day-light by means of blinds and
curtains, it is best that the hangings be of a light and not of a dark color, so
that they may reflect light rather than absorb it. Dark hangings, therefore,
are proscribed, whatever be their color. Red curtains are to be met with
very frequently in this country ; yet it must be said that red and violet, even in
their light tones, ought to be proscribed, because they are exceedingly unfa-
vorable to the color of the skin. Orange can never be much employed, it
fatigues the eye so much by its intensity ; and, indeed, among the simple
colors there is scarcely any which are advantageous, except yellow, and the
light tones of green and blue. Yellow is hvely, and combines well with ma-
hogany furniture, but not generally with gilding. Light-green is favorable,
both to gilding and to mahogany, and also to complexions, Avhetber pale or
rosy. Light-blue is less favorable than green to rosy com|)lexions, especially
COLOES OF HANGINGS, FURNITURE, ETC. 613
in day-light; it is particularly favorable to gilding, associates better than
green with yellow or orange-colored woods, and does not injure mahogany.
White hangings, or hangings of a light gray, either normal,^ or tinged with
green, blue, or yellow, uniform, or with velvet patterns similar in color to
the ground, are also good for use.
In regard to the draping of floors, it must be borne in mind, that for a
carpet to produce the best possible effect, it is not endugh that it is of the
best manufacture, and of excellent colors and pattern ; it is also requisite that
its pattern be in harmony with the size, and its colors with the decorations of
the room. It is important for manufacturers to know how to produce car-
pets which will suit well with many different styles of room furniture ; and,
in our opinion, the best mode of attaining this end is, to make the light and
bright coloring commence from the centre of the carpet; for it is there (that
is to say, in the part most distant from the chairs, hangings, etc.) that we can
employ vivid and strongly-contrasted colors without inconvenience. And if
we surround this bright central portion with an interval of subdued coloring,
we shall be able to give to the framing colors (those around the margin of
the carpet) a great appearance of brilliance, without injuring the color of the
chairs and hangings. With respect to the carpets of small or moderately-
sized rooms, we may lay down the rule, that the more numerous and vivid
the colors of the furniture, the more simple should be the carpet, alike in
color and pattern — an assortment of green and black having, in very many
cases, a good effect. On the other hand, if the furniture is of a single color,
or if its contrasts consist only of different tones of the same color, we may,
without detriment, employ a carpet of brilliant colors, in such a way as to
establish a harmony of contrast between them and the dominant hue of the
furniture. But if the furniture is of mahogany, and we wish to bring out its
peculiar color, then we must not have either red, orange, or scarlet, as a
dominant color in the covering of the floor.
The covering of chairs may present either a harmony of contrast or a har-
mony of analogy with the hangings, according as the room is large or small ;
and a good effect may be produced by bordering the stuff at the parts ^ con-
tiguous to the wood with the same color as the hangings, but of a higher
tone. Nothing, we may add, contributes so much to enhance the beauty of
a stuff intended for chairs, 'sofas, etc., as the selection 6f the wood to which it
is attached ; and, reciprocally, nothing contributes so much to augment the
beauty of the wood, as the color of the stuff" in juxtaposition with it. In
accordance with the principles of coloring which we laid down in a preceding
part of this article, it is evident that we must assort rose or red-colored woods,
such as mahogany, with green stuffs ; yellow woods, such as citron, ash-root,
maple, satin-wood, etc., with violet or blue stuffs ; while red woods likewise
do well with blue-grays, and yellow woods with green-grays. But in all
these assortments, if we would obtain the best possible effects, it is necessary
to rake into consideration the contrast resulting from height of tone; for a
dark blue or violet stuff will not accord so well with a yqjlow wood ns a light
tone of these colors does ; and hence, also, yellow does not assort so well
with mahogany as with a v/ood of the same color, but lighter. There is no
wood more generally used by us than mahogany, and no covering for sofas
and chairs more common than a crimson woolen stuff; and in this we are
influenced not so much by any idea of harmony, as by the two-fold motive
of the stability of the crimson color, and the beauty of the mahogany. In
assorting these, we will often do well to separate the stuff from the wood by
a cord or narrow galloon of yellow, or of golden-yellovp, with gilt nails ; or,
614 CULTIVATION OF THE TOMATO.
better still, a narrow galloon of green or black, according as we wisli the
border to be more or less prominent. The red woods always lose a portion
of their beauty when in juxtaposition with red stuffs. And hence it is that
we can never ally mahogany to vivid reds, such as cherry-color ; and more
particularly to orange-reds, such as scarlet, nacarat, and aurora ; for these
colors are so bright that, in taking away from this wood its peculiar tint, it
becomes no better than oak or walnut. Ebony and walnut can be allied with
brown tones, also with certain shades of green and violet."
CULTIVATION OF THE TOMATO.
This most delicious fruit deserves better cultivation than it often receives.
We find the following in the March Horticulturist, and commend it to the
notice of our readers :
" Let every one who has a tomato plot, — and who that has a garden has
not, — notice the plants when in full bearing — and one or more will diow
more excellence than the others — pick from the very best the most desirable
fruit, and save them for seed. Kepeat this each season, always having an
eye to form, color, productiveness, flavor, and size ; and if no improvement
takes place, then consider the writer an ignoramus. I have followed the
above plan for several years, and the result is quite satisfactory ; and so it
will be to others if adopted. Let this be more generally done by private
groweis ; let them raise their standard of excellence, and the awarders of
prizes at the public exhibitions follow suit, and the large growers for market
will soon be forced to take a better sample to the city, instead of the thick-
skinned, hollow subjects, which are too often seen on the huckster's stall, and
which " bounce" like a foot-ball. We shall then have weight and quality,
in return for good money.
GENERAL CROP.
To get the general summer supply, and likewise as early as possible in the
open ground, it is advisable to have strong and healthy plants ready to be
turned out in a warm aspect, so soon as all danger of frost is over ; or where
there is the convenience of glass box-fi-ames, a portion may be planted therein
two or three weeks earlier, some at the distance apart that it is intended they
should remain. A good start is a great advantage, and fine plants will fur-
nish fruit much earlier, and in more abundance through the summei-, than
those which are weak and stunted to begin with ; consequently, the little
extra trouble I'equired is more than repaid The common plan of sowing on
a hot-bed, and leaving the plants to crowd each other up till planting time,
and then removini^, almost without roots, only partakes of the "penny-wise
and dollar-foolish" action that is too often practiced, and always ends in keep-
ing the per centage profits small. Yet we see persons, who ought to know
better, still drawing along in the old way; and when thing go wrong, bla-
ming everything but their own want of observation and foresight. All kitchen
vegetables, without exception, are of the best quality when well grown, and
nothing deteriorates this quality more than starving the young plants in the
seed-bed. Do not ha in too great hurry to begin, but,'when started, take
care that there is no check until ready for use, is advice that all vegetable
CULTIVATION OF THE TOMATO. 615
growers ought continually to act up -to. In the present instance, the seed
may be sown about the middle of February, on the surface of a gentle hot-
bed, upon which is three or four inches of good friable mold, and covered
over with a box-frame ; or in boxes in a hot-house, where a temperature of
50° to SS'' by night is obtained. When the plants are two or three inches
hio-h, transplant either into another or the same bed, or into boxes about six
inches apart. Where the required supply is not large, they may be put up
sino-lyinto pint pots; and, after planting, give a light watering to settle the
soil around the roots. Admit all the lighi possible, and, in mild days, let in
a o-ood supply of fresh air, but avoid cold winds and frost ; the object being
to keep a moderate temperature, without checking the progress of growth,
and yet not so warm as to draw plants up weak. As the weather milds oflf,
the glasses may, in fine days, be entirely removed. Pots or boxes are only
necessary when the hot-house is used ; and, in the former case, when they
become filled with roots, the plants ought to be moved into those of a larger
— say two quarts. By the first week in April, both may be removed into a
cold frame, and kept close for a day or two ; after which air should be freely
admitted during warm days, and gradually increased, until the glasses are
entirely pushed down, but be careful to cover at night when frost is appre-
hended.
It is often amusing, and sometimes even annoying, at the beginning of
summer, to see our neighboring cottagers scouring over the country in search
of tomato plants. Almost everybody who has a patch of ground wants
them, and, in many cases, they are not to be had " for love or money ;" yet
they have the means at command to raise for themselves ; every house has
its window, and the only space required, is enough room for a box two feet
long, by six inches wide, and four inches deep, and anybody of ordinary in-
genuity can fix a little glass frame over this, to counteract the dry atmosphere
of a dwelling-room ; such a simple contrivance will accommodate as many
plants as will be required, and be less expense, than the loss of time and shoe-
leather that is expended in troubling other persons, who, too often, have only
time and convenience for their own stock.
Almost any kind of soil will answer for the tomato ; but it prospers the
best, and produces fruit of a finer quality, in a well-drained, tolerably-fei tile,
but not over-rich loose mold. So soon as all danger of frost is past, begin to
plant out ; loosen up the soil well, dig holes four feet apart, six inches deep,
and as many across ; lift each plant with a ball of earth ; do not keep the
roots exposed longer than is necessary, and, in fixing the plants in the holes,
let them be placed about the same depth as they were previously ; cover up,
and press the soil somewhat around the neck, and lift a little extra up to
it, which will encourage fresh roots and strengthen the plant. If the weather
be dry, give a good soaking of water ; and so far all is finished.
A few words may be said about training. The most common mode is to
spread out the branches, and let them trail along the ground, in which case,
if cleanliness be cared for, there ought to be a covering of marsh hay or
straw placed over the surface. Sometimes brush-wood is laid flat, and the
branches allowed to lay over the top of it, which elevates the fi uit above the
soil, and prevents it from rotting, if the season should happen to be wet ; but
there is no other advantage in the method, and it is inconvenient when gath-
ering. The neatest and cleanest plan, and one which may be adopted in all
private establishments, is to sink poles in an upright position along each row,
leaving the tops five feet above ground, (if placed four yards apart, it will bu
close enough,) and fasten wires horizontally to them, which will form a cheap
616 cuLTiVATio:sr of the tomato.
trellis to train upon. As the branclies elongate, they may be tied loosely to
these wires, and a kind of hedge-row is formed with very little labor — -the
fruit is free to the action of air and light, and is unquestionably of much
better flavor.
SUCCESSION CROP.
Notwithstanding the extreme fruitfulness of the tomato, it often happens
that the earliest planting becomes exhausted before the end of summer, and
only produces a decreased quantity of inferior fruit, when a succession be-
comes useful. In this case, it is only necessary to sow in the open ground
about the middle of April, and transplant as recommended above. The
plants from this stock will continue to yield with certainty until cut down by
frost, and, if covered over at night, may be kept bearing longer than if un-
protected.
GROWING TUROUGII WINTER.
There is no difficulty in growing and fruiting the tomato through the win-
ter and spring months, where such is desired. Indeed, no fruit-bearing plant
is more easy to manage thus artificially, with the possession of a suitable
structure. A close and sheltered glazed pit is the best and most economical,
although a moderately warm plant-house is nearly equally convenient ; but
there must be a full exposure to the sun, or the blossoms will not fertilize.
The seed may be sown the last week in August, and when large enough for
transplanting, remove the plants into the house, having previously prepared
for their reception. A suitable provision may be made by fixing boards, with
the sides upright, along the inside front of the house, and three feet from it ;
fill in one foot deep with good, fresh mold, and place the plants three
feet assunder in the bed so formed. If this arrangement can not be adopted
on account of some peculiarity in the house, large boxes, filled with rich
earth, will ansv\rer the purpose to almost equal advantage. As the plants
continue to grow upward, train them near the glass, in the same way as a
grape-vine, only allow the side shoots to spread out, so as to cover the whole
surface so far as they extend. This rr^ay be done very simply by stretching
copper wires horizontally along on the under side of the roof, and eight inches
from it. After planting, give plenty of air till cold nights come on, when a
little fire-heat is necessary. The most suitable temperature through the night
is from 55'^ to 60"; and this ought to be maintained pretty regularly. In
the day-time, it may be allowed, with sun-heat, to rise to 75*^ or 80°, always
admitting air on every suitable opportunity. In cloudy or foggy weather, it
is well to keep close, or to give air very carefully, as the plants, if exposed to
too much damp and cold, are subject to be attacked by a black mildew, which
destroys the leaves and weakens the blossoms, rendering them abortive. If
such should occur, sprinkle a little sulphur upon the coolest parts of the heat-
ing apparatus, and give a trifle more heat for a few days, when the pest will
disappear. As the blossoms continue to expand, go over the whole once a
day, when the sun shines, and give them a sudden but light flirt with the
finger, which will liberate the pollen, and greatly assist impregnation, and
nip out the end of each shoot, a leaf or two above the flo>%ers, to help the
embryo fruit to swell. I have never been troubled with insects in furcing this
fruit, but if red spider (acarus) should jippear, the sul|ihur will destroy it;
and green or black fly {apJm) may be got lid of by fumigating with tobacco.
No fu tber care is requisite than occasionally removing superfluous or weak
branclies, withered leaves, and such like; and the cro]), with attention, Avill
continue to produce from Christmas until those in the open ground are ready
for use."
EIPE GRAPES IN DECEMBER. 617
RIPE GRAPES IN DECEMBER.
In accordance witli your request, I herewith give you the 7nodus operandi
of growing grapes under glass, to ripen them by the December sun. My
former practice, to ripen grapes about the first of April, was the same as
practised by others, say warming the roots by hot manure in the middle of
November, and continuing the heat in the border, by fresh supplies of ma-
nure, until the grapes ripened. I noticed the roots are injured from this
practice, and the expense is very great, not only for the manure, but also for
the labor of looking after the border and replenishing it. Not being satis-
fied, I concluded to try the following plan, which has proved quite successful,
and gives me the grapes earlier.
We will suppose the vines were started in November of last year, (1853.)
To get them in this state, their habits have been changed from the natural
time of starting. Now we will encroach still further, and start them in
August, say the first. You will find no delay in the pushing of the bud
after pruning, as the roots are warmed by the summer sun, and there is no
danger of killing the young rootlets from hot manure. The progress of the
vines will surprise you : in a week they will require tieing up to the rafters,
and very soon after you will be assured of a good crop of grapes from the
fragrance of the bloom.
It is now of the utmost importance to attend in season to keep the heat
in the border which the sun has so generously supplied, and a plan suggested
itself to me from the practice of keeping ourselves warm by a blanket, of
which I have manufactured some 600 pairs a day for the past ten years. It
is therefore very natural that I should have thought of a blanket to cover
the border to keep the heat in ; but it would require a great many woollen
blankets to cover a border one hundred feet long and forty feet wide, and a
great many thicknesses to give sufiicient protection. However, we have the
principle in the thought, and now for the practice. Instead of the woollen
blankets, I substituted two tons of meadow hay, very dry ; this covered the
border about one foot in thickness, and in order to keep it dry, I placed upon
the top of it about six inches of wool waste and manure, to absorb the rain,
imtil the frost should make it a more perfect protection. This has answered
the purpose ; the heat has passed from the border about three degrees a
week from the first of December, at which time it was GO"^, and the fmit has
ripened perfectly. It was generally supposed by grape-growers that I should
fail in color and flavor, as well as size, from want of sun in December ; but
my experiment proves that plenty of pure air is quite as important.
My mode of ventilating is entirely new, and appears tavorable to the
growth of the grape. The warming apparatus inside of 'the house is simply
a stove at each end ; consequently, the ventilation is complete, as the heavy,
bad air is constantly rushing to the stoves and passing out of the tunnels.
I do not, in speaking of this mode of ventilation, recommend stoves for
heating in preference to the common furnace and hot-water pipes, but refer
only to the principle of ventilation, which can be apjjlied to the common
furnace by conducting the air from the house to supply the coal instead of
the outside air. This plan would as effectually draw off the bad air as my
stoves. — Correspondent Iloveifs Magazine.
618 THE PRACTICAL SCIENCE OF CANDLE-MAKING.
THE PRACTICAL SCIENCE OF CANDLE-MAKING.
The Belmont Candle Factory — in that curious London district, Vauxhall
— presents a famous example of applied clieniical science. Rather more than
forty years ago, Chevreul, the French chemist, announced to the Academy
of Sciences the important fact, that fatty bodies are of a compound kind.
He it was who first pointed out that fat is not a simple organic substance, but
a salt formed of animal acid, (margaric acid,) combined with an animal base,
in such a state as to be severable, the acid then being obtained separately.
This discovery — the essential base of the inodern art of candle-making, the
fatty acid set free from the less inflammable base, being wonderfullj'^ improved
as regards its burning properties — led to the vast extension, in this country,
of the stearic candle manufacture, so ably represented by what is so well
known as "Price's Patent Candle Company;" and it is to the obtainment of
this acid in a pure hard state, and at the cheapest possible manufactming cost,
that the candlemaker's chemist has since given his almost undivided atten-
tion.
This point gained, CheVreul, still pursuing his subject, came upon another
fatty acid — oleic acid — originally developed in lard. Putting these purely
scientific researches into the workman's hands, as in all such transitions, was
a task of great difficulty, and it was not until a very few years ago that these
discoveries, in fact, assumed a really practical and commercially valuable
form.
Acting upon Chevreul's suggestion, M. de Mill}', a Parisian candle-maker,
set to work to disengage the acids from their base, "glycerine," by boiling
the raw materinl, tallow, with thin cream of lime, on the principle of what
is now termed " lime saponification." The glycerine dissolved in the water,
the fatty acids combining with the lime. Sulphuric acid is then used for
destroying this combination ; the acid seizing on the lime, and setting free
the fotty acids, pressure being finally employed to obtain the solid mass.
Thus far the French led the way in this curious manufjicture ; but, in 1829,
our countrymen stepped in. At that date, Mr. James Suames patented a
plan for separating the solid and liquid parts of cocoa-nut oil, and this pro-
cess subspquently become the property of Messrs. Price, who were induced
to establish large cocoa-nut kernel crushing mills in Ceylon, to keep up their
supply of the now necessary qocoa-nut oil. Large plantations of cocoa-nut
trees were made in Ceylon ; and of these, now coming into bearing, Messrs.
Price possess above 1,000 acres. The oil is obtained from the fruit by drying
the kernel, and then crushing it under edge-stones — the reduced mass being
subjected to cold pressure, for obtaining the best portion of the valuable oil,
and afterwards to hot pressure for getting out the wliole attainable oleaginous
matter.
The solid matter resulting from this pressure, or the cocoa-nut stearine, was,
in itself, a step in advance of the tallow product; but the candles now known
as "composite,"' so independent of snuffers, were yet undiscovered. In 1840,
Mr. J. P. Wilson, anxious to produce economical self-snuffing candles, for the
particular purpose of the illuminations on her Majesty's marriage, found that
cocoa-nut stearine, mixed with the newly-discovered stearic acid, produced
candles burning with a good light, with the great advantage of requiring no
snuffing attendance. They are the candles made on this general principle that
THE PRACTICAL SCIENCE OF CANDLE-MAKING. 619
we now find in every grocer's shop, and in every dwelling-liouse, whose dark-
ness is as yet undispelled by the brilliancy of gas.
Latin- chemical discovery — for it must be remembered that the whole rou-
tine has been the result of a continued chain^ of the elegancies of chemical
research — led to the distillation of fats, previously acted upon by sulphuric
acid, or by nitrous gases. The raw material now used is palm oil, and in the
existinty refinement of the process, six tons of palm oil are subjected to the
action of Cf cwts. of concentrated sulphuric acid, at a temperature of 350*'
Fahr. Under this treatment the glycerine is decomposed, sailphurous acid
gas is evolved to a considerable extent, and the fat is changed into a mixture
of fat acids, dark in color, and possessing an elevated melting point. The
product is washed, and it is then deposited in a still, from which the air is
excluded by the agency of stearine.
In its original condition, palm oil is of a bright orange red tint, as thick
as butter. After the acidulous treatment and the washing, it is changed to a
hard black mass. The distillation separates this into the pure acids, brought
over in the form of vapor, and the charred refuse matter left behind in the
still. The distilled mass may be used for making cheaper classes of candles ;
or by being subjected to severe pressure, cold and then hot, it is brought into
the condition necessary for making the Belmont sperm caudles..
The cotton used as the wick is plaited, and then dipped in a solution of
borax. It is this plaiting which gives the wick the slight curvature at the
flame, and the preparatio'n with borax renders the cotton somewhat less com-
bustible, except at the point which we find is always bent over to the edge of
the flame, where it is' in contact with the air, and is consumed. The mould-
ing of the fatty matter, or the disposition of the combustible mass round the
wick, is efi"ected in a frame, which has attached to it a box, with a wick bob-
bin for each mould, the movement being so coutrived, that the action which
expels one set of moulded candles, draws oft" enough wick for the succeeding
operation. Of course, each candle is moulded upon the free end of the wick
length, and the severance is eflected by the agency of a traversing knife.
Forceps are employed to hold each wick over the centre of its mould, the
axis of the tv/o being made to coincide with accuracy. In this condition, the
mould is run through a steam-heated chamber to warm it, the required tem-
perature being reached by the time the mould arrives at the filler. The filled
mould then passes onwards, and, when cool enough to admit of the with-
drawal of the forceps without injury to the moulded mass, the superfluous
fat is removed, prior to the mould being emptied. All these motions are
performed by means of guide railways — a clockwork precision being observed
throughout the operation. Each apparatus contains 200 moulds, each mould
having 18 inch bobbins, which, when full, hold 60 yards of wick.
Chemistry has done more for the candle manufticture than mechanics.
Much ye! remains to be done in the ma«ipulatory processes, for at present,
some wicks w ill get out of the candle's centre, whilst the bottoms occasionally
turn out to be hollow. Hence, the very best candles are yet made by the
old hand system.
During the early part of the present year, Mr. G. F. Wilson, the managing
director of the works, introduced castor oil as a new and economical material
for this manufacture. Castor oil, when treated with hyponitric, nitrous, or
sulphurous acid, solidifies, and furnishes what is called ''palmine." This pal-
mine, when used after being pressed, is well suited for hardening tallow, as
well as for mixing with wax. In making composite candles with it, it is
mixed with an equal amount of hard fat acid.
620 TELEGRAPH ROUND THE GLOBE.
In 1852, the Belmont works employed somewhere about 1,000 hands,
turning out U2)wards of 100 tons of candles a week, of a value of £7,000 or
£8,000. Since that time, the works have been surprisingly increased, the
number of the employed being 2,000, working upon a capital of £700,000.
They cover two acres of ground, besides further space at the Battersea off-
shoots.
But this extension was not equal to the necessities of demand, and an en-
ormous branch from the parent undertaking has been just now got to work
near Liverpool. The new works are named from Bromborough i'ool, at which
point on the Mersey they are placed. Here the vast area of 3f acres is
actually roofed in with corrugated iron; fourteen steam boilers being fitted
up to supply the great steam-heating power required in works of this kind.
These Avorks, like their progenitors in London, are perfect models of good
arrangement and management, and they approach about as near to the per-
fection of combined industrial operation as any existing example of the great
factory system of modern times. — Pract. Mech. Journal^ Gla!>gow.
TELEGRAPH ROUND THE GLOBE.
[The following paragraphs have been or are going " the rounds" of the
press. We have not published or noticed them, because we see, or think
we see, in them unmistakable evidence of humbug. Still, as we believe the
thing is not only practicable, but will be, in fact, accomplished in a few years,
on some more feasible route, we take this method of attracting the attention
of the public to its claims. — Eds. P. L, & A.]
J. P. Shaffner, Esq., the editor of the American Telegraphic Magazine,
has just returned from his expedition to Europe, where he has been making
arrangements for the construction of an electric telegraph around the world.
One object of his visit was to negotiate with the Danish Government for the
exclusive right to lay a line over Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Isles, and
Denmark, for the terra of one hundred years ; and the acquisition of similar
rights over Norway, Sweden, and Russia.
The scheme is a bold one, and large enough for any capacity. The route
proposed is definitely traced, and seems quite practicable. From Labrador to
Greenland is about five hundred miles. From the point of landing, the line
is to extend underground around Cape Farewell to a point on the east coast
of Greenland, favorable for a submarine connection with Iceland, A subter-
ranean line across the eastern coast of that island will connect with a subma-
rine wire running to the Faroe Ides, and thence to Norway. I^y'this route
there will be no submarine section of more than five hundred miles. Trea-
ties with the Emperor of Russia contemplate the extension of the line from
Stockholm, in Sweden, to St. Petersburg. . .
^ Mr. Shaffner proposes to run his line to Moscow, and thence into Asia,
piercing Chinese Tartary, extending to the Sea of Ochotsk, and by the way of
Karaschatka reaching Cooke's Inlet in North-America. From this point the
line will be run along the Pacific coast to Oregon, and south to S in Fran-
cisco, Cilifornirt, etc., etc. The earth will thus be girdled wiih one continu-
ous and unbroken flame of electric light.
In the submarine department of this work, Mr. Shaffner has associated
PEOPERTIES OF CHARCOAL. 621
with bim Mr. John W. Brett, who has been the projector and successful con-
structor of the vast ranges of submarine and subterranean lines of the old
world.
In these negotiations, Mr. Shaffner has been singularly fortunate. He has
succeeded where the most skillful diplomats might have failed. He says that
he had one great element of strength ; that was, he was an American. His
Majesty the King of Denmark intimated to him that he would not have' con-
sidered the proposition had it come from a citizen of any other nation ; but
he informed Mr. Shaffner that he granted the patents under the belief that
there would be no obstacles in nature that could be a barrier against the
genius and enterprise of his countrymen.
PROPERTIES OF CHARCOAL.
The following is an interesting article, by J. Stenhouse, F. R. S., in the
Journal of the Society of Arts, London : —
" My attention was particularly drawn to the importance of charcoal as a
disinfecting agent, by my friend, John Turnbull, Esq., of Glasgow, Scotland,
the well-known extensive chemical manufacturer, Mr. Turnbull, about nine
months ago, placed the bodies of two dogs in a wooden box, on a layer of
charcoal powder a few inches in depth, and covered them over with a quan-
tity of the same material. Though the box was quite open, and kept in his
laboratory, no effluvium was ever perceptible ; and, on examining the bodies of
the animals, at the end of six months, scarcely anything remained of them
except the bones. Mr. Turnbull sent me a portion of the charcoal powder
which had been most closely in contact with the bodies of the dogs ; I sub-
mitted it for examination to one of my pupils, Mr. Turnbull, who found it
contained comparatively little ammonia, not a trace of sulphurated hydrogen,
but very appreciable quantities of nitric and sulphuric acids, with acid phos-
phate of lime.
Mr. Turnbull subsequently, about three months ago, buried two rats in about
two inches of charcoal powder, and, a few days afterwards, the body of a
full-grown cat Avas similarly treated. Though the bodies of these animals
are now in a highly putrid state, not the slightest odor is perceptible in the
laboratory.
From this short statement of facts, the utility of charcoal powder as a
means of preventing noxioifs effluvia from church-yards, and from dead bodies
in other situations, such as on board a ship, is sufficiently evident. Covering
a church-yard to the depth of from two to three inches, with coarsely pow-
dered charcoal, would prevent any putrid exhalations ever finding their way
into the atmosphere. Charcoal powder, also, greatly favors the rapid decom-
position of the dead bodies with which it is in contact, so that, inf the course
of six or eight months, little is left except the bones.
fi«;In all the modern systems of chemistry, such, for instance, as the last edi-
tion of Turner''s Elements, charcoal is described as possessing antiseptic pro-
perties, while the very reverse is the fact. Common salt, nitre, corrosive
sublimate, arsenious acid, alcohol, camphor, creosote, and most essential oils,
are certainly antiseptic substances, and, therefore, retard the decay of .animal
and vegetable matters. Charcoal, on the contrary, as we have just seen,
greatly facilitates the oxydation, and, consequently, the decomposition, of any
organic substances with which it is in contact. It is, therefore, the very op-
posite of an antiseptic."
622 THE SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH.
THE SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH.
At a late meeting of the Britisli Association, at Liverpool, Mr. J. W. Brett
read a paper on "The Origin of the Submarine Telegraph, and its Extension
to India and America." The author gave an account of the difficulties en-
countered in establishing the first submarine telegraph, which has now been
successfully working for three years between France and England; and stated
that he had established the submarine telegraph between England and Bel-
gium with equal success, which had been in operation since the first of May,
1853. He then explained some of the difficulties he had encountered in
laying down the two submarine lines in the Mediterranean in July last —
especially in passing a depth exceeding, by 100 fathoms, what had previously
been ascertained to exist on the route between Piedmont and Corsica. The
depths encountered between England and France, and England and Belgium,
did not exceed attheir maximum 30 fathoms; whereas, the submarine cable
was laid down in the Mediterranean at a depth of 350 fathoms, exceeding
about eight times that of the English Channel. It was the general impres-
sion that the submarine cable would part by the great strain it would encoun-
ter in passing these great depths; for which reason he was strongly advised,
and more particularly by one of the most able and experienced officers of
the Sardinian Government, who accompanied and aided the undertaking, to
make a detour of about eight miles by the islands of Gorgona and Caprija,
where the soundings vrere known not to exceed 100 fathoms ; but the great
point to be considered was, whether he would not incur the risk of a total
loss of the cable by not doing so. The prudence of these arrangements, Mr.
Brett said he fully admitted ; but that it was a question he was determined
to solve at once — for as this telegraph was not a telegraph to Corsica, but
part of a line to India, to be shortly completed to Africa, where still greater
depths must be encountered, it was necessary to test the fact. He then ex-
plained the difficulties they encountered in paying it out, when, after the line
had been paid out, as he believes, along the top of a submarine mountain
for some miles, at a depth varying from 180 to 200 fathoms, it suddenly, as
he believes, came to the edge of a precipice, making a total of 350 fathoms
(exceeding by about 100 fathoms any depth marked in the various charts on
this route,) where it ran out with frightful velocity ; and had the cable been
less strong, the whole must, of necessity, have been lost ; and they were com-
pelled, nevertheless, to anchor by the electric cable all night, to restore the
injury that had occurred; but he felicitated himself upon the experience thus
gained from his determination in taking the deepest route, as it had led to
many valuable suggestions necessary to successful operations in great depths ;
and the able Commander, the Marquis Ricci, who up to this time had been
in doubt of iR success, then admitted that this kind of cable contained such
remarkable elements of strength in its form and combination, that he be-
lieved only certain improvements to be necessary (on which we had been con-
sulting,) to successfully lay it down even in the greater depths of the
Atlantic. Mr. Brett, in conclusion, explained his reasons for selecting this
line to India via Egypt, in preference to the line by the Italian peninsula,
which would ever be impeded by the jealousies and restrictions of the petty
States ; whereas, to the shores of Africa, the Mediterranean telegraph passed
through only the States of France and Sardinia, who had enccmraged it by
liberal guarantees, and admitted that all communications, in whatever Ian-
FOREIGN EXTRACTS. 623
guage, should pass unrestricted through their States. From Africa he stated
he had two pL'ins in contemplation for its extension to Egypt — one, a lino
dropped in the Mediterranean in the shallow line near the coast, and another
buried in the sand along the shore — both of which he was satisfied might be
laid secure from derangement of any kind. He then referred to the proposed
telegraph to America, and of the depth on the proposed line, as recently
ascertained by Lieut. Maury, of the United States, with some estimates of the
weight and cost ; and stated that a return of £100 to £150 per day would
give a fair interest on the necessary capital ; that his plan comprised several
lines of communication ; and that he entirely deprecated the idea of a single
line of communication, which he beheved could not be done.
FOREIGN EXTRACTS.
How Smoke is Made in London. — Statistical facts tell us that there are
upwards of 3,000,000 tons of coals yearly borne into London, by sea and
railway, and that somewhere about one-third of this amount is there con-
sumed in furthering the ends of mauufacfr.ring industry. Now, it is a well-
known fact, established by practice, that by the better consumption of smoke,
and obtaining more perfect comustion, 20 per cent, of fuel is saved ; hence 20
per cent, on 1,000,000 tons amounts to 200,000 tons of coal saved annually
to the nation, and that, at an average cost of £l per ton, is £200,000 saved
to the metropolitan proprietors of furnaces and manufactories, which would
otherwise pass off in smoke, contaminating the atmosphere. According to
this calculation, it may be taken as a twofold and total saving to the nation,
of £400,000 per annum ; and that without regarding it in a sanitary point
of view, for as already the improved appearance of the London atmosphere
is distinctly observable, it is unnecessary to point out the injury inflicted upon
the public health, or the pecuniary loss we sustain in the apparently trivial
matters of soap, and wear and' tear of linen, by the deposit of the large
amount of carb®naceous matter always present in the atmosphere, inasmuch
as smoke cooled is soot, but when heated to G00° Fahrenheit, becomes highly
inflammable gas, and is consumed ; therefore, every wreath of smoke that
curls up a chimney is fuel wasted.
Copper Mines, South Africa. — There is a likelihood of copper-mining
being carried on near the north-western limits of the colony, at a place called
Nemaqualand, on a large scale. The ore is said to be very rich in metal,
and has realized from £40 to £60 a ton. It is so easily worked that three
men can quarry and prepare a ton a day, worth nearly £40, In is said that
it can be raised and sent to England at a cost of £13 a ton. The quantity
of metal varies from £45 to £15 per cwt. Several companies have been
formed to carry on mining operations, and some correspondence has been
published between the Colonial Governor and the Secretary of State, as to
the terms on which grants would be made of the lands underneath which
the ore lies embedded. The great difficulty seems to be as to roads. Hon-
deklip Bay, forty miles off", is the nearest point of export, and hundreds of
tons of ore have been J^brought to the surface, waiting for removal, which
cannot be effected at any price. A railroad has been contemplated, but the
necessary funds are not at present forthcoming.
624 AMERICAN PATENTS.
Gas in the North American States. — Coals are obtained in large quan-
tities from Britain and from Canada for the purpose of manufacturing gas in
towns along the seaboard of North America, South of New- York, the oolitic
coal-field of Virginia sends a portion of the supply ; and in the states west
of the Alleghanies, the nearest coal-field yields the whole required. In New-
York, two companies supply the public with gas, and manufactured last
year 300,000,000 of cubic feet. At Philadelphia, the municipal corporation
are the only manufacturers. Last year they made about 232,000,000 of
cubic feet. Gas is a good deal dearer in the United States than in Britain.
In London, the average price is 4s. per 1000 cubic feet. The lowest price in
America is at Philadelphia, where two dollars are charged for 1000 feet, that
is to saj^, more than 100 per cent, higher. In Liverpool the price is a little
higher than in London, the price at the former town being 4s. 6d. per 1000
feet. The laborers employed at the gas-works receive from one to two dol-
lars a day, according to their skill and the demand for their labor. Some
new gas-works, lately built at Philadelphia, are said to be of excellent con-
struction and arrangement. They comprise a telescope gas-holder, IGO feet
in diameter, and 90 feet in height, with twelve guide towers made of cast-
iron and stone, in an ornamental form.
AMERICAN PATENTS.
Improvement in Machinery for Combing Wool. Charles G. Sar-
gent, of Lawell, Mass. Dated, August 15, 1854. — In this machine, the wool
is pulled out from the main lot, and stapled in small successive portions be-
fore the operation of combing commences, by which means the fibres are
drawn out and laid lengthwise, which much facilitates the subsequent opera-
tion of combing. It also causes the pincers or nippers, which draw out and
staple the wool, to revolve continuously, any suitable number of them being
brought up in succession to the feed-rolls, by which means the various ope-
rations of the combing process are caused to proceed simultaneously upon
different poitions of material, without the necessity, which has heretofore ex-
isted, of performing them one at a time, all the others being for the time
interrupted. It is evident that the withdrawing of the separate portions from
the feeding-rollers must be an intermittent operation, and it has been the ob-
ject of the inventor to make this intermittent movement approach as nearly
as possible to a continuous one, as the material is to be delivered from the
machine continuously in an unbroken sliver.
Improvement in Fire-Arms. Eli Whitney, of Whitneyville, Conn.
Dated, August 1, 1854. — Mr. Whitney claims the method of constructing
the sear and lock-bolt in one piece, combined with the method of operating
the same by the trigger and spring, so that the sear can not release the ham-
mer, except when the chambered breech v.'ill be firmly locked in its proper
position when constructed, combined, and operated ; also, the combination of
the trigger with the spring and the lock-bolt, (when the lock-bolt is of the
same piece as the sear,) for locking the chambered breech, and discharging
the pistol, when constructed and combined, substantially as herein described ;
also, the combination of the three springs (when they are all secured with
one screw), with the catch-lever, trigger, and the lock-bolt and sear, when the
whole is constructed, arranged, and combined, substantially as described.
AMERICAISr PATENTS. 625
Lubricating Material. William Little, of the Strand, County of
Middlesex, England. Dated, August 1, 1854. Patented in England, July
14, 1853. — To 100 parts tallow, melted in a cauldron, add 235 parts of a
solution of ten or eleven deg. B. of caustic soda in water. This mixture is
boiled until saponification takes place, when ninety parts more of water are
added, and the whole again boiled until the ingredients are thoroughly com-
bined. To this add a potash soapy compound, prepared by seventy parts of
a solution of caustic potash, equal to eight or ten degrees B., boiled with
thirty parts of a fish or vegetable oil, until saponified. These two compounds
being thoroughly mixed by boiling, are poured into a vessel containing 150
parts of the greasy oil distilled from the crude oil of coal, and the whole
well mixed by stirring, until it acquires a thick consistence. This compound
is to be used for the journals of railway carriages, etc. For ordinary machi-
nery, mix two parts of the greasy oil with one part of the above mentioned
soapy compound, add eight parts of water.
Improvement in Tubular Bridges. Eden A. Baldwin, of Elmira,
N. Y. Dated, August 8, 1854. — This invention consists in constructing a
tube of sufficient diameter for the passage of a railway train, using planks, or
other suitable timbers, placed longitudinally and dowelled together, and the
•whole firmly bound with strong iron rods or hoops. For this purpose may
be used oak plank, two or three inches thick, as the size or strength of the
bridge may require, and of uniform width. The hoops or bands to be made
of 1 J or 1^ inch iron rods, which are first made of the necessary form and
size, and set up at the distance of five feet apart. The planks are then laid
in them, beginning at the bottom and proceeding on each side until they
meet at the top, taking care that the ends shall break joints. The joints are
all formed on an exact radical angle, on the principle of an arch, and each
plank is dowelled to the next one with strong wooden pins, one foot apart.
Then the bands are tightened.
Improvement in Cotton Presses. Nathan Chapman, of Mystic River,
Conn. Dated, August 8, 1854. — The nature of this invention consists in
having the hubs of the toothed wheels, on which the chains which raise the
follower work, formed with recesses in them to receive the ends of the chains
when wound up, and thereby cause said chains to exert a pressure inside of
the bearings of said wheels, and retain the follower in its elevated or raised
position, without any device being employed for that purpose. '
Improved Machine for Uniting Plates of Metal of Unequal
Thickness. Jeremiah Carhart, of New- York, N. Y. Dated, August 1,
1854. — This invention is for the purpose of uniting two plates or pieces of
metal, of unequal thickness, by placing them together between a punch and
die, with the thicker piece next the punch, and the thinner one next the die,
and then, by pressure applied to the punch, forcing a portion of the thicker
plate through the thinner one.
Improvement in Manufacturing Pigments from Iron Ore. Joseph
H. Davis, of Morristown, N. J. Dated, August 8, 1854. — Take pulverized
hematite, or oxide of iron, place it in a reverberatory furnace or cylinder, heat
it to about 1000 degrees Fahrenheit, and then introduce steam from about
the same quantity of water as ore is used. The steam is decomposed, and,
in proportion to the time in which the ore is exposed to the steam, different
colors can be produced, from that of the yellow ochre to black.
37
626 AMERICAJf PATENTS.
Method of Coating Iron with Brass or Copper. Hugh Byrgess,
of Kentish Town, England. Patented in England, Feb. 17, 1853 ; in the
United States, July, 1854. — The articles to be coated with copper, or alloys
of copper, are to be first well cleaned in dilute sulphuric acid, as is well un«
derstood ; they are then to be carefully washed in a dilute solution of chlo-
ride of zinc. The strength of the solution is made by adding about five
parts of water to a saturated solution of the chloride, formed by dissolving
zinc in hydrochloric acid, till action has ceased. Also the other soluble salts
of zinc and tin may be used, and oxide of zinc deposited on the article to be
coated, by holding it in the fumes of zinc during combustion. Oxides of
zinc, made into a very thin cream Avith water, 'and applied to the iron article,
carbonates of zinc treated in the same way, are all applicable for the process
herein described, or, in place of zinc, cadmium may be used in like manner.
The article, after having been well dried, when any of the above solutions
have been used, may be heated to about 250 degrees, and may be plunged
into melted copper.
A mixture of about two per cent, of zinc and one per cent, of tin to ninety-
seven parts of copper, answers the purpose better than copper alone.
"I claim the coating of iron sheets, bars, bolts, and other forms of iron
with copper or brass, by a combination of processes as follows : by first
cleaning, then coating them over with a solution of cadmium or zinc, drying
and dipping them into a bath of melted copper or brass, and raising them
out of the bath into an atmosphere of steam and carbonic acid, flowing in
streams or in jets, substantially in the manner described."
Improvement in Eadiators. John Gemmill, of Mercer, Pa. Dated,
August 8, 1854. — This invention is designed to prevent the great loss of
heat which is occasioned by the ordinary construction of stove-pipes, in con-
sequence of the passage of the current through the pipe, in obedience to the
known laws of heat, without producing the amount of radiation which a more
favorable construction would afford ; it consists in placing upon the stove, in
the situation usually occupied by the first two joints of pipe, a radiator of
the form of two frustrums of cones joined at their bases, and in suspending
within this case a deflector and regulator, consisting of an inverted cone and
right frustrums, united at their bases, said deflector and regulator being lined
with some non-conducting substance, and movable vertically.
Improvement in Air-Heating Stoves. Nathaniel A. Boynton, of New-
York, N. Y. Dated, August 8, 1854. — The fire-chamber is spherical, so
formed as to cause the blaze and heat to be thrown off" from the wc-od bunieo
therein at the sides, and thus to radiate the heat at the outside of tlie fire
chamber, and next to the body of air surrounding it. By forming the fire>
chamber in one piece, all leakage of gas is avoided, and the construction
greatly simplified, while, from its form, great facility is given for unequal ex-
pansion and contraction, without injury.
Improved Tires for Carriage-Wheels. George Souther, of South
Boston, Mass. Dated, August 1, 1854. — This- invention consists in applying
elastic tires to carriage-wheels. The tire of the wheel is made with two j)ro-
jecting flanges all around, having a space between them for the einstic lire.
An entire ring of vulcanized rubber is then stretched over the tire. Fur a
pleasure buggy, make the tire of wrought iron 1^ inch wide, the flaig^s y^g-
inch deep inside, and y\ inch outside ; the space between the two flanges is
about 1 inch, and the elastic strip is 1 inch wide and f thick.
AMEEICAN PATENTS. 627
Irresistible Horse-Bit. — A patent has just been issued to Messrs.
Titus (fe Fen wick, of Brooklyn, N. Y,, for a very ingenious and useful con-
trivance for stopping runaway horses, and placing the most fractious and
powerful horse under the immediate control of all classes of riders and dri-
vers, even to the most delicate female.
The nature of the invention consists in closing a horse's nostrils, so as to
check respiration, and bring him to a stand-still, by means of pressure ap-
plied through ornamental, padded levers, attached to the ends of the bit-bar,
and so arranged on the sides of the horse's nose, and attached to a rein, that,
when the driver or rider pulls hard upon the rein, they are caused to move
laterally toward each other like the jaws of a clamp, and close the horse's
nostrils sufficiently to stop his breathing, and bring him to a stand-still. As
soon as the driver lets the rein slack, the pads fly off, and allow the horse to
breathe freely.
This bit is intended to take the place of the ordinary kind, and presents a
handsome appearance when on the horse.
Improved Arrangement for Lathe Chuck. L. A. Dole, of Salem,
Ohio. Dated, July 25, 1854. — -The first part of this invention relates to the
means employed for making the hole which passes through the hub, per-
fectly true, and the second part relates to the means employed for forming
the shoulders in the same, after the central bore has been made true.
This invention consists in the employment of a self-centreing lathe chuck,
consisting of a scroll screw and sliding holding jaws, in combination with a
mandrel or screw passing through its centre, and having a cutter secured to
its extremity, for the purpose of boring hubs perfectly true, said screw being
fed, while boring, by a female nut attached to the barrel through which the
screw or mandrel works. And, also, it consists in so constructing and
arranging the feed nut, and combining it with a guage plate arranged on the
mandrel, that it will be caused to adjust itself at the moment the shoulder
of the hub has been cut of the required depth, and then be capable of turn-
ing with the screw, and allowing the cutter to square off the shoulder.
Improvements in Compositions for Bleaching and Stuffing Leather.
— A. patent has been granted to L. Woodbury Fiske, of Louisville, Ky., for
improvements in bleaching and stuffing leather. This improvement includes
two modes of bleaching, warm and cold. A large per cent, is saved in cost
for producing, while the weight and fairness is enhanced. By chemical
means an increased amount of " stuffing" is applied, and the surface coating
of tallow that remains after drying, which by the old mode is " set off," is
entirely forced into the body of the hide or skin, leaving the grain fibres free
from " stuffing," which impairs the color, and the leather is produced with
increased fairness and pliability.
Improvement in working Liming Vats in Tanneries. — A second patent
has also been granted to Mr. Fiske, for improvements in tanning. The object
of this improvement is to render the process of " liming," as now generally
practised by tanners, as well as Mr. Fiske's own unhairing soak, more rapid,
efficacious, and economical, to cause the hides and skins to come from the
vats more "plump," fair, and free from lime in the pores than has been the
case hitherto, at the same time preventing the formation of the pellicle on
the surface of the liquid in the vats, the deposite of carbonate of lime and
consequent loss of strength, and the labor and expense of frequent change »
in lime thereby induced.
628 NEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
Improvements in Fire-Arms. Joseph C. Day, of Hackettstown, N, J-
Dated, August 8, 1854. — This invention relates, firstly, to a certain method
of constructing the barrel, and connecting it with the stock and breech, folfr
the purpose of allowing it to swing, and present the rear end of the bore for
the reception of the charge ; secondly, to certain means of making a secure
and perfect connection between the rear of the chamber and a fixed breech ;
thirdly, to a certain arrangement whereby the caps are caused to be supplied
from a magazine in the stock to the nipple as required, by the movements of
the hammer in cocking and discharging the piece.
Improvement in Sofa Bedsteads. Stanislas Millet, of New- York,
N. Y. Dated, August 8, 1854. — Mr. Millet claims, in combination with a
spring-bottom, such as represented, the attaching of the sagging-bottom to
the hinged head and foot-board, so that said sagging-bottom shall be strained
over the spring-bottom, when the head and foot-pieces are dropped to form
a bed, and serve the purpose of a lining between the mattress and the springs,
when used as a sofa or lounge, substantially as described.
Improvement in Railroad Car Windows. George Spencer, of Utica,
N, Y. Dated, August 15, 1854. — This invention consists in combining with
the side of a car, a revolving window, formed of two separate circular sashes,
connected by hinges, so that one sash may be opened to its full extent, and
having a small part of the circle cut off, so that, by revolving it upon its cen
tre, a small opening may be made at the forward part of the window, which-
ever way the car may be moving, the residue of the window remaining at
the same time covered.
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
Ornamentation of Pottery and Glass. Messrs. Bale & Lucas,
Stafibrdshire. Patent dated Nov. 1, 1853. — This invention relates partly to
the production of various ornamental eflfects and patterns upon the surfaces of
articles made of pottery, glass, slate, etc., especially those made of brick, tile,
slabs, etc., of pottery, glass, enamelled and glazed iron, etc., and also to other
architectural fittings. The improvements are applied in that part of the pot-
tery manufacture known as " ground-laying." Another part of the invention
relates to the imitating of marbled and partly colored work upon the mate-
rials above named, and also to printing ornamental patterns upon stone, slate,
marble, etc. The new processes, so far as relate to the ground-laying, will be
better understood by a short description of the modes at present generally
employed in the manufacture. The outline of the intended pattern is first
drawn on and pricked through tissue-paper, through which fine charcoal is
rubbed or pounced upon the ware, leaving thereon a black outline. The
parts intended to be white, or different from the ground, are then penciled in
with a composition or " wat^r stencil," made of rose-pink, sugar, and water.
After this the piece is oiled and bossed with a dabber, to lay the oil on evenly.
Upon this the required color, ground very fine, is dusted. After being dried,
the piece is well washed in clear water. The stencil, being soluble, comes
off, and the color is left on, forming the pattern. It is then cleaned, diied,
and fired in the kiln. A variation in forming the outline is often used, by
printing it instead of tracing or pouncing in, and transferring such printed
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS. 629
outline to the surface of the article, in the usual way of pottery transferring.
In such case the outline is fired, after which the stenciling, oiling, grounding,
etc., are repeated as before. In all cases, however, the outline only of the
pattern is made merely to guide the stenciling, and in these processes every
fresh coat of color requires a re-stenciling and repetition of the process.
The improved modes of ground-laying, or what may, by way of distinction,
be termed "printed stencil ground-laying," consist of fully engraving the
entire pattern, in place of engraving the. outline only of the pattern on the
copper. The brick or other article to be ornamented is sized with a mixture
of Canada balsam and turpentine. An impression from the engraved plate is
then taken in the usual way upon tissue-paper, the composition or stencil used
being particularly adapted for printing purposes. It consists of about three
j)aits of rose-pink, two parts of whiting, two parts of fine-ground flint, one
part of lamp-black, one half part of sugar-of-lead, and two parts of resin, well
mixed with printers' oil. The impression is then transferred to the sized sur-
face in the ordinary way of potters' transferring. After remaining a short
time, it is washed with soft soap and potash, to bring away the superfluous
paper and size. In order to receive the ground, it is then oiled with Canada
balsSm and linseed oil, but without the usual bossing, after which the ground
color is brushed, dusted, or laid on in any convenient manner. It is now
ready to be fired with the "stencil on," which is loosened by the heat, and,
on coming out of the kiln, the stencil is readily rubbed ofl:' with fine sand and.
water, leaving the color and pattern on the article, beautifully sharp and de-
li ued, and clean at the edges. Another part of the invention is the converse
of the above, and is specially adapted for fine, delicate work. The entire
pattern is engraved as before, and the brick or other article to be ornamented
is then oiled over with Canada balsam and linseed oil, and is dusted over
with the color which is intended as the ground. An impression in stencil is
then taken on tissue-paper from the engraved plate, and is transferred to the
moist surface of the article prepared as above. The printed stencil is then
irarefully peeled off", and brings away with it the color from all the parts of
the article with which the printed stencil has come in contact, the other por-
tions not touched by the print forming the pattern.
When gilding is required, ground gold is dusted on instead of the ordi-
nary color. The pattern is then printed as before in stencil, and transferred
to the surface of the article upon the gold ; after which the article is washed
with soft soap and potash, in order to bring away the superfluous gold and
tlie oil from those parts not desired to be gilt. The article is then fired with
the stencil on, which on coming out of the kiln is rubbed off", and leaves the
gilt pattern under it firmly adhering to the ware.
The great feature of difference between the old and new modes is, that
instead of having to draw the outline, and to pencil and stencil in by hand,
the pattern is " printed" complete in stencil. The advantages gained are not
only the obtainment of more beautiful work of any breadth or fineness, (which
is done at a cheaper rate than the modes at present in use,) but delicate ela-
l>orate patterns, at present entirely unable to be attained, are easy and eco-
nomical of execution. In addition, there are many other advantages, such as
saving the cost and firing of the outline ; doing away with its ragged edges ;
the trouble of bossing after oiling ; the cost of cleaning and picking out the
pattern ; after washing off, being able to lay on as much color at one coat as
required two and three applications in the old modes, and re-stenciling ; and
lastly, in being able to gild at the same time at a reduced cost.
la carrying out the invention upon articles where heat is not required, and
630 NEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
upon other substances, as stone, slate, wood, etc., wliicli will only bear a slight
temperature, some slight deviations will be necessary from the processes
above described ; and in ornamenting glass or other transparent substances,
the process found most expedient is this : The pattern is engraved as before,
and an impression is printed in black or any opaque color, and transferred
generally to the back of the piece. The paper is then washed off, after which
it is oiled to receive the ground color, which is brushed or dusted through
perforated paper or oiled silk, or any other suitable medium. The piece is
then sized with a solution of isinglass and water, and, whilst wet, gold-leaf is
applied, and is seen through, on the front side where there is no color. It is
then finished by painting it over with any desired color. When applied to
walls, floors, or anywhere which is likely to be damp, a coating of gutta per-
cha or other water-proof substance is applied to protect it. By this means
most beautiful effects can be produced for walls and floors ; especially as land-
scapes, fruit, figures, and gilding can be represented, and saved from injury
and wear by being done at the back.
In ornamenting opaque bodies not necessary to be fired, this last process is
slightly varied. The piece is first sized with, isinglass and water, and the
gold applied as before ; it is then dried a little and varnished, and afterward
hardened to set the varnish ; the print is then transferred to it, and the paper
wasTied off, after which it is oiled and the color applied as before, and the
whole is afterward varnished. Another simple mode of ornamentation adapted
for chimney-pieces, pillars, etc., of stone, slate, wood, etc., is as follows : The
article having been first cleaned and dressed, is "painted over with the desired
color ; an impression is taken from an engraved plate of the pattern desired,
in any ordinary way of printing, and transferred to the surface of the article
to be ornamented. The paper is afterward washed off", leaving the pattern, as
marble, etc., behind, which may afterward be varnished so as to keep it
clean.
It will be evident, that the several modes described are admirably adapted,
not only for general architectural purposes, as bricks, tiles, slabs, baths, chim-
ney-pieces, doors, furniture, etc., but are capable of being applied to a variety
of useful fittings, as tables, panels, pilasters, mouldings, ceilings, etc., either
made of the materials themselves, or forming a species of inlaying and ve-
neering. Bricks, blocks, pillars, and similar articles, too heavy and costly to
be made entirely of glass, may be beautifully decorated by ornamenting the
glass in the manner described, and then using it as a veneer.
Preservation of Iron by STA.NNo-PLtrMBATiNG. — The Rev. N. Callan,
of Maynooth College, the author of numerous improvements in practical sci-
ence, has suggested and is now introducing a most important system of pre-
serving iron from corrosion and general decay. He uses an alloy of tin and
lead, or tin, lead, zinc, and antimony, recommending that the alloy should
contain at least as much lead as tin, but not more than V or 8 parts of lead
to 1 of tin. The iron is treated with such a composition, just as iron is
usually coated with tin. In a series of experiments on the decomposition of
water by the galvanic battery, the patentee found that concentrated nitric
acid acted far more powerfully on lead than on iron coated with an alloy of
lead and tin, in which the quantity of lead varied from 3 or 4 to *? or 8 times
the quantity of tin; and that the greater the proportion of lead contained in
the alloy, the less it was acted on by nitric acid. H'e afterward made a vari-
ety of experiments in order to compare the action of strong nitric, su]j)liuric,
and muriatic acid, as well as of diluted sulphuric and muriatic acid, on lead
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS. 631
and galvanized iron, with their action on iron coated with an alloy of lead and
tin, in which the quantity of lead was about equal to, or from two to seven or
eight times as great as that of tin ; and from these experiments he concluded
that iron coated with any of these alloys is far less oxidable and less liable to
corrosion than lead, and infinitely less so than galvanized iron, the zinc coat-
ing of which is rapidly dissolved by the acids, even when they are greatly
diluted with water. Hence, iron coated with an alloy of lead and tin, in
which the proportion of tin is small, will answer for all the purposes for which
sheet-lead, leaden pipes, and galvanized iron are employed. The mixture of
a small quantity of zinc with the alloy of lead and tin, with which iron is
coated, hardens the coating, but diminishes its power of resisting corrosion.
However, a coating of lead, tin, and zinc is far less oxidable than the zinc
coating of galvanized iron. The addition of a little antimony, which is a
cheap metal, hardens the coating, and increases its power of resisting oxida-
tion and corrosion. Stanno-plumbated iron may answer better than galva-
nized iron for the rope of iron wire by which the conducting^ wire of the sub-
marine telegraph is protected, because the former will resist the corrosive
action of the sea- water better than the latter. In a work published last year,
Pouillet, lately professor in the Sorbonne, says that sea-water corrodes galva-
nized iron. In his interesting little book on the electric telegraph, Mr. High-
ton states that he saw, in the neighborhood of large towns, galvanized iron
wires, an eighth of an inch thick, reduced, in less than two years, to the thick-
ness of a sewing needle, by the sulphurous vapors arising from the coals con-
sumed. It is very probable that these vapors would exert no action on
stanno-plumbated iron. Stanno-plumbated iron is far preferable to lead,
because it is much cheaper, much more durable, and much less affected by
changes of temperature. It has also great advantages over galvanized iron.
It may be employed for all purposes for which the latter is used ; it is much
more easily worked and repaired, because it is far more easily soldered ; and
it will answer for a great variety of uses, in which it may be exposed to the
action of various corroding substance-, such as acids, etc. ; but for these uses
galvanized iron is totally unfit, because the zinc coating is incapable of resist-
ing the action of any acid. Stanno-plumbated iron, particularly if the coat-
ing contains a small quantity of antimony, will probably answer better than
lead for vitriol chambers. It may sometimes be used instead of copper for
the sheathing of ships, and bolts and nails of coated iron may be sometimes
employed instead of copper bolts and nails. It may also be used for some of
the purposes for which enamelled iron is employed, such as the enamelled
cast-iron cisterns and pipes used in water-closets. At the last meeting of the
British Association at Hull, Dr. Gladstone stated that owners of iron-built
ships object to sugar cargoes, because the saccharine juices that exude from *
the casks corrode the metal. If the iron of which the ships are made were
coated on the inside with an alloy of lead and tin, containing five or six tinies
as much lead as tin, it is highly probable that the corrosion of the ships
would be prevented. A small piece of an alloy of lead and tin, in which the
quantity of lead was about five times as great as that of tin, was left in sugar
dissolved in water for more than three months. After that period the alloy
came out as bright as when it was put into the solution. Coating the iron
on the outside would protect it against the action of the sea-water ; and would
be particularly useful for vessels intended for the West-India islands, where, it
is said, the sea-water soon corrodes the iron. Stanno-plumbated iron is not
more expensive than galvanized iron. First, because the coating of lead and
tin need not be half as thick as the zinc coating, and therefore the quantity
>632
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
of the alloy used ia coating a given surface of iron will bo far less than the
quantity of zinc employed in galvanizing the same surface. Secondly, be-
cause spelter is very volatile, and therefore the waste of zinc in a molten state
is much greater than that of the alloy of lead and tin. Thirdly, a greater
degree of heat is required to keep zinc in a state of fusion, than to melt lead
and tin. Lastly, since the proportion of tin need not be more than the
seventh or eighth of that of lead, the alloy is very little dearer than zinc.
From these reasons, it is clear that stanno-plumbated iron must be at least as
cheap as galvanized iron.
Professor Airet's Pendulum Test of the Earth's Mass. — The follows
ing letter from Professor Airey to Mr. James Mather, of South Shields, enters
somewhat into the details of the pendulum experiment in the Harton Col-
liery, on which we wrote last month : " It will be, I am sure, a matter of
satisfaction to you to know, that the results of the computations of the pen-
dulum vibrations gives the highest confidence in the certainty of the results
to be deduced from them. The comparison of the rates of the pendulum,
before and after their interchanges, shows that there is no evidence of their
having undergone any mechanical change whatever, and almost positive evi-
dence against their having undergone any change, amounting in its efiects
on their vibrations to l-20th part of a vibration in a day. The immediate
result of the computations is this. Supposing that a clock was adjusted to
go true time at the top of the mine, it would gain 2^ seconds per day at the
bottom. Or it may be stated thus — that gravity is greater at the bottom of
the mine than at the top by 1-19190 part. To go a little further into the
interpretation. If there had been no coal measure, or rocks of any kind, be-
tween the top and the bottom, but merely an imaginary stand to support the
pendulums, the gravity at the top would have been less than at the bottom
by 1-8400 part nearly. But it is less by only 1-19200 part. And what is
the cause of this difference ? It is the attraction of the shell of matter, the
thickness of which is included between the top and the bottom of the mine.
The attraction of that shell, therefore, is the ditference between the two num-
bers which I have given, or is 1-14900 part of gravity nearly. But if that
shell had been as dense as the earth generally, its attraction would have
been 1-5G00 part of the gravity nearly. Therefore, the earth generally is
more dense in the proportion of 149 to 56, nearly. You will remark that
all these numbers are rough, and that to make their results available some
small corrections are required (to which I have not alluded,) and some know-
ledge of the density of the difterent beds, &c., which I do not po?sess at
present."
Manufacture of Caoutciiouc. J. H, Johnson, London and Glasgow.
— This French invention, which has been patented in England on behalf of
MAI. Guibal & Cumenge, relates to the recovery and utilization of the volatile
ingredients used in dissolving caoutchouc in the process of manufacturing it,
instead of allowing these ingredients to be lost by evaporation. This great
saving is effected by placing the soft caoutchouc upon traversing cloths in
closed chambers, provided at the top with a means of condensing the vapors,
and carrying off the products, the material being heated by suitable apparatus
beneath the traversing cloth. The caoutchouc, as it leaves the spreading
rollers, is traversed over a horizontal table, consisting of upper and lowei- cast-
iron plates, with an intervening place for the introduction of steam, hot water,
or heated air. This table is covered in by a roofing of metal plates, set at
convenient angles, the chamber being closed v in at each end by triangular
MISCELLANY.
metal plates, placed vertically. The roof is covered with felt, which is kept
constantly saturated with cold water, su2:>plied by a duct above, and which is
again collected by gutters running along the lower edges of the roof-plates.
The vapor rising from the material is condensed upon the under sides of the
roof-plates, and, trickling down, is collected in suitable gutters ; these gutters
being carried completely round the chamber, and across the end-plates, so as
to prevent any of the products of condensation from falling upon the caout-
chouc beneath. The gutters communicate with suitable receptacles, into
which the condensed matter passes ; and this matter can be used over again
repeatedly in the manufacture of the caoutchuc, thereby considerably reduc-
ing the cost.
MISCELLANY.
A Puzzled Pig. — One of our western farmers, being very much annoyed
last summer by his best sow breaking into the corn-field,' search was insti-
tuted in vain for a hole in the rail fence. Failing to find any, an attempt
was next made to drive out the animal by the same way of her entrance ;
but of course without success. The owner then resolved to watch her pro-
ceedings ; and posting himself at night in a fence-corner, he saw her enter
at one end of a hollow log, outside the field, and emerge at the other end,
within the enclosure. " Eureka,^'' cried he, " I have you now, old lady 1"
Accordingly, he proceeded, after turning her out once more, to so arrange
the log (it being very crooked) that both ends opened on the outside of the
field. The next day the animal was observed to enter at her accustomed
place, and shortly emerge again. "Her astonishment," says our informant,
" at finding herself in the same field whence she had started, is too ludicrous
to be described ! She looked this way and then that, grunted her dissatis-
faction, and finally returned to the original starting place ; and, after a de-
liberate survey of mattei's, to satisfy herself that it was all right, she again
entered the log. On emerging once more on the wrong side, she evinced
even more surprise than before, and, turning about, retraced the log in an
opposite direction. Finding this efibrt likewise in vain, after looking long
and attentively at the position of things, with a short, angry grunt of disap-
pointment, and perhaps fear, she turned short round, and started off on a
brisk run ; nor could either coaxing or driving ever after induce her to visit
that part of the field." She seemed to have a " superstition" concerning the
spot. — Knickerbocker.
Fire-flies. — In tropical climes, various luminous insects are attached to
female head-dresses. They are used also as lamps. I have read fine print
in a dark room by the light of two small Long Island fire-flies in a tumbler.
But man was not the first to rob these living gems of their liberty and ra-
diance. There are birds that seize and suspend them as chandeliers for their
dwellings. The bottle-nested sparrow, or baya, is one of the kidnappers.
Its nest is closely woven like cloth in the figure of a large, inverted bottle,
with the entrance at the orifice of the neck. The interior is divided by par-
titions into two or three chambers, one over the other. These are profoundly
dark until lit up with fire-flies caught alive, and mercilessly fixed to the walls
or ceiling with pieces of wet clay or cow-dung for sconces. — From " The
World a Workshop"
634
MISCELLANY.
Bknefit of Railroads to Farmers. — We find in the report of the
Michigan Central Raih-oad for 1853, the following list of farm products
carried upon that road last year :
Apples, bbls. . . .25,912
Barley, bush. . . 24,426
Beans, bush. . . . 1,064
Bran, etc., tons, . . 1,090
Beef, bbls. . . . 6,872
Butter, tons, . . 206
Tork, bbls. . . . 11,673
Pork, in hhds, tons, . 2,104
Wheat, bush. . . . 807,707
Corn, bush. . . . 200,931
Cheese, tons, . . , 140
Cranberries, bbls. . . 1,036
Dried fruit, tons, . . 339
Flour, bbls. . . . 416.863
Grass and Clover Seed, tons, 394
Salt, bbls. . . . 13,936
Wool, tons, . . . 693
Cattle, alive, . . . 4,012
Garden roots, tons, . 1,045
Hams, etc., tons, . . 323
Hides, tons, . . 224
Oats, bush. . . - .115,295
Plaster, tons, . . 2,013
Pelts, etc., tons, . . 212
Horses, . . . 584
Sheep, .... 12,432
Lumber, feet, . . 12,377,534
At a rough estimate, this would make upwards of 80,000 such loads as a
common road wagon in Michigan usually takes to market, drawn by two
horses, at an average, going and coming, of twenty-five miles a day, and
would probably average six days for each load ; say four hundred and eighty
thousand days, or the labor of one thousand three hundred and fifteen men
and teams every day for one year, to say nothing of back loads and trans-
portation of live stock. — Louisville Journal.
Bending Ship Timber. — All the immense labor hitherto spent in round-
ing timber to suit ships, and houses, and machines, and furniture, and what-
ever other things require timber so curved, is now to be dispensed with by
machines which can take the stateliest and straightest oak, and bend it like
a Titan-bow, for the use of the proudest man-of-war, or the loftiest cathedral,
and this, too, adding strength and durability to the wood 1 The first experi-
ment has just been made on timbers sixteen feet in length, eight inches by
ten, bent to as short a curve as can be used in ship-building. This machine
is a large one, designed for ship timber, but there is another also ready for
furniture, and both have just commenced operations. The place of action is
Greenpoint, where there is a large foundry for making the machines, and
large steam-vessels for steaming the timber, with other requirements in-
cluded in the process. Henceforward all the delicate curves of steamers,
frigates, or yachts, will be of solid timber, fashioned by this extraordinary
innovation. So, too, the most ponderous rafters, such as bend in lofty ara-
besques over chapel or hall, may be composed of unbroken trees of the forest,
yielding under this new and wonderful power of man. So, too, all the
curvilinear beauties may be detailed by the same means. The statistics of
the value of such a discovery are beyond the conception of the uninitiated.
All the immense shipping and building interests of the civilized world are
included in this discovery. — N. Y. Tribune.
«
Agriculture in France. — A letter writer for the Bepuhlic says : " A
trip of six hundred and fifty miles, from the northern to the southern ex-
tremity of France, justifies me in the expression of my opinion that sun does
not shed its rays on so fair a land, or one so thoroughly cultivated. The
whole country is literally a garden. Every square foot, from the raouutain-
toj) to the lowest ravine, is made to produce something, if it be susceptible
MISCELLANY. 635
of it. Their mode of planting or sowing their crops, whether on plain or
hill side, produces the finest effect on the appearance of the landscape. The
place allotted for each crop is laid out in squares, or parallelograms, with
mathematical precision, and, whether large or small, the best garden could
not be divided with greater accuracy. As there are no fences or hedges, and
as the diflferent crops are in various stages of maturity, you can imagine the
variety of hues that meet the eye, and the magnificence of the panorama
that stretches out in every direction as far as the vision can penetrate. I
am sorry to add in this connection that seven-eighths of the agricultural
labor is performed by females, while two or three hundred thousand stalwart
men in uniform are idling away their time in the barracks of the cities and
villages. In the absence of fences, cattle, secured by ropes, are driven about
their pasturage by females ; and sheep are confined within the required
limits by boys, assisted by a shepherd's dog."
Premium Pianos. — We see by the official report of the late Fair of the
Metropolitan Mechanics' Institute, held in Washington, that Messrs. Stein-
way & Sons were awarded the highest premium for their Serai-grand Piano,
(which is, indeed, a perfect grand, in a square form,) and, also, the first pre-
mium for a 7:^ octave circular scale piano.
These instruments attracted much attention at the Fair, and public senti-
ment seemed to be in advance of the committee in awarding the premiums.
And so universally were they liked, that Mr. S. sold not only those on exhi-
bition, but received orders for several others. They are unsurpassed for
strength, delicacy of touch, power, and sweetness of tone.
Opening of the Panama Railroad. — This gratifying event took place
on the 20th ult., and the celebration was ^participated in by a large party of
officers, stockholders, and invited guests, who were received with great de-
monstrations of rejoicing at Aspinwall, Panama, and the intermediate points.
The transit was made in four and a half hours, and the management of the
road and machinery gave abundant satisfaction. Henceforth, the tedious,
expensive, and laborious passage of the isthmus, between the two oceans,
which occupied days, will now be accompHshed in a few hours.
Prince Barnum. — Phineas T. Barnum is surely the greatest man out.
He has stuffed with soap, or other soft material, or covered with wool, (per-
haps from the woolly horse,) the eyes of several ladies of this city, who are
announced to act as a committee on babies, at the Museum, on some future
day. Surely it must require the exercise of some power which few men
possess to induce ladies so far to forget what is due their sex as to occupy
such a position.
A New Ancesthetic Agent. — Professor Dugas, in the Medical College
of Georgia, a few days since, had to extirpate a large tumor on the back
weighing about ten pounds. He surrounded the base of the tumor with the
freezing mixture for four or five minutes, which so obtunded the sensibiHty
of the parts that the operation was performed with comparatively little pain.
Fruit Trees. — It is a theory among fruit growers that the peach is de-
stroyed by cold, when the thermometer reaches 10 degrees below zero, and
that this tree cannot live when the' temperature is at that point ; but an ex-
amination of the trees, in the western part of this state, fails to show that
any injury has yet been received. — Rochester Adv.
636 MISCELLANY.
Progress ix Arkansas. —
■The State of Arkansas has just completed a
census of the State for 1854.
The following is the result as compared with
1850:
1824.
1850.
Population, - - -
253,117
209,887
Whites, ' - - . .
119,224
162,189
Slaves, - - . -
60,279
47,100
Free colored.
614
608
Acres land cultivated.
857,180
781,530
Bales of cotton produced.
160,779
65,344
Corn, bushels, 1853,
- 11,536,969
8,893,939
Wheat, do.
332,535
199,639
Oats, do.
- . - - - 1,040,506
656,283
It appears from this that the increase was as follows, viz :
Increase of population,
- 21
Increase of whites, -
20
Increase of slaves,
- 27
Increase of lands cultivated,
10
Increase of cotton produced.
- 150
Increase of wheat produced,
130
Increase of oats produced, -
- 50
Increase of com produced,
60
Manufacture of Nkedles.^ — The number of procesBcs through which a
needle goes in its manufacture is as follows : 1, wire received ; 2, weighed ;
3, gauged ; 4, cut ; 5, rubbed ; 6, counted ; 7, pointed ; 8, washed ; 9, cut
back ; 10, pointed at the other end ; 11, examined ; 12, counted ; 13, washed ;
14, weighed; 15, annealed; 16, stamped; 17, pressed; 18, spitted; 19,
piled; 20, broken ;' 21, heads piled; 22, oil burnt off; 23, soft-straightened;
24, evened; 25, counted; 26, hardened; 27, evened; 28, stropped; 29,
tempered; 30, weighed ; 31, examined; 32, picked for crooks; 33, hard-
straightened; 34, counted; 35, scoured with seven emeries, washed and
evened between each; 36, washed and dried ; 37, weighed ; 38, evened ; 39,
headed; 40, weighed; 41, ground at the point; 42, weighed ; 43, scoured
with one emery, and glazed ; 44, weighed ; 45, washed and dried ; 46,
weighed ; 47, evened ; 48, headed ; 49, picked for waste set ; 50, weighed
by count ; 51, set; 52, examined ; 53, weighed for drillers ; 54, blued ; 55,
drilled ; 56, rubbed ; 57, weighed from drilling ; 58, examined ; 59, rounded
by finishing ; 60, finished once ; 61, rubbed ; 62, finished again ; 63, rubbed ;
64, examined ; 65, counted in 25's ; 66, papered ; 67, labelled ; 68, tied up ;
69, collected ; 70, packed up.
Warm Feed. — A correspondent of the N. E. Farmer gives the following
fact relative to the management of one of his cows, and its result : "I will
give your readers my mode of feeding one of my cows. I purchased her
last November, when she gave four quarts of milk a day. I commenced
feeding her with cut hay, two quarts of shorts, and a few carrots, wet with
cold water, twice a day for one month. At the end of that time she had not
increased in her milk at all. I then commenced wetting the same amount of
feed with boiling water, and, at the end of the second month, she gave reg-
ularly fiix quarts per day, which I thought a fair gain. Where a person
needs considerable milk, and keeps but one cow, I would recommend a trial
of this mode of feeding."
NEW BOOKS. 687
A SINGLE pound of flaxen thread, intended for tlie finest specimens of
French lace, is valued at six hundred dollars, and the length of the thread
is about two hundred and twenty-six miles. One pound of this thread is
more valuable than two pounds of gold.
The Lawton Blackberry. — We have had many enquiries in regard to
this fine fruit, a full description of which was given in our October number,
p. 210. We have asked the opinion of many of our friends who fruited it
last year, and, without exception, they speak of it as well deserving the en-
comiums given it. J. B. Lawton's office is at 54 Wall street, N. Y.
Lewis House, Binghamton, N. Y. — Some of our friends have found a
temporary home in this well known hotel, now kept by Messrs. Davis & Mor-
ris, and report it as a very pleasant, and, in all respects, satisfactory place for
the traveler. It is only a minute's time from the depot, with a good walk, the
whole distance. Patronize the deserving.
^j^^ We commend the experiments of Prof. Campbell, p. 690, to the
attention of all agriculturists.
General Agency. — The publisher of The PloiigTi, the Loom, and the Anvil,
believing it in his power to be of essential service to the readers of that journal,
in the purchase or sale of various articles, and the transaction of various kinds of
business, would announce to them that he is ready to execute any such commis-
sion which he may receive, including the purchase of books of any description ;
implements connected with agricultural, manufacturing, or mechanical opera-
tions; artificial manures; farm and garden seeds, etc., etc. One of the gentle-
men connected with the journal is a proficient in music, and experienced in the
selection of piano-fortes, flutes, etc., and wifl execute orders in that department.
He will also act as agent in the purchase and sale of Real Estate.
([^"Particular attention to business connected with the Pateut-Oflace.
Letters of inquiry on these matters will be promptly attended to.
School-Teacheks. — Having had occasion to furnish teachers for some,
of our Southern friends, we have been fortunate enough to learn of several
young ladies who are admirably well qualified for families or schools, and if any
are in need of such, a letter addressed to us will receive immediate answer. We
shall not fear to guarantee that any reasonable expectations wiU be fully met.
Some of them are desirous of going South.
NEW BOOKS
Hahper's Gazetteee of the World.
All the numbers of this ponderous work are now pubHslied, and taken together-
they embody a vast deal of information in a very email compass. Large and well-
drawn maps also illustrate the text. The whole execution of the work is in excel-
lent style. It is impossible that perfect accuracy should be attained in all these
descriptions. The longer articles exhibit evidence of great care and extensive re-
search. Under some of the minor titles we have detected a few errors that are
worthy of correction, on the part of purchasers as well as future publishers. The
following now occur to us :
Windham, Essex County, Mass. There is no such town, nor never was.
Rowley, Essex County, Mass., does not contain any academy,
Dummer Academy, in Newbury, parish of Byfield, is less than half a mile from
the northern boundary.
Woodstock, Windsor County, Vt., does not contain any academy, but an excellent
public school. Nor does it lie " on" nor within less than eight miles of "'the Ver-
638 NEW BOOKS.
mont Central Railroad." Windsor, in same couoty, contains a large gun factory,
omitted in tbe description, the business of whicli is worth moro to the town than all
the mills actually mentioned. Nor is Windsor a '"capital" of the county, unless a
single session, annually, of the circuit court of the United States makes it such,
while all the count}' buildings and county office are at Woodstock.
In Newburyport, Essex County, Mass., thtre is a monument erected in a church to
the memory of Whitetield, some twtiity feet from tl>e pul|iit, while the I'oues of
the venerable man lie in a tomb under tho pulpit. Such wou'd not be the idea from
the language used by the compiler. The church is the First Presbyterian, in Federal
street.
Compendium of Hygiene; compiled for the use of the Winsted Hygienic Association.
By Lucius Mills, Physician to the Association. West Winsted, Conn. 1855. For
sale by Fowlers & AVells.
We have here a small manual, 190 pages, designed more for the nurse thah the '
physician ; and the author wisely, we think, recommends the substitution of the
former for the latter, in many cases whore hitherto the doctor is sfMit f >r. At least,
he thinks this preferable, unless the physician is in reality a skillful man. We must
confess that we have seen and known too much of medical students to look upon the
large majority of them otherwise than with entire contempt, while the few we honor
as among the most deserving and the most useful of men. A. skillful physician and
a good man, in one person, has our heartiest sympathies and our profound res(>eet.
This manual instructs us wisely, no doubt, in the proper use of food, diet, bathing,
exercise, &c., as a proper substitute, often, for medicine, in many of the diseases to
which we are exposed, and also gives directions for the treatment of wounds, poisons,
&c. The author is a rational hydropathist. He is not inclined to drench us to death
in attempting to cure every disease by the one process, but commends the use of
different baths in a variety of cases. Recipes for gruel, farina, sago, rice, &c., &c.,
for the sick room, are also inserted. An " Addendum " directs us fully and judi-
ciously, we think, in the cure of dyspepsia, by the " motorpathic " treatment. This
is in a separate pamplet. We have no doubt the author has done his community
and others a very good service in these pages.
Botany of the Southern States. In two parts, <fec. By Prof. John Darby, A.M.
New-York: A. S. Barnes <fe Co.; Cincinnati, W. H. l>erby; Savannah, John M.
Cooper. 1855, 12mo. 612 pages.
We have examined this volume with much satisfaction. It is well arranged ; the
topics are well treated, and it is throughout what it should be. The former part of
the volume (164 pages) is occupied with the elements of the science, and physiology ;
this is followed by the Linnean system and the " Dichotomous Analysis ;" and then
comes, commencing page 200, Descriptive Botany. A Glossary, and Indices finish
the volu'ne. If we must find fault with any thing, it must be the phrase, "Dichoto-
mous Analysis," as a new word and unnecessary, though expressive. The term used
by Wood, for the same thing, is " Synopsis of the Natural System." This is the fact.
It is also "dichotomous;" since, we ever have a choice between two dissinailars
till we ai-e brought to the natural order. We conmiended Wood very highly, as
vastly superior to any thing before published. He must now divide the honors with
Mr. Darby. This last book is to the South what Wood professes to be for the whole.
How full Mr. Wood is in the Southern Flora, we have had no means of ascertaining.
He is filU for northern latitudes. Mr. Darby describes tho Flora from lat. 80° to 35'^,
"including South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, parts of North Carolina, Floriila and
Mississippi." The book is eminently wortiiy of extensive patronage t!iroughout.
Messrs. Long & Brother, Publishers, 121 Nassau street, New- York, have in press,
an Autobiography of an Orphan Girl. By Alice Grey. A tale, of real life, whose
characters still play their part on the world's stage.
The Slave of the Lamp. By Mrs. North, a well-known author; and The Watch-
M.\N, illustrated by living characters — more anon. Price, $1 each.
LIST OF PATENTS ISSUED.
689
The Gardener's Text Book, containing practical directions for the formation and
management of the kitchen garden, and for the culture and domestic use of its
vegetables, fruits, and medicinal herbs. By Peter Adam Schenck, formerly gar-
dener to Edward C. Williams, Esq. Boston : John P. Jewett & Co. ; Cleveland,
Jewett, Proctor & Worthington. 4th 1000.
We have before commended this work. It gives us full instructions in the location,
arrangements, and cultivation of the garden ; and the tools adapted to such service
as is required, and the mode of using them. The proper culture and use of the
various roots, medical herbs and other vegetables is fully set forth. The whole can
not fail to be highly useful.
Kate Atlesford ; a story of the Refugees. By Chas. J. Peterson. Philadelphia:
112 Chestnut street; Boston, Phillips, Sampson & Co.; New- York, J. C. Derby.
An " advance copy " of this came to hand too late for a general reading. It claims
to be a historical novel of superior merit. We notice from the titles of the chap-
ters, that it contains many exciting scenes of shipwreck, fire in the woods, abduction,
pursuit, rescue, &c., and ends with a " wedding in 1780."
P. S. — A friend who has read this commends it highly.
First Lessons in Geography. By James Monteith. New-York : A. L. Barnes.
This little book is National Geographical Series, No. 1. It is well suited for its
object, as given in the title, and is very handsomely executed. It contains, as it
should, many very good illustrations, maps, «fec.
List of Patents Issued
FROM FEB, 7, TO FEB. 21, 1855.
James Allen, of Frease's Store, Ohio, improve-
ment in clover huUers.
Wm. H. Allen, Lowell, improvement in ma-
chines for chopping meat and other substances.
Hiram Berdam, New-Tork, improvement in
life boats.
Thomas D. Aylsworth, Frankfort, New-Yorl:, im-
provement in hop frames.
H. Clark, Newport, Fla., improvement in cotton
gins.
E. B. Clement, Barnet, Vt., improvement in
churns.
George Daniels, Philadelphia, improvement m
the threshers and cleaners of grain.
John Dick, New- York, improvement in stays
for articles of dress.
Ili'nry T. Dexter, Zanesville, improvement in
wharf boats.
G. Esterly, Heart Prairie, Wis., improvement
in ploughs.
James Esterly, Albany, improved magazine
emiike consuming pipe.
Phiiieas Emmons, New-York, improvement in
cracker machines.
H. W. Evans, Philadelphia, improved spirit
levels.
Asahel Faircbilcl, Ashland, Ohio, improvement
in sleam boiler chimney.
Wm. Fuzzard, Newark, improvement in ma-
chinery f<jr felting hat bodies.
John W, Haggard and George Bull, Blooming-
ton, 111., improvement in rotary ploughs.
Alonzo Hitchcock, Cliicago, improvement in
weather sti-ips for doors.
George H. and Benjamin H. Horn, Brooklyn, im-
provement in sewing machines.
Fred. Howes, Yarmouth Port, Mass., improve-
ment in ships' standing rigging.
Wm. S. Maclaurin, New- York, method of teach-
ing penmanship,
Matthew H, Merriam, Chelsea, Mass., and J. B.
Crosby, Stoneham, Mass., improvement in leather
splitting machine.
Robert J. Morrison, Richmond, Va., assignor to
himself and Edwin A. Morrison, Lawrenceville,
improvement in grass harvesters.
Josiah H. Noyes, Abington, Mass., improvement
in lamp extinguishers,
Jefferson Parker, Louisville, improvement in
machines for slaughtering hogs.
S. N, and Wm. F. Stillman, Leonardsville, N. Y.,
improvement in garden rakes,
Wm. D. Titus and Robert W. Fenwick, Brook-
lyn, improvement in bridle bits,
Ira Reynolds, Republic, Ohio, improvement in
ploughs.
John Tremper, Philadelphia, improvement in
steam valves.
J. N. Williams, Dubuque, improvement in head
sppporters for railroad oars.
640
LIST OF PATENTS ISSUED.
A. B. Childs and H. W. Dickenson, Rochester,
N. y.,. for method of feeding paper to printiog
presses by machinery.
E. A. Forhush, Ashland, Mass., improved sew-
ing machine.
Fredericli Denzier, N. Y. city, new form of bank
lock.
G. B. Clarke, Leonardaville, N. Y., chimney
safe.
Geo, Blanchard, Washington, D. C, life-saving
raft.
Levi Bissell, N. Y. city, improved metallic
spring.
J. H. Bennett, Bennington, Vt., straw cutter.
C. E. Barnes, Oswego, N. Y., mill stone dress
for hulling rice.
Yarnall Baily, West Chester, Pa., fluid burners.
S. H. Noble, Westfleld, Mass., screw wrenches.
J. S. Keith and J. Brooks, Canton, Mass., bullet
moulds.
G. P. Ketchum, Bedford, Ind., new method of
driving pairs of reciprocating saws.
Gustavus Hammer, Cincinnati, Ohio, pump
valves.
C. C. Hall, Portland, Me., manufacturing paper
from resinous barks.
Daniel ilaldcman, Morgantown, Va., improved
harrow.
Joel Hastings, James Kamsey and H. G. Cham-
berlain, St. Johnsbury, Vt., machine for cutting
tenons.
Joseph G. Goshon and S. M. Eby, Shirleysburg,
Pa., maize leaves as a substitute for tobacco.
Samuel Wetherill, Bethlehem, Pa., mode of
manufacturing zinc white.
Carriangton Wilson, N. Y. city, improved griddle.
Thos. Tripp, Sandy Creek, N. Y., improved
water ■wheel.
G. N. Todd, Dundair, Pa., self-regulating water
gates.
'Samuel Taggarf, Indianapolis, Ind., new me-
thod of feeding flour bolts.
Wm. Stephens, Richmond, Ind., slide rest for
engine lathes.
Sauuel R. Smith and Elijah Cowels, Hadley,
Mass., machine for cutting wood into slivers.
Wm. Sage, Durham, Conn., air heater.
W. C. Sanford, Meriden, Conn., improvements
in skates.
J. A. Robinson, Poplin, N. 11., hand cultivator.
Jacob Pierson, Alexandria, Va., machine for
manufacturing hoops.
J. T. Ogden, assignor to himself and Thomas
Goddard, Boston, Mass., carriage windows.
C. W. Brown, Boston, Mass., assignor, to G. W.
Banker, Watertown, Mass., and G. O, Carpenter,
South Reading, Mass., for improved paint mill.
Henry S. Ackerly, Now- York, improvement in
piano forte frames.
J. Bale, of Buffalo, improvement in hotel annun-
ciators.
James B. Blake, of Worcester, Mass., improve-
ment in gas cooking-stoves.
S. R. Bryant, of New;York, improved anchor
tripper.
Henry V. Corbett, Buffalo, improved mode of
raising sunken vessels,
Wm. B. Emery, of Alb.any, method of adjusting
cylinders in boring machines.
Wm. B. Emery, Albany, method of adjusting
Bluff in planing machines.
Ammi M. George, Nashua, improvement in ma-
chines for maiing chain links.
Daniel B. Nell, Mount Gilead, Ohio, improT»-
meni in repeating single barreled firearms.
Amos Nudd, Exeter, N. If., flre-engines.
Obadiah Merland, Boston, improvement in roll-
ers and dryers, for paper-making.
Chas. Miller, N. w-York, improvement in ma-
chines for making butt hinges,
Chas. Morris, New-Haven, improved machine
for shecoring leather straps.
Zadoc Pangborn, Algonac, Mich., improvement
in the construction of vessels.
F, Peale, Philadelphia, improvement in pro-
pellers.
Robert Romaine, Montreal, improvement in
seed-planters. Patented in England, May 10,
1853.
George S. G. Spencer, Boston, improv^ftnent in
hot air furnaces.
Wm. Steele, Wheeling, turning machine.
Joseph Stevenson, Wheeling, Philadelphia, bed
boat or life preserver.
John StuU, Philadelphia, improved stereoscope
case.
Wm. L. Young, Muscatine, lovs^a, machine for
cutting barrel heads.
Lewis Teese & Son, San Francisco, improvement
in forks for gold diggers. Ante-dated November
22, 1854.
Jeremiah P Smith, Hummelstown, Pa., im-
provement in corn shellers.
Hiram Hawley, Rome, N. Y,, mandrel for hold-
ing carriage hul)s, &c.
D. W. Hughes, New-London, Mo., improvement
in hemp brakes.
Wm. V. Gee, New-Haven, assignor to the At-
water and Bristol Manufacturing Company of
same place, improvement in looms.
Alex. Kirkwood, Jackson Co., Miss., method of
pumping water out of vessels.
Asa Landphere, Albion, Pa., and Samuel Rem-
ingtun, Ilion, N. Y., spoke machine.
Peter Lear, Boston, improved method of ar-
ranging and operating submerged horizontal pad-
dle wheels.
Chas. Leavitt, Quincy, improvement in port-
able grain mills.
Martin H. Mansfield, Ashland, Ohio, improve
ment in hulling and cleaning clover seed.
F. Russell, Boston, improvement in mowing
machines.
Thomas C. Ball, Walpole, improvement in screw
jacks.
Andrew J. Burnhai-t, Schoolcraft, Mich., im-
provement in seed planters.
David Russell, Drewsburg, Ind., improvement
in spado ploughs.
Jno. Haslam, New- York, and Jas. Haslam,
Scarsdale, (solo heirs of Joseph Haslam, deceased)
improvement in covering thread with wool or
silk.
Daniel W. Mcsser, Boston, assignor to himself,
R. B. Fitts, and Albert James, of the same place,
improved hand stamp.
Horatio N. Gambrill, and Singleton F. Burgee,
of IVoodbury Mills, Md., improvement in carding
machines. Patented in England, August 22,
1854.
Jehu Hollingsworth, and Ralph S. Mershon,
T^anesville, improvement in firearms. Patented in
England, August 1, 1854.
Ralph S. Mershon, and Jehu Hollingsworth,
Zanesvilie, improvement in repeating firearms.
Patented in England, August 1, 1854,
Clie 110119!)^ t\jt im% flnb tijf Jlnuil.
Vol. VII. MAY, 1855. No. 11.
AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
PRODUCTS SECTIONAL VARIETY AMPLE COMMERCE INDISPENSABLE.
The wide extent and variety of surface of tlie territory of the United
States not only permits but demands a very considerable variety in their
agricultural products. It is true that, with few exceptions, the same vegeta-
bles may be grown for our own tables in almost every state ; but it is also
true that, for profitable culture on an extensive scale, different sections of the
country, so various in soil and climate, require us to rely on those products
which are best suited to the conditions presented. It is not caprice, nor
fancy, nor fogyism, that in this sense, and to this extent, limits the farmers of
one section to the production of cotton or of rice, and of another to sugar,
and a third to cereals, etc. On one or another of these crops every farmer
must rely as his chief dependence, however he may be disposed to indulge
in variety, or to enter upon "improved systems." Regard should be had, to
some extent, to the practice, now so popular on paper, of rotation in crops ;
but even in this, there is such a thing as adhering to the letter in utter dis-
regard of the spirit, and to tjie injury of the farmer, if not of the farm.
Nor is this limitation in the number of profitable crops, in our view, en-
tirely unfortunate and an evil. We have often advocated the doctrine, that
every community should be, as far as possible, independent of all others.
This doctrine is based on two elementary ideas, to wit : first, that it is haz-
ardous, in time of war, to be dependent on an enemy ; and the second, and
the greater, this independence obviates the necessity of expensive carriers.
But neither of these reasons applies with much force to parts of the same
country. They have, and ought to have, a sense of mutual dependence.
Such is, in fact, the case, to a very great extent. Statistical tables of the
various products of this country furnish full illustrations and abundant evi-
dence on this subject. Thus: of 108 millions of bushels of potatoes raised
in the states, by the census of 1840, Maine and New- York raised 40 miUions;
of 14 millions tons of hay, worth about 197,000,000, New-York, Ohio, and
Pennsylvania raised more than five miUions ; of 84 millions bushels of wheat,
New- York. Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Virginia raised more than 52 millions;
of 123 millions bushels of oats, those four great states raised over 68 mill-
ions ; of about 4|- millions of dollars invested in fisheries, Massachusetts owns
3^. By the last census, more than two-thirds the entire crop of wool,
VOL. vu. 38
642 AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
valued at near 10 millions, were produced in New-York and Ohio ; of butter,
the entire product being 50 millions of dollars, or 313 millions of lbs., New-
York produced about 80 millions of lbs. ; of cotton and woolen manufactures,
which together amount to the sum of 105 millions of dollars, Massachusetts
alone produces more than 38 J millions, and New-England more than 08
millions ; of tobacco, the crop being about 200 millions lbs., Kentucky and
Virginia produce 111 millions; of 215 millions lbs. of rice, South Carolina
produces about 100 millions; of the cotton crop, valued at 98^ millions of
dollars, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi raised more than two-thirds, the
entire crop being confined to six of the Southern and South-western states.
Eight diflerent states produce the greatest amount of one or more crops,
or products, viz : Massachusetts, New- York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Georgia,
Alabama, Tennessee, and Ohio, while four others must bo added to the list,
if we include the second highest, viz : New-Hampshire, Rhode Island, Ken-
tucky, and Texas ; and of each of these pi'oducts, the total value is over
$10,000,000. This precedence in the amount of production among the states, it
will be perceived, belongs to the most widely separated portions of our country.
Says Mr. Tucker, in his valuable work, Progress of the United States :
" Two-thirds of the mining labor is in the Middle and Southern States. The
Southern States stand foremost in agricultural labor, though they hold but
the third rank in population. The Middle States employ the least labor in
agriculture, in proportion to their numbers. In commerce, however, they
employ the most, and next to them the New-England States. The same two
divisions take the lead in manufactures, they contributing nearly two-thirds
the labor employed in this branch of industry. Three-fourths the seamen
are furnished by New-England."
By the census of 1840, according to Mr. Tucker, the following was the geo-
graphical position of the several industrial interests :
Ocean
Inter.
Learned
Mining.
Agrlcul.
Commerce.
Manuf.
Navig.
Navig.
Profess.
N. E. States,
5.3
11.1
15.1
23.0
75.3
5.8
10.9
Middle States,
40.7
21.7
42.0
42.2
17.3
53.2
37.0
Southern "
21.1
24.8
11.
11.1
3.5
5.0
12.1
S. West. "
1.0
18.5
12.3
4.8
3.
12.5
9.8
N.V^est. "
25.3
23.9
19.
18,3
.9
22.9
23.0
100. 100. 100. 100. 100. • 100. 100.
The entire value of the annual agricultural and manufactured products, in
he same geographical divisions, was as follows : "^
Agriculture. Manufactures.
New-England States, $74,749,889 $82,784,185
Middle " 213,028,100 100,101,132
Southern " (ex. Florida,) 139,083,014 15,040,324
S. Western" 110,789,390 11,028,717
N. Western" (ex. Wis. & Iowa.) 112,904,907 30,821,800
The entire value of annual produHs, in these divisions, by the census of
0 , was as follows :
New-England States, - - - $187,057,294
Middle " - > - -. 390,558,303
Southern « ... 175,321,830
S. Western «... 138,007,378
N. Western " - - - 170,987,925
AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
64c
By the census of 1850, the value of the agricultural products of the Uni-
ted States was as follows : ,
Indian Corn was estimated at - - - $296,036,552
Wheat, 100,485,944
Cotton, - - 98,603,720
Hay, 96,870,494
Butter, 50,135,248
Potatoes, 45,453,232
Oats, 43,975,253
Wool, 15,755,087
Tobacco, 13,982,686
Sugar, (cane,) 12,378,850
Other vegetable products, with milk not included
in butter and cheese, - - - . 106,774,794
Making a grand total of - - $879,847,140
[Note. — lathis table we do not include live stock, slaughtered an'raals
orchard products, manures, etc., which are of immense amount, though very-
difficult to estimate. The total is estimated at over 1,326 millions of dol-
lars.]
But a more extended view, while it confirms the statement we would
illustrate, may also be of interest in various ways. Hence, we have pre-
pared, at considerable labor, from the volume of the Census Returns recently
published by Mr. De Bow, the following table, which specifies the relative
position of each state, in respect to all the productions which are reported as
exceeding 110,000,000. Those numbered 1, are the highest, and so on :
TABL'E SHOWING THE RELATIVE PRODUCTION OP VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS.
State and ratio to total
population.
o
O
!S
cS
■3
c
53
O
O
S
O
2
■s .
re t*^
S 3
■ a
S '^
IS
w
■? 3
a> 2
en o
o
o
o
o
O
6-1
cS
3
m
o
a
a
O
'A
Connecticut,
1.60
27
25
9
21
16
22
9
8
5
3
2
Maine,
2.51
28
20
5
19
10
15
7
12
7
10
3
Massachusetts,
4.29
23
27
6
23
12
21
6
1
1
1
New-Hampshire,
1.37
29
23
8
24
15
16
5
14
2
6
9
Rhode Island,
.64
30
30
20
27
28
19
3
5
8
Vermont,
1.35
24
18
4
17
16
18
4
3
7
New-York,
13.36
13
3
1
1
1
10
1
22
2
6
2
4
New-Jersey,
2.11
18
14
10
13
9
24
8
13
11
Pennsylvania,
9.97
12
1
2
2
2
14
2
20
4
11
4
4
Delaware,
.39
2-2
19
23
26
27
24
19
14
Maryland,
2..51
15
8
15
18
21
25
18
15
3
9
Virginia,
6,1.3
7
4
11
13
4
7
.3
15
7
5
1
10
9
6
North Carolina,
3.7.5
10
12
9
16
10
20
4
20
' 3
16
6
12
5
South Carolina,
2,88
14
17
4
26
16
23
12
27
5
13
Georgia,
3.91
8
16
2
24
11
19
6
25
1
15
13
4
8
Florida,
.38
25
28
10
30
30
30
30
12
10
3
Texas,
.92
20
26
8
28
28
24
19
29
9
2
11
Alabama,
3.23
9
21
1
22
14
18
5
23
2
Mississippi,
2.61
11
24
3
27
22
17
22
4
Louisiana,
2.33
16
29
6
25
29
29
23
2S
8
1
Arkansas,
.90
17
22
7
29
26
26
14
26
11
Tennessee,
4 32
5
13
5
21
7
11
1
16
6
11
4
15
Missouri,
2 94
6
IQ
17
9
13
8
17
14
10
5
Kentucky,
4.24
2
11
12
18
6
8
2
13
10
7
2
Ohio,
8.54
1
2
3
3
3
7
3
17
1
7
8
10
Indiana,
4.26
4
6
13
12
8
4
9
12
16
6
9
Illinois,
3.67
3
5
7
5
5
11
10
18
6
12
Michigan,
1.71
21
7
11
15
15
17
11
23
9
7
Wisconsin,
1.32
26
9
14
12
12
14
12
Iowa,
.83
19.
15
19
20
20
20
21
21
644
AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
Such a table, however, does not show the exact relation of the different
states in respect to the vakie of their producfjons. The first half dozen may
produce more than all the rest, or there may be a large amount produced in
nearly the whole number. Hence, we have prepared another table, in which
the quantity of each of the products above described is appropriated to the
several geographical sections of the United States, generally known as New-
England, Middle States, Southern, South- Western, and North- Western States.
As these divisions are not perhaps familiar to all, we name them in order :
1. Maine, New-Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Ver-
mont ; 2. New- York, New-Jersey, Delaware, Maryland ; 3. Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, * Texas ; 4. Alabama, Missis-
sippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Tennessee; and, 5. Missouri, Kentucky, Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa. For convenience as a general
reference, though not important in the use we make of it, we have placed
over each division the population, the square miles of territory, and the pro
portional population, the whole being 100. A few territories of little value
in this connection, are not included in either of the tables here presented.
^
^
&i
'k.
8
g
M Or-I
oa OO O
"~^ 6.
o ^ o
P< . .
o c? i-
O CO O t- t^ CO rt CQ »n 00 1^
55 •q>^ -_ . . _ —
(0*0 — -^ — -^ » — -- , . «,
OOClCTt-'OirtCDXKMr^O
cc •* t— o ■^T-J.'^'-l*^'^
,Or- ^CJi-IO5Q0ira-.3
00-^ o Oir-( c»ao
(MrH CO
00 to rH
<o CO ,
" rt 2
to 1< S
CO r- T-H
00 t- .
O O Q^
co' _: o
c . .
2 5* J;
00.
«5_r-l a.
>-l = 1^
oo'-=t;:5
(N -* •
I- CD P«
Ck . o
3t^COOaJCO.Oi,-HOaJr-(
■1 -^ MO 00 OS t>,co '^ "^^^
S lO C3c^ rH CO CD T-H (- O Ol
iCi r-T G>T CJ 1-1 o' (>i o~
Ocr)OOCO(MiQC3C-li-H'^C^
t"- -^t* lo o ro t^ ;=: c-i to O T
cM<r^ <N «o
_ _ _ . ^ !D CI CI O CO b-
CO o
C3_CQ
CO -n" _
r-iOO CifMOoi'^Oi-H
?G<I rHO^
lO Ci iC :d O -1 cc - "■
3-3 jr-a
^ — # —
s >,^
C<J o -^ "5 c ^
CO CO O T-( c^ o
CO o 00 I.M cju ;
.(M.-(
CO o co^ ^..'-^
co'~oo^ irTcf
OCl OA^CO
i-H Ol r-l = <
5« CO
. -I r-< :r
^rH OO^OO
CO o CO in _ .
CO Ol 35 CO O CI
s CO m '-o i-H
C; 00 O 00 X 1
JT-Hr-( f CO
•voo e» ci o ■*
(M t- — < — i 'I" O
00^-^oomr^i— ^
aTo't-Ti-'oo si
Oi -^ t^ CO c^ o>
»ft,o O O O Ol
s s
iS3
1^ ,3 c:
^3§
an
o
oo-o
'^ a
-»1
® o -J s a 'J)
C w O p- rt
EC- > fc-Otli
* Texas is classed among the South- "Western States in the census. We inadver-
tently placed it among the Southern.
AMERICAN INDUSTEY. • 645
The examination thus made shows us, also, that there is no one crop or
product which, in amount, so greatly exceeds others as to be of right regarded
as the especial source of national wealth. If there are such products, to any
extent worthy of such distinction, it belongs to the class of grains, which are
not only so necessary to every community, but which are also very imposing
in their amount — the value of this crop being more than 600 millions of dol-
lars annually. And among all these varieties, Indian corn is nearly one-half
the gross amount in value ; and, at the same time, as if to prevent all sec-
tional jealousy, there is no crop which is so extensively cultivated among the
different states as this. Sixteen states raise, each of them, over ten millions
of bushels annually ; and there are but three states in all that do not raise
more than a million bushels.
We do not regard our cotton crop as an exception to the statements we
have made. It is of immense value, in its direct and indirect results, as we
shall see clearly in the sequel. But in the value of the crop itself, taking the
census as authority, it is exceeded both by Indian corn and wheat, and is
nearly equalled by the hay crop. True, it moves a multitude of spindles ;
and the clatter of its looms, if heard in one grand, industrial chorus, would
shut out from our hearing the very thunder, and the roar of our Niagara
would be silenced in its presence. It builds ships, employs many sailors,
clothes millions of people, rears cities, and is potent in directing the move-
ments of commerce in this and other countries. Whoever speaks lightly of
the importance of this crop, in its financial relations, is a madman or a fool.
But we shall still insist, and the sequel will illustrate the position, that a wise
Providence has built up this vast republic, so distant in its geographical ex-
tremes, and so various in its possible developments, yet so related and so
combined and interwoven in its wants, its products, and its interests, and so
mutually dependent and mutually sustaining, that it would seem to require
more than the wild frenzy of a madman, or the reckless abandonment of a
fanatic, to break it in pieces. We should deem no force competent to over-
come all these natural bands, cemented as they are by treasure and by blood —
blood shed in the common defence, and the blood of families intermingled,
and now beating in living hearts ; and, we verily believe, that no arm but
that of an avenging God will ever bring this fair heritage to desolation.
That bale of cotton, picked by single hands, ginned and conveyed by rail-
road and steamer, dropping coins of gold all along its way, is spun and wo-
ven into fabrics that are found in every village shop in Christendom. No less
really do those threads run through the very woof and web of our social
organism. Perhaps the wool of some Western or some New-England flock
is taken for the filling of which this cotton forms the warp. If it be so, these
two products of distant states are not more intimately connected, in all future
time, than the distant states, so dissimilar in almost every physical feature,
from which these materials are brought.
It is not, however, the value of a crop or product which determines its finan-
cial importance in a national view, nor yet in the leger of the producer. It
may have cost all it will bring, though its market price is estimated by tens
of millions. The amount of its "transactions" in the price current maybe
comparatively small, and yet it may be highly remunerative. Some fertile
lands are so cultivated as to be even a source of expense. Some soils of
moderate value in the market are made to pay very handsome dividends.
There are sections of country where wheat " will not pay." Sheep and
wool are of doubtful value as an income in large sections of country. In
such cases, these crops, though they may swell the column of " aggregates,"
646 AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
are of no great pecuniary beneBt to anybody. We have recently seen the
statement, by one evidently familiar with the subject, though he may be in
error in his calculations, that the entire cotton crop costs the planter eight
cents a pound. If so, the planter is enriching factors and manufacturers
at his own private expense, and he is bound, in justice to himself, to keep his
accounts with great care.
But other considerations of great importance belong- to this view of our
subject. Some crops pass directly from the producer to the consumer, though
perhaps burdened with sundry commissions and charges. They are conveyed,
and only conveyed, and then consumed.
We have been trying to persuade those who supply our markets, that the
neglect of attending to these matters is the cause, and, we think, in many
cases, the sole cause of their poverty. One can not alibrd to produce scarcely
any thing at half the " market price," If he does, he must ever be a pro-
ducer, and never rest from his labor, nor ever be able to save any portion
of the avails of his labor for the supply of his future wants.
Some products pass into second hands, where, by the exercise of skill and
labor, their value is greatly enhanced. Perhaps the second profits are greater
than the first. A moderate illustration of this occurs in wheat. The flour-
mills of this country employ some 38,000 men, either as millers or as mill-
wrights. A much greater secondary profit arises from the manufacture of
wool. The annual wool crop of this country, as we have seen, amounts to
about $16,000,000. Wool is also imported to the amount of about
$2,000,000. But the woolen manufactures of this country amount to more
than $43,000,000. Nearly forty thousand hands are employed, permanently,
while the capital invested in this manufacture exceeds $28,000,000.
But a far more notable illustration is seen in the cotton crop. The value
of this crop is less than a hundred millions, and of this about ninety millions
value is exported, while very little raw material is brought into the country.
Yet the value of our cotton manufactures is about $62,000,000. This gives
employment to nearly a hundred thousand men and women, while over
$75,000,000 capital is invested in it. The manufacture of wool, again, con-
sumes some 46,000 tons of coal, and that of cotton some 120,000, the pro-
duction ^f which furnishes support to other thousands. So, too, the iron trade
— the value of which is about $60,000,000 annually — consumes one-and-a-
quarter millions of tons of coal, and more than seventy millions bushels of
charcoal — another valuable source of remunerative industry.
A large part of the cotton crop, as we have just stated, is sent abroad.
This service furnishes employment, in addition to a large force employed in
inland navigation, to 800,000 tons of shipping, and to 40,000 seamen. In
previous numbers, we have discussed, in various forms, the public and private
bearings of such labor and charges. Items of cost, adding nothii g to the
value of the raw material, are not, in general, regarded with much tavor by
producers, and yet they are, of course, sometimes absolutely necessary. They
are, however, entered on the profit and loss account, and, by their exact
amount, diminish the balance of the credit side, if they do not sometimes de-
stroy it. But cotton is not alone here. It is but lately that we have read
that the short crop of wheat has most essentially diminished the business of
our canals, and left thousands of boatmen without employment.
It may be the payment of such charges, however, that swells the value of
these crops to such enormous sums. We remember the time, and so can some
much younger than we, when coin was worth scarcely ten cents a bushel in
Ohio. It may be so now in some dark corner. But this was the result of
AMERICAN INDUSTRY. 647
enormous expenses for freight, etc., before railroads were so frequent. Now,
when the market is open, when there is rapid communication between sellers
and purchasers, taxes of this sort are paid, and still the nett price of the crop
is more than quadrupled.
If we should, therefore, conclude, as a matter of course, that all these
charges were really a loss, a burden, our logic would be in fault. It would
be just as rational to say that the cost of the harvest is a loss.
When these commissions, charges of freight, brokerage, etc., are the ne-
cessary means of producing high prices, they ought to be paid cheerfully, as
in the case of the Ohio farmer. But if they are not necessary; if arrange-
ments can be made for commanding present prices, and yet for dispensing
with some of the immense outlays demanded by the present usagjs of trade,
then these charges are not only a tax, but a useless tax, to their full amount.
Hence, it is proper, in all such cases, to enquire who pays these charges, the
producer or the purchaser. Let us use a familiar .illustration. A merchant
sells goods to A. for $50, agreeing to deliver them. He sends them by
packet or by steam. The owner of the packet is a gainer by this transaction,
but the charge comes out of the $50, and it appears on the profit and loss
account. But suppose he sells for $45 in the warehouse ? No such entry is
then made in the profit and loss account, and yet the balance is just what it
was before. The goods, in fact, are still charged with the freight, and he
neither gains nor loses by the change. But suppose he finds a new custo-
mer, B., and sells, when delivered, for IVS, the freight being $10. He makes
a profit of $20 by this change. The ten dollars are not a loss, but a source
of profit. And, yet, if you talk about that merchandise as estimated at
$75, or $75,000,000, it is obvious that ere the real value of it is ascertained,
all these charges must be deducted. If our corn crop was not wanted at
home, but must needs be exported for a market ; if it should cost all our
shipping to do this service, and em.ploy all our seamen, it would do much
towards making this immense crop of no real value to the producer, and to
the country it would be valuable just in proportion to the number of men it
would support, and the capital it would profitably employ.
Were a home market erected for our cotton ; were those forests of British
spindles to be transported to Georgia and South Carolina, we might retain in
our own neighborhood all the benefits of this trade, which now do so much
to build up and perpetuate the enormous power of our island rival. T h
profits of the foreign capitalist, the foreign manufacturer, the foreign artisan'
the foreign spinner, and weaver, and colorer, would all be secured by our own
citizens, and, perhaps, within sight of the growing crop. True, the manufac-
tured goods must then be exported, and thus the shipping interest would
still be needed as now ; but the grower of food and clothing would find his
market wonderfully increased, and builders of houses, and owners of house-
lots, and brick-makers, and lumber-men, masons, paper-hangers, tailors, shoe-
makers, etc., etc. — a great multitude, would throng those shores, an untold
capital would find a profitable investment, and barren wastes would echo, with-
out interruption, the hum of prosperous and happy families ; manufactures of
all kinds would be greatly increased ; the South and South-west would be
dotted all over with cities, ever growing, and, day and night, the hum of
profitable industry would not cease ; and, by-and-by, the splendid mansions
of those made rich by this change, and who retired from the strife after
wealth, satisfied with its results, would adorn suburbs of those cities and our
rural districts and society would be enriched by the refinements and elegancies
which wealth and industry only can procure.
648 STATE PATRONAGE OF AGRICULTURE.
STATE PATRONAGE OF AGRICULTURE.
The following action of the Maine Legislature is commendable. It exerts
a double influence, modifying the character and arrangement of the courses
of lectures on chemistry and vegetable physiology, thereby securing more
attention to these departments, for the benefit of all the students, while the
liberal endowment, conditionally offered, provides for the instruction of an
entire class of young men, (and old ones, too, if they will,) thus far without
valuable facilities of imprcvement in these hitherto neglected sciences.
The third section, however, is entirely too general. The obligation to
analyze all soils, manures, plants, and seeds, sent by any farmer of the State,
might require the constant employment of a dozen experienced chemists.
Had it been confined to the " Board of Agriculture," who may be supposed
to be reasonable men, no special danger of that sort might be apprehended.
An Act to endow the Chemical Professorships of Bowdoin and Waierville
Colleges, on certain conditions.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in Legislature
assembled, as follows :
Section 1. The State Treasurer is hereby authorised and directed to
transfer the sum of thirty thousand dollars, in six per cent. State Stock, to
the Board of Trustees of Bowdoin College, and the like sum of thirty thou-
sand dollars, in six per cent. State Stock, to the Board of trustees of Water-
ville College, to be held in trust by them respectively, as endowments of the
Chemical Professorships in these Colleges, of which they are Trustees, when-
ever said Board of Trustees shall severally certify to the State Treasurer,
through their Secretaries, under oath, that they have enlarged the duties and
means of instruction under said professorships, so as to embrace Agricul-
tural Chemistry and Vegetable Physiology ; and that they will comply with
the requisitions hereinafter specified.
Sec. 2. It shall be the duty of said Board of Trustees, to cause instruc-
tion to be given without fee, to all persons, inhabitants of this State, not
undergraduates in a regular college course of instruction, who may resort to
said institutions as students under the Professorships of Chemistry only ; they
having the same privileges of the several libraries and on the same terms,
and being subject to the same college laws, rules, and regulations as other
students, so fav as they may be applicable to their position in said institu-
tions ; and such students may attend, without charge, all the lectures in said
colleges, under such restrictions as may be imposed by said Boards of Trus-
tees, and sanctioned by the Board of Agriculture.
Skc. 3. It shall be the duty of the Professors of Chemistry in each of
these colleges, to analyze or cause to be analyzed, as speedily as may be, all
soils, manures, plants, and seeds, sent to said colleges for this purpose, by the
farmers of this State or the Board of Agriculture, without charge to the ap-
plicant, and report the result to him, with such suggestions as he may deem
necessary in the premises ; and annually, on or before the first Wednesday
in January, report to the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture a full state-
ment of his doings, with such other matter as he may deem suitable.
Sec. 4. A committee of three from the Board of Agriculture, elected at
its annual meeting, shall constitute an examining committee, to visit, from
time to time, the Chemical departments of said Colleges, to witness their
FAIRS — THEIR BENEFITS, ETC. 649
instructions and doings, with special reference to the interests of Agricultural
Science ; and annually, on or before the first Wednesday in January, report
to the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture a statement, so far as they are
able, of the doing, conditions, and prospects of these departments.
FOR THE FLODQH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.
FAIRS — THEIR BENEFITS, ETC.
Messrs. Editors : — In the January number of your journal, an article of
mine was published on " Fair Benefits," to which a lengthy editorial is ap-
pended, giving a wide expansion to the subject. And first, the editor goes on
to say that fairs are not designed for the especial benefit of those who receive
premiums, but for the masses, or the people at large. Of course this policy
is correct; and it was my object to sustain the same doctrine and principles
in my article. The premiums, of course, are one of the leading causes, and
a part and parcel of the whole system by which fairs are sustained. And,
although the competition for premiums is open to all, but a small number of
exhibitors can obtain what are called "first prizes," yet a larger number will
obtain many of the grade premiums. The writer then goes on to suppose a
case where all articles were to be shut up from the sight of the visitors, ex-
cept those which had received a premium. How many tickets could then
be sold, etc. ? Probably seven-eighths of all the exhibitors at our fairs, offer
their articles for premiums, while one-eighth may offer them simply for ex-
hibition and sale. In many instances, the premiums are of no particular
consequence except to bring the articles before the pubhc. In many cases,
exhibitors of machines, etc., have no eye on the premiums at all, but wish to
bring them before the public for examination, and a future market. We do
not see the force of the editor's argument, when he says, in substance, that if
all the articles on which premiums have been awarded were removed or de-
stroyed, our fairs would suffer but little, as the loss would be hardly noticed
by the public, since about as good a show would be left without the prerni-
um articles, as with, etc. Then he asks again, " For whose benefit are fairs
instituted ? Are they for those who exhibit especially, etc. ?" But, as we
have said before, the premiums are a part and parcel of the whole system,
and so combined, that you can not well have one without the other attached.
It may be true, a good or tolerable exhibition of articles may be had outside
of the premium articles. But what brings such articles to the exhibition ?
It may be safe to say that seven-eighths of such articles were entered for
premium, in the first place, but failed to obtain such notice at the hands of
the comraitteee, although, in many cases, they were equal to any on the
ground. So, then, to say that as good an exhibition can be had without the
premium articles as with, is, we claim, saying that which is not strictly true.
Because, if you break up the system and order of the exhibition, then, unless
fairs can be sustained on some principle entirely free from selfishness, where
every body will do all things and furnish all things for the exhibition, free
gratis, can we expect to see free fairs sustained by the people ? Our experi-
ence has shown us that farmers should not be so anxious to show their corn
or animals for the sake of saying that no better were to be seen in the country
than theirs. But that such animals and such corn were the best they had,
and they brought them to the exhibition for the sake of making a good show,
650 FAIRS — THEIR BENEFITS, ETC.
and drawing a premium, if they could, by fair means ; and this^dea is a just
one. We never went on the principle that if no crops or animals were better
than those tbat had already obtained the first premium, no premiums
should thereafter be oftered, unless some things superior to those could be
produced ; for we have not as yet reached that point of excellence in produc-
tions or management. The idea is, forjudges to give premiums for the best
articles shown on the ground, although there may be articles of double the
value in the county or state of the same kind. Yet they are not on the
ground, and so the judges must do the best they can with the articles before
them. But the writer says, in substance, that the ultimate aim of all shows
is to affect the masses of the people through the senses. So say we ; but
how to come at that point in the most practical way is the question. Though
the writer seems to think that if reading an account of the show at home was
all that was necessary, then a few " itinerant committees," appointed and
paid for by the State, would be the best thing to meet this demand. For
our own part, we have but little faith in these "State Agents" to accomplish
much good in that way. In most cases, they would have a stronger look for
the " dollars " than for agricultural improvement. But the writer then goes
on to ask, whether it is best to tax the people with such an assessment as
will hinder them from seeing the show, and thinks such a plan is unwise —
whether the tickets should be a sixpence, a shilling, or a quarter — he does
not stop to ask, etc. Now, our idea is, as we said in our former article, that
the people should bear their share of this tax, because, in principle, it is a one
per cent, tax to a ninety-nine per cent, profit ; and who is better able to p.ay
this tax and receive this profit than the people are themselves.
It is very well known that the masses of people at large do not value a
small tax of the above description when they become interested in the exhibi-
tion ; and in reality thay feel disposed to learn something from it. Of
course, it is understood that the farmers, who feel more interested in the
support of these exhibitions than do the people in general, will do more to-
wards their support. And, in fact, the greater part, or the whole of the
management must be sustained by the farmers at large ; still the people
should be willing to do their share. The writer goes on to ask at whose
expense the temperance reform is sustained, and claims that those who
totally abstain are the ones to be depended on to sustain this reform, although
they may not need it themselves. Then, again, he asks who sustains all the
" isms" of the day — why it is those who feel interested in their support,
&c. And, of course, as he s^ys the agricultural reform belongs to this class,
the farmers must be depended on to support it. Now, we beg leave to say
that neither the agricultural reform nor the temperance reform are "isms,"
any more than they are "humbugs," as we understand it in the sense that
word is made use of. But, on the other hand, both of these reforms are
living, acting principles in themselves, in which the whole people should be
actively interested. And why so? Because every man, woman, and child
in the country is benefited, by such reforms and improvements. Then, on
this principle, we say it is not those who feel the importance of the reform
who should be depended on to sustain it ; because it is the whole people at
large who get the benefit of these reforms. If this be the case, on what
principle is it that a few individuals should have the burden and sustjiin these
reforms, while the masses receive the benefits of them ? But the writer goes
on to say that he has been quite celebrated in his day for his advocacy of
Protection to American Industry, (fee. jWe are glad to learn that, for there
is need enough of it in these days. We have known men who were great
EOBUST HEALTH. 651
advocates of this same doctrine, who, when they wanted a new coat, would
pass by the American cloth, and nothing short of the best French would
answer their purpose. We presume, however, that this writer does not be-
long to this class of " Protectionists," but goes in for practice as well as
preaching. His plan of an Industrial Protection is a new one, and it may
be all well enough ; and we should be glad to have such a system of industry
brought about, if it could be done ; but it is much easier to lay out a plan,
on paper than it is to carry it out and make it work in practice. The doc-
trine may be all well enough, but the next thing is to carry it out and make
it work in practice. When this writer can succeed in drawing out any of
the State or Government funds, to be used after his plan, we should be glad
to be informed of it. We have learned, after a few years of trial, that go-
vernment aid was the most " lame stick" to lean upon that you could pos-
sibly name; and so we have come to place no dependence whatever on
their talk. But we have much more confidence in individual efi'ort, carried
out and acted upon in concert with the people at large, for improvements of
this character. And when you can succeed in getting the people waked up
to the importance of protecting industry as a principle, these plans can be
brought about by the people at large. If you can get government aid in
any wise it will be all well enough, but we, for one, can not place any con-
fidence in their help. Yours, truly,
L. DURAND.
Berhy, Ct., March, 1855.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THS LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.
ARE ROBUST HEALTH AND GOOD BUSINESS HABITS INCOMPATI-
BLE WITH THE GREATEST REFINEMENT?
This may seem to be a singular question to propound ; but if we are to
judge from what we see and hear, there are difierent opinions on the subject,
and I would be glad to see some more able pen than mine brought to its
discussion.
I feel deeply on this subject, and well I may, for some of my best friends
fill early graves because, as it seems to me, the customs of society demand in
females too great a delicacy; and it is to females more particularly that I
would apply the subject. By all means, treat our sisters and female friends
tenderly and kindly. But is it kindness to deprive them of all opportunity
to qualify themselves physically to endure the hards-hips of life ? Shall
we be so tender of our wives and daughters, as to deprive them of the luxury
of a ramble in the bright green fields, with glowing cheek and bounding '
pulse? I would that every wo^an in the land were as perfect in form as
Powers' Greek Slave ; but if the customs and practices of the present day
continue, we shall be compelled to look among slaves and menials for models.
I write this for the farmers of the land, and those who may become their
companions ; for if others can enjoy the society and companionship of the
feeble and deformed, we can not. Our duties and pleasures have too much
of real life in them to admit of that, to say nothing of the efiect upon our
posterity, which is a matter of vast importance, too great to be entered upon
in this communication. It may be said that to be intellectual, we must be
exempt from labor, and, therefore, delicately constituted. This does not
agree with my observation, where labor and study have been harmoniously
652 WHY ARE NOT SOUTHERN CROPS MORE PRODUCTIVE?
combined, and good habits Lave done their part to strengthen and invigorate
the constitution. IIovv great a proportion of those whose minds are cultiva-
ted at the expense of physical culture are lost to the world, because they
have not constitution to enable them to use the knowledge they possess, but
they linger awhile in feebleness and pain, a burthen to themselves, a sorrow
to their friends, and then drop into a premature grave. The remedy is, to
a great extent, in our own hands. Let a correct stfuidard of physical beauty
be established in accordance with the laws of Nature, and the same pains be
taken with the human form divine that is taken with the precious jewel it
contains, and they will help to adorn and improve each other. W.
WHY ARE NOT SOUTHERN CROPS MORE PRODUCTIVE ?
"The records show that he (the producer of cotton, tobacco, etc,) waR really
paid for his exports in foreign goods, and that duties have been paid upon
these to an an, mint over a billion of dollars; and this enormous sum the producer
must have paid when he had to surrender a part of the value of his imports to
government as he entered them. There is but one way in which he could have es-
caped, and that is by selling the part left for as much as the whole was worth before,
and, by thus raising the price, throw the whole tax upon the consumer. But, in this
case, the South must have paid a still greater share of the duties than before ; for not
only is she a much larger consumer of foreign merchandise than the North, but if the
price of the imported article is raised, so must be the price of the similar article of
domestic manufacture ; and thf; South would pay three or four times as much iu this
shape to tlie northern manufacturer, as she would to government in the form of duties.
It id true that the increased price of domestic goods would also be paid by the
northern consumer; but with this important difference, that what was paid would be
spent among themselves, and so in a manner returned to their pockets, as the facto-
ries are scattered through their country, while to the South it would be a dead lose."
— De Bow's Reuuin, Ajnil, 1855, p. 433.
Some theorists are so wedded to their own notions, and so fixed in their
" principles," that they can not see what even their interest would prompt
them to regard with favor. They see that evils exist, which are felt some-
times to be severe, but they will not admit that this state of things is the
result of those conditions in which they almost alone differ from others,
among whom these evils are not, found. Nor will they heed the coun-
sel of those who would urge them to modify those conditions, and make a
practical test of the correctness of those theories. Now and then, however,
the truth incidentally creeps out, and it would seem that, after all, there was
an appreciation not only of the truth, but of the importance of such counsel.
Among many examples of this sort, we would refer to the closing sentence
of the foregoing extract: " But with this important difference, that what
■was paid would be spent among themselves, and so in a manner returned to
their pockets, as their factories are scattered through their countiy." This
admission is incidentally made in this passage; and though the learned and
accomplished editor of that review might even add his powerful influence in
favor of what we regard as the only wise course to pursue, yet our Southern
friends generally do practically deny it, and limit themselves to the produc-
tion of a few staples, which are now sold only as raw material in a foreign
market, and thus they voluntarily assume the very "burdens" of which they
BO grievously complain, and cast upon others the reproach of inflicting upon
them evils, of which they, in fact, have essentially the control.
WHY AEE NOT SOUTHERN CROPS MORE PRODUCTIVE? 653
This admission contains a great truth, a controlling truth, on which depends,
in our judgment, to a very great extent, the whole question of profit and loss.
Hence, if we are correct, it is a truth that no individual and no commnnity
can neglect with impunity.
The question of loss and gain, in any business, depends on a proper regard
for certain matters which are treated by the many as of little importance.
We well remember the advice of an experienced friend when we were about
engaging in a certain enterprise. " Now, remember,"^ said he, "your profits
will not be made from what you earn, but from what you save." These
words should be written in letters of gold in every counting-house and in
every shop. Generally, if you caution a young man about his liberal indul-
gence and large expenses, he will tell you — "Oh, I earn enough ; I have a
good income." It is of little consequence what a man or a community earns,
unless he or they will contrive to keep a portion of it. That is the difficult
point in all financial operations. Many a young man gets rich on his hun-
dreds, while many hundreds become bankrupt on their thousands. And, very
often, the issue depends not so much on setting aside a portion of the re-
ceipts, with the intention of saving it, as of avoiding certain expenses, or pre-
venting small wastes and losses.
Now, whether supposed facts and reasonings can be brought forward to
the contrary, we add our testimony in confirmation of the doctrine incidentally
presented in this quotation. The Northern States flourish with their indefi-
nite variety of trades and occupations, simply by the practice of the truth
here hinted at. Illustrations of it are not witnessed in " factories " alone.
Hundreds of miles of raih'oads have been built, without the least expectation
of profit in the shape of dividends, but exclusively for secondary and inci-
dental benefits. Their money, as already invested, earns them at least lawful
interest ; but these wise and prudent me'n, men of forethought and foresight
too, prefer to bury it in the railroad, Avith the expectation of little or no di-
rect returns. What is their motive ? Perhaps unproductive farms are thereby
converted into house-lots. Perhaps a wide territory is thereby opened for
tVade. And factories are built. Why ? Because such stocks always pay well ?
Far from it. They will sometimes pay largely. Sometimes they sink im-
mense sums. But they make a new market at any rate. The factory village
furnishes a market for almost anything a farmer can raise, a mechanic con-
struct, or a merchant import. What else is needful, then, for either of these
producers, but sufficient numbers of just such customers.
We do not intend to be understood that these secondary considerations
generally or often control the action of city capitalists, when they subscribe
for factory stocks. But such considerations have very often induced the less
wealthy farmer and mechanic to invest their smaller savings in such es- .
tablishments, and. they have grown rich by such indirect means.
We have before alluded to the pine barrens, we so well remember, on and
near which the thriving city of Manchester now stands ; and to the 110,000
now received, annually, for milk by the farmers of the adjoining little town
of Goflfstown, the land of which, in our boyhood, was as worthless as any
other land in that whole region. Those farmers, could they have found the
means, might almost have built those mills for nothing, without loss.
And why do not our Soutliern friends see all this in reference to their own
territory ? Is there any reason why the same results would not follow among
them as at the North ? But the writer of the foregoing extract would make
very prominent the fact, which i?, no doubt, true, in some sense, that the
Southern States are burdened with severe " duties." " A billion of dollars "
654: WHY ABE NOT SOUTHERN CROPS MORE PRODUCTIVE?
has been paid. Well, all this is optional with thena. Individuals may not
be able to rid themselves of this '' burden,'' if it be one, but combinations of
men may. Is it asked, How ? The " one way," the writer describes, in our
judgment, is wholly impracticable. The way we have often pointed out is a mat-
ter of PRACTICAL DEMONSTRATION. The writer of this paragraph substantially
admits it in his closing sentence. If this is not so, the " difference," he de-
scribes, would not be " important " in the view which he has taken.
These " duties," and, of course, all the incidental charges, for they are
alike " a burden," which are attendant upon exportation, whether of one
sort or another, are represented in this passage as " burdens " upon the pro-
ducer. True, he says, " in our belief, the duties are paid partly by the pro-
ducer, and partly by the consumer." But he still reasons as if all were paid
by the producer. "Southern burdens and Northern profits." Writers on
the great subject of "Political Economy" are, perhaps, tempted sometimes
to mystify the facts, and misapply acknowledged principles, and, therefore,
fail to convince each other. But we would trust any one of the thousand
"given cases," belonging to this chapter of Political Economy, to the decision
of a jury of ordinary intelligence, if the facts could be clearly presented, and
its party bearing kept out of view. Perhaps exceptions may occur to the
general rule, in this department of science, as in every other. But take a
case by way of example.
The people of Ohio, at one time, were obliged to sell their corn at ten cents
a bushel. But, by-and-by, communications were opened. Railroads were
constructed. Those fertile lands were brought into close proximity with a
ready market, and now that corn commands a dollar. But the railroad re-
quires a " duty " of twenty cents, or two hundred per cent, on the original
value of the crop. How enormous 1 How excessively tyrannical ! Such
oppression who can endure ! And yet this very oppressive system' has con-
verted their ten cents into eighty cents net; or, in other words, has increased
the net value of the entire crop eight-fold. This tax is no " burden " upon
any body. No one sutlers to the amount of a f^irthing for it. The producer
is profited ; the consumer pays the duty and the eight hundred per cent,,
and still is profited. The carrier is well paid for his service, and none even
finds fault. " Oh, yes ! We req uire the lailroad to carry our corn ' free.' "
The fully of the pretended claim is too apparent almost to allow it room on
the page. And yet this is clearly a tax, an assessment, a " duty ;" and when
used in connection with our canals, etc., these payments are sometimes ofli-
cially described as " duties." Duties, then, are not always " burdens," nor
"imposed," in any unfavorable or undesirable sense, by any one. Tiiey may be
of great benefit, and, in some aspects of the question, may be very important,
in this connection, to the cotton growers of the South. Whether they are
oppressive or not is the question to be settled. But, after all, we think there
is a way, and " a more excellent way," of getting rid of this "burden," if it
be such, than by changing the revenue laws in the manner our Southern
friends, many of them, would propose.
We have already shown that, if a given investment can be made to pay
good dividends, that investment should be pronounced successful, whether
it be by direct or indirect processes; and we have referred to the manjier in
which "the North" sustains herself under thg same revenue laws, and the
closing sentence of our quotation brings it out beyond the possibility of mis-
apprehension. And how do "the North" sustain themselves, and become
rich, under that same revenue system ? It is by encouraging a diversity of
employments. So says this able writer. So say we. It is true, and just
WHY ARE NOT SOUTHERN" CROPS MORE PRODUCTIVE? 655
about the whole truth. It is tlieir " factory " system — their facilities for
trades of all kinds. " There is no friendship in trade," says the proverb ;
but it is fake. No bigger lie was ever uttered by fraudulent huckster. It
is true that there is no friendship in many traders. But when this is asserted
as a fundamental principle of trade, it is false from A to Zed. Wholesome,
prosperous trade demands, imperatively demands, a regard for the precept,
"live and let live." This is the basis of all honorable traffic. Man is
not an isolated being. His interests are interwoven with the interests of his
associates, his " neighbors." He must recognize his fellows. He must have
a prosperous community to deal with, if he would prosper, permanently,
himself. What can a merchant do with bankrupt customers ? What can far-
mers and mechanics do, if bound to deal with the moneyless and the starving ?
Under the name of trade, one may, for a while, plunder and rob, as too many
have done with our Indians, and in the East India trade. But this is not
worthy the name of trade. No. " Live and let live " is not a gospel pre-
cept alone. It is cut into the very walls of our social structure. It must be
so, because the structure is social. This great truth is taught and proclaimed
aloud in every thriving city and village. The commentary on its negation
has been heard, not from any choice or intent, but yet not without emphasis, in
our own mjdst, in the months past, and its voices are not all silent yet. This
truth is proclaimed in every crowded mart, and its still, small voice is heard
in the hospitalities and friendly greeting so characteristic of rural districts
both north and south.
Call in, then, the various crafts. . Give them room even among your cotton
fields. " But who will employ them V Why, you will employ them, and
they -will employ each other, through the whole chapter. Does not the
blacksmith need shoes, and the shoemaker clothes ?
But one department of this effort is pre-eminently important. Just trans-
port those forests of spindles now bristling through that island yonder ; or,
more properly, let machinists be assembled, from all quarters, on your own
borders, and let them there erect their shops, and forge out those magic forms,
more potent than any divining rods, and let other mechanics erect your fac-
tories, and then fill them with machinery. Let your ingenious artisans invent
improvements, and let other thousands take your own bales, and transform
them into various fabrics. Let this be done till you find a use for a large
part of ybjj^'fi^p, and then what do you think would be the price of raw
cotton la' t'iverpool ? .■ .
The price would then be regulated on this side the water. The large
accumjjj^tions of any product at a market, determine the price of that pro-
duct the world over. England how has all this crop to herself, and controls
its price, for the simple.reason that no body else can buy it. Create a capacity
to buy, or oonsume, in this country, and just so far you regulate and control
its market value.
The manufactured article must still be exported. Few ships and few sea-
men would lose their employment. But^ffijeanwhile, you have immensely
increased your profits, in various ways, so that you can really afford to sell
the manufactured goods at less price even than they now are sold for. Why ?
Because real estate owners would realize double, and trebfe, and even ten-fold
their present receipts for their lands. Large demands would be created at
once for house-lots, for corporation purposes, and for all kinds of mechanics.
Another large pqrtion would be required for the use of those who would feed
the additional population, and for the support of their own fcimilies, and so
the story would go 6n, after the fashion of " The houss that Jack built."
656 WHY ARE NOT SOUTHERN CROPS MORE PRODUCTIVE?
There might even be some " dogs that loornj the cat," and other unpleasant
incidents, but these would be comparatively but trifles.
We happen to have on our table an account of just such an operation in
the State of Connecticut. In 1G84, the territory of Mattatuck was sold
"for divers good causes and 39 pounds." It was supposed capable of sus-
taining THIRTY FAMILIES. On this tract, the thriving village of Waterbury
now stands. We passed the night there some three years ago, in a hotel
which cost, when unfurnished, 840,000, and a still more costly hotel was then
nearly completed. The following is " The Grand List" of that town for 1854,:
DESCRIPTION OF PROPERTY.
Dwelling Houses, 11,150,265.00
14,922 Acres of Land, - - - . 396,3 53.00
Stores, 65,300.00
Mills and Manufactories, 33,450.00
Horses and Mules, - . - - - 28,185 00
Neat Cattle, .- - 28,772.00
Sheep, Swine, and Poultry, - ... 349.00
Coaches, Carriages, and Pleasure Wagons, - 10,959.00
Farming Utensils and Mechanics' Tools, - 25.00
Clocks, Watches, and Jewelry, - - - - 10,977.00
Piano Fortes, &c,, 6,130.00
Furniture and Libraries, 10,850.00
Bank and Insurance Stock, - - - - 169,717.00
Bridge, Turnpike, and Plank-Road Stock, - 600.00
Manufacturing Stock, ... - 2,584,787.00
State and other Stocks, - . - . - 5,600.00
Railroad and oflier Bonds, . - - . 7,690.00
Amount employed in Trade and Merchandising, 182,997.00
Amount employed in Mechanical and Manufac-
turing operations, - _ . . _ 63,375.00
Investment in Vessels and Commerce, - - 300.00
Money at Interest, 268,005.00
Money on hand, 1,330.00
All other Taxable Property, - . - - 2,2fiiy>,0
Additions by Board of Relief, - - - '^eMOO
Amount, ^5,033,109.00
Deduct indebtedness, &c., 100,938.00
$4,932,171.00
Increase over previous year, |660,377.
Amount of Assessment, at 3 per cent., - - 147,966.13
1893 Polls, at ten dollars each, - - - 18,930.00
935 Military Subjects, at fifty cents each, - 467.50
Taxable amount for 1854, $167,362.63
Certified by
Israel Holmes, 2d, Town Clerk.
One would think this profit enough for one generation, and nearly all this
is the work of those now living. There are in this town five fulling-mills,
three woolen factories, three cotton factories, two tanneries, two rolling-mills,
a machine shop, two iron foundries, ten button factories, a pin factory, hook
CLIMATE. 657
and eye factory, india-rubber goods factory, five grist-mills, sixteen saw-mills,
and last, though not least, twentt-thkee schools.
Now, if the Southern States would, in the words of our extract, have all
their outlays " in a manner returned to their pockets," and be rid of the
" burdens " of which they complain, let them do as those do whom they in-
tended by those words to describe.
It is all very well to sit in the lap of wealth, and the free enjoyment of
literary and social privileges, and of personal refinement, and to treat the
" evils " incident to progress such as we have described as nuisances that can
not and will not be endured. But such a course is not in good taste, at least,
when one is mourning over financial burdens, and deterioration of property,
and heavy expenses, and the like. These incidentals, as they might be
termed, are found in groups. Mechanical industry occasions Qne set, inacti-
vity and luxurious ease another set. They never get mixed up, except in
some great financial crisis, which overturns and disappoints every body. We
do not blame nor reproach the South even for boasting over their freedom
from numerous evils that exist at the North. We should delight in the same
quiet and refinement which characterises much of Southern life. We fully
appreciate the high breeding, the refinements, and last, not least, the hospi-
tahties of those States. But we can find all this, too, at the North. And as
long as purses are finite things, and often seem very shallow, especially when
used too familiarly, we learn to look upon all forms of labor, and even dust,
and noise, and coarse manners, (if the intention is kind,) and the thousand
elements that go to make up industrial life, in its various aspects and attend-
ants, as of little consequence compared with the immense good which results,
in various ways, from every form of industrj', and among all the people.
CLIMATE.
An erroneous idea generally prevails respecting climate, as affecting per-
sonal comfort. The dwellers in the sunny South pity the New-Englanders,
because doomed to shiver in so cold a climate. They, in turn, bless their
stars that they are not wading in the snows of Newfoundland.
I have been led, by observation and experience, to doubt whether the peo-
ple of any one country have much, if any advantage, in the matter of climate,
over others.
Our ideas of pleasure and pain are intimately connected with, if not based
upon the principle of contrast. In our idea of temperature, >ve have less
regard to the actual than to the comparative degree of warmth.
In the report of one of the exploring expeditions in the northern seas, it
is said that, on a certain occasion, the crew were greatly elated with signs of
a thaw, the mercury having risen to 40° below zero. Iljiving been subject
to a much intenser degree of cold, they felt, as did the boy, whose father
had administered to him a severe flugellation, " greatly refreshed."
It may well be doubted whether the people ^f Maine suffer more from
cold than do they of Virginia.
Touching the weather, it is much as it is with the tariff — all that the
people want is to have the line of governmental policy settled — to know what
can be depended upon. So of the weather. The down-easter, knowing that
39
658 STATISTICS OF MUSCULAR POWER.
from the middle of November to the middle of April the ground is to be
covered with snow, and uninterrupted cold weather is to prevail, he wraps
his fur coat about him, inflates his lungs, braces up his nerves, and thinks no
more of the cold than the " rugged liussian bear."
The dweller in the Old Dominion, on the other hand, regarding warm
weather as the rule, and cold as the exception, makes no provision for the
latter. But when the northern blasts come, as come they will, he wraps bis
fig-leaf coat about him, and seeks shelter within the enclosure of his airy
mansion, so constructed as to exclude heat rather than cold.
Then there is another consideration which greatly favors the dwellers in
cold latitudes. While the earth is covered with snow, there is but little
evaporation. The atmosphere is consequently dry, and storms are unfre-
quent. Where there is no snow, it is far otherwise. The whole surface
being covered with water, evaporation is rapid, and the atmosphere is sur-
charged with vapor, and the peculiar chillings which characterize a March
wind in New-England, prevail during the winter months.
Agriculturally, the snowy region has many advantages. It is better for
the soil to be covered during the winter months. That there is any virtue
in the remark, " snow is the poor man's manure," 1 don't believe' But cer-
tain it is, that grasses and grains are benefited by being thus protected.
Snow is an imperfect conductor of caloric, consequently the surface being
protected from the cold of mid-winter, the heat from within dissolves the
frost, and when the snow disappears in spring, the frost is go6e from the soil.
It is not uncommon to find the grass growing before the snow is off. Fields
are ready for plowing soon after they are bare ; so that stock will live, and
seed may be gotten into the ground nearly as soon in Vermont as in Con-
necticut. Then, for doing business, the snowy regions have greatly the ad-
vantage. Lumbering is with great difficulty carried on where there is no
snow. The lumber lands in Maryland and Virginia would be worth twice as
much as they now are with northern winters for the removal of the lumber.
But I will say no more lest 1 get up an emigration fever towards Green-
land. R. B. H.
Statistics of Muscular Power. — Man has the power of imitating
every motion but that of flight. To effect this he has, in maturity and health,
60 bones in his head, 60 in his thighs and legs, 62 in his arms and hands,
and 67 in his trunk. He has also 434 muscles. His heart makes 64 pul-
sations in a minute; and, therefore, 3,740 in an hour, 92,160 in a day.
There are, also, three complete circulations of his blood in the short space of
an hour. In respect to the comparative speed of animated beings, and of
impelled bodies, it may be remarked that size and construction seem to have
little influence, nor has comparative strength, though one body giving any
quantity of motion to another is said to lose so much of its own. The sloth
is by no means a small animal, and yet it can travel only fifty paces a day;
a worm crawls only five inches in fifty seconds, but a lady-bird can fly twenty
million times its own length in less than an hour. An elk can run a mile and
a half in seven minutes ; an antelope, a mile in a minute ; the wild mule
ofTartaryhas a speed even greater than that; an eagle can fly eighteen
leagues in an hour ; a Canary falcon can even reach 250 leagues in the short
space of sixteen hours. A violent wind travels sixty miles in an hour;
sound, 1,142 English feet in a second.
THE INTERNAL TRANSPORTATION AND TRAVEL. 659
THE INTERNAL TRANSPORTATION AND TRAVEL— ITS MAGNITUDE AS
AN INTEREST.
J'ew persons, who have not taken the trouble to examine the statistics, and
to submit the subject to the scrutiny of figures, have a correct appreciation
of the magnitude of the interest engaged in conducting the internal trade
and travel of tais wide-spread nation. We have heard much talk of the cot-
tori interest, the sugar interest, the fanning interest, the manufacturing
interest, and various other interests, but they are all small compared with this
vast and rapidly-augmenting transportation interest. It is the growth of
comparatively few years, but it has attained herculean proportions. If we
begin the comparison by ascertaining the investment of capital, we find in-
ternal transportation about, if not at the head of the list. We estimate the
capital invested in this department of industry at one thousand millions of
dollars. It is divided thus :
Railroads and their machinery, - - - 1600,000,000
Canals, 100,000,000
Steamboats, "70,000,000
Vessels in the coasting trade, - - - 130,000,000
Turnpikes, stages, wagons, and canal boats, - 100,000,000
$1,000,000,000
The value of all the improved farms in the cotton-growing States of Loui-
siana, Texas, Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, Flo-
rida, and Tennessee, in the year 1850, amounted to about $512,000,000.
The capital invested in growing cotton is therefore much less than that in-
vested in internal transportation. It will be perceived that we do not include
in the comparison the value of the slaves employed in producing the cotton.
By a similar course of calculation, it may be shown that the capital invested
in the agents of transportation exceeds that of any one interest of production
taken separately. The fact is, that it is nearly one-third the whole value of
all the farms in the United States ; the aggregate value of all the farms in
the Union being thirty-five millions of dollars.
The gross annual product of all the agencies for internal transportation we
estimate at $120,000,000, which exceeds the whole cotton crop of last year
by about twenty millions of dollars. It is more than double the annual pro-
duct of gold in California, it is nearly double the value of all our agricultural
exports tor the last year, and ten times the amount of exports of manufac-
tured articles.
One of the great advantages conferred on the country by this vast interest
is the employment it aflbrds to productive industry in the constant and in-
creasing demand created for machinery of transport. Thus, on the fifteen
thousand miles of railroad now in operation, there are in use six thousand
locomotives, and fifteen hundred steam engines are in use on boats.
The engines on boats cost - - - - $12,000,000
The locomotives cost - - - - 54,000,000
Total, - - - - - $66,000,000
It will require for renewals each year —
Locomotives, -_._._. qqq
Locomotives for increase of business, - - - 60
Total locomotives to be built per year, - - - 660
660 TASTE IN RURAL HOMES — ITS INFLUENCE.
These locomotives will cost $5,940,000. It will require 165 new engines
every year for steamboats, which will cost 81,320,000, making together
$7,200,000 as the amount of the annual demand for steamboat engines and
locomotives.
There are on the fifteen thousand miles of railroad about one million, seven
hundred and twenty-five thousand tons of iron rails, etc. "We estimate that
these rails must be renewed in fifteen years. There will be required then
115,000 tons of railroad iron each year for renewals, which, at $60 per ton,
makes $6,900,000.
We also estimate that there will, for the next twenty years, be 1200 miles
of railroad constructed each year, that will require annually 1,380,000 tons
of iron rails, costing 88,580,000, an.l 400 locomotives that will cost $3,600,000.
These sums make an aggregate of $20,040,000, that must be expended each
year merely for the renewal and repairs of iron rails and engines required to
effect the transportation of produce, and the travel of passengers on railroads
and steamboats. This is entirely exclusive of the ordinary repairs on tl'*
hulls of the steamers, and the wood and earth work of the railroads, whi eh
annually amounts to a very large sum. — Louisville Journal.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM,, AND THE ANVIL.
TASTE IN RURAL HOMES — ITS INFLUENCE.
Messrs. Editors : — Home is the spot where our warmest affections center.
What place is more endeared to u'^, or to what do oiir thoughts more often
revert, amid the bustle and hurry of life, or even amid the infirmities of age,
than the place of our childish sports. The influence which home exerts upon
character and circumstances in every period of life is great. It often gives
shape to our character, and materially increases or diminishes our happiness.
Home influences, that are exerted in childhood, frequently give direction to
all subsequent life. Among men we find very different views respecting the
beauties of nature and of art, and, consequently, we see a great diversity in
their j)ractice. One has but little appreciation of beauty, The tasteful cot-
tage, ornamented with walks, and flowers, and shrubbery, hardly secures a
passing glance. Utility is his watch-word. Gold glitters in his eyes, and
all the refinements of social life are sacrificed for its accumulation. He may
have a dwelling, convenient in size perhaps, but destitute, both externally
and internally, of almost every thing that can gratify a refined taste. There
it stands, like a pyramid in the desert, vfithout a tree to ward off the rays of
the sun, or to break the force of the storm ; without a shrub or flower to
please the eye. The thistle and the noxious weed adorn the door-yard,
if there be one, and often the dwarf elder, and the brier, take the i)lace of
the rose, the snowdrop, and the honeysuckle. And if the swinish multitude
are not actually permitted to revel around the door, the sty may be in close
proximity, and its exhilarating odors may compensate for the absence of the
rose and the sweet-brier. The neat, gravel walk, with its shrubbery and
flowers, are too expensive. They bring no gold to fill his coffers, and, there-
fore, possess no attractions.
And the interior of such a dwelling is too often a counterpart to its exte-
rior. For the sake of gain, convenience for performing domestic business
may, to some extent, be consulted, but taste and elegance are utter strangers.
TASTE m EUEAL HOMES — ITS INFLUENCE. 661
The naked walls, without paint or paper, glare out upon the visitor; the
floor, uncarpeted, exhibits but little neatness, and the furniture is in keeping ;
the centre-table, covered with books and periodicals, of a character calculated
to improve the understanding, correct the judgment, and form the taste, is
not there. A few antiquated books, of ancestral inheritance, a borrowed
novel, with the county paper, compose the literature of their rising family.
All things look to the great object of the occupants — the acquisition of
money. The little elegances and conveniences that render home delightful
are too expensive. They can not have them, though their interest, from
hundreds, and, perhaps, thousands of dollars, secured by bond or mortgage,
is annually increased by a large per-centage.
What a contrast is this to the neatly constructed cottage, tastefully adorned
by the hands of art. Seen in the distance, it looks out from the graceful
shade of the elm or the maple ; and thus situated, its symmetrical structure,
neatly painted, with its green blinds, catches the eye, and calls forth the
admiration of the passing traveler. It gives beauty to the landscape around.
It is tiot a spot " where distance lends enchantment" merely, for a nearer
survey serves only to heighten the emotions already excited in the mind.
The minuter shades of beauty unite their attractions with those more ex-
tended, and the result is, a keener relish is excited. The avenue, tastefully
adorned with flowers of varied beauty ; the lawn, interspersed with shrubs
and evergreens ; and the portico, where the honeysuckle ^d the climbing
rose are trained gracefully over tbe light trelHs — all contribute to inspire
kindly feelings.
Enter the cottage, and we find the interior in keeping with the appearance
without. Neatness and order meet the eye in every department. Happiness
appears to have fixed her residence here. The books of the well-stored
library, and the most useful periodicals of the day, occupy the leisure mo-
ments of its inmates, while often the sweet tones of musical instruments, with
the sweeter tones of a human voice, soothe the agitated feelings, and soften
the rugged asperities of life.
Such contrasts are every where apparent in our rural districts. There are
those who despise every thing like beauty or rural taste. They look upon it
as the ofispring of weak and effeminate minds, and their dwellings are in
striking coincidence with their sentiments. They may, perhaps, see beauty
in the golden harvest, because it promises to increase their wealth ; or they
may admire their flocks and herds for the same reason. But the tasteful
and the ornamental they leave for the ignorant dupe to admire — despising
the beauties that God hath scattered around us in so rich abundance.
The question is often asked with a sneer, to what profit is all this array of
flowers, and shrubs, and walks, and shade-trees ? Thei/ can eat, and drink,
and sleep quietly without them. And so can the brute ; and the swine, or
the ox, if they could gain access to such a scene, would soon render it all
deformity and desolation again. But, still, these things exert a mighty in-
fluence upon men. They give rise to actions and states of mind that go far,
not only to shape our present and futtire condition, but to influence the com-
munity. Silently they tell upon society. As the mind acts on every thing
around it, so a reflex influence is exerted upon it, which gives shape and
coloring to future Hfe. What, then, is the influence that a correct taste,
manifested in connection with the endeared spot called home, will exert ?
Objects that act upon the mind, tend to bring it into sympathy with them.
They impart, in some degree, their own character ; they leave the impress of
themselves. Where all is deformity and disorder without and within a
662 TASTE IN RURAL HOMES — ITS INFLUENCE.
dwelling, no wonder if we see character and actions corresponding ; no won-
der if we bear the profane oath, the vulgar jeer, and witness manners that are
rude and coarse. All the objects around tend to foster these, rather than to
elevate or refine the feelings. In the absence of all that is chaste and beau-
tiful, we must expect coarseness and vulgarity. There is nothing in the
objects around them to restrain the ungovernable passions of our nature, or
to soften the asperities of an uncultivated mind.
But the beauties created by a refined taste, tend to produce the opposite
of all this. True, the depravity of our natures may influence a person to
break through all restraint, and to set at defiance every influence. But this
does not disprove the legitimate eftect of the influence in question. The
beautiful will impart its character as well as the rude ; and, under its power,
what is coarse and vulgar will be held in check, and the delicate and refined
be invigorated. In the calm moments of reflection, the mind perceives that
the brutal iind angry passions are intruders amid scenes sacred to refine-
ment ; that coarseness and vulgarity are rendered more hideous and de-
formed when surrounded by the beautiful and sublime. You may often
judge the character of the inmates of a cottage by the scenery around.
Where neatness, and order, and taste reign without, you may expect refine-
ment and intelligence within. Even the child that meets you will exhibit a
disposition moulded by the influences around him, and the stranger may ex-
pect civility ancj a hospitable welcome within. " The manners of the
roughest clown will be somewhat subdued, as he enters the threshold erected
And furnished by a refined taste."
It may be said, that the time spent in adorning our homes, and thus ren-
dering them pleasant, tends to foster habits of idleness, and to the neglect of
more important business. But such assertions are generally false. A culti-
vated taste is more generally the ally of industry. Do we .find the inmates
of a tastefully-adorned cottage among the idle, or the profligate ; among
tavern-haunters and gamblers, or the inmates of a poor-house ? The reverse
is true. And if the idle and intemperate would spend the time they squan-
der, and the money they worse than waste, in pampering their appetites and
lusts, in efforts to render their homes attractive and happy, they might bless
their families with many comforts, and many sources of pleasure of which
they are now destitute, and these would bind them more closely in aflfoc-
tion, and make them and the community happier. Or lot the avari-
cious raiser spend but a part of the interest of his wealth in thus cultivating
in the minds of his offspring a correct feeling and taste, he might do society
a favor, and, perhaps, save his children from forming tastes and habits that
shall only fit them to curse his memory, and squander his hard-earned trea-
sures, when he shall be silent in the grave. The man of cultivated taste
employs his leisure moments in adorning his dwelling, and thus secures his
object without encroaching upon the time demanded for more substantial
employment ; while the fault-finder employs these moments in sleep, or idle-
ness, or gossip with kindred minds, or in slandering the neighbor whom he
envies ; and thus, while his business thrives, his cottage and garden assume
an air of neatness and comfort. His children, instead of being j^ft to patrol
the streets in search of company or mischief, listening to the vulgar ribaldry
and pfofaneness of uneducated minds, or mingling in the angry broils that
disturb the quiet, are taught to find enjoyment amid the beauties with which
they are surrounded, or to engage in the active labor of adorning their home,
and rendering it happy. The trees and flowers, cultivated with their own
hands, become as it were the companions of theii' childhood, and an attach-
THE IMPORTANCE OF FARM REGISTERS. 663
ment is thus often formed for home, that saves them from the vortex of dissi-
pation, and checks the roving, restless disposition often exhibited in youth.
A taste is thus formed, and habits of industry, that are the precursors of suc-
cess in future. It costs but little time or money to make a rural home in-
viting. I do not argue for expensive and costly adornments. Many are the
flowers and shrubs, indigenous to cur native soil, that surpass in beauty many
exotics. And these may be easily transferred to ornament our residence.
Where other circumstances are in equal ratio, it is believed that the man of
taste will be the most prosperous and happy man. And the family brought
up under such an influence, will be the most orderly, useful, and industrious
members of society. A writer has well remarked, " when I see the new
married couple with no object about them tasteful, by a kind of instinct, I
mark them out for ultimate poverty."
Let a correct taste be diftused through the community, and what a trans-
formation would the landscape present. The unsightly deformities of nature
would be concealed, or moulded into shape. The hill-top would be leveled,
or crowned with beauty ; the morass be changed into the luxuriant meadow,
and the unsightly avenue shaped to romantic beauty. And who would say
that society would not be happier ? In what neighborhood would you wish
to fix your residence ; where there is an absence of all that can delight the
eye, where all was deformity and disorder, or amid the abodes of refinement
and taste, however lowly.
What, then, is the duty of parents in relation to this subject ? Children
are generally pleased with the beautiful in nature ; and in the forming
period of life, it needs but little effort to give a right direction in this re-
spect to their feelings and pui-suits. The effort of the parent seems only
secondingnature in her struggles for development. But such I deem is not
the part of wisdom. Among other preventives against vice and dissipation,
against idleness and profligacy, against boorishness and vulgarity of manners,
let the parent early inculcate in the mind of his child a love of the beautiful
and sublime. Let him train him up to habits of order, neatness, and indus-
try, and early cultivate the feeling that he must lay the world under obliga-
tion to him, because he render the little world about him, the sphere in
which he moves, more happy, more fertile, and more beautiful.
HORTENSIO.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL,
THE IMPORTANCE OF FARM REGISTERS AND FARM ACCOUNTS.
Messrs. Editors : — Perhaps there is nothing of so much importance, that
is so much neglected by the farmer, as the practice of keeping a diary, or
farm register, and a strict account of all his receipts and expenditures. How
many farmers are there within the circle of your acquaintance, who can tell
how much money they have received during the year, and for what ; whether
the profits, if any, have been derived from their corn, hay, or wheat, from
their horses, cattle, or hogs, and upon which they have sustained a loss ;
■whether their crops have been worked in due season, and with a judicious
economy in every particular ; how much corn, or its equivalent, it will take
to produce a pound of beef or pork, and what method of feeding will give
the greatest return. I fear that, upon examination, the number found who
664: TAKE CARE OF YOUR FRUIT.
could answer these questions correctly would be few indeed. And why is it
so? One reason is, the careless and shiftless manner in which farmers gene-
rally manage every thing connected with farm work. What would )ou say
of the merchant who followed his business in such a manner, some branches
of his business being attended with a certain loss, and unknown to him,
solely because he neglected to keep a strict account upon each branch ? You
would say, that he would be obliged to sell out, sooner or later, to save the
sheriff the trouble. But the merchant, even in our small county towns,
deems it indispensable to success in business to keep an accurate account of
every transaction. Then let the farmer adopt such a course. Let him keep
an accurate account of his receipts and expenditures, profit and loss, upon
each item, and every branch of his business, or with every field. Let him
carry a small book in his pocket, and daily note down the various items of
work for each day, together with such practical suggestions as may occur to
his mind ; and, my word for it, he will find himself much the gainer in a
pecuniary point of view, while he secures, also, much gratification and plea-
sure in a review of his labor from year to year. The farmer would then
know at a glance from what c/ops, what class of animals, and what course of
management, he receives the greatest profits, and on what he sustains loss.
"Would not this be a knowledge of the greatest benefit in determining his
course for the future ? Let this practice become general, and the benefits
arising from it would soon be made manifest in the improved condition of
the farming community. They would be seen in the greater interest which
would be awakened in those who now follow in the same old, beaten paths
which their fathers trod, and who keep no accounts except such as they record
with chalk. We should then see a desire on the part of farmers to possess
a " little farm, well tilled," rather than to add acre upon acre to their
already large estate, which has been rendered unproductive by shallow plow-
ing, scanty manuring, and a hurried cultivation. We should then see agri-
culture taking that stand which its merits demand. J. W. A.
2fo. Neva-Saiem, Mass.
TAKE CARE OF YOUR FRUIT.
Now is the time — and the caution would have been better a month
earlier — to look to your trees. The enemy is upon you who is as deadly as
the Philistines. If you find him and secure him, well ; if not, you will pro-
bably have occasion to regret the failure hereafter.
Prof. Mapes gives directions to pour boiling water on the lower part of the
trunk of peach trees, a quantity sufficient to cook the worm, doing no harm
to the tree. Three gallons of boiling water, he says, may be used around
each tree.
In manuring trees, apply the manure, not around the trunk, but nearly
under the extremities of the branches. The roots extend about as for under
ground, generally, as do the branches above it, though, of course, the ratio is
not exact nor uniform, but modified by the soils, moisture, &c,*, as well as by
the nature of the tree.
We have before stated that it is our belief that peach trees do better if not
transplanted, but allowed to stand where they came up. We have Known
such trees, and only such, bear fruit well for more than twenty years.
Others attach no importance to this fact. But we should like to hear of
transplanted peach trees bearing good croj^s for that length of time. Such
ave not come under our observation. .
FARMING IN EAST TENNESSEE. 665
FOR THE PLOCGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANYIL.
FARMING IN FAST TENNESSEE-GOOD CORN-BREAD.
Dear Editors : — After a drought of over twelve months, a fine, seasona-
ble rain has this week fallen. All nature is now enlivened, invigorated, and
revived. Wheat, clover, timothy, and grazing grounds, are spreading their
lovely green mats to the eye, promising a rich harvest. Our farmers have
had every possible advantage during the winter, to early pitch a crop this
spring ; and most of us are at least one month in advance of our usual time
of readiness for planting. Many are done ploughing, and are waiting the
proper time to plant. The drought has been anomalous ; and many of our
old weather-astrologers say that the rainy season will now pay all it owes
us. But, in the face of this prophecy, our hope is, that such will be the
order of providence, that an abundance of the good things of the land will be
gathered in due time ; for the effect of the drought has been upon the soil
to mellow and pulverize it. The dry winter, which has been cold, has done
much in this important particular ; and, indeed, something very uncommon
or unnatural must take place, or a beautiful crop of all kinds must result.
But temjjus omnia revelat. Then, if time reveals all things, without time, all
things cannot be revealed. So, time only can reveal the certainty of our
coming crop-season. But when I set down to write, I thought to have been
able to draft something worthy of your columns ; but it is said,
-some in spite
Of their blundering, will ignorance write."
So it is with me ; but, then, an excuse prompts me that
"A little nonsense DOW and then.
Is relished by the beet of men."
So, if I can hope to entertain you personally for a moment, I shall be amply
requited, without humiUatlng your very valuable periodical with its publica-
tion. And, now, if your kindness will in any way justify the preliminary, I
will take up my experience in furnishing your many agricultural readers with
what I believe to be indispensable in furnishing for the table a good, palata-
ble, nice, luxurious necessary for that department — to wit: Corn-Bread.
This article of food stands in the West at least at the head of our hst of ne-
cessaries ; and it is but little trouble to make it, likewise a luxury. I have,
as your readers no doubt all have, before now, seen the paper account of what
I may say, and I can only insist upon a trial ; and if, upon a trial, the value
of the method is not acknowledged, then it will be that I shall be for once
deceived. Your readers all know that to have good, palatable food on the
table, the art and mystery lies not altogether in the cookery. This is merely
one part of the business, that must be well understood, and properly attended
to ; and, generally, our good housewives are adepts in this method without
our aid. Then it is the business of the male department to see that the
article for cookery is furnished in the pantry, clean, swett, and nice, unmixed
with any foreign matter, and prepared in the proper manner. Well, what
of corn-bread ? Some, I know, prefer old Virginia ash-cakes, as we are
pleased to call them, and do not intend invidiousness when we apply the
term either, for they are good. So are our johnny-cakes, hoe-cakes, dod-
gers, etc. The peculiar manner of baking to taste, I do not wish to talk
about ; but the way and manner of furnishing the meal for the cook is the
666 NASCENT MANURES.
object of my writing ; and this, as I said, is the result of a trial upon my
former reading. And what is the secret ? It is this : Gather the corn ia
the fall, of course, when it become ripe, and put up dry in the shuck — shuck
and shell as needed to grind for use — and by this means alone you will se-
cure bread with all the glutinous, saccharine qualities of new corn-bread, at
all seasons of the year. I suppose it need not be insisted that new corn-bread
is nicer and more palatable than old, for this is not debatable. The shuck,
if drj', serves as a preserver of the corn in its native, sweet state. Shuck it,
and no apartment will keep it in like condition. The atmosphere seems to
extract from the grain the qualities alluded to, and leave it dry, brittle,
and tasteless, when made into meal and baked. I hope, and, in charity, ex-
pect, that no one will trifle with this simple suggestion of mine, until hesliall,
as I have done, found his opinion on actual experiment; for, in my acquaint-
ance, our farmers generally, and almost universally, shuck their corn, and
crib it in the ear in bulk, after being so shucked. This, for stock-feeding,
can yet be done, but fur table use, it should not be so done. Will any of
your readers, who have not, try the plan and report ; and, in the event of
disagreement, suggest some other and better mode of harvesting and pre-
serving corn for bread. The one now used is certainly admitted by all as
objectionable, in many particulars, which I need not take time to enumerate.
Very respectfully, A. L. B.
MiU Bend, Ten., March 15, 1855.
NASCENT MANURES.
This matter of mineral and vegetable manures, their real value, proper
use, etc., can scarcely be overrated in its importance.
We find a le;irned essay on this subject from Dr. Stewart, of Baltimore,
in the Americo'.i Farmer ; and though Ave are not quite ready to endorse
all the opinions of learned chemists on this subject, we think the following
very valuable. The appropriation of simple gases, which these gentlemen
deny, is not yet disproved in our judgment; but we hSpe soon to have the
whole story from them, or one amply qualified to treat the subject, namely,
the writer of the following :
" Reasoning from analogy, all manures must be presented to the plant in
the nascent state, in order to their assimilation ; but a safer proposition, per-
haps, would be, that many elements of plants, while they exist in their nor-
mal or natural condition, are as perfectly unassimilable, or as incapable of
affording nourishment to them, as they are to animals.
A hundred illustrations of this law will at once occur to every intelligent
mind ; and the facility with v?hicli even inorganic compounds unite while in
the nascent form, is familiar to all. Every molecule of matter, whether
composed of compound, or simple atoms, seems to have a form of its own,
and until it has assumed this form, or state of aggregation, it is in the nascent
state, or in an allotropic condition. '
While in this nascent state, its tendency to unite with other bodies which
have an affinity for it, is wonderfully increased ; indeed, it is often the only
condition in which two substances will combine. The celebrated Faraday
attached so much importance to this nascent, as contrasted with the normal
condition, that a few months since he expressed the opinion that ozone is
merely oxygen in the nascent, or allotropic condition.
NASCENT MANURES. 667
Lime and magnesia, when recently slacked, are capable of uniting more
freely with other substances ; if, however, the slacked lime or magnesia is
kept for a long time, even although perfectly excluded from the air, it will
gradually assume the form of granules, and subsequently these molecules
will form crystals, or the lowest order of organisms ; and these organisms
seem to possess a degree of resistance to external force analogous to the
resistance of the higher organisms ; indeed, the more perfect crystals of the
same substance, and in the same solution, will grow and become more per-
fect, at the expense of those which are irregular. Upon this principle, the
imperfect crystals may be said to be approximating to the allotropic condition,
or nascent state, while the perfect crystal is in the normal condition.
It may be said that extent of surface is one of the causes of this, and a
better illustration is sand, or quartz, which is, perfectly insoluble in its natural
or normal condition, however fine the powder, even in some of the strongest
acids. But sand or silica is frequently found in the nascent condition, and
then it dissolves readily m water; moreover, it can be kept in this condition
for years ; but if heated to the temperature of 260° it assumes its normal
condition, and becomes perfectly insoluble even in acids ; whereas before, it
would dissolve in acids, alkalies, or pure water.
Lime and magnfsia, while in the caustic state, are capable of converting
sand into soluble silica ; and this is perhaps one of the good effects of liming,
especially when we consider the remarkable influence that soluble sihca
exerts in absorbing ammonia from the atmosphere, and also from ammoui-
acal manures. We may also account thus for the crumbling of stable walls,
the moist condition of old walls, and especially those that are exposed to am-
moniacal exhalations. Moreover, we have a plausible mode of accounting
for nitre beds, and the remarkable value of old plaster ; also the purifying
influence of ' white-waging,' if it is done with caustic hme, and not with
whiting or carbonate of hme. Lime, while caustic and moist, in contact with
sand, converts a small part of the surface of the grains of sand from the in-
soluble to the soluble silica; and this is the reason why caustic lime is neces-
sary to the formation of good mortar, as it is not (as is almost universally
supposed) a mere mechanical mixture of hme and sand, neither is it grains
of sand cemented together by the induration of lime, but the actual solution
of the surface of the grains of sand produces a still more intimate union.
Well, this soluble silica gradually absorbs from the atmosphere the ammo-
nia, for wLich it has a remarkable affinity ; and as ammonia is the vehicle of
poisonous exhalations of disease, as well as the perfume of flowers, these
exhalations are so concentrated upon the walls of hospitals, that it sometimes
becomes necessary to remove the plastering, in order to get rid of Erysipelas
and other diseases.
Nearly, or quite all of the nitric acid of commerce, was no doubt originally
derived from ammonia, in the order above referred to ; for, if my theory, as
above stated, is admitted, then, every authority will sustain me in saying that
old plaster contains ammonia, and this ammonia is converted into nitric acid
on the waU. Salts of nitric acid can be seen by any one on the surface of
old walls. Moreover,, the leachings of old walls have frequently been used
in the manufacture of gunpowder, and old plaster always enters into toe
composition of artificial nitre beds.
It will be readily admitted that silica can never enter the rootlet of a plant,
however fine the powder, unless it is in solution, and that the finest powder
of sand or silica differs as much in solubility from nascent silica, as sand dif-
fers from sugar. The importance, then, of soluble silica to grasses and
668 NASCENT MANURES.
wheat, and especially to corn ; and, indeed, its value as manure has loner
been recosfnised ; (see Liebig's Chemistry, Am. Ed, 1841, p. 200.)
It was tirst supposed that potash was the vehicle for its conveyance to
every part of the plant; but the modern idea is, that ammonia is the main
instrument of its conveyance ; certain it is, that it loses its base at the instant
of its deposition on the stem ; and if potash were the base, then it would be
necessary that the potash be carried back agaia to the earth, and the plant
would be constantly embarrassed by the excrementitious matter ; whereas,
the ammonia being volatile, evaporates, and leaves the glassy coating, or ele-
ment of strength, on the surface of the stem. Thus, it is found that more
ammonia is actually exhaled from plants than we ever give them in the form
of manure ; and it is strongly suspected that soluble silica is really the ma-
nure, while ammonia is merely the vehicle for the conveyance of soluble
silica through the plant.
When the carcass of an animal falls in a field, the luxuriant grass or grain
' falls,' on account of the absence of the relative amount of soluble silica, or
the excess of ammonia uses up at once all of this necessary element that is
available.
Two years since, I manured two lauds in the centre of my oats field, the
one with Peruvian Guano, and the other with soluble silica, leaving a land
unmauured between. The proportion of straw on the guanoed land was
very much increased ; but last summer, the same field was in wheat, and a
corresponding diminution in the proportion of straw waa^^ noticed on the land
that had been guanoed two years since ; and what is more remarkable, the
lands on each side of the guanoed land, averaged 746 lbs. more of wheat
straw per acre, although no manure of any kind had been applied to either
since it was in oats. Whereas, the silicated land not only produced more
straw than either of its unmanured neighbors, but also excelled the guanoed
land in wheat nearly three bushels per acre, and ripened earlier than any
other part of the field.
The difference between the silicated land and the unmanured, averaged
1906 lbs., while it also produced nine and one tenth bushels of wheat more
than the adjoining unmanured lands.
A land of ray oats field of last summer, exhibited the same increase in
the weight of the straw, although no silicates have been applied since it was
in corn two years since.
But the most remarkable result was obtained in my corn field of this
year, where the' corn on the silicated portion averaged 93 lbs. per shock,
while the part unmanured only weighed 42 lbs. per shock ; each shock
represented 64 hills of corn, and the average of 31 shocks was taken. This
manure was applied in my presence, and I jiersonally gathered ami weighed
the produce of each separate shock in the field, with my own hands; there-
fore, I can vouch for the correctness of the results. And now, can we not
account for the well known and remarkable officHcy of dissolved bones on
this principle, when compared with normal phMsphate of lime, whether it be
in the form of bone-ash, ground bones, or phosphatic guano ?
Bones have been used with profit, at the rate of -^20 to $60 per acre; and
it has been repeatedly demonstrated that one bushel of dissolved bones, for
immediate effect, is equal to five times as much ground bones ; in other
words, that one pound of nascent or soluble phosphate of lime, is worth more
than five pounds of normal or natural phosphate of lime, or bone earth. It
will be admitted that every acre of land on the face of the earth, containa
from one-tenth of one, to four per cent, of lime and magnssia ; and of only
NASCENT MANURES. 669
one-tenth of one per cent, at the depth of cultivation, even then, each acre
must contain 1500 to 2000 lbs. of lime and magnesia. Now, it is manifest
if 10, or even 30 bushels of dissolved bones v?ere applied to an acre, the first
rain would convert all of the free phosphoric acid, or bi-phosphates that they
contain, into neutral nascent sub-phosphates ; and it is therefore nascent sub-
phosphate of time that is taken up and assimilated by the plant. Thus, we
are enabled to account for the wonderful effects of what are called in com-
merce, bi-phosphates, which really contain very little free phosphoric acid, but
all of the phosphoric acid exists as natural nascent phosphate of lime.
The fact is, that dissolved bones are unmanageable as a manure in this
country, [in England, bi-phosphates are applied in solution,] until reduced
from a fluid to the form of a powder, by the means of ivory black, guano,
or some less valuable diluent; and the universal distribution of carbonates of
lime, etc., in these, converts nearly all of the bi-phosphates into neutral
nascent phosphates or sub-phosphates. During the past summer I have been
experimenting on two separate fields, with four of .these compounds, two of
which were made in New- York, and two in Baltimore. The most remark-
able results were obained from experiments made upon a few hills of corn.
But I will confine my statement to two series, where whole rows of shocks
were compared with contiguous unmanured rows ; the average of 23 shocks,
each shock representing 64 hills, exhibited a difference of about 25 per
cent.; or the manured weighed 56 lbs., while the unmanured weighed 42
lbs. per shock ; and these manures were applied in my presence, at the rate
of ten bushels per acre broadcast ; and I gathered and weighed the corn in
the field myself.
Now, it is most probable that no atom of free phosphoric acid, or bi-phos-
phate of lime, ever enters the rootlet of a plant without destroying it ; and,
having proved that a solution of bones would necessarily become precipitated
in contact with any soil, we are driven to the conclusion that this -precipitate
or nascent sub-phosphate is the valuable manure ; and we take it for granted
that it will preserve the nascent form for some time in moist situations, as
we know that moist oxide of iron will continue to preserve this form, as the
antidote for arsenic, for weeks together. Ultimately, however, it also loses
the nascent and assumes the normal form, and becomes so insoluble, that five
times the dose is required, in order to afford the soluble material for the
same proportion of arsenic. Thus it is with phosphatic guanoes and bone
dust; none of them are absolutely insoluble in pure water, and when thus
dissolved as sub-phosphates, they are converted into the nascent form, and
more readily re-dissolved than before their solution.
The contact of a piece of wood or string has been known to hasten the
solubility of the most insoluble substances ; for instance, the inner part of
the metaUic worm of a still, opposite a wooden support has been known to
dissolve in the distilled water passing through it, and the same remark is
made with regard to hydrant pipes ; the normal condition of insoluble bodies
is then disturbed, and the allotropic or nascent condition produced, by con-
tact with vegetable substances in a state of change ; this, then, may account
for the influence of organic manures, and indicates the philosophy of the
modern plan of manuring in Europe, which is by hauhng out the manure
on the field, load by load, as it is generated, instead of permitting it to fer-
ment in heaps in the stable-yard. Now, query, would it not be still better
'to stratify it with powder of feldspar, phosphorite, or phosphatic guano, and
concentrate this disturbing force of fermentation upon the elements, which,
when reduced to the nascent state, are worth more than the one or two per
cent, of alkalies, etc., in the manure itself.
670 CATTLE AlfD THE PROSPECTS.
It is still a question with physiologists whether nitrogen is ever assimilated
by plants, much less by animals, in its normal condition ; and it is a curious
fact, that both the plant and animal may starve when fed on carbonaceous
food exclusively, although both are bathed in an atmosphere containing four-
fifths of nitrogen, which is perfectly useless to both, because not presented in
the nascent form. David Stewart, M. D.,
Chemist of Maryland State Ag. Soc'y-
Baltimore, Jan. 2ith, 1865.
FOR TIIE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND TUE ANVIt.
CATTLE AND THE PROSPECTS.
Messrs. Editors : — In this section of the country, I am confident that
beef-cattle and milch-cows will be high for. the coming season. Hay is, and
has been, very high with us. All the straw, and rough fodder of every kind,
has been gathered up for the cattle and horses. Straw, even, has demanded,
and still demands, a high price throughout this section of country. In
former years, we never used to think of selling straw at a high price, unless
in the bundle ; and now it readily commands $7 per ton ; hay, at from $12
to $16 and $20 ; and corn-fodder at a like rate. Scarcity causes this great
demand. Men have large numbers of cattle on hand, and must have some-
thing to keep them through the winter; and, rather than let them starve,
they are willing to pay high prices for their stores. Will this not tend, then,
to make beef high ? Certainly ; though it is high enough now. Good, fat,
working oxen, weighing from thirty-four to thirty-six hundred, have sold
here lately for $200 per pair — showing that our home market is about as
good as your city markets. I think that the present and prospective demand
for beef is, and will be, good, considering that the forces in the Crimea will
have to be fed — not only the English and French troops, but also the Rus-
sian. Some of our own markets have not been very well supplied with beef
during the last year. This is not strange, when we consider that, for the last
year or two, there has not been much feed for cattle to fatten on ; hence the
complaint that the New-York market is over-burdened with poor beef. I
do not see that the prospect is likely to be any better for the year to come.
Cattle, in difierent parts of the country, are now in a poor condition, and it
will take some time for them to get fat ; and, more than that, they are not
very numerous any where in the United States. Butter is high, and beef is
high. What is the cause of it ? Scarcity of the articles. The milch-cows
have been either " dried up," or sold in consequence of poor feed. Beef-
cattle have been mostly picked up, though there are yet thousands of them
left, with thousands of hungry people to eat them. Just about here, I can
not say that we have many fat cattle to sell, nor a great number of milch-
cows, though we think that our country is a very fair cattle region, com-
paring favorably with most other^ counties.
liaising cattle is good business, but producing hay is a better business, at
present prices. A cow, or an ox, will almost consume hay enough, during a
long winter, to buy its own body. Farmers could not get along were it not
for the fact that they " work in " a great deal of coarse stores, including corn-
Btalks, straw, etc. Butter, it is true, is high ; but all the cattle kind do not
give milk, but store away fodder, for which the farmer, many times, does
PLOUGHING — AMOUNT OF TRAVEL. 671
not receive an equivalent. Should we all raise hay and no cattle, the result
would be, no market for our fodder.
From private Western cori-espondence, I learn that cattle are suffering for
want of food in many parts of Ohio. This is to be regretted, since that state
is a great cheese and butter-producing country. I am of opinion that beef
and butter will be high for the coming season, though I may be wide of a
correct calculation.
The prospects of the farmer, otherwise considered for the coming year, are,
indeed, quite flattering — that is, if he can raise any thing to sell. His mis-
take last season was, that, in many instances, he had nothing to dispose of —
no wheat, not many oats, nor a great supply of corn and potatoes.
The peach-buds here seem to be dead. I should think that they bad re-
ceived their death-blow. The inside of the bud is black, with no indications
of life. Some of the last year's shoots bear evidence of having been badly
bitten by the frost. Thermometer stood here at from 25'' to 31-^° below zero.
Very respectfully, W. Tappan.
Baldwinsville, N. Y., March 20, 1855. j
PLOUGHING — AMOUNT OF TRAVEL.
The amount of work required on a given surface varies, of course, with the
condition of the soil. Certain parts of the work may, however, be accurately
calculated. The number of furrows, of a given width, the length of fur-
row traveled within given dimensions, etc., can be told by an ordinary school-
boy. In the Soil of the South, a table is given, showing the space traveled
in ploughing an acre, with a given width for the furrow. These calculations
are approximations to the truth, but not quite accurate. In ploughing a field
600 feet square, more than 500 feet must be " traveled" in by the team, or
even by the ploughman. The team must travel at least ten feet at each
end, beyond the termination of the furrow. Taking this estimate as accurate,
and supposing the field to be square, (for, with the shape of the field, the
number of furrows, and the "space traveled," will be materially changed,)
and the breadth of the furrow seven inches, the distance traveled by the team
in ploughing one acre will be about ]5f miles, instead of 14i, as iti the ta-
ble. With a "furrow slice 14 inches," the travel will not be, of course,
"seven miles," as given in the table, but something more than 1-^, and so
on. The calculations, thus corrected, may be of some interest. The table
as given by our Southern friends is as foUov^s :
Breadth of furrow slice, Space traveled in ploughing an acre.
14i miles.
12^ "
11 «
9 "
8i "
U "
By this rate of calculation, a furrow once in
2^ feet, 3| miles.
3 « 2^ "
1 inches.
8
9
10
11
12
13
672 HORTICULTURAL.
HORTIOULTU R AL.
The Vegetable Garden. — The earlier kiuda of vegetables ouglit to be
iu tbe ground by this time ; and fimcy seeds have been started in boxes, or
under glass. The warm weather of early May invites you to give them
room in the ground.
Currants and gooseberries, if they were not pruned in the fall, as it is well
to do, should not be neglected now for a day. Dig up all the sods, grasses,
etc., which are about their roots, and give them a slight dressing of manure,
Melons should be sown. Soak the seeds a few hours in water ; dig a large
hole two feet deep, and three feet in diameter ; fill it with good, rich loam
and fermented manure, and in this, when finely pulverized, place your seeds
at proper distances, allowing for some to come up feebly, or to be destroyed.
Then you will have melons. If a cold storm is likely to injure them, shelter
them with some kind of covering.
Gardeners tell us that melons are exceptions to the general rule, since their
seeds, more than one year old, produce better fruit, and run less to vines
than fresher seeds do.
The Flower Garden. — Perhaps this is not yet laid out. If so, let us sug-
gest that there are two styles, as we may call them, in one of which, the
whole plat is divided into beds of various forms and sizes, separated by walks,
of greater or less width ; and the other, where the surface is chiefly covered
with grass, on which various figures are cut, the grass and sods being re-
moved from them, leaving them, after proper cultivation, in a suitable condi-
tion for flowers. These may be of various shapes, and forms, and sizes,
including borders along the walks, circles, ellipses, triangles, etc., with mounds
of various sizes, &nd shapes, and heights, and shrubs and evergreens duly
interspersed, according to the extent of the grounds, and the character of the
surface. The latter style, generally speaking, is more to our taste than the
former. There is more of variety in it.
If the flower garden is designed to make a show from the wiiidows, the
walks, beds, etc, should run in a line parallel to them. Having a side view,
the various rows of flowers will all be visible, while the naked ground will be
more sheltered from view.
Planting, Etc. — Dahlia-roots, and the like, may now bo safely placed in
the ground. Give them a light loam, partly vegetable, not too rich, other-
wise you will grow large plants rather than flowers.
Very soon it will be time for the smaller seeds. Prepare your grounds by
deep spading, removing all the stones and laibbish. Transplant such peren-
nials as require it, dividing those roots that are connected together.
Plant the larger and hardier seeds, but not too deeply. Generally, half an
inch of depth is quite enough for the largest.
When the apple-blossoms begin to appear, sow the smaller seeds. These
should only have a little sprinkling of very fine earth sifted over them.
If you attempt to cultiuate that splendid plant the Cypress vine, Ipomoea
Quamodit, in which nineteen out of twenty fixil, first throw the seeds into
scalding hot water, or "hot milk," and let them lie till the liquid is cold,
or, in other words, for several hours ; then bury them half an inch in good
soil, and keep them alike from chills and from drought. The seeds may be
planted in circles from one to two or three feet in diameter, at a distance of
ON THE CULTURE OP THE PELARGONIUM. 673
six to nine inches apart. They should be trained on twine, fastened to short
stakes in the circumference of the (jircle, and led to the top of a central stake
about six feet high ; or they may be trained over a trellis, forming a screen.
If confident of a vigorous growth, the seeds may be a foot or so apart. But
be sure to plant the seeds as early as the weather will permit.
Sweet peas may be planted in a similar manner.
Dahlias. — W. C. Wilsoi^, Esq., of Baltimore, who has always one of the
best private collections of Dahlias in ximerica, writes the Horticulturist ^
(and Mr. Wilson is high authority) as follows :
"The following were the best dahlias in this latitude last season, and some
of them were fine the previous vear:
1. Reine des Beiges. 7.' Victorie. . 13. Miss Ward.
2. Mrs. Hansard. 8. Cote d' Or. 14. Duchess of Kent.
3. Emperor Maroc. Q. Jonas. 15. Gen. Fauchier.
4. Eiegantissima. 10. Elizabeth. 16. Unanimity.
5. Diamant. 11. Miss Wayland. 17. Flora Mclvor.
6. Hyppolite. 12. Madam Zahler. 18. Forget me not.
These were the best of 120 varieties. The first five are unequalled as
fancy flowers ; the 6th, 7th, and 8th, are splendid self-colored. The 7th is
remarkable for its full and perfect form ; color, a rich crimson maroon."
How TO Sprout Osage Orange Seed. — The following plan for sprout-
ing Osage Orange seed may be of use, as many are unsuccessful for want of
the proper knowledge. In the first place, having- procured bright, plump
seed, of last year's growth, if possible, put them in a tight vessel, and pour
on them boiling water, until they are covered. Cover up, and let them
stand until milk-warm — keeping them at this temperature, or warmer, until
they begin to burst and sprout. Keep a wet cloth on top of the vessel, to
prevent the seed from becoming dry. An occasional wetting with warm,
water will be necessary. A few days after the sprouts begin to make their
appearance, the seed should be planted out in beds previously prepared. If
the seed is good and properly treated, they will sprout in about two weeks.
ON THE CULTURE OF THE PELARGONIUM.
BY B. MUNN, LANDSCAPE GARDEKER, NEW-YORK.
I HAVE seen no really fine geraniums in this country. The reason is obvi-
ous, and is this : the plants are not got into a fit state for blooming suffi-
ciently early, and they are forced into bloom by the rapid increase of
temperature before they have made and matured their proper growth. The
consequence of this is, straggling plants and small flowers.
Let me recommend some amateurs of the flower to try the following plan :
At this time (early in February) many have their geraniums in small pots,
in which they were placed when cut down last fall. Repot them at once
into pots eight or nine inches across, which is large enough to grow a pelar-
gonium in perfection, although they may be produced larger in great pots.
The compost for them— one-half old hot-bed manure, one-half good loam,
with a small portion of sand if the loam is stiff. Put one piece of broken
pot over the drain hole, and then, for drainage, put about an inch, or rather
more, in depth of lumps of stiff loam as large as walnuts. This is a valuable
resource to the roots by-and-by. Then put in the compost, and pot the plant
674 ON THE CULTURE OF THE PELARGONIUM.
without breaking the ball of roots, and press down the compost round the
sides of the put, moderately hard, with a potting stick. Water them through,
and put tht-m near the glass in a house kept at about 50". Give but little
water until the roots have reached the sides of the pot — they will soon be
seen at the drain-hole on turning up the pot. Then increase the temperature
very slightly, and syringe the plants every day. As they grow, s-tiil keep
them near the glass, and pull the shoots down horizontally toward the edges
of the pots all around, and secure them to sticks. By di'grees, they may,
most of them, be brought down nearly to touch the edge. The growth will
in another month he rapid, and the shoots and leaves will increase much in
size. By the end of March, or early in April, the folicige will be of huge size,
and hang over and conceal. much of the pot, and the plant will be filled up
in the centre by growth, which the admission of light there (by the con-
tinued perseverance in tying out) has encouraged. Then the plant is formed
— its growth vigorous, and it is fit to bloom. But this growth will require
to be matured, and to secure perfection in the bloom, the vigor of wood-
growth must be stopped. To effect that object, withhold water. Lay the
syringe aside, for the present, altogether. Let the plants positively droop in
the leaf, from want of water, for a few hours, but not longer, or you will lose
much of the lower leaves, which will turn yellow. Some judgment is re-
quired in this operation, but it is soon gained by short experience. AVhen
this check has been given, supply the plants with water, but in small quanti-
ties, comparatively, for a week, giving it at tlie root and not with the syringe.
The plants will immediately "knot" for bloom; and then, but not before,
(still keeping them near the glass,) give them manure-water twice a week,
and plain water daily, if required, for as soon as the ends of the shoots indi-
cate by their thickness that the bloom-buds are forming, tho supply of water
must again be liberal as it was at first. The old-fasliioned manure-water,
made by stirring up a spade full of old hot-bed iu a pail of water, / know
will answer, and you know the strength ; but with guano, and its adultera-
tions, you may not know, and 7nay spoil your pkuts, although it is very good
when properly used. The above manure-water should be used clear, and
diluted with water till it is about the color that a cru!<t of burnt bread, two
inches square, will give to a glass of water in which it has stood five minutes.
The next object is to encourage the growth of the bloom, branches, and buds,
but not the foliage, which is best eff"ected by giving water at the root,
syringing only now and then to keep ofi' dust, etc., (for if the syringe is much
used in this state, the plants get straggling,) and by giving all the air possible.
When the flower-buds are just opening, some shade on the glass is necessary.
Open canvass, or close, coarse netting, is the best thing I know of, because it
does not altofjether shut out the sun's rays.
I am aware that muck must depend on locality and time of year, .Vs to how
far the above directions can be cairied out. An experienced hand will do best
to pot in December for the first set of plants, and in January for those to fol-
low, because he can then stop the shoots (which, by-the-by, he should do, and let
the plants break just enough to show the eyes in the small pots hefore pot-
ting.) and by this means he will have his plants much larger. But it requires
some experience for this very early work to be done well. The pri/icijjie,
howevt r, that I wish to point out is this : that in this country, the European
system, as to time, must be varied, and the plants must be got to tlieir full
size, as to wood and foliage, before the time of spring, when the increase of
the sun's power will necessarily force them into immediate bloom, without
giving time for their bloom-branches and buds to be properly develoj.ed be-
fore the flowers expand. — Horticulturist.
THE PLUMBAGO LARPENT^.
675
THE PLUMBAGO LARPENTiE.
[lady larpknt's leadwort, or plumbago.]
In 184G, Mr. Fortune found this beautiful jilant on the ruined ramparts of
Shangliai, in China.
All who have seen it describe it as one of the most charming blue flowery
plants now known for bedding out in masses, as we do the verbena, petunia,
etc. The plnmbago capensis is a well known, useful plant for bedding out,
but it seems to be the opinion
of cultivators that this new one
entirely supersedes it. It will
undoubtedly prove much bet-
ter adapted to our climate, and
answer bedding purposes bet-
ter, from its compact and bushy
habit. It is described as hav-
ing obovate, pointed leaves,
finely serrated and firinged with
hairs on the margin, as will b«
seen by the cut. The flowers
are produced in terminal clus-
ters, and are clear, deep blue, or
intense violet color, with a tint
of red in the throat, increased
by cuttings of the young wood.
An idea maybe foimed of the
profusion of its blossoms from
the fact that a single plant has
borne 4,000 blcssoms.
The London Horticultural
Magazine says : " The plum-
bagos flourish in any light,
porous, turfy soil, but in none
better than where sandy loam
preponderates. The present
species must be particularly
well drained, and not too freely
watered. It may be propaga-
ted by cuttings planted in sand,
and set in a naild hot-bed ; these cuttings should, as in the case of other
bedding plants, be planted in the latter part of the summer, and kept over
the winter in green-houses or dry frames until the following spring.
For pot culture it will, doubtless, prove a very desirable subject. It must,
in this case, be regularly shifted into pots containing a compost in which
turfy loaiu preponderates, not using very large pots, and having these drained
in an efficient manner. The plants- should, while young,_be well stopped
back, the point of the shoots being removed as soon as practicable, after they
reach from two to three inches long. This is to be continued until a good^
round head of branches is produced, and the plant should then be allowed to
arrow on for flowering."
plumbago LARPENTiE.,
676
PAECH-TKEES KILLED BY THE COLD.
THE NEMOPHILA.
The Nemophila insignis is one of the
prettiest of all dwarf annuals for the border,
or for masses on a lawn. Its foliage is
delicate and fine, and its flowers of a beau-
tiful blue. It blooms in great profusion,
and a long time. We extract the following
notice from the Horticultural Mar/azine
(English), There is another new and rare
one, maculata, of a fine, dark violet, with a
white spot in the margin of the petal,
worthy a place among the select annuals :
"This is a showy annual of a dwarf
growth, which soon displays abundance of
small, blue flowers, a little cupped, having
a pure white eye, and deeply-cut leaves.
Its seeds may be sown at different seasons,
a few in April, and a few at the end of Sep-
tember ; for if the winter be not very sharp,
they will bloom very early in spying, and
those sown in the spring will come into
flower by the time the autumn-sown ones
decline. The young plants will bear re-
moval, but I prefer sowing them where they
are to bloom ; there is, however, no harm
in planting out the few that you take up
from a patch when they have been sown
too thickly; and some gardeners mate
them regularly potted plants, and, therefore,
sow all in one place, and pot off or plant out at pleasure. They are very
beautiful till they begin to straggle along the ground, when, although they
still keep flowering a little, I should advise you to pull them up to make
room for something better."
For this and the preceding engraving and the descriptions, we are indebted
to the Genesee Farmer.
KEMOPHILA.
PEACU-TREES KILLED BY THE COLD.
Messrs. Editors : — Having lately noticed several quotations in the new^s-
papers in regard to the extreme cold winter having killed not only the
peach-buds, but the trees also — in cutting the limbs from one thousand trees,
Mr. Schenk found no exception — all had perished.
A similar report was current in the spring of 1835, that the hard winter
bad killed all the young and thrifty peach-trees.
The nursery trees were certainly killed, not by the winter, bnt by an early,
sudden, autumnal frost; before the sap had descended, or the trees were
prepared for such a sudden transition.
Nurserymen who have been inoculating their trees late in the M], will,
no doubt, appreciate my remarks, as they have found to their mortification, day
CINCINNATI HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. 677
after day, the bark and sap setting more and more, till they could not per-
form the operation successfully any longer. In the fall of 1834, there came
an early, sudden frost ; soon after which, my father, Samuel Champion, was
trimming in his nursery, when he discovered that the sap and inner bark was
of a dark yellow color, which somewhat alarmed him. In the spring follow-
ing, his fears were too well realized. This and many other whole nurseries
had perished from that early frost while the sap was circulating.
But more fully to prove the fallacy of an extremely cold winter killing the
peach-trees, every flirmer or wood-chopper in the northern, middle, or west-
ern States knows that large forest-trees are frozen through with ice to their
center by the frost of ordinary winters ; and if the cold was five times greater,
it would do no more than freeze to solid ice. This does no harm to the
peach-trees after the sap has gradually and naturally set. More than forty
years ago, peach-trees generally lived to the age of twenty, and some of them
thirty years old, in full bearing, healthy, and vigorous ; but the trees now
taken from the nurseries in the northern and middle states, seldom bear more
than three or four crops, and some of them not more than one, whilst others
never bear any.
In the future, I may indicate the means by which this most delicious fruit
may be restored to its original size, flavor, and quantity — the trees to live
and bear fruit for twenty years and upward.
Thomas Champion,
Waihington, D. C, April 14, 1855.
CINCINNATI HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.
The List of Premiums for 1855, issued by this very efficient Society, is
received, with their rules and regulations. These do not essentially vary, so
far as we have discovered, from the rules of other societies, save in this, that
Competition for the Prizes is open to all cultivators of the Western
States, and without payment of a fee. "All articles not donated to the
Society must be marked ' Reserved.' "
The following is a list of the officers and committees of the Society :
officers and committees of the CINCINNATI HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.
President, — Dr. S. Mosher.
Vice-Presidents. — George Graham, A. H. Ernst, John P. Foote.
Council.— M. Mc Williams, A. Worthington, L. Eehfuss, J. ^. Green,
G. Sleath, P. S. Bush, S. W. Pomeroy.
Secretary, Treasurbr, and Librarian. — C. C. Pomeroy.
Corresponding Secretary. — J. A. Warder.
Fruit Committee. — J. A. Warder, M. Mc Williams, S. S. Jackson, J. K.
Green, P. S. Bush.
Tlower Committee. — J. P. Foote, Theo. Pfau, S. W. Pomeroy, D. Mc-
Ayoy, Geo. Gi-aham. ,
VaGiTABLE Committee.— G. Sleath, D. Foster, A. Worthington, C. Pink-
enstein, P. Considine.
678 MORE COAL DISCOVERED ON THE PACiriC.
PLU M-TllEES.
A coRRKspoNDENT of the Couutry Gentleman says: " I attribute ray
success mainly to an hereditary strain of Yankee principle, proflucing a
strong propensity to use a jack-knife. My trees are uioptly grafted on to
suckers of the native or wild plum, near or at the surface of the ground.
The scions take well in such stocks, and grow strong, frequently froni four to
seven feet in a season. In the spring of the first year, I cut back to two or
two and a half feet, and each spring following, from ^ to f of the last year's
growth. This causes them to grow stocky, with low, bushy heads, and to
set thickly Avith fruit spurs. I have trees in different varieties of soil ; some
in cultivated, some in grass land. All do well. I manure with what is most
convenient, without regard to kind or quality, long or short, stable or hog
manure, ashes, old lime, soap-suds, fish-brine, chip manure, or whatever ii*
at hand, plowed in or for top dressing.
The great enemy of the plum-tree is the black-knot. Now comes the
grand question — Black-knot, what is it ? Is it a disease, or the work of an
insect? I will endeavor to answer these questions according to my observa-
tions^ I consider it to be the work of an insect, with which I have no per-
sonal acquaintance except in the maggot state.
From frequent observation combined with practice, I find that June is the
time to look for the enemy. There are no black knots then, of this year's
growth, but simply swellings upon the branches. Nqw use your jack-knife,
and you are sure of your foe. When these swellings first commence, so as
easily to be found, the insect is of the exact color of the excrescence, and so
small as usually to escape detection. Nevertheless he is there. From the
middle of June to the first of July, they are easily found, generally two in a
knot, varying from J^ to | of an inch in length — the largest in the mean
time are leaving their cells. I have found them near by, sheltered by the
rough bark, covering themselves with a thin, silk-like w^eb. To all who wish
to raise plums, (and who does not ?) I would say, here lies the secret. Cut
green knots instead of black ones. By following this practice, I have suc-
ceeded in raising very fine trees — not a black knot is ever seen on them. A
swelling is occasionally found, but it is taken in time to secure the maggot.
By this means, the insects are reduced to that degree that my trees never
suflfer thereby. I have trees from four to six years from the graft, from
eight to ten feet high, with large, spreading heads, bearing the first season
from one to more than two bushels per tree, of most splendid fruit, as many
a satiated appetite can testify."
More Coal Discovered on the Pacific. — Santa Anna, it is stated,
availed himself of his recent march to Acapulco to test the accuracy of the
reports that the mountains of Guerrero contain extensive coal mines. The
result of his investigation satisfied him that there are almost inexhaustible
sujiplies of this valuable article, which can be obtained in any quantity at
Acapulco, at a cost considerably less than the freight on that now carried
there from England and the Atlantic States for the use of^our steamers.
Santa Anna has "also satisfied himself that the undeveloped precious mineral
wealth of Mexico is immeasurably greater than has ever heretofore been
supposed ; and it is his desire and purpose to adopt measures to make these
treasures available. — Dcseret News.
JBUTTER-MAKING. 679
BUTTER-MAKING.
[Odr attention lias recently been called to a very valuable and eminently
practical Prize Essay, read before the Royal Agricultural Society of England.
We published several articles on this subject, in our last volume, and are
happy to find our own views confirmed by the very careful and scientific
experiments, the results of which are given in the report described. We beg
leave to invite the attention of all our farmers to the following portion of this
subject, being all that relates to their particular business. The exper-
iments were conducted by Professor Traill and the late Dr. Bullock.
Their accuracy was subsequently tested by the writer of this essay, and his
results, with one exception, "agreed remarkably with those made by the
gentlemen named."]
One series consisted of the comparative quantity of butter yielded by the
following :
1. Sweet cream churned alone.
2. Sweet milk and its cream churned together.
3. Sour cream churned alone.
4. Sour milk and its cream churned together.
6. Scalded or Devonshire cream churned alone.
On the 24th of May, the milk of four cows was drawn in the same vessel,
passed through a strainer, and then divided into five portions of six English
pints each, which were placed in similar basins of earthenware, in a place,
the temperatiu'e of which ranged from 55*^ to 60° Fcihr.
Monday, 25th. — The temperature of the air was very hot, 1G° ; but that
of the milk-house, by constant evaporation of water, was kept about GO''.
Tuesday, 26th. — Thirty-nine hours after the milk had been drawn from the
cows it was removed from below the cream of No. 1 and No. 3, by a sypSon ;
the cream from No. 1, and the milk and cream from No. 2, were immedi-
ately churned in glass vesself.
No. 1. — Sweet cream churned alone. From previous trials it was found
that the addition of cold water to thick cream facilitated the separation of
the butter ; half a pint of water was added to the cream, the temperature of
the mixture at the commencement of churning was G2°. In fifteen minutes
butter appeared in grains; the churning was continued for twelve minutes
longer, or twenty-seven minutes in all, when the temperature was found at
70°. The butter was collected, but from the warmth of the weather was
very soft. It was put into cold water until the next day, when it was worked
and washed in the usual way, and weighed 1386 grains. It was of a good
color, and perfectly well flavored. , j»
No. 2. — Sweet milk and its cream churned together. The mixture of
sweet milk and cream was churned at the same time ; though cold water
was added after one and a half hour's churning no butter was seen. The
churning was continued three hours without obtaining butter.
No. 3. — Sour cream churned alone. On Thursday, the 28th May, the
cream of No. 3, which had been separated on Tuesday, and placed in the
milk-house, was now slightly acid, and was churned after half a pint of cold
water hail been added to it. In twelve minutes butter appeared; and in
eight minutes more united into one mass. Daring the churning the tempe-
rature of the cream had risen from 54^ to 63''. The butter was well washed
and worked, and weighed 175,6.5 grains. The color and taste were good.
680 BUTTER-MAKING.
No. 4. — Sour milk and its cream churned together. On the same day,
28th May, the milk and cream churned together, and half a pint of cold
water was added. It was full fifty-seven minutes before any butter appeared,
and before the churning appeared to be completed one hour and fifty
minutes had elapsed ; showing clearly that more time is required to chiirn
milk and cream together than to obtain the butter from cream alone. The
butter was diflfused in small grains, and when washed and worked as long as
any color was communicated to the water, it weighed 1968 grains. Color
paler than the last, but of good flavor.
No. 5. — Clouted cream churned alone. On Tuesday, the 26th, the milk
and cream of No. 6, were placed in a vessel of warm v/ater until the tem-
perature of the milk rose to 156°, a Devonshire dairy-maid assisting in the
operation. The milk was drawn from below the cream by a syphon, the
latter being kept cool until the following day, when it was churned.
It was ascertained that by churning the milk of Nos. 1 and 3, a few more
grains of butter could be obtained on some occasions, but on no occasion
from No. 5, so completely does the scalding process separate the butyraceous
matter from the milk. The butter of No. 5, when well worked and washed,
weighed 1998 grains. It had a rich yellow color, and tasted agreeably.
Similar experiments were repeated, the result of which was, that the largest
amount of butter was produced by the Devonshi*re method ; the next in
quantity by churning the milk and cream together when a little acescent ;
the third in quantity was afforded by cream kept till it was slightly sour.
The smallest quantity was obtained from sweet cream ; but on no occasion
was butter obtained by churning sweet milk alone.
In order to decide on the keeping qualities of the butter obtained by the
four processes previously detailed, samples were exposed to the free action of
the atmosphere. ,
No. 1 was always found to remain longer without any rancid taste than
the*other kinds.
Nos. 3 and 4 were nearly on an equality — if any difference, it was in favor
of No. 3.
No. 5 became rancid more quickly than No. 3 and No. 4.
When salted for keeping, rancidity appeared in about the same order,
commencing in No. 5, or the butter /rom scalded cream; next in No 4, from
some milk and cream ; then in No. 3, or sour cream ; and lastly, in No. 1,
obtained from sweet cream. The rancidity was supposed to arise from vary-
ing proportions of casein ; and on instituting experiments to ascertain this
fact, it was found that casein assisted in preserving its freshness.
In order to ascertain the effects of overchurning, the cream of six pints of
milk was separated by a syphon, and churned in a glass vessel. The butter
was formed in about half an hour ; but the churning was continued for half
an hour longfr, when the buttei" had lost its fine, yellowish, waxy appeflrance,
and had become pale and soft, while very little liquid remained in the churn.
This butter could not be washed and worked until it had remained some
hours in cold water, being so exceedingly soft v.hen taken'out of the churn.
After washing it was pnle, rather soft, and weighed 2566 grains, which was
evidently beyond the due quantity, when compared with the other experi-
ments on the same quantity of milk, which gave the following results :
No. 1. The sweet cream overchurned yielded 2566 grrins.
No. 3. The acid cream duly churned yielded 2187.5 grains.
No. 4. The acid milk and its cream duly churned yielded 2397.5 grains.
No. 5. Scalded cream duly churned yielded 2671.
COTTON AND ITS CULTUEE. 681
The butter of No. 1 tasted insipid, never became firm, and soon turned
rancid. It was found to yield a very unusual quantity both of casein and
watery fluid, which could only be separated by melting the butter.
It is a common opinion in some districts, that by adding hot water to the
churn, more butter is obtained than by using cold water. Experiments made
for the express purpose did not show that the weight increased very much,
and it was attended with a perceptible deterioration in quality, giving it
generally the appearance of overchurning.
The results of the experiments above detailed are — '
1st. That the addition of some cold water, during churning, facilitates the
process, or the separation of the butter, especially when the cream is thick
and the weather hot.
2d. That cream alone is more easily cburned than a mixture of cream and
milk.
3d. That butter produced from sweet cream has the finest flavor when
fresh, and appears to remain the longest period without becoming rancid.
4th. That scalded cream, or the Devonshire method, yields the largest
quantity of butter; but if intended to be salted, is most liable to acquire a
rancid flavor by keeping.
5th. That churning the milk and cream together, after they become
slightly acid, is the most economical process for districts where butter-milk
can not be sold ; whilst, at the same time, it yields a large amount of excel-
lent butter.
COTTON AND ITS CULTURE.
A CORRESPONDENT writes to the Farmer avd Planter as follows : "We
never could see the sense of throwing up, wiih great care, a high bed for
cotton, and immediately set all hands to work to tear it down. We have
tried various expedients, but never found out how to plant cotton until last
spring. For this we acknowledge our indebtedness to Capt. Thomas Byrd,
of Greenwood, from whom we received an implement for smoothing and
opening the cotton bed, which does its work to perfection — a cover adapted
precisely to follow in the wake of the opening, leaving your beds nicely
smoothed over, and ready for the reception of the seed, and a scraper to do
the first working — decidedly the best implements we have ever seen. This
forms a complete set of implements, adapted to cotton-culture, simple and
cheap, which any good blacksmith and plough-stocker can make easily. If
Novice will try Capt. Byrd's implements, and not agree with us, we will
acknowledge the corn, and pay for them. Let us be understood, we are not
puffing an implement manufacturer, but off"ering an acknowledment due to a
public-spirited planter who took the pains to set us right. By the way, while
talking, we may as well say that the best variety of cotton we have ever
planted is the " Calhoun Cotton.'' Where it originated, we are not able to say.
Capt. Byrd kindly sent us half a bushel of seed, from which we have picked
511 pounds of very beautiful cotton. The overseer counted seventy bolls on
one stalk not over knee high. It is no humbug, for we have selected our
seed for years from fancy stalks, and being side by side, we have been com-
pelled reluctantly to give it up. We trust that even Broomsedge may be
allowed to puff a home-made article. Before closing, we must dissent, how-
ever, from Novice's declaration. Twelve hundred pounds cotton per acre on
common land — stand or no stand — it is no common land that will average
seventy bolls of matured cotton per stalk."
682 .DECOMPOSITION OF WATER OR STEAM BY HEAT.
DECOMPOSITION OF WATER OR STEAM BY HEAT.
Wo take the followinor extract from an exclianffe :
•• But wliatever may be thouglitof these, or of the many'other more scien-
tilic;illy accurate, although, perhMp>, less practical experiments, there is little
doubt but that water is sometimes burned, and burned economically, when
mixed in small quantities with carbonaceous matter. Mr. Moses Tliompson,
of liinghampton, N. Y., has lately patented, and is now, with considerable
success, introducing a furnace for the burning of very wet fuel, which appears
likely to affect the mode of conducting some of our less important steam-gen-
erating processes, and promises ultimately to succeed in sugar boiling, than
which, perhaps, few discoveries are more desirable. Mr. Thompson has suc-
ceeded in burning wet tan, direct from the vats of some of our larj,est tanne-
ries, and in generating therefrom an intensely white heat, sufficient to melt
cast or wrought iron in a very few minutes. In fact, the high temperature
generated and maintained in the furnaces, and the means adopted to attain
this result, form the main distinguishing features of the invention. One great
error in previous attempts to burn wet fuel, has consisted in admitting more
rather than less air to the wet fuel. Mr. Thompson constructs his grates
somewhat in the ordinary manner, but with greatly diminished spaces be-
tween the bars, depending for a large portion of the oxygpn on that set free
by the decomposition of the water. The process completely consumes the
fuel without the production of smoke, but this is accomplished only by having
two or more furnaces in connection, and supplying fresh fuel to one only at
a time. The necessary high temperature is maintained by having the furnaces
at some little distance from the boiler, and thickly casing them with fire-brick
and other non-conducting materials, allowing the flame and intensely-heated
gases to flow from the two furnaces into contact with the boiler after mixing
together. The furnaces are ovens of brick, somewhat analogous in form, but
mure in temperature, to air or puddling furnaces for melting metals. The
fuel is supplied through a cavity in the top of each furnace, and is allowed to
pile itselt up in a cone, with no regard to equal distribution over the surface
of the grate. The flame passes off" nearly horizontally into a mixing cham-
ber, and thence to the boilers, under and through which it is allowed to flow
in a manner similar to that usually employed in utilizing the waste heat from
the iron manufacture. One furnace only being supplied with fresh fuel at a
time, the steam escaping is sure to find in the mixing chamber, which is
merely a place of junction of the flue passages, a sufficiently high temperature
to decompose it. The grand features of the invention consist, firstly, in care-
fully cherishing the heat of the furnace to induce the production of an in-
tensely high temperature ; secondly, in mixing the gases from fresh fuel with
those from fuel previou-^ly well heated ; and, thirdly, in admitting a very
limited supply of air. The degree of temperature attained is not, of course,
ascertainable, even approximately, witho.ut careful and expensive experiment ;
but the fact tliat all metals introduced into the flue passages disappear very
rapidly, and that the fire-brick roofs of the furnaces have an inconvenient
habit of fusing and running down in vitreous streams, if proper precautions
are not adopted, argues the existence of as high a temperature as any ordi-
narily employed in the arts. The fuel principally employed in these furnaces
thus far is wet tan, oak tan being more suitable than hemlock tan, because
of its greater coherence when partially consumed. The process of combustion
THE HOUSE. 683
repders the mass highly porous, like honeycomb, the fire percolating it from
beneath in countless streams, which, in case of oak tan, increase in size until
the whole is consumed, whilst with hemlock the mass is continually crumbling
down and stopping the passages. Several experiments have been lately made
on the sugar plantations of Louisiana, in burning the megass, or crushed
cane, direct from the rolls of the sugar mill. The only difficulty at present
apprehended by the inventor relates entirely to the mode of feeding this
bulky and trashy material. Several eminent sugar planters in the vicinity
of New-Orleans, express their high hopes of its greatly increasing the efficiency
of this species of fuel."
TIIEHORSE.
[A LECTURE upon the horse, by Mr. Zadoc Pratt, has been extensively pub-
lished ; and in the former volumes of this journal, numerous articles are
found containing much information in reference to this noble animal. The
view taken by Mr. Pratt is, however, so unlike the track generally pursued,
that we have made the following abstract from this lecture for the benefit of
our readers. — Eds. P. L. & A.]
" And nov/ let me give you my idea of a good horse. He should be about
fifteen-and-a-half hands high; the head light, and clean made; wide be-
tween the nostrils, and the nostrils themselves large, transparent, and open ;
broad in the forehead; eyes, prominent, clear, and sparkling; ears, small,
and neatly set on ; neck, rather short, and well set up ; large arm or should-
er, well thrown back, and high ; withers, arched and high ; legs, fine, flat,
thin, and small boned ; body, round, and rather light, though sufficiently
large to afford substance when it is needed ; full chest, affording ample play
for the lungs ; back, short, with the hind-quarters set on rather obliquely.
Any one possessing a horse of this make and appearance, and weighing
eleven or twelve hundred pounds, may rest assured that they have a horse of
all work, and a bargain which is well worth getting hold of.
I will now call your attention to different varieties of horses in foreign
countries, and in our own.
The Egyptian horse is generally known by the name of the African barb.
He exceeds the Arabian in stature, and is principally remarkable for the fullness
and height of his shoulders, and the drooping of his haunches. The most
remarkable of his tribe are the celebrated " drinkers of the wind." They are
wiry and fleshless, and shaped something like the grey hound. It is related
of one of these horses, that he once performed a journey of sixty miles, in the
hottest period of a burning African day, without the rider's drawing bridle,
or allowing him to relax his speed a single instant, until the journey was
completed. The little African kingdom of Donkala is celebrated for a breed
of horses of large size, which some have considered the handsomest in the
world. Every attempt to introduce them into any other country has failed,
however. The celebrated Egyptian horses were also ridden by the prophet
Mahomet and his four companions, on the memorable flight from Mecca, in
the year 622, and now known as the Hegira.
The Arabian horses are small, only averaging thirteen and fourteen hands
high, rather inclined to be lean, and, in traveling, they rise higher from the
684: THE HORSE.
ground than any other blood horses, and gather more quickly. Thoy are
generally of a dappled grey, or dark brown color, with a short, black tail and
mane. They usually run wild, and, in that condition, they possess the great-
est mildness and generosity of disposition. After they are domesticated, they
are played with by the children, have the most favored corner of the tent,
and occupy a deservedly high place in the affections of the family. This
affection seems to be returned with more than ordinary sagacity, for it is
authenticated that, the master being in danger, the horse has put forth every
power to the utmost, and so strained his endurance that, on reaching a place
of safety, he has instantly yielded his life. They are usually cjtptured by
snares hidden in the sand, by which the feet become entangled, and the
terrified animal, falling to the ground, is made an easy prey. Their amazing
speed renders this the only method by which they can be taken. '
The Persian horses resemble those of Arabia in general appearance, though
somewhat larger. They are esteemed less highly than the Arabian, though
I think they have some points of superiority.
The horses of Tartary are exceedingly swift, even outstripping the antelope ;
though here their resemblance to favorite breeds ceases entirely. They are
large and very heavy-headed, very low in the shoulder, awkwardly made,
and very ill-looking. When feeding, one of their number is placed on an
eminence as sentinel, and on the approach of danger he starts off, the rest
following like the wind. The fabled flight of Mazeppa, lashed to the back
of a wild horse, is supposed to be among the wild herds of Tartary.
In Turkey, horses are held in the highest esteem, which they well deserve,
being of the most docile and affectionate disposition. They are the result of
a cross between the African and Arabian, and are full of tire and life, with a
light make, splendid head, and great powers of endurance. The tail of the
horse is considered an emblem of dignity in Turkey, from the fact that a
Turkish array once lost its standard in battle, when the leader, to inspire the
drooping courage of his men, cut off the tail of a horse, hoisted it on the end
of a spear, and rallied his forces to victory. As a reward, he received mili-
tary promotion, the emblem of which was a horse's tail. The rank of the
owner is known by the number of tails he is allowed, the highest being three,
and the officers are called "pachas of three tails."
The genuine East Indian horse is of small value, owing to the unsuitable
climate, which seems to be highly unfavorable to his improvement, and the
pure native-breed is small, ugly, and ill-made, being equally deficient in form,
spirit, and endurance. By judicious and repeated crossings, and the utmost
care in obtaining healthy stock, a species of horse has been introduced into
the country which will compare favorably with any other. The greatest and
most continued pains are necessary, however, or they will soon degenerate.
The European horses will next engage our attention^ One of the most
beautiful is the Spanish, or Andalusian, which originated from the Barbary
horse, the only fault being that the head is large in proportion to the body ;
the mane is thick, long, and graceful ; the ears long, and the eyes very ani-
mated. The Italian horses are very large and finely shaped ; they were once
highly esteemed, but are now principally used for carriage horses and for
heavy cavalry. Danish and Swedish horses are stout and well built, but slow
and inelegant. The Dutch and German horse is preferred throughout Eu-
rope as a draught horse. The Russian horse is large limbed and powerful,
with long, stiff hair, standing out from the body, and is not very highly
esteemed. The French horses differ much according to the portion of the
country from whence they come ; and the same may be said of the English
and American, to which I shall now invite your attention.
THE HOKSE. ' 685
The native English horse.-^, even in the seventeenth century, were very small,
though serviceable, and only commanding low prices.
After that time, in the seventeenth century, the breed of horses most in de-
mand was the Spanish Jennet, and they were imported for all purposes of
pageantry or war. The aristocracy had their coaches drawn by the gray
Flemish mares, which were thought to trot with peculiar grace, and which
endured better than others the labor of drawing the lumbering and heavy
vehicles of that period over the then rugged and unpaved streets of London.
The very common proverb of " the gray mare is the better horse," applied to
those families where the wife is supposed to rule the bouse, is said to have
arisen from the great preference given to the gray Flemish mare over the best
horses of England. The celebrated English hunter is supposed to have de-
rived its origin from a cross between the race-horse and some heavy Spanish '
chargers, brought into England in the reign of Edward the Third, and they
have ever since formed a distinct class.
With regard to the horses of America, we learn that large numbers were
brought over by the early Spanish and English discoverers. The first were
imported by Columbus, on his second voyage, in 1493. The first brought
to any territory now belonging to the United States, were landed in Florida,
in 1527, by Cabaca de Vaca. They were allowed to run loose during the
dissensions that followed, and multiplied to an almost incredible extent,
especially in South America
The wild horses found in North America, when the West was first explored,
were more hardy ; they were of Spanish extraction, and had been brought
into use by the natives to a great extent, though many v/ild herds of immense
numbers still roam freely over the prairies of our western territories.
The race of horses which originated those now used in this country, and
in Canada, were imported from various nations.
In 1609, one horse and six mares were brought to Virginia from England.
In 1825, a few Dutch horses from Holland were imported into New-Nether-
lands, now the State of New- York. In 1604, M. L. Escabot brought the
first horse into Canada and Nova Scotia, then known by the Indian name of
Acadia. The first horse brought into Massachusetts was from England, and
was imported by Francis Higginson, in 1629. In 1678, they existed in con-
siderable numbers in Louisiana. The Indians on Red River, in Texas, used
them in 1690. The early French settlers in Illinois had them inconsiderable
numbers in 1750.
The same vessels brought over the first importations of cattle, sheep, and
swine, and they have increased so as to form a most astonishing portion of
the wealth of the country.
The West Indian horses may properly be classed with those of America,
and they generally exhibit the characterising marks of the nation to which
the island belongs.
The Canadian horses are of French origin, and to this stock we are indebted
for most of the trotting horses of the United States. It is a marked pecu-
liarity of the Canadian horse that he always trots, as the Arabian horse
always canters. Other breeds exhibit all the peculiarities of movement,, in-
cluding the trot, canter, and amble, but the Arabian horse never trots, and
the Canadian rarely canters. Beside the trotting horse, we are indebted to
Canada for many of the most serviceable specimens of the cart and dray
horse, of their size, and in the northern part of this State, in Vermont, and
other sections on the Canada line, they ara met with in great abundance."
686 CORN, RYE, AND INDIAN-BREAD.
CORN, RYE, AND INDIAN -BREAD.
We have been rosolved into a committee for a special report on this very
important branch of the great culinary art, and if our readers do not under-
stand and act discreetly in reference to it hereafter, it is not our fault.
We profess to speak, in the following passages, ex cathedra, and if others
do not succeed in their earlier experiments, they must try again :
CORN-BREAD AS MADE AT GREEN's, CIIAMBERS-ST., N. Y.
Take 1 pints yellow corn-meal, 3 pints wheat flour, and mix them well to-
gether; then 6 egg'^, well broken, 2 cups melted butter, and a httle salt and
sugar to suit the taste. Put this mass together, and mix with milk to make
a batter about the consistency or stiffness of paste prepared for drop-cake.
Then dissolve three teaspoons-full of cream of tartar, and the same of soda;
pour it upon the mass, stir it in thoroughly, and dip it at once into pans, and
bake in a hot oven.
corx-bread as made at crooks', cii \tham-st., n. t.
Take 1 quart of milk, 3 eggs, beaten, butter half the size of an egg, cream
tartar, 1 tea^poonful, salt and sweeten to your taste. To this add corn-meal
to make a paste about the consistency of giiddle-cakes ; put in pan immedi-
ately, and bake in a hof oven.
BOSTON BROWN-BREAD.
To make this article, take of best yellow corn-uieal two parts ; of unbolted
rye-meal (the rye should be screened before grinding) one part ; partially
wet and mix the corn-meal with hot water, then add the rye and the yeast,
(hop-yeast, one pint to nine quarts of meal,) and thoroughly mix with more
warm water, if necessary, to make a mass neither hard nor soft, but stiff
enough to be transferred with care by the hand from the kneading-trough to
the pan ; then let it stand till it begins to show signs of rising ; put it into the
pans, and let it stand a few minutes if it is not "rising" too fast, then put
it to bake; if in a brick oven, six hours will be none too many ; if in a com-
mon stove or range, care must be had not to burn, and bake from three to
six hours according to size of loaf. The heat should be moderate after the
first two hours, but steady ; keep up a scalding heat after the outside is
brovt-ned properly.
Many people use three quarts or pounds of rye-meal to five quarts or
pounds of corn-meal, which, we think, are the best proportions for pure, New-
England " rye and Indian." S. D. Ostrander, Boston brown-bread baker, of
this city, 378 Bleecker street, uses 2 parts rye to 4 of corn-meal, and hop-
yeast, adding a little molasses to a part to suit the taste of customers. Too
much molassts is worse than none for most people.
But we next give the receipt which we would set forth as making a better
article than all the brown-bread ever baked in the city of Boston, where, of
course, bakers only imitate the " real original" article made by the house-
wives of Yankeeland. It will be perceived that we still bold on upon
milk, and ihough a large proportion of this bread is mixed with water only,
we go for this liquid as a valuable improvement;
STEREOSCOPES.
687
REAL NEW-ENGLAND BROWN-BREAD.
Take equal proportions of sifted rye and Indian meal, mix them well together ;
add half a tea-cup-full of molasses, and two gills of good yeast, to about three
quarts of the mixed meal. Wet this with good, new milk sufficient to make
a dough that can easily be worked, even with one hand. For economy's
sake, milk that has stood twelve hours, and from which the cream has been
taken, may be a substitute for the new milk ; or water which has been pressed
from boiled squash, or in which squash has been boiled, is a substitute much
better than pure water. But warm water is more C(vaimonly used. ^ The in-
gredients should be thoroughly mixed, and stand, in cold weather, for twelve
hours ; in warm weather two hours may be sufficient before baking.
If baked in a brick oven, a three-quart loaf should stand in the oven all
night. The same quantity in thive^ baking-pans will bake in about three
hours.
Serve this warm from the oven, with good, sweet butter, and we could fast
upon it every morning for breakfast, from January to December.
STEREOSCOPES — MR. MASCHER'S PATENT.
We took occasion, last month, to notice the new form of stereoscopes, pa-
tented by Mr. Mascher, of Philadelphia, by means of which daguerreotyned
persons are made to appear in a most wonderfully life-like form. We
have since seen another form, designed for views of natural scenery. This is
as neat and compact as those before described, being scarcely thicker than a
common leather daguerreotjq^e-case, and, perhaps, double the size of those
for one-quarter pictures. The effects on representations of natural scenery
are equally beautiful as in the case of the living form. Buildings, tree's, hills,
and other material objects, stand out in the boldness, and grandeur, and dis-
tinctness of reality. These pictures are photographic, and may be had either
on paper or on glass. Those on paper are very tine. Among these we have
seen are the Girard College, in Philadelphia, High Bridge, near New-York, the
Capitol at Washington, part of the White House, Niagara Falls, the Sus-
pension Bridge, Wa-?hington's Tomb, the Coliseum, etc. These are only 83
a dozen. Others are taken on glass, and are absolutely superb. The Capi-
tol at Washington, for example, looms up before you in all its massive pro-
portions, with all its ornamentations, its roughnesses, etc., hke the real
structure. These are $18 a dozen. Paper, on glass, so as to be transparent,
at $6 a dozen, are very fine — nearly equal to the best. The stereoscopic case
itself is only $2,50. Those who love elegant luxuries, and those who would
patronize real genius, in these its most useful discoveries and inventions, should
order, then, the most beautiful of all optical instruments. We wnsh our
finances wouLl all^w us an entire set of those on glass. These have a fine
effect in the evening, before a bright lamp, or ga-light. In using the paper
photographs, the light should fall brightly on thn picture.
Many of our realers may have seen similar renilts, in a less elegaut form,
by means of glass lenses in a large case, in connection with coarse engravings,
or as'thev are arranged in Barnum's Museum, round the sides of the room.
Those are either paintings or engravings. ^ Saddler's co^raoramas, that are so
688 MErEOROLOGICAL.
very beautiful, and excited so long and so widely the attention of citizens and
strangers, in his rooms on Broadway, are produced by similar processes,
^ough his pictures are vastly finer than those in the Museum. In this little
case, which, with the series of pictures, a gentleman could carry in his coat-
pocket, one may have a set of cosmoramas on his own parlor-table, and if he
loves beauty, they will not lie there forgotten or uncared for. Every caller
will be invited to look at them ; and at a party, when material for conversa-
tion runs loAV, scandal being used up and worn threadbare, these little repre-
sentations of the grand, or great, or beautiful scenes, made interesting by
historic incident, or by a personal visit, in times gone by, will be regarded
with peculiar satisfaction.
Do not forget Mr. John F. Mascher, 408 North Second street, Philadelphia.
A notion of this invention was given in the March number of SilUmaii's
Journal.
We will order and forward to any subscriber who wishes them the style
he may select.
rou THE rLOca:i, ths loom, and tub anvil.
METEOROLOGICAL.
Messrs. Editors : — I have seen some notices on the above subject in your
periodical,_and thinking a few remarks on the weather the last season might
be interesting to some of the readers of your wide-furrowed Plow, I subjoin
a few facts :
The summer of 1854 was extremely dry — a great and wide-spread dearth
of all the products of the earth : the corn did not ear, the oats Tlid not fill,
and many fields were mowed for fodder ; the grass did not seed, the hay was
short of nourishment, and takes one-third more to winter the stock than
usual.
Hay will command any price demanded — $20 per ton [$5 a usual price,
we suppose. — Eds,] is paid, and cattle starving. All edibles for man or beast
are scarce and dear. I have kept tables, and noted the range of the mercury
in the thermometer for some twenty years. Once in this time, previous to
the 6th last September, the mercury is recorded 100"^ ; that day, Gth Sep-
tember, at 12 o'clock, the mercury rose to 104^ above zero. Professor Z.
Thompson, of Burlington, was at my study. I requested him to step out and
look at it, which he did, and hung one he had with him by the side of mine ;
that soon rose to 104,'=' and both to 106° at 1 o'clock; barometer, 28,50.'*
About 4 o'clock, P. M., we had a shower with thunder and high wind, which
prostrated many fruit-trees, fences, and some buildings.
The winter has been moderate for our high latitude, except a few cold days.
The 20th December, the mercury fell to So^* below zero, as cold within one de-
gree as it has been in this locality for twenty years. December 22d, the
mercury stood at 26^ ; 23d, at 30« below zero; 25th, at sunrise, it stood
at 34" above zero, and would range as high as 88° at sunrise occasionally. On
the morning of the Gth of February, 1855, the mercury was 26'=', noon, 18'\
sunset, 24" ; the most tedious day last winter — a stinging N. W. wind.
Wednesday, the Yth, at sunrise, the mercury stood at 38" below zero— the
coldest morning for twenty years, or since I kept a thermometer. In many
localities in the state it stood at 40" below zero. The 9th of February, the
NEW AMERICAN PATENTS.
mercury rose to 11° above zero. April 2d, high, south wind, snow, and
wind all day ; and, until noon, the 3d, the roads were blocked up with snow
worse than at any other time through the winter. Blue-birds made their
appearance the 4th of April, and robins the 5th of April, 1854. Both birds
were seen by me on the 6th. The Louisville river cleared of ice, last year,
the 13th; this year, the lYth. Shower, with thunder, the 18th, at sunset.
Plowing was commenced the 19th ; last year, the 20th.
At this time, the weather is rather favorable — snow mostly gone on low
lands ; the mountains and hills mostly covered. Rain is needed to start the
grass. Ariel Hunton.
Hyde Park, April 22d, 1855.
NEW AMEEICAU PATENTS.
MORRIS'S IMPROVED BUCKET FOR CHAIN-PUMPS.
The annexed engravings illustrate an improvement in the bucket for the
common chain-pump, patented by Edmund Morris, of Trenton, N,- J., Janu-
ary 3, 1855, This bucket makes an entire change in the chain-pump, alter-
ing it from a mere lift- pump, which
loses its water the moment you
cease to turn the crank, into a suc-
tion pump, that retains the water,
and which a single turn of the crank
v/ill cause to discharge at the noz-
zle. Its construction is extremely
J simple, while its cost is probably no
more than the ordinary iron disk,
as, no matter how deep the well,
only two of these buckets are re-
quired to be in the log at the same
time, while the iron disks occur
every few mches. These numerous disks being dispensed with, the chain is,
therefore, much lighter.
Figure 2 is an iron casting, having a shank at A, at each end, by which
to rivet it to the chain. It is supplied with two flanches, C C, of equal di-
ameter, and these flanches are connected by a cone, B. A ring (1^ inches
in outside diameter) of India rubber, D, figure 1, is stretched over one of the
flanches on to the cone, and fills up the space between them, or very nearly
so, as seen in figure 1. This figure represents the bucket complete. It
must be remembered that the inside of the flanches, where they join the cone,
are hollowed out, so that the ring, when compressed by the passage up the
pump log, can partially contract itself into this hollow space, from which it
escapes as soon as the bucket emerges from the log, and recovers its original
elasticity. The bucket also, when ascending the log, will force the ring down
to the base or thickest part of the cone, thus causing a very trifling amount
of expansion of its diameter, or just enough to make a perfect air-tight fit,
and a consequent vacuum, like the piston of a syringe. As the upper bucket
escapes from the log, another one should enter at the bottom. Water is the
690
NEW AMERICAN PATENTS.
lubricator for gum, as oil is for metal ; tliere is, consequently, a very small
amount of friction.
These buckets possess the merit of not wearing out the log, nor themselves.
They will last many years, and should the ring:?, from any cause, require re-
newing, a new set can be put on in five minutes. All the old pumps now
in use can have the old buckets replaced witli these, the same gearing an-
swering in both cases. The bucket which is to receive the ring cau be cast
at any country foundry, and the patentee can furnish the rings at a very
small price. No change of weather affects the elasticity of the rings, as the
gum is vulcanized expressly for the purpose. It would be difficult to con-
struct a pump which works more accurately.
Particulars may be learned by addressing the patentee.
NEW SEWING-MACHINE.
"We present our readers with a representation of a novelty in the line of
sewing-machines. This is entirely different from those so widely known and
so extensively used. The inventor is F. R. Robinson. It has since been in
the hands of Howard & Davis, the well-known clock and gold-balance manu-
facturers, and in their establishment, under the supervision of S. R. Roper, a
new needle and some other improvements have. been added. The motion is
all communicated by a cam on the shaft, to which is attached the balance-
wheel, as shown in the cut. By the revolution of the cam, the two arms, di-
verging from a common axis, are elevated and depressed. At the extremity
of each arm are placed the needles. The needles are a curiosity in them-
Belves, being hollow, and in each is a piston. As the under arm comes up,
a shoulder on the piston of that needle meets a stop ; the needle then has
passed through the cloth — the eye of the needle is opened by the stoppage
of the piston, and then receives the thread; as the arm retires, the eye is
NEW AMERICAN PATENTS. 691
closed, and the thread is carried down through the cloth — the thread ren-
ders through the needle's eye loosely, and is left ready to be received by the
upper needle in its descent, when it is again taken through the cloth in an
upward direction by the ascending arm. Thus the thread is passed
through and through the cloth, and the stitch is formed the same as by hand.
The needles on the ends of the arms are adjustable (by a set-screw) from
right to left, and vice versa, so that any size of stitch may be obtained that
is desired, either a back or forward-stitch. In fact, any through-stitch that
is taken by hand is produced on this machine ; even the whip, or over-and-
over-stitch. The sewing, by this invention, has no under thread by shuttle
or spool. A single thread is only used. The sewing can not be distinguished
from the best of hand production, except by its mechanical accuracy. By a
very simple arrangement, any required degree of tension is obtained ; and by
the turning of a screw, the seam can be fastened off, just as by a woman, at
the beginning and ending. This is the only machine which makes the same
stich that is made by the seamstress with her needle.
As a specimen of ingenuity and workmanship, we think them well worthy
of examination ; and those who want the best work with the least labor had
Better look into them, and see for themselves.
The following is taken from the circular issued by the patentees :
" This new sewing-machine is respectfully recommended to public notice,
and an examination of its work and merits solicited.
This machine actually sews, threading its oion needle, and the single thread,
passing through the cloth each time, forms the stitches the same as hy hand,
(without loop or chain,) but with that regularity, precision and rapidity,
attainable only by machinery.
With very slight changes in the position of the needles, (by the turning
of a screw,) each machine will produce any and every variety of through-
stitch that can be made by hand, and with any required degree of tension.
The seam i?, fastened at each end as readily as in hand sewing.
It is applicable for sewing on any fabric; requires no special manufacture
of silk or thread, the same kind and the same quantity being used as needed
for the same stitch by hand, and no ripping or unraveling of the work.
The gain in the use of this machine over hand work is not less than six
TIMES in quantity ; v/hile in quality it can not be approached.
They are manufactured with the greatest care and accuracy, very easily
operated and understood, and can be used with less expense, and with less
requirements for repairs, than any other machine now before the public.
Tailors, clothing dealers, habit and mantilla makers, ladies' boot
and SHOE manufacturers, and all interested in obtaining the perfection of
sewing by machinery, are particularly invited to examine this new and ino-e-
nious invention.
The advantage it possesses over all other machines, in the ability of vary-
ing the stitch according to the work required, will sufficiently recommend it
as the best for family use.
Ample printed directions and extra needles are sent with each machine
and they are securely packed for transportation to any part of the country.
They are all set up and ready for use as soon as taken from the box.
Price ^150. Orders should state for what kinds of work they are desired
that suitable needles may be furnished,"
692
NEW AMERICAN PATENTS.
AMES'S POLYGRAPH NEW WRITING MACHINE.
We have seen a machine, recently patented by Mr. Nathan Ames, a lawyer,
of Saugus, Mass., the purpose of which is to write, at one and the same time,
two copies of any document, and with about the same ease and rapidity with
which a single one could be written in the usual manner. Any kind of paper
may be used, which can be written upon by a common pen, and with the
saiiie ink that is used in the ordinary mode of writing. One is not an im-
pression from the other, but both copies are alike, written by separate pens,
and each one is a perfect fac-simile of the other, the hair lines, heavy strokes,
<kc., being the same in both ; and both as much under the control of the
writer, and exhibiting all the elegances of penmanship, as by the use of a
st»el or quill pen. If this is not an immense stride in useful inventions,
applicable to common business affairs, we are very much in error. No law-
yer who has contracts or bonds to write, of which duplicates are required,
will be without one for a week, after he knows the "ubilities of this instru-
ment. It would pay for itself in its first fifty pages.
Below, we present a diagram of this invention. A and A', in figure 1,
are two parallel surfaces, either of the size of letter paper, or foolscap, or
other desired form and dimensions, and about one inch and a half apart.
I^etween A' and the bottom of the machine is also a space of about an inch
and a half. These plates may be of wood, metal, or glass. In the machines
now in operation, plate glass is used, as it is perfectly smooth, uniform, and
not liable to warp. They are kept in position by end and bottom pieces, (as
represented in the engraving,) which may be of wood or any other material.
'lnt«) the right hand side of one of the end pieces, a rod, E, about nine
inches long, and a quarter of an inch thick, and bent as represented in the
engraving, is inserted, so that it swings horizontally and freely upon its point
NEW AMERICAN PATENTS.
693
of insertion. To the end of this is also hinged another smaller or lighter
ro.d or wire, G, as represented in the engraving, which also swings horizon-
tally upon its point of connection with the rod, E. To the end of the rod,
G, is also hinged another rod, I, which, at a few inches from its point of con-
nection with the rod, G, divides itself into two parallel prongs, J J, about an
inch and a half apart. At the ends of these prongs, and at right angles
with them, two pens, 0 0, are inserted. These are so adjusted as that their
points are precisely the same distance apart as the upper surfaces of the two
parallel plates. From the diagram, it is evident that each pen will have pre-
cisely the same motion. If, then, a sheet of paper be placed on each plate,
the writing which is done upon the upper surface will be exactly reproduced
upon the lower. The elasticity of the wires is such that the slightest pres-
sure will bring the pens down upon the paper. By an arrangement of the
inkstands, D D, upon one of the end pieces, both pens can be inked at the
same time. To hold the paper firmly, a metal ferule or strap, B, is laid at
one end, and held by slight springs at the ends, a little above the plate.
The paper being placed beneath, the bar is pressed down upon it, and held
fast by the button, C. The lower sheet is held in like manner by a wooden
bar, H, which, by means of rods and spiral springs, is pushed down simul-
taneously with the upper strap, B. The whole arrangement and operation
will be comprehended at a glance.
The pens are inserted through a split in the ends of the prongs, R R, and
held fast by little rings or collars on the prongs. They can be changed or
adjusted in a moment. Any pens will answer, but fountain pens are prefer-
able, on account of the greater quantity of ink they hold. The pen handle
is secured to the upper prong by two loops of wire, forming a universal joint,
(in mechanical eflfect exactly like the ball and socket joint,)
It is obvious that by increasing the number of prongs, and the number of
•writing surfaces, the number of copies can be increased at will.
Figure 2 represents an apparatus in which the writing is all done upon the
694 NEW AMERICAN PATENTS.
same surface, instead of being done upon parallel surfaces. Small wires'
B B, bent at right angles at the ends, L L, and there inserted into the writ-
ing surfiice or bed plate, so as to swing freely in their sockets, are also bent
in the opposite direction, and at right angles at the other ends. These other
extremities are connected together b}'' a wire, C, the same length as the dis-
tance between the points, L L. To these extremities also are hinged two
other wires, D D, which, at their further ends, are also bent upwards at right
angles, as represented in the engraving. These upward bends of the wires
are passed through small holes in a light hollow steel rod, E E E. To this
rod are attached the jjens, P P, in the same manner as described in figure 1.
All these wires swing horizontally with the greatest ease, and with no per-
ceptible friction. The wires, B B and D D, may be about six or nine inches
in length, according to the size of the machine; the rod, E E E, of any
length required. The pens must be as far apart as the vndih of the sheets
to be written on. The pen handle is attached to the bar in the same manner
as in figure 1.
When not being written with, the spring of the wires, D D, will lift the
points of the pens a little above the surface upon which the paper is placed.
The slightest pressure brings them down upon the paper. The same arrange-
ment for holding the paper is used as in figure 1. The inkstands, 1 1, are
the same distance apart as the pens, w^hich will thus be inked simultaneously.
From the engraving, it will be seen that a third pen might be inserted at the
right hand of the bar, E E E, so as to make three copies at once. This is
entirely practicable ; but usually, two copies are sufficient ; and instead of a
third pen, a small screw rod there, is found to be useful in regulating the
pens, so as to insure their always touching the paper together. In this ma-
chine, as in the other, a writing surface of plate glass is found to be the best.
With both, one of the copies can be taken in a book, by inserting the right
hand side of the open volume into the space beneath the glass, and turning
the next sheet down upon it.
In either apparatus, the whole actual mechanism consists of the wires and
the sockets upon which they swing. The rest is made up of the pens, the
inkstands, the writing surfaces, and the arrangement for copying in a book.
It would be difficult to conceive any contrivance to accomplish the desired
end, wherein there would be less friction, or greater ease of movement.
This apparatus may also be applied to the multiplication of copies of plans
and drawings of various sorts, in a much better style than is possible with
coppying-presses. Old plans, nearly worn out, may thus be renewed. It may
be made in a very economical manner, or finished as an ornamental piece of
furniture for a parlor or library. It may be so compact as to be carried very
conveniently in one's trunk, as he travels. For reporters it saves half, or
more of the labor and the time, which is to them a matter of great im-
portance. The cost is considerably less than of a good letter-copying press.
We should judge that it can not exceed ten to fifteen dollars.
Harvey Brown, Esq., No. 121 Nassau street,- has the disposal of the ■
rights, and the sale of machines, or the orders may be sent to this office.
We do not hesitate to recommend this invention as one of great value.
It is not liable to get out of order. From the experiments we have made,
we prefer the first form. Perhaps a longer trial would change our opinion.
It occupies less surface on a table, but perhaps the lower pen does not so ex-
actly exhibit the variations of pressure applied by the hand, to the upper, as
* we witness in the use of the second form.
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS. 695
Prince's Protean Fountain Pen, Patented 1855. — We are now writ-
ing with an instrument bearing this appellation. It is a capital invention.
We do not know, from experiment, how long it can be used without being
" dipped into the ink,'' and probably may not acquire such knowledge very
soon. We have, thus far, in fact, written only three or four pages of letter
sheet, at one sitting ; but we are told that this pattern will write "six hours"
without replenishing the ink. It will write long enough, at any rate, and for
aught we can discover, it works admirably. We have been among the faith-
less in respect to such an invention, but must confess ourself highly gratified,
so far, with its action. The contrivance for regulating the flow of ink is very
simple and very ingenious. A well finished gold pen is applied to the handle,
which, being hollow, is the fountain, and is of a material (Goodyear's Patent)
not acted upon unfavorably by the ink. It requires a "fluid" free from sedi-
ment ; and with this proviso, any of the various inks may be used with it.
The electric Spring of the pen, in writing, acts upon a metallic spring, which
causes a greater or less rapid flow of the ink. Hence, this flow is propor-
tioned accordmg to the quantity required by the style of the hand employed.
The common size costs |3. Oti&ee, 8 Appleton's Buildings, 348 Broadway.
Oil-Socket and Screw-Plug. — Alfred C. Garratt, M. D., of Hanover,
Mass., has recently invented an oil-socket and screw-plug for lubricating car-
riage-wheels, which is highly spoken of. By means of this simple apparatus,
inserted in the hub of any carriage, cart or artillery, the axle can be cleaned
and oih'd without removing the wheel.
Dr. Garratt has secured a patent for his invention for this country and
Europe. He is now negotiating with our government to have it applied to
artillery and all public vehicles.
It is stated that by means of this apparatus, the wheels of the heaviest
ordnance, by land or on ship-board, could be oiled, without the labor of re-
moving them, and also with the saving, in all cases, of oil now wasted when
poured upon the naked axle.
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
INGRAM'S CAST-STliEL RIFLE BARRELS AND BULLET MOULDS.
The use of round shot is altogether a delusion. It is, indeed, such a gross
misconception, as could never have arisen but for an excess of apathy and
inattention to the suhie-ct, and its very obvious requirements. The spherical
form of projectiles presents difficulties and defects throughout both the raau'
ufacture and use of the shot. Spheres are by no means nice things to cast.
The greate-t care of the moulder will not always insure accuracy of shape,
as the conditions necessary for a successful reproduction of the pattern's con-
tour are wholly wanting. Then, when the naked shot is fired from the gun,
whatever irregularities there may be in its form exercise a most powerfully-
deranging influence upon the aim. And even if the shot were truly spheri-
cal, it, does not follow that a true, even traverse would be obtained, as the
explosive action does not necessarily give a perfectly central driving pressure.
Hence, in addition to the severe battering of the gun's bore, we have the
696 NEW ENGLISH PATENTS,
total derancfement of the aim which ensues from the last rebound of the shot
at the muzzle.
The cjlindroconoid obviates all this. It is easy to cast with accuracy,
and its elongated form affords it a good guide along the bore, rendering it
independent of all irregularities of shape, and any side action of the explosion.
The substitution of the cylindro-conoid for the sphere has the additional ad-
vantage, that it provides an easy means of getting at the proper weight for a
given size of shot. The regulations of the Ordnance as to the weight of their
spherical shot are excessively stringent, so much so, that few founders can
meet their requirements. Now, it is obvious that the sphere, being a form
with which no liberties can be taken, the adjustment of the shot's weight
must be through the specific gravity of the iron alone ; and as the density of
the metal varies, to some extent, in every locality, difficulties on this point
will always be oppressive. But whatever form we choose for the shot, we
•must resort to clothing, both as a protection for the bore, and a means of in-
creasing the accuracy of the flight, and the effective length of range. This
clothing is possible under various forms. A cup-piece of leather'or cheap
pasteboard may be pasted upon one end of the shot for this purpose. If at
the rear end of the shot this cup-piece, which would also be a wadding, would
leave the shot on quitting the muzzle, so as to offer no impediment to the
flight. If at the front end, provision must be made for the easy separation
of the clothing-cap ; and this may be done by dividing the cup-piece into
sections, which are merely held together by some slight tie, or connection,
sufficient to retain the cap in form until the gun is charged. When the shot
emerges from the muzzle, the pieces of the eap separate and fly oft".
Mr. Kennedy, who intends to adopt some such contrivance as this, has
been most successful in making effective shot on his "guide-winged" prin-
ciple. A shot of this kind, made lately at Kilmarnock, to fit a 10-incli gun,
is 30 inches long from base to apex, and it weighs 314 pounds. The thick-
ness of the metallic shell is 1|- inch, and it is bored out to a length of 24
inches, the remaining 6 inches of the conoidal part being solid. The guide
or rifle-wings are angled, or inclined, to the shot's axis, to a sufficient extent,
to give one turn in 50 feet of flight. This extent of rifle action is ample for
the purpose; most rifle-makers have erred by giving too much turn, to the
great increase of the atmospheric resistance.
SLATER AND TALL'S WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY.
Mr. Thomas Slater, the optician, well known for his valuable inventions
in connection with the mechanical arrangements of the electric light, and
Mr. Joseph Tall, a tool-maker of acknowledged ability, have recently com;
bined their endeavors for the improvement of the wood-worker's tools, with
the most satisfactory result. The particular subject which they have taken
in hand is the manufacture of joiners' and carpenters' planes, by the aid of
set machinery, in such way that peculiar accuracy in the work is secured, in
conjunction with great rapidity of production.
Messrs. Slater and Tail's invention comprehends, firstly, an arrangement
of machinery for cutting the parallel sides of the blocks out of which the
planes are to be formed ; and, secondly, machinery for mortising the angular
cavity into which the plane iron is fitted.
NEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
697
Fig. 1 of our engravings is a side elevation, and fig. 2 is a plan of the
machine for cutting'the parallel sides of the blocks out of which the planes
are to be fornaed.
The working parts of this maeliine are supported by the cast-iron bed, A,
similar to an ordinary lathe-bed, and upon this bed is situated the transverse
slide-rest, b, which carries the rough blank, c, between the two revolving cir-
cular cutters, D. These cutters are composed of a number of steel segments,
with serrated or toothed edges, bolted on to metal discs, e. The edges of the
cutters next the block are slightly dished, or inclined inwards, for the purpose
of forming a smooth cut, free from marks. The holding discs, e, are screwed,
or otherwise secured upon the ends of the respective spindles, f, which work
on the headstocks, g, standing up from the bed, A. These spindles may be
driven by belts, and are fitted with suitable fast and loose driving-pulleys.
The block, c, out of which the plane is to be made, is secured firmly upon
the slide-rest by the screw-clamps or brackets, i, and is traversed forward be-
tween and against the two circular cutters by turning the hand-wheel, J, on
the front end of the horizontal screw spindle, k, which spindle revolves in
collar bearings at each end of the slide-rest frame. The distance between
the cutters is varied according to circumstances, by adjusting the headstocks
698 NEW ENGLISH PATENTS.
on the bed, A, iu the manner adopted in ordinary lathes. The sides of the
block having thus been cut perfectly smooth and. parallel, it is taken out of
the clamps, and turned so as to present the other two uncut sides to the action
of the cutters, the slide-rest in the meantime having been brought back again
to its original position, in readiness for the second traverse of the block. The
four sides of the block having thus been cut perfectly smooth and parallel, it
may be removed to one of the mortising machines, for the purpose of having
the angular cavity for the iron cut therein. These circular cutters are obvi-
ously applicable for grooving moulding-planes.
Thistle Paper. ^ Lord Berriedale, London. Patent dated July 8,
1854. — Whilst India and other tropical regions have been traversed in search
of a plant to be used in place of rags in the paper manufacture. Lord Berrie-
dale has turned his attention nearer home, and has selected the common
thistle as the most suitable plant for his purpose. His invention relates to
the application and use of the common thistle, or Carduus, as it is termed,
according to the botanical classification of Linnaaus, in the manufacture or
production of pulpy material from which paper is to be made, as well as in
the manufacture of a fibrous material for textile pu'poses. All the varieties
of the thistle plant are applicable for the purposes of this invention, but more
particularly the large Scottish thistle, which grows luxuriantly in many parts
of the British islands, attaining a great height and thickness of stem. Such
thistles furnish, in each plant, a large amount of long fibre of greit tenacity,
and which, when duly prepared, is most excellently suited for the preparation
of a powerfully cohering paper pulp, as well as for use in textile manufactures.
^ In adapting the thistle to the manufacture of paper pulp, the plant is used
either in a green or dried state. If employed in its natural green condition,
it is cut or gathered, and at once beaten or broken up by any suitable me-
chanism, such as is used in the primary treatment of the flax plant, so as to
disintegrate the fibrous or ligneous matter. During this breaking treatment,
the mucilaginous and aqueous matter present is washed clear away, either by
pure water, or by an acidulous solution, or by any other economical and
effective cleansing agent. When the thistle stems are thus fully reduced or
disintegrated, the resultant fibrous mass is worked up or macerated in the
usual manner, for the production of a pulp suitable for the use of the paper.
maker. This pulp may be used iu the manufacture of paper, either unmixed,
or commingled with other materials already in use for making paper. The
routine of manufacture into paper of the pulp is similar to that pursued with
the ordinary rag pulp, or it may be varied as the properties of the thistle
may suggest. The thistle fibre being strong, the paper made from it is of
great tenacity, the fibres cohering well together in the paper machine, and
being worked up with very little loss from washing away. The fibres are
also of good color ; hence, paper of a fmr color may be made from them with-
out bleaching, and if bleaching is resorted to, a very good white color is ob-
tained at a slight expense. The mucilaginous or gummy matter dislodged
frona the fibres may be collected and applied in the manufacture of gum or
glutinous matter, or it may be otherwise rendered commercially valuable, so
as still further to economise the thistle manufacture. In applying the thistle
plant to the manufacture of textile materials, the fibres are primarily pre-
MISCELLANEOUS. 699
pared in the mariner already described, and then subsequently treated ac-
cording to the existing textile processes — such, for instance, as are adopted in
the flax manufacture, the thistle fibre being closely allied to the fibre from
the flax plant, as regards its general characteristics. Being strong and of
good staple, the thistle fibre is particularly well suited for the spinning and
weaving processes.
MISCELLANY
Hurd's Hair Restorer ! — Judging from the numerous certificates of
well-known persons, attesting the eflicacy of this article in not only keeping
the head clean, and preventing the hair falling off", but in actually producing
a new growth of hair on bald heads — even in some cases after several years
of baldness, we can but believe that it possesses restorative properties
scarcely found elsewhere, and think that persons wishing to preserve their
hair, or produce a new growth, would look in vain for a better article for that
purpose.
Why do Teeth Decay ? — In a short paragraph on this subject, our friends
of the Scientific American say : "It is our opinion that if more coarse, hard
biscuit were eaten in early life, to exercise the teeth, they would be less
liable to early decay." We think so too, beause such an application of force
would eject them from their sockets before they had " much of a chance" to
" decay." But the idea of exercidng teeth is as novel to us as would be the
exercise of toe and finger nails. We don't think that is quite up to the
proper standard of a "scientific" oracle.
OziER Willow. — The first person who attempted to cultivate this profita-
ble crop, systematically and successfully, in this country, it is said, is Mr. John
Reed, of Staten Island. At this time. Dr. C. W. Grant, of Nevvburgh, N. Y.,
is, perhaps, the most extensive cultivator. He grows nearly a hundred
varieties.
Georgia Marble. — Two specimens of marble — one of beautiful white
color, almost translucent, of a very fine grain, and susceptible of very high
polish ; the other variegated, and exceedingly beautiful — have been disco-
vered in Cassville, Georgia.
NEW BOOKS.
"Westward, Ho I Thu; Voyages and Adventures of Sib Amtas Leigh Knight. By
CharliJS KiNGSLEY. Boston : Ticknor & Fields, 1855.
Kingsley, who is the author of " Alton Locke," «fec., has here opened a new vein
for himself, to the working of which he has bronght all the skill he has manifested
on other occasions. It is, so far as we know, a vein untouched by any other hand.
It brings before us the country life of the middling classes in England, in the age of
Elizabeth, when the knight errantry of the past was dying away, or rather was
breathing its own spirit of daring and adventure into the more practical life which
was dawning upon mankind. We are introduced liere to Raleigh, not as the coui't-
ier, but as the general and voynger, to Edmund Spencer, Drake, Frobisher, Haw-
kins, and many others whose names the world will not willingly let die. The scene
changes from England to the wilds of South America, with an interlude in Ireland,
and after adventures, many and wonderful, closes with the events attending the de-
struction of the Spanish Armada — a grand finale. The least successful part of the
work is the love-story, which, of course, accompanies the grander acts, yet this, too,
is not without interest.
700 NEW BOOKS.
The Complete Works of Shakspeare, including his Playp, Poems, and Life, from the
Origin il Text, carefully collated and compared with the editions of Knight, Hal-
lowell, and Collier. With Historical Introductions and Notes, explanatory and
critical. Illustrated, <tc. Published by Martin & Johnson, 91 Walker-st , N. Y.
A new edition of Shatspeare may, to some of ourreadei's, appear unnecessary ; but
we tliiiik otherwise, and for several reasons. Among these reasons are the fact
that every new edition probably multiplies his readers; and another, still more im-
portant, which is applicable not to all, but to this, we have as yet no elegant Ameri-
can edition of this great writer. Shakspeares, indeed, we have, in one volume, with
type to ruin thou-ands of eyes, and in more than one, in which the defects are only the
more conspicuous. This edition is in quarto form, and it is an elegant edition. IThe
whole execution is elegant, whether paper, or printing, or engravings. There will
be about foi'ty numbers, each 25 cents, and each having a handsome illustration.
No. 1 has an engraved title-page, and an elegant portrait of Shakspeare, surrounded
by scenes and characters illustiating his plays. In the 2d, is a full-length poi trait of
Forrest as "Hamlet," a good likeness. In the 3d, a scene from "Much Ado About
Nothing." In the 4th, likenesses of Charlotte and Susan Oushman, as in " Komeo and
Juliet," Act. 3, Scenes. In the 5th. Anne I'age and Slender, &o. The engravings
are executed in a very superior manner, and the publishers deserve an extensive pa-
tronage. Specimen numbers will be sent to order, if 31 cents and postage is enclosed
to us or the publishers.
Practical Landscape Gardening, with Reference to the Improvement of Rural Res-
idences, giving the General Principles of the Art, with full Directions for Planting
Shade Trees, Shrubbery, and Flowers, and Laying Out Grounds. By G. M. Kebn.
Cincinnati: Moore, Wilstach, Keys & Co., 1855. 328 pp. Price, $1,50.
_ The title of this book explains its purpose, and that purpose is ably and fully car-
ried out. The first part is an exposition of the theory and practical operations of
landscape gardening as an art of design and taste. The second explains its adapta-
tion to pleisure grounds, the farm, cemeteries, ete. Directions for the kitchen gar-
den are added. Twenty-two illustrations are given. Mr. Kern shows that his supe-
rior advantages for acquiring a thorough knowledge of this subject have not been
neglected. This volume is full, thoroutih, judicious, and well worthy the notice of all
owners of rural dwellings. It is for sale by C. M. Saxton.
De Bow's Review vor April. — This number contains the usual amount of current
information, under the heads of " Literary and Miscellaneous," " Agriculture and
Horticulture," " Home and Foreign Commerce," " Mining, Manufactures, and Inter-
nal Improvements," and "Education." Among the articles are "The South and the
Union ;" " Practical Effects of Emancipation," by D J. McCord, of South Carolina ;
"Selection of Seed in Agriculture," by J. W. Scott, of Ohio ; "Public Dtbts and Se-
curities;" "Sugar Trade of the United States;" "Southern Convention of New Or-
leans;" 'CKmmon Schools and Universities, North and South," &e., etc. The editor
is a^ain devoting his entire energies to the work, and urges prompt remittances from
Bubscribers, as well as an increase of their number. He c,an supply the back numbers
of any sei ic? from the beginning, or a digest of the whole work, in three octavo vol-
umes, for $6, postage free. Address, New-Orleans and Washington City. It is a
favorable season to subscribe.
Put.vam's Monthly. — TliI^ popular magazine is now published by Messrs. Dix &
Edward, who have become the proprietors, with anew editorial department. A card
from Mr.Putnatri assures us that "in all departments of elegant literature, criticism,
popular instruction and amusement, the new management bas already secured the
promise of most hearty co-operation from the best writers ;" and he adds — '■ We have
no he.sitation in assuring the readers and contributors of the magazine, that they
may rely with entire confidence upon the future character of the work, and that the
onlj' change Avill be for the better. It will continue to have our own active co-ope-
ration, and all orders for the trade will be supplied by us as heretofore." OPice, as
before 10 Park Place.
NEW BOOKS. 701
Merrie England. Travels, Descriptions, Tales, and Historial Sketches. By Grace
Greenwood. Twelve Illustrations by Devereux, and Vignette. Boston: Tick-
nor & Fields, 1855. 261 pp.
Grace Greenwood needs no commendation from us. This handsome volume is
honorable to tlie publishers, and is worlbj'^ the eminent author. The selection of
topics is excellent. These are, Stratford upon the Avon, Newstead Abbey, Sherwood
Forest, Nottingham Castle, Warwick Castle, Lincoln Cathedral, and York Minster;
Kenilwor.th Castle, London and the Tower, Westminster Abbey, and the new Palace
of Westminster. Under the Tower, we have Ladies Jane aud Catherine Grey and
Arabella Stuart.
The Flower Garden ; or, Breck's Book of Flowers. By Joseph Brece. Second
thousand. Boston: John P. Jewett & Co., 1851.
Mr. Breek is a gentleman of education and large experience. He formerly edited the
New-England Farmer, and the Horticultural Register. He is, also, and for many
years has been, one of the prominent members and an otBcer of the Massachusetts
Horticultural Society. We regard his opinions aa worthy of especial attention,
while his years of careful observation and constant practice entitle him to the respect
of the wisest and most successful. We commend this book especially to those for
whom it was more especially designed, the amateur and the unpractised.
The Practical Fruit, Flower, and Vegetable Gardener's Companion, witb a Calen-
dar. By Patrick Neill, L. L. D., F. R. S. E, etc. ; adapted to the United States
from the Fourth Edition. Revised and Improved by the Author. Edited by G.
Emerson, M. D., Editor of Johnson's Farmers' Encyclopedia. With Notes and Ad-
ditions, by R. G. Pardee ; with elegant Illustrations. New- York : C. M. Saxton &
Co., 1855. 402 pp.
This is a good book, with well executed engravings. We have not had time for a
thorough examination, but a partial reading has given us a very favorable opinion of
its merits. We shall notice it further hereafter.
The American Fruit Book. By S. W. Cole. Boston : John P. Jewett & Co., 1854.
Twentieth thousand.
This little manual, of 288 pages, contains muJtum in parvo — viz: directions for
raising, propagating, and managing; fruit-trees, shrubs and plants, and a description
of the best varieties of fruit, with numerous engravings. On these subjects, Mr. Cole
was excellent authority, and he condensed into this little volume the results of many
years' experiments and observation. Its extensive sale shows the estimation in which
it is properly held by the public.
Sabbath-Morning Readings on the Old Testament. By Rev. John Gumming, D.D.,
F. R. S. E., etc. The Book of Leviticus. Boston: John P. Jewett & Go., 1855.
341 pp.
The works of this eminent author, who has no equal in this department, have
passed more than once under our notice, and with our unqualified approbation. This
volume is worthy of the previous issues. No work within our knowledge can take
the place occupied by this series.
The Daily Life; or. Precepts and Prescriptions for Christian Living. By Rev
John Gumming, etc. John P. Jewett & Co., Boston. 279 pp.
This volume, by the author of the preceding, is intended for "those who are busy
by day, and very weary at eventide," — a very numerous class, — for whom " we re-
quire, not arid dogmas, however orthodox, but warm joys, sustaining strength, cheer-
ing hopes, and inspiring expectations; we need, also, direction, guidance, encourage-
ment." How well this idea is carried out, those familiar with this learned author
need not be informed.
702
LIST OF PATENTS ISSUED.
The Pkactical Land-Drainer; a Treatise on Draining Land, etc. Numerously Tllus-
traieJ. By J. Munn, Landscape Gardener. New- York : C. M. Saxton & Co., 1855.
18G |.p.
This 13 a good treatise on a most important subject. Mr. Munu is well versed in
tliis department, and has produced a book worthy of general attention. The direc-
tions are full and generally judicious, and quite sufficient as a guide to any farmer.
Our readers may notice other references to this volume in this 6r in future" numbers.
Thk Daily Monitor ; being a portion of the Scripture, an Anecdote, and a Verse of
a Hymn, for every day of the year. By Rev. John Allen. With an Introduction,
by ilev. E. N. Kirk. Boston : John P. Jewett & Co., 1855. 219 pp.
This little volume is handsomely printed, and the plan is well carried out. The
introduction, of only five pages, is worth the price of the book.
All these publications of Jewett and Co. are in tlie usual excellent style of that
efficient house.
A Boy's Adventures in the Wilds of Australia ; or, Herbert's Note Book. By
WiLLi.^M Howitt. With Illustrations. Boston: Ticknortfe Fields, 1855. 359pp.
Our young author says, on his first page, "things are very fond of fl\ing in this
country, The squirrels fly ; the grasshoppers fly ; the mice fly ; and I see all sorts
of seeds flying at a great rate. I shall, therefore, let my thoughts and observations
fly on paper to old England, for it is an old proverb that 'at Rome you must do as
the Romans do.' " This light, pleasant style is characteristic of the volume.
NEW MUSIC.
Horace Waters, 333 Broadway, whose advertisement of Pianos, &e., has been
published in this journal, continues his publications of music as usual. Among the
latest are " Light and Shade," by Oscar Oomettant, "LeTrefle Waltz, Polka, and
Schotti'ih ;" and among the vocal pieces, " The Fireman's Heart is Bold and Free," a
very taking song; "Twilight is Chasing the Last Beams of Day," simple and pretty;
"Oae Day Out," a sea song; "Mary's Beauty," "Our Boys," <fee.
Wm. Hall & Son issue among their new pieces, " The Miner's Tribute Waltz," by
J. A. Fowler; "Rigoletto," Opera de Verdi; ballad, "La Donna e Mobile," by W,
V. Wallace; and among the vocal pieces, "Music Murmurings in the Trees," by
Wallace, adapted by Jarvis, song and quartette, very beautiful, 25 cents; "Hazel
Dell," by WurtzeC with variations by Wm. lucho, rather difficult, but very good ;
"The Wild Tiadatton," ballad, by Chas. Jarvis, very pretty and simple*
List of Patents Issued
FROM FKB. 27, TO APRIL 3, 1855.
Geo. C. Allen, of Key West, for improvemeTit
in machines for cleaning sisal hemp and stripping
seed from lircom corn.
John Allen, of New-York, for improvement in
life boats.
J. J. Anderson, of Beaver, Penn., for improve-
ment in cook stoves.
Tl.irmon W. Ballard, of Burlington, Vf., for im-
provement in springs for wagons.
Wm. n^iUauf, and Fred. Wurth, of Cincinnati,
for improvement in guards lor door locks.
E. C. Benyard, of Philadelphia, for safe catch
for br ■ust-pins, &c.
Nehemiah B. Chase, and Chauncey W. Saund-
ers, of Wiikinsoiiville, Mass., for improvement in
hand cultivators.
Charles Orum. of Hudson, for improvement in
proces-es for making bread.
Bene Charks Demolon, and George Alexander
Charles Thurmeyssen, of Paris. France, for im-
provement in tr^atiiig fish for manure and oil.
Julias C Dickey, of ^^aratogIl Springs, for im-
provement in harness saddle-trees.
LIST OF PATENTS ISSUED.
708
p. A. GloasoD, of Rome, N. Y., for macWne for
cutting mitre and other joints.
Robert B. Gorsuch, of N. Y., for direct double-
acting hydraulic steam punap.
G-uy H. Hubhard, of Shelburne Falls, Mass., for
improved auger handle fastening.
Marcus F. Hydp, of Burlington, N. J., for im-
provement in soda water apparatus.
Geo. Martz, of Pottsville, for improvement in
coal screen.
Sam. W. Powell, of Tuscarora Valley, Penn.,
for improved mill for grinding and bolting sumac.
Jesse Reed, of Marshfield, Mass., for improve-
ments in steering apparatus.
Newton D. Robins, of Edinburgh, Ind,, for im-
provement in the combination of an air chamber
water cooler and force pump in soda fountains.
Edward Rice, of Canandaigua, for improvement
in railroad car coupling.
John W. Smith, and John S. Gallagher, Jr., of
Washington, for improved fire-place.
John Ptainthorp, of Bufialo, for improvement in
D achines for making candles.
Linus Stewart, of Washington, D. C, for im-
provement in the mode of constructing saw plates
and setting teeth therein.
Wm. L. Whittaker, of Cumberland, Maryland,
for improvement in machines for stuffing horse
collars.
John Williams, for improved arrangement of
exhaust pipss in locomotive engines.
William VV. Willis, of Orange, Mass., for im-
proved mode of extracting slumps.
Virgil Woodcock, of Swanzey , New-Hampshire,
for improvement in the arrangement of desks in
school-rooms.
Dexter n. Chamberlain, of West Roxbury, as-
signor CO Henry Woodward, of Boston, Mass, f >r
improvement in apparatus for purifying illumin-
ating gas.
John II. Manney, of Rockford, 111, and Henry
Marcellus, of Amsterdam, N.V"., for improvements
in grain and grass harvesters.
Wm. E. Arnold, Rochester, improved sash
fastener.
Theophilus A. Ashburner, Philadelphia, im-
prorement in bottle stopper fastenings.
James M. •!' tturn, New-York, for polishing ap-
paratus for watchmakers' lathes.
Alanson Brown, Rochester, improvement in
machines for Turning, boring, and slotting metals.
Ze Butt, of Lincolnion, North Carolina, im-
provment in self-loading carts.
C. M. Eakin, West Philadelphia, improvement
in excluding dirt from grooved railroad rails.
Ebner Foster, Fairton, N. , improvement in
hoop jacks for sailing vessels.
Niblo T. Greene, Bridgeport, Conn., improve-
ment in cut of valves for steam engines.
H. Ludington and S. R. Supton, Addison, Pa.,
imrovement in seed planters,
J. W. Heard, Providence, improvement in gas
I egulators.
Joseph Hyde, New- York, improvement in screw
wrenches.
Louis Koch, New-York, for machines for mak-
ing paper boxes.
Geo. Leach, Oswego, improved grain cleaner.
Wm. W. GuiwitSjRodgersville, N. Y., improve-
ment in sleighs.
Robert C. Miiuck, Harrisonbu g, Pa., improved
ditching machine.
Andrew Mayer, Philadelphia, improved valves
for gas burners.
Jas. McCracken, Bloomfleld, N. Y., improved
evaporating apparatus.
Hiram Moore, Charloslon, Mich , for method of
operating pumps by wind.
Elijah Morgan, Morgantown, Va., improvement
in washing machines.
Edw. P. Overdeer, Chattanoga, Tenn.,improve-
ment'in fire-extinguishing compositions.
Frederick C. Rider, Providence, improvement in
lamps.
Jesse Russell, Elkton, Ky., improvement in
brick-kilns.
Christopher Walter, Bridgeport, improvements
in ordnance.
Henry Lawrence, New- York, improved safety
ferry bridge.
Frederick W. Urann, of Sazonville, Mass., im-
provement in curtain rollers.
Edward Vaughn, Alliance, O., improvement in
stump machines.
Wm. Warwick, Birmingham, Pa., improvement
in door locks.
Geo W. Wheatly, Harrodsburg, Ky., improve-
ment in eaves gutters for houses.
Rollin White, Hartford, improvement in breach-
loading fire-arms.
John .C. Schooley, Cincinnati, improvement in
process of curing meats.
Jas. Smith, Mendon, N, Y., improvement in the
manufaoiure of stone paste boards.
Fred. S. Stoddard, Litchfield, Conn., improve-
ment in machinery for spinning wool.
James H Sutton, Honesdale, Pa., improvement
in air heating furnace.
Isaac P. Trimble, Livingston, N. Y., improved
apparatus for operating ventilators.
Chas. Cunningham, Nashua, assignor to John
C. Pedrick, Boston, improvement in benzole vapor
apparatus.
Samuel A. Knox, Worcester, assignor to Rug-
gles, Nourse. Mason & Co., of same place, im-
provement in cultivators.
Abel Barker, Honesdale, Pa., for improved ro-
tary pump.
C. F. Bauersfeld, Cincinnati, Ohio, for clam;,
and mouth piece for luipber-jointing machine.
E. A. Big'elow, Chickopee, Mass., new mode of
pr«'paring woolen roving; same, improvement in
spinning wool.
Ransom Cook, Shelburne FsHs, Mass., improved
machines for turning the lips of augers.
Andrew Dietz and Y. G. Dunham, of Raritan,
N. J , improved grass and grain harvesters. Ante-
dated January 2d, 1855.
Levi. B. Darling, Providence, R. L, impr.^ved
processes for refining jewelers' scraps.
W. R. Elliot, Plattsburgh, N. Y., combination
of speed and resistance governors.
L. W. Ferris, Owcgo, N. Y , for improvement
in chairs.
H. A. Frost, Worcpster, Mass., improved mode of
supporting table leaves.
H. D. Ganse, Freehold, N. J., improved culti-
vator.
L. D. Qilman, Troy, N. Y., iraproved screw
wrenches.
Warner Groat, Troy, N. Y., mode of packing
journal boxes.
W. H. Guild end W. F. Garrison, Brooklyn, N.
Y., improvement in operating valves in direct-
acting steam engines.
David S. Harris, Coventry, R, L, improvement
in loom?.
704
LIST OF PATENTS ISSUED.
R. G. Holmes and VV. H. Butler, New- York, f. r
a new fire-proof filling for safes.
Thaddeus Hyatt, N. Y. city for illuminating
vault coverf.r
Wm. S. Irish, Middlcbury, Ohio., improvement
in loom!).
Y. S. Kirk and W. II. Elliott, Plattsburgh, N.Y.,
Improved grate bar.
Crias Kimble, Pcnfleld, N. Y., improved tool for
boring hubs \o receive boxes.
S. B Knight. North ProTidence, R. I., improved
method of chalking lines. I
Charles Leavitt, Quincy, 111., improved shingle
machine.
Th«s. Linj, Shelby, Ohio, a self-adjustahlo or
anchoriug pump.
John McNeill, N. Y. city, improved charcoal
furnace.
Hiram Moore, Climax, Mich., improved seed
planter.
G. W. Palmer, Boston, RIass., improved bill
holder.
David Sholl, Cincinnati, improved coffins.
W. S. Smith, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, improvemrnt
in current wheel.s
II. G. Tyer and John Helm, New-Brunswick, N.
J., improvement in the manufacture of boots and
shoes.
M. Ward, Owego, N, Y., for improved seed
planter.
R. P. Vanhorn, Jackson Town, O , improved
cultivators.
Joseph Walker, Dover, Eng., improvement in
hulling cotton seeds. Patented in England, July
20,1854.
VVm. P. Zane, Woolwich, N. J., improved culti-
vators for sweet potatoes.
Abraham Qesner, Williamsburg, N. Y., assignor
to 'The Asphalte Mining and Kerosene Gas Co.,'
for processes for making Kerosene.
Smith Gardner, N. Y. city, assignor to Edward
Kellogg, of Eroolilyn, N. Y., improvement in ths
manuiacture of zinc white.
R. M. Wade, Wadesville, Va., improved lubri-
cator.
Henry W. Adams, Ne^-York, improvement ia
factitious oils.
James P. Arnold, Louisville, improvoraent in
presses.
Richard Baker, Newark, improvement in the
msnufacture of white lead by precipitation.
Abel Baker, Honcsdale, method of lubricating
pistons of air pumps.
Chester B. and Eenj. S. Borden & Aaron R.
McLean, of West Dresden, N. Y., improvement
in seed planters.
Louis Bollman, N. Y., improvement in con-
densers in steam engines.
Thos. Brown, London, England, improvement
In sbipV riding bits.
Levi M. Dehart, Reading, Pa., adjustable pad-
dle wheel.*
Richard V. DeQuinon, Brooltlyn, improvement
in anchors.
S5ara. W. Frost, Boston, improved safety port
for c.(\n\ holes.
Thomas Goodrun, Providence, R. L, improve-
meui in valves for steam engines.
Robert B. Oorsuch, New-York, dirccl acting
hyraulic steam pump.
Smiih Groom, Troy, improved hose coupling.
Thomas J. H.ui, Tawakana IliUs, Texas, im-
provement in p'.ow?.
G 1 stavus Hammer, Cincinnati, O., improved
viilv. lor wind musical instruments.
Luther Ilnughton.Philadelphia, improved mode
of loading rifled cannon.
Barton, H. Jenks, Bridgeburg, Pa., improve-
ment in looms. Ante-dated January 8, 1855.
Benjamin F. Joslyn, Worcester, for double-
acting pump.
Wm. J. Keeney and James R. Tarbox, Switzer
land Co., Ind., improvement in rakes and hay
elevators.
Geo. Martz, Pottsvillc, Pa., improved apparatus
for hoisting and dumping coal cars.
Ebenezer Mathers and Wra. D. Seigfried, Mor-
cantown, Va., apparatus for feeding paper to
hand printing presses.
James B. Mell, Riceboro', Ga., improvement in
cotton gius.
Henry Mellish, Walpole, improvement in lan-
cets.
F. H. Moore, Boston, improvement ia coal hole
covers.
Rollin White, Hartford, Conn., improvement iu
breech-loading fire-arms.
Thomas Moore, Fair Haven, Vt., improved
stove-pipe tube.
Andrew Murtaugh, N. Y., improvement iu pul-
leys lor dumb waiters,
Ives W. McGaftj', Syracuse, improved seed
planter.
Fred. A. Peterson, N. Y., flro-proof ceiling.
Stephen R. Eoscoe, of Carlisle, N. Y , fire escape
ladder.
Alpheus D. Smith, Meredith, N. Y., improve-
ment in railroad ear seats.
Arcalous Wyckoff, Columbus, 0., chain pumpg.
Charles and Anna C. Wilhelm, Philadelphia,
improved protector in lamp shades.
C. Gustav Maeller, Charleston, improvement
in bank locks.
Rollin White, Hartford, improvement iu re-
peating fire-arms.
Rollin White, Hartford, improved repeating
fire-arms.
Noah Warlick, Lafayette, Ala., improvement in
plows.
C. Williams, Jackson, Tenn., improved excavat-
ing machine.
E^Dos Woodruff, Elizabethtown, N. J., mechan-
ism by which approaching vehicles open and close
gates.
Francis L. Smitbson, Mecklenburgh county, Va.,
improvement in cultivators.
Hiram Strait, Covinaton, Ky., improved ar-
rangement of means for freeing steam boilers
from sediment.
Geo. n. Soule, of Jersey City, improved breeeh-
loading fire-arms.
Wm. Stoddard, Hincham, Mass., improvement
in folding beadsteads.
Bcnj.amin T. Trimmer, Parma, N. Y., improved
grain "cleaner.
Geo. W. Edgcnmb, Lima, Ind., improvement
in washing machines.
Charles Clareni, N. Y., ossicnor to himself and
Geo. P. Field, improvement in harrows.
Ozro A. Crane and Henry J. Lewis, Green Point.
N. Y., assignor to Ozro J. Crane, aforesaid, im-
provement in scrapers for removing dirt from
boots and shoes.
John Hartshorn and Dexter H. Chamberlain,
Boston, [issijinor to John Hartshorn, aforesaid, im-
provement in fixtures for curtain rollers.
€\)t prriigl), il)e f aorn, anli tl)e Jlnuil.
Vol. VII. JUNE, 1855. No, 12.
AMERICAN INDUSTRY.— VARIETY OF PURSUITS.
[In our last number we gave a partial view of this subject, illustrated ,by
statistical tables. Before we go further on the exhibition of our own
opinions, we are very happy to present, in this connection, a few extracts
from an admirable address recently given at Charleston, S. C, before the
South Carolina Institute, by Hon. James L. Orr.]
The meagre supply of mechanical industry is a serious impediment to our
prosperity. We should possess it in such abundance as to have every want
supplied in that department by mechanics residing among us, unless, from
some adventitious cause, it can be more cheaply procured elsewhere ; -and
this distribution of labor is as necessary to advance agriculture as other
branches of industry. Do we now possess it ? Who can answer affirma-
tively ? In 1850, the artisans and mechanics numbered 9,993, whilst all
other occupations amounted to 58,556, showing that less than one-sixth of
our white population are engaged in this extensive branch of industry, and
if the labor of our slaves be taken into the estimate, it may safely be assumed
that less than one-fifteenth of all the labor in this State is thus employed.
In New- York, the artisans and mechanics number 252,747, and all other
occupations 635,933, giving nearly one-third of her population to the me-
chanic arts. And let it be borne in mind that New- York is a great agricul-
tural State. In Maryland, there are 38,010 artists and mechanics, and all
other employments number only 88,866, showing that one-third of her en-
tire white population are pursuing the mechanic arts. There is another
comparison which the late census suggests. Maryland's population is 583,-
034, whilst that of South Carolina is 688,507. The improved lands in
Maryland are '2,797,905 acres, in South Carolina 4,072,651 acres; the un-
improved lands in Maryland are 1,836,445 acres, and in South Carolina
12,145,049 acres; and yet the remarkable fact is exhibited that the cash
valuation of the improved lands in Maryland is greater than in South Caro-
lina, although the quantity is less by nearly one-half. The valuation in the
former is $87,178,545, and in the latter $86,568,038. This indicates a high
state of agricultural prosperity in Maryland, which may well be emulated.
What is in the soil or agricultural productions there, so superior to South
Carolina? There is a more judicious distribution of labor there, and her
large city, Baltimore, has appreciate:! the value of lands by furnishing a ready >
cash market for agricultural produots grown on them. It is the labor and
VOL. VII. 42
706 AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
enterprise of Baltimore mechanics that has swelled her area and wealth in a
few years from a small town to a majestic city.
In 1790, the population of Baltimore was 13,503, and Charleston 16,359 ;
in 1850, Baltimore had grown to 169,054, and Charleston to 42,985. At
the period when tjiis comparison commences, the exports of Charleston were
more varied and valuable ; the commerce she enjoyed more enriching ; the
interior country supporting her more fertile and extensive ; her geographical
position more favorable by reason of freedom from the competition of other
cities ; in all these respects Charleston had the advantage of Baltimore.
Now their situations have changed, and Baltimore quadruples the population
of our favorite city, and her commerce, tonnage and prosperity have gone on
increasing in the same wondrous manner as her population.
Why is it so ? Let a stranger visit the two cities and he will assign yot^
the reasons. He' will first tell you that no great city can be built up simply
by exporting great staples. She must give employment to other labor and
pursuits than to commission merchants. She must have her artisans and
mechanics. He v/ill see in Baltimore extensive ship-yards enclosing her har-
bor, hundreds of ship carpenters actively employed in constructing new boats
and vessels, and in repairing old and crazy hulks ; and perhaps whil-^t-admir-
ing the active industry of thef scene around, he will discover a vessel sailing
into port with ship-lumber from Charleston. Baltimore ship carpenters are
to realize all the profits arising from working the lumber. If a Charleston
merchant desires to purchase a vessel for the foreign or coasting trade, lie
sends to Baltimore and pays the $50,000 demanded for it, when his own
city has received, for every stick of timber in it, but 110,000. To whose
support and gain does the difierence of $40,000 go ? How many ship car-
penters would be employed a whole year on such a sum ? What activity
would be infused in every branch of business in your city if twenty such
vessels were annually constructed in your own harbor ? What would be the
increased sales and profits of your retail traders, your grocers, your inn-
keepers, and provision dealers. Why not do your own ship-building by your
own carpenters ? There is no natural barrier in your way. The season of
your epidemic disease, should it return unfortunately every year, is shorter
than the rigors of an inhospitable winter at Kittery, Portland, Boston, or
New- York, when labor is almost entirely suspended by their workmen. The
lumber they use is taken from your wharves. AVhy not put the labor on it
before committing it to the strifes of ocean, and, build up and enrich your
own mechanics? The stranger will see in Baltimore thousands of mechanics
at their forges, furnaces, and founderies, in their shot towers, marble and
stone yards, shops, and machine shops. Nearly every square supports its
tall chimney, with the black smoke issuing from the furnace of an engine
driving machinery at its base. How many smoke stacks would the stranger
count in Charleston? How many engines, propelling machinery, would he
be able to enumerate ? Was not the steam engine some years back a malam
prohibitum within the corporate limits of this city ? How many carpenters
at your ship yards, mechanics at your forges and founderies, and machinists
at your work-shops, would he count? These hints furnish some of the pro-
minent reasons why Baltimore has outstripped Charleston, and indicate
means of speedily and permanently promoting her languishing prosperity.
^■' * ^ * * * * ^v
It is unnecessary that I should point out other branches of mechanical in-
dustry ; the examples given establish your greatest want ; and until artisans
AMERICAIS' INDUSTRY, 707
aod mechanics crowd your city, I fear that your hopes of a greatly enhanced
prosperity are illusory. * * ^ * * *
We must have architects and educated mechanics to improve the style of
our buildings ; and iron-founders, marble yards, and stone-cutters to beautify
and ornament the dwelling places of the dead.
The State is in want of additional manufactories, and I use the word in its
comprehensive sense — to work by machinery, into forms convenient for use,
all kinds of I'aw materials. Columbia is admirably located for a great manu-
facturing town. Water, the cheapest of all motors yet discovered, is furnished
in the greatest abundance near the city, over the shoaly beds of the Broad
Saluda and Congaree rivers. An unlimited amount of machinery could be
propelled, and a great variety of works and fabrics produced. It is easy of
access by the railroads converging within its limits, and is placed thereby
within a few hours of every description of raw material furnished by the
State. Nearly all the upper districts are likewise prodigally supplied with
water-power. The streams have their sources in the mountains, and are fed
by bold, unfailing springs, yielding in their channels a uniform regular cur-
rent, exposed neither to congelation in the winter nor to evaporation or ab-
sorption in the summer. This secures us a striking and important natural
advantage over the {Northern and Eastern States, for the severity of their
winters freeze the streams and ice-bind their wheels so as to suspend for seve-
ral months the working of all machinery driven by water, and, as a conse-
quence, curtails profit by suspending all labor depending upon such agency,
to the detriment of the stockholder. Our operations may be continued the
yeai' through without any such interruption ,or drawback on the profits of the
investment. The extraordinary low price at which water-power may be pur-
chased, being really little beyond the intrinsic value of the land usually an-
nexed to it, should induce enterprise and capital to cover the base of every
shoal in South Carolina with machinery for the extensive and economical
manufacture of all useful fabrics and implements.
The transportation to market of the raw material is just as expensive as
an equal amount of the manufactured fabric, but the pound of the latter
brings into the country three times the amount of cash brought in by the
former. Why may we not embark extensively in this branch of industry,
with the positive assurance of our ability to undersell all competitors in these
articles in every market ?
Other , experiments in manufacturing have crowned the hopes of their
authors with gratifying success, and have illustrated genius and capacity of a
high order in our mechanics. Paper mills in various localities have been
erected, and their fabrics reflect credit upon the operative(&, and establish the
triumph of the experiment. Much of the letter and cap paper used in the
State, and most of the paper for the newspaper press in this and other
Southern States, is manufactured in South Carolina mills, and at a fairly re-
munerative profit to owners and stockholders. "^' ^'" '''
Your founderies here and in the interior are beginning to compete with
older establishments in otlier States. Let tliem make a character by the
elegance and durability of their works, increase their force and capital, press
the enterprise with becoming energy, and they will be munificently appre-
ciated by a discriminating public.
There is one branch of mechanical manufacture which, from its rapid ad-
vance and high perfection, is entitled to the special laudation of every friend
of improvement. Thousands of dollars, annually expended, a few years
back, in New-Jersey, New-Yoi'k, and Connecticut, for carriages and other
708 AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
wheeled vehicles, are now expended in our midst to pay domestic mechanics
for the same work executed in their shops. Many of the towns in the State
can bear testimony to the stream of prosperity turned in upon them, by the
establishment of such manufactories in their midst. If you doubt the skill
of the mechanics engaged in this branch, look at the specimens on exhibi-
tion hr:re. Will they suffer in a comparison with any model vehicles from
any foreign shop, in the elegance of iinish, skill and fidelity in construction,
durability of material, symmetry of model, or economy of cost? May I not
(TO farther, and challenge any foreign shop to produce a specimen equal to
some now on exhibition here j
The ranltiplication of carriage manufactories in the State has not only dif-
fused life and activity into many other departments of industry, but has put
wealth into the pockets of the j^roprietors, and has added to the comforts
and pleasures of the people, * '^ * ^' *
We want manufactories and machine shops. They co-exist together. Wo
want enterprising, intelligent, inventive mechanics. We want them to in-
crease until their labor will furnish us every machine and fabric for man's
use that can be as cheaply matured here as elsewhere. How are these wants
to be supplied ? Let our citizens cease to expatriate themselves from the
bosom and kind affections of our common mother, and devote themselves to
the grateful task of fostering and warming the condition in which she now
languishes. Let them not deceive themselves by the delusive hopes of sud-
den wealth in ne\y and distant lands, and let them resolve that when "life's
fitful fever" is over, that their bones shall repose side by side with their
fathers, beneath the native soil. Take it all in all, we have the best country
which I have seen in the broad expanse of this great confederacy. Let us
be content to occupy, and improve, and develop it. Providence has blessed
us with every variety of soil and surface, climate, production and resources,
with no stinted hand. Let us do something worthy the munificence we en-
joy, and bequeath to our children a heritage and country greater than we
received from our fathers. ''• * * * %
The idea was once prevalent with wrong-headed people that manual and
mechanical labor was inconsistent with intelligence, gentility, and dignity of
character. Most happily such an absurd sentiment is exploded in the minds
of all sensible men and women. Ijabor is the tax upon all animated exist-
ence for its preservation. The ant, the reptile, the beasts of the fields and
the fowls of the air, all toil for food. Man, the master of them all, endowed
with intellect, and created with appetites and desires to exercise and develop
his capacious faculties, is bound also to labor, and to labor by the omnipotent
fiat of Jehovah. Wken our common progenitor was expelled from the green
bowers of Eden, it was under an angered, though just sentence, that " in the
sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread till thou return unto the ground."
Henceforward the spontaneous productions of the earth failed to sustain man.
Can labor be disreputable since its requirements are universal and its neces-
sities of Divine origin ? • »
The progress of civilization is constantly multiplying and expanding the
demands upon labor, and the judicious means for increasing its products,
have engaged the best men in •every age. Men are entitled to that respect
and consideration from the community, which their moral worth, intelligence,
and usefulness justly inspire, without regard to the occupation pursued. The
•lawyer and physician labor ; and oftentimes the fo3lid air of a dark dungeon,
or the nauseating odor of a sick room, is more repugnant to the senses and
sensibilities than any which the forge or machine shop emits. The educat'3d
AMEKICAN INDUSTRY, 709
youth -who masters one or more branches of the mechanic arts, by study and
ajjplication, has a personal independence, and a prospect for the future, to be
envied by the brother who has chosen a learned profession. That is an erro-
neous public opinion which gives to professional men rank and position of
social and intellectual superiority over other occupations. " The exclusive
business of professional men is intellectual, and if they evince superior
attainqaent within the hne of their employment, it is no, more than they
should accomplish. But to test the amount of intellect required in different
occupations, which would require the most comprehensive understanding, the
machinist who eould construct a steam engine, and adjust all its nice parts,
and apply its power to spinning and weaving, or the lawyer who could com-
prehend the rule in Shelly's case, and expound the statute de donis ?
We are exceedingly gratified in being a*ble to present so powerful an en-
dorser of our favorite doctrine, and that he hails from a state that has been
regarded, perhaps not without good reason, as being far from orthodox on
this subject.
In resuming our own train of thought, in this connexion, allow us to en-
quire what it is which gives value to any estate ? We answer, industry,
and industry alone. In nations and communities that are thoroughly indo-
lent, having no regular occupation, all property is of but little value. Could
a community be found absolutely without occupation, property there could
have no value. Look at our aborigines. We will not ask what was the casli
value, but what was the actual value of those wilds, or of the productions of
those wilds, where they roamed for their prey ? It was no more than that
of the few acres which now produce an amount equal to that which they
appropriated to their use. The gradual increase of industry, as they opened
a new source of income by trading with white men, in equal ratio added to
the actual present value of those extensive territories, and the possible extent
to which this traffic might extend, and the new uses of it, which change of
circumstances would obviously bring into being, occasioned an entirely new
valuation, both of the land and its products, vegetable and animal, and mine-
ral.
On the other hand, why is it that that small tract, covered by a single
building, in State street, in Boston, of which we recently made mention, can
command such an enormous price per acre, estimated not by thousands but
by millions ? Why is it that scores of acres of land on Broadway are worth,
in the market, as much hard currency as would be required to cover it all
over ? It is only, only on account of the extent and variety of industry
carried on in this busy city. Diminish the amount of this industry, so that
it shall not exceed that of an ordinary country village, and, by the same pro-
cess, you diminish the value of estates here to the standard of the estates of
the country village.- If it were possible in any country village to create and
sustain the same amount of industry as is found in New-York, or other large
city, which has plenty of land around it, as has the country village, so that
the competition of land can become equal in the two places, you would
thereby raise the prices of all kitds of estates and products, in the village, to
city prices. It is English Industry, wisely directed, that has brought into
being, on a portion of that small island, an amount of Avealth and of power
before unheard of.
We hope our readers will ponder on these facts, and give the subject the
practical attention it deserves. Meanwhile, we continue our tables of sta-
710 AMERICAN" INDUSTRY.
listics, each one having a testimony to give, to which wise men will not refuse
to listen :
In Mr. Corwin's Annual Report, he estimates
"Western River Commerce at - - .- |339,502,'744
Lake and River Commerce at - - 653,976,202
Mr. Walker, in 184*7, estimated the whole annual products of the country
at $3,000,000,000.
In the recent volume of the census of 1850, published by Mr. De Bow,
the value of the Coasting trade, in 1852, was estimated at $314,473,458, and
that of the Foreign trade at $12,119,877, illustrating and proving the truth
of the doctrine we recently urged, under the title, " Commerce is King."
In reports made to the Treasury department, in 1853, the commerce of the
principal commercial States is estimated as follows :
Massachusetts, $16,895,304
New-York, 66,030,355
Pennsylvania, ------ 6,255,229
Maryland, 7,768,224
Virginia, 3,302,561
South Carolina,"^ - - - - - 15,400,408
Georgia, 7,371,883
Alabama, -..-.. 16,786,913
Louisiana, 67,768,724
The census of 1850 also furnishes the data of the following tables :
CASH VALUE OF FARMS AND PLANTATIONS.
New-England,
-
_
$372,348,543
Middle States, -
-
-
780,842
729
Southern "
-
_
485,351,555
S. Western » -
.
_
307,992,
713
N. Western "
-
-
906,582,
447
VALUE OF " FARMS, PLANTATION?
, ETC.,
' IN EACH STATE,
TO EACH INHABITANT.
Alabama, - - - -
$83
Mississippi,
.
-
$90
Arkansas,
73
Missouri,
-
-
93
Connecticut, - - -
196
New-Hampshii
e,
-
173
Delaware, - . .
206
New-Jersey,
-
246
Florida, - - . .
72
New-York,
-
-
179
Georgia, - - - -
106
North Carolina
"
-
78
Illinois, - - - -
113
Ohio,
-
206
Indiana, - - - -
138
Pennsylvania,
-
-
176
Iowa, - - - - -
87
Rhode Island,
-
-
116
Kentucky, . . .
158
South Carolina
-
-
123
Louisiana, - - J .
146
Tennessee,
-
-
96
Maine, ....
94
Texas,
-
-
79
Maryland, - - . .
149
Vermont,
-
.
202
Massachusetts, -
110
Virginia,
-
-
152
Michigan,' - - . .
130
Wisconsin,
-
-
93
AMEEICAN" INDUSUEY. 711
Mr. Tucker calculated, from the census of 1840, that the value of agricul-
tural products, I'ER ACRE, was as follows :
New-England, - - $1,'76
Middle States, 1,84
Southern " (except Florida,) - - - . 1,03
S. Western " - VO
N. Western " (except Wisconsin and Iowa,) - - 50
The same census returns (of 1850) furnish the data of the following, by
the " true valuation," with the proportionate amount to each inhabitant :-
AMOUNT OF REAL AND PERSONAL ESTATE.
States.
" True Valuation."
Tot. Pop.
Share to eacli
Inhabitant.
Alabama,
228,204,332
771,623
$596
Arkansas,
39,841,025
209,897
190 1
Connecticut,
155,707,980
370,792
419
Delaware,
18,855,863
91,532
206
Florida,
23,198,734
87,445
268
Georgia,
335,425,714
906,185
369
lUinois,
156,265,006
851,470
184
Indiana,
202,650,264
988,416
205
Iowa,
23,714,638
192,214
118
Kentucky,
301,628,456
982,405
307
Louisiana,
233,998,764
517,762
451
Maine,
122,777,571
583,169
211
Maryland,
219,217,364
583,034
376
Massachusetts,
573,342,286
994,514
577
Michigan,
59,787,255
397,654
150
Mississippi,
228,951,130
606,526
361
Missouri,
137,247,707
682,044
201
New-Hampshire,
103,652,835
317,976
323
New-Jersey,
153,151,619
489,555
313
New-York,
1,080,309,216
3,097,394
317
North Carohna,
226.800,472
869,039
261
Ohio,
505,726,120
1,980,329
255
Pennsylvania,
729,144,998
2,311,786
315 •
Rhode Island,
80,508,794
147,545
546
South Carolina,
288,257,694
668,507
431
Tennessee,
207,454,704
1,002,717
207
Texas,
55,362,340
212,592
260
Vermont,
92,205,049
314,120
294
Virginia,
391,646,438
1,421,661
279
Wisconsin,
42,056,595
305,391
138
In the above table, the general average is $305 nearly.
x\verage for New-England, 395
Middle States, 305^
Southern " 31 If
S. Western "301
N. Western" 194f
In presenting the table, pa'ge 643, in our May number, we suggested that
" it did not show the exact relation of the different States in respect to the
712
AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
value of their productions." "We shall presently see this very clearly. Not
only this, but there is a possibility that the state producing the greatest
quantity of a given article may still have so large a population as to be forced
to buy of another not producing half so much. That state is in the best
economical position, of course, -where the ratio of production to the population
is the greatest. ' Such an examination changes rfery essentially the order of
the States, giving the first rank to some of those which are but medium
States in respect to gross quantity.
We have had time to compute this relative order, only with a few of the
States, in relation to four of the most valuable productions, and below give
the result of our calculations. We place them first in the order indicated in
the table in our May number ; that is, in the ratio of actual production. The
second column is arranged according to the average quantity produced to
each inhabitant :
INDIAN CORN.
1.
Ohio.
1. Ilhnois, G8 bushels to each inhabitant.
2.
Kentucky.
2. Kentucky, 03
3.
Illinois.
3. Indiana, 54
4.
Indiana.
4. Missouri, 53
5.
Tennessee.
5. Tennessee, 52
6.
Missouri.
6. Ohio, 30
W HEAT.
1.
Pennsylvania.
1. Illinois, 11 bushels to each inhabitant.
2.
Ohio.
2. Virginia, 8
((
(1
((
3.
New-York.
3. Ohio, 7
u
CI
u
4.
Virginia.
4. Pennsylvania, 7
u
a
u
5.
Illinois.
5. Indiana, 6
li
a
((
6.
Indiana.
6. New- York, 4
HAY.
u
((
u
1.
New- York.
1. Vermont, 2.1
tons
to
each
inhabitant.
2.
Pennsylvania.
2. Maine, 1.3
((
(f
((
3.
Ohio.
3. New- York, 1.2
((
a
((
4.
Vermont.
4. Pennsylvania .8
u
u
u ,
5.
Maine.
5. Ohio, .V
u
a
it
6.
Massachusetts.
6. Massachusetts .6
BUTTER.
a
(1
((
].
New- York.
1. Vermont, 39
lbs.
to
each
inhabitant.
2.
Pennsylvania.
2. New- York, 26
((
<i
(f
3.
Ohio.
3. Ohio, 17
((
u
((
4.
Indiana.
4. Pennsylvania, 17
u
u
u
5.
Illinois.
5. Illinois, 15
((
<.(.
ii
6.
Vermont.*
6. Indiana, 13
u
u
u
There is still another distinction that might properly be made were it prac-
ticable, viz : a comparison of the jarzVes or market value of the product under
examination, in dift'erent States. This could only be reached by approxi-
"= Printed IG instead of C, in p. 643— the mistake of the printer.
«
KISLICHY. 718
:ng, mining, and mecha>'ic arts.
.
Amt. to each Inliabitaut.
^274,740,063
1.02
471,975,751
.74
63,635,005
.13
26,323,276
.09
186,602,868
.29
mation, and the results thus attained would not, perhaps, be more satisfactory,
on the whole, than those, we have attained in the foregoing calculations.
These are certain, so far as rehancc can be placed upon the returns of the
census.
In the census of 1850, we have the data for the following table of the
ACTUAL PRODUCT OF MANUFACTURING
New-England, -
Middle States,
Southern "
S. Western "
N. Western " -
Thjs examination, through v/hich we have passed, shows very conclusively
the beneficial effects of " diversity in industrial pursuits." The proportion of
persons engaged in the various kinds of employment will vary, in such com-
munities, with the demands of the times. What is most profitable will tend
to an increase of competition, until it becomes crowded, and, in its turn, it
will then furnish hands for some other, offering greater present inducements.
Some losses will necessarily happen to individuals, but the community, on the
whole, are benefited. With the high prices, which may have disappeared,
there is no actual destruction of i^roperty, as by a fire or storm. Specula-
tions, if ever so unfortunate in relation to one individual, may be the making
of another. But, all the while, the actual property, the material, remains
unchanged.
Some states fall far behind others in the amount of agricultural products,
but if the people of those states are extensively engaged in other pursuits, we
are furnished not only with the reason, but we also find immense values of
other kinds, the result of commercial or mechanical industry. But if they
produce large agricultural crops, and, at the same time, carry on extensive
business, in other departments, we are assured that they are in a highly pros-
perous condition.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THB LOOM, AND THE ANVIL,
K I S L I C H T .
The farmer, who needs a wholesome and refreshing drink during the labors
and the heat of summer, may take an interest in trying a beverage, composed
of the following, which we commend as wholesome and refreshing :
2 lbs. of the flour of wheat,
3 lbs. of malt reduced to flour,
3 lbs. of flour of buckwheat.
Pour fifty quarts of boiling water upon the mixture, and then add half a
pound of the leaven of beer, or two pounds of the leaven of bread.
On the following day, stir the whole thoroughly, and add another fifty
quarts of luke-warm water, when the fermentation is completed. '■
This drink is healthful and refreshing, but it will very soon turn sour.
[We think the quantity of water stated here must be too great. — Ed.]
7U
DENWOOD.
D E N W O iO D ,
THE RESIDENCE OF JOHN J. SMITH, ESQ., GERMANTOWX, PA., NEAR
PHILADELPHIA.
The private residence of which we give a drawing, presents some peculi-
arities of construction and interior division, which we have thought might
prove a useful study to those who are about to build.
It is a complete rus in urbe ; the kitchen being in the village, and the
opposite or piazza side, facing the northeast, for summer afternoon shade,
overlooks the country, with a fine belt of trees within a suitable distance.
The amount of ground attached is two acres, but we observed that it is filled
with the most valuable hardy trees and shrubs, 'imported and domestic.
Among the former will be found a collection of Hollies and Rhododendrons
— two important but much neglected families of plants.
r |.i? ij \i II ^ i;,|i:^-^ii^ |.| || ^ \i
DENVyOOD FRONT ELEVATION.
The first thing that strikes the eye in looking at this house is the circular
hoods in the attic story — a contrivance which gives height to a considerable
portion of the rooms, and has externally a good effect. The attics are, in
fact, as good rooms as need be asked — superior to any we have seen in
dwellings of the same elevation. A front portico, and two projecting bay
windows, make not only a cheerful entrance, but add materially to the size
of the drawing and dining rooms. The portico, as well as the interior hall,
are paved with tesselated tiles, made by Minton & Co., Stoke-upon-Trent,
England, which are now becoming so much appreciated, and which can not
be too much known.
The interior of the house is divided in a different manner from most dwell-
ings, as will be seen by a glance at the ground plan. The hall is carried
only to the depth of the" drawing-room, where, by an ornamental ground
DENWOOD.
715
glass door, it opens upon a neat library having a bay window sliglitly en-
riched at the top with colored glass, so that the view through the library
door, and the bay windows beyond, produces an efTect like that of an ora-
tory. The book-cases on one side are recessed out of the butler's pantry, so
as to occupy no space from the room. The two doors in the octagon corners
are filled with book-backs, bound on blocks to form a perfect representation,
and to furnish the room — a plan much practiced in Europe. These doors
open respectively into the butler's pantry and the private office beyond the
drawing-room. Three good and useful rooms are thus obtained. The pan-
try is a low story ; above it is the bath-room, etc., and above that a conve-
nient chamber ; making three stories in the part of the house nearest the
kitchen. The dining room, on the left of the hall, enlarged by the front pro-
jecting window, and a handsome bay window at the side, is large and con-
venient. Behind the fire-place are closets beyond the walls of the house, and
entered respectively from the side bay window and the dining-room. They
are of a comfortable temperature in the coldest weather, being behind the
chimney. The staircase has been thrown out of sight in the passage from
the hall to the kitchen, and, being uninclosed, has a light and airy appear-
ance.
The whole house is tempered by a furnace, made to warm all the rooms
if required, as well as the hall. In every way advantage has been taken of
space, which is saved wherever it was possible. As examples, we noticed
PLAN OF PRINCIPAL FLOOR.
Explanation.— 1. Entrance Hall. 2, Butler's Pantry.
6, Piazza. 7, Kitchen, with summer do. attached.
3, Dining-room. 4, Library. 5, Private Office.
8, Drawing-room. 9, Pantry. 10, Closet.
that under the chamber windows drawers are let into the stone walls, for
shoes, etc. ; in the library is a concealed umbrella closet ; and between the
book-cases a long closet in the pilaster for drawings, or spy-glasses, etc.
Both hydrant and rain water are plentifully supplied to the house and grounds,
716 PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE.
in wbicli are also two pumps, a gardener's lodge, convenierit ptablcs and
coach-house, etc., etc.
The spot on which this house is erected was, two years ago, a stable-yard ;
The visitor will be struck with the transformation that has been already
effected. When Mr. Smith's numerous fruit and ornamental trees have had
a few years' more growth, we hope to visit it again, and have no doubt of
being able to call it one of the handsomest and most convenient places in
Pennsylvania, where, by the way, much good taste is growing apparent.
The house was designed by an English architect to combine all the com-
forts collected in a compass of 42 by '36 feet; the design was carried out and
improved by Thomas U. Walter, Esq., the architect of Girard College, and
now superintendent of the Capitol extension at Washington. — Hortkulturht.
PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE.
A. PAPER was recently read before the Farmers' Club of New- York, by Dr.
R. L. Waterbury, which seems to have conflicted with the views of Messrs.
Mapes, Waring & Co., who undertook to answer it. On reading the report
of their remarks, Dr. W, found it necessary to disclaim the views attributed
to him, and, in doing so, gives the purport of the paper read by him as fol-
lows :
That, without the use of any foreign fertilizer, produce enough may be sold
off from a farm, in most portions of the Union, to pay the expense of con-
ducting it; and yet, by judicious management, the soil may be annually im-
proving in condition ;
That this can be effected easiest in those portions of the Union where the
value of land is the least, and where, consequently, the farms are largest, and
the longest rotations o-fccrops can be profitably resorted to ;
That no system of farming is deserving of our attention that does not re-
cognize the necessity of farm exports ; /
_ That a State may, to some extent, export agricultural products, without
diminishing in capability to produce them ;
That an inspection of the census returns on the United States and of the
Starte of New-York shows that the amount of crops of this State has increased
for the last ten years much faster than the area of improved lands in the
State, and that,' consequently, the lands can not be "running out;"
That the processes of Nature, to which we owe the present alluvial condi-
tion of the surface of the earth, are still at work, atid that land left entirely
to itself will, by the action of water and vegetation improve in fertility ;
That the process of tillage alone may be made to accelerate this improve-
ment, and help to provide for the necessary waste of marketing ;
That rain penetrates the porous parts of the earth's surface, and percolates
through them until it comes to impervious strata, and that it runs along this
impervious strata until it finds egress as springs, and that spring water is im-
pregnated, more or less, with saline substances ;
That the evaporation which is continually going on of the water from the
surface of the earth, leaves the saline matter in the surface, as but a small
part of the water that falls as rain ever reaches the sea ;
That the mineral springs of Saratoga, and other localities, are exaggerated
LAWS OF HEALTH. 717
illustrations of this process, and the more fertile condition of valleys is to be,
in part, referred to tlie same cause ;
That, in the present thinly populated condition of our Continent, the true
purpose of American agriculture, at this time, is to wisely direct these na-
tural forces, rather than apply pinches of guano, and tea-spoonfuls of super-
phosphates to individual plants, although such applications may pay on some
farms, and probably do pay well on all market gardening operations.
The objection to soil analysis is this :
The difference between the early soil of Virginia and the same soil in
its present condition has been made by the loss of 1,200 lbs. of alkalies to
the acre. But this 1,200 lbs. forms not quite three ten-thousandths (000.27)
of the soil to the depth of a foot.
The idea that any amount of variation, within such infinitesimal limits, can
be measured and defined by quantitative analysis is absurd. Top-dressing
of the saine amount would, in the same way, fail of being detected.
That directions given by agricultural chemists have led to successful re-
sults is undoubtedly true ; but these directions have been founded rather
upon experience and observation than upon chemical analysis.
R. L. "Waterbury. — Country Gentleman.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THB LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.
LAWS OF HEALTH.
Messrs. Editors : — One of the most common and yet one of the most
important mistakes of which mankind are guilty, generally through igno-
rance, are in relation to the laws of general health. We live and violate
these laws almost every day of our lives ; and yet wonder why we do not
feel as v^ell as we might and ought to. The great wonder is that many of
us have any health at all, considering the manner we live. It would seem
that the most common ideas of comfort and health are understood, namely :
the clothing for the body suitably for the season ; the securing of dry feet, etc.
Still many are greatly in fault even in these respects. But a more common
fault is in the amount and kinds of food which are taken into the stomach.
We are no advocates for cheap nor mean food, nor for a pure vegetable diet ;
yet we believe that a due proportion of light food at our meals is the best
for all classes. It is a rule in our country, that those classes which love or
use much bodily exercise, as farmers, mechanics, manufacturers, etc., must
have meats or animal food three times a day, inore or le?s. This plan of
living we believe to be a great mistake, even for the working man, and much
more so for the man of in-doors, or light labor and sedentary habits. A diet
of one hearty meal (dinner) of animal food, with a breakfast of shad, or other
fish, with a cup of cofi'ee, and a dish of tea at night, with a slice of bread
and butter and a cake, will give more comfort and good health to a man than
a larger amount of flesh or hearty food. We do not mean to say that the
hard laboring man, as the farmer or mechanic, can live on as light food, or
on the same amount of food, as the in-door, or sedentary man. But what we
mean to say is, that one-third less of animal food, and two-thirds more of
"light or vegetable food, would be much better for the hardest working man,
both for comfort and general health. Of course the general rule is to stop
718 LAWS OF HEALTH.
eatiiiii" when you have enough, lint it' we were to stop while we have some
appetite left, it would be better for us than to surfeit the stomach as we often
do. Severe exercise or hard labor directly after eating a hearty, meat dinner
is injurious. Children from infancy should be taught to eat as little
food as may be, and still have them satisfied. Some mothers seem to go on
the plan of "stuffing" their children to keep them quiet — a practice which
will lead to gluttonous habits when they grow up. As to the amount of food
necessary for a meal, a great deal depends on habit. In fact, we are creatures
of habit in this respect, like others. Then, again, some constitutions may re-
quire more food than others. One great thing should be remembered,
namely: system, and order, and regularity in . meals — an essential point in
securing good health. Another great point is a proper amount of exercise
for the body. All out-door laboring men, with many in-door mechanics, get
enough of this exercise for the body while about their daily business. On the
other hand, many men, like merchants and other business men, in the town
and city, do not get this exercise. The consequence is, or will be in a course
of years, if inclined to flesh up, that, bj'^ and by, dropsy and gout will make
their appearance. Such men should make it a point to walk several miles
every day. Riding on horseback is good ; but what is still better, would be
hard labor in the garden, or on the farm, where all the muscles of the body
could be brought into action. We do not stop, now, to say whether a
morning walk, a mid-day or an evening jaunt, are preferable as to health.
But what we claim is, that the denizens of the town and city should have
exercise at some rate in the course of the twenty-four hours.
We know a man in a neighboring city who has made it a point for years
to take a " morning walk " of a mile before breakfast, rain or shine, snow or
mud, invariably every morning. He says that his constitution is invigorated
and strengthened, and his appetite sharpened by the plan, of which we have
no doubt. All constitutions might not stand this test, but his does at
least. We learn that in the country, the early morning air, in a clear morn-
ino', is healthful and invigorating to the constitution — sleepy denizens of cities
who call it poisonous — to the contrary, notwithstanding. A large amount
of exercise or labor before breakfast, might not be advisable; but a moderate
degree of it is healthful and bracing to the system. Of course the city deni-
zen had much rather -take his "morning nap" than a "morning walk."
And whv ? Because the city people have a universal habit of turning night
into day, and day into night. We doubt much whether one-half of the
adult population of our large cities ever see the bed-chamber before twelve
o'clock at night, while a large portion of them, like the drunken dandy poet
in Broad,way, will hear the bell toll out full " seventeen o'clock," before they
are abed. Is it any wonder, then, that they want their " morning nap" in-
stead of a " morning walk" for health and comfort ? The truth is, the body
must have about so much rest in the way of sleep ; if it can not have it in
'darkness it must have it by daylight. But does this make out a case that
the " morning nap" is more healthful than the morning air? By no means.
AVe learn that in the city, as customs are, it is almost impossible to retire to
bed early, or even at a reasonable hour. Then, again, many kinds of busi-
ness in the city require a good part of the night to carry them on, like the
printinf'- of the daily papers, etc. Thus, all- conspire to turn night into day,
and day into night. But, then, a reform is necessary to the masses in this
respect of keeping late hours, and then " sleeping it out" by daylight. AVe
do not know why a " morning walk" in the city can not be made as agree-
able in the city as the country — -saving the difference between the purity of
VALUE OF LAND. 719
the air in the country and that of the city. Of course all having damps aud
fogs, in spring and fall especially, in the night, both in city and country,
should be avoided and guarded against. So, too, the exhalations and mi-
asmas arising from the decay of vegetable matter in and near swamps,
peat, mud, etc., should be avoided. But, then, outside of these objections, a
good, clear atmosphere is always healthful, invigorating, and bracing to the
system, whether that be in the morning, at mid-day, or evening, If this be
so, no person in health need fear of taking his out-door walk or exercise in
any part of the day or evening. That class of the population which stand
in most need of out-door exercise is, we think, the female portion of it, espe-
cially in the country and villages ; for we believe it to be true, in general,
that the female community of the city take more open, out-door exercise than
they dc> in the country or village. AVhich of the two portions spend their
time to the best advantage throughout the day -we shall not attempt to de-
cide. In times of prevailing epidemics, like the cholera, dysentery, etc., then
the evening air should be avoided, and other exposures which might help , to
bring on disease. We are satisiied that more people die for the want of ex-
ercise in the open air than there are that die from inhaling morning air into
the system ; and that we should all get along much better if we studied the
laws of health more and practiced after them. What the system wants is a
systematic course of life — to live every day alike, as nearly as we can, when
we are made certain that the system is a healthful one. We think that
many diseases might be kept off the system by taking this course. Of course
we do not mean that a person should go entirely on an eraptj- stomach, as
this would be unsafe. But to eat moderately of light food, in case of pre-
vailing epidemics, or ill-health and severe colds, we believe is advisable. To
force food down when there is no appetite for it is a poor plan. It is better
to wait till the natural appetite comes of itself. The amount of sleep required
in twenty-four hours for a healthful body of course will range according to
constitutions ; some require more than others. Seven' hours of sleep are
enough for many, while others claim that they want from nine to twelve
hours sleep, and they practice accordingly. Still, we beheve habit to be the
great rule in this matter as a general thing. All children and young persons
appear to want more sleep than adults or older people. Hence, as people
grow older, they seem to require less sleep ; and a disposition to wakefulness
through certain parts of the night is very common. All kuov/ the effect
which is produced on the mind by care and trouble, often creating fatal dis-
eases. "Lunatics" get little or no sleep. Night and darkness appear to
increase the power of their disease. It is has been said by those skilled on
this subject, that no person would ever become insane who can secure their
regular sleep. This shows how necessary regularity of habits is in order to
preserve good health. Yours, &c., L. Durand.
Derby, Conn., 3fai/ 8, 1855.
Value of Land. — A statement, has recently been made, and generally
copied into the newspapers as extraordinary, that a piece of land has been
sold in London at the rate of two million dollars an acre. There is land in
Boston worth double that price. The owner of the lot at the corner of
State and Exchange streets, occupied' by Gilbert & Sons, refused eighty dol-
lars per foot, which is at the rate of $3,484,800 an acre. — Traveller.
'720 PE0FIT3 OF FAEMING.
TROFITS OF FARMING.
In New-England, this is a very fruitful topic of discussion in farmers' clubs
and debating societies. Facts are the best evidence on the subject, and of
these, those matters of experiment undertaken with specific reference to the
value of the crop, will generally be regarded as most worthy of attention,
since such are likely to be conducted most carefully.
The IIampshice Co. Agricultural SociEXi-, in Western Massachusetts,
presents the following as the results of sundiy experiments :
R. Wales Smith says, that on his farm of eighty-five acres he tills about
fifty acres in nine years ; has twenty heads of cattle in winter ; fattens and
sells one-third of them in the spring. He sells his dairy products. Ilis ro-
tation is corn, oats, and grass. He says, " During the present year, I have
cultivated six acres in corn and potatoes, and four acres in oats, and mowed
twenty acres. The labor has been wholly performed by myself, except for
sixteen days in the hay season, when I hired a man to assist me.
PRODUCTS.
30 tons of hay, at $12,50* -" - - - - $375,00
5 acres of grass, sold at $11,50, .... 57,50
250 bushels of corn, at $1, ----- 250,00
150 " of oats, at 6 2|- cents, - - - . 93,75
Pasturage of 13 horned cattle, 26 weeks, at 33| cents, 112,66
25 bushels of potatoes, at 50 cents, . . . . 12,50
20 " of apples, at 50 cents, - . . . io,00
527 pounds of cheese, at 10 cents, - . . . 52,70
250 pounds of butter, at 20 cents, - . . . 50,00
10 tons of corn fodder, at |5, 50,00
2 tons of oat straw, at $5, 10,00
250 loads of compost manure, --.'.. 250,00
$1324,11
EXPENDITURES.
My own labor, 225 days, - $225,00
Hired man, 16 days, in hay-time, 20,00
Grass-seed, ---...-. qqO
Seed-corn, 1 bushel, ----... j^qO
Seed-oats, 10 bushels, at 62|- cents, - - - . 6,25
Seed-potatoes, 2 bushels, at 50 cents, . . . . i^oo
1000 pounds of plaster, 4^50
75 bushels of oyster-shell lime, - ■ - - - - 12,00
250 loads of compost manure, 250,00
Interest on 69 acres, tillage and mowing, at $50, - - 207,00
Taxes, 27,00
' - $759,75
Net profit, , $564,36
Hadley, Oct. 4, 1854."
PEOFITS OF FARMING. ' 7zl
In a report on their wheat crop, Messrs. D. D. & J. Whittemore, Jr., say,
" Our crop of wheat was raised in Sunderland on one acre and forty-one rods
of ground. In 1851, the piece was sown with barley, and seeded with clover.
About the 12th of September, we ploughed in the second crop of clover, and
sowed two varieties of wheat, viz : bald and bearded white flint — one bushel
of the first, and one and a half bushels of the last, and harrowed well. Early
in the spring, we sowed three bushels of salt, two and a half bushels of plas-
ter, and five barrels of slacked oyster-shell lime. Our wheat suffered from
the severe winter, and from the drought in summer. We judged that forty
per cent, was winter killed. We harvested in July, and for want of barn
room, had it threshed immediately by hand ; consequently we lost a large
per cent, by its being left in the straw. The quantity thus lost was estimated
at from three to five bushels. Of the bearded, we had nineteen bushels, and
of the bald six bushels, or twenty-five bushels of wheat, perfectly free from
rye and all foul seeds.
VALUE OF CROP.
25 bushels of wheat sold for - - - - - |62,50
Value of straw, - - . - - - - 7,00
169,50
EXPENSES.
Ploughing, sowing, and harrowing, - - - - $3, 75
Seed- wheat, - - 3,37
Lime, plaster, salt, - - - - , - - - 5^35
Harvesting and threshing, . . . - . 8,00
Interest on land, _.----- 5^00
$25,47
Net profit, - $44,03
Sunderland, Nov. 8, 1854."
In a report on corn, Austin L.' Clark says, of an acre of pasture land, not
ploughed within the memory of the oldest inhabitant, " In May, I ploughed
it about six inches deep, turning in ten loads of barn-yard manure. I then
harrowed in eight loads of compost manure. On the 26th of May, it was
planted. Eight bushels of leached ashes were dropped in the hill. The corn
was hoed twice. The hills were not raised, and were three feet apart each
way. The soil was a clayey loam. On the 14th of September, the cro]) was
harvested.
VALUE OF CROP.
I
75 bushels of corn, at $1, $75,00
4895 pounds of fodder, at |6 per ton, - - - 17,47
4|- bushels of soft corn, 1,12
19 0"^
,43
722 j PROFITS OF FARMING.
EXPENSES.
18 loads manure, - - 818,00
8 bushels leached ashes, - 80
Ploughing, harrowing, and hauling manure, - - - 6,00
Planting and seed, -.-...- 1^25
Hoeing and ashing, ------- 3,50
Cutting and stacking, 2,00
Carting and husking, 6,00
Interest on land, 5,00
842,55
Net gain, $48,04
Sunderland, Oct. 25, 1854."
Mr. Chester Cowles reports his crops as follows, the quantity of land being
three acres :
VALUE OF CROP.
180 bushels, at $100, $180,00
8 baskets of soft corn, 2,00
Corn fodder, estimated 18,00"
8.200,00
EXPENSES
45 loads of manure, - $45,00
Manure and spreading, - 1*7,00
Planting and seed, 4,00
Hoeing and cultivating, - - - - - - 23,00
Cutting and stacking, ...--- 7,00
Carting and husking, 15,00
Interest on land, 18,00
$129,00
Net gain, $71,00
Amherst, Nov. 14, 1854.
George Dickenson cultivated rye on land of second quality. In the spring
of 1853, it was ploughed from seven to eight inches deep. Twelve loads of
manure were applied to ths acre au'I harrowed in. Corn was then planted
and thoroughly cultivated. The corn was cut up, the second week in Sep-
tember, and yielded at harvest fifty bushels per acre. The ground was again
ploughed from eight to ten inches deep, and sown with a bushel and a half
of white rye, per acre, at seventy-five cents per bushel. The crop was har-
vested the 13th and 14th of July.
VALUE OF CROP.
65^ bushels of 56 pounds, $"76,63
3^ tons of straw, 19,50
$96,13
SUSPENDERS. 723
EXP
E N S E 8 .
Ploughing and sowing,
3 bushels of rye.
Harvesting and housing,
Threshing and cleaning, -
Interest and taxes,
$3,00
2,25
5,00
' 6,00
■ 15,00
$31,25
Net profit,
Eadley, November, 1854,
$64,88
On two acres, Mr. Cowles estimates a crop of rye as follows :
VALUE
OF CROP.
50 bushels, at |1,25,
Straw, by estimate,
- ■ -
$62,50
15,48
$77,98
EXPENSES.
- Seed, $2,25
Ploughing, harrowing, and sowing, - - - - 3,50
Harvesting and threshing, ------ 12,00
$25,75
Net profit, - - - . - - - $52,23
Albert Montague, of Sunderland, makes the following estimate of an oat
crop :
VALUE OF CROP.
60i bushels of oats, -.----- $30,25
H tons of straw, ------- 9,00
$39,25
EXPENSES
Ploughing and sowing,
Seed, ----
Harvesting and threshing, ------
Interest on land, - -
$13,00
Net profit, ■* ..-.-- $26,25
Sunderland, Nov. 1, 1854.
Suspenders. — The New-Haven Palladium says the manufacture of woven
suspenders in the United States was commenced about the year 1840, at
Middletown, Mass., with a capital of $40,000. There are at present six fac-
tories in the country, five of which are in the State of Connecticut, and one
at East Hampton, Mass. The capital employed in the business is half a mil-
lion of dollars.
724 THE IMPROVEMENT OF HONEY.
THE IMPROVEMENT OF HONEY.
[Orrv Polish friend, alluded to upon another page of this number, has
given us the following results of his own experience in this branch of indus-
try ; and it being written in French, as was the other, we have thus translated
it into English.— Eds. P. L. & A.]
FOR THK PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.
Mr. Editor: — The State of New- York produces honey which I have
carefully examined. It is a fluid, of light weight, and the wax is yellow.
To improve the quality of it, I make the following suggestions :
Tiie honey of wild bees inhabiting the forest is dark colored, and its wax
is yellow. The honey of bees feeding in orchards is clearer, and the wax is more
yellow, but sometimes these cells are very white, and the honey which they
contain is very white. In my country, Poland, I attended extensively to the
production of honey ; and I perceived that bees placed in my orchard gave
me a crop of honey clearer, and the wax of it white. The honey which was
separated from the wax by draining was found wbite, compact, and resem-
bling sugar to such a degree as to be cut with a knife. The wax was very
white. The following year, the honey was of an inferior quality, as well as
the wax. The third year, the honey was improved.
1 then made an investigation of the subject. I examined the habits of the
bees, and came at length to the solution of the enigma which had occupied
my attention for three years. In the vicinity of the apiary, I had a field in
which I sowed buckwheat. While this was in flower, I perceived that the
bees constantly frequented this field, and that they labored with remarkable
diligence, and their product was very large. The honey of this year was
improved in quality and in quantity.
The next year, I made an experiment. While the buckwheat was in
flower, I removed their hives upon the borders of the field. I noted carefully
the diligence of the bees. What was remarkable, and after the flowers dis-
appeared, my curiosity led me to open the hives, and I was greatly aston-
ished to find the comb full, and constructed of white wax, while the honev
was also white. That which I separated from the comb by draining and a
gentle heat, and placed in. pots, formed a compact mass analogous to sugar,
so much £0, that it might be cut with a knife.
I left two hives without disturbing the honey ; and at the approach of au-
tumn, I again collected the product. The portions from which the honey
had been removed after the flowering of the buckwheat, had been refilled
with wax and honey, but of an inferior quality ; those of the young repub-
lics from which the honey and comb had been removed, had been again
firied ; but the two hives which had remained untouched, had been deprived
of their honey, and presented the aspect of empty and dry cells,
I was satisfied that the excessive abundance of honey had induced idleness
in the bees, who fed upon their superfluity, and, refusing to labor, quietly
consumed the product of their past toil.
Having this experience, after the season of the flowering of the buckwheat, I
gathered my crop»entirely, and at the commencement of the winter, I inspected
my hives, removed the super-abundance, and if the season was not favorable,
I supplied those hives which were not in good condition.
By this means, I learned that the flowers of buckwheat presented the best
material for honey and for comb, which they supplied both in abundance
BREEDS OF CATTLE. 725
and of superior quality. Hence, I have since continued the practice above
described ; and I advise farmers who give any attention to this product, to
give proper consideration to my experiments.
It should be added, that this gathering of the sweets of the flowers of the
buckwheat does not at all diminish the quantity of grain, but, on the con-
trary, its effect is favorable, and even increases the amount of flour.
During my residence in France, in Sologne, a country situated on the
banks of the Loire, in the departments of the Loire and Cher and T ■,
in Mayenne, and in Bretagne, I repeated the same experiments v/ith the
same success ; and to-day, the French apothecaries make use of this same
white honey, which, in common, is called the honey of Orleans, and which
commands a price one-third higher than that of ordinary honey.
BREEDS OF CATTLE,
At a late discussion on cattle, at Albany, B. P. Johnson, Secretary of the
New-York State Agricultural Society, is reported by the Country Gentleman
to have said :
The West Highland is a small, black, shaggy animal, perfectly hardy, and
runs out in the winter. The beef is of extra quality, superior to any other in
the London market. A higher price per stone is paid for them than any
other. In Norfolk they are the most prevalent, and are considered the most
profitable breed of cattle. Mr. Colman speaks of them as of extra fine pro-
portions, being a perfect parallelogram. A gentleman from Western Virginia
who thought that State had the best cattle in the world, and that he should
find nothing in England to equal them, went with him (Mr. Johnson) to
Smithfield market, and when he saw the black cattle from Scotland, he ex-
claimed, in perfect astonishment, " I give it up. I have never seen any thing
equal to this." They would be admirably adapted to Vermont, and other New-
Enojland States, and to the northern countries of our own State. A few have
been imported into Canada. The Short-horns stand pre-eminent for early
maturity, and great aptness to fatten, with a fine, mellow skin — which is ab-
solutely necessary for fine fattening quaUties. Will mature from six to nine
months earlier than any other breed. Had known a herd of Short-horn
grades, of the same age as a herd of native cattle, fed under the same circum-
stances, bring fifteen dollars a head more in the New-York market.
Herefords are a very superior breed, though not very extensively intro-
duced here yet. Has visited England, and never saw finer cattle. Feeders
uniformly told him they could make more on them than on Short-horns.
Not so the breeders^ however.
Devons, in quality of meat, are next to the West Highland. For beef,
milk, and the yoke, they are, and always will be, a most popular breed. The
celebrated red cattle of New-England have been thought to be Devons. They
are more like the Sussex, a little larger and coarser breed than the North
Devon. They are a very valuable breed for milk, working-oxen, etc., and
there is no breed of cattle better for crossing with the Short-horn. It is to
these breeds we must look for improvement. Breeders must aim at de-
veloping the parts of cattle which command the highest price.
726 COKN STATISTICS IN FRANCE.
HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE.
A CORRESPONDENT of the Prairie Farmer, contrary to old maxims; un-
dertakes to judge the character of a horse by outward appearance, and offers
the following suggestions as the result of close observation and long experi-
ence:
If the color be light sorrel or chestnut, his feet, legs, and face white, these
are marks of kindness.
If he is broad and full between the eyes, he may be depended on as a
horse of good sense, and capable of being trained to almost any thing.
As respects such horses, the more kindly you treat them, the better you.
will be treated in return. Nor will a horse of this description stand the whip
if well fed.
If you want a safe horse, avoid one that is dish-faced ; he may be so far
gentle as not to scare, but he will have too much go-ahead in him to be safe
for every body.
If you want a fool, but a horse of great bottom, get a deep bay, with not
a white hair about him ; if his face is a little dished, so much the worse.
Let no man ride such a horse who is not an adept in riding — they are tricky
and unsafe.
If you want one that will never give out, never buy a large, overgrown
one. A black horse can not stand heat, nor a white one the cold.
If you want a gentle horse, get one with more or less white about him,
the more the better. Many suppose that the parti-colored horses belonging
to circuses, shows, etc., are selected for their oddity, but the selections thus
made are on- account of great docility and gentleness.
CORN STATISTICS IN FRANCE.
[In our February number, we published a short extract from Le Steele,
with this title. "We have since received a reply from a Polish gentleman,
now residing in this city, written in the French language, which we have
translated, and here present to our readers. — Eds. P. L. & A.]
FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.
t
Mr. Editor : — In your journal,- " The Plough, the Loom, and the Anvil,"
for February, 1855, page 482, you give the Corn Statistics of France from
Le Siecle. That those statistics are erroneous, you will be convinced after
having examined those deposited in the archives of the French Minister of
Commerce and of Agriculture for the preceding twenty years. [See the table.]
This table shows that, during these twenty years, agriculture has made great
progress. The crop of wheat has more than doubled; that of rye has nearly
doubled ; mixed grain has increased fifty per cent., and barley still more.
Millet and maize remain nearly the same, as also the buckwheat, except that
in certain years it has increased, not from a more extensive cultivation, but
because the season was peculiarly favorable to its growth.
Since the year 1835, agriculture has made great progress in France. Much
CORN STATISTICS IN FRANCE.
72-
heath land has been made productive with the aid of manure, lime, dead an-
imals, and poudrette — the animal manures being made more effective by
mixture with blood, and the flesh of horses no longer fit for service.
It is computed that France, since 1835, has increased her crops by one-
third, except the millet, and maize, and the buckwheat, which have remained
without much variation.
When Le Siecle supposes that the crop of rice, harvested in France,
amounts to $26,000,000 hectolitres, it is in error. The whole of ihis crop is
consumed in France ; but it is not a common article of food, except in the
cafes and the restaurants, where rice is eaten with milk and with fat, (gros.^
In private houses it is used sparingly, as in soup, with onions, with cabbage,
and with crumbs of bread. This rice is grown in France, and is imported from
the colonies, from Italy, and from the Carolinas. One-fourth of the buck-
wheat is fed to animals ; the last is sowed with millet and maize ; and the
consumption of these two products is rare in France, except in the country,
and it is only in the season of harvest that it is served to laborers. The
population of France, which is about 35,000,000, is fed chiefly with white
bread and mixed bread, the last being composed of the flour of mixed grain,
or of rye mixed with wheat of the worst quality.
Bread of pure rye is found only in Paris, and in some of the large cities.
It is a fancy bread, dearer than that taxed by the police, though exempt
from any tax. The Frenchman every where uses bread, and at least he re-
quires, when he labors, three pounds of bread in his soup, with his wine, or
with his meat; but to eat alone a pound of bread suffices. An ounce of
flesh or of lard is required for a meal, and a very little bread with cheese, but
a very small quantity suffices with apples, and other fruits, grapes, and also
with potatoes. This last named article, potatoes, is consumed in great
quantities, they being pared, fried, and salted. Bread is an essential, while
the potato is a luxury to the French.
NUMBER OF HECTOLITRES OF CERTAIN CROPS GROWN IN FRANCE.
NoMBRES d' Hectolitres
recolt'es sur la totalit'e des terres cnsemendes. en
i
Mixed Grain.
a
0
<5
Wheat.
(Wheat & Bar-
ley.)
«
Barley.
Oats.
Maize & Millet.
Buckwheat.
1815
39,460,791
8,732,132
19,678,.595
12,999,751
5,630,930
5.314,542
1816
43,316,694
9,303,887
20,943,5i6
13,810,347
4.153,310
3,638,934
1817
47,984,044
9,731,194
22,422,370
16,508,993
5,850,338
6,499,778
1813
52,697,927
10,438,583
24,734,120
13,186,458
6,101,.552 A
9,123,313 '
3,363,098
1819
59,841,150
12,405,588
80,904,225
16,634,424
6,646.330
1820
44,847,720
9,228,580
25,400,471
19,:<79,157
5,786 988
7,745; 108
1821
58 219,268
11,394,360
30,284,961
17,710,319,
5,047,168
7,987,309
1822
50,856,707
10,108,887
27,059,535
14,065,328
6.044,119
8,371.676
1823
58,676,862
11,075,194
29 913,341
17,509,312
6,657,.^il0
6,544,211
1824
61,788,97-2
11,271,909
29,923,148
17,010,859
5,906,815
7,361,851
1825
61,033,177
11,3.51,398
26,722,151
14,485,070
6,519,946
6.126,734
1826
59,631,917
11,111,492
29,834,465
15,293,582
7,140,888
7,408,492
1827
56,785,944
11,226,696
27,565,282
15,721,223
5,047,391
6,979.888
1838
58,823,512
10,936,692
29,935,521
16,126 902
6,278,525
9.839,216
1829
64,285,521
11,680,380
32,652,568
15,095,755
6,590,604
7,949,859
1830
52,782,008
9,917,241
26,876,157
19,901,710
7,330,701
7.46H,080
1831
56,429,694
10,621,675
27,546,613
18,119,023
7,490,343
10.205,348
1832
80,089,016
13,697,190
37,996,755
18,517,252
4,036,637
6,151,293
1833
66,073,141
11,435,433
34,291,532
15,907,119
7.239,083
5.922084
1834
61.981,226
11,289,972
29,41«,982
17.474,857
8,412,945
10,166;666
1835
71,697,484
12,281,020
32,996,950
18,184,316
6,951,179
5,175.933
728 WHAT FOOD WILL PEODUCE THE MOST WOOL.
WHAT FOOD WILL PRODUCE THE MOST WOOL.
Peas, beans, vetches, etc., are useful for the purpose of enriching the t)lood,
by furnishing it with largo supplies of albumen, which is its principal con-
stituent. It will be remembered that in the analysis of flesh and blood the
relative proportions of their constituents are nearly identical ; consequently,
whatever food contains nitrogen, and the greatest amount of albumen, is best
adapted Ho the development of flesh or muscle, and is therefore the most nu-
tritious. Wheat, rye, barley, and buckwheat, contain large quantities of
albumen, especially the first two ; while oats, it will have been seen, contains
ten and a half per cent, of its organic elements of albumen, and peas and
beans no less than twenty-nine per cent. What conclusion, then, is to be
drawn from this ? The chemical composition of horns, hoofs, hair, ivool, and
even feathers, is substantially the same ; their organic elements are coagu-
lated albumen and gelatin, and their inorganic, silica, carbonate, and phos-
phate of lime, and the oxides of iron and maganese. Hence it will readily
appear that food given to the sheep which will supply the greatest pro-
portion of albumen, in the same ratio will increase the wool secretions, and,
consequently, be productive of the most wool, 2>>'0vided, however, they also hold
in suitable combination the inorganic substances of wool ^ without which they
^psimilate mostly for the formation of flesh or fat. This may be exemplified
thus : a soil may be highly productive of corn, as well as a few of the cereal
grains, yet for the production of wheat it may lack the proper proportion of
the phosphate and carbonate of lime, and, consequently, the berry will not
only be deficient in quantity but quality.
The following table exhibits the results of the experiments of the distin-
guished agriculturist, De Raumer, on the efiects produced by an equal quan-
tity of several substances in increasing the flesh, tallow, and wool of sheep :
Increase
Produced
Produce
weight of living animal.
wool.
tallow.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
,000 lbs. potatoes, raw, with salt, -
- 46J
H
12i
do.
" do. without salt.
44
H
11^
do.
" mangel wurtzel, raw,
- 38^
5i
6^
do.
" wheat, - - -
- 155
14
591
do.
" oats, - - - -
- 146
10
42^
do.
" barley, - - .
- 13G
Hi
60
do.
" peas, - - - .
- 134
\\\
41
do.
"•rye, with salt,
- 133
14
35
do.
" rye, without salt.
- 90
12i
43
do.
" meal, wet, -
- 129
13i
l^i
do.
" buckwheat, -
- 120
10
33
These results are said to agree with those of De Dombale, and with those
of a number of other agriculturists.
It will be perc-eived by the above table that wheat produces the greatesi
increase in the flesh of the sheep, though but little greater than oats ; that^^ms,
wheat, and rye, produce the greatest increase of wool; and that iaWey and
xoheat cause the greatest increase of tallow. That, as an average, grain gen-
erally gives about three times the increase in the flesh, that roots do when in
equal weight ; that grain produces about twice as much wool as is caused by
equal weight of roots, and several times the amount of tallow.
ON LINEN. 729
The legitimate conclusion from the foregoing is, that the flock-master,
whose object is wool only, must rely on good hay and some straw, whose
constituents are admirably adapted for the growth and perfection of wool,
with a moderate allowance, daily, of ground peas and oats, and some potatoes
as green food, for the greatest amount of wool ; and those gross substances,
oil-cake, corn-meal, ruta bagas, may be turned over to the producers of fat
mutton. This will presently be adverted to again. — MorrelVs Shepherd.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AND THE ANVIL.
OF LINEN.
Mr. Editor : — I have heard much said of a want of linen in the United
States, and of its high price, and of the want of success in the cultivation of
this plant in this part of the world. The soil for the cultivation of flax is no
where better than in Vermont. It is good, also, in New- York, in Pennsylva-
nia, in D^'laware, and in Maryland. 13ut has any one examined the causes
of the failure of this crop, xmd the necessities for this particular growth ? Of
this, I have doubts.
For this reason, permit me to present the following for your consideration.
The universal complaint is that flax does not succeed, and all the fault is laid
to the charge of our mother who feeds us, the earth, which, in this country,
is unfavorable to its cultivation.
We believe the causes which prevent the success of this particular brancb
of cultivation to be — 1. The want of good seed ; 2. The bad selection of
soils ; 3. The bad manipulation of the fibre.
The seed, which comes from Riga, (Russia,) can not meet the expectations
of the farmer. And why? The supplies of the large magazines of Riga are
furnished either by the extensive proprietors of the soil, or by the tiade of
Jevvs who buy in small quantities, and resell to the merchants of Riga.
Those who are engaged in this traflic are mostly Jews.
The proprietors, persuaded of the good quality of their merchandise, bold
it firm, and sell at a very high rate, while the merchant holds on to his own
price, believing he has a good article. The Jews buy the flaxseed of the
same proprietors, with little regard to their quality, but are content, since
they can buy and sell at a good profit to the merchants at Riga, who can
thus supply the wants of commerce at a small profit.
But perhaps you will reply, but the grain is as good and as heavy as any
other, so that agents, ignorant of any thing better, are induced to buy. But
not knowing the fraud, they deceive themselves, and, in their turn, they de-
ceive others. In appearance, there is no difference in the quality. Thus, the
Jews who carry on the small commerce in flaxseed, buy it of bad quality and
small size, boil it, and give to it a lustre the appearance of that of the best
quality. Thus improved in its appearance, they offer it in the market.
Being purchased for the sake of the seed, it will not reproduce enougb to
make painters' oil. It disappoints the manufacturer ; and the cause of its
deterioration is imputed to the effects of the sea. But it is true, that as the
boiled egg will not produce a chicken, so boiled flaxseed will not produce a
stalk. This flaxseed is known in North America under the name of Swedish.
Poland produces much flax, but of an inferior quality, on account of the
use of seed grown in Litbaine being mixed with good seed, which attracts
730 A NEW COTTON GIN.
the aqueous particles from it, renders it more slender, (maigne,) and the
stalk smaller and weaker, and less fibrous. But some agriculturists in this
country, and among others the undersigned, were persuaded of the inferior
quality of Polish flax when compared with that of Lypse, in the northern, part
of Hungary, which is long, white, and string.
After having learned the method of manipulation of the fibres, in those
places, I procured seed from that country — to wit, from Knieson, a city situa-
ted in the county of Lypse. I sowed it, and obtained flax white and a yard
in length ; and we had grain , which produced more than twice the quantity of
oil produced from Swedish flax ; and so great an improvement was made in
this branch of industry, that we even rivalled the flax of Austria.
The American Consul, at Trieste might procure flaxseed at Knieson, or
Lubownia. The families from which it might be obtained, without fear of
fraud, are those of Kawecki, Kigzyk, Ongorko.
This is the counsel we would give to the farmers of this country — that
they should procure seed of this plant that will not disappoint their expecta-
tions. They may thus do a good service not only to themselves, but to the
country, and rid themselves of the payment of a large duty on flax to which
they are now subject.
During ray sojourn of twenty years in France, in the department of Ma-
yenne, I discovered that the crop of flax was mean and of bad quality. I
made known my opinions to M. Desjardin, councillor of the department, and
he followed my advice, and procured seed from Lypse, abandoning the use
of Swedish flaxseed, and the improvement was decisive. If the vines of
Tokay can be imported into New- York, it seems to me that there can be no
difliculty in importing the flaxseed.
A single word upon its cultivation. The spot for this growth should be
selected upon the southern border of a stream. A black soil, without ma-
nure, is the most favorable to its growth — such as is suited to the growth of
clover. In places remote from a stream, the land selected should be moist
and well cultivated.
After the flax is gathered, the stalks should be dried ; and after the seed is
separated, they should be exposed for a fortnight to the dews, or they may be
plunged in water for three days or more, and then dried, according to circum-
stances, either by the sun or in heated ovens. ' After this, the usual manipu-
lation follows. Saniewski Felix.
[The above was sent us in' French, and we have translated it into English.
The subject is of great importance, and these suggestions may prove to be
eminently worthy of practical regard. — Eds. P. L.' & A.]
A New Cotton Gin. — S. R. Parkhurst, of this city, has succeeded in per-
fecting, to his entire satisfaction, we believe, the American cylinder cotton gin.
The steel cylinder cotton gin as now made by Mr. P. only needs to be
oiled, and the hopper filled, and the cotton kept back in the lint room. The
feeding apparatus adapts itself to the motion of the machine, and will supply
the cotton as fast as wanted from the hopper. Cotton ginned by this ma-
chine shows a much better staple than if done by the old machine, and is
said to be worth about one cent in the pound more than if ginned by the
saw-gin, while it does its work much faster, and with less labor.
GUANO FOR SUGAR-CANE. 731
PEAS AND SWEET POTATOES FOR FATTENING HOGS.
Mr. Nathan Winslow, of Perquimons county, fattens his hogs for slaugh-
ter and sale, as well as for his own consumption, almost entirely on peas and
sweet potatoes. From the 1st to the 15th of September, the hogs are turned
on a pea-field. At the same time, a small portion of the sweet potato ground
is fenced off. The wood-land'is close at hand, and the hogs are turned therein
every day. This is done because he deems it better for the health of the
hogs. Every night, alternately, the hogs are turned into the pea-field and
the potatoes— new portions of the latter being brought in as the first enclosed^
are exhausted. Thus kept on peas and potatoes alone, (for he supposes they
get very little from the woods,) the hogs become very fat. For change of
food, and late in the fattening, swill is added to the food, made of turnips,
boiled with a little corn-meal, and seasoned with salt. Mr. Winslow is con-
fident that all the corn consumed during the whole time of fattening does
not exceed the average of a peck for each hog ; therefore, the Aattening is due,
in a very slight degree, to corn, and almost entirely to the peas and potatoes.
Peas alone will fatten very considerably, but not enough to make good pork.
But with potatoes, the hogs are not only made very fat, but their fat is
even^ more firm and white than of hogs fattened on corn. After cold weather
requires that potatoes should be dug, they are boiled before being fed to the
hogs. Mr. Winslow is a very large and successful raiser of hogs, and seller
of pork. I learn from others that his pork, fattened as above stated, is
deemed the best in the markets. — Southern Planter.
GUANO FOR SUGAR-CANE.
We recently met with Col. John S. Preston, of Columbia, South Cai-olina,
returning from his sugar plantation on the Mississippi Eiver. In speaking of
guano as a fertilizer. Col. Preston informs us that it was a very profitable
fertilizer for sugar-cane. He used it first in 1853 on a field of fifty acres ;
theland was much worn. He took twenty-four acres of the field for the ex-
periment, upon which he applied the guano, by putting on 200 pounds per
acre ; on the balance of the field, the same quality of land, he applied no
guano, cultivating each portion in the same manner. The guanoed portion
produced 900 pounds of sugar more per acre than the other, which, at 4^
cents per pound for the sugar, gave an actual money profit of $40 per acre,
for the five dollars' worth of guano used. The next year, 1854, the field was
still cultivated in cane from ratoons. It was remarked by every one who saw
it, that the guanoed portion (24 acres) was the finest ratooned cane in the
country. The result of the crop, the second year, from the guanoed portion,
was greatly superior to the other— the difference more than sufficient to pay
for the guano used.
Last year, Col. Preston used 50 tons on 500 acres of cane ; the result,
though not so great, from the extreme dryness of the season, was entirely
satisfactory, increasing the crop on the 500 acres to the extent of upwards of
400 pounds of sugar per acre ; and he confidently expects the increase on
the crop of ratooned cane this year, from the same 500 acres, to pay back
the |2,500, the cost of the guano, with interest. He is using the same quan-
732 PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
tity, 50 tons, this year. Col. Preston remarked this fact, in connection with
the u^e of guano as a fertilizer in the cultivation of the sugar-cane, that it
produced the finest effect upon their most exhausted lands. Col. Preston has
promised us, for the columns of the " Cotton Planter," the particulars of
these interesting experiments, which we hope to be able to lay before our
readers some time this spring. — American Cotton Planter.
PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
Give us special directions — more practical directions ; give us regular rules
for the production of the various crops, so that we can raise our annual pro-
ducts by them, as a carpenter builds a house by his plan. Such, we suppose,
is what many people expect of a "first class" agricultural paper; and just
so far as any file of weeklies or of monthlies comes short of this, just so far short
it comes of its obligations. Are we right in thus describing at least the secret
hopes of many readers of those useful journals, if not their actual expectations ?
If so, we are perfectly willing, for one, at once and for all, directly and
explicilly, to extinguish those hopes, and annihilate those expectations, so far
as the expression of our views, and opinions, or expectations, may produce
such a result ; for we have no sort of confidence in any such plan of opera-
tions, and the louder any co-laborer should proclaim this as his definite object
and expectation, just so far our own conviction of his unfitness for his place
would be increased, and we should look upon him in the same degree as
a charlatan. We are well aware that some of our ablest journals have now
and then been so unwise as to give countenance to this notion. They have'
permitted themselves to go quite too far in holding up the idea that scientific
farming might be reduced to such plain and practical rules, that an ignora-
mus might refer to them to learn v>'hat to do next, just as he would to the
calendar pages of his almanac to know the day of the month. One who
talks on quite a high key about this noble science, has more than once inti-
mated that when we have advanced a little further with our model farms, we
shall know just how much corn it takes to make a pound of pork ; and others
may have erred (and ourself among the rest,) in not being sufficiently guarded
on this vital point.
But why can we not reduce practical agiiculture to a few simple rules, by
which all farmers can be guided, and thereby become rich ? One good and
sufficient reason is, that the circumstances of the case, the condition of the
land, the elements of which it is composed, or which may be wanting, the
comparative value of the same crop at different places, or of diff'erent crops,
and of manures, operating differently on different soils, or in different seasons,
and the indefinite cost of fitting the soil for one or another kind of growth —
all these and other particulars are so various, so changing, and so wholly un-
known to the conductor of a journal, that specific instructions, requiting no
skill, nosqiencein their application, are nothing less than an absolute impossi-
bility. Indeed, it requires but little less skill to apply than to construct the
laws of agriculture, though the kind of knowledge required for the different
positions of teachers and of learners may be somewhat diverse. For example.
The teacher may contrive sundry important experiments, in reference to the
cultivation of a given crop, and to do this wisely requires a previous fitness in
the experimenter. But when all this is completed, it requires a knowledge of
PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 733
soils iu the farmer who would successfully apply the principles taught by
those experiments.
Another may carefully test the fattening qualities of certain kinds of feed,
in relation to his own animals. But it is not certain that other animals, long-
accustomed to a different diet, or those of a different organization, would uni-
formly exhibit exactly the same phenomena under the same treatment.
Again, where land commands a large price, certain kinds of cultivation will
be profitable, Avhen they would be ruinous if applied on any low priced lands.
Where land can almost be had for clearing it, "high farming" is not the
most productive, nor would the rules of scientific management, as generally
understood, be properly applicable. Extreme cases generally form exceptions.
Having thus shown our meaning, we have only to answer affirmatively
the question, what is the teacher of agricultural science to do ? And we an-
swer, he is chiefly to do with general principles, and general rules of practice,
in the application of which there is an absolute necessity of practical skill on
the part of the learner. No book, and no collection of books, can be a sub-
stitute for this practical skill. They will furnish valuable aid ; they will di-
rect the attention into the right direction, and show where to look for the
cause of given failures, but they can not become oracles, and he who makes
them such will find himself, not unfrequently, as far astray as if he had fol-
lowed an ignis fatuus. The book may be right; the application of it may
be wron.g
Hence it is that we de^l so much in principles, and so little in practical de-
tails, iu regard to specific modes and processes. If we can give to our readers
a proper conviction of their own wants, and of the principles by which they
must be governed in their practical operations ; if we can induce them to be
in earnest in becoming good farmers, we shall do a great work. To do any
thing else, with many, is utterly useless. If there is one who exhibits a prac-
tical contempt for the fundamental principles of the science of manures, for
example, how foolish it is to discuss, /or his sake, the comparative advantages
of drills and sowing broadcast ; of guano and poudrette, etc., etc. He will
heed none of your advice ; but call you a fool, and a mere book-farmer, if
you advise any thing contrary to his own past practices.
There are those who will be benefited by any one solitary fact in the expe-
rience of a farmer. Being systematic in their views and their thoughts, they
know at once what to do with every statement of fact, properly authenticated,
which is brought to their attention, and they work it into their system just as
orderly and skillfully as a seamstress uses up the parts of a garment, or the
thread with which she unites those parts. These details are all useful to
them, and chiefly to them alone.
Probably an opinion the reverse of this would be given, at first thought,
by many. They would say the mere statement of fact is within the compre-
hension of the ignorant, while the scientific man alone can comprehend prin-
ciples and theories. But, after reflection, we are sure that all will agree with
us. Who appreciates the fact that a given medicine produced certain
symptoms, in a given case, but he who understands both the medicine and
the disease. To receive the fact as true, merely, without reference to the
lesson it teaches, is useful to no one. Such a reception of truth is unworthy
the name of knowledge.
But any child can understand a plain description of the various chemical
attractions and combinations, and, in the light of such instruction, can see as
at a glance, the bearing of any given fact ; and they can take an interest in
such teachings, and will grow wiser under such instructors.
734 HORTICULTURAL.
HORTICULTURAL.
" I have laid great stress upon possessing a heap of compost, ready to ap-
ply to roots and shrubs every spring and autumn. Wherever the soil is
good, the flowers will bloom handsomely ; and no lady will be disappointed
of that pleasure, if a compost heap forms one essential, in a hidden corner of
the flower-garden. If you raise your perennials from seed, sow it when the
ground has become thoroughly warmed, in a bed of light earth, in the open
ground. Let the bed be in a genial, warm situation, and divide it into small
compartmeats ; a compartment for each sort of seed.
Sow the seed thin, and rake or break the earth over them finely. Let the
larger seed be sown half an inch deep, and the smaller seed a quarter of an
inch. Water the beds in dry weather often, with a watering-pot, not a jug.
The rose of the watering-pot distributes the water equally among the seed-
lings ; whereas, water dashed upon them from a jug falls in masses, and
forms holes in the light earth, besides prostrating the delicate seedling.
About the end of May, the seedlings will be fit to remove into another
nursery-bed, to gain strength till October ; or be planted at once where they
are to remain. Put the plants six inches apart, and water them moderately
to settle the earth about their roots.
But itv is rarely required to sow seed for perennial plants, they multiply so
vigorously and quickly of themselves by offsets, and cuttings may be made
of the flower-stalks in May and June in profusion.
The double scarlet lychnis, and those plants which rise with firm flower-
stems, make excellent cuttings, and grow freely when planted in moist
weather. Double rockets, lychnidea, and many others, succeed well.
Carnation and pink seedlings must be taken great care of They will be
ready to plant out about the middle of June ; and a^ innumerable varieties
spring from sowing seed, they should be planted carefully in a bed by them-
selves six inches asunder, and they will flower the following year, when you
can choose the colors you most approve. Carnations properly rank under the
head of biennials ; but pinks are strictly perennial plants, and much has been
written upon this hardy and beautiful flower. It comes originally from a
temperate climate, therefore the pink loves shade ; the fervid sunbeams cause
its flowers to languish and droop. You may give them an eastern aspect.
Be careful to watch pinks when they are budding, and do not allow two
buds to grow side by side. Pinch off the smaller bud, which would only
weaken its companion. Keep the plants free from decayed leaves, and gen-
tly stir the earth round them occasionally with your small trowel. This ope-
ration refreshes them. Stake them neatly, that they may not fall prostrate
after rain.
If you wish to preserve any particular pink, let it grow in a pot, or upon
a raised platform, that it may be placed beyond the reach of hares, rabbits,
or poultry, and be more easily sheltered from long and severe frosts or
rains in winter, and from the dry heats in summer, either of which destroys
the beauty of the flower. The pots can be sunk in the ground in fine weather.
Do not hide your pinks among larger flowers ; let them be distinctly seen.
If you water pinks too much, their roots become rotten ; and if you suffer
them to be too dry, they become diseased. Beware of extremes. The best
rule is to keep them just moist. A fine pink should not have sharp-pointed
flower-leaves ; they should be round and even at their edges, and the colors
PLUM TREES. 735
should be v/ell-clefined, not running one into the other. The flower should
be large ; it should possess a great many leaves, and form a sort of dome.
Piping and slipping is the most expeditious mode of propagating plants from
any selected pink.
Pansies, violets, etc., are very easily propagated by parting the roots when
the flowers are past. Pansies are very beautiful flowers, and cuttings of their
young shoots will grow very freely if kept moist and shaded for some little
time. By refreshing the soil every year, you insure large flowers. Pansies
and violets bloom early in the spring.
Hepaticas must be parted like violets. They appear so very early in the
year that no garden should exist without these gay and modest flowers.
The leaves appear after the flower has passed away. ,
The polyanthus bloo*ms among the early tribe. In planting this flower, be
careful to insert the roots deep in the soil, so that the leaves may rest upon
it, for the roots are produced high upon the stem, and those roots must be
enabled to shoot into the soil. The polyanthus, like almost every other
flower, loves a good soil with a mixture of sand.
In dividing these fibrous-rooted, perennial plants, take only the strong
ofisets, with plenty of fibres attached to them.
Polyanthuses, auriculas, double daisies, double camomile, London pride,
violets, hepaticas, thrift, primroses, gentianella, etc., succeed well, taken up
and divided in September, for they will all have done flowering by that time.
Indeed, all perennial, fibrous-rooted plants may be taken up in October to
have their roots parted, and the soil refreshed round them.
Peonies, and all knob-rooted plants, should be taken up in October to part
their roots, and transplant them to their intended positions.
The saxifrage has very small roots, which are apt to be lost in borders if
not carefully looked after. Like the anemone, etc., sift the earth well for them.
Dahlias require a word or two upon their culture. They love sand, there-
fore allow them plenty of it, but do not put manure to their roots, which
throws them into luxuriant leaf and stem, to the deterioration of the flower.
Peat mold is good, if you can obtain it, to mix with the sand, as it assists the
flower in developing stripes and spots. Train each plant upright, upon one
stem only, and give it a strong stake to support its weight, which soon suc-
cumbs under gusts of wind. Plant them in open and airy places. When
the stems become black, take them up, separate the roots, and plunge them
into a box of ashes, barley chafi", or sand, to protect them through the winter.
Plant them out in May."— ZacZi'es' Floiuer Gardener.
Plum Trees. — Plant your plum trees near water, and inclining so as to
hang over the water, so that you can gather the plums in a boat._ I have a
hundred of them o-rowing on my farm in that way, around an artificial lake,
and not a plum h^s dropped from them. The curculio has here and there
made its segment of a circle on the skin, and then thought better of it, for
it left no eo-g in the incision, observing, no doubt, that when the plum fell it
would be into the water, and so drown the progeny. Our plums generally
did well on all soils south of the Highlands twenty years ago.
736
JAPAN CElJAll.
JAPAN CEDAR.
[crypto MERIA JAPONICA,]
Amokg t]i8 numerous trees and plants introduced into England by Mr.
Fortune, the Collector of the London Horticultural Society in China, no one,
perhaps, has attracted so much attention as the Japan Cedar. It is nearly
allied to the Cyprus, and grows to the height of 100 feet in its native habi-
tation in China
and Japan, being
a great favorite for
avenues, and val-
uable for timber.
"Whenever forest-
culture shall com-
mand the atten-
tion which it de-
serves in this coun-
try, this " Queen
of Evergreen
Trees," as ,it has
been called by
high authority, is
hkely to be ex-
tensively cultiva-
ted on account of
the durability and
its
fact
has
as
jful
em-
ployed in China
for the high poles,
"which are every
where placed at
the dwellings of
mandarins to de-
note their rank,
■where it is said to
last for ages.
Only a few trees
of the Cnjptomc-
ria Jaijonicu have
as yet been im-
ported into the "United States; nor are they likely to be abundant before
they have attained sufScient age to yield a plenty of seeds. The first seeds
received in England from Mr. Fortune arrived in 1844.
Mr. Barry thus commends it : " While in England, we were deliglUed witli
this tree wherever we saw it, in the open ground or in the house.
JAPAN CEDAR.
"We think
PEACH'TEEES. 787
it iiDquestionably the most graceful and elegant evergreen tree of the immense
nuinher cultivated in Europe. It has proved perfectly hardy in England,
and its growth is exceedingly rapid, equalling the Norway Spruce. We saw
an elfgant specimen in the Chisvvick garden, nine feet high, that had made
four fet-t growth last season."
A sandy loam, mixed with some peat or leaf mold, is the kind of soil best
adapted to the Japan Cedar. Care should be had not to permit a wet sub-
soil to damage the roots by stagnant water. Smith, in his Landscape Gar-
dening^ pul)lished in Edinburgh in 1852, says that it was " still doubtful
whether the Japan Cedar will become more than a bush in this country,"
meaning Great Britain. The climate of our Central and Southern States is
much nearer that of China, and more likely to suit the Cryptomeria than
that of either England cr Scotland. — Genesee Farmer.
FOR THE PLOUGH, THE LOOM, AKD THE ANVIL.
PEACH-TREES — MR. CHAMPION.
Mrssrs. Editors : — 'Your Washington correspondent, Mr. Champion,
thinks that our peach-trees were not killed during the cold weather of last
winttr^r, hut attributes their destruction to the frosts of the last fall, or to a
similar cause. The sap did not " se^' right, he thinks. With due respect
to Mr. C , I dissent from his views on the subject. He says when the sap is
in circulation, (and it may be seen in a frozien state in beech and maple trees,
in winter, whi^n wood choppers are cutting down timber,) the tree can not be
killed. Now, Mr. Champion must know that the sap of trees does not flow
in the center of the trut)k, but within the liber^ or inner-bark, where the al-
burnum is deposited. There always is moisture in the inside of trees, but no
real circulntion of sap, as I apprehend.
Again, the peach-tree is really not a northern plant, but seems, indeed,
to flouri>h best in a moderately warm country ; like Jersey for instance. It
does not seem to be organized to withstand the severity of our climate at all
times, particularly when the thermometer indicates 25° or 30° below zero,
as it did last winter. Trees which I hnve, (Onondaga county, N. Y., in the
central part of the State,) that were buried up in the snow, are not dead, but
will live and do well. A bud which I saw on one of them was actually
green, and would have doubtless produced a young peach had I not removed
it. Here is proof conclusive that it was the intense cold weather of last De-
cember or January that killed the trees, and not the "sudden frost" in the
fall, of which Mr. Champion speaks. By reading St. John's geology, you
will find that there is an order of plants in the northern latitudes constituted
so as to exist in cold weather ; and immediately on the mercury rising above
the freezing -|joint, indicating a warmer temperature, the plants wither and
die ! Why is this ? Palpably becau-^e they are organized to live in cold
countries, in Ireland and Nova Z nubia; while it seems that peach-trees are
created with organizations suited to southern parallels of latitude. We do
not raise many peaches south of the 43d degree of latitude. In New-Jersey,
this season, peach-trees are represented to be doing well, with a fair prospect
of an abundant crop. Then, the frost in the fall did not kill the trees. Why
44
738 CULTUKE OF THE GRAPE.
not, Mr. Champion ? An explanation from you upon this point would be ac-
ceptably received.
The whole truth of the matter seems to be this : It was so intensely cold
last winter, in many parts, that peach-trees could not live ; they had to yield
to the severity of the winter frost, and not to the " fall frost." Many pear-
trees are dead, and also fruit-trees of otlier varieties.
We had a tree on our farm which bore peaches for more than forty years,
and then died of old age. The tree stood on a sandy knoll, where it was
exposed to sweeping winds and cold weather. We have no difficulty in
making trees live and bear fruit here for ten or even twenty years, except
the cold weather. The curl-leaf we can get along with, and other similar
diseases, but the cold weather is too much for us, in consequence of which
we shall lose many thousand dollars' worth of trees in this section.
Very respectfully, W. Tappan.
- Baldtoinsmlle, N. Y., May 10, 1855.
CULTURE OF T^HE GRAPE.
All well-prepared vineyards are first trenched to the depth of two feet, at
a cost varying from sixty to one hundred dollars per acre. All the lower
loose stone is thrown out during the operation of trenching, and is used for
constructing the walls for supporting^the terraces into which the hill side is
necessarily thrown in order to facilitate cultivation, and prevent washing or
sliding in consequence of heavy rains. The ground is then laid off into rows
for planting — the rows six feet apart, and the vines three feet ap^rt in the
rows. There are some variations from this, however, but these distances are
those usually adopted. It gives two thousand four hundred and twenty
plants to the acre. It is considered the best policy to plant cuttings at once
in the vineyard where they are to remain, instead of roots ; as the great dif-
ference in cost is not compensated for by the difference in their time of bear-
ing. A vine does better that is suffered to grow where originally planted,
taking for granted that the soil has been properly prepared for its reception.
Plant two cuttings in a place in the direction of the slope of the hill ; one
bud only above ground, the lower ends some distance apart, the top ends
close together; if one dies, you have one left,; if both live, pull up one to
supply the vacancy elsewhere. Roots one year old are worXh twenty-five
dollars per thousand.
Nothing need be done the first season except to keep the plants free from
weeds, and the ground well stirred. No standing water should be permitted
to gather about the plants.
The second year, in January or February, or as much earlier as you please ;
in fact, any time after the plants have cast their leaves, cut them back to two
eyes ; if both start, break out the weakest, and permit but one to grow. The
plants will need only the same sort of culture as the first year. Keep the
soil well stirred, and free of weeds.
The summer pruning during the second year, consists in shortening or
CULTURE Of THE GRAPE. 739
breaking the ends of the laterals, which grow in the axilla of the leaf. Do
not break them out; merely shorten them by breaking or bending over the
end of the lateral.
At the commencement of the third year, the plants must be cut back to
theee or four eyes, in order to ensure the growth of two ; after they have
fairly started break all off except the two strongest. The plants must be
staked this year as soon as they are pruned, and as they progress the young
shoots must be carefully tied to the stake with bands of rye straw made pli-
able by so aking. Treat the laterals in summer, by pruning same as before ad-
vised.
The fourth year, (or first bearing year) the vines are cut back thus : there
being two main shoots or canes grown the past year, one — the lowest down
— is cut back to three or four eyes ; two only being permitted to grow ; the
other is designed to bear the fruit of this year, and is cut back to about five
feet (supposing it to have grown beyond that.) Some persons coil this cane
into a bow or hoop by turning the upper end down and tying it to the stake
with basket willow twio;s. Reason, supposed that it causes a more equal dif-
fusion of the vigor of the plant to all the grapes borne upon it ; it being
thought that the shoot at the extremity of the cane absorbs too great a shai^
of the juices of the plant, from the known tendency of the upper shoot to
grow more vigorously than those lower down.
The summer pruning consists in treating the laterals same as before ad-
vised, with the additional labor of bending so as to break the end of the
stem (not entirely ofi", however,) upon which the fruit is borne, at the dis-
tance of two joints from the last bunch of grapes. Never break off the
leaves of the vine in order to facilitate the ripening of the fruit. In well
located vineyards nothing could be more improper, as the south or south-
eastern slope of a hill, unshaded by woodland, is quite warm or hot enough
to make it desirable that the vine should be permitted to retain all the
covering with which nature has furnished it. It destroys, too, or diminishes
the vitality and health of the plant. The object which is attained by the
functions of the leaves in the elaboration of the sap, is of course arrested ;
the whole proceeding is wrong, is unnatural, and contrary to common sense.
At the commencement of the fifth year the entire bow or shoot which
bore the fruit the previous season is cut off as low down as possible. This
operation would leave, of course, the two canes which have been produced
from the short shoot the year before. One of these canes, the most vigor-
ous, is to be left (as last year) to bear the fruit this year, while the other
shoot is to be cut back to several eyes, (leaving only two to grow, however,)
in precisely the same manner as advised at the commencement of the fourth
year. When the vines get to be seven or eight years old, two bearing canes
may be retained, besides the little spur which must be always left, in addi-
tion to the bearing wood, and as near the ground as possible, to produce the
canes for the ensuing year.
This method embraces the whole principal of vineyard pruning, as gener-
ally adopted. There are other methods, such as spur pruning, trellis pruning,
etc., which are not, however, very extensively practiced.
After the vines are pruned and tied, the next duty is to dig or loosen the
soil of the vineyard. The proper time for this is as soon as the ground has
become free from the frosts of winter, and the spring rains have ceased, and
left the earth in a fit state for gardening. — IIo7ne Journal.
740 THE FACTORY OF ACIDS FOR THE MINT.
PEACHES.
The Avioter has proved too severe for this fruit. Not only have the fruit-
buds been killed, but very many of the trees. Indeed, I have never known
the peach to sutler more in Massachusetts. The trees v?hich survive seem to
have escaped so as by fire. There will hardly be peaches enough in this
region to keep up our acquaintance with this delicious fruit.
There seems much to discourage the peach-grower in this climate. He
cannot calculate upon a crop oftener than once in three yeare ; yet, so delici-
ous is the fruit, and so easily is the tree produced, that no one who has
sufficient room should neglect its culture.
Of one thing I am satisfied. A quick growth should be avoided. To
this end, a light dry soil, with a gravelly subsoil, is to be prepared. Supply
little or no manure, unless it be ashes to keep ofi" the borers, and a light
dressing of chip-dung when the soil is very poor. Let the grass grow about
the tree, and the closer it binds it the better.
In my garden are trees, now in a healthy condition, which have been in
bearing twelve years. The ground about these trees has not been disturbed
during that time ; nor have they been manured at all.
In the cultivated portion of the same garden two sets of peach trees have
grown, borne, died, and been removed in the same time. Hence, I infer, that
in the culture of the peach in this climate the true policy is the " let alone"
policy.
The prospect for apples is good. The blossoms are out earlier, by at least
one week, than the average for the last fifty years, which is the 25th of May.
In Worcester county, and further east, the catterpillar is committing its
usual ravages among the apple trees. There are but few in this region.
Grapes and grains look unusually well hereabouts. The season fur plant-
ing has been good ; and if there is not an abundant harvest it will not be
because farmers slept in seed time. K. B. H.
Amherst, May \^th, 1855.
THE FACTORY OF ACIDS FOR THE MINT.
In the process of I'efining gold for coinage, large amounts of nitric and sul-
phuric acid are required. When the contract was made in Washington for
the erection of a Mint, another contract was made for a supply of acids
sufficient for a coinage of $5,000,000. The Secretary of the Treasury was
informed that the demand for the coinage would be much larger, but his
confidenlial advisers asserted the contrary, and he took their advice. In the
spring of 1854, the Mint Acid Factory was erected near the Mission Dolores.
There are two frame buildings, each of one story, one about ninety feet long,
by thirty-five wide ; the other is a chamber coated with lead, one hundred
feet long, by thirty wide.
The sulphur to make sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol, is brought from the
Island of Sicily to New-York, in vessels laden principally with fruit. At
New-Yurk the sulphur is re-shipped for this port, and costs, delivered here,
eighty dollars per ton, or four cents per pound 1 There are large beds of
sulphur in California, but in its native state it contains forty or fifty per cent, of
THE FACTORY OF ACIDS FOR THE MINT. 741
earthy matter, and the factory cannot use it if it contains more than fifteen
per cent. No one has yet undertaken to refine it. It is said that sulphur
can be furnished from China at forty doUars per ton. There is a villapje on
the coast north of Canton occupied entirely in the mining and refining of
sulphur, where it can be obtained by smuggling, for foreign vessels are not
allowed to trade there. A cargo from China is now expected.
In making acid, the sulphur is burned in an oven, and the smoke passes
over into a chamber of sheet lead. (Sulphuric acid does not dissolve lead.)
Then steam is thrown upon the fumes, which take oxygen from the air, and
the sulphuric acid settles upon the floor of the chamber. The acid is then
concentrated by means of evaporating pans and a worm, and drawn into
carboys. The factory can furnish three thousand pounds of sulphuric acid
daily, and the capacity may be easily increased. At the present the demand
is not equal to the ability to supply. The main point in making sulphuric
acid, is to manage so that each pound of sulphur shall make three of acid.
The chief material used in the manufacture of nitric acid, or aqua fortis, is
nitrate of soda, an inferior kind of nitre. Our supply of nitrate of soda is
obtained from Iquique, in the southern part of Peru, where there is an ex-
tensive mine of it. It costs here about ninety dollars per ton. In making
the acid, the nitrate of soda, mixed with sulphuric acid, is placed in an iron
boiler, and a moderate heat is applied. The soda has a greater affinity for
the sulphuric than f(.)r the nitric acid : and therefore it drops the latter and
takes up with the former, ijiaking a sulphate of soda ; and the nitric acid is
driven off by the heat through a pipe into stone jars, where it settles in a
liquid state. This process leaves it mixed with some muriatic acid, which,
being more volatile than the nitric, is driven oflf by a second heating in large
glass retorts. The apparatus for the manufacture of nitric acid is entirely
distinct from that for sulphuric acid, and is sufiicient to make twenty-four
hundred pounds daily. At present, the manufacture of nitric acid is stopped
for the want of nitrate of soda. Provision was made by the manufacturers
to supply the amount contracted for, but the demand for the mint has been
so much greater that they have been unable to meet it. A vessel has been
due from Iquique for some two weeks, with two hundred and fifty tons of
soda.
Muriatic acid, or spirits of salt, is made by heating common salt (muriate
of soda) with sulphuric acid. The soda having a greater affinity for the oil
of vitriol, deserts the spirits of salt, which goes oflF in steam and a huff, and
cools down and settles in a liquid form in stone jars to which it is led. The
other acids require a second distillation to purify them ; muriatic acid is
sufficiently pure, after the first process, for all practical purposes. The same
boilers and receivers are used for making nitric and muriatic acid. When all
are in use for making nitric, they can furnish twenty-four hundred pounds in
a day; when all are used in making muriatic, they can make thirty-six hun-
dred pounds ; if equally divided between the two acids, they can supply
eighteen hundred pounds of one, and twelve hundred of the other.
Nitrate of soda and sulphur are to be obtained here only by sending ves-
sels to great distances, under special charters. This difficulty will no doubt
be obviated within a few years; but, concurring with a demand for acids to
refine at the rate of $20,000,000 a year, instead of $5,000,000, as contracted
for, it has now almost stopped the mint.
There has been another difficulty besides the want of nitre. The glass
retorts of ten or twelve gallons each, are very liable to breakage, andthe
supply brought from the east was sufficient for the amount of acid required
742 STAMPED ENVELOPES.
by contract ; but a much larger amount having been supplied, the retorts
have been broken, and the factory must send to Philadelphia for them.
These retorts cost at Philadelphia $3 each ; the freight hither, on account of
their bulk and fragile character, is $9 each. It is a matter of surprise that
some entei'prising person does not establish a glass factory in San Francisco.
The soda-ash, an important material, might be furnished from the acid fac-
tory, and doubtless any experienced person would, at some place on our
coast, find the clean white sand necessary for vitreous manufactures. The
acid factory experiences another difficulty in its want of stone ware, which
can be had only at a great expense by sending to the Atlantic. The ordinary
clay is not sufficiently close to prevent the acid from percolating, and it is
said that there is no clay fit for the purpose in the State. — California Chroni-
cle.
STAMPED ENVELOPES— MODE OF MANUFACTURE.
An account is given in the Times, at considerable length, of the various
stages of the manufacture of tbds article. We have condensed portions of it
below, as a subject of great general interest :
The paper from which the envelopes are manufactured is made expressly
for this purpose, and bears the water mark, " P. Q, D. : U. S." These initials
of the Post-Ofiice Department, United States, are so arranged that they
appear on each envelope after the paper is cut. The paper is brought in
large sheets from the mifls, packed in ca^es, and carefully counted and marked
in divisions of fifty sheets each. This is the first counting. When it arrives
at the factory, it is examined and reckoned again to ascertain that the num-
ber of sheets agrees with the invoice. This is the second counting. It is
then taken to the cutting-room in the basement of No. 167 Pearl-street. In
this room is situated the ingenious cutting-machine, driven by steam-power.
The knife, which is made of the exact size and shape of the envelope before
it is folded, is placed upon a file of four hundred sheets, and being set under
the lever of the press, is made to pass easily through the whole thickness of
paper, producing, in about three seconds of time, four hundred envelopes,
cleanly and perfectly cut, ready to receive the stamp preparatory to being
folded. The sheets thus cut are counted a third time, and conveyed to the
stamping or embossing room on the first floor. Here are ten or twelve in-
geniously-constructed embossing presses, superintended by as many intelligent
and expert young women. Each press stamps with a perfect and beautiful
impression, as near as we could judge, about sixty envelopes per minute,
after which, having been counted a fourth time, and the imperfect impressions,
if any, removed, they are handed to another class of young women, whose
business it is to place the adhesive self-sealing preparation on the outer flap
of the envelopes. So skillful are the hands in this department, that one per-
son is able to prepare and dry about six thousand self-sealing envelopes per
hour ! After this, they are counted the fifth time, and passed to the folding
department. The machines employed for this purpose are among the most
ingenious and perfect that we have ever witnessed. Ten or twelve of these
are employed, and, like the stamping-presses, each is managed by a young
woman. The press moves with the most perfect regularity. The sheets, now
cut into the proper shape, stamped, and made self-sealing, are brought to this
instrument, which completes the process, and, in an instant of time, prepares
CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. 743
each envelope for use. A feediooj-band is employed, on wliicli the flat en-
velope is laid ; it is thus carried forward to an apparatus which places the
adhesive gum on the side-flaps, folds the envelope, fastens it, and drops it
into a tin box which quietly counts off" its contents into layers of twenty-fice
each, and hands them over to be counted again, bandaged and packed, sub-
ject to the order of the Postmaster General. About fifty hands are con-
stantly employed in this department alone; and we understand it is Mr.
Nesbitt's intention to manufacture, in addition to those made for the Govern-
ment, a supply of his beautiful article, unstamped, for the trade.
CHURCH ARCHITECTURE— TRINITY CHAPEL.
We are not inclined to volunteer a defence of the very expensive style of
church architecture, as it is usually managed in this city. What the rent
of pews will be in the chapel we are about to describe we do not know.
That corporation have the means for building very costly churches, and
keeping them rent free, without a dollar of individual donation. If rich
men are inclined to honor God by thus giving a few hundred thousand dol-
lars to such purposes, very well. We will commend them for their liberality ;
but to expend thus lavishly, and make the valuation of the pews and the
taxes on that basis, so that none but the rich can afibrd even to hire, as is
often done in this city, is a sin, of which all who participate in it must repent
before they can enter heaven ; for it has its beginning, and middle, and. end,
in pride.
Let the rich give for such purposes, and furnish pews that are not beyond
the reach of all but a fortunate few, and they may have churches that will
eclipse the splendor of Solomon's Temple, and yet offer the Lord's Prayer in
perfect simplicity of heart.
We find the following description of the new Trinity Chapel, on Twenty-
fifth Street, between the Fifth and Sixth Avenues, in the Times :
"This imposing structure may challenge comparison among the many
Christian temples rapidly rising in this city, for its characteristic purity of
style and correctness of detail, from which not the minutest departure has
been allowed.
" The building was con-ecrated a few days ago, and the following brief
notice of its architectural peculiarities may serve to mark the prodigious in-
crease of elegant and most expensive structures in our metropolis. Though
Trinity Church is larger, it will not accommodate a greater number of v.'or-
shippers.
"The style of Trinity Chnpel is early Enghsh, being composed of nave,
46 feet by 126, and chancel, 30 feet by 43. The side walls are supported
by buttresses. An octangular bell turret rises from the northeast angle of
the church, capped with a pinnacle ornamented by crochets and a tinial.
The chancel is apsidal. From this aspect is obtained the best view of the
building.
" The font is simply composed with four large buttresses and a large wheel
window. The principal entrance has deeply splayed jambs, the columns
beiu')" richly ornamented with foliated caps.
" On entering, the visitor cannot fail to be struck with the elegant propo'>
744 BREECH-LOADING CANNOX.
tions of the building and the height of the open roof. The chancel arch
and the illuminated timbers of the roof form a perfect chef d'ceuvre of arclii-
tectural effect. The walls are pierced with deep, narrow windows of stained
glass, and those in the chancel are filled with a well-painted Scriptural illus-
tration of the Transfiguration. The inside walls are of Caen stone ; the
roof is supported on carved stone corbels, and illuminated with a blue ground
dotted with gold stars.
"All the furniture is of oak, most elaborately carved. The chanc«l is sur-
rounded by canopies over seats occupied by the clergy. The altar (which is
the gem of the church,) is elaborately carved and richly illuminated with
monograms and symbols. The font is' of Caen stone, richly carved and de-
gant in design. The pulpit is gorgeously illumina'ed and surmounted l»y a
canopy of light and graceful proportions, the fiuial being a spear and croi^s
indicative of religion triumphant. The organ is situated in a room which
communicates with the chancel and nave by two arches — one to each. In
the arches are carved screens. This position of the instrument is not modem,
being the revival of a better practice than placing it at the west end in a
lofty gallery.
"The floor is of illuminated tiles, and the steps of the chancel are of mar-
ble. Although the general effect is pleasing, because there is no incongruity ;
the general design is carried into all the minutrc of detail. Nor is thvre
anything unreal — no plaster nor artificial and temporary exj.edient to produce
effect. Though not the largest, perhaps it forms the most aristocratic church
interior in the citj'.
"Trinity Chapel (like St. Paul's and St. John's) is sustained, and has been
erected by the friends of the Corporation. The design is that of Messrs.
Upjohn & Co. ; the masonry was by Mr. Thomas Williams ; the carpentry
was entrusted to Mr. George Riker; the illuminations were executed hj Mr.
Ackeroyd ; and the stained glass by Messrs. Sharp & Steel. Th(- paintings
in the chancel-window are from a design by Mr. Robert Weir, of West Point.
The turret holds a chime of three bells, cast in England."
Brekch-Loading Cannon. — We saw on exhibition, in Wall street, in
front of the Merchants' Exchange, on Tuesday, a large cannon of mamincith
dimensions, and apparently of tremendous death-deahng propensities.
It is the invention of John P. Sheukl, a German, now a resident of Etst
Boston, Mass., where the invention was projected and completed, under the
auspices of a number of wealthy citizens in Boston.
The cannon is about six feet in length, and weighs in the vicinity f)f ] 300
pounds. Its qualities have been thoroughly tested, and the invention pro-
nounced one of the most important of the 19th century, so fur as relates to
naval vvarfaring, for which this instrument is peculiarly adapted.
At a recent trial of this gum, it is stated that a conical ball weighing nine
pounds, was thrown a distance of 4 5-8 miles, with three pounds of powder.
One great advantage this cannon has over the ordinary gun consists in the
fact that it can be loaded and fired fifteen times a minute, and only requires
three men to work it, while the guns now in use in our navy want ten or
twelve men. A patent for the manufacture of this kind of cannon has l>een
taken out for the United States, England, France, and Belgium. — N. Y.
Pajyer,
AMERICAN AGRICULTURISTS IN PALESTINE.
745
DINING-ROOM STOVE.
We call the f^ttention of our readers to the new cooking-stoves described
upon the last two pages on the cover of this number. Notwithstanding
stoves have been so lung and in
such general use, and, consequent-
ly, have had such an aruount of
energy, talent, and capital employ-
ed in their perfection, after a care-
ful examination of the patentee's
model, his claims and specifica-
-" tion, we must confess our opinion
of this stove is very favorable.
We can appreciate views as to
the defects of other patentees ;
and we can not see why his im-
provements do not produce the
advantages which he claims. The
arrangement for the dining-room
stove, i%presented by the cut, we
also highly approve fur the pur-
poses designed. It is arranged on the same general plan of the kitchen-stove,
except that the oven is made single instead of double, and is brought for-
ward over the second tier of boilers.
It is a stove long wanted for dining-room purposes, in private families, in
this and other cities. It is manufactured by James Wager, Troy, N. 1 .,
either for wood or coal.
American Agriculturists in Palestine.— The New-York Evening Post
publishes an interesting account from a new class of missionary laborers in
Palestine — a company of Americans who have emigrated to the neighbor-
hood of Joppa, and commenced an agricultural mission, having in view the
general improvement of the country, and particularly the conversion, eleva-
tion, and general improvement of the poor Jews of Palestine. This company,
after leasing a small tract of land on the plain Sharon, an elevated, healthy,
fertile and l)eautiful region, in the immediate neighborhood of the city ol
Jafla, (the ancient Joppa) have finally purchased and made it their permanent
abode, and have commenced agricultural operations, employing the poor
Jews to assibt them, and thus affording them support and protection. The
sheiks, who were at first suspicious of them, and demanded tribute, alter
narrowly watching the movements of the Yankees for some time, have at
length become their fast friends; and the Turkish authorities also manifest
great interest in the experiment of restoring the land to its ancient fertility
The success of this enterprise has encouraged the formation in England ot
two societies on a similar basis, one among the Jews and the other among
the Christians. The Christian society has already selected the site of its mis-
sion in the neighborhood of Cesarea, which lies about thirty-five miles to the
north of Jaffa, a heap of ruins tenanted by jackals, on the shore of the
Mediterranean.
746
NEW AMERICAN PATENTS.
NEW AMERICAN PATENTS
ROBINSON'S HAND CULTIVATOR.
The above engraving is a perspective view of an improved cultivator, de-
signed for garden or field cultivation, and particularly adapted to drill sown
wheat and other small grains. The patentee is Jonathan A. Robinson, of
Fremont, N. H. It was patented on the 20th of last February. The ma-
chine or implement consists of cutters attached to the two ends of a yoke, of
such height as to pass over the tops of the plants, the knives being adjusted
to run as near the plants as may be desired, and the whole being made to
travel on wheels.
A is a yoke or bow, to the lower ends of whicli are secured the cutters, B
B, each being allowed to swivel around the point, a, the nut, b, serving to
hold them secure when placed in the required position. By this method of
adjusting the cutters, they are made to cut more or less distant from the
rows of plants.
C C are the handles for guiding the machine. They carry short shafts,
D, on which are the wheels ; c c are square-headed pins which pass through
the lower ends of the handles, and screw into the end of the yoke bow. This
allows the bow a limited motion to make the cutters dip more or less be-
neath the surface ; a shows another square-headed pin which passes through
a slot in the butt of the handle, (one for each handle,) and also screws into
the yoke, A, the length of its slot. The yoke is by these pins set in position
for the purpose of adjusting the dip of the cutters. By tightening this screw,
the cutters are held in place.
A device is employed to make each cutter move at an equal distance from
the row of grain, or whatever the crop may be; _;' is the guide-point, and is
held over the center of the space between the points of the cutters by a bent
wire,// which is attached to each arm of the yoke, and is supported by a
chain, (/, from the apex, i, of the yoke, A. This guide-point is fur the pur-
NEW AMERICAlSr PATENTS. 747
pose of guiding the machine, the points of the cutters being under tbe ground
when the machine is in operation. The machine is used by wheeling it for-
ward Hke a barrow, the guide-point, j?, being kept exactly over the row. Jt
will be observed that, as tbe cutters can be set and adjusted to any distance
' from the plants, the weeds and grass can be cut up very near the rows.
Mr. Robinson informs us that he has hoed small carrots with this machine,
the points of the cutters being 1^ inches apart, and he walked right along,
hoeing them perfectly. As the cutters are adjusted to cut a little more than
half way to the adjoining row, the work is done thoroughly, no unhofd space
being left between tli^ rows. The cutters being set at an acute angle, they
cut the weeds easily. They can also be adjusted to take the earth away
from, or carry it up to the rows.
More information may be obtained by letter, addressed to the patentee and
manufacturer, at Fremont, N. H.
Improvement in Vehicles. By Abram J. Gipson, of Clinton, Mass-
Dated, July 25, 1854. — This invention consists in the combination of arch-
springs connected and bearing from axle to axle, and in placing the foremost
pair of wheels forward of the point of attachment of the perch and axle, by
extending the axle outwards, and then giving it a bent form forwards, the
required length ; thence bending the axlei outwards again, enough to admit
of placing the wheels the usual distance apart, and allowing them to revolve.
By this means, the foremost wheels are brought a suflBcient distance from
the hindmost, to allow of entering the carriage easily and readily,
without coming in contact with either pair of wheels. It also allows of bring-
ing the hindmost wheels forward from their usual position, at the same time
preserving the same facilities for entering the carringe. By this arrangement
the vehicle is made shorter, and turnsTn less space than what a straight axle
would admit of. By the form and arrangement of springs, which support
the body of the carriage, the amount of material used in making springs is
reduced.
The patentee says, "I claim giving the forward axle a bent form in com-
biijation with arch-springs, connected and bearing from axle to axle, for the
purpose and in the manner and form substantially as set forth."
Improvement in Horse-Shoes. By William H. Towers, of Philadel-
phia. Dated, July 25; 185-t. — This invention consists in attaching to the
heels of the shoe curved springs, having corks formed on their jflexible ends,
or otherwise made rough to prevent the hoof from slipping over the surface
of the ground, and secured firmly in spaces on the under surface of the shoe
by screws, or other means, in such a manner as to give an elasticity to the
heel, Hud by enabling it to slightly yield to the pressure of the horse when
planting his feet, legs, and other sensitive [)arts of the horse, heretofore affected
by the soliij blow given when ])!anting the feet, and also enable the s[)rings
and corks to be readily removed, and others, more or less roughly shod, as
"occasion may require, substituted in their places, without removing the shoe
from the hoof.
The patentee says, " I claim the combination of the steel or other elastic
springs, having corks formed on their flexible ends, and capable of being re-
moved and attached with facility and dispatch, with the main body of the
shoe, substantially in the manner and for the purpose set forth."
748
NEW AMERICAN PATENTS.
Improvement in Machines for Sticking Card Teeth. By G. W.
Coats «nd J. Russell, of Springfield, Ohio. Dated, August 1, 1854. —
Tlie patentees say, " We claim the mode of imparting the intermittent mo-
tion to the main carriage, fur spacing the teeth and" reversing the same, by
means of the screw-leader attached to the main carriage, and passing through
a nut mounted in suitable boxes, and rotated by cog-gearing, as described,
vvhen this is combined with a clutch, operated by a cam, to clutch and un-
clutrh the wheel which receives motion from the wheel or wheels on the main
shaft, and imparts the required and measured intermittent motion to the nut,
substantially as and for the purpose s|)ecified. We also claim, in combina-
tion w'lth the mode described of imparting the spacing motion to the main
carnage, the employment of the cams on the main carriage, which, at the
end of each traverse motion, act on a lever connected and combined with and
operating the clutch, to clutch and unclutch the wheel which receives motion
from the main shaft, to operate the shifung-wheel which operates the double
clutch on the main shaft, substantially as and for the purpose specified. We
also claim, in combination with the mode described of operating the main
carriage, the mode of operating the second carriage, which holds \he sheet of
leather, to determine the space between the rows of teeth by means of the
shifing-eam, called the twilled cam, and the shifting-sector cog-wheel, Avhich,
in turn, imparts motion by the cog-wheels and shaft to the cog-wheel through
which passes the feathered slmft, mounted on the main carriage, and which,
in turn, imparts the required motion to the drums for lifting the second car-
nage at the end' of each complete motion of the main carriage. And in com-
bination with this, we also claim making the nut on the screw-leader in two
parts, divided by a plane at right angles to the axis, when the two parts are
attached together so that they can be turned on each other, substantially as
described, so that the threads can be set to any wear of the threads, and
thus avoid end play, as described. We also claim making the arbors of the
two rollers with cylindrical bosses, to determine their distance apart, in com-
bination with the mode of mounting them between boxes, and without in-
terposed boxes, the said arbors being prevented from having end play by
means of V shaped or curved fillets on the arbors, fitted to corresponding
cavities in the boxes, substantially as and for the purpose specified. We
also claim mounting the bending fingers in the sliding top-plate independent
of, and below the slide or carrier of the former, around which the teeth are
bent, the said carrier being provided with an inclined plane or cam, acted
upon^ by a like inclined plane or cam on the top-plate of the fingers, sub-
stantially as described, so that, as the fingers are drawn back, the former
shall bo lifted up preparatory to its back motion, as fully set forth."
For Self-Loading and Dumping Carts. By Sanford Stone, of
Kirkersville, Ohio. Dated, August 1, 1854.— The nature of this in\ention
consists in arranging tlie cart-body with a scraper on its fore end, and so as
to tilt forward to the ground, for the purpose of scraping up the earth and
loading itself immediately from the ground by its own action ; secondly, in
employing an endless, horizontal belt for and "in the place of the bottom of
the cart-body, so arranged and operated, by any suitable means, that it will
be made to revolve in the proper direction during the time of loading and
unloading the cart, but will not act while drawing the cart from place to
place, for the purpose of assisting the operation of loading and dumjnng;
thirdly, in the combined arrangement of the cart-body with the fulcrum on
which it tilts, at a suitable distance above the revolving axle of the cart, of a
NEW AMERICAN PATENTS."^' 749
driving cog-wheel, and two pinions placed upon shafts, by which the endless
belt is driven in such a manner that the forward- pinion will play into the
cog-wheel when the cart-body is tilted forward for loading, and the hind
pinion play therein when tilted backward for dum[)ing; but when in a hori-
zontal position neither pinion will be geared therewith ; fourthly, in the
arrangement of the rack on the cart-body, the pinion on the draught frame
playing therein ; the ratchet-wheel on the pinion-shaft and the two spring-
clinks acting on opposite sides of the ratchet-wheel, in such a manner that the
cart-body may be tilted either way to any position, and prevented from
moving therefrom in either direction.
The patentee says, " I claim, hrst, arranging the cart-body with a scraper
on its fore end, and so as to tilt forward to the ground, for the purpose of
scraping up the earth, and loading itself immediately from the ground by its
own action. I' also claim the employment of an endless, horizontal belt, for
and in the place of the bottom of the cart-body, so arranged and operated,
by any suitable means, that it will be made to revolve in the proper direction
during the time of loading and unloading the cart, but will not act while
drawing the cart from place to place, for the purpose of assisting the opera-
tions of loading and dumping, substantially as herein set forth, I also claim
the combined arrangement of the cart-body, with the fulcrum or centre on
which it tilts, (at a suitable distance abov« tlie revolving axle of the cirt,)
the driving cog-wheel on said axle and two pinions placed upon the f-liafts,
by which the endless belt is driven in such a manner that the forward pinion
■will play into said cog-wheel when the cart-body is tilted forward for load-
ing, and the hind pinion play therein when the cart is tilted backward for
dumping; but when in a horizontal position, neither pinion will be geared
therewith, for the purpose of operating the endless belt when and only when
required, substantially as herein specitied. I also claim the comliination and
arrangement of the rack on the cart-body, the pinion on the draught-frame
playing therein, the ratchet-wheel on the pinion-^haft, and the two clinks on
opposite sides of the ratchet-wheel, in such a manner that the cart-body may
be tilted to any position, and immovably held there, substantially as de-
scribed."
Improvements in (Revolving Breech) FiaE-AnMS. By Josiah Ellis, of
Pittsburgh, Pa. Dated, August 1, 1854. — This improvement consists in the
use of a vibrating stud in the trigger, in combination with a hammer with a
chamfered or bevelled edge, and with a notch near the extremity of its toe,
■which is aj^plicable to all "kinds of repeating fire-arms, by means of wli,(ih,
by simply pulling the trigger, the hammer is raised to full cock, or tired at
pleasure, the stud yielding laterally to allow of the descent of the hammer,
and recovering its position on the toe of the hammer for repeated action.
The patentee says, " I claim, first, the use of a stud in the trigg.^r, vibra-
ting laterally in combination with a bevel-edged hammer, with a notch at its
toe, by means of which, by simply pulling tlie trigger, the hammer is raised,
and may be either allowed to stand at full cock, or fired at pleasure, while
the trigger, after firing, will regain its position for repeated action ; second,
the use of a double spring, or spring and lever, fjr the purpose herein before
set forth; third, the mode herein before der^cribed of locking tlie rotating
breech at the moment of firing, by means of the locking-boll, in combination
■with the cam shoulder on the trigger, and the hexagonal neck of the rotating
breech, which, nevertheless, perm^it the breech to be fully rotated by hand, or
otherwise, when the trigger is not drawn back."
750 NEW AMERICAN PATENTS.
Improvement in Machines for Moulding Crackers. By Piiineas
Emmons, of New- York, N.-Y. Dated, August 1, 1854. — This invention con-
sists in arranging a set of feed-rollers, Laving semi-circular channels, trans-
versely of their axes, and matching together so as to form or cut a cylindrical
strip of dough as it passes between them, in combination with a third roller,
made like the foregoing, a little lower down than the lower feed-roller, and
in front of it, so as to form a continuation of the channel-way for the cylin-
drical strip of dough, and for cutting the same into short lengths, suitable for
crackers, by means of a series of cultei's placed in its channel-way, and opera-
ting on the strip of dough as it is fed through the rollers. Also, it consists
in the use and arrangement of a pair of moulding-wheels, having in their
inner faces a semi-circular, concave, annular gioove, the said wheels being so
adjusted on their axes as to form an annular core at the junction of the two
semi-circular grooves, at the front edge of the wheels, and opening obliquely
backwards, so as to allow the ball of dough, when moulded by the rotary
action of the wheels, to fall from the machine ; and, also, it consists in the
use of feed and guide-cords, for conveying and confining the dough in passing
through the machine, with suitable mechanical devices for propelling it.
The patentee says, " I claim the use of a roller, made substantially as set
forth, with cutters in its channel, in combination with the feed-rollers, for
forming and cutting dough into suitable shapes for making crackers, sub-
stantially as set forth. I also claim as new, for rolling dough in ball, the
conical or nearly disc form of the wheels, whereby they are made, by their
oblique position on their axis, to combine a twisting and rolling motion, the
rolling motion only having been heretofore employed in cyhndrical grooved
rollers."
Improved Mode of Constructing Iron Buildings. By Amos J.
Saxton, of Brooklyn, N. Y. Dated, August 8, 1854. — The patentee
says, " I claim, first, the method, mode, manner, or process of connecting
and combining all the different points, by all or any of the improved
joints, so arranged at all of the different /)om?5, by all or any of the different
joints, at the sectional points, as herein set forth and substantially described.
The use of screws, rivets, bolts, or nails, is not required in the erection of iron
frame fire-proof, or other buildings; second, I claim the method, mode, or
process of erecting iron fire-proof and other buildings, and of uniting or con-
necting each sTibstantial part to each other, or of connecting them at all of
the sectional points by the different joints, as described, without the use of
screws, rivets, bolts or nails, as herein set forth, and substantially described;
third, I claim the method, mode, or manner of so arranging and combining
the different points of the columns, posts or studs, girders, beams, ashlers, and
interior plates, (or any of the sectional parts of the buildings,) with the differ-
ent joints, so combined in such a manner as when the different points are
properly united and combined with the different joints in all of the sectional
parts, they form a substantial iron frame fire-proof or other buildings, as sub-
stantially described in all of the different combinations."
Improvement in Lasting Instruments. By Thomas Dougherty, of
Erie, Pa. Dated, August 1, 1854. — The patentee says, "I claim so con-
structing the machine as above de.-cribed, that when drawn up, I have ample
room for putting in the tacks or pegs, and havii g a heel which serves as a
fulcrum, so that by pressing back the top of the machine, I am able to raise
the entire jaw clear of the sole, and prevent the jaws from ruffling up the
inner sole."
NEW AMERICAN PATENTS. 751
Improvement ix Machines for Graduating Carpenters' Squares,
By N, MiLLiNGTON and D. J. George, of Shaftsbury, Vt. Dated, August
8, 1854. — This invention consists in providing twenty -four or more gravers,
about four inches long, firmly set in metallic handles, about twenty inches
long, and attached to a rod about one- fourth the distance from the front end
of the handles ; the rear ends being adjusted by screws and springs. These
handles are placed side by side, one inch from centre to centre, and are
attached to a carriage about one foot wide, and two feet long, which slides
laterally, sufficient to make the longest cross-mark on ways, and is pressed
forward to cut the marks by a wheel in the rear, having on its periphery a
succession of eight cams, (to divide the inch into eighths,) the highest point
of each rising to the same plane, but differing in depth, to give the desired
length of raarijs to each of the several divisions of the inch. The square table
graduated is confined to the front rail of a carriage directly under the points
of the gravers, which is moved at right angles from the motion of the gra-
vers by an inclined plane ; and the motion of the two carriages so arranged
that, as often as the square is pressed forward one-eighth by the inclined
plane, each of the gravers cuts at the proper place the desired cross-marks
for the inch, half, quarter, and eighths, and as there are twenty-four gravers,
each graduating one inch, the whole square is completed whilst the square
moves longitudinally but a single inch.
Improvement in Polishing-Wheels. By Benjamin Webb, of Unadilla
Forks, N, Y. Dated, July 25, 1854. — This invention consists in providing a
polishing-wheel, the periphery of which is formed of a series of blocks, each
standing upon a small spiral or other spring, the latter resting on a solid
surface of the central portion of the wheel ; these blocks, forming an outward,
circular surface, are bound by a leathern strap, on which the emery or other
polishing substance is placed, so that an elastic surface is formed fur grinding,
by means of which, the article to be polished, when pressed to the surface of
the wheel, comes in contact with a larger surface than it otherwise would,
and the polishing is done in a more uniform and perfect manner.
The patentee says, " I claim the forming of an elastic polishing-wheel, to
be used for polishing and grinding, by the use of a series of springs placed
under sections of the surface moving vertically from the centre, and inde-
pendent of each other, substantially in the manner and for the purposes de-
scribed, the whole being combined and arranged substantially as above set
forth."
Improvement in Warping and Dressing Yarns. By Samuel T.
Thomas, of Lawrence, Mass., and Eliza Ann Everett, administratrix of
Edward Everett, deceased, late of Lawrence, aforesaid. Dated, August 1,
1854. — The patentees say, "We claim, first, warping and dressing yarns
directly from small spools or bobbins, instead of large section beams hereto-
fore used, to sectional loom beams, for the purpose of securing a uniform ten-
sion in the yarns wound upon the loom beam, and also affording greater
fticilities for readily producing a variety in the stripe of the fabric, as hereto-
fore set forth ; second, is claimed our improvement in the fan cylinder for
drying the yarns, which consists in a cyhnder composed of slats, arranged with
spaces between them, and around which slats the yarns are made to pass,
revolving fans being arranged within the said cylinder, and revolving inde-
pendently of, and at a much more rapid rate than said slatted cylinders,
whereby a large portion of the yarns are kept in a gentle current of air, and
rapidly dried, as above described."
752 XEW AMERICAIT PATENTS.
Improvement in Buggies. By James S. McClexland, of Jefferson, lod*
Dated, August 8, 1854. — This invention consists in arranging the body of
the bugofy upon spring-couplings, in sets or pairs, in such manner as that
additional pairs or sets of springs shall come into action as the weight is in-
creased on the body, and this, in combination with the fastening of the body
forward of its centre to one set of springs, and in rear of its centre to another
set of springs, so that the body may have a rocking motion in the direction
of its traverse corners, and yet the tendency of the body to yield in one point
be counteracted by its lifting the spring in an opposite point.
The patentee saj's, " I claim the arranging of the body upon spring-cou-
plings in such manner as that additional pairs or sets of springs shall come
into action as the weight is increased on the body, and this, in combination
with the fastening of the body forward of its centre to one set of springs, and
in rear of its centre to another set of springs, so that the body may have a
rocking motion transversely, and the tendency of the body to yield at one
point be counteracted by its lifting the spring in another point, substantially
as described."
Improvement in Machines for Turning Irregular Forms. By Aaron
D. Crane, of Newark, N. J. Dated, August 15, 1854. — The nature of this
invention consists in cutting or turning wOod or metal with regular or irregu-
lar curved, plain, or spiral surfaces, by means of a series of cutters or knives,
so adjusted on a shaft as to travel in a longitudinal direction the length of the
materials to be cut. Said shaft being adjusted in a line parallel with the
axis of motion of the said materials, and said cutters and materials both re-
volving at a high rate of speed in the same direction.
Improved Mode of Securing Hubs to Axles. By Cook Darling,
of Utica, N. Y. Dated, August 15, 1854. — This improvement consists in
providing a mechanical arrangement of parts, to be fastened upon the outer
end of the wheel-hub, by which a pair of movable guard-plates are made to
embrace the end of the axle as it extends through the hub, when the wheel
is put on, and to hold the wheel and prevent it from coming off, unless these
guard-plates (held together by a spring in a box) are forced apart by means
of a key, so as to let the knob which is formed on the end of the axle pass
between them.
Improved Arrangement of Means for Working and Stopping
Chain Cables. By Thomas Brown, of London, England. Patented in
England, April 20, 1847. Dated, July 25, 1854. — " I claim the arrangement
of the capstan, the removable rollers, and the sockets for said rollers, in such
a manner, and having such relations to the hawse-holes, chain-locker, deck-
pipes, and under-lifting stoppers, that a chain cable can be continuously hove
in by means of said capstan and rollers, or be directly run out of the lockers,
without any previous overhauling, substantially as herein set forth. I also
claim the arrangement of the within described under-lifting bow-stoppers and
after-stoppers, by which more cable can be gradually and contrullably given
to a vessel, whilst riding heavily at anchor, substantially as herein set forth."
Victoria Bridge, Montreal. Extract from the Report of Mr. Robert
Stephenson on the Grand Trtink Railway of Canada. — Ilegarding the first
point, I do not feel called upon to enter on a discussion of the different opin-
ions which have been expressed by engineers both in England and America,
as to the comparative merits of different classes of bridges, and more espe-
cially as between the suspension and tubular principles, when large spans
ROCKET BULLET. 753
become a matter of necessity. It is known to me, that in one case in the
United States, a common suspension bridge has been applied to railway pur-
poses ; but from the information in my possession, from a high engineering
authority in that country, the work alluded to can scarcely be looked upon
as a permanent, substantial, and safe structure. Its flexibility, I was informed,
was truly alarming; and, although another structure of this kind is in pro-
cess of construction near Niagara, in which great skill has been shown in
designing means for neutralizing this tendency to flexibility, I am of opinion
tbat no system of trussing, applicable to a platform suspended from chains,
will prove either durable or efficient, unless it be carried to such an extent as
to approach in dimensions a tube, fit, itself, for the passage of railway trains
through it. Such bridges may doubtless be successfully, and perhaps with
propriety, adopted in some situations ; but I am convinced that even in such
situations, while they will, in first cost, fall little short of wrought-iron tubes,
they will be more expensive to maintain, and far inferior in efiiciency and
safety. I can not hesitate, therefore, to recommend the adoption of a tubu-
lar bridge, similar in all essential particulars to that of the Britannia over
the Menai Straits, in this country ; and it must be observed, that the essential
features being the same, although the length much exceeds that of the work
alluded to, none of the difl3culties which surrounded its erection will be in-
volved in the present instance. In the Britannia, the two larger openings
were each 460 feet, whereas, in the proposed Victoria there is only one large
opening of 330 feet, all the rest being 240 feet. In the construction of the
latter, there is also evfery facility for the erection of scaffolding, which will
admit of the tubes being constructed in their permanent position, thus avoid-
ing both the precarious and expensive process of floating, and afterwards hft-
ing the tubes to the final level by hydraulic pressure. In speaking of these
facilities, it is a most agreeable and satisfectory duty to put on record that
the government engineering department has, throughout the consideration of
this important question, exhibited the most friendly spirit, and done every
thing in its power to remove several onerous conditions, which were at one
time spoken of as necessary, before official sanction would be given for the
construction of the work.
ROCKET BULLET.— An English Invention.
A writer in a foreign journal says : " I have lately made some practical
trials of a species of projectile, which I have termed a " Rocket Bullet," pos-
sessing very superior powers of range; indeed, it seems to be capable of a
longer range than any other known missile. This result is arrived at by
preserving the initial velocity of the bullet unimpaired, or, indeed, even
adding to its rate of movement, by means of the propulsive aid of a compo-
sition contained within the bullet, reacting in the manner of a rocket; at any
rate, as the composition is fired by the explosion of the charge of the piece,
the vacuum produced by the passage of the bullet through the air is at
least filled up, so as to sustain the velocity, if it does not positively accelerate
it by its reactive force,
" The bullet is made hollow, cylindrical, and tapered to a point at one end,
and filled with a rapidly-burning composition, which is rammed tightly into
it. This cylindro-conoidal ball is made a good fit to the barrel of the piece,
and it is rammed down upon the powder charge without the use of any
45
754 WATER-PRESSURE ENGINES.
wadding. To prevent the explosion of tlie charge from firing too much of
the internal composition, the part nearest the mouth of the ball is of a slower
burning character than the rest.
"The ball is about double the weight of a spherical projectile of the same
diameter. It is obviously most suitable for heavy ordnance, where long
range is most particularly required. To give great accuracy of flight, spiral
grooves may be formed on the cylindrical part, the ball being fired from a
smooth bore. I am aware that a rocket has been proposed to be fired from
cannon, with a fuse to ignite its composition when at its greatest elevation ;
but the complexity of this plan has led to its failure."
WATER PRESSURE ENGINES.
There is, and for many months has been, a water-pressure engine in daily
use for driving the press of one of the largest and most respectable of the
daily newspapers in Boston. This city is supplied with fresh water by an
aqueduct leading from Cochituate Lake, the level of which is sufficiently high
to supply the water to every desirable point without pumping ; and the
quantity is sufiicient for all the necessities and luxuries of the scrupulously
cleanly citizens, leaving still a considerable excess to be expended in fountains,
and for other purposes. Under these circumstances, the proprietors of the
Daily Traveller, having ordered a new and fast press to be located in the
densest portion of the city, sought for a suitable prime mover ; and their in-
quiries resulted in the employment of Mr. Samuel Huse, an ingenious and
skilful mechanic, and one of the managers of the Water Works, who con-
structed for them a " water-meter," or rotary water engine, of sufficient power
to impel their press when the water is at the lowestf the arrangement involv-
ing but a reasonable expenditure for water rent. The machine consists of a
hollow cylinder, 10 inches deep, and 16 inches in diameter, inside which is a
cylinder about 6 inches in diameter. This inner cyHnder has flanges, on
which are four valves, or folding wings, extending from one end to the other
of the cylinder, and attached to the flanges by hinges. The valves, when
folded, are shut into the cylinder, and cover a little more than half its surface.
Upon one side of the meter, the space between the inside of the hollow
cylinder, and the surface of the central moveable cylinder, is filled up to form
an abutment, occupying something more than the width of one of the
valves. This abutment is made to fit so as to prevent the water from pass-
ing. The water enters the meter upon one side of this abutment, being dis-
charged into a sewer from the other side. The meter is set so that the force
of gravity assists in opening the valves as they successively emerge from un-
der the abutment, and also acts in closing them when approaching it from
the opposite side. With every revolution, a given quantity of water passes
through the meter, a quality which, in fixct, constitutes its sole value as a
water-meter. The number of revolutions is, of course, registered by suitable
mechanism, so that the precise amount of water expended in driving the
engine, which is estimated to work with about three horses' power, may be
exactly ascertained. This engine is supplied with Cochituate water by a two
inch lead pipe, and is regulated 'by hand by means of a screw valve. It is
said to perform very satisfactorily, and to give a tolerably large per centage
of power, in proportion to the fall and amount of water consumed. It is
believed to be the only instance of the permanent and regular employment
of such a prime mover for any situation of importance.
MISCELLANY. 765
MISCELLANY.
To NoN- Subscribers. — Througli tlie medium of a friend, this number
will be forwarded to many gentlemen, engaged in agricultural pursuits, who
are not subscribers to the work. Should they wish to become such, by for-
warding their 6rders and address, with a remittance, as advised on the 2d
page of the cover, the work will be regularly sent.
The Monument to J. S. Skinner, and Fund for his "Widow, progresses
very slowly ; but we hope that better times, and the bright skies of this beau-
tiful season, will open the hearts and hands of our readers. From some thou-
sands of circulars issued, we have received only about one hundred replies.
Will the reader enclose to this office any amount he may be induced to give
for this noble object, before it passes out of his mind.
John S. Caulkins, 69 Maiden-Lane. — We have lately had our atten-
tion drawn to the umbrellas and parasols manufactured at this well-known
establishment. If any better articles are made, or at more reasonable prices,
they have not attracted our notice. We commend them to our readers, who
are in need of such articles, at wholesale or retail.
Industry oe Ware, Mass. — The Otis Company run four cotton mills,
employing 650 hands, working up one hundred bales of cotton per week —
requiring 20,000 spindles and 600 looms, and making about 6,500,000 yards
of cloth per annum. The Company pays out about $11,000 per month for
help. . They have just erected a large brick building near the new brick mill,
which contains the cloth room, a room for drying, another for sizing, and an-
other still for drying. This contains a large machine composed of cylinders,
which being heated, dry the yarn as it passes over them.
The Otis Company purpose soon to build a new mill, which is to take the
place of the two old ones. This is to be a model mill, with improved ma-
chinery.
Trade in Ware. — We heard a good business man say this week, when in
Ware, that there are more goods sold there annually than in any other town
in the county. Many of the citizens of the neighboring towns find- a market
for their wool and produce there, and conse'quently do most of their trading
there.
Bonnet Business. — L. Demond' does a large business here in the manu-
facturing of straw bonnets. He has employed, during the past winter, about
120 persons. Thus is a large amount of stock brought into town, which,
after being made ready for market, is sold, thus benefitting both the employer,
and employees, and thereby enhancing the business of the village.
Woolen Mills. — Stephens and Gilbert each has a mill, which, when
running full, requires 4000 lbs. of wool per week, with seven sets of cards,
giving employment to 110 hands. These two factories, according to esti-
mate, consume annually more than 200,000 lbs. of wool, and give employment
to about 225 persons, producing about 750,000 yards of cloth.
The aforesaid brief statements give one an idea of the amount of manu-
facturing done in old Ware.
756 MISCELLANY.
The Ericsson's Trial Trip. — The steamship Ericsson (formerly Caloric)
made a very satisfactory trial trip down the Bay recently, wi^h her owners
and a number of invited guests on board. In her machinery Capt. Ericsson
claims to have made an important improvement on that in general use in
steamships. The boilers of the Ericsson are filled with fresh water, which,
by the aid of the Captain's improvement, he claims, will not be wasted by
use-, and that, consequently, she may carry the same out from New-York to
5avre and return without diminution other than what might result from
accidental leakage. In addition, she has apparatus for distilling 1000 gallons
of fresh water from salt a day, so that the great bulk of the water tanks is
saved for freight. The room occupied by the machinery and boilers is un-
usually small, and the necessary consumption of fuel, it is said, greatly
reduced from the old standard. It is stated that her furnaces cannot consume
over thirty tons a day, and it is expected the Atlantic voyage will be made
oa a ton an hour. The speed of the ship on her trial trip was about twelve
miles an hour, with an alleged consumption of fuel not exceeding three-
fourths of this quantity. The underwriters rate the Ericsson the best and
strongest built vessel in the United States. She is provided with four large
quarter-boats, all slung, and two deck-boats, all of them Francis' life-boats.
In addition, she carries a life-cart mortar and lines, which, in case of her be-
ing driven upon the coast, would enable her at once to communicate with
the shore. The owners of the Ericsson intend to send her as a contribution
of American skill to France.
Railroads in Maine. — The following table, condensed from the State of
Maine, shows the cost, length, and business of the railroads of the State, for
1854:
1854.
Name.
Atlantic and St. Lawrence, -
Androscoggin and Kennebec, -
Androscoggin, ... -
Bangor and Piscataquis, -
Calais and Baring, . . -
Kennebec and Portland, -
Machiasport, ....
Portland, Saco, and Portsmouth,
York and Cumberland,
Buckfield Branch,
404 13,'759,98S 1,066,352
The footings for the two years just past stand as follows:
18.33. ' 1854. •
Length, .... 404 404
Cost, .... $12,681,878 $13,759,988 $878,110 inc.
No. of Passengers, - - 919,106 1,166,352 87,246 "
Earnings— Passengers, - 609,988 672,392 71,404 "
«' Freight, - - 411,495 587,388 75,893 "
" Miscellaneous, 52,235 41,019 11,218 dec-
SuGAR Trade of the United States. — The total receipts of foreign un-
refined sugar into the United States, for the year ending December 81, 1854,
were 165,924 tons against receipts of 212,740 tons in 1853, and the quantity
taken for consumption in 1854 was 150,855 tons against 200,610 tons con-
sumption in 1853, 196,558 tons in 1852, 181,047 tons in 1851, and 143,015
ia 1850, being a decrease in the consumption of 1854, as compared with
No. of
Total
Length.
Cost.
Passengers.
Earnings.
140
$6,019,929
185,105
$470,647
55
2,196,334
129,045
178,353
20
343,317
22,235
29,396
13
178,233
76,980
44,889
6
277,780
16,720
31,640
72i
2,613,470
268,992
217,357
n
100,000
7,200
51
1,315,976
284,635
272,330
18
765,018
82,640
30,712
12
MISCELLANY. 757
1853, of 49,756 tons, or over 24 per cent, while the total consumption of
1854 (assuming the stock of domestic 1st January each year to be equal)
was 385,298 tons, against 372,989 tons in 1853, oran increase of nearly 3|-
per cent.
The very large falling off in the quantity of foreign taken is attributed
chiefly to the unprecedented crop of Louisiana, which was 449,324 hhds.,
and the low price at which it was offered, the yield being by far the largest
ever gathered in that State, though produced from a smaller number of plant-
ations, some growers having abandoned the culture of the cane and substi-
tuted cotton, the returns obtained not being considered remunerative.
The quantity of sugar made from molasses the past year shows a consider-
able diminution when compared with the quantity so produced in 1853. It
is estimated at 12,628 tons, or 60,000 hhds., 53,000 yielding 500 lbs. each,
and 3,000 of concentrated 600 lbs. each, against 66,500 hhds. (14,977 tons)
in 1853 ; the estimate given is believed to be rather over than under the
actual amount. This falling off is owing, in a great measure, to the low
prices that hR\*t ruled for raw sugar, and the high rates which molasses has
commanded, thus diminishing the profits and production, and rendering the
business unremunerative. If to the above figures we now add the yield of
the maple tree, say 12,300 tons, and the estimated consumption of California
and Oregon, 4,700 tons, would give a total comsumption in the United States
of 414,931 tons.
Splendid Panorama. — The Panorama of Mr. J. R. Smith, now on exhi-
bition in Broadway, is the finest work of that description we have ever seen.
The views of the principal European cities are admirable, while the closing
scene, the view of the city of Sebastopol, with its fortifications, harbor, and
fleets, the latter both at rest and in action, and also in a storm, is one of the
most capital scenes that can be imagined. "We are glad to find that he is so
well patronized.
Joiixsoy, Cox, Lesley & Co., No. 376 Broadway, are Ageuts for Sadler's
Stoves advertised on the last two pages of the cover.
General Agency. — The publisher of The Plough, the Loom, and the Anvil,
believing it in his power to be of essential service to the readers of that journal,
in the purchase or sale of various articles, and the transaction of various kinds of
business, would announce to them that he is ready to execute any such commis-
sion which he may receive, including the purchase of books of any description ;
implements connected with agricultural, manufacturing, or mechanical opera-
tions ; artificial manures ; farm and garden seeds, etc., etc. One of the gentle-
men connected with the journal is a proficient in music, and experienced in the
selection of piano-fortes, flutes, etc., and will execute orders in that department.
He will also act as agent in the purchase and sale of Real Estate.
'Particular attention to business connected with the Patent-Office.
School-Teachers. — Having had occasion to furnish teachers for some
of our Southern friends, we have been fortunate enough to learn of several
young ladies who are admirably weU qualified for families or schools, and if any
are in need of such, a letter addressed to us will receive immediate answer. We
shall not fear to guarantee that any reasonable expectations will be fully met.
Some of them are desirous of going South.
Letters of inquiry on these matters will be promptly attended to if addressed
to M. P. Parish, or to the Publisher of this Journal, 9 Spruce Street.
758 NEW BOOKS.
NEW BOQKS.
The Complete Wouks of Shakspeaue, kto. Pablished by Martin & Johnson, 21
Beekman Street.
We described this elegant quarto edition in our last number, -with reference to the
first five numbers. We refer to the succeeding numbers only to say that each is
very elegantly illustrated. The sixth and succeeding numbers, give a representation
of Prince Arthur and Hubert. Mistress Ford, Mr. Hackett as Falstaff, (capital,) Miss
Julia Dean as Beatrice, Mr. Davenport as Othello, Mrs. Mowatt as Rosalind, Edmund
Kean as Gloster, Thomas Hamblin as Coriolanus, Mr. Lester as Prince of Wales, John
Drew as Sir Andrew Agueeheek, Mr. and Mrs. Wood as Touchstone and Audrey,
and Macready as Shylock. All these are done in excellent style. Seventeen num-
bers are received. Specimen numbers will be sent by mail, on the receipt of twenty-
five cents, (not thirty-one as before stated,) and postage.
TuE RoBi\ Red-Bkeast: a new Juvenile Singing-Book, containing a choice collection
of Popular Music, Original and Selected, arranged for one, two, three, or four
voices, mostly with Piano Accompaniments; also, a brief, comprehensive course of
Instructions in the' Elementary Principles of Vocal Music. For the use of Public
and Private Schools, Singing Schools, etc. By B. A. Russell and G. W. Sanders,
Authors of the " Young Vocalist," etc. Chicago: S. C. Griggs & Co., Ill Lake
Street. New- York : Ivison & Phinney.
This long title is a full description of the book. Being designed for the use of
families and schools, and well adapted for such use, it must have an extensive sale.
Harmony of the Four Gospels, according to the Common Version. Newly arranged,
with Explanatory Notes. By Edmund Robinson, D.D., LL. D., Professor. Boston :
Crocker & Brewster, 185-i.
The reputation of the learned Professor is such as to assure the public that this is
a valuable work. It is useful for all, whether learned or unlearned. Such an ar-
rangement adds much to the interest of the historical parts of the gospels, with all
readers, and is exactly fitted for Sabbath Schools and Bible Classes.
The Englishwoman in Russia : Impressions of the Society and Manners of the Rus-
sians at Home. By a Lady, ten years' resident in that country. With Illustra-
tions. New-York: Charles Scribner, 1855. 12mo, 316 pages.
We have here a well-written and highly-entertaining account of Russian domestic
life. On this subject, we are less " at home " than we are in relation to any country
of equal importance on the globe. The author is quite too modest in her preface.
She deserves a very prominent place among the successful writers on foreign countries .
Israel Potter; His Fifty Years of Exile. By Herman Melville, Author of
"Typee," etc. Third Edition. New- York: G. P. Putnam & Co.. 1855.
This first appeared In Putnam's Magazine, and the readers of that popular journal
need not be told that it is capitally done. To others, we say, buy it at the earliest
opportunity.
Dickens' Household Words.
Putnam's Magazine.
These two popular journals retain their high position fully, under the management
of the new publishers, Dix & Edwards, 10 Park Place.
LIST OF PATENTS.
759
List of Patents Issued
FROM APRIL 3, 1855, TO MAT 1, 1855.
Warren Aldrich, Lowell, for improved lathe.
John Andrews, Winchester, Mass , improvement
in drills for artesian wells.
Nelson Barlow, Newark, for saw teeth.
Horace Boardman, Plattsburg, improvement on
steam-boilers.
Solomon E. Boilers, Rochester, Mass., improved
machine for raising and transporting stones.
Lytnan Brainard and Levi Newton, Attica, N.
Y., improvement in rotary harrows.
Byron Boardman and Qeorire G. Sweete, Nor-
wich, Conn., improvement in machinery for wind-
ing up lines, twist or cord.
Stephen M. Cate and Edmund Jordan, Water-
bury, Conn., improved arrangement of dies and
Btocks for ornamenting metal tubes.
John Chilcott and Robert Snell, Brooklyn, im-
provement in boot forms.
Thomas C. Connolly, Washington, improve-
ment in machinee for recording votes in legislative
bodies.
Jason W. Cory, Crawfordsville, Ind., improve-
ment in seed-planters.
Josiah J. Ducher, New-IIaven, improvements
in locomotive boilers,
Wright Duryea, New- York, for card-exhibitor.
Benjamin E. Eames, South Newry, Me., im-
provement in portable door fastener.
Salathel Ellis, New-Y'ork, improvement in fra-
ming for building concrete walls.
Henry C. Garvin and J. H. King, Hagerstown,
for tool for boring hubs.
Moses Thompson, Henrico Co , Va., improve-
ment 'nCiraaces for burning wet fuel.
Charles B. Hutchinson, Auburn, for mode of
guiding reciprocating sasvs.
James H. Jones, Scio, N. Y., improvement; in
railroad car coupling.
Ferdinand Klein, Newark, improvement in fire-
arms.
Alexander B. Latta, Cincinnati, improvement in
steam-generators.
Walter Lackey, Worcester, Mass., improvement
in straw-cutters.
Robert F. R. Lewis, Annapolis, for spiral wheel
for replacing railroad cars upon the track.
W. Loughridge, Weverton, Md., improvement
iu graduating the tension of car-brakes.
William Loughridge, Weverton, Md., for sta-
tionary hydropneumatic engine for extinguishing
file.
John F. Manahan, Lowell, improved machinery
for boring wells.
Samuel N. Maxani, Shelburne Falls, Mass., im-
provement in machine for paring apples.
A. H. Morell, Harlem, improvement in cultiva-
tdrs.
Benjamin T. Norris, Lynn, machine for mortising
blinds.
Samuel P. Parham, Trenton, N. J., improved
gas-regulator.
J. Rodefer, Cincinnati, improvement in bedstead
fastenings. iiliS
Ira Rose, Akron, 0., improvement in straw-
cutters.
Charles Rose, Allentown, Pa., improved Vene-
tian window-blinds.
David Russell, Drewersburgh, Ind., improve-
ment in straw-cutters.
Samuel T. Sharp, Danville, Mo., improvement in
straw-cutters.
David M. Smyth, New-York, improvement in
platform-balances.
, Thomas C. Simonton and Loren J. Wicks, Pat-
terson, N. J., improvement in straw-cutters.
Albert S. Southworth, Boston, plate-holder for
cameras.
John and Thomas Sweeney, Birmingham, Pa,,
improvement in adjustable friciiou-rollers.
John B. Hall, New- York, apparatus for feeding
paper to printing-presses.
WiUiam Thomas, Hingham, IMass., improve-
ment iu cabin-chairs.
Isaac E. Trimble, Baltimore, improvement ia
wooden splice-piece for railways.
Hiram Wells, Florence, Mass., device, allowing
circular saw-spindlea to yield.
C. N. White, Concord, N. C, improved imple-
ment for boring the earth.
David E. Paynter, Philadelphia, assignor to
Israel M. Bissell, of same place, improved paint-
mill.
J. M. Slone, Manchester, N. H., assignor to the
Manchester Locomotive Works, improvement in
lathes for turning locomotive-drivers.
Charles T. Appleton,Roxbury, Mass.,bleaching-
ap par at us.
W. E. Arnold, Rochester, N. Y., sash-fastener.
H. P. M. Birkbine, Philadelphia, Pa., gasretorls.
Marshall Barnett and Charli-s Vanderwoerd,
Boston, Mass., machines for punching metals.
Jeremiah Oarhart, New- York City, melodeons.
Jarvis Case, Springfield, Ohio, grain and grass
harvester.
Alfred Drake, Philadelphia, explosive-gas en-
gines.
Nathan Dresser, Rochester, N. Y., lubricating
compounds.
S. B. Ellithorp, Elmira, N. Y., gas-generator in
a parlor stove.
James Emerson, Worcester, Mass., ship's wind-
lass.
C. W. Finzel, Bristol, England, process for melt-
ing sugar.
C. H. Fonde, Mobile, Ala., dredging-machine.
E. B. Forbus, Buffalo, N. Y., grain and grass
harvester.
W. K. Foster, Bangor, Maine, moulds for casting
pencil-sharpeners.
De Grasse Fowler and George Fowler, Walling-
ford. Conn., machines for'punching metals.
Isaac Gallup, Mystic Bridge, Conn., for turning
the leaves of music-books.
S. W. Hopkins, assignor, &c., &c., Providence,
R. I., stud and button-fastenings.
760
LIST OF PATENTS ISSUED.
Abraham Masson, Philadelphia, Pa., rotary-
engine?.
H. K. JlcClelland, Eldersville, Pa., fountain-pen.
Francis Peabody, Salem, Mass , hay-making
machine.
J. B. Shenck, Ausonia, Conn., shut-off valve-
gear.
John Simpson, Atlantic, Ga., horse-powers.
Lewis Smith, Buffalo, N. Y., compensation-
bearings.
C. A. Thompson, Adrian, Mich., making printers'
ink.
W. II. Tawers, Philadelphia, Pa , pen-holder.
J. T. Willmarth, Northbridge, Mass., dies for
bolt-forging machines.
T. J. Baldvpin, Bridgeport, Conn., paper-ruling
machine.
S. P. Brooks, Suffolk, Mass., piano-forte action.
W. F. Converse, Harrison, 0., india-rubber
springs.
M. R. Griswold, Watertown, Conn, arrange-
ment of I'ollers for making metal tubes.
Pells Manny, Waddams Grove, 111., hay-press.
Andrew Myers, Philadelphia, Pa:, gas cooking-
stoves.
C. A.Nayes, Pittsfield, Mass., slide-rest for lathes.
J. T. Pheatt, Toledo, 0., life-preserving doors.
John Stryker, Six Mile Run, N. J., cultivators.
Philo Sylla, Elgin, 111., grain and grass har-
vesters.
John J. Thomas, Hanayunk, Pa , rotary-engines.
Chester Van Ham, Springfield, Mass., slide-rest
for lathes.
William H. Webb, Jr., Chelsea, Mass., metallic
hones.
O. W. Bayley, Manchester, N. H., furnace for
locomotives.
Henry Chalfield, assignor to, &c., &c., Water-
bury, Conn., rakes.
William 6 Faglesong, assignor to, djc, &c.,
Xenia, O., folding-lops for carriages.
William D. Jones, Poughkeepsie, N. Y., assign-
or to Henry Winfield, N. Y. City, propellors.
Rufus Porter, Washington, D. 0., and Jonathan
D. Bradley, Brattleboro, Vt., assignors to Jonathan
D. Bradley, aforesaid, and George Dennison, N.
Y. City, elastic tube pump.
E. Harry Smith, assignor, &c., &c., N. Y. City,
sewing-machine.
George Nelson, assignor to himself and Nehe-
miah Hunt, Boston, Mass., cast-iron pavements.
Jearum Atkins, Chicago, 111., improvement in
platforms of grain-harvesters.
J. W. Corey, Crawfordsville, Ind., spring con-
necting-rods for washing-machines.
Jonathan Johnson and Joel E. Crane, Lowell,
Mass., improvement in stoves.
Norman C. Harris, Poultney, Vt., manufacture
of slate-pencils.
Palmer Lancaster, Burr Oak, Mich., implement
for shearing sheep.
Isaac B. Livingston and Miles Waterhouse,
Barnet, Vt., new method of feeding paper to print-
ing-presses.
J. G. Melville and William Brayshaw, Wether-
ville, Md., mprovement in looms.
William Munroe, Boston, Mass., improved piano-
forte action.
Thomas Murgatroyd, Jr., Smithville, Canada
West, improvement in carriage-springs.
Lucius Page, Cavendish, Vt., combined table
and writing-desk.
L. S. Bobbins, New-York City, machines for
polishing stone.
J. H. ThoQipson, Patterson, N. Y., machines for
planing metal.
Abner Whileley, Springfield, Ohio, new method
of attaching wheels to harvesters.
Abner Whiteley, Springfield, Ohio, improvement
in harvesters.
John Comstock, New-London, Ct., assignor to
Peter Naylor, of New- York City, improved forge-
hammers.
R. L. Hawes, Worcester, Mass., assignor to
Robert Reunie, Lodi, N. J., machines for dressing
lawns.
W. J. Von Kammerhueber, Washington City,
D. C, projectiles.
Abner Whiteley, Springfield, Ohio, arranging
shafts and pulleys at an angle.
R. M. Wade, Wadsville, Va., lubricator.
J. Wilkinson, Hopewell Cotton Works, P. O.,
Pa., self-loading and unloading carts.
John E. Wcotten, Philadelphia, Pa., regulating
the discharge of exhaust steam in locomotives.
Nathan Ames, Saugus, Mass., polishing leather
and morocco.
Elizabeth A. Stillman, New-York City, furnace
for burning bagasse.
James Temple, Birmingham, Pa., boring fence-
potts.
E. A. Tubbs, Hampton, N. H , assignor to, &c.,
&c., sawing fire-wood, &c.
William Apperly, Louisville, Ky., ticket-register-
for railroad-cars.
John R. Adams, Port Jarvi.s, N. Y., fire-engines
William Ashton, Middletown, Conn., bullet-
moulds.
H. and M. Blake, Hartford, Vt., clothes pin ma-
chine.
Chauncey Cowdry, Orrin Tolls, and C. C. Tolls,
Ithaca, N. Y., wheelwrights' boring and turning
machine.
Charles Campel), California processes for purify-
ing and cleansing wheat.
John Ilaw, Deer Park, Mich., machine for bun-
dling fleeces of wool.
J. B. Hurt, Nattoway Co., Va., applying electric
wheel to water-power.
Laroy Litchfield, Southbridge, Mass., shuttles
for looms.
Ezra P. Marble. New Worcester, Mass., shuttles
for looms.
Clement Russell, Massillon, Ohio, horse-powers.
Presley Raines, London, Ohio, corn-planters.
John Schneider, Rochester, N. Y., alarm-attach-
ment for door-lochs.
David Russell, Drewisburg, Ind., window-sash
supporter.
John A Smith, Clinton, Mass., and S. E Pettee,
Foxborough, Mass., making paper boxes and
envelopes.
G. E. Davis, Lowell, Mass , bench-plane stock.
Thomas Firtli, Cincinnati, Ohio, alloys for jour-
nal-boxes.
James Fleming, Portsmouth, Va., sawing oflf
piles under water.
0. L. ILarsen and M. E. Brailey, Norwalk, Ohio
farm-gates.
T. J. Hall, Tawakana Hills, Texas, gang-plows.
John and Jacob Harishorn, Boston, Mass.,
spring-rollers for curtains.
Warren Holden, Philadelphia, Pa., boot and
shoe stretcher.
H. B. Norton, Northville, Mich., boot-crimping
machine.
Eben. Hoyt, Chelsea, Mass., projectile for fire-
arms.
Matthew Spear, Bowdoinham, Me., mitre-box.
S. P. Smith, Half Moon, N. Y., clamping-sasb.
G. W. Stedman, Vienna, N. J., sewing-machines.
Jeremiah Stever, Bristol, Conn., machines for
burnishing metals.
W. R. Thompson, Cleveland, Ohio, furnaces for
heating wrought-iron wheels for forging.
V 1 p-^. 2.
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