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PLUMBERS'   HANDBOOK 


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jkis  Qrmo'JiillBock  &  ln& 

PUDLISMCRS     OF     fiOOKS     FOR^ 

Coal  Age  '*'  Electric  Railway  Journal 
Electrical  ^rld  v  Engineering  News-Record 
American  Machinist  v  Ingenieria  Intemacional 
Engineering  8  Mining  Journal  ^  Po  we  r 
Chemical  6  Metallurgical  Engineering 
Electrical  Merchandising 


PLUMBEES'  HANDBOOK 


BY 
SAMUEL  EDWARD  DIBBLE 

•  •  • 

HEAD   OF  HEATING,  VENTILATINQ  AND  SANITATION  DEPARTMENT,  CAB- 

NBOIE    INSTITUTE     OF    TECHNOLOGT;     SBCBBTART,     CONNECTICUT 

MABTBB  FLUMBBBS'  ASSOCIATION,   1910;  MBMBEB,  AMEBIC  AN 

BOCIBTT     OF     HEATING     AND    VENTILATING    ENOINBBBS; 

AUTHOB,    "elements    OF    PLUMBZNO";    ASSOCIATE 

EDITOB,     HOOL    AND    JOHNSON,     "HANDBOOK 

OF  BUILDING  CONSTRUCTION" 


First  Edition 


McGRAW-HILL  BOOK  COMPANY,  Inc. 
NEW  YORK:  370  SEVENTH  AVENUE 

LONDON:  0  &  8  BOUVERIE  ST.,  E.  G.  4 

1922 


Copyright,  1922,  by  the 
McGbaw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc. 


THS    MAPXiS    rXSBB    XOXX    PA 


254272  r, 

^       PREFACE 

The  author  has  undertaken  to  prepare  a  handbook  which  will 
be  of  permanent  value  to  the  Plumbing  and  Heating  Dealer, 
the  Architect,  the  Engineer,  the  Estimator,  as  well  as  to  the 
Building  Contractor  and  Sheet  Metal  Worker.  It  aims  to 
present  information  designed  to  perfect  installations.  The 
book  is  so  indexed  and  arranged  with  cross  references  that  all 
sections  are  focused  on  the  Plumbing  and  Heating  industry. 
Valuable  assistance  has  been  received  from  the  following: 
The  Standard  Sanitary  Mfg.  Co.,  American  Radiator  Co., 
Thos.  Maddock's  Sons  Co.,  The  Eastern  Clay  Products  Associa- 
tion, The  American  Gas  Association,  The  National  Trade 
Extension  Bureau,  and  the  author  takes  this  opportunity  to 
express  to  them  his  appreciation  and  thanks  for  their  interest. 

S.  E.  Dibble. 
P1TT8BUROH,  Pa., 
Februaru,  1922. 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS 

Metallurgy  and  Chemistry 
Robert  B.  Leighou,  M.S. 

Professor  of  Chemistry,  College  of  Industries,  Carnegie 
Institute  of  Technology. 
Pumps 

R.  B.  Abibrose,  B.S.,  M.E. 

Assistant    Professor    Power    Plant    Operation    and 
Management,     College    of    Industries,     Carnegie 
Institute  of  Technology. 
Glossary  of  Plumbing  Terms 
Harrt  R.  Graham 

Instructor  in  Plumbing,  College  of  Industries,  Carnegie 
Institute  of  Technology. 
Pipe  Standards  and  Pipe  Dies 
F.  N.  Speller 

Metallurgical  Engineer,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Sheet  Metal  Work 

O.  W.  KOTHE 

Principal    of-  St.    Louis    Technical    Institute,    St. 
Louis,  Mo. 
Mathematics 

H.  S.  LiGHTCAP 

Assistant  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Carnegie  Insti- 
tute of  Technology. 
Heating 

Alphonse  a.  Adler,  B.S.,  M.E. 

Consulting  Engineer,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Heat 

Allen  H.  Blaisdell 

Assistant  Professor  Mechanical  Engineering,  College 
of  Science  and  Engineering,  Carnegie  Institute  of 
Technology. 
Vitrified  Clay  Sewer  Pipe 

Eastern  Clay  Products  Association,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Gas  and  Gas  Fitting 

American  Gas  Association,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Business  Methods 

National  Trade  Extension  Bureau,  Evansville,  Ind. 

vu 


CONTENTS 

Paqb 

Preface  v 

Suction 

I.  Heat 1 

II.  Pumps 20 

III.    OXYACBTYLBNB    WeLDING 48 

IV.  General  Plumbing  Section.           62 

V.  Fittings 121 

VI.  Pipe  Standards  and  Pipe  Dies 168 

VII.  Vitrified  Clay  Sewer  Pipe 215 

VIII.  Gas  Fitting 222 

IX.  Plumbing  Fixtures 250 

X.  Metallurgy  and  Chemistry 285 

XI.  Sheet-metal    Work 376 

XII.  Heating 464 

XIII.  Mathematics 508 

XIV.  Codes 540 

XV.  Glossary  of  Plumbing  Terms 556 

XVI.  Business  Methods 559 

Appendix  Plumbing  Code 602 

Index 623 


IX 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


SECTION  1 


HEAT' 


When  a  body  is  touched  by  the  hands,  two  distinct  sensations 
are  experienced,  one  a  feeling  of  pressure  and  the  other  of 
warmth  or  coldness.  The  latter  effect  results  when  a  hot  steam 
pipe  is  touched.  The  words  hot  and  cold  simply  refer  to  the 
condition  of  the  body  as  judged  by  one's  sense  of  heat.  By 
means  of  this  sense,  we  say  that  one  body  is  hot  and  that 
another  is  cold.  For  instance,  we  can  by  the  sense  of  heat  alone 
arrange  several  pieces  of  the  same  substance  in  such  order  that 
each  will  be  hotter  than  all  that  precede  it.  We  are  thus  led  to 
the  idea  of  temperature  as  measured  by  means  of  the  mercury 
thermometer. 

Temperature. — Imagine  three  tanks  of  water  A,  B,  C, 
(Fig.  1),  each  containing  a  different  quantity  of  water.     If  A 


7?^ 


Fig.  1. 


and  B  are  placed  side  by  side  in  contact,  and  we  observe  by 
means  of  a  mercury  thermometer  placed  first  in  A  and  then  in 
B  that  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  B  increases  while  that 
in  A  drops,  we  say  that  A  has  given  up  heat  to  B,  Put  C 
in  contact  with  B;  if  B  thereby  loses  heat,  be  it  ever  so  little, 
heat  has  passed  to  C,  and  C  is  said  to  be  at  a  lower  temperature 
than  B. 

It  18  evident  that  in  general  when  one  body  is  placed  in  contact 
with  another,  the  difference  in  temperature  between  the  bodies  is 
that  which  determines  which  way  the  hecU  will  flow.  That  is, 
whether  heat  flows  from  A  to  B  or  the  reverse,  depends  not  at 


1  See    "Heating    Systems,"   page  464.    See  also 
Supply/*  page  107. 

1 


Domestic  Hot  Water 


2  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

all  upon  the  size  of  the  tanks,  but  upon  their  difference  of 
temperature. 

Effects  of  Heat. — One  of  the  most  general  effects  with  change 
of  temperature  in  any  body  is  change  of  bulk,  or  as  it  is  called 
expansion.  The  size  or  bulk  of  any  body  is  found  to  increase 
continuously  with  its  hotness.  Thus  the  metal  rails  of  a 
railroad  track  are  not  laid  with  their  ends  in  contact,  but  with 
a  short  space  between  to  allow  for  expansion  in  summer  (see 
section  on  "Expansion  of  Pipes,"  page  88). 

Another  general  effect  of  heat  is  a  change  in  the  physical 
state  or  form  of  matter;  that  is,  by  sufficiently  increasing  the 
temperature,  solids  are  changed  to  liquids,  and  liquids  into 
vapors.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  melting  of  ice  to  water 
and  the  boiling  away  of  water  into  steam. 

Thermometers. — Since  heat  itself  is  invisible  and  can  be 
perceived  only  through  its  effects  upon  bodies,  we  are  forced  to 
employ  some  one  of  these  effects  for  the  measurement  of  heat. 
For  ordinary  purposes,  the  universal  choice  has  been  change  in 
size,  which  always  accompanies  a  change  in  temperature. 

For  various  reasons,  mercury  appears  to  be  very  well  adapted 
to  temperature  measurements.  The  indications  of  temperature 
which  are  given  by  the  mercurial  thermometer  hinge  upon  the 
fact  that  mercury  expands  with  rise  of  temperature  more 
rapidly  than  glass.  If,  therefore,  a  glass  tube  having  a  bulb 
blown  in  one  end  be  partially  filled  with  mercury  and  inserted 
in  water  at  a  higher  temperature  than  its  own,  the  mercury  will 
rise  in  the  tube.  K  the  instrument  is  inserted  in  water  of  lower 
temperature,  heat  will  flow  from  the  mercury  to  the  colder 
water,  and  the  column  of  mercury  will  contract  or  grow  shorter. 

The  steps  in  the  manufacture  of  a  thermometer  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  selection  of  a  piece  of  thick-walled  capillary  tubing 
of  uniform  bore. 

2.  A  bulb  is  blown  in  one  end  of  this  tube. 

3.  The  bulb  is  filled  with  mercury,  heated  and  sealed  off. 

4.  The  tube  of  the  thermometer  is  graduated. 

This  last  step  is  of  great  importance.  It  so  happens  that 
there  are  two  temperatures  which  can  be  easily  produced;  one 
of  them,  the  melting  point  of  ice,  the  other,  the  boiling  point  of 
water.  Hence,  these  two  temperatures,  the  melting  point 
of  ice  and  the  boiling  point  of  water,  are  called  32  degrees  and 
212  degrees  respectively  on  the  Fahrenheit  thermometer,  and 
are  fixed  points.     The  interval  between  these  two  fixed  points 


HEAT  3 

is  divided  into  180  steps,  or  degrees.  The  zero  point  on  the 
thermometer  tube  is  located  by  marking  off  32  divisions  below 
the  32-degree  point  and  calling  this  last  mark  zero. 

Quantity  of  Heat. — Temperature  is  merely  a  condition 
determining  the  direction  of  flow  of  heat,  very  much  as  pressure 
is  a  condition  governing  the  direction  of  flow  when  two  tanks  of 
compressed  air  are  connected.  Just  as  we  need  a  means  of 
measuring  the  amount  of  air  which  escapes  from  either  of  the 
two  tanks  into  the  other,  so  we  need  a  method  of  estimating 
the  quantity  of  heat  which  passes  from  one  body  to  another  of 
different  temperature,  ^hen  they  are  brought  into  contact. 

We  measure  water  in  gallons  and  cubic  feet;  eggs  by  the 
dozen  or  by  weight  in  pounds.  That  is,  some  suitable  unit  is 
always  selected  when  measuring  the  quantity  of  various  sub- 
stances. In  the  case  of  heat  the  unit  chosen  is  that  quantity 
of  heat  which  raises  the  temperature  of  1  Jb,  of  water  1®F.,  and  is 
called  the  British  Thermal  Unit  (B.t.u.).  For  instance,  if  we 
heat  1  lb.  of  water,  raising  its  temperature  from  60  to  100®  F., 
we  have  added  40  B.t.u.  of  heat  to  the  water  over  and  above 
what  it  possessed  at  60**F. 

Transfer  of  Heat. — Heat  is  transferred  from  one  body  to 
another  or  is  diffused  throughout  a  liquid  by  three  general 
methods,  viz:  (1)  Conduction,  (2)  Convection,  and  (3)  Radiation. 

1.  Conduction. — If  one  end  of  an  iron  rod  is  placed  in  a  hot 
fire  while  the  other  is  held 
in  the  hand,  the  end  held  in 
the  hand  soon  commences 
to  get  warm  and  finally 
may  become  unbearably 
hot.  The  process  by  which 
the  heat  is  transferred  from 
the  heated  end  of  the  rod 
to  the  cold  end  is  called  Fjq^  2. 

** conduction."     The  same 

rod,  when  used  with  ice,  may  become  quite  cold.  In  this 
case  heat  has  been  transferred  by  conduction  from  that  end 
of  the  rod  held  in  the  hand,  to  the  end  immersed  in  the  ice 
water. 

The  rate  at  which  different  substances  conduct  heat  varies 
between  wide  limits.  For  instance,  in  Fig.  2  are  shown  an  iron 
rod  A  and  a  copper  rod  B,  both  resting  on  pedestals.  Both 
rods  are  of  the  same  length,  1  ft.,  and  of  the  same  cross-section. 


4  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Each  has  one  end  in  the  same  gas  flame,  C.  If  matches  are  now 
placed  at  equal  distances  from  the  flame  of  each  rod,  those  on 
the  copper  will  bum  earlier  than  those  on  the  iron  rod. 

2.  Convection. — The  hot  air  of  a  chinmey  rises,  mixes  with 
the  outside  air,  and  gives  some  of  its  heat  to  the  outside  air. 
The  hot  air  rises  because  its  weight  is  less  than  that  of  cold 
air.  This  process  of  carrying  the  hot  air  up  the  chimney  is 
called  convection.     Again,  a  can  of  water  (Fig.  3)  to  which 

a  gas  flame  is  applied  on  one 
side,  becomes  equally  heated 
throughout.*  First  of  all,  the  water 
just  over  the  flame  becomes  hot  by 
conduction  through  the  walls  of  the 
can.  Then,  by  convection,  the  hot 
water  just  over  the  flame  is  dis- 
placed by  the  colder  water  which 
is  heavier,  and  therefore  sinks  to 
the  bottom,  as  indicated  by  the 
arrows.  This  cold  water,  in  turn, 
becomes  heated  by  conduction 
through  the  bottom  of  the  can. 
3.  Radiation.  —  When  the  hand 
is  held  some  inches  from  the  side  of,  or  underneath,  an  incan- 
descent electric  bulb,  the  sensation  of  heat  is  distinctly  recog- 
nized. We  hold  our  hands  before  an  open-grate  fire  to  warm 
them.  How  does  the  heat  pass  from  the  fire  to  the  hands? 
Certainly  not  by  conduction,  since  air  is  one  of  the  very  poorest 
conductors  of  heat  known.  It  can  readily  be  shown  that  con- 
duction o.r  convection  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the 
conveyance  of  this  heat,  for  even  in  the  case  of  the  incan- 
descent bulb,  the  air  has  been  almost  entirely  exhausted  from 
the  bulb,  yet  heat  is  delivered  from  the  filament  to  outside 
objects.  There  is  every  reason  for  believing  that  the  space 
which  separates  us  from  the  sun  is  more  nearly  a  perfect  vacuum 
than  any  other  known;  yet  across  this  vast  and  empty  region 
the  earth  daily  receives  enormous  quantities  of  heat  and  the 
heat  so  received  is  called  radiant  heat. 


Fig.  3. 


EFFECTS  OF  HEAT  ON  WATER 

Pressure  and  Temperature. — In  the  first  place,  a  glass  of 
water  as  long  as  it  contains  ice  and  is  stirred  does  not  become 
either  hotter  or  colder  on  standing.     The  ice  may  melt  away, 


HEAT  5 

but  as  long  as  there  is  any  ice  left,  the  water  will  remain  ap- 
proximately at  what  we  call  "the  temperature  of  melting  ice." 
Secondly,  the  temperature  of  melting  ice  can  be  changed  by 
placing  the  ice  under  pressure. 

In  like  manner,  however  much  you  boil  the  water  in  a  tea- 
kettle, its  temperature  does  not  change  after  boiling  has  once 
begim".  But  if  the  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the 
tea-kettle  is  changed,  then  the  temperature  of  the  boiling  water 
will  also  be  changed.  This  is  most  easily  proved  by  boiling 
in  a  kettle  of  water  a  bottle  partly  filled  with  water.  K  this 
bottle  be  corked  while  still  boiling,  and  then  removed  from  the 
water  in  the  kettle,  the  steam  over  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
the  bottle  is  partly  condensed,  thus  reducing  the  pressure  on 
the  water.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  water  in  the  bottle 
will  continue  to  boil  long  after  it  has  reached  a  temperature 
not  uncomfortable  to  the  hand.  We  can  thus  say  that  the 
boiling  temperature  of  water  increases  with  the  pressure  on 
the  surface  of  the  water.  When  the  water  surface  is  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere,  the  pressure  on  it  will  be  that  of  atmosphere, 
and  the  boiling  temperature  will  be  212**F.  Any  reduction  of 
pressure  below  that  of  the  atmosphere  will  reduce  the  boiling 
temperature  below  212°,  while  any  increase  of  pressure  above 
that  due  to  the  atmosphere  will  raise  the  boiling  temperature 
above  212**.  The  relation  between  the  external  pressure  and 
the  temperature  at  which  boiling  takes  place  is  not  a  simple 
one.  For  the  sake  of  accuracy  and  convenience,  it  is  custom- 
ary to  refer  to  the  colunms  of  a  steam  table  for  its  determina- 
tion. The  data  found  in  the  steam  tables  has  been  derived 
from  experiments  many  times  repeated. 

Volume  and  Temperature. — If  account  be  taken  of  the  vol- 
ume of  steam  produced  during  the  evaporation  of  the  water  in 
a  closed  vessel,  it  will  be  found  in  each  case  that  a  definite 
volume  has  always  been  developed  by  the  time  that  1  lb.  of 
water  has  been  entirely  evaporated.  This  volume  is  called  the 
specific  volume  of  saturated  steam.  It,  too,  will  be  found  to 
have  different  volumes  under  different  conditions  as  to  pressure 
and  temperature;  but  imder  the  same  conditions  it  is  always 
the  same. 

Superheat  and  Saturation. — If  the  heating  of  1  lb.  of  water 
in  a  closed  vessel  be  continued  after  all  of  the  water  is  evapo- 
rated, it  will  be  found  that  the  temperature  again  begins  to 
rise,  and  this  time  it  will  continue  to  rise  as  long  as  heat  be 


6  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

added  to  it.  Just  at  the  point  where  evaporation  is  complete 
and  the  final  rise  in  temperature  begins,  the  steam  is  known 
as  dry  saturated  steam.  At  any  temperature  above  that  it 
is  known  as  superheated  steam.  At  any  point  between  the 
beginning  of  boiling  and  complete  saturation,  when  the  original 
1  lb.  is  partly  water  and  partly  steam,  the  steam  is  known  as 
wet  saturated  steam.  In  other  words,  steam  in  contact  with 
water  is  always  saturated  steam  and  miist  always  have  a  definite 
temperaiure  and  a  definite  volume  when  under  a  given  pressure. 

If  heat  be  added  to  saturated  steam,  it  will  become  super- 
heated; if  heat  be  abstracted  from  it,  it  will  condense.  If  the 
pressure  be  released  from  wet  steam,  more  steam  will  be  formed; 
if  the  pressure  upon  it  be  increased,  some  will  condense. 

The  total  number  of  B.t.u.  taken  up  by  1  lb.  of  water  in 
changing  from  water  at  32*'F.  into  dry,  saturated  steam  at  any 
higher  temperature  consists  largely  of  two  parts. 

1.  The  heat  units  absorbed  in  increoMng  the  temperature  of  the 
water,  or  the  activity  (speed  or  velocity)  of  the  molecules. 

That  is,  we  imagine  the  pound  of  water  to  be  made  up  of  vast 
number  of  small  particles,  or  molecules.  The  individual  mole- 
cules are  supposed  to  be  separated  by  distances  very  great  in 
comparison  with  their  diameter,  and  in  a  gaseous  matter  (like 
steam)  these  distances  of  separation  have  been  likened  to  those 
of  the  solar  system  in  comparison  with  the  planets  composing  it. 

This  heat  is  called  "temperature  heat*'  or  "sensible  heat,*' 
or  "heat  of  liquid."  It  is  represented  by  the  letter  q  in  the 
steam  tables  (Column  5,  Table  1). 

2.  77i6  heat  units  absorbed  during  vaporization  (change  of 
water  into  steam)  in  separating  the  water  molecules  one  from 
another  against  forces  of  attraction.  That  is,  during  the  process 
of  steam  making,  the  water  molecules  are  shot  off  from  the 
water  surface  into  the  steam  space,  where  the  distances  between 
the  molecules  is  tremendously  greater  than  in  the  water  itself. 
This  heat  is  known  as  the  "heat  of  vaporization"  or  "latent 
heat,"  and  is  represented  in  the  steam  tables  by  the  letter  e 
(Column  6). 

Total  Heat. — The  "total  heat"  of  the  steam,  or  the  quantity 
of  heat  in  B.t.u.  required  to  change  1  lb.  of  water  at  32**F.  into 
steam  at  some  other  temperature,  is  the  sum  of  the  "heat  of 
the  liquid"  and  the  "heat  of  vaporization." 

Total  heat  Q  =  (q  -{-  e)  B.t.u. 
The  values  of  Q  will  be  found  in  Column  7  of  the  steam  tables. 


HEAT 


Table  1. — Steam  Table  Saturated  Steam 


Pressure, 

Tem- 

pounds 

perature, 

Specific 

Weight 

Latent 

per 

degrees 

volume 

in  pounds 

Heat  of 

heat  of 

Total 

square 

Fahren- 

cubic foot 

per 

of 

vapor- 

heat of 

inch 

heit 

per  pound 

cubic  foot 

liquid 

isation 

steam 

gage 

t 

V 

w 

q 

e 

Q 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

0 

212 

26.8 

.0373 

180 

970 

1.150 

1 

215 

25.3 

.0394 

183 

968 

1.150 

2 

219 

24.0 

.0424 

187 

966 

1,153 

3 

222 

22.3 

.0447 

190 

964 

1,154 

1        4 

224 

21.5 

.0464 

192 

963 

1,155 

1        ^ 

227 

20.4 

.0498 

195 

961 

1,156 

6 

230 

19.4 

.0516 

198 

959 

1,157 

7 

233 

18.5 

.0540 

201 

957 

1,158 

8 

235 

17.8 

.0562 

203 

955 

1,158 

9 

237 

17.2 

.0582 

205 

954 

1.159 

10 

239 

16.5 

.0620 

208 

952 

1.160 

11 

242 

15.8 

.0630 

210 

951 

1,161 

12 

244 

15.3 

.0650 

212 

949 

1,161 

13 

246 

14.7 

.0670 

214 

948 

1.162 

14 

248 

14.3 

.0700 

216 

946 

1.162 

'        15 

250 

13.9 

.0720 

218 

945 

1.163 

Table  2. — Allowable  Combustion  Rates^ 


Coal  per  square 

foot,  per  hour, 

pounds 


Remarks 


6  sq.  ft.  or  less  (small). . 
6  to  10  sq.  ft.  (medium) 
10  sq.  ft.  (large) .... 


A  variation  of  10  per  cent 
up  or  down  from  these 
rates  is  perfectly  safe. 
The  higher  value  for  full 
sized  chimneys  with  lined 
flues  and  the  lower  for  un- 
lined  flues. 


tO; 
Oli 


*  Taken  from  "  Heating  A  Ventilating,"  by  Harding  and  WiUard. 

Problems 

1.  How  much  heat  is  required  to  change  1  lb.  of  water  at  32°F. 
into  steam  at  a  pressure  of  10  lb.  gage? 

To  raise  the  temperature  of  the  water  from  32°F.  to  its  boiling 
temperature  (at  the  pressure  of  10  lb.  gage)  requires  208  B.t.u. 


8  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

(see  Column  6).     To  vaporize  this  water  then  requires  952  B.t.u. 

(see  Column  6). 

Therefore, 

Q  =  g  +  e  =  208  +  952  =  1,160  B.t.u. 

2.  How  much  heat  is  required  to  change  1  lb.  of  water,  at  60° F. 
into  steam  at  10  lb.  gage? 

It  is  evident  that  the  pound  of  water  already  contains  a  certain 
amount  of  heat  aboVe  that  at  32°F.  That  is,  it  contains  the  extra 
B.t.u.  of  (60  —  32)  X  specific  heat  X  weight  of  water.  The  specific 
heat  is  the  quantity  of  heat,  in  B.t.u.,  necessary  to  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  1  lb.  of  water  1°F.  Ordinarily  this  can  be  taken  as  one. 
The  weight  of  the  water  in  this  case  is  1  and  the  change  of  tempera- 
ture (60  —  32)  degrees.     Hence,  the  excess  heat  already  in  water  is 

g'  =  (60  -  32)  X  1  X  1  =  28  B.t.u. 
Therefore, 

jy  =  (g  -  g')  +  e  =  (208  -  28)  +  952  =  1,132  B.t.u. 

We  can  easily  see  then  that  the  higher  the  temperature  of  the  water 
(above  32°F.)  to  begin  with,  the  less  heat  has  to  be  added  when 
changing  this  water  into  steam. 

3.  How  much  heat  is  required  to  change  1,000  lb.  of  water  at 
60°F.  into  dry  steam  at  10  lb.  gage? 

For  1  lb.,  from  Problem  2, 

H  =  1,132.7  B.t.u. 

For  1,000  lb.  per  hour  we  must  supply 

1,000  X  H  «  1,132,600  B.t.u. 

HOT  WATER  HEATERS 

Capacity. — In  fixing  upon  the  capacity  of  heater  best  suited 
to  heating  water  for  domestic  purposes,  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
sider (1)  the  amount  of  water  to  be  heated,  (2)  the  rate  at  which 
it  must  be  heated,  (3)  the  range  in  temperature  through  which 
the  water  must  be  raised,  and  (4)  the  heating  medium,  such 
as  hot  gas. 

Amount  of  Water. — In  domestic  service,  the  amount  of  hot 
water  required  is  customarily  based  on  the  number  of  plumbing 
fixtures  or  occupants  to  be  supplied.  In  government  buildings, 
a  storage  tank  allowance  per  day  of  20  gal.  for  each  shower,  10 
gal.  for  each  sink,  and  5  gal.  for  each  lavatory,  is  made.  In 
the  case  of  hospital  service,  an  allowance  of  from  20  to  40 
gal.  of  hot  water  per  patient,  per  day,  is  usually  made. 

Rate  of  Water  Supply. — If  all  the  water  is  used  in  1  hr.,  a 
much  larger  heater  is  required  than  would  be  needed  if  the  same 
amount  were  used  in  4  or  5  hr.,  at  the  temperature  of  the  supply. 


HEAT  9 

Because  of  this  condition,  it  is  customary  to  provide  a  storage 
tank  from  which  the  hot  water  supply  is  drawn.  The  capacity 
of  this  tank  is  greater  than  the  hourly  capacity  of  the  heater, 
which  can  be  of  small  size,  since  it  operates  on  the  storage  tank 
during  the  periods  when  no  hot  water  is  being  withdrawn. 

Heating  Medium. — The  average  gas  water  heater  of  the 
non-automatic  type  will  bum  from  35  to  40  cu.  ft.  of  artificial 
gas  per  hour,  and  will  raise  about  50  gal.  of  water  from  65  to 
100**F.,  in  the  same  time,  with  an  eflBciency  of  65  per  cent. 
Ordinarily  it  is  best  to  figure  on  from  50  to  80  cu.  ft.  of  artificial 
gas  per  hour. 

Heater  Capacity. — The  capacity  of  gas  water  heaters  is 
usually  stated  in  gallons  per  minute  of  water  raised  from  50  to 
150*'F.  For  a  given  case  the  heater  capacity  can  be  computed 
from 

CXH  XE 

SHX  {h  -  h) 

where  G  =  capacity  of  heater  in  gallons  per  minute. 

H  —  heat  value  of  gas  in  B.t.u.  per  cubic  foot.   (600  B.t.u. 
for  artificial  gas.     1,000  B.t.u.  for  natural  gas.) 

E  =  efficiency  of  heater  =  0.60  to  0.70. 

C  =  total  cubic  feet  gas  burned  per  minute.  (2  to  3 
cu.  ft.  of  artificial  gas  per  gallon  of  water  heated.) 
niustratiye  Problem. — Required  to  supply  a  gas  fired  heater 
to  an  apartment  house  occupied  by  12  families.  The  water  is 
to  be  heated  from  60  to  140°F.  The  gas  used  will  be  artificial. 
It  will  be  assumed  that  each  family  uses  the  same  amount  of 
hot  water.  , 

For  each  family,  we  will  figure  on  one  lavatory,  one  tub,  and 
two  sinks.  The  amount  of  hot  water  used  in  these  will  depend 
on  circumstances,  such  as  the  time  of  day  when  in  use,  etc. 
The  quantity  of  water  used  by  each  one,  per  minute,  can  be 
taken  from  Table  3  below,  which  is  published  in  "Ruud's 
Service  Book.''  The  number  of  times  used  and  the  number  of 
minutes  in  use  for  each  time  is  a  matter  of  guess  work,  but  can 
be  roughly  estimated.  Hence,  the  fixtures  for  one  family  can 
be  listed  as  shown  in  Table  4. 
The  total  for  the  apartment  will  then  be 

12  X  353^  =  426  gal. 
which  represents  the  heaviest  hourly-  demand  that  can    be 
expected.     Reduced  to  gallons  per  minute,  this  becomes  426  -t- 
60  «  7  about. 


10 
Table  3.- 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

-Flow  in  Gallons  per  Minute  Delivered  by 
Ordinary  Plumbing  Fixtures 


Fixtures 


Fair 
flow 


Good 
flow 


Excellent 
flow 


Kitohen-eink  bibbs 

Pantry  sink — high  goose-neck  bibbs 

Pantry  sink — large  plain  bibbs 

V^^table-sink  bibbs 

Laundry — tray  bibbs 

Slop-sink  bibbs 

Lavatory-basin  bibbs 

Bath-tub  bibbs 

Shampoo  spray 

Liver  spray 

Shower  baths: 

5-in.  rain  heads 

6>^-in.  rain  heads 

8-in.  rain  heads 

8-in.  tubular  heads 

Needle  baths 

Manicure  table 


2 
2 
4 
2 
4 
3 
2 
3 

H 
1 

2 
2 
4 
6 
20 
1 


4 
2 
6 
4 
6 
4 
3 
4 
1 
2 

3 
3 
6 
8 
30 

m 


6 
3 
8 
6 
8 
6 
4 
6 
2 
3 

4 
5 

8 

to 

40 
2 


Table  4. — Number  of  Times  Fixtures  Are  Used 


Fixtures 

Gallons 

per 
minute 

Times 
used 

Minutes 
per  use 

Total 
gallons 

Lavatory 

3 
4 
3 
3 

4 
1 
1 

1 

1 
4 

H 
2 

12 

Tub 

!6 

Sink 

m 

Sink • 

6 

Total  hour's  demand 

35V^ 

To  check  this  estimate,  we  can  utilize  the  formula  given 

above. 

CHE 
(2  X  7)  X  600  X  .70 


(?  = 


8H  X  (140  -  60) 
ti         ti 


=  8.7  gal.  per  minute 


This  is  a  fairly  close  check,  and  to  be  on  the  safe  side  we  will  use 
this  figure  as  representing  the  maximum  probable  demand  per 
minute. 


HEAT  11 

Now  the  heater  need  not  have  a  capacity  large  enough  to 
take  care  of  this  demand.  In  most  cases  a  storage  tank  will 
be  used  whose  capacity  will  be  about  equal  to  the  full  demand. 
In  other  words,  a  heater  whose  capacity  is  about  equal  to  Ji 
XG  =  2.2  gal.  per  minute,  would  undoubtedly  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  this  problem. 

The  heating  surface  (coils  in  heater)  for  a  heater  of  this 
capacity  (2.2  gal.  per  minute),  can  be  computed  from 

K.    X    \tg    —  tvi) 

where  A  —  square  feet  of  heating  surface. 

K  =  B.t.u.  transmitted  to  water  per  hour  per  1°  differ- 
ence in  temperature  between  water  and  gas, 
=  about  2. 
tg  =  average  temperature  of  gas. 

^  H  X  sum  of  gas  temperature  entering  and  gas 

temperature  leaving, 
=  about  1,500**F. 
ty,  =  average  temperature  of  water, 

=  J^  X  sum  of  water  temperature  entering  and  water 

temperature  leaving, 
«  (140  -f  60)  ^  2  =  100. 
Q^  =  B.t.u.  to  be  supplied  per  hour  by  heater. 

Therefore 

.   !^  H  X  [426  X  SH  X  (140  -  60)]  ^  72,594  ^ 

2  X  (1,500  -  100)  2,800  ^' 

ft.  about. 

This  value  is  only  approximate,  but  affords  a  rough  idea  of 
what  heating  surface  is  required  in  the  heater.  In  most  cases, 
the  hourly  capacity  of  the  heater  is  much  less  than  the  capacity 
of  the  tank,  so  that  the  hot  water  demand  on  the  latter  must 
not  be  constant,  but  must  permit  of  periods  when  the  heater 
can  "catch  up"  by  working  on  the  tank  alone.  In  case  the  hot 
water  demand  is  practically  constant,  a  much  larger  heater, 
suitable  for  continuous  service,  must  be  installed,  although  the 
constant  rate  of  supply  may  be  no  greater  than  the  intermittent 
rate  provided  for  above. 

^  Carefully  note  that  Q  is  figured  on  the  assumption  that  only  about  one- 
fourth  the  total  gallons  of  water  required  per  hour  should  equal  the  heater 
capacity.     Hence, 

0  -  J-i  X  O  X  8H  X  (140  -  60)  -  72.594  B.t.u. 

in  above  problem. 


12 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


CHIMNEYS' 

In  order  to  cause  the  necessary  amount  of  air  to  flow  through 
the  fuel  bed  and  force  the  products  of  combustion  through 
the  gas  passages  of  a  boiler,  a  difference  in  pressure  between  the 
ashpit  and  the  breeching  is  required.  This  difference  in 
pressure  is  known  as  draft  and  is  due  to  the  difference  in  weight 
of  the  hot  gases  in  the  chimney  and  the  cold  air  without.  In 
Fig.  4  are  shown  two  chimneys  of  equal  height  and  cross-section 
area,  side  by  side,  and  connected  at  the  bottom  by  passage  C. 
If  we  locate  a  steam  radiator  at  the  base  of  stack  B  and  let 


Ojyert'hAir"^ 


Fia.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


steam  into  the  radiator,  there  will  immediately  result  an  up- 
ward movement  of  air  in  B,  and  at  the  same  time  a  downward 
flow  of  cold  air  through  A ;  that  is,  as  the  air  in  B  is  heated,  it 
expands,  and  its  weight  per  cubic  foot  becomes  less  than  that  of 
the  air  in  A ;  hence,  the  column  of  cold  air  in  A  being  heavier 
than  the  hot  air  in  B,  the  latter  is  forced  up  and  out  of  B  by 
the  colder  air  of  A.  In  effect,  this  is  precisely  what  occurs 
in  the  case  of  an  actual  chimney,  although  in  that  case  there  is 
not  a  duplicate  chimney. 

The  intensity  of  this  draft,  or  the  difference  in  pressure 
between  the  hot  gases  in  the  chimney  and  the  outside  air,  can 
be  determined  by  means  of  the  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
A  bent  piece  of  }^-in.  pipe  is  inserted  into  flue  at  point  /.  On 
the  other  end  is  attached  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing,  d,  and  this  in 

1  See  "Sheet  Metal"  section,  page  403. 


HEAT 


13 


turn  is  connected  to  the  end  of  a  glass  U-tube,  h.  Between  the 
legs  of  the  U-tube  is  a  scale,  c,  marked  off  in  inches  and  tenths 
of  an  inch.  The  U-tube  and  scale  can  be  mounted  on  a  piece 
of  board,a,  and  the  whole  fastened  in  any  convenient  place 
in  close  proximity  to  the  flue.  K  water  is  poured  into  the 
U-tube,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  level  of  the  water  in  the 
right-hand  leg  will  be  higher  than  that  in  the  left-hand  leg. 
This  is  due  to  the  difference  in  pressure  between  the  flowing 
gases  in  the  flue  and  the  outside  air.  The  difference,  /iw, 
between  the  two  levels  increases  with  the  intensity  of  the  draft. 
The  draft  at  the  rear  of  the  boiler  where  connection  is  made  to 
the  flue,  may  be  0.5  in.  of  water,  while  in  the  furnace,  directly 
over  the  fire,  it  may  not  exceed  0.1  to  0.15  in.  of  water,  the  differ- 


Fio.  6. 

ence  being  the  draft  required  to  overcome  the  resistance  offered 
to  the  flow  of  the  gases  through  the  various  passages  of  the  boiler. 
In  order  to  secure  sufficient  draft  to  maintain  satisfactory 
burning  of  the  fuel,  it  is  necessary  that  the  chimney  shall  have 
the  proper  height  {JS.  in  Fig.  6).  B.  can  be  calculated  from 
formula  be)ow. 

F«    ^(460  +  y 


^  ""  64.4'^     iK-U 

H  =  effective  height  of  chimney  measured  in  feet  from  furnace 

grate  to  top  of  chimney  (see  Fig.  6). 
V  =  velocity  of  flow  of  hot  gases  up  chimney  in  feet  per 

second  (see  Table  5). 
th  =  temperature  of  hot  gases  in  chimney  in  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
tc  =  temperature  of  outside  air  in  degrees  Fahrenheit. 


14 


PLUMBERS*  HANDBOOK 


Table  6. — Draft  Pressures  and  Corresponding  Velocities 


Height  of 

Velocity,  feet 

Height  of 

Velocity,  feet 

water,  inches 

per  second 

water,  inches 

per  second 

h^ 

V 

h^ 

V    . 

.1 

15 

.6 

36 

.2 

21 

.7 

40 

.3 

26 

.8 

42 

.4 

30 

.9  • 

45 

.5 

33 

1.0 

47 

In  using  Formula  (1)^  it  is  assumed  that  the  chimney  is  tight;  if 
there  are  any  leaks,  the  filtering  in  of  the  cold,  outside  air  will 
reduce  the  temperature  of  the  hot  gas  flowing  through  the 
chimney  and  reduce  the  draft.  The  temperature  tk  will  be 
greatest  at  the  base  of  the  chimney  and  least  at  the  top.  For 
most  purposes  it  will  be  satisfactory  to  assume  average  tem- 
perature of  the  gases  inside  of  the  chimney  as  250^F.  If  a 
thermometer  is  handy  which  reads  up  to  400*'F,,  then  the  tem- 
perature of  the  gases  leaving  the  furnaces  or  boiler  can  be 
determined  by  inserting  the  thermometer  through  a  small  hole 
in  the  breeching,  into  the  path  of  the  flowing  gases.  The 
average  temperature  t  can  then  be  figured  from 

.       temperature  at  base  of  chimney  +  outside  temperature 
tH  = 2 

Example. — ^Let  temperature  of  gases  leaving  boiler  =  400**F., 
and  teinperature  of  outside  air  be  60*'F.     Then 

400  +  60 


tk^ 


=  230**^ 


If  it  is  possible  to  determine  the  intensity,  hy,j  of  the  draft 
at  the  base  of  a  chimney,  in  inches  of  the  water,  then  the  cor- 
responding value  of  V  can  be  taken  from  Table  6,  which  ap- 
plies to  chimneys  for  residences  only. 

A  simple  rule  for  checking  the  height  of  a  chimney  for  a 
giveh  size  of  cast-iron  heating  boiler  is  that  used  by  the  U.  S. 
Treasury  Department,  which  is 

(075) «  X  A  2 


i/  = 


S^ 


where  S  is  area  of  chimney  flue  in  square  feet,  and  A  is  the  area 
of  the  boiler  grate  in  square  feet. 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  chimney  under  40  ft.  in  height  will  give 


HEAT 


15 


a  satisfactory  draft.  On  some  days  the  draft  will  be  good,  on 
other  days  poor;  and  this  variation  is  more  likely  due  to  the 
kind  and  quality  of  the  fuel  being  burned  than  to  the  direction 
of  velocity  of  the  wind.  In  burning  soft  coal,  that  known  as 
"run  of  mine"  offers  considerable  resistance  to  the  flow  of  air 
up  through  the  fuel  bed,  and  an  intense  draft  is  required  to 
maintain  combustion.  The  same  fact  applies  to  '^caking'' 
coals  and  to  ''pea"  and  ''buckwheat"  varieties  of  hard  coal. 

The  intensity  of  the  draft  determines  the  velocity  of  flow 
through  the  boiler  and  chinmey,  but  the  crossHsectional  area 
of  the  chimney  must  be  sufficient  to  pass  the  volume  of  gases 
resulting  from  the  combustion  in  the  boiler  furnace,  else, 
regardless  of  the  pull  of  the  chimney,  it  will  be  impossible  to 
maintain  efficient  combustion  in  the  boiler  furnace.  In 
general  there  will  be  required  about  18  to  24  lb.  of  air  for  each 
pound  of  coal  burned  on  the  grate.  Table  2  gives  allowable 
combustion  rates,  upon  which  can  be  based  calculations  of  the 
probable  amount  of  gas  which  a  given  size  boiler  may  be  ex- 
pected to  deliver  to  chimney  in  1  hr. 

Knowing  the  size  of  grate  area  in  square  feet,  the  probable 
coal  consumption  per  square  foot  of  grate  area  per  hour  from 
Table  2,  and  the  amount  of  air  required  for  the  burning  of  1  lb. 
of  fuel,  it  is  possible  to  calculate  the  cubic  feet  of  hot  gas  which 
must  be  delivered  by  the  chimney  in  1  sec. 

Table  6. — Air  Densities 


Temperature 
of  air 

Weight  in 
pounds  per 

cubic  foot 

200 

.059 

220 

.058 

240 

.056 

260 

.054 

280 

.053 

300 

.052 

320 

.050 

340 

.049 

360 

.048 

380 

.047 

400 

.046 

Illustrative  Problem. — Suppose  the  intensity  of  the  draft  in  a 
given  chimney  is  hy,  ^  0.5  in.  of  water  (hy,  being  measured 


16 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


between  the  boiler  and  the  base  of  the  chimney).    Let  the 
grate  area  be  6  sq.  ft.     If  the  temperature  of  the  hot  gas  at  the 
bottom  of  the  chimney  is  400**F.,  the  density  of  this  gas  or 
weight  per  cubic  foot  will  be  0.046  (see  Table  6). 
Coal  burned  per  hour  =  6  X  6  =  30  lb. 
Assuming  20  lb.  of  air  per  pound  of  coal  burned  we  have, 
Air  per  hour  =  30  X  20  =  600  lb. 
Air  per  hour  in  cubic  feet  =  600  ^  0.046  =  13,043. 
Air  per  second  m  cubic  feet  =  13,043  -^  3600  =  3.62. 
Therefore  area  of  chimney  in  square  feet  ='3.62  -r-  V  = 
3.62  -^  33  =  0.109. 

Area  of  flue  in  square  inches  =  0.109  X  144  =  16.  Hence, 
to  allow  for  dead-air  spaces,  friction,  etc.  use  a  6  by  6  in.  flue. 
No  chimney  flue  shmUd  be  less  than  6  by  Q  in,  inside,  and  a 
better  size  is  S  by  S  in.  If  the  flue  is  rectangular,  the  largest 
dimension  should  not  be  more  than  double  the  smaUest  dimension. 
Chimney  Construction. — We  have  seen  that  in  order  to 
secure  satisfactory  operation  of  a  heating  boiler,  it  is  quite 
necessary  to  have  a  chimney  of  proper  height  and  cross-section 
area.  There  are  certain  construction  features,  however,  which 
must  be  considered  in  addition  to  the  above  requirements. 

Location  of  Chimney. — The  chimney  should  be  so  located 
with  respect  to  adjacent  roofs  or  higher  buildings  that  wind 


Y'Z'crffeasi- 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


currents  will  not  form  eddy  currents  directed  down  into  the 
chimney  and  thus  kill  the  draft.  Thus  in  Fig.  7,  the  top  of 
the  chimney  is  lower  than  the  ridgepole  of  the  roof,  and  as  a 
consequence  wind  blowing  over  the  roof  spills  over  the  ridgepole 
down  into  the  chimney.  In  this  case,  the  trouble  can  be 
remedied  by  adding  to  the  height  of  the  chimney  as  indicated 


HEAT 


17 


by  the  broken  lines.  This  added  height  may  consist  of  a 
circular  galvanized-iron  pipe,  but  if  such  is  utilized,  care  must 
be  taken  to  see  that  its  area  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  chimney, 
or  at  least  as  near  to  it  as  possible.  In  Fig.  8  is  shown  a  some- 
what similar  condition  due  to  the  formation  of  eddy  currents, 
which  may  at  times  direct  themselves  down  the  chimney. 

Capstones. — If  capstones  are  used  on  the  top  of  the  chimney, 
the  edges  should  be  so  shaped  as  to  prevent  any  tendency  of  the 
local  air  currents  to  flow  down  the  flue.  Good  designs  are 
shown  in  Fig.  9  and  Fig.  10.  A  poorly  designed  capstone  is 
shown  in  Fig.  11. 


}.\\ 


i^  <^ 


H 


^^ 


J 


Fig.  9. 


Fig.  10. 


Fig.  11. 


Flues. — An  ideal  flue  should  run  straight  from  base  to  top 
outlet.  If  here  are  any  bends  or  offsets,  they  will  reduce  the 
capacity  of  the  chimney.  This  fundamental  rule  is  violated 
by  a  form  of  construction  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  12.  Here  the 
chimney  is  inclined  to  an  abrupt  angle  in  order  that  it  may  pro- 
ject from  the  center  of  the  roof. 

The  flue  should  have  no  other  openings  into  it  but  the  boiler 
smoke  or  breeching  pipe.  Partition  walls  between  two  flues 
in  the  same  chimney  should  be  carried  the  full  length  of  the 
chimney,  and  by  no  means  should  any  opening  be  left  in  this 
partition  wall  which  will  allow  a  short-circuiting  of  the  flowing 
gases  from  one  flue  into  the  other. 

The  smoke  pipe  must  not  project  into  (or  beyond  the  inside 
surface  of)  the  flue,  since  this  results  in  a  reduction  of  the 
effective  flue  area,  and  cuts  down  the  draft.  The  joints  where 
this  pipe  enters  the  chimney  should  be  made  tight  with  asbestos 
cement  or  some  other  suitable  material  in  order  to  prevent 
leakage  of  air  into  the  base  ofthe  flue.  If  there  is  a  soot  pocket 
2 


18  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

in  the  flue  below  the  smoke  pipe  opening,  the  cleanout  door 
should  always  be  closed  tightly. 

If  the  flue  is  made  of  tile,  it  is  important  that  the  joints 
between  the  tile  be  well  cemeat«d,  and  all  space  between  the 
tile  and  brickwork  filled  in  as  tightly  as  possible.     In  an  old 


Fio.  12.  FiQ.  13a.  Fio.  136, 

chimney  the  mortar  will  crumble  away  from  between  the  bricks, 
allowing  air  to  leak  in  and  destroy  the  draft.  It  frequently 
happens,  in  the  case  of  chimney  flues  lined  with  tile,  that  a 
section  of  the  tile  will  loosen,  and  falling  over,  obstruct  the  flue 
passage  (see  Fig.  13a).     Mortar  may  also  drop  from  time  to 


time  and  fill  up  the  base  of  the  flue,  completely  filling  up  the 
breech  pipe  opening  into  the  chimney.  To  determine  whether 
a  chimney  flue  is  clear,  insert  a  handmirror,  through  the  smolce 
pipe  opening,  into  the  flue  and  hold  at  an  angle.  Flue  shaft 
will  be  clearly  shown  in  the  mirror,  and  any  obstructions  readily 


HEAT  19 

located.    A  heavy  weight  can  be  lowered  into  the  chimney 
and  used  to  force  a  clear  opening  (Fig.  136). 

Figures  14  and  15  illustrate  constructions  that  are  sometimes 
employed  which  are  detrimental  to  good  chimney  operation. 
In  the  case  of  Fig.  14,  a  masonry  foundation  wall  projects  into 
the  lower  end  of  the  flue,  making  this  portion  of  the  flue  very 
irregular,  and  consequently  the  draft  is  hindered.  The  dotted 
line  indicates  how  this  condition  can  be  remedied  by  use  of  a 
curved  pipe  connecting  smoke  pipe  with  straight  portion  of 
the  flue.  Figure  15  shows  how  the  flue  passage  is  diminished 
in  cross-section  when  floor  beams  are  carried  into  the  flue. 


SECTION  2 

PUMPS 

HYDRAULIC    PRINCIPLES    INVOLVED    IN    PUMPING 

MACHINERY 

Atmospheric  Pressure. — Hydraulics  is  the  science  of  liquids, 
particularly  water,  when  in  motion.  In  order  to  understand 
the  action  of  a  pump  in  handling  liquids,  and  water  in  par- 
ticular, it  is  important  that  a  clear  understanding  be  had  of 
atmospheric  pressure.  Air  extends  above  the  earth's  surface 
about  60  miles  and  exerts  a  pressure  at  sea  level  of  about  14.7 
lb.  per  square  inch.  This  pressure  varies  with  different  alti- 
tudes and  with  different  weather  conditions,  but  for  most 
practical  purposes  it  is  sufficient  to  recognize  it  as  14.7. 

If  a  standpipe  be  placed  in  a  vessel  of  water  as  shown  in  Fig. 
16,  with  upper  end  open,  the  water  level  will  stand  at  level  a, 
but  if  a  suction  or  vacuum  is  appHed  at  6,  a  lower  pressure  than 
14.7  lb.  per  square  inch  will  be  exerted  at  surface  o,  and  the 
water  will  rise  in  the  tube  or  standpipe  to  level  c.  When  the 
water  stops  rising,  the  level  c  will  be  at  such  a  height  above  a, 
that  the  pressure  exerted  at  c,  plus  the  pressure  due  to  the  height 
of  water  oc,  will  equal  the  atmospheric  pressure  at  d.  Pump 
suction  creates  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  suction  line  and  lifts 
water  with  the  aid  of  the  atmospheric  pressure  in  this  manner. 
It  is  evident  that  with  an  absolute  vacuum  at  6,  the  surface  c 
would  continue  to  rise  until  the  column  of  water  ac,  would  itself 
equal  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  at  d.  A  column  of  water 
2.3  ft.  high  exerts  a  pressure  of  1  lb.  per  square  inch;  therefore, 
the  maximum  theoretical  height  to  which  water  may  be  lifted 
by  a  vacuum  is  equal  to  2.3  times  14.7  or  33.8  ft.  A  perfect 
vacuum  is  not  attainable,  and  in  practice  25  ft.  is  rarely 
exceeded. 

Lifting  Hot  Water. — Water  at  32°F.  has  a  vapor  or  steam 
pressure  on  its  surface  of  0.0886  lb.  per  square  inch,  while  at 
180°F.,  7.51  lb.  per  square  inch  is  exerted.  If  an  open  stand- 
pipe  as  in  Fig.  16  is  placed  in  water  at  180°F.,  the  level  of  the 
water  in  the  pipe  will  stand  at  a,  as  with  cold  water.  If  a 
pump  suction  be  applied  at  6,  the  level  c  will  rise  to  a  height 

20 


PUMPS 


21 


which  is  limited  by  the  vapor  pressure  of  7.51  lb.  exerted  by  the 
hot  water.  No  matter  how  fast  we  may  drive  the  pump,  it  is 
not  practicable  to  remove  the  vapor  faster  than  it  is  formed,  and 
(14.7  —  7.51)  X  2.3  =  16.5  ft.  is  the  maximum  theoretical 
height  to  which  water  at  180°F.  temperature  may  be  lifted.     It 


Afmosphen'c  Pressure 


f.    ^ 


a — 


^ 


Vacuum 


Sttrnel  Pipe 


Aimospheric  Pressure 


Fig.  16. 

is  not  a  practical  possibility  to  lift  hot  water  any  distance,  and 
when  it  must  be  pumped,  the  supply  should  be  above  the  pump 
so  that  the  water  will  be  forced  by  gravity  into  the  pump 
cylinder. 

Discharge  Pressure  or  Head. — Water  pressure  is  frequently 
spoken  of  as  head  because  height  of  water  and  pounds  per 


22  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

square  inch  pressure  exerted  by  this  height  bear  a  very  close 
relation  to  each  other,  effected  in  a  very  slight  degree  by  tem- 
perature.. For  all  ordinary  pump  calculations  it  is  sufficiently 
accurate  to  consider  that  1  ft.  of  water  is  equivalent  to  0.434 
lb.  per  square  inch,  and  that  1  lb.  per  square  inch  is  equivalent 
to  2.3  ft.  of  water. 

The  lifted  height  of  water  is  limited,  but  the  discharge  height 
is  limited  only  by  the  strength  of  the  container  and  the  power  of 
the  pump.  Thus  if  the  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  water  at 
df  Fig.  16,  be  increased  to  200  lb.  per  square  inch,  the  standpipe 
now  becomes  the  discharge,  and  the  level  c,  will  stand  to  a 
height  of  200  X  2.3  =  460  ft.,  or  if  this  pressure  were  increased 
to  600  lb.  per  square  inch  the  water  would  stand  at  a  level  of 
1,150  ft. 

¥nit  Pressure  and  Total  Pressure. — It  requires  no  more 
power  to  pump  a  given  amount  of  water  into  the  bottom  of  a 
standpipe  100  ft.  high  and  6  ft.  in  diameter  than  it  does  to 
pump  the  same  amount  into  the  bottom  of  a  standpipe  of  the 
same  height  and  6  in.  in  diameter.  The  6-ft.  standpipe  would 
have  a  total  pressure  on  its  bottom  of  177,000  lb.  while  the  6- 
in.  pipe  would  have  only  1,230  lb.  total  pressure.  The  unit 
pressure  would  be  the  same  in  each  case,  43.4  lb.  per  square  inch. 

Resistance  to  Flow;  Equivalent  Head. — When  water  is 
discharged  from  a  pump  through  a  pipe  line,  a  certain  resistance 
is  offered  to  its  flow  by  virtue  of  its  velocity.  This  resistance 
expressed  in  feet  head  must  be  added  to  the  elevation  to  which 
the  water  is  pumped  in  order  to  obtain  the  total  head  pumped 
against.  Rough  pipe,  restricted  openings,  and  sharp  bends 
increase  this  resistance  rapidly,  and  wherever  there  is  an  ap- 
preciable velocity  of  flow  it  is  important  that  the  pipes  be 
smooth  and  the  bends  be  few  and  of  large  radius.  In  Tables 
7  and  8  are  given  the  resistances  offered  by  clean  iron  pipe  and 
sharp  bends  of  various  sizes.  The  resistance  shown  in  this 
table  is  expressed  in  feet  of  water,  which  is  sometimes  called 
equivalent  head. 

Pump  Duty. — A  great  many  ways  have  been  devised  for 
expressing  the  duty  of  a  pump,  such  as  cubic  feet,  gallons, 
pounds  or  tons  of  water  pumped  per  pound  of  coal,  per  1,000 
lb.  of  steam,  or  per  dollar.  There  are  a  great  number  of  such 
combinations,  and  on  account  of  the  difficidty  of  making  in- 
telligent comparisons  from  so  many  ways  of  making  duty 
tests,  a  committee  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 


PUMPS  23 

Engineers  in  1891  recommended  computing  the  duty  of  a  pump 
on  the  basis  of  1,000,000  B.t.u.     Duty  on  such  basis  is  the 
number  of  foot-pounds  of  work  done  by  the  water  end  of  the 
pump  per  1,000,000  B.t.u.  consumed  by  the  power  end,  thus: 
Duty  =       foot-pounds  of  work  done 

total  number  of  B.t.u.  consumed 
One  million  B.t.u.  has  a  mechanical  equivalent  of  778,000,000 
ft.-lb,  so  that  this  figure  represents  the  maximum  theoretical 
duty  that  any  pump  can  attain.  In  practice,  we  find  duties 
from  5,000,000  to  150,000,000  ft.-lb.  per  1,000,000  B.t.u.  for 
steam-driven  pumps,  and  600,000,000  ft.-lb.  per  1,000,000 
B.t.u.  for  electric  driven.  This  latter  duty  is  computed  from 
watts  input  to  the  motor,  to  foot-pounds  output  of  the  pump. 
If  calculations  start  with  the  prime  mover  which  generates  the 
current  driving  the  motor,  the  duty  is  very  much  lower. 

Problems 

1.  A  steam-driven  pump  delivers  160  gal.  of  water  per  minute 
against  a  head  of  200  ft.,  and  in  doing  so  uses  800  lb.  of  steam  per 
hour.  Each  pound  of  steam  contains  1,043  B.t.u.  chargeable  to 
the  pump  cylinder.     What  is  the  duty? 

160  X  8.33   (weight  of  1  gal.)  X  200  =  foot-pounds  per 

minute  delivered  =  267,000. 
(800  X  1,043)    divided    by    60  »  B.t.u.    consumed    per 

minute  by  the  pump  cylinder  =  13,900. 
267,000 
"131100"  ^  1.000,000  =  19,200,000  ft.-lb.  per  1,000,000  B. 

t.u.  Duty. 
S.  A  motor-driven  pump  delivers  160  gal.  of  water  per  minute 
against  a  head  of  200  ft.,  and  the  motor  consumes  10  kw.  per  hour. 
What  is  the  duty,  computing  from  motor  to  pump? 

160  X  8.33  X  200  =  267,000  ft.-lb.  delivered  per  minute. 

10  X  3,413 

QQ «  569  B.t.u.  equivalent  per  minute  of  10  kw. 

267,000 
^g      X  1,000,000  =  470,000,000  ft.-lb.  per  1,000,000 

B.t.u.     Duty. 

PUMP  CLASSIFICATION 

Pumps  for  general  utility  purposes  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes  as  follows: 

1.  Piston  pumps. 

2.  Centrifugal  pumps. 

3.  Rotary  pumps, 

4.  Jet  pumps. 


24  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Piston  Pumps. — The  piston  pump  consists  of  a  cylinder  in 
which  a  pistoa  or  plvmger  reciprocat«s,  drawing  in  and  pushing 
out  the  liquid  to  be  pumped.    Valves  are  usually  of  the  disc 


type  as  shown  in  Fig.  17,  and  control  the  inlet  and  outlet  of  the 
water  or  other  fluid  automatically.  The  pump  shown  in  Fig. 
17  ia  the  water  end  of  the  pump  shown  in  Pig.  18.     It  is  a 


PUMPS 


25 


steam-driven  pump,  and  is  known  as  a  duplex,  direct-acting 
pump;  duplex  because  there  are  two  steam  cylinders  and  two 
water  cylinders,  and  direct-acting  because  the  steam  and  water 
pistons  are  directly  connected  to  each  other  by  the  piston  rod, 
with  no  fljrwheel  or  crankshaft.  Steam  valves  of  one  cylinder 
are  operated  by  the  piston  rod  of  the  other  cylinder,  as  shown 


Fig.  19. 


in  Fig.  18.  This  arrangement  eliminates  the  possibility  of  stop- 
ping on  dead  center,  and  since  the  water  end  is  double  acting, 
a  very  steady  and  continuous  flow  is  maintained. 

Some  direct-acting  pumps  are  single-cylinder  types  and  must 
have  some  special  device  for  operating  the  steam  valves.     They 


26  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

are  slightly  moie  complicated  than  the  duplex  and  in  general 
less  reliable,  but  frequently  more  economical.     When  economy 

in  st«am-plunger  pumps  ia  desired,  a  flywheel  pump  must  be 
used,  and  the  steam  used  expansively.  Such  pumpB  are  fre- 
quently made  in  very  large  sizes  and  find  extensive  use  in  city 
waterworks,  and  for  elevator  service. 

Pumps  of  the  plunger  type  are  frequently  elec  trie-driven. 
Figure  19  shows  a  section  of  a  pump  of  this  type  which  is  made 
up  in  three  cylinders  and  is  called  a  triplex  pump. 
Referring  to  the  figure,  B  and  A  represent  the  suc- 
tion and  discharge  valves  respectively.  C  is  the 
suction  passage,  and  when  the  plunger  E  rises,  the 
C  valves  B  are  forced  open  by  the  pressure  in  C,  and 
water  enters  the  cylinder.  On  the  downward  stroke 
of  plunger  E,  the  valves,  B,  close,  and  the  discharge 
valves,  A,  are  forced  open,  discharging  the  water  into  ■ 
f  passage  D.  Air  chamber  F  ia  provided  to  prevent 
water  hammer  in  the  discharge  pipe  and  to  insure  a 
more  steady  flow.  Gear  wheel  G  meshea  with  driving 
pinion  H  to  which  the  power  is  applied,  on  this  par- 
ticular pump,  by  an  electric  motor.  Soft  packing  at 
/  prevents  leakage  past  the  pump  plunger.  In  Table 
12  are  shown  dimensions,  displacement,  and  horse- 
power requirements  for  this  pump. 

Another  type  of  plunger  pump  is  shown  in  Fig.  20. 
This  is  used  mainly  for  deep-well  work,  and  consists 
of  a  long  brass  tube,  into  the  lower  end  of  which  is 
g  screwed  a  ball  check  valve,  B,  of  suitable  size.     The 
plunger  C  is  also  provided  with  a  ball  check  valve, 
I    which  opens  on  the  downward  stroke  and  closes  on 
F      20   *''^    upward    stroke.     The    lower    stationary   valve 
closes  on  the  downward  stroke  and  opens  on  the  up- 
ward  stroke.     This  pump  is  essentially  a  lifting  pump  and 
single-acting,  although  it  can  force  water  on  the  upward  stroke. 
The  plunger,  C,  is  packed  with  leather  crimps,  and  its  lower 
end,  D,  ia  threaded  to  fit  upper  part  of  lower  valve  at  E. 
Thus  it  is  possible  by  turning  plunger  hard  to  the  right  with 
plunger  all  the  way  down,  to  pick  up  the  lower  valve  and  lift 
entire  contents  of  pump  out  for  repairs.     In  Table  9  are  shown 
various  sizes,  displacement  per  stroke,  and  usual  displacement 
per  minute  of  such  deep-well  pumps  as  indicated  in  "Gould's 
Bulletin  No.  108." 


PUMPS 


27 


Centrifugal  Pumps. — The  centrifugal  pump  is  usually  used 
where  large  volumes  of  water  are  to  be  forced  against  low 
heads,  and  in  particular  where  much  solid  matter  must  be 
handled  with  the  water.  Sewage  pumping  and  dredging  are 
examples  of  the  latter  condition,  and  although  for  such  low 
pressure  and  large-volume  pumping  the  centrifugal  pump  is 
almost  without  a  peer,  it  is  also  true  that  the  present-day 
centrifugal  pump  has  been  developed  to  such  an  extent  that 
it  can  successfully  compete  in  many  classes  of  high-pressure 
pumping. 

Successful  centrifugal  pumps  of  today  may  be  divided  into 
two  general  classes: 

1.  Volute  pump. 

2.  Turbine  pump. 


Fig.  21. 


Fig.  22. 


Fig.  23. 


In  Fig.  21  is  shown  an  ordinary  centrifugal  pump  without 
volute.  This  is  neither  a  volute  pump  nor  turbine  pump,  and 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  above  classification  because  it  is  used 
in  small  sizes  and  mostly  for  small  circulating  work.  In 
Fig.  22  is  shown  the  volute  pump  which  gains  greater  efficiency 
than  the  pump  shown  in  Fig.  21  by  virtue  of  the  volute  or 
spiral  casing,  as  shown.  This  volute  pump  may  under  some 
conditions  be  further  improved  in  economy  by  extending  the 
rotating  element  to  form  a  whirlpool  chamber,  B,  Fig.  23. 
This  chamber,  rotating  at  high  speed,  assists  the  volute  in  more 
complete  transformation  of  velocity  head  to  pressure  head. 
Still  further  transformation  may  be  secured  by  the  expanding 
discharge.  Fig.  25.  At  the  best  the  impellers  of  a  centrifugal 
pump  produce  high  velocity  heads,  and  by  such  constructions 
as  the  volute,  whirlpool  chamber  and  expanding  discharge,  the 
water,  which  is  traveling  at  high  speed,  is  permitted  to  slow 


28 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


down  by  other  means  than  friction.  Velocity  head  is  then 
said  to  be  changed  into  pressure  head,  and  the  pump  gains  in 
efficiency  thereby. 

For  high -pressure  work,  the  turbine  pump  (Fig.  26)  in  which 
the  impeller  discharges  into  stationary  expanding  nozzles,  has 
found  great  favor  and  has  given  efficiencies  exceeding  80  per 
cent.  The  expanding  nozzles,  or  diffusion  vanes  as  they  are 
sometimes  called,  are  for  the  purpose  of  changing  velocity  head 
into  pressure  head,  part  of  which  is  accomplished  by  the  ex- 
panding action  of  the  vanes,  and  part  by  giving  a  more  tangen- 
tial direction  to  the  discharging  streams  of  water  as  they  enter 
the  casing.  Such  pumps  are  frequently  arranged  in  several 
units  placed  side  by  side  on  the  same  shaft.     The  suction  of 


Fig.  24. 


Fig.  26. 


Fig.  26. 


one  unit  is  the  discharge  of  the  other,  and  the  whole  is  called  a 
multi-stage  centrifugal  pump.  Such  pumps  have  been  built 
for  very  high  pressures,  and  they  are  at  present  being  used  quite 
generally  for  boiler  feeding. 

For  sewage  and  sump  pumping,  a  vertical-shaft  centrifugal 
pump  offers  many  advantages.  In  Fig.  24  is  shown  a  section 
of  such  a  pump.  The  suction  is  on  the  lower  side  and  may  or 
may  not  be  submerged.  These  pumps  are  frequently  made  in 
very  large  sizes,  operated  by  specially  designed  engines,  for 
handhng  large  quantities  of  sewage.  When  used  as  a  sump 
pump  and  electrically  driven,  the  installation  may  be  made 
entirely  automatic.  The  starting  and  stopping  of  the  motor  is 
controlled  by  the  level  of  the  water  or  sewage  in  the  sump  pit, 
through  a  float-governed  mechanism,  as  shown  in  Fig.  35. 

The  method  of  handling  sewage  or  water  by  means  of  a 
centrifugal  pump,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  action  of  the 
pump  precludes  all  possibility  of  creating  a  suction  unless  the 


PUMPS  39 

pump  impeller  is  filled  with  water  or  liquid  to  be  pumped. 
This  type  of  pump  ther^ore  canoot  lift  water  without  first 
being  primed,  tuid  when  installed  above  the  water  level  should 
be  provided  with  a  foot  valve  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  24.  In  Table 
11,  ia  shown  horsepower,  speeds,  and  discharge  heads  for  various 
gises  of  single-stage,  single-suction,  Gould  centrifugal  pumps. 
Rotary  Pumps. — As  a  medium  between  the  high-speed,  non- 
aelf-priming,  centrifugal  and  the  positive-displacement,  self- 
priming,  reciprocating  or  piston  pump,  many  designs  have  beeu 
produced  of  more  or  less  positive-displacement  pumps  which 
are  neither  centrifugal  nor  reciprocating  in  action.  They  are 
commonly  called  rotary  pumps,  and  are  used  for  pumping  all 


Fio.  27.  Fia.  28. 


kinds  of  gases  and  liquids  and  for  producing  both  pressure  and 
vacuum.  Four  types  of  such  pumps  are  shown  in  Figs.  27, 
28,  29,  30.  Figure  27  shows  the  Root  Cycloidal  Rotary  Pump, 
in  which  there  are  two  cycloidal  elements,  A  and  B,  rotating  in 
opposite  directions  and  held  constantly  in  close  relation  to 
each  other  by  external  gears.  The  clearance  between  the 
cycloidal  dements  and  the  casing  and  between  the  elements 
themselves  must  be  very  small  to  prevent  leakage.  The  direc- 
tion of  rotation  and  the  direction  of  passage  of  water  or  air 
being  pumped  is  clearly  shown  by  arrows  in  Fig.  27.  The 
space  between  each  tooth  acta  as  a  carrier  of  the  wa1«r  or  air 
from  inlet  to  outlet,  around  the  perimeter  of  the  casing.  As 
this  tooth  or  lobe  lA  the  cycloidal  element  returns  from  the 
outlet  side  to  the  inlet  side  of  the  pump  through  the  center  of 
the  casing,  the  concave  surface  of  one  element  comes  in  contact 


30 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


with  the  convex  surface  of  the  other  element,  and  the  discharge 
is  completed. 

Operating  on  exactly  the  same  principle  is  the  gear  pump  of 
Fig.  28.  Instead  of  having  two  lobes  or  teeth  as  in  the  cycloidal 
pump,  this  pump  consists  of  a  casing  in  which  rotate  two  gears 
of  any  number  of  teeth  closely  meshed  and  running  with  close 
clearance  with  the  casing.     The  direction  of  rotation  of  the 


FiQ.  29. 


gears  and  the  direction  of  passage  of  the  water  or  air  is  exactly 
similar  to  that  of  the  cycloidal  pump  and  is  clearly  shown  in 
Fig.  28.  This  pump  is  used  for  circulation  work  with  oil  and 
water  where  demands  are  not  heavy  and  where  simplicity  of 
construction  is  paramount. 

Another  type  of  pump  similar  to  the  gear  pump  but  with 
differently  shaped  teeth  as  shown  in  Fig.  33,  is  built  by  the 
Gould  Manufacturing  Co.,  and  is  used  for  pumping  liquids 


PUMPS  31 

of  all  kinds,  and  for  various  pumping  service.  It  is  most  fre- 
quently electric  driven,  but  belted  power  or  geared  power  from 
other  sources  may  be  used.  In  Table  13  is  given  the  speed, 
capacity  and  head  for  various  sizes  of  this  pump.  The  dis- 
charge pipe  used  on  these  pumps  is  the  same  as  the  pump  size 
number,  with  the  exception  of  No.  1,  which  has  IJ^-in.  discharge, 
and  No.  3,  which  has  2J^-in.  discharge. 


Fio.  30. 

For  pulling  vacuum  on  heating  systems,  on  condensing 
systems  and  other  similar  work,  the  Rotrex  Vacuum  Pump, 
the  Nash  Vacuum  Pump  and  Thompson  Vacuum  Pump  are 
representative  types,  and  are  shown  in  Figs.  29  and  30  respec- 
tively. In  the  Rotrex  pump,  an  eccentric,  rotating  element, 
A,  is  closely  fitted  to  the  casing  on  the  sides  and  at  B.  It 
rotates  in  direction  as  shown,  and  is  linked  to  a  rider  which 
carries  a  close  clearance  at  all  times  at  C  and  F.     Suction  is  at 


32 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


D  and  the  discharge  at  E  through  a  light-spring  discharge  valve. 
This  pump  is  manufactured  by  the  C.  H.  Wheeler  Mfg.  Co.  of 
Philadelphia,  and  high  vacuums  are  claimed  for  it. 

In  Fig.  30  is  shown  the  Nash  Hydro  Turbine  Pump,  which  is 
described  in  their  Bulletin  as  follows: 

"A  rotor  in  hydraulic  balance,  revolves  freely  with  large 
clearances  in  an  elliptical  casing  filled  with  water.  The  water 
turning  with  the  rotor  and  constrained  to  follow  the  casing  by 


Oischctr^ 


Fig.  31. 


centrifugal  force,  alternately  recedes  from  and  is  forced  back 
into  the  casing  twice  in  a  revolution.  As  the  water  recedes 
from  the  rotor,  it  draws  air  in  through  the  inlet  ports,  A,  When 
the  water  is  forced  back  into  the  rotor  by  the  converging  casing, 
the  air  is  first  compressed  and  then  discharged  through  the 
outlet  ports,  B. 

"Most  of  the  water  stays  in  the  pump  at  the  level  of  the 
outlet  ports,  B.  A  small  amount  of  water  constantly  supplied 
from  the  returns  is  carried  over  with  the  air  as  it  is  delivered. 


PUMPS  33 

The  wftter  ig  removed  by  a  eeparatoT  and  returned  to  the  heatiag 
Bystem." 

In  Fig.  31  is  shown  the  Thompson  Vacuum  Air-line  Pump, 
which  is  designed  especially  for  heating  Byatems.  The  cylinder 
impeller  is  mounted  on  a  crankshaft  fitted  with  ball  bearings, 
as  shown.  It  is  fitted  with  very  close  clearance  with  the  side 
plates  and  the  inside  of  the  air  cylinder.  A  seal  is  maintained 
in  a  simple  manner  between  the  suction  and  discharge  by  means 
of  a  link  connecting  an  extension  of  the  impeller  and  a  similar 
link  from  the  lower  part  of  the  casing  as  shown  in  the  ^ure. 


Fio.  32. 

This  link  also  maintains  a  close  clearance  with  the  eide  plates, 
and  as  the  impeller  rotates  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow,  air  ie 
drawn  from  suction  to  discharge.  In  Table  14  is  shown  the 
capacity,  horsepower  and  the  radiation  ratings  of  this  pump. 
Jet  Pumps. — Steam,  water  or  air  forced  through  a  nozzle  at 
high  velocity,  may  be  used  to  pump  water  or  air;  and  such  a 
device  finds  a  large  use  in  handling  large  quantities  of  water  or 
sewage,  in  a  temporary  installation  where  simpUcity  and  low 
cost  are  important  items.  Steam  is  an  excellent  agent  for  jet- 
pump  work  in  handling  water,  and  can  be  used  aucoessfully 


34 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


against  considerable  head.  Water  can  be  used  to  lift  and  dis- 
charge water,  and  if  sprayed  at  high  velocity,  is  useful  in  pulling 
considerable  vacuum.  Air  will  handle  air,  and  under  Umited 
conditions  may  be  used  to  throw  water;  but  on  account  of  its 
being  non-condensable,  it  lacks  the  effectiveness  of  steam  in. 
this  respect. 


Fig.  33. 

Figure  34  shows  the  principle  underlying  all  jet  pumps. 
Such  a  device  may  be  made  up  of  pipe  fittings,  as  shown,  for 
pumping  water  or  air  by  means  of  water  jet.  This  will  not 
give  high  efficiencies;  in  fact  it  is  very  inefficient  as  a  pump,  but 
is  simple  and  effective  for  a  great  many  conditions.  Where 
steam  is  used  for  pumping  against  pressure,  the  discharge  tube 


Fia.  34. 


is  somewhat  modified,  with  provision  for  the  escape  of  water 
and  steam  until  the  proper  velocity  is  obtained  for  entering 
the  main  discharge  against  pressure. 

Direct  Use  of  Compressed  Air  for  Water  Supply. — ^The  use  of 
compressed  air  to  furnish  fresh  water  for  residences  and  small 


PUMPS 


35 


Motor 


industrial  establishments  has  been  developed  by  the  United 
Pump  and  Power  Co.  of  Milwaukee,  and  is  called  the  National 
Fresh  Water  Pumping  System.     Figures  32  A  and  B,  show  the 
principle  of  operation.    The  well  or  source  of  water  supply  is 
shown    at    6,    into 
which    the    pumping 
unit,     c,    is    lowered 
until   completely  im- 
mersed in  the  water. 
Three    pipes    lead 
above  the  water  sur- 
face, a  for  supplying 
the  compressed  air,  d 
for  exhausting  the  air 
after  being  used  for 
pumping,    and   e  for 
delivery  of  the  water 
to  the  air  chamber  / 
and    to    the    system. 
Valves    g   and   h  are 
automatically     c  o  n  - 
trolled     by     a    float 
mechanism,    not 
shown,  so  that  when 
the   water    surface 
reaches  a  certain  level, 
valve    h    closes   and 
valve  g  opens.    Thus 
compressed  air  is  let 
into  the  pump  unit  c, 
and    its    pressure  on 
the     water     surfaces 
forces     the    contents 
out  through  the  de- 
livery pipe  6.     When 
the  water  level  falls 
so  that  float  again  op- 
erates, opening  valve  h 

and  closing  valve  g,  a  check  valve  in  line  c  prevents  return  of 
discharged  water,  air  is  exhausted  through  d  and  the  pump 
element  is  filled  through  valve  i.  This  action  is  repeated  over 
and  over  again,  and  a  system  of  this  kind  will  continue  to 


Fia.  36. 


36  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

pump  water  as  long  as  compressed  air  is  supplied.  It  may  be 
made  entirely  automatic  by  the  use  of  an  electric  compressor. 
Piston-pump  Capacities. — The  amount  of  water  which  can 
be  discharged  per  minute  or  per  any  unit  time  in  gallons,  pounds 
or  cubic  feet,  is  termed  the  capacity  of  the  pump.  A  usual 
expression  is  gallons  per  minute,  which  may  be  calculated,  if 
the  bore,  stroke,  strokes  per  minute  and  slip  are  known.  A 
certain  bore  and  stroke  with  certain  strokes  per  minute  will 
represent  a  definite  volume  of  displacement  every  minute. 
The  actual  amount  of  water  delivered  will  never  equal  this 
displacement,  on  account  of  valve  and  piston  leakage.  The 
amount  of  this  leakage  divided  by  the  pump  displacement  for 
the  same  unit  time,  is-  called  the  slip.  For  one  single-acting 
cylinder,  the  pump  capacity  may  be  calculated  by  the  following 
formula: 

Capacity  in  U.  S.  gallons  per  minute  =  .0.0034B*LJV/S. 
where  B  =  bore  in  inches. 
L  —  stroke  in  inches. 
N  =  strokes  per  minute. 
>S  =  1  minus  slip. 

To  facilitate  this  calculation  and  to  enable  the  size  of  pump 
to  be  determined  for  a  given  capacity,  a  chart.  Fig.  36,  has  been 
constructed.  The  operation  of  this  chart  is  shown  by  the 
following  example : 

Water  to  be  pumped  700  gal.  per  minute. 

Assumed  slip,  10  per  cent. 

Assumed  strokes  per  minutelGO. 

What  size  single-cylinder,  single-acting  pump  will  be 
necessary? 

Referring  to  Fig.  36,  under  pump  capacity,  scale  20,  will 
be  found  700  gal.  per  minute,  halfway  between  600  and  800. 
Follow  horizontal  line  from  700  until  it  intersects  the  10  per 
cent  slip  diagonal,  then  vertically  upward  until  it  intersects 
the  160  strokes  per  minute  diagonal,  and  horizontally  to  a  bore 
diagonal.  The  bore  diagonal  which  may  be  selected  for  this 
latter  intersection,  is  dependent  on  the  stroke  corresponding, 
or  the  bore  and  stroke  ratio.  The  stroke  may  be  obtained  by 
reading  on  horizontal  scale  immediately  below  the  intersection 
with  the  bore  diagonal,  and  the  bore  and  stroke  ratio  may  be 
roughly  determined  by  inspection.  In  this  example,  the  dotted 
line  has  been  carried  to  the  8-in.  bore  diagonal,  and  immediately 


below  is  read  the  stroke,  22.  5  in,     Itwill  be  noticed  that  the 
capacities  are  arranged  in  four  scales  numbered  20,  6,  4, 1;  that 


the  stroke  scale  is  arranged  in  two,  numbered  1  and  6;  and  that 
the  bore  scale  is  arranged  in  two,  numbered  1  and  4.  These 
numbera  have  been  so  selected  that  the  product  of  any  scale 


38  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

number  of  the*  stroke  scale  and  any  scale  number  of  the  bore 
scale  will  equal  the  required  number  of  scale  from  which  gallons 
per  minute  will  be  read.  Thus  if  we  have  a  pump  whose  bore 
is  6  in.  and  whose  stroke  is  10  in.,  the  product  of  the  scale 
numbers  from  which  these  are  read  is  20,  and  we  must  read 
capacities  in  scale  20;  or  if  we  have  a  capacity  of  450  gal.  per 
minute  shown  on  scale  5,  we  must  read  the  pump  stroke  on 
stroke  scale  5,  and  the  bore  on  bore  scale  1. 

Since  our  capacity  of  700  gal.  per  minute  of  the  above  prob- 
lem is  found  in  scale  20,  we  must  read  the  stroke  in  scale  5  and 
the  bore  in  scale  4.  The  answer  is:  a  single-cylinder  pump 
whose  dimensions  are  8  by  22.5  in. 

Had  this  pump  been  a  single-acting  triplex,  the  capacity  for 
one  cylinder  would  be  K  of  700,  or  233.  This  would  fall  on 
the  capacity  scale  5,  which  carried  through  in  the  same  manner, 
would  give  size  of  each  cyclinder  as  4.25  by  5  or  4.5  by  4.75. 

By  calculation  with  one  single-acting  cylinder  8  by  22.5,  the 
capacity  becomes: 

U.  S.  gallons  per  minute  = 

0.7854  X  82  X  22.5  X  160  X  0.90       .^^ 

231 =  ^^^' 

which  checks  with  the  above  solution  on  the  chart. 

Pump  Horsepower. — The  power  required  to  Hft  a  certain 

amount  of  water  depends  upon  the  pressure  or  head  pumped 

against,  and  with  the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  being  pumped. 

It  is  expressed  thus: 

8.33  XGX2Z1XH 
Horsepower  = 33,000  X  E 

Where  G  =  gallons  per  minute  being  pumped. 

H  =  head  pumped  against  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

E  =  efficiency  of  pumping  unit. 
To  facilitate  the  solution  of  problems  involving  horsepower 
of  pumps,  a  chart  (Fig.  37)  was  constructed.  The  ordinate  rep- 
resents gallons  per  minute,  abscissa  represents  head  in  pounds 
per  square  inch,  the  diagonals  represent  pump  efficiency, 
and  the  hyperbola  curves  indicate  the  horsepower. 

The  operation  of  the  chart  is  illustrated  by  the  following 
problem: 

Water  to  be  pumped  =  30  gal.  per  minute. 

Head  pumped  against  =  20  lb.  per  square  inch. 

Assumed  pump  efficiency  =  60  per  cent. 

What  is  the  required  horsepower? 


Start  at  point  on  the  chart  where  the  vertical  20  line  inter- 
sects the  homontal  30  line.     Run  homontally  from  this  point 


to  the  60  per  cent  diagonal,  then  vertically  lo  100  per  cent 
diagonal,  and  horizontally  to  the  original  vertical  20  line.  The 
point  ia  now  at  the  intereeotion  of  the  30  gal.  per  minute  line 


40  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

and  the  20  lb.  per  square  inch  line.  It  lies  nearest  the  0.6 
horsepower  hyperbola,  and  0.6  is  the  horsepower  required  to  force 
50  gal.  per  minute  against  20  lb.  per  square  inch  at  100  per  cent 
eflBciency;  or  it  is  the  horsepower  required  to  force  30  gal.  per 
minute  against  the  same  pressure  and  60  per  cent  efficiency. 
By  calculation  this  would  be: 

„                       30  X  8.33  X  20  X  2.31     _  „ 
Horsepower  = 33,000  X  0.60 ^^'^' 

Resistance  to  Flow  of  Water  in  Clean  Iron  Pipe. — The  loss  of 
head  by  friction,  due  to  the  velocity  of  water  through  pipe  is 
called  the  friction  head.  A  formula  for  the  calculation  of 
friction  head  for  clean  iron  pipe  was  developed  by  Weisbach, 
and  is  as  follows : 

Friction  head,  pounds  per  square  inch  = 

/^^...    .   0.01716\LF« 0.433 

Where  V  =  velocity  of  water  in  feet  per  second. 
L  =  length  of  pipe  in  feet. 
d  =  diameter  of  pipe  in  inches. 

In  the  American  Machinist^  Dec.  28,  1893,  William  Cox  gives 
a  somewhat  simpler  formula  which  checks  very  closely  with 
that  of  Weisbach.     Cox's  formula  is  as  follows: 

Friction  head,  pounds  per  square  inch  = 


/L47^  +  57-2\ 

\d  1,200        /"-^SS. 


While  the  latter  formula  is  more  simple  than  the  first,  they 
are  both  cumbersome  in  their  calculation.  The  following  table 
has  been  used  extensively  in  trade  publications,  and  checks 
very  closely  with  both  formulas,  at  low  rates  of  flow;  and  in- 
creases the  friction  head  at  high  rates  of  flow  to  about  20  per 
cent  more  than  shown  by  calculation  with  either  of  the  above 
methods.  This  fact  regarding  the  table  rather  enhances  its 
practical  value,  because  pipes  in  service  are  always  more  or 
less  dirty  and  not  smooth,  and  the  friction  head  would  naturally 
increase. 


PUMPS 


41 


Table  7. — Showing  Friction  Head  in  Pounds  per  Square 

Inch,  Iron  Pipe 


Gal- 
lons 

Pipe  si  sea 

per    - 

min- 
ute 

H 

1 

m 

IH 

2 

2H 

3 

3H 

4 

5 

6 

5 

3.3 

.8 

A       .31 

.12 

.04 

.02 

10 

13.0 

3.1 

6     1.05 

.47 

.12 

.04 

.02 

15 

28.7 

6.9 

8     2.38 

.97 

.25 

.08 

.04 

.02 

20 

50.4 

12.3 

4.07 

1.66 

.42 

.14 

.06 

.03 

25 

78.0 

19.0 

1      6.40 

2.62 

.62 

.21 

.10 

.04 

.02 

30 

27.5 

9.15 

3.75 

.91 

.30 

.13 

.06 

.03 

35 

37.0 

12.4 

5.05 

1.22 

.40 

.17 

.09 

.05 

.02 

40 

48.0 

1     16.1 

6.52 

1.60 

.53 

.23 

.11 

.06 

.02 

45 

•  •  •  • 

.    20.2 

8.15 

1.99 

.66 

.28 

.14 

.07 

.03 

50 

•  •  •  • 

.    24.9 

10.0 

2.44 

.81 

.35 

.17 

.09 

04 

60 

•  •  •  • 

.    36.0 

14.0 

3.50 

1.17 

.50 

.24 

.13 

.05 

.02 

70 

•  •  •  • 

.    48.0 

20.0 

4.80 

1.50 

.60 

.38 

.19 

.07 

.03 

80 

•  •  •  • 

.    64.0 

25.0 

6.30 

2.00 

.90 

.41 

.23 

.08 

.03 

90 

•  •  •  • 

.    80.0 

32.0 

7.80 

2.58 

1.10 

.54 

.26 

.09 

.04 

100 

•  •  •  • 

39.0 

9.46 

3.20 

1.31 

.64 

.33 

.12 

.05 

125 

•  •  •  • 

14.90 

4.89 

1.99 

.96 

.49 

.17 

.07 

150 

■  •  •  • 

21.20 

7.00 

2.85 

1.35 

.69 

.25 

.10 

175 

•  •  •  ■ 

28.10 

9.46 

3.85 

1.82 

.93 

.34 

.13 

200 

•  •  •  • 

37.50 

12.47 

5.02 

2.38 

1.22 

.42 

.17 

42 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Tablb  8. — Showing  Friction  Head  for  One  90-deg.  Elbow, 

Pounds  per  Square  Inch 

Based  on  Weisbach's  formula  for  very  short  bends 


Gal- 
lons 

Pipe  sizes — inside  diameter 

per 

min- 
ute 

H 

1 

m 

IH 

2 

2H 

3 

3H 

4 

5 

6 

5 

.07 

.027 

.008 

.005 

.002 

10 

.279 

.0937 

.031 

.018 

.006 

.003 

15 

.628 

.212 

.688 

.0399 

.014 

.005 

20 

1.115 

.375 

.123 

.0688 

.025 

.012 

.005 

25 

1.735 

.581 

.193 

.108 

.038 

.020 

.008 

30 

.841 

.277 

.157 

.055 

.028 

.011 

35 

1.148 

.379 

.214 

.076 

.037 

.015 

.009 

40 

1.491 

.494 

.277 

.0975 

.0488 

.020 

.011 

.007 

45 

•  •  •  •  • 

1.892 

.623 

.352 

.1246 

.0618 

.026 

.015 

.009 

50 

.769 
1.105 

.428 
.618 

.1525 
.219 

.0799 
.1117 

.032 
.044 

.017 
.026 

.010 
.015 

.006 

60 

3.36 

.003 

70 

4.59 

1.515 

.858 

.303 

.148 

.0598 

.035 

.021 

.009 

.004 

75 

5.27 

1.732 

.975 

.349 

.171 

.0718 

.040 

.024 

.010 

.005 

80 

5.98 

1.975 

1.108 

.390 

.195 

.0799 

.044 

.027 

.012 

.005 

90 

7.57 

2.491 

1.407 

.498 

.247 

.1035 

.0598 

.035 

.014 

.007 

100 

3.07 

1.71 
2.71 
3.91 
5.31 
6.86 

.61 

.%5 
1.385 
1.88 
2.43 
3.84 
5.54 

.319 

.479 

.683 

.931 

1.275 

1.900 

2./35 

.128 
.1995 
.285 
.388 
.51 
.798 
1.135 

.0678 

.1115 

.159 

.217 

.271 

.445 

.639 

.043 

.067 

.0958 

.131 

.171 

.267 

.382 

.017 

.027 

.039 

.053 

.0678 

.1085 

.155 

.008 

125 

.013 

150 

.019- 

175 

.026 

200 

.032 

250 

.052 

300 

.076 

PUMPS 


43 


Table  9. — Showing  Bore  and  Stroke,  Displacement  per 

Stroke  and  Usual  Strokes  per  Minute  op  Gould 

Deep-well  Pumps  as  Illustrated  in  Fig.  20 


Inside 

diameter, 

inches 


Stroke, 
inches 


Displacement 

per  stroke, 

gallons 


Usual  speed, 

strokes  per 

minute 


Gallons  per 

minute  at 

the  usual 

speed 


Wa 

10 

.104 

35 

3.6 

\H 

12 

.125 

30 

3.7 

m 

16 

.170 

30 

5.1 

m 

20 

.208 

30 

6.2 

m 

24 

.249 

25 

6.2 

2H 

10 

.172 

35 

6.0 

2H 

12 

.206 

30 

6.1 

2H 

16 

.275 

30 

8.2 

2H 

20 

.344 

30 

10.3 

2H 

24 

.413 

25 

10.3 

2H 

10 

.257 

35 

8.9 

2H 

12 

.309 

30 

9.2 

2H 

14 

.360 

30 

10.8 

2H 

16 

.411 

30 

12.3 

2H 

20 

.514 

30 

15.4 

2H 

24 

.617 

25 

15.4 

3H 

10 

.359 

35 

12.5 

3H 

12 

.431 

30 

12.9 

3H 

14 

.503 

30 

15.0 

3H 

16 

.575 

30 

17.2 

3H 

20 

.718 

25 

17.9 

3H 

24 

.862 

25 

21.5 

3% 

10 

.478 

35 

16.7 

3% 

12 

.574 

30 

17.2 

3% 

14 

.669 

30 

20.0 

3^4 

16 

.765 

30 

22.9 

3% 

20 

.956 

25 

23.9 

3% 

24 

1.147 

25 

28.6 

4H 

10 

.614 

35 

21.5 

AH 

16 

.982 

30 

29.4 

4H 

24 

1.473 

25 

36.8 

m 

10 

.767 

35 

26.8 

4% 

16 

1.227 

30 

36.8 

m 

24 

1.841 

25 

46.0 

5H 

10 

1.124 

35 

39.3 

5% 

16 

1.798 

30 

53.9 

5% 

24 

2.6% 

25 

67.4 

6% 

16 

2.479 

30 

74.3 

6% 

24 

3.716 

25 

92.7 

794 

16 

3.267 

30 

98.0 

7% 

24 

4.900 

25 

122.5 

8^ 

16 

4.164 

30 

124.5 

8^ 

24 

6.247 

25 

156.1 

44  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Table  10. — Definitions  and  Equivalents 

1  Foot-pound  »  work  done  in  lifting  1  lb.  through  a  distance  of  1  ft.  against 

gravity. 
1  Horsepower  »  33,000  ft.-lb.  per  minute. 
1  British  thermal  unit  (B.t.u.)  ^  amount  of  heat  required  to  increase  the 

temperature  of  1  lb.  of  water  from  SS^'F.  to  54<>F.  (see  "  Heat,"  page  3). 
1  Horsepower  »  746  watts. 
1  Horsepower  »  2,546  B.t.u.  per  hour. 
1  Watt  =  3.413  B.t.u.  per  hour. 
1  Kilowatt  >  1,000  watts  -  3,413  B.t.u.  per  hour. 
X  Imperial  gallon  >  10  lb.  of  water  at  62^F.  «  277.274  cu.  in.  -  0.16046 

cu.  ft. 
1  U.  S.  gallon  >  8.3356  lb.  of  water  at  62^F.  *  231.0  cu.  in.  -  0.133  ou.  ft. 
1  Cubic  foot  of  water  at  32^F.  weighs  62.418  lb.,  and  at  62<*F.,  62.356  lb. 
1  Pound  per  square  inch  pressure  »  2.31  ft.  head. 
1  Foot  head  »  0.433  lb.  per  square  inch. 


PUMPS 


45 


I 
3 


S 


8 


8 


! 

•rt 

g 

cs 

a 

1 

n 

e 

es 

« 


III! 


o 


3 


.§11 


a  .  -S 
o  fe  3 

o   a 


g^*^    S«    2*?    g*^    §•=?    2*=?    2®.    ^^.    S  . 
S=    ^2    nS    S;^    ^?    <»^5^    «SJ    ^R    ^i5 


g;;  Id  s5 1^.  g^  §-.  §2  SI  S-- 


«N  «<% 


l<s  —  •- 


S^.    S?2    8«:    S*n    S'^.    S*    8®    S^®    ?®    S<=>    JQ^- 
g-   2:*^   ^-^  2**^   5*^   •n:   *S   '^P?   *JJ?   ^8   "^2 


So     P^     9«o    eeo    fi«A    So     Qo    *Qo     <2o    ^ao    ^o 

'i—      '^.pi      T.*^      C>*      0»»0      *^—      «l<s      ^H      •Ag      *•«      ^f^N 


ss:::  j98  go  Svo  So  go  :^^  t::*^  So  £o  s 

5   •     ;2—*     3<^     *«^     ^"n*     ®o^     ^2     "^r^     ^p*     ^5     * 


JR 


S3      S^^       S>0      ^O       8<^       ^(^O       S<N       ^.n       So       J9o       So 

5  '  I--  5«^  SJ^  «v  >©«•  s^  i?ij^  *^  *^  p?j_- 


S:P^    Sti^    8<s    S>A    8«    8«N    Si^    J9o    So    So    S^o 

5   •     5^-     ^     9^     *^rf{     ^t-:.     '^o     "^^     ^^-     ^31;     «*^5* 


B=^  §^  1=  §5  S5  S2 


J*5«n     So 
•n    •     ^    • 


2^    So    »o 

"•"-J    "^rt    f^iJ 

?;       ^       ^ 


§^    g^ 


i^    S>o    So    K)«n     80     So     S^    iQo     80 
L-;    K_-    S^    ^^    «^    *^-    ^j^    f^jjj    ^^ 


* 

a 

• 

a 

a 

• 

a 

• 

a 

• 

a 

• 

a 

• 

a 

• 

a 

• 

a 

• 

a 

ad 

dd 

^i 

h.4 

dd 

uJ3 

dd 

dd 

dd 

ftd 

—  «N  «S 


»n  ""T  »A 


—         «s         ««%«<%         "^         m 


«N  m 


S      S      8 


f^        !^ 


s 


i 


•—  «N  fO 


46 


PLUMBERS*  HANDBOOK 


Table  12. — Dimensions,   Displacement  and  Horsepowbr 

OP  Gould  Triplex-plunger  Pump  Shown  in  Fig.  19 

FOR  130  Lb.  per  Square  Inch  Head 


Gallons 

per 
minute 

Bore, 
inches 

Stroke, 
inches 

Horse- 
power 

Diameter 

suction, 

inches 

Diameter 

discharge, 

inches 

Revolu- 
tions 
per 
minute 

30 

4 

4 

3.16 

2 

46 

40 

4 

4 

4.04 

2 

62 

40 

4 

6 

3.94 

2 

^ 

41 

50 

4 

6 

4.85 

2 

52 

60 

4 

6 

5.75 

2 

62 

80 

5 

6 

7.38 

3 

53 

100 

5 

8 

9.13 

3 

49 

125 

5 

8 

11.10 

3 

62 

125 

5H 

8 

11.35 

4 

51 

150 

5H 

8 

13.35 

4 

61 

150 

6H 

8 

13.50 

4 

4 

44 

175 

6H 

8 

15.56 

4 

51 

200 

6H 

8 

17.80 

4 

59 

200 

8 

8 

18.22 

6 

39 

250 

8 

8 

22.20 

6 

48 

250 

8H 

8 

22.80 

6 

45 

300 

8 

10 

27.40 

6 

46 

300 

m 

10 

28.00 

6 

44 

350 

8 

to 

31.10 

6 

54 

350 

8K 

10 

32.00 

6 

51 

400 

9 

10 

35.50 

6 

49 

PUMPS 


47 


Table  13. — Speed  and  Capacity  Ratings  of  Rotary  Pump 

OP  Fig.  33 


u. 

9^ 

Pressure  pounds  per  square  inch  discharge 

00 

Pump 
No. 

GsUoi 
minu 

30 
r.p.m. 

40 
r.p.m. 

60 
r.p.m. 

60 
r.p.m. 

70 
r.p.m. 

80 
r.p.m. 

90 
r.p.m. 

100 
r.p.m. 

1 

25 

130 

135 

141 

147 

152 

155 

157 

160 

60 

288 

296 

303 

307 

314 

318 

327 

330 

2 

50 

145 

147 

150 

154 

157 

160 

162 

170 

100 

276 

280 

285 

289 

291 

293 

296 

305 

3 

75 

97 

97 

97 

98 

98 

100 

100 

101 

175 

226 

226 

226 

228 

231 

231 

233 

236 

4 

150 

99 

101 

101 

101 

103 

104 

104 

104 

260 

165 

168 

168 

168 

169 

170 

170 

172 

5 

175 

79 

79 

79 

80 

81 

82 

83 

83 

.300 

132 

136 

136 

137 

139 

140 

142 

143 

6 

275 

68 

68 

68 

68 

68 

68 

69 

69 

450 

111 

111 

112 

112 

113 

113 

114 

114 

Table  14. — Thompson  Vacuum  AirtLinb  Pump,  Capacity 

AND  Ratings,  Fig.  31 


Sise 
No. 


Radia- 
tion, 

square 
feet 


Cubic  feet 
displace-  ^ 

ment  of 
pump  per 

minute 


Pump 

Motor 

revolu- 

revolu- 

Motor 

tions 

tions 

horse- 

per 

per 

power 

minute 

minute 

Size 

suction 

and 

discharge, 

inches 


101 
102 
103 
104 


4.7 
10.6 
17.6 
32. 


400 

1.750 

.5 

375 

1.750 

1.0 

335 

1,750 

1.5 

300 

1.750 

3. 

2 

3 

3W 


SECTION  3 

OXYACETYLENE  WELDING 

Oxyacetylene  welding  is  the  process  of  uniting  metals 
through  fusion  by  means  of  high-temperature  flame  of  combined 
oxygen  and  acetylene^  without  resorting  to  pressure  or  hammer- 
ing. This  welding  process  differs  from  soldering  or  brazing. 
Welding  makes  a  joint  with  the  parts  in  one  homogeneous  piece. 
The  oxyacetylene  flame  consists  of  two  parts,  a  small  inner 
cone  flame  bluish-white  in  color  and  a  large,  non-luminous 

enveloping  flame.    The  tempera- 
ture of  the  inner  cone  is  6,300*'F. 

Acetylene  is  generated  by  the 
addition  of  calcium  carbide  to 
water  (see  Fig.  49).  Carbide 
is  made  from  coke  and  lime. 
They  are  melted  in  an  electric  furnace,  and  when  cool,  the 
product  is  crushed,  screened  to  uniform  size,  and  shipped  in 
moisture-proof  cans.  Acetylene  gas  forms  when  calcium  car- 
bide comes  in  contact  with  water.  One  pound  of  small  crushed 
carbide  will  yield  4  cu.  ft.  of  gas.    Acetylene  gas  cannot  be  sub- 


X 


.'30^^. 


* 


Fia.  38. 


Fig.  39. 

jected  to  a  pressure  of  more  than  30  lb.  per  square  inch  without 
the  possibility  of  an  explosion;  therefore,  to  sell  acetylene  gas, 
the  following  method  is  used : 

Storage  tanks  are  filled  with  a  mixture  of  asbestos,  charcoal 
and  kieselguhr,  which  makes  a  finely  divided  porous  filling. 

48 


OXY ACETYLENE  WELDING  49 

This  filling  is  then  soaked  with  acetone.  Acetylene  gas  is  then 
forced  into  the  tank  where  it  is  absorbed  by  the  acetone.  One 
cubic  foot  of  acetone  will  absorb  24  cu.  ft.  of  gas  for  every  15 
lb.  pressure  per  square  inch. 

Rate  of  Discharge. — The  gas 
in  the  storage  tanks  should  not 
be  drawn  off  at  a  greater  rate 
than  one-seventh  of  its  capacity 
per  hour.  Acetylene  is  sold  in 
tanks  holding  about  200  cu.  ft. 
and  under  a  pressure  of  about  Fiq.  40. 

250  lb.  per  square  inch. 

Oxygen  for  welding  is  sold  in  tanks  holding  100,  150  and  200 
cu.  ft.,  imder  a  pressure  of  2,000  lb.  per  square  inch.  The 
three  most  common  methods  of  producing  pure  oxygen  are: 

1.  Electrolysis  of  water. 

2.  Fractional  distillation  of  liquid  air. 

3.  Chlorate  of  potash  process. 

PrecavMon  should  be  taken  never  to  use  oil,  grease,  or  soap 
of  any  kind  around  oxygen  under  pressure.  Oxygen  supports 
combusion,  but  will  not  bum  of  itself. 

To  use  oxygen  and  acetylene  from  the  storage  tanks,  the 
valve  on  the  top  of  tanks  is  provided  with  a  thread  onto  which 
can  be  attached  a  regulator  and  gage  (see  Fig.  45).  The 
regulator  is  arranged  to  reduce  the  pressure,  and  the  gage  indi- 
cates the  pressure.  Some  regulators  are  equipped  with  two 
gages  one  each  side  of  the  regulator,  or  pressure  reducing 
valve.  Figure  42  shows  arrangement  of  tanks,  regulators, 
hose  and  torch.  Regulators  must  be  well  taken  care  of. 
Sudden  pressures  should  not  be  turned  on.  Tanks  should  be 
securely  fastened  in  position  to  avoid  falling.  From  regulators 
a  rubber  hose  is  used  to  carry  gases  to  the  torch.  Torches  are 
of  two  types:  those  in  which  the  gases  mix  in  the  head  (see 
Fig.  48),  and  those  in  which  the  gases  mix  in  the  handle. 
Figure  47  shows  handle  mixing  torch. 

Assembling  Equipment. — When  starting  to  assemble  equip- 
ment, it  is  well  to  follow  the  operations  noted  below,  and  in  the 
order  named. 

1.  Remove  valve  cap  from  oxygen  cylinder  and  open  valve 
slowly  until  oxygen  discharges  a  little.  This  will  blow  out  any 
accumulation  of  dust  or  dirt. 

2.  Attach  oxygen  regulator  to  tank. 

4 


50  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

3.  Turn  oiygen-reKulator  adjusting  screw  to  the  left. 

4.  Slowly  open  oxygen  cylinder  valve  wide  until  no  further  move- 
meat  is  poasiblei  thus  preventing  leaks  around  valve  stem. 

5.  Attach  red  oiygen  hose  to  oxygen  regulator  outlet- nipple. 

6.  Turn  regulator  adjusting  screw  to  the  right  for  aa  iuBtant.  and 
blow  accumulated  dust  out  of  hose. 

7.  Close  torch  valves,  and  attach  red  bose  Ut  oxygen  inlet  on 
torch  (identified  by  word  "oxygen"  on  valve  handle). 

8.  Attach  acetylene  welding  regulator  to  the  acetylene  cylinder, 
and  the  black  hose  to  acetylene  regulator  and  torch:  proceed  in  the 
same  manner,  except  that  the  luetj/lene  cylinder  valve  ehotild  lirUter 
no  condition  be  opened  more  than  ont  turn. 


FiQ.  41. 

B.  Select  tip  of  proper  size  to  accomplish  the  work  at  band. 
Inspect  tip  seat  before  placing  tip  in  torch  to  be  sure  that  no  dirt 
baa  collected. 

10.  Adjust  oxygen  and  acetylene  pressures  by  small  low  pressure 
gage  by  turning  regulator  adjusting  screws  to  the  right. 

11.  Open  acetylene  valve  on  torch  wide,  and  adjust  acetylene 
regulator  with  the  gas  flow. 

12.  Light  torch  with  a  torch  lighter. 

13.  Open  oxygen  valve  on  torch  wide,  and  adjust  regulator  with 
gas  flow. 

14.  Adjust  torch  valves  to  secure  neutral  flame. 


OXYACETYLENE  WELDING 


51 


15.  For  a  temporary  stop,  close  the  torch  acetylene  valve  first, 
and  then  the  oxygen  valve.  To  stop  for  a  longer  period,  close  the 
valves  in  the  following  order.  The  torch  acetylene  valve,  the 
torch  oxygen  valve,  the  acetylene  valve,  the  oxygen  cylinder  valve. 
Then  open  the  torch  valves  again  to  draw  the  gases  from  regulators 
and  relieve  the  pressure  on  the  diaphragms.  Close  torch  valves. 
Xum  adjusting  regulator's  screw  to  the  left  until  it  turns  freely. 


Fig.  42. 


Torches  are  supplied  with  tips  of  various  sizes;  that  is  the 
orifice  through  the  tip  is  made  large  or  small,  allowing  only  a 
certain  amount  of  gas  to  discharge.  The  amoimt  of  gas  which 
will  pass  through  a  given  sized  tip  is  always  furnished  by  the 
manufacturer  of  torches.  On  Page  61  is  given  a  table  showing 
the  thickness  of  metal  that  can  be  welded  with  a  given  sized  tip. 


52 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Welding  Flame. — The  flame  necessary  to  produce  the  6,300° 
of  heat  is  called  the  neutral  flame.  Figure  41  illustrates  the 
stages  of  the  flame,  and  clearly  shows  the  neutral  flame.  When 
too  much  acetylene  is  used,  the  flame  is  called  a  "carbonizing 
flame."  When  too  much  oxygen  is  used,  the  flame  is  called  an 
'^oxidizing  flame."  These  flames  are  not  good  welding  flames, 
as  the  excess  gas  in  each  case  enters  the  molten  metal  and 
weakens  the  weld. 

To  light  the  torch,  turn  on  the  acetylene  and  Ught.  The 
acetylene  should  be  of  such  pressure  that  the  flame  when  jBxst 
Ughted  will  stand  away  from  the  tip  of  the  torch  a  small  frac- 
tion of  an  inch.  The  oxygen  is  then  turned  on  full,  pressure 
having  been  adjusted  according  to  size  of  tip.  If  the  flame  is  an 
oxidizing  one,  more  acetylene  is  turned  on,  or  oxygen  is  turned 
off.  If  a  carbonizing  flame,  then  acetylene  is  shut  off,  or  the 
oxygen  turned  on.  The  neutral  flame  is  bluish-white  in  color 
and  about  34  in.  long  with  round  end.  This  part  of  the  flame 
is  the  part  that  does  all  the  work,  and  should,  therefore,  be 
kept  neutral  during  the  entire  operation. 

Welding  Steel.— Steel  }4  in-  thick  can  be  welded  without  the 
addition  of  any  welding  metal.  Thicker  metal  should  be 
bevelled  or  chamfered  (see  Figs.  38-39)  and  will  therefore 
require  additional  metal.  The  welding  rod,  or  the  material 
to  be  added,  must  not  be  appUed  until  after  the  sides  of  the 
bevel  have  been  melted  and  run  together.     At  this  point,  the 

rod  can  be  added  in 
lI'T'llim  such  a  way  that  the 

molten  rod  will  not 
drop  through  space 
to  reach  the  molten 
sides.  Welding  rods 
are  of  special  grade, 
such  as  soft  Swedish 
Iron,  as  free  from 
carbon  as  possible.  As  the  weld  continues,  the  welding  rod 
should  be  kept  in  the  molten  metal,  fusing  with  sides  of  weld 
imtil  the  space  bevelled  out  has  been  filled.  Borax  is  used  as 
a  flux.  It  is  added  by  dipping  the  hot  welding  rod  into  the 
can  of  flux,  enough  adhering  to  the  rod  for  use.  The  flame 
should  not  be  held  steady,  but  moved  in  a  zig-zag  across  the 
weld.  After  the  weld  has  been  made  in  any  one  spot,  do  not 
remelt.     Figure  38  shows  how  bevel  should   be    made.     In 


Fig.  43. 


OXYACETYUINE  WELDING  53 

welding  long  seams  in  tanks  or  pipes,  the  edges  are  vety  apt 
to  overlap  as  the  welding  progresses.     This  creeping  is  due  to 

the  increased  expansion  of  the  edges  being  welded.  If  this 
expansion  is  not  taken  care  of,  the  result  will  be  as  shown  in  Fig. 
39  in  straight  work,  or  as  shown  in  Fig.  40  in  "Pipe  Work." 
To  overcome  this  lapping,  allowance  should  be  made  for  expan- 
sion by  separating  the  opposite  end  of  the  sheet  from  the  weld  a 
distance  equivalent  to  2}4  per  cent  of  the  total  length  of  the 
seam.  When  welding  pipe  seams,  the  seam  can  be  spread 
apart  by  the  use  of  two  small  pry  bars,  and  these  moved  along 
with  the  weld.  Welding  should  always  progress  away  from 
the  operator. 


Fio.  44. 

Welding  Cast  Iron. — la  welding  cast  iron,  a  flux  must  be 
used,  and  the  welding  rod  must  contain  a  tiigb  percentage  of 
silicon.  C^t-iron  pieces  which  are  welded  should  be  pre- 
heated and  re-heated,  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  which  avoids 
unequal  expansion  and  contraction.  The  edges  of  welds  on 
metal  j^  in.  thick  should  be  beveled.  The  operation  of  welding 
is  the  same  as  with  steel,  except  that  cast-iron  is  puddled,  and 
this  giveeblowholesanddirtanopportunity  to  get  into  the  weld. 
These  must  be  worked  out  by  using  the  welding  rod  and  flux. 
Castings  can  be  pre-heated  over  a  fire  of  charcoal,  gas,  oil, 
or  coke,  covering  the  casting  with  firebrick.  When  the  casting 
has  reached  a  dull-red  heat,  the  brick  can  be  taken  away  and 
the  piece  welded,  after  which  the  brick  can  be  put  back,  and 
the  fire  underneath  made  gradually  less  intense  until  the  fire 
is  out  and  the  casting  cool.  Special  pre-heating  ovens  can  be 
purchased  (see  page  285,  "Cast  Iron"}.     Bosses  can  be  built 


54 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


up  and  missing  pieces  of  iron  supplied  by  iron  from  the  welding 
rod.  This  is  done  by  torch  manipulation.  Carbon  blocks 
cut  to  outhne  the  part  to  be  added  will  save  time  and  gas,  and 
make  a  better  job. 

Copper  may  be  welded,  but  it  is  difl&cult.    The  same  kind  of 
flame  that  is  used  with  steel  can  be  used,  but  a  much  larger 


■j«5a^«  --  -T. 


'4-Li>,ft£S^j.. 


Fig.  45. 

tip  is  necessary.  The  heat  conductivity  of  copper  is  very 
high,  and  heat  is  carried  off  rapidly.  Pre-heating  is  necessary 
when  a  large  piece  of  copper  is  to  be  welded.  Parts  should  be 
beveled.  Welding  rod  or  adding  material  should  be  electro- 
lytic copper  containing  about  1  per  cent  phosphorus.  Flux 
is  used  to  cleanse  the  copper  and  protect  the  molten  copper 


Fig.  46. 

from  the  action  of  gases  in  the  flame.  The  neutral  flame  should 
be  kept  out  of  molten  copper.  A  weld  on  copper  is,  in  effect, 
cast  copper  and  comparatively  weak.  Hammering  at  a  dull- 
red  heat  improves  the  strength  and  ductility. 

Welding  Aluminum. — Aluminum  is  difl&cult  to  weld  for  a 
welder  who  has  only  tried  to  weld  it  a  few  times.     After  one 


OXYACETYLENE  WELDING  55 

becomes  familiar  with  this  metal  when  it  is  in  a  plastic  and 
fluid  state,  it  is  simple  to  make  welds.  The  flame  used  is 
a  carbonizing  flame,  one  with  excess  acetylene.  The  inner 
cone  should  be  about  1 J^  in.  long.  Pre-heating  large  aluminum 
pieces  until  beads  of  sweat  show  or  until  J^-M  solder  can  be 
melted  upon  it,  is  advised.  Aluminum  oxidizes  very  rapidly, 
and  if  a  film  of  oxide  is  permitted  to  accumulate  in  the  weld, 
it  will  be  weakened  to  a  considerable  extent;  therefore,  a 
flattened  steel  rod  or  spatula  is  used  to  puddle  the  aluminum 
and  to  scrape  away  the  oxide  which  forms.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  when  aluminum  is  melted  at  the  point  of  weld  that  it 
does  not  run  together;  it  miist  be  "puddled  *'  as  explained  above. 
A  flux  can  be  used  on  a  flat  seam,  but  great  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  allow  any  flux  to  be  covered  with  molten  metal.  When 
building  up  bosses,  flux  must  be  used.  Until  one  becomes 
expert,  it  is  advisable  to  back  pieces  to  be  welded  with  fireclay 
or  carbon  blocks.  When  the  aluminum  is  molten,  it  should 
be  quickly  puddled,  and  the  weld  completed. 

Brass  and  bronze,  can  be  welded,  but  there  is  danger  that 
the  tin  or  zinc  will  pass  off  in  fumes.  Manganese  bronze  or 
Tobin  bronze  should  be  used  for  adding  material,  and  should 
be  applied  with  flux  just  before  the  surface  of  the  parts  begins 
to  bubble.  When  white  fumes  are  created,  the  flame  should  be 
withdrawn,  as  this  indicates  that  too  much  heat  is  being  applied. 
Pre-heat  large  pieces  as  in  the  case  of  other  metal  castings. 

Copper  can  be  welded  to  steel  by  first  bringing  the  steel  to  a 
white  heat  and  then  putting  the  copper  into  contact. 

Cutting  or  burning  a  kerf  in  wrought  iron,  steel,  steel  cast- 
ings, and  cast  iron  can  be  done  with  the  oxyacetylene  torch. 
The  cutting  torch  differs  from  the  welding  torch  in  that  it  has 
two  or  more  flames,  in  the  center  of  which  is  an  orifice  for  high- 
pressure  oxygen.  For  the  cutting  of  rivet  holes,  a  two  flame 
tip  is  used,  other  cuts  require  more.  The  process  of  cutting 
steel  consists  of  heating  a  spot  of  the  metal  to  be  cut  to  a  red 
heat  and  projecting  upon  it  a  jet  of  pure  oxygen,  which  causes 
the  metal  to  bum  away.  As  soon  as  the  oxygen  is  turned  on, 
the  torch  should  be  moved  along  in  the  direction  that  cut  is  to 
be  made.  The  speed  of  cutting  will  depend  somewhat  upon 
the  cutter;  if  he  has  a  steady  hand  and  good  eye,  his  speed 
will  be  very  rapid.  If  much  cutting  is  to  be  done,  it  is  well  to 
arrange  a  brick  pit  over  which  the  pieces  to  be  cut  can  be 
placed;  the  sparks  then  will  fall  into  the  pit  and  do  no  harm. 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


111 


OXYACETYLENE  WELDING 


57 


Cutting  cast  iron  is  new.  Prior  to  the  summer  of  1920, 
cast  iron  was  considered  impossible  to  cut  with  the  cutting 
torch.  Much  credit  for  giving  out  information  and  demonstrat- 
ing cast-iron  cutting  should  be  given  the  Air  Reduction  Sales 
Company,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  branch.  A.  S.  Kinsey,  consulting 
engineer  for  this  company,  comments  on  cast-iron  cutting  as 
follows:  ''The  torch  used  in  cutting  cast  iron  need  not  be 
different  from  the  regular  cutting  torch  for  steel,  provided  it 
will  give  a  long,  carbonizing  flame.  The  tip  should  be  made 
of  a  metal  able  to  withstand  imusually  high  temperatures,  and 
be  designed  so  that  its  orifices  would  not  be  choked  by  fire  in 
the  kerf  as  the  cut  runs  deep.  The  torch  should  be  held  so 
that  the  tip  is  tilted  sUghtly  backward  for  soft  gray  iron,  and 
more  so  for  the  harder  irons.  The  cutter  may  easily  determine 
the  correct  angle.  The  ignition  spot  on  the  iron  must  be  big- 
ger and  hotter  than  that  for  steel.  The  variableness  of  the 
hardness  of  the  iron  in  most  castings^  and  also  blowholes,  will 
affect  the  cutting,  sometimes  'putting  out  the  fire.'  A  little 
spiral  motion  of  the  tip,  usually  will  overcome  the  trouble. 
Such  a  motion  will  widen  the  kerf,  thereby  increasing  the  gas 
consumption.  The  pre-heating  flame  should  be  adj  usted  with  an 
excess  of  acetylene  in  order  to  give  a  carbonizing  jet  from  1  to  2 
in.  long  when  the  oxygen  high-pressure  is  snapped  on.  The  most 
important  part  of  the  whole  cutting  operation  is  to  maintain  the 
proper  gas  pressures.     These  are  higher  than  for  cutting  steel. 

Table  15. — Cast  Iron  Cutting  Pressures 


Oxygen 

Acetylene 

Size  of  special 

Thickness  of 

pressure, 

pressure. 

tip 

•metal,  inches 

pounds  per 
square  inch 

pounds  per 
square  inch 

No.  1. 

1 

50 

15 

Regulate  the 

No.  1. 
No.  1. 
No.  2. 
No.  2. 

No.  2. 
No.  2. 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

70 
85 
105 
115 
150 
175 

15 
15 
20 
20 
25 
25 

pressure  so 
as  to  make  a 

carbonizing 

flame  from 

1  to  2  in.  long 

increasing 

with  thick- 
ness of  metal. 

No.  3. 

Over  12 

"These  pressures  vary  somewhat  with  the  hardness  of  the 
metaL     The  cutter  should  make  certain  that  the  oxygen  supply 


58 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


is  maintained  at  constant  pressure.     It  is  liable  to  drop,  due 
to  rapid  consumption,  and  thereby  shorten  the  carbonizing  jet 


"Clock  Motor 


Oiaphrarn 
Pressure 
Regulator 
Fil  ling  Plug 


r 


Holofer* 


Regulcrfvr 

Service 

^P;pe 

BhvHfff 
Cock 

fiffn-Ffashback 


Wafer  Levef 


Slue/go 
Cock 


Fig.  49. 


and  stop  the  cutting.     The  casting  will  not  need  to  be  pre- 
heated except  by  the  pre-heating  flames  of  the  torch.     The 


OXY ACETYLENE  WELDING 


59 


xygen  does  not  need  to  be  pre-heated.  The  cutter  will  find 
b  necessary  to  protect  his  flesh,  shoes,  and  clothing  from  the 
leat  and  flying  sparks.  Cutting  cast  iron  is  hotter  work  than 
utting  steel.  The  cutting  of  cast  iron  by  gas  torch  produces  a 
arge  amount  of  heat  and  quite  a  little  smoke,  as  compared 
viih  cutting  steel.  There  is  a  liberal  deposit  of  slag  and  molten 
netal  from  the  cast  iron.  The  kerf  is  three  or  four  times  wider 
^han  that  of  steel,  and  its  surfaces  are  rougher.  There  usually 
ire  signs  of  molten  metal  on  the  surfaces,  also  some  pitting, 
ind  the  upper  part  of  the  kerf  is  blackened  as  if  carburized, 
aot  sooty.  The  lower  faces  of  the  kerf  usually  have  a  heavy 
3xide  scale  over  them,  but  a  hammer  blow  will  shatter  and 
remove  this.  There  will  be  some  decarbonizing  of  the  surface 
of  the  casting,  due  to  the  burning,  but  no  important  increase 
in  the  hardness  of  the  surfaces  of  the  kerf.  It  is  apparent 
that  very  little  of  the  graphitic  carbon  changes' to  combined 
carbon,  which  probably  is  due  to  the  protection  afforded  the 
surface  by  the  oxide  scale.  It  insulates  the  hot  metal  from  the 
cold  air,  and  allows  it  to  cool  slowly,  which  leaves  the  graphitic 
carbon  undisturbed."  Tables  below  give  comparative  cost  of 
steel  and  cast-iron  cutting. 


Table  16. — To  Cut  by  Hand  Torch  100  Sq.  In.  op  Cast  Iron 

AND    StEBL   with   OxYGBN    AND   ACBTYLENB 


Consumption 

Cost 

Material 

Time, 
min- 
utes 

Oxygen, 

cubic 

feet 

Acety- 
lene, 
cubic 
feet 

Time 

Oxygen 

Acety- 
lene 

Total 

Cast  iron. . 
Steel 

15. 
3.5 

123 
25 

21 
2 

S.22 
.06 

SI. 84 
.37 

$.56 
.05 

S2.62 
.48 

Table  17. — Comparattve  Cost  op  Cutting  100  Sq.  In.  op 

Metal 


Mbtal  cut 

Steel 
Cast  iron 
Cast  iron 


Mbthod  usbd 

By  oxyacetylene  torch 
By  oxyacetylene  torch 
By  machinery 


Cost  per  100  sq.  in. 

$0.48 
2.62 
6.00 


60 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Table  18. — Approximate  Acettlenb  and  Oxygen 

Pressures 


Acetylene 

Oxygen 

Thickness 

Acetylene 

Oxygen 

con- 

con- 

Tip 

of  metal, 

pressure, 

pressure, 

sumption 

sumption 

No. 

inches 

pounds 

pounds 

per  hour, 
cubic  feet 

per  hour, 
cubic  feet 

00 

(Very) 

1 

1 

0.6 

0.8 

0 

(Light) 

1 

2 

1. 

1.3 

1 

H2-H6 

1 

2 

3.21 

3.65 

2 

H6-H2 

2 

4 

4.84 

5.50 

3 

H2-H 

3 

6 

8.14 

9.28 

4 

H-^ie 

4 

8 

12.50 

14.27 

5 

V4.-M6 

5 

10 

17.81 

21.32 

6 

Me-H 

6 

12 

24.97 

28.46 

7 

Me-V^ 

6 

14 

33.24 

37.90 

8 

W-H 

6 

16 

41.99 

47.87 

9 

H-^i 

6 

18 

57.85 

65.95 

10 

H-Vp 

6 

20 

82.50 

94.05 

11 

(Extra) 

8 

22 

88.78 

101.21 

12 

(Heavy) 

8 

24 

114.50 

130.50 

OXYACETYLENE  WELDING 


61 


Table  19. — Hourly  Consumption  op  Tips 


Acetylene 

Oxygen 

Tip 

Thickness 

Acetylene 

Oxygen 

con- 

con- 

No. 

of  metal, 

pressure, 

pressure, 

sumption 

sumption 

inches 

pounds 

pounds 

per  hour, 
cubic  feet 

per  hour, 
cubic  feet 

1 

H 

3 

10 

12.22 

42 

1 

Me 

3 

15 

12.22 

48 

1 

J4 

3 

20 

12.22 

55 

1 

Me 

3 

20 

12.22 

55 

2 

H 

3 

10 

12.22 

62 

2 

\^ 

3 

20 

12.22 

84 

2 

H 

3 

30 

.  12.22 

106 

2 

1 

3 

35 

12.22 

116 

3 

1 

4 

30 

19.67 

142 

3 

IH 

4 

40 

19.67 

172 

3 

2 

4 

50 

19.67 

202 

3 

3 

4 

60 

19.67 

232 

4 

3 

5 

60 

30.60. 

316 

4 

4 

5 

70 

30.60 

356 

4 

5 

5 

85 

30.60 

416 

4 

6 

5 

100 

30.60 

476 

5 

6 

6 

90 

30.60 

600 

5 

7 

6 

100 

30.60 

668 

5 

8 

6 

125 

30.60 

838 

5 

10 

8 

150 

30.60 

1,008 

SECTION  4 

GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 

WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  BUILDINGS 

Buildings  are  supplied  with  water,  either  by  a  community 
water  distributing  system  or  by  means  of  an  individual  tank. 

Water  Supply. — All  water  supply  should  be  metered.  In 
cities  where  10  per  cent  of  all  taps  are  metered,  the  consump- 
tion is  153  gal.  per  day  per  capita;  where  50  per  cent  of  the 
taps  are  metered,  the  consumption  is  62  gal.  per  capita;  where 
75  per  cent  of  the  taps  are  metered,  the  consumption  is  54 
gal.  per  capita;  where  94  per  cent  of  the  taps  are  metered,  the 
consumption  falls  to  36  gal.  per  capita  per  day.  A  review  of 
water-company  reports  from  various  cities  gives  informations 
as  above  noted.  This  proves  beyond  doubt  that  metered 
service  reduces  the  amount  of  water  consumption.  This 
reduction  of  water  consumption  does  not  render  plumbing 
fixtures  less  sanitary,  but  does  eUminate  waste  through  faulty 
plumbing  fixtures.  Table  22  shows  the  water  waste  through 
small  openings. 

The  building  service  pipe  connection  with  the  community 
service  main  should  be  made  as  shown  in  Fig.  52  and  laid  below 
the  frost  line.  As  a  rule,  the  plumber  digs  and  refills  the  trench 
and  lays  all  pipe  from  building  up  to  the  main  pipe.  The  tap- 
ping of  this  pipe  under  pressure  is  done  by  the  water  company 
with  a  special  tapping  machine.  The  size  of  water  service 
pipe  must  be  based  upon  the  amount  of  water  that  is  to  be 
consumed  in  the  building.  When  this  has  been  determined 
(see  section  on  "Pipe  Standards,"  page  168),  turn  to  Table 
42^4,  page  188.  This  table  will  give  the  flow  of  water  in  cubic 
feet.  To  change  cubic  feet  to  gallons,  multiply  by  7.48.  (One 
cubic  foot  equals  7.48  gal.) 

Example. — What  sized  house-service  pipe  will  be  required  to 
deliver  100  gal.  of  water  per  minute,  pressure  of  water  being  60  lb. 
and  the  length  of  main  being  100  ft.? 

Solution, — See  Table  42 A,  page  188. 

62 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


63 


Opposite  60  lb.  in  100  ft.  section,  and  under  1  J^-in.  pipe,  is  found 
14.71  cu.  ft.,  which  multiplied  by  7.48  gal.  gives  110  gal.  per 
minute.  Therefore,  the  size  of  pipe  to  deliver  water  as  stated  in 
tlie  above  example  is  1^  in. 


f4ih.  Floor 

^ 


o» 


/?//?. 


im  , 


9i 


lOttt. 


9i 


9ih 


7th 


&ih  n  I 


5fh.^ 


4fh 


3nl  n 


2rul.  » J 


Isf.n 


% 


^ 
Ba^.% 


DOWN  FEED 


UP  FEED 


m^,- 


l6Lb3. 


mh. 


.4Lhs. 


?7Lbs, 


-l2Lb^ 


3ILb&. 


6th.  n    Y  24Lb3.^ 


-28Lbs, 


33lbs.  - 


JlAbi^ 


SOMLbx^ 


59Lbs.-^ 


35Lbs^ 


-mkj. 


ULbs.- 


S3Lb&. 


-mbi. 


€UbA- 


.4S£bs. 


TOlilbs.- 


-S4.70t.bs. 


-mbi. 


-33hlbs. 


-49Lbs. 


\7^t^ 


-GGLbs. 


Fig.  50. 


PRESSUR5  sr^ 
TANKS  >\JQ 

Fig.  51. 


-ISLbs. 


Laying  Service  Pipe. — The  lead  connection,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  52,  should  be  made  of  XX  strong  lead  pipe  (see  sizes  of 
lead  pipe,  page  186),  at  least  3  ft.  long.  This  length  allows  for 
required  U-shaped  bend.  The  curb  box  should  be  set  as 
shown  in  Fig.  53.  The  value  of  this  box  is  that  it  provides  a 
space  for  a  long  key  to  reach  down  to  the  curb  cock.  The  box 
should  be  set  directly  over  the  cock  and  held  in  an  upright  posi- 
tion. The  base  should  be  covered  with  tarred  paper,  to  keep 
out  sand.  Stone  is  piled  around  the  base  of  the  box  until  it  is 
firmly  held  in  place.  The  refilling  and  tamping  should  be 
done  equally  on  all  sides  (see  section  on  "Trenches*').  Pipe 
that  is  laid  in  the  ground  is  subjected  to  the  chemical  action  of 
surrounding  earth.  .  It  is  necessary  when  pipe  is  laid  in  moist 
ground  to  protect  it  from  external  corrosion.     For  detailed 


64 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


information  as  to  how  this  corrosion  takes  place  and  how  to 
avoid  it,  see  section  on  "Pipe  Standards,"  page  178;  also  on 
"Metallurgy,"  page  300. 


/»  S+reef  _a/r^  | 


Corporcrhon 


teaef  Connection 


-Wafer  Main 


/ 

'^  Bufidtng 

Curbdox  ^ 


g 


Shpanef 
A/\hsfe  Cock 


eroundj^: 


p»^ 


Curb 
Cock 


Fig.  63. 


Water  from  Pumps. — When  buildings  are  supplied  with  water 
from  pumps,  the  water  is  first  pumped  into  an  open  tank  in  the 
attic  or  a  closed  tank  in  the  basement.  From  tank  in  attiCf 
the  fixtures  are  supplied  by  gravity,  and  the    pressures  at 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


65 


various  floors  will  be  as  shown  in  Figs.  50  and  51.  When  the 
tank  is  placed  in  the  attic,  its  capacity  should  be  large  enough 
to  hold  3  days'  supply.  Extra  support  must  be  provided  to 
hold  the  tank  in  place. 

Example.-^Wh&t  sized  tank  must  be  provided  to  furnish  3  days' 
supply  of  water  to  a  family  of  five  people?  How  much  will  the 
water  in  the  tank  weigh? 

SoltUion. — Allowing  80  gal.  per  day  per  person. 

80  gal.  X  5  persons  =  400  gal.  per  day. 

400  gal.  X  3  days  =  1,200  gal.  for  3  days. 

1,200  -s-  7.48  gal.  «  160  cu.  ft.  in  tank. 

Assume  as  length  of  tank  10  ft.;  then  160  cu.  ft.  -^  10  ft.  =  16  sq. 
ft. 

As  square  feet  must  have  two  dimensions,  extract  the  square 
fOot  of  16,  which  equals  4  ft.;  therefore,  the  ends  of  the  tank  will  be 
4  by  4  ft.  and  the  length  will  be  10  ft. 

When  a  dosed  tank  in  basement  is  used,  the  tank  should  first 
have  air  pumped  into  it  until  lO-lb.  gage  pressure  is  reached; 
then  water  should  be  forced  into  the  tank  until  desired  pressure 
is  reached.  The  10-lb.  air  pressure  is  trapped  in  the  top  of 
the  tank,  and  compresses  as  the  water  is  forced  in.  When 
water  is  drawn  from  the  tank,  the  entire  contents  can  be  drawn, 
because  of  the  first  10  lb.  of  air  pressure.  Automatic  control  of 
pump  can  be  regulated  to  operate  at  10-lb.  pressure  and  stop 
at  50  lb.,  or  any  desired  pressure.  On  large  systems  which 
require  large  quantities  of  water,  separate  tanks  can  be  used, 
one  for  water  and  another  for  air  (see  section  on"  Pumps, "  page 
20). 

Table  20. — Proportions   op   Air   and   Water   in   Tanks 


Amount  of  water 

Atmoaphere  at 
start,  lb. 

10  lb.  pressure 
at  start,  lb. 

V4  full  of  water 

5 
15 
22 
29 
45 

18 

i4  full  of  water 

34 

%  full  of  water 

47 

<Wi  full  of  water 

58 

^i  full  of  water 

83 

All  pipe  connections  with  the  tank  must  be  at  the  bottom,  so 
that  water  can  escape  but  air  cannot.     This  arrangement  keeps 
air  trapped  in  the  upper  part  of  tank,  and  as  a  faucet  is  opened, 
5 


66 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


the  compressed  air  in  the  upper  part  of  tank  forces  the  water  out 
through  lower  tank  connection.  Figure  32  shows  arrangement 
for  a  closed  tank  or  pneumatic  water  system. 

Piping. — The  water  pipe  in  a  building  should  run  on  inside 
partition    walls.     If    necessary  to  run  on  outside  walls,  the 


COLD 

To  Fixtures 


HOT 

To  Fixturoj^ 


Fig.  65. 


pipe  should  be  covered  with  2  in.  of  hair  felt  with  a  covering  of 
canvas  sewed  on.  Space  around  pipe  should  be  free  from  any 
drafts.  Pipes  should  be  supported  by  hangers  placed  every 
10  ft.  (see  section  on  "Hangers,"  page  112,  Figs.  109  to  119). 
As  far  as  possible,  pipes  should  be  exposed  or  in  walls  fitted 
with  panel.     Pipes  should  never  run  in  cinder  fill  under  floors. 


HO  T 
£/IS  T  -3A  7H  -  f^OOM 
2 di^,  FLOOR 


Fig.  56. 


Under  bath-room  tile  floors,  water  pipes  should  be  protected 
with  an  inverted  V-shaped  trough,  or  where  funds  will  allow, 
placed  inside  of  a  larger  pipe.  Plenty  of  space  must  be  allowed 
for  expansion  of  pipe. 

Fittings  used  on  water  pipe  are  described  under  section  on 
"Fittings,"  page  121.  The  main  feed  pipe  should  be  brought 
to  a  central  location  in  the  building,  and  from  this  point  branch 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION  67 

pipes  should  extend  to  each  group  of  fixtures  or  isolated  fixture. 
Figures  54  and  55B  show  header  and  branch  connections. 
Each  branch  is  provided  with  a  stop  and  waste  cock.  A  tag, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  56,  should  be  wired  onto  every  valve.  Writing 
on  tag  should  be  in  india  ink,  and  should  state  exact  fixtures 
that  valve  controls. 

Valves  that  are  placed  on  water  lines  should  be  provided  with 
a  waste  tube,  which  allows  water  left  in  pipe  after  pressure  has 
been  shut  off  to  drain  out.  This  is  a  necessary  precaution  in 
cold  cUmates  (see  section  on  "Purification  of  Water,"  page  364). 

Waste  of  Water. — The  waste  of  water  through  the  defective 
valves  on  the  plumbing  system  amounts  to  a  large  number  of 
gallons  each  month.  Constant  attention  by  someone  who 
knows  how  to  adjust  valves  should  be  given  to  the  plumbing 
equipment  occasionally.  For  example,  a  water  closet  that  can 
be  flushed  on  4  gal.  of  water  should  not  be  using  5  gal.  Auto- 
matic tanks  and  valves  should  be  shut  off  at  night  when 
fixtures  are  not  used.  Saving  in  water  means  lower  water 
bills,  smaller  filtering  plants,  and  less  expense  in  operating;  also 
less  work  for  sewage  disposal  plant  to  handle.  Water  should 
not  be  allowed  to  run  at  a  fixture  to  prevent  freezing,  but  should 
be  shut  off  and  water  drained  from  the  pipe. 

Water  kept  constantly  running  soon  wastes  a  large  number  of 
gallons,  as  shown  in  Table  22.  An  opening  the  size  of  lead  in 
a  pencil  will  discharge,  at  60-lb.  pressure,  about  10  gal.  an 
hour,  240  gal.  per  day,  or  7,200  gal.  per  month. 

The  amount  of  water  consumed  per  day  per  person  is  given 
as  80  to  100  gal.  for  all  cities.  From  recent  investigations,  one 
person  does  not  use  over  30  gal.  of  water  each  day  for  all  kinds 
of  use  except  lawn  sprinkling.  If  more  than  this  amount  is 
used,  it  is  extravagance  on  part  of  the  user  or  wastefulness  on 
part  of  the  plumbing  equipment. 

Friction  in  Pipes. — Piping  should  be  run  as  directly  as  pos- 
sible, and  with  few  bends.  All  ends  of  pipe  that  extend  into 
fittings  should  be  reamed.  Figures  57  and  58  show  clearly  the 
effect  of  reamed  and  unreamed  pipe  on  the  flow  of  water 
through  a  fil^ting.  The  loss  in  head  is  five  times  as  great  in  an 
unreamed  pipe  as  in  a  reamed  pipe.  The  frictional  resistance 
of  fittings  and  valves  is  given  in  Tables  24  and  25.  The  fol- 
lowing example  shows  how  tables  of  friction  are  used: 

Example. — Given  a  straight  2-in.  pipe  200  ft.  long,  how  many 
gallons  of  water  will  it  deliver  per  minute  under  a  pressure  of  43  lb. 


68  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Solution. — Change  pounds  pressure  to  feet  head  by  dividing 
43  lb.  byO.434,  which  oqunls  in  round  numbers,  100  tt.  As  the  head 
in  feat  equals  one  half  the  length  in  feet,  look  in  column  }^L,  of 
Table  23,  opposite  2  in.  diameter,  irhere  141.4  gal.  per  minute  is 
given  as  the  sotutioD  of  the  problem. 


Now  auppoae  in  the  above  example,  that  in  this  200  ft.  of  2-in. 

pipe,  there  were  eight  90-deg.  elbows  and  one  globe  valve. 
What  would  be  the  number  of  gallons  dischai^ed  per  minute? 

SotuHon. — Length  of  pipe 200  ft. 

Equivalent  length  of  eight-2-in,  ells 

(Table  24) 40  ft. 

Equivalent  length  of  one  globe  valve 

(Table  25) 60  ft. 

Total  equivalent  length 300  ft. 

As  the  head  now  equab  ^"Jioo  or  !^  the  length,  look  under 
}iL,  Table  23,  aitd  opposite  2  in.  diameter;  and  115.4  gal.  per 
minute  is  given  as  the  answer  to  the  problem.  Therefore,  the 
eight  ells  and  one  globe  valve  would  make  a  difference  of  26 
gal.  of  water  less  discharged  by  the  pipe,  under  the  above 
conditions. 

Repairs  b;  Means  of  Freezing. — To  shut  ot!  water  in  a  supply 
pipe  when  there  is  no  shut  ofi  valve  provided,  expose  the  pipe 
at  least  16  in.  in  length  and  8  in.  around.  If  the  pipe  is  already 
exposed,  build  a  box  around  the  pipe  allowing  a  space  15  in. 
long  and  8  in.  around  the  pipe.  The  lead  pipe  should  be 
mashed  together,  stopping  the  flow  of  water  between  freesing 
point  and  house.  A  stop  cock  should  be  inserted  in  the  pipe 
line  within  18  in.  of  the  point  of  freezing.    Everything,  there* 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


69 


fore,  should  be  in  readiness  to  make  required  joints.  Then 
pack  around  the  pipe  in  space  provided,  about  50  lb.  of  crushed 
ice,  mixed  with  a  bucket  full  of  coarse  salt.  This  mixture  will 
freeze  the  water  in  the  pipe  and  the  flow  of  water  will  be 
stopped.  To  determine  when  the  pipe  is  frozen,  tap  a  small 
hole  in  the  pipe  with  a  knife;  if  water  squirts  out,  poimd  the 
hole  shut  and  continue  freezing.  When  the  water  has  frozen, 
cut  out  the  mashed  part  of  pipe  and  raise  pipe  up  about  2  in. 
Insert  prepared  stop  cock  and  wipe  joints  quickly.  Remove 
ice  and  thaw  out  by  applying  heat.  Other  freezing  mixtures 
are  listed  below. 

Freezing  Mixtures 


Mixtures 


Mercury  drops  from 
ordinary  temperature  to 


2  parts  of  crushed  ice  and  1  part  of  salt 

5  parts  of  crushed  ice,  2  parts  of  salt,  1  part  of 
ammonium  chloride 

24  parts  of  crushed  ice,  10  parts  of  salt,  5  parts  of 
ammonium  chloride,  5  parts  of  potassium 
nitrate 

12  parts  crushed  ice,  5  parts  salt,  5  parts  ammo- 
nium chloride 


5  degrees  below  sero 
12  degrees  below  zero 


18  degrees  below  aero 
25  degrees  below  zero 


Table  21. —  IjEnqth  of  Service  of  Hose 

Sise  of 

Sise  of 
jet,  inches 

100  ft. 

150  ft. 

200  ft. 

pipe,  inches 

u.  s 

.  gallons  per  mi 

nute 

H 

H 

299.40 

253.92 

224.48 

H 

H 

420.66 

372.50 

337.69 

H 

H 

522.27 

485.87 

456.16 

.  1 

H 

536.43 

528.04 

518.71 

m 

H 

142.74 

136.83 

131.61 

H 

H 

151.53 

148.99 

146.37 

H 

H 

155.11 

153.95 

153.03 

1 

H 

156.76 

156.50 

156.21 

H 

M« 

39.06 

38.93 

38.86 

H 

M« 

39.23 

39.18 

39.09 

H 

Me 

39.29 

39.27 

39.25 

H 

Ha 

11.02 

11.02 

11.02 

H 

}i2 

11.02 

11.02 

11.02 

70 


PLUMBER'S  HANDBOOK 


Table  22. — How  Water  May  be  Wasted 

Gallons  discharged  per  hour  through  various  sized  orifices 

under  stated  pressures 


Head 

• 

Pres- 

H 

H 

^i 

H 

H 

H 

1 

IK 

IH 

2 

feet 

sure 

in. 

m. 

in. 

m. 

in. 

m. 

in. 

m. 

m. 

in. 

20 

8.66 

75 

300 

720 

1.260 

1.920 

2.760 

4,920 

7.380 

11  100 

19.740 

40 

17.32 

112 

450 

960 

1.800 

2.760 

3.960 

6.720 

10.920 

15.720 

27.960 

60 

25.99 

135 

540 

1.200 

2.160 

3.480 

4.800 

8.580 

13.380 

19.200 

34.260 

80 

34.65 

155 

620 

1.380 

2.460 

3.840 

5.580 

9.840 

15.480 

22,260 

39.540 

100 

43.31 

172 

690 

1.560 

2.760 

4.320 

6.240 

11,040 

17.280 

24.900 

H280 

120 

51.98 

195 

780 

1.680 

3,000 

4.740 

6.840 

12.120 

18.960 

27,240 

48.480 

140 

60.64 

204 

816 

1,860 

3.300 

5.100 

7.320 

13.020 

28.160 

29.460 

52.320 

150 

64.97 

210 

840 

1.920 

3.420 

5.280 

7.620 

13.560 

21.180 

30.480 

54.120 

175 

75.80 

225 

900 

2.040 

3.660 

5.700 

8.220 

14,640 

22,800 

32.880 

58.560 

200 

86.63 

240 

960 

2.220 

3,900 

6.120 

8.760 

15.600 

25.020 

35,880 

62.580 

235 

101.79 

270 

1.080 

2.460 

4.320 

8.280 

11.160 

17.100 

26.760 

38.520 

68.460 

An  orifice  the  size  of  the  lead  in  an  ordinary  pencil  will  under  60-lb.  pres- 
sure discharge  about  10  gal.  an  hour.  240  gal.  a  day,  or  7.200  gal.  a  month — 
which  is  more  than  will  be  legitimately  used  by  a  family  of  five  people. 


Table  23. — Gallons  per  Minute 
H  =  head  of  water,  L  =  length  of  pipe 


aS-9 


1-^ 

a 

a 

s 

s 

s 

^ 

S 

S 

fl 

ii 

II 

II 

II 

II 

II 

II 

II 

n 

5:: 

in 

&: 

in 

in 

5:: 

Ji: 

&5 

in 

155 

II 


'A 
•H 
H 
1 

m 

2 

2H 

3 

4 


19.8 
34.5 
54.4 
111.8 
195.2 
308. 
632.2 
1104. 
1745. 
3581. 


18.7 
32.7 
51.7 
106. 
185.2 
292.1 
599.7 
1048. 
1631. 
3397. 


17.7 
30.1 
48.7 
100. 
174.6 
275.4 
566.4 
987.8 
1560. 
3203. 


16.5 
28.9 
45.6 
93.5 
163.3 
257.6 
538.9 
924. 
1460. 
29%. 


15.3 

20.5 

42.2 

86.6 

151.2 

238.5 

488.1 

855.4 

1351. 

2774. 


14. 
24.4 
38.5 
79. 
138. 
217.7 
447. 
780.9 
1234. 
2532. 


12.5 

21.8 

34.4 

70.7 

123.4 

194.8 

399.8 

698.5 

1103. 

2265. 


10.8 

18.9 

29.8 

61.2 

106.9 

168.7 

346.3 

604.9 

955.5 

1%2. 


8.6 

15.4 

24.3 

50. 

87.3 

137.7 

282.7 

493.9 

780.2 

1602. 


8.3 

14.4 

22.8 

46.8 

81.6 

128.8 

264.4 

482. 

728.8 

14%. 


7.7 

13.4 

21.2 

43.2 

75.6 

119.3 

248.8 

427.7 

674.8 

1385. 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


71 


►^ 

§ 

^ 

::*: 

^ 

:« 

:3^ 

^ 

;« 

e 

H 

n 

H 

n 

n 

n 

R 

II 

II 

H 

H 

H 

tQ 

&s 

tQ 

HJ 

tQ 

&: 

155 

&3 

tQ 

&S 

5:: 

&S 

7. 

6.3 

5.4 

4.4 

3.6 

3.1 

2.8 

2.6 

2.4 

2.2 

2.1 

2. 

12.2 

10.9 

9.5 

7.7 

6.3 

5.5 

4.8 

4.4 

4.1 

3.9 

3.6 

3.5 

19.3 

17.2 

14.9 

12.2 

9.9 

8.6 

7.7 

7.0 

6.5 

6.1 

5.7 

5.1 

39.5 

35.3 

30.1 

25. 

20.4 

17.7 

15.8 

14.4 

13.4 

12.5 

11.8 

11.2 

69. 

61.8 

53.5 

42.7 

35.6 

30.9 

27.6 

25.2 

23.3 

21.8 

20.6 

19.5 

106.9 

97.4 

84.3 

68.7 

.  56.2 

48.7 

43.9 

39.8 

36.8 

34.4 

32.5 

30.8 

223.5 

199.9 

173.1 

141.4 

115.4 

100. 

89.4 

81.6 

75.6 

70.7 

66.6 

63.2 

390.4 

349.2 

302.4 

246.9 

201.6 

174.6 

156.2 

142.6 

132.0 

123.6 

116.4 

110.4 

615.9 

555.5 

477.1 

390.1 

317.6 

275.8 

246.7 

225.2 

208.5 

195.1 

183.9 

174.5 

1264. 

1133. 

979.3 

800.8 

653.8 

566.2 

506.5 

463.2 

428.0 

399.9 

377.5 

358.1 

Pounds  pressure  is  changed  to  head  in  feet  by  dividing  pressure  by  0.434. 


Table  24. — Friction  in  90-deg.  Pipe  Bends 


Diameter  of  bend 
in  inches 

Friction  in  the  bend  is 

equal  to  the  friction  in 

number  of  feet  of 

straight  pipe  listed 

Number  of  diameters  to 

be  added  to  length  of 

pipe 

5 

4 
3 
2 
\H 

1 

20  ft.  of  straight  pipe 
15  ft.  of  straight  pipe 
9  ft.  of  straight  pipe 
5  ft.  of  straight  pipe 
3  ft.  of  straight  pipe 
2  ft.  of  straight  pipe 
1  ft.  of  straight  pipe 

48  diameters  of  fitting 
45  diameters  of  fitting 
36  diameters  of  fitting 
30  diameters  of  fitting 
26  diameters  of  fitting 
24  diameters  of  fitting 
18  diameters  of  fitting 

Table  25. — Friction  of  Fittinqs 


Kind  of  fitting 


Number  of  90-deg.  bends  it  is  equal  to  in 
frictional  resistance 


Coupling 

Ho  of  90-des  bend. 

45-deff.  elbow 

M  the  friction  of  a  90-defc  bend. 

Ooen-return  bend 

Same  as  90-deK.  bend. 

T-fitting 

Eoual  friction  of  two  90-des.  bends. 

Gate  valve 

^4  the  friction  of  a  90-deff.  bend. 

Globe  valve 

Equal  friction  of  twelve  90-deg.  bends. 

72  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

DRAINS 

The  velocity  of  sewage  through  horizontal  drains  should  be 
at  the  rate  of  260  ft.  per  minute,  which  means  a  fall  of  about  34 
in.  to  the  foot  when  using  4^in.  pipe.  With  a  velocity  less 
that  this,  the  soUds  in  sewage  will  not  be  carried  along,  but  will 
sink  to  the  bottom  of  pipe  and  remain  there;  if  the  velocity  is 
much  greater  the  water  will  run  away  from  the  solids  and  leave 
them  in  the  pipe.  To  procure  the  proper  grade  that  will  allow 
the  correct  velocity,  use  the  following  formula: 

r 
F  = 


10/> 


When  F   =  fall  of  pipe  line  in  feet. 

L   =  length  of  pipe  line  in  feet. 
D  =  diameter  of  pipe  in  inches. 

Example. — What  fall  should  there  be  in  a  60-ft.  drain  pipe  6  in. 
in  diameter,  to  procure  the  best  rate  of  flow,  260  ft.  per  minute? 

Solviion. — 

L  =  60  ft.  . ,       .        jj,  60  60       ,  .. 

D  =  6  in.  therefore,  F  =  ^^-^  =  -^  =  1  ft. 

The  size  of  drains  should  be  large  enough  to  carry  off  all 
sewage  without  being  too  large  to  be  self  scouring. 

When  storm  waters  discharge  into  house  drains,  the  rate  of 
precipitation  determines  the  size  of  pipe,  in  small  buildings. 
Large  buildings  where  the  rainfall  discharges  into  the  house 
sewer  and  a  large  volume  of  sewage  also  is  discharged,  the  rain- 
fall must  be  added  to  the  sewage  to  get  correct  size  of  pipe  (see 
table  showing  "Intensity  of  Rainfall").  To  find  the  diameter 
of  drain  necessary  to  carry  off  rainfall  waters  the  following 
formula  can  be  used. 


D  =  12  J 


AP 


212  X  60 

D  =  diameter  of  pipe  in  inches. 

A  =  square  feet  of  area  to  be  drained. 

P  =  maximum  rate  of  precipitation  in  feet  per  hour  (Table  26). 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


73 


*Table  26. — Intensity  of  Rainfall 


State 


Maximum 
rate  in  feet 

ger  hour  for 
ve  minutes 


Maximum 

rate  in  inches 

per  hour  for 

five  minutes 


Arisona 

Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota^ 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota 

New  Mexico 

New  Jersey 

Oklahoma 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee,  Chattanooga 
Tennessee,  Memphis. . . . 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washin^on 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


I 


.20 
1.44 
.48 
.25 
.33 
.27 
.30 
.41 
.45 
.35 
.29 
.33 
.74 
.29 
.22 
.48 
.25 
.29 
.22 
.42 
.34 
.29 
.76 
.35 
.50 
.35 
.20 
.32 
.43 
.31 
.50 
.45 
.38 
.27 
.25 
.38 
.23 
.34 
.36 
.25 
.55 
.31 
.10 
.29 
.36 
.25 
.26 
.41 
.11 


-2.40 
17.28 
5.76 
3.00 
3.% 
3.24 
3.60 
4.92 
5.40 
4.20 
3.48 
3.% 
8.88 
3.48 
2.64 
5.76 
3.00 
3.48 
2.84 
5.04 
4.06 
3.48 
21.12 
4.20 

t:% 

2.40 
3.84 
5.16 
3.82 
6.00 
5.40 
4.56 
3.24 
3.00 
4.56 
2.76 
4.08 
4.22 
3.00 
6.60 
3.72 
1.20 
3.48 
4.22 
3.00 
3.12 
4.92 
1.32 


*  Compiled  from  report  of  Chief  of  Weather  Bureau,  1920. 


74 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


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GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


75 


In  determining  the  gallons  of  sewage  to  be  carried  by  drains, 
it  is  necessary  first  to  determine  the  amount  of  water  consump- 
tion. Roughly  the  water  consumption  for  a  building  can  be 
arrived  at  by  taking  the  per  capita  consumption  for  the  City  in 
which  building  is  located,  and  multiplying  that  by  the  number 
of  occupants  in  the  building.  It  is,  however,  more  accurate  to 
treat  each  building  separately. 

Recent  investigations  state  that  the  average  number  of  gal- 
lons of  water  used  per  person  in  a  dweUing  is  30  gal.  per  day. 


Gutter, 


Leacfer 
Pipe 


Over  Hanginq 
Gutter      ^ 


.onnectton 
'Wiped  Joint 
<5rass  Nipple 
<rCouplir^ 


rLead 

Expansion 

Connection 


/em/fe 


Box  Gutter  with 
Screw  Pipe 
Connection 

Fia.  59. 


Cast  Iron. Pipe 
Connecti'on 
witti  Gutter 


This  amount  of  water  does  not  allow  for  tub  baths  each  day,  as 
the  large  majority  of  persons  do  not  indulge  in  bathing  daily. 

Storm  waters  are  drained  from  a  building  by  use  of  gutters, 
built  in  or  overhanging  the  eaves.  From  the  gutter  to  the 
sewer  a  leader  pipe  is  run  either  inside  or  outside  the  building. 
Leaders  are  run  inside  to  be  protected  from  frost,  and  the 
material  of  pipe  must  be  galvanized  iron  or  cast  iron  not  less 
than  4  in.  in  diameter.  Inside  leaders  must  be  subjected  to  the 
regular  test  that  is  given  all  plumbing  pipes.  Outside  leaders 
are  generally  made  of  galvanized  sheet  iron  or  copper  (see 
"Sheet  Metal"  section,  also  Fig.  59). 

Leader  pipes  are  trapped  at  the  base  below  the  frost  line. 
When  leader  pipes  have  been  tested,  and  the  roof  connection  is 
at  least  15  ft.  from  any  window,  the  trap  at  the  base  is  sometimes 


76  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

omitted,  making  uae  of  the  leader  pipe  for  &  vent.  For  leader 
and  roof  connections  see  Fig.  59.  The  size  of  leader  pipes  is 
determined  by  the  number  of  square  feet  to  be  drained,  1  sq.  in. 
of  sectional  area  of  pipe  for  250  sq.  ft.  of  surface  to  be  drained. 
Pipes  should  be  placed  not  more  than  40  ft.  apart. 

Sub-aoil  drains  (Fig.  60)  are  placed  at  foundation  footings,  to 
carry  oft  all  subsoil  waters,  from  building  site.  Terra  cotta 
pipe  can  be  used,  laid  open  joint.     All  open  joints  should  be  so 


Fia.  60. 

covered  to  keep  out  sand.  Subsoil  drain  should  terminate  in 
house  sewer.  The  broken  stone  and  porous  material  above 
pipe  as  shown  allows  all  water  to  quickly  flow  to  the  pipe. 

Aces  drains  are  drains  placed  to  take  off  storm  waters  that 
may  fall  or  wash  into  area  ways.  The  drain  should  terminate 
into  a  fitting  or  casting  strainer  attached  and  e^ctending  to  the 
surface  level.  Area  drains  should  be  trapped,  and  the  trap 
should  be  located  inside  building  to  protect  it  from  frost.  Area 
drains  should  never  be  less  than  2  in.  in  diameter,  and  should  be 
fitted  with  a  deep  seal  trap. 

Yard  drains  are  placed  in  yards  to  drain  off  surface  water, 
which  otherwise  would  drain  into  the  basement  of  the  building. 
When  surface  is  large,  or  considerable  amount  of  water  is 
drained  toward  the  yard  drain,  a  catch  basin  is  used,  otherwise 
a  strainer  placed  on  a  fitting  or  iron  cesspool  is  used. 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION  77 

A  substantial  catch  basin  should  be  used  wherever  heavy 
duty  is  required  such  as  driveway  drains,  or  drains  for  sur- 
faces, where  a  light  strainer  would  be  upset  after  the  first 
frost  left  the  ground.  The  outlet  for  this  heavy  type  should 
be  at  the  bottom  to  completely  drain  the  basin.  Yard  drains 
can  discharge  into  rain  leader  traps,  or  into  a  trap  placed  inside 
building  to  avoid  action  of  frost.  Size  of  yard  drains  and  roof 
drains  is  estimated  according  to  (1)  square  feet  of  surface  to 
be  drained,  (2)  maximum  amount  of  rain  fall,  (3)  pitch. 

Tennis  Courts. — To  properly  drain  a  group  of  tennis  courts, 
the  following  method  has  proved  successful.  Blind  drains  with 
open  joints  are  laid  around  each  court  and  through  the  center 
under  the  net.  The  trench  in  which  pipe  is  laid,  as  well  as  the 
entire  court,  should  be  underlaid  with  broken  stone. 

Athletic  Fields. — Trenches  with  coarse  filling  laid  above,  tile 
pipe  should  run  under  the  field.  The  pipe  is  laid  with  open 
joints,  and  slight  pitch  laterals  are  connected  into  mains  on 
the  sides  of  field,  which  carry  off  accumulated  water.  The 
covering  of  coarse  filling  can  be  sod  or  sand,  as  required  by 
nature  of  the  field.     No  surface  drains  should  be  used. 

TESTING 

The  four  methods  of  testing  plumbing  systems  are  the  (1) 
air  pressure,  (2)  hydrostatic,  (3)  peppermint,  and  (4)  smoke. 

Air  pressure  test  is  applied  to  the  piping  system  before  fix- 
tures are  connected.  All  openings  are  stopped.  Screw  plugs 
are  fitted  into  threaded  openings.  Lead  openings  are  stopped 
by  pinching  lead  together  and  then  soldering.  Outlets  in 
cast-iron  pipe  are  stopped  by  the  use  of  testing  plugs  (a  heavy 
band  of  rubber  placed  between  two  iron  plates  and  drawn 
together  by  use  of  a  thumb  screw  forcing  the  rubber  band 
against  the  walls  of  the  pipe).  One  outlet  in  the  system  is  left 
with  a  connection  for  the  air  pump  which  can  be  attached 
together  with  a  pressure  gage.  The  pump  is  operated  until 
15  lb.  is  indicated  on  the  gage;  this  will  give  the  same  pressure 
on  every  part  of  the  system.  The  lowering  of  the  pressure 
gage  indicates  a  leak.  Soap  applied  with  a  brush,  or  the  noise 
of  escaping  air,  will  give  the  location  of  the  leak.  If  the  leak 
is  caused  by  a  cfjacked  fitting  or  piece  of  pipe,  this  defective 
material  should  be  replaced.  All  pipe  should  be  left  exposed 
during  the  test. 


78  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Hydrostatic  Test. — With  the  exception  of  openings  above 
roof,  all  outlets  In  the  plumbing  system  should  be  closed  as 
noted  in  the  air  test.  The  entire  system  is  then  filled  with 
water  from  a  water  connection  provided  in  a  testing  plug  placed 
at  the  foot  of  system  faee  Fig.  61).  Any  lowering  of  the  water 
in  the  stack  above  the  roof  or  any  presence  of  water  on  the 


Fio.  61. 

outside  of  pipe  in  the  building  indicates  a  teak.  The  system 
of  piping  should  be  filled  at  the  rate  of  2  ft.  at  a  time,  and  any 
leaks  that  develop  should  be  repaired  before  filling  another  2  ft. 
This  test  cannot  be  applied  on  high  buildings,  unless  the  system 
is  divided  into  small  sections.  Where  systems  are  in  tall  build- 
ings or  in  cold  climates,  it  is  advisable  not  to  use  the  water  test. 
The  peppermint  test  is  used  for  a  final  test,  after  all  fixtures 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION  79 

are  set,  or  for  testine  an  old  job  or  extension.  The  S3rstem  is 
arranged  with  all  openings  closed  except  top  openings  above 
roof.  Four  ounces  of  oil  of  peppermint  are  poured  into  every 
50-ft,,  4r-in.  stack  followed  at  once  by  2  gal.  of  boiling  water. 
This  is  poured  in  stack  through  the  roof  openings.  The  top 
openings  are  closed  and  the  fumes  are  allowed  to  circulate 
through  the  entire  system;  these  fumes  are  so  penetrating  that 
they  will  enter  the  building  through  any  defect  in  the  piping. 
The  leaks  can  be  found  by  tracing  the  odor.     The  mechanic 


who  handles  the  oil  of  peppermint  should  not  enter  the  build- 
ing. When  applying  this  test,  the  traps  under  all  fixtures 
should  be  filled  with  crude  oil.  Smoke  test  is  used  in  very  cold 
climates,  or  when  making  extensions  to  old  systems.  The 
piping  system  is  arranged  with  all  openings  closed  except  top 
openings  above  roof,  which  are  left  open  until  smoke  has 
started  to  come  out;  at  this  time  they  should  be  closed.  A 
al^ht  pressure,  not  over  1  in.  of  water,  is  allowable  when  apply- 
ing this  test  with  the  fixture  traps  in  place.  The  seal  of  trap 
is  1^  in.  of  water;  therefore,  if  the  pressure,  l}^  in.  of  water, 
was  appUed,  it  would  blow  through  seal  of  trap  and  render  test 
of  no  value.  If  there  are  any  leaks  in  the  system,  they  can 
easily  be  detected  by  the  presence  of  smoke.  To  generate 
smoke  and  slight  pressure,  burn  tarred  paper  or  oily  waste  in  a 
smoke  machine  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  92. 

DRIHIUNG  WATER 

Water  for  drinking  purposes  requires  a  separate  system  of 

water  piping.    To  insure  cool  water  at  each  fountain  head  the 


80 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


water  is  pumped  very  slowly  around  the  system,  and  through  el 
cooling  coil. 

The  fountain  should  be  trapped,  and  discharged  into  an  open 
sink,  which  is  properly  trapped  and  vented.  Fountain  heads 
should  be  so  made  that  it  is  impossible  for  drinker  to  touch,  or 
for  waste  water  to  touch,  the  orifice  of  stream. 

SEPTIC  TANKS 

Figures  63,  64  and  65  show  a  septic  tank  made  of  concrete. 
It  is  simple  in  design  and  effective  in  operation.  Sewage 
enters  the  first  tank  where  liquification  takes  place.    When 


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Fig.  63. 

this  tank  overflows,  it  discharges  into  the  dousing  chamber 
which  discharges  at  intervals,  whenever  it  is  full.  The  siphon 
controls  the  discharging  time.  The  operation  of  the  siphon 
is  automatic  and  is  dependent  upon  the  weight  of  water  for 
its  complete  action,  which  is  as  follows : 


uHet 


Fig.  64. 

The  water  as  it  enters  the  dousing  chamber  rises  above  the 
lower  rim  of  siphon  bell.  The  lower  trap  is  first  filled  with 
water.  As  the  water  rises  in  the  dousing  chamber,  it  traps  the 
air  in  the  upper  part  of  the  siphon  bell.    This  trapped  air, 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION  81 

graduaOy  forces  the  air  out  of  the  long  leg,  A,  of  traps  (see 
Fig.  66),  until  a  point  ia  reached  when  the  air  finds  its  way 
around  the  lower  bend  of  trap  and  escapes  up  through  the 


water  in  the  short  leg,  C,  of  trap.  At  this  point  the  water  head, 
B,  is  equal  to  water  head  D.  As  the  air  eacapes  up  through  C, 
a  little  water  is  carried  out  of  the  trap,  causing,  the  water  in 


the  trap  to  be  overbalanced  by  head  of  water  D.  The  equi- 
librium being  destroyed,  the  water  in  the  dousing  chamber 
ruahes  into  the  trap  and  flows  out  through  B,  and  the  siphon 


82  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

is  in  full  action  until  chamber  is  emptied.  To  secure  perfect 
operation  of  this  siphon,  the  outlet  must  be  enlarged,  to  give 
the  discharged  water  unrestricted  passage. 

Sewage  should  stay  in  this  septic  tank  about  48  hr.  The 
discharge  from  septic  tanks  should  take  place  intermittently 
rather  than  continuously.  A  system  of  piping  should  be  laid 
to  spread  the  discharge  over  considerable  area,  or  over  a  bed 
of  stone  to  aerate  it  thoroughly. 

VALVES  I 

Gates. — So  named  from  wedge-shaped  gate  which  is  raised 
and  lowered  by  operation  of  handle.  Gate  seats  on  two  sur- 
faces generally.  When  the  seat  is  only  on  one  side  of  the  gate, 
the  seat  side  should  be  screwed  on  pipe  toward  the  pressure. 
These  valves  give  fvU  water-way  opening.  They  are  manu- 
factured for  pressures  of  125,  150,  175,  and  250  lb.  for  steam, 
and  150,  175,  225,  and  350  lb.  for  water. 

Gate  valves  are  used  for  stops  in  lines  requiring  no  throttling. 
If  a  valve  is  to  be  used  as  a  throttle  at  all  then  a  globe  valve 
should  be  used. 

Globe  Valves. — The  tightness  of  this  type  of  valve  is  depen- 
dent upon  compression  seats,  metal  to  metal,  or  fiber  to  metal. 
The  valve  has  inlet  and  outlet  ends,  and  is  put  on  the  pipe  so  as 
to  close  against  the  pressure.  It  should  not  be  used  upon  a 
horizontal  line  unless  stem  of  valve  is  placed  in  a  horizontal 
position. 

The  globe  valve  offers  considerable  resistance  to  flow  of  water 
in  pipe.  The  globe  valve  of  angle-valve  pattern  does  not  offer 
the  same  resistance,  as  it  is  combined  with  a  90-deg.  angle. 

Check  valves  are  used  to  allow  the  water  or  steam  in  pipe  to 
travel  in  one  direction  only.  There  are  three  types  of  check 
valves:  horizontal  check,  vertical  check,  and  angle  check. 
These  types  can  be  had  in  swinging  or  lift  pattern  for  the  hori- 
zontal and  angle,  and  in  the  Uft  pattern  for  the  vertical. 

Care  of  Valves. — Pipe-joint  cement,  when  put  on  the  female 
end  of  thread,  works  its  way  into  valve  seat.  For  this  reason, 
cement  should  always  be  applied  to  the  male  end  of  thread. 
All  chips  and  scale  should  be  removed  from  the  interior  of  the 
pipe  before  attaching  valve.  Pipe  thread  should  not  screw  in 
the  valve  beyond  the  standard  length  of  thread;  otherwise  the 
end  of  the  pipe  may  strike  against  the  interior  of  valve  and 

I  See  "  Valve  Brass."  page  332. 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION  83 

strain  it.  The  pipe  wrench  should  always  be  used  on  the  end 
of  valve  that  is  being  screwed  on  pipe.  No  strain  should  be 
allowed  on  brass  valves,  as  they  cannot  stand  the  continued 
strain  as  well  as  pipe  and  fittings.  Wrenches  with  square 
jaws  only  should  be  used. 

Ground-key  work  is  used  mostly  for  gas  work,  to  stop  flow. 
No  packing  is  required  to  make  a  seat  tight.  The  interior  of 
the  valve  body  is  bored,  and  a  finished  surface  is  made  to  fit  a 
finished  surface  of  a  wedge-shaped  plug.  The  plug  is  drawn 
tight  against  body  of  the  valve,  making  a  friction  joint,  by 
means  of  a  nut  on  the  under  side  of  plug.  The  plug  has  a  slot 
cut  in  it  to  correspond  with  the  bore  of  pipe^  so  that  one-quarter 
turn  either  opens  or  closes  the  stop.  Ground-key  work  is  also 
used  on  water  as  a  stop  and  waste  cock,  special  types  being 
made  for  curb  cocks,  which  have  the  wedge-shaped  plug  inverted. 

Needle  valves  are  used  for  gas  or  oil  stops  or  on  water  where 
only  a  very  small  amount  of  water  is  required.  The  needle 
enters  outlet,  clears  the  passage,  and  assists  in  the  fiow  of  oil 
or  water. 

TRENCHES 

Sand. — When  sinking  a  trench  for  water  or  sewer  pipes  over 
4  ft.  deep  in  sandy  earth  the  sides  and  ends  of  trench  should  be 
sheathed  with  planks  2  in.  thick  and  10  or  12  in.  wide,  supported 
with  stringers  and  braces  at  top  and  bottom.  As  the  trench 
is  lowered  the  planks  are  driven  down  between  the  stringer  and 
bank  of  trench.  A  wood  mall  is  used  for  driving  plank.  The 
planks  are  withdrawn  after  the  trench  is  partly  refilled.  A  shoe 
or  chain  and  a  long  lever  are  used. 

Gravel. — Trenches  dug  in  gravel  require  only  sheathing  about 
every  2  ft.  This  corduroy  is  supported  with  stringers  and 
braces  (see  Fig.  67). 

Rock. — Where  shale  is  encountered  good  sharp  picks  will 
do  the  work.  SoUd  work  will  require  blasting  and  should  be 
done  by  some  one  who  thoroughly  understands  the  handling  of 
powder. 

As  a  rule  the  trench  for  sewer  is  lower  than  the  trench  for 
water  or  gas.  The  bottom  of  trench  should  not  be  dug  deeper 
than  level  upon  which  the  pipe  is  to  lay.  This  will  allow  the 
pipe  to  rest  on  virgin  ground,  and  prevent  settling.  To  save 
digging  it  is  possible  to  lay  the  sewer  and  water  pipes  as  shown 
in  Fig.  68.     After  the  sewer  pipe  is  laid  and  the  trench  refilled 


84 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


to  level  on  which  the  water  pipe  is  to  be  laid,  the  side  of  the 
trench  can  be  broken  away  for  2  ft.  and  the  shelf  thus  made  will 
provide  room  for  the  water  pipe. 


v..  • : 

, «   «  •  ■ 


"V*  •■-  .-.1. 

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End  View 


P/^/7>r '' 


"•  •  •."..*'•- 


Oravi^I 


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Side  View 
Fia.  67, 

Refill. — The  refill  of  trench  should  be  made  by  returning 
about  6  in.  of  dirt  then  tamping,  adding  again  6  in.  and  tamp- 
ing, repeating  this  process  until  the  trench  is  filled.  Water 
can  be  played  into  the  trench  while  it  is  being  refilled  and  the 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION  85 

dirt  will  be  well  settled.  All  the  dirt  taken  out  should  be 
returned  into  the  trench  except  that  amount  which  is  replaced 
by  the  pipe. 

When  digging  to  lay  long  lines  of  pipe  in  sandy  ground  or 
gravel,  it  is  necessary  to  dig  only  about  two-thirds  of  the  dis- 
tance as  15  ft.  can  be  dug  and  10  ft  tunnelled,  etc.,' until  the 
distance  is  covered. 


Shel^dugoutafftr 

Sewer  Trench  has 
httn  rrfilM 


PIPE  HEASUREHEHTS 
Strait  |»pe  meaBurements  are  always  given  from  end  to 
end  of  pipe.  When  a  fitting  is  used  on  one  end  of  the  pipe, 
the  measurement  reads  end  of  pipe  to  center  of  fitting  (Fig. 
69).  If  a  fitting  on  each  end  is  used,  the  measurement  reads 
center  to  center  {Fig.  70). 


-  EndtoCsnfsrs     — -w 


^ 


When  46-deg.  fittings  or  other  degree  fittings  are  used, 
measurements  are  rather  difficult  to  get.  Some  pipe  fitters 
add  5  in.  for  each  toot  the  line  is  offset  with  45-deg.  fittings,  A 
Wt.  offset  (Fig.  71)  would  mean  8  ft.  X  6  in.  =  30  in.     This 


86  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

added  to  6  ft.  =8  ft.  6  in.,  center  to  center.  From  this  must 
be  deducted  the  fittings,  leaving  the  exact  length  of  pipe  from 
end  to  end.  This  is  a  rough  way  to  get  this  measurement. 
Table  28  gives  a  constant  for  each  degree  fitting  used  in 
pipe  work.  In  using  the  table  in  the  above  problem,  note 
(Fig.  73)  a  triangle,  upon  which  the  measurement  we  want 
corresponds  with  C.    Then  on  the  line  with  45-deg.  fittings 


-CenferfoCenfer-fOFt ->| 


FiQ.  70. 

and  imder  C,  Column  4,  is  the  constant  1.4142.  This  con- 
stant, it  will  be  noted,  is  for  use  when  the  offset  is  1.  The 
offset  in  this  problem  is  6;  therefore,  1.4142  X  6  =  8.485  ft., 
which  for  practical  use  would  have  to  be  called  8K  ft.,  which  is 
the  measurement  wanted. 

If  60-deg.  fittings  were  used  in  the  above  example,  the 
measurement,  C,  would  then  be  1.1647  (Column  4  opposite  60 
deg.)  X  6  =  6.9282  ft.  • 


Fig.  71. 

If  22>^-deg.  fittings  were  used,  then  measurement  C,  would 
be  2.6131  (Column  4  opposite  223^  deg.)  X  6  =  15.6786  ft. 
From  measurement  C,  in  each  case  must  be  deducted  the 
distance  from  the  end  of  pipe  to  the  center  of  the  fitting.  These 
measurements  differ  with  different  makes  of  fittings;  therefore 
the  exact  measurements  of  fittings  should  be  taken  for  each 
case.i  This  table  can  be  used  to  great  advantage  to  determine 
the  proper  place  for  cutting  holes  in  ceilings,  walls  or  floors  when 

^See  Section  on  "Drainage  Fittings"   for  exact  measurements  of  fittings 
made  by  The  Kelley  and  Jones  Company. 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


87 


degree  fittings  are  to  be  used.  For  example  Fig.  72  shows  a 
pipe  extending  up  along  side  of  door,  which  breaks  over  and 
goes  through  the  floor  above.  The  pipe  is  brought  up  say  to 
within  1  ft.  of  the  ceiling.  If  it  is  desired  to  use  a  46-deg. 
fitting,  refer  to  Table  28,  and  the  constant  opposite  45-deg.  and 
under  A  (Column  3)  is  1;  then  1  X  1  ft.  (distance  from  ceiling) 

=  1  ft.  or  distance  A.  If  60-deg.  fittings  are  used,  opposite  60 
(Column  1)  under  A  (Column  3)  is  the  constant  1.732  X  1  ft. 

=  1.732  ft.  =  distance  A, 


/P/pe 


«4.A.!I-.11H.I.!  J^U.».ll.H..lJ.i..kl.  |1L..  til  J  ■-■■■■  ■■>■■■■  imji  If  Hi^i^ 


? 


Floor^ 


r  4 


^ 


Pipe- 


H  iinni.^ 


'"■'■"*" 


/A 

r 

? 

/     M 

o'x 

J 

/ 

• 
• 

i.    . 

V 

Fig.  72. 


Example, — A  4-in.  pipe  running  up  along  side  of  a  column  breaks 
over  on  account  of  an  open  room  above.  Pipe  must  extend  within 
10  in.  of  ceiling.  Where  will  the  hole  be  left  in  the  reinforced 
concrete  to  provide  pipe  space  if  67^-deg.  fittings  are  used? 

Solution. — Referring  to  Table  28  the  measurement  asked  for  is 
Ay  as  indicated  in  the  small  triangle  at  top  of  table.  Opposite 
67^-deg.  (Column  1)  and  under  A  (Column  3)  is  found  the  con- 
stant 2.414  (when  B  is  1).  In  this  problem  B  is  10  in.  therefore 
10  X  2.414  =  24.14  distance  A.  The  hole  in  ceiling  then  must  be 
cut  24.14  in.  away  from  the  center  of  upright  pipe. 

Very  often  it  is  necessary  to  extend  pipe  through  an  upright 
wall  as  indicated  in  Fig.  73,  with  the  use  of  different  degree 
fittings.  With  the  use  of  Table  28,  the  center  of  hole  to  be  cut 
for  the  pipe  can  be  determined  if  the  distance,  A,  can  be  meas- 
ured. Using  the  above  example,  A  equals  24.14  in.  The 
measurement  required  is  B.  As  67J^-deg.  fittings  were  used, 
look  opposite  67J^-deg.  fitting  (Colunm  1)  and  under  B  (Column 
2),  and  the  constant  0.4142  is  given  for  B,  when  A  is  1.  In 
this  example  A  is  24.14  in.  therefore,  B  would  equal  24.14  in. 
X  0.4142  =  9.99  in.  which  would  have  to  be  called  10  in.,  the 
measurement  given  in  the  above  example. 


88 


PLUMBERS*  HANDBOOK 


Table  28. — To  Find  Pipe  Measurement  When  Angle  ani> 

One  Side  are  Known 

To  find  center  of  pole  and  length  of  pipe — center  to  center — 
when  angle  of  fitting  is  known  (Col.  1)  and  one  side  or  offset. 


Fitting  used, 

Length  of  B 

Length  of  A 

Length  of  C 

deg. 

when  A  =  1 

when  B  =  1 

when  oflfset  =  1 

67^ 

.4142 

2.414 

1.0824 

60 

.5773 

1.732 

1.1547 

45 

1. 

1. 

1.4142 

30 

1.732 

.5773 

2. 

22^ 

2.414 

.4142 

2.6131 

1U4 

5.027 

.1989 

5.1258 

5H 

10.168 

.0983 

10.217 

Prepared  by  S.  E.  Dibble,  Dec,  1920. 

Expansion  of  Pipes. — Illustrations  show  various  ways  of 
arranging  pipes  and  fittings  to  accept  the  expansion  and  con- 
traction of  pipe.  Page  285  of  section  on  "Metals"  clearly 
gives  correct  information  concerning  the  expansion  of  metals. 
Attention  is  called  to  that  section,  in  which  it  will  be  found  that 
wrought  iron  expands,  when  heated  1°,  0.00000686  of  its  length. 
The  necessary  information  to  have  when  it  is  desired  to  find  the 
amount  a  certain  length  of  pipe  will  expand,  is  the  total  length 
of  pipe,  coefficient  of  expansion^  and  the  difference  in  temperature. 
(If  the  pipe  is  32°  at  time  of  installation,  and  the  temperature 
of  water  running  through  it  when  completed  is  190°,  then  the 
difference  in  temperature  will  be  190  —  32  =  158**.) 

Example. — What  expansion  allowance  must  be  made  in  a  line  of 
pipe  60  ft.  long  having  a  rise  in  temperature  of  125**?  Pipe  material 
is  wrought  iron. 

Solution. — Expansion  «  length  X  rise  in  temperature  X  coeffi- 
cient of  expansion. 

Expansion  =  60  X  125  X  0.00000686  =  0.05145  ft.  or 
Expansion  =  0.6174  in. 

This  formula  can  be  used  for  any  pipe,  regardless  of  material, 
by  changing  the  coefficient  of  expansion,  which  can  be  found  by 
referring  to  Table  29. 

Table  29  gives  the  expansion  of  wrought  iron,  steel,  cast  iron, 
copper,  brass,  in  lengths  of  25,  50,  and  100  ft.,  and  difference  in 
temperature  of  100,  150,  200,  225,  260,  300,  326,  360*. 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


89 


CD 

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ir>  —  —  -o 
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liilisil 


ao(s^ooO'^>oS 


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g  g  —  <*>  ^  ^  « 

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Pi^w^>irNooa^ov 


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90 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


The  following  example  shows  use  of  the  table. 

Example. — How  much  expansion  will  occur  in  a  line  of  pipe 
100  ft.  long?  Pipe  was  installed  during  weather  temperature  of 
30^,  and  the  maximum  hot- water  temperature  is  180®.  Pipe 
material  is  brass. 

SoltUion  by  Table  29. — Under  heading  brass  in  the  third 
column  100  ft.  and  down  the  cohimn  to  temperature  difference  of 
150®  is  found  figures  1.8666  in.,  which  is  the  amount  of  expansion 
for  the  above  pii>e. 

In  the  above  example  if  the  pipe  was  400  ft.  long  then  the  expan- 
sion would  be  1.8666  X  4  X  7.4664. 

Any  length  and  any  temperature  range  of  25  can  be  worked  out 
by  this  table. 


FiQ.  74. 


Fig.  76. 


FiQ.  76. 


Bzpansion  Joints. — The  type  of  joint  shown  in  Fig.  74, 
should  be  used  on  a  line  of  pipe  where  a  small  amount  of  expan- 
sion occurs.  In  this  joint,  the  arm,  Aj  should  extend  under  the 
floor  about  4  or  5  ft. 

Figures  75  and  76  show  expansion  swing  joints,  which  are 
made  on  the  job  by  means  of  five  and  six  fittings  respectively. 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


91 


These  joints  will  allow  for  more  expansion  than  that  shown  in 
Fig.  74.  Figure  77  shows  joint  made  of  fittings  for  lines 
running  horizontally.  Figure  78  shows  what  is  known  as  a 
U-bend,  and  should  be  anchored  at  A,  The  expansion  in 
this  bend  is  absorbed  by  the  straight  arms  and  relieved  by  the 


Anchor 


Fig.  77. 

curves.  The  radius  of  curves  for  standard  bends  should  be  6 
times  the  diameter  of  pipe.  The  U-expansion  joint  is  generally 
made  of  pipe  3  in.  in  diameter  or  larger,  and  has  proved  the 
most  satisfactory  of  all  expansion  joints. 

The  slip  expansion  joint  gives  excellent  service  when  placed  in 
an  open  line,  and  easily  accessible  for  repairs.     It  is  not  always 


•Anchor 


Ffcfnge^ 


Fio.  78. 


possible  to  have  expansion  joints  placed  in  accessible  places,  it  is, 
therefore,  necessary  to  use  the  types  f oimd  in  Figs.  74, 75,  and  76. 
Wherever  pipes  pass  through  walls,  floors  or  ceilings,  it  is  ad- 
visable first  to  insert  a  tube  which  is  larger  than  the  pipe.  The 
tube  acts  as  a  sleeve  for  the  pipe,  allowing  free  expansion. 
This  will  save  the  cracking  of  plastered  walls  and  ceilings. 


92 


PLUMBER'S  HANDBOOK 


When  expansion  joints  are  used,  the  pipe  must  be  anchored  at 
points  that  will  force  the  expansion  of  the  pipe  toward  the  joint 
provided  to  absorb  the  expansion.  Figure  77  show  correct 
places  for  anchor.  The  anchors  should  consist  of  hangers  or 
hooks  securely  clamped  to  the  pipe  as  well  as  to  the  building 
material,  and  must  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  hold  the  pipe 
securely  at  this  point. 

FLASHINGS 

To  keep  the  rain  and  snow  from  entering  building  around 
vent  pipe  and  leader  pipes,  where  they  pass  through  the  roof 
and  roofing  material,  flashings  must  be  made  tight,  and  must 
also  be  of  a  construction  that  will  allow  for  expansion  and  con- 


Copper 


rVenf'F/be 
CWrou^hi- Iron} 


Fig.  79. 

traction,  and  for  settling  of  the  building  or  pipe.  When  the 
flashings  are  made  of  weather  resisting  material  such  as  copper 
or  lead,  in  which  all  the  above  qualities  are  combined,  the  ideal 
flashing  is  obtained.  Copper  or  lead  flashings  can  be  formed 
around  any  sized  pipe  and  flashed  onto  any  roof  material. 
These  flashing  can  be  made  on  the  job  to  fit  any  conditions. 
Several  methods  for  flashing  construction  are  shown  in  Figs. 
79,  80,  81,  and  82.  Sixteen-ounce  copper  or  8-lb.  lead  should 
be  used  for  this  work.  Manufactured  flashings  can  be  pur- 
chased and  adjusted  to  fit  any  slope  roof.     It  should  always  be 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


93 


Leac/or^> 
Copper 


'M?ce3s^  Caup/m^ 


Jrbof 


Verrf-'pipe 
(Wrought Iran) 


FiQ.  80. 


Cap-Flashing  --^  \ 


Lead  or 
Copper 


Veni-'Pipe 
(Wrought  Iron) 


FiQ.  81. 


94 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


the  rule  that  the  flashing  used  on  any  roof  should  be  of  such 
material  and  construction  that  it  will  have  as  long  life  as  the 
roofing  material.  Figure  83  shows  a  good  flashing  for  heavily- 
constructed  flat  roofs.  This  is  known  as  the  Holt  vent-pipe 
flange.     The  flange  aroimd  pipe  flashings  should  extend  at 


Copper 


Lecfcf 
f  Oakum 


Roof 


Verrf-Ripe 
fCofsf  iron) 


Fig.  82. 


f/fbofCbverir^ 


I  3  ^i IV  mum  fbr 
^Roof  Strucfurf 

\ 

Slioft'r^iock  Cofhr 


Fig.  83. 


least  12  in.  beyond  each  side  of  the  pipe.  Toward  the  peak  of 
the  roof,  the  flange  should  extend  up  in  under  the  roof-covering 
material,  and  toward  the  gutter  the  flange  should  extend  wer 
the  roof-covering  material. 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


95 


Siphonic  Action. — Most  of  the  plumbing  fixtures  are  operated 
by  means  of  syphonic  action.  Detrimental  results  of  siphonic 
actions  occur  when  traps  are  unsealed,  and  closed  storage  tanks 
collapse.  The  syphon  is  a  bent  tube  with  unequal  length  arms, 
which  when  filled  with  hquid  will  draw  liquid  up  and  out  of 
one  vessel  into  another  lower  vessel.  Figure  84  illustrates. 
When  the  short  arm  of  the  syphon  is  submerged  in  water  of 
receptacle  A,  and  the  long  arm  is  filled  with  water,  the  water 
will  flow  out  of  the  long  arm  and  receptacle    A  until  level  of 


Shorf^rm--*: 


X 


Long  Arm 


y 


Fig.  84. 

water  has  been  lowered  to  the  end  of  the  short  arm.  The  flow 
of  water  up  the  short  arm  can  be  stopped  by  the  admission 
of  air  at  the  top  of  bend  as  shown  at  B.  The  short  arm  must 
not  be  over  34  ft.  in  length,  in  practice  much  less. 

Traps  are  bent  pieces  of  pipe  or  assembled  fittings,  made  to 
hold  water  and  shaped  so  that  an  unobstrticted  passage  is  pro- 
vided for  the  flow  of  sewage,  without  materially  affecting  its 
flow;  also  to  prevent  the  passage  of  drain  air  into  the  rooms. 

The  points  that  a  trap  should  possess  to  make  it  sanitary  are, 
as  follows: 

1.  Sufficient  water  to  withstand  evaporation. 

2.  Sufficient  depth  of  seal  to  withstand  syphonic  action. 

3.  Should  be  self  scouring,  with  each  flush. 

4.  Should  be  provided  with  cleanout. 

5.  No  interior  wires  or  obstructions. 


96 


PLUMBERS^  HANDBOOK 


Sjrphon  Traps. — The  type  of  traps  that  can  be  syphoned  out 
under  ordinary  conditions  when  not  vented  are  called  syphon 
traps.  The  standard  S-trap,  as  shown  in  Fig.  85,  is  the  simplest 
form  of  syphon  trap.  This  trap  has  all  the  advantages  as 
described  above,  but  must  be  vented  to  hold  its  seal.  It  is 
made  in  full  "S,"  >^  "S,"  %  "S,''  and  running,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  85.  The  running  trap  offers  the  least  resistance  against 
the  back  pressure  of  drain  air. 


^ 


Fig.  85. 


Trap  Seal. — The  seal  of  a  syphon  trap  is  that  section  shown  in 
Fig.  85  at  A.  This  seal  can  be  broken  in  a  number  of  different 
ways:  self-syphonage,  aspiration,  evaporation,  capillary  attrac- 
tion, momentum. 

Loss  of  Trap  Seal. — A  trap  can  lose  its  seal  by  adf-syphonage 
when  a  full  S-  or  a  %  S-trap  is  used.  Conditions  of  a 
long  arm  of  syphon  do  not  exist  when  the  J^  S-trap  or  running 
trap  is  used.  Figure  86  shows  clearly  the  action  of  self  syphon- 
age  when  the  water  discharged  completely  fills  trap  and  arm, 
or  branch  leading  to  stack,  which  forms  a  true  syphon  and 
unseals  the  trap. 

Aspiration. — When  a  trap  is  placed  on  a  stack,  and  a  larger 
trap  is  placed  above  it  on  the  same  stack,  then  the  lower  trap 
will  be  unsealed  when  the  upper  trap  discharges  (see  Fig.  94). 
The  upper  trap  will  discharge  water  into  the  stack,  completely 
filling  the  bore  of  the  stack;  thus  making  a  solid  plug  of  water. 
This  plug  of  water  drops  down  the  stack  and  acts  exactly  as  a 
pump  plunger  reversed,  and  creates  a  partial  vacuum  directly 
back  of  the  plug  of  water.  Therefore,  as  this  plug  passes  the 
opening  of  lower  trap,  the  water  in  the  seal  of  the  trap  rushes 
out  to  fill  the  vacuum  created  by  the  rush  of  the  plug  of  water 
down  the  stack.  This  action  causes  the  lower  trap  to  lose  its 
seal. 

The  resistance  offered  by  the  fvll  S-trap  against  syphonage 
when  the  seal  is  l3^^  in.  deep,  is  as  follows: 

Atmospheric  pressure  is   14.7  lb.   per  square  inch.     If  a 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


97 


Trap  Losing 
Seat 


Fia.  86. 


from  abvv& 


4 


Plug  of  Woff^r 
Prviwmg  Trap  Seal 


Fia.  87. 


98 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


vacuum  is  caused  on  the  sewer  side  of  trap,  the  atmospheric 
pressure  will  force  down  on  the  surface  of  water  at  the  rate  of 
14.7  lb.  per  square  inch.  To  offset  this  pressure,  the  seal  of 
trap  offers  a  resistance  of  1 3^  in.  seal,  or  column  of  water, 
which  in  oimoes  equals,  0.867  oz.  per  square  inch,  figured  as 
follows. 

A  column  of  water  1  in.  square  and  1  ft.  high  —  0.434  lb. 

1  m.  of  water  =  0.434  -r-  12  =  0.03616  lb. 

13^  in.  of  water  (or  seal)  =  0.03616  X  IJ^  =  0.867  oz. 

Momentum. — It  is  possible  imder  the  right  conditions  to 
break  the  seal  of  a  trap  by  momentum.  However,  a  condition 
hardly  exists  today  that  could  cause  this.  The  trap  must  be 
placed  underneath  the  outlet  of  fixtyre  a  sufficient  distance  for 
the  water  discharged  to  gather  enough  momentum  to  pass  en- 
tirely through  and  beyond  the  trap.  Present  practice  demands 
that  a  trap  be  placed  directly  under  the  fixture,  also  almost 
every  fixture  has  a  strainer  which  prevents  the  outlet  pipe  from 
being  completely  filled  with  water. 


FiQ.  88. 


Capillary  Attraction. — This  means  by  which  a  trap  loses  its 
seal,  is  of  no  fault  of  the  trap  or  piping  for  trap,  but  is  due  to  the 
user's  carelessness.  Lint,  hair,  and  soap  accumulate  over  the 
crown  of  the  trap,  and  with  one  end  in  the  water  and  the  other 
extending  down  the  outlet  pipe  act  as  a  wick,  drawing  the 
water  out  of  the  trap  and  dropping  it  on  the  other  side  of  the 
crown  into  the  discharge  pipe.  A  trap  may  thus  be  unsealed 
over  night  by  a  piece  of  lint,  etc.,  as  big  as  a  pencil. 

Non-syphon  traps  differ  from  syphon  traps  in  that  the  seal 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION  99 

will  not  be  entirely  destroyed  by  syphonic  action,  when  placed 
properly  on  a  plumbing  system  (see  Figs.  89,  90,  91  and  92). 

The  drum  trap  is  a  sample.  When  conditions  occur  that 
usually  break  the  seal  of  a  syphon  trap,  the  water  in  the  seal  of 
a  drum  trap  is  only  partly  drawn  out.  Enough  always  remains 
in  the  trap  to  seal  it.  The  drum  trap  has  a  large  body  of 
water  in  it  and  does  not  thoroughly  scour  its  self  at  each  flush; 
this  feature  makes  it  an  objectionable  trap  to  use  imder  most 
conditions  (see  Fig.  89). 

Mechanically  sealed  traps  are  dependent  upon  some  form  of 
mechanism  to  seal  them  and  prevent  entrance  of  sewer  air. 
These  traps  perform  their  function  properly  until  such  time 
that  the  mechanism  becomes  destroyed  and  renders  the  trap 


Fio.  89.  Fig.  90.  Fio.  91.  Fio.  92. 

useless  (see  Fig.  90).  Traps  having  interior  wiers  should  not  be 
accepted  as  ideal  traps,  as  there  is  always  the  possibility  of  the 
wire  being  a  poor  casting  with  a  crack  or  sand  hole  in  it;  or  it 
may  be  destroyed  by  usage.  This  would  allow  the  water  in  the 
seal  of  the  trap  to  discharge  out  into  drain  hne,  and  the  seal 
would  be  broken.  If  it  were  possible  to  see  the  level  of  water  in 
the  trap  at  all  times,  it  would  then  be  possible  to  rectify  any 
defect  in  the  trap  that  develops.  Glass  traps  are  sometimes 
used. 

Grease  Traps. — Are  used  to  receive  the  discharge  from  all 
large  sinks  in  hotels,  restaurants,  and  large  dwellings.  The 
object  of  these  traps  is  to  intercept  the  grease,  which  is  in  a 
molten  state,  before  it  gets  into  the  sewerage  system.  To 
accomplish  this  object  a  large  trap  is  installed  of  sufficient  size 
to  receive  twice  the  capacity  of  the  fixture  discharging  into  it; 
thus  giving  one  discharge  time  to  cool  and  allow  the  grease  to 
rise  to  the  top  of  the  trap,  where  it  can  be  taken  out  by  means  of 
a  cleanout  placed  on  the  top  of  trap. 

The  better  type  of  these  traps  is  made  with  a  water-jacket  or 
water-chamber  partition  (see  Fig.  93).  All  water  used  in  the 
kitchen  is  first  run  through  the  water  chamber  in  the  trap, 


100 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


effecting  a  cooling  jacket  which  readily  congeals  the  grease  in 
the  trap.  It  is  always  well  to  locate  these  traps  outside  of  the 
building,  for  the  offensive  odor  given  off  during  the  process  of 
cleaning  is  objectionable  when  the  trap  is  located  in  the  house. 


ColdVAsrterOuflof 
V/Pipe 


Cold  Wafer  ihlv^ 
c- x5/ 


Fig.  93. 


A  brick  pit  can  be  built  just  outside  the  kitchen,  in  which  the 
traps  can  be  placed  at  a  level  below  frost  line.  Grease  traps 
should  be  vented. 

VENTS 

Vents  must  be  provided  on  plumbing  systems  to  allow  the  free 
passage  of  waste  from  fixtures.  Without  vents,  the  plumbing 
system  would  become  air  bound,  similiar  to  a  small-necked 
bottle  filled  with  water  and  inverted.     The  water  in  the  bottle 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


101 


will  not  run  out  unless  it  is  with  violent  commotion,  noise,  and 
considerable  time.  If  a  hole  the  size  of  the  bottle  neck  were 
made  in  the  bottom  of  the  bottle,  the  water  would  escape  when 
inverted  without  commotion  or  noise,  and  with  sufficient 
velocity  to  empty  the  bottle  quickly.  For  this  reason  it  is 
necessary  to  vent  the  plumbing  at  the  proper  place  and  with 
the  proper  size  pipe.  This  process  also  insures  best  of  sanitary 
conditions.  Vents  necessary  to  furnish  the  above  con- 
ditions are  the  ventilation  pipe,  trap  vents,  and  fresh-air  inlet. 


street  ^""-''y^ 


Fig.  94. 

These  pipes  as  the  Drawing  94  shows,  allow  a  free  parage  of 
fresh  air  throughout  the  plumbing  system  (see  dotted  arrow 
lines).  When  a  fixture  as  A,  (Fig.  94)  is  discharged,  the  air  is 
driven  out  of  the  pipes  by  the  rush  of  water,  the  air  finding 
an  outlet  as  shown  by  heavy  straight-line  arrows.  The  water 
not  being  held  back  by  air  pressure  in  front  or  by  lack  of  air  to 
replace  it,  finds  its  way  with  maximum  velocity  to  the  sewer. 

Size  of  Vents. — The  vent  pipes  from  a  fixture  trap  should  be 
of  equal  size  with  the  outlet  in  fixture,  but  never  less  than  1 J^ 
in.  When  a  number  of  vents  are  attached  to  one  main  vent 
pipe,  the  main  vent  pipe  should  be  of  such  size  as  the  total  area 
of   fixture  outlets. 

Material  of  Vent  Pipes. — Pipe  and  fittings  used  to  vent  a  trap 
or  line  of  pipe  should  be  made  of  galvanized  iron  or  steel,  lead, 
or  cast  iron.     Black  iron  or  steel  pipe  should  never  be  used. 


102 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Fittings  should  be  of  galvanized  iron,  steam  pattern.  Bends  of 
90  deg.  should  be  avoided  when  installing  vent  pipes;  45-deg. 
and  crooked  threads  may  be  used. 

Ventilation  pipe  is  the  pipe  that  extends  from  the  highest 
fixture  up  to  and  through  the  roof.  It  should  be  carried  up  full 
size,  and  never  less  that  4  in.  in  cold  cUmates,  as  hoar  frost  soon 
fills  the  pipe  that  is  extended  above  the  roof,  if  2  in.  pipe  is  used. 


-Future. 
Connection 


J-^    Brtd  Floor 


Outlet 


Fig.  05  A. 
Crown  venting. 


Roof 


u 


tst.Floor 


\r 


rVeni- 
Pltchy/porfdot 


=^5)0 


y 


¥ih9re  HyM^Toek^^iemoff^  -  ■ 
Waste 


Pig.  96  C. 
Good  practice  and  a  saving  on 
installation  cost,  but  allowed 
only  in  a  few  states. 


Basement 


9U. 


Fig.  05  B. 
Continuous  vent. 


JThr^4ffh  Roof 

ftrl rC^^^^t^^H^ 


Through 
Roof 

3'Wnt 


1 


^F 


Fig.  05  D.— Unit  venting. 


::    5\iibsh^ 


FiQ.  96. 


Jo  House  Dnr in  oi^Jn 


^  House  Orai'n 

Fig.  05  E. — Circuit  venting. 


'l^t 


Figure  95 A  illustrates  "crown  venting."  Figure  95B  shows 
the  type  of  venting  known  as  "continuous  venting.''  It  is 
the  simplest  system  now  in  use,  and  does  not  require  re- 
venting  when  trap  is  some  distance  from  the  stack  as  indicated 
in  Fig.  960.  Simplified  plumbing  known  as  "imit  venting" 
can  be  used  when  conditions  allow  fixtures  to  be  placed  close  to 
the  stack,  as  shown  in  Fig.  95D, 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


103 


When  a  number  of  toilets  are  on  one  line,  the  venting  as 
shown  in  Fig.  95^  can  be  used;  note  the  circuit  vent  taken  off 
between  the  last  two  closet  connections.  In  some  states,  each 
closet  fixture  connection  must  be  vented  as  shown  in  Fig.  96F; 
where  this  system  is  used;  it  is  called  separate  venting. 

Table  31. — Pipe  Wrenches 


Size  of  wrench,  inches. . . 

6 

8 

10 

14 

18 

24 

36 

48 

Length  when  open,  inches 

6 

8 

10 

M 

18 

24 

36 

48 

Takes  pipe  from,  inches. 

Hto 

Hto 

Hto 

1 

Mto 
1H 

Mto 
2 

Mto 
2^6 

Hto 
3H 

1  to5 

Pipe  wrenches  and  tongs  are  used  for  screwing  pipe  and 
fittings  together.  Sizes  from  6  to  48  in.  (see  Table  31)  are 
used.  The  correct  sized  wrench  should  be  used  on  a  given 
sized  pipe.  If  a  wrench  too  small  is  used,  it  will  be  strained 
and  soon  be  of  no  value;  if  one  that  is  too  large  is  used,  the 
leverage  will  be  so  great  that  fittings  will  be  cracked  or  pipe 
crushed. 

Chain  tongs  are  used  for  large  pipe.  The  chains  are  either 
round  or  flat  link.    Table  32  gives  sizes  and  capacities. 


Table  32. — Chain  Tongs 


Length  of  handle,  inches. . 

27 

36 

Me 

48 

60 

72 

84 

Sise  of  chain,  inches. : 

Me 

^8 

H 

H 

H 

Size  of  pipe,  inches 

1  to  2 

lMto4 

2  to  6 

2Hto8 

4  to  10 

4  to  16 

Hydraulic  ram,  as  shown  in  Fig.  96,  is  used  to  raise  water 
from  a  stream  to  storage  tank.  The  ram  is  a  combined  pump 
and  motor.  The  ram  is  set  down  at  a  point  that  will  allow  the 
drain  pipe,  C,  to  rise  about  3  ft.  Water  rushing  down  the 
drain  pip6,  C,  is  suddenly  stopped  by  the  closing  of  check  valve 
A,  The  water  will  flow  through  valve  B  into  the  air  chamber 
E.  The  rebound  caused  by  the  sudden  closing  of  valve  A,  and 
the  compressibility  of  air  in  chamber  Ej  will  cause  valve  B  to 


104 


^ 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


close  and  valve  A  to  open.    This  cycle  is  continuous  as  long 
as  water  flows  down  the  drain  pipe  C 


i 


sa^^ 


Fig.  96. 


Table  33. — Hydraulic  Ram  Discharge 


Diam- 
eter of 
drive 
pipe 


Gallons 
per  min- 
ute, flow 
of  stream 


Fall  of  power, 
water  in  feet 


Mini- 
mum 


Maxi- 
mum 


Diam- 
eter of 

dis- 
charge 

pipe 


Will 

elevate 

for 

each 

foot 

of  fall 


Limit 
of 

dis- 
charge 

net, 
in  feet 


Weight 


>4 
1 

2 
3 
4 
6 


>ito2 

3 

40 

H 

30 

300 

2to4 

3 

40 

^ 

35 

400 

Stoll 

3 

40 

M 

35 

400 

8  to  18 

3 

40 

1 

35 

400 

10  to  25 

2 

40 

1 

35 

400. 

20  to  40 

2 

40 

U^ 

35 

400 

35  to  75 

W^ 

40 

2 

30 

300 

100  to  200 

U1» 

30 

3 

35 

300 

35 
50 
1^ 
292 
400 
500 
779 
1.600 


Right  and  left  couplings  are  made  tight  in  the  following 
manner.  A  right-hand  thread  is  cut  on  one  piece  of  the  pipe 
that  is  to  be  joined,  and  a  left-hand  thread  on  the  other.  The 
coupling  is  screwed  up  tight  on  the  right  thread;  it  is  then  taken 
off,  and  the  required  number  of  turns  are  counted.  The 
coupling  is  then  screwed  up  on  the  left  thread,  and  necessary 
turns  counted  when  it  is  taken  off.  If  the  required  turns  on  the 
left  thread  were  6  and  on  the  right  thread  were  4J^,  then  to 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION  105 

make  the  coupling  tight,  the  left  thread  must  be  started  first 
with  IJ^  turns;  then  4J^  more  turns  will  make  both  threads 
tight. 

Water  Hammer. — The  sudden  closing  of  a  valve,  or  faucet 
causes  the  flowing  water  to  rebound  against  the  sides  of  pipe 
and  valve.  This  rebound  produces  a  severe  impulse,  that  is 
heard  throughout  the  entire  piping  system.  A  loose  or  soft 
packing  may  produce  a  similar  rebound  of  water,  but  in  this 
case  it  is  a  series  of  shocks,  and  sounds  like  a  severe  rattling 
of  pipes.  This  noise  is  called  water  hammer.  Water  in  the 
pipes  will  not  absorb  this  hammering,  as  water  is  incompressible. 
An  air  chamber  placed  near  quick  closing  valves  will  stop  all 
water  hammer.  The  air  in  chamber  will  compress  with  each 
shock  of  water  hammer,  absorbing  the  strain  that  would 
otherwise  exert  itself  against  the  sides  of  pipe. 

Self  closing  faucets  should  never  be  installed  without  an  air 
chamber  attached  to  supply. 

The  pressure  resulting  from  water  hammer  is  estimated  by 
experiment,  to  be  three  times  that  of  the  initial  pressure. 
When  a  system  is  provided  with  air  chambers,  the  pressure  due 
to  water  hammer,  does  not  exceed  twice  the  initial  pressure 
(see  "Hydraulic  Ram")* 

Storm  and  Sanitary  Drains.^Drawings  97,  98,  99,  100,  101 
and  102  illustrate  six  methods  of,  connecting  storm  and  sanitary 
drains.  Figure  97  shows  the  two  back  leaders  entering  the 
house  drain,  and  the  two  front  leaders  entering  the  house  sewer. 
Storm  waters  will  clean,  and  flush  the  sanitary  drains,  when  this 
connection  is  iused.  ' 

In  a  community  where  a  sewage  disposal  plant  is  used,  the 
storm  waters  should  not  discharge  into  the  sanitary  drains. 

In  Fig.  OS  the- two  back  leaders  enter  the  house  sewer,  but 
run  inside  of  building.  The  two  front  leaders  enter  the  house 
sewer  and  run  outside  of  building. 

In  Fig.  99  all  leaders  extend  inside  of  building,  one  trap  is 
\ised  for  illl  four.  Connection  is  made  with  house  sewer.  In 
Fig.  100  all  leaders  run  outside  of  building,  and  connect  with 
house  sewer, 

A  sump  is  used  in  Fig.  101;  all  sewage  and  a  little  storm  watei' 
enters  sump,  from  where  it  is  pumped  up  to  sufficient  height  so 
that  it  will  flow  by  gravity  to  main  sewer. 

When  one  building  is  set  in  the  rear  of  another -building,  "& 
connection  similar  to  the  one  shown- in  -Fig.- 102-  is  made.-   'Tkb 


106 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


drain  for  rear  house  is  properly  dropped  and  then  extended 
through  front  building  and  connected  with  the  house  sewer. 

Principle  of  hot-water  circulation  in  a  domestic  hot-water 
storage  tank  is  shown  in  Fig.  103.  The  small  cut  (Fig.  107) 
illustrates  a  glass  tube  filled  with  water.     Heat  is  applied  on  one 


ry'K^ 


Fig.  97. 


Fig.  98. 


Fig.  99. 


Fig.  100. 


Fig.  101. 


Fig.  102. 


side  A.  The  water  in  A  rises,  and  in  B  it  drops,  causing  thereby 
a  circulation  which  continues  as  long  as  heat  is  applied  at  A. 
Domestic  hot-water  piping  systems  are  arranged  on  this  princi- 
ple of  circulation,  as  will  be  noted  in  Fig.  103.  Over  this  sketch 
of  a  storage  tank  and  heater,  has  been  placed  Qight  lines)  the 
glass  tube  and  heat,  and  the  circulation  is  clearly  shown. 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


107 


Fixture  connecHon  must  be 
Hakeh  from  this  Pipe 


•ii 


Al 


L. 

£           i  ~ 

II                  r 

B 


\ 


Gbss  Tube  arid 
Flpme  showing 
Circulation 


Tarfi 


O'rculaHon  F/'pe  -^ 
Fig.  103. 


M 


Tank 


r-T, 


.•t== 


5mk 


n 


ii 


il 

i! 


^ 


I 


ll 
II 
II 
II 

II 
II 
ll 
II 

V 


'I 

I 


II 


'Shuf-off 


t 


Vkrher  Sack 


E^ 


OraW'Off 


Haf 


^r^ 


•Cold  Suppi^ 


Fia.  104. 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


109 


1^en  water  is  not  being  drawn  and  heater  is  operating,  a  cir- 
culation will  be  created  through  the  storage  tank  as  shown  by- 
arrows.  There  will  also  be  a  circulation  through  pipe  C  and  the 
circulation  pipe,  provided  a  fixture  connection  is  taken  from 
pipe  C  to  carry  oflp  the  occasional  accumulation  of  air. 

Figures  104,  105,  106,  107,  and  108  show  various  methods  of 
connecting  storage  tank  with  heaters. 


Co/cf 


Gas 

W7fer 

Heaier 


Laundrjj 
lank  Heater, 


\ 


I 


Hase  Connection 
y'Dmw-off 


FiQ.  107. 


Water  backs  are  installed  in  kitchen  ranges  and  are  made  of 
cast  iron.  About  110  sq.  in.  are  exposed  to  the  fire,  which  will 
heat  about  118  gal.  of  water  per  hour.  The  amoupt  of  water 
heated  can  easily  be  figured. 

One  square  foot  of  cast  iron  will  transmit  1.55  heat  units  per 
degree  per  hour;  there  are  110  sq.  in.  in  water  back.  Then  there 
will  be  transmitted  1.18  B.t.u.  per  110  sq.  in.,  per  degree  per  hour. 

1  B.t.u.  raises  1  lb.  water  1®  per  hour. 

1.18  B.t.u.  will  raise  1.18  lb.  water  1°  per  hour. 


110  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

W»tor  ia  EeneTaUy  raised  ftom  35  lo  ISST.     The  ni 


GalloDH  heated  - 


K  difference  in  temperBture 


Oallons  heated  —  - 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


111 


The  efficiency  of  the  ordinary  heater  is  not  over  SO  per  cent, 
when  conuderfttion  is  given  to  the  ash  that  is  generally  against 
the  water  back,  poor  firing,  etc.  Consequently,  the  above 
water  back  would  be  rated  to  heat  only  118  gal.  per  houi,  or 
about  35  gal.  every  20  min. 

Hydbostatic  Table 

1  CuUc  toot  of  wftMr  minlu  02.6  lb. 

I  Cubic  inoh  ol  wmter  wdahi  0.03S17  lb. 

A  eoliunD  of  VBtcr  1  ia.  ■Qiur«,  1  ft.  high  wsiAha  0.434  Ib- 

I  Cable  iDoh  of  water  equali  0.00SS17  iil. 

I  aiUaa  of  nter  equal  S,33S  lb. 

1  OtHoa  of  water  aqiula  231  cu.  in. 

1  Cubis  toot  of  wster  equala  7.47  sal. 

1  Pound  of  water  equalg  27.7  cu.  in. 

The  eipaniion  of  water  from  32°F.  (fTseiini)  to  212°  (bmlini)  it  1  0^ 
in  sBoh  23  of  spproiimately  Hi  per  cent.  In  figurine  uxwU  of  water  ita 
bulk  or  quantity  ia  oonaidBred.  In  deUrminina  jrreuun.  th*  bdabt  ot  ita 
column  ia  flcured,  0.434  lb.  for  each  loot  of  heiiht. 


r 


HangefB  should  be  placed  not  more  than  10  ft.  apart  when 
supportJQg  wroughUron  pipe,  every  5  ft.  and  at  each  joint  when 
aupporting  cast>-iron  pipe.  Lead  pipe  should  be  supported  its 
entire  length. 

A  chalk  line  should  be  used  to  provide  a  atrsight  line  for 
hangers. 

Figures  109,  110,  and  HI  show  methods  ot  supporting  pipe 
from  brick  and  concrete  walla.  Figure  112  shows  method  of 
hanging  one  or  more  from  ceiling. 

Figure  113  ahows  the  use  of  an  iron  beam  clamp  and  band- 
iron  hanger  used  on  structural  steel.  Figure  114  shows  a  lag 
screw  fitted  to  split  hanger  for  use  on  wooden  joist.     Figures 


112  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Galv  nffing 


joool 


FiQ.  lis.  Fio,  116.  Pio.  117. 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


113 


115,  116,  and  117  show  use  of  spike  hook,  pipe  strap,  and  wire 
hanger.  Figures  118  and  119  show  use  of  toggle  bolt  and 
method  of  securing  hangers  and  supports  to  terra-cotta. 


Fig.  118. 


I 


I 


t^ 


y-K 


4^7erra- 


v:. 


■^y->:^;fijr 


,  ■   '  *  *    '  *  -  ■ 


y/;^<^' 


^'^^>^.9*::* 


Nut  and 
)f/a&her 


-^ 


«^=Ljtiii.£^.>. 


»r 


\ 


Fig.  119. 


PIPING  SYSTEM 

A  plumbing  system  with  names  and  location  of  pipes  in 
relation  to  other  pipes  is  shown  in  Fig.  91. 

The  house  sewer  extends  from  the  street  sewer  to  foundation 
wall  of  building.  The  material  of  pipe  can  be  extra  heavy  cast 
iron  or  terra-cotta.  The  depth  of  this  pipe  determines  the 
depth  of  the  house  drain.  It  should  be  laid  with  a  fall  of 
about  J^  in.  per  foot. 

The  house  trap,  main  trap,  intercepting  trap  (names  used 
synonymously)  intercepts  the  house  drain  and  house  sewer. 
It  should  be  set  level,  have  a  deep  seal,  and  have  two  cleanout 
holes.  The  size  of  trap  should  be  one  size  larger  than  the 
house  drain.     Material  is  cast  iron  or  terra-cotta. 

The  house  drain  extends  from  the  intercepting  trap  under 
building  and  receives  the  discharge  from  all  stacks.  The 
material  of  this  pipe  is  extra  heavy  cast  iron,  or  terra-cotta 
when  imder  ground.  Galvanized  wrought  iron  can  be  used 
when  above  ground.  Cleanouts  should  be  placed  at  every 
change  in  direction  of  drain,  and  at  least  every  30  ft.  -For 
size  of  this  drain  see  page  72. 

The  fresh-air  inlet  (see  detail  connection,  Fig.  120),  as  shown 
in  Fig.  94,  is  placed  on  all  plumbing  systems  where  a  main  or 
8 


114 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


house  trap  is  used.  The  function  of  the  fresh-air  inlet  is  to 
provide  fresh  air  to  the  plumbing  system  of  pipes  at  its  lowest 
point.  The  fresh-air  inlet  should  connect  directly  with  the 
house  side  of  main  trap  or  within  1  ft.  of  same;  it  should  then 
extend  to  the  outer  air  as  far  away  from  nearest  window  or 
house  opening  as  the  building  site  or  building  design  will  allow. 
The  opening  of  outlet  Which  is  located  outside  of  building 


ftrkshttf 


^    FmuhFft 


=5=»5=5i 


Aufomaf-i'c 
Fresh  Air  Cap 


TOHOUiB 


i 


FiQ.  120. 


should  be  sufficiently  high  above  the  ground  level  to  avoid  being 
stopped  with  leaves,  rubbish  or  snow.  On  account  of  the  snow 
in  cold  climates,  the  level  of  outlet  would  have  to  be  higher 
above  ground  than  in  warmer  chmates.  When  street  sewers 
are  well  laid  out  and  ventilated,  the  main  house  trap  and  fresh- 
air  inlet  may  be  done  away  with.  When  this  system  is  adopted, 
plumbing  systems  should  receive  an  inspection  and  test  peri- 
odically at  least  every  6  years. 

The  soil  pipe  receives  the  discharge  from  water  closets,  and 
for  one  water  closet  can  be  3  in.  in  diameter  (where  ordinance 
does  not  require  4  in.  as  smallest  size).     Material  for  soil  pipe 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


115 


can  be  cast  iron,  lead,  or  wrought  iron.     Thid  pipe  connects 
with  the  house  drain  and  terminates  in  the  ventilation  pipe. 

The  ventilation  pipe  extends  from  the  top  fixture  up  through 
and  2  ft.  above  the  roof.     It  is  never  used  as  a  waste  pipe. 

The  waste  pipe  is  any  pipe  that  receives  the  discharge  from 
any  fixture  other  than  a  water  closet.  It  connects  with  house 
drain  and  terminates  in  the  ventilation  pipe,  and  is  never  used 
as  a  ventilation  pipe. 

A  vent  pipe  extends  from  the  sewer  side  of  a  trap,  near  the 
waste  pipe,  to  the  ventilation  pipe.  It  is  never  used  as  a  waste 
pipe. 

METERS 

Registers  are  furnished  on  all  sizes  and  types,  circular  or 
straight  reading,  indicating  in  gallons,  cubic  feet,  liters,  or  any 


rcfKi 

50«naxfmum 
M[v«r»MrMin. 

A 

Inchts 

B 

Inches 

C 
Miches 

0 

1nch«» 

K 

Inches 

Vlfeigihf  Pounds 

Cubic 

Gallons 

Net 

Soxed 

1 

3V3 
8% 

65 

9 

10^ 

878 

5 
8^ 

1^ 
Z 

z% 

9b 
21 

13 

Fig.  121. 


other  unit.  It  is  economical  to  select  the  unit  upon  which  the 
charge  for  water  is  based.  The  gallon  is  the  proper  unit  if 
the  rates  are  based  on  a  certain  charge  per  1,000  gal.;  the  cubic 
foot  if  upon  a  certain  charge  per  100  cu.  ft.  The  ease  in  read- 
ing the  straight-reading  register  appeals  to  the  popular  mind, 


116 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


but  experienced  metfer  readers  prefer  the  circular  register. 
Mechanically,  the  circular  register  with  its  simple  train  of  gears 
in  constant  mesh,  is  superior  to  the  straight  reader,  with  its 
mutilated  gears  in  intermittent  mesh;  in  actual  service,  there 
is  little  difference.  Mistakes  in  reading  are  more  frequent  with 
the  latter  type,  since  partly  discolored  or  dirty  figures  cannot 
be  identified  as  on  the  circular  register  by  the  location  of  the 
register  hand.  Figure  121  gives  exact  measurements  which 
are  necessary  to  have,  on  large  work,  before  installing  pipe. 


MOLE 
SKt  N 


1 

!  / 


1 

1 

_j 

t^ 


"1 


I I X_J 


r 


.        t         1 

I     5       I 

r-' — I 
I        I 

L.-I U I 


JOINT  WIPING 

Solder  used  for  wiping  joints  is  commonly  of  60  per  cent  lead 
and  40  per  cent  tin;  this  solder  melts  at  400^F.  This  solder  is 
very  easily  spoiled  by  foreign  matters  getting  into  it.  The 
following  precautions  should  be  taken: 

1.  Do  not  drop  molten  solder  on  floor  or  dirty  bench  and  then 
put  it  back  into  the  pot. 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


117 


2.  Solder  should  never  be  heated  red  hot. 

3.  Avoid  getting  lead  chips  into  solder. 

4.  Clean  dross  from  solder  occasionally. 

5.  Learn  to  distinguish  solder  from  lead  by  the  solder's  hardness. 

6.  Have  different  shaped  pots  for  solder  and  lead. 

7.  Brass  should  not  be  tinned  by  dipping  into  a  pot  of  molten 
solder. 

8.  Do  not  put  cold  ladle  into  molten  solder. 


1 

1 

- 

/ 

2 

3 

1 

1 

I 

1 
1 

1 

—  —  —  — 

1 

1 

1 — 

r" 

1       l_ 

1 — ^ 

1    , 

1 

r  —  • 

1 
1 

1  1 

1 

4 

1 

1 
1-^ 

1     1 

1   1 

1    h-- 
!    1 

6 

1 

1 
1 

1 

1 

— , 

1 

1 

1 

L_±_J 

1 1 1 

1       1 
1 J 1 

1 "* 

1 

1 1 

■  . 

1 

1 

1 

l-~ 
1 

1 

—  ^ 

1 

1 

] 1 

1       i 

1        1 

V-\ 

1        1 
L_J 

7 

1 

1 

L_. 

■ 

Fig. 

123. 

To  recognize  good  wiping  solder,  *  pour  onto  an  ordinary  red 
brick,  a  piece  of  solder  about  the  size  of  a  half  dollar.  When 
cool  turn  this  piece  over.  There  should  be  five  or  six  bright 
spots  around  the  outer  edge  on  the  under  side.  If  these  spots 
do  not  appear,  more  tin^hould  be  added.  K  the  entire  under 
surface  is  bright,  more  lead  should  be  added.  Wiping  cloths 
are  made  of  herring  bone  ticking  or  moleskin. 

The  imfolded  piece  of  cloth  should  be  folded  as  showi^  in 
Figs.   122  and   123,  making  16  thicknesses  of  ticking.     The 

1  See  Plumbers'  Solder,  page  327. 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


GENERAL  PLUMBING  SECTION 


119 


^sfe  ab&i^eancf  Shave 
fMow  fhis^  tine 


*/^jj?j/??^j?^j^/jj^/j 


^ 


Q221ZL 


>y>x>x»»^y/>>/yyy/y>> 


\ 


U/////^/////i///^////f//////?//??//////jjyjj>jjj^j,>?/,????j?,,jj?„„??^ 


FlQ.    127. 

4 1 


Joint- 


WipectJoint. 


■WipecfJomf- 

Fig.  128. 


120 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


moleskin  cloth  is  folded  to  make  only  eight  thicknesses. 
Every  fold  should  be  well  pressed  with  a  hot  iron.  The  last 
fold  should  be  sewed  together  at  the  comers. 

Table  33 A. — Size  op  Wiping  Cloth  Made  op  Ticking 


Size  of  finished  cloth 

Size  of  unfolded 
ticking,  inches 

Moleskin, 

inches 

Wiping  edge 

Length 

1^^ 

3 

6  by  12 

6by6 

IH 

3 

7  by  12 

7  by  6 

2 

2 

8by8 

aby4 

2 

3 

8  by  12 

8by6 

2M 

3 

9byl2 

9by5 

2M 

2M 

10  by  10 

10  by  5 

2}i 

3 

10  by  12 

10  by  6 

3 

3 

12by12 

12by6 

3 

3^4 

12  by  14 

12  by  7 

3H 

3^ 

13  by  13 

13by6H 

3>^ 

3 

14  by  12 

14  by  6 

^^i 

3^^ 

14byl4 

14  by  7 

A 

4 

16  by  16 

16  by  8 

To  break  in  a  ticking  wiping  cloth,  a  little  oil,  about  4  drops, 
is  put  on  the  wiping  surface.  The  actual  wiping  of  joints  re- 
quires the  use  of  one  or  two  cloths.  The  pipe  that  is  to  be 
wiped  should  be  prepared  as  shown  in  Figs.  124,  125,  126, 
127,  and  128. 


SECTION  5 

FITTINGS 

All  fittings  are  known  by  the  size  of  pipe  onto  which  they  fit. 
A  ?i-in.  pipe  takes  a  ?i-in.  fitting.  The  inside  bore  of  pipe 
measures  ^  in.,  while  the  inside  bore  of  a  ^^-in.  fitting  measures 
about  1  in.  When  ordering  a  T-  or  Y-fitting,  the  size  of  run 
must  be  read  first,  then  the  branch  thus: 

K_L_?i  which  reads  M  X  M  X  Ji  T. 

Fittings  for  gas,  water,  waste,  etc.,  are  made  slightly  different, 
and  imder  the  following  listing  will  be  found  the  correct  fitting 
to  use  for  each  kind  of  work.  Fittings  with  threads  on  the 
outside  are  known  as  male  fittings.  Those  with  threads  on  the 
inside  are  known  as  female  fittings.     The  following  cross-sec- 

* 

tions  show  difference  of  the  bore  in  various  fittings. 

Water  Piping  Fittings. — Water  piping  should  have  fittings 
corresponding  in  material  with  the  material  of  pipe.  Brass 
fittings  for  brass-pipe  work  on  water  lines  are  made  in  the 
following  patterns: 

1.  Brass  steam  pattern,  iron  pipe  size,  plain  or  tin  finish. 

2.  Standard  brass  fittings,  125-lb.  working  pressure,  J^  to 
Sin. 

3.  Heavy  brass-malleable  fittings,  150-lb.  working  pressure, 
M  to  6  in. 

4.  Extra  heavy  steam  pattern,  250-lb.  working  pressure, 
with  rough,  tinned,  or  polish  finish. 

For  brass  water  piping  in  large  buildings,  the  brass  steam 
pattern  fitting  should  be  used.  Brass  fittings,  steam  pattern 
tinned  lined,  are  uied  for  drinking-wate-r  systems.  For  ordi- 
nary water  piping,  use  brass-malleable  pattern.  Brass  fittings 
are  purchased  by  the  piece  in  small  quantities,  and  by  the 
pound  in  large  quantities. 

When  making  up  brass  fittings  on  pipe,  regardless  of  the 
finish,  wrenches  should  be  used  that  will  leave  no  mark  and 
that  will  not  roughen  the  surface.  Generally,  to  make  up  a 
fitting,  a  piece  of  pipe  is  screwed  by  hand  ihto  the  branch  outlet, 

121 


122 


PLUMBERS*  HANDBOOK 


and  by  use  of  this  leverage,  the  fittmg  can  be  made  tight 
without  a  wrench.  Wrench  marks  are  inexcusable  and  indicate 
poor  workmanship.  For  brass  work  a  strap  wrench  should  be 
used;  also  a  strap  vise.  Brass  fittings  stretch  and  should, 
therefore,  not  be  made  up  tight  except  once. 

Malleable-iron  fittings  of  standard  weight  are  made  in  both 
flat  and  round  bead,  and  are  used  on  work  requiring  150-lb. 
pressure.  These  fittings  are  purchased  by  the  pound  and 
generally  in  barrel  lots.  The  number  of  fittings  in  a  barrel  is 
given  in  Table  31.  Extra  heavy  malleable-iron  fittings  are 
made  for  use  when  pressures  are  greater  than  150  lb.  and  not 
over  250  lb. 

For  gas  piping,  galvanized  malleabl6-iron  fittings  are  used, 
of  the  plain  type  without  band.  Plain  back  fittings,  IJ^  in. 
and  larger,  are  used  (see  section  on  "Gas  and  Gas  Fitting"). 

Drainage  fittings  are  made  of  cast  iron  and  are  tapped  to  fit 
wrought-iron  pipe  threads.  (For  complete  list  with  measure- 
ments see  Table  35.)  Drainage  fit- 
tings are  made  with  an  interior 
shoulder  and  with  the  same  inside 
capacity  as  the  inside  diameter  of 
the  pipe  (see  Fig.  129),  thereby 
securing  an  unobstructed  interior. 
Owing  to  this  shoulder,  the  fittings 
are  tapped  the  required  number  of  threads  to  make  the  pipe 
screw  in  tight  against  the  shoulder,  and  make  a  continuous 
sized  passage.  Unless  otherwise  ordered,  the  fittings  will  be 
furnished  black.     All  90-deg.  fittings  are  tapped  to  give  pipe  a 


FiQ.  129. 


Table  30. — Weight   op  Lead   and   Oakum   for   Caulked 

Joints 


Size  of  pipe,  inches 


Pounds  of  lead 


Feet  of  oakum 


2 

U^ 

3 

3 

2M 

4>4 

4 

3 

5 

5 

3M 

6V4 

6 

4V6 

7>i 

7 

5M 

M 

8 

6 

9}i 

10 

7^ 

12 

FITTINGS 


123 


grade  of  Ji  in.  to  the  foot.  It  is  very  necessary  in  laying  out 
screw-pipe  drainage  work  to  be  very  accurate,  especially  on 
steel  structures;  therefore,  the  following  measurements  will 
be  found  of  great  value.  The  cleanouts  necessary  in  some  of 
these  fittings  should  be  fitted  with  brass  plugs. 

Cast-iron  soU-pipe  fittings  are  made  in  two  weights,  stand- 
ard and  extra  heavy.  Extra  heavy  weight  should  be  used  for 
drainage  work.  The  fittings  come  in  sizes  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8, 10, 
12,  and  15  in.  All  fittings  used  are  made  in  sizes  from  2  to  6  in. 
inclusive.  Above  6  in.  only  the  most  common  fittings  used  are 
made.     Any  sized  fitting  can  be  had  upon  special  order.     Fit- 


f^furn  69n«f 


Fio.  130. 


tings  are  made  with  a  hub  on  one  end  and  straight  on  the  other. 
For  special  work,  hubs  can  be  had  on  both  ends,  and  in  the  case 
of  T*s  the  hubs  generally  come  on  two  ends,  but  they  can  be 
had  with  hubs  on  three  ends.  To  determine  the  right-  or 
left-hand  inlet  or  outlet  in  fittings,  place  the  fitting  with  the 
bell  of  the  hub  end  pointing  towards  you  and  with  the  spigot 
end  pointing  down.  In  the  case  of  traps,  place  in  regular 
position  with  the  hub  end  nearest  you.  When  caulking  oakum 
and  lead  in  the  joint  of  fittings,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  strike 
too  heavy  a  blow,  or  the  fitting  will  crack. 


124 


PLUMBERS*  HANDBOOK 


Bends  for  this  type  of  work  have  special  names.  What  is 
known  as  an  ''ell''  in  malleable  fittings  and  as  a  ''90-deg. 
fitting''  in  drainage  work,  is  called  a  quarter  bend  in  soil-pipe 
work.  The  circle  shown  in  Fig.  130  gives  the  various  degrees 
which  each  bend  represents.  Figure  131  shows  various  kinds 
of  fittings  made  of  cast  iron  with  bell  and  spigot  end.  Table 
30  gives  the  amount  of  lead  and  oakum  required  for  caulked 
joints. 

American  Standard  Sprinkler  Fittings. — These  fittings  are 
made  of  best  quality  cast  iron.  For  sizes  smaller  than  2  in., 
the  standard  cast-iron  steam  fitting  is  used.     In  sizes  from  2J^ 


x^      ^     ^       ^ 


9 


Quarter  Bend  FIffhBend        Sixth  Bend        D^+Berwl       Sixteenth  Bend 


^ 


Double  Hub 
Quorter  &end 


Double  Hub 
Eight  Bend 


Double  Hut> 
Sixteenth  Send 


Double 
Quarfer  Bend 


^    x^    x5.     ^ 


QuonierBend 
with  Side  Inlet 


Quarter  Bend 
with  High  Heel 


Quarter  Bend 
Low  Heel 


<a  ^ 


•Y' Branch 


"Y'Branch 
with  Side  Outlet 


■Y'Branch 

with  Side  Outtef 

Trap  Screw 

Fig.  13*1. 


Sanitar^y^    Sanitari)  T 
Branch  Left  Hand 

Side  Inlet 


Cross         Sanitary  Cro»s 


to  6  in.,  specially  designed  fittings  are  required.  Cast-iron 
steam  fittings  are  used  for  steam  and  hot-water  heating. 
Sizes  and  combinations  in  which  they  are  made  are  listed  below. 
Measurements  of  these  fittings  are  required  when  close  work  is 
necessary  in  largensized  pipe. 

Railing  fittings   are   malleable   iron,   galvanized   or  black. 
Brass  is  also  used  to  make  these  fittings.     These  fittings  are 


FITTINGS  125 

tapped  with  B  risht-hand  thread  unless  otherwise  ordered. 
Stock  aiaea  of  these  fittings  ate  H,  %,  1,  \}4,\\4,  2,  2]4,  and 
3  in.  Figure  132  shows  angles  and  shapes  of  these  fittJi^. 
When  erecting  a  railing,  care  should  be  taken  to  have  dies  set 
correctly  so  that  even  and  atraight  threads  will  be  cut  on  the 
pipe.  All  threads  should  be  screwed  into  fitting;  therefore,  a 
short,  deep  thread  will  have  to  be  cut.  These  fittings  are  also 
made   adjustable   to  aooommodate  any   ai^le  encount«red. 


Pio.  132. 

When  ordering  reducmg  railing  fittings,  a  detailed  sketch  should 
be  made  showing  which  openings  are  to  be  reduced,  and  which 
threads  are  to  be  left. 

Union  Connections. — There  are  three  kinds  of  fittings  used 
to  join  two  pieces  of  pipe  which  are  in  such  a  position  that  they 
cannot  be  turned.  These  fittings  are  called  unions,  flanges, 
and  right  and  left  couplings. 

A  union  is  made  in  three  pieces;  two  of  the  pieces  fit  one, 
each  end  of  the  pipe  to  be  joined,  while  the  third  piece  is  a 


126  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

collar  which  draws  the  other  two  pieces  together  and  makes 
a  water-tight  joint  with  a  packing  or  by  means  of  a  ground 
joint  between  the  two  pieces.     F^re  133  shows  a  ground 

Right  and  left  couplings  (see  Fig.  134)  are  similar  to  ordinary 
couplings,  except  that  only  one  thread  ia  right,  the  one  on  the 
opposite  end  being  left.  Thia  connection  requires  that  one 
piece  of  pipe  that  is  to  be  joined  must  have  a  left  thread. 
These  fittings  are  distinguished  by  the  heavy  ribs  built  length- 
wise upon  the  fitting. 

A  pair  of  flanges  (see  P^g.  135)  is  necessary  to  join  two  pieces 
of  pipe;  one  flange  is  screwed  upon  the  end  of  each  pipe,  and 
the  flanges  are  drawn  together  by  the  use  of  at  least  four  bolts. 


Packing  is  used  between  the  flanges  to  make  water-tight  joints. 
These  fittings  are  seldom  used  on  water  pipe,  but  are  used  to 
considerable  extent  on  steam  lines  and  hot-water  heating 
lines.  Flanges  are  made  of  cast  iron,  or  malleable  iron,  for 
working  pressures  up  to  125  lb.  Above  thia  pressure,  extra 
heavy  flanges  should  be  used,  and  if  the  pipe  is  a  steam  line 
with  joints  peaned,  then  the  flange  should  be  cast  steel. 
Union  connections  should  be  made  between  every  pipe  and 
equipment  it  connects;  also  on  the  house  side  (not  pressure 
side)  of  every  valve.  They  should  be  placed  occasionally  in 
long  runs  of  pipe,  and  always  in  convenient  places.  Long 
screws  are  used  sometimes  to  make  connection  between  pipes, 
but  it  depends  for  tightness  upon  a  packing  which  is  not  strong 
enough  for  water  or  waste  line;  therefore  it  can  only  be  used  on 
vent  lines,  and  should  be  ruled  against  there. 


FITTINGS 


127 


Table  34. — ^Approximatb  Number  and  Weight  op 
Standard   Screwed  Fittings  Contained  in 

One  Barrel 


CaSBt^iron  elbows 

Cast-iron  45-<leg. 
elbows 

Cast-iron  T's 

Sise. 
in. 

Pieces 

in 
Ibbl. 

Net 

weight 

of  Ibbl. 

Sise. 
in. 

Pieces 

in 
Ibbl. 

Net 

weight 

of  Ibbl. 

Sise. 
in. 

Pieces 

in 
1  bbl. 

Net 
weight 
of  1  bbl. 

m 

2V4 

3 

3H 

5.100 

3.500 

2.000 

1.150 

650 

375 

275 

160 

95 

55 

40 

35 

850 
840 
839 
729 
669 
589 
564 
519 
519 
469 
390 
447 

H 

vl 

1 

2H 
3 

4 

•  •  •  •  • 

1.400 
750 
450 
350 
190 
105 
60 
45 

•  ■  ■ 

•  •  • 

•  ■  • 

•  •  • 

754 

714 

611     . 

589 

570 

519 

464 

404 

•  •  • 

M 

1 
1H 

m 

2H 
3 

1.265 

750 

425 

250 

200 

125 

65 

35 

30 

25 

724 
669 
619 
529 
530 
519 
466 
364 
375 
404 

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Table  36. — Complete  List  with  Measurements  op  Cast- 
iron  Drainage  Fittings  (ConHniied) 

CAST-IRON  DRAINAGB  FITTINGS 


Uff  •Mtrn 


MISNT  IMilT* 


IIWNVIMICV 


Closet  T  with  inlets  on  both  Closet  T  with  inlets  on  both 

sides.  sides  and  top. 

Long-turn  90deg.  Y  branches  with  auxiliary  inlets 

(Closet  T's) 

3  in.,  4  in.,  5X4  in.,  6X4  in.,  with 

2-in.  inlet  on  right  side  only,  black 

2-in.  inlet  on  right  side  only,  galvanised 

2-in.  inlet  on  left  side  only,  black 

2-in.  inlet  on  left  side  only,  galvanised 

2-in.  inlet  on  both  sides,  black 

2-in.  inlet  on  both  sides,  galvanised 

2-in.  inlet  on  right  side  and  2-in.  top  inlet,  black 

2-in.  inlet  on  right  side  and  2-in.  top  inlet,  galvanised 

2-in.  inlet  on  left  side  and  2-in.  top  inlet,  black 

2-in.  inlet  on  left  side  and  2-in.  top  inlet,  galvanised 

2-in.  inlet  on  both  sides  and  2-in.  top  inlet,  black 

2-in.  inlet  on  both  sides  and  2-in.  top  inlet,  galvanised 


For  dimensions  of  above  fittings  see  dimensions  of  90-deg.  long  turn  Y 
branches,  T  pattern. 

The  90-deg.  inlets  on  closet  T's  are  tapped  graded  H-in.  to  the  foot  unless 
otherwise  ordered. 


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SECTION  6 
PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 

INTRODUCTION 

This  article  includes  a  brief  summary  of  practical  information 
and  data  relating  to  pipe.  Much  has  been  done  to  standardize 
and  improve  pipe  material  during  recent  years.  When  steel 
pipe  was  first  introduced,  about  30  years  ago,  considerable 
difficulty  was  found  in  threading,  which  has  been  practically 
eliminated  by  cooperation  on  the  part  of  die  manufacturers 
and  by  standardization  of  the  quality  of  the  steel.  Not  so 
very  long  ago  a  light  weight  steel  pipe  was  generally  sold  under 
the  name  of  "Merchant  Weight."  This  has  been  eliminated 
so  that  all  pipe  is  now  made  to  the  standards  given  in  the  tables 
which  follow. 

On  the  matter  of  threading,  it  would  probably  pay  master 
plumbers  having  considerable  business,  to  study  the  section  of 
this  article  on  this  subject,  and  install  a  small  electric-driven 
grinding  outfit  to  enable  them  to  keep  their  dies  in  reasonably 
good  shape.  The  average  plumber  is,  rather  careless  of  his 
cutting  tools.  A  little  thought  will  soon  prove  the  economic 
loss  which  results  from  this  lack  of  attention. 

The  influence  of  various  factors  on  the  durability  of  pipe  is  a 
matter  about  which  the  plumber  should  be  informed,  as  he  is 
frequently  asked  to  explain  these  troubles  and  to  recommend  a 
remedy.  It  is  only  during  the  last  few  years  that  the  true  cause 
of  the  interior  corrosion  of  water  pipes  has  been  understood. 
The  reader  should  try  to  forget  his  preconceived  ideas  and 
prejudices  (most  men  who  do  things  have  some),  so  as  to  benefit 
as  much  as  possible  from  the  facts  which  have  been  established 
relating  to  this  important  subject. 

The  production  of  wrought  iron  and  steel  pipe  alone  now 
exceeds  2,500,000  tons  per  annum  (over  90  per  cent  of  which  is 
steel),  so  this  is  now  a  very  important  branch  of  the  iron  and 
steel  industry,  and  in  consequence  receives  much  more  attention 
on  the  part  of  manufacturers  than  heretofore. 

168 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES  169 

WROUGHT  mON  AND  STEEL  PIPE 

For  nearly  100  years  pipe  has  been  made  by  welding  the 
edges  of  a  rolled  strip  of  wrought  iron  together,  either  by  lapping 
the  edges  over  (known  as  lap-welding),  or  by  butting  the  edges 
and  welding  at  the  same  time  (known  as  hutt-wdding). 

For  some  time  the  only  metal  available  for  welding  was 
wrought  iron  made  from  pig  iron  in  puddling  furnaces.  By 
this  operation,  the  impurities  (carbon,  silicon,  manganese,  and 
some  of  the  sulphur)  are  oxidized  and  removed  in  the  slag, 
while  the  iron  remains  in  the  form  of  globules  intermixed  with 
the  slag.  The  operator  gathers  this  pasty  mass  of  slag  and  iron 
into  a  ball  weighing  about  250  lb.,  which  is  squeezed  and  rolled 
into  bars  about  1  in.  thick.  These  bars  are  repiled,  brought  to 
a  welding  heat,  and  rolled  into  a  strip  of  the  right  thickness  and 
width  known  as  skelp.  Wrought  iron  so  made  carries  about  2 
per  cent  of  cinder  in  the  form  of  strings  or  narrow  strips  irregu- 
larly scattered  through  the  mass  of  iron.  It  is  impossible  to 
make  wrought  iron  without  a  considerable  amount  of  this 
cinder.  Various  benefits  are  claimed  from  the  presence  of 
cinder  in  iron.  A  certain  fibrous  appearance,  found  when  iron 
is  nicked  and  broken,  is  due  to  this  cinder;  but  as  Professor 
Sauveur,  of  Harvard  University,  an  authority  on  the  structure 
of  metals  points  out,  "the  ferrite  of  which  wrought  iron  is 
composed  does  not  assume  a  fibrous  structure,  the  slag  alone 
being  drawn  into  fibers.  Wrought  iron,  therefore,  should  not 
be  described  as  fibrous;  for  aside  from  the  presence  of  slag,  it  is 
as  distinctly  crystalline  as  steel."  Wrought  iron  has  been 
cheapened  in  manufacture  by  the  introduction  of  mechanical 
puddling  machines  and  by  the  use  of  steel  scrap. 

In  the  manufacture  of  steel  the  pig  iron  is  kept  in  a  molten 
condition  and  the  impurities  oxidized  at  a  high  temperature  so 
that  the  iron  when  separated  from  these  foreign  materials  is 
still  in  the  molten  condition.  Iron  so  made  is  known  as  steel; 
although  when  made  for  welded  pipe,  it  is  much  purer  than 
wrought  iron.  The  following  are  typical  analyses  of  these 
materials : 

Wrought  Pipe 

Iron  Steel 

Carbon,  under .06  .07 

Manganese,  under .15  .33 

Phosphorous .18  .10 

Sulphur .02  .05 

Slag  and  oxides 2.20  .15 

Iron,  about 96.4  99.30 


170  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Relative  Corrosion  of  Pipe. — Much  has  been  written  and 
many  opinions  expressed  on  this  question,  the  authors  being 
equally    positive    in    coming    to   opposite  conclusions.     This 
variance  in  opinion  is  probably  based  on  a  one-sided  view, 
and  can  be  easily  accounted  for  if  the  reader  will  take  into 
consideration  the  true  cause  of  corrosion  of  water  pipes  and 
the  large  part  which  factors  such  as  temperature,  volume  of 
flow,  and  the  quality  of  the  water,  play  in  this  action  on 
pipe.     To  get  a  comparison,  it  is  evidently  most  important 
that  both  kinds  of  pipe  be  compared  under  the  same  conditions 
of  service,  and  in  order  to  comply  with  such  requirements 
strictly,  it  is  obviously  preferable  to  have  the  two  materials 
in  the  same  line  so  that  the  rate  of  flow,  water,  and  tempera- 
ture have  the  same  influence  on  both  materials.     Fortunately 
we  now  have  such  comparisons  made  by  well-known  inde- 
pendent engineers.     A  few  of  these  are  listed  below,  all  being 
direct  comparisons  on  hot  water  supply  lines. 

(A)  Tests  made  by  Pittsburgh  Testing  Laboratory,  in 
Pittsburgh;  1916, 1918, 1919;  Jour,  A.  S.  H,  &  V.  Engra.y  page  97, 
January,  1920;  page  276,  March,  1920;  Tr.  A,  S.  H,  &  V.  Engrs., 
1917,  page  132. 

(B)  New  York  City  Tests;  1917;  Reported  Jan.-March,  1917, 

(C)  Brown  University  Tests;  1918;  Reported  June  7,  1918. 

(D)  Harvard  University  Tests;  1919;  Jour.  New  England 
Water  Works  Asan.j  March,  1920,  page  43. 

These  and  several  other  tests  are  summarized  in  detail  in 
Table  below. 

In  all  these  tests  the  conclusions  reached  were  that  no 
practical  difference  in  durability  could  be  seen  between  the 
wrought  iron  and  steel. 

The  harmony  of  these  conclusions  could  not  be  closer,  and  as 
they  agree  with  previous  observations  by  other  equally  reputa- 
ble observers,  it  is  evident  that  whatever  the  relative  durability 
of  wrought  iron  and  steel  may  have  been  20  years  ago,  there 
seems  to  be  no  ground  for  discrimination  against  steel  made  by 
experienced  and  reputable  manufacturers  today.  Some  manu- 
facturers, who  formerly  made  wrought  iron,  have  spent  much 
time  and  money  in  practical  research  work  toward  improving 
their  product  and  towards  a  true  understanding  of  the  control 
of  corrosion,  apparently  with  success.  A  brief  account  of  what 
has  been  learned  regarding  the  cause  and  prevention  of  corro- 
sion of  pipe  during  the  past  15  years  will  be  given,  and  will, 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES  171 

we  believe,  be  found  of  considerable  practical  interest.  The 
plumber  who  clearly  understands  the  principles  underlying 
this  important  subject  will  be  in  a  position  to  render  his 
customers  better  service  and  thus  elevate  his  reputation  and 
advance  his  business. 

CAUSE  AND  PREVENTION  OF  CORROSION^ 

Rust  is  recognized  as  hydrated  oxide  of  iron.  The  source  of 
the  oxygen  required  to  form  rust  is  the  atmosphere,  which 
contains  about  21  per  cent  by  volume  of  this  gas.  Oxygen 
does  not  attack  iron  directly  but  through  solution  in  water  in 
which  this  gas  is  sUghtly  soluble.  Iron,  like  nearly  everything 
in  nature,  is  slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  if  the  water  carries  no 
dissolved  oxygen,  the  solution  of  iron  soon  stops  and  no  further 
damage  is  done.  Evidence  of  this  is  seen  in  hoU-wder  heating 
lines  in  which  little  corrosion  is  found  provided  the  water  is 
not  changed.  All  natural  waters  are  saturated  with  oxygen  by 
contact  with  the  atmosphere,  and  in  flowing  through  pipes  this 
oxygen  combines  with  the  iron.  The  iron  which  the  water  has 
taken  up  as  above  described  forms  hydrated  oxide  of  iron,  or 
rust.  This  opens  the  way  for  more  iron  to  enter  into  solution, 
and  consequently  rusting  continues  until  all  the  dissolved  oxygen 
is  used  up.  As  a  rule  when  this  occurs  no  further  rusting  is 
possible. 

For  example,  in  hot-water  supply  lines,  the  new  water  coming 
in  through  the  heater  brings  into  the  system  more  dissolved 
oxygen,  which  is  used  up  at  the  expense  of  the  material  of  the 
heater  and  piping.  It  is  not  surprising  under  these  conditions 
that  the  life  of  the  heater  and  pipe  is  often  only  a  few  years 
whereas  the  same  pipe  used  in  hot- water  heating  plants  will  last 
indefinitely  if  the  water  is  not  changed. 

Temperature  is  another  important  factor.  The  difference 
between  the  life  of  hot-  and  cold-water  lines  is  well  known  and 
has  been  observed  to  be  about  three  to  one  in  favor  of  the  cold- 
water  pipes.  Therefore,  cold-water  lines  should  not  touch,  nor 
be  placed  very  near,  hot-water  lines.  Recently  some  measure- 
ments of  corrosion  at  various  temperatures  were  made  with  all 
factors  constant  which  indicate  that  at  135°F.  pipe  lasts  twice 
as  long  as  when  the  water  is  heated  to  180°F.,  and  the  same  is 
probably  true  of  the  heaters.     The  quality  of  the  water  is 

^  See  section  on  "Corrosion  of  Iron  and  Steel,"  page  300. 


172 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Table  35^4. — Summary  of  Results  op  Investigations 

IN  Hot  Water 


Date 


Where  test  was  made 


Length  of  time 

pipe  lines 
were  installed 


Authority  and  references 


1919 


Irene  Kaufmann  Settle- 
ment, Pittsburgh,  Fa. 


2  yrs.,  7  days 


1919 


Harvard    University, 
Cambridge,  Mass. 


1919 


Irene  Kaufmann  Settle- 
ment (2d  Test),  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa. 


1918 


Brown    University, 
Providence,  R.  I. 


3  yrs. 


I  yr.,  2  mos. 


1 1  moB. 


Jas.  O.  Handy,  Technical 
Director,  Pittsburgh 
Testing  Laboratory, 
Report  made  to  Resi- 
dent Director  Teller,' 
Jan.  22,  1920;  p.  97, 
Jan.,  1920,  A.  S.  H.  &  V. 
Engrs.;  p.  276,  Mar., 
1920,  A.S.^.  &  V.  Engrs. 

Melville  C.  Whipple  Inst. 

in  San  Chem.,  Harvard 
University.  Jrn'l  New 
England  Water  Wks. 
Asso.,  p.  42,  Mar.,  1920. 


Jas.  O.  Handy,  Technical 
Director,  Pittsburgh 
Testing  Laboratory.  Re- 
port by  Pittsburgh  Test- 
ing Laboratory.  April  10, 
I9I8,  p.  217,  1918  Trans 
A.S.H.  &  V.  Engrs. 


Wm.  F.  Kenerson,  Pro- 
fessor of  Mechanical 
Engineering,  Brown 
University.  Report 

made  June  7,  1918. 
Bulletin  2 — "Corrosion 
of  Hot  Water  Piping." 
National  Tube  Co. 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


173 


OP  THE  Corrosion  op  Wrought  Iron  and  Steel  Pipe 
Supply  Service 


Number  of  caaes  on 
record 


Average  of  deepest 
pits,  inches 


Wrought 
iron 


Steel 


Conclusions 


Fifteen  lengths  of 
steel,  15  lengths  of 
wrought  iron  ar- 
ranged alternately. 


Two  sections  each  of 
scale-free  (steel ) ; 
galvanised  steel, 
copper  steel  and 
wrought  iron  pipe 


Six  sections  each  of 
steel  and  wrought 
iron  pipe. 


Two  sections  each  of 
black  and  copper 
steel  and  wrought 
iron;  one  section 
each  of  galvanised 
and  copper  steel, 
galvanized. 


0.1144 


0.073 


0.131 


0.0674 


0.1095 


Scale  Free 

0.045 

Copper  Steel 

0.068 

Galvanized 
0.078 


0.122 


Black  Steel 

0.0544 
Copper  Steel 

0.0639 
Galvanized 

0.0547 

Copper  Steel 

Gal. 

0.0938 


"These  figures  show  that 
no  marked  distinction  is 
possible  between  the  rate 
of  corrosion  of  the  steel 
and  the  iron  pipe." 


"Judging  from  the  depths 
of  pitting  and  the  general 
appearance  of  the  inside 
ot  the  pipe,  it  was  evident 
that,  so  far  as  the  condi- 
tions ,  of  this  particular 
experiment  with  the  Cam- 
bridge hot  water  service 
were  concerned,  scale- 
free  pipe  had  suffered  less 
real  damage  than  anv  of 
the  others  after  three 
years'  exposure." 

"  This  test  and  other  similar 
tests  have  shown  beyond 
question  that  in  the 
Pittsburgh  district 
wrought  iron  and  steel 
pipes  in  hot  water  lines 
are  rapidly    corroded  by 

Fitting     and     that     the 
aminated    or   fibrous 
structure  of  wrought  iron 

{>roduced  by  the  included 
ayers  of  slag,  does  not 
give  any  added  durability 
to  wrought  iron,  as  com- 
pared with  steel  pipe." 

"There  is  evidently  no 
marked  superiority  of 
either  the  wrought  iron  or 
steel  for  the  test  condi- 
tions described.^  .  .The 
wrought  iron  failed  first 
by  developing  the  deepest 
pits.  The  steel  develop- 
ed a  greater  number  of 
shallower  ones." 


174 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Table  Z6A. — Summabt  op  Results  op  Investigations 

IN  Hot  Water  Supplt 


liength  of  time 

Date 

Where  test  was  made 

pipe  lines 

Authority  and  references 

were  installed 

1917 

This  test  was  conducted 
in  four  different  places 
as  follows: 

(A)  West  41st  St.  Bath, 

2  3rrs.,  9}  mos. 

James  S.  Mawegor,  In- 
structor in  Civil  Engi- 

New York 

(B)  East  76th  St.  Bath. 

2  3rrs.,  5  mos. 

neering,  Columbia  Uni- 

New York 

versity.     Report    made 

(C)  East  109th  St.  Bath. 

2  yrs.,  6  mos. 

Jan.-March,  1917.  Bull- 

New York 

etin    2 — '*  Corrosion     of 

(D)  Cherry  and  Oliver 

2  srrs.,  6  mos. 

Hot     Water     Piping." 

Sts.  Bath,  New  York 

National  Tube  Co. 

1916 

Irene  Kaufmann  Settle- 

11  mos. 

Jas.  0.  Handy,  Technical 
Director,    Pittsburgh 

ment,  Pittsburgh.  Pa. 

Testing   Laboratory. 

Report  made  December 

6,    1916.     P.    125.     1917 

Trans,  of  A.  S.  H.  ft  V. 

Engrs. 

1916 

Irene  Kaufmann  Settle- 

10 mos. 

Jas.    0.    Handy,    Tech- 

ment. Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

nical  Director,  Pitts- 
burgh Testing  Labora- 
tory. Report  made 
October  31,  1916.  P. 
125,  1917  Trans,  of 
A.S.H.  A  V.  Engrs. 

Note: — Table  from  paper  on  "Preventing  Corrosion  in  Iron  and  Steel 
1009.    By  F.  N.  Speller. 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


175 


OF  THB  Corrosion  op  Wrought  Iron  and  Steel  Pipe 
Service    (Continued) 


Number  of  cases  on 
record 


Average  of  deepest 
pits,  inches 


Wrought 
iron 


Steel 


Conclusions 


(A)  3  sections  each  of 
wrought  iron  and 
steel  pipe.  (B)  4 
sections  of  steel  and 
two  of  wrought  iron 

(C)  Same  as  test  B. 

(D)  One  section 
each  of  steel  and 
copper  steel. 


Two  sections  of  steel. 
one  of  galvanised 
steel  and  one  of 
wrought  iron  pipe 
protected  by  ae- 
oxidiser;  2  sections 
each  of  steel  and 
wrought  iron  pipe 
not  so  protected. 


Seven  sections-  of 
steel  and  4  of 
wrought  iron  pipe. 


rA)0.057 

B)0.075 

too.  035 


Protected 
0.045 


Unprotec 
0.121 
0.116 


0.052 
0.070 
0.035 

(D)  Steel 
0.021 
Copper  Steel 
0.022 


by  Deoxidieer 

(Galvanised) 

0.040 

(Black) 

0.016 


ted  by  Deoxid- 
idiser 

0.123 

0.110 


Taking  the  total  averages 
of  steel  (which  includes 
scale-free  and  copper 
steel,  as  well  as  ordinary 
black)  pdpe  as  against 
those  for  iron  in  the  four 
tests  we  find  the  latter  to 
have  pitted  deeper  by 
0.025  in.,  which  indicates 
in  favor  of  steel  pipe  in 
these   particular   tests. 

This  test  had  as  its  chief 
aim  a  study  of  the  protec- 
tion of  pipe  by  use  of  a 
deoxidiser,  and  the  author 
does  not  draw  direct 
conclusions  on  the  com- 
parative corrosion  of  the 
iron  and  the  steel  pipe. 
The^  figures  on  deptn  of 
pitting,  however,  stand  in 
favor  of  steel  pipe. 

The  author  states  that  a 
certain  sample  of  wrought 
iron  showed  the  most 
general  corrosion,  while  a 
steel  section  showed  the 
greatest  number  of  sepa- 
rate pits.  No  direct  ref- 
erence to  comparative 
corrosion  is  made. 


Under  Water"  Chemical  and  Metallurgical  Engineering,  June  8, 1921.    Page 


176  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

another  controlling  factor.  Hard  water,  euch  oa  that  from  the 
Great  Lakes,  attacks  pipe  very  slowly  while  the  pure,  soft 
waters  in  New  England  and  New  York  City,  tor  example,  are 
very  active  on  pipe  of  all  kinds  and  give  rise  to  what  has  been 
termed  the  "Red  Water  Plague,"  which  appears  to  be  almost 
entirely  due  to  the  action  of  the  dissolved  oxygen  in  these  very 
pure  waters  in  promoting  rapid  corrosion  of  heaters  and  piping. 
In  the  case  of  "hard"  waters,  there  is  a  sUght  precipitation  of 
Bcale  which  has  a  protective  effect  on  the  metal. 

Corrosion  Prevention. — The  conclusion  reached  by  investiga- 
tions and  research  on  the  problem  of  corrosion  at  the  Research 
Laboratory  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  and 
by  the  National  Tube  Company,'  is  that  corrosion  is  propor- 
tional to  the  free  oxygen  in  water  and  is  therefore  reduced  in 
direct  ratio  to  the  amount  of  this  gas  which  ia  removed  from 


FiQ.  136.  Fio.  137. 

Two-inch  wrought  iron  (Byers)  pipe.  Pitted  piece  in  aervica  2 
yesTH — canyiog  untreated  water.  Uiipittcd  piece  in  service  in 
same  building  over  3  yoara — carrying  deactivated  water. 

the  water.  Water  containing  free  oxygen  has,  therefore,  been 
termed  "active"  in  distinction  to  water  free  from  dissolved 
oxygen,  which  is  inactive.  Water  is  said  to  be  "deactivated" 
by  removal  of  this  oxygen.  Deactivation  may  be  brought 
about  by  passing  the  heated  water  through  a  large  mass  of 
expanded  steel  sheets  suitably  formed  and  placed  in  a  storage 
tank,  after  which  the  water  should  be  filtered  when  used  for 
domestic  purposes.  The  air  may  also  be  driven  out  by  heating 
the  water  nearly  to  the  boihng  point  and  passing  over  batBes 
in  a  vented  tank  or  with  the  use  of  a  vacuum.  The  tempera- 
ture may  be  reduced  before  use,  if  desired,  by  passing  through 
a  heat  exchanger  by  which  some  of  the  heat  is  taken  up  by  the 
incoming  cold  water.  Water  treated  in  this  way  has  been  used 
for  several  years  with  hardly  any  corrosion  in  the  pipes,  as 
'  Thie  subject  is  tieatcd  fully  in  b.  psper  on  "PtbcUcbI  nifaoi  for  preveat- 
in«  Corrosion"  by  F.  N.  SpeUer.    Tiani.  Am.  Else,  Chsm.  Son.,  1631. 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES  177 

illustrated  in  the  photograph  from  a  test  of  this  treatment 
under  working  conditions,  reproduced  below  (Fig.  137). 

Protective  Coatings. — From  the  above  it  will  be  clear  that  if 
water  can  be  kept  from  contact  with  the  metal  of  which  the 
pipe  is  made,  no  rusting  is  possible.  For  this  purpose  various 
protective  coatings  have  been  devised.  Only  those  com- 
mercially tried  and  available  for  use  will  be  described.  More 
detail  on  this  subject  will  be  found  in  the  complete  report  of 
the  Committee  on  Service  Pipe  of  the  N.  E.  W.  W.  Association 
(see  their  Journal  of  September,  1917). 

PROTECTION  AGAINST  INTERNAL  CORROSION 

Galvanizing. — The  most  common  method  of  protection  is 
hot  galvanizing,  which  may  be  appUed  equally  well  to  wrought 
iron  or  steel.  In  applying  the  zinc,  the  surface  of  the  pipe, 
inside  and  outside,  must  be  cleaned  of  all  foreign  matter  and 
heated.  A  suitable  flux  is  used,  and  the  pipe  is  dipped  into  a 
bath  of  molten  zinc.  When  withdrawn,  the  surplus  zinc  is 
allowed  to  drain  off,  but  the  pipe  should  not  be  wiped 
smooth. 

The  weight  of  zinc  added  amounts  to  about  2  oz.  per  square 
foot.  Zinc  dissolves  in  water  more  readily  than  iron,  and  this 
affords  protection  to  the  iron  as  long  as  there  are  no  uncovered 
spaces  of  considerable  area.  Zinc  will  protect  iron  as  far  as 
one-eighth  inch  from  the  line  of  contact  between  these  metals. 
Galvanized  pipes  in  hot-water  service  have  been  found  to  last 
about  twice  as  long  as  plain  black  pipe.  Zinc  is  sometimes 
applied  by  "electroplating"  or  " Sherardizing "  (see  "Chemis- 
try" section,  page  311).  Such  pipe  has  not  been  found 
suitable  for  plumbing  purposes,  but  is  much  used  as  electric 
conduit. 

Lead-lined  pipe  is  sometimes  used,  the  lead  being  cemented 
to  the  surface  of  the  steel  by  some  suitable  alloy.  Special 
couplings  must  be  used  and  care  taken  to  see  that  the  joints 
are  properly  protected  inside  when  made  up,  which  is  provided 
for  in  the  manufacture  of  the  couplings  used  with  this  pipe. 
Lead-lined  pipe,  when  properly  manufactured  and  installed, 
affords  most  of  the  durability  of  lead  with  the  strength  of  steel 
pipe.  However  if  the  coating  is  imperfect  or  the  iron  becomes 
exposed  rapid  corrosion  must  be  expected  due  to  galvanic 
action  between  these  two  metals. 
12 


178  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Cement-lined  pipe  has  been  used  extensively  for  some  years 
for  cold-water  service  lines  in  New  England.  By  means  of 
special  appliances  which  are  on  the  market,  a  lining  of  ^  in.  of 
neat  cement  may  be  applied.  Several  municipalities  in  New- 
England  line  all  their  pipe  in  this  way  and  find  it  highly  satis- 
factory. Cement  lined  pipe  is  not  on  the  market,  as  it  is  more 
costly  to  ship,  and  the  coating  is  liable  to  injury  in  transit;  but 
for  cold-water  service  where  strength  and  durability  are  needed 
and  where  the  soil  conditions  are  fairly  good,  this  coating  is  to 
be  recommended  but  not  for  hot  water  service. 

Protection  Against  Outside  Corrosion. — Where  soil  condi- 
tions are  bad,  the  exterior  of  the  pipe  may  be  protected  by  first 
applying  to  the  dry  and  clean  surface  a  thin  priming  coat  of 
coal  tar  or  asphalt  paint.  This  may  be  made  by  dissolving 
coal  tar  in  benzol.  When  this  coat  is  dry,  but  still  fresh  and 
'Hacky/'  a  thick  coat  of  hot  asphalt  or  coal  tar  is  laid  on,  and 
should  adhere  to  the  pipe  without  difficulty.  Where  extra 
protection  is  required,  the  pipe  thus  coated  may  be  wrapped 
spirally  with  heavy  muslin  and  then  given  another  coat  of  coal 
tar.  Pipe  should  not  be  laid  in  cinder.  Where  cinder  is  un- 
avoidable, the  ditch  should  be  filled  in  with  clay  for  6  or  8  in. 
around  the  pipe.  In  very  bad  locations  where  the  pipe  is 
liable  to  be  attacked  by  brackish  or  acid  water,  the  pipe  may  be 
protected  by  boxing  in  and  filling  for  at  least  2  in.  around  the 
pipe  with  well  mixed  concrete  or  hot  ceal  tar  pitch,  or  asphalt. 

Corrosion  of  Pipe  Other  Than  Iron  or  Steel. — For  hot-water 
service  lines  in  small  installations,  especially  when  it  would  not 
be  economical  to  use  other  means,  brass  or  copper  pipe  may  be 
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material  should  be  used,  as  some  grades  of  brass  are  rapidly 
disintegrated  by  hot  water  so  that  the  service  is  not  much  better 
than  with  galvanized  iron.  This  is  due  to  the  zinc  being 
leached  out,  leaving  a  porous  copper  shell  which  is  easily 
broken. 

For  cold-water  lines,  a  good  grade  of  galvanized-iron  or  steel 
pipe  will  usually  last  as  long  as  the  building,  but  it  is  important, 
as  said  before,  to  keep  these  lines  away  from  hot-water  or 
steam  pipe. 


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PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


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PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


183 


Table  38. — Standard  Weights  and  Dimensions  of  Welded 

Steel  Pipe* 


"Standard"  pipe 

"&xtra  strong"  pipe 

Siie 
(nominal 

inside 
diameter), 

inches 

Outside 
diam- 
eter, 
inches 

Number 

of 
threads 

per 

inch 

Thick- 
ness, 
inches 

Weight  of 
pipe  per 

linear 

foot, 
threaded 
and  with 

Thick- 
ness, 
inches 

Weight  of 

pipe  per 

linear 

foot, 

plain  ends, 

couplings, 

pounds 

pounds 

H 

.405 

27 

.068 

.25 

.095 

.31 

H 

.540 

18 

.088 

.43 

.119 

.54 

H 

.675 

18 

.091 

.57 

.126 

.74 

H 

.840 

14 

.109 

.85 

.147 

1.09 

H 

1.050 

14 

.113 

1.13 

.154 

1.47 

1 

1.315 

11H 

.133 

1.68 

.179 

2.17 

IH 

1.660 

UH 

.140 

2.28 

.191 

3.00 

m 

1.900 

im 

.145 

2.73 

.200 

3.63 

2 

2.375 

IIW  ■ 

.154 

3.68 

.218 

5.02 

2H 

2.875 

8 

.203 

5.82 

.276 

7.66 

3 

3.500 

8 

.216 

7.62 

.300 

10.25 

3V4 

4. 

8 

.226 

9.20 

.318 

12.51 

4 

4.500 

8 

.237 

10.89 

.337 

14.98 

4H 

5. 

8 

.247 

12.64 

.355 

17.61 

5 

5.563 

8 

.258 

14.81 

.375 

20.78 

6 

6.625 

8 

.280 

19.19 

.432 

28.57 

7 

7.625 

8 

.301 

23.77 

.500 

38.05 

•8 

8.625 

8 

.277 

25. 

8 

8.625 

8 

.322 

28.81 

.500 

43.39 

9 

9.625 

8 

.342 

34.19 

.500 

48.73 

•10 

10.750 

8 

.279 

32. 

•10 

10.750 

8 

.307 

35. 

10 

10.750 

8 

.365 

41.13 

.500 

54.74 

11 

11.750 

8 

.375 

46.25 

.500 

60.08 

•12 

12.750 

8 

.330 

45. 

12 

12.750 

8 

.375 

50.71 

.500 

65.42 

*  Unless  specifically  stated  on  the  order  the  lighter  weights  will  not  be 
furnished.  Weights  given  in  the  table  are  for  pipes  up  to  and  including  12 
in.  in  nominal  inside  diameter,  with  threaded  ends  and  couplings;  sises 
larger  than  shown  in  the  table  are  measured  by  the  outside  diameter  and 
usually  have  plain  ends;  for  such  sizes  it  will  be  necessary  to  accept  manu- 
facturer's weights  or  calculate  the  weights  on  the  basis  of  1  cu.  in.  of  iron  ot 
steel  weighing  0.2833  lb. 

I  Wrought  iron  weights  are  2  per  cent  lighter. 


184 


PLUMBERS*  HANDBOOK 


Table    39. — Seamless,    Brass    and    Copper  Tubes 
Weight    of    Regular  Iron  Pipe  Sizes 


Diameter,  inches 

Pounds  per  foot 

Iron  pipe, 

siie 

Outside 

Inside 

Brass 

Copper 

H' 

.405 

.281 

.246 

.259 

H 

.540 

.375 

.437 

.459 

H 

.675 

.494 

.612 

.644 

H 

.840 

.625 

.911 

.958 

H 

1.050 

.822 

1.235 

1.298 

1 

1.315 

1.062 

1.740 

1.829 

IH 

1.660 

1.368 

2.557 

2.689 

m 

1.900 

1.600 

3.037 

3.193 

2 

2.375 

2.062 

4.017 

4.224 

2H 

2.875 

2.500 

5.830 

6.130 

3 

3.500 

3.062 

8.314 

8.741 

3H 

4. 

3.500 

10.85 

11.41 

4 

4.500 

4. 

12.29 

12.93 

4H 

5. 

4.500 

13.74 

14.44 

5 

5.563 

5.062 

15.40 

16.19 

6 

6.625 

6.125 

18.44 

19.39 

7 

7.625 

7.062 

23.92 

25.15 

8 

8.625 

8. 

30.05 

31.60 

9 

9.625 

8.937 

36.94 

38.84 

10 

10.750 

10.019 

43.91 

46.17 

From  American  Brass  Company  "Price  Lists  and  Tables  of  Weights  for 
Seamless,  Brass  and  Copper  Tubes,"  issued  Feb.  1,  1919. 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


185 


Table  40. — Seamless,  Brass  and  Copper  Tubes 
Weight  of  Extra  Heavy  Iron  Pipe  Sizes 


Diameter,  inches 

Pounds  per  foot 

Iron  pipe,' 

size 

Outside 

Inside 

Brass 

Copper 

H 

.405 

.205 

.353 

.371 

M 

.540 

.294 

.593 

.624 

H 

.675 

.421 

.805 

.847 

H 

.840 

.542 

1.191 

1.253 

H 

1.050 

.736 

1.622 

1.706 

1 

1.315 

.951 

2.386 

2.509 

IH 

1.660 

1.272 

3.291 

3.460 

m 

1.900 

1.494 

3.986 

4.191 

2.375 

1.933 

5.508 

5.791 

2}i 

2.875 

2.315 

8.407 

8.839 

3.500 

2.892 

11.24 

11.82 

3V^ 

4. 

3.358 

13.66 

14.37 

4.500 

3.818 

16.41 

17.25 

4H 

5. 

4.250 

20.07 

21.10 

5.563 

4.813 

22.51 

23.67 

6.625 

5750 

31.32 

32.93 

7.625 

6.625 

41.22 

43.34 

8 

8.625 

7.625 

47. 

49.42 

From  American  Brass  Company  "Price  Lists  and  Tables  of  Weights  for 
Seamless,  Brass  and  Copper  Tubes,"  issued  Feb.  1,  1919. 

Table  41. — Seamless,  Brass  and  Copper  Tubes 
Weight  of  Plumbers'  Sizes 


Diameter,  inches 

Pounds 

per  foot 

Size, 

outside 

diameter 

Outside 

Insidp 

Brass 

Copper 

H 

.654 

.521 

.452 

.475 

H 

.768 

.631 

.554 

.583 

% 

.875 

.728 

.682 

.717 

1 

1. 

.836 

.871 

.916 

\H 

1.245 

1.060 

1.233 

1.297 

\H 

1.508 

1.311 

1.606 

1.689 

m 

1.756 

1.564 

1.844 

1.939 

2 

2.007 

1.815 

2.123 

2.232 

From  American  Brass  Company  "Price  Lists  and  Tables  of  Weights  for 
Seamless,  Brass  and  Copper  Tubes,"  issued  Feb.  1,  1919. 


186 


PLUMBERS^  HANDBOOK 


A 

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M 


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60 

d 
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31b. 
3  lb.  8  oz. 

41b. 

5  lb.  8  oz. 

61b.  12  oz. 

91b. 

10  lb. 

! 

lb8oi 

31b. 

31b.8oz. 

41b.  12  oz. 

61b. 

7  lb.  8  oz. 

91b. 

1 

1^ 

1  lb.  4  oz. 

21b. 

2  lb.  4  oz. 
31b.4oz. 
31b.  12oz. 

51b. 
71b. 

h5 

lib. 
lib.  l2oz. 

21b. 
2  lb.  8  oz. 

31b. 

41b. 

51b. 

-•* 

1 

1^ 

12  oz. 
llb.4oz. 
1  lb.  8  oz. 

21b. 

2  lb.  8  oz. 

3  lb.  8  oz. 

4  lb. 

■8 
1 

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PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


187 


Tablb  42. —  Weights  of  Lead  Pipe  {Continued) 

Per  Foot 


^^in. 

He  in. 

^in. 

Ke  in. 

Waste 

thick. 

thick, 

thick. 

thick. 

weight 

Inches 

weight 

weight 

weight 

weight 

per 

per  foot, 

per  foot, 

per  foot, 

per  foot, 

foot. 

poundH 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

2H 

17 

14 

11 

8 

4 

3 

20 

16 

13 

9 

5 

3Vi 

23 

19 

15 

11 

5 

4 

26 

21 

17 

12 

5db6 

4Vi 

29 

24 

19 

13 

5db8 

5 

32 

26 

21 

15 

10 

6 

38 

31 

25 

18 

12 

Taken  from  Bailey-Farrel  Manufacturing  Ck>mpany  Tables. 


188 
Table  424.- 


PLUMBER8'  HANDBOOK 


-Flow  of  Watee  m  HoosE-aBEvicB  Pipes 
(Thomson   Meter  Company) 


Condition 
of  dbehuge 

P 

«und.' 

Diachsrie  in  cubic  feet  per  mjnute 

inoh 

»|« 

5i 

,|» 

' 

' 

' 

Throiiah     3S 

Ice  pipe,  no 
Inok     pr«t- 

Throuih  100 
ft,    of    Berv- 
iee  pipe,  no 
buk     pr«- 

Throa«h  100 

ft.    of    Mrv- 
ioe  pipe  and 

0*1  rlw. 

Through  100 
ft.   of   serv- 
ice pipe. nd 

nl  rise. 

1 

40 
SO 

75 
100 

130 

50 
60 

7S 

lOO 

30 
40 
50 

60 

75 

50 
60 

75 
ICO 

0.44 

1.6: 

.84 

.77 

i.2e 

1.47 
1.74 
2-02 

7 
!S 

2 
17 
lO 

« 

iS 

9 

2 

).4G 

.79 

2,32 
2.7i 

7.92 

9.70 

12.77 

3.78 

4,M 
5.34 

5.97 

7.66 

3.72 
4.24 

3.32 

2.50 

3.69 
4.15 

4.77 
5.65 

6. 55 

16.58 

21.40 
23.44 

26.21 
30.27 

io.«a 

13.43 
14.71 

16.45 

IB,  99 

8.57 

[1,67 
12.94 

14.54 

17.10 

10.16 
11.45 

15.58 
18,07 

36.50 
43.04 
47.15 

52.71 

27.50 

30,12 

33,68 

38,69 

20,95 
23,87 
26,48 

29,% 
35, 

40,23 

14.11 
17,79 

23,47 
31,95 

68,16 
101,60 
M3,B2 

124.66 

139,39 

75.13 
82.30 

92,01 

65.18 
72,28 

81,79 
95,55 
09,82 

46,68 
56.98 
64,22 

87,38 

173.S3 
200. J5 
224.44 

245,87 

274,99 
361,91 

136.41 

I5i,5r 

167,06 
186,  i 

)  16,01 
32,20 

65.90 

76,54 
98,98 
15.67 
30,59 

49,99 
77.67 
206.04 

444.63 
513.42 
574.02 
628.81 

703.03 

925.58 

317.23 
346.30 
409.54 
446.63 

501.58 

260.56 

54.49 
393.13 

444.85 

19.71 

II. H 
166.59 
12.08 
51.73 

103.98 
78.55 
54.96 

PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


189 


Table  43. — Contents  in  Cubic  Feet  and  United  States 

Gallons  op  Pipes  and  Cylinders  op  Various  Inside 

Diameters  and  1  Ft.  in  Length 

(1  gal.  =  231  cu.  in.     1  cu.  ft.  =  7.4805  gal.) 


For  1  ft.  in  length 

For  1  ft.  in  length 

For  1  ft.  in  length 

Diam- 

Cubic 

Cubic 

Cubic 

eter 

feet 

feet 

feet 

in 

also 

U.S. 

Diam- 

also 

U.S. 
gallons 

Diam- 

also 

U.S. 
gallons 

inches 

area 
in 

gallons 

eter  in 
inches 

area 
in 

eter  in 
inches 

area 
in 

square 
feet 

square 

square 

feet 

feet 

H 

.0003 

.0025 

6H 

.2485 

1.859 

19 

l.%9 

14.73 

Me 

.0005 

.0040 

7 

.2673 

1.999 

19H 

2.074 

15.51 

^8 

.0006 

.0057 

7H 

.2867 

2.145 

20 

2.182 

16.32 

Me 

.0010 

.0078 

7H 

.3068 

2.295 

20^^ 

2.292 

17.15 

H 

.0014 

.0102 

7H 

.3276 

2.450 

21 

2.405 

17.99 

Me 

.0017 

.0129 

8 

.3491 

2.611 

21^^ 

2.521 

18.86 

H 

.0021 

.0159 

8H 

.3712 

2.777 

22 

2.640 

19.75 

^Me 

.0026 

.0193 

8H 

.3941 

2.948 

22^^ 

2.761 

20.66 

H 

.0031 

.0230 

SH 

.4176 

3.125 

23 

2.885 

21.58 

HU 

.0036 

.0269 

9 

.4418 

3.305 

23^i 

3.812 

22.53 

H 

.0042 

.0312 

9H 

.4667 

3.491 

24 

3.142 

23.50 

^Me 

.0048 

.0359 

9H 

.4922 

3.682 

25 

3.409 

25.50 

1 

.tK)55 

.0408 

9H 

.5185 

3.879 

26 

3.687 

27.58 

IH 

.0085 

.0638 

10 

.5454 

4.080 

27 

3.976 

29.74 

m 

.0123 

.0918 

lOH 

.5730 

4.286 

28 

4.276 

31.99 

m 

.0167 

.1249 

lOH 

.6013 

4.498 

29 

4.587 

34.31 

2 

.0218 

.1632 

\0H 

.6303 

4.715 

30 

4.909 

36.72 

2H 

.0276 

.2066 

11 

.6600 

4.937 

31 

5.241 

39.21 

2H 

.0341 

.2550 

IIH 

.6903 

5.164 

32 

5.585 

41.78 

2M 

.0412 

.3085 

UH 

.7213 

5.396 

33 

5.940 

44.43 

3 

.0491 

.3672 

]\H 

.7530 

5.633 

34 

6.305 

47.16 

3H 

.0576 

.4309 

12 

.7854 

5.875 

35 

6.681 

49.98 

3H 

.0668 

.4998 

I2H 

.8522 

6.375 

36 

7.069 

52.88 

3H 

.0767 

.5738 

13 

.9218 

6.895 

37 

7.467 

55.86 

4 

.0873 

.6528 

13H 

.9940 

7.436 

38 

7.876 

58.92 

4H 

.0985 

.7369 

14 

1.069 

7.997 

39 

8.2% 

62.06 

4H 

.1104 

.8263 

\4H 

1.147 

8.578 

40 

8.727 

65.28 

4M 

.1231 

.9206 

15 

1.227 

9.180 

41 

9.168 

68.58 

5 

.1364 

1.020 

15H 

1.310 

9.801 

42 

9.621 

71.97 

5H 

.1503 

1.125 

16 

1.3% 

10.44 

43 

10.085 

75.44 

5H 

.1650 

1.234 

\6H 

1.485 

11.11 

44 

10.559 

78.99 

594 

.1803 

1.349 

17 

1.576 

11.79 

45 

11.045 

82.62 

6 

.1963 

1.469 

\7H 

1.670 

12.49 

46 

11.541 

86.33 

6M 

.2131 

1.594 

18 

1.767 

13.22 

47 

12.048 

90.13 

6H 

.2304 

1.724 

18H 

1.867 

13.% 

48 

12.566 

94.00 

To  find  the  weight  of  water  in  any  of  the  given  sizes,  multiply  the  capacity 
in  cubic  feet  by  62H,  or  the  capacity  in  gallons  by  8>^,  or,  if  a  more  accurate 
result  is  required,  by  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  at  the  actual  tem- 
perature in  the  pipe.  Given  the  dimensions  of  a  cylinder  in  inches,  to  find 
Its  capacity  in  U.  S.  gallons:  Square  the  diameter,  multiply  by  the  length 

and  by  0.0034.      If  d  =  diameter,  I  =  length,  gallons  =  ^*  ^  ^o^l^  ^  ^  *" 

0.0034dsl.     If  D  and  L  are  in  feet,  gallons  -  5.S75D*L. 
From  National  Tube  Company  "Book  of  Standards,"  page  301. 


190 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Table    44. — Relative    Dtscharging    Capacities 

OF 

Pipe 

Actual     internal 

diameter.. .... 

.269 

.364 

.493 

.622 

.824 

1.049 

1.380 

1.610 

Nominal  internal 

diameter 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

1 

\H 

m 

H 

1 

H 

2.1 

1 

H 

4.5 

2.1 

1 

W 

8 

3.8 

1.8 

1 

H 

16 

8 

3.6 

2 

1 

1 

30 

14 

6.6 

3.7 

1.8 

1 

m 

60 

28 

13 

7 

3.6 

2 

1 

m 

88 

41 

19 

11 

5.3 

2.9 

1.5 

1 

2 

164 

77 

36 

20 

10 

5.5 

2.7 

1.9 

2H 

255 

120 

56 

31 

16 

8 

4.3 

2.9 

3 

439 

206 

97 

54 

27 

15 

7 

5 

3V4 

632 

297 

139 

78 

38 

21 

11 

7 

4 

867 

407 

191 

107 

53 

29 

15 

10 

4^ 

1,148 

539 

253 

141 

70 

38 

19 

13 

5 

1.525 

716 

335 

188 

93 

51 

26 

17 

6 

2.414 

1,133 

531 

297 

147 

80 

40 

28 

7 

3.483 

1,635 

766 

428 

212 

116 

58 

40 

8 

4.795 

2.251 

1,054 

590 

292 

160 

80 

55 

9 

6.369 

2.990 

1.401 

783 

388 

212 

107 

73 

10 

8.468 

3.976 

1.862 

1,042 

516 

282 

142 

97 

11 

10.693 

5,020 

2,352 

1,315 

651 

356 

179 

122 

12 

13.292 

6.240 

2,923 

.    1,635 

809 

443 

223 

152 

13 

17.028 

7.994 

3,745 

2,094 

1,037 

567 

286 

194 

14 

20,425 

9,589 

4,492 

2,512 

1,244 

680 

343 

233 

15 

24,199 

11,361 

5,322 

2,976 

1.474 

806 

406 

276 

18  0.  D. 

31.750 

14,906 

6,982 

3,905 

1.933 

1,057 

533 

362 

20O.  D. 

41.928 

19,685 

9,221 

5,157 

2,553 

1,3% 

703 

478 

22  0.D. 

53.848 

25,281 

11.842 

6,623 

3,279 

1,793 

903 

614 

24  0.  D. 

67,599 

31,737 

14.866 

8,315 

4,116 

2,251 

1,134 

771 

26  0.  D. 

83.267 

39,093 

18.312 

10,242 

5,070 

2,773 

1,397 

950 

28  0.D. 

100.932 

47,387 

22.197 

12,415 

6,146 

3,361 

1.693 

1,152 

30  0.  D. 

120.675 

56,655 

26,539 

14,843 

7,348 

4,018 

2,024 

1,377 

Nominal  internal 

diameter 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

1 

IH 

m 

Actual     internal 

diameter 

.269 

.364 

.493 

.622 

.824 

1.049 

1.380 

1.610 

From  National  Tube  Company  "Book  of  Standards,"  pages  300  and  307. 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


191 


Table  44. — Relative   Dibchabging  Capacities  op  Pipe 

(Continued) 


Actual     internal 

diameter 

2.067 

2.469 

3.068 

3.548 

4.026 

4.506 

5.047 

6.065 

Nominal  internal 

diameter 

2 

'iH 

3 

3^ 

4 

4Vi 

5 

6 

H 

H 

Calculations  based  on  the  inside  diameters 

H 
H 

of  standard  pipe. 

Formula 

1 

Relative  discharge  capacity  » 

^ 

m 

/inside  diameter"* 

iH 

1 

2 

2H 

1.6 

1 

3 

2.7 

1.7 

1 

m 

3.9 

2.5 

1.4 

1 

4 

5.3 

3.4 

2 

1.4 

1 

4^ 

7 

4.5 

2.6 

1.8    . 

1.3 

1 

5 

9 

6 

3.5 

2.4 

1.8 

1.3 

1 

6 

15 

9 

5.5 

3.8 

2.8 

2.1 

1.6 

1 

7 

21 

14 

8 

5.5 

4 

3 

2.3 

1.4 

8 

29 

19 

10.9 

7.6 

5.5 

4.2 

3.1 

2 

9 

39 

25 

14 

10 

7.3 

5.5 

4.2 

2.6 

10 

52 

33 

19 

13 

10 

7.4 

5.6 

3.5 

11 

65 

42 

24 

17 

12 

9.3 

7 

4.4 

12 

81 

52 

30 

21 

15 

12 

8.7 

5.5 

13 

104 

67 

39 

27 

20 

15 

11 

7 

14 

125 

80 

46 

32 

24 

18 

13 

8.5 

15 

148 

95 

55 

38 

28 

21 

16 

10 

18  0.  D. 

194 

124 

72 

50 

37 

28 

21 

13 

20O.  D. 

256 

164 

95 

66 

48 

37 

27 

17 

22  0.D. 

329 

211 

123 

85 

62 

47 

35 

22 

24  0.  D. 

413 

265 

154 

107 

78 

59 

44 

28 

26  0.D. 

509 

326 

190 

132 

% 

73 

55 

34 

28  0.D. 

617 

395 

230 

160 

116 

88 

66 

42 

30  0.  D. 

737 

473 

275 

191 

139 

105 

79 

50 

Nominal  internal 

diameter 

2 

2H 

3 

3H 

4 

4^ 

5 

6 

Actual     internal 

diameter 

2.067 

2.469 

3.068 

3.548 

4.026 

4.506 

5.047 

6.065 

From  National  Tube  Company  "  Book  of  Standards"  pages  306  and  307 « 


192  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

CORRECT  PIPE-THREADING  PRINCIPLES 

Certain  fundamental  principles  govern  the  results  obtained 
in  threading  pipe  which  should  interest,  and  do  concern,  practi- 
cally everyone  who  has  anything  to  do  with  the  threading  of 
pipe. 

Whether  pipe  is  threaded  by  power  machines  or  by  hand- 
operated  tools,  when  trouble  is  experienced  the  cause  can 
usually  be  attributed  to  dull  or  blunt  dies,  improperly  designed 
dies,  or  poor  lubrication. 

Failure  to  study  the  fundamental  principles  of  pipe  threading 
sometimes  results  in  placing  the  blame  for  poor  threads  on  the 
material  in  the  pipe,  when  the  trouble  can  often  be  traced  to 
the  use  of  dies  that  have  not  been  kept  in  working  condition, 
or  to  dies  of  antiquated  design. 

It  frequently  happens  that  an  individual  or  firm  possesses 
an  equipment  of  dies  of  improperly  designed  type,  which  are 
not  giving  satisfaction,  and  can  not  economically  or  con- 
veniently be  discarded. 

The  following  points  are  set  forth  for  the  benefit  of  pipe 
fitters  engaged  in  commercial  practice,  using  either  hand- 
operated  tools  or  power  machines  to  thread  pipe,  as 
distinguished  from  pipe  manufacturers  engaged  in  mill  practice 
where  all  sizes  of  pipe  up  to  20-in.  are  threaded  on  power 
machines  under  the  most  ideal  conditions. 

COMMERCIAL  PRACTICE 

To  secure  good  threaded  joints,  it  is  necessary  to  have  clean, 
smoothly  cut  threads  of  the  proper  taper  and  pitch,  and  to 
secure  such  threads  it  is  necessary  to  have  threading  dies  made 
with  full  consideration  for  the  following  points: 

Lip. 

Chip  space. 

Clearance. 

Lead. 

Oil. 

Number  of  chasers,  in  the  case  of  power  machines. 

These  points  are  taken  up  and  explained  separately. 

Lip. — To  illustrate  clearly  what  is  meant  by  lip  on  a  chaser, 
two  photographs  are  shown.  One  of  them  (Fig.  138)  shows  an 
old  type  of  chaser  which  has  no  lip,  and  the  other  (Fig.  139) 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES  193 

shows  a  modem  type  of  power-machine  chaser  which  has  a  lip 
miUed  or  ground  in  the  cutting  face.  As  will  be  seen,  the  lip 
forma  a  slanted  cutting  edge  on  the  chaaer,  which  allows  the 
chips  to  curl  oS  clean  and  leave  a  smooth  thread.  It  also  givea 
an  easy  cutting  action  to  the  chaser  similar  to  that  of  a  properly 
ground  lathe  tool  instead  of  the  pushing  effect  caused  by  chasere 
having  no  lip,  and  also  permits  increasing  cutting  speed 
considerably. 

The  angle  to  which  the  lip  should  be  ground  on  a  chaser 
depends  upon  the  kind  of  material  to  be  threaded  and  the  style 


Fio.  13S.  Fio.  139. 

and  condition  of  the  chasers  and  chaaer  holder.  For  ordinary 
steel  pipe  this  angle  should  be  from  15  to  20  deg.,  but  chasers 
intended  to  cut  open-hearth-steel  pipe  should  have  a  long,  easy 
lip  on  account  of  the  soft  character  of  the  material;  for  open- 
hearth  steel  the  lip  angle  should  be  at  least  25  deg.  In  all  cases 
the  back  of  the  lip  should  be  rounded  to  eliminate  square 
comers  or  shoulders  in  which  chips  may  catch  and  pack  up. 
The  different  angles  of  lip  for  cutting  different  materials  are 
shown  in  Figs.  140  and  141,  while  Fig.  142  shows  how  a  chaser 
with  practically  no  lip  pushes  the  metal  from  the  pipe  in  the 
form  of  crumbling  chips. 

There  are  many  undesirable  consequences  of  using  dies 
without  proper  lip.  The  extra  power  required  to  force  them 
has  a  tendency  to  break  out  the  teeth  of  the  chasers,  which  will 

18 


194 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


then  pick  up  '^stickers/'  tearing  the  tops  from  the  threads  and 
creating  unnecessary  friction. 

While  it  is  understood  that  all  chasers  should  be  ground  to 
this  principle  of  lip,  yet  it  is  found  that  there  are  still  some 

At  Least  3S^ 


Fig.  140. 


Fig.  141. 


Fig.  142. 


threading  dies  which  are  at  variance  with  it.  Cooperative 
measures  between  pipe  manufacturers  and  the  manufacturers 
of  threading  machinery  and  dies  have  resulted  in  considerable 
progress    being    made    toward    standardizing    the    principles 


^^^H'^AAAAAAAAA 


I 
B 


Fig.  143. 

outlined  herein.  The  advisable  thing  to  do  when  dies  are 
found  to  be  lacking  in  these  essentials  is  to  send  them  to  the  die 
manufacturer  for  the  purpose  of  having  a  lip  ground  or  ma- 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES  195 

chined  on  them,  or  to  turn  them  over  to  an  experienced  tool- 
maker,  or  to  others  making  a  specialty  of  this  kind  of  work. 

The  lip  should  be  ground  uniformly  across  the  cutting  face 
of  the  chaser  (see  Fig.  143)  in  order  to  obtain  a  full  lip  at  all 
points. 

"Lip"  is  also  commonly  known  aa  "Hook"  or  "Rake." 
The  effect  of  lip  is  sometimes  obtained  by  inclinii^  the  chasers 
in  lelation  to  the  radial  line  of  the  pipe,  as  in  Fig.  165,  and  in  this 
instance  the  die  is  known  as  a  "rake"  die. 

Chip  space  is  the  space  required  in  the  die  holder  in  front  of 
the  chasers  to  prevent  the  accumulation  or  packing  up  of  chips. 
The  importance  of  this  feature  can  not  be  too  strongly  em- 
phasized, for,  if  sufficient  chip  space  is  not  allowed,  the  chips 
will  rapidly  pack  in  front  of  the  chaser,  causing  rough,  torn 
threads  and  creating  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  chaser  to 
pick  up  stickers. 

Where  no  chip  space  is  cut  in  the  die  ring,  the  chaser  should 
project  at  least  ^  in.  beyond  the  ring;  otherwise  a  clc^ging 
effect  will  be  experienced.  The  best  design  for  this  chip  space 
is  shown  in  Figs.  146  and  147,  where  an  even  curve  is  provided 
for  the  chip  to  follow,  while  the  back  of  each  chaser  ia  well 
supported. 


Fig.  144. 

This  chip  space  is  a  particularly  important  consideration  in 
dies  used  for  cutting  open-hearth-steel  pipe,  as  ample  space  is 
needed  to  care  for  the  long,  tough  chip  produced  in  threading 
this  material  (see  Figs.  162  and  163).  Absence  of  this  featurein 
threading  dies  will  cause  difficulty  in  threading  either  Bessemer 
or  open-heartb-steel  pipe.  If  proper  consideration  is  given  to 
lip  and  chip  space,  threading  is  done  with  less  power  and  less 
friction,  a  better  thread  is  obtained,  broken  teeth  are  prevented, 
and  the  life  of  the  die  and  its  production  increased. 


196 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Clearance  is  the  space  between  the  threads  of  the  chasers 
and  the  threads  on  the  pipe.  This  clearance  is  secured  by  die 
manufacturers  in  various  ways,  and  may  be  determined  by- 
certain  effects  produced  by  normal  operation  of  the  die.  For 
example,  the  effect  of  ideal  clearance  in  the  threads  of  a  chaser 
is  shown  in  Fig.  144,  which  is  a  photograph  of  a  chaser  which 
has  been  used  for  some  time.  When  this  chaser  was  first  set 
in  the  holder,  the  sides  of  the  threads  were  uniformly  dark  in 
color,  just  as  they  were  left  after  being  hardened  and  tempered. 
When  the  chaser  had  been  in  use  for  some  time,  the  sides  of  the 


^^ChtTnmoff 


Fig.  145. 


threads  became  polished,  brighter  at  the  cutting  edge,  and 
gradually  shading  almost  to  their  original  color  at  the  back. 
The  chaser  of  a  die  which  shows  this  condition  will  work  freely, 
cut  clean  (as  shown  by  the  chips  in  Fig.  139),  will  not  tear  the 
thread,  and  will  be  durable.  When  the  chasers  of  a  die  show  a 
polish  from  the  cutting  edge  to  the  back,  there  is  a  lack  of 
clearance,  causing  the  cutting  edge  to  work  hard,  heat,  and 
make  rough,  torn  threads  (as  shown  by  the  chips  in  Fig.  138). 
Figure  146  shows  a  die  in  which  the  chasers  are  set  so  that 
the  cutting  edge  and  the  front  of  the  chaser  are  both  on  a  radial 
line  from  the  center  of  the  die  or  pipe.  A  simple  method  used 
by  die  manufacturers  for  getting  clearance  in  this  type  of  die, 
known  as  "cutting-edge-on-center"  or  "center  cut,"  is  shown 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


197 


in  Fig.  14^,  in  whicji  the  chasers  in  the  machining  position  are 
set  out  larger  in  diameter  than  when  adjusted  for  cutting 
threads.  Thus,  in  making  a  properly  designed  chaser  for  a 
6-in.  die,  the  chasers  should  be  machined  to  about  Jfe  ^^' 
greater  diameter.     For  a  4-in.  die,  %  in.,  for  a  2-in.  die,  Ji  in., 


Fig.  146. 


and  for  a  1-in.  die,  ^{^  in.  greater  diameter;  other  sizes  in  the 
same  proportion. 

The  effect  of  this  is  shown  in  exaggerated  manner  in  Fig.  145 
where  it  can  be  seen  how  the  thread  on  the  chaser,  being  cut  to 
a  slightly  larger  radius,  gradually  recedes  from  the  thread  on 
the  pipe. 


198 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Figure  147  shows  a  die  in  which  the  chasers  are  set  so  that 
the  cutting  edge  and  front  of  the  chaser  cut  ahead  of  the  center, 
with  the  result  that  the  center  line  of  the  die  or  pipe  runs 
through  or  near  the  center  of  the  chaser.  Clearance  may  be 
obtained  on  this  type  of  chaser  by  machining  or  grinding  it  in 


Fig.  147. 


the  same  manner  as  a  "cutting-edge-on-center''  type  of  chaser, 
providing  the  center  line  of  chaser  is  positioned  slightly  above 
the  center  line  of  cutting  or  grinding  wheel  when  machining  in 
the  horizontal  position  (see  Fig.  155).  Proper  clearance 
having  been  obtained,  part  of  the  "heel"  can  be  ground  off 
the  back  edge  of  the  chaser.     It  is  necessary  to   do  this  to 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


199 


prevent  tearing  the  thread  if  the  die  must  be  backed  off  without 
opening. 

Of  course  it  is  easy  to  go  to  extremes  in  these  matters.  If 
too  much  clearance  is  allowed,  the  result  will  be  a  wavy  thread. 
Chasers  with  too  much  clearance  and  no  heel  usually  cause 
chattering  and  its  attendant  troubles.  Dies  with  these  faults 
are  more  susceptible  to  breakage  than  dies  which  have  been 
made  with  due  consideration  for  the  points  mentioned. 


POSITION  OF 

CHASER  WHEN 
THREADING  PIPE 


THREAD 


POSITION  OP 
CHASER  WHEN 
BEINQ  MACHINED 


Fig.  148. 

The  position  in  which  the  chaser  shall  be  machined  is 
determined  by  the  position  in  which  it  is  intended  to  work  in 
relation  to  the  pipe. 

Lead  or  Throat. — Lead  is  the  angle  which  is  machined  or 
ground  on  the  first  three  threads  (more  or  less)  of  each  chaser 
to  enable  the  die  to  start  on  the  pipe,  and  also  to  distribute  the 
work  of  making  the  first  cut  over  a  number  of  threads.  The 
lead  may  be  machined  on,  or,  as  is  more  frequent,  it  may  be 
ground  on  after  the  chasers  are  tempered.  The  proper  amount 
of  lead  is  about  three  threads.     As  the  heaviest  cutting  is  done 


200  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

by  the  lead,  it  should  have  slightly  greater  clearaDce  angle  thaa 
the  rest  of  the  threads  on  the  chaser,  but  care  must  be  used  to 
Bee  that  this  angle  ia  not  excessive.  Too  much  clearance  here 
will  cause  the  die  to  lead  too  fast,  and  the  hall  threads  cut  by 
the  lead  are  conaequently  damaged  by  the  full  teeth  of  the 
chaaers. 

Figure  149  ehows  the  position  in  which  a  lipped  chaser  should 
be  held  when  grinding  the  lead.  An  adjustable  flat  rest  on 
the  emery  wheel  stand  is  required,  in  order  to  position  the 
chaser  at  the  proper  height  to  obtain  the  amount  of  clearance 
required. 

Figure  150  showa  the  position  in  which  a  chaser  of  the  "rake" 
type  (see  also  Fig.  165)  should  be  held  when  grindit^  the  lead 


Fia,  149.  Fig.  150. 

or  throat.  Ao  adjustable  flat-top  rest  on  the  emery  wheel 
stand  is  also  required  when  grinding  this  type  of  chaser — which, 
it  will  be  noted,  is  ground  at  a  higher  position  in  relation  to  the 
horizontal  center  line  of  the  wheel  thac  is  the  lip  type  of  chaser. 
The  reason  for  this  ia  that  the  teeth  of  the  rake  chaser  are  milled 
at  a  greater  angle  (higher  at  back  of  chaser)  than  on  a  lipped 
chaser,  as  the  chaser  must  be  set  with  "rake"  (slanted)  in  the 
die  instead  of  being  set  in  alignment  with  the  radial  center  line 
of  the  pipe.  When  set  in  the  die  with  proper  rake,  the  clearance 
in  this  type  of  chaser  is  substantially  the  same  as  in  a  lipped  die, 
but  the  point  at  the  cutting  edge  of  teeth  or  lead  is  much  sharper 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES  201 

than  the  point  of  an  ordinary  die  before  the  latter  is  lipped;  in 
view  of  this  condition,  care  should  be  used  in  grinding  the  lead 
of  a  rake  die  to  see  that  an  excesBive  amount  of  clearance  is  not 
obtained,  as  such  a  condition  would  tend  to  weaken  the  chaser 
at  the  point  where  the  heaviest  cutting  is  done.  The  same 
apphes  to  a  hp  chaser,  especially  if  it  has  been  lipped  for  cutting 
open-hearth -steel  pipe  (the  aagle  of  lip  being  at  least  25  deg.,  as 
compared  to  15  to  20  deg.  on  chasers  used  for  cuttii^  Besaemer 


Fio.   162. 

In  Fig.  151  is  shown  a  set  of  tapered  chasera  with  properly 
ground  lead  or  throat.  These  are  arranged  in  sequence,  the  first 
chaser  being  at  the  right.  It  will  be  noticed  how  the  first  or 
lead  thread  gradually  increases  in  size  until  from,  being  a  mere 
scratch  on  No.  I,  it  extends  fully  across  chaser  No.  6.  This 
set  of  chasers  will  cut  smoothly,  each  one  doing  its  share  of  the 
wort,  and  the  chips  will  come  off  cleanly  and  evenly.  Figure 
152  shows  a  set  of  chasers  with  the  lead  or  throat  incorrectly 
ground,  for,  as  will  be  seen,  the  lead  thread  on  one  chaser  does 
not  correspond  to  those  preceding  or  following. 


202 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


The  effect  of  this  would  be  to  distribute  the  work  unevenly, 
causing  the  chasers  which  do  the  most  work  to  become  dull; 
and  making  it  difficult  for  the  die  to  take  hold  when  starting  to 
cut  a  thread.  It  is  this  improperly  ground  lead  which  also 
makes  a  die  let  go  after  being  fairly  well  started,  spoiling  the 
thread  and  dulling  the  chaser. 

A  perfectly  good  set  of  dies  can  be  ruined  by  improperly 
regrinding  the  lead.  Figure  163  shows  the  proper  and  improper 
methods  of  regrinding  the  lead.  Note  carefully  that  the  proper 
method  is  to  regrind  parallel  to  the  original  lead,  as  shown  by 


IHPROrat  aftlNDIN6 
OF  LCAO 


yf 


AAAA;?^^^^^^^^-^ 


CORRECT  ANOLE  FOR 
6RINDING   LEAD 


/ 


ANALE  OP 
ORMINAL  LKAO 


Fig.  153. — Showing  correct  angle  for  regrinding  Lead  of  Chasers. 

the  two  parallel  dotted  lines.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that 
all  chasers  are  ground  at  the  same  angle.  The  improper 
methods  cQjnmonly  used,  are  shown  by  other  dotted  lines  in  the 
same  drawing. 

Number  of  Chasers. — To  get  good  results  in  threading  at 
one  cut,  experience  shows  that  a  die  should  have  a  suitable 
number  of  chasers,  the  approximate  number  being  determined 
by  the  size  of  the  die.  Experience  shows  that  dies  up  to  1^  in. 
should  have  at  least  four  chasers;  1 3^  to  4  in.  should  have  at 
least  six;  4)^  to  8  in.  should  have  at  least  eight;  and  9  to 
12  in.  should  have  at  least  12  chasers.  The  number  of  chasers 
necessarily  depends  upon  the  design,  size,  and  operative  princi- 
ple of  the  die;  hence  no  exact  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  universal 
acceptance.  When  an  insufficient  number  of  chasers  is  used, 
the  die  will  chatter  and  cut  a  rough  thread. 

Oil.' — Care  should  be  taken  in  the  quality  of  oil  used,  as  the 
best  die  made  will  not  produce  good  results  with  poor  or  insuffi- 
cient oil. 


iSee  Section  on  "Fatty  Oils,"  page  352. 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


203 


For  use  on  hand  tools  or  wh^re  the  flow  is  intermittent,  No.  1 
Lard  Oil  can  be  used  with  success,  as  cottonseed  oils  have  a 
tendency  to  gum  up  if  not  used  in  a  constant  flow. 

Experience  shows  that  the  very  best  lard  oil  is  the  best 
lubricant.  Cheap  lubricant  is  destructive  to  dies,  and  more 
power  is  required  to  perform  work  when  it  is  used. 

A  mixture  particularly  adapted  to  power  machines  where 
there  is  a  steady  flow  of  lubricant,  which  will  give  good  results, 
and  is  comparatively  inexpensive,  is  composed  of  50  per  cent 
cottonseed  oil  and  50  per  cent  Ught  neutral  oil. 

There  are  a  number  of  cutting  oils  on  the  market  at  the 
present  time  which  are  giving  satisfactory  results  and  are  recom- 
mended to  those  who  have  experienced  difficulty  in  securing 
their  accustomed  lubricants  or  have  found  the  preparation  of 
special  mixtures  unprofitable  or  inconvenient. 

CARE  AND  REPAIR  OF  DIES 

To  get  the  best  results  with  the  dies  now  made,  the  plumber 
and  steam  fitter  should  bear  in  mind  certain  rules  established 
by  the  die  manufacturer. 

Where  a  die  of  two  or  more  chasers  is  used,  care  should  be 
used  to  see  that  the  letter  and  number  of  each  chaser  cor- 
responds, as  all  chasers  in  a  die  set  have  both  the  same  letter 


b  c 

FiQ.  154. 

Two  sets  of  chasers  (o  and  b)  Improperly  arranged  sets  of 
properly  arranged  in  pairs,  ac-  Chasers.  The  Serial  Numbers 
cording  to  Serial  Number  and  show  that  the  Chasers  belong  to 
Letter.  three    different    sets    of    dies, 

CB360,  W360  and  K360. 

and  ntunber;  for  instance,  W360  or  CB360.  A  chaser  marked 
W360  would  not  operate  satisfactorily  with  a  chaser  from  an- 
other die  set  marked  CB360.  By  using  chasers  from  two  or 
more  separate  sets  in  one  die,  the  lead  threads  may  not  follow 


204 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


in  proper  order,  and  the  troubles,  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Fig.  152,  will  be  experienced.  In  many  cases  it  has  been  found 
that  only  the  number  of  a  chaser  has  been  noted  and  no  attention 
has  been  paid  to  the  serial  letter j  and  as  a  consequence  the  pipe 
and  die  have  both  been  condemned,  first,  the  pipe  for  being  hard 
cut,  and  second,  the  did  for  being  defective.  Diagrams  a,  6,  c, 
d,  Fig.  154,  show  correct  and  incorrect  combinations  of  chasers. 
When  chasers  are  placed  in  holder,  care  should  be  taken  to  have 
them  set  at  equal  distances  from  center  of  holder.  Chasers 
set  "out  of  center"  will  generally  cut  an  imperfect  thread. 

Proper  Grinding  of  Chasers. — Manufacturers  of  dies  find 
that  dies  received  from  customers  as  defective  or  to  be  reground 
show  signs  of  having  been  abused  and  carelessly  ground.  Much 
of  this  trouble  could  have  been  eliminated  if  the  users  of  dies 
had  returned  them  to  the  manufacturers  for  regrinding  in  the 
first  place  or  had  observed  the  following  simple  rules: 

1.  Be  careful  not  to  bum  the  dies  in  grinding. 

2.  Do  not  grind  too  much  at  one  time. 

3.  Be  careful  where  you  grind  and  how  you  grind. 

SIZE   OF  PIPE 
TO  BE  THREADED 


^512  E  OF 
GRINDIN6  VmEEL 


CENTER  LINE 
OF  CHASER 


CENTER  UNE  OF 
GRINDING  WHEEL 


FiQ.  155. — Proper  method  of  grinding  Chasers  to  secure  clear- 
ange  in  Lead  or  Throat.  The  Chaser  is  raised  or  lowered  accord- 
ingly as  the  design  of  the  die  requires.  C  indicates  the  amount  of 
clearance  which  will  be  obtained.     See  also  Figs.  149  and  150. 

Some  types  of  old  dies  can  often  be  improved  by  grinding  a 
lip  with  proper  cutting  angle,  and  otherwise  altering  the  chasers 
to  make  them  as  close  as  possible  in  design  to  the  type  shown 
in  Fig.  139. 

Proper  clearance  on  lead  or  throat  is  very  important.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  have  just  sufficient  clearance  in  the  throat  to 
have  a  good  cutting  edge,  as  too  much  clearance  will  weaken  the 
die  at  the  point  where  the  heaviest  duty  is  required  of  the 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


205 


chaser.  Figure  165  shows  the  approximately  correct  position 
for  grinding  a  ^' stock-on-center''  chaser  to  secure  proper 
clearance  on  lead.  The  chaser  in  this  case  should  be  held  in  a 
perfectly  horizontal  position,  the  back  of  the  chaser  being  a 
little  below  the  center  of  the  grinding  wheel,  which,  for  purpose 
of  illustration,  is  shown  as  about  the  same  diameter  as  that  of 
the  pipe.  Greater  clearance  may  be  obtained  by  slightly 
raising  the  rest.  When  a  grinding  wheel  somewhat  larger  than 
the  diameter  of  the  pipe  is  used,  the  center  of  the  chaser  should 
be  slightly  above  the  center  of  the  wheel.  The  clearance  may 
be  reduced  by  lowering  the  rest,  but  the  chaser  should  always 
be  held  perfectly  horizontal  unless  a  specially  designed  jig  or 
fixture  is  used  to  hold  the  chaser  at  correct  grinding  angle. 

If  precaution  is  not  taken  to  hold  the  chaser  firmly  on  the 
rest  or  in  a  suitable  jig,  or  to  see  that  the  metal  does  not  become 
overheated,  the  result  is  likely  to  be  a  burnt  tool  with  the  cut- 
ting edge  rounded  off  or  having  no  temper  (see  diagram  a,  Fig. 
156). 

Diagram  h  (Fig.  156)  shows  the  result  of  grinding  the  lead  at 
too  low  a  point  on  the  wheel  (assuming  that  the  chaser  has 


Fig.  156. — (o)  Cutting  edge  rounded  off.  No  clearance  in  Lead. 
Result  of  careless  grinding  and  lack  of  temper  in  steel  of  Chaser. 
(6)  No  clearance  in  Throat  or  Lead,  (c)  Too  much  clearance  in 
Throat  or  I^ad.     (d)  Correct  Throat  or  Lead. 

been  held  horizontally);  this  die  has  no  clearance  on  throat  or 
lead  and  is  subject  to  excessive  friction  when  working,  which  the 
best  lubricant  can  not  overcome. 

Diagram  c  (Fig.  156)  shows  the  opposite  extreme — the  result 
of  grinding  the  chaser  at  too  high  a  position  in  relation  to  the 
center  of  the  grinding  wheel.  This  leaves  too  much  clearance 
in  the  lead,  and  as  a  consequence  the  lip  is  weakened  at  that 
point  and  the  die  will  chatter,  causing  a  rough,  wavering  thread, 
if  not  in  fact  stripping  short  pieces  from  the  threads,  or  breaking 
the  chaser. 

Diagram  d  (Fig.  156)  shows  a  chaser  ground  with  proper  lead 
clearance.     A  careful  study  of  all  four  diagrams  in  Fig.  156  will 


206 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


reveal  wherein  d  is  the  correct  form  for  cutting  good  strong 
threads.  (These  diagrams  are  shown  simply  for  comparison, 
and  do  not  represent  exact  measurements  to  be  used  as  a  work- 
ing basis.) 

Care  should  also  be  taken  to  see  that  the  chasers  are  not  set 
too  deep  in  the  stock.  That  is,  the  diameter  between  oppositely 
disposed  chasers  at  the  greatest  permissible  cutting  depth  of 


'VVWVV^^ — 


CHASERS 

SET    AT 

CD.  OF  PIPE 


-- AftZtS^^Sew. J 


^?47*70S'*='- 


CHASERS  SET 
AT  LESS  THAN 
aD.  OF  PIPE 


yylww.__J| 


Fig.  157. — Showing  proper  and  improper  depth  of  Chasers 

as  set  in  die  stock. 


Fig.  158. — Heel  removed  to  Fio.  159. — Dotted  line  shows 
prevent  tearing  of  threads  when  ordinary  cutting.  Black  line 
backing  off  the  die  from  pipe.         shows  proper  angle  or  rate  of 

die ;  dies  so  ground  will  cut  pipe 
threads  with  less  effort  than 
those  which  have  not  been  so 
angled. 

chaser  threads  should  not  be  less  than  the  outside  diameter  of 
the  pipe.  Pipe  fitters  are  quite  apt  to  be  satisfied  that  the 
chasers  are  properly  set  so  long  as  the  lead  is  sufficient  to  allow 
easy  starting  of  the  die,  but  it  frequently  happens  that  the 
chaser  is  set  too  deep,  and  the  die  is  literally  forced  on  the  pipe 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


207 


after  passing  the  first  two  or  three  threads  of  the  chaser. 
This  results  in  stripping  the  top  ofif  the  threads,  (sometimes  the 
whole  thread),  overheating  and  ruining  the  die,  especially  when 
a  tough  material  is  threaded.     If  any  discrimination  is  to  be 


Fig.  160. — 1.  Lead  or  throat  too  flat;  cutting  edge  rounded  off 
by  careless  grinding.  2.  Proper  clearance  in  lead  and  threads  of 
chaser.  3.  Too  much  clearance  in  lead.  4.  No  chip  space;  note 
sharp  corner  where  chips  may  pile  up  and  break  threads.  5. 
Proper  lead  and  chip  space  but  insufficient  cutting  angle  of  lip. 

6.  Lead  too  high  on  cutting  edge  and  back  due  to  careless  grinding; 
chaser  should  be  held  rigid  and  perfectly  horizontal  while  grinding. 

7.  Lip  incorrectly  ground ;  cutting  edge  too  thin  and  sharp,  has  too 
large  angle  and  will  quickly  overheat  or  break  off.  8.  Too  much 
of  heel  removed;  chaser  ground  thus  will  give  incorrect  wavering 
thread.  Chip  space  in  die  head  correct  in  all  cases  except  in 
front  of  chaser  4. 

made,  it  should  be  on  the  side  of  a  light,  clean  cut  rather  than 
a  deep  cut  that  is  forced  (see  Fig.  157). 

A  careful  study  of  Figs.  158,  159,  and  160  will  be  of  value. 
The  illustrations  with  their  appended  data  are  self-explanatory. 


208  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

In  "backing  off"  a  solid  die,  where  a  common  hand  stock  is 
used,  care  should  be  taken  to  aee  that  the  chaser  does  not  jump 
the  thread  cbanael,  causing  cross  threading  or  stripping.  This 
is  particularly  apt  to  happen  when  backing  the  die  off  the  last 
few  threads  (the  first  threads  cut  on  the  pipe). 

Regrindlng  Broken  Teeth  o£  Dies. — It  is  always  better  to 
grind  out  of  a  chaser,  with  a  thin  emery  wheel,  a  tooth  which 
has  become  broken,  as  the  rough  portion,  if  allowed  to  remain, 
is  likely  to  pick  up  a  sticker  and  tear  the  thread  on  the  pipe. 

If  the  die  picks  up  a  sticker,  it  is  very  important  that  the 


Fig.  161. 

broken  tooth  which  caused  the  trouble  be  ground  out.  U  the 
sticker  is  removed  by  digging  and  the  broken  tooth  is  not 
ground  out,  the  trouble  will  occur  again  at  the  same  spot. 
When  a  die  picks  up  a  sticker  on  an  important  occasion  such  as 
a  break-down  job,  or  on  a  pipe  that  has  been  cut  after  b^i^ 
bent,  the  consequences  are  particularly  disagreeable  and  costly. 

It  is  surprising  how  many  teeth  may  be  ground  out  of  a  set 
of  chasers  without  impairing  its  usefulness.  Figure  161  shows 
an  extreme  example.  This  set  of  chasers  was  removed  from  a 
die  in  a  machine  and  was  producing  first-lass  work,  and  later 
returned  to  the  same  machine  where  they  continued  to  do  good 
work.  Grinding  out  the  teeth  of  chasers  to  this  extent  is  not 
recommended  as  good  practice,  but  these  examples  serve  to 
illustrate  the  increased  life  and  service  that  may  be  obtained 
by  careful  treatment  of  dies. 

Old  chasers  with  dull  and  rusted  threads  may  be  resharpened 
with  emery  and  oil.     If  too  dull,  they  may  be  rehobbed. 

Receding  types  of  dies  may  be  rehobbed  and  lead  reground  to 
cut  next  larger  size  of  pipe. 

Proper  Threading  Principles  as  Affecting  Receding  TTpe  of 
Threading  Dies. — The  principles  of  correct  lip,  chipspace,  clear- 
ance, lead  or  throat,  etc.,  apply  in  equal  measure  to  both  that 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


209 


type  of  die  which  consists  of  a  number  of  chaaera  beld  stationary 
in  the  die,  and  to  that  type  wherein  the  chasers  are  movable  and 
padually  recede  from  the  pipe  as  the  thread  is  cut.  It  will  be 
readily  aeen  why  these  principles  apply  in  both  cases  when  it  is 
considered  that  the  principal  difference  in  the  design  of  the 
chasers  is  that  those  which  are  held  stationary  are  tapered  to 
correspond  to  the  taper  of  the  thread  to  be  cut  on  the  pipe, 
while  the  receding  type  are  practically  straight  and  cut  the 
thread  to  required  taper  by  gradually  moving  backward,  remov- 


^^u] 

i         ■■■^' 

«l 

"1 

Fia.  162.— From  a  photo-  Fio.  163.— From  a  photo- 
graph; showing  character  and  graph;  showing  character  and 
typo  of  chipa  thrown  off  by  type  of  chips  thrown  off  by 
chaser  of  an  old  type.  properly  designed  chaser. 

ing  less  and  less  stock  as  the  cutting  of  the  thread  progresses. 

The  principles  of  lip,  chip  space,  clearance,  etc.,  are  therefore 
seen  to  be  principles  which  affect  the  cutting  action  of  chasers 
regardless  of  the  operative  principle  of  the  particular  dies  of 
which  they  form  a  part.  A  receding  die  would  push  the  metal 
off  instead  of  cutting  it,  in  the  same  manner  as  a  solid  die  of 
poor  design,  if  its  chasers  wore  not  properly  tipped  and  other 
proper  threading  principles  were  ignored.  Happily,  the 
modem  type  of  receding  die  is  not  designed  with  the  principle 
of  pushing  the  metal  off,  but  is  in  reality  a  lathe  tool. 

That  the  chasers  of  the  modem  receding  type  of  die  are 
designed  on  the  principle  of  a  lathe  tool  (being  narrower  than 
the  "sohd"  or  tapered  type  of  chaser),  is  additional  reason  why 


210  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

proper  clearance  and  lip  or  rake  should  be  maintained  and  the 
best  of  lubricant  used. 

Dies  of  this  type  which  have  become  damaged  or  dulled  in 
use,  should  be  returned  to  the  die  manufacturer  for  repairs, 
unless  the  attention  of  expert  toolmakers  or  other  specialists  in 
this  work  can  be  given  them.  The  efficiency  of  this  type  of 
die  is  well  indicated  by  the  fact  that  it  is  frequently  used  to 
thread  pipe  by  hand  up  to  12-in.  diameter. 

MILL  PRACTICE 

That  pipe  up  to  20-in.  diameter  is  threaded  at  the  mill  with 
power  machines,  whereas  the  merchant  fitter  employs  both 
hand-operated  tools  and  power  machines  for  threading  pipe 
}^  in.  to  6  in.  and,  on  certain  occasions,  pipe  up  to  12  in.  in 
diameter,  indicates  that  there  is  not  a  pronounced  difference 
between  commercial  and  mill  practice. 

The  chief  difference  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  manufacturer  of 
pipe  has  better  facilities  than  the  average  plumber  for  keeping 
dies  in  working  condition  or  for  altering  their  design  slightly 
for  certain  purposes — ^for  instance,  increasing  the  lip  angle  for 
cutting  open-hearth  steel,  regrinding  lead  of  chasers  which  have 
become  dull  through  use,  and  making  other  minor  changes. 

Cutting  speeds  of  power  machines  affect  the  quality  of 
threads  and  the  life  and  efficiency  of  the  chaser.  If  the  speed  is 
too  great,  the  metal  is  torn  away  instead  of  being  cut,  the  die 
is  overheated,  and  a  ragged  thread  results.  To  attain  high 
cutting  speed,  it  is  necessary  to  have  an  ample  continuous  flow 
of  lubricant  to  wash  away  the  cuttings  and  to  keep  the  dies 
clean  and  sufficiently  cold  to  do  the  work  properly. 

The  special  factors  of  good  pipe  threading,  such  as  lip,  chip 
space,  clearance,  etc.,  of  chasers,  apply  equally  to  mill  practice 
and  commercial  practice.  The  information  regarding  the  number 
of  chasers  listed  on  page  202  is  supplemented  by  the  following: 

Dies  up  to  1  ^  in.  should  have  at  least  4  chasers 

1^  to    4  in.  should  have  at  least    6  chasers 

4^  to    8  in.  should  have  at  least    8  chasers 

9      to  12  in.  should  have  at  least  12  chasers 

13      to  16  in.  should  have  at  least  14  chasers 

17      to  20  in.  should  have  at  least  16  chasers 

This  information  is  based  on  experiences  of  National  Tube 
Company. 

SUMMARY 

A  die  which^  is  made  with  due  regard  to  all  the  points  enum- 
ited,  will  thread  pipe  of  any  uniform  material  with  good 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES  211 

results  i  steel  pipe  ia  naturally  soft  and  tough,  and  consequently 
Bomewbat  more  difficult  to  thread  with  the  old  form  of  die 


Fio.  164. — At  right,  set  of  chasers  of  type  usually  furnished  with 
threading  maohinee.  Flat  cutting  edge  obstnicta  ready  cutting 
of  material,  and  no  groove  is  provided  for  chips  to  follow.  At  left, 
sat  of  chasers  of  same  type  with  lip  ground  to  allow  chips  to  cut  off 
clean  and  leave  smooth  thread,  also  giving  easy  cutting  action  on 
chaser  and  removes  puatiing  effect  of  flat  chasers  without  a  lip. 
Clearance  obtained  in  these  chasers  by  same  method  used  for  other 
dies  of  "alock-on-cBnter"  type.     (See  Figs.  148  and  149.) 


Fio.  IflS.-T-Thia  shows  a  type  of  die  known  as  "rate"  die.  The 
cutting  edge  is  obtained  by  inclining  chaeor  instead  of  by  cutting  a 
lip,  effect  being  same  as  secured  with  lipped  chaser.  Clearance  is 
obtained  in  this  type  by  machining  cbaaers  at  alightly  greater 
angle  than  position  in  which  they  are  to  work.  Clearance  may  be 
obtained  in  this  type  chaser  by  using  regular  segment  bolder  and 
machining  die  on  smaller  diameter  than  that  of  pipe  to  be  threaded. 

shown  in  Fig.  138.     This  die  pushes  the  metal  off  or  tears  it  up. 
A  good  shape  is  shown  in  Fig.  139  which  has  sufhcLent  rake 


212  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

and  clearance  to  cut  the  metal  with  a  clean  finish  without  waste 
of  power  or  unnecessary  friction,  similar  to  the  working  of  a 
lathe  tool,  which  latter  principle  is  embodied  in  some  of  the 
modem  threading  tools. 

The  importance  and  value  of  the  characteristic  principles 
of  properly  designed  threading  dies,  particularly  those  of  lip, 
chip  space  and  clearance,  cannot  be  over  estimated.  Unless 
these  are  correct,  it  will  be  found  difficult  to  obtain  satis- 
factory threading  results.  Practical  experience,  careful  study, 
and  e;q)eriment  have  established  these  principles. 

Applying  these  principles  to  hand  dies,  it  is  possible  for  one 
man  to  do  the  work  of  two.  In  a  paper  by  T.  N.  Thompson, 
read  before  The  American  Society  of  Heating  and  Ventilating 
Engineers,  are  described  certain  tests  on  the  power  required  to 
thread  pipe  with  hand  dies  of  the  common  pattern^  and  with 
the  same  type  of  dies  correctly  made.     The  author  says: 

"It  shows  that  the  power  required  to  thread  mild  steel  pipe 
with  the  new  die  is  not  much  more  than  that  required  to  thread 
wrought  iron  with  the  same  die,  and  much  less  than  the  power 
required  to  thread  wrought-iron  pipe  with  the  common  die." 

BRIGGS'  STANDARD* 

The  nominal  sizes  of  pipe  10  in.  and  under,  and  the  pitches 
of  the  threads,  were  for  the  most  part  established  in  the  British 
tube  (called  "pipe"  in  America)  trade  between  1820  and  1840. 
The  sizes  are  designated  roughly,  according  to  their  internal 
diameters. 

Robert  Briggs,  about  1862,  while  Superintendent  of  the 
Pascal  Iron  Works,  formulated  the  nominal  dimensions  of  pipe 
up  to  and  including  10  in.  These  dimensions  have  been  broadly 
spread  and  are  widely  known  as  "Briggs'  Standard."  They 
are  as  follows: 

The  nominal  and  outside  diameters  and  pitch  of  thread,  for 
sizes  10  in.  and  under,  are  given  in  the  table  of  Standard  Pipe. 

The  thread  has  an  angle  of  60  deg.  and  is  slightly  rounded  off 

0.8 
at  top  and  bottom  so  that  the  total  height  (depth),  H  =»  -— > 

where  n  is  the  number  of  threads  per  inch. 

The  pitch  of  the  threads    (-)   increases  roughly  with  the 

diameter. 

*  Full  width — non-receding. 

'Book  of  Standards,  National  Tube  Company. 


PIPE  STANDARDS  AND  PIPE  DIES 


213 


The  conically  threaded  ends  of  pipe  are  cut  at  a  taper  of  ^ 
in.  diameter  per  foot  of  length  (i.e.,  1  in  32  to  the  axis  of  the 
pipe)  (see  Fig.  166). 

The  thread  is  perfect  for  a  distance  (L)  from  the  end  of  the 

A   u     ^i.         1       r       0.8Z>H-4.8 
pipe,    expressed   by   the  rule,   L  =  — 


n 


where   D  = 


outside  diameter  in  inches.  Then  come  two  threads,  perfect 
at  the  root  or  bottom,  but  imperfect  at  the  top,  and  then  come 
three  or  four  threads  imperfect  at  both  top  and  bottom. 
These  last  do  not  enter  into  the  joint  at  all,  but  are  incident 
to  the  process  of  cutting  the  threads. 


W 


30«4THneA0S 

iMPcnrccT 


aTMHCAOS 


AT  ROOT 


PCnrCCT  TMNKAD  -f 


IMPKIIFECT  4 

ATTor        *^**1^ * 


T>r>OOI7«O'fO0M 


Fig.  166. 

The  thickness  of  the  pipe  under  the  root  of  the  thread  at  the 
end  of  the  pipe  equals  T  =  0.0175D  +  0.025  in. 

The  above  notes  on  Briggs'  Standard  were  taken  from 
Paper  No.  1842,  "American  Practice  in  Warming  Buildings 
by  Steam,"  presented  before  the  British  Institute  of  Civil 
Engineers  by  Robert  Briggs,  member  of  the  Institute.  It  is 
contained  in  the  Institute  Proceedings^  VoL  LXXI,  Session 
1882-83,  Part  I.  The  substance  of  that  paper  is  quoted  quite 
fully  in  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Standard  Pipe  and 
Pipe  Threads  to  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers 
at  the  seventh  annual  meeting  and  is  published  in  Vol .  VIII, 
Paper  No.  226,  of  their  Proceedings,  The  report  was  accepted 
by  the  American  Society,  Dec.  29,  1886. 

Briggs'  Standard  was  adopted  by  the  manufacturers  of 
wrought-iron  pipe  and  boiler  tubes,  Oct.  27,  1886,  and  indorsed 
by  the  Manufacturers'  Association  of  Brass  and  Iron,  Steam, 
Gas  and  Water  Works,  Dec.  8,  1886;  except  that  the  outside 
diameter  of  9-in.  pipe  was  changed  to  9.625  in.  (see  Fig.  166). 


214 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


By  trade  usage,  the  above  rules  have  been  extended  to  take 
in  sizes  up  to  20  in.  inclusive,  except  that  the  standard  thickness 
is  0.375  in.,  has  been  adopted  for  the  14  in.  O.D.,  15  in.  CD. 
and  16  in.  O.D.  sizes,  and  0.393  for  the  17  in.  O.D.  size,  and 
0.409  for  the  18  in.  O.D.  and  20  in.  sizes.  Pipe  larger  than 
12  in.,  nominal  size,  is  known  by  the  outside  diameter. 

The  following  table  gives  the  depth  of  different  pipe  and 
casing  threads : 

8      threads  per  inch 00    in. 

10      threads  per  inch 080    in. 

11 J^  threads  per  inch 0696  in. 

14      threads  per  inch 0571  in. 

18      threads  per  inch 0444  in. 

27      threads  per  inch .0296  in. 

The  following  table  is  a  compilation  of  the  results  obtained 

by  using  the  formula,  L  =  — '—,  as  given  above. 


Table  45 


Nominal 

Nominal 

Pipe 

Number  of 

total 

Pipe 

Number  of 

total 

threads 

length  of 

threads 

length  of 

per  inch 

thread  on 
pipe 

S1Z6 

per  inch 

thread  on 
pipe 

M 

27 

•H 

5 

8 

l^Ms 

M 

18 

^U 

6 

8 

1H 

H 

18 

9i« 

7 

8 

2 

^^ 

14 

94 

8 

8 

2He 

M 

14 

94 

9 

8 

2M« 

\ 

111^ 

iM« 

10 

8 

2^6 

\M 

WVi 

1^6 

11 

8 

2H 

1^ 

111^ 

I 

12 

8 

2H 

2 

IIH 

1H 

14  O.D. 

8 

2H 

2\^ 

8 

m 

15  O.D. 

8 

2H 

3 

8 

\^fi 

16  O.D. 

8 

2iM« 

3V^ 

8 

1H 

17  O.D. 

8 

2»M« 

4 

8 

I^He 

18  O.D. 

8 

> 

4)^ 

8 

Wx 

20  O.D. 

8 

^M 

SECTION  7 
VITRIFIED  CLAY  SEWER  PIPE 

DEFINITIONS 

House  Sewer. — The  term  "house  sewer"  is  applied  to  the 
vitrified-salt-glazed  pipe  sewer,  which  should  be  not  less  than 
6  in.  internal  diameter,  and  which  begins  outside  of  the  wall  of 
a  building  and  connects  the  house  drain  with  the  public  sewer 
in  the  street  or  alley. 

House  Drain. — The  term  "house  drain"  (see  Fig.  91)  is 
applied  to  the  vitrified  pipe  within  any  building  which  receives 
the  total  discharge  from  any  fixture  or  set  of  fixtures  (and  may 
or  may  not  include  rain  water),  and  which  conducts  or  carries 
the  same  to  the  house  sewer.  The  house  drain,  when  rain 
water  is  allowed  to  discharge  into  it,  should  be  not  less  than 
6  in.  internal  diameter. 

Subsoil  Drains. — The  term  "subsoil  drain"  (see  Fig.  57B) 
is  applied  to  the  vitrified  pipe  laid  alongside  of  the  footings  of 
the  building  foundation  to  drain  the  groundwater  out  of  the 
soil  and  deliver  it  to  the  public  sewer.  Subsoil  drains  may  be 
laid  either  on  the  outside  or  inside  of  the  footing  or  both ,  but 
when  only  a  single  line  is  to  be  laid,  a  line  of  tile  around  the 
outside  is  the  more  effective.  Subsoil  drains  may  be  con- 
structed of  vitrifiednsalt-glazed  drain  tile,  or  vitrified-salt- 
glazed  sewer  pipe  laid  with  uncemented  joints. 

INSTALLATION 

Pipe. — Clay  pipe  is  manufactured  from  clay,  fireclay  or  shale, 
or  a  combination  of  these  materials.  These  materials  should 
possess  such  physical  and  chemical  properties  that  when  molded 
into  pipes  and  subjected  to  a  vitrifying  temperature,  the 
resulting  product  will  be  strong,  durable,  and  serviceable. 

The  pipe  should  be  thoroughly  vitrified  throughout  its 
thickness  and  finished  with  a  continuous  layer  of  bright  or 
semibright,  glass-like  glaze,  over  the  inner  and  outer  surfaces. 

215 


216 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Pipes  should  be  substantially  free  from  fractures,  large  or  deep 
cracks,  and  blisters,  laminations  and  surface  roughness.  If 
present,  such  blisters  or  pimples  should  not  project  more  than 
3^  in.  above  the  surrounding  surface. 

All  pipe  should  be  of  the  hub  and  spigot  pattern,  and  pipes 
intended  to  be  straight  must  not  have  variation  in  align- 
ment of  more  than  J^  in.  per  foot  of  length.  Each  pipe 
should  be  substantially  \miform  in  thickness  and  cylindrical 
in  cross-section. 


Table  46. — Weights  and  Dimensions  of  Vitrified  Sewer 

Pipe  for  House  Sewers  and  House  Drains 

Taken  from  the  American  Society  of  Testing  Materials 

Standard  Specifications,  1920 


Internal 

diameter, 

inches 


Laying 

length, 

feet 


Diameter 

at  inside 

of  socket, 

inches 


Depth  of 
socket, 
inches 


Thickness 

of  barrel, 

inches 


Weight 

per  foot 

in  pounds 


4 

6 

8 

10 

12 


2 

6 

IV^ 

H 

2 

8K 

2 

H 

2.  m,  3 

mi 

2H 

H 

2,  2H,  3 

13 

2V4 

H 

2,  2',4.  3 

15H 

2\i 

1 

9 
15 
23 
35 
45 


Trenches. — See  "Trenches,"  page  83.  Trenches  should  be 
only  of  sufficient  width  to  provide  a  free  working  space  on  each 
side  of  the  pipe,  to  make  it  possible  to  secure  tight  joints,  and 
thoroughly  to  ram  the  backfilling  around  the  pipe.  Trenches 
should  be  kept  free  from  water  until  the  material  in  the 
joints  and  masonry  has  sufficiently  hardened.  To  protect 
pipe  lines  from  unusual  stresses,  all  work  should  preferably 
done  in  open  trenches. 

Pipe  lines  should  be  placed  at  a  sufficient  depth  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground  to  avoid  dangerous  pressure  or  impact. 
When  this  is  not  possible,  special  reinforcement  should  be 
provided. 

Foundation. — The  foundations  in  the  trench  should  be 
formed  to  prevent  any  subsequent  settling  and  thereby 
prevent  an  excessive  pressure  and  consequent  rupture  of 
the  pipes. 


I 

VITRIFIED  CLAY  SEWER  PIPE  217  | 

I 

If  the  foundation  is  good,  firm  earth,  the  earth  should  be 
pared  or  molded  to  give  a  full  support  to  the  lower  third  of  I 

each  pipe  and,  if  necessary,  to  secure  a  proper  bearing  for  the  | 

pipe,  a  layer  of  concrete,  fine  gravel  or  other  suitable  material 
should  be  placed.  The  same  means  f  securing  a  firm  founda- 
tion should  be  adopted  in  case  the  excavation  has  been  made 
deeper  than  necessary. 

If  there  is  not  good  natural  foundation,  the  pipes  should  be 
laid  in  a  concrete  cradle  or  supported  on  a  masonry  foundation 
carried  to  a  soil  of  satisfactory  bearing  power. 

If  the  foundation  is  rock,  an  equalizing  bed  of  concrete  or 
sand  well  compacted  should  be  placed  upon  the  rock.  The 
thickness  of  these  beds  should  be  not  less  than  4  in.  Pipes 
should  be  laid  in  these  beds  so  that  at  least  the  lower  third  of 
each  pipe  is  supported  its  entire  length. 

Pipe  Laying. — The  laying  of  pipes  in  finished  trenches  should  . 
be  commenced  at  the  lower  point,  so  that  the  spigot  ends  point 
in  the  direction  of  flow.  All  pipes  should  be  laid  with  ends 
abutting  and  true  to  line  and  grade.  They  should  be  fitted 
and  matched  so  that  when  laid  in  the  work,  they  will  form  a 
sewer  with  a  smooth  and  uniform  invert. 

Sockets  should  be  carefully  cleaned  before  pipes  are  lowered 
into  trenches.  The  pipes  should  be  so  lowered  as  to  avoid 
unnecessary  handling  in  the  trench.  The  sockets  should  be 
laid  in  depressions  formed  in  the  foundation  so  that  the  weight 
of  backfilling  will  be  carried  by  the  entire  length  of  the  pipe 
and  not  concentrated  at  the  socket  as  would  be  the  case  if  the 
foundation  were  left  flat. 

Joints. — All  joints  and  connections  should  be  gas-  and  water- 
tight. J^  closely  twisted  hemp  or  oakum  gasket  of  suitable 
diameter,  in  no  case  less  than  14  in.,  and  in  one  piece  of  sufb- 
cient  length  to  pass  around  the  pipe  and  lap  at  the  top,  should 
be  solidly  rammed  into  the  annular  spaces  between  the  pipes 
with  a  suitable  calking  tool.     (See  page  370.) 

Cement  Joints. — When  cement  joints  are  used,  the  gasket 
should  first  be  saturated  with  neat  cement  grout,  made  to  the 
consistency  of  cream.  The  remainder  of  the  space  should  then 
be  completely  filled  with  the  jointing  materials. 

Hand-troweled  Joints. — For  hand-troweled  joints,  thor- 
oughly dry  mix  equal  parts  of  portland  cement  and  clean, 
sharp  sand;  add  suflicient  water  to  make  a  stiff  mortar  that 
can  be  forced  by  the  fingers  or  a  trowel  into  every  part  of  the 


218  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

annular  space,  using  care  to  fill  the  lower  part  of  the  space. 
Finish  ofif  with  a  broad  bevelled  collar  encircling  the  pipe  at 
the  mouth  of  the  socket. 

Poured  Joints. — Poured  joints  are  recommended  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  hand-troweled  joints.  If  made  with  cement,  the 
mortar  should  be  made  of  equal  parts  of  portland  cement  and 
clean,  sharp  sand,  mixed  dry.  Add  water  to  make  to  the  con- 
sistency of  cream.  Use  the  flex  form  runner  or  its  equal. 
Pour  in  until  the  gate  of  the  runner  is  full;  tamping  the  mixture 
at  the  gate  head  will  insure  a  full  joint.  Forms  should  be 
left  in  position  and  the  pipe  undisturbed  for  24  hr.  until  the 
cement  has  taken  its  initial  set.  All  poured-cement  joints 
should  set  48  hr.  before  testing  with  a  head  of  water  or  air 
test. 

Asphalt  or  Bituminous  Joints. — Asphaltum  or  bituminous 
jointing  material  make  an  ideal  joint  for  vitrified-clay  pipe. 
First  calk  a  gasket  of  dry  jute  or  hemp  free  from  oil  or  grease, 
into  the  annular  space.  Dip  the  flex  form  or  snake  runner  into 
thick  mud  or  grout  to  prevent  its  sticking  and  to  permit  its  ready 
removal  when  the  joint  is  cooled.  After  the  runner  is  in  place, 
pour  the  heated  compound  into  the  mold  until  the  gate  is  full. 
The  runner  may  be  removed  and  the  work  tested  as  soon  as  the 
joint  is  cold.     (See  page  373.) 

Grade. — House  sewers  and  drains  of  vitrifled-salt-glazed 
clay  pipe  should  be  laid  on  a  uniform  slope  or  grade  of  not  less 
than  ^i  in.  per  foot.  A  minimum  grade  of  Ji  in.  per  foot  is 
recommended  when  it  can  be  secured. 

Alignment. — House  sewers  and  drains  of  vitrifiednsalt-glazed 
clay  pipe  should  be  carefully  laid  and  secured  in  a  straight 
alignment,  and  changes  of  direction  should  be  made  by  the 
use  of  proper  specials  such  as  Y's  or  T's  and  branches,  quarter 
and  eighth  bends  or  curves;  changes  in  sizes  should  be  made  by 
the  use  of  increasers  or  reducers. 

Backfilling. — All  trenches  and  excavations  should  be  back- 
filled immediately  after  the  pipes  are  laid  and  the  work  in- 
spected, unless  other  protection  of  the  pipe  line  is  directed. 
The  backfilling  material  should  be  selected  and  deposited  with 
special  reference  to  the  future  safety  of  the  pipes.  Clean 
earth,  sand  or  rock  dust  should  be  soUdly  tamped  about  the 
pipes  up  to  a  level  at  least  1  ft.  above  the  top  of  the  pipes. 
This  material  should  be  carefully  deposited  in  uniform  layers. 
TJnless  otherwise  permitted,  each  layer  should  be  carefully 


VITRIFIED  CLAY  SEWER  PIPE  219 

and  solidly  tamped  or  rammed  with  proper  tools  so  as  not  to 
injure  or  disturb  the  pipe  line. 

Puddling  or  water  flooding  for  consolidating  the  backfilling 
is  recommended  only  for  sandy  and  gravelly  materials.  If 
this  method  is  used,  the  first  flooding  should  be  applied  after 
the  backfilling  has  been  compacted  by  tamping  up  to  1  ft. 
above  the  top  of  the  pipes,  and  the  second  flooding  during  or 
after  the  subsequent  filling  of  the  trench.  An  excess  of  water 
should  be  avoided,  in  order  to  prevent  disturbance  of  the  earth 
under  and  around  the  pipes.  Walking  or  working  on  the 
completed  sewer,  except  as  may  be  necessary  in  tamping  or 
backfilling,  should  not  be  permitted  until  the  trench  has  been 
backfilled  to  a  height  of  at  least  2  ft.,  over  the  top  of  the  pipes. 
The  filling  of  the  trench  should  be  carried  on  simultaneously  on 
both  sides  of  the  pipes  in  such  a  manner  that  injurious  side 
pressures  do  not  occur. 

The  House  Drain. — Where  the  grade  permits,  the  house 
drain  should  be  brought  into  the  building  at  least  1  ft.  below 
the  level  of  the  basement,  cellar  or  ground  floor.^ 

Relieving  Arches. — When  the  house  drain  passes  under  or 
through  the  building  walls,  the  line  of  pipe  should  be  placed 
under  an  opening,  and  in  addition  the  pipe  opening  should  be 
provided  with  a  relieving  arch  or  lintel. 

Cleanout  Openings. — Cleanout  openings  are  desirable  at 
frequent  intervals.  These  may  be  made  with  full-sized  Y- 
branches,  the  branch  or  cleanout  opening  being  closed  with  a 
vitrified-pipe  stopper,  well  cemented  in  place.  Cleanout 
openings  should  be  provided  in  the  house-sewer  line  adjacent 
to  the  main  sewer,  and  if  the  house  sewer  is  of  considerable 
length,  an  opening  should  be  provided  every  50  ft.  Cleanout 
and  test  openings  should  also  be  provided  on  the  house  drain 
just  inside  the  foundation  wall  near  the  house-sewer  connection, 
and  at  the  beginning  of  each  horizontal  run,  and  at  the  base  of 
all  vertical  lines  of  soil  and  waste  pipes. 

Roof  Leaders. — Roof  leaders  or  down  spout  wastes  and 
surface  and  ground  water  drains  should,  whenever  possible,  be 
carried  outside  the  building  and  connected  independently  to 
the  storm  water  sewer.  Storm  water  should  not  be  discharged 
into  a  main  sewer  intended  as  a  carrier  of  sanitary  sewage 
only  (see  Fig.  98). 

If,  however,  the  main-sewer  system  is  constructed  as  a  com- 
bined system  to  care  for  both  sanitary  and  storm  sewage,  then 


220  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

the  storm-water  system  from  the  building  may  connect  into 
the  house  sewer  outside  the  building  and  discharge  through  this 
house  sewer  into  the  main  sewer  in  the  street  or  alley  (see 
Fig.  97). 

Where  the  building  design  is  such  that  roof-water  downspouts 
must  be  carried  down  within  the  buildings,  the  roof-water 
leaders  may  be  connected  to  the  storm-water  sewer  or  house 
drain  within  the  building;  in  such  cases  a  suitable  silt  or  gravel 
basin  should  be  placed  on  the  drain  close  to  the  foot  of  the  down- 
spout riser  to  intercept  the  wash  from  the  roof. 

Gas  and  Oil  Traps. — In  automobile  garages,  oil  and  gas 
intercepters  should  be  installed  on  all  drains  carrying  the  dis- 
charge from  floor  drains  and  washer.  These  basins  are  to 
prevent  the  carrying  over  into  the  sewer  of  washed-down  oils, 
greases,  and  gasoline.  They  should  be  vented  to  permit  the 
discharge  of  explosive  gases.  Vent  pipe  should  be  same  size 
as  waste  pipes. 

Acid  or  Chemical  Wastes. — The  wastes  from  chemical  labora- 
tories, soda  works,  print  works,  cleaning  and  dye  works,  plating 
works,  ice  cream  and  butter  factories,  printing  offices,  garages, 
bottling  works,  battery-charging  stations,  and  many  other 
industries,  are  particularly  severe  and  destructive;  and  in  such 
instances,  the  house  sewer  and  house  drains  should  in  all  cases 
be  constructed  of  vitrified-salt-glazed  clay  sewer  pipe,  because 
of  its  certain  resistance  to  acid  or  alkaline  reaction.  The  joints 
should  always  be  made  with  acid-proof  compound  and  not 
with  cement  mortar. 

TESTING 

Testing  the  House  Drain. — In  lieu  of  officially  prescribed 
tests,  the  following  may  be  depended  upon  to  reveal  faulty 
workmanship.  The  material,  equipment  and  labor  for  making 
the  tests  to  be  furnished  by  the  plumber. 

The  test  may  be  made  with  either  air,  smoke  or  water.  The 
water  test  should  subject  the  drain  to  a  2  ft.  head  of  water. 
It  is  applied  by  inserting  test  plugs  in  the  cleanout  openings 
and  filling  the  system  with  water  to  a  height  of  2  ft.  above  the 
highest  point  of  the  vitrified-pipe  house  drain.  This  pressure 
should  be  maintained  for  15  min.  If  there  is  no  appreciable 
loss,  the  system  may  be  considered  acceptably  tested. 


VITRIFIED  CLAY  SEWER  PIPE 


221 


Table  47. — Approximate  Weights,  Dimensions,  Etc. 

Standard  Sewer  Pipe 


Caliber, 
inches 

Thickness, 
inches 

Weight 

per  foot, 

pounds 

Depth 

of  sockets, 

inches 

Annular 
space, 
inches 

3 

H 

7 

m 

H 

4 

H 

9 

m 

H 

5 

H 

12 

m 

H 

6 

H 

15 

V4 

H 

8 

H 

23 

2 

H 

9 

m^ 

23 

2 

H 

10 

li 

35 

2M 

H 

12 

1 

45 

2H 

H 

15 

m 

60 

2V^ 

H 

18 

U4 

85 

2M 

H 

20 

iH 

100 

3 

^6 

21 

1H 

120 

3 

>6 

22 

1H 

130 

3 

H 

24 

m 

150 

3H 

H 

27 

2 

224 

4 

^4 

30 

2H 

252 

4 

fi 

33 

2H 

310 

5 

IH 

36 

2H 

350 

5 

IM 

SECTION  8 
GAS  FITTING 

Artificial  gas  from  the  distillation  of  coal  is  the  most  con- 
venient, reliable,  and  flexible  medium  known  to  modem  science 
for  lighting,  heating  and  fuel  purposes,  and  the  demand  for  it 
and  for  appliances  which  use  it  may  be  regarded  as  universal. 
Because  of  the  reliability  of  the  supply,  its  cleanliness,  ease 
and  exactness  of  control,  its  space,  labor  and  operating 
economy,  its  portability  and  insurance  advantages,  it  is  pre- 
eminent as  a  fuel  for  all  purposes. 

The  demand  for  gas  appliances  is  becoming  so  enormous  that 
plumbers  should  be  interested  in  their  exploitation.  With  the 
introduction  of  electricity  for  lighting,  plumbers  ceased  to  be 
active  in  advocating  gas  piping,  but  in  view  of  the  rapidly 
increasing  demand  for  gas  for  water  heaters,  cooking,  lighting 
and  house  heating  in  the  home,  and  for  all  fuel  purposes  in  the 
work  shop  and  factory,  the  opportunity  to  the  plumbers  for 
profit  in  exploiting,  selling,  and  installing  gas  piping  and  gas 
appliances,  presents  vast  possibilities. 

The  following  rules  are  intended  to  apply  to  the  installation 
of  gas  piping  in  buildings  and  the  use  of  city  gas  in  and  about 
buildings.  They  do  not  apply  to  large  underground  gas-dis- 
tribution systems  leading  up  to  the  building  and  such  parts  of  a 
gas  system  as  the  manufacturing  plants,  etc.,  which  are  the 
properties  of  gas  companies. 

PIPING  BUILDINGS  FOR  GAS  EQUIPMENT 

Size  of  Pipe.^No  pipe  smaller  than  standard  ?^-in.  size 
should  be  used  in  any  concealed  gas  piping  installations;  and 
no  pipe  smaller  than  standard  K-in.  size  should  be  used  for 
concealed  horizontal  piping. 

All  supply  lines,  branches,  drops,  and  other  parts  of  any 
piping  installation  should  be  made  up  of  pipe  of  a  size  suited  to 
the  length  required  and  the  number  and  character  of  the  outlets 
to  be  supplied.  It  is  recommended  that  the  minimum  size  for 
any  pipe  be  as  indicated  in  the  following  tabulation. 

If  any  outlet  is  larger  than  J^-in.,  it  must  be  counted  as  more 
than  one,  according  to  the  following  table: 

222 


GAS  FITTING 


223 


Sue  of  outlet,  inches H    Mi   H     1      m   IH    2      2^       3        4 

Value  in  outlets 1     2     6     11     20     32     66     115     181     372 


Table 

48.— 

-Table 

OF  S 

[Z 

ES 

Size  of  pipe  in  inches 

No.  of  H- 
in.  outlets 

H 

}^ 

H        1 

m 

m 

2    2\^ 

3 

4 

Length  of  pipe  in  feet 

I 

20 

30 

2 

27 

3 

12 

4 

50 

5 

33 

6 

24 

7 

18    7 

0 

8 

13    5 

0 

9 

4 

4 

10 

3 

5 

100 

11 

3 

0 

90 

12 

2 

5 

75 

13 

2 

1 

60 

150 

14 

1 

8 

53 

130 

15 

6 

45 

115 

16 

4 

41 

100 

17 

2 

36 

90 

18 

32 

80 

19 

29 

73 

20 

27 

65 

21 

24 

58 

■ 

22 

22 

53 

23 

20 

49 

: 

SOO 

24 

18 

45 

1 

90 

25 

17 

42 

1 

75 

30 

12 

30 

1 

20   300 

35 

22 

90   270 

40 

17 

70   210 

45 

13 

55   165 

400 

50 

45   135 

330 

65 

27    80 

200 

75 

20    60 

150 

600 

100 

33 

80 

360 

125 

22 

50 

230 

150 

15 

35 

160 

175 

28 

120 

200 

21 

90 

250 

14 

59 

300 

•  •  • 

39 

350 

•  •  • 

29 

400 

■  •  • 

22 

500 

•  •  • 

14 

224  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Quality  and  Inspection  of  Material. — Pipe  used  should  be 
standard)  full  weight,  of  the  best  quaUty  wrought  iron  or  steel, 
and  free  from  defects.  All  fittings  (except  stop  cocks  or 
valves)  should  be  of  best  quality  malleable  iron. 

Material  delivered  to  any  job  should  be  carefully  inspected 
as  soon  as  possible  by  the  gas  fitter  in  charge  of  the  work,  and 
any  part  of  it  which  is  defective  or  which  has  been  repaired  with 
cement,  lead,  or  other  material,  or  by  calking,  rusting,  or  any- 
other  methods,  except  by  welding,  should  not  be  used. 

Pipe,  fittings,  cocks,  valves,  or  accessories  removed  from  any 
installation  should  not  be  again  used  until  they  have  been 
thoroughly  cleaned,  inspected,  and  ascertained  to  be  the  equiva- 
lent of  new  material. 

ACCESSIBILITY  OF  PIPING 

Vertical  Pipe. — Vertical  pipe  when  concealed  in  partitions 
should  be  located  in  hollow,  rather  than  in  solid  partitions,  and 
so  located  as  not  to  be  in  contact  with  plaster  more  than  is 
necessary. 

In  Plastered  Ceilings. — When  ceilings  are  to  be  plastered, 
piping  should  be  parallel  to  the  joists  or  beams  when  practicable, 
and  should  cross  them  only  when  necessary.  Such  piping 
should  be  placed  so  as  to  be  as  accessible  as  possible.  Pipes 
may  be  left  exposed  beneath  ceilings,  or  may  be  concealed 
back  of  moldings  or  cornices;  they  may  be  placed  above  hanging 
or  false  ceilings,  but  should  not  be  embedded  in  plaster. 

Chimneys  or  flues  should  not  be  used  for  pipe  chases. 

PIPING  EXPOSED  TO  CHANGES  IN  TEMPERATURE  OR 

TO  MOISTURE 

Exposure. — All  pipes  should  be  so  placed  as  to  avoid  exposure 
to  extreme  heat,  cold,  or  moisture  in  so  far  as  is  practicable. 
Supply  lines  and  other  piping  should  not  be  located  in  or  on 
outside  walls  or  walls  of  vestibules ;  they  should  be  at  least  3  ft. 
from  the  outside  walls  when  practicable. 

Stoppages. — When  piping  must  be  so  located  that  it  may  be 
exposed  to  low  temperatures,  special  care  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  stoppages.  This  may  be  done  by  covering  the  pipe 
by  use  of  larger  size  than  otherwise  necessary,  or  by  other 
approved  means. 

Enlarging. — When  piping  is  exposed  through  areaways  or 
other  similar  locations,  the  pipe  should  be  increased  in  size 


GAS  FITTING  225 

sufficiently  to  prevent  stoppages  due  to  freezing  by  the  use  of 
eccentric  fittings  which  should  be  set  to  permit  drainage  of  the 
enlarged  section.  The  enlarged  section  should  extend  through 
the  wall  at  each  side  of  the  areaway.  In  the  case  of  outside 
gas  lamps,  the  pipe  should  be  increased  by  an  ordinary  con- 
centric enlarging  fitting  just  inside  of  the  point  where  it  passes 
through  the  wall. 

PIPING  IN  CONCRETE,  MASONRY,^  ETC. 

Piping  in  Chases. — When  piping  is  to  be  placed  in  concrete, 
cement,  masonry,  etc.,  it  should,  if  possible,  be  laid  in  a  conduit 
pipe  or  in  a  chase  or  channel  left  in  the  solid  work.  All  conduit 
pipes,  pipe  channels,  and  chases  must  be  carefully  graded  and 
drained  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  water  about  the  pipe; 
and  it  is  recommended  that  the  walls  of  such  pipe  chases  or 
channels  be  coated  with  asphalt,  pitch,  or  moisture-resisting 
paint  before  the  pipe  is  placed.  Piping  installed  in  such  loca- 
tions should  be  galvanized  on  the  exterior,  or  be  painted  with 
two  coats  of  a  pure  red-lead  paint,  with  a  bituminous  paint  or 
equivalent  protective  coating,  or  be  both  galvanized  and 
painted.  All  exposed  threads  or  tool  marks  on  galvanized 
piping  should  be  painted  with  protective  coating. 

Piping  Embedded  in  Structural  Material. — When  necessary 
to  embed  a  pipe  in  direct  contact  with  neat  cement  or  concrete, 
black-iron  pipe  may  be  used. 

If  cinders,  salt,  sea  water,  or  other  substance  which  has  a 
corrosive  action  on  the  piping  is  to  be  used  in  the  fabrication  of 
the  cement  or  concrete,  or  if  the  concrete  or  cement  in  which  the 
pipe  is  laid  is  to  be  exposed  to  brine,  acid  pickling  bath  liquor, 
or  other  liquids  of  corrosive  nature,  or  if  the  pipe  is  to  be  in 
contact  with  composition  flooring  or  similar  structural  material, 
the  piping  should  be  made  up  of  pipe  and  fittings  galvanized  on 
the  outside,  and  painted  with  two  coats  of  a  pure  red-lead 
paint,  a  bituminous  paint,  or  an  equivalent  protective  coating. 
It  is  preferable  that  it  also  be  wrapped  or  coated  with  an  ap- 
proved material  for  protection  against  corrosion. 

No  pipes  should  be  embedded  in  the  required  protection  of 
columns  or  other  structural  members  in  buildings  of  fire-resist- 
ive construction. 

Supply  Lines  for  Gas  Engines  or  Other  Large  Appliances. — 
The  pipe  to  supply  gas  to  a  gas  engine  or  other  appliance  of 

1 "  See  "  Action  of  Cinders."  page  306. 
15 


226  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

large  consumption  or  high  momentary  demand  should,  in 
every  case,  be  carried  back  far  enough  independent  of  other 
piping,  or  other  provision  be  made,  to  ensure  that  the  pressure 
at  the  other  appliances  is  not  disturbed  by  the  operation  of  this 
appliance.  Before  the  installation  of  the  pipe  for  a  gas  engine 
is  begun,  consultation  with  the  gas  company  is  recommended. 

Relation  to  Electric  Wiring. — Piping  should  not  be  installed 
closer  than  5  in.  to  any  electric  wiring  which  carries  current  at 
more  than  25  volts  above  ground,  unless  such  wiring  is  enclosed 
in  a  proper  metal  conduit  or  armored  cable,  or  where  not  en- 
closed is  separated  from  the  pipe  by  some  continuous  and  firmly 
fixed  non-conductor;  and  no  piping  should  be  run  closer  than  3 
ft.  to  any  electric  cutout  box,  fuse  box,  or  meter. 

Electric  wiring  from  circuits  of  over  25  volts  should  not  be 
grounded  on  gas  house  piping. 

Whenever  gas  piping  is  run  near  or  in  contact  with  the  con- 
duit or  metallic  cable  covering  for  wires  carrying  current  of 
more  than  25  volts  above  ground,  the  piping  should  be  placed 
in  substantial  permanent  electrical  contact  with  such  conduit 
or  cable  covering. 

Interconnection  of  Piping  Systems. — Any  interconnection  of 
piping  systems  which  are  supplied  through  separate  service 
meters  should  be  avoided. 

COCKS  AND  VALVES 

Special  Shut-off  Required. — Separate  valves  or  cocks  are 
required  on  every  supply  line  or  branch,  if  the  operation  or 
maintenance  of  the  appliance  supplied  requires  that  gas  be 
shut  ofif  from  the  line  or  branch  from  time  to  time;  unless  gas 
can  be  otherwise  shut  off  when .  necessary  with  equal  safety 
and  convenience.  Such  separate  valves  or  cocks  should  be 
provided  on  any  branch  or  supply  line  which  is  of  2  in.  or  more 
in  diameter,  or  which  is  rated  to  supply  more  than  200  cu.  ft. 
of  gas  per  hour,  or  which  supplies  an  appliance  used  for  heating 
inflammable  materials,  or  materials  which  give  off  combustible 
vapors  or  gases. 

Separate  Cocks  Recommended. — It  is  recommended  that 
separate  valves  or  cocks  be  installed  on  any  pipe  which  supplies 
gas  to  six  or  more  separate  appliances  of  a  similar  nature,  such 
as  pressing  irons,  at  the  inlet  of  any  secondary  meter;  and  in 
multiple  burner  installations  the  nature  of  which  makes  master 
control  advisable. 


GAS  FITTING 


227 


Location  of  Line  Cocks. — Cocks  or  valves  should  be  placed 
near  enough  to  the  appliance  controlled,  and  in  such  location, 
as  to  be  readily  accessible  at  all  times,  and  the  handle  of  the 
cock  or  valve  should  be  easy  to  reach  and  to  operate.^ 

When  a  cock  is  placed  on  an  independent  supply  line  to  cut  off 
gas  from  that  line,  it  is  recommended  that  no  branch  be  taken 
from  this  supply  line  between  the  meter  and  the  cock.  This 
precaution  ensures  that  the  line  cock  will  control  the  gas  to  the 
whole  line.  If  a  branch  is  taken  off  between  the  meter  and  the 
cock,  this  new  branch  should  generally  be  controlled  by  a 
separate  shut-off.  On  circulating  systems  of  piping,  care 
should  be  taken  to  provide  cocks  to  cut  off  the  supply  from  both 
directions  wherever  this  may  be  necessary. 


CUTTING,  THREADING  AND  JOINTING 

All  pipe  must  be  cut  square  with  its  length,  and  the  exact 
dimensions  as  given  on  the  piping  plans  should  be  followed. 
Pipe  must  be  threaded  with  clean-cut  threads,  and  all  burrs  or 
other  obstructions  removed  from  the  pipe. 

Nominal,  ordinary,  iron  pipe  sizes  and  Briggs^  Standard  are 
understood  in  these  regulations  for  all  pipes  and  threads  where 
not  otherwise  specified  (see  "Pipe  Standards"  section,  page 
192).  The  following  table  specifies  the  number  of  threads  to 
be  cut  and  the  length  of  section  to  be  threaded  for  each  size  of 
pipe,  based  on  Briggs'  Standard: 


Approximate  length 

Approximate  number 

Size  of  pipe,  inches 

of  threaded 

of  threads 

portion  in  inches 

to  be  cut 

H 

%t 

10 

H 

H 

10 

H 

H 

10 

\ 

H 

10 

m 

1 

11 

m 

1 

11 

2 

1 

11 

2H 

m 

12 

3 

m 

12 

4 

m 

13 

iThis  rule  requires  that  the  shut-o£F  shall  be  placed  near  the  appliance,  but 
it  should  not  be  so  close  to  the  appliance  that,  should  an  accident  occur,  it 
will  be  impossible  to  operate  it. 


228  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Pipe  with  threads  stripped,  chipped,  or  damaged  or  which  has 
crooked  threads  must  not  be  used,  or  if  the  weld  opens  during 
the  operation  of  cutting  or  threading,  that  portion  of  the  pipe 
must  not  be  used. 

When  an  approved  jointing  compound  is  used,  it  should 
always  be  applied  sparingly,  and  only  to  the  male  thread  of 
the  joint.  SeaUng  wax  or  any  material  or  compound  known  as 
"Gas  Fitter's  Cement"  should  not  be  used  in  the  making  up  of 
joints  in  piping  systems. 

Branching. — All  branches  should  be  taken  from  the  top 
or  side  of  horizontal  piping  and  not  from  the  bottom. 
When  ceiling  outlets  are  taken  from  horizontal  piping, 
the  branch  should  be  taken  from  the  side  of  the  piping 
and  carried  in  a  horizontal  direction,  preferably  not  less 
than  6  in. 

Bending. — Bending  pipe  to  form  outlets  or  for  other  purposes, 
when  approved  by  the  gas  company,  will  be  permitted.  In 
bending  pipe,  care  must  be  taken  that  it  does  not  kink.  Pii>e 
excessively  flattened  or  bent  to  less  than  the  radii  given  below, 
will  not  be  permitted : 


Size  of  Pipe, 

Minimum  Radius  op  Bend, 

Inches 

Inches 

H 

3 

\^ 

4 

M 

6 

1 

8 

\M 

12 

\\^ 

15 

2 

18 

After  pipe  has  been  bent,  it  should  be  examined  to  make  sure 
that  the  weld  has  not  opened  and  that  it  has  not  kinked  or 
become  otherwise  constricted. 


SUPPORTING  PIPE 

Piping  Not  Under  Strain. — Piping  shall  be  installed  so  that 
it  is  subjected  to  no  unnecessary  strain.  Where  ceiling  fixtures 
are  hung  from  drops,  the  outlet  fittings  should  be  securely  and 
rigidly  fastened.  Piping  should  not  be  laid  to  support  any 
weight  (except  fixtures)  or  be  subjected  to  any  extra  strain. 

Number  of  Supports. — The  following  is  the  maximum  spac- 


GAS  FITTING  229 

ing  of  supports  which  should  be  used  in  continuous  piping 
installations : 

M-in.  or    J^-in.  pipe 6  ft. 

^4-in.  or    1-in.  pipe 8  ft. 

l>i-in.  or  larger  (horizontal) 10  ft. 

l>i-in.  or  larger  (vertical) every  floor  level 

When  the  length  of  pipe  is  shorter  than  that  given  in  the 
above  table,  it  should  be  adequately  supported.  Wherever 
there  is  a  change  of  direction  of  45  deg.  or  more,  or  a  branched 
fitting  is  used,  support  should  be  provided  on  at  least  one  side 
of  the  bend  or  fitting,  preferably  within  6  in.  of  this  point,  unless 
other  supports  render  this  unnecessary. 

Fastening  Pipe. — Only  such  metal  pipe  straps,  iron  hooks, 
hook  plates,  or  hangers  suitable  for  the  size  of  pipe  to  be  secured, 
and  of  standard  strength  and  quality,  should  be  used  for  sup- 
porting piping.  Pipe  straps  or  iron  hooks  should  not  be  used 
for  fastening  pipe  of  a  size  over  2  in.  Beyond  this  size, 
when  the  pipe  is  horizontal  and  is  to  be  fastened  to  the  flqpr 
joists  or  beams,  pipe  hangers  should  be  used;  when  the  pipe  is 
horizontal  and  is  to  be  fastened  to  the  wall,  hook  plates  should 
be  used.  In  the  case  of  a  vertical  pipe  over  2  in.  in  size,  a 
strap  made  of  band  iron  fashioned  on  the  job,  or  a  standard 
form  of  prepared  band  strap,  securely  fastened  to  the  wall 
should  be  employed. 

Cutting  Timbers. — When,  in  running  pipe,  it  is  necessary 
to  cross-wood  joints  or  beams,  they  should  be  notched  as  little 
as  possible,  but  never  to  a  depth  of  more  than  one-fifth  of  the 
depth  of  the  timber.  This  notching  shall  be  as  close  as  possible 
to  a  point  of  support  of  the  timber,  and  should  in  no  case  be 
further  from  a  support  than  one-sixth  of  the  total  unsupported 
span  of  the  timber.  Where  feasible,  the  piping  should  be  run 
so  that  only  timbers  having  the  shortest  spans  shall  be  cut. 

GRADING  PIPING,  ETC. 

All  piping  should  be  graded,  preferably  not  less  than  J^  in. 
in  16  ft.,  to  prevent  traps,  and  also  to  prevent  level  runs  as  far 
as  practicable.  All  horizontal  pipes  should  grade  to  vertical 
pipes.  In  each  case  where  no  practicable  method  for  avoiding  a 
trap  in  a  piping  system  is  known  to  the  gas  fitter,  the  gas  com- 
pany should  be  consulted  and  advice  secured  as  to  the  best 
method  of  avoiding  the  diMculty. 


230  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Safeguarding  Trapped  Piping. — If  no  practicable  method  for 
avoiding  a  trap  in  piping  is  found,  a  T  with  a  proper  length 
nipple  and  cap  should  be  provided  at  the  lowest  point  on  the 
trapped  portion  to  facilitate  removal  of  any  condensed  Uquid. 
Such  drips  should  be  installed  only  in  such  locations  that  the 
outlet  of  the  drip  will  be  readily  accessible  to  permit  cleaning 
or  emptying.  The  size  of  any  drip  used  should  be  determined 
by  the  capacity  and  the  exposure  of  the  piping  which  drains 
to  it. 

Passing  Offsets  in  Walls. — When  the  thickness  of  a  wall  has 
been  increased,  and  it  is  necessary  to  offset  a  vertical  pipe,  the 
ofifset  should  not  be  made  around  the  projection  by  the  use  of 
right-angle  fittings,  but  should  be  made  with  45-deg.  fittings 
in  order  to  reduce  the  likelihood  of  stoppage. 

When  the  point  of  ofifset  is  accessible,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
foundation  wall,  the  upper  fitting  should  be  a  45-deg.  ell  and 
the  lower  a  45-deg.  Y-bend.  The  branch  of  the  Y  should  be 
vertical,  and  the  lower  **run"  opening  should  be  plugged. 

When  the  ofifset  is  not  accessible,  or  when  there  is  a  change  of 
direction  necessitating  a  plugged  T  with  a  short  distance  below 
the  lower  ofifset  fitting,  two  45-deg.  fittings  should  be  used. 

Painting  or  Coveiing. — Piping  exposed  on  the  outside  of 
buildings  or  in  a  damp  location  must  be  carefully  cleaned  after 
installation,  and  painted  with  two  coats  of  a  pure  red-lead 
paint  or  covered  with  other  material  equally  efifective  in  pre- 
venting corrosion  of  the  metal.  Pipe  should  not  be  coated  or 
painted  until  after  the  first  inspection. 

PROTECTION   AGAINST  STRAINS 

Passing  through  Walls. — Where  piping  passes  through  con- 
crete, masonry,  brick,  or  tile  walls,  it  should  be  encased,  with 
the  pipe  resting  on  the  bottom  of  the  casing  pipe  to  provide  at 
least  J^-in.  clearance  above  it.  The  space  above  the  pipe 
should  be  packed  with  mineral  wool  or  other  incombustible 
material  to  afiford  a  fire  stop,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
packing  above  the  pipe  in  such  a  way  that  settling  of  the  wall 
will  produce  excessive  strain. 

Basement  Piping. — Pipe  should  not  be  run  in  coal  bins  or  in 
other  parts  of  a  basement  where  wood,  lumber,  or  other  material 
is  likely  to  be  stored  against  it  or  to  subject  it  to  strain.  Pipe 
which  is  run  in  a  cellar  should  be  hung  from  the  ceiling  and  not 
supported  on  the  walls. 


GAS  FITTING  231 

PROHIBITED  FITTINGS 

Unions  may  not  be  used  on  concealed  piping.  When  neces- 
sary to  reconnect  piping,  the  connection  should  be  made  with  a 
right  and  left  coupling  or  with  a  running  thread  with  suitable 
lock  nut. 

The  use  of  bushings  is  not  recommended.  When  necessary 
to  connect  two  sizes  of  pipe,  a  reducing  fitting  is  preferable,  but 
a  hexagonal  head  bushing  may  be  employed  if  necessary. 

Swing  joints  on  concealed  house  piping  which  are  made  by  the 
use  of  combination  of  fittings  should  not  be  used. 

Location  of  Meter. — The  meter  end  of  the  main  supply  line 
should  be  so  located  that  the  meter  can  be  installed  in  a  stand- 
ard manner. 

Fitting  at  Lower  End  of  Vertical  Supply  Line. — The  lower  end 
of  a  vertical  supply  line,  if  accessible,  should  be  equipped  with  a 
T  (or  cross)  having  a  full-sized,  plugged  opening  looking  down 
to  permit  access  for  removing  stoppages. 

Objectionable  Locations  for  Outlets. — Outlets  must  not  be 
placed  back  of  swinging  doors  or  close  to  window  or  door  frames, 
or  any  other  place  where  good  practice  forbids.  This  rule 
is  intended  to  prevent  the  installation  of  light  brackets  or  other 
fixtures  in  locations  where  curtains  or  draperies  may  be  ignited. 

Minimum  Size  of  Outlets. — When  an  outlet  is  placed  on  a 
supply  pipe  before  it  is  known  what  size  of  pipe  will  be  con- 
nected to  it,  the  outlet  should  be  of  the  same  size  as  the  line 
which  supplies  it,  or,  if  other  lines  are  also  supplied  through  the 
same  fitting,  at  least  as  large  as  the  smallest  of  the  other  lines 
suppHed. 

Size  of  Outlets  for  Public  Buildings  and  Display  Windows. — 
Ceiling  outlets  in  churches,  stores,  theaters,  or  other  places  of 
assembly,  or  in  rooms  where  ceilings  are  20  ft.  in  height  or  over, 
or  in  display  or  show  windows,  should  not  be  less  than  J^-in. 

This  rule  is  necessary  to  provide  adequate  support  for  large 
fixtures  which  may  be  used  in  such  locations. 

Over-size  Outlets  Recommended. — In  determining  the  size 
of  outlet  to  allow,  any  anticipated  increase  in  the  consumption 
of  gas  should  be  taken  into  account. 

Projection  of  Outlets. — Outlets  on  concealed  piping  should 
project  beyond  the  finished  wall  or  ceiling  (or  in  a  suitable 
recess  in  the  case  of  recessed  fittings),  so  that  all  of  the  threads 
required  are  clear  and  available  for  use,  and  there  is  sufficient 
wrench  space  on  the  unthreaded  portion  of  the  pipe;  and  the 


232  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

pipe  should  be  run  far  enough  from  floor  and  walls  to  permit 
the  use  of  a  suitable  size  wrench  without  straining  or  bending 
the  pipe. , 

When  the  type  of  appliance  to  be  secured  to  the  drop  requires 
a  longer  projection,  allowance  should  be  made  for  such  equip- 
ment at  the  time  of  the  installation  of  the  piping.  Where 
combination  fixtures  or  recessed  baseboard  fittings  are  used, 
the  threads  on  the  piping  should  be  clear  of  the  back  plate  of 
the  outlet  box. 

Outlet  Fittings. — Outlets  on  concealed  piping  for  drops  and 
brackets,  and  such  short  outlets  as  cannot  give  the  wrench  space 
described  in  paragraph  (a),  should  be  made  by  the  use  of  drop 
ells  or  by  fittings  which  provide  the  means  for  rigidly  securing 
them   in  place;  or  the  pipe  may  be  bent. 

Fastening  Outlets. — In  every  case  outlets  should  be  so 
installed  that  they  cannot  become  displaced  in  the  wall  or 
ceiling.  When  an  outlet  is  to  be  placed  between  joists,  beams 
or  studs,  the  outlet  fitting  should  be  secured  to  a  strut  fastened 
between  the  joists  or  studs,  in  order  to  prevent  the  fixture 
from  swinging  and  straining  the  joint. 

Closing  Outlets. — Each  outlet  should  be  securely  closed  gas- 
tight  with  a  threaded  iron  plug  or  cap  immediately  after  instal- 
lation. In  no  case  should  the  outlet  be  closed  with  lead  caps 
or  plugs.  When  an  appliance  is  removed  from  an  outlet,  and 
the  outlet  is  not  to  be  used  again  immediately,  it  should  be 
securely  closed  gas-tight  with  a  threaded  iron  plug  or  cap. 

Installations  for  Stores  and  Places  of  Assembly. — The  gas 
company  and  proper  administrative  authority  should  be  con- 
sulted in  advance  on  all  details  of  installations  which  di£Per 
from  the  ordinary  house-lighting  practice  in  volume  of  gas 
required  or  any  special  features. 

Leaks  and  Emergency  Repairs. — In  case  of  leaks  or  emer- 
gency repairs,  keep  all  sources  of  ignition  away  and  notify  the 
gas  company  and  proper  administrative  authority  as  quickly  as 
possible. 

WHEN  GAS  MAY  BE  TURNED  ON 

Meter  or  Line  Cock  to  be  Used. — A  gas  fitter  who  is  not  in 
the  employ  of  the  gas  company  should  not  turn  the  gas  on 
except  at  the  meter  cock  or  a  line  cock,  unless  special  permission 
is  granted  to  him  by  the  gas  company.  A  gas  fitter  should  not 
turn  the  gas  on  at  any  meter  cock  without  specific  permission 


GAS  FITTING  233 

from  the  gas  company  or  the  proper  administrative  authority 
if  any  of  the  following  conditions  prevail: 

1.  If  the  piping,  appliances,  or  meter  supplied  through  the 
cock  are  known  to  leak  or  to  be  defective. 

2.  If  the  piping  or  appliances  supplied  are  required  to  be 
inspected  and  have  not  been  inspected. 

3.  If  the  proper  administrative  authority  or  the  gas  company 
have  requested  that  the  gas  be  left  turned  off. 

4.  If  the  meter  cock  is  found  shut  off,  unless  the  gas  fitter  has 
himself  shut  it  off,  or  knows  that  it  was  shut  off  by  the  customer 
to  prevent  leakage,  and  the  cause  of  the  leakage  has  been 
repaired  by  the  gas  fitter.  If  the  gas  is  found  turned  off  for 
other  cause  or  for  some  reason  not  known  to  the  gas  fitter,  then 
he  should  secure  permission  from  the  gas  company  before 
turning  on  the  gas. 

When  Gas  Fitter  Should  Not  Turn  Gas  on  at  Line  Cock. — A 
gas  fitter  should  not  turn  the  gas  on  at  any  line  cock  if  any  of 
the  conditions  described  in  1,  2  or  3  in  paragraph  above,  prevail. 
However,  if  a  line  cock  is  found  closed,  he  may  at  the  request 
of  the  customer  again  turn  gas  on  at  such  cock  if  proper 
precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  leakage  and  if  no  unsafe 
conditions  are  thereby  established. 

Gas  should  not  be  turned  on  at  either  a  line  cock  or  meter 
cock  unless  a  gas-burning  appliance  is  connected  to  the  piping 
system  supplied. 

PROCEDURE  WHEN  TURNING  GAS  ON 

When  turning  gas  into  any  line  or  piping  system  a  gas  fitter 
shall  exercise  the  greatest  care,  and  shall  observe  every  precau- 
tion indicated  in  this  section : 

Gas  Fitter  to  do  Work  Himself. — A  gas  fitter,  when  turning 
gas  on,  should  personally  observe  the  precautions  indicated; 
no  helper  or  other  person  should  be  directed  or  allowed  to  turn 
gas  on  unless  his  work  is  closely  supervised  by  the  gas  fitter 
who  should  be  personally  on  the  job  at  the  time  when  the  work 
is  done. 

Procedure  when  Gas  Is  Turned  On. — A  gas  fitter  should 
observe  the  following  procedure  when  gas  is  turned  on  at  any 
meter  cock: 

Determine  by  actual  inspection  in  every  part  of  the  buildings 
supplied  through  this  cock  that  all  appliances,  including  pilot 
flames,  have  been  turned  off  and  that  no  outlets  on  the  piping 


234  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

are  open.  If  impossible  to  enter  all  rooms  personally  to  do  this, 
the  occupants  should  be  consulted  to  determine  whether  any 
persons  are  asleep  in  the  building.  If  it  is  not  possible  to 
determine  with  certainty  that  no  one  is  in  the  rooms  which 
cannot  be  visited  to  examine  appliances,  and  that  there  is  no 
burner  open  in  the  room,  the  gas  should  not  be  turned  on  until 
this  is  possible. 

Notice  of  Shut- off  to  Proper  Administrative  Authority  and  to 
Gas  Company. — In  case  a  gas  fitter  shuts  the- gas  off,  he  should 
immediately  notify  the  gas  company  and  the  proper  administra- 
tive authority  of  the  character  and  the  cause  of  the  action 
taken^  in  order  that  they  may  not  inadvertently  restore  service 
without  elimination  of  the  hazards  noted. 

When  Gas  Shall  be  Shut  Off. — A  gas  fitter  should  turn  the 
gas  off  from  any  appliance,  pipe,  or  piping  system,  and,  re- 
gardless of  the  wishes  of  the  user  thereof,  should  leave  the 
gas  turned  off,  until  the  cause  for  interrupting  the  supply  has 
been  removed  in  any  one  of  the  following  cases: 

1.  If  ordered  to  do  so  by  the  proper  administrative  authority. 

2.  If  leakage  of  gas  is  noted  which  appears  to  be  sufi&cient  to 
cause  danger  of  fire,  explosion,  or  asphyxiation. 

3.  If  he  finds  an  installation  of  some  gas  appliance  such  as  to 
cause  a  serious  personal  or  property  hazard  because  of  incom- 
plete combustion,  of  fire,  or  of  air  in  piping.^ 

Procedure  When  Turning  Gas  Off. — When  necessary  to  turn 
gas  off,  a  gas  fitter  should  use  the  meter  cock,  or  a  line  cock 
which  affects  only  part  of  the  piping  of  a  single  customer;  he 
should  not  turn  the  gas  off  at  the  service  cock  or  curb  cock  unless 
authorized  to  do  so  by  the  gas  company  or  in  the  event  of  an 
emergency. 

Customer  to  be  Warned  Before  Gas  is  Shut  Off. — Before  gas 
is  shut  off  from  any  line  or  piping,  all  customers  or  their  respon- 
sible representatives  whose  service  is  affected  should  (except  in 
emergencies)  be  advised  that  the  gas  is  to  be  shut  off  and  told 
to  shut  off  all  appliance  cocks.  They  should  be  warned  not  to 
open  any  appliance  cocks  until  again  notified  the  service  has 
been  restored.  Customers  should  be  particularly  warned  not 
to  attempt  to  turn  the  gas  on  at  the  meter  cock  or  line  cock 
which  for  any  cause  has  been  closed  by  the  gas  fitter. 

1  This  is  a  most  serious  consideration,  and  requires  thought  and  judgment 
on  the  part  of  the  gas  fitter.  If  in  doubt,  he  should  turn  the  gas  off  for  safety 
and  consult  the  proper  administrative  authority  or  the  gae  company  at  onoe. 


GAS  FITTING  235 

Procedure. — When,  to  permit  gas  JStting  or  appliance  work 
to  be  done,  gas  is  to  be  turned  off  from  any  piping  system,  the 
following  procedure  should  be  observed,  except  in  case  of  an 
emergency  which  requires  immediate  shutting  off  of  supply: 

1.  Identify  the  cock  or  meter  through  which  the  gas  is 
supplied  by  noting  whether  any  tag  or  mark  indicates  which 
piping  system  or  part  thereof  is  supplied  through  it.  (If 
more  than  one  piping  system  is  supplied  from  a  single  service, 
or  if  only  a  part  of  a  system  is  to  be  shut  off,  great  care  should 
be  exercised  to  make  certain  that  the  correct  valve  or  cock  is 
closed.) 

2.  Light  a  burner  connected  to  the  line  from  which  it  is 
desired  to  shut  off  the  gas. 

3.  Close  the  cock  or  valve. 

4.  Note  that  the  gas  has  actually  gone  out  at  the  burner  and 
that  no  gas  is  flowing  from  the  burner;  then  shut  off  this  burner. 

5.  If  g£is  continues  to  flow  through  this  burner,  either  the 
wrong  cock  or  valve  has  been  closed  or  there  is  a  leak  in  the 
cock  or  valve.  If  the  wrong  cock  or  valve  has  been  closed, 
service  should  be  restored  on  that  line  or  system  of  piping, 
only  after  observing  all  the  requirements  listed  under  the 
heading,  "Procedure  When  Turning  on  Gas." 

If  the  valve  or  cock  passes  gas  when  it  is  apparently  closed,  a 
cock  or  valve  preceding  it  in  the  supply  line  must  be  closed  and 
the  defective  cock  or  valve  repaired.  However,  if  the  defective 
cock  or  valve  is  the  meter  cock,  then  the  gas  fitter  should  notify 
the  gas  company  of  the  defect;  a  gas  fitter  not  in  the  employ 
of  the  gas  company  should  not  attempt  to  repair  the  meter 
cock.  Until  the  defective  cock  or  valve  has  been  repaired,  no 
opening  should  be  made  in  the  piping  system. 

Testing  for  Tightness. — When  piping  is  to  be  tested  for 
tightness  by  the  application  of  air  pressure,  an  air  pump  and 
mercury  gage  may  be  used.  The  gage  must  be  adequate  in 
length  for  the  pressure  required,  and  be  of  such  design  that  the 
height  of  the  column  of  mercury  can  be  measured  with  accuracy. 
The  tube  or  tubes  must  be  of  uniform  size,  with  all  passages 
full-^ize  and  unobstructed.  The  pump  and  gage  should  be  so 
attached  to  the  piping  that  the  gage  can  be  watched  during  the 
raising  of  the  pressure.  All  line  cocks  or  valves  on  the  system 
tested  should  be  open,  and  all  obstructions  removed  from  the 
pipes,  so  that  pressure  may  be  applied  during  the  test  up  to  all 
outlets. 


236  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

If  the  column  of  mercury  does  not  fall  by  a  sufficient  amount 
to  be  detectable  during  the  test  period,  the  piping  is  satis- 
factory; but  if  the  column  of  mercury  falls  by  a  sufficient 
amount  to  be  detectable  during  the  test  period,  a  leak  is 
indicated. 

Searching  for  Leaks. — If  a  piping  system  is  leaking,  the 
exact  location  of  the  leak  may  in  every  case  be  determined  by 
the  use  of  one  or  more  of  the  following  methods: 

If  air  has  been  used. 

1.  By  listening  for  the  hissing  sound  of  escaping  air, 

2.  By  passing  the  hand  over  and  around  the  piping. 

3.  By  applying  a  solution  of  soap  and  water  to  the  exterior  of 
the  system.  Leaks  will  be  indicated  by  the  appearance  of 
bubbles  of  air,  these  continuing  to  form  until  the  liquid  dries. 
(This  is  the  most  sensitive  and  desirable  procedure.) 

If  gas  has  been  used : 

1.  By  applying  a  solution  of  soap  and  water  as  described  in 
the  preceding  paragraph. 

2.  By  the  sense  of  smell. 

In  no  case  should  a  flame  be  used  when  searching  for  a  leak. 

GENERAL  PRECAUTIONS 

Work  with  Gas  Off. — Gas-fitting,  appliance  installation,  and 
repair  work  must  be  done  with  the  gas  turned  off,  so  that  the 
danger  from  leakage  during  the  work  will  be  a  minimum,  except 
as  provided  in  the  following  paragraph. 

Working  on  Pipes  Filled  with  Gas. — Work  which  involves 
removal  of  an  appliance  of  unscrewing  of  a  cap,  plug  or  pipe 
which  will  open  an  outlet  and  permit  the  escape  of  gas,  should 
never  be  done  without  shutting  the  gas  off,  except  in  emergency 
cases  where  interruption  of  the  service  is  impracticable,  and 
unless  the  work  can  be  done  without  danger  to  life  and  property 
with  the  gas  on. 

It  is  suggested  that  when  working  on  pipes  filled  with  gas, 
outlets  larger  than  %-in.  size,  and  pressures  in  excess  of  10  in. 
of  water,  be  not  handled  except  by  a  specialist.  In  any  event 
the  following  precautions  must  be  observed : 

1.  Determine  the  location  of  the  meter  cock  or  line  cock  by 
which  the  gas  supply  to  the  proposed  opening  is  controlled  and 
see  that  it  is  in  working  order. 

2.  Make  sure  that  no  fire  or  flame  or  spark-emitting  device 


GAS  FITTING  237 

of  any  kind  is  near  enough  to  set  fire  to  the  gas  which  may 
escape. 

3.  Determine  that  even  the  slight  escape  of  gas  expected  will 
not  be  injurious  to  persons,  especially  invalids  or  small  children. 

4.  Examine  the  threads  to  be  used,  to  make  sure  the  opening 
can  be  quickly  and  tightly  closed. 

5.  Have  at  hand  a  plug  of  rubber  or  other  suitable  material 
to  fit  snugly  into  the  opening. 

6.  Make  sure  that  no  lighted  burners  or  pilots  lights  supplied 
from  the  line  to  be  opened  are  turned  so  low  that  they  may  go 
out  or  flash  back  because  of  the  sudden  drop  m  pressure  in  the 
pipe  when  it  is  opened. 

7.  After  the  work  has  been  completed,  all  appliances  shall 
be  examined  and  any  pilot  lights  and  burners  which  may  have 
been  extinguished  relighted  or  turned  off. 

One  Man  Shall  Not  Work  Alone. — In  any  one  of  the  follow- 
ing conditions,  there  should  be  more  than  one  man  present,  one 
of  whom  should  be  in  such  location  that  he  is  not  exposed  to 
any  possible  asphyxiating  influence  from  the  escaping  gas: 

1.  When  necessary  to  make  installations,  repairs,  or  do  other 
work  on  piping  filled  with  live  gas. 

2.  When  work  is  done  in  a  gassy  atmosphere. 

3.  When  work  is  done  in  any  confined  space  where  gas  may 
accumulate,  or  in  any  space  not  readily  accessible,  e.g.j  where 
the  gas  fitter  must  lie  down  or  assume  a  cramped  position. 

Safety  Lights  to  be  Provided. — Every  gas  fitter  should  be 
provided  with  an  approved  electric  flash  lamp  or  safety  lamp, 
which  is  adequately  protected  to  prevent  explosion  or  fire  if 
used  in  a  gassy  atmosphere.  No  other  type  of  lamp  should  be 
used  in  such  atmosphere,  when  searching  for  a  leak,  or  when 
working  on  piping  filled  with  live  gas. 

GAS  APPLIANCES,  DOMESTIC 

Gas  appliances  usual  for  domestic  use  include,  hot  plates, 
ranges,  water  heaters,  garbage  incinerators,  gas  iron,  space 
heaters,  mangles;  and  portables  such  as  chafing  dishes,  perco- 
lators, egg  boilers,  cake  griddles,  toasters,  and  nursery  burners. 

In  all  gas  ranges,  the  cooking  operations  are  carried  out  with 
the  maximum  of  economy  and  efficiency,  and  in  a  manner  most 
satisfactory  from  the  standpoint  of  cleanliness,  ease  and 
culinary  satisfaction.  The  following  are  types  of  hot  plates 
and  ranges: 


238  PLUMBEHS'  HANDBOOK 

The  Hot  Plate  (Fig.  167). — An  appliance  having  one,  two, 
three  or  more  t«p  burners  on  which  boihng  or  frying  can  be 


The  Cooker  (Fig.  168).— An  appliance  having  several  top 
burners  and  one  oven  containing  two  bumeis;  one  for  roasting 
and  baking,  and  one  for  broiling. 


The  Double-oven  Range.— (Fig.  169),  An  appliance  having 
at  least  four  top  burners  and  two  ovens  below  the  cooking 
'op;  one  for  roasting  and  baking,  and  one  for  broiling. 


GAS  FITTING 


240  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

The  Cabinet  Rai^e  {Fig.  170). — An  appliance  having  at 
least  four  top  burners  and  separate  broiling  and  roasting  ovens. 
Made  in  many  sizes  and  styles,  with  oven  right-  or  left-hand, 
and  with  or  without  additional  warming  closet.' 

The  following  are  types  of  water  heaters: 

1.  The  Circulating -water  Heater  (Fig.  171). — An  appliance 
containing  a  burner  and  e,  beating  medium  which  may  be  a 


coil  of  copper  or  a  cast  metal  section.     The  heater  ie  attached 
to  the  kitchen  boiler  and  is  made  in  various  sizes. 

2.  The  Automatic  Combination  Boiler  and  Water  Heater 
{Fig.  172). — An  appliance  consisting  of  boiler  and  circulating- 
water  heater  in  one.  The  heater  is  controlled  automatically 
by  a  thermostat  to  keep  water  in  the  insulated  boiler  at  a  desired 
temperature.  Bumere  operate  only  when  water  falls  below 
'he  desired  temperature.    They  are  made  in  various  eizea. 


GAS  FITTING  241 

3.  The  Instantaneous  Water  Beater  (Fig.  173).— An  appli- 
ance ftttaohed  to  the  house  hot-water  system  containing  copper 
heating  coils  and  burners,  and  having  automatic  control. 
This  heater  is  automatically  turned  on  by  the  opening  of  any 
hot-water  outlet  on  the  system,  delivering  hot  water  instantane- 
ously. Closing  the  water  tap  ahnts  the  burner  off.  A  thermo- 
stat is  provided  to  control  the  maximum  temperature  of  the 
water  delivered.     Made  in  various  sizes. 


Fto.  173. 

Tbe  Antoniatic  Instantaneous  Storage  Heater  (Fig.  174). 
An  appliance  combining  the  advantages  of  the  instantaneous 
beater  and  the  automatic  heater  and  supplied  with  storage 
capacity.     Made  in  various  sizes. 

The  Automatic  Hqt-water  Storage  System  with  Tubular 
Gas  Boiler  (Fig.  175). — An  appliance  for  heating  tbe  water  by 
direct  circulation  to  a  storage  tank;  automatically  and  thermo- 
statically controlled.     Made  in  various  sizes. 
IS 


242  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


GAS  FITTING  243 

HOUSE  HEATING 

A  great  demand  has  been  made  in  recent  years  for  gaa  for 
house  and  apace  heating,  and  because  of  its  many  distinct 
advantages,   the   demand  will   increase  from  year  to  year. 


Fio.  177. 

Among  the  great  variety  of  gas  room  heaters,  two,  representing 
distinct  types,  are  shown: 
The     Tubular    Gas    Boiler     (Fig.     176). — An    appliance 

intended  for  a  central  house-heating  system  for  heating  all 


244  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

types  and  sizes  of  buildings.  They  are  flexible,  because  it  is 
possible  to  enlarge  their  capacity  to  meet  any  increased  require- 
ments. They  require  no  attention  when  equipped  with  thermo- 
static control;  by  means  of  this  arrangement,  the  temperature 
in  a  room  may  be  maintained  at  any  point  as  long  as  desired 
and  lowered  or  raised  at  any  predetermined  time  by  means  of 
the  clock  attachment.  The  boiler  can  be  obtained  for  either 
hot  water,  vapor,  or  steam  heat.  It  is  installed  in  the  cellar, 
and  is  connected  to  the  existing  house  piping  for  any  of  the 
systems. 

The  Radiant  Heater  (Fig.  177). — An  appliance  admirable 
for  room  heating.  It  is  instantaneous  in  action,  the  radiants 
becoming  immediately  incandescent  and  throwing  out  a  flood 
of  radiant  heat. 

GAS  APPLIANCES:  INDUSTRIAL 

Largely  because  of  the  coal  situation,  the  attention  of  the 
manufacturing  world  has  been  directed  in  recent  years  to  the 
uses  of  artificial  gas  for  all  industrial  purposes.  Manufacturers 
are  rapidly  realizing  the  vast  superiority  of  gas  for  manufactur- 
ing purposes  over  all  other  fuels,  and  the  demand  for  gas-burn- 
ing appliances  and  gas  systems  adequate  for  their  purposes  is 
assuming  huge  proportions.  The  superiority  of  gas  for  indus- 
trial purposes  is  manifested  by  its  perfect  heat  control,  which 
is  not  practicable  with  other  fuel,  its  space  economy,  reliability 
of  supply,  and  its  wonderful  flexibility.  The  uses  of  gas  in  the 
business  world  are  many  and  manifold.  To  recount  the  uses 
to  which  gas  has  been  put  would  necessitate  the  reciting  of 
every  well  known  manufacturing  process.  One  illustration  of 
the  great  advances  that  have  been  made  since  the  use  of  gas 
has  attracted  manufacturers,  is  in  the  process  of  metal  melting. 
This  formerly  was  done  by  solid  or  liquid  fuel.  Today,  practi- 
cally all  metal  melting  is  done  by  gas,  and  its  superiority  is 
made  evident  by  the  greater  and  more  rapid  output  which  can 
be  secured,  because  of  the  perfect  heat  control  of  the  gas,  and 
the  absolute  assurance  of  its  continuity  of  quality  and  quantity 
of  supply.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  many  appliances  used 
in  the  industrial  field : 

The  Gas  Premiz  Burner  (Pig.  178). — An  appliance  con- 
sisting of  a  motor-driven  blower  with  means  of  proportioning 
the  air  and  gas  supplied  at  the  inlet  of  the  blower.  The  air 
and  gas  are  mechanically  mixed  within  the  blower,  and  the 


GAS  FITTING  245 

mixture  ia  driven  through  the  nozzle,  where  complete  comoustion 
is  secured.  The  appliance  combines  certain  principles,  well 
established  by  scienti&c  research,  for  obtaining  complete  com- 
bustion at  the  nozzle  where  the  heat  ia  required  within  the 
furnace.     It  ia  specially  designed  so  that  its  several  types  or 


Fw.  178. 

siaes  may  be  efficiently  applied  to  any  of  the  various  pattfima 
and  sizes  of  furnaces  and  ovens. 

The  Application  of  a  Premiz  Burner  to  a  Direct-fired  Bake 
Oven  (Fig.  179). — Exterior  view  showing  method  of  installing 
motor  fan  set,  on  front  wall  of  oven. 

Gas-flred  Automatic  Steam  Boiler  (Fig.  180). — An  appli- 
ance consisting  of  a  central  drum  or  steam  pipe,  5  in,  or  more 


246  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


GAS  FITTING 


248  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

in  diameter,  of  heavy  boiler  steel.  The  drum  is  capped  with 
a  heavy  steel  casting  from  which  extends  three  arms  which 
support  the  boiler  in  the  boiler  casing.  The  coils  are  made  of  a 
special  grade  of  steel  pipe.  They  are  coiled  at  a  pitch  of  1^^ 
in.,  giving  rapid  circulation  and  preventing  clogging.  This 
boiler  has  been  installed  in  almost  every  industry  with  wonder- 
ful results. 

A  Muffle  Furnace  or  Oven  (Fig.  181).— One  of  the  many 
uses  of  gas  in  the  industrial  field. 

Hotel  Gas-flred  Kitchen  Range  (Fig.  1S2). — These 
appliances,  on  account  of  their  vast  superiority,  are  rapidly 
replacing  coal  ranges  in  hotels  and  restaurant  kitchens.  They 
can  be  made  up  in  batteries  consisting  of  any  number  of  sec- 
tions. Used  with  ranges,  are  gaa  broilers,  salamanders, 
griddles,  warming  tables;  in  fact  all  the  larger  hotels  are  using 
exclusively  gas  burning  appliances  in  flie  kitchen. 


Flo.  183.  Fio.  IM. 

LIGHTING  FIXTURES 

In  recent  years  the  development  of  fixtures  and  units,  using 
the  incandescent  mantle,  has  been  so  wide  that  now  a  unit  or 
fixture  may  be  secured  suitable  for  any  purpose.  The  home, 
the  factory,  the  store,  even  the  street  may  be  illuminated  with 
gas  in  as  correct  a  manner  as  with  any  other  illuminant,  and 
with  far  greater  economic  and  hygienic  results.  Four  of  the 
many  types  are  shown. 


GAS  FITTING  249 

SmaU  Hanae  Unit  Suitable  for  the  Home  (Fig.  IS3).— 
Can  be  secured  with  a  wide  variety  of  glass  ware  or  silk  shades. 

Semi -indirect  Unit  (Fig.  184). — Can  be  secured  in  many 
sizes,  fisishee  and  designs.  It  is  the  ideal  light  for  the  home, 
giving  a  soft,  well-diffused  illuminatJop,  absolutely  free  from 
eye  strain. 


Portable  Lamp  (Fig.  185). — Can  be  had  in  a  great  variety 
of  sizes,  from  the  large  floor  standard  down  to  the  small  boudoir 

Large  Huifl«  Unit  (Fig.  186). — Suitable  for  shops, 
factories,  foundries,  and  all  mercantile  establishments.  Can 
be  equipped  with  many  types  of  reflectors  and  shades  according 
to  the  requirements  of  the  installation. 


PLUHBING  FIXTURES 

WATER  CLOSETS 

Closet  BowU. — Bowls  tor  water  closets  are  made  of  non- 
absorbent  material,  glazed  inside  of  the  trap  as  well  aa  inside 
of  the  bowl.  There  should  be  no  fouling  space.  The  back 
edge  of  seat  opening  should  be  directly  over  standing  water 
in  the  bowl.     Holes  in  the  flushing  rim  are  so  arranged  that 


Fia.  187. 


Htreams  of  water  will  thoroughly  wash  all  inside  parts  of  the 
bowl.  When  the  flushing  process  starts,  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  the  bowl  should  recede  and  not  rise.  Bowls  are 
made  of  enamelled  iron  or  vitreous  material.     Accurate  meas- 


urements can  always  be  had  so  that  the  rough  work  for  waste 
and  water  supply  can  be  run  to  the  correct  points.  The  outlet 
end  of  bowl  can  be  made  tight  to  waste  pipe  by  means  of  a  brass 
flange  and  rubber  or  asbestos  gasket.  PvUy  jointe  should  never 
250 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


251 


be  made.  The  latest  type  of  bowl  is  made  without  the  extended 
lip  on  the  outlet;  therefore  a  connection  similar  to  that  in 
Fig.  188  must  be  used  to  make  a  tight  joint.  Figure  189  shows 
pipe  connections. 

To  meet  sanitary  requirements,  the  closet  bowl  should  be 
made  of  non-absorbent  material  with  glazed  finish,  and  free 
from  any  kind  of  mechanical  obstruction.  It  must  have  no 
fouling  surfaces  that  may  come  in  contact  with  excremental 
matter.  It  must  hold  sufficient  water  to  cover  entirely  any 
excremental  matter  that  is  deposited.     It  must  be  supplied 


WipcdJdinta 
6ra»s  Ferrule 


Ca5+  Iron 
Ex+en+ion 


Solder  N  ipple 
Wiped  Joint 


^m^^j^^^^^^i 


Wrought  Iron 
Extent!  on 


Fig.  189. 


with  suflBcient  volume  and  velocity  of  water  so  that  its  entire 
contents  are  removed  and  the  bowl  refilled  with  clean  water. 
Bowls. — There  are  three  kinds  of  water-closet  bowls: 

1.  Syphon  jet. 

2.  Syphon  action. 

3.  Hoppers. 

1.  Syphon  jets  have  the  most  positive  action  when  flushed. 
They  are  so  called  from  the  small  jet  of  water  that  is  discharged 
from  the  bottom  of  the  bowl  trap  into  the  discharge  arm  of 
trap.  Two  jets  are  sometimes  provided.  The  outlet  of  the 
bowl  is  so  constructed  with  bends  in  the  outlet  that  the  water 
is  held  back  sufficiently  long  to  fill  completely  the  outlet  arm 
and  start  syphonic  action;  this  action,  together  with  the  force 
of  the  jet,  makes  the  action  of  this  bowl  positive.  Flush 
connection  can  be  either  on  the  top,  side,  or  back.  It  can  be 
flushed  with  a  low  or  high  tank  or  direct-flush  valve.  From 
3  to  6  gal.  are  required  for  each  flush,  to  cleanse  thoroughly 
and  refill  the  trap  and  bowl.  See  drawing  187  for  cross-section 
of  closet  bowl. 

2.  Syphon-action  bowls  are  so  named  from  the  action  of 
the  discharge,  which  is  syphonic.  Water  discharged  into  the 
bowl  through  the  rim  completely  fills  the  outlet  arm,  and 


252 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


syphonic  action  is  started  and  bowl  emptied  of  contents. 
Trap  is  then  resealed  by  clean  water. 

3.  Hopper  bowls  are  funnel  shaped,  and  set  on  a  trap.  This 
type  of  bowl  has  a  flushing  rim;  and  contents  of  the  trap  under- 
neath the  bowl  are  discharged  by  the  rush  of  water  at  each 
flush. 

Flushing  Tanks  and  Valves. — Water-closet  bowls  are  flushed 
with  clean  water  by  the  use  of  a  tank  or  specially  constructed 
valve.  Individual-closet  bowls,  when  flushed  by  the  use  of  a 
high  tank,  should  be  provided  with  a  flush  pipe  of  at  least  1 J^ 
in.  for  syphon  action  and  syphon  jet.  The  flush  should  be  1 J^ 
in.  inside  diameter.  When  a  low-down  tank  is  used,  the  flush 
pipe  should  be  2  in.  inside  diameter.  Slip  joints  are  used  on 
flush  pipes. 


Over^ouk^ 


r^ 


Direct 
Flush 


Operafma 
Lever 


\m. 


F 


Fig.  190. 


Flush -pipe  material  is  brass  tubing,  plain,  nickle  plated,  white 
enamelled,  or  lead.  Tanks  for  flushing  purposes  are  made  of 
wood  copper  lined,  or  of  cast  or  sheet  steel,  enamelled.  Capac- 
ity of  these  tanks  should  be  from  5  to  8  gal.  Tank  outlet  or 
discharge  is  by  means  of  a  large  way  valve.  City  buildings 
require  less  water  to  flush  each  water  closet  and  carry  the  dis- 
charge to  the  sewer  than  country  buildings  or  large  estates 
require.  Where  the  discharge  from  a  water  closet  has  to  be 
carried  a  long  distance  before  it  encounters  water  from  other 
fixtures,  as  in  the  case  of  country  buildings,  more  water  is 
required  than  where  a  short  run  is  available. 

Tanks  and  Flushing  Devices. — Flush  tanks  for  water  closets 
and  urinals,  are  constructed  of  enamelled  or  vitreous  iron. 
These  materials  are  water-proof,  strong,  and  sanitary.     Each 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


253 


tank  is  provided  with  a  water-supply  inlet  valve  and  a  flush 
outlet  valve  (see  Fig.  190).  Operation  of  tank  is  by  means  of 
chain  pull,  push  button,  lift  handle,  or  seat  action.  Water 
inlet  valve  is  controlled  by  copper  float  ball.  Each  tank  should 
be  provided  with  an  overflow.  The  supply  valve,  when  on 
high  pressure,  should  be  of  the  type  that  utilizes  the  water 
pressure  to  keep  valve  closed. 

Flush  tanks  are  discharged  by  syphonic  action  (see  Fig.  191) 
or  by  the  use  of  slow  closing  valves  (see  Fig.  190).  The  latter 
are  better  for  syphon-jet  hoioh.  A  tank  should  discharge  sufli- 
cient  water  to  carry  out  the  contents  of  the  bowl  to  which  it  is 


Tank 


Cha/h 
Pa//  -'- 


Fig.  191. 


attached;  also  to  refill  the  bowl  with  clean  water.  The  capacity 
of  a  flush  tank  is  determined  by  noting  the  number  of  gallons 
held  in  the  closet  bowl  and  adding  to  that  the  number  of  gallons, 
necessary  to  flush  the  bowl  completely,  which  is  about  2  gal. 
Flush  tanks  can  be  hung  in  the  room  with  the  bowl  (see  Fig. 
195) ;  or  directly  in  back  of  the  bowl  on  the  opposite  side  of  a 
partition  is  a  space  provided  for  them  (see  Fig.  198),  and  the 
flush  pipe  can  extend  through  wall  and  attach  to  bowl.  This 
arrangement  is  very  good  practice,  as  it  keeps  away  from 
the  mechanical  parts  all  meddlers,  and  provides  at  the  same 
time  easy  access  for  the  mechanic.  Provision  should  be  made 
in  the  building  material  for  walls  upon  which  the  tank  are  to  be 
hung  to  hold  the  tank  securely  in  place.  Wood  strips  the  width 
of  the  tank  should  be  built  in  plastered  walls.     Screws  ai*e  used 


254  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

to  hold  tank  to  plastered  walls.  Toggle  bolts  or  bolt«  with 
nuts  are  used  on  terra-cotta  walls.  ExpaiiBion  bolts  are  used 
on  brick,  tUe,  or  cement  walls  (see  "Hangera,"  Figs.  118  and 
119). 

Tanks  are  supplied  with  water  through  ball  cocks.  The 
ball  float  automatically  regulates  the  level  of  the  water  in  the 
tank.  Valves  which  utilize  the  water  pressure  to  asHiat  in 
closing  them,  should  be  installed  where  high  pressures  are 
used. 


Fio.  194. 

Flush  Valves. — Closet  bowls  can  be  flushed  by  the  use  of 
direct-connected  valves  (see  Fig.  196)  designed  for  this  special 
use.  These  valves  require  large  sized  pipe  to  furnish  volume 
rather  than  pressure  of  water,  to  operate  them  properly. 
About  100-lb.  pressure  with  a  ?i-in.  supply  is  not  as  good  as 
60-lb.  with  l!^-in.  supply.  These  valves  can  be  regulated  to 
pass  from  3  to  10  gal.  of  water  at  each  operation.  Discharge 
lasts  9  to  15  sec.  These  valves  can  also  be  used  on  slop  sinks 
and  urinals.  A  separate  system  of  supply  should  be  installed 
for  two  or  moce  direct  flush  valves.    To  proportion  the  siie  pipe 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


256  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

necessary  for  a  number  of  valves,  each  valve  should  be  figured  as 
equivalent  to  l-in.  pipe. 

ExampU.—'WbB.t,  size  main  pipe  should  be  nin  to  supply  fifteen 
l-io.  direot^oonnected  flush  valves? 

Solution.— Reter  to  Table  44,  "Relative  DiBcharginB  Capacities 
of  Pipes."  In  the  vertical  column  under  1  in.  and  at  the  intersection 
of  horisontal  line  of  3  in.,  will  be  found  15,  which  means  that  3-in. 
pipe  will  supply  Rfteeu  I'in.  pipes. 


BATH  TUBS 
Bath  tubs  are  manufactured  In  three  distinct  types: 

1.  Built-in-bath. 

2.  Bath-on-baBe. 

3.  Bath-on-leg8. 

These  three  patterns  are  each  manufactured  in  various  com 
binations,  making  them,  therefore,  flexible  tor  inBtallation  i 
any  kind  of  building  or  shaped  room.     (See  page  345.) 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES  257 

Bailt-in-bath,  as  shown  in  Figs.  199  and  227,  is  manufactured 
to  fit  in  a  comer,  sgainet  a  flat  wall  or  in  a,  recess.  The  line 
drawings,  Figs.  200  and  228,  show  these  various  combinations 
of  placement,  waste,  and  supply  position.  These  tubs  are 
enamelled  inside  and  outside,  and  are  made  in  one  piece  with 


^  ^  ^  1^ 
^  ^  '^  ^ 
1^     ^J    ^3 


^     ^     ^      ^ 

Fia.  200. 

all  unfinished  edges  flanged,  and  extended  somewhat  to  fit  in 
beyond  the  finished  surface  of  the  walls  of  the  room.  Exact 
measurements  must  be  obtained  from  manufacturer  for  the 
particular  tub  that  is  to  be  installed  (for  sizes  of  tub  see  Fig. 
202J. 


258  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Waste. — This  tub  can  be  fitted  with  any  one  of  the  following 
styles  of  waste  and  overflow.  The  ideal  waste  is  one  that  has 
the  least  amount  of  fouhng  surface  on  the  fixture  side  of  the 
trap.  The  plug  and  chain  waste  and  connected  overflow  can 
be  used.  To  lieep  the  waste  stopper  and  chain  clean,  is  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  user.  The  pop-up  waste  and  connected 
overflow  presents  the  least  amount  of  fouhng  surface,  and  can 
be  arranged  with  a  remote  control,  leaving  the  tube  free  from 
any  brass  work.  The  bi-transit  or  hft  waste,  is  used  to  some 
extent,  but  its  use  is  not  recommended.  This  type  of  waste 
and  overflow  is  insanitary,  having  a  large  fouling  surface  which 
cannot  be  cleaned. 

Supplies.— The  bell  supply  is  a  desirable  one,  aa  it  requires  no 
abrupt  brass  work  inside  the  tub.     A  brass  disk  with  slot  in  the 


Fio.  201. 

bottom  is  all  that  is  fitted  into  the  tub.  The  controlling  valvea 
and  handles  either  extend  through  the  rim,  extend  up  outside 
the  rim,  or  through  the  finished  wall  above  the  tub. 

The  top  nozzle  supply  is  used  when  a  shampoo  attachment  is 
desired.  This  fitting  is  also  convenient  when  necessary  to  draw 
water  from  the  bath  Into  a  receptacle. 

The  combination  bath  cock,  (see  Fig.  201)  fitted  with  "fuller" 
or  "compression"  stops,  is  a  much  cheaper  supply,  but  requires 
about  3  in.  of  space  inside  the  tub. 

BaUt-on-base  is  shown  in  Fig.  201.  The  base  on  the  tub 
prevents  the  accumulation  of  dust  and  dirt  under  the  tub.  The 
exterior  finish  of  these  tubs  is  generally  paint  and  enamel 
applied  at  the  factory.  Roughing-in  for  these  tubs  is  shown 
in  Fig.  202.     The  tub  can  be  fitted  with  plug  and  chain  waste. 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


pop-up  waate,  or  the  bi-transit  waste.    The  last  two  can  be 
arranged  to  extend  through  the  rim  or  outside  the  rim. 


The  bell  supply,  nozzle  supply, 
be  used  for  supplies. 


'  combination  cocks  can 


260  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Bath-on-legs  is  shown  in  Pig.  203.  This  type  of  tub  is  a 
much  cheaper  tub  than  the  above  mentioned  ooes.  The 
material  in  the  tub  is  no  cheaper,  but  the  type  and  set  up 
permits  it  to  be  sold  at  a  lower  price.  The  exterior  finish, 
waste,  and  suppUee  are  the  same  as  those  used  with  the  bath 
with  base. 

SINKS 

Sinks  for  kitchen  use  should  be  made  of  material  that  is 
non-absorbent  and  hna  a  smooth  finish.  This  material  must 
be  of  such  character  that  it  will  withstand  hot  and  cold  water. 
The  materials  in  common  use  for  sinks  are  enamelled  iron, 
earthenware,  cast  iron,  slate,  soapstone,  and  copper. 


PiQ.  204. 

Sinks  for  kitchen  use  are  provided  with  drain  boards  and 
splash  back.  The  height  at  which  the  top  of  sink  should  be 
placed  above  the  floor  is  30,  32,  34,  or  36  in.  Figures  204  and 
206  show,  two  enamelled  iron  sinks  built  in  one  piece.  The 
necessary  measurements  for  roughing-in  sinks  are  given  in 
Figs.  205  and  207.  These  measurements,  with  the  necessary 
change  of  number  of  particular  sink  to  be  installed,  should  be 
given  to  the  mechanic  who  is  to  install  the  fixture  before  he 
starts  work.  Figure  229  shows  a  solid  porcelain  sink.  Sinks 
are  supported  by  legs  and  brackets,  which  should  be  adjustable. 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


giving  a  range  of  2  to  3  in.  for  raising  or  lowering  sink  to  fit 
rough  work. 


The  waste  outlet  for  einks  should  be  brass  pipe,  iron-pipe 
size;  thus  making  a  threaded-joint  connection  between  sink 
trap  and  waste  pipe  line.     The  joint  between  sink  and  trap 


262 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


should  be  with  a  lock  nut  and  gasket.  Slip  joints  on  ihe  sewer 
side  of  the  trap  should  never  he  used.  Figure  208  shows  the 
combinations   possible  for  corner  use.     Sink  bibbs  should  be 


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Fig.  208. 

placed  over  the  outlet  of  the  sink.  Plain  cast-iron  sinks  are 
used  for  ice-box  drips,  cellar  sinks,  and  for  factories.  Slate 
and  soapstone  sinks  are  used  in  places  where  grease  will  not 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


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PLUMBING  FIXTURES  265 


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266  PLUMBEBB'  HANDBOOK 


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PLUMBING  FIXTURES  267 

be  used.  In  chemical  and  photographic  laboratories,  theae  Ednks 
can  be  used  to  advantage. 

Pantry  Sinks. — Copper  sinks  should  be  used  tor  pantries. 
Pantry  sinks  are  fitted  with  a  standing  waste  and  overflow 
which  is  recessed  in  the  back  or  one  end.  Water  supply  is 
through  long,  goose-neck  faucets. 

Vegetable  sinks  ot  solid  porcelain  are  about  36  in.  by  24  in. 
by  9  in.   deep,    and   they  have    an  arrangement  for  drip, 


Fia.  217. 

recess  waste,  and  pan  which  holds  water  for  washing  the 
vegetables.  Faucets  are  the  same  as  in  the  ordinary  kitchen 
sink.    The  weight  ot  one  sink  ia  about  350  lb. 

Lavatories  .^The  word  "lavatory"  has  two  meanings; 
(1)  to  identify  a  room  in  which  are  located  wash  bowls,  bath 
tubs  or  showers;  (2)  to  identify  a  fixture  used  for  washing 
hands. 

Lavatory  fixtures  may  be  divided  in  two  classes:  (1)  types 
which  have  backs  and  are  supported  from  the  wall  (see  Figs. 
213,  215  and  217),  and  (2)  those  without  backs,  which  are 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


269 


Bupported  from  the  floor  with  a  pedestal  (see  Figs.  209,  211,  218 
and  219).  There  are  numerous  styles  made  to  fit  and  accommo- 
date the  general  scheme  of  toilet  rooms.  Pedestal  lavatoriea 
are  held  in  position  by  a  rod  which  extends  up  through  the 


erfkiw  Hirj/r 


Fig.  221. 

floor  and  pedestal  to  the  under  side  of  the  lavatory  top,  clamp- 
ing them  all  securely  together.  These  lavatories  are  used  to 
better  advantage  in  large  bath  rooms  having  tiled  walls  and 
floors.  RougtuDg-in  measurements  are  shown  in  Figs.  210  and 
212.    Most  of  the  pedestal  lavatories  can  be  fitted  with  1^ 


270  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

ia  place  of  pedestal.  When  tbia  is  done,  the  top  will  need 
further  support  from  the  wall  (see  Fig.  218).  The  wall  aup- 
porled  lavatory  presents  the  largest  variety  of  shapes  and  dses  of 
lavatories.  The  flat'  back,  recess,  and  comer  (as  shown  io 
Figs.  213,  215  and  217)  lavatories,  are  made  in  numerous 
styles  and  sizes.  They  can  be  had  with  6-,  8-,  and  10-in.  backs, 
with  or  without  aprons,  oval  or  D-shaped  bowls.     Roughing-in 


Fig.  222. 

measurements  are  shown  in  Figs.  214  and  216.     Figure  220 

shows  cross-section  of  bowl  with  overflow  and  cleansing-stream 
opening. 

Drinalsmade  to  meet  sanitary  conditions  are  the  (1)  pedestal, 
Fig.  223,  (2)  flat  back,  Fig.  225  and  (3)  one-piece  stall  urinal. 
Figs.  221  and  222.  Trough  urinals  are  used  in  places  that  are 
more  or  less  exposed  to  outside  air,  making  odors  less  objection- 
able. Urinals  should  be  made  of  non-absorbent  material  and 
of  shape  and  size  to  catch  all  spatterings  of  urine.     All  surfaces 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES  271 

exposed  to  urine  should  be  washed  with  clean  water  at  each 
flush. 

The  stall  niinal  with  fan-ehaped  flush  inlet  is  recommended 
as  the  most  sanitary.     The  fan-inlet  device  for  water  Bush 


Fra.  224. 


should  be  so  set  that  streams  of  water  will  completely  wash 
the  inside  surface  of  fixture.  The  stall  urinals  are  of  heavy 
vitreous  or  earthenware  construction,  with  base  4  in.  thick. 
This  floor  base  must  set  below  floor  level  to  provide  drainage 
of  the  surrounding  floor  into  urinal  outlet.     Flooring  material 


272  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

should  be  reinforced  under  urinal  to  offset  the  necessary  cuttiii| 
away  of  material  to  accommodate  the  base.  This  cutting  away 
of  the  flooring  material  becomes  a  very  important  item  when  a 
battery  of  urinals  is  eet.  Stall  urinals  are  made  without  a 
trap.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  for  the  waste  pipe  <A  each 
fixture  to  extend  directly  through  the  floor,  and  that  connection 
be  there  made  with  trap  and  drain  (see  Fig.  226  for  roughing-in 


Fig.  225. 

Traps  for  urinals  should  be  exposed  andi 
provided  with  a  brass  cleanout  plug. 

Pedestal  urinals  are  similar  to  a  water-closet  bowl  except  < 
that  the  pedestal  is  higher  {see  Fig.  223).  The  back  of  thJ8| 
urinal  is  built  up  higher  than  the  front.  The  trap,  which  iai 
cast  in  the  pedestal,  is  connected  with  the  waste  pipes  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  water-closet  bowl.  The  receiving  bowl 
is  provided  with  a  flushing  rim.  Pedestal-type  bowls  have 
been,  made  with  an  extended  lip  for  use  in  toilet  rooms  for 
women.    Pedestal  urinals  are  set  io  three-sided  compartments, , 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


A 

B 

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274 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


with  partitions  between  pedestals  12  in.  above  floor  and  4  ft. 
high. 

Wall  urinals  (Fig.  225)  are  made  with  trap  cast  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  fixture,  with  the  outlet  extending  through  the  side 
wall  upon  which  the  fixture  is  hung.  The  fixture  is  held  in 
place  by  means  of  two  screws  on  top  and  two  at  the  bottom. 
The  bottom  screws  are  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  outlet, 
and  are  used  to  draw  the  fixture  close  against  the  packing  of 
waste  pipe  to  make  a  water-tight  joint. 

Flusliing  Devices  for  Urinals. — A  3-gal.  tank  is  sufficiently 
large  for  a  urinal  flush.  Tanks  are  flushed  automatically  or 
by  means  of  a  chain  pull.  The  automatic  flush  is  the  most 
sanitary,  and  if  plenty  of  water  is  available,  it  should  be  used. 


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The  tank  automatic  device  can  be  shut  off  at  night.  One  tank 
can  be  arranged  to  flush  more  than  one  urinal  (see  Fig.  222). 
When  this  arrangement  is  made,  each  urinal-flush  pipe  should 
be  fitted  with  a  shut  off.  In  case  one  fixture  is  stopped  up, 
it  can  be  shut  off,  and  the  balance  in  the  battery  continue  in 
use.  Direct  connected  flush  valves  are  also  used  on  urinals, 
Fig.  221,  but  as  they  require  operation  by  hand,  they  are 
unsanitary.  These  valves  can  be  arranged  to  operate  with  a 
foot  treadle. 

LAUNDRY  TRAYS 

"Tray"  is  the  same  word  as  "trough,"  differently  written, 
and  is  used  to  designate  the  trough  in  domestic  use,  applied 
particularly  to  the  fixture  used  in  the  laundry.  Laundry  trays 
are  made  of  a  non-absorbent  material  and  of  such  finish  that 
it  will  not  be  destroyed  or  harmed  by  the  use  of  soap,  or  washing 
compounds.  A  wringer  should  be  attached  to  the  trays  by 
using  a  piece  of  hard  wood  securely  bolted  or  clamped  onto 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


276 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


trays,  the  wringer  being  attached  to  the  wood.  Three  part 
trays  are  the  most  sanitary,  allowing  a  tray  for  washing  and 
two  for  rinsing. 

Figure  232  shows  a  typical  set  of  two  part  trays,  with  faucets, 
soap  dish,  wringer  support,  legs,  and  trap.  Trays  are  as  a  rule 
manufactured  in  separate  units  or  multiples  to  accommodate 


Fig.  230A. 


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FiQ.  231. 


large  or  small  laundries.  Tray  bibbs  are  made  as  short  as 
possible,  with  handles  on  the  side,  so  that  they  will  occupy 
little  room.  A  combination  of  sink  and  tray,  shown  in  Fig. 
230,  is  for  use  in  small  apartment  kitchens.  In  this  case  the 
cover  for  the  tray  is  used  as  a  drain  board  for  the  sink.  Figure 
234  shows  three  units  together.  This  set  is  without  back. 
Bibbs  and  soap  dish  are  placed  below  the  rim  and  occupy 
considerable  space  inside  the  working  space  of  the  tray.    Con- 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES  277 


278  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

nection  for  waBt«  between  each  unit  is  made  by  the  use  ot 
bioBB  pipe  diacharKing  into  a  single  trap.  Heavy  brass  bands, 
upon   which  are  wringer  standards,  bold  the  tray  together. 


Roughing-in  measure  men  tfi  as  shown  in  FigH.  231,  233  and  235, 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  workman  before  installation  is  started. 
Figure  236  shows  solid  porcelain  trays  in  battery  of  three  units. 


M-UMBING  FIXTURES  279 

Shower  Baths. — Showers  are  divided  into  three  groups: 

1.  Receptor. 

2.  StaU. 

3.  Tub. 

The  shower  receptor  is  set  flush  with  or  on  top  of  the  floor, 
aod  receives  the  shower  spray;  a  curtain  around  the  spray 
confines  the  water  to  the  receptor.  The  receptor  is  connected 
to  the  waste  pipes  in  the  same  manner  as  the  bath  tub. 

The  stall  shower  is  constructed  with  marble  or  slate  sides, 
and  about  3  or  4  ft.  square.     The  sprays  can  \>e  over  head  or 


rain  showers;  needle  sprays  or  body  showers.     The  floor  for 
the  stall  should  be  of  cement  or  tile  made  water  proof  by  a  lead 

The  tub  shower  is  a  set  of  sprays  arranged  over  the  tub  with 
the  tub  acting  as  a  receptor. 

To  regulate  the  temperature  of  water  flowing  from  shower 
heads,  a  mixing  valveoperated  thermostatically  or  by  graduated 
seats,  is  used.  Where  one  or  two  showers  are  installed,  a  storage 
tank  for  hot  water  will  supply  the  demand.  When  a  number 
of  showers  are  installed,  an  instantaaeous  steam  heater  is  the 
most  satisfactory.  Instantaneous  gas  heaters  can  also  be 
used,  one  heater  taking  care  of  three  or  four  showers. 

SWIMMING  POOLS 

Swimming  pools  for  indoor  use  can  be  made  to  accommodate    . 
any  number  of  persons,  as  this  is  merely  a  matter  of  space. 
The  temperature  of  the  water  in  a  pool  should  be  about  70°, 
and  sufficient  water  at  high  temperature  is  constantly  added 


280  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

to  replace  the  heat  that  is  lost  through  the  walls  of  pool.  The 
pool  should  be  constructed  of  heavy  reenforced  concrete  with 
white-tile  finish.  There  should  be  no  equipment  inside  the 
pool.  The  only  breaks  in  the  walls  should  be  the  inlet  water 
connection,  outlet  connection,  the  waste  pipe,  and  the  overflow. 
The  bottom  should  be  graded  to  provide  water  depth  of  3 
to  8  ft.  Shower  baths  must  be  provided  so  that  every  person 
using  pool  can  be  cleansed  before  entering  pool.^ 

Heating  water  for  the  pool  is  accomplished  in  two  ways:  (1) 
allowing  the  water  to  circulate  through  a  coal  or  gas  heater;  (2) 
circulating  the  water  through  a  steam-coil  heater.  Water 
for  pools  should  be  filtered.  The  following  example  gives 
method  of  figuring  size  of  equipment  necessary  in  each  of  the 
above  arrangements  to  heat  the  water. 

Example. — What  size  grate  surface  in  square  feet  is  required 
to  warm  the  water  in  a  pool  60  ft.  long  30  ft.  wide  and  7  ft. 
mean  depth— water  to  be  raised  from  40°  to  80°  in  24  hr.  ? 

Solution. — Contents  of  pool  =  60  X  30  X  7  =  12,600  cu.  ft. 
in  24  hr. 

Water  to  be  heated  per  hour  =  12,600  -5-  24  =  525  cu.  ft. 

Pounds  water  to  be  heated  per  hour  =  525  X  62.42  =  32,760  lb. 

Rise  of  temperature  of  water  in  pool  =  40°  to  80  °  =  40**. 

B.t.u.  transmitted  to  water  per  hour  =  32,760  X  40  =  l,310,40a 

Coal  necessary  8,333  B.t.u.  per  pound  =  1,310,400  -^  8,333  = 
157.251  lb.  8  lb.  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  =  157.30  -i-  8  = 
19.65  lb. 

The  answer,  then,  to  the  first  part  of  the  problem  would  be, 
19.6  sq.  ft.  of  grate.  Chart  52  on  page  283  can  be  used  to  ob- 
tain the  pounds  of  coal  required  to  heat  a  given  quantity  of 
water.  In  the  above  example,  12,600  cu.  ft.  X  7.48  gal.  = 
94,248.00  gal.  contents  of  pool.  Chart  52  is  based  on  using 
anthracite  coal,  each  pound  of  which  when  burned  will  average 
8,333  B.t.u.,  or  8.6  lb.  of  water  will  be  evaporated.  Eight 
pounds  of  coal  is  allowed  as  the  consumption  per  square  foot 
of  grate  per  hour. 


1  "Where  a  large  number  of  .bathers  bathe  simultaneously  in  swimming 
pools,  it  is  best  to  have  fresh  water  flowing  into  the  pool  continuously,  and 
not  arrange  the  warm  water  supply  on  the  circulation  system.  Stagnation 
of  water  in  a  pool  renders  it  less  inviting,  and  is  certain  to  create,  ultimately, 
insanitary  conditions.  In  open  river  and  sea  bathing,  water  b  continuously 
changed  owing  to  the  motion  of  the  water  (currents,  tides,  waves),  and 
in  artificial  tanks  a  like  change  of  water  must  be  provided  to  guard  against 
the  dangers  of  propagation  of  skin  or  eye  diseases." — Gerhard. 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


281 


Table   50. — Square   Feet   of   Surface   per  Lineal   Foot 

OF  Pipe 

On  all  lengths  over  1  ft.,  fractions  less  than  tenths  are  added 
to  or  dropped. 


Length 
of  pipe 

Size  of  pipe 

H 
275 

1 
.346 

1H 
.434 

.494 

2 

2H 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

I' 

.622 

.753 

.916 

1.175 

1.455 

1.739 

1.996 

2.257 

2 

.5 

.7 

.9 

1. 

1.2 

1.5 

1.8 

2.4 

2.9 

3.5 

4. 

4.5 

3 

.8 

1. 

1.3 

1.5 

1.9 

2.3 

2.7 

3.5 

4.4 

5.2 

6. 

6.8 

4 

I.I 

1.4 

1.7 

2. 

2.5 

3. 

3.6 

4.7 

5.8 

7. 

8. 

9. 

5 

1.4 

1.7 

2.2 

2.4 

3.1 

3.8 

4.6 

5.8 

7.3 

7.7 

10. 

11.3 

6 

1.6 

2.1 

2.6 

2.9 

3.7 

4.5 

5.5 

7. 

8.7 

10.5 

12. 

13.5 

7 

1.9 

2.4 

3. 

3.4 

4.4 

5.3 

6.4 

8.2 

10.2 

12.1 

14. 

15.8 

8 

2.2 

2.8 

3.5 

3.9 

5. 

6. 

7.3 

9.4 

11.6 

13.9 

16. 

18. 

9 

2.5 

3.1 

3.9 

4.4 

5.6 

6.8 

8.2 

10.6 

13.1 

15.7 

18. 

20.3 

10 

2.7 

3.5 

4.3 

4.9 

6.2 

7.5 

9.1 

11.8 

14.6 

17.4 

20. 

22.6 

11 

3. 

3.8 

4.8 

5.4 

6.8 

8.3 

10. 

12.9 

16. 

19.1 

22. 

24.9 

12 

3.3 

4.1 

5.2 

5.9 

7.5 

9. 

11. 

14.1 

17.4 

20.9 

24. 

27.1 

13 

3.6 

4.5 

5.6 

6.4 

8.1 

9.8 

11.9 

15.3 

18.9 

22.6 

26. 

29.4 

14 

3.8 

4.8 

6.1 

6.9 

8.7 

10.5 

12.8 

16.5 

20.3 

24.3 

28. 

31.6 

15 

4.1 

5.2 

6.5 

7.4 

9.3 

11.3 

13.7 

17.6 

21.8 

26.1 

30. 

33.9 

16 

4.4 

5.5 

6.9 

7.9 

10. 

12. 

14.6 

18.8 

23.2 

27.8 

32. 

36.1 

17 

4.7 

5.9 

7.4 

8.4 

10.6 

12.8 

15.5 

20. 

24.7 

29.5 

34. 

38.4 

18 

5. 

6.2 

7.8 

8.9 

11.2 

13.5 

16.5 

21.2 

26.2 

31.3 

36. 

40.6 

19 

5.2 

6.6 

8.3 

9.4 

11.8 

14.3 

17.4 

22.3 

27.6 

33.1 

38. 

42.9 

20 

5.5 

6.9 

8.7 

9.9 

12.5 

15. 

18.3 

23.5 

29.1 

34.8 

40. 

45.2 

21 

5.8 

7.3 

9.1 

10.4 

13. 

15.8 

19.2 

24.7 

30.5 

36.5 

42. 

47.4 

22 

6. 

7.6 

9.6 

10.9 

13.7 

16.5 

20.2 

25.9 

32. 

38.3 

44. 

49.7 

23 

6.3 

8. 

10. 

11.3 

14.3 

17.3 

21.1 

27. 

33.5 

40. 

46. 

52. 

24 

6.6 

8.3 

10.4 

II.9 

14.9 

18. 

22. 

28.2 

34.9 

41.7 

48. 

54.2 

25 

6.9 

8.6 

10.9 

12.3 

15.6 

18.8 

22.9 

29.3 

36.3 

43.5 

50. 

56.4 

26 

7.1 

9. 

11.3 

12.8 

16.2 

19.5 

23.8 

30.5 

37.8 

45.2 

52. 

58.6 

27 

7.4 

9.4 

11.7 

13.3 

16.8 

20.3 

24.7 

31.7 

39.3 

47. 

54. 

61. 

28 

7.7 

9.7 

12.2 

13.8 

17.4 

21. 

25.6 

32.9 

40.7 

48.7 

56. 

63.2 

29 

8. 

10. 

12.6 

14.3 

18. 

21.8 

26.6 

34.1 

42.2 

50.4 

58. 

65.5 

30 

8.3 

10.4 

13. 

14.8 

18.7 

22.5 

27.5 

35.3 

43.6 

52.1 

60. 

67.7 

31 

8.5 

10.7 

13.5 

15.3 

19.3 

23.3 

28.4 

36.4 

45.1 

53.9 

62. 

70. 

32 

8.8 

11.1 

13.9 

15.8 

19.9 

24.1 

29.3 

37.6 

46.5 

55.6 

64. 

72.2 

33 

9.1 

11.4 

14.3 

16.3 

20.5 

24.8 

30.2 

38.8 

48. 

47.4 

66. 

74.4 

34 

9.4 

11.7 

14.7 

16.8 

21.2 

25.6 

31.1 

40. 

49.5 

59.1 

68. 

76.7 

35 

9.6 

12.1 

15.2 

17.3 

21.8 

26.3 

32. 

41.1 

50.9 

60.8 

70. 

79. 

36 

9.9 

12.5 

15.6 

17.8 

22.4 

27. 

33. 

42.3 

52.4 

62.6 

72. 

81.3 

37 

10.2 

12.8 

16.1 

18.3 

23. 

27.8 

33.9 

43.5 

53.8 

64.3 

74. 

83.5 

38 

10.5 

13.2 

16.5 

18.8 

23.7 

28.5 

34.8 

44.6 

55.2 

66. 

76. 

85.8 

39 

10.7 

13.5 

16.9 

19.3 

24.3 

29.3 

35.7 

45.8 

56.7 

67.8 

78. 

88. 

40 

II. 

13.8 

17.4 

19.8 

24.9 

30.1 

36.6 

47. 

58.2 

69.5 

80. 

90.2 

41 

11.3 

14.2 

17.8 

20.3 

25.2 

30.8 

37.6 

48.2 

59.6 

71.3 

82. 

92.5 

42 

11.5 

14.5 

18.2 

20.8 

26.1 

31.6 

38.5 

49.4 

61.1 

73. 

84. 

94.8 

43 

11.8 

14.9 

18.7 

21.3 

26.8 

32.3 

39.4 

50.6 

62.5 

74.8 

86. 

97. 

44 

12.1 

15.2 

19.1 

21.8 

27.4 

33.1 

40.3 

51.7 

64. 

76.5 

88. 

99.3 

45 

12.4 

15.6 

19.5 

22.2 

28. 

33.8 

41.2 

52.9 

65.5 

78.2 

90. 

101.6 

46 

12.7 

15.9 

20. 

22.7 

28.6 

34.6 

42.2 

54. 

67. 

80. 

92. 

103.8 

47 

12.9 

16.3 

20.4 

23.2 

29.2 

35.3 

43. 

55.2 

68.4 

81.7 

94. 

106. 

48 

13.2 

16.6 

20.8 

23.7 

29.9 

36.1 

43.9 

56.4 

69.8 

83.5 

96. 

108.4 

49 

13.5 

17. 

21.3 

24.2 

30.5 

36.8 

44.8 

57.6 

71.2 

85.1 

98. 

110.5 

50 

13.8 

17.3 

21.7 

24.7 

31.1 

37.6 

45.8 

58.7 

72.7 

87. 

100. 

112.8 

NoTB — Above  information  is  quoted  from  standard  authorities. 
Not  guaranteed. 


282  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

The  horizontal  lines  on  chart  represent  water  in  U.  S.  gallons, 
which  may  be  increased  by  suitable  multiplier,  provided  the 
coal  and  steam  required  are  increased  in  tike  proportioa.  The 
figures  at  the  bottom  of  the  vertical  tines  show  the  coal  required, 
each  line  representing  10  lb.,  and  those  at  the  top,  the  steam 
generated  by  the  consumption  ot  the  quantity  of  coal  on  the 
same  vertical  Une — each  line  representing  86  lb.  oF  steam.  The 
diagonal  lines  represent  the  rise  or  increase  in  temperature  of 
the  water  per  hour  in  Falirenheit  degrees. 

TabijE  51. — Heatinq  Power  of  Brass  and  Iron  Pipe  fob 


For  use  with  low-pressure  steam,  up  to  10  lb.  by  gage. 
"  factor  of  safely  "  ot  50  per  cent  is  included,  to  allow 
fouling  of  pipe 


Temperature  difference  in  Fahrenheit  degrees  between  steam 
in  coil  and  mean  or  average  temperature  of  water  in  tank. 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES 


283 


SUOHDOS'n  "!  JS+D/VS 


284  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Solviion  of  Above  Example. — Refer  to  chart.  It  is  found  that 
the  horizontal  line  marked  1,000  gal.  intersects  the  40**  diagonal 
line  at  the  40-lb.  vertical  line,  showing  that  40  lb.  of  coal  are 
required  to  add  40°  to  1,000  gal.  of  water.  Then  94,000  gal. 
will  require  94  times  as  much  coal,  or  3,760  lb.  Following  the 
same  procedure,  the  balance,  or  248  gal.,  will  require  about  10 
lb.,  which  is  added  to  the  3,760  lb.,  making  in  all  3,770  lb.  of 
coal  to  be  burned. 

Having  24  hr.  in  which  to  heat  the  pool,  divide  3,770  by  24, 
and  it  is  found  that  157.08  lb.  of  coal  must  be  burned  per  hour 
for  24  hr.  As  8  lb.  of  coal  are  burned  per  hour  on  1  sq.  ft.  of 
grate,  divide  157.08  lb.  by  8  lb.  which  shows  that  heaters  con- 
taining 19.63  sq.  ft.  of  grate  must  be  provided. 

Heating  Pool  by  Steam-coil  Heater. — If  the  same  pool  under 
like  conditions  is  to  be  heated  by  steam  through  coils,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  steam  is  220°,  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
water  is  40  plus  80  divided  by  2,  which  equals  60°;  and  220 
minus  60  equals  160°  temperature  difference  between  steam 
and  water. 

Turn  to  the  Chart  51,  page  282,  and  note  that  with  this 
difference  in  temperature,  160°,  1  sq.  ft.  of  iron  pipe  will  con- 
dense about  36  lb.  of  steam  per  hour,  and  as  noted  in  above 
example,  157  lb.  of  coal  will  be  burned  per  hour.  Find  by 
interpolation  in  Chart  52  that  157  lb.  of  coal  will  evaporate 
1,370  lb.  of  steam,  which  divided  by  36,  will  give  38  +  sq.  ft.; 
the  amount  of  condensing  pipe  required.  Thirty-eight  square 
feet  of  pipe  is  equal  to  88  lin.  ft.  of  1  J^-in.  pipe,  78  ft.  of  1 J^- 
in.  pipe,  or  62  ft.  of  2-in.  pipe  (see  Table  50).  If  but  12  hr. 
can  be  allowed  for  the  work,  double  the  hourly  consumption 
of  coal  and  steam,  and  furnish  heaters  of  double  capacity 
required  for  24  hr.  For  the  12-hr.  period,  there  will  be  just 
double  the  quantity  of  steam  to  condense,  requiring  76  sq.  ft. 
of  condensing  coil. 


SECTION  10 
METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY 

CAST  IRONi 

Cast  iron  is  an  alloy  of  iron  and  carbon  obtained  by  the 
reduction  of  iron  ores  in  a  blast  furnace  with  coke  or  charcoal. 
The  direct  product  of  the  blast  furnace  is  commonly  designated 
as  pig  iron;  but  there  is  essentially  no  difference  between  this 
and  cast  iron,  the  latter  term  being  employed  after  the  iron  has 
been  cast  in  some  form  other  than  pigs.  The  carbon  is  derived 
from  the  fuel,  being  taken  up  by  the  iron  as  it  is  reduced. 
The  amount  carried  by  the  iron  depends  somewhat  upon 
conditions,  but  it  is  usually  from  3  to  4  per  cent  by  weight. 

The  Condition  of  the  Carbon.  White  and  Gray  Iron. — ^The 
most  important  factor  in  determining  the  characteristics  of 
the  iron  is  the  condition  of  the  carbon,  whether  it  is  in  the 
combined  state  as  iron  carbide,  Fe^C,  or  in  the  free  state  as 
graphite. 

White  Cast  Iron. — Iron  carbide,  called  also  cementite,  is  a 
white,  extremely  hard  and  brittle  substance,  and  if  present  in 
large  amount,  it  confers  these  properties  upon  the  cast  iron. 
The  carbide  is  roughly  one-fifteenth  carbon  by  weight.  If  we 
assume  that  the  cast  iron  contains  3.5  per  cent  of  carbon,  all  in 
the  combined  form,  it  will  be  almost  half  made  up  of  iron 
carbide,  which  will  cause  it  to  be  hard  and  brittle.  This 
variety  is  known  as  white  cast  iron  because  of  the  appearance 
of  its  fracture,  which  is  caused  largely  by  the  silvery-white 
color  of  the  iron  carbide.  White  cast  iron  is  readily  shattered 
by  hammer  blows  and  can  be  machined  and  drilled  only  with 
difi&culty.  Because  of  these  characteristics,  its  uses  are 
relatively  few.  However,  it  has  a  high  abrasion  resistance 
and  wears  well. 

Gray  Cast  Iron. — On  the  other  hand,  if  we  should  consider 
the  3.5  per  cent  of  carbon  to  be  in  the  free  state  as  graphite, 
there  would  be  present  also  a  great  deal  more  free  iron  than 

1  See  section  on  "Welding  with  Gas  Flame,"  page  53. 

285 


286  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

when  iron  and  carbon  are  combined  as  in  the  white  cast  iron. 
The  term  Jerrite  is  employed  to  designate  this  free  iron.  Fer- 
rite,  or  pure  iron,  is  soft  and  tough,  greatly  resembling  copper  in 
respect  to  these  properties;  but  like  cementite,  it  is  silvery- 
white  in  color.  The  graphite  occurs  in  the  iron  in  the  form  of 
soft,  thin  flakes  that  may  vary  in  size  from  particles  just 
visible  with  the  microscope  to  others  J^  sq.  in.  in  area.  These 
flakes  are  composite,  or  laminated,  being  formed  of  other 
flakes  in  a  manner  similar  to  mica.  Because  the  laminations 
have  but  little  coherence  between  them,  cast  iron  containing 
a  large  amount  of  graphite  is  not  strong.  When  iron  of  this 
sort  is  broken,  the  fracture  develops  by  a  separation  of  the 
laminations  of  the  composite  graphite  flakes.  Therefore, 
on  the  face  of  the  fracture  much  graphite  is  exposed,  and  on 
this  account  the  iron  is  known  as  gray  cast  iron.  The  gray 
color  is  the  resultant  of  the  mixture  of  silvery-white  ferrite 
and  black  graphite. 

Because  both  graphite  and  ferrite  are  soft,  gray  cast  iron  is 
also  relatively  soft.  It  is  partly  on  this  account  that  gray 
iron  is  used  in  making  the  large  majority  of  castings,  since 
most  castings  require  some  machining.  Another  reason  is,  of 
course,  that  it  is  much  less  brittle  than  white  cast  iron.  The 
chief  defect  of  gray  cast  iron  is  its  weakness.  It  has  consider- 
ably less  transverse  and  tensile  strength  than  the  white  variety. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  ferrite  in  it,  which  otherwise 
would  contribute  much  strength,  is  so  effectually  cut  up  by  the 
loosely  coherent  graphite  flakes.  This  is  more  readily  com- 
prehended when  the  volume  of  the  graphite  is  considered. 
Graphite  has  a  rather  low  specific  gravity,  being  only  2.25  as 
compared  with  pure  iron,  which  has  a  specific  gravity  of  7.86. 
Consequently,  an  iron  that  contains  3.5  per  cent  by  weight 
contains  by  volume  over  12  per  cent  of  graphite. 

The  cast  irons  that  possess  the  greatest  combined  strength 
and  toughness  are  those  that  have  a  fine-grained,  gray  structure. 
In  these,  the  carbon,  the  total  of  which  may  amount  to  3  or 
4  per  cent,  is  neither  wholly  graphitic,  nor  wholly  combined. 

Effect  of  the  Cooling  Rate. — The  condition  of  the  carbon  is 
to  a  considerable  extent  determined  by  the  rate  of  cooling 
when  the  iron  is  solidifying  from  the  molten  state.  When  the 
iron  is  molten,  the  carbon  may  be  considered  to  be  practically 
all  in  the  combined  state.  During  solidification  the  carbon 
tends  to  separate  as  graphite.     Other  things  being  equal,  the 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  287 

slower  the  cooling  the  greater  will  be  the  amount  of  graphite. 
With  very  slow  cooling,  the  flakes  will  be  large,  and  the  iron  will 
be  coarse-grained  and  weak.  Rapid  cooling  tends  to  keep 
the  carbon  combined. 

Effect  of  Impurities. — Because  of  impurities  in  the  ore  and 
fuel  employed  in  the  blast  furnace,  commercial  cast  irons 
contain  varying  amounts  of  other  elements  beside  iron  and 
carbon.  Although  these  elements  are  practically  always 
present  in  the  commercial  irons,  they  are  characterized  as 
impurities.  The  impurities  are  silicon,  sulfur,  phosphorus, 
manganese,  and  less  commonly  titanium,  copper,  etc.  The 
amounts  present  vary  according  to  the  grade  of  the  iron,  and 
the  percentages  of  some  of  them  can  to  a  certain  extent  be 
controlled  by  the  manner  in  which  the  blast  furnace  is  operated. 
This  is  true  of  the  siUcon  and  sulfur,  but  is  not  true  of  phos- 
phorus, for  all  of  this  present  in  the  ore  and  fuel,  will  later 
appear  in  the  iron. 

The  following  table  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  composition 
of  cast  iron  of  medium  grade. 

Per  Cent 

Carbon 3 .  60 

Silicon 2 . 

Sulfur. .05 

Phosphorus 75 

Manganese 75 

Iron  (by  diflference) 92 .  95 

Silicon. — The  amount  of  silicon  in  cast  iron  may  range  from 
0.5  to  3.5  per  cent.  It  is  a  very  important  element  in  the 
iron  because  of  its  marked  tendency  to  cause  the  cementite 
to  decompose  into  ferrite  and  graphite,  thus  increasing  softness 
and  lessening  brittleness.  It  aids  in  securing  sound  castings 
by  the  fact  that  it  lengthens  the  time  of  fluidity  of  the  molten 
iron,  thus  allowing  the  gases  a  greater  chance  to  escape.  It 
acts  also  as  a  deoxidizer,  increasing  the  strength  of  the  iron  by 
the  reduction  of  the  metaUc  oxides. 

Sulfur. — In  gray  cast  iron  of  good  quality,  the  sulfur  may 
range  from  0.03  to  0.10  per  cent.  It  is  the  most  active  of  the 
impurities  in  its  effect  upon  the  condition  of  the  carbon.  It 
opposes  silicon,  keeping  the  carbon  combined.  It  is  generally 
considered  that  one  part  of  sulfur  will  neutralize  the  effect  of 
15  times  as  much  silicon  in  this  action  on  the  carbon. 

Sulfur  makes  the  molten  iron  sluggish,  thus  aiding  in  the 


288  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

formation  of  gas  flaws  or  "  blow  holes.  '*  It  increases  the  shrink- 
age, hardness,  and  depth  of  "chill."  Some  of  the  sulfur  occurs 
in  the  iron  in  the  form  of  an  iron  compound,  ferrous  sulfide, 
which  has  a  low  melting  point.  Sulfur  is  said  to  cause  ''red 
shortness"  in  iron,  because  when  red-hot  iron  is  put  under 
strain,  the  ferrous  sulfide  being  molten,  allows  the  iron  to  be 
parted  where  the  sulfide  exists. 

Phosphorus. — In  ordinary  cast  iron,  the  amount  of  phos- 
phorus usually  does  not  exceed  1.00  per  cent,  but  it  may  vary 
from  about  0.2  to  1.25  per  cent.  One  of  its  most  important 
effects  is  that  it  allows  iron  to  remain  fluid  at  lower  tempera- 
tiu*es,  thus  increasing  the  time  of  fluidity.  In  this  way  it  helps 
siUcon  to  throw  out  graphite  by  lengthening  the  time  during 
which  silicon  can  act.  However,  the  direct  effect  of  phosphorus 
itself  is  to  keep  carbon  combined.  Then,  in  brief,  it  may  be 
said  that  high  phosphorus  will  tend  to  harden  iron  if  siUcon  is 
low,  and  tend  to  soften  it  if  silicon  is  high.  Phosphorus  causes 
iron  to  be  "cold  short,"  that  is,  causes  it  to  be  easily  broken 
by  shock  or  vibratory  stresses. 

As  phosphorus  increases  the  time  of  fluidity,  irons  high  in 
phosphorus  are  selected  for  making  thin  castings,  which  natu- 
rally cool  quickly,  and  if  phosphorus  were  absent  might  solidify 
before  the  iron  had  completely  filled  the  mold.  Because  of 
the  brittleness  produced  by  phosphorus,  thin  castings,  which 
are  necessarily  high  in  phosphorus,  are  quite  brittle. 

Manganese. — The  amount  of  manganese  in  cast  iron  may 
vary  between  0.10  and  2.00  per  cent,  but  it  should  not  exceed 
1.00  per  cent  as  a  rule.  It  exists  in  the  iron  in  combination 
with  either  sulfur  or  carbon.  Primarily  it  combines  with  the 
sulfur,  but  if  there  is  an  excess  above  that  required  to  convert 
the  sulfur  into  manganese  sulfide,  the  remainder  unites  with 
carbon,  forming  manganese  carbide.  Then,  whether  man- 
ganese softens  or  hardens  iron,  depends  upon  the  amount  of 
sulfur  present.  When  sulfur  remains  in  compoimd  with  iron 
as  ferrous  sulfide,  it  is  exceedingly  active  in  keeping  carbon 
combined,  thus  making  the  iron  hard;  but  when  sulfur  is  in 
compound  with  manganese  as  manganous  sulfide,  it  is  far  less 
effective  in  this  manner.  Manganese  is  able  to  remove  the 
sulfur  from  the  iron  compound;  that  is,  it  transposes  ferrous 
sulfide  into  manganous  sulfide,  which  is  in  its  final  effect  a 
softening  action. 

If  the  amount  of  sulfur  in  the  iron  is  low,  manganese  unites 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  289 

chiefly  with  carbon,  forming  manganese  carbide,  which  hardens 
the  iron. 

Manganese  aids  in  preventing  gas  flaws  or  ''blow  holes"  in 
iron  castings.  The  manganous  sulfide,  formed  as  previously 
mentioned,  is  largely  taken  up  by  the  slag,  so  that  the  sulfur  is 
to  a  considerable  extent  actually  removed  from  the  iron.  Thus 
the  sluggishness  that  sulfur  produces  is  lessened  and  the  gases 
can  more  readily  escape,  with  the  result  that  sounder  castings 
are  produced. 

Chilled  Cast  Lron. — For  some  purposes,  castings  are  desired 
that  have  one  or  more  surfaces  very  hard  so  that  they  may  resist 
wear,  without  the  castings  at  the  same  time  having  the  brittle- 
ness  that  all-white  castings  possess.  This  combination  is 
secured  by  producing  castings  with  an  outside  layer  rich  in 
cementite,  and  an  interior  of  normal  gray  iron.  In  iron  for 
castings  of  this  sort,  the  silicon  must  be  rather  low,  about  LOO 
per  cent,  and  the  sulfur  rather  high,  about  0.07  per  cent.  Then, 
if  cooled  rapidly,  the  carbon  will  remain  combined.  For  the 
surfaces  that  are  to  be  hard,  the  walls  of  the  mold  are  formed  of 
iron  plates.  When  the  molten  iron  is  poured,  that  which  Ues 
against  these  plates  is  very  rapidly  cooled,  or  chilled,  and  the 
carbon  stays  largely  in  the  combined  form  as  cementite.  The 
iron  of  the  interior  and  the  other  surfaces  that  lie  against  the 
sand  are  cooled  more  slowly,  and  the  cementite  decomposes 
into  ferrite  and  graphite. 

MALLEABLE  CAST  IRON 

Malleable  cast  iron  is  a  cast  iron  in  which  the  carbon  has  been 
set  free  in  a  finely  divided,  non-crystalUne  condition.  Although 
called  malleable,  it  is  not  really  malleable  in  the  sense  that  it  can 
be  forged  under  a  hammer  or  rolled  like  wrought  iron  or  steel, 
but  it  can  be  bent  or  twisted  to  a  slight  degree.  It  has  much 
greater  strength  than  ordinary  cast  iron  because  the  carbon, 
although  free,  is  not  in  the  form  of  crystalline  flakes,  and  so 
does  not  so  largely  destroy  the  continuity  of  the  ferrite.  This 
free  carbon  has  been  given  the  name  temper  carbon  and  may  be 
compared  to  particles  of  soot  in  the  iron. 

The  making  of  malleable  castings  consists  of  two  operations. 

The  casting  is  first  made  of  white  cast  iron  containing  the 

ordinary    impurities,    but   within    well    defined   Hmits.     This 

hard,  brittle  casting  is  then  cleaned  and  made  malleable  by 

19 


290  PLUMBERS*  HANDBOOK 

prolonged  annealing.  During  the  annealing,  the  cementite 
of  the  white  cast  iron  decomposes  into  ferrite  and  temper 
carbon.  Malleable  castings  cannot  be  made  from  gray  cast 
iron.  For  the  annealing  process,  the  castings  are  generally 
packed  in  iron  ore,  mill  scale,  lime  or  sand,  to  prevent  warping 
while  hot.  By  carefully  placing  the  castings,  the  packing 
material  may  be  omitted.  Iron  ore  and  mill  scale  possess 
oxidizing  properties,  and  if  they  are  used  as  a  packing,  or  if  an 
oxidizing  flame  is  employed  in  the  annealing  oven  in  those  cases 
where  no  packing  is  used,  the  carbon  will  be  entirely  burnt  out 
from  the  surface  layer  of  the  casting,  leaving  ferrite  that  is 
carbon-free.  Because  ferrite  is  silvery-white,  the  casting 
thus  acquires  a  white  skin.  Because  the  interior  of  the  casting 
contains  the  finely  divided  carbon  and,  therefore,  appears 
relatively  dark,  it  is  called  "black  heart  malleable."  It  has 
long  been  believed  that  this  white  layer  added  much  to  the 
strength  of  the  casting,  but  the  evidence  does  not  seem  to 
support  this  beUef. 

Properties  and  Uses  of  Malleable  Cast  Iron. — Malleable  cast 
iron  is  particularly  serviceable  where  the  casting  is  required  to 
withstand  shock,.  Also,  it  is  especially  suitable  for  making 
small  castings.  Small  castings  made  of  ordinary  cast  iron  are 
very  brittle  (see  page  288).  It  is  difficult  to  make  steel  castings 
of  small  size,  because  the  pouring  temperature  must  be  very 
high  and  then  the  sand  of  the  mold  fuses  to  the  casting,  making 
a  surface  that  is  extremely  difficult  to  clean.  As  an  example, 
pipe  unions  are  made  of  malleable  cast  iron. 

WROUGHT  IRON 

Wrought  iron,  unlike  cast  iron  and  steel,  is  not  produced  in 
the  molten  state,  and  is,  therefore,  not  cast.  During  the 
process  of  manufacture,  it  is  very  intimately  mixed  with  the 
slag  by  puddling,  and  then  being  removed  from  the  furnace 
while  in  a  pasty  state,  it  contains  considerable  slag.  Its  con- 
tent of  slag  constitutes  one  of  its  main  distinguishing  features. 
Wrought  iron  is  defined  as  slag-bearing,  malleable  iron  that 
does  not  harden  materially  when  suddenly  cooled.  It  consists 
essentially  of  ferrite  (see  page  286),  and  is,  therefore,  quite 
soft,  but  it  is  very  tough,  malleable  and  ductile. 

Manufacture. — Wrought  iron  is  made  by  melting  pig  iron  in 
contact  with  a  slag  consisting  essentially  of  iron  oxide,  which 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  291 

may  be  either  iron  ore  or  mill  scale,  in  a  furnace  lined  with  iron 
oxide.  Also,  an  oxidizing  flame  is  caused  to  play  upon  the 
charge.  The  charge  is  thoroughly  stirred  or  puddled  to  expose 
all  parts  to  the  oxidizing  slag  and  flame,  and  in  this  way  most 
of  the  carbon,  siUcon,  manganese,  and  much  of  the  phosphorus 
are  burned  out.  As  the  iron  is  purified,  its  melting  point  rises 
so  that  the  temperature  of  the  furnace  is  unable  to  keep  it 
molten,  and  it  becomes  pasty.  It  is  now  removed  from  the 
furnace,  compressed  in  a  squeezer  and  rolled  to  eliminate  as 
much  of  the  slag  as  possible,  but  it  is  never  completely  removed 
by  this  treatment. 

Comparison  of  Wrought  Iron  and  Low-carbon  Steel. — Dis- 
regarding the  slag,  wrought  iron  and  steel  may  have  identically 
the  same  chemical  composition.  There  is,  of  course,  more  slag 
in  wrought  iron,  usually  about  2  per  cent,  while  in  steel  there 
is  less  than  0.5  per  cent.  If  the  contents  of  the  puddUng  furnace 
were  kept  molten  to  the  end,  the  slag  would  separate  out,  and  the 
product  would  be  called  steel.  However,  as  a  rule,  normal 
wrought  iron  contains  but  little  manganese,  while  openhearth 
and  bessemer  steel  generally  contain  0.3  per  cent  or  more. 
Also,  wrought  iron  usually  contains  more  than  0.1  per  cent  of 
phosphorus,  while  steel  as  a  rule,  does  not. 

By  those  who  use  these  products,  wrought  iron  is  sometimes 
considered  more  desirable  than  steel.  The  claim  for  supe- 
riority is  based  on  several  factors: 

First,  on  the  slag  content.  The  slag  causes  the  wrought  iron 
to  have  a  somewhat  fibrous  character,  and  this  is  said  to  increase  its 
resistance  to  breaking  when  bent  or  subjected  to  sudden  shock. 

Second,  upon  the  more  uniform  distribution  of  impurities  other 
than  slag,  which  causes  them  to  detract  less  from  the  strength  and 
toughness  of  the  iron.  Because  of  having  been  stirred  during 
solidification,  it  is  probably  true  that  the  segregation  of  impurities 
will  be  less  in  puddled  wrought  iron  than  in  steel  that  is  allowed  to 
solidify  quietly.  In  the  majority  of  mixtures  that  solidify  quietly 
from  a  state  of  fusion,  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  higher -melting- 
p>oint  constituents  to  crystallize  first  and  reject  the  lower-melting- 
pKjint  constituents,  which  may  then  become  segregated  or  gathered 
together  in  spots. 

Third,  that  wrought  iron  will  resist  corrosion  better  than  steel. 
This  is  a  point  upon  which  there  is  a  very  great  difference  of  opinion. 
But,  since  it  is  well  established  that  corrosion  of  iron  and  steel 
results  from  electrochemical  action  between  dissimilar  parts  of  the 
same  piece,  which  act  like  the  electrodes  in  a  simple  primary  cell 


292  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

(see  page  300),  it  is  apparent  that  the  greater  the  non-uniformity, 
or  segregation,  the  greater  will  be  the  tendency  to  corrode. 

Wrought  Iron  of  Inferior  Grade. — In  connection  with  the 
paragraph  just  preceding,  it  must  be  noted  that  all  wrought  iron 
is  not  of  equal  quality.  All  that  which  is  sold  under  the  name 
wrought' iron  is  not  puddled  iron.  Perhaps  half  the  American 
product  is  made  by  "bushelling"  scrap.  This  consists  of 
piling  and  wiring  the  scrap  together,  then  heating  to  a  welding 
heat  and  rolling.  Since  the  scrap  is  usually  indiscriminately 
collected,  is  of  non-uniform  composition,  and  beside,  often 
contains  intermingled  steel  scrap,  the  resultant  product  cannot 
be  homogeneous.  The  chance  for  electrochemical  action 
between  the  different  portions  is  very  great;  that  is  to  say,  it 
would  be  very  likely  to  corrode  readily.  This,  no  doubt, 
accounts  for  the  wide  divergence  in  reports  on  laboratory  and 
service  tests  concerning  the  relative  corrodibihty  of  wrought 
iron  and  steel.  Badly  segregated  steel  (for  example,  there  is 
greater  chance  for  segregation  in  steel  that  is  cast  in  large 
ingots  for  rolling  than  in  steel  cast  in  small  ones,  other  things 
being  equal)  will  likely  corrode  more  than  puddled  wrought 
iron,  and  wrought  iron  made  by  "bushelling"  scrap  will  Ukely 
corrode  more  than  uniform  steel.  It  is  an  observed  fact  that 
the  greater  the  uniformity  in  iron  and  steel,  the  less  is  the  tend- 
ency to  corrode. 

To  Distinguish  Between  Wrought  Iron  and  Steel. — Since 
puddled  wrought  iron  costs  more  than  low-carbon  steel,  it 
sometimes  happens  that  steel  is  substituted  where  wrought  iron 
is  specified.  It  is  desirable,  therefore,  to  be  able  to  distinguish 
between  the  two.  The  distinction  cannot  be  made  on  the 
basis  of  an  ordinary  chemical  analysis,  because  the  percentages 
of  elements  determined  may  fall  within  the  same  hmits  in  both 
iron  and  steel.  The  best  method  is  to  identify  the  slag  lines. 
Specimens  should  be  cut  longitudinally  from  the  material,  and 
the  surface  of  the  longitudinal  cut  should  be  polished  and 
examined  under  a  microscope.  If  the  characteristic  slag  lines 
can  be  identified,  wrought  iron  is  indicated. 

If  a  transverse  section  were  taken,  the  slag  would  appear  as 
irregular  patches  and  the  identification  would  be  imcertain, 
since  steel  also  may  contain  nodules  or  bunches  of  slag,  the 
cross-sections  of  which  cannot  with  certainty  be  distinguished 
from  the  cross-sections  of  the  slag  lines  in  iron. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY'  293 

CARBON  STEEL 

General  Discussion. — The  ordinary,  or  so-called  carbon 
steels,  like  cast  iron,  are  alloys  of  iron  and  carbon.  In  fact, 
considered  chemically,  they  are  merely  purified  cast  iron. 
They  contain  more  iron,  and  less  carbon  and  silicon,  and 
generally  less  sulfur  and  phosphorus  than  cast  iron,  while 
the  manganese  varies  within  practically  the  same  limits  as  it 
does  in  the  iron.  The  following  percentages^  will  serve  to  fur- 
nish an  idea  of  the  chemical  composition  of  carbon  steels: 
carbon,  from  0.05  to  1.75  per  cent,  depending  upon  the  degree 
of  hardness  it  is  desired  that  the  steel  may  be  capable  of;  silicon, 
between  0.05  and  0.30  per  cent  usually,  but  sometimes,  as  in 
cast  steel,  it  may  be  as  high  as  0.60  per  cent;  sulfur,  generally 
between  0.01  and  0.05  per  cent;  phosphorus  should  not  exceed 
0.10  per  cent.  Manganese  varies  greatly,  but  is  usually 
between  0.20  and  1.00  per  cent. 

The  main  distinguishing  features  of  carbon  steel  are  indicated 
by  the  statement  that  it  is  malleable  when  cast.  Having  been 
cast,  that  is,  taken  from  the  furnace  in  a  molten  state  and 
allowed  to  solidify  quietly,  it  is  relatively  free  from  slag,  which 
distinguishes  it  from  wrought  iron.*  Being  malleable,  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  cast  iron,  and  being  malleable  when  cast 
distinguishes  it  from  malleable  cast  iron  which  is  made  malleable 
by  subsequent  treatment. 

Manufacture. — There  are  several  processes  by  which  steel 
may  be  made,  but  they  are  all  based  on  the  purification  of  the 
metal,  largely  by  the  oxidation  of  the  elements  it  is  desired  to 
remove.  Since  the  properties  of  the  steel  are  in  a  considerable 
measure  dependent  upon  the  method  of  manufacture,  the 
more  widely  used  processes  will  be  briefly  described. 

The  Open-hearth  Process. — ^The  furnace  employed  in  this 
process  is  constructed  with  a  comparatively  shallow,  basin- 
like hearth,  its  name  being  derived  from  the  fact  that  the  hearth 
lies  open,  or  exposed  to  the  flame,  so  that  the  charge  is  subjected 
to  the  direct  action  of  the  burning  gases.  To  secure  the 
necessary  temperature,  the  furnace  is  also  regenerative,  which 
means  that  the  air  blast  and  fuel  gas  are  heated  before  entering 
the  furnace  by  passing  through  a  checker  work  of  hot  brick. 

^  For  comparison  with  cast  iron,  see  page  287. 

*  Exception  to  this  statement  must  be  made  in  the  case  of  cementation 
or  blister  steel,  which  may  be  made  from  wrought  iron  without  remelting  . 


294  "         PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

The  brick  work  is  previously  heated  by  passing  through  it  the 
hot  products  of  combustion  from  the  furnace  on  their  way  to 
the  stack.  Thus,  the  brickwork  alternately  stores  up  heat 
and  in  turn  deUvers  it  to  the  incoming  gases.  There  are  two 
major  modifications  of  the  furnace,  known  as  the  acid  and 
basic,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  heat-resistant  lining. 
In  chemical  terminology,  the  oxides  of  metals  are  known  as 
basic,  and  the  oxides  of  non-metals,  as  acid  materials.  If, 
for  example,  the  furnace  is  lined  with  magnesia,  which  is  the 
oxide  of  magnesium,  it  is  called  a  basic  furnace;  if  lined  with 
silica,  or  sand,  which  is  the  oxide  of  the  non-metal,  silicon,  it  is 
called  an  acid  furnace.  Whether  an  acid  or  basic  lining  is 
used,  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  slag  employed.  If  the 
slag  is  basic,  the  lining  must  be  basic,  since  a  basic  slag  would 
react  with,  and  destroy  an  acid  lining,  and  vice  versa.  The 
character  of  the  slag  needed  depends  upon  the  amount  of  sulfur 
and  phosphorus  in  the  charge.  If  the  amount  of  these  elements 
present  is  sufl&ciently  low  that  none  need  be  removed,  an  acid 
slag  is  sufl&cient,  but  if  they  must  be  removed  with  the  other 
impurities,  a  basic  slag  is  required.  The  slag  is  made  basic 
with  either  limestone  or  dolomite,  the  latter  being  a  mixture  of 
calcium  and  magnesium  carbonates. 

The  Acid  Open-hearth  Process. — In  making  steel  by  this 
process,  silicon,  manganese,  and  carbon  are  removed  from  the 
charge,  which  ordinarily  consists  of  pig  iron  and  scrap,  the  scrap 
being  generally  the  greater  part.  The  materials  of  the  charge 
should  contain  less  phosphorus  and  sulfur  than  is  to  appear 
in  the  finished  steel,  since  none  is  removed,  and  some  may  be 
taken  up  from  the  ore  that  is  thrown  in  to  serve  as  an  oxidizing 
agent  in  burning  out  the  silicon,  manganese  and  carbon. 

During  the  oxidation  of  the  impurities,  some  of  the  iron  also 
is  oxidized  to  ferrous  oxide,  and  this  must  be  eliminated,  since  it 
would  cause  the  steel  to  be  brittle  if  allowed  to  remain.  To 
reduce  the  ferrous  oxide,  manganese  is  employed.  It  is  used  in 
the  form  of  an  alloy  of  iron  and  manganese,  which  is  generally 
introduced  into  the  furnace  just  prior  to  tapping,  or  may  be 
thrown  into  the  molten  steel  as  it  is  poured  from  the  furnace 
into  the  ladle.  Either  of  two  alloys  may  be  employed:  ferro- 
manganese,  containing  about  80  per  cent,  or  speigeleisen, 
containing  about  20  per  cent  of  manganese.  Both  alloys 
contain  considerable  carbon,  from  6  to  7  per  cent.  Thus,  in 
addition  to  reducing  the  ferrous  oxide,  the   alloy  serves   to 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  295 

bring  the  carbon  up  to  the  desired  point.  When  the  steel  has 
the  right  composition,  which  is  judged  by  the  melter  and 
confirmed  by  analysis,  and  is  also  at  the  right  temperature,  it  is 
run  into  a  ladle  and  then  poured  into  ingot  moulds. 

Since  the  material  available  that  is  sufficiently  low  in  phos- 
phorus for  this  process  is  not  plentiful,  the  amount  of  steel 
made  in  the  acid  furnace  is  not  great.  In  1918,  only  4.5  per 
cent  of  the  total  steel  made  in  the  United  States  was  made  by 
the  acid  open-hearth  process. 

The  Basic  Open-hearth  Process. — In  this  process  the  same 
elements  are  removed  from  the  charge  as  in  the  acid  process, 
and  in  addition,  most  of  the  phosphorus  is  eliminated.  Con- 
sequently, the  materials  of  the  charge  are  not  restricted  to  a 
low  phosphorus  content  as  in  the  acid  process.  The  sulfur  in 
the  initial  charge  should  be  as  low  as  possible,  since  its  elimina- 
tion is  much  less  certain. 

The  oxidation  of  the  impurities  is  secured  by  the  same  agents 
as  in  the  acid  process,  namely,  iron  ore  and  an  oxidizing  flame. 
The  actual  removal  of  the  oxidized  phosphorus  is  brought  about 
by  the  slag,  which  has  been  made  basic  chiefly  with  Ume,  this 
being  introduced  into  the  furnace  in  the  form  of  hmestone, 
although  it  is  sometimes  burned  to  lime  beforehand.  As  the 
phosphorus  in  the  metal  is  oxidized,  it  unites  with  the  lime  to 
form  a  phosphate  that  becomes  a  part  of  the  slag. 

In  removing  the  ferrous  oxide  at  the  end  of  the  process  (see 
acid  open-hearth  process),  the  ferro-manganese,  or  other  reduc- 
ing agent,  cannot  be  added  in  the  presence  of  the  slag.  If  this 
were  done,  the  deoxidizer  would  reduce  the  oxidized  phosphorus 
in  the  slag  and  cause  it  to  pass  again  into  the  steel.  Conse- 
quently, the  deoxidizer  is  not  added  to  the  steel  while  it  is  still 
in  the  furnace,  but  is  thrown  in  while  the  molten  steel  is  flowing 
from  the  furnace  into  the  ladle,  that  is,  after  it  has  been 
separated  from  the  slag. 

Because  the  phosphorus  is  more  difiicult  to  remove  from  the 
charge  than  the  silicon,  manganese  and  carbon,  the  time 
required  is  about  6  hr.  for  the  basic  as  compared  to  about  4  hr. 
for  the  acid  process.  Thus,  having  been  longer  under  the 
influence  of  the  oxidizing  conditions,  more  of  the  steel  itself 
will  be  burned;  that  is,  there  will  be  more  ferrous  oxide  in  it. 
Therefore,  a  larger  quantity  of  deoxidizer  will  be  required  for 
the  basic  steel.  Also,  because  the  deoxidizer  is  added  only 
after  the  steel  has  left  the  furnace  in  the  basic  process,  the  time 


296  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

of  action  is  less  than  in  the  acid,  and  the  chance  for  uniform 
mixing  with  the  steel  is  lessened. 

Because  of  the  much  larger  quantity  of  material  suitable  for 
conversion  into  steel  by  the  basic  process,  the  amount  of  basic 
open-hearth  steel  produced  is  far  in  excess  of  that  produced  by 
the  acid  process.  According  to  "Mineral  Resources,"  73  per 
cent  of  the  steel  manufactured  in  the  United  States  in  1918  was 
basic  open-hearth  steel. 

The  Bessemer  Process. — In  this  process  molten  pig  iron  is 
converted  into  steel  by  blowing  cold  air  through  it.  The  besse- 
mer  converter  is  an  egg-shaped  steel  receptacle  lined  with 
refractory  material.  In  the  United  States  only  acid-lined 
{q.v,  acid-lined  open-hearth)  converters  are  used.  The  air  is 
introduced  through  numerous  openings  in  the  bottom,  and  in 
passing  through  the  molten  iron  it  bums  out  the  siHcon,  man- 
ganese and  carbon.  Much  heat  is  produced  by  this  oxidation, 
and  sometimes  it  becomes  necessary  to  introduce  a  cooling 
agent,  as  cold  iron  or  steam.  As  in  the  acid  open-hearth  process, 
phosphorus  and  sulfur  are  not  removed,  and  since  steel  should 
not  ordinarily  contain  above  0.1  per  cent,  of  either,  the  per- 
centages of  sulfur  and  phosphorus  in  the  pig  iron  used  must  be 
hmited  to  this  amoimt.  Because  of  the  scarcity  of  iron  ore 
capable  of  producing  pig  iron  of  this  quality,  the  production  of 
bessemer  steel  has  been  greatly  lessened  within  recent  years. 
The  basic  open-hearth  product  is  taking  its  place. 

At  the  instant  that  the  silicon,  manganese  and  carbon  have 
been  burned  out,  the  blowing  is  stopped  (to  prevent  excessive 
burning  of  iron).  Then  carbon  and  manganese  are  introduced, 
as  in  the  open-hearth  process,  to  reduce  the  ferrous  oxide 
unavoidably  formed,  and  to  bring  the  manganese  and  carbon 
up  to  the  desired  point.  The  ferrous  oxide  must  be  removed 
in  order  that  the  steel  may  be  tough. 

The  bessemer  process  is  the  cheapest  way  for  converting  iron 
into  steel,  and  accordingly  a  great  deal  of  the  steel  for  pipes  and 
tubes  was  formerly  made  in  this  manner.  In  1906,  more  than 
half  of  all  the  steel  produced  in  the  United  States  was  made 
in  bessemer  converters,  while  in  1918  the  bessemer  product 
amounted  to  21.1  per  cent  of  the  total. 

The  Crucible  Process. — This  is  essentially  a  refining  process, 
the  purification  consisting  largely  of  the  removal  from  the 
charge  of  slag  and  gases.  There  is  very  little  purification  by 
oxidation,  as  in  the  preceding  processes. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  297 

The  material  employed  consists  usually  of  wrought  iron  or 
steel  scrap  which  is  cut  into  small  pieces  and  melted  in  covered 
crucibles  made  of  a  mixture  of  graphite  and  fireclay  capable  of 
holding  about  100  lb.  Charcoal  or  some  other  form  of  carbon 
is  usually  added  to  the  charge,  and  occasionally  other  materials 
are  added.  Bottle  glass  is  employed  to  form  a  neutral  slag 
that  will  help  to  seal  the  contents  of  the  crucible  from  the  gases 
of  the  furnace.  The  cruibles  are  allowed  to  stand  in  the  furnace 
with  their  contents  molten  until  the  gases  are  evolved  and 
the  slag  separates  and  rises  to  the  top.  When  the  melt  lies 
quiet  in  the  crucible,  it  is  poiu'ed  into  ingots. 

Because  it  has  been  freed  from  dissolved  gases,  entangled 
slag  and  oxides,  crucible  steel  is  very  excellent.  It  is  used 
chiefly  for  tools,  frequently  being  designated  by  the  term  cast 
steel.  Only  a  relatively  small  quantity  of  crucible  steel  is 
produced.  In  1919,  the  amount  made  in  the  United  States 
was  about  0.25  per  cent  of  the  total. 

The  Electric-furnace  Process. — Although  both  pig  iron  and 
steel  are  manufactured  in  the  electric  furnace,  particularly 
where  power  may  be  had  cheaply,  the  process  is  generally  used 
only  for  the  finer  grades  of  steel,  or  as  a  process  for  the  final 
purification  or  super-refining  of  steel  made  by  other  processes. 

There  are  various  types  of  furnaces  employed,  but  in  all  of 
them  the  current  serves  merely  as  a  source  of  heat,  the  actions 
that  take  place  being  due  to  the  heat  only,  or  at  most  the  direct 
effect  of  the  current  on  the  refining  process  is  a  negligible  quan- 
tity. The  furnaces  are  usually  of  the  open-hearth  style,  are 
generally  basic-lined  and  carry  a  very  basic  slag,  although 
acid-Uned  furnaces  are  sometimes  employed.  Because  of  the 
extremely  high  temperature  that  can  be  secured,  and  because 
of  the  reducing  conditions  that  may  be  maintained  as  desired, 
the  removal  of  oxides,  dissolved  gases,  and  entangled  particles 
of  slag  can  be  made  almost  complete.  Since  the  use  of  fuel  is 
not  necessary,  the  usual  impurities  carried  in  by  fuels  are 
avoided.  Also,  there  is  a  more  nearly  complete  exclusion  of 
air  from  the  steel  than  in  the  other  methods,  except  in  the  case 
of  the  crucible  process. 

The  quantity  of  electric-furnace  steel  produced  in  the  United 
States  has  been  gradually  increasing  within  recent  years.  In 
1909,  when  this  steel  was  first  reported  separately  by  "  Mineral 
Resources,'^  13,762  tons  were  produced.  In  1918  there  were 
511,364  tons,  this  being  1.15  per  cent  of  the  total  of  all  kinds. 


298  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

COMPARISON  OF  STEELS 

The  several  kinds  of  steel  usually  show  certain  differences  in 
properties  that  depend  upon  the  process  of  manufacture. 
These  peculiarities  are  apparent  even  when  the  steels  compared 
possess  the  same  composition,  that  is,  contain  the  same  per- 
centages of  silicon,  sulfur,  phosphorus,  manganese  and  carbon. 

Open-hearth,  Crucible  and  Electric-furnace  Steel. — Crucible 
steel  is  the  most  expensive  of  the  steels,  costing  more  than 
electric  furnace  steel  and  about  three  times  as  much  as  acid- 
open-hearth  steel.  Also,  it  is  quite  generally  conceded  to  be 
the  best  quality  steel,  although  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion 
on  this  point,  it  being  believed  by  some  that  electric-furnace 
steel  is  superior  to  crucible  steel.  The  disadvantage  of  the 
crucible  process  is  that  the  output  is  relatively  very  small. 

When  the  process  of  manufacture  of  crucible  steel  is  con- 
sidered, it  is  obvious  that  this  steel  should  be  of  excellent 
quality.  It  is  made  in  a  covered  container  which  excludes  air 
and  products  of  combustion,  and  so  contains  less  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen  and  other  gases.  Also,  since  the  deoxidizer 
is  added  in  the  beginning  of  the  process,  the  deoxidation  is 
more  complete,  and  the  steel  more  uniform  because  of  the 
greater  time  allowed  for  thorough  mixing.  It  is  scarcely 
possible  to  obtain  in  the  open-hearth  a  melt  as  free  from  gases; 
consequently,  the  open-hearth  steel  will  likely  contain  more 
gas  flaws  or  "blow  holes,"  in  the  ingot,  which  result  in  seams 
in  the  steel  when  rolled.  When  the  steel  is  poured  into  the 
ingot  mold,  it  begins  to  solidify  on  the  outside  first.  In  this 
way,  the  impurities,  which  have  lower  melting  points,  are 
forced  toward  the  interior,  since  that  is  still  in  the  molten 
state,  and  so  are  eventually  found  gathered  together  in  spots. 
This  non-uniformity  is  designated  as  segregation,  and  is  greater 
in  the  larger  ingots.  The  ingots  poured  in  the  crucible  works 
are  very  small  compared  to  those  made  in  open-hearth  plants, 
and  there  is  consequently  less  chance  for  segregation  in  crucible 
steel. 

Acid  and  Basic  Open-heartfa  Steel. — In  the  basic  open- 
hearth  process,  the  operation  is  longer  than  in  the  acid  process, 
since  in  the  latter,  only  siUcon,  manganese  and  carbon  are 
removed  from  the  melt.  In  the  basic  process,  a  large  part  of 
the  sulfur  and  phosphorus,  in  addition  to  the  preceding  ele- 
ments, are  removed.     Since  the  removal  of  sulfur  and  phos- 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  299 

phorus  is  more  difficult  to  accomplish,  the  basic  process  requires 
more  time  than  the  acid.  On  this  account,  the  basic  steel  is 
for  a  longer  time  exposed  to  the  oxidizing  conditions  of  the 
furnace,  and  it  is  more  likely  to  contain  oxides  and  occluded 
gases  at  the  end  of  the  process.  Hence  there  is  more  trouble 
from  blow  holes  in  the  ingot.  These  blow  holes  roll  out  into 
longitudinal  flaws,  and  are  considered  as  responsible  for  the 
starting  of  cracks.  It  is  because  of  its  relative  freedom  from 
blow  holes,  that  acid,  and  not  basic  steel,  is  used  for  the  making 
of  steel  castings. 

Another  point  in  favor  of  the  acid  steel  is  that  it  is  likely  to 
be  more  uniform,  since  there  is  a  better  chance  for  a  thorough 
mixing  of  the  deoxidizer  and  recarburizer  with  the  steel.  In 
the  acid  process  the  deoxidizer  may  be  added  while  the  steel 
is  in  the  furnace,  and  may  be  thoroughly  stirred  in  with  a 
steel  rod,  but  in  the  basic  process  it  cannot  be  added  until  after 
the  steel  has  been  separated  from  the  slag,  since  if  the  deoxidizer 
came  into  contact  with  the  slag,  it  would  reduce  the  phosphorus 
in  it,  which  would  pass  again  into  the  steel.  On  this  account,  in 
the  basic  process,  the  deoxidizer  is  added  to  the  steel  in  the  ladle. 
The  ingot  is  cast  by  pouring  from  this  ladle,  and  thorough 
mixing  is  not  so  certain. 

The  phosphorus  and  sulfur  are  likely  to  be  lower  in  the  basic 
than  in  the  acid  process,  but  this  fact  seems  to  be  more  than 
off-set  by  the  defects  caused  by  the  gases  and  oxides  and  the 
non-uniformity  produced  by  the  method  of  deoxidizing. 

Because  of  the  more  expensive  material  for  Uning  and  slag, 
and  because  more  fuel  is  consumed  on  account  of  the  longer 
period,  the  basic  open-hearth  process  is  more  expensive  than 
the  acid.  But  because  of  the  cheaper  stock  used  in  the  charge, 
basic  steel  is  cheaper  than  that  made  by  the  acid  process. 

Open-heartfa  and  Bessemer  Steels. — It  is  believed  that  open- 
hearth  steel  will  generally  be  superior  to  bessemer  steel,  since 
the  latter  will  likely  contain  more  oxygen,  nitrogen  and  other 
gases  because  of  the  fact  that  air  is  very  intimately  mixed 
with  it  during  manufacture.  This  is  especially  true  if  the 
process  is  continued  a  little  too  long.  As  in  the  basic  open- 
hearth  process,  the  final  addition  (for  deoxidizing  and  recarbur- 
izing)  is  generally  added  to  the  steel  as  it  is  being  poured  into 
the  ladle,  although  it  may  be  added  in  the  converter  just  prior 
to  tapping. 


300  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

CORROSION  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL  i 

Corrosion  may  be  defined  as  the  slow  conversion  of  a  metal 
into  some  compound  form,  usually  by  natural  agencies.  The 
compounds  that  are  formed  are  as  a  rule  insoluble  in  water,  and 
consequently  remain  as  a  layer  or  incrustation  on  the  metal. 
Typical  compounds  formed  in  this  way  are  oxides,  hydroxides, 
carbonates,  sulfides,  etc.,  produced  by  a  combination  of  the 
metal  with  elements  that  occur  in  air  and  water. 

The  product  formed  by  the  corrosion  of  iron  is  usually  the 
hydrated  red  oxide,  commonly  called  iron  rust.  The  amount 
of  combined  water  varies  according  to  conditions,  being  three 
molecules  or  less,  the  formula  being  expressed  as  Fe208  x  H2O. 
If  the  oxide  is  considered  as  being  united  with  three  molecules 
of  water,  the  weight  of  the  rust  is  nearly  twice  (1.91  times) 
that  of  the  iron  from  which  it  was  formed.  The  increase  in 
bulk  is  considerably  greater,  varying  according  to  different 
writers,  from  5  to  10  times  the  bulk  of  the  iron.  Because 
of  the  volume  increase,  iron  when  corroding  manifests  a  rending 
force  comparable  to  that  of  water  during  freezing. 

The  Electrolytic  Theory  of  Corrosion. — ^This  is  the  most 
generally  accepted  theory  of  corrosion.  It  assumes  that  only 
water  and  oxygen  are  necessary,  but  it  should  be  understood 
that  the  water  must  be  present  in  the  liquid  form.  Moisture- 
laden  air  cannot  bring  about  corrosion  if  the  moisture  does  not 
condense  upon  the  metal.  The  electrolytic  theory  is  explained 
by  comparison  with  the  action  in  a  simple,  primary  electric  cell. 

In  a  primary  electric  cell  two  elements  are  used  as  electrodes, 
one  having  a  high,  and  the  other  a  low  solution  pressure.  The 
solution  pressure  of  a  metal  is  that  force  that  tends  to  drive 
ions^  of  the  metal  into  solution  when  it  is  placed,  for  example,  in 
water,  a  water-solution  of  a  salt,  acid  or  other  electrolyte. 
.  Thus,  if  zinc  is  placed  in  dilute  sulfuric  acid,  zinc  ions  pass 
into  solution  in  a  positively  charged  condition,  leaving  negative 
charges  on  the  metallic  zinc.  As  they  enter  solution,  the  zinc 
ions  replace  the  hydrogen  ions  of  the  sulfuric  acid,  forming 
zinc  sulfate,  as: 

Zn  +  H2SO4    -^    ZnS04  +  H2 

If  the  zinc  is  pure,  or  if  the  surface  has  a  uniform  composition, 
the  action  will  soon  cease  because  of  the  accumulated  negative 

1  See  section  on  "Pipe  Standards,"  page  170. 

'  An  ion  may  be  described  as  an  electrically  charged  particle,  atom  or 
group  of  atoms,  existing  in  solution. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  301 

charges  on  the  metal.  However,  if  we  should  now  insert  a  piece 
of  copper  in  the  acid,  and  connect  the  outer  ends  of  the  metals 
with  a  wire  as  shown  in  Fig.  237,  the  zinc  will  continue  to  dis- 
solve. The  solution  pressure  of  copper  is  very  low  compared  to 
zinc,  the  pressure  of  the  zinc  being  several  million  times  as 
great  as  that  of  copper.  Because  of  its  low  solution  pressure, 
copper  in  sulfuric  acid  has  a  very  low  tendency  to  accumulate 
negative  charges.  Then  the  negative  charges  that  have 
become  concentrated  on  the  zinc,  flow 
into  the  copper  when  the  connection 
has  been  made  by  the  wire.  (The 
direction  of  the  flow  of  the  negative 
charges,  or  dectronSy  is  opposite  to  that 
which  is  known  as  the  direction  of  flow 
of  the  current  of  dectricUy.)  The  posi- 
tively charged  hydrogen  ions  from  the 
sulfuric  acid  migrate  to  the  copper, 
receive    therefrom    negative    charges,  -pia.  237. 

and  become  discharged  atoms  of  hydro- 
gen.    In  this  way  gaseous  hydrogen  is  formed,  which  may 
be  seen  collecting  on  the  copper  in  the  form  of  bubbles. 

In  a  cell  of  this  sort,  the  surfaces  of  the  metals  in  the  solution 
are  called  the  electrodes.  The  electrode  which  hcus  the  high- 
solution  pressure  and  which  dissolves  in  the  electrolyte  is  called 
the  anode.  The  low-pressure  metal,  at  the  surface  of  which 
the  hydrogen  ions  discharge,  is  called  the  kathode. 

In  order  that  electrochemical  action,  of  the  sort  just  de- 
scribed, may  take  place,  it  is  not  necessary  that  two  separate 
pieces  of  metal  be  employed.  It  may  take  place  between 
different  parts  of  the  same  piece.  For  example,  in  ordinary 
zinc  there  are  great  numbers  of  anode  and  kathode  spots  in 
each  square  inch  of  surface.  Certain  impurities  occur  in 
commercial  zinc,  such  as  iron,  lead,  cadmium,  etc.,  the^  total 
amounting  to  about  1.00  per  cent  or  less.  These  metals  have 
lower  solution  pressures  than  zinc,  so  the  zinc  dissolves  at  those 
points  where  the  metal  is  more  nearly  pure,  and  the  hydrogen 
ions  discharge  at  the  relatively  impure  spots.  Such  action  is 
known  as  "local  action."  According  to  the  electrolytic  theory, 
iron  Corrosion  is  a  case  of  ** local  action."  From  this  standpoint, 
all  iron  and  steel  must  be  thought  of  as  a  composite  structure, 
as  though  it  were  made  up  of  strands  and  patches  of  more  or 
less  unlike  material.     It  was  shown  in  the  discussion  of  ''Iron" 


302  PLUMBERS^  HANDBOOK 

and  "Steel"  that  the  iron  carbide,  iron  sulfide,  iron  phosphide, 
etc.,  were  more  or  less  non-uniformly  distributed,  or  were 
segregated.  The  impurities  have  lower  solution  pressures  than 
the  iron  itself,  hence  when  the  surface  becomes  wet,  the  electro- 
chemical action  is  set  up.  Thus,  it  appears  that  if  the  iron  were 
pure,  or  if  the  impurities  were  uniformly  distributed,  it  would 
not  corrode.  Although  it  is  probable  that  perfectly  uniform 
iron  or  steel  has  never  been  produced,  observations  of  the 
material  in  service  show  that  the  more  nearly  this  condition  is 
approached,  the  less  it  corrodes.  Moreover,  observation  shows 
another  fact  that  lends  support  to  the  theory.  The  corrosion 
does  not  begin  or  take  place  evenly;  some  spots  are  more  liable 
to  attack  than  others,  although  as  the  corrosion  proceeds, 
layers  having  a  different  composition  are  exposed  so  that 
the  position  of  the  anode  and  kathode  spots  may  change,  and 
eventually  the  whole  of  the  surface  may  become  corroded. 
However,  in  any  case,  the  iron  dissolves  only  at  those  spots 
that  are,  for  the  time  being,  anode  spots;  and  this  leads  to  the 
formation  of  hollows  which  is  described  as  pitting.  Corrosion 
of  this  sort  is  very  destructive,  for  the  article  may  be  entirely 
rusted  through  at  some  point  and  its  value  totally  destroyed, 
as  in  the  case  of  a  boiler  tube  or  pipe,  while  the  larger  part  of 
the  metal  may  be  but  little  affected. 

Essential  Chemical  Reactions. — The  chemical  reactions  that 
occur  during  the  corrosion  of  iron  may  be  summed  up  in  the 
following  manner:  The  iron  ions  enter  the  water  at  the  anode 
points  on  the  metal,  react  with  the  water  and  produce  ferrous 
hydroxide,  thus: 

Fe  +  2H0H    -►    Fe(OH),  -f  H2 

Ferrous  hydroxide  is  not  rust,  but  it  is  converted  into  rust  by 
the  action  of  oxygen  and  more  water,  as: 

4Fe(OH)2  +  2H2O  +  O2    ->    4Fe(0H)s  or  2Fe208-3H20 

Consequently,  both  water  and  oxygen  are  essential  to  rust 
formation.     If  either  is  absent,  rusting  cannot  take  place. 

FACTORS  AFFECTING  THE  RATE  OF  CORROSION 

Contact  with  Other  Materials. — Corrosion  is  stimulated 
when  the  metal  is  in  contact  with  some  material  that  assumes 
the  kathode  relationship  to  it.  For  example,  when  a  brass 
faucet  is  fitted  to  an  iron  pipe,  the  brass  acts  as  the  kathode, 
and  the  iron  becomes  the  anode,  because  the  brass  has  a  lower 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  303 

solution  pressure  than  iron.  The  hydrogen  ions  from  the  water 
in  contact  with  the  metals  migrate  to  the  brass  kathode,  remove 
from  the  kathode  the  negative  charges  or  electrons  that  have 
passed  from  the  iron  anode  through  the  metal  to  this  point 
thus  allowing  more  negative  charges  to  flow  from  the  anode  to 
the  kathode,  which  in  turn,  allows  the  iron  anode  to  send  more 
ions  into  solution.  If  the  negative  electrons  are  not  removed 
from  the  anode,  the  number  eventually  becomes  so  great  that 
the  combined  force  of  their  attraction  is  equal  to  the  solution 
pressure  of  the  metal.  In  other  words,  equiUbrium  is  estab- 
lished, and  corrosion  ceases.  It  is  the  discharge  of  the  negative 
electrons  at  the  kathode  spots  that  prevents  the  equilibrium 
from  being  reached,  and  so  the  corrosion  continues. 

Similar  action  occurs  through  contact  with  other  metals. 
Iron  railings  fitted  into  stone  copings  by  means  of  lead  are  most 
rapidly  corroded  where  the  iron  joins  the  lead,  because  lead  is 
kathodic  to  iron.  It  would  be  better  to  use  spelter  (zinc)  for 
this  purpose,  since  with  this  combination,  zinc  is  the  anode  and 
iron  is  the  kathode,  zinc  having  a  higher  solution  pressure  than 
iron.  It  is  worthy  of  mention  at  this  point,  that  of  all  the 
metals  commonly  used  in  the  industries,  zinc  is  the  only  one 
that  assumes  the  anode  relationship  to  iron.  Because  iron 
is  the  kathode  in  the  zinc-iron  combination,  it  does  not  dissolve 
or  corrode.  In  this  way  zinc  protects  iron,  however,  at  the 
expense  of  its  own  destruction. 

Other  cases  of  corrosion  accelerated  by  contact  action  occur 
where  malleable  cast-iron  couplings  and  T's  are  used  to  join 
wrought  iron  or  steel  pipes,  or  about  soft  rivets  in  steel  structures. 
The  different  kinds  of  material  assume  the  anode-kathode 
relationship  to  each  other.  This  relationship  exists  also 
between  strained  and  unstrained  portions  of  the  metal.  Cor- 
rosion in  the  neighborhood  of  punched  holes  is  greater  than  in  the 
neighborhood  of  drilled  holes.  Scratches  and  indentations  made 
by  tools  are  almost  always  anodic  to  the  surrounding  areas. 

The  effect  of  "mill  scale''  is  important  in  this  connection. 
Mill  scale  is  an  iron  oxide,  Fe304,  produced  by  the  oxidation  of 
iron  under  heat.  If  a  imiform  layer  of  it  could  be  kept  on  the 
metal,  it  would  form  an  excellent  protective  coating,  because  it 
has  a  very  low  tendency  to  dissolve.  But  because  it  is  very 
brittle,  it  is  practically  always  cracked  or  flaked  off  in  spots. 
Then  where  iron  is  not  covered  by  the  scale,  corrosion  is  much 
accelerated  because  the  scale  on  adjacent  parts  acts  as  a  kath- 


304  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

ode  to  it.  On  this  account  it  is  generally  good  practice  to 
remove  the  scale  completely.  With  boiler  tubes,  the  interiors 
are  generally  reamed  out  with  this  object  in  view. 

Rust  itself  assumes  the  kathode  relationship  to  iron.  It  has 
been  noticed  that  the  rate  of  corrosion  during  the  second  year 
is  about  twice  as  fast  as  during  the  first,  this  being  due  to  the 
action  of  the  accumulated  rust.  Railroad  rails  in  use  where 
vibration  constantly  detaches  the  rust,  do  not  rust  so  rapidly 
as  those  on  unused  switches.  In  addition  to  its  kathodic  action, 
the  rust  is  porous  and  retains  moisture,  which  helps  the  corrosion. 

The  Effect  of  Acids  and  Alkalies. — Iron  corrosion  is  a  slow 
process  in  the  presence  of  comparatively  pure  water,  because 
there  are  but  few  hydrogen  ions  present.  Now  acids  are  sub- 
stances that  dissociate  in  water  with  the  production  of  hydrogen 
ions;  consequently,  when  water  is  acidified,  the  number  of 
hydrogen  ions  in  the  liquid  is  greatly  increased.  On  this 
account  the  negative  charges  or  electrons  can  be  removed  from 
the  kathode  spots  more  readily,  and  the  iron  can  pass  into  solu- 
tion at  the  anode  more  rapidly  (see  page  301).  In  other  words 
corrosion  is  accelerated.  In  this  connection  it  should  be 
pointed  out  that  carbon  dioxide  gas  in  water  forms  an  acid,  as: 

CO2  +  HaO-^HaCOs 

Carbon  dioxide  is  always  present  in  the  atmosphere.  In 
ordinary  air,  the  amount  is  about  0.04  per  cent,  but  since  it  is 
a  product  of  the  burning  of  carbon,  it  may  be  much  more  than 
this  amount  in  the  neighborhood  of  furnaces,  etc.  Although 
carbonic  acid  is  only  a  weak  acid,  it  dissociates  sufficiently  to 
produce  enough  free  hydrogen  ions  to  accelerate  corrosion  quite 
noticeably. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  suitable  amoimts  of  alkaline  substances 
are  introduced  into  water,  corrosion  is  retarded.  An  alkali 
may  be  defined  as  a  substance  that  dissociates  in  water  with 
the  production  of  hydroxyl  (OH)  ions.  Examples  of  alkalies 
are  caustic  soda,  NaOH,  caustic  potash,  KOH,  and  slaked  lime,  or 
lime  water,  Ca(0H)2.  Because  of  the  large  number  of  hydroxyl 
ions  introduced  by  the  alkalies,  it  is  much  less  easy  for  the 
hydrogen  ions  to  remain  free,  because  hydroxyl  ions  unite  with 
hydrogen  ions  to  form  molecules  of  water,  HOH(HaO).  Due 
to  the  lack  of  hydrogen  ions,  the  negative  charges  cannot  be 
removed  from  the  kathode  spots,  and  corrosion  cannot  go  on 
(see  page  301). 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  305 

The  Action  of  Dissolved  Oxygen.  ^ — In  the  discussion  of  the 
''Essential  Chemical  Reactions''  on  page  302  it  was  shown  that 
oxygen  plays  an  important  part  in  the  corrosion  process.  By 
its  action,  the  ferrous  hydroxide,  Fe(0H)2,  is  converted  into 
the  ferric  hydroxide,  Fe(0H)8,  or' iron  rust.  The  ferrous  hy- 
droxide is  relatively  soluble  in  water,  while  the  ferric  hydroxide 
is  practically  insoluble,  so  passes  into  the  solid  condition.  If 
the  iron  compoimd  were  not  removed  from  solution,  the  water 
would  eventually  become  saturated  with  it,  and  iron  would 
cease  to  dissolve,  that  is,  corrosion  would  stop. 

Oxygen  helps  to  continue  the  corrosion  process  in  another 
way.  When  the  hydrogen  ions  discharge  at  the  kathode  surface 
the  hydrogen  gas  that  results  has  a  tendency  to  stick  to  the 
kathode  as  a  layer  of  bubbles.  This  hydrogen  layer  acts  as 
an  insulator,  thus  preventing  more  hydrogen  ions  from  dis- 
charging. In  this  way  corrosion  would  be  checked,  if  it  were 
not  for  the  dissolved  oxygen  which  oxidizes  the  hydrogen  to 
water.     The  gas  layer  being  removed,  corrosion  continues. 

Because  of  this  action  of  oxygen,  when  iron  is  immersed  in 
water,  the  more  deeply  it  is  immersed,  the  less  rapidly  it  will 
corrode,  other  things  being  equal.  The  lower  strata  of  water 
are  not  so  well  supplied  with  dissolved  oxygen,  because  when 
the  supply  is  used  up,  a  further  supply  is  obtained  only  as  the 
gas  slowly  diffuses  in  from  the  surface  exposed  to  the  air.  Tanks 
pipes  and  other  containers,  in  which  the  water  is  frequently 
changed,  corrode  more  rapidly  than  those  in  which  the  water 
is  allowed  to  stand.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  same 
conditions  that  allow  a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen  to  be  readily 
obtained,  also  allow  carbon  dioxide  to  enter  more  readily, 
which,  as  has  been  shown,  hastens  corrosion  by  forming  an 
acid.  Rain  water  is  very  highly  corrosive  to  iron,  because 
during  its  passage  through  the  air  it  becomes  saturated  with 
gases. 

Removal  of  the  Dissolved  Oxygen. — Water  that  has  been 
recently  boiled,  or  boiled  water  that  has  been  kept  from  contact 
with  the  air  after  boiling,  is  less  corrosive  than  natural  water. 
Gases  are  less  soluble  in  hot  water  than  in  cold,  and  the  larger 
part  of  the  dissolved  gases  can  be  eliminated  by  boiling.  As 
has  been  shown,  the  presence  of  oxygen  is  necessary  for  con- 
tinued corrosion. 

1  See  section  on  "Pipe  Standards,"  page  176,  "Cause  and  Preventing 
Corrosion." 
20 


306  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

The  dissolved  oxygen  may  be  removed  from  water  by  heating 
it  and  passing  it  through  a  closed  tank  in  contact  with  steel 
plates,  which  by  their  rusting  use  up  the  free  oxygen.  Then, 
when  this  water  is  passed  into  a  boiler  or  heating  system,  the 
system  is  not  corroded  by  it.  Water  treated  in  this  way  is 
sometimes  referred  to  as  "deactivated"  water. 

The  fact  that  the  rusting  of  the  steel  plates  uses  up  the  oxygen 
and  thus  renders  the  water  practically  non-corrosive  thereafter, 
explains  why  the  heater  in  an  ordinary  hot-water  system  is  more 
rapidly  destroyed  by  corrosion  than  the  remainder  of  the  system. 
The  parts  of  the  heater  being  the  first  to  come  into  contact  with 
the  hot  water,  fulfil  the  same  function  as  the  steel  plates  in  the 
"deactivating"  process. 

The  addition  of  tannin  extract  to  water  is  also  good  practice, 
since  tannin  is  a  good  oxygen  absorbent. 

Because  fresh  charcoal  has  a  high  power  for  absorbing  gases, 
it  has  been  found  that  when  blocks  of  it  are  put  into  water,  or 
when  floated  in  the  powdered  form  on  the  surface  of  water  in 
which  iron  is  immersed,  the  corrosion  is  very  materially  lessened. 

Effect  of  Heat  on  Corrosion. — Other  things  being  equal,  iron 
corrodes  more  rapidly  in  hot  water  than  in  cold.  Rusting 
being  a  chemical  reaction,  it  is  accelerated  by  heat,  within 
certain  hmits,  just  as  are  chemical  reactions  in  general.  The 
maximum  is  reached  at  .about  180  to  190°F.  (80  to  SS'^C.)! 
The  separation  of  the  dissolved  air,  which  adheres  to  the  metal 
in  the  form  of  bubbles,  seems  to  interfere  then.  Also,  the 
separation  of  the  dissolved  air,  which  is  about  twice  as  rich  in 
oxygen  as  ordinary  atmospheric  air,  helps  to  retard  corrosion 
for  the  two  reasons  explained  in  the  preceding  discussion  of 
"The  Action  of  the  Dissolved  Oxygen."  In  brief,  corrosion 
is  accelerated  by  heat  up  to  the  point  at  which  the  dissolved 
gases  are  largely  driven  out  of  the  water. 

Partial  Immersion. — Iron  that  is  partly  immersed  corrodes 
more  rapidly  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  for  at  this  point  there 
is  a  plentiful  supply  of  both  water  and  gases.  The  action  is 
hastened  by  the  slightly  higher  temperature  here  than  at 
lower  levels,  and  probably  also  by  the  actinic  rays  of  light. 
For  similar  reasons,  iron  that  is  alternately  wet  and  dry  corrodes 
more  rapidly  than  that  which  is  permanently  wet. 

The  Action  of  Cinders. — Cinders  are  found  to  be  very  corro- 
sive in  their  action  on  iron,  as  well  as  on  other  metals  buried 

1  Eng.  News,  Dec.  3,  1910,  p.  360. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  307 

in  them.  Even  lead  is  quite  rapidly  acted  upon.  Cinders  are 
porous  and  contain  gases,  the  two  that  are  most  ^.ctive  being 
sulfur  dioxide  and  carbon  dioxide.  The  former  is  generated  by 
the  burning  of  the  iron  pjrrite,  FeS2,  or  ferrous  sulfide,  FeS, 
contained  as  an  impurity  in  the  coal  or  coke,  and  the  latter  by 
the  burning  of  the  carbon  of  the  fuel  itself.  Both  of  these 
gases  form  acids  with  water,  and  so  accelerate  corrosion  (see 
page  304).  This  corroding  effect  should  be  remembered  in 
laying  pipe  lines  through  cinders,  as  through  railroad  embank- 
ments, etc.  The  metal  must  be  encased  in  some  way,  as  with 
tar  or  pitch,  so  that  it  will  be  kept  free  from  contact  with  the 
acidified  water  that  percolates  through  the  cinders.  If  pos- 
sible, it  would  be  better  to  substitute  entirely  some  fiber  or 
wooden  pipe  or  conduit. 

The  Effect  of  Soot. — ^Accumulations  of  soot  in  flues,  etc. 
have  a  very  decided  accelerative  action  on  the  corrosion  of  the 
metal.  Soot  contains  a  large  proportion  of  carbon,  which  is 
very  kathodic  to  iron,  and  hastens  corrosion  on  this  account  as 
explained  under  "Contact  With  Other  Materials,"  which  see. 
Beside,  an  analysis  shows  that  the  soot  contains  a  note-worthy 
amount  of  sulfuric  acid,  which  is  derived  from  the  oxidation  of 
sulfur-bearing  compounds  that  exist  as  impurities  in  the  fuel. 
Also  sulfurous  and  carbonic  acids  are  present  to  some  extent. 
These  acids  have  a  highly  accelerative  effect  on  corrosion  as 
explained  on  page  304. 

Electrolysis  an  Aid  to  Corrosion. — Of  those  factors  that 
stimulate  corrosion,  the  most  active  is  the  electric  current.  In 
explaining  the  corrosion  process,  it  was  shown  that  positively 
charged  metallic  ions  pass  into  solution  at  the  anode,  while  posi- 
tively charged  hydrogen  ions  in  the  solution  pass  to  the  kathode 
where  they  discharge  the  negative  electrons  that  flow  through 
the  metal  to  this  spot.  When  an  electrical  pressure  from  an 
outside  source  is  applied  to  the  system,  the  speed  of  the  reaction 
is  enormously  increased.  The  metallic  ions  pass  into  solution 
more  rapidly  and  hydrogen  ions  in  much  greater  numbers  are 
caused  to  move  to  the  kathode.  Corrosion  by  electrolysis 
occurs  wherever  a  current,  for  example,  a  stray  current  from 
some  electric  system,  passes  from  a  metal,  such  as  iron,  through 
moisture  in  contact  with  it,  to  some  other  conductor.  It  may 
occur  in  the  seams  of  boilers,  about  rivets  or  bolts  in  metal,  in 
the  joints  in  pipe  Unes,  between  the  pipe  and  the  ground,  be- 
tween metal  and  moist  wood  or  masonry,  or  in  any  similar 


308  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

location.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  to  prevent  currents 
from  passing  through  such  systems. 

The  Relative  Corrodibility  of  Wrought  Iron  and  Steel. — 
According  to  the  best  authorities  who  have  studied  the  subject, 
the  wide  divergence  of  opinion  as  to  the  relative  resistances  of 
wrought  iron  and  steel  to  corrosion  has  arisen  not  because  of 
inherent  differences  between  these  materials  as  dasaeSy  but 
because  of  the  comparison  of  different  grades  of  materials  of  the 
two  classes.  There  are,  of  course,  good  and  bad  grades  of 
both  steel  and  wrought  iron,  and  it  is  obvious  that  good  quality 
material  of  either  class  will,  under  test,  prove  to  be  superior  to 
poorly  made  material  of  the  other  class.  Steel  that  contains  a 
considerable  amount  of  metallic  oxides,  entrained  slag  and 
occluded  gases,  or  steel  in  which  the  normal  impurities,  such 
as  the  iron  and  manganese  sulfides,  iron  phosphide,  silicide, 
etc.,  are  badly  segregated,  as  they  may  be  in  steel  rolled  from 
large,  slowly-cooled  ingots,  will  corrode  more  rapidly  than 
uniform  material  of  either  class.  On  the  other  hand,  wrought 
iron  containing  an  excessive  amount  of  slag,  or  wrought  iron 
made  by  "bushelling"  scrap  without  remel ting  (see  page  292), 
or  wrought  iron  that  is  non-uniform  for  any  cause,  will  rust 
more  rapidly  than  well-made  material  of  either  kind.  Corro- 
sion in  all  cases  is  accelerated  by  non-uniformity  because  of  the 
anode  and  kathode  spots  that  are  thus  produced  (see  page  302). 
In  brief,  it  is  now  generally  accepted  that  the  quality  of  the 
material  is  a  much  greater  factor  in  determining  its  corrodibility 
than  is  the  class  to  which  it  belongs. 

As  regards  the  resistance  of  cast  iron  to  corrosion  as  compared 
to  wrought  iron  and  steel,  results  seem  to  show  that  if  the  skin 
on  the  casting  produced  by  the  sand  of  the  mold  is  allowed  to 
remain,  it  will  resist  corrosion  better  than  the  other  forms,  but 
that  if  the  skin  is  removed  it  will  corrode  more  rapidly  than 
wrought  iron  or  steel.  The  more  rapid  corrosion  in  the  latter 
case  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  cast  iron  is  somewhat 
porous,  which  allows  the  entrance  of  water  and  air  to  points 
beneath  the  surface.  Also,  the  graphite  in  it  may  act  as  a 
kathode  to  the  iron. 

PROTECTION  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL  FROM  CORROSION 

The  methods  employed  for  protecting  iron  and  steel  from 
corrosion  may  be  classed  under  three  heads:  (1)  the  application 
of  an  extraneous  material  as  a  coating,  which  either  simply 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  309 

adheres  to  the  metal  as  a  distinct  layer  as  in  the  case  of  a  paint, 
lacquer  or  enamel,  or  may  form  an  alloy  as  in  the  case  of  some 
of  the  metaUic  coatings,  (2)  the  treatment  of  the  surface  of  the 
metal  either  to  develop  a  definite  layer  of  iron  oxide,  as  in  the 
case  of  "black  sheet  iron,"  or  to  render  the  iron  passive,  which 
may  or  may  not  be  due  to  the  formation  of  an  oxide,  and  (3) 
the  introduction  of  an  element  or  elements  into  the  metal 
while  in  the  molten  state,  forming  a  solution  or  alloy  that  is 
resistant. 

1.  Extraneous  Coatings. — The  most  widely-used  materials 
of  this  class  are  the  paints  and  lacquers.  A  paint  may  be 
defined  as  a  fluid  preparation,  consisting  essentially  of  a  mineral 
pigment  ground  in  oil,  designed  to  be  appUed  as  a  surface 
coating  for  the  purpose  of  protection  or  decoration  or  both. 
The  oil  used  must  be  of  such  character  that  when  exposed  to 
the  air  in  a  thin  layer,  it  will  oxidize  and  harden  either  spon- 
taneously or  by  the  aid  of  driers,  and  form  an  elastic  film. 
However,  films  produced  in  this  way  from  oil  alone  are  more  or 
less  porous  and  permeable  to  water,  and  lack  wearing  qualities. 
It  is  to  remedy  these  defects  that  the  mineral  pigment  is  in- 
corporated, it  being  the  function  of  the  pigment  to  close  the 
pores  and  to  supply  hardness  and  strength  to  the  film.  Al- 
though Unseed  oil  is  the  most  widely  used  paint  oil,  there  are 
several  others  that  may  be  employed,  as  Chinese  wood  (tung), 
soya  bean  and  menhaden  fish  oil. 

Aside  from  the  general  protective  value  of  the  paint  coating 
due  to  its  ability  to  exclude  air  and  moisture,  it  has  been  found 
that  the  pigments  themselves  may  contribute  a  distinct  effect. 
Some  of  them  exhibit  a  definite  retarding  action  on  corrosion, 
while  others  accelerate  it,  although  there  are  many,  the  value 
of  which  in  this  respect  seems  to  be  indeterminate. 

A  few  examples  will  be  given.  Basic  carbonate  of  lead  (white 
lead)  has  a  weakly  alkahne  character,  and  is  believed  to  retard 
corrosion  for  this  cause  (see  "Effect  of  AlkaUes,"  page  304). 
Others,  like  the  chromates,  seem  to  have  the  abihty  to  cause  the 
iron  to  assume  the  passive  state  (see  "  Iron  in  the  Passive  State," 
page  314).  Zinc  chromate  is  especially  beneficial  in  this  way, 
and  it  is  recommended  that  2  per  cent  of  this  pigment  be  added 
to  all  paints  to  be  applied  to  iron  or  steel.  ^  Lead  chromate 
(chrome  yellow),  also  has  a  retarding  action.     On  the  other 

1  Bulletins  of  the  Scientific  Section  of  the  Paint  Manufacturers  Association 
of  the  United  States. 


310  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

hand,  pigments  that  dissolve  in  water  slightly  and  ionize, 
giving  an  acid  reaction  to  the  solution,  hasten  corrosion.  An 
example  of  this  sort  is  gypsum,  which  is  a  form  of  calcium 
sulfate. 

A  lacquer  is  essentially  a  spirit  varnish  consisting  generally 
of  a  resin,  as  shellac,  or  a  resin-Hke  substance,  as  nitrated  cotton, 
(collodion)  dissolved  in  a  solvent  as  alcohol,  amyl  acetate, 
acetone,  etc,  which  are  themselves  water-white,  volatile  liquids. 
Upon  application,  the  solvent  evaporates,  leaving  the  dissolved 
material  in  the  form  of  a  film.  To  furnish  an  idea  of  the  charac- 
ter of  collodion,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  base  of  the 
"liquid  court  plaster"  now  on  the  market  consists  in  the  main 
of  this  substance.  Because  the  film  is  more  nearly  imper- 
meable, lacquers  furnish  better  protection  as  a  rule  than  ordi- 
nary paints. 

When  the  lacquer  has  been  baked  after  drying,  the  article  is 
said  to  be  japanned.  Baking  renders  the  coating  harder  and 
more  durable. 

A  black  japan,  sometimes  called  an  enamel,  consists  of 
asphaltum  dissolved  in  Unseed  or  similar  oil  and  thinned  with 
petroleum  naphtha.  Black  japans  may  or  may  not  be  baked. 
The  black  japan  is  appUed  to  hardware,  conduits  for  electric 
wiring,  etc. 

Metallic  paints,  known  as  gilt,  bronze  or  aluminum  paints, 
such  as  are  applied  to  radiators,  for  example,  consist  of  lacquers 
in  which  have  been  incorporated  thin  flakes  of  metal.  Metals 
or  alloys,  as  brass,  bronze,  aluminum  or  aluminum-bronze  are 
beaten  into  leaf  and  then  converted  into  flakes  by  forcing 
through  a  wire  screen  with  a  brush.  The  liquid  or  medium 
(lacquer)  used  in  preparing  the  paint,  consists  generally  of 
about  a  3  per  cent  solution  of  resin  of  nitrated  cotton  (and  in 
some  cases  a  small  proportion  of  a  drying  oil)  dissolved  in  amyl 
acetate.  The  solution  or  mixture  is  often  referred  to  as  "ban- 
ana oil"  because  the  amyl  acetate  has  an  odor  resembling  that 
of  bananas.  Upon  application^  the  solvent  evaporates  leaving 
the  resinous  material  in  the  form  of  a  film  that  acts  as  a  binder 
for  the  metal  flakes.  A  coating  that  is  sometimes  employed  for 
water  pipes  is  known  as  the  Angus  Smith  solution.  It  consists 
generally  of  a  mixture  of  coal  tar  and  pitch  oil  in  about  the 
proportion  of  two  to  one.  This  mixture  is  heated  nearly  to  the 
boiling  point,  and  then  the  carefully  cleaned  pipes  are  dipped 
into  it  and  allowed  to  remain  until  they  acquire  the  temperature 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  311 

of  the  bath.  Upon  being  removed  and  allowed  to  cool,  the 
coating  solidifies.     It  has  a  very  excellent  protective  value. 

Silicate  or  vitreous  enamels  are  coatings  consisting  essenti- 
ally of  a  specially  prepared  glass.  The  glass  is  first  prepared, 
and  while  in  the  molten  state  is  run  into  cold  water  to  shred  or 
"frit"  it,  after  which  it  is  converted  into  a  cream-Uke  product 
by  grinding  it  with  clay  in  water.  This  cream-like  preparation 
is  then  applied  to  the  metal  by  dipping,  brushing  or  spraying, 
after  which  it  is  dried  and  fired  until  fused,  thus  producing  the 
glazed  coating.  The  glaze  may  also  be  applied  in  a  finely- 
ground,  dry  condition  by  sifting  it  upon  the  hot  article  being 
enamelled.  Two  or  more  coats  are  usually  applied  (see  "Sani- 
tary Ware,"  page  345). 

Metallic  coatings  may  be  applied  in  a  variety  of  ways:  by 
dipping  the  iron  or  steel  article  in  a  molten  bath  of  the  metal  to 
be  appUed,  by  electrolytic  deposition,  by  the  metal-spray 
method,  etc.  In  all  cases  the  article  to  be  coated  must  be  care- 
fully cleaned  beforehand,  this  being  generally  done  by  "pickUng" 
(acid  treatment).  The  methods  of  applying  zinc  coatings, 
called  galvanizing  may  in  the  main  be  classified  under  three 
heads:  (1)  the  hot-dip  process  (hot  galvanizing  or  pot  galvaniz- 
ing), (2)  the  electrolytic  or  electroplating  proces,  (3)  the 
Sherardizing  or  dry-dust  process.  In  the  hot-dip  process  the 
carefully  cleaned  article  is  dipped  into  a  bath  of  molten  zinc. 
This  method  is  much  used  for  water  pipes,  and  is  always  used 
for  sheets.  The  markings  or  spangles  on  the  surface  of  the 
galvanized  sheets  are  due  to  the  crystalUzation  of  the  zinc,  the 
size  being  dependent  upon  the  rate  of  coohng.  In  the  electro- 
plating process,  the  metal  is  deposited  from  a  water  solution 
of  a  zinc  salt  or  salts.  In  the  Sherardizing  process,^  the  cleaned 
article  is  heated  in  a  revolving  drum  with  zinc  dust.  The  zinc 
particles  of  the  zinc  dust  are  in  a  peculiar  physical  condition 
that  causes  them  to  vaporize  readily.  Being  in  the  vapor  state, 
the  zinc  readily  finds  its  way  into  contact  with  all  the  irregu- 
larities of  the  surface  of  the  metal  being  galvanized.  As  in  the 
hot-dip  process,  the  zinc  appears  to  form  a  true  alloy  with  the 
iron.  The  Sherardizing  process  does  not,  however,  tend  to 
modify  the  conformation  as  does  the  hot-dip  process,  e.g.y 
threaded  pipes  can  be  galvanized  by  this  process  without 
destroying  the  usefulness  of  the  threads.  Further,  the  threads 
are  galvanized  more  uniformly  than  by  the  electro-galvanizing 
1  See  section  on  "Protection  Against  Internal  Corrosion,"  page  177. 


312  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

process.  As  usually  manufactured,  the  thickest  coatings  are 
generally  produced  by  the  hot  galvanizing  method,  with 
Sherardizing  and  electro-galvanizing  following  in  the  order 
named.  Since  zinc  protects  iron  at  the  expense  of  its  own 
destruction,  the  life  of  the  coating  is  a  f imction  of  its  thickness. 
The  argument  for  thin  coatings  is  that  they  are  less  likely  to 
be  cracked  and  flaked  off  by  bending  than  are  the  thicker 
coatings.  But  because  iron  that  is  exposed  by  a  crack  in  the 
zinc  coating  is  kathodic  to  zinc,  the  zinc  will  protect  iron  that 
it  does  not  actually  cover  (see  pages  301  and  313).  On  this 
account,  cracks  in  the  zinc  coating  may  be  less  detrimental  than 
the  thinness  of  the  coating. 

Tin  plate  is  manufactured  by  a  modification  of  the  hot-dip 
process.  The  cleaned-iron  or  steel  sheets  are  passed  through 
pots  of  molten  tin  between  driven  pairs  of  rolls,  the  last  pair 
squeezing  off  the  surplus  tin.  Teme  plate  is  made  in  the  same 
way  as  tin  plate,  except  that  the  bath  consists  of  an  alloy 
containing  usually  about  70  per  cent  tin  and  the  remainder 
lead. 

Nickel  plating  and  copper  plating  are  usually  done  by  the  elec- 
trolytic method.  Copper  may  be  deposited  upon  iron  and  steel 
(also  upon  lead  and  tin  and  their  alloys)  from  an  acidified  solu- 
tion of  a  copper  salt  by  a  purely  chemical  reaction,  by  merely 
immersing  the  cleaned  article  in  the  solution,  or  by  applying 
the  solution  with  a  brush.  A  substitution  reaction  occurs  in 
which  the  copper  is  thrown  out  of  the  dissolved  salt  and  an 
equivalent  amount  of  iron  passes  into  solution.  The  copper 
coating  produced  in  this  manner  is  not  substantial,  is  easily 
rubbed  off,  and  has  very  Uttle  protective  value.  A  somewhat 
improved  coating  is  obtained  by  placing  the  articles  to  be 
coated  in  a  tumbling  barrel  with  sawdust  saturated  witli  the 
copper  salt  solution.  The  burnishing  action  of  the  sawdust 
improves  the  coating,  but  the  protective  value  is  not  high. 

Metallic  Coatings  Compared. — It  has  been  shown  in  the 
preceding  paragraph  that  iron  is  able  to  replace  copper  in 
solution,  causing  the  copper  to  assume  the  metalhc  state. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  iron  has  a  higher  solution  pressure 
than  copper.  If  these  two  metals  are  brought  suitably  into 
contact  in  the  presence  of  ordinary  water,  the  iron  acts  as  an 
anode  and  dissolves,  while  the  copper  acts  as  the  kathode  and 
furnishes  a  surface  on  which  the  hydrogen  ions  from  the  water 
may  discharge  (explained  on  page  301).     In  a  similar  manner , 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  313 

nickel,  lead,  and  tin  act  as  kathodes  to  iron,  but  zinc  acts  as 
an  anode.  In  other  words,  zinc  will  dissolve  in  preference  to 
iron,  while  iron  will  dissolve  in  preference  to  nickel,  lead,  tin 
and  copper.  Then,  when  zinc  is  employed  as  a  coating  for 
iron,  if  the  coating  becomes  scratched  or  broken  so  that  iron 
is  laid  bare,  zinc  will  nevertheless  continue  to  protect  the  iron, 
because  as  the  corroding  agents  of  the  atmosphere  find  their 
way  to  this  point,  zinc  and  not  iron  compounds  will  be  formed. 
The  hydrogen  ions  from  the  water  migrate  to  the  iron  to  dis- 
charge, and  under  these  conditions  the  iron  does  not  dissolve. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  nickel,  lead,  tin  or  copper  coatings 
on  iron  are  scratched  so  that  the  iron  is  exposed,  the  action  is 
just  the  reverse.  The  iron  becomes  the  dissolving  anode,  while 
the  coating  becomes  the  kathode.  Thus  the  coating  actually 
stimulates  the  corrosion  of  the  exposed  iron.  As  long  as  the 
nickel,  lead,  tin  and  copper  coatings  are  unbroken,  they  have 
excellent  protective  values,  and  last  almost  indefinitely.  Be- 
cause of  their  low  solution  pressures,  they  do  not  readily  dis- 
solve in  the  presence  of  the  natural  corroding  agents.  In  this 
respect  they  are  superior  to  zinc,  for  zinc  protects  iron  at  the 
expense  of  its  own  destruction,  and  the  zinc  coating  gradually 
retreats  from  the  point  where  the  original  break  occurred. 

When  tools  are  used  on  coated  articles,  or  if  they  are  sub- 
jected to  any  sort  of  rough  usage,  they  are  practically  certain 
to  be  scratched,  and  beside,  small  "pin  holes"  exist  even  in  the 
original  coating.  Under  these  conditions,  a  coating  of  zinc  is 
superior  to  the  coatings  of  the  other  metals,  as  long  as  the 
supply  of  the  metallic  zinc  lasts. 

2.  Iron  Oxide  Coatings. — Articles  that  have  been  given  a 
coating  of  the  black,  or  magnetic  oxide  (iron  scale,  Fe304)  are 
designated  by  the  term  black  iron,  for  example  the  black  sheet 
iron  used  for  stove  piping.  As  a  result  of  the  efforts  to  produce 
a  less  brittle  and  more  adherent  coating,  numerous  ways  have 
been  devised  for  developing  this  oxide  on  the  iron.  The  oxide 
that  results  from  merely  heating  the  iron  to  a  high  temperature 
is  very  brittle  and  is  easily  flaked  off.  Examples  of  commercial 
products  having  the  oxide  coating  are  blued  iron,  Bower 
Barff  iron,  Russia  iron,  etc.  The  coating  is  an  excellent  pro- 
tecting agent  as  long  as  it  is  continuous,  but  when  cracked  or 
flaked  off  in  spots,  it  causes  the  bared  iron  to  corrode  very 
rapidly.  The  scale  then  acts  as  a  kathode  to  iron,  and  stimu- 
lates corrosion  in  the  same  manner  as  tin  and  copper. 


314  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Spellerizing  is  a  process  devised  especially  for  treating  the 
steel  for  the  manufacture  of  pipes  and  tubes.  The  skelp,  from 
which  the  tube  is  made,  is  alternately  rolled  between  rolls 
having  regular  shaped  projections  on  their  working  surfaces 
and  other  rolls  with  smooth  surfaces.  The  object  is  to  knead  or 
work  the  surface  of  the  skelp  in  order  to  produce  a  more  closely- 
adherent  oxide.  The  kneading  also  helps  to  correct  segrega- 
tion to  a  certain  extent,  thus  producing  a  more  uniform  steel 
on  the  surface,  which  will  be  better  able  to  resist  corrosion, 
especially  in  the  form  of  pitting  (see  page  302). 

Iron  in  the  Passive  State. — When  iron  is  immersed  in  certain 
oxidizing  agents,  as  solutions  of  nitric  acid,  chromic  acid  or  potas- 
sium dichromate  of  suitable  concentration,  its  solubiUty  in 
acids  is  for  the  time  being  destroyed,  and  it  will  remain  free 
from  a  tendency  to  corrode  for  a  long  time.  It  is  then  said  to 
be  in  the  passive  state.  When  in  this  state,  no  change  can  be 
detected  in  the  surface  of  the  metal  even  with  a  powerful  micro- 
scope, and  it  is  not  known  to  just  what  cause  the  change  is 
due,  although  various  theories  have  been  advanced  to  explain 
it.  The  inactivity  may  be  removed  by  scratching  the  surface, 
or  by  touching  it  with  an  active  substance,  or  by  making  it  the 
kathode  with  the  passage  of  an  electric  current  of  suitable 
intensity,  and  in  other  ways.  The  change  from  the  active  to 
the  passive  state  is  not  necessarily  abrupt,  but  may  be  gradual, 
so  that  it  is  possible  to  have  different  degrees  of  passivity. 

3.  Effect  on  Corrosion  of  Elements  Dissolved  in  or  Alloyed 
with  Iron  and  Steel.' — Some  of  the  elements  that  normally 
occur  in  iron  and  steel  seem  to  accelerate,  and  others  to  retard 
corrosion.  Beside,  certain  elements  that  are  not  normally 
present,  are  added  because  of  their  beneficial  influence  in 
lessening  the  corrodibility  of  the  metal. 

Tiemann  says  that  under  0.20  per  cent,  carbon  has  Uttle 
influence  on  corrosion,  but  that  from  this  amount  up  to  about 
0.90  per  cent,  there  is  a  gradual  increase  in  the  corrosion  rate 
with  additional '  carbon.  From  about  0.90  per  cent  up  to 
1.25  per  cent  the  corrodibiUty  gradually  decreases.  Sulfur 
causes  the  corrosion  rate  to  increase  directly  with  the  amount 
present,  particularly  if  the  iron  or  steel  is  at  the  same  time 
approximately  free  from  copper.  Opinion  is  divided  as  to  the 
effect  of  manganese,  the  beUef  being  held  by  some  that  it 

1  The  discussion  of  this  topic  has  been  derived  largely  from  Tiemann's 
"Iron  and  Steel." 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  315 

increases,  and  by  others  that  it  slightly  lowers  the  corrosion 
rate.  Phosphorus  has  little  or  no  direct  influence  on  corrosion. 
However,  if  the  iron  phosphide,  in  which  form  the  phosphorus 
occurs  in  the  metal,  is  gathered  together  in  spots  (segregated) 
as  it  frequently  is,  corrosion  is  stimulated  because  the  phosphide 
acts  as  a  kathode  (see  page  302).  Silicon,  in  the  amounts 
normally  present  in  open-hearth  and  bessemer  steel,  has  no 
effect  on  corrosion. 

Copper,  even  when  introduced  into  the  molten  steel  in  very 
small  quantities,  seems  to  lower  the  corrosion  of  the  steel  very 
noticeably.  It  offsets  the  corrosion  influence  of  the  sulfur. 
The  layer  of  rust  that  is  formed  gradually  becomes  closely 
adherent  and  protective,  rather  than  stimulative,  as  is  the  case 
with  rust  ordinarily.  Nickel,  also,  has  a  marked  influence  in 
rendering  iron  and  steel  less  corrodible,  but  larger  amounts  are 
necessary  to  produce  the  desired  effect  than  are  required  with 
copper.  With  30  per  cent  nickel,  the  alloy  is  practically  non- 
corrodible.  This  steel  has  been  found  very  serviceable  for 
boiler  tubes.  Chromium  has  a  tendency  to  lessen  corrosion, 
especially  if  present  in  excess  of  about  6  per  cent.  That  which 
is  known  as  stainless  steel  contains  about  10  to  15  per  cent. 

NON-FERROUS  METALS' 

Aluminum. — This  is  a  silvery-white  metal,  melting  at  659°C. 
(1,218''F.),.  It  boils  at  about  1,800°C.  (3,272°F.).  When 
strongly  heated  in  the  air  it  oxidizes  readily.  Thin  pieces  bum 
in  air  with  a  brilliant  light  resembling  magnesium.  The  spe- 
cific gravity  is  about  2.56  when  cast,  and  about  2.68  when 
wrought,  which  is  about  one-third  that  of  iron.  The  hardness 
is  about  equal  to  that  of  silver,  but  for  commercial  purposes  its 
hardness  is  much  increased  by  alloying  with  it  small  amounts  of 
copper.  It  is  malleable  between  100°C.  (212°F.)  and  150°C. 
(302''F.).  Above  200°C.  (392**F.),  it  is  quite  brittle.  Its  tensile 
strength  when  cast  is  about  14,000  to  15,000  lb.  per  square  inch, 
but  this  may  be  more  than  doubled  when  drawn  into  wire. 
The  heat  conductivity  is  31.33  (silver  =  100).  Its  electrical 
conductivity  is  58  (silver  =  100).  When  pure  it  does  not  cast 
well,  since  it  absorbs  gases  in  the  molten  state  that  are  expelled 
again  upon  cooling,  thus  causing  ''blow  holes."  The  usual 
impurities  are  silicon  and  iron,  in  the  neighborhood  of  about 
0.2  per  cent  each. 

*  See  section  on  "Welding,"  page  154. 


316  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Upon  exposure  to  the  air  at  ordinary  temperatures,  it  corrodes 
very  little,  a  thin  film  of  oxide  being  formed  that  is  closely 
adherent  and  protective.  If  it  were  not  for  this  protecting 
film,  aluminum  would  be  readily  acted  upon  by  air  and  water. 
It  is  not  affected  by  hydrogen  sulfide  gas,  but  is  rapidly  corroded 
by  salt  water.  It  dissolves  readily  in  hydrochloric  acid,  but 
is  very  little  affected  by  nitric  acid,  either  dilute  or  concen- 
trated. It  is  practically  imaffected  by  cold  sulfuric  acid.  In 
solutions  of  the  alkalies,  sodium  hydroxide  (soda  lye)  and  potas- 
sium hydroxide  (potash  lye),  it  dissolves  readily  with  the  evolu- 
tion of  great  heat.  Sodium  and  potassium  aluminates  are 
formed,  which  remain  in  solution,  hydrogen  gas  being  given  off. 
When  amalgamated  with  mercury,  which  may  be  accomplished 
by  putting  it  into  a  solution  of  mercuric  chloride,  aluminum 
is  acted  upon  by  air  and  water,  producing  hydrogen  and  alumi- 
num hydroxide.  In  warm,  moist  air,  the  aluminum  hydroxide 
grows  out  from  the  metal  in  a  form  like  moss,  reaching  a  length 
of  nearly  J^  in.  in  a  very  short  time.  The  amalgamation  does 
not  increase  the  activity  of  the  aluminum,  but  prevents  the 
formation  of  the  protective  film  that  usually  interferes  with  its 
activity. 

Antimony. — This  is  a  silvery-white  metal,  melting  at  eSO^C. 
(1,166°F.).  It  volatilizes  at  about  1,500°C.  (2,700**F.). 
When  heated  in  air,  it  bums  readily.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
6.71.  It  is  highly  crystalline,  and  is  neither  malleable  nor 
ductile,  but  is  so  brittle  that  it  may  be  readily  crushed  to  a 
powder  imder  the  hammer.  It  expands  slightly  on  cooling 
from  the  liquid  to  the  solid  state,  and  many  of  its  uses  depend 
upon  this  property.  It  is  a  very  poor  conductor  of  electricity. 
It  tarnishes  very  little  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  It  is 
insoluble  in  dilute  acids,  but  it  dissolves  slowly  in  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid.  Nitric  acid  converts  it  into  the  oxide,and 
sulfuric  acid  is  almost  without  action  upon  it. 

Bismuth. — ^Like  antimony,  bismuth  is  highly  crystaUine  and 
brittle,  and  therefore  is  not  malleable  or  ductile.  It  may  be 
distinguished  from  antimony  by  a  reddish  sheen  on  the  faces 
of  its  crystals,  the  surface  of  the  antimony  crystals  being  gray. 
It  melts  at  271°C.  (520°F.).  Its  boiUng  point  is  about  1,450°C. 
(2,632°F.).  Its  specific  gravity  is  9.82.  It  expands  upon 
solidifying,  increasing  over  2  per  cent  in  volume.  When 
heated  in  the  air  above  its  melting  point,  it  burns  readily, 
considerable  loss  being  encountered  in  making  alloys.     It  is 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  317 

only  slightly  attacked  by  hydrochloric  acid.  Nitric  and  hot 
sulfuric  acids  act  more  readily. 

Cadmium. — This  is  a  silvery-white  metal  with  a  bluish  tinge, 
between  tin  and  zinc  in  hardness.  Is  quite  malleable  and  duc- 
tile even  at  ordinary  temperatures.  It  melts  at  321°C.  (610**F.) 
and  boils  at  about  778°C.  (1,432**F.),  so  can  be  separated  from 
zinc,  tin  and  lead  by  volatiUzation.  Its  specific  gravity  is  8.6 
when  cast. 

It  is  quite  stable  in  air,  although  it  does  not  long  retain  a 
bright  surface,  because  of  the  formation  of  a  thin,  closely- 
adherent  layer  of  oxide.  It  bums  easily  when  molten,  forming 
the  brown  oxide,  CdO;  consequently,  when  making  alloys 
much  of  it  may  be  lost,  unless  considerable  care  is  exercised. 
It  is  noted  for  its  low-melting-point  alloys.  It  is  quite  readily 
soluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  less  so  in  hydrochloric  and  sulfuric. 
It  is  thrown  out  of  solution  by  zinc. 

Copper. — This  is  the  only  reddish-colored  metal.  It  melts  at 
1,083**C.  (1,981.5°F.).  It  is  sufficiently  volatile  to  color  a 
bunsen  flame  green,  but  loss  on  melting  is  not  noticeable.  It 
boils  at  about  2,350*'C.  (4,262°F).  If  copper  is  heated  to  a 
red  heat  and  cooled  slowly,  it  becomes  brittle;  but  if  cooled 
quickly,  it  is  soft,  malleable  and  ductile.  The  brittleness  is  due 
to  a  coarsely-crystalline  structure  that  develops  during  slow 
cooling.  Just  below  its  melting  point,  it  becomes  so  brittle 
it  may  be  pulverized.  At  a  red  heat  it  may  be  welded.  The 
specific  gravity  of  electrolytic  copper  is  8.945,  of  hammered, 
8.95.  Its  tensile  strength  is  about  67,500  lb.  per  square  inch. 
It  is  one  of  the  best  conductors  of  both  heat  and  electricity. 
Like  aluminum,  pure  copper  does  not  cast  well,  absorbing  gases 
when  molten  that  are  given  off  during  solidification. 

Copper  is  not  rapidly  corroded  when  exposed  to  ordinary 
atmosphere.  It  becomes  coated  with  a  green  basic  carbonate, 
which  is  closely  adherent  and  protective.  When  heated  in  air, 
it  becomes  coated  with  a  layer  of  the  black  cupric  oxide,  CuO, 
beneath  which,  next  the  metal,  a  layer  of  the  red,  cuprous  oxide, 
CU2O,  is  formed.  Copper  is  very  soluble  in  nitric  acid,  both 
dilute  and  concentrated.  Cold  hydrochloric  and  sulfuric 
acids  act  rather  feebly  on  copper,  but  both  attack  it  quite 
rapidly  when  hot  and  concentrated.  Also,  both  of  them  are 
much  more  active  in  the  presence  of  air.  Upon  long  contact, 
weak  organic  acids,  such  as  are  found  in  foods,  act  consider- 
ably on  copper,  especially  in  contact  with  air.     All  copper 


318  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

compounds  are  quite  poisonous  when  absorbed  into  the 
system.  Ammonia  water  slowly  dissolves  copper  in  the 
presence  of  air. 

Lead. — ^A  bluish-gray  metal.  It  has  bright  luster  when 
freshly  cut,  but  rapidly  tarnishes  and  grows  dull  due  to  the 
formation  of  a  film  of  the  basic  carbonate  by  the  action  of  the 
moisture  and  carbon  dioxide  of  the  air.  It  is  very  malleable 
but  not  ductile.  It  is  the  softest  and  least  tenacious  of  the 
common  metals,  its  tensile  strength  being  about  2,000  lb.  per 
square  inch.  Just  before  it  melts  it  becomes  brittle,  but  at 
sUghtly  lower  temperatures  it  is  so  malleable  that  it  may  be 
squeezed  or  squirted  into  tubes,  rods  and  wire.  It  is  so  soft 
that  it  may  be  scratched  with  the  finger  nail  or  worn  off  by 
friction  against  paper. 

It  melts  at  327°C.  (621°F.),  and  boils  at  about  1,525*'C. 
(2,777°F.)  but  volatilization  is  noticeable  at  much  lower  tempera- 
tures. Under  a  pressure  of  29,000  lb.  per  square  inch,  filings 
and  shavings  of  it  may  be  pressed  into  a  solid  block.  With  a 
pressure  of  about  75,000  lb.  per  square  inch,  it  appears  to 
liquify  at  ordinary  temperatures.^  If  cooled  quickly  from  the 
molten  state,  lead  solidifies  in  the  ordinary  amorphous  condi- 
tion, but  if  cooled  very  slowly  it  forms  lustrous,  octahedral 
crystals.  The  crystalline  form  may  also  be  prepared  by  electro- 
deposition  of  the  metal.  Its  specific  gravity  varies  according 
to  the  mechanical  treatment  to  which  it  has  been  subjected, 
ranging  from  11.25  to  11.4. 

Lead  is  not  much  affected  by  cold  hydrochloric  or  sulfuric 
acids,  being  especially  indifferent  to  the  latter.  The  lead  salts 
of  these  acids  are  insoluble,  and  some  protection  is  afforded 
the  metal  by  them  as  soon  as  the  acid  has  attacked  the  lead 
slightly.  A  hot  solution  of  hydrochloric  acts  much  more 
rapidly  because  lead  chloride  is  soluble  in  hot  water,  thus  allowing 
the  metal  to  be  continually  exposed  to  the  acid.  Lead  is  quite 
readily  soluble  in  nitric  acid,  and  acetic  acid  (found  in  vinegar) 
has  considerable  action  upon  it  also.  Many  of  the  relatively 
weak  organic  acids,  such  as  are  found  in  food  products,  have  a 
noticeable  action  on  lead;  consequently  it  should  not  be  allowed 
to  remain  in  contact  with  foods  or  beverages.  All  lead  salts 
are  poisonous,  and  the  action  is  distinctly  accumulative;  that 
is,  small  amounts  taken  daily  seem  to  be  stored  within  the 
system,  and  when  a  quantity  sufficiently  great  has  accumulated, 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  319 

it  causes  serious  trouble.  Very  pure  water  dissolves  lead  suffi- 
ciently to  render  it  dangerous  for  continuous  use.  When  in 
contact  with  hard  water,  an  insoluble  coating  of  lead  carbonate 
and  sulfate  is  formed  on  the  metal,  and  this  prevents  the  water 
from  being  contaminated.  With  pure  water,  as  rain  water  for 
example,  the  lead  hydroxide  is  formed,  and  this  is  noticeably 
soluble.  Consequently,  lead  pipes  can  safely  be  used  to  convey 
drinking  water  only  when  the  water  is  somewhat  hard.  If 
much  free  carbonic  acid  (carbon  dioxide  gas  dissolved  in 
water)  is  present,  the  soluble  acid  carbonate  will  likely  be 
formed,  and  this  will  cause  trouble.  Lead  is  not  much  affected 
by  the  alkalies,  as  caustic  soda  and  potash. 

Lead  oxidizes  quite  considerably  when  molten,  the  monoxide 
(litharge)  being  formed.  It  is  quite  resistant  to  corrosion 
under  the  conditions  of  ordinary  atmospheric  exposure,  but 
under  certain  conditions,  for  example  when  buried  in  cinders,  it  is 
quite  rapidly  acted  upon.  In  this  case,  a  white  incrustation  of 
the  basic  carbonate  and  sulfate  is  produced.  Lead  is  turned 
black  by  atmospheric  hydrogen  sulfide. 

Nickel. — ^A  silver-white,  lustrous  metal.  It  is  quite  hard, 
ductile,  and  malleable.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  annealed 
wrought  metal  is  about  95,000  lb.  per  square  inch.  It  melts 
at  1,452°C.  (2,646*^.).  Its  specific  gravity  when  cast  is  8.35, 
when  wrought,  from  8.6  to  8.9.  At  temperatures  below  350°C. 
(662°F.)  it  is  magnetic.  It  is  very  stable  upon  exposure  to  the 
air,  and  on  this  account  is  much  used  to  coat  other  metals.  It 
is  not  rapidly  acted  upon  by  any  acid  except  nitric,  in  which  it 
dissolves  quite  readily. 

Tin. — This  is  the  only  metal  of  commercial  importance  that 
is  not  found  to  any  extent  in  the  United  States.  The  ordinary 
commercial  form  is  quite  pure,  being  rarely  below  99.9  per  cent. 
Traces  of  lead,  iron,  copper,  and  antimony  may  be  present. 
The  specific  gravity  of  the  pure  metal  when  cast  is  7.287,  when 
rolled,  7.3.  Of  the  commercial  form  it  is  somewhat  higher, 
about  7.5.  It  melts  at  232°C.  (449°F.)  and  boils  at  2,275°C. 
(4,127°F.).  It  is  soft  and  readily  worked.  It  is  harder  than 
lead,  but  not  so  hard  as  zinc.  It  is  malleable  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures, but  is  most  malleable  at  about  100°C.  (212°F.).  It 
may  be  rolled  into  foil  J^ooo  in.  thick.  The  tensile  strength  of 
very  pure  bars  is  2,420  lb.  per  square  inch,  of  the  hammered 
form,  2,540  lb.  per  square  inch,  of  the  commercial  variety, 
about  4,600  lb.  per  square  inch,  of  the  foil,  about  5,980  lb.  per 


320  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

square  inch.^  Tin  is  ductile,  but  because  of  its  low  tensile 
strength,  it  is  not  readily  drawn  into  wire. 

Tin  occurs  in  three  modifications,  or  allotropic  forms.  The 
ordinary  malleiEible  form  occurs,  and  is  stable  at  temperatures 
between  18°C.  (64.4°F.)  and  170°C.  (338°F.).  When  tin  is 
cooled  below  18°C.,  it  has  a  tendency  to  change  into  a  gray, 
granular  powder.  However,  the  change  takes  place  very 
slowly,  and  the  ordinary  malleable  form  persists  at  ordinary  low 
atmospheric  temperatures,  although  it  is  in  a  metastable  con- 
dition. The  change  takes  place  most  rapidly  at  —  48°C. 
(-54.4°F.),  but  it  is  quite  noticeable  at  even  -15°C.  (S^F.). 
Consequently,  block  tin  (pure  tin)  pipes  will  fall  to  a  powder 
if  kept  at  low  temperatures  for  a  long  time.  The  change  has 
been  noted  in  cold  storage  warehouses.  The  transformation  is 
hastened  by  '' inoculation;''  that  is,  the  presence  of  some  of  the 
transformed  variety  accelerates  the  change;  consequently,  if 
once  started,  it  spreads  rapidly.  It  is  commonly  designated  as 
the  "tin  pest." 

The  ordinary  malleable  form  of  tin  is  crystalline,  but  above 
170°C.  it  gradually  changes  into  a  different  crystalline  form 
known  aa  "brittle  tin."  At  200°C.  (392°F.)  it  is  extremely 
brittle  and  can  be  readily  converted  into  a  powder.  When 
bars  of  the  malleable  form  of  tin  are  bent,  a  peculiar  crackling 
noise  known  as  the  "tin  cry"  is  noticeable.  This  is  due  to  the 
friction  of  the  crystals  as  they  move  over  one  another. 

Tin  does  not  ordinarily  corrode  or  tarnish  much  when  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere,  and  on  this  account  is  much  used  to  coat 
other  metals  (see  page  312).  Above  its  melting  point,  it 
oxidizes  readily  to  stannic  oxide,  SnOs,  commonly  known  as 
putty  powder.  When  heated  to  about  1,550°C.  (2,822°F.),  it 
takes  fire  and  bums  with  a  white  flame. 

Tin  is  slowly  soluble  in  cold,  dilute  sulfuric  acid,  somewhat 
more  rapidly  in  hydrochloric.  Nitric  acid,  when  dilute,  acts 
slowly  with  the  formation  of  stannous  nitrate,  which  is  soluble. 
The  moderately  concentrated  nitric  converts  it  into  the  white, 
insoluble,  hydrated  stannic  oxide,  known  as  metastannic  acid. 
Very  concentrated  nitric  acid  is  without  noticeable  action, 
converting  the  tin  into  the  passive  form  (see  passive  form  of 
iron,  page  314).  Hot  solutions  of  alkalies  dissolve  tin  readily, 
the  cold  solutions  more  slowly.  Soluble  compounds  known  as 
stannates  are  formed;  for  example,  sodium  hydroxide  (caustic 

1  Liddell,  "Metallurgists  and  Chemists'  Handbook." 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  321 

soda)  forms  sodium  stamiate.  On  this  account,  alkaline  solu- 
tions should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  in  vessels  made  of  tin- 
plated  metals. 

Zinc. — ^A  bluish-white  metal.  Specific  gravity  when  cast, 
6.861  to  7.149;  rolled,  7.2  to  7.3.  It  melts  at  420°C.  (787*^.) 
and  boils  at  918°C.  (1,684°F.)  at  atmospheric  pressure.  Be- 
cause of  its  low  boiling  point,  it  can  be  separated  from  many 
other  metals  by  distillation.  Also  in  making  certain  alloys  of 
zinc,  a  considerable  amount  of  it  may  be  lost  through  vaporiza- 
tion. When  zinc  is  cooled  suddenly  from  the  molten  state,  it 
solidifies  in  an  amorphous  (non-crystalline)  condition  and  then 
is  quite  malleable.  But  if  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  it  becomes 
highly  crystalline,  being  then  hard  and  brittle.  The  ordinary 
commercial  form  is  partly  crystaUine  and  partly  amorphous, 
and  at  atmospheric  temperatures  is  quite  brittle,  especially  if 
impure.  If  it  is  heated  to  between  100°  (212°F.)  and  150°C. 
(302°F.),  it  becomes  malleable  and  ductile,  and  may  be  rolled 
into  sheets  or  drawn  into  wire.  Moreover,  it  remains  malleable 
and  ductile  when  allowed  to  cool.  When  heated  to  somewhat 
above  200°C.  (392*^.),  it  becomes  brittle  again  and  may  be 
powdered  under  the  hammer.  In  hardness,  zinc  ranks  between 
copper  and  tin.  Its  tensile  strength  varies  from  2,700  lb. 
per  square  inch  for  cast  zinc,  to  17,700  for  annealed  rod. 

Commercial  zinc  is  commonly  known  as  spelter.  In  Ameri- 
can spelter,  the  common  impurities  are  lead,  iron  and  cadmium, 
but  small  amoimts  of  arsenic,  antimony,  copper,  aluminum, 
sulfur,  carbon  and  oxygen  may  be  present  also.  The  lead  may 
occur  in  quantities  from  a  few  tenths  of  1  per  cent  to  about  1.50 
per  cent  or  more.  A  small  quantity  of  lead  increases  the  mal- 
leability and  ductility  of  zinc,  but  over  1.50  per  cent  is  injuri- 
ous. Up  to  0.02  per  cent  of  iron  does  not  seem  to  be  injurious, 
but  over  this  amount  makes  the  zinc  hard  and  brittle.  Cad- 
mium, which  may  occur  from  0.05  to  0.75  per  cent,  seems 
to  have  no  objectionable  effect  on  the  physical  properties. 
Arsenic  causes  the  zinc  to  be  hard  and  brittle  and  difficult  to 
melt.  Also,  it  is  very  objectionable  in  zinc  that  is  to  be  dis- 
solved in  acid  in  the  generation  of  hydrogen  for  the  oxy-hydro- 
gen  flame.  Arsine  (arseniuretted  hydrogen,  AsHs)  is  formed, 
which  is  poisonous.  During  the  burning  of  the  hydrogen,  the 
arsine  is  oxidized  to  arsenious  oxide  (white  arsenic,  AszOs), 
which  escapes  in  the  form  of  a  fume,  and  this  also  is  poisonous 
(see  page  339). 

21 


322  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Zinc  bums  in  air  at  about  500°C.  (932*^.)  with  a  greenish 
flame,  producing  clouds  of  a  fluffy  white  oxide  (philosopher's 
wool).  When  exposed  to  moist  air,  it  tarnishes  readily,  form- 
ing a  film  of  the  basic  carbonate  which  adheres  closely  and  tends 
to  protect  the  metal  from  further  corrosion.  Ordinary  spelter 
(impure  zinc)  dissolves  readily  in  the  mineral  acids,  but  the 
solubiUty  decreases  as  the  purity  increases.  Pure  zinc  will  not 
dissolve  in  any  of  the  acids  except  nitric  (see  page  300).  Zinc 
is  soluble  in  hot  solutions  of  the  caustic  alkalies,  with  the 
evolution  of  hydrogen  and  the  formation  of  a  soluble  zincate. 
For  example,  with  sodium  hydroxide  (caustic  soda,  NaOH), 
sodium  zincate  (NaO)2Zn  is  produced. 

NON-FERROUS  ALLOYS 

An  alloy  is  a  coherent,  metallic  mass  produced  by  the  intimate 
association  of  two  or  more  metals  or  metaUic  substances. 
Although  other  methods  may  be  employed,  alloys  are  usually 
formed  by  thoroughly  mixing  the  constituents  while  in  the 
molten  state,  and  then  allowing  the  mixture  to  solidify.  In 
the  molten  state,  the  constituents  are  generally  more  or  less 
soluble  in  each  other,  but  it  often  happens  that  they  are  practi- 
cally insoluble  in  each  other  in  the  soUd  state,  so  that  during 
sohdification  a  separation  must  take  place.  In  this  case,  the 
alloy  becomes  a  mass  of  intimately  mixed  crystals  of  the 
constituents,  smd  is  generally  known  as  a  mechanical  mixture. 
In  some  cases  the  constituents  of  the  alloy  do  not  separate  at  all, 
but  remain  dissolved  even  in  the  soUd  state,  thus  forming  a 
type  of  alloy  known  as  a  solid  solution.  In  other  cases  the 
constituents  may  combine  chemically  and  soUdify  as  a  chemical 
compound.  Most  of  the  common  alloys  are  either  mechanical 
mixtures  or  solid  solutions. 

During  the  "freezing"  of  those  alloys  that  solidify  as  mechan- 
ical mixtures,  the  crystallization  is  generally  selective,  certain 
portions  of  the  constituents  crystallizing  first,  thus  leaving 
a  low-melting-point  constituent  known  as  a  eviectiCy  which  is  the 
last  to  solidify,  and  which  does  so  at  a  fixed  and  definite  tem- 
perature. Before  proceding  further  with  the  discussion  of 
alloys,  it  will  be  necessary  to  explain  more  fully  the  nature 
of  both  eutectics  and  solid  solutions. 

Eutectic  Formation. — The  manner  in  which  eutectics  are 
formed  can  be  more  easily  explained  if  we  consider  the  more 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY 


323 


familiar  case  of  the  freezing  of  a  water  solution  of  sodium 
chloride  or  common  salt.  With  this  solution,  the  crystalliza- 
tion is  very  similar  to  that  which .  takes  place  in  alloys,  for 
as  has  been  said,  the  common  alloys  in  the  molten  state 
may  be  considered  to  be  solutions  of  the  constituents  in  each 
other. 

When  pure  water  is  cooled,  the  temperature  falls  regularly 
until  the  freezing  point,  0°C.  (32°F.)  is  reached,  and  then  the 
temperature  remains  constant  until  all  the  water  is  frozen. 


10  eo   23.6       30 

Percentage  of  Salt  in  Water 

Fig.  238. 


When  a  certain  amount  of  salt  is  dissolved  in  the  water,  the 
freezing  does  not  begin  until  some  temperature  below  0*^0.  is 
reached.  This  is  shown  graphically  in  Fig.  238,  where  the 
line  AB  indicates  the  temperature  at  which  the  solutions 
containing  different  percentages  of  salt  begin  to  freeze.  And 
unlike  pure  water,  when  the  freezing  of  a  salt  solution  begins, 
it  does  not  all  take  place  at  the  same  temperatiure.  Instead, 
it  freezes  selectively.  At  first,  crystals  of  nearly  pure  ice 
separate  out,  and  since  this  amounts  to  the  removal  of  water, 
the  remaining  solution  becomes  richer  in  salt.  Because  it  is 
richer  in  salt,  its  freezing  point  is  lower  as  the  line  AB  shows, 
and  before  more  ice  crystals  form,  the  solution  must  be  further 
cooled.     With  a  constantly  falling  temperature,  the  separation 


324  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

of  ice  crystals  takes  place  gradually  until  a  certain  quantity 
of  concentrated  solution  (which  will  be  small  in  amount  if  the 
percentage  of  salt  in  the  original  solution  was  small)  is  produced 
that  will  contain  23.6  per  cent  of  salt  as  shown  at  B,  With 
this  concentration,  the  temperature  will  have  fallen  to  —  22**C. 
(— 7.6°F.),  and  it  will  remain  constant  at  this  point  until  the 
Qonpentrated  residual  solution  is  completely  frozen.  A  solu- 
tion containing  23.6  per  cent  of  salt  has  the  lowest  freezing 
point  of  all  the  solutions  of  salt  in  water  that  can  be  made. 
If  more  salt  were  added,  the  freezing  point  would  be  raised. 
Because  it  has  the  lowest  freezing  point,  it  has  also  the  lowest 
melting  point,  since  the  freezing  and  melting  of  any  substance 
takes  place  at  the  same  temperature.  Therefore,  that  portion 
of  the  solution  which  was  the  last  to  freeze  will  be  also  the  first 
to  melt  with  a  rising  temperature,  and  on  this  account  is  called 
the  eutectic.  The  term  is  derived  from  the  Greek  and  means 
"easy-melting."  With  any  solution  that  contains  less  than 
23.6  per  cent  of  salt  in  water,  the  freezing  will  take  place  in  the 
manner  that  has  been  described. 

If  the  percentage  of  salt  in  the  original  solution  is  exactly 
23.6  per  cent,  no  solidification  of  any  sort  will  take  place  until 
the  solution  has  been  cooled  to  —  22°C.  (  — 7.6°F.),  at  which 
temperature  the  entire  solution  freezes.  In  this  case,  the 
whole  of  the  solution  has  the  eutectic  composition. 

If  more  than  23.6  per  cent  of  salt  is  present  in  the  original 
solution,  then  instead  of  crystals  of  ice,  crystals  of  salt  will  be 
the  first  to  separate  out,  and  the  solution  will  grow  less  con- 
centrated, the  composition  following  the  line  CB,  until  in  this 
case  also,  the  final  solution  will  contain  23.6  per  cent  of  salt, 
and  will  freeze  at  -22°C.  (-7.6°F.).  Thus  it  is  seen,  that 
regardless  of  whether  the  amount  of  salt  is  above  or  below 
23.6  per  cent,  a  certain  quantity  of  eutectic,  containing  exactly 
this  percentage  of  salt  will  be  formed  before  final  soUdification 
has  occurred.  The  solidification  begins  at  the  ice  line  or  the 
salt  line  as  the  case  may  be,  but  it  is  completed  at  the  eutectic 
line,  which  is  represented  by  the  line  DE, 

Solid  Solutions. — When  a  liquid  solution  in  passing  into  the 
solid  state  (freezing)  retains  its  essential  characteristics,  it  is 
described  as  a  solid  solution.  The  essential  featues  of  a  liquid 
solution  are  two: 

First,  the  constituents  are  completely  merged.  The  union  is 
much  more  intimate  than  mere  mixture,  being  in  fact  so  inti- 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  325 

mate  that  the  separate  existence  of  the  constituents  cannot  be 
determined  by  any  physical  means,  such  as,  for  example,  by 
examination  with  a  microscope  even  with  the  greatest  magni- 
fication. The  constituents  of  a  mixture  can  always  be  detected 
by  microscopic  examination.  The  constituents  of  a  solution 
lose  their  identity  in  much  the  same  manner  as  they  do  in  a 
chemical  compound.  For  example,  in  the  chemical  compound, 
copper  sulfate  (blue  vitriol),  although  copper  is  present,  the 
compound  exhibits  none  of  the  physical  properties  of  that 
metal. 

Second,  although  the  solution  is  like  a  chemical  compound 
in  respect  to  the  intimacy  of  the  association  of  its  parts,  it  is 
unlike  it  in  that  the  proportions  are  not  fixed.  In  a  chemical 
compound,  the  constituents  are  always  present  in  the  same 
proportions,  while  in  a  solution,  the  proportions  may  vary 
through  a  rather  wide  range.  A  solid  solution  is  like  a  liquid 
solution  in  all  respects  except  that  it  exists  in  the  solid  stale. 
It  should  be  understood  that  there  is  a  difference  between 
a  solid  solution  and  a  solidified  solution.  Frozen  salt  water  is 
a  solidified  solution,  but  as  was  shown,  it  is  a  mechanical 
mixture  of  crystals  of  ice  and  salt.  A  solid  solution  appears 
like  a  simple,  uniform  body. 

THE  LEAD-TIN  ALLOYS 

Solder. — ^In  the  molten  state,  lead  and  tin  are  soluble  in  each 
other  in  all  proportions.  The  behavior  of  their  solutions  during 
solidification  is  shown  in  Fig.  239.  As  is  indicated  by  the 
limited  extent  of  the  line  DE,  not  all  the  lead-tin  alloys  form 
eutectics.  Those  that  contain  no  more  than  4  per  cent  of  tin 
or  no  more  than  2  per  cent  of  lead,  crystallize  as  solid  solutions. 
The  others  form  eutectics  as  shown  in  the  figure,  the  eutectic 
containing  approximately  69  per  cent  of  tin  and  31  per  cent  of 
lead. 

Formation  of  the  Eutectic. — ^Just  as  is  the  case  with  the  water 
solution  of  salt  previously  discussed,  if  there  is  an  excess  of 
either  metal  present  in  the  alloy,  that  is,  more  than  69  per  cent 
of  tin  or  more  than  31  per  cent  of  lead,  the  excess  crystallizes 
first  during  solidification,  so  that  eventually  the  elements  in  the 
molten  remainder  exist  in  the  eutectic  ratio.  For  example,  in 
plumber's  solder,  which  contains  approximately  63  per  cent  of 
lead  and  37  per  cent  of  tin,  there  is  about  twice  as  much  lead 


326  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

as  the  eutectic  ratio  demands.  If  we  start  with  this  alloy  at  e, 
temperature  of  STS'C.  (527°F.)  which  will  be  at  the  point  m  in 
Fig.  239,  it  will  cool  without  change  until  a  temperature  of 
about  235°C.  (435°F.)  is  reached,  which  will  be  a  point  on  the 
line  AB.  This  is  the  lowest  temperature  to  which  the  eolution 
can  cool  and  contain  63  per  cent  of  lead  in  solution.  When 
cooled  further,  lead  crystals  form  in  the  molten  alloy;  that  is, 
the  lead  begins  to  freeze.  The  alloy  now  consists  of  lead 
crystals  mixed  with  a  molten  medium,  its  structure  being 
comparable  to  that  of  a  paint,  which  consists  of  solid  mineral 


particles  in  a  fluid  medium.  The  lead  crystals  spoken  of  here 
are  not  in  reality  pure  lead,  but  contain  some  tin  in  solid  solu- 
tion. However,  the  tin  in  the  lead  crystals  will  never  exceed 
4  per  cent,  and  it  is  usually  considerably  less  than  this. 

As  the  cooling  continues,  the  solubility  of  the  lead  in  the  melt 
becomes  still  less,  and  more  lead  crystals  separate  out.  This 
process  continues  until  the  point  B  is  reached,  when  the  rela- 
tively small  amount  that  still  remains  molten — the  eutectic — 
will  contain  31  per  cent  of  lead  and  69  per  cent  of  tin.  So 
every  point  on  the  line  AB  represents  the  maximum  amount  of 
lead  that  can  remain  in  solution  at  that  temperative;  also  it 
may  be  said  to  mark  the  temperatures  at  which  the  alloys  that 
contain  more  than  the  eutectic  amount  of  lead  begin  to  freeze. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  instead  of  containing  an  excess  of  lead, 
the  alloy  should  contain  an  excess  of  tin  (above  69  per  cent),  then 
tin  crystals  will  be  the  first  to  form.  For  example,  an  alloy 
containing  80  per  cent  of  tin  at  a  temperature  of  250°C.  (4S2''F.) 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  327 

which  would  be  at  the  point  n  in  the  figure,  will  cool  without 
change  until  the  line  BC  is  reached.  In  cooling  through  the 
range  between  BC  and  BEj  a  sufficient  amount  of  tin  will 
crystallize,  so  that  when  the  line  BE  is  reached,  that  portion 
which  still  remains  molten  will  have  the  eutectic  composition. 

Thus,  it  is  seen  that  regardless  of  the  composition  of  the 
alloy  with  which  we  start,  if  it  contains  other  than  69  per  cent  of 
tin  and  31  per  cent  of  lead,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  excess 
constituent  will  be  thrown  out  of  solution,  so  that  finally  a 
certain  amount  of  solution  or  melt  will  be  formed  that  contains 
the  metals  in  the  69  to  31  ratio.  It  is  understood  that  this 
statement  does  not  apply  to  those  alloys  containing  less  than 
4  per  cent  of  tin  and  less  than  2  per  cent  of  lead,  since  these 
solidify  as  solid  solutions. 

Solidification  of  the  Eutectic. — As  has  been  said,  when  the 
lead-tin  alloys,  excepting  those  that  solidify  as  solid  solutions, 
have  cooled  to  ISO^C.  (356°F.),  they  will  consist  of  a  mass  of 
crystals  of  either  tin  or  lead  with  the  space  between  them  filled 
with  molten  eutectic.  As  the  temperature  falls  below  180°C. 
(356°F.),  the  eutectic  solidifies,  crystallizing  about  the  first- 
formed  (primary)  crystals  and  binding  them  together  in  the 
manner  of  a  cement.  The  eutectic  does  not  solidify  as  a  solid 
soluHoriy  but  becomes  a  mass  of  fine,  intimately  mixed  crystals 
of  its  constituents.  It  was  pointed  out  in  the  previous  discus- 
sion, that  when  the  temperature  crossed  the  line  ABj  lead  crys- 
tals were  formed,  and  when  it  crossed  the  line  CBj  tin  crystals 
appeared.  With  the  eutectic  composition,  in  crossing  the 
point  B,  both  lines  are  crossed.  Consequently,  in  solidifying, 
the  eutectic  separates  into  distinct  crystals  of  lead  and  tin. 
The  crystals  of  the  eutectic  are  smaller  than  the  primary 
crystals,  because  the  crystalUzation  of  the  eutectic  takes  place 
rather  sharply,  at  a  definite  temperature.  With  rapid  solidifica- 
tion, the  tendency  is  always  to  produce  small-sized  crystals. 
The  primary  crystals  that  separate  in  passing  through  the 
solidifying  range,  have  a  chance  to  grow  by  additions  from  the 
melt  in  which  they  are  carried. 

The  Plasticity  of  Plumber's  Solder. — ^As  plumber^s  solder 
cools  through  the  solidifying  range,  as  shown  in  Fig.  239,  the 
proportion  of  lead  crystals  gradually  increases,  while  the  pro- 
portion of  melt  gradually  decreases,  so  that  at  a  certain  stage 
the  alloy  acquires  a  plastic  condition  in  which  it  has  about  the 
consistency  of  baker's  dough.     While  in  this  state,  it  may  be 


328  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

molded  into  shape  in  the  so-called  wiping  of  joints.  Solders 
may  be  used  in  this  way  that  contain  from  about  60  to  67  per 
cent  of  lead.  The  60  per  cent  alloy  begins  to  assume  the  plastic 
state  at  about  235°C.  (455°F.),  and  the  67  per  cent  alloy  at 
about  243°C.  (469°F.).  The  final  solidification  of  both  takes 
place  at  180°C.  (356°F.),  so  there  is  a  range  of  about  50°C. 
(122*^.)  during  which  they  are  plastic.  The  plasticity  is  due 
to  the  presence  of  the  lead  crystals,  which  increase  the  consist- 
ency of  the  fluid  portion  in  much  the  same  manner  as  additions 
of  sand  increase  the  consistency  of  a  thin  mortar.  It  is  these 
lead  crystals  also  that  give  to  the  wiped  joint  its  frosted  appear- 
ance, and  they  are  responsible  for  the  frosted  appearance  of 
solder  when  poured  into  an  open  mold  and  allowed  to  solidify. 

Care  of  Solder. — When  using  solder,  it  is  highly  essential 
that  it  be  kept  as  free  as  possible  froin  oxides  and  foreign 
material  of  every  kind.  It  is  bad  practice  to  gather  scraps  and 
droppings  from  the  floor  and  put  them  back  into  the  melting 
pot,  since  foreign  metals  are  likely  to  be  introduced  in  this  way. 
More  than  ordinary  care  must  be  exercised  when  soldering 
upon  galvanized  iron  or  brass,  since  when  solder  is  brought  into 
contact  with  zinc  or  zinc-bearing  alloys,  it  is  almost  certain  to 
take  up  a  small  quantity  of  zinc.  When  lead  is  added  to  the 
solder  by  the  consumer,  foreign  metals  are  likely  to  be  intro- 
duced. Lead  is  very  likely  to  contain  at  least  small  quantities 
of  such  elements  as  arsenic,  antimony,  zinc,  etc.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  solder,  care  is  taken  to  remove  these  impurities. 

Effect  of  Foreign  Elements  in  Solder. — Arsenic,  antimony, 
copper,  iron,  sulfur  and  zinc  all  have  detrimental  effects  on  the 
properties  of  solder.  Users  of  solder  object  especially  to  the 
presence  of  zinc,  saying  that  even  if  a  trace  of  it  be  present,  it 
can  be  detected  in  the  working  properties  of  the  alloy. 

Arsenic  causes  the  solder  to  be  hard  and  brittle.  Fortu- 
nately, it  oxidizes  very  readily,  and  but  little  of  it  remains 
very  long.  The  presence  of  arsenic  can  be  detected  by  its 
garlic-like  odor  as  it  oxidizes. 

Antimony  has  an  effect  similar  to  that  of  arsenic,  but  it  is 
not  so  easily  removed.  When  as  much  as  2  per  cent  is  present, 
small,  bright  crystal  faces  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  solder 
when  it  is  poured  into  an  open  mold  and  allowed  to  sohdify. 

Copper  finds  its  way  into  solder  more  frequently,  perhaps, 
than  any  other  foreign  metal.  This  results  from  the  practice 
of  filing  or  scraping  brass,  or  other  copper  alloys  where  the 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  329 

filings  may  become  mixed  with  the  solder  scrap  which  is  then 
introduced  into  the  molten  solder.  Copper  causes  the  molten 
solder  to  be  viscous  and  to  flow  less  freely.  When  poured  in  an 
open  mold,  its  presence  is  indicated  by  a  slight  iridescence,  or 
pale-blue  color  where  the  solder  comes  into  contact  with  the 
wall  of  the  mold.  It  is  diflficult  to  remove  copper  from  solder 
because  of  the  readiness  with  which  it  alloys  with  tin,  and 
because  of  the  fact  that  it  does  not  readily  oxidize. 

Iron,  even  in  amounts  less  than  1  per  cent,  causes  the  solder 
to  have  a  noticeably  higher  melting  point  and  to  be  sluggish 
when  molten.  When  solder  containing  iron  is  poured  in  an 
open  mold,  its  surface  will  have  readily  perceptible  dark 
streaks  upon  it.     Iron  in  solder  is  diflficult  to  remove. 

Zinc  is  usually  found  more  objectionable  to  the  users  of 
solder  than  any  other  of  the  elements  mentioned.  Like  copper 
and  iron,  it  causes  the  molten  solder  to  flow  sluggishly.  Also, 
small  lumps  occur  in  the  solder  and  the  work  appears  rough. 
Because  of  its  objectionable  qualities,  an  effort  is  usually  made 
to  remove  the  zinc. 

Removal  of  Zinc— Zinc  boils  at  918°C.  (1,684°F.),  while  lead 
boils  at  about  1,525°C.  (2,777°F.),  and  tin  at  about  2,275°C. 
(4,127°F.).  If  the  solder  be  heated  to  somewhat  above  the 
boiling  point  of  the  zinc,  say  about  1,100°C.  (2,012°F.), 
the  zinc  may  be  vaporized.  For  seciu-ing  this  temperature,  the 
ordinary  solder-melting  device  is  insufficient,  but  the  nec- 
essary heat  may  easily  be  obtained  in  any  good,  blast  type  of 
gas-fired  crucible  furnace.  The  crucible  employed  should  be 
of  graphite,  fireclay,  or  similar  refractory  material.  The 
ordinary  cast-iron  solder-melting  pot  should  not  be  used,  since 
the  eutectic  in  cast  iron  melts  at  1,130°C.  (2,066°F.).  Beside, 
at  this  temperature,  the  tin  of  the  solder  would  readily  form 
an  alloy  with  the  iron  of  the  pot.  The  solder  should  be  held  at 
the  temperature  indicated  for  some  time,  depending  upon  the 
amount  of  zinc  present,  and  it  should  be  stirred  and  ladled  at 
frequent  intervals.  If  ladled  so  that  the  solder  is  well  exposed 
to  the  air,  some  of  the  zinc  may  be  removed  before  its  boiling 
point  is  reached.  The  ordinary  cast-iron  solder  ladle  may  be 
used  here,  if  it  is  not  allowed  to  remain  too  long  in  the  solder, 
so  that  it  becomes  unduly  hot. 

After  the  heating  operation,  when  the  solder  has  cooled 
considerably,  a  small  amount  of  ammonium  chloride  (sal 
ammoniac)  should  be  thrown  into  the  crucible,  and  the  solder 


330  PLUMBERS^  HANDBOOK 

stirred  again,  so  that  the  salt  is  intermingled  as  thoroughly  bs 
possible  with  the  solder.  About  J^  oz.  of  the  ammonium 
chloride  to  1  lb.  of  solder  will  be  sufficient.  The  ammonium 
chloride  should  not  be  stirred  into  the  solder  with  the  iron 
ladle,  since  the  salt  acts  as  a  flux,  and  will  cause  the  solder  to 
alloy  with  the  iron,  thus  causing  iron  to  be  introduced  into  the 
solder.  A  stick  of  green  wood  or  a  solid  carbon  electrode, 
such  as  is  employed  in  the  ordinary  arc  light,  may  be  used. 

As  has  been  said,  the  ammonium  chloride  acts  as  a  flux,  and  the 
object  in  using  it  here  is  to  gather  up  the  oxides  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  melt,  as  well  as  those  that  are  in  it.  If  these 
oxides  were  allowed  to  remain,  they  also  would  cause  the  solder 
to  be  sluggish  when  molten,  and  beside,  to  be  weak  when  solidi- 
fied. After  treating  properly  with  the  ammonium  chloride,  the 
solder  will  be  bright  and  free-flowing.  Ammonium  chloride  is 
easily  volatilized,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  fume  may  be 
produced  on  this  account. 

Fusible  Alloys. — ^Low-melting-point  alloys  are  found  very 
useful  in  a  variety  of  ways.  In  the  automatic  sprinkling 
device,  the  sprinkler  is  kept  closed  by  a  section  of  fusible  metal. 
Fireproof  doors  also  may  be  kept  open  by  fusible  plugs  which 
automatically  allow  the  doors  to  close  in  case  of  fire.  They  are 
used  in  electrical  connections,  in  fire  alarms,  in  safety  plugs  in 
boilers,  and  in  many  other  ways.  Many  of  these  alloys  melt 
in  warm  water.  For  example,  Rose's  alloy,  which  contains 
1  part  of  tin,  1  of  lead  and  2  parts  of  bismuth,  melts  at  94°C. 
(201  °F.).  Newton's  alloy,  containing  3  parts  of  tin,  5  of 
lead  and  8  of  bismuth,  melts  at  94.5°C.  (202°F.).  Wood's 
alloy,  consisting  of  1  part  of  tin,  1  part  of  cadmium,  2  parts  of 
lead  and  4  of  bismuth,  melts  at  60.5°C.  (141°F.).  Lipowitz's 
alloy,  which  contains  4  parts  of  tin,  8  of  lead,  3  of  cadmium  and 
15  of  bismuth,  melts  at  70°C.  (158°F.).  There  are  many  other 
similar  alloys,  and  the  melting  points  of  those  mentioned  may  be 
changed  by  varying  the  proportions. 

A  similar  alloy,  although  having  a  considerably  higher  melt- 
ing point,  is  sometimes  used  by  plumbers  in  joining  articles 
made  of  block  tin,  as  when  installing  receptacles  and  conduc- 
tors for  distilled  water,  and  for  syrups  and  liquids  charged 
with  carbon  dioxide,  where  lead,  brass,  and  iron  pipes  may  not 
be  used.  Plumber's  solder  begins  to  assume  the  pasty  state 
at  about  240°C.  (464°F.),  while  tin  melts  at  232°C.  (449°F.), 
so  it  is  difficult  to  use  the  ordinary  solder  in  this  case.     There- 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  331 

f  ore,  an  alloy  containing  2  parts  tin,  2  of  lead  and  1  part  of 
bismuth,  which  melts  at  145°C.  (293®F.),  is  often  employed. 

OTHER  NON-FERROUS  ALLOYS 

Brass. — This  is  essentially  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc,  but 
commonly,  in  the  industrial  arts,  the  name  brass  is  applied  to 
all  alloys  that  are  decidedly  yellow,  or  have  the  yellowish  tinge 
characteristic  of  common  brass.  In  commercial  alloys,  the 
zinc  may  range  from  5  to  60  per  cent,  but  the  more  important 
are  those  that  do  not  contain  above  about  35  per  cent  of  zinc. 
Brass  consists  of  a  single,  homogeneous  solid  solution,  if  the 
zinc  does  not  exceed  35  per  cent  but  its  structure  is  more  com- 
plex when  the  zinc  exceeds  this  amount. 

The  tensile  strength  of  brass  is  greatest  when  the  amoimt  of 
zinc  is  about  45  per  cent,  but  falls  rapidly  as  the  zinc  increases 
above  this  point.  With  45  per  cent  of  zinc,  the  brittleness  is 
also  very  high,  or  in  other  words,  the  ductility  and  toughness 
are  very  low.  DuctiUty  reaches  a  maximum  with  about  30 
per  cent  of  zinc,  and  decreases  rapidly  with  increase  of  zinc 
beyond  this  amount.  The  most  serviceable  brass  is  that  which 
possesses  the  highest  combined  strength  and  toughness,  this 
being  obtained  in  brass  with  about  35  per  cent  of  zinc.  There 
are,  to  be  sure,  many  brasses  that  contain  more  zinc  than  this, 
toughness  then  being  Sacrificed  for  other  desirable  properties, 
as  hardness  for  example.  Those  that  are  often  included  under 
the  name  Muntz  metal  (sometimes  called  ''high"  brass), 
generally  contain  from  38  to  40  per  cent  zinc.  These  alloys  are 
harder  and  stronger,  but  also  more  brittle  than  the  low-zinc 
alloys.  Brazing  solder  also  contains  a  high  amount  of  zinc, 
from  about  40  to  67  per  cent,  because  the  high-zinc  alloys  have 
lower  melting  points. 

Any  brass  containing  35  per  cent  of  zinc  is  sufficiently  mal- 
leable and  ductile  to  be  converted  into  sheets  and  wire,  but 
usually  these  forms  contain  between  20  and  30  per  cent.  The 
20  per  cent  alloy  is  sometimes  called  "low"  brass.  Cast  brass 
usually  contains  more  zinc  than  that  which  is  converted  into 
sheet  and  wire. 

Yellow  brass  for  plumber's  use  may  consist  of  2  parts  of 
copper  (66.66  per  cent),  1  part  of  zinc  (33.34  per  cent),  with  4 
per  cent  or  less  of  lead  added  to  this  mixture.  Lead  prevents 
the  fouling  of  the  tools,  and  increases  the  ease  of  fihng,  etc. 


332  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Lead  also  increases  the  softness,  and  is  sometimes  added  to 
brass  that  is  to  be  worked.  Valve  brass  (sometimes  also  called 
bronze)  contains  90  per  cent  of  copper,  6  per  cent  of  zinc  and 
4  per  cent  of  lead.  This  alloy  should  be  capable  of  being  peened 
or  worked  with  a  hammer.  If  much  strength  is  demanded  of 
the  brass,  the  lead  must  be  kept  low,  not  above  about  2  per  cent, 
since  lead  causes  brass  to  be  brittle.  Beside,  lead  in  amounts 
above  about  3  or  4  per  cent  does  not  alloy  well  with  brass.  If 
larger  amounts  are  added,  it  has  a  tendency  to  separate  out  in 
the  form  of  globules,  thus  weakening  the  alloy.  Large  amounts 
of  lead  are  often  added  to  cheapen  the  brass. 

There  are  many  other  metals  that  are  frequently  employed 
in  brass.  As  much  as  3  per  cent  of  aluminum  may  be  used. 
The  product  has  a  deep  golden  color  and  is  called  aluminum 
brass.  A  small  quantity  of  tin  is  often  introduced.  As  much 
as  2  per  cent  noticeably  hardens  the  alloy  and  increases  the 
tensile  strength.  Manganese  in  brass  acts  as  a  deoxidizer,  and 
thus  toughens  the  alloy.  It  also  increases  the  hardness  and 
strength.  Antimony  in  brass  is  very  objectionable.  It  makes 
the  alloy  very  brittle  and  is  never  intentionally  added.  The 
action  of  bismuth  is  very  similar.  Arsenic  acts  in  a  like  manner, 
but  its  effect  is  not  so  pronounced. 

Delta  metal  is  essentially  a  brass  containing  a  small  quantity 
of  iron.  It  usually  contains  from  55  to  60  per  cent  of  copper, 
40  to  43  per  cent  of  zinc,  1  to  2  per  cent  of  iron,  with  a  fraction 
of  a  per  cent  of  manganese  or  aluminum.  It  is  very  much 
harder,  stronger  and  tougher  than  ordinary  brass,  the  tensile 
strength  being  about  two-fifths  greater  than  a  similar  brass 
without  the  iron. 

German  silver  may  be  considered  as  a  brass  that  by  the  ad- 
dition of  nickel  has  acquired  a  white  color  and  a  much  increased 
hardness.  It  also  resists  corrosion  and  the  action  of  chemical 
reagents  much  better  than  ordinary  brass,  and  many  of  its 
uses  depend  upon  this  property.  It  has  been  found  that  iron 
further  whitens  and  hardens  the  alloy,  and  most  of  the  com- 
mercial varieties  contain  some  iron,  generally  from  1  to  3 
per  cent.  The  composition  of  german  silver  is  not  definite, 
but  usually  varies  within  the  following  limits:  60  to  65  per 
cent  of  copper,  19  to  30  per  cent  of  zinc,  13  to  20  per  cent  of 
nickel  and  2  to  3  per  cent  of  iron. 

Solder  for  german  silver  consists  of  45  per  cent  of  copper, 
46  per  cent  of  zinc  and  10  per  cent  of  nickel. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  333 

Bronze. — This  is  essentially  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin, 
although  many  other  metals  jBJce  often  introduced.  The  tensile 
strength  of  bronze  increases  gradually  with  the  amount  of  tin, 
reaching  a  maximum  with  about  20  per  cent  of  tin,  falling  off 
rapidly  as  the  tin  is  increased  beyond  this  point.  Bronze  is 
most  ductile  when  it  contains  about  5  per  cent  of  tin,  but  the 
ductiUty  gradually  lessens  and  practically  disappears  with 
about  20  per  cent.  Since  ductility  is  coordinate  with  tough- 
ness, these  alloys  are  very  brittle.  They  are  also  very  hard. 
The  most  useful  of  the  bronzes  are  those  that  contain  from  8  to 
10  per  cent  of  tin,  since  the  maximum  combined  strength  and 
hardness  is  then  secured.  The  tensile  strength  of  bronze  is  in 
general  greater  than  that  of  brass.  The  tensile  strength  of 
both  bronze  and  brass  is  very  much  lessened  when  at  a  tem- 
perature of  about  200**C.  (392**F.)  or  above. 

As  has  been  said,  other  metals  are  often  added  to  bronze. 
Zinc  is  added  to  decrease  the  tendency  toward  segregation. 
It  also  increases  the  fluidity  of  the  molten  bronze  so  that 
bronze  castings  containing  zinc  are  somewhat  more  likely  to 
be  sound.  But  if  more  than  2  per  cent  is  added,  the  hardness 
and  tenacity  are  decreased.  Color  is  said  to  be  improved  by 
zinc.  As  much  as  2  per  cent  of  lead  causes  the  strength  and 
ductility  to  be  very  noticeably  lessened.  Iron  in  bronze  confers 
great  hardness  and  increases  the  whiteness. 

Elements  having  a  marked  deoxidizing  power,  have  a  very 
beneficial  effect  on  bronze.  In  investigations  carried  out  by 
the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Standards  on  the  alloy  known  as  Govern- 
ment bronze,  which  consists  of  88  per  cent  of  copper,  10  per 
cent  of  tin  and  2  per  cent  of  zinc,  it  was  found  by  a  microscopic 
examination  of  the  fractured  test  specimens,  that  entangled 
oxides  were  the  most  common  source  of  weakness.  Such  oxides 
were  frequently  found  to  be  present  on  the  face  of  the  fracture, 
the  conclusion  being  that  they  were  responsible  for  the  break 
occurring  at  that  point.  By  reduction  of  these  oxides  by  a 
suitable  reagent,  the  strength  and  other  desirable  properties 
of  the  bronze  were  much  increased.  Such  elements  as  phos- 
phoruSf  manganese^  silicon  and  aluminum  are  used  for  this 
purpose. 

Phosphor  bronze  is  a  name  applied  to  any  bronze  to  which 
phosphorus  has  been  added,  although  no  phosphorus  may  be 
present  in  the  finished  alloy.  Frequently  all  of  the  phosphorus 
is  used  up  in  reducing  (removing  oxygen  from)  the  metallic 


334  PLUMBERS'  HANDBCX)K 

oxides.  The  amount  remaining  in  the  alloy  should  in  any  case 
be  very  little,  generally  less  than  1  per  cent.  An  excess  causes 
the  bronze  to  be  brittle.  Treatment  with  phosphorus  greatly 
increases  the  tensile  strength,  elasticity,  and  power  to  resist 
repeated  stresses,  such  as  pulls,  twistings,  bendings,  etc. 
Phosphor  bronze  of  proper  composition  can  be  rolled,  forged 
and  drawn  cold.  Its  resistance  to  corrosion  is  much  greater 
than  that  of  ordinary  bronze,  especially  of  sea  water,  and  it  is 
much  used  where  this  property  is  required. 

Silicon  bronze  is  a  bronze  containing  a  fraction  of  a  per  cent 
of  silicon.  like  phosphorus,  silicon  acts  as  a  deoxidizer.  The 
properties  of  silicon  bronze,  are  in  general  similar  to  those  of 
phosphor  bronze,  only  they  are  less  pronounced  It  has  a  much 
higher  electrical  conductivity  than  phosphor  bronze,  and  is 
much  used  where  a  high  tensile  strength  and  electrical  con- 
ductivity are  demanded. 

Manganese  bronze  contains  about  4  per  cent  of  manganese, 
which  also  is  active  as  a  deoxidizer.  It  is  very  strong  and  has  a 
high  corrosion  resistance,  being  therefore  considerably  used  for 
valve  parts. 

Aluminum  bronze  is  called  a  bronze,  although  it  contains  no 
tin.  The  alloy  contains  between  5  and  11  per  cent  aluminum, 
the  remainder  being  copper.  It  is  a  very  tough  and  useful 
alloy,  the  aluminum  acting  as  an  excellent  deoxidizer.  The 
tensile  strength  is  high,  increasing  with  the  amount  of  aluminum 
up  to  11  per  cent,  but  the  tenacity  grows  less  with  increase  of 
aluminum  beyond  this  point.  An  alloy  containing  10.78  per 
cent  of  aluminum,  cast  in  sand,  then  reheated  and  quenched 
from  800°C.  (1,472°F.),  was  found  to  have  a  tensile  strength  of 
112,000  lb.  per  square  inch.  It  has  a  fine  yellow  color  resem- 
bling gold,  and  it  resists  corrosion  very  well.  It  may  be  heated 
to  a  red  heat  in  air  for  some  time  with  but  very  little  oxidation. 

Corrosion-resistant  Alloys. — The  phosphor,  silicon,  manga- 
nese and  aluminum  bronzes  possess  marked  corrosion-resistant 
properties.  For  discussion,  see  the  preceding  paragraphs. 
For  german  silver  which  is  also  a  corrosion-resistant  alloy,  see 
under  **  Brass."     Others  are  discussed  below. 

Monel  metal  is  an  alloy  containing  approximatley  68  to  70 
per  cent  nickel,  26  to  30  per  cent  copper  and  2  to  3  per  cent  iron. 
Its  tensile  strength  when  cast  is  about  80,000  lb.  per  square 
inch.  Its  color  is  very  similar  to  nickel,  but  it  has  a  slightly 
darker  tinge.     Its  corrosion  resistance  is  very  high,  and  it  is 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  335 

much  used  for  work  demanding  resistance  to  the  action  of  sea 
water. 

Nickel  steel  may  contain  as  much  as  42  per  cent  of  nickel 
for  special  uses,  but  the  ordinary  variety  generally  contains 
about  3.50  per  cent.  It  has  much  greater  hardness,  tensile 
strength  and  toughness  than  the  ordinary  steel.  Even  with 
3.50  per  cent  nickel,  it  resists  corrosion  very  well,  but  where  this 
property  is  especially  desired,  the  amount  of  nickel  is  increased. 
For  example,  in  marine  boiler  tubes,  steel  containing  30  per 
cent  nickel  may  be  employed. 

"  Stainless  "  steel  is  an  alloy  that  is  finding  rapidly  increas- 
ing applications.  It  is  an  alloy  containing  from  about  12  to 
14  per  cent  chromium,  and  a  little  cobalt.  A  typical  analysis 
is  said  to  be:  86.6  per  cent  iron,  12.7  per  cent  chromium, 
0.45  per  cent  cobalt,  0.28  per  cent  carbon,  0.01  per  cent  silicon, 
and  0.12  per  cent  manganese. 

The  silicon -iron  alloys  are  resistant  to  ordinary  corrosion, 
but  they  are  especially  noted  for  their  resistance  to  acid  attack. 
They  are  quite  resistant  to  the  action  of  nitric  acid,  and  even 
more  so  to  sulfuric.  However,  they  are  considerably  affected 
by  the  action  of  hydrochloric  acid.  In  the  United  States,  these 
alloys  are  marketed  under  the  trade  names  of  "Duriron," 
"Tantiron"  and  "Corrosiron."  They  are  in  some  respects 
similar  to  ordinary  cast  iron,  although  in  cast  iron  the  carbon 
is  in  the  neighborhood  of  3.50  per  cent,  with  silicon  ranging 
usually  between  1.50  and  3.00  per  cent,  while  in  the  silicon- 
iron  alloys  the  silicon  is  generally  between  14  and  15  per  cent, 
with  carbon  about  1.00  per  cent  or  less.  The  silicon-iron  alloys 
have  a  tensile  strength  of  about  12,000  to  14,000  lb.,  while  that 
of  cast  iron  ranges  between  about  18,000  and  35,000  lb.  The 
silicon-iron  alloys  are  more  brittle  than  ordinary  gray  cast  iron. 

ACIDSi 

In  a  general  way,  an  acid  may  be  defined  as  a  substance  that 
has  a  sour  taste,  turns  blue  Utmus  red  and  contains  hydrogen, 
part  or  all  of  which  can  be  displaced  when  the  acid  is  treated 
with  a  metal.  Also,  an  acid  may  be  said  to  be  a  substance 
that  when  dissolved  in  water  produces  hydrogen  ions.*  Al- 
though all  acids  contain  hydrogen,  not  all  substances  that  con- 

»  See  "Chemical  Plumbing,"  page  220. 

'  For  definition  of  ion,  see  page  300  (Note). 


336  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

tain  hydrogen  are  acids.     The  hydrogen  must  be  held  in  the 
compound  in  a  certain  manner. 

The  properties  of  acids  are  in  general  opposite  to  those  of 
bases,  and  may  be  neutralized  by  the  action  of  bases,  such  as 
caustic  soda  and  potash,  ammonia  water,  Ume  water  and  certain 
other  common  substances,  as  lime,  washing  soda,  etc. 

The  present  discussion  will  deal  only  with  the  so-called 
strong  acids,  that  is,  those  that  when  dissolved  in  water  are 
largely  dissociated  into  ions.  The  common  examples  of  the 
strong  acids  are  sulfuric,  hydrochloric  and  nitric. 

Sulfuric  Acid  (Oil  of  Vitriol).  H2SO4. — Concentrated  com- 
mercial sulfuric  acid  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.82  to  1.84  (64  to 
66°B6.),  and  contains  94  per  cent  of  acid,  the  remainder  being 
water.  It  is  a  thick,  oily  liquid,  and  frequently  is  of  a  brown- 
ish color  because  of  the  presence  of  organic  matter. 

When  sulfuric  acid  is  diluted  with  water,  a  great  amount  of 
heat  is  evolved.  In  mixing  the  water  and  acid,  the  acid  shmdd 
always  he  poured  into  the  water.  If  the  water  is  poured  into  the 
acid,  since  the  water  is  considerably  lighter  than  the  acid,  it 
tends  to  remain  on  top,  and  so  much  heat  may  be  developed  at 
one  point  that  some  of  the  water  may  be  suddenly  converted 
into  steam,  causing  the  acid  to  spatter.  When  the  acid  is 
poured  into  the  water,  it  is  disseminated  more  6asily,  and  the 
heat  is  distributed.  The  mixture  should  always  be  stirred  as 
the  acid  is  poured  in. 

Concentrated  sulfuric  acid  is  very  hygroscopic,  and  if  allowed 
to  stand  exposed,  rapidly  absorbs  water  from  the  atmosphere. 
It  may  easily  absorb  so  much  water  in  this  way  that  the  con- 
tainer will  overflow. 

The  acid  is  also  able  to  extract  water  from  organic  matter, 
such  as  wood,  paper,  cotton,  etc.,  causing  them  to  appear 
charred.  On  this  account  it  is  very  destructive  to  clothing, 
although  less  so  to  woolen  than  to  cotton.  The  concentrated 
acid  should  not  be  allowed  to  come  into  contact  with  the  skin, 
since  it  has  a  decided  bUstering  effect. 

The  cold,  concentrated  sulfuric  acid  does  not  perceptibly 
attack  copper,  tin,  lead,  antimony,  mercury  or  silver,  and  has 
very  Uttle  action  on  iron,  cadmium  and  manganese,  but  these 
metals  are  all  attacked  by  the  hot,  concentrated  acid.  The 
cold,  diluted  acid  dissolves  zinc,  iron,  cadmium  and  manganese, 
forming  a  sulfate  of  the  metal,  and  liberating  hydrogen.  All 
the  salts  of  sulfuric  acid  are  called  suKates. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  337 

Hydrochloric  Acid  (MuriaMc  Add) ,  HCl.  Used  as  a  Soldering 
Flux. — This  acid  is  a  solution  of  hydrogen  chloride  gas  in 
water.  The  gas  is  very  soluble  in  water,  one  volume  of  water 
at  15°C.  (59**F.)  being  able  to  dissolve  about  475  volumes  of 
gas.  This  solution  contains  42.9  per  cent  acid  by  weight. 
The  ordinary  concentrated  form  contains  about  37  per  cent  by 
weight,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.19.  Hydrochloric  acid 
fumes  strongly  in  the  air,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  gas  which 
escapes  from  the  acid  forms  a  solution  with  the  moisture  of  the 
air  which  condenses  in  the  form  of  fog.  The  acid  is  manu- 
factured by  distilling  sodium  chloride  (common  salt)  with 
sulfuric  acid,  and  is.  in  reality  a  by-product  of  the  manufacture 
of  sodium  carbonate  (soda  ash,  washing  soda). 

Cold  hydrochloric  acid,  both  dilute  and  concentrated,  readily 
dissolves  zinc,  iron,  aluminum  and  tin,  although  with  the  latter, 
the  action  is  only  moderately  rapid.  In  all  cases  the  action 
is  much  accelerated  by  heat.  Copper  and  lead  are  not  dissolved 
by  the  cold  dilute  acid  unless  exposed  to  the  air,  and  then  the 
action  is  slow.  These  two  metals  are  only  slowly  attacked  by 
the  hot  concentrated  acid.  When  the  metals  dissolve,  chlorides 
are  formed,  and  hydrogen  is  set  free.  Most  chlorides  are 
soluble  in  water.  Hydrochloric  acid  is  considerably  more 
active  (stronger)  than  suKuric  acid  of  equivalent  concentration. 

The  pure  form  of  the  water  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  is 
colorless,  but  the  crude  form  used  chiefly  for  industrial  purposes 
is  yellowish  or  straw-colored,  this  being  due  to  the  presence  of 
iron  (ferric)  chloride. 

Nitric  Acid  (Aqtia  Fortis) .  HNO3. — Pure  nitric  acid  is  a  color- 
less liquid  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.53  at  15°C.  (59°F.). 
The  ordinary  concentrated  commercial  variety  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.42,  and  contains  approximately  70  per  cent  nitric 
acid  by  weight,  the  remainder  being  water.  The  concentrated 
acid  decomposes,  especially  under  the  influence  of  light,  into 
oxygen,  water  and  the  oxides  of  nitrogen,  which  latter  color 
the  acid  yellow.  The  diluted  acid  is  much  more  stable.  Nitric 
acid  is  made  by  distilling  Chili  salt  peter  (sodium  nitrate), 
NaNOa,  with  sulfuric  acid.  It  is  also  prepared  by  other 
methods. 

Nitric  acid  is  considerably  stronger  than  sulfuric,  and  is  a 

powerful  oxidizing  agent.     If  the  strong  acid  is  poured  upon 

sawdust,  the  mass  often  bursts  into  flame.     The  concentrated 

acid  is  very  destructive  to  the  skin  and  causes  painful  sores. 

22 


338  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Even  the  diluted  acid  stains  the  skin  yellow  or  brown  and 
causes  it  to  peel  off  after  a  time. 

The  ordinary  commercial  form  dissolves  most  of  the  cominon 
metals,  including  several  that  are  not  much  attacked  by  sul- 
furic and  hydrochloric,  for  example,  copper,  mercury  and  silver. 
It  is  the  best  solvent  for  brass,  bronze  and  other  copper  alloys. 
Its  salts  are  called  nitrates,  but  nitrates  are  not  always  formed 
by  its  action  on  the  metals.  With  tin,  metastannic  acid  is 
formed,  this  being  a  white,  insoluble  substance.  If  the  acid 
is  very  dilute,  hydrogen  will  be  given  off  during  the  action  of 
nitric  acid  on  most  of  the  metals,  but  with  the  more  concen- 
trated form,  various  nitrogen  compounds  are  liberated  in 
place  of  hydrogen.  Its  action  varies  according  to  the  metal, 
the  concentration  of  the  acid  and  the  temperature.  In  some 
instances,  the  metal  is  turned  into  the  "passive  state,"  thus 
being  rendered  insoluble  (see  page  314).  Because  of  the  vigor 
of  its  action  on  the  metals,  nitric  acid  was  formerly  called  aqua 
fortis,  meaning  strong  water. 

PREPARATION  OF  HYDROGEN  FOR  LEAD  BURNING, 

ETC. 

At  the  present  time,  large  quantities  of  hydrogen  are  used  in 
a  great  variety  of  industrial  processes,  and  it  has  become  a 
common  article  of  commerce.  It  is  supplied  to  the  trade  in 
steel  cylinders,  under  a  pressure  of  100  to  150  atmospheres 
(1  atmosphere  =  14.7  lb.),  which  constitute  a  very  convenient 
source  of  supply. 

If  desired,  hydrogen  may  be  prepared  for  use  in  lead  burning 
by  the  action  of  dilute  sulfuric  acid  on  zinc  or  scrap  iron. 
Although  iron  is  cheaper,  it  reacts  rather  slowly,  and  zinc  is  the 
metal  that  is  more  commonly  used.  The  apparatus  employed 
for  the  generation  and  collection  of  the  gas  is  usually  lead- 
lined,  since  lead  is  practically  unaffected  by  sulfuric  acid. 
Acid  of  the  proper  concentration  for  use  may  be  prepared  by 
pouring  one  part  of  concentrated  acid  (1.84  sp.  gr.,  66°  B4.) 
into  9  parts  of  water  (both  by  volume),  observing  the  precau- 
tions given  under  "Sulfuric  Acid,"  page  336,  for  mixing  the 
acid  with  water.  The  dilute  solution  thus  prepared  will 
have  a  specific  gravity  of  approximately  1.12  (15.4**B€.),  and 
will  contain  about  17  per  cent  acid  by  weight. 

Purification  of  Hydrogen. — Hydrogen  prepared  by  the  action 
of  sulfuric   acid  on  zinc  will   contain  several  objectionable 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  339 

impurities,  such  as  hydrogen  sulfide,  H2S;  stibine  or  antimony 
hydride,  SbHs;  and  arsine  or  arsenuretted  hydrogen,  AsHs. 
All  of  these  gases  are  poisonous  when  inhaled,  the  latter  two 
being  exceptionally  so.  Their  presence  in  the  hydrogen  is  due 
to  the  presence  of  small  quantities  of  sulfur,  antimony  and 
arsenic,  or  compounds  of  these  elements,  in  the  zinc  employed. 
The  arsine  is  the  most  objectionable  of  the  gases  mentioned, 
when  the  hydrogen  is  burned.  Its  oxidation  product  is  arseni- 
ous  oxide,  AS2O3,  known  as  "white  arsenic."  If  arsine  is 
present  in  the  hydrogen,  the  arsenious  oxide  will  be  evolved 
from  the  flame  in  the  form  of  a  fume,  perhaps  in  a  quantity  so 
small  as  to  be  invisible,  but  sufficient  to  be  poisonous  when 
inhaled.  Hydrogen  prepared  by  the  action  of  acid  on  zinc 
should  therefore  be  purified. 

Sufficient  purification  for  use  in  lead  burning,  etc.,  may  be 
secured  by  passing  the  gas  through  a  trap  containing  a  solution 
made  by  dissolving  5  g.  of  potassium  permanganate,  KMnOi, 
and  10  g.  of  sodium  hydroxide  (caustic  soda,  NaOH)  in  water 
and  diluting  to  100  c.c.  (A  solution  of  approximately  equiva- 
lent concentration  may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  2  oz.  of 
potassium  permanganate  and  4  oz.  of  caustic  soda  in  1  -qt.  of 
water).  Or  also,  about  a  15  per  cent  solution  of  copper  sulfate 
(blue  vitriol,  CUSO4)  in  water  may  be  employed  (5  oz.  of  copper 
sulfate  in  1  qt.  of  water). 

The  use  of  the  trap  also  prevents  the  "snapping  back  "of 
the  flame  to  the  hydrogen  generator  and  causing  an  explosion, 
which  it  is  likely  to  do  if  the  hydrogen  is  lighted  after  recharging, 
before  the  air  has  been  sufficiently  swept  from  the  generator 
by  the  issuing  gas. 

BASES  ANa>  ALKALIES 

Bases. — It  is  rather  difficult  to  give  an  exact  definition  of  the 
term  fea«e,  since  it  is  used  in  chemistry  with  somewhat  different 
meanings.  However,  in  inorganic  chemistry  it  is  usually 
employed  to  mean  a  metallic  hydroxide,  which  is  a  compound 
that  may  be  formed  by  causing  the  oxide  of  a  metal  to  unite 
with  water.  For  example,  lime,  which  is  the  oxide  of  the  metal 
calcium,  by  combining  with  water  produces  calcium  hydroxide, 
Ca(OH)2.  The  solution  produced  by  dissolving  this  hydroxide 
in  water  is  called  Ume  water.  The  oxides  from  which  bases 
of  this  sort  are  derived,  are  known  as  basic  oxides.     A  base 


340  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

is  sometimes  defined  as  a  substance  that  ionizes  in  water  with 
the  production  of  hydroxyl  (OH)  ions  (for  ion,  see  page  300). 
In  general,  the  properties  of  bases  are  opposite  to  those  of  acids. 
Bases  and  acids  react  readily  with  each  other,  producing  a  salt 
and  water.  By  the  reaction,  the  properties  of  both  are  de- 
stroyed and  they  are  said  to  have  neutraUzed  each  other. 

Alkalies. — The  very  soluble  hydroxides,  having  marked  basic 
properties,  are  termed  alkahes.  The  alkalies  are  also  called 
strong  bases,  meaning  that  when  dissolved  in  water,  they  are 
in  a  large  measure  dissociated  into  ions.  The  alkalies  that 
will  be  considered  here  are  sodium  hydroxide,  NaOH;  potas- 
sium hydroxide,  KOH;  and  ammonium  hydroxide,  NH4OH. 
In  the  last  named  compound,  the  group  or  radical,  NH4, 
although  not  a  metal,  acts  as  such,  and  is  therefore  included 
in  this  group. 

Sodium  Hydroxide  {Caustic  Soda,  Soda  Lye).  NaOH. — 
This  is  a  white,  crystalUne  solid.  It  is  very  easily  melted  and 
is  frequently  cast  in  stick  form  for  convenience  in  use.  It 
rapidly  absorbs  water  and  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air,  and 
unless  kept  in  a  tightly-stoppered  container  will  in  a  very  short 
time  absorb  enough  water  to  dissolve  itself  entirely.  By  the 
action  of  carbon  dioxide,  CO2,  it  is  converted  into  sodium  car- 
bonate, Na2C03,  or  washing  soda.  Therefore,  if  the  properties 
of  sodium  hydroxide  are  to  be  retained,  it  must  not  be  allowed 
to  remain  long  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 

A  solution  of  sodium  hydroxide  rapidly  dissolves  aluminum, 
with  the  evolution  of  great  heat.  It  is  also  quite  active  on  zinc 
and  tin;  consequently  it  must  not  be  kept  in  galvanized  or  tin- 
plated  vessels.  It  has  practically  no  effect  on  iron,  and  on  this 
account  commonly  appears  on  the  market  in  iron  cans  or 
drums.  It  is  practically  without  action  on  copper,  lead  and 
cadmium. 

It  is  quite  destructive  to  the  skin  and  flesh,  decomposing  it 
and  converting  it  into  a  slimy  mass.  On  this  accoimt  it  is 
said  to  have  a  "soapy"  feel.  It  is  also. from  this  property 
that  the  name  caustic  soda  is  derived.  It  has  an  active  solvent 
effect  on  wool,  but  cotton  is  much  more  resistant.  It  converts 
the  fatty  oils  into  soaps. 

Potassium  Hydroxide  {Caustic  Potash,  Potash  Lye).  KOH. 
The  properties  of  potassium  hydroxide,  including  its  action 
on  the  metals,  are  practically  the  same  as  those  of  sodium 
hydroxide,  which  see. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  341 

Ammonium  Hydroxide  (Ammonia  Water).  NH4OH. — 
Although  included  here  among  the  strong  bases,  ammonium 
hydroxide  is  relatively  weak  compared  to  sodium  and  potassium 
hydroxides.  In  solutions  of  such  concentration  that  the  sodium 
and  potassium  hydroxides  are  ionized  to  the  extent  of  about  91 
per  cent,  ammonium  hydroxide  is  in  a  solution  of  equivalent 
concentration  ionized  to  only  4.07  per  cent.^ 

Ammonium  hydroxide  is  made  by  dissolving  ammonia  gas 
in  water,  with  which  it  reacts,  as: 

NH3  +  H20-^NH40H 

The  solubility  of  the  gas  in  water  is  very  great.  One  volume  of 
water  at  room  temperature  takes  up  about  700  volumes  of  the 
gas,  and  it  is  much  more  soluble  at  lower  temperatures.  Not 
all  of  the  gas  absorbed  reacts  with  the  water  according  to  the 
preceding  equation.  Probably  only  about  30  per  cent  of  it 
combines,  the  remainder  being  merely  dissolved  by  the  water. 
The  ordinary  solution  of  commerce,  known  as  "concentrated 
ammonia,"^  contains  about  28  per  cent  by  weight  of  ammonia 
gas,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  0.90.  The  so-called  "house- 
hold ammonia"  has  a  concentration  of  from  one- third  to  one- 
half  this  amount.  Although  its  action  is  milder,  Uke  the  sodium 
and  potassium  hydroxides,  it  is  able  to  convert  the  fatty  oils 
into  soaps,  and  on  this  account  is  much  used  as  a  cleansing 
agent.  Because  of  the  fact  that  no  residue  is  left  when  the 
solution  is  evaporated,  ammonia  water  was  formerly  called 
'*  volatile  alkaU,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  solid  alkalies, 
sodium  and  potassium  hydroxides,  which  were  called  "fixed 
alkalies." 

Ammonium  hydroxide  acts  upon  copper  with  the  formation  of 
a  blue  solution.  It  attacks  brass  and  some  other  copper  alloys 
in  a  similar  manner. 

THE  ACTION  OF  FLUXES  IN  SOLDERING* 

The  value  of  a  flux  in  soldering  depends  upon  its  ability  to 
remove  the  oxide  or  other  adherent  matter  from  the  surface 
of  the  metal,  and  to  stay  in  place  and  keep  awa^  the  air,  so 

1  Byers,  Inorganic  Chemistryi  page  175. 

^  The  water  solution  of  ammonia  must  not  be  confused  with  the  Uquid 

ammonia  employed  in  refrigerating  machines.     The  latter  is  a  colorless, 

liquified  gas,  obtained  by  compression  and  cooUng,  and    may  be  entirely 

water-free.     The  liquified  gas  is  also  a  common  article  of  commerce,  being 

sold  in  strong  steel  cylinders. 

>  See  section  on  "Soldering,"  page  376. 


342  PLUMBERS^  HANDBOOK 

that  further  oxidation  cannot  take  place  before  the  molten 
solder  can  be  brought  into  contact  with  the  cleaned  surface 
and  form  an  alloy  with  it.  Probably  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases,  the  flux  cleans  the  metal  by  reacting  chemically  either 
with  the  oxide,  or  with  the  underlying  surface  of  the  metal  so 
that  the  superficial  layer  is  removed.  In  some  instances,  the 
flux  may  remove  the  undesirable  material  by  dissolving  it 
directly.  In  either  case,  the  action  is  accelerated  by  heat. 
The  speed  of  chemical  reactions,  and  the  solubiUty  of  substances 
in  their  solvents,  as  a  general  rule,  is  greater  at  the  higher 
temperatures.  If  the  metal  were  cleaned  mechanically  only, 
as  with  a  file,  a  film  of  oxide,  imperceptible  to  the  eye,  would 
form  on  the  metal  before  the  solder  could  be  applied.  Solder 
does  not  form  an  alloy  with  metallic  oxides. 

For  use  in  the  so-called  softnsoldering  process,  zinc  chloride 
is  a  very  serviceable  flux  for  practically  all  the  conunon  indus- 
trial metals  and  alloys  including  iron  and  steel.  It  does  not 
serve  for  aluminum,  however,  since  the  oxide  on  aluminum 
forms  so  readily  and  adheres  so  tenaciously  that  some  special 
methodj  such  as  later  described,  must  be  used.  Zinc  chloride 
may  be  employed  in  the  form  of  a  solution,  as  a  paste  made  of 
the  salt  slightly  moistened  with  water,  or  as  a  paste  made  by 
thoroughly  stirring  the  more  or  less  dry  zinc  chloride^  into 
vaseline. 

Instead  of  using  vaseline  for  making  the  paste,  a  mixture  of 
oils  and  fats,  as  for  example,  olive  oil  and  tallow,  either  with  or 
without  rosin,  may  be  employed.  The  fats  and  rosin  are  first 
melted  together,  and  then  the  zinc  chloride  is  stirred  in.  Some- 
times ammonium  chloride  is  used  to  replace  a  part  of  the  zinc 
chloride  in  these  mixtures. 

If  the  solution  of  zinc  chloride  is  used,  it  is  prepared  most 
cheaply  by  diluting  commercial  hydrochloric  (muriatic)  acid 
with  water,  and  then  neutraUzing  it  with  zinc  in  excess.  If  the 
acid  is  not  sufficiently  diluted,  it  will  not  all  be  neutralized, 
since  after  the  zinc  ions  in  solution  have  reached  a  certain  con- 
centration, more  are  prevented  from  entering.  After  the  action 
has  ceased,  the  solution  may  be  tested  for  neutralization  by 
diluting  a  sample  of  it  with  about  half  its  volume  of  water  and 
dropping  in  a  piece  of  zinc.     If  effervescence  occurs,  the  whole 

1  Zinc  chloride  is  a  very  hygroscopic  salt,  and  absorbs  water  from  the 
atmosphere  so  readily  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  keep  it  in  a  really  dry 
condition. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  343 

of  the  stock  solution  should  be  diluted  a  httle  and  allowed 
to  stand  longer  with  the  zinc. 

Although  hydrochloric  acid  is  often  used  as  a  flux  by  itself,  it 
is  not  recommended.  It  etches  the  metal  and  leaves  it  pitted. 
The  dissolved  salts  in  these  pits  are  then  sealed  in  when  the 
solder  is  apphed,  The  numerous  pockets  thus  formed  are 
equivalent  to  minute,  primary  electric  cells,,  and  the  electro- 
chemical action  in  time  weakens  the  joint.  A  similar  condition, 
although  much  less  pronounced,  may  occur  when  salts,  such  as 
the  zinc  and  ammonium  chlorides  above  mentioned,  are  em- 
ployed, particularly  when  the  work  is  exposed  to  the  weather. 
To  obivate  all  chance  of  this  occurring,  rosin,  used  alone,  is  often 
employed  as  a  flux.  However,  it  is  a  less  active  fluxing  agent 
than  the  chlorides  mentioned.  It  should  be  noted  here  that 
when  the  zinc  chloride  is  used  in  the  paste  form  with  vasehne  or 
fats,  the  chance  of  the  pitting  action  occurring  is  practically 
eliminated. 

For  soldering  aluminum,  the  Litot  fluxes  and  solders  sold  by 
the  Aluminum  Company  of  America  are  probably  the  best 
obtainable.  The  aluminum  is  first  cleaned  with  about  a  20 
per  cent  solution  of  hydrofluoric  acid,  HF,  after  which  it  is 
thoroughly  washed  to  remove  the  dissolved  salts.  The  parts 
to  be  soldered  are  then  coated  evenly  with  the  flux,  and  heated 
carefully  until  the  solder  will  melt  when  a  stick  of  it  is  rubbed 
on.  A  soldering  iron  may  be  used  for  light  work.  After  the 
solder  has  run  well  over  the  surfaces  to  be  joined,  they  are  held 
pressed  firmly  together  until  the  joint  has  cooled.  There  are 
two  forms  of  the  solder,  a  soft  and  hard  variety.  The  former 
melts  at  about  380°C.  (715°F.)  and  the  latter  at  about  455°C. 
(850°F.).  With  the  hard  solder,  the  use  of  the  flux  is  not  rec- 
ommended, especially  for  outside  work. 

For  the  hard  soldering  of  metals  other  than  aluminum,  that 
is,  in  the  so-called  brazing  process,  borax,  either  with  or  without 
a  little  ammonium  chloride,  is  used  as  a  flux. 

CLEANING  METALS  AND  ALLOYS 

Grease,  old  lacquer,  paint,  and  varnish  may  be  removed  by 
boiling  in  about  a  10  per  cent  solution  of  caustic  soda.  As  water 
evaporates,  more  should  be  added  to  keep  the  concentration 
from  increasing  unduly.  Aluminum  articles  should  never  be 
treated  in  this  way,  and  tin  and  zinc  should  be  allowed  to 


344  PLUMBERS'  HANDBCX)K 

remain  in  the  bath  only  a  very  short  time.  These  three  metals 
are  attacked  by  strong  alkalies,  aluminum  very  actively.  The 
caustic  soda  removes  the  grease,  lacquer,  etc.,  because  it  con- 
verts the  oils  and  resins  that  may  be  present  in  the  lacquers, 
varnishes,  etc.  into  soaps.  Although  mineral  oils  cannot  be 
converted  into  soaps,  they  are  removed  because  the  alkaline 
solution  forms  an  emulsion  with  them. 

After  removing  the  article  from  the  solution,  it  must  be 
washed  thoroughly,  preferably  in  running  water,  and  then 
immersed  in  boiling  water  until  the  metal  has  been  fully  heated 
to  the  temperature  of  the  water.  Then  it  should  be  removed 
from  the  hot  water,  dried  as  much  as  possible  with  a  clean 
cloth,  or  most  of  the  adherent  water  may  be  removed  by  shak- 
ing, after  which  it  should  be  suspended  in  a  warm  place  until 
drying  is  complete.  Since  the  metal  is  hot,  the  water  will 
evaporate  quickly.  Rapid  drying  is  necessary  in  the  case  of 
iron  articles  to  prevent  corrosion. 

Another  method  for  removing  grease  consists  of  dipping  in 
benzol  or  petroleum  spirit.  A  succession  of  at  least  three 
baths  should  be  used,  since  if  only  one  is  employed,  the  removal 
of  the  grease  will  never  be  complete.  A  film  of  the  solvent, 
which  will  be  contaminated  with  grease,  will  be  left  on  the  article 
when  it  is  removed  from  the  bath,  and  as  the  solvent  evaporates, 
the  grease  will  remain. 

If  the  article  is  too  large  to  be  immersed,  the  solvent  may  be 
applied  by  sponging. 

Removal  of  Incrustations  Produced  by  Corrosion. — Oxide 
layers  and  salts  produced  by  corrosion  may  be  removed  by 
immersion  in  suitable  acid  baths.  This  process  is  known  as 
"pickling." 

Rust  and  scale  may  be  removed  from  iron  articles  by  immer- 
sion in  about  a  25  per  cent  solution  of  either  hydrochloric  or  sul- 
furic acid.  The  black  scale  is  not  soluble  in  the  acid,  but  is 
removed  by  acid  treatment  because  the  underlying  layer  of  iron 
is  dissolved.  To  prepare  a  pickle  that  will  leave  the  iron  bright, 
pour  2  qt.  of  concentrated  sulfuric  acid  into  25  qt.  of  water 
(not  the  water  into  the  acid)  with  stirring,  and  dissolve  5  oz. 
of  zinc  in  the  mixture.  Then  add  1^  qt.  of  concentrated 
nitric  acid. 

After  removal  from  any  of  the  acid  baths,  the  article  should 
be  washed,  and  then  placed  in  about  a  10  per  cent  solution  of 
washing  soda  (soda  ash)  until  any  remaining  acid  is  neutralized. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  345 

When  removed  from  this  bath,  it  should  be  washed  and  dried 
according  to  the  method  given  as  the  final  treatment  under  the 
removal  of  grease  and  lacquer,  which  see. 

Copper,  brass,  bronze  and  german  silver  may  be  cleaned  by 
dipping  in  the  following:  water  40  parts,  commercial  con- 
centrated sulfuric  acid  40  parts,  concentrated  nitric  acid  20 
parts,  and  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  1  part.  Treatment 
in  this  solution  must  be  followed  by  washing  as  outlined  in  the 
preceding  paragraph. 

SANITARY  W  ARE  1 

Sanitary  ware  may  be  divided  into  two  main  classes:  (1) 
that  produced  by  the  application  of  a  glaze  to  a  clay-product 
body;  and  (2)  that  produced  by  enamelling  articles  made  of 
cast-iron  and  steel. 

In  both  cases  it  is  essential  that  the  coating  applied  have 
the  same  coefficient  of  expansion  as  the  material  composing  the 
body.  This,  of  course,  is  presumably  taken  care  of  by  the  manu- 
facturer, but  sometimes  within  only  certain  ranges  of  tempera^ 
ture.  Hence,  cracking  of  the  enamel  may  result  from  contact 
with  boiling  water,  when  atmospheric  changes  of  temperature 
would  have  no  effect. 

None  of  the  ordinary  glazes  or  enamels  of  sanitary  ware  are 
able  to  withstand  the  action  of  the  strong  acids,  such  as  nitric, 
hydrochloric  and  sulfuric,  since  they  were  not  made  with  this 
end  in  view.  The  composition  of  the  enamel  is  too  high  in 
basic  oxides,  especially  of  the  heavy  metals,  and  too  low  in 
silica.  However,  glazes  and  enamels  can  be  made  that  are 
proof  against  at  least  the  weaker  acids,  such  as  found  in  foods, 
etc.,  by  suitably  adjusting  the  composition. 

That  class  of  ware  produced  by  the  application  of  a  glaze  to  a 
clay-product  body  is  known  as  vitreous  ware. 

Vitreous  Ware. — The  body  of  the  ware  is  made  of  a  mixture  of 
English  and  American  clay,  ground  flint  and  feldspar.  Since 
this  mixture  has  a  yellowish  tint,  a  certain  small  amount  of 
cobaltic  oxide  is  added.  During  the  firing  of  the  ware,  the 
cobaltic  oxide  reacts  with  silica  in  the  mixture,  producing  blue 
cobaltic  silicate,  which  changes  the  yellowish-white  of  the  mix- 
ture to  a  bluish- white.  After  the  mixture  is  made,  it  is  worked 
up  in  water  to  a  cream-like  fluid,  called  "slip"  and  strained  to 
remove  coarse  particles.     The  water  is  then  removed  from  the 

1  See  section  on  Plumbing  Fixtures,  page  250. 


346  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

slip  by  a  filter  press,  and  the  resultant  clay  putty  is  stored  in 
cellars  to  be  "aged/'  The  ageing  increases  the  plastic  charac- 
ter of  the  clay.  After  ageing,  the  clay  is  compressed  in  a 
pugging  mill  to  remove  air  bubbles.  From  the  clay  thus  pre- 
pared, the  articles  are  made  by  various  methods,  as  by  the  use  of 
a  potter's  wheel,  by  pressing  in  a  mold  or  by  casting.  In  many 
instances,  the  article  is  made  in  sections,  the  various  pieces 
being  then  stuck  together  by  means  of  a  little  slip  and  soft 
clay,  the  joints  being  smoothed  to  as  perfect  a  seam  as  possible. 

For  example,  in  a  syphon-jet  water  closet,  there  may  be  as 
many  as  16  pieces. 

A  process  that  is  used  for  making  small  articles  is  known  as 
the  "dust"  process.  For  this  process,  the  clay  is  dried  and 
ground  to  a  fine  dust,  and  then  is  pressed  into  shape  in  steel 
dies.  The  buttons  used  as  index  plates  on  faucets  are  thus 
made,  the  words  "hot"  and  "cold"  being  stamped  upon  the 
button  after  the  first  firing. 

Before  the  ware  made  by  any  process  can  be  fired,  it  must  be 
thoroughly  dried,  an  operation  that  in  some  instance  requires 
several  weeks.  When  dried,  the  ware  is  placed  in  rough  clay 
boxes  or  cases,  called  "saggers,"  which  are  sealed  with  clay 
wadding.  This  is  done  to  prevent  the  flame  in  the  kiln  from 
coming  into  direct  contact  with  the  ware,  since  if  this  should 
happen  the  ware  would  be  discolored.  During  the  first  26 
hr.,  the  temperature  of  the  kiln  is  raised  to  about  815°C.  (1,500"- 
F.),  and  then  is  quickly  brought  up  to  a  temperature  ranging 
from  about  1,100°C.  (2,012°F.)  to  1,425°C.  (2,597°F.).  When 
fired,  the  ware  is  called  "biscuit."  The  biscuit  is  now  ground 
to  remove  any  roughness  of  surface. 

Printing. — If  it  desired  to  have  the  ware  show  any  printing, 
it  is  placed  upon  it  while  in  the  biscuit  condition.  A  clay 
paste  containing  an  ingredient  that  will  burn  to  the  desired 
color  is  prepared  and  spread  upon  an  engraved  plate.  The 
excess  clay  is  then  removed,  leaving  only  that  which  Ues  in  the 
lines  of  the  engraving.  Tissue  paper  is  now  spread  upon 
the  copper  plate  with  even  pressure,  and  when  withdrawn,  the 
clay  adheres  to  the  paper.  The  paper  carrying  the  colored- 
clay  design  is  laid  upon  the  ware  and  rubbed  with  a  hard  brush, 
which  causes  the  design  to  be  transferred  to  the  ware.  After- 
ward the  paper  is  washed  off. 

Glazing. — The  mixture  for  the  glaze  contains  a  variety  of 
substances,  such  as  feldspar,  flint,  kaolin,  boric  acid  and  certain 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  347 

metallic  oxides,  as  those  of  zinc,  tin  and  lead,  and  is  so  propor- 
tioned that  its  fusing  point  is  lower  than  that  of  the  body  of  the 
ware  or  biscuit.  The  mixture  is  fused  to  a  glass,  ground  in 
water  to  a  cream-like  consistency,  and  the  biscuit  is  dipped  into 
it.  After  drying,  the  ware  is  fired  in  a  so-called  "glost"  kiln. 
This  kiln  is  not  so  hot  as  that  in  which  the  biscuit  was  first 
fired,  but  it  brings  the  glaze  to  its  fusing  point,  so  that  it  fills  the 
pores  of  the  ware,  and  the  glaze  and  body  become  practically 
a  single  mass. 

Water  closets,  tanks,  lavatories,  drinking  fountains,  etc. 
are  made  in  this  manner. 

Enamelled  Cast-iron  and  Steel  Ware. — If  the  sanitary  ware 
is  made  by  enameUing  a  metaUic  body,  cast  iron  is  the  metal 
that  is  usually  employed,  although  steel  is  used  to  some  extent. 
If  steel  is  employed,  it  is  used  in  the  form  of  sheets,  which  are 
pressed  or  stamped  into  shape. 

Preparation  of  the  Cast-iron  Body. — For  making  the  casting, 
the  iron  must  be  of  special  composition.  Grunwald^  says  that 
cast  iron  of  the  following  composition  is  generally  used: 

Per  cent 

Carbon 3. 60 

Silicon 2 . 

PhoflphoruB 1 . 4  to  1 . 8 

Manganese 5  to    .7 

The  very  high  phosphorus  content  is  essential  to  the  produc- 
tion of  the  thin  sections  of  the  castings,  since  phosphorus  con- 
fers much  increased  fluidity  upon  the  molten  iron,  and  lessens 
its  shrinkage. 

The  shape  of  the  casting  is  important.  It  must  be  free  from 
heavy  spots  and  sharp  edges.  When  poured,  the  iron  must 
not  be  too  hot,  since  scale  or  sand  fused  into  the  casting  will 
make  it  impossible  to  produce  a  smooth  enamelled  surface. 
The  castings  are  not  machined  before  enameUing,  since  this 
produces  a  surface  that  is  too  close  grained.  If  it  is  necessary 
to  do  any  finishing,  they  are  pickled,  and  sand  blasted.  If 
they  become  rusted  during  storage  before  enamelling,  all 
traces  of  rust  must  be  removed,  since  the  enamel  would  be 
stained  otherwise. 

Preparation  of  Steel  for  Enamelling. — After  pressing  or 
stamping  into  shape,  the  grease  and  oil  are  removed  from  the 

1  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Enamelling  on  Iron  and  Steel." 


348  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

forms  either  by  burning  them  off  in  a  furnace,  or  by  immersion 
in  an  acid  "pickling"  bath.  If  the  piece  is  to  be  burned,  it  is 
usually  first  sprinkled  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  is  then  held 
in  the  furnace  until  red  hot.  If  treated  in  a  pickling  bath, 
it  is  afterward  rinsed  in  water  and  then  sponged  by  hand  to 
remove  the  carbon  film  left  by  the  action  of  the  acid.  Next  it 
is  passed  into  a  neutraUzing  tank  containing  a  solution  of  soda 
ash  and  caustic  soda.  It  is  then  placed  in  a  drying  room,  which 
is  heated  to  about  120°C.  (248°F.),  and  allowed  to  remain  until 
dry. 

Preparation  of  the  Enamel. — ^The  enamel  applied  to  the  iron 
or  steel  article  is  in  some  respects  a  glass,  but  it  is  not  an  ordi- 
nary glass.  It  consists  fundamentally  of  the  following:  silica, 
derived  from  quartz,  flint  or  sand;  alumina,  obtained  by  the 
use  of  feldspar  and  clay;  and  lime  from  fluorspar  or  calcite. 
In  addition  to  these  substances,  cryoUte,  NasAlFe,  is  introduced 
as  an  aid  in  imparting  a  water-white  color  and  making  the 
enamel  non-transparent.  About  3  per  cent  of  tin  oxide,  SnOj, 
is  also  added  for  its  whitening  effect.  Borax  is  used  to  intro- 
duce the  boric  anhydride,  B2O8,  which  among  other  desirable 
features  makes  the  enamel  more  ductile  and  elastic.  Soda  ash 
and  pearl  ash  are  used  as  fluxes.  Sodium  and  potassium  ni- 
trates are  used  as  oxidizing  agents.  If  the  enamel  being  made 
is  designed  for  a  ground  coat,  it  almost  always  contains  a 
certain  amount  of  cobaltic  oxide,  which  seems  to  possess  a 
great  power  of  causing  the  enamel  to  stick  to  the  metal.  The 
reason  is  not  well  understood.  Because  of  the  use  of  cobaltic 
oxide,  the  ground  coat  is  usually  colored  blue,  but  color  is  no 
object  in  the  ground  coat.  After  the  mixtmre  is  made  and 
fused  to  a  glass,  it  is  cooled  and  then  is  finely  ground. 

Application  of  the  Enamel. — After  the  metaUic  article,  for 
example,  a  bath  tub  casting,  has  been  made,  cleaned  and 
smoothed,  a  first  coating  of  enamel  is  applied  in  the  wet  form. 
As  has  been  said,  this  is  of  such  composition  that  it  possesses 
the  quality  of  sticking  very  well  to  the  iron.  It  is  then  able  to 
form  a  strong  bond  between  the  iron  and  the  white  enamel  that 
is  later  appUed.  After  the  wet  or  slush  coat  has  dried,  the 
article  is  placed  in  a  furnace  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about 
925°C.  (I,697°F.),  and  the  enamel  is  fused.  When  the  first 
coat  hjis  been  properly  melted,  the  article  is  withdrawn  from 
the  furnace,  and  the  first  coat  of  white  enamel  is  sifted  on  in  the 
form  of  a  powder.     The  article  is  then  quickly  returned  to  the 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  349 

furnace  and  re-heated  until  the  freshly  deposited  enamel  has 
melted  and  combined  with  the  first.  After  this,  a  second,  or 
more  coatings,  of  the  powdered  enamel  are  appUed  in  a  like 
manner.  After  the  last  coating  has  been  appUed,  the  article 
is  withdrawn  from  the  furnace  and  allowed  to  cool  in  an  atmos- 
phere free  from  dust. 

Bath  tubs,  sinks,  lavatories,  tanks,  etc.  are  made  of 
enameled  cast  iron. 

THE  FATTY  OILS^ 

Under  the  head  of  fatty  oils  are  included  both  the  liquid  and  the 
solid  fats.  There  is  really  no  sharp  Une  of  distinction  between  the 
two.  The  liquid  fats  or  oils  become  soUd  at  low  temperatures, 
while  even  the  hardest  fats  become  fluid  at  about  50*'C.  (112°F.) 

Solubility. — The  fatty  oils  are  almost  completely  insoluble  in 
acetone  and  cold  alcohol,  but  they  are  more  soluble  in  hot 
alcohol.  They  dissolve  very  readily  in  ether,  chloroform, 
carbon  tetrachloride  ("carbona"),  carbon  bisulfide,  benzole, 
parafiine  oils  and  petroleum  naphtha  or  gasoline.  In  respect 
to  its  solubiUty,  castor  oil  is  a  distinct  exception  to  the  others. 
It  is  quite  soluble  in  cold  alcohol,  but  is  only  very  sUghtly 
soluble  in  gasoline,  and  petroleum  oils. 

Composition. — The  fatty  oils  do  not  consist  of  single  sub- 
stances, but  are  made  up  of  mixtures  of  compounds,  known  as 
triglycerides.  The  triglycerides  contain  the  common  radical 
or  group,  glyceryl,  CsHs,  which  is  united  with  different  acid 
radicals,  thereby  forming  the  various  fatty  substances.  The 
more  common  of  these  compounds  are: 

Triglyceryl  palznitate,  or  palmatin C3H5(Ci6H8i02)3 

Triglyceryl  stearate  or  stearin C3H6(Ci8H3602)3 

Triglyceryl  oleate  or  olein C8H6(Ci8H3302)3 

Triglyceryl  linoleate  or  linolein C8H5(Ci8H8i02)8 

Triglyceryl  linolenate  or  linolenin C3H6(C]8H2902)8 

The  first  two  of  these  compounds  are  soUd  at  room  temperature, 
while  the  latter  three  are  fluid.  Tallow  and  lard,  which  are 
soUd  fats;  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  palmatin  and 
stearin,  and  some  olein.  Fluid  oils,  such  as  neatsfoot  and 
olive  oils,  consist  chiefly  of  olein  but  contain  also  some  palmatin 
and  stearin.  Tallow  oil  and  lard  oil  are  largely  olein,  having 
been  made  from  the  corresponding  natural  fats  by    cooUng 

^  See  section  on  "Pipe  Threading,"  page  192. 


350  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

them  to  a  certain  temperature  and  squeezing  out  the  olein  in  a 
filter  press. 

Lard  oil  is  much  used  as  a  lubricant  in  thread  cutting.  It 
has  an  advantage  over  the  mineral  lubricating  oils  in  that  its 
viscosity  is  lowered  to  a  less  degree  by  increase  of  temperature. 

The  Drying  and  Non-drying  Oils. — Some  fatty  oils,  when 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere  in  a  thin  layer,  are  converted  into  a 
tough,  elastic  film.  Such  oils  are  known  as  drying  oils.  The 
change  is  not  due  to  the  evaporation  of  a  volatile  constituent, 
but  to  oxidation.  The  oil  actually  increases  considerably  in 
weight,  although  at  the  same  time  certain  oxidation  products 
are  lost.  The  best  known  example  of  this  type  is  Unseed  oil, 
but  there  are  several  others,  such  as  Chinese-wood  oil,  soya- 
bean oil,  walnut  oil,  etc. 

The  drying  properties  of  these  oils  is  due  especially  to  the 
presence  in  them  of  the  latter  two  compounds  given  in  the 
preceding  table,  that  is  Hnolein  and  linolenin,  although  olein 
has  the  drying  property  to  a  slight  degree.  Linseed  oil  is  made 
up  of  about  85  per  cent  of  olein,  linolein  and  Unolenin,  and  about 
15  per  cent  of  solid  fats. 

The  drying  oils  are  used  for  pamts  and  varnishes,  and  the 
non-drying  for  lubrication.  There  are  some  oils  that  possess 
the  drying  propertj^  to  a  mild  degree,  and  are  known  as  semi- 
drying  oils,  for  example,  cottouseed  and  corn  oils.  It  should 
be  noted  that  since  the  drying  oils  are  rather  readily  oxidized  by 
the  air  they  may  take  fire  spontaneously  under  certain  condi- 
tions (see  "Spontaneous  Combustion,"  page  353). 

The  Action  of  the  Caustic  Alkalies  (Lye)  on  the  Fatty  Oils.— 
Saponification. — The  sodium,  potassium  and  ammonium 
hydroxides  (see  ''Bases  and  Alkalies,"  page  339)  act  on  the 
triglycerides  of  the  fatty  oils  (see  "Composition  of  the  Fatty 
Oils,"  page  349)  and  convert  them  into  soaps.  As  an  example, 
the  action  of  caustic  soda  on  stearin^  one  of  the  major  constitu- 
ents of  tallow,  is  shown  in  the  following  equation: 

BNaOH  -h  C8H5(Ci8H8602)8-^3Na(Ci8H8502)  +  C8H5(OH)a 
Caustic        Stearin  Soap  Glycerin 

Soda 

This  represents  the  common  method  of  soap  manufacture,  and 
is  called  saponification.  Both  the  soap  and  the  glycerine 
formed  are  soluble  in  water,  and  use  is  often  made  of  this 
reaction  to  remove  accumulations  of  fats  from  drains,  etc. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  351 

PETROLEUM  OIL  PRODUCTS 

By  a  process  of  refining,  which  is  essentially  fractional  distil- 
lation, there  is  obtained  from  crude  petroleum  oil  a  great 
variety  of  products.  In  this  discussion,  there  will  be  considered 
briefly   gasoUne,   kerosene  and  the   mineral  lubricating  oils. 

Composition  of  Crude  Petroleum  Oil. — The  composition  of 
crude  oil  varies  according  to  the  "field"  from  which  it  comes, 
although  all  are  hydrocarbon  oils  and  are  in  no  sense  like  the 
fatty  oils  described  on  page  349.  For  example,  the  oil  from  the 
Appalachian  field  (Pennsylvania  Oil)  is  made  up  largely  of 
the  parafiine  series  of  hydrocarbons.  This  series  begins  with 
methane,  CH4,  the  chief  constituent  of  natural  gas,  and  each 
member  of  the  series  increases  by  CH2  as  follows:  CjHe,  CsHa, 
C4H10,  CsHij,  CbHm,  C7H16,  to  about  C86H72,  a  solid  wax 
(paraffin).  In  this  series  the  number  of  hydrogen  atoms  in 
any  compound  is  always  two  more  than  twice  the  number  of 
carbon  atoms,  as,  CnH2„+2. 

Gasoline. — Under  this  name  is  included  the  light,  volatile 
liquids  derived  from  crude  petroleum  that  broadly  include  the 
hydrocarbons  from  about  C6H12  to  about  C10H22.  They  are 
also  known  by  such  names  as  petroleum  spirit,  petroleum 
naphtha,  benzine,  etc.  The  name  benzine  must  not  be  con- 
fused with  benzene  (benzol),  which  is  a  liquid  with  entirely 
different  properties  obtained  from  coal  tar. 

Gasolines  are  generally  marketed  according  to  their  density  or 
Baum6  hydrometer  reading,  as  68°,  60°,  etc.  The  Baum6 
scale  for  liquids  lighter  than  water  begins  at  10°.  The  instru- 
ment sinks  to  this  point  when  it  is  floated  in  pure  water  at  a 
temperature  of  60°F.  The  larger  numbers  are  at  the  top  of  the 
scale  and  represent  the  lighter  liquids.  To  some  extent  the 
Baum^  readings  indicate  the  ease  with  which  the  gasoUne  will 
evaporate.  For  example,  a  70°B^.  gasoline  will  be  more  volatile 
than  one  with  a  60°  reading.  The  Baum^  readings  are  not  a 
thoroughly  reliable  guide  to  volatility,  since  many  gasolines 
are  "blended,"  or  made  by  mixing  a  very  light  volatile  hquid 
with  a  heavy  one.  Much  more  accurate  information  is  obtained 
by  determining  the  temperature  at  which  it  distils,  particularly 
the  temperature  at  which  the  last  portion  distils,  this  being 
known  as  the  "end  point." 

Gasoline  is  a  good  solvent  for  all  the  mineral  oils,  for  many 
pitches,  waxes,  tars,  etc.,  and  for  all  the  fatty  oils  excepting 
castor  oil. 


352  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Kerosene. — That  portion  of  the  paraffine  hydrocarbon  series 
including  the  compounds  from  about  C11H24  to  about  C14H30  is 
generally  known  as  lamp  oil,  kerosene  or  illuminating  oil.  The 
grades  are  designated  according  to  their  fire  t-est.  The  fire 
test  is  that  temperature  at  which  the  oil  will  give  off  vapor 
rapidly  enough  to  support  a  steady  flame.  There  are  usually 
four  grades,  110°F.,  120°F.,  150°F.  and  300°F.  These  grades 
are  each  divided  into  sub-grades  according  to  color;  that  is 
whether  "water  white,"  straw-colored,  etc.  The  150°F. 
fire-test  oil  is  the  grade  usually  required  to  be  used  by  city 
ordinances  in  the  United  States.  The  300°  grade  is  used 
largely  in  switch  lamps.     The  other  grades  are  largely  exported. 

Mineral  Lubricating  Oils. — After  the  gasolines  and  kerosenes 
have  been  distilled  from  the  crude  oil,  the  next  inaportant 
division  constitutes  the  lubricating  oils.  They  consist  approxi- 
mately of  the  hydrocarbons  C1&H82  to  C24H60.  These  are 
divided  into  light,  medium  and  heavy  grades,  and  are  generally 
designated  as  the  mineral  lubricating  oils  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  fatty  oils. 

In  all  lubrication,  the  lubricating  layer  should  adhere  to  the 
metallic  surfaces,  with  a  consequent  shearing  of  the  lubricant 
itself.  It  is  therefore  important  to  know  the  ease  with  which 
the  particles  of  oil  or  grease  will  slide  over  one  another.  In  an 
oil  that  flows  sluggishly,  there  is  considerable  friction  between 
the  particles,  and  the  oil  is  said  to  be  viscous  or  to  have  a  high 
viscosity.  For  any  lubrication,  the  least  viscous  oil  that  will 
stay  in  place  and  do  the  work  should  be  used.  It  must,  of 
course,  have  sufficient  viscosity  so  that  it  will  not  be  squeezed 
out  by  the  maximum  load  that  will  be  placed  on  the  bearing, 
but  if  it  possess  greater  viscosity  than  this,  power  is  wasted  in 
shearing  the  oil.  Bearings  operating  at  high  speeds  require 
oils  that  are  less  viscous  than  those  operating  at  slow  speeds, 
other  things  being  equal. 

As  a  safety  factor,  the  determination  of  the  flash  point  is 
important.  The  flash  point  is  that  temperature  at  which  the 
oil  will  give  off  sufficient  vapor  to  support  only  a  momentary 
flame.     It  is  approximately  50°F.  below  the  fire  test. 

Other  requirements  of  a  good  lubricant  are  that  it  must  not 
"gum"  upon  exposure  or  while  in  use,  must  contain  no  acid, 
and  must  be  able  to  withstand  reasonably  low  temperatures 
without  solidifying  or  becoming  unduly  viscous. 


— ^^1 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  353 

PRINCIPLES  OF  COMBUSTION* 

Ignition  Temperature. — In  the  ordinary  sense,  the  terms 
combustion  and  burning  are  synonymous,  both  indicating  the 
rapid  union  of  oxygen  with  a  combustible  substance,  a  process 
that  is  accompanied  by  the  evolution  of  heat  and  generally 
by  the  production  of  light.  Although  heat  is  practically 
always  produced  by  the 'union  of  oxygen  with  another  sub- 
stance, there  are  many  instances  in  which  oxidation  takes 
place  with  no  noticeable  rise  in  temperature.  This  occurs 
when  the  process  is  so  slow  that  the  heat  produced  is  conducted 
away  as  fast  as  it  is  formed.  When  the  heat  is  produced  more 
rapidly  than  it  is  disseminated,  the  temperature  of  the  sub- 
stance rises,  and  the  speed  of  the  reaction  is  increased.  The 
speed  of  chemical  reactions  is  practically  always  increased  by 
raising  the  temperature.  The  increased  speed  of  the  reaction, 
in  turn,  causes  the  heat  to  be  produced  more  rapidly,  which 
increases  the  speed  of  the  reaction  still  more,  until  finally  the 
ignition  or  kindling  point  is  reached  and  the  substance  bursts 
into  flame.  The  ignition  or  kindling  point  is  defined  as  that 
temperature  at  which  burning  begins,  or  conversely,  as  that 
temperature  below  which  it  cannot  take  place.  Even  when  a 
substance  is  burning  vigorously,  if  it  is  cooled  to  a  temperature 
below  its  kindling  point  it  will  be  extinguished.  For  example, 
a  candle  flame  may  be  extinguished  by  surrounding  it  by  a  coil 
of  copper  wire,  or  a  gas  flame  may  be  put  out  by  inserting  in  it  a 
mass  of  cold  silver  or  copper.  These  metals  are  good  heat 
conductors  and  readily  chill  the  flame.  Also  flames  may  be 
extinguished  by  a  blast  of  air,  the  moving  air  current  carrying 
away  so  much  heat  that  the  temperature  falls  to  below  the  kin- 
dling point  of  the  burning  substance. 

Spontaneous  Combustion. — When  the  heat  produced  by  slow 
oxidation  is  retained  sufficiently  so  that  the  kindling  temperature 
is  reached  and  burning  begins,  as  explained  in  the  preceding 
paragraphs,  it  is  said  that  spontaneous  combustion  has  occuiv 
red.  As  an  example,  we  will  consider  the  case  of  linseed  oil, 
and  certain  other  oils  used  in  paints  and  varnishes,  that  when 
exposed  to  the  air  unite  rather  rapidly  with  oxygen  (see  "  Dry- 
ing and  Non-drying  Oils,"  page  350).  However,  even  when 
exposed  to  the  air  in  a  thin  layer,  as  in  a  paint  or  varnish,  these 
oils  do  not  unite  rapidly  enough  with  oxygen  so  that  the  heat 

1  See  section  on  "Flue  and  Chimney,"  page  17 
23 


354  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

produced  will  cause  the  action  to  be  very  noticeably  accelerated. 
The  heat  is  conducted  away  about  as  fast  as  it  is  generated 
But  if  cotton  waste  be  moistened  with  linseed  oil,  the  surface 
of  the  oil  exposed  to  the  air  is  much  increased,  £ind  the  oxidation 
goes  on  much  more  rapidly.  Beside,  the  cotton  waste  is  a 
poor  conductor  of  heat.  Under  these  conditions,  spontaneous 
combustion  is  very  likely  to  take  place.  This  should  be  borne 
in  mind  when  using  cotton  waste  or  similar  material  as  an 
absorbent  for  the  drying  oils  or  preparations  containing  them, 
as  paints  and  varnishes. 

The  mineral  oils  (see  page  351),  such  as  are  commonly  used 
for  lubrication,  are  less  likely  to  ignite  spontaneously,  but  the 
danger  even  in  this  case  is  not  absent,  and  care  should  alwa^'s 
be  exercised  to  dispose  properly  of  oily  waste  of  any  kind. 

Spontaneous  combustion  will  occur  also  in  coal,  especially 
if  finely  divided.  Experiments  have  shown  that  coal  powdered 
so  fine  that  95  per  cent  will  pass  through  a  100-mesh  sieve  will 
ignite  spontaneously  in  48  hr. 

Other  combustible  substances  act  in  a  similar  manner. 
Spontaneous  combustion  is  more  likely  to  occur  if  the  substance 
is  finely  divided,  has  a  low  kindling  temperature  and  is  a  poor 
conductor  of  heat. 

Explosion  of  Gases. — As  gases  are  ordinarily  burned,  the 
speed  of  burning  is  determined  by  the  rate  of  flow  of  gas  from 
the  burner,  and  this,  in  turn,  is  determined  by  the  pressure 
under  which  it  is  kept  in  the  gas  holders,  mains,  etc.,  and  the 
size  of  the  opening  through  which  it  passes.     If  air  or  oxygen 
is  mixed  with  the  gas  in  suitable  proportion  prior  to  the  time  it 
is  ignited,  the  rate  of  burning  is  not  controlled  by  the  rate  of 
transportation  of  the  gas,  and  the  "flame  wave"  will  pass 
through  the  mixture  at  very  high  velocity.     Thus  a  large 
volume   of  gas  may  be  burned  almost  instaneously.     When 
this  takes  place  an  explosion  is  said  to  have  occurred.     There 
is  a  certain  maximum  speed  at  which  the  flame  or  explosion 
wave  travels,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  gas,  the  propor- 
tions of  the  mixture,  etc.     In  a  mixture  of  2  parts  hydrogen 
and  1  part  oxygen  by  volume,  the  explosion  wave  travels  at 
the  rate  of  nearly  1 J^  miles  per  second,  which  is  about  six  and 
one-half  times  the  speed  of  the  sound  wave  in  this  mixture. 
Although  the  wave  travels  less  rapidly  than  this  through  ex- 
plosive mixtures  of  the  ordinary  fuel  gases  and  air,  it  is  apparent 
*hat  the  time  required  for  it  to  travel  through  such  a  mixture 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY 


355 


contained  in  the  room  of  a  building,  for  example,  would  be 
practically  negligible.  Because  of  the  large  volume  of  gas 
that  can  be  burned  in  this  way  in  a  very  short  time,  and  the 
greatly  expanded  condition  of  the  products  of  the  explosion 
due  to  the  heat  of  the  reaction  (and  in  some  instances  to  an 
actual  increase  in  volume),  a  violent  rending  force  is  manifested. 
Not  all  proportions  of  combustible  gases  mixed  with  air  are 
explosive.  If  the  amoimt  of  gas  is  above  or  below  certain  limits, 
an  explosion  will  not  occur,  even  though  a  proper  source  of 
ignition  be  supplied.  The  explosive  limits  for  various  gases 
are  approximately  as  follows:^ 


Gas 


Lower 
explosive 

limit, 
per  ceDt 

of  gas 


Upper 
explosive 

limit, 
per  cent 

of  gas 


Explosive 
range, 

per  cent 
of  gas 


Carbon  monoxide 

Hydrogen 

Water  gas 

Acetylene 

Coal  gas 

Methane 


16.5 

9.5 
12.5 

3. 

8. 

6. 


75 
66 
67 
52 
19 
13 


58.5 
57.5 
55.5 

48. 

11. 

7. 


The  Safety  Lamp. — When  a  fine-mesh  wire  gauze  is  held  in  a 
horizontal  position  above  the  tip  of  a  gas  burner,  and  the  gas  is 
lighted  above  the  gauze,  the  flame  burns  on  that  side  but  does 
not  pass  to  the  lower  side.  Or  if  the  gas  is  lighted  and  the 
gauze  is  then  pressed  down  upon  the  flame,  the  flame  does  not 
pass  through  to  the  upper  side,  unless  the  gauze  is  held  in 
place  imtil  it  becomes  red  hot.  This  shows  that  although  the 
gauze  is  not  a  gas  screen,  it  is  a  flame  screen.  The  reason  is 
that  as  the  burning  gas  attempts  to  pass  through  the  gauze,  it 
conducts  the  heat  away  from  the  flame  so  rapidly  that  the 
temperature  is  lowered  to  below  the  kindling  point.  Upon  this 
principle,  the  safety  lamp  has  been  devised.  It  consists 
essentially  of  an  oil  lamp  with  a  tightly  fitting  chimney  of 
wire  gauze,  and  is  intended  for  use  in  atmospheres  where  it  is 
suspected  that  there  may  be  explosive  mixtures  of  gas  and  air. 
The  flame  from  the  lamp  is  not  communicated  to  the  explosive 

1  From  table  quoted  by  Mellor,  "  Modern  Inorganic  Chemistry,"  page 
742. 


356  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

mixture  outside  for  the  reason  explained,  although  the  explosive 
mixture  may  pass  through  the  gauze  and  bum  inside  the  lamp, 
or  cause  small,  harmless  explosions  there.  An  occurrence  of 
this  sort  serves  as  a  warning  of  the  presence  of  dangerous 
gases. 

Flame. — The  term  flame  is  generally  used  to  describe  the 
phenomena  accompanying  the  rapid  interaction  of  two  or 
more  gases,  whereby  considerable  heat  and  more  or  less  light 
are  evolved.  In  most  cases,  one  gas  passes  in  the  form  of  a 
stream  into  a  larger  volume  of  the  other,  and  the  reaction  takes 
place  at  the  surface  of  contact  of  the  two.  In  the  more  familiar 
flames,  some  gas  such  as  hydrogen,  coal  gas,  natural  gas,  or 
other  gas  ordinarily  spoken  of  as  combustible,  reacts  with 
oxygen  of  the  air,  and  it  is  generally  considered  that  it  is  the 
gas  that  is  burned.  However,  the  air  takes  an  equal  part  in 
the  reaction,  and  if  a  stream  of  it  be  passed  into  an  atmosphere 
of  so-called  combustible  gas  with  suitable  ignition,  the  familiar 
flame  form  will  appear,  and  the  air  can  in  the  same  sense  be 
spoken  of  as  burning.  Nevertheless,  in  the  present  discussion, 
a  flame  will  be  considered  to  be  produced  bj'  burning  a  fuel  gas 
in  free  contact  with  air. 

Although  many  solids  bum  with  a  flame,  the  flame  is  not  pro- 
duced by  the  burning  of  the  solid  directly.  A  flame  is  always 
a  gas  burning.  In  a  candle  flame,  for  example,  a  combustible 
gas  is  continuously  manufactured  by  the  heat  of  the  flame 
from  the  melted  wax  that  ascends  the  wick.  In  a  similar 
manner  a  combustible  gas  is  manufactured  when  such  sub- 
stances as  paper,  wood,  coal,  etc.  bum  with  a  flame. 

Structure  of  Flames. — When  a  stream  of  gas  issues  from  a 
tube  into  air,  the  general  shape  of  the  flame  is  a  hollow  cone. 
The  cone  formation  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  central  part  of 
the  gas  stream  must  rise  higher  than  the  outside  before  it  can 
cQme  into  contact  with  air.  The  interior  of  the  flame  con- 
sists of  unbumt  gases.  If  the  end  of  a  narrow  tube  be  held  in 
the  central  part  of  the  flame,  gases  may  be  conducted  away 
and  burned  elsewhere.  This  is  true  not  only  of  the  ordinary 
gas  flame,  but  of  the  flames  produced  by  burning  soUds,  as  the 
candle  flame,  wood  flame,  etc.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  flame, 
it  is  only  the  outer  shell  that  is  relatively  hot.  This  may  be 
demonstrated  by  holding  a  wire  gauze  in  this  section  of  the 
flame.  It  will  be  heated  only  in  the  form  of  a  ring.  A  match 
head  may  be  held  in  the  interior  of  the  flame  without  being 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  357 

ignited,  although  the  stick  will  be  burned  where  it  passes 
through  the  outer  layer  of  the  flame.  Between  the  surface 
of  the  relatively  cold  interior  cone  and  the  outer  margin  of  the 
flame  proper,  the  actual  burning  place  takes.  Depending  upon 
the  nature  of  the  reactions  that  take  place  during  burning, 
flames  are  divided  into  two  classes,  luminous  and  non-luminous. 
Luminous  Flames. — A  candle  flame  will  be  considered  as  a 
typical  example  of  the  luminous  flames.  It  consits  of  four 
parts : 

1.  The  dark  inner  cone,  which  is  common  to  both  luminous 
and  non-luminous  flames,  has  just  been  described  under  * 'Flame." 

2.  Surrounding  the  dark  cone  is  a  blue-colored  mantle  that  is 
best  seen  at  the  base  of  the  flame,  but  which  extends  under  the 
luminous  part,  and  encases  the  dark  cone  completely.  In  this 
layer  or  zone,  the  hydrocarbons  (compounds  of  hydrogen  and 
carbon)  are  in  part  oxidized  to  carbdn  monoxide  and  hydrogen, 
as: 

C2H4  +  O2  ->  2C0  +  2H2 

It  is  important  to  note  the  fact  that  carbon  monoxide  and 
hydrogen  are  produced  here,  since  during  imperfect  combustion, 
as  when  the  flame  is  chilled  by  striking  a  cold  object,  some  of 
these  gases  may  escape  unburned.  Carbon  monoxide  is  a 
very  poisonous  gas  (see  page  362). 

3.  Outside  the  blue  layer  is  the  light-giving  portion,  the 
luminosity  being  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  presence  of  incan- 
descent solid  matter.  The  way  in  which  incandescent  solid 
matter  produces  luminosity  may  be  illustrated  by  means  of  the 
hydrogen  flame.  The  ordinary  hydrogen  flame  is  almost 
invisible,  but  if  some  infusible,  non-volatile  matter,  as  powdered 
charcoal  or  quicklime  be  introduced,  the  particles  are  heated  to 
incandescence  and  the  flame  becomes  luminous.  A  mixture  of 
99  per  cent  thorium  oxide  and  1  per  cent  cerium  oxide  has  very 
high  light  producing  properties  when  sufficiently  heated,  and 
this  is  used  in  making  the  Welsbach  mantle  employed  in  gas 
lighting. 

In  the  ordinary  luminous  flame,  such  as  is  produced  by  burn- 
ing hydrocarbons,  the  luminosity  is  largely  due  to  the  presence 
of  highly  heated  carbon  particles.  Just  why  these  carbon 
particles  appear  in  some  flames  and  not  in  others  is  not  cer- 
tainly known,  there  being  several  factors  that  are  influential. 
Investigations  have  shown  that  the  free  carbon  is  accompanied 


358  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK      > 

by  free  hydrogen,  and  the  most  satisfactory  view  is  that  the 
heat  of  the  flame  causes  a  part  of  the  heavy  hydrocarbons  to 
break  down  into  hydrogen  and  acetylene,  which  latter  is  ii 
turn  dissociated  as  follows: 

C2H2  -f-  heat-^2C  -\-  Hj 

Acetylene  is  a  compound  that  absorbs  a  great  deal  of  heat  when 
it  forms;  consequently  when  it  breaks  up,  this  heat  is  again 
Hberated  and  the  temperature  of  the  carbon  particles  is  raised 
even  above  that  of  the  rest  of  the  flame.  The  freed-carbon 
particles  glow  as  they  gradually  move  forward  through  the 
flame  until  they  come  into  contact  with  the  air,  and  are  burned 
to  invisible  carbon  dioxide. 

4.  CJovering  the  luminous  zone,  is  a  faint  non-luminous 
mantle,  which  is  best  seen  when  the  light  from  the  luminous 
portion  is  suitably  obstructed.  In  this  mantle  the  combustion 
is  completed,  the  carbon  being  burned  as  previously  indicated, 
and  the  hydrogen  being  burned  to  water. 

Non-luminous  Flames. — The  non-luminous,  or  bunsen 
flame,  has  only  three  parts,  the  luminous  zone  being  absent. 
Luminosity  is  prevented  by  mixing  air  with  the  gas  before  it 
issues  from  the  burner.  Just  why  the  admission  of  air  causes 
non-luminosity  is  not  easy  to  explain,  and  space  cannot  be 
given  to  it  here.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  due  alone  to  improved 
oxidation,  since  the  introduction  of  nitrogen  and  other  inert 
gases  produce  a  like  effect.^ 

With  the  same  amount  of  gas  being  burned  in  the  same  time 
the  flame  is  smaller  when  non-luminous  than  when  luminous. 
Thus,  the  non-luminous  flame  being  more  concentrated,  has 
a  greater  intensity  or  is  hotter  than  the  luminous  flame, 
although  the  heat  quantity  produced  by  both  is  the  same.  If 
both  were  burned  in  the  open  air  of  a  room,  the  temperature  of 
the  air  would  be  increased  as  much  by  one  as  by  the  other,  but 
if  it  were  desired  to  heat  an  object  locally,  the  non-luminous 
flame  would  be  the  more  efficient. 

Temperature  of  Flames. — The  temperature  obtainable  by 
heating  a  small  body  in  a  bunsen  flame  is  said  to  range  from 
1,100°C.  (2,012°F.)  to  1,350°C.  (2,462°F.);  in  a  gasoline  blow- 
torch flame,  from  1,500'»C.  (2,732'»F.)  to  1,600°C.  (2,912°F.); 
in  the  oxyhydrogen  flame,  about  2,000°C.  (3,602'*F.);  in  the 

^  For  a  complete  explanation  of  the  various  factors  that  have  to  do  with 
luminosity  and  non-luminosity,  see  Mellor,  "  Modern  Inorganic  Chemistry,** 
pages  746  to  750. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  359 

oxy acetylene  flame,  about  2,400**C.    (4,353°F.);  and  in  the 
electric  arc,  about  3,500*'C.  (6,332°F.).^ 

Heat  Radiated  by  Flames. — Non-luminous  flames  do  not 
heat  much  by  radiation,  since  gases  are  poor  radiators.  The 
bunsen  flame  is  said  to  radiate  only  about  12  per  cent  of  its 
heat  into  space,  while  the  luminous  flame  radiates  about  30 
per  cent.  Because  of  this,  when  heating  a  room  by  means  of  a 
gas  grate  for  example,  material  such  as  flre-clay  forms,  asbestos 
matting  or  asbestos  wool  is  used.  Although  these  substances 
become  no  hotter  than  the  flame,  they  are  better  radiators,  and 
more  heat  is  thrown  off  into  the  room,  with  a  correspondingly 
less  quantity  passing  into  the  flue  with  the  products  of  combus- 
tion. Incandescent  carbon  is  a  good  radiator;  hence  a  lumin- 
ous flame  radiates  heat  to  a  greater  extent  than  a  non-luminous 
one. 

Oxidizing  and  Reducing  Flames. — In  the  outer  mantle  of 
flames,  especially  at  the  tip,  oxidation  is  completed  and  the 
temperature  is  very  high.  This  portion  is  known  as  the  oxidiz- 
ing flame  because  of  its  ability  to  give  up  oxygen  to  substances 
that  are  capable  of  being  oxidized.  Metals  are  converted  into 
their  oxides  by  this  flame.  The  inner  part  of  the  flame  is 
called  the  reducing  flame  because  that  portion  is  seeking  oxygen. 
It  does  not  cause  oxygen  to  combine  with  metals,  being  able, 
in  fact,  to  remove  oxygen  from  metallic  oxides,  which  are 
thereby  reduced  to  the  metallic  state.  The  difference  in  this 
respect  between  the  outer  and  inner  portions  of  a  flame  may  be 
investigated  by  holding  a  copper  wire  across  different  parts  of 
the  flame. 

Conditions  Necessary  for  Complete  Combustion. — In  order 
that  combustion  may  be  complete,  two  conditions  must  be 
fulfilled :  there  must  be  an  excess  of  air,  and  the  temperature  of 
the  fuel  must  be  sufficiently  high.  Although  an  excess  of  air 
is  desirable,  this  excess  must  not  be  too  great,  for  the  air  in 
passing  through  the  zone  of  combustion  carries  away  heat  and 
thus  may  retard  burning  by  cooUng  the  fuel.  In  a  similar  way 
a  cold  object  placed  in  a  flame  will  interfere  with  combustion 
in  its  immediate  neighborhood  because  of  its  absorption  of 
heat.  As  long  as  the  object  is  cold,  the  flame  cannot  touch  it. 
There  will  be  a  clear  space  between  the  two.  As  the  object 
grows  hotter,  this  space  will  lessen,  and  when  the  object  is  as 
hot  as  the  flame,  the  flame  will  come  into  actual  contact  with  it. 
^  Mellor,  "Modern  Inorganic  Chemistry,"  page  7C0. 


360  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Ordinarily,  when  water  is  boiled  in  an  open  vessel,  its  tem- 
perature does  not  rise  above  lOCC.  (212°F.).  Since  the  ten> 
peiature  of  an  ordinary  flame  is  considerably  above  1,000°C. 
(1,832°F.),  it  is  evident  that  the  flame  cannot  be  in  contact 
with  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  In  the  bunsen  flame,  the  hottest 
part  is  just  above  the  tip  of  the  inner  cone.  Objects  can  be 
most  advantageously  heated  by  placing  them  at  this  point. 
If  placed  higher  in  the  flame,  they  will  be  heated  less  rapidly, 
and  if  placed  lower,  will  cause  incomplete  combustion  by 
cooling  the  blue-colored  inner  mantle  in  which  the  carbon  mon- 
oxide and  hydrogen  are  being  produced.^ 

Under  suitable  conditions,  the  carbon  monoxide  and  hydro- 
gen formed  in  the  inner  mantle  are  oxidized  to  carbon  dioxide 
and  water  in  the  outer  mantle,  but  if  the  flame  is  chilled  too 
quickly,  as  with  a  cold  object,  there  may  be  insuflficient  time 
for  the  oxidation  to  take  place,  and  some  of  these  gases  may 
escape  unburned.  As  has  been  indicated,  the  air  itself  has  a 
chilling  effect  on  the  flame,  and  if  the  gas  issues  from  the  burner 
jet  under  excessive  pressure,  there  may  not  be  time  enough  to 
oxidize  completely  all  the  constituents  of  the  flame  before  it  is 
cooled  to  below  the  ignition  point. 

Relative  Volumes  of  Gases  Produced  by  Combustion. — 
When  carbon  burns  completely,  the  volume  of  carbon  dioxide 
produced  is  the  same  as  the  volume  of  oxygen  used,  as: 

2C  -h  2O2     -►    2CO2 

When  combustion  is  imperfect  and  carbon  monoxide  is  formed, 
two  volumes  of  gaseous  product  are  made  from  one  volume  of 
oxygen,  thus: 

2C  +  O2     -*    2C0 

Two  volumes  of  hydrogen  with  one  volume  of  oxygen  form  two 
volumes  of  water  vapor,  as: 

2H2  +  O2     -►    2H2O 

There  is  then  a  diminution  of  one-third,  even  when  the  water 
is  in  the  form  of  vapor.  When  the  vapor  condenses  to  hquid 
water,  the  volume  of  the  water  is  approximately  jt/q^  of  the 
volume  of  the  vapor  that  was  formed. 

In  the  complete  burning  of  a  hydrocarbon,  both  carbon 
dioxide  and  water  are  formed.  The  first  of  the  following 
equations  represents  the  burning  of  methane,  of  which  natural 

iFor  reactions  taking  place  in  this  mantle,  see  page  357. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  361 

gas  largely  consiste,  and  the  second  equation  represents  the 
burning  of  a  constituent  of  gasoline. 

CH4  +  2O2       —     CO2  +  2H2O 
C7H16  +  IIO2     -*    7CO2  +  8H2O 

In  the  first  equation,  one  volume  of  methane  gas  and  two 
volumes  of  oxygen  produce  one  volume  of  carbon  dioxide  and 
two  volumes  of  water  vapor,  the  total  volumes  being  the  same 
before  and  after  burning.  In  the  second  equation,  one  volume 
of  the  gasoline  vapor  and  eleven  volumes  of  oxygen  produce 
seven  volumes  of  carbon  dioxide  and  eight  volumes  of  water 
vapor,  a  total  increase  of  three  volumes.  In  all  the  volume 
relations  stated,  it  is  understood  that  the  temperature  and 
pressure  after  burning  have  been  reduced  to  the  same  as  before 
burning. 

Physiological  Effects  of  the  Products  of  Combustion. — 
Since  the  chief  combustible  constituents  of  ordinary  fuels  are 
composed  of  the  elements  carbon  and  hydrogen,  the  chief 
products  of  complete  combustion  are  carbon  dioxide  and  water. 
With  incomplete  combustion,  carbon  monoxide  may  be  pro- 
duced in  addition. 

Small  amounts  of  both  carbon  dioxide  and  water  vapor  are 
always  present  in  the  air.  In  the  air  of  the  open  country,  the 
amount  of  carbon  dioxide  varies  from  0.03  to  0.04  per  cent 
(3  to  4  parts  in  10,000);  in  the  air  of  cities,  from  0.035  to  0.045 
per  cent  (3.5  to  4.5  parts  in  10,000);  and  in  badly  ventilated 
rooms  it  may  run  up  to  0.5  per  cent  (50  parts  in  10,000)  or 
even  higher.  The  gas  is  not  particularly  poisonous,  but  when 
present  in  sufficient  quantity,  it  has*  a  suffocating  effect.  Five 
or  six  per  cent  in  air  causes  a  marked  panting  and  increases  the 
beating  of  the  pulse.  Large  quantities  produce  death  by  merely 
excluding  oxygen;  in  other  words,  death  is  due  to  "drowning" 
in  practically  the  same  sense  as  it  is  caused  by  water.  How- 
ever, the  presence  of  2  or  3  per  cent  is  not  particularly  harmful. 

An  excessive  amount  of  water  vapor  is  objectionable.  The 
amount  of  water  vapor  carried  by  the  air  depends  upon  the 
temperature.  Thus,  at  18°C.  (64.4°F.),  air  at  the  pressure  of 
one  atmosphere  is  able  to  carry  about  2  per  cent  by  volume  of 
water  vapor.  If  this  air  is  cooled  to  0°C.  (32°F.),  it  could 
retain  only  a  small  part  of  the  moisture  previously  held.  The 
remainder  would  condense  as  a  fog  or  rain.  The  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  air  is  usually  designated  in  terms  of  relative 


362  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

humidity.  When  the  air  is  saturated  with  water  vapor,  the 
relative  humidity  is  said  to  be  100  per  cent.  Atmospheric  air 
is  rarely  saturated,  the  relative  humidity  being  roughly  about 
66  per  cent;  that  is,  it  generally  contains  about  two-thirds  of 
the  amount  possible  for  it  to  contain  at  a  given  temperature. 
Since  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  atmosphere  for  water  vapor 
increases  with  the  increase  of  temperature,  if  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  a  given  atmosphere  remains  fixed,  while  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  is  raised,  the  relative  humidity  becomes  pro- 
portionately less.  It  is  difficult  for  air  having  a  high  relative 
humidity  to  take  up  more  moisture  unless  the  temperature  is 
increased. 

Warm  air  that  has  also  a  high  relative  humidity  has  a  depress- 
ing or  dispiriting  effect  upon  the  human  system.  When  the 
body  becomes  unduly  warm,  it  may  be  restored  to  normal 
temperature  in  three  ways:  by  evaporation  of  moisture,  by 
radiation  and  by  convection.  But  if  the  air  is  warm,  the  rela- 
tive humidity  high  and  convection  currents  more  or  less 
lacking,  it  is  difficult  tor  the  body  to  be  cooled. 

Since  fuel  gases  are  generally  quite  rich  in  hydrogen,  con- 
siderable water  vapor  is  formed  when  such  gases  are  burned. 
If  gas  stoves  or  grates  are  used  in  a  closed  room  without  suit- 
able  flue  connections,  the  amount  of  water  vapor  in  the  air  may 
become  very  objectionable.  The  presence  of  a  number  of 
people  in  a  closed  room  produces  a  similar  effect  to  the  open 
stove  or  grate  because  of  the  water  evaporated  from  the  skin  as 
well  as  that  thrown  off  by  the  lungs.  The  circulation  of  air, 
such  as  caused  by  an  electric  fan,  although  it  may  bring  in  no 
fresh  air,  aids  in  the  evaporation  process,  since  when  the  air 
is  stationary,  the  layer  next  the  skin  soon  becomes  saturated 
and  unable  to  take  up  more  moisture. 

In  this  connection  it  might  not  be  out  of  place  to  mention  that 
in  winter,  when  the  cold  and  therefore  relatively  dry  air  is 
brought  into  a  room  from  the  outside  and  heated,  it  has  a  high 
capacity  for  absorbing  moisture,  and  may  produce  discomfort 
by  cooling  the  body  too  much  by  means  of  the  excessive  evap- 
oration that  results. 

Carbon  monoxide,  which  is  produced  by  incomplete  combus- 
tion, is  an  active  poison.  Less  than  1  i>er  cent  in  air  causes 
death  when  breathed  for  about  10  min.  The  gas  acts  as  a 
poison  by  forming  a  stable  compound  with  the  haemoglobin  of 
the  red  blood  corpuscles,  which  prevents  the  blood  from  carry- 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  363 

ing  oxygen  to  the  tissues  from  the  lungs.  Even  0.05  per  cent 
will,  if  breathed  for  about  ^  hr.,  cause  dizziness  upon  exertion, 
and  0.1  per  cent  will  produce  inability  to  walk,  while  0.2  per 
cent  will  in  the  same  length  of  time  cause  loss  of  consciousness. 
Carbon  monoxide  is  odorless  and  gives  no  warning  of  its  pres- 
ence. Fatal  accidents  have  occurred  when  its  presence  was 
not  suspected.  It  is  formed  when  a  gas  flame  (Strikes  against  a 
cold  surface,  as  in  some  types  of  water  heaters,  or  by  slow  com- 
bustion in  coal  or  charcoal  flres.  It  is  present  in  the  exhaust 
gases  from  internal  combustion  engines.  Also  it  is  one  of  the 
major  constituents  of  certain  fuel  gases,  as  producer  gas  and 
water  gas.  Consequently,  leaks  from  pipes  and  mains  carrying 
such  gases  should  be  carefully  guarded  against. 

First  aid  treatment  for  carbon-monoxide  poisoning  is  arti- 
ficial respiration  accompanied  by  the  use  of  oxygen  for  about 
10  min.  A  person  seriously  affected  should  be  kept  warm  and 
should  not  exert  himself  by  walking. 

PURIFICATION  OF  WATER  i 

Impurities  in  Natural  Water. — In  a  chemical  sense,  all 
natural  waters  are  to  some  degree  impure.  Even  rain  water, 
which  is  the  purest  form,  contains  sohd  matter  that  has  been 
obtained  by  washing  out  soot  and  wind-raised  dust  from  the 
air.  All  waters  obtained  from  the  earth,  whether  from  the 
surface  or  lower  depths,  contain  dissolved  substances  taken  up 
from  the  rocks  and  soils  with  which  they  have  been  in  contact. 
Water  from  very  low  levels,  as  from  deeply-bored  wells,  is 
likely  to  contain  more  dissolved  substance  than  surface  water, 
because  of  the  great  mass  of  rock  through  which  it  has  perco- 
lated. In  general,  water  from  regions  of  granite,  sandstone  and 
clay  formations  contains  less  dissolved  mineral  substance  than 
that  from  limestone  regions.  Further,  water  from  rocky 
regions  is  purer  than  that  from  regions  where  the  rock  has  beeQ 
disintegrated  to  form  soil,  since  rocks  are  generally  less  soluble 
than  soils.  Mountain  waters  are  relatively  pure  because  they 
usually  come  into  contact  with  but  little  soil.  Beside  the 
dissolved  substances,  wat«r  may  carry  a  great  deal  of  suspended 
matter,  as  sand,  clay,  organic  matter,  etc.  In  addition,  bac- 
teria of  many  kinds  are  practically  always  present.  This  is 
especially  true  of  surface  water,  as  from  rivers  and  other 
streams. 

*  See  section  on  "Water  Supply,"  page  62, 


364  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

General  Purification  of  Water. — For  city-water  supply,  the 
removal  of  disease-producing  bacteria,  turbidity  or  ''muddi- 
ness,"  odor,  taste  and  iron  compounds  is  the  most  important. 
This  is  usually  accomplished  by  allowing  the  water  to  stand  in 
settling  basins,  followed  by  slow  filtration  through  sand,  or  by 
rapid  filtration  through  sand  if  it  has  been  treated  with  a 
**coagulum"  in  the  settling  basin.  The  coagulum  is  a  starch- 
like, gelatinous  precipitate  produced  by  the  use  of  alum  or 
ferrous  sulfate,  either  with  or  without  the  addition  of  an  alkali, 
depending  upon  the  amount  of  alkaline  substances  naturally 
present  in  the  water.  As  the  gelatinous  precipitate  settles,  it 
sweeps  from  the  water  a  great  deal  of  the  suspended  matter,  as 
mud,  etc. 

Disinfection  by  means  of  copper  sulfate,  or  by  the  use  of 
chlorine  derived  from  bleaching  powder,  sodium  hypochlorite, 
or  by  the  use  of  chlorine  gas  itself,  is  rather  common  practice. 
This  method  is  used  in  connection  with  filtration,  or  is  resorted 
to  as  a  precautionary  measure  when  an  imtreated  water  supply 
is  suspected  of  being  contaminated. 

If  the  water  supply  is  satisfactory  in  all  respects  except  that 
it  contains  iron,  the  iron  may  be  removed  by  aeration,  as  by 
spraying  in  air,  by  trickling  over  rocks,  or  in  some  similar  man- 
ner. In  this  way  the  carbon  dioxide  is  evolved  and  the  iron 
is  oxidized,  under  which  conditions  it  becomes  insoluble  and 
can  be  removed  by  filtration. 

Undesirable  tastes  and  odors  due  to  dissolved  gases  are 
removed  in  the  same  way. 

Hard  Water. — Water  that  contains  dissolved  calcium, 
magnesium,  and  iron  compounds,  generally  in  the  form  of  bicar- 
bonates,  sulfates  and  chlorides,  is  known  as  hard  water.  This 
term  is  used  because  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  soap  lather 
with  such  water.  Ordinary  soap  is  a  compound  of  sodium 
with  a  fatty  acid  (see  "The  Action  of  the  Caustic  AlkaUes  on 
Fatty  Oils,"  page  350).  Soap  reacts  with  the  calcium,  mag- 
nesium and  iron  compounds  forming  sticky,  insoluble,  curdy 
soaps  of  these  metals.  For  example,  the  reaction  of  ordinary 
sodium  soap  with  calcium  sulfate  is  as  follows: 

2Na(Ci8H3502)  +  CaS04-^Ca(Ci8H8602)2  +  NajSO* 

Sodium  Calcium      Calcium  Sodium 

Soap  Sulfate        Soap  Sulfate 

The  soap  continues  to  react  with  the  calcium,  magnesium  and 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  365 

iron  compounds  in  this  manner  until  they  have  all  been  thrown 
out  of  solution,  and  not  until  this  has  been  accompUshed,  can 
the  soap  form  a  lather. 

The  hardness  of  water  is  generally  recognized  as  being  of  two 
kinds.  That  which  is  removable  by  boiling  is  said  to  be  "tem- 
porary," and  that  which  persists  after  boihng  is  said  to  be 
"permanent." 

Temporary  hardness  is  caused  by  the  bicarbonates  of  the 
metals  previously  mentioned.  Their  normal  carbonates  are 
practically  insoluble  in  water  alone,  but  in  water  containing 
carbon  dioxide  gas,  they  are  converted  into  the  corresponding 
bicarbonates,  and  these  are  a  great  deal  more  soluble. 

Permanent  hardness  is  caused  by  the  sulfates  and  chlorides 
of  calcium,  magnesium  and  iron.  These  compounds  are  not 
removed  by  boiUng,  although  calcium  sulfate  is  less  soluble  in 
boiling  water  than  in  water  at  room  temperature. 

Production  of  Boiler  Scale. — During  the  conversion  of  the 
water  into  steam,  there  is  deposited  within  the  boiler  both 
the  dissolved  and  suspended  matter  that  the  water  carried.  The 
deposit  may  be  in  the  form  of  a  loose  sediment,  sludge  or  hard 
scale,  depending  upon  the  substance  carried  by  the  water,  the 
temperature  and  pressure  within  the  boiler  and  other  factors. 
The  deposition  is  due  to  the  concentration  brought  about  by 
the  evaporation  of  the  water,  to  a  lessening  of  the  solubility 
of  the  dissolved  substances  by  the  increased  heat  and  pressure, 
or  to  reactions  that  produce  insoluble  substances  from  others 
previously  soluble.  For  example  in  the  case  of  the  calcium 
bicarbonate,  the  heat  drives  the  carbon  dioxide  out  of  the  water, 
since  gases  are  less  soluble  in  hot  water  than  in  cold,  and  this 
causes  the  soluble  bicarbonate  to  revert  to  the  insoluble  normal 
form,  as  follows: 

Ca(HC03)2  +  heat-^CaCOs  +  HjO  +  CO2 

The  insoluble  carbonate  then  precipitates  in  the  form  of  scale 
and  the  water  is  to  a  certain  extent  purified.^ 

^  In  this  connection,  it  might  be  noted  that  the  purification  of  water  by 
heating  accounts  for  the  fact  that  when  water  pipes  freeze  during  cold 
weather,  it  is  the  line  carrying  water  from  the  boiler  that  is  the  more  likely 
to  freeze.  Water  containing  dissolved  substances  has  a  lower  freezing  point 
than  pure  water,  that  is  to  say,  is  more  difficult  to  freeze.  This  is  explained 
in  the  discussion  of  Fig.  238  on  page  323.  In  some  instances  the  tem- 
perature falls  sufficiently  to  reach  the  freezing  point  of  the  water  that  has 
been  to  a  certain  extent  purified  by  heating,  but  not  low  enough  to  freeze 
the  natural  water  containing  all  its  dissolved  substances. 


366  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Physical  Character  of  Scales. — The  physical  character  of  the 
scale  depends  upon  various  factors,  but  it  is  determined  chiefly 
by  its  composition.  If  the  calcium  sulfate  and  magnesium 
compounds  in  the  water  is  of  small  quantity,  or  if  the  anaount  of 
suspended  matter  is  high,  the  scale  will  be  soft  and  loose,  so 
that  it  may  be  removed  from  the  boiler  in  the  form  of  a  sludge. 
But  if  the  water  is  clear,  having  but  Uttle  suspended  matter, 
and  if  the  amount  of  calcium  sulfate  and  magnesium  compK>unds 
is  high,  the  scale  will  be  hard,  dense  and  difficult  to  remove. 

The  location  in  the  boiler  has  much  to  do  with  the  comi>osi- 
tion  of  the  scale  at  that  point.  Near  the  feed  pipe,  the  car- 
bonates are  found,  because  the  water  gives  up  its  carbon 
dioxide  rather  readily,  and  as  this  gas  is  driven  out,  carbonates 
are  precipitated.  The  calcium  sulfate  remains  dissolved  until 
it  reaches  the  hottest  part  of  the  boiler. 

Effects  of  the  Boiler  Scale. — The  substances  deposited  from 
the  water  collect  on  the  flues,  in  the  tubes  and  other  parts  of 
the  boiler,  and  act  as  heat  insulators,  so  that  heat  that  would 
otherwise  be  available,  cannot  pass  into  the  water.     The  degree 
to  which  the  deposit  interferes  with  the  transmission  of  heat 
depends  upon  whether  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  loose  sediment  or  a 
hard,  compact  scale.     The  latter  form  is  the  most  objection- 
able.    Collet^  gives  the  following  figures  to  show  the  relative 
heat  conductivity  of  iron  and  certain  other  substances,  the 
latter  two  of  which,  or  substances  of  the  same  composition, 
contribute  to  the  formation  of  boiler  scale.     The  resistance  of 
wrought  iron  being  taken  as  1,  that  of  copper  is  0.4;  of  slate, 
9.5;  of  brick,  16;  of  chalk,  17;  and  of  calcium  sulfate,  48.     Be- 
cause of  the  poor  transmission  when  the  metal  is  coated  with 
scale,  it  becomes  over  heated,  and  in  the  case  of  a  hard  scale, 
the  metal  may  even  become  red  hot,  so  that  it  is  soft  and  sub- 
ject to  deformation.     Beside,  the  rate  at  which  the  metal  and 
scale  expand  and  contract  with  changes  of  temperature  is  dif- 
ferent.    K  the  water  in  the  boiler  becomes  low  and  the  metal 
becomes  overheated,  the  layer  of  scale  may  separate  from  the 
metal.     Then,  if  cold  water  is  run  into  the  boiler,  the  scale  cools 
quickly,  contracts,  and  cracks.     The  water  pours  through  the 
cracks  upon  the  hot  metal,  a  large  volume  of  steam  is  formed, 
and  the  sudden  pressure  may  be  great  enough  to  burst  the 
boiler. 

In  addition  to  the  actual  insulating  effect,  the  scale  is  objec- 

^  Water  Softening,  page  17. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  367 

tionable  in  other  ways.  As  the  tubes  become  clogged,  the  area 
of  water  exposed  to  the  heat  is  lessened,  and  the  heating  effi- 
ciency falls.  Also  the  boilers  must  be  cleaned,  which  is  an 
expensive  process,  especially  if  the  scale  is  closely  adherent. 

Water  Softening. — The  scale-forming  tendencies  of  water 
may  be  overcome  by  suitable  treatment.  The  suspended 
matter  may,  of  course,  be  removed  by  filtration  or  sedimenta- 
tion. For  removing  the  dissolved  matter,  chemical  reagents 
are  employed.  There  are  two  processes,  known  as  cold-water 
softening  and  hot-water  softening. 

Cold-water  Softening. — In  this  process  the  temporary 
hardness  is  removed  by  converting  the  soluble  bicarbonates  into 
the  insoluble  normal  carbonates  by  the  use  of  lime,  while  the 
permanent  hardness  is  taken  care  of  by  converting  the  sulfates 
and  chlorides  into  the  normal  carbonate  by  the  use  of  soda  ash 
(sodium  carbonate).  In  order  that  the  bicarbonates  may  be 
converted  into  the  normal  form,  it  is  necessary  to  neutralize 
the  carbonic  acid  present,  both  that  which  is  free  and  that 
which  is  combined  in  the  bicarbonate.  The  essential  reactions 
are  as  follows : 

CaO      +        H2O        —      Ca(0H)2 

Lime  Water  Calcium  hydroxide 

H2CO8  +  Ca(0H)2     ->    CaCOs  +  2H2O 

Free  Car-         Calcium  Insoluble       Water 

bonic   Acid      Hydroxide  Calcium  Car- 

bonate 

Ca(HC08)2  +  Ca(0H)2    ->    CaCO,  +  2H2O 

Calcium  Calcium  Insoluble       Water 

Bicarbonate  Hydroxide  Calcium 

Carbonate 

The  bicarbonates  of  magnesium  and  iron  are  acted  upon  in  a 
similar  manner. 

For  permanent  hardness,  the  reaction  is  as  follows: 

CaS04  +  NaaCOa     -^    CaCOa  +  Na2S04 

Calcium         Sodium  Insoluble       Sodium 

Sulfate       Carbonate  Calcium        Sulfate 

Carbonate 

In  the  same  way,  the  other  sulfates  and  the  chlorides  are  con- 
verted into  insoluble  carbonates  with  the  formation  of  the 
corresponding  sodium  salt.  The  normal  carbonates  being  insol- 
uble, as  indicated,  it  is  only  necessary  to  let  the  water  stand 
for  a  time  and  they  will  settle  out.  As  they  settle,  suspended 
matter,  as  sand,  clay  and  organic  matter,  is  carried  down  with 
them.    The  clear  water  is  then  drawn  off  and  used.    Or  the 


368  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

process  may  be  hastened  by  rapid  filtration  through  thin  beds 
of  excelsior,  coke  or  similar  material.  The  sodium  salts, 
formed  by  the  reaction  with  sodium  carbonate,  being  soluble, 
remain  in  the  water,  and  although  they  do  not  contribute  to  the 
formation  of  scale,  they  may  be  objectionable  because  of  their 
tendency  to  cause  foaming.  If  the  amount  of  permanent  hard- 
ness is  very  great,  it  is  sometimes  not  practicable  to  neutralize 
all  of  it,  because  of  the  large  amounts  of  sodium  salts  that  would 
be  left  in  the  water. 

In  using  calcium  hydroxide  (lime  water)  to  remove  the 
bicarbonates,  an  excess  must  not  be  used,  since  this  also  will 
cause  hardness,  and  by  secondary  reactions  will  cause  scale. 

Purification  by  "Pennutit." — When  hard  water  is  filtered 
slowly  through  a  bed  of  artificial  zeolite,  NaAlSi04-3H20 
known  by  the  trade  name  of  "permutit,"  all  the  calcium, 
magnesium  and  iron  compounds  are  absorbed  by  the  zeolite, 
and  corresponding  sodium  compounds  are  given  off  to  the 
water.  The  zeolite  is  made  by  fusing  together  feldspar,  China 
clay  and  soda  ash,  the  resulting  glass  being  cooled  and  crushed. 
A  very  advantageous  feature  is  that  when  the  zeolite  has  been 
exhausted  by  use,  it  may  be  reactivated  by  allowing  a  solution 
of  common  salt  (sodium  chloride)  to  stand  in  contact  with  it. 
It  then  replenishes  its  sodium  content,  and  the  absorbed  cal- 
cium magnesium  and  iron  compounds  are  given  off  as 
chlorides. 

Hot-water  Softening. — The  process  of  hot-water  softening  is 
carried  out  in  feed-water  heaters.  Feed-water  heaters  are 
boiler  accessories  designed  to  save  heat  that  would  be  wasted 
otherwise.  Although  the  saving  of  heat  is  their  most  impor- 
tant function,  they  bring  about  considerable  softening  of  the 
water  because  the  heating  decomposes  the  bicarbonates.  In 
many  cases,  the  heater  is  designed  to  take  advantage  of  the 
softening  effect.  Although  the  bicarbonates  are  to  a  large 
extent  removed  by  pre-heating,  the  sulfates  are  not  much 
affected.  Since  the  sulfates  tend  to  produce  hard  scale,  and 
the  carbonates  soft  scale,  water  that  has  been  merely  preheated 
will  produce  harder  scale  than  raw  water,  although  the  amount 
of  it  will  not  be  so  great. 

In  order  that  the  sulfates  may  be  removed  from  the  water,  it 
is  necessary  to  treat  it  with  sodium  carbonate  in  much  the 
same  way  as  in  the  cold  process,  but  because  of  the  heat,  the 
sulfates  are  converted  into  their  corresponding  carbonates  more 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  369 

readily.  After  the  precipitates  have  formed  the  water  is 
filtered. 

**Boiler  Compounds." — ^These  are  substances  put  either  into 
the  boiler  direct,  or  into  the  water  just  as  it  enters  the  boiler,  so 
that  any  softening  action  that  is  produced  takes  within  the 
boiler  itself.  Although  the  process  of  treating  water  while 
i?vithin  the  boiler  is  much  used,  it  is  not  to  be  recommended. 
Much  more  satisfactory  results  are  produced  by  the  use  of  a 
separate  purifying  apparatus.  Boiler  compounds  can  in  no 
manner  lessen  the  amount  of  scale-forming  ingredients;  in 
fact,  they  may  increase  it.  The  only  function  they  can  have  is 
to  convert  the  scale-producing  substances  in  the  water  into 
some  form  that  will  produce  a  less  objectionable  deposit. 
For  example,  soda  ash  converts  calcium  sulfate  into  calcium 
carbonate  which  forms  a  soft  deposit,  whereas  the  sulfate 
would  have  formed  a  hard  deposit.  Sodium  phosphate  acts  in 
a  like  manner.  Beside  its  use  as  a  precipitant  of  calcium 
carbonate,  soda  ash  neutrahzes  free  acids,  and  this  aids  in 
lessening  the  corrosion  of  the  boiler.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
increases  the  tendency  of  the  water  to  foam. 

There  is  another  large  class  of  materials  used  in  boilers, 
the  action  of  which  is  entirely  different  from  any  previously 
described.  Materials  of  this  class  do  not  serve  to  throw  dis- 
solved soUds  out  of  solution,  but  are  effective  because  they 
prevent  the  soUds,  after  they  have  been  precipitated,  from  mass- 
ing together  and  forming  a  hard  scale.  Their  mere  presence 
seems  te  prevent  the  soUd  matter  from  crystaUizing,  and  since 
they  do  not  enter  into  any  reaction,  they  are  not  used  up,  and  so 
remain  effective  for  a  long  period.  Examples  of  such 
substances  are  tannin  from  tan  bark  and  spent  tan  hquors, 
glue,  starches,  sugars,  graphite,  lampblack,  soapstone,  oils, 
fats  and  many  other  substances. 

Effect  of  Grease  in  Boilers. — Although  oils  may  be  able  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  a  hard  scale,  they  should  not  be 
introduced  into  boilers  for  this  purpose.^  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  heavy  mineral  oils  and  animal  fats.  The  reason  is 
that  they  have  a  high  heat  insulating  effect.  A  film  of  grease 
on  the  heating  surface  of  a  boiler  is  far  worse  than  many  times 
its  thickness  of  scale.  Booth  says,*  a  mere  film  of  grease  will 
cause  overheating  and  collapse. 

1  Christie,  "Purification  of  Water,"  pages  165  and  172. 

2  "Water  Softening  and  Treatment,"  Page  33. 

24 


370  PLUMBER'S  HANDBOOK 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS 

Plaster  of  Paris  is  made  by  heating  gypsum,  CaS04-2HjO, 
to  a  temperature  ranging  between  110°C.  (230°F.)  and  132°C. 
(269°F.).  During  this  heating,  three-fourths  of  the  combined 
water  is  given  off  from  the  gypsum,  as  follows: 

CaS04-2H20  +  heat->CaS04KH20  +  IJ^HjO 

When  the  resultant  plaster  is  mixed  with  water,  it  readily 
unites  again  with  an  amount  of  water  equal  to  that  given  up, 
and  reverts  to  a  hydrated  form  that  is  chemically  equivalent  to 
gypsum.     The  equation  for  the  reaction  is  as  follows: 

CaS04-3^H20  +  water-^CaS04-2H20 

The  hardening  is  due  to  the  formation  of  crystals  of  the 
hydrated  sulfate. 

PORTLAND  CEMENT 

Manufacture. — ^Portland  cement  is  made  by  fusing  together 
two  materials,  one  rich  in  Kme,  as  limestone,  marl  or  chalk, 
and  one  rich  in  silica  and  alumina,  as  clay,  shale,  slate  or  blast- 
furnace slag.  Most  of  the  cement  in  the  United  States  is  made 
by  the  so-called  dry  process.  In  this  method,  the  materials 
are  very  finely  ground  and  are  then  heated  in  a  rotary  kiln 
until  they  begin  to  fuse,  the  product  leaving  the  kiln  in  the  form 
of  small  lumps  known  as  *' clinker."  When  cooled,  the  clinker 
is  hard,  glassy  and  of  a  blackish  color.  It  is  then  ground  suffi- 
ciently fine  that  at  least  90  per  cent  will  pass  through  a  100-mesh 
sieve.  Since  ground  cHnker  alone  would  set  too  quickly,  it  is 
necessary  to  add  a  retarding  agent.  This  may  consist  of 
gypsum,  plaster  of  Paris,  or  other  form  of  calcium  sulfate, 
about  2  or  3  per  cent  being  used. 

Composition. — As  given  by  Meade,*  the  cements  of  good 
quality  usually  fall  within  the  following  limits  of  composition: 

Limits,  Avsbagb, 

peb  csnt  pkb  cbnt 

Lime,  CaO 60-64.5  62. 

Silica,  SiOa 20-24.  22. 

Alumina,  AljOj 5-9.  7.6 

Magnesia,  MgO 1-  4 .  2.6 

Iron  oxide,  FesOa 2-4.  2.6 

Sulfur  trioxide,  SOa 1-  1 .  75  1.6 

^  Rogers  and  Aubert,  "  Industrial  Chemistry,"  page  260. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  371 

Constituents. — The  oxides  shown  in  the  preceding  table  do 
not  exist  free  in  the  cement,  but  are  combined  with  each  other 
in  the  form  of  more  complex  compounds.  Lime  is  united  with 
both  sihca  and  alumina,  forming  at  least  two  silicates  and 
two  aluminates.  These  are  dicalcium  sihcate,  (CaO)2'Si02y 
tricalcium  silicate,  (CaO)8-Si02,  dicalcium  aluminate,  (CaO)2* 
AI2OS  and  tricalcium  aluminate,  (CaO)8'Al208.  The  dicalcium 
silicate  is  the  chief  constituent. 

The  Reaction  of  the  Cement  Compounds  with  Water. — The 
aluminates  react  with  water  (become  hydrated)  in  a  manner 
very  similar  to  plaster  of  Paris.  For  example,  the  tricalcium 
aluminate  reacts  as  follows: 

(CaO)8Al208  +  water-»(CaO)8Al208l2H20 

Since  the  tricalcium  sihcate  is  more  active  than  the  other  com- 
pounds in  the  cement,  it  is  generally  considered  that  upon  its 
hydration  and  hardening  the  initial  setting  of  the  cement 
depends.  The  tricalcium  silicate  reacts  next,  splitting  up 
into  a  pasty,  hydrated  monocalcium  silicate  and  hydrated 
lime,  as  follows: 

(CaO)8-Si02  +  water-<:5aO-Si02-2>iH20  +  2Ca(OH)2 

To  the  reaction  represented  by  this  equation  is  ascribed  the 
hardening  that  takes  place  during  about  the  first  week.  The 
dicalcium  silicate,  which  makes  up  more  than  half  of  the  cement, 
is  the  least  reactive  compound.  It  begins  to  hydrate  after 
about  7  to  28  days,  and  the  action  may  not  be  completed 
for  several  months. 

The  Hardening  Process. — The  hydrated  products  that 
result  from  the  reaction  with  water  are  not  hard,  but  possess  a 
.soft,  jelly-hke  character,  being  very  similar  to  waternsoaked 
glue  or  gelatine.  The  reaction  with  water  can,  of  course,  take 
place  only  on  the  surfaces  of  the  cement  particles,  and  each 
grain  of  cement,  therefore,  becomes  coated  with  a  jelly-hke 
layer.  This  layer  does  not  allow  water  to  pass  through  it  very 
readily,  and  as  a  result,  although  the  grains  are  very  fine,  their 
centers  are  not  reached  by  the  water.  It  has  been  shown  that 
even  when  a  cement  has  been  properly  treated  with  water  and 
has  hardened,  only  about  half  of  the  material  of  the  grains  has 
been  hydrated.  Due  to  their  gelatinous  coatings,  the  grains 
stick   together  and  form   a  consohdated   mass.     When   the 


372  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

jelly-like  material  dries  out,  it  becomes  hard,  and  after  it  has 
become  hard,  it  can  not  be  again  softened  by  absorbing  water. 
It  is  possible  for  the  coatings  on  the  grains  to  dry  out  and  harden 
even  when  the  cement  is  kept  under  water.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  water  from  the  outside  layer  is  extracted  and  used  up 
by  the  unhydrated  centers  of  the  grains  in  hydrating  more 
material  in  the  interior.  Water  that  has  entered  into  chemical 
union  is  no  longer  able  to  manifest  itself  as  water,  and  the 
cement  becomes  dry  and  hard. 

Factors  that  Affect  the  Setting  Rate. — A  thin  mixture  with 
water  sets  more  slowly  than  a  stiff  mixture.  The  greater 
amount  of  water  does  not  retard  the  hydration,  but  does  delay 
the  setting  because  it  lessens  the  cohesion  between  the  hydrated 
particles. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  also  has  a  modifying  effect. 
Cold  water  delays,  and  warm  water  hastens  the  setting  and  also 
increases  the  ultimate  hardness.  Hence,  it  would  appear  that 
cements  that  set  in  warm  weather  would  develop  greater 
hardness  than  those  which  set  in  cold  weather. 

Effect  of  Freezing  During  Setting. — If  freezing  occurs  before 
the  cement  has  hardened,  the  chemical  reaction  of  hydration 
practically  ceases.  Since  it  is  possible  for  ice  to  pass  into  the 
vapor  state  directly,  without  having  first  become  liquid,  the 
frozen  cement  dries  out  by  evaporation.  Then  when  the  tem- 
perature rises,  so  that  it  is  possible  for  hydration  to  proceed, 
there  is  insufficient  water  present  to  complete  the  process. 
The  effect  of  the  drying  out  is,  of  course,  most  noticeable  on  the 
surface,  and  is  very  similar  to  the  effect  produced  by  using 
cement  mortar  on  a  dry,  porous  brick.  Further  detriment 
results  from  the  expansion  that  attends  the  freezing  of  the 
uncombined  water.  The  expansion  forces  the  grains  apart, 
and  even  though  the  hydration  should  continue  after  thawing, 
tlie  consolidation  would  be  imperfect  and  the  structure  lacking 
in  strength. 

Action  of  Destructive  Agents. — Heat. — Cement  and  concrete 
begin  to  disintegrate  when  a  temperature  of  about  300°C. 
(572°F.)  is  reached,  because  the  combined  water  is  expelled. 
But  in  a  concrete  that  is  made  of  proper  aggregate  and  is  suit- 
ably proportioned,  the  conductivity  is  so  low  that  this  disinteg- 
ration is  likely  to  occur  only  in  a  thin  surface  layer. 

In  reinforced  concrete,  the  coefficient  of  expansion  of  the 
concrete  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  steel,  and  the  value  of 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMI&TRY  373 

reinforced  concrete  in  fire  resistance  is  due  largely  to  this  fact. 
But  the  heat  conductivity  of  the  steel  is  much  greater  than  that 
of  the  concrete.  Consequently,  if  the  steel  is  covered  with  only 
a  thin  layer  of  concrete  at  any  point,  in  case  of  fire,  it  will 
become  heated  more  rapidly,  expand  at  a  greater  rate,  and  so 
set  up  internal  stresses  that  may  be  disastrous. 

Frost. — If  cracks  or  voids  due  to  improper  proportioning 
exist  in  the  cement  or  concrete,  frost  may  prove  destructive. 
The  enormous  expansive  force  manifested  by  the  water  freez- 
ing in  these  openings  causes  disintegration. 

Carbon  Dioxide. — A  water  solution  of  carbon  dioxide  (car- 
bonic acid)  exerts  a  destructive  action  on  cement  structures 
because  the  soluble  bicarbonate  of  calcium  is  formed  from  the 
constituents  of  the  cement.  Marsh  waters  and  sewage  are 
destructive  in  this  way. 

Action  of  Sea  Water. — If  not  well  made,  concrete  structures 
are  destroyed  by  sea  water;  however,  the  action  is  more  mechan- 
ical than  chemical.  It  generally  occurs  when  a  porous  concrete 
is  alternately  exposed  to  the  water  and  then  to  the  air  by 
tides.  Crystallization  of  the  dissolved  salts  in  the  pores  is 
brought  about  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water,  and  the  expan- 
sion that  results  from  such  crystallization  is  very  similar  to  that 
produced  by  the  freezing  of  water.  Porous  brick,  stone  and 
other  substances  are  affected  in  the  same  way.  Therefore,  if 
it  is  required  to  withstand  sea  water,  it  is  very  essential  that  the 
concrete  be  dense. 

LUTES  AND   MISCELLANEOUS  CEMENTS' 

Waterproof. — (1)  For  this  purpose  a  natural  asphalt,  or  an 
asphaltic  material,  such  as  the  heavy  residuum  left  in  the  still 
after  the  refining  of  petroleum  oils,  mixed  with  silica  flour, 
kieselguhr  or  diatomaceous  earth  as  a  filler,  and  thinned  with  a 
heavy  petroleum  naphtha  or  gasohne,  may  be  used.  Naphtha 
or  gasoline  is  a  solvent  for  the  petroleum  residues,  but  does  not 
completely  dissolve  natural  asphalt,  although  it  thins  it  suffi- 
ciently for  the  purpose.  Benzol  is  a  better  solvent,  but  is  more 
expensive.     There  are  several  natural  asphalts  that  may  be 

^  Many  of  the  methods  for  making  the  preparations  discussed  under  this 
head  are  taken  from  a  paper  on  this  subject  by  S.  S.  Sadtler,  Chem.  and 
Met.  Eng.,  14,  197,  Feb.  15,  1916.  A  greater  variety  of  preparations  of 
this  sort  may  be  obtained  by  consulting  this  reference. 


374  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

used,  as  gilsonite  or  Utah  asphalt,  California  asphalt,  or  the 
Trinidad  and  Bermudez  varieties.  It  is  generally  advanta- 
geous to  use  a  small  proportion  of  petroleum  asphalt  with 
the  natural  asphalts,  since  it  imparts  flexibility.  Or  a  small 
proportion  of  boiled  Unseed  oil  may  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

2.  Lutes  of  boiled  linseed  oil,  properly  thickened  with  clay, 
asbestar,  red  lead,  white  lead,  or  similar  material  ar^  water- 
proof. 

3.  Flaxseed  meal  made  into  a  stiff  paste  with  water  is  used 
for  steam  connections. 

Oilproof. — (1)  A  mixture  of  glycerine  and  Utharge  forms  a 
well  known  lute.  According  to  Sadtler,  the  best  proportions 
are  as  follows: 

Glycerine  90  parts  by  volume 

Water  10  parts  by  volume 
To  be  made  into  a  stiflF  putty  with 

Litharge  90  parts  by  weight 

Red  lead  10  parts  by  weight 

This  requires  about  a  day  to  set,  but  when  thoroughly  set,  is 
both  oilproof  and  waterproof. 

Acidproof. — (1)  The  asphaltic  mixtures  referred  to  under 
waterproof  preparations  are  largely  acidproof. 

2.  There  are  many  acidproof  mixtures  that  may  be  made  by 
using  a  solution  of  silicate  of  soda  (water  glass).  The  usual 
commercial  heavy  solution  of  sihcate  of  soda  should  be  slightly 
diluted  with  water  so  that  its  density  will  be  approximately 
30°B^.  This  may  then  be  mixed  with  about  equal  parts  of 
sihca  flour  and  ground  asbesto3  until  as  thick  as  desired.  Or 
ground  glass,  china  clay  and  barium  sulfate  (barytes)  may  be 
used.  Although  silicate  of  soda  is  acted  upon  by  acids,  the 
surface  layer  attacked  is  converted  into  gelatinous  silica, 
which  also  has  cementing  qualities  and  is  very  resistant  to 
acids. 

If  a  little  finely  powdered  casein  is  first  thoroughly  incorpor- 
ated with  the  sihcate  of  soda,  as  with  a  mortar  and  pestle,  until 
a  smooth  mixture  is  obtained,  the  cement  will  be  improved.  If 
fresh  milk  curd  (casein)  is  used,  the  incorporation  with  the 
silicate  of  soda  will  be  more  easily  accomplished.  In  this 
case,  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  water  contained  in 
the  curd. 


METALLURGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  375 

Iron  Cement. — The  method  for  preparing  this  cement  is 
^ven  by  Sadtler  as  follows: 

Iron  filings 40  parts 

Manganese  dioxide,  or  flowers  of  sulfur 10  parts 

Portland  cement 20  to  40  parts 

Sal  ammoniac 1  part 

Water  to  form  a  paste. 

The  Portland  cement  serves  to  lessen  the  expansion. 

For  General  Purposes. — ^A  very  strong  and  serviceable 
cement  suitable  for  a  variety  of  uses  is  made  by  mixing  a  glue 
solution  with  plaster  of  Paris.  This  is  oilproof  and  gasproof, 
l^ut  cannot  withstand  the  action  of  water  and  acids. 


SECTION  11 
SHEET-METAL  WORK 

SOLDERING' 

Soldering  Flux. — Metal  of  all  kinds  must  be  cleaned  before 
solder  will  adhere.  This  is  generally  done  with  hydrochloric 
acid,  ^  commercially  known  as  muriatic  acid,  which  does  the  work 
easily,  quickly  and  efifectively. 

For  soldering  galvanized  iron,  use  only  muriatic  acid.  Zinc 
should  be  added  to  the  acid  to  "cut"  or  "reduce"  it,  and  the 
acid  should  be  "cut"  weaker  as  the  gage  of  the  iron  becomes 
heavier.  Raw  acid  dries  too  quickly  to  be  of  value  on  heavy 
work. 

For  soldering  copper,  old  tin,  new  zinc,  german  sUver,  brass 
or  pewter,  use  only  cut  add.  Old  copper  and  old  brass  as  well 
as  every  old  metal  that  is  corroded  should  be  scraped  very 
clean  and  washed  with  raw  acid,  using  a  stiff  brush.  When 
the  surface  is  bright,  cut  acid  is  applied. 

For  soldering  new  tin,  rosin  should  be  used  as  the  flux. 
Rosin  can  be  powdered  and  saturated  with  gasoline  and  bottled. 
The  liquid  can  be  applied  with  a  brush.  Cvi  acid  shovld  never 
he  used  on  new  tin  because  the  acid  fumes  will  lodge  in  the 
seams  and  will  cause  rust  spots  which  will  later  ruin  the  work. 

For  soldering  pure  tin  pipe  or  sheet  lead,  use  tallow  candle 
or  rosin.  Tallow  is  preferable,  as  it  keeps  the  air  from  the 
bright  surface. 

Soldering  Coppers. — Soldering  coppers,  or  as  they  are 
sometimes  called,  soldering  irons,  are  made  of  copper  with 

their  points  faced  and  tinned.     Soldering 

^^l^^^^^;:::;:^    coppers    become    blunt    and    rough   with 

"JP'''^''^'^"  w  wear  and  continual  re-heating   (see  Fig. 

FiQ.  240.  240),  and  are  imfit  for  use  when  in  this 

condition.  They  should  be  heated  cherry 
red  and  forged  as  shown  in  Fig.  241.  The  point  of  the 
copper  should  be  filed  bright  (see  Fig.  242),  then  heated  and 
cleaned  with  sal  ammoniac  and  coated  with  solder.  This 
process  is  called  tinning  (see  Fig.  243). 

^  See  page  341,  Section  10,  on  "Acids"  for  chemical  actions  of  fluz. 
>  See  page  337. 

376 


SHEET-METAL  WORK 


377 


Figure  244  showB  the  correct  position  of  holding  a  soldering 
copper  over  a  grooved  seam.  The  solder  is  sweated  into  the 
seams  by  the  heat  in  the  back  of  the  copper.  Alao  be  sure  the 
copper  is  sufficiently  hot,  because  cold  coppers  will  not  melt 
the  solder  or  cause  it  to  adhere  to  the  tin  or  galvanising. 


Fio,  24S. 


Fio.  24G. 


Figure  245  shows  the  correct  position  for  holding  a  copper 
while  skimming  a  seam.  It  does  not  matter  if  it  is  rivetted, 
locked,  lapped  or  butted  together;  all  that  is  necessary  is  to 
have  the  proper  heat  in  the  copper. 

Figure  246  shows  method  of  applying  rosin  to  a  seam.  A 
funnel-shaped  receptacle  can  be  used,  for  rosining  seams. 
This  is  a  long,  tapering  cone  with  a  small  hole  in  the  apex, 
which  is  filled  with  roain.  By  inserting  a  soldering  copper,  the 
rosin  will  melt  and  flow  along  the  seam  as  the  iron  is  drawn 
backward. 


378  H-UMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Soldering  Methods. — Figiite  247  shows  an  end  piece  to  be 
soldered  into  a  gutter.  Often  this  gutter  is  kept  too  far  from 
the  fire  pot,  compelling  the  workman  to  make  several  stefB 
each  time  he  must  have  a  hot  iron.  This  cai 
keeping  the  work  together  and  having  all  tools  within 


FiQ.  247. 

The  acid  tray  is  made  of  metal  with  little  compartmente 
for  setting  in  cut  off  bottles,  cups,  or  ink  bottles,  to  be  used 
as  acid  containers.  In  the  center,  a  piece  of  sal  ammonioc 
can  be  carried  with  several  acid  brushes  on  the  side.  This 
always  permits  having  both  raw  and  cut  acid  on  the  job;  also 
the  dip  pot,  which  should  be  an  earthen  jar  is  fillled  with  water 
aad  a  few  small  pieces  of  sal  ammoniac  in  solution.  Dipping 
the  hot  copper  into  this  water,  cleans  it  of  all  smoke,  ashes 
and  acid  collections.  These  dip  pots,  if  made  of  metal,  will 
be  eaten  through  in  a  very  short  time. 

Figure  243,  shows  another  improper  practice:  keeping  the 
dip  pot  and  solder  out  of  reach.  This  often  necessitates 
working  over  handed,  and  is  a  great  handicap  to  efficient 
work.  The  idea  is  that  all  work  F<hould  be  together;  it  only 
takes  an  instant  to  gather  up  materials  and  place  them 
conveniently. 

Referring  to  drawings  in  Fig.  249,  it  is  found  serviceable  and 
efficient  to  place  the  acid  bnish  between  the  second  and  third 
'■nger,  as  shown.     In  this  way,  a  joint  can  be  fluxed  without 


SHEET-METAL  WORK 


laying  the  soldering  copper  down.     Id  like  n 
should  be  held  conveniently  close. 


Figure  250,   ii 
Btripping  work. 


EDother  drawing  showing   the  process  of 
Not«  that  the  &cid  brush  can  be  brought 


380 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


at  any  time  to  flux  the  joint  and  in  the  same  backward  move- 
ment, the  soldering  copper  can  be  applied.  The  block  beneath 
this  work  is  usually  marble  slab.  Such  stripping  work  should 
not  be  attempted  on  wood  boards,  because  they  warp  and  will 
deform  the  work. 


SCALE  OF  PITCHES  AND  DEGREES 

The  steel  square,  and  a  knowledge  of  its  possibilities,  relating 
to  angles,  pitches,  etc.,  will  be  of  service. 


Scale  of  Pitches 


Figure  251  shows  a  scale  of  pitches  the  use  of  which  is  very 
necessary  in  all  work  where  metal  must  be  placed  on  an  incline. 
To  use  the  steel  square,  place  the  12-in.  mark,  or  the  tongue. 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  381 

as  the  base.  The  blade  as  the  upright,  is  considered  as  being 
divided  into  24  parts.  For  34-pi*^ch  line,  find  3^  of  24,  which 
is  6,  then  a  line  drawn  from  6  on  the  upright  to  12  on  the  base 
will  be  on  a  Ji  pitch.  If  }4  pitch  is  required,  then  J^  of  24 
equals  8;  and  8  on  the  upright  to  12  on  the  base  is  J^  pitch. 
In  like  manner,  12  to  12  would  be  K  pitch,  and  18  to  12  would 
be  %  pitch.  In  this  way,  any  desired  pitch  for  a  skylight, 
tin  roof  or  pitch  cover  or  any  other  object  can  be  found. 

Figure  252  shows  the  reason  for  using  the  blade  of  square :  the 
24-in.  run  fits  between  gable,  while  the  rise  is  8  in.  Wood 
structural  work  is  measured  in  this  way,  using  the  span  of 
rafter  as  the  base. 

The  protractor,  Fig.  253,  an  instrument  used  for  laying  off 
and  measuring  angles,  is  made  of  steel,  brass,  horn  or  paper. 
The  outer  edge  is  divided  into  degrees  and  tenths  of  degrees. 
To  lay  out  any  desired  degree,  take  a  straight  edge,  a  steel 
square  in  this  case,  and  place  it  on  the  center  of  X,  and  incline 
it  so  as  to  lie  across  the  desired  degree  marked,  which  in  the 
case  shown  in  60  deg.  Observe  that  the  numbers  start  from 
both  ends  and  graduate  towards  the  opposite  end.  These 
degree  marks,  divided  into  60  spaces  give  minutes,  and  minutes, 
further  divided  into  60  equal  spaces,  give  seconds. 

The  scale  of  'pitches  and  the  scale  of  degrees  should  not  be 
confused.  The  scale  of  roof  pitches  has  to  do  with  straight 
lines,  while  the  scale  of  degrees  has  to  do  with  curves, 

TIN  ROOF  WORK 

Ladder,  Scaffold  and  Gin  Poll. — In  order  to  reach  and  execute 
work,  it  is  often  necessary  to  use  scaffolding,  and  the  ladder 
scaffold  shown  in  Fig.  254  is  generally  used.  The  ladders  are 
stretched  up  high  enough  to  reach  the  work;  the  hooks  are  set 
in  place  on  the  rounds;  after  which  a  plank  is  carried  up,  and 
placed  as  shown.  This  system  is  used  a  great  deal  for  gutter 
work,  patching  siding  and  scores  of  other  purposes.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  ladders  are  firm,  and  not  rotted  by 
acid  as  is  often  the  case.  The  hooks  that  hold  the  plank  may 
be  made  or  can  be  purchased  from  hardware  jobbers. 

Figure  255  is  a  gin  pole.  It  consists  of  a  long  pole  with 
a  httle  block  of  wood  nailed  across  the  top,  encircled  with  a 
rope.  To  this  rope,  guy  lines  and  also  a  block  and  tackle  are 
attached.    This  gin  pole  is  used  for  raising  smokestacks  on 


382  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

high  chimneys,  and  for  other  work  that  requires  more  tlui 
human  streDgth  to  adjust  it  in  place.  A  ladder  may  be  used 
in  place  of  a  gin  pole.  The  gin  pole  must  be  well  guyed  to  be 
held  in  place. 


Fio.  254.  Fia.  265. 

natlock  Roofing  Details. — ^Figure  256  shows  method  of 
repairing  flatlock  tin  roofing.  A  roof  scraper,  as  at  Q,  is 
serviceable  in  cleaning  the  old  tin.  Where  paint  is  heavy  and 
much  repair  work  is  required,  a  blow  torch  is  used  to  blister 
the  paint,  and  aUo»  its  easy  removal.  If  no  blow  torch  is 
available,  then  a  charcoal  pan  having  a  bottom  perforated  with 


SHEET-METAL  WORK 


383 


holes  may  be  used.  Soldering  old  seams  should  not  be  at- 
tempted. The  only  way  to  remedy  a  broken  seam  is  to  put  a 
Vnshaped  tin  saddle  over,  as  shown  in  Fig.  256.  Both  sides  of 
the  saddle  are  soldered,  and  it  permits  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion, thus  preventing  further  leaks. 

Very  often  spots  on  a  tin  roof  are  so  rusty  they  cannot  be 
scraped  bright.  In  such  cases,  bury  the  rusty  spots  in  muriatic 
acid  together  with  a  small  scrap  of  zinc,  and  immediately  apply  a 
good  hot  iron  and  solder.     Rub  the  soldering  copper  back 


Correct      '^ 
Soldering 


Scraper 


Pa+ching 
Tfn  Roofs 


^ 


NB<I 


no. 


and  forth,  and  the  rust  spots  will  become  tinned.  Sometimes 
two  or  more  apphcations  are  necessary;  but  it  does  not  matter 
how  rusty  a  piece  of  metal  is,  it  can  be  soldered  in  that  way. 

At  other  times,  parts  of  a  tin  roof  are  so  far  gone  it  is  best  to 
put  in  large  patches,  as  shown  in  sketch  Fig.  257.  In  such 
cases  first  mark  out  the  patch  and  scrape  it  perfectly  clean 
along  the  edges  about  2  in.  wide.  Then  cut  out  the  old  tin 
with  a  chisel  or  snips,  after  which  fill  in  the  new  tin,  starting 
from  the  bottom,  and  seaming  it  as  shown.  At  the  top,  a 
standing  seam  is  made  as  at  6,  which  is  hammered  over  as  at  /. 
All  seams  are  soldered  securely  with  a  weak  cut  acid.  Lock 
edges  should  always  be  made  as  at  P,  where  a  full  }4  in.  is 
given  for  lock.  Seven-sixteenth  inch  will  do^  but  smaller  edges 
are  not  permitted. 


384  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Building  Paper  Beneath  a  Tin  Roof. — The  National  Associa- 
tion of  Sheet  Metal  Architects  and  Builders  recommends  that  a 
good  building  paper  be  used  beneath  a  tin  roof.^  In  no  case 
use  tar  paper ^  or  other  papers  that  are  saturated  with  destructive 
chemicals  in  their  manufacture.  Such  chemicals  soon  corrode 
the  tin  and  destroy  it. 

Painting  Tin  Roofs. ^^ — The  National  Association  of  Sheet 
Metal  Contractors  have  adopted  for  roofing  tin  and  all  outside 
metal  work  pure  metallic  brown,  iron  oxide,  or  Venetian  red, 
mixed  with  ptire  linseed  oil. 

Before  laying  new  tiUj  it  is  generally  painted  one  heavy  coat 
on  the  under  side.  The  upper  surface  of  the  tin  roof  should  be 
carefully  cleaned  after  it  is  laid,  of  all  rosin,  dirt,  etc.,  without 
scratching  the  tin.  This  surface  should  be  immediately  painted 
with  any  of  the  above  pigments.  No  drier  or  turpentine  should 
be  used.  All  coats  of  paint  should  be  applied  with  a  hand 
brush  and  well  rubbed  in. 

A  second  coat  should  be  applied  2  weeks  after  the  first.  A 
third  coat  should  be  applied  1  year  later.  A  fourth  coat  should 
be  added  about  2  years  after  the  third  coat.  After  this  there 
is  a  suflficiently  heavy  skin  coating  of  paint  on  the  tin,  so  that 
the  intervals  of  painting  may  be  increased  to  once  every  4  or  5 
years.  After  the  roof  has  stood  for  30  or  40  years,  it  is  painted 
only  at  intervals  of  from  6  to  8  years. 

Pure  red  lead  and  pure  linseed  oil  are  also  highly  recom- 
mended. This  compound  contains  90  per  cent  red  lead  and 
10  per  cent  litharge.  The  U.  S.  Government  uses  red  lead 
on  almost  all  its  metal  work.  Red  lead  makes  a  perfect  cover; 
being  elastic,  it  expands  and  contracts  with  the  sheet.  It  is  the 
most  costly  of  roof  paints,  but  tin  roofs  that  have  been  on  40 
or  50  years  and  have  been  painted  with  red  lead,  are  today 
just  as  bright  and  new  looking  as  when  the  roof  was  first  put  on. 

Pitch  or  tar  paint  should  never  be  used;  for  when  they  are 
exposed  to  the  weather  where  the  air  and  moisture  can  react 
with  the  asphalt,  sulphur,  and  other  bituminous  substances, 
and  with  the  coal  smoke  in  the  atmosphere,  a  corrosion  takes 
place,  and  "pin  holes"  the  metal  in  a  very  short  time. 

Graphite  paints  should  never  be  used  as  a  first  or  second  coat 
on  a  metal  roof.  Smooth  tin  and  smooth  graphite  permit 
brushing  out  only   a  thin   film  of  paint.     The  moisture  in 

^  See  page  309,  "Protection  of  Iron  and  Steel  from  Corrosion." 
^  See  page  309,  "Protection  of  Iron  and  Steel  from  Corrosion." 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  385 

the  atmosphere,  rain  and  snow,  reacting  with  the  carbon  in  the 
graphite  and  the  tin  and  lead  on  the  baseplate,  produce  a 
galvanic  action.  It  is  this  combined  action  that  pin  holes  the 
tin. 

Paint  will  not  adhere  to  a  new  galvanized  iron  sheet.  Its 
tendency  is  to  peel  ofiF.  New  galvanized  iron  work  should  be 
allowed  to  weather  imtil  it  has  developed  a  "tooth'',  or  rough 
surface;  then  it  should  be  cleaned  with  a  wire  brush.  Quite 
often  this  cannot  be  done,  so  the  galvanized  surface  is  treated 
with  a  chemical  solution.  This  solution  is  made  by  dissolving 
in  1  gal.  of  soft  water,  2  oz,  each  of  copper  chloride,  copper  nitrate 
and  sal  ammoniac,  and  then  adding  2  oz.  of  crude  hydrochloric 
acid.  This  mixture  is  made  in  an  earthen  or  glass  vessel.  A 
wide,  flat  brush  is  used  to  apply  the  solution.  When  it  has 
thoroughly  dried,  the  paint  can  be  applied  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  form  a  uniform  coat  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  metal. 

Standing-seam  Roofing. — Next  in  popularity  to  flat-lock 
roofing  comes  the  standing  lock-seam  type.  This  is  an  admir- 
able way  of  construction,  and  warrants  a  secure  job  providing 
the  roof  has  a  sufficient  pitch.  Such  a  surface  is  not  practical 
on  a  shallow-pitched  roof;  the  snow  will  settle  in  between  the 
standing  seams  and  will  cause  leaks.  For  all-around  good 
service,  a  roof  with  a  standing  lock  seam  should  have  at  least 
15-deg.  pitch.  The  process  of  preparing  tin  for  this  type  of 
roofing  is  as  follows: 

The  roofing  sheets  are  first  notched  a  trifle  on  the  folded 
comers.  This  aids  in  double  seaming.  Having  all  sheets 
notched,  fold  them  on  the  long  ends.  Shops  that  have  an 
assembling  machine  are  able  to  section  these  sheets  together  in 
rolls.  If  such  a  machine  is  not  available,  the  tin  is  laid  on  a 
bench  having  a  straight  edge  nailed  on  the  back  to  keep  the 
tin  straight.  The  seams  are  hammered  down  with  a  mallet. 
For  standing-seam  roofs  of  less  than  15-deg.  pitch,  the  seams 
should  be  very  securely  soldered,  while  on  a  roof  having  a 
greater  pitch,  the  seams  can  be  just  skimmed  with  a  thin  film  of 
solder. 

All  full  lengths  for  the  roof  are  cut  at  one  time,  and  edged  up 
with  a  roofing  tong,  one  edge  standing  1^  in.  high  and  the 
other  IK  i^  high.  Roofing  tongs  have  teeth  which  act  as  a 
gage.  On  steep  roofs,  a  chicken  ladder  should  be  used.  This 
enables  a  person  to  walk  up  and  down  without  slipping.  When 
laying  the  sheets,  the  cross  seams  should  not  meet,  but  break 

25 


386 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


or  stagger,  as  at  a-b  in  sketch  B,  Fig.  258.  Observe  the  cleat 
C  which  is  put  over  the  small  1  J^-in.  edge  and  nailed  with  1-in. 
barbed  nail.  These  cleats  should  be  placed  every  18  in., 
and  where  possible  the  tin  stubs  should  be  turned  back  on  the 
nail  head.  In  laying  the  folded  tin,  be  sure  the  seams  are 
placed  so  the  water  will  run  over  them  as  the  arrows  indicate. 
The  hip  and  the  valley  pieces  are  laid  in  place  and  measured, 
and  then  cut  ofif  at  the  correct  angle  The  piece  left  over  is 
used  on  another  side  of  valley  NaiU  should  never  he  driven 
through  the  outside  of  tin,  because  the  sun  and  the  frost  will 
draw  the  nail  up,  regardless  of  the  amount  of  solder  that  is 
piled  on  top. 


Fig.  269. 


Finished  ButH 
Fio.  258. 


Sketch,  Fig.  259,  shows  a  different  process  of  turning  the 
double  seam.  Observe  the  open  seam  at  D  with  the  cleat  in 
place.  First  turn  the  upper  edge  over  the  second  edge  as  at  E. 
This  is  done  with  the  hand  seamer  /  imless  the  workman  has  a 
regular  foot  or  power  seamer.  In  turning  these  edges,  great 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  edges  do  not  unhook.  The  single 
edge  is  now  turned  over  a  second  time  as  at  F,  making  the 
double  seam  shown  at  the  butt  end.  The  hand  seamer  /  has 
two  different  widths  of  faces;  the  one  is  for  turning  the  edge  E 
and  the  other  is  for  turning  the  edge  F.  On  long  runs,  it  is 
best  to  double-seam  the  joints  at  close  intervals  to  save  them 
from  unhooking. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  way  the  lower  edge  is  turned  down 
at  Bj  and  soldered  at  the  joints  shown.  Much  difficulty  can 
be  saved  by  first  cutting  the  turned  down  edge  as  in  sketch 
jB,  Fig.  259.  Some  prefer  laying  down  the  butt  end  similiarly 
to  the  top;  only  the  double  seam  is  left  on  top  at  the  ridge 
and  turned  downward  at  the  bottom  of  the  eave.     This  practice 


SHEET-METAL  WORK 


387 


always  permita  dust  and  moisture  to  accumulate,  which  will 
rust  out  the  metal.  It  is  best  to  turn  the  lower  butt  ends  as 
at  O  or  f}-  The  one  in  G  can  be  easily  turned  with  a  pair  of 
pliers  on  the  dotted  line  c,  and  then  hammered  over  with  a 
stake  and  mallet.     These  must  of  course  be  soldered. 


.Is 


Attaching   Cormgated  Iron  to  Wood  Work.— Figure  260 

ehowB  a  sketch  of  the  comer  of  a  building  on  to  which  corru- 
gated iron  is  properly  attached.  First,  it  is  well  to  know  that 
corrugated  iron  can  be  obtained  in  various  dimensions,  in 
width  wd  length  as  well  as  distance  between  corrugations 


388  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

which  in  this  case  measure  2  in.  Corrugations  vary  from 
%  to  3  or  4  in.  (see  Table  65).  Attention  is  also  called  to 
the  method  of  lapping  one  sheet  over  another.  At  F  is  the 
incorrect  way  of  laying  sheets.  Observe  how  the  water  will 
run  off  from  the  high  ridge  beneath  the  edge  a,  and  follow  the 
valley  B  to  the  eaves.  This  valley  will  always  be  moist  and 
will  shortly  rust  through.  Drawing  X  shows  where  the  sheets 
are  reversed  so  the  water  will  run  over  the  edge. 

The  corner  post  A  is  bent  in  the  way  shown  to  give  the 
effect  as  though  a  wood  board  was  placed  over  the  corrugated 
iron.  The  pocket  is  used  to  nail  the  comer;  also  to  insert  the 
corrugated  siding.  This  is  further  continued  in  the  detail 
B,  which  offers  a  pocket  for  the  corrugated  siding  and  also  a 
standing  seam  for  the  roofing  on  top.  To  close  up  the  lower 
eaves,  a  piece  of  metal  is  bent  as  at  C  with  a  pocket  as  shown. 
The  ridge  D  may  be  bent  with  a  pocket,  and  must  be  laid 
before  placing  the  roofing  or  gable  ends.  Very  often  the  gable 
finishings  are  made  similar  to  the  section  E  which  permits 
lapping  the  corrugated  roofing  over  the  corrugations  the  same 
as  the  roofing  itself  (see  Table,  page  461,  for  various  sizes). 

La3ring  the  Roof. — The  roofing  sheets  are  laid  so  that  the 
joints  are  broken,  and  the  nails  are  driven  in  the  top  rib  of 
corrugation.  A  galvanized-iron  nail  with  a  lead  washer  / 
should  be  used.  A  gutter  can  be  attached  to  the  eave,  supported 
with  band-iron  hangers  which  are  bolted  to  top  rib  of  corruga- 
tion. Corrugated  siding  is  attached  to  supporting  wood  or 
steel  driving  nails,  or  bolts  through  the  upper  ribs.  This  helps 
to  draw  the  metal  close  to  the  building. 

Where  valleys  and  inside  comers  are  met  with,  a  straight 
piece  of  metal,  as  at  G,  is  formed  on  the  cornice  brake,  and  the 
roofing  sheets  are  lapped  over  as  shown.  They  should  not  be 
nailed  into  the  valleys.  Inside-comer  posts  can  be  made  as 
at  F  having  pockets  the  same  as  the  outsi de-comer  post  A. 
Workmen  very  often  bend  a  sheet  of  corrugated  iron,  as  shown 
to  the  right  of  Fj  for  an  inside  comer.  This  is  all  right  where 
no  artistic  effect  is  striven  for.  The  same  is  true  at  a  gable 
mold  and  the  eave  drip. 

Chimneys  are  flashed  as  at  «7.  A  saddle  and  an  extra  plate 
should  be  made  and  put  in  place,  after  which  the  corrugated 
roofing  is  laid  on  top.  This  is  the  best  method;  any  attempt 
to  flash  a  chimney  out  of  the  corrugated,  metal  is  a  difficult 
task,  and  almost  impossible  to  make  watertight.     Factory- 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  389 

made  flashings  may  be  used,  and  in  such  cases  a  ridge  as  at  ^f 
should  be  fitted,  instead  of  the  one  at  D. 

PATTERN  DRAFTING 

The  sheet-metal  worker  has  to  do  only  with  shell  surfaces. 
The  work  forms  hollow  objects,  and  not  solids  as  are  generally 
met  with  where  rules  of  solid  geometry  are  taught.  Pattern 
drafting  requires  the  knowledge  and  use  of  descriptive 
geometry. 

The  tremendous  growth  in  the  sheet-metal  industry  and  the 
adding  of  many  himdreds  of  complicated  geometrical  figures 
and  fittings  for  development,  has  brought  the  trade  to  a  higher 
plane  of  technical  skill.  The  day  is  past  when  a  man  having 
a  knowledge  of  25  or  50  patterns  can  claim  full  title  as  a  sheet- 
metal  worker.  Five  to  six  hundred  different  pattern  problems 
are  today  considered  common  knowledge  of  the  expert  sheet- 
metal  worker. 

By  this  we  do  not  mean  closely  allied  patterns,  but  patterns 
requiring  a  change  in  geometrical  adjustment  or  combination. 
Space  permits  treating  only  a  selected  number  of  problems,  and 
then  only  as  met  with  in  a  combination  shop  doing  plumbing 
and  sheet-metal  work. 

Scale-rule  Reading. — ^There  are  two  types  of  scale  rules;  one 
a  flat  box  rule  and  the  other  a  triangular  one.  Either  is 
satisfactory,  provided  common  scales  corresponding  to  the 
drawings  are  marked  on  rules.  By.  inspecting  the  box  scale, 
four  different  scales  will  be  found;  the  ^is-in,,  the  Ji-in.,  the 
J^-in.  and  the  1-in.  This  means  }i  in.  equals  1  ft.,  and  this 
^  in.  is  divided  into  divisions  of  12  spaces  to  represent  inches, 
the  middle  line  representing  6  in.  and  the  lines  between  stand- 
ing for  3  in.  and  9  in.,  while  the  others  lead  up  to  these  numbers 
as  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  etc. 

In  like  manner  the  K'ii^*  scale  is  divided  in  the  same  divisions 
and  represents  the  same  dimensions,  only  ^-in.  equals  1  ft., 
and  each  single  line  represents  1  in.  which  makes  this  scale 
exactly  twice  the  size  of  the  J^-in.  scale.  That  is  why  they  are 
placed  on  the  same  side  of  the  rule.  The  K-ii^*  scale  is  similar^ 
and  equals  }4  ii^-  ^  ^^^  ^oot.  This  space  is  divided  into  24 
equal  spaces,  which  show  the  K-in.  and  the  1-in.  marks  for 
dimension  purposes. 

In  placing  this  rule  over  the  drawing  across  the  pipe,  the 
width  will  measure  exactly  2  ft.  63^  in.  in  diameter,  full  size. 


390 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Caxe  must  be  taken  that  the  scale  rule  is  exactly  at  90  deg.  to 
the  outlines  of  work. 

The  1-in.  scale  equals  1  in.  to  the  foot.  It  is  divided  into  48 
spaces,  thus  permitting  the  use  of  the  1-in.,  J^-in.  and  ^'^. 
marks.  This  enlarged  scale  enables  the  draftsman  to  produce 
working  drawings  of  greater  accuracy,  it  being  larger  and  easier 
to  work  from.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  thickness  of  a  lead 
pencil  with  the  H~u^*  scale  can  readily  take  up  a  whole  inch  of 
dimension. 

The  triangular  scale  rule  lias  more  scale  dimension  because  it 
has  six  sides.  One  side  is  used  for  straight  measurements,  and 
divided  up  into  Ke  ^^'  spaces.  The  scales  printed  on  the 
other  sides  of  each  end  are:  %2,  Ke,  M;  H.  Hy  Hy^j  IM  and 
3  in.  to  the  foot.  This  is  called  an  architect's  scale,  and  is 
used  the  same  as  the  flat  scale. 


Fig.  261. 


Patterns  for  Funnel. — Funnels,  as  shown  in  Fig.  261,  are 
made  in  a  great  variety  of  sizes  and  designs.  This  problem  is 
considered  the  same  as  a  pitched  cover  or  the  development  of 
the  frustum  of  a  cone.  The  upper  story  is  a  straight  rim,  while 
the  second  piece  and  the  nipple  are  both  frustums  of  cones. 

To  lay  out  a  working  drawing  for  a  funnel,  as  in  Fig.  261,  only 
a  half  elevation  is  necessary,  as  both  halves  are  alike.     First, 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  391 

an  indefinite  center  line  is  drawn  as  Z-Y,  Z-A  represents  half 
the  diameter.  Draw  the  height  of  rim  ^-B  to  any  measure- 
ment desired.  The  funnel  part  S  must  also  be  made  to  suit 
measurement,  but  it  should  be  steep  enough  to  permit  the 
substance  to  flow  downward  freely  The  nipple  T  may  also 
be  made  any  length.  With  this  understanding,  we  draw  the 
slant  line  B-C  and  C-D.  The  handle  C7  may  be  sketched  free- 
handed as  shown. 

To  set  out  the  patterns  for  the  various  pieces,  the  upper  rim 
R  is  made  equal  to  the  width  A-B^  and  equal  in  circumference 
to  suit  the  diameter.  This  can  be  best  measured  by  figuring 
the  circumference  and  measuring  with  a  rule.  Allowance  for 
wire  edges  and  seaming  edges  must  be  allowed  outside  of  the 
net  pattern.  To  the  left  of  this  pattern  is  the  diagram  showing 
how  much  allowance  should  be  added  to  suit  the  thickness  of 
the  wire  or  rod.  Dividers  are  set  to  equal  2J^  diameters  of 
wire  or  rod,  and  this  is  added  for  a  wire  edge.  This  encloses 
it  as  in  the  section  M, 

To  set  out  the  pattern  for  the  middle  piece  &y  extend  the 
slant  line  B-C  to  center  line  X,  Using  X-B  and  X-C  as  radius, 
strike  the  aics  in  pattern  using  any  place,  as  X'y  as  center. 
Draw  line  as  X'-B',  Measure  the  circumference,  which  in  this 
case  is  OJ^e  in.,  on  a  metal  strip,  and  bend  it  around  the  curve, 
establishing  point  B",  Draw  line  B"-X',  and  where  it  cuts 
the  small  arc  C",  it  proportions  this  arc  to  conform  in  length 
to  the  large  arc.  This  saves  spacing  off  the  lower  arc.  Allow 
edges  for  seaming  and  also  for  double  seaming  the  top  of 
taper  to  the  rim  as  in  section  iV.  These  edges  should  not  be 
made  too  large;  otherwise  much  difiiculty  is  had  in  seaming. 
Small  edges  hold  just  as  well  and  are  much  more  easily  made. 

Next  lay  out  the  pattern  for  nipple  T.  Extend  the  side  line 
C-D  to  terminate  in  the  center  Une  at  F.  Using  Y  as  center 
and  Y-C  as  radius,  strike  the  arc  indefinitely.  Use  a  narrow 
metal  strip  or  else  a  paper  strip  to  bend  around  the  arc  C'-C" 
in  pattern  5",  and  transfer  this  length  on  the  arc  C'-C"  in 
pattern  T",  Then  draw  lines  to  center  Y,  Next  strike  the 
arc  D''D'\  Laps  must  be  allowed  on  this  nipple  for  over- 
lapping the  other  pattern  as  in  section  O.  When  this  nipple 
is  formed,  it  is  best  to  kink-in  on  opposite  sides  as  shown  in 
Fig.  261,  to  permit  air  to  escape  and  act  as  a  vent. 

The  handle  U  is  merely  a  tapering  strip  of  metal  as  shown  by 
pattern  "C7".    The  back  view  of  handle  shows  the  width  of  the 


392 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


top  and  bottom.  The  edges  can  be  single-hemmed,  double- 
hemmed  or  wired,  as  desired.  To  obtain  the  stretchout  for 
the  handle,  bend  a  narrow  strip  of  metal  to  conform  with  the 
curvature  of  elevation  C/,  and  then  straighten  out  and  lay  off  in 
pattern.     Add  your  widths  for  laps  and  the  pattern  is  finished. 

The  metal  strip  mentioned  for  measuring  circumferences  may 
be  used  in  a  multitude  of  daily  problems,  and  is  a  great  saver  of 
time  and  accuracy. 

Liquid  Measures. — Measures  as  in  Fig.  262  are  used  for 
milk  cans,  oil  cans,  oil  measures,  automobile  purposes,   etc. 


FiQ.  262. 


According  to  law,  a  mea^sure  must  hold  a  gwen  quantity,  and 
must  be  sealed  and  approved  by  town  and  city  officials  and 
failure  to  do  so  is  punishable  by  law.  Below  is  a  table  of 
dimensions  as  recommended  by  the  U.  S.  Government,  and  all 
liquid  measures  should  conform  to  these  measurements.  The 
diameter  of  the  bottom  is  generally  taken  as  two-thirds  the 
vertical  height,  and  the  diameter  of  the  upper  base  about 
two-thirds  that  of  the  lower.  On  this  basis  of  proportion 
the  following  schedule  has  been  prepared  by  Government 
authorities: 


SHEET-METAL  WORK 


393 


Table  53. — Dimensions  for  Liquid  Measures 


Diameter  of 

Diameter  of 

Sise 

Height,  inches 

lower  base 

upper  base 

in  inches 

in  inches 

1      gal. 

9.80 

6.53 

4.35 

y2gal. 

7.78 

5.18 

3.45 

1      qt. 

6.17 

4.11 

2.74 

1      pt. 

4.90 

3.27 

2.18 

>6pt. 

3.89 

2.59 

1.73 

1      gill 

3.09 

2.06 

1.37 

Development — The  radial  line  method  rmist  be  iised.  First, 
draw  an  indefinite  center  line  as  X-Y,  On  each  side  of  this 
mark  off  the  elevation  to  suit  measurements  of  those  in  Fig.  262. 
The  flare  of  the  Up  is  laid  out  to  an  angle  of  45  deg.  in  this  case, 
taking  care  that  both  sides  are  equal;  otherwise  it  is  made  to 
suit  the  proportion  of  the  measure. 

To  lay  out  the  pattern  for  the  body,  extend  the  side  lines  of 
taper  until  they  meet  in  the  apex  X.  Then  use  the  side  line 
as  radius,  describing  the  pattern,  in  this  case  from  X\  The 
stretchout  can  be  measured  along  the  arc,  or  it  can  be  trans- 
ferred from  the  half  section.  The  half  section  is  not  needed 
except  that  it  is  shown  in  connection  with  the  development  of 
the  hp. 

The  side  lines  of  lip  are  extended  to  meet  the  center  line  in 
apex  4.  With  this  radius  4-7,  describe  the  inner  arc  in  the 
pattern.  Draw  the  center  line  4'-A,  and  from  point  7  step  off 
or  measure  the  half  circumference  on  each  side.  This  estab- 
lishes points  1  and  1'.  Draw  lines  to  point  4'.  Now  pick  the 
space  1-B'  in  pattern.  Next  pick  the  front  of  Up  7-A  and  set  it 
as  7-A  in  pattern.  Draw  line  B'-A  and  bisect  in  the  center  C. 
Square  out  Une  from  C  to  the  center  line  4'-A  in  point  D. 
With  this  new  center,  D  and  A,  as  radius,  strike  the  other  arcs. 
This  finishes  patterns  for  the  Up  and  the  body.  Laps  for 
seaming  and  wiring  must  be  aUowed  extra.  The  pattern  for 
the  bottom  is  merely  a  round  disc  with  double  edges  aUowed 
as  shown  for  double  seaming. 

The  next  step  is  to  describe  the  handle  and  to  develop  the 
grip  or  boss  inside  the  handle.  For  this,  draw  a  line  1-a,  with 
a  30-deg.  triangle  and  made  it  equal  in  length  to  one-third  the 
diameter  of  upper  base.    The  line  orb  is  drawn  with  a  60-deg. 


394  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

triangle  and  is  made  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  upper  base. 
From  these  points  the  arcs  are  described  which  give  the  handle 
a  uniform  appearance.  Often  on  account  of  the  slant  line  of 
elevation  the  dividers  must  be  shifted  a  trifle  in  order  to  des- 
cribe the  larger  arc  tangent  with  the  smaller  one  and  still 
tangent  with  the  elevation.  In  such  cases  the  point  &,  is  only 
an  approximate  center. 

Next,  parallel  with  the  grip  draw  the  section  through  grip 
as  shown.  This  is  straight  and  must  be  laid  out  by  the  parallel- 
line  method.  Divide  the  section  through  grip  into  equal 
spaces  and  draw  lines  parallel  to  the  edge  of  grip  thus  cutting 
the  arc  of  handle  in  the  points  shown.  The  stretchout  is  then 
picked  from  the  section  and  set  off  at  right  angles  to  its  ele- 
vation. From  this  the  pattern  is  developed.  This  is  the 
geometrical  development  for  grip;  the  shop  method  will  simplify 
it  as  follows:  Develop  the  handle  and  bend  it  to  its  right 
design  to  suit  elevation.  Next,  take  handle  and  lay  over  a 
piece  of  metal  marking  to  suit  the  curve,  and  then  reversing 
as  shown  by  the  dotted  position  of  handle,  the  pattern  is 
marked  out  as  at  M,  The  space  between  the  parallel  lines  is 
that  distance  which  would  be  bent  on  a  half  round  or  elipse, 
as  in  this  section  through  grip.  This  is  then  cut  out  and  is  in 
every  respect  as  serviceable  as  the  former  pattern. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  sectional  seams,  the  way  the 
measure  is  assembled  at  0,  where  a  wire  is  enclosed  at  the  top 
of  lip,  and  how  the  measure  laps  over  the  lip  at  P.  Also  how 
the  bottom  is  double  seamed  on  as  at  Q.  All  these  points 
must  be  worked  out  and  actually  tried  out  to  appreciate  their 
full  value. 

FURNACE  FITTINGS 

Taper  Pipes  on  Center  and  off  Center. — Cylindrical  pipes, 
as  Fig.  263,  that  have  a  pronounced  change  of  diameters  in 
opposite  bases,  are  called  taper  joints,  also  reducers.  They 
are  merely  frustums  of  cones,  and  require  the  radical-line 
method  to  lay  out.  Workmen  doing  furnace  heating,  or  en- 
gaged in  the  making  of  all  forms  of  smoke  pipes  will  meet  with 
many  kinds  of  fittings.  A  few  of  the  more  general  fittings 
and  their  development  are  taken  up  here. 

Measurements  are  always  given  for  such  work,  as  the  length, 
large  and  short  diameters.     In  this  case  the  taper  is  18  in. 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  395 

long,  20  in.  on  the  large  end  and  14  in.  on  the  small  end.     Only 
B.  half  elevation  need  be  drawn. 

First  draw  the  center  A-B,  and  measure  A-C  as  the  length. 
Square  up  lines  at  right  angles  to  A-B  and  make  A-D  equal  to 


10  in.  and  C-E  equal  to  7  in.  Join  D-E  with  a  line  and  extend 
it  on  the  same  slant  until  it  intersects  the  center  line  as  in 
point  B.    This  gives  the  true  slant  length. 

Set  trammel  points  (trammel  points  are  large  extension 
dividers)  to  S  as  center,  and  D,  as  radius,  and  describe  arc. 
Readjust  trammels  to  radius  B-E  and  sweep  arc  I-J.     Figure 


396  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

the  circumference  for  either  the  large  or  small  end,  say  large 
end  in  this  case,  is 

3.14  X  20  =  62.80  or  621^6  girth. 

Measure  this  girth  off  on  a  metal  or  paper  strip,  or  with  a 
zigzag  rule  mark  the  points  G  and  H  and  draw  line  to  center 
apex  B.  This  process  regulates  the  girth  for  small  end  as  I-J 
and  saves  figuring  and  measuring.  Some  workmen  prefer  to 
allow  the  full  rivet  lap  on  one  edge  as  (?-/  and  the  rivet  lap  as 
at  H-J.  It  does  not  matter  which  method  is  used  as  long  as 
the  true  girth  is  maintained.  The  circumference  rivet  lines 
are  measured  in  say  ^  in.  from  the  edge  in  this  ease,  and 
described  from  center  B.  Step  off  the  rivets  holes  with 
dividers  by  trials  until  spaces  become  equal. 

Taper  off  Center. — In  Fig.  264  is  another  form  of  taper  that 
is  straight  on  one  side.  It  is  used  on  all  work  where  a  pipe 
line  must  be  laid  level  and  even  on  the  bottom  side.  This  is 
especially  true  where  heavy  substances  as  emery  dust,  etc., 
must  be  taken  care  of. 

As  the  pipe  is  straight  on  one  side,  draw  line  X-1-7  at  right 
angles  and  measure  1-7  as  the  diameter  of  large  end.  Next 
measure  1-1"  as  the  height  of  taper  and  square  out  small 
diameter  l"-7".  Join  7-7"  with  a  line,  extending  it  to  intersect 
side  line  in  point  X.  Now  develop  a  half-plan  view  of  this 
taper,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  point  X  merges  in  point  1. 
So  describe  a  half  circle  to  suit  diameter  1-7,  and  divide  in  6 
equal  parts.  Now  using  point  1  as  center,  sweep  these  points 
into  base  line  as  2-2';  3-3';  4-4';  etc.  From  these  points  draw 
lines  to  the  apex  X  which  gives  the  true  length  of  lines. 

At  diagram  A  is  shown  a  rapid  method  for  spacing  a  circle 
in  12  equal  parts.  Strike  circle  from  center  and  draw  quarterly 
lines  through  the  center.  With  the  same  radius  use  a  as 
center,  mark  point  3-11;  then  use  h  as  center,  mark  2-6;  next 
c  as  center  mark  5-9  and  last  use  d  as  center,  mark  8-12  as 
shown.  Observe  that  this  is  the  principle  of  the  radius  making 
a  hexagon,  only  here  we  double  over,  thereby  producing  twice 
the  number  of  spaces. 

This  same  method  is  used  throughout  this  section,  and  it 
provides  rapid  means  of  dividing  a  circle  into  any  number  of 
spaces.  For  ordinary  work  it  is  also  accurate.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  to  use  exact  radius  of  circle  and  also  to  use  the 
quarterly  lines  exactly  on  center,  and  to  have  the  pencil  points 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  397 

sharp.  Slight  irregularities  often  throw  the  points  out  con- 
siderably, so  it  is  always  best  to  average  them. 

To  continue  the  development,  set  trammel  points  to  X  as 
center,  and  each  point  as  l-2'-3'-4'-5'-6'-7'  as  radius  strike 
arcs  indefinitely.  With  dividers  set  to  equal  one  of  the  six 
equal  spaces  in  the  plan,  start  with  one  of  the  arcs  and  walk 
from  one  arc  to  the  other  until  the  full  girth  has  been  stepped 
off.  If  you  wish  to  place  the  seams  on  the  side,  then  start 
dividers  on  arc  4'  as  point  4  in  pattern.  Then  walk  from  one 
arc  to  the  other  following  the  numbers  as  shown.  This 
establishes  the  lower  miter  cut. 

From  each  intersecting  point  in  miter  cut,  draw  radial  lines  to 
apex  Xy  or  at  least  past  the  top  of  taper.  Then  from  each 
point  in  top  base  l"-7"  sweep  arcs  cutting  lines  of  similar 
number  in  pattern.  This  gives  the  top  miter  cut.  Rivet  holes 
can  then  be  spaced  as  shown,  which  completes  the  pattern. 
On  particular  work  it  is  best  to  draw  the  circumference  rivet 
Unes  and  space  the  rivet  holes  separately  with  dividers. 

Elbows  and  Angles. — Where  there  are  three  or  more  pieces 
in  an  angle  or  elbow.  Fig.  265,  it  is  necessary  to  apply  a  method 
to  establish  the  miter  line.  The  diagram  illustrates  the  prin- 
ciple for  equally  dividing  an  arc  to  give  each  piece  the  same  rise 
of  miter  line.  The  right  angle  B-A-C  is  exactly  90  deg.  The 
quarter  arc  1-8  is  described  from  the  comer  A,  and  at  any 
desired  radius.     The  next  operation  is  to  divide  this. 

Observe  that  all  middle  pieces  have  two  spaces,  a  miter  line 
on  each  end,  while  the  end  pieces  would  also  have  two  spaces 
if  the  two  dotted  miter  ends  were  added.  These  are  omitted 
and  not  used,  thus  leaving  only  one  space  for  each  butt  end. 
If  these  dotted  half  ends  were  not  omitted,  then  it  would  leave 
a  slant  butt  end  when  connecting  the  other  pieces. 

Always  remember  and  follow  this  rule:  Multiply  the  desired 
number  of  pieces  the  elbow  is  to  have  by  two,  and  then  subtract  two 
from  the  product;  the  remainder  will  be  the  number  of  spaces  into 
which  the  arc  muM  be  divided,  to  produce  the  required  elbow  pieces. 

For  example,  the  diagram  shows  a  five-piece  elbow. 

Five  pieces  times  two  spaces  equals  ten  spaces. 
Ten  spaces  minus  two  spaces  gives  eight  spaces. 

This  gives  the  miter  line.  This  rule  is  applied  to  all  elbows  or 
angles,  no  matter  how  large  or  how  many  the  number  of  pieces 
required. 


398 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Apply  this  rule  to  Fig.  265  which  is  a  four-piece  elbow.  In 
the  upper  comer  is  the  working  drawing.  First  draw  the  right 
angle,  and  then  describe  the  quarter  circle  in  the  heel,  center  or 
throat;  either  is  satisfactory.  In  this  case,  use  the  heel  arc. 
We  desire  a  four-piece  elbow,  so  4  X  2  equals  8,  minus  2  gives 
us  6  spaces.  Draw  the  first  miter  Une  as  a-A,  and  every  other 
one  after  that.  The  elevation  B-C-D  is  unnecessary  to  layout 
pattern  ^^A*\  but  it  is  well  to  draw  it,  taking  care  that  the  heel 


DlagranT  ^-* — j 


4-Pieced  Round  Elbow 
FIG. 265 

and  throat  are  parallel  with  each  piece,  and  that  the  vertices  of 
heel  as  7-a-&-c  do  not  finish  in  the  arc,  but  square  up  from  points 
1  and  7, which  estabUshes  point  e  and  a.  With  the  30-  and 
60-deg.  triangle,  the  side  lines  c-b-a  can  be  drawn  from  a  four- 
pieced  elbow.  Draw  a  quarter  circle  in  heel  and  throat.  This 
aids  in  drawing  the  elevation. 

In  the  developing  process  where  a  fitting  is  true,  having  the 
same  shape  all  around,  only  a  half  section,  N,  is  necessary. 
Continue  from  here  the  development  of  the  pattern  as  was 
applied  with  the  angle  until  finished. 

In  practical  work  the  butt-«nd  pieces  are  made  somewhat 
longer  than  the  net  space  1-e  of  elevation.    That  is  why  the 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  399 

lo'wer  line  to  pattern  A  is  added.    Cut  this  pattern  A  out  very 
carefully  and  accurately.     Measure  the  heel  on  both  ends  as 
a'-6'  and  reverse  pattern  A,  thus  making  the  curve  fc'-6"  as  pat- 
tern "B".     This  makes  e-d  of  elevation  to  correspond  in  length 
to  throat  of  pattern.     Next  set  the  throat  e-d  as  h'-d^  and  V-d", 
and  again  reverse  pattern  "-A"  and  you  have  pattern  "C".     The 
line  I'-l"  can  be  drawn  any  distance  up  from  d"-l",  usually  to 
suit  the  edge  of  sheet;  and  this  finishes  pattern  ^^iy\    Laps  for 
seaming  or  riveting  must  be  allowed  extra.     Where  an  elbow 
must  be  made  to  suit  a  given  size,  the  edges  must  also  be  allowed 
for  the  miter  cuts  to  make  up  for  the  lock  or  peened  edge. 
Three-piece  Angle. — In  all  forms  of  pipe  work,  the  workman 
meets  with  problems  as  shown  in  Fig.  266.     A  bevel  is  used 
to  find  the  required  angle,  as  G-I-H.     Now  the  nature  of  the 
substance  flowing  in  the  pipe  requires  a  round  turn,  in  this  case 
a  three-piece  angle  to  suit  the  heel  line,  G-I-H,    The  idea  is  to 
establish  the  miter  line.     Set  dividers  to  vertex  7,  and  mark 
points  e-€'  to  suit  any  radius.     Square  out  a  line  from  both  e 
and  e'  at  right  angles  to  I-H  and  I-G  until  they  meet  in  point  J, 
This  can  also  be  done  by  striking  arcs  as  shown.     Use  J  as 
center,  and  strike  the  arc  e-e';  then  measure  diameter  as  e-/  and 
strike  arc  for  throat.     From  here  on  space  the  heel  arc  to 
establish  the  miter  line.     Our  rule  says  four  spaces  for  a  three- 
piece  angle  or  elbow.     After  this  develop  the  patterns  the  same 
as  before. 

Furnace.  Canopy  and  Collars. — In  sketch  for  canopy,  Fig. 
267,  the  body  is  just  like  a  taper  joint  or  frustum  of  a  cone. 
Only  a  half  elevation  is  required  as  a  working  drawing.  First, 
draw  a  center  line  indefinitely,  as  A-B.  Measure  A-C  equal 
to  one-half  the  diameter  of  top  furnace  ring.  Then  make  A-E 
1  or  2  in.  higher  than  the  largest  warm-air  duct;  usually  14  or 
15  in.  Next  make  E-D  any  desired  length,  just  so  C-D  will 
have  a  nice  taper.  This  taper  acts  as  a  deflector,  and  also 
inclines  the  collars,  to  facilitate  connecting  leaders  to  suit  their 
rise.  Next  draw  the  inverted  cover  line  D-F.  The  distance 
E-F  is  the  rise  or  drop  of  cover  and  acts  as  a  deflector  in  helping 
to  diffuse  the  air  into  the  pipes. 

The  side  line  C-D  is  now  extended  to  meet  in  the  center  line  as 
in  point  B.  The  pattern  is  then  described  to  suit  the,  width  of 
galvanized  sheet.  To  describe  a  full  half  pattern  for  a  large 
canopy  causes  too  much  waste.  Therefore,  the  pattern  is 
described  across  the  width  of  a  28-  or  30-in.  sheet.    So  let 


400 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


(p^Mi-d  represent  a  part  of  a  sheet  of  metal.  Set  compass  to 
radius  R-C  and  locate  the  radius  point  B'  to  suit  the  sheet  of 
metal,  from  which  describe  the  part  pattern  as  shown.  This 
pattern  can  be  used  for  all  sized  canopies;  enough  sections  are 
cut  out  to  make  the  circumference.  It  is  better  to  rivet  the 
seams  than  groove  them.  It  is  also  good  practice  to  make  the 
circumference  of  the  ring  to  a  fraction  larger,  and  then  crimp 
the  bottom  of  the  canopy,  which  makes  a  straight  edge  and  a 
close  fit. 

The  pattern  for  the  inverted  cone  is  set  out  by  using  F-D  as 
radius  and  any  point  as  F'  as  center.     Strike  an  arc  indefinitely; 


FiQ.  267. 


measure  off  the  half  circumference  on  a  metal  strip  and  bend 
around  the  arc,  thus  establishing  points  £)'-£)".  Laps  for 
seaming  must  be  allowed  extra.  It  is  best  to  double  seam  the 
cover  on  the  body  of  canopy,  similar  to  the  section  M. 

Some  furnace  men  get  out  the  cover  this  way,  while  others 
rivet  enough  pieces  of  sheet  iron  together  to  make  a  full  cover. 
They  then  strike  out  the  full  pattern,  allow  for  double  seaming 
edges  and  then  cut  out  on  the  arc.  The  edge  is  then  turned  up 
in  the  burring  machine  for  double  seaming  as  at  M.  After 
this  it  is  slit  in  on  a  line  to  the  center,  and  laid  over  the  tapering 
body,  and  pushed  down  in  the  center  until  the  burred  edge 
firmly  locks  on  the  edge  of  taper.    The  cut  out  line  is  then 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  401 

marked,  after  which  enough  lap  is  allowed  for  riveting;  the 
rest  is  cut  out,  and  the  cover  is  riveted  on  this  line.  The  latter 
method  is  the  safest  for  accuracy,  and  is  just  as  eflficient  when 
making  only  one  or  two  hoods.  Otherwise  we  would  recommend 
the  first  method. 

The  collars  that  are  tapped  into  this  hood  should  always  be 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  top  so  no  warm-air  pockets  are 
formed.  The  workman  must  never  run  some  of  the  warm-air 
ducts  out  of  the  side  of  canopy  and  others  out  of  the  top. 
[Either  run  them  all  out  of  the  sides,  or  else  all  out  at  the  top; 
failure  to  do  so  will  cause  those  running  out  of  the  top  to  rob 
those  running  out  of  the  side.  There  is  no  objection  in  taking 
the  pipes  out  of  the  top  where  a  basement  has  ample  depth. 

Again  looking  at  the  half  section  of  hood  or  half  elevation, 

draw  the  side  view  of  collar  on  the  line  D-C  to  the  desired 

diameter,  keeping  quite  close  to  the  top.     Then  bisect,  finding 

the  center  /,  and  set  compass  to  the  radius  e-/;  and  using  any 

point,  as  e',  for  a  center,  strike  the  arc  /',  indefinitely.     Next 

draw  the  plan  of  collar  on  this  arc  to  suit  any  desired  position, 

on  center,  or  off  center  as  in  this  case.     Describe  the  half 

section  0  and  divide  into  any  number  of  equal  spaces,  six  in 

this  case.     From  these  points  drop  lines  cutting  the  arc  /'. 

Now  set  the  stretchout  for  the  collar  off  as  4-4  and  space  into 

twice  as  many  divisions  as  there  are  in  half  section  0.     Drop 

stretchout  line  from  these  points,  and  from  each  point  in  the 

arc  /'  project  over  horizontal  lines,  cutting  lines  in  stretchout 

having  the  same  number  as  in  points  4'-3'-2'  etc.     This  gives 

the  pattern.     Note,  the  pattern  is  started  with  Une  4  of  plan, 

and  so  places  the  seam  on  the  side  of  the  collar. 

In  this  way  all  collars  may  be  laid  off.  It  does  not  matter  to 
what  inclination  they  point  in  a  side  direction,  but  in  the  eleva- 
tion they  must  be  at  right  angles,  otherwise  a  different  method 
of  developing  must  be  applied.  This  method  is  not  geometri- 
cally accurate,  but  is  near  enough  for  all  practical  purposes. 
In  most  cases  the  collar  is  sprung  one  way  or  another  a  trifle. 
It  is  the  best  practice  to  rivet  a  narrow  strip  of  metal  on  the 
inside  for  clinching  to  the  hood.  In  this  way  the  workman  can 
always  give  and  take  a  little,  which  is  very  necessary  in  this 
field  work. 

In  marking  out  the  opening  in  the  canopy  where  the  collar 
is  tapped  in,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  collar  points  in  as 
near  a  straight  line  to  the  register  box  or  wall  stack  as  possible. 

26 


402 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


In  this  position  it  is  marked  with  a  lead  pencil,  and  cut  out, 
taking  care  to  cut  it  closely.  Quite  often  collars  must  be  cut 
to  fit  on  the  job,  in  which  case  they  are  notched  in  and  dove- 
tailed so  that  one  lug  is  on  the  outside  and  the  other  on  the 
inside  of  canopy. 

When  the  canopy  is  set  up  on  the  job,  the  concaved  cover 
should  be  filled  with  sand.  This  is  for  holding  it  down  and  also 
holding  the  heat  in.  On  large  canopies,  an  extra  strip  is 
clamped  around  on  top  so  more  sand  can  be  piled  on  to  prevent 
too  much  heat  escaping  in  the  basement. 

Patterns  for  Right  Angle  T  of  Different  Diameter. — Figure 
268  shows  a  T  which  is  used  a  great  deal  for  smoke  pipe  work. 


Rat+ern  for  Tee 


e    9 


Z   / 


Right  Angle  Toe 
Sani«  Diamelvrs 


Pattern  f6rOp«ning 


Right  Angle  Te« 
Having  Different  Diameters 


FiQ.  268. 


Observing  that  this  problem  is  one  of  the  parallel  line  method, 
first  describe  the  semi-circle  A  to  represent  the  large  pipe, 
and  from  the  center  a,  erect  a  vertical  line  and  draw  the  top 
of  T  4-4.  Describe  the  half  section  B  and  divide  into  equal 
spaces.  Drop  lines  from  each  of  these  points  to  intersect  the 
large  circle  A  as  in  points  l'-2'-3'-4'. 

To  set  out  the  pattern,  extend  the  line  4-4  as  1-1,  and  measure 
the  circumference  for  T.     Transfer  the  divisional  spaces  on 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  403 

this  line  so  as  to  have  12,  and  drop  stretchout  lines  indefinitely. 
From  each  point  where  the  Unes  from  section  B  intersect  the 
circle  A,  as  l'-2'-3'-4'  etc.,  project  over  lines  into  stretchout, 
cutting  those  lines  of  similar  number,  as  in  points  l'-2'-3'  etc. 
Trace  a  freehand  curve  through  these  points,  and  the  pattern  is 
finished. 

To  lay  out  the  opening  in  the  large  main  pipe,  no  side  ele- 
vation need  be  drawn.  Observe  in  the  end  elevation  how  the 
T  fits  on  the  main  pipe  A  as  from  4'-l'-4".  This  is  the  exact 
space  that  must  be  cut  out  of  the  main  pipe  to  fit  the  T.  Pick 
the  spaces  as  4'-3'-2'-l'  from  end  elevation  and  set  them  below 
as  from  4  to  4.  Draw  stretchout  lines,  and  from  each  point 
as  l'-2'-3'-4'  in  A,  drop  points  onto  stretchout  lines  of  similar 
number.  Trace  the  oval  through  points  thus  established,  and 
the  pattern  is  finished.  A  small  edge  is  allowed  on  the  inside 
of  this  opening  for  turning  outward  into  the  T. 

At  M"  we  have  an  end  view  of  a  right  angle  T  intersecting  a 
pipe  of  the  same  diameter.  Observe  the  same  treatment  can 
be  followed.  The  girth  can  be  picked  from  either  the  dotted 
section  or  the  spaces  in  the  main  pipe,  as  they  are  all  alike. 
In  assembling  these  T's,  lugs  can  be  allowed  as  in  Fig.  268,  or  a 
strip  is  riveted  in  as  in  detail  Z>. 

Chimney  Extensions.^ — It  is  well  to  mention  that  smoke 
pipes  should  he  taken  down  every  sprinQj  the  reason  being  that 
the  moisture  in  the  basement,  together  with  the  soot  and 
ashes,  proves  very  injurious  to  the  steel.  In  this  way  many 
perfectly  good  smoke  pipes  will  be  completely  eaten  up  by 
rust  in  the  fall.  The  constant  fall  and  winter  firing  is  not 
nearly  as  injurious  to  a  smoke  pipe  as  to  have  it  lie  packed  with 
soot  and  ashes  and  saturated  with  moisture. 

Furnace  heaters  of  steel  construction,  as  well  as  cast-iron 
heaters  with  steel  radiators,  are  also  liable  to  rust  rapidly 
during  the  summer  months.  To  overcome  this,  first  clean 
the  heater  free  from  all  soot  and  ashes  on  the  inside  with  a 
stiff  brush  or  broom.  Then  on  the  grates  lay  a  few  fair  sized 
pieces  of  unslacked  limey  which  takes  up  the  moisture  and  aids 
in  preserving  the  heater. 

When  the  masonry  work  of  chimneys  is  not  built  high  enough, 
down-draft  and  air  pockets  or  eddies  caused  by  the  air  circulat- 
ing around  enclosed  courts,  causes  no  end  of  worries  to  the 
fumacemen  and  the  tenants  (see  "Chimney"  section,  p.  12). 
1  See  Section,  "Effect  of  Soot,"  page  307. 


404 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


To  overcome  this,  galvanized-steel  chimney  extensions  are 
made,  as  in  Fig.  269.  Various  kinds  of  bases  are  used,  some  of 
cast  iron  and  others  of  tile,  but  for  the  sheet-metal  man,  the 
one  shown  on  this  plate  is  of  the  most  interest.  For  small 
chimneys,  the  one  in  Fig.  269  is  all  right;  but  for  larger  bases  it 
is  not  recommended,  because  the  base  sets  over  the  brickwork; 
and  this  permits  air  pockets  to  form,  which  cools  and  retards 
the  draft.     This  is  overcome  by  first  making  a  pan  as  in  Sketch 


_  Half  Circumference  j 


^•^      Half  Wtternftr  Rase 


,mv^s^    SSS^ 


1/ 


PcattiemfbrTop 
In  One  Piece 


M 


N 


"€*'  to  cover  the  brickwork,  and  placing  the  transition  piece 
upon  it.  Others  make  the  bases  as  at  Z>,  turning  out  a  flange 
and  riveting  a  strip  on  the  inside.  The  base  is  set  in  place, 
and  the  top  is  covered  with  cement  to  make  it  water-  and  air- 
tight. Where  the  brickwork  is  poor,  the  arrangement  of  base 
and  pan  at  C  is  recommended. 

On  these  extensions  various  designs  of  hoods  are  used.  The 
one  shown  in  Fig.  269,  having  the  T-branch  arrangement,  is  the 
most  successful.  It  is  claimed  this  combination  of  T-branch 
will  cause  a  chinmey  to  draw  when  all  the  others  have  faUed. 
It  is  called  the  "Burte**  chimney  top,  possibly  named  after  the 
man  who  first  designed  it.  Conical  hoods  are  used  a  great 
deal,  and  are  more  for  preventing  the  rain  and  down-draft. 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  4t)5 

Too  often  this  hood  is  placed  down  too  far,  which  cuts  off  the 
effective  area;  they  should  be  raised  to  a  height  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  pipe.  The  hood  shown  at  F  is  very  serviceable 
and  also  simply  made. 

To  set  out  the  pattern  for  this  hood,  let  M-N  be  the  cir- 
cumference of  pipe,  and  M-P  and  N-0  be  the  width  of  sheet. 
Bisect  the  center,  R,  and  erect  a  vertical  line  R-Q.  Make  the 
distance  R-Q  equal  to  R-Sj  as  the  quarter  circle  testifies. 
Then  again,  bisect  the  distance  R-S  and  measure  about  1^  in. 
on  each  side  of  center  to  make  the  side  about  3  in.  wide  as 
shown.  Set  dividers  to  center  R  and  strike  a  semi-circle,  and 
then  set  to  the  comer  S  and  strike  the  quarter  circle.  These 
are  cut  out  as  in  Sketch  F.  Form  the  pattern  up  as  an  ordinary 
joint  of  pipe,  and  then  double  over  the  top  and  rivet  as  shown  in 
sketch.  This  can  be  made  any  size;  the  larger  the  diameter, 
the  wider  the  side  3-in.  pieces  are  made. 

Base. — In  the  upper  left-hand  comer  of  the  drawing,  the 
chimney  base  is  laid  out  by  the  steel-square  method.  This  is 
sufficiently  accurate  for  all  this  class  of  work,  and  is  a  little 
quicker  than  triangulation.  Let  A-B-C-D  represent  a  sheet  of 
galvanized  iron,  say  from  24  to  30  in.  wide.  Measure  the 
distance  A-E  about  4  in.  for  the  base,  using  steel  square  in 
position  1.  Reverse  square  to  position  2,  and  mark  line  as 
you  go  along  to  position  3.  Measure  the  distance  E-F  some- 
what greater  than  one-half  the  width  of  the  base.  Make 
F~F'  equal  to  the  long  side  of  the  base.  Measure  the  center 
Gj  and  square  up  a  line  by  using  the  steel  square  in  position  4. 
Next  measure  over  one-fourth  the  circumference  on  each 
side  of  center  line  with  square,  as  in  position  5.  Then  the 
distance  /-/  will  be  one-half  the  circumference.  It  is  best  to 
make  this  stretchout  /-/  about  J^  or  J^  in.  smaller,  on  account 
of  the  steep  taper  of  the  base,  so  the  straight  pipe  will  fit  on 
nicely.  Next  place  steel  square  in  position  6,  measuring  the 
distance  F'-J  equal  to  half  the  width  of  base.  While  in  this 
position,  drop  the  square  to  position  7  to  add  the  4-in.  apron 
or  turn  down.  Then  shift  steel  square  to  position  8  and  mark 
the  miter  cut  at  F  and  F\  Allow  lap  for  seaming,  and  the 
pattern  is  finished. 

This  half  pattem  is  cut  out  and  reversed  on  the  same  sheet, 
thereby  making  the  two  patterns  from  one  sheet.  The  tri- 
angular pieces  which  fall  off  as  E-B-I  and  I-D-C  are  seamed 
together  and  worked  up  into  a  joint  of  pipe  to  save  waste. 


406  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

The  upper  curve  I-H-I  is  best  cut  out  after  the  base  has  been 
assembled  unless  the  workman  is  very  familiar  with  this  work. 
In  most  cases,  this  curve  is  cut  too  deep  and  will  have  to  be 
trimmed  later  on  anyway. 

In  assembling,  put  a  rivet  in  the  lower  apron  and  the  top 
seam  so  they  will  not  unhook  while  shaping  up.  The  fint 
joint  of  pipe  should  be  flanged  about  %  in.  by  running  it 
through  the  thick  edge  machine.  The  pipe  is  then  set  on  base, 
placing  a  heavy  weight  on  top  of  the  pipe  to  make  the  connec- 
tion between  the  round  and  base  fit  up  closely.  Tack  this 
joint  with  solder  in  three  or  four  places,  and  then  take  on  a  stake 
and  rivet. 

The  top  and  bottom  bases  are  cut  off  level  for  appearance: 
this  is  similar  to  cutting  the  miter  Une  for  an  elbow. 

Patterns  for  Smokestack  Vent  Collar  and  Flange. — On 
mining  and  manufacturing  plants  where  tall  smokestacks 
project  out  of  an  inclined  roof,  some  form  of  connection  between 
the  roof  and  stack  must  be  made.  Figure  270  is  a  design  that 
is  commonly  used.  It  is  made  in  two  pieces  and  clamped  and 
bolted  on  the  sides  so  it  can  be  put  up  or  taken  down  after  the 
stacks  are  up.  Generally  16  or  18  gage  galvanized  iron  is  used 
for  these  vents;  therefore,  rivets  must  be  used. 

Glancing  at  the  working  drawing  or  elevation,  A-B  equals  the 
pitch  of  roof.  Fire  Insurance  Underwriters  say  wood  must  be 
kept  18  in.  from  the  stacks,  as  indicated  by  the  distance  H 
So  draw  the  center  line  C-D,  and  from  it  detail  the  stack  and 
collar  and  hood  as  shown.  Observe  in  the  Diagram  M^  how 
the  clamped  standing  seams  are  made  for  collar  and  hood.  Also 
notice  the  collar  is  laid  out  just  like  the  gore  for  an  elbow  in  two 
pieces.  The  hood  is  laid  out  the  same  as  a  funnel  or  other 
conical  fitting.  Metal  angles  to  make  the  single  edge  of  stand- 
ing seam  are  riveted  on  where  shown,  and  will  appear  as  in 
detail  Af . 

The  pattern  for  roof  flange  is  laid  out  similar  to  openings  for 
T's  of  different  diameters,  and  at  right  angles.  Observe  as  the 
collar  fits  on  the  roof  line,  it  covers  the  space  l'-7';  so  pick  these 
spaces  l'-2'-3'-4'  etc.,  and  step  them  off  on  line  1-7  below  eleva- 
tion. From  the  points  in  half  section,  drop  lines  cutting  those 
in  stretchout  for  opening  of  similar  number  as  in  points  6'-5'-4'- 
3'-2'.  Trace  a  line  through  these  points,  and  the  pattern  for 
the  flange  is  finished. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  assembling  joint  V"  which  arranges ' 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  407 

th.e  rivet  limes  in  tiie  stem  pattern  for  throat  and  heel,  and  eJao 
in  opening.  In  actual  work  two  aheete  of  iron  are  overlapped 
about  4  in.  and  the  opening  laid  out  on  top  of  them.  This 
assures  a  good  lap  for  shedding  the  rain,  and  also  makes  the 
correct  allowance  when  assembling  the  throat  and  heel  to  these 


^-11, 


flanges.  Usually  1  in.  is  turned  up  on  the  inside.  This  is  best 
done  with  a  monkey  wrench,  by  turning  the  edge  as  far  as  it 
will  go.  After  this,  hammer  it  in  position  with  a  mallet  and 
iron  stake.  The  rivet  course  should  be  ^  in.  up,  which  will 
Eud  to  shed  the  water  and  also  in  riveting.    I>ay  out  the  holes  in 


408 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


the  patterns  for  throat  and  heel,  every  2  to  2J^  in.  between 
rivets.  When  all  the  work  is  shaped,  the  holes  are  marked  in 
the  flange  from  the  collar.  Inexperienced  workmen  find  this 
the  easiest  way.  However,  the  idea  is  to  lay  off  the  same 
number  of  holes  in  the  flange  as  there  are  in  the  collar;  then 
by  turning  up  the  edges,  the  metal  will  shape  so  the  holes  will 
correspond.  If  the  edges  are  not  flanged  evenly,  then  the 
metal  will  stretch  and  shrink,  which  will  throw  the  holes  out 
The  same  holds  good  for  the  hood  and  collar  for  hood. 

When  erecting  this  fitting,  always  set  the  heel  in  place  first; 
and  before  fastening  it  securely,  set  the  throat.  When  all  k 
square  and  on  center,  then  nail  down  securely.  In  placing  the 
hood,  be  sure  it  is  raised  high  enough  to  enable  ample  venti- 
lation.    Also  see  that  rain  or  snow  will  not  blow  in. 

Furnace  Boots. — The  round  leader  should  never  enter  the 
rectangle  stack  at  a  more  blunt  angle  than  45  deg.     This  angle 


Folder 
"foredgcV 


Shop  Method 


Pattern 


Fig.  271. 


forms  a  nice  transition.  In  Fig.  271,  the  side  elevation  gives 
the  rise  of  miter  line  Orb,  The  stretchout  is  laid  off  for  the 
round  pipe  as  C-D  in  pattern.  In  this  case  the  stretchout 
is  equal  for  the  round  pipe  and  the  wall  stack,  as  shown  in  the 
sectional  views  above  the  side  elevation.  Set  off  the  distances 
o-Im:,  and  draw  a  line  making  D-&'  equal  to  half  the  length  of 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  409 

stack,  and  the  distance  o-d  as  the  width.  Then  mark  the  miter 
line  as  shown,  and  allow  the  laps.  To  fold  the  edge  e,  a  metal 
former  is  made  as  shown  in  the  sketch,  by  which  the  edge  e  is 
bent  over.  Form  up  the  pattern  as  though  it  was  a  round 
pipe,  and  then  place  it  on  a  stake  and  straighten  the  heel  and 
throat,  thus  making  the  comer  square,  and  then  double-seam 
the  corners,  as  in  the  wall  stack  section  shown  above  the  side 
elevation.  It  is  well  to  place  a  rivet  in  the  miter,  which  pre- 
vents the  metal  from  bulging  and  makes  a  better  job.  Tin 
S-hooks  are  bent  and  hooked  over  the  side  as  in  sketch  Fig.  271. 
Should  it  be  necessary  that  the  circumference  for  the  round 
pipe  be  smaller  than  the  stretchout  for  the  rectangle  pipe,  then 
draw  the  tapering  lines  on  both  ends  as  F-C.  This  can  be  done 
with  the  steel  square,  and  will  take  up  the  sweep  caused  by  the 
taper.  It  should  be  understood  that  this  is  merely  a  jump  rule 
for  making  a  boot  and  is  not  strictly  geometric ;  its  accuracy  will 
vary  with  the  sizes  and  taper  of  pipe.  However,  it  is  a  good 
fitting  for  rapid  assembling  and  application. 

Trunk-Line  Installation. — Trunk-line  heating  is  the  most 
serviceable  where  long  runs  of  pipe  are  required.  If  the  heater 
were  placed  near  to  the  rear  or  front  of  basement,  then  a  trunk 
line  could  be  easily  designed,  and  would  work  effectively.* 
Such  cases  come  up  when  the  heater  cannot  be  placed  in  the 
position  shown.  The  mechanical  end  of  getting  out  and  erect- 
ing a  trunk  line  is  as  simple  as  the  separate  pipe  to  each  room 
system.  In  fact  each  system  presents  its  own  peculiarities, 
and  must  be  dealt  with  that  way.  As  a  whole,  trunk-line 
systems  require  the  same  points  to  be  observed  and  avoided 
which  must  be  taken  into  account  with  the  separate  pipe  system. 

1.  The  size  of  warm-air  register,  leader  pipe,  wall  stacks, 
size  of  heater,  cold-air  ducts,  and  the  location  of  registers  would 
be  identical  with  those  of  the  individual  pipe  system. 

2.  Set  the  heater  in  the  most  satisfactory  place;  then  plan  a 
simple  trunk  line,  as  in  Fig.  272.  Always  run  the  branch  pipes 
from  the  register  or  wall  stacks  in  the  shortest  line  to  trunk  line, 
taking  care  that  the  air  will  continue  in  an  upward  direction. 
Having  approximate  points  where  the  branch  pipes  would 
intersect  the  main  trunk,  start  from  the  far  end  and  proportion 
the  main  trunk.  Always  increase  the  main  pipe  in  cross- 
sectional  area  to  be  equal  to  the  additional  area  of  each  branch 
pipe  entering  the  main  trunk.    It  is  better  to  make  the  area  a 


410 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


fraction  larger  all  along,  so  the  heat  volume  will  put  itsdf 
under  pressure.  This  assures  positive  action,  and  it  takes  care 
of  all  the  branch  pipes  so  that  when  one  register  draws  abnor- 
mally, it  will  not  rob  the  registers  further  on  of  their  heat. 


o 


3.  Provide  connections  between  the  main  trunk  and  the 
branch  pipes  so  the  angle  is  not  greater  than  45  deg.  This 
permits  the  air  to  separate  and  branch  out  with  the  least 
friction.  Observe  at  M  and  N  how  the  main  trunk  is  reduced, 
as  the  branch  pipes  are  inserted.  Also  from  the  side  elevation 
note  that  the  branch  pipes  are  taken  out  close  to  the  bottom 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  411 

4 

of  the  main  pipe.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  warm  air 
travels  closest  to  the  room  or  top  of  duct.  If  the  branch  pipes 
entered  the  main  trunk  near  the  top,  then  the  nearer  branches 
would  rob  the  further  ones;  therefore,  they  are  placed  close  to 
the  bottom. 

The  depth  of  basement  will  dictate  the  depth  and  width  of 
the  main  trunk  line.  The  furnace  canopy  will  also  have  some 
bearing,  as  it  is  seldom  over  15  in.  high.  This  permits  the 
duct  to  be  only  about  14  in.  deep. 

4.  The  manner  in  which  the  workman  must  get  out  the  work 
in  the  shop  is  very  simple.  If  the  trunk  line  is  to  be  rectangular, 
list  on  a  sheet  of  paper  the  number  of  Uneal  feet  of  duct  required 
between  each  connection.  Include  elbows,  angles,  T's,  boots, 
and  register  boxes. 

Make  up  the  fittings  separately,  making  their  length  of  cross 
seams  to  work  out  conveniently  from  the  metal  sheet.  The 
Pittsburgh  lock.  A,  can  be  worked  in  on  many  seams  to  advant- 
age. If  bright  tin  is  used,  then  enough  sheets  are  locked 
together  to  make  the  fitting,  keeping  an  eye  to  save  material 
and  labor  in  assembling.  Each  fitting  must  be  well  reinforced 
with  stays  or  angle  iron  to  prevent  bulging  or  caving  inward. 

Subtract  the  length  of  each  fitting  from  the  linear  feet  of 
duct,  and  thereby  derive  the  exact  length  each  section  of  pipe 
must  be  to  fill  in  between.  This  holds  especially  true  with  the 
main  trunk.  The  tapers  and  T-connections  are  made  separate, 
and  the  straight  part  in  between  is  filled  in.  It  is  optional 
which  joint  is  used,  the  standing  seam,  C,  or  the  cap  strip 
connection,  B\  either  is  practical.  The  size  of  duct  will  dictate 
the  weight  of  angle  iron  reinforcement.  On  light  I.  0.  coke 
tin,  the  reinforcement  should  not  be  further  apart  than  from 
24  to  30  in.  The  angle  iron  is  run  all  around  the  duct.  If  the 
standing  seam  is  used,  then  each  seam  acts  as  a  reinforcement, 
and  no  other  is  required  for  20  or  30  in.  Keep  the  top  of  duct 
straight  so  no  pockets  or  obstructions  are  formed,  which  are 
liable  to  retard  the  flow  of  air. 

Quite  often  the  main  trunk  line  is  made  rectangular  as  in  plan, 
while  the  branch  pipes  are  made  round.  This  is  a  very  practical 
application.  However,  the  T-connection  should  be  a  square 
to  round  transition  piece,  instead  of  tapping  the  round  pipe, 
direct  to  the  side  of  main  trunk. 

If  the  trunk-line  system  is  to  be  all  round  pipe,  as  to  the 
left  of  furnace,  then  the  same  procedure  would  be  followed  as 


412  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

shown  in  plan,  and  explained  for  the  square  ducts.  Quite 
often,  baffles  as  at  /^  are  placed  in  the  Y-branches  to  aid  in 
equalizing  the  air  for  both  prongs;  otherwise  the  one  pipe  line 
may  have  a  greater  drawing  power,  which  would  rob  the  other 
pipe  line.  The  workmen  must  experiment  to  note  just  how  far 
these  baffles  should  be  inserted.  The  construction  of  the  house 
and  climatic  conditions  have  much  to  do  with  this. 

Each  building  offers  its  own  peculiarities  in  hanging  or  erects 
ing  the  piping.     The  method  at  ^  is  used  a  great  deal.     Some- 
times band  iron  straps  are  bolted  to  the  sides  of  the  duct  and 
nailed  to  the  joist.     At  other  times  when  the  floor  is  of  concrete, 
holes  are  drilled  through  the  floors,  and  a  rod  is  run  through 
with  an  anchor  on  the  upper  end  and  a  long  thread  and  nut 
on  the  lower  end.     This  permits  attaching  the  rod  to  the  ends 
of  the  top  angle  iron  for  holding  in  place,  as  well  as  raising  and 
lowering  to  keep  level.     At  other  times  it  is  best  to  use  expan- 
sion bolts  in  the  concrete  for  holding  the  hangers.     All  this  is  a 
matter  of  the  workman's  own  judgment.     He  should,  therefore, 
keep  in  close  touch  with  trade  papers  and  furnace  dealers' 
catalogs. 

Ornamental  Conductor  Head  with  Flanges. — Conductor 
heads,  as  in  Fig.  273,  that  are  about  square,  can  be  developed 
the  same  as  a  square  gutter  miter.  By  glancing  at  the  front 
elevation,  we  have  the  full  width  of  the  front,  which  is  also  the 
pattern  for  the  back.  The  back  is  flat,  with  the  edges  cut  to 
suit  the  profile  of  the  sides.  That  part  of  the  leader  head  above 
the  line  C-B  represents  the  side  view.  From  this  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  pattern  can  be  projected  the  same  as  a  square 
miter. 

First  draw  the  elevation,  detailing  the  section  or  side  Unes  as 
shown,  and  divide  each  curved  line  into  equal  spaces,  numbering 
each  point  and  bend.  With  dividers,  pick  the  girth,  and  set  it 
off  on  line  5-17.  Draw  stretchout  lines,  and  from  each  point 
in  the  front  elevation  project  lines  cutting  those  in  stretchout 
of  similar  number.  This  gives  the  points  for  drawing  the 
miter  cut  line.  Laps  must  be  allowed  on  one  side,  or  both  sides 
of  front.  By  drawing  a  line  D-E,  we  also  have  the  pattern 
for  the  sides,  as  indicated  by  that  part  above  the  line  D-E. 

Observe  the  conductor  pipe  extends  through  the  conductor 
head,  thus  making  the  conductor  head  a  mere  ornament.  Quite 
often  the  top  of  the  conductor  head  is  left  open,  and  a  tube  is 
soldered  in  the  lower  end,  which  acts  as  a  box  and  vent,  and 


SHEET-METAL  WORK 


413 


prevents  sewer  gases  from  gomg  up  through  the  gutter  and 
rusting  out  the  tube.  Where  a  conductor  head  is  highly  oma- 
mented  with  mouldings,  it  is  best  to  develop  it  by  the  change 
of  profile  method.  Architects  at  times  place  the  house  owners' 
initial  on  the  conductor  head.  This  would  be  marked  off  fuU 
size  and  Btripped  with  a,  !^-in.  strip. 

With  the  conductor  heads,  pipe  flanges  are  used,  as  shown  by 
A  and  C.    Observe  the  plan  view  A ;  also  the  front  view.    The 


conductor  pipe  is  held  in  place  by  iron  pegs  driven  in  the  wall 
with  a  spout  band,  which  is  clamped  around  and  bolted  to  the 
peg.  The  flange  is  placed  over  the  spout  band  to  hide  it  and 
to  ornament  the  pipe,  as  well  as  to  break  the  monotony  of  a 
long,  continuous,  straight  hue.  The  clover-leaf  ends  are 
already  a  pattern,  only  the  inside  is  cut  out  and  sunk  in  equal  to 
the  width  of  B.  This  panel  effect  is  carried  around  the  pipe  as 
shown  in  the  front  view.  These  flanges  are  held  in  place  by 
first  chiseling  out  the  mortar  between  the  joints  of  stone  or 
brick  and  then  driving  in  wooden  wedges.    A  nail  is  soldered 


414  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

in  a  half  ball  as  shown  and  driven  in  place,  thus  holding  the 
flange  firmly  to  the  wall.  The  top  edge  of  the  flange  is  also 
soldered  to  the  pipe. 

Very  often  these  flanges  are  very  simple,  as  at  C  The  work- 
man can  lay  out  a  straight  strip  and  bend  the  edges  a.s  at  Z>  in 
the  cornice  brake,  and  then  crimp  in  that  part  that  must  fit 
around  the  spout.  This  enables  shrinking,  and  if  handled 
properly  would  be  made  a  fairly  good  job.  The  comers  pro- 
duced by  the  right  angle  are  filled  in  with  another  piece  of 
metal  and  soldered.  On  such  flanges,  little  square  caps  are 
placed.  These  can  be  laid  out  so  as  to  give  about  }^-in.  raise. 
A  nail  is  then  soldered  in  the  center,  which  is  nailed  through 
the  flange  and  the  wood  wedge. 

Patterns  for  Round  Ventilator  with  Square  Base. — Figure 
274a  is  a  round  ventilator  head  and  stem  fitting  on  a  square 
base,  supposedly  on  a  gable  skylight.  The  round  head  is 
treated  separately,  while  the  base  is  treated  as  another  fitting. 
For  a  working  drawing,  first  draw  a  vertical  center  line  X-4". 
At  a  convenient  place  draw  the  stem,  measuring  over  half  the 
diameter  from  the  center  line.  Then  proportion  the  flange  S, 
hood  R'Xf  and  the  wind  guard  T  with  the  brace  in  place. 
While  making  the  working  drawing,  also  draw  the  quarter  plan, 
letting  4'-(i'-4"  be  the  half  length  of  sides  of  the  square  base. 
The  quarter  circle  is  described  to  suit  the  radius  of  the  stem. 
Draw  the  diagonal  line  X'-d',  and  divide  the  }i  circle  in  equal 
spaces  as  1  to  4. 

The  chamfered  comer  of  base  in  sketch  is  on  a  45-deg.  angle, 
so  draw  the  line  a-h  on  a  45-deg.  angle,  which  we  shall  call  the 
miter  line.  Notice  that  points  1-2-3-4  of  plan  are  erected 
to  this  miter  Une  a-6,  and  from  it  the  3^  pattern  for  stem  is 
developed.  The  girth  1  to  4  is  picked  from  the  arc  of  the  plan. 
Next  lay  out  the  girth  for  the  stem  as  A-B,  Divide  up  as 
shown;  cut  this  }i  pattern  out  of  light  metal,  and  place  this 
pattern  in  position  1  and  mark  the  curve.  Then  reverse  to 
position  2;  then  to  3,  4,  5,  6,  7  and  8.  This  gives  the  full 
pattern  for  the  stem.     Bolt  holes  are  laid  out  as  shown. 

The  patterns  for  the  hood,  flange  and  wind  guard  are  laid  out 
the  same  as  many  previous  problems  on  pitched  covers,  etc., 
and  need  no  further  comment. 

To  lay  out  the  base,  drop  the  miter  line  Orb  to  the  position 
c-d  to  avoid  confusion.  Where  the  lines  erected  from  plan 
intersect  this  miter  line  c-dj  set  the  compass  to  comer  d  and 


SHEET-METAL  WORK 


415 


a-weep  these  points  to  the  vertical  line  g-d,  as  in  points  r-2'- 
3'-4'.  Observe  this  is  merely  straightening  the  miter  line 
c-d  in  a  vertical  portion  with  all  its  points.  Now,  pick  the 
1  projected  over  from  arc  as  4'-3'-2'-l'-d'  from  Uie  plan, 


and  transfer  them  on  each  aide  of  the  center  line  as  4-3-2-1-4'. 
From  each  of  these  points  erect  lines,  and  from  each  point  in  the 
line  g-d,  square  lines  over  crossing  the  vertical  ones  in  points 
4"-3"-2"-l",  which  gives  the  miter  cuts.  The  apron  and  drop 
can  be  allowed  to  suit  the  section  c-d-e-J,  as  we  may  call  it, 
which  finishes  the  pattern  for  the  base.    On  two  of  these  ^e 


416  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

pattemSi  the  roof  pitch  must  be  cut  to  suit  the  angle  of  sky- 
light or  roof,  as  pattern  U,  This  can  be  done  in  the  shop  or  oc 
the  job. 

Proportion  of  Ventilator. — Ventilators  of  this  kind  must  b* 
designed  to  take  care  of  the  ventilating  they  are  expected  to  do. 
The  left  half  of  the  sectional  elevation  shows  its  propK>rtioD 

Where: 

m  is  made  to  J^  or  J^  or  J^  the  diameter  of  stem. 
n  is  made  at  pleasure  or  H  the  diameter  of  stem. 
o  is  made  to  }4  the  diameter  of  stem. 

The  above  is  for  normal  conditions.  For  dusty,  steam-laden  or 
foul  air,  the  distance  m  should  be  at  least  J^  or  J^  the  diameter 
of  the  stem.  In  such  cases,  all  dimensions  must  be  enlarged  to 
suit.  The  width  of  wind  guard  is  made  so  no  snow  or  rain  will 
blow  in.     Otherwise  it  is  made  as  shown. 

Repairing  Tubular  Radiators. — The  matter  of  repairing 
radiators  is  receiving  considerable  comment  by  the  trade,  and 
many  tradesmen  prefer  to  make  it  their  specialty  work.  It  is 
as  though  a  new  set  of  mechanics  are  being  broken  in,  who  can 
only  fix  radiators  and  do  nothing  else — ^that  is,  if  we  are  to 
accept  the  statements  of  numerous  men  in  this  line. 

No  tradesman  should  narrow  himself  down  so  much  as  to 
be  able  only  to  do  radiator  repair  work.  That  field  has  alto- 
gether too  small  a  scope  for  him  to  pin  his  entire  future  life  to 
it  even  though  there  are  a  great  quantity  of  radiators  to  repair 
in  country  towns  as  well  as  in  cities.  Any  man  of  average 
mechanical  ability  can  learn  to  do  this  in  a  month  or  6  weeks  if 
he  can  work  at  a  variety  of  radiators. 

There  is  no  objection  to  workmen  becoming  specialty  auto- 
mobile repair  men — ^that  is,  being  well  able  to  repair  and  make 
anything  and  everything  of  sheet  steel  required  on  any  auto- 
mobile.    There  are  good  opportunities  for  such  men. 

Figure  275  shows  a  round  tubular  radiator.  These  tubes  are 
generally  five  rows  deep  in  width.  They  become  damaged  by 
freezing,  by  accident,  by  hard  usage  on  rough  roads,  and 
through  old  age.  The  water  passes  from  the  bottom  of  the 
radiator  into  the  engine,  becomes  heated,  and  is  discharged 
again  into  the  top  of  the  radiator.  As  the  cool  water  is  drawn 
off  at  the  bottom,  the  hot  water  at  the  top  gradually  settles 
downward  in  the  tubes.     During  this  settling  process  it  cools, 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  417 

o  1c»y  the  time  it  reaches  the  bottom  it  is  quite  cool  and  ready 
or  the  engine  again. 

The  space  in  between  the  tubes  is  to  permit  the  air  to  cir- 
culate and  thereby  expedite  the  cooling  process.  The  fin-plates 
tcross  the  radiator  are  for  diffusing  the  air  between  tubes,  and 
lIso  to  keep  the  thin  tubes  from  warping  or  twisting  out  of 
3l:ia.pe.  These  tubes  join  the  upper  and  lower  tanks,  and  are 
soldered  on  the  inside.  The  fins  are  also  tacked  in  position 
with  solder;  otherwise  they  would  all  settle  to  the  bottom, 
leaving  the  upper  tubes  bare.   . 

Some  repair  men  advocate  the  dismantling  of  a  radiator 

and  replacing  the  old  tubes  by  new  ones,  but  we  doubt  if  this  is 

good  practice.     It  is  one  of  the  biggest  jobs  a  fellow  ever 

tackled — especially  to  loosen  all  the  fins  without  damaging  the 

tubes  further.     If  this  must  be  done,  then  take  the  upper  tank 

off,  or  cut  a  hole  in  on  the  bottom  tank  directly  beneath  the 

faulty  tube  with  a  small-flamed  blow  torch;  play  the  flame  up 

and  down  along  the  tube  to  melt  the  solder  from  the  fins  and 

tube.     Then  catch  hold  of  tube  with  a  long-nose  pliers,  give  a 

firm  jerk,  and  if  all  is  clear,  the  old  tube  will  come  out.     In 

this  way,  as  many  faulty  tubes  as  desired  are  taken  out.     All 

new  tubes,  or  old  tubes  taken  from  old  radiators,  should  be 

tested  before  putting  in  place.     Solder  the  tube  at  the  bottom 

through  the  hole  in  the  lower  tank.     To  solder  the  upper  tube, 

if  the  top  tank  is  not  removed,  cut  a  hold  on  the  back  side 

of  the  tank  on  a  Une  with  the  tube.     Clean  the  metal  and 

solder  well. 

Generally,  only  the  front  tube  is  damaged,  as  at  a  in  Fig.  275. 
In  such  cases,  pry  the  fins  apart  with  a  screw  driver,  scrape  and 
solder  the  tube,  straighten  the  fins  in  place  again,  tack  with 
solder,  and  the  job  is  done.  If  a  long  slit  occurs,  as  at  &,  then 
cut  the  fins  directly  over  the  center  of  the  damaged  tube;  bend 
these  fin  ends  aside  and  then  repair  the  slit  or  crack.  Then 
carefully  replace  the  fins,  seeing  that  they  are  straight,  tack  with 
solder  where  necessary,  and  the  job  is  done. 

Leaks  that  occur  where  the  tubes  join  the  upper  or  lower 
tank  should  never  be  soldered  from  the  outside.  It  is  hard  to 
make  a  good  joint,  and  often  the  fins  are  stretched  to  a  point 
where  they  never  will  have  a  good  appearance  again.  The 
better  method  is  to  cut  a  hole  on  the  back  side  of  the  radiator 
tank  directly  opposite  the  leaky  tube,  as  at  c.  This  enables 
you  to  solder  the  end  of  the  tube  securely,  after  which  a  patch 
27 


418 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


is  soldered  over  the  tank  hole  in  c.     In  this  way,  all  repairiof 

should  be  done  from  the  back  side  of  the  radiator  when  possibic 

Quite  often  several  inches  of  a  tube  ar«  damaged  beyoni 

repair.    At  other  times,  one  of  the  inner  tubes  is  damaged. 


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and  it  is  difficult  to  get  at  it.     In  such  cases  proceed  as  in 

sketch,  Fig.  275.  First  clear  the  fins  away  to  the  necessary 
depth  and  length — always  on  the  back  side  of  the  radiator. 
Cutting  the  fins  away  from  the  damaged  tubes  is  no  small 
job,  and  often  a  person  will  damage  a  ueighboring  tube  if 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  419 

extreme  care  is  not  taken.  Always  cut  and  bend  the  fins 
deep  enough  to  allow  ample  working  room.  Many  a  joint  is 
improperly  soldered  because  of  a  httle  hindrance  of  fins  while 
soldering. 

Next  cut  out  the  faulty  tube  indicated  by  e.  Round  the 
ends  out  perfectly,  and  with  a  strip  of  emery  cloth  or  paper 
clean  the  ends  of  tube  until  bright.  Immediately  tin  them 
with  solder,  so  the  solder  flows  freely  all  around.  Now  make 
some  new  tube  lengths  over  a  wire  or  rod,  using  nothing  heavier 
than  10-oz.  copper.  Often  old  tubes  from  other  radiators 
can  be  used.  Tin  the  ends  well  and  then  make  ferrules  to  slip 
snugly  over  each  end,  making  them  not  more  than  |^  or  1  in. 
wide.  Tin  these  ferrules  well,  both  inside  and  outside.  The 
one  ferrule  can  be  left  loose  so  as  to  telescope  as  at  A,  which 
aids  in  setting  the  tube,  and  can  be  sweated  with  solder. 
Plenty  of  cut  acid  should  be  used,  and  the  solder  sweated  around 
the  tube  several  times  to  insure  a  perfect  joint. 

Observe  by  this  method  the  whole  area  of  the  tube  is  main- 
tained throughout,  and  it  insures  a  strong  joint.  All  fins 
should  be  replaced.  If  a  hole  is  cut  on  the  outside  fins,  it  is 
often  necessary  to  build  in  little  metal  strips,  soldering  them 
wherever  possible.  Some  repair  men  advocate  slitting  in  the 
old  tube  as  at  B.  Others  use  the  ferrule  on  the  inside  of 
tube  as  at  C  Neither  of  these  methods  should  be  used, 
because  they  cut  down  the  area  of  the  tube,  and  the  least 
obstruction  that  gets  in  the  tube  will  clog  it.  This  will  cause 
the  tube  to  freeze  in  winter.  Some  other  repair  men  cut  the 
tube  at  the  bottom  and  top,  solder  up  the  ends,  and  let  it  go 
at  that.  Often  we  find  radiators  with  six  or  more  tubes  cut 
out  of  service  in  this  way.  It  is  argued  that  one  tube  more  or 
less  will  not  matter  any  way.  But  the  point  is:  if  all  the 
tubes  were  not  needed,  they  never  would  have  been  put  there 
in  the  first  place. 

In  Fig.  276  is  the  plan  view  of  another  tubular  type  of 
radiator.  Here  the  tubes  are  oblong,  and  from  the  outside 
have  the  same  appearance  as  shown  in  Fig.  275,  only  another 
style  of  fin  is  used,  as  shown  in  sketch.  Fig.  277.  Along  the 
center  of  the  longitudinal  way,  a  bead  is  run  to  prevent  the 
sides  of  the  tube  from  closing  and  shutting  off  the  area.  The 
fins  between  tubes  are  to  prevent  the  tubes  from  bending,  and 
to  diffuse  the  air  along  the  sides  of  tubes. 

When  this  type  of  radiator  leaks,  it  is  much  easier  to  repair. 


420  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

All  that  is  required  is  to  cut  the  fins  away  from  the  dama^ 
tube,  shape  a  soldering  copper  as  at  Z)  and  then  solder  the 
hole  or  crack.  All  the  work  should  be  done  from  the  back 
side  of  the  radiator.  If  the  fins  must  be  cut  in  the  front  d 
radiator,  Jhen  metal  strips  can  be  formed  to  suit  the  desigi 
of  the  fin  and  tacked  in  place  with  solder. 

Soldering  coppers  must  always  be  forged  out  to  suit  the 
position  where  soldering  must  be  done.  This  requires  many 
different  positions  and  shapes,  governed  only  by  the  mechanical 
abihty  of  the  workman. 

Patching  comers  and  stud  pads  and  pipe  connections  also 
form  important  repair  work.  All  places  where  joints  have  been 
once  soldered,  and  spring  leaks,  soon  are  coated  with  lime  and 
other  foreign  matter.  Merely  to  swab  a  Uttle  raw  acid  over 
and  then  some  cut  acid  and  expect  a  well-soldered  joint,  is 
silly.  The  adjoining  parts  of  metal  must  be  scraped  or  filed 
and  be  well  tinned.  Corners  that  spring  open  or  crack,  as  at 
E,  should  have  a  patch  placed  on  the  unseen  side.  It  does  do 
good  to  pile  the  solder  up  %  in.  thick  if  the  lap  joint  is  not 
sweated.  If  a  lap  joint  cannot  be  sweated,  then  the  next  thing 
is  a  patch.  These  are  required  in  all  shops  on  various  radiators, 
and  should  always  be  tinned  on  the  inside  before  soldering. 

Gas  blow  torches,  as  at  F,  come  in  very  handy  for  soldering 
radiator  work.  They  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  a  multitude 
of  places.  The  flame  point  must  be  adjusted  to  suit  the  work, 
but  usually  a  small,  fine  flame  is  used. 

The  re-soldering  of  broken  stud-bolt  pads,  pipe  connections, 
etc.,  causes  much  trouble.  In  Fig.  278,  we  have  a  practical  way 
to  repair  stud-bolt  pads.  These  pads  are  riveted  on  the  inside 
of  tank,  and  the  only  way  to  get  at  them  would  be  to  cut  out  a 
large  hole  in  the  back  side,  take  off  the  pad,  clean  the  metals, 
tin  the  surfaces  thoroughly  and  then  replace.  In  most  cases 
the  stud  bolt  can  be  screwed  out.  A  washer  of  good  large 
flange  is  well  threaded  and  tinned,  as  is  also  the  metal  of  the 
tank.  Use  a  white-lead  compound  on  the  thread  of  stud,  screw 
the  washer  on  tight,  and  then  insert  the  pad  again  and  screw 
up  tight.  Next,  with  a  hot  and  heavy  soldering  copper,  sweat 
the  solder  well  all  around  the  washer. 

Where  the  washer  will  not  make  a  tight  job  because  of  leak- 
age around  the  threads,  it  is  best  to  have  the  machinist  turn 
out  a  new  stud  with  washer  in  one  piece,  as  at  G.  This  will 
make  a  good  job  when  well  soldered  in  place.    In  this  way 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  421 

XLultitudes  of  little  practical  ideas  can  be  put  into  use  by  the 
workman.  It  is  also  well  to  visit  other  shops  now  and  then  to 
see  how  they  do  their  work." 

Repairing  Cell-tube  Radiators. — Radiators  are  made  in 
numerous  different  designs,  but  the  five  different  types  of  these 
Last  drawings  serve  as  a  basis  with  which  to  know  how  to 
liandle  the  others.  The  workman  should  make  it  his  duty  to 
examine  the  construction  feature  of  every  radiator  with  which 
lie  meets.  This  is  very  necessary,  because  without  knowing 
the  design,  or  just  where  the  water  runs,  a  person  may  putter 
around  all  day  or  several  days  and  still  not  repair  the  leak. 

In  Fig.  279  we  have  what  is  called  a  square-celled  tubular 
radiator.  The  plan  view  shows  the  tubes  to  be  very  thin, 
taking  in  the  full  width  of  the  radiator.  In  sketch  A  we  see  the 
tubes  are  rectangular,  and  run  straight  from  top  to  bottom. 
The  cross  partitions  are  joined  to  the  side  of  tubes,  and  only 
act  as  reinforcements  to  the  tube  and  help  diffuse  the  air. 

When  a  leak  occurs,  it  can  only  be  in  the  sides  or  widths  of  the 
tubing,  as  at  a  or  6.     The  partitions,  of  course,  place  it  in  one  of 
the  cells.     For  this  a  cell  soldering  iron  must  be  forged  to  fit 
nicely  on  the  inside  of  the  cell.     At  the  top  of  the  plate,  such 
an  iron  is  shown  made  of  steel,  as  steel  stays  hot  longer,  and  a 
person  is  not  so  liable  to  bum  the  tinning  off.     A  soldering 
iron  made  of  copper  is  too  small  to  retain  the  heat  and  heats  up 
and  bums  the  iron  before  a  person  knows  it.     Of  course,   a 
regular  2-lb.  soldering  copper  can  be  forged  down  to  a  long 
square  shank,  and  will  give  good  results.     Always  clean  the 
cell  to  be  soldered  very  thoroughly;  then  tin  it  first  with  the  cell 
iron,  and  with  another  heating  fill  the  hole  with  solder.     In 
this  work  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  melt  the  solder  on  the 
adjoining  tube.     When  all  leaks  visible  have  been  soldered  up, 
place  a  stopper  in  all  pipe  connections  and  fill  the  radiator  with 
water.     Tap  with  a  mallet  here  and  there,  which  often  causes 
sediments  to  fall  out  of  place  and  leaks  to  show  up.     Pipe- 
connection  stoppers,  as  at  X,  are  very  serviceable  where  either 
water  or  air  is  used  for  testing  purposes.     If  air  S&  used,  not  over 
5-  or  10-lb.  pressure  should  be  used,  as  over  that  will  often 
deform    the    tubes,    causing  them  to  bulge  outward.     Gas 
should  not  be  used  to  test  for  leaks  as  it  is  dangerous. 

At  sketch  B  we  have  another  square-cell  type.  It  is  con- 
siderably harder  to  repair.  The  one  vertical  wall  of  tube  also 
forms  the  cross  partitions.    Observe  the  arrows  and  note  how 


422 


PLUMBERS*  HANDBOOK 


the  water  runs.  If  this  type  leaks,  it  may  be  ia  ODe  of  \ii' 
partitions,  aa  at  c,  and  then  in  most  cases  the  opposite  side  i 
also  punctured,  and  must  be  carefully  examined.  Other  tinier 
the  side  walte  are  punctured  ae  at  d.    Then  by  the  eTpanakt 


and  coDtraction  they  may  crack  as  at  /  and  g.  These  crocks 
require  the  cell  to  be  soldered  the  full  width,  and  places  m  ( 
would  be  Boldered  on  both  sldee,  as  the  break  may  extend  fur- 
ther underneath  and  not  be  mended.    BadiatOTB  of  this  type 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  423 

require  very  careful  repairing  that  the  solder  be  not  melted  from 
other  joints.  Small  hook  scrapers  should  be  made  from  old 
files,  to  clean  the  metal  bright. 

Figure  280  is  called  a  honeycomb  radiator.  This  is  by  far 
the  hardest  to  repair.  The  sectional  sketch  view  C  shows  how 
the  tubing  is  formed  in  little  half-round  elements.  The  brass 
lining  in  between  the  tubes  is  crimped  and  perforated,  thereby 
bending  one  edge  up,  the  other  down,  etc.  If  a  leak  occurs 
they  must  be  examined  well  in  the  bend  between  the  half 
round.  A  scratch  awl  or  other  long,  slender  tool  is  used  for 
prying  the  brass  lining  upward  from  the  half-round  element. 
The  leak  is  then  mended  with  the  cell  iron. 

In  this  radiator,  the  finished  ends  are  drawn  together  and 
soldered,  thus  reshaping  the  design  into  a  hexagon,  as  in  Fig.  53. 
Very  often  a  blow  torch,  as  at  F,  can  be  used  to  great  advantage. 
To  prevent  the  flame  overheating  the  adjoining  cells,  a  common 
oiler  is  filled  with  cut  acid,  diluted  with  water,  then  while  using 
the  torch  the  oiler  is  used  to  squirt  out  acid  on  all  neighboring 
cell  walls,  which  prevents  the  solder  from  melting  elsewhere. 
This  method  can  also  be  used  on  all  the  above  types  as  well. 

In  Fig.  281  is  another  type  of  radiator;  the  tubes  run  in  a 
zigzag  fashion,  thus  making  the  cells  square,  but  placing  them 
in  a  diagonal  position.  Cells  of  this  kind  are  repaired  similar  to 
the  others,  but  if  a  puncture  occurs,  as  at  ft,  the  other  side  of  the 
cell  must  be  examined  also.  This  diagonal-cell  type  is  also 
modified  in  many  radiators  by  expanding  or  bulging  outward  the 
inner  walls  between  the  cells.  This  permits  a  greater  quantity 
of  water  to  pass  through  the  radiator. 

The  workman  has  noticed  that  in  none  of  our  instructions 
did  we  advise  plugging  up  a  single  cell.  This  should  be  forbid- 
den. This  is  the  first  thought  of  an  unskilled  workman.  We 
have  seen  radiators  where  some  workman  has  filled  the  cells  of 
one  comer  with  lead  for  10  in.  each  way,  and  still  they 
leaked.  Unless  the  comers  of  a  cell  are  securely  soldered,  it  will 
never  be  tight. 

Many  radiator  partitions  are  just  tacked  on  each  end  for 
1  in.,  as  in  sketch  B,  If  a  cell  is  stopped  up,  the  water  will  creep 
from  one  cell  to  the  other  until  it  can  run  off.  Therefore,  the 
leak  in  each  cell  should  be  repaired.  The  cell  can  be  readily 
cleaned  with  a  strip  of  emery  paper  bent  around  a  small  square 
tool  to  permit  free  working  in  the  cell. 
It  does  happen  where  a  radiator  has  been  in  a  wreck,  that  a 


424  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

portion  is  broken  through,  thus  making  a  hole  several  inches 
square;  this  is  one  of  the  worst  jobs  with  which  the  workman  will 
ever  meet.  As  such  a  radiator  is  permanently  damaged  and  full 
efficiency  could  not  be  expected  from  it,  the  bruised  parts  could 
be  cut  away  and  the  tube  thoroughly  cleaned  and  soldered  up. 
and  another  piece  of  radiator,  cut  from  an  old  discarded  radiator 
of  the  same  design,  filled  in  the  hole  to  match  up  as  best  you  can. 
This  will  keep  the  outsicje  effect  nicely  as  a  blind. 

It  is,  however,  better  to  solder  up  the  tube  ends  of  the 
bottom,  and  cut  a  hole  on  the  back  side  of  the  upper  tank  for 
soldering  the  holes  right  at  the  top.  This  will  keep  the  upper 
stub  tubes  from  freezing  in  the  winter,  while  the  lower  stubs 
can  be  filled  with  water,  but  will  drain,  although  they  will  not 
circulate.  Often  it  is  necessary  to  stop  these  stub  tubes  at 
both  the  upper  and  lower  tanks.  The  workman  is  urged  never 
to  cut  cells  out  of  a  radiator  unless  compelled  to.  The  best 
way  to  appreciate  the  above  instructions  is  to  cut  some  cells 
out  of  an  old  discarded  radiator  and  experiment  and  understand 
the  great  difficulty  met  with  in  making  a  workmanlike  job  out 
of  it.  In  fact,  it  is  well  to  purchase  some  old  radiators  from 
junk  shops  and  experiment  on  them  as  the  above  instructions 
guide  you. 

Always  finish  up  the  radiator  to  leave  a  good  appearance. 
Keep  all  outside  brass  and  nickle  free  from  solder  when  repairing 
tubes,  fins,  cells  or  tanks,  etc.;  always  have  some  black  paint, 
lamp  black,  and  turpentine  on  hand  to  cover  up  the  bruises. 
Do  not  alone  paint  over  the  little  dab  of  solder,  but  paint  over 
the  entire  fins  of  radiator  face,  if  its  former  color  was  black. 
Outside  appearance  goes  a  long  way,  and  many  a  man's  woik 
has  won  favor  because  it  was  neater  than  that  done  by  his 
competitors. 

For  soldering  cells,  tubes  and  other  close  places,  the  wire 
solder  is  preferable.  If  cut  acid  is  too  strong,  then  dilute  it 
with  soft  water,  sometimes  up  to  half  acid  and  half  soft  water, 
meaning  rain  water  or  boiled  water. 

METALS  USED  IN  SHEETS 

Copper  is  a  mineral  mined  out  of  the  earth.  It  is  smelted, 
refined,  and  cast  into  ingots  which  are  rolled  into  bars,  wire,  and 
sheets.  Sheet  copper  is  used  to  resist  the  elements,  because  its 
properties  are  such  that  chemical  influences  do  not  deteriorate 
it  as  fast  as  iron  or  steel  (see  Tables  56  and  67). 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  425 

Sheet  copper  is  spoken  of  in  terms  of  ounces  or  pounds. 
The  thickness  governs  its  weight;  hence  "16-oz.  copper"  means 
that  1  sq.  ft.  of  the  sheet  metal  weighs  16  oz.  Weights  heavier 
than  64  oz.  per  square  foot  are  spoken  of  in  terms  of  pounds; 
thus  64-oz.  copper  weighs  60  lb.  per  sheet  30  in.  wide  and  60  in. 
long.  Sheet  copper  can  be  obtained  in  standard  sizes  varying 
from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  in  width,  with  lengths  to 
correspond.     Copper  melts  at  1,943°F. 

Hot-rolled  Sheet  Copper. — This  process  consists  of  heating 
the  ingots  to  a  certain  temperature  and  rolling  them  into 
sheets.  Heat  causes  the  pores  of  the  metal  to  expand,  and  this 
produces  a  very  soft,  pliable  metal.  It  is  used  mainly  for 
roofing,  flashings,  valleys,  plumbers'  flush  tanks,  and  for  many 
manufacturing  purposes. 

Cold -rolled  Copper. — After  the  metal  is  refined,  it  is  rolled 
w^hile  cold,  into  bars  or  sheets.  Rolling  it  in  the  cold  state 
causes  the  pores  of  the  metal  to  close,  and  therefore  hardens  it. 
Cold-rolled  copper,  therefore,  is  stiffer  and  tougher  than  the 
hot-rolled  product.  It  is  used  for  a  multitude  of  fixtures  on 
huildings  such  as  gutters,  cornices,  skylights,  and  exterior 
ornaments. 

Planished  Copper. — This  name  is  given  to  cold-rolled  sheet 
copper  which  has  one  side  polished,  and  the  other  generally 
tinned,  though  it  can  be  had  with  or  without  tinning.  It  is 
used  mainly  in  the  manufacture  of  cooking  utensils,  boilers,  etc. 
Sheet  Steel. — There  are  two  kinds  of  baseplate  used  today : 
one  is  made  of  steel,  and  the  other  of  iron.  The  former  is  the 
more  popular  because  it  is  lower  priced.  The  difference  in  cost 
is  due  to  the  bessemer  process  of  making  steel.  When  the 
steel  ingots  are  rolled  into  sheets,  the  product  is  stiff,  springy  at 
times,  and  occasionally  so  brittle  that  the  metal  breaks  with  the 
first  bend.  Mills  which  make  a  pure-iron  baseplate  must  go 
through  much  more  work  in  the  treatment  of  the  metal  than  is 
required  in  the  bessemer  process;  but  pure-iron  sheets  are  softer, 
more  pliable,  and  not  so  readily  attacked  by  rust  as  are  the  steel 
sheets. 

These  sheets  may  be  readily  tested  in  the  laboratory  by 
cutting  a  narrow  strip  from  both  the  steel  and  iron  products, 
and  immersing  them  in  acid.  No  matter  whether  they  are 
black  or  galvanized,  the  steel  strip  will  be  eaten  away  some  time 
before  the  other. 
Iron  melts  at  2,737°F. 


426  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Black  Sheet  (see  Table  62). — This  type  of  sheet  is  so  called 
because  of  its  color.  It  has  never  been  "treated,"  but  is 
sheared  and  packed  in  bundles  exactly  as  it  comes  from  the 
rolls.  Another  type  of  black  sheet  is  planished;  that  is,  it 
is  more  lightly  finished,  and  goes  through  a  special  process. 
Planished  plate  also  has  a  steel  base,  and  is  largely  used  for 
stove  pipe,  engine  covering,  and  locomotive  covering. 

The  old-time  Russia  Iron  comes  under  this  head,  but  this 
metal  is  used  but  rarely  even  for  locomotive  coverings  owing 
to  its  expensiveness  and  limited  supply. 

Under  the  black  sheet,  there  are  also  several  different  finishes, 
as  the  plain  black;  the  wood  refined,  blue  steel,  and  planished 
steel.  All  of  these  are  made  from  the  iron  or  steel  ingot  and 
rolled  out  into  sheets. 

Galvanized  Sheet. — The  baseplate  of  this  sheet  is  the  same 
as  the  black  sheet,  only  this  sheet  is  treated  in  a  pickling  bath 
and  is  then  run  through  a  vat  of  molten  zinc,  called  spelter. 
When  the  sheet  comes  out  of  the  galvanizing  vat  and  cools, 
nature  paints  starry-spangles  on  the  surface.  Pure  ingot-iron 
sheets  are  coated  in  this  way  as  well  as  the  steel  sheets.  Gal- 
vanized sheet  iron  is  used  for  gutters,  spouting,  roofing,  heating 
and  ventilating  piping,  blow  piping,  cornices,  and  tanks, 
buckets  and  multitudes  of  other  articles.  Its  main  purpose  is 
to  resist  the  action  of  the  weather  (see  Table  63  for  weights  and 
sizes). 

Tin  Plate. — Tin  plate  also  has  a  steel  or  pure-iron  baseplate; 
its  only  difference  is  the  coating  placed  on  the  plate.  Hoofing 
tin  has  a  coating  of  lead,  giving  it  a  dull  finish;  hence  the  term 
Terne  Plate.  This  tin  is  known  by  the  thickness  of  the  coating, 
as  20-lb.  plate,  32-lb.  plate,  etc.  Terne  Plate  is  used  largely 
for  roofing  purposes,  inlaid  gutters,  and  of  recent  years  as 
automobile  plate,  from  which  the  body,  fenders,  oil  pans,  etc., 
are  made  (see  Table  64  for  weights  and  sizes). 

Charcoal  Tin  Plate. — This  is  also  the  common  baseplate  of 
iron  or  steel,  which  by  special  treatment  is  coated  with  pure  tin. 
The  thickness  of  coating  governs  its  term  as  IX,  IXX,  IXXX, 
etc.,  and  as  the  coating  is  made  heavier,  the  baseplate  is  also 
thickened.  This  type  of  tin  sheet  is  largely  used  for  house- 
hold utensils,  dairy  products,  also  many  other  purposes  (see 
Table  64  for  weights  and  sizes). 

Coke  Tin  Plate. — I.  C.  coke  tin  gets  its  name  from  its  process 
of  manufacture  by  means  of  coke  instead  of  charcoal.     It  is  a 


SHEET-METAL  WORK  427 

cheaper  process,  and  the  coating  is  generally  very  light.  This  tin 
is  mainly  used  in  furnace  heater-pipe  construction.  The  bright 
tin  aids  in  the  reflection  of  heat  and  its  diffusion.  This  tin 
is  also  used  for  very  inexpensive  household  utensils  (see  Table  64 
for  weights  and  sizes). 

Corrugated-iron  Sheets. — By  means  of  heavy  corrugated 
rolls,  a  plain  black  or  galvanized  sheet  can  be  given  corruga- 
tions. For  different  work,  different  widths  of  corrugations 
are  used.  Corrugated  metal  is  used  for  roofing,  siding,  culverts, 
floor,  ceiling,  domes,  and  as  concrete  forms,  garages,  etc.  (see 
Table  66  for  weights  and  sizes) 

Sheet  Zinc. — Zinc  is  a  soft  and  pliable  metal,  and  is  rolled 
into  sheets  much  the  same  as  steel.  The  grain  nms  with  the 
roll,  so  that  the  workman  must  always  look  for  the  grain  before 
marking  out  his  work  and  bending  it.  When  zinc  is  bent 
sharply  across  the  grain,  it  is  liable  to  break,  while  with  the 
grain  it  will  bend  nicely.  Sheet  zinc  becomes  soft  with  slight 
heating,  and  in  cold  weather  it  hardens,  becoming  springy  and 
brittle.  For  sharp  bends,  the  sheet  zinc  should  be  heated 
slightly,  although  great  care  must  be  taken,  as  it  melts  and 
even  bums  very  easily  (see  Table  59  for  weights  and  sizes). 

Sheet  zinc  is  used  in  Iming  refrigerators,  sink  Unings,  for 
caskets,  and  many  other  purposes.  In  Europe,  zinc  is  exten- 
sively used  for  eave  troughs,  conductor  pipes,  roofing,  etc. 
But  in  this  country  the  trade  is  a  little  timid  about  using  it  for 
extemal  building  purposes. 

Sheet  Brass. — Brass  is  an  alloy  of  about  72  parts  copper  and 
28  parts  zinc,  and  makes  a  harder,  stiffer  plate  than  either 
copper  or  zinc.  This  mixture  makes  a  very  malleable  sheet, 
but  the  more  zinc  used,  the  more  brittle  the  brass  becomes. 
Brass  is  used  for  engine  trimmings,  muscial  instruments,  various 
vessels  which  are  usually  tinned  on  the  inside  and  nickled  on 
the  outside  (see  Table  67  for  weights). 


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432 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Table  56. — Table  of  Weights  op  Sheet  Copper  per  Squai.' 
Foot,    and    Thickness  per  Stubbs  Gaqb 

Rolled  Copper  has  specific  gravity  of  8.90.     One  cubic  foot 

weighs  658.125  lb. 


0) 

1 

Thickness  in 
decimal  parts 
of  1  in. 

Weight  per 
square  foot  in 
ounces 

Weight  of  sheet 
14  by  48  in. 
in  pounds 

Weight  of  sheet 
24  by  48  in. 
in  pounds 

Weight  of  sheet 
30  by  60  in. 
in  pounds 

Weight  of  sheet 
36  by  72  in. 
in  pounds 

Weight  of  sheet 
48  by  72  in. 

lit     ItOiltltlM 

35 

.00537 

4 

1.16 

2 

3.12 

4.50 

1 

6 

33 

.00806 

6 

1.75 

3 

4.68 

6.75 

9 

31 

.0107 

8 

2.33 

4 

6.25 

9. 

12 

28 

.0134 

10 

2.91 

5 

7.81 

11.25 

15 

27 

.0161 

12 

3.50 

6 

9.37 

13.50 

18 

26 

.0188 

14 

4.08 

7 

10.93 

15.75 

21 

25 

.0215 

16 

4.66 

8 

12.50 

18. 

24 

24 

.0242 

18 

5.25 

9 

14.06 

20.25 

27 

22 

.0269 

20 

5.83 

10 

15.62 

22.50 

30 

21 

.0322 

24 

7. 

12 

18.75 

27. 

36 

19 

.0430 

32 

9.33 

16 

25 

36 

48 

18 

.0538 

40 

11.66 

20 

31.25 

45 

60 

16 

.0645 

48 

14. 

24 

37.50 

54 

72 

15 

.0754 

56 

16.33 

28 

43.75 

63 

84 

14 

.0860 

64 

18.66 

32 

50 

72 

96 

13 

.095 

70 

35 

55 

79 

105 

12 

.109 

81 

40^ 

63 

91 

122 

11 

.120 

89 

44H 

70 

100 

134 

10 

.134 

100 

50 

78 

112 

150 

9 

.148 

no 

55 

86 

124 

165 

8 

.165 

123 

61 

% 

138 

184 

7 

.180 

134 

67 

105 

151 

201 

6 

.203 

151 

75^i 

118 

170 

227 

5 

.220 

164 

82 

128 

184 

246 

4 

.238 

177 

mi 

138 

199 

266 

3 

.259 

193 

% 

151 

217 

289 

2 

.284 

211 

105^^ 

165 

238 

317 

1 

.300 

223 

wm 

174 

251 

335 

0 

.340 

253 

\26^i 

198 

285 

380 

SHEET-METAL  WORK 


433 


^SLB  67.- 

-Weight  of 

Copper,  Brass  and  Aluminttm  Sheets 

Weight  of  sheets,  pounds 

Rrown  & 

Decimal 

per  square  foot 

Sharpe 

thickness, 
inches 

gage 

Copper 

Brass 

Aluminum 

1 

.289 

13.10 

12.38 

3.94 

2 

.258 

11.67 

11.03 

3.52 

3 

.229 

10.39 

9.82 

3.14 

4 

.204 

9.25 

8.74 

2.78 

5 

.182 

8.24 

7.79 

2.48 

6 

.162 

7.34 

6.93 

2.21 

7 

.144 

6.54 

6.18 

1.97 

8 

.128 

5.82 

5.50 

1.75 

9 

.114 

5.18 

4.90 

1.56 

10 

.102 

4.62 

4.36 

1.39 

11 

.091 

4.11 

3.88 

1.24 

12 

.0808 

3.66 

3.46 

1.11 

13 

.0720 

3.26 

3.08 

.985 

14 

.0641 

2.90 

2.74 

.875 

15 

.0571 

2.59 

2.44 

.784 

16 

.0508 

2.30 

2.18 

.694 

17 

.0453 

2.05 

1.94 

.620 

18 

.0403 

1.83 

1.72 

.552 

19 

.0359 

1.63 

1.54 

.492 

20 

.0320 

1.45 

1.37 

.437 

21 

.0285 

1.29 

1.22 

.39Q 

22 

.0253 

1.15 

1.08 

.347 

23 

.0226 

1.02 

.966 

.308 

24 

.0201 

.911 

.860 

.276 

25 

.0179 

.811 

.766 

.245 

26 

.0159 

.722 

.682 

.218 

27 

.0142 

.643 

.608 

.194 

28 

.0126 

.573 

.541 

.173 

29 

.0113 

.510 

.482 

.154 

30 

.0100 

.454 

.429 

.137 

31 

.0089 

.404 

.382 

.122 

32 

.0080 

.360 

.340 

.109 

33 

.0071 

.321 

.303 

.097 

.34 

.0063 

.286 

.270 

.087 

35 

.0056 

.254 

.240 

.077 

36 

.0050 

.226 

.214 

.068 

37 

.0045 

.202 

.191 

.061 

38 

.0040 

.180 

.170 

.054 

39 

.0035 

.160 

.151 

.048 

40 

.0031 

.142 

.135 

.043 

28 


434 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Table   68. — Approximate   Weight  op  Sheet   Copper 
Square  Foot  in  Fractional  Parts  of  an  Inch 


in. 
in. 


in. 
in. 


thick 3 

thick 6 

thick 12 

thick 24 


He 

H 

H 

H 

1      in.  thick 46^^  lb.  to  the  square  foot 


lb.  to  the  square  foot 
lb.  to  the  square  foot 
lb.  to  the  square  foot 
lb.  to  the  square  foot 


PEI 


To  Ascertain  the  Weioht  of  Copper. — Find  the  number  of  cubic  inches  : 
the  piece,  multiply  by  0.3214,  and  the  product  will  be  the  weight  in  ponncs 
Or,  multiply  the  length  and  breadth  (in  feet)  and  that  by  the  pounds  per 
square  foot. 

These  weights  are  theoretically  correct,  but  variations  must  be  expected 
in  practice. 


Table  59. — Sheet  Zinc 


Zinc 

Stubbs 

Weight  per  . 

Dec.  thickness 

gage 

gage 

sq.  ft.,  OB. 

in  inches 

4 

33 

4.8 

.006 

5 

31 

5.92 

.010 

6 

30 

7.2 

.012 

7 

28 

8.32 

.014 

8 

27 

9.6 

.016 

9 

26 

10.72 

.018 

10 

25 

12. 

.020 

11 

23 

14.4 

.024 

12 

22 

16.8 

.028 

13 

21 

19.2 

.032 

M 

20 

21.6 

.036 

15 

19  Lt. 

24. 

.040 

16 

19 

26.88 

.045 

17 

18 

29.92 

.050 

18 

17 

32.% 

.055 

19 

16 

36. 

.060 

20 

15 

41.92 

.070 

21 

14 

48. 

.080 

22 

13 

53.92 

.090 

23 

12 

60. 

.100 

24 

II 

75.20 

.125 

SHEET-METAL  WORK 


435 


Table   60. — Sheet   Metal   and   Wike   Gages 

(In  inches) 


■ 

^ 

a 

0 

A 

1 

11 
OQ  a 

o 

1 

Sad 

"6^ 

IP 

^1 

•as 

ooooooo 

•  •  •  • 

.490 

.500 

.500 

000000 

.5866'" 

•  •  •  • 

.460 

.464 

.46875 

00000 

.5165 

•  •  •  • 

.430 

.432 

«  •  •  •  • 

.4375 

0000 

.4600 

.454 

.3938 

.400 

.454 

.40625 

000 

.40% 

.425 

.3625 

.372 

.425 

.375 

00 

.3648 

.380 

.3310 

.348 

.38 

.34375 

0 

.3249 

.340 

.3065 

.324 

.34 

.3125 

1 

.2893 

.300 

.2830 

.300 

.3 

.28125 

2 

.2576 

.284 

.2625 

.276 

.284 

.265625 

3 

.2294 

.259 

.2437 

.252 

.259 

.25  , 

4 

.2043 

.238 

.2253 

.232 

.238 

.234375 

5 

.1819 

.220 

.2070 

.212 

.22 

.21875 

6 

.1620 

.203 

.1920 

.192 

.203 

.203125 

7 

.1443 

.180 

.1770 

.176 

.18 

.1875 

8 

.1285 

.165 

.1620 

.160. 

.165 

.171875 

9 

.1144 

.148 

.1483 

.144 

.148 

.15625 

10 

.1019 

.134 

.1350 

.128 

.134 

.140625 

11 

.09074 

.120 

.1205 

.116 

.12 

.125 

12 

.08081 

.109 

.1055 

.104 

.109 

.109375 

13 

.071% 

.095 

.0915 

.092 

.095 

.09375 

14 

.06406 

.083 

.0800 

.080 

.083 

.078125 

15 

.05707 

.072 

.0720 

.072 

.072 

.0703125 

16 

.05062 

.065 

.0625 

.064 

.065 

.0625 

17 

.04526 

.058 

.0540 

.056 

.058 

.05625 

18 

.04030 

.049 

.0475 

.043 

.049 

.05 

19 

.03589 

.042 

.0410 

.040 

.040 

.04375 

20 

.031% 

.035 

.0348 

.036 

.035 

.0375 

21 

.02846 

.032 

.03175 

.032 

.0315 

.034375 

22 

.02535 

.028 

.0286 

.028 

.0295 

.03125 

23 

.02257 

.025 

.0258 

.024 

.027 

.028125 

24 

.02010 

.022 

.0230 

.022 

.025 

.025 

25 

.01790 

.020 

.0204 

.020 

.023 

.021875 

26 

.01594 

.018 

.0181 

.018 

.0205 

.01875 

27 

.01420 

.016 

.0173 

.0164 

.0187 

.0171875 

28 

.01264 

.014 

.0162 

.0148 

.0165 

.015625 

29 

.01126 

.013 

.0150 

.0136 

.0155 

.0140625 

30 

.01003 

.012 

.0140 

.0124 

.01372 

.0125 

31 

.008928 

.010 

.0132 

.0116 

.0122 

.0109375 

32 

.007950 

.009 

.0128 

.0108 

.0112 

.01015625 

33 

.007060 

.008 

.0118 

.0100 

.0102 

.009375 

34 

.006305 

.007 

.0104 

.0092 

.0095 

.00859375 

35 

.005615 

.005 

.0095 

.0084 

.009 

.0078125 

36 

.005000 

.004 

.0090 

.0076 

.0075 

.00703125 

37 

.004453 

•  •  •  • 

.0085 

.0068 

.0065 

.006640625 

38 

.003%5 

•  •  •  • 

.008 

.0060 

.0057 

.00625 

39 

.003531 

•  •  •  • 

.0075 

.0052 

.005 

.005859375 

40 

.003145 

•  •  •  • 

.007 

.0048 

.0045 

.00546875  . 

41 

.002800 

•  •  •  • 

.0044 

.0052734375 

42 

.002494 

•  •  •  • 

.004 

.005078125 

43 

.002221 

•  •  •  • 

.0036 

.0048828125 

44 

.001978 

•  •  •  • 

.0032 

.0046875 

45 

.001761 

•  •  •  • 

.0028 

46 

.001568 

•  •  •  • 

.0024 

47 

.001397 

•  •  •  • 

.002 

48 

.001244 

•  •  •  • 

.0016 

49 

.001018 

•  •  •  • 

.0012 

50 

.0009863 

•  •  •  • 

.001 

436 
Table    61. 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

-Weight   op   Aluminum   Sheets,    Square 
Round  Bars  (Kent) 


AXB 


Thickness  or 
diameter, 
inches 

Sheets  per 
square  foot, 
pounds 

• 

Round  bars 
per  foot, 
pounds 

Square  bars 
per  foot, 
pounds 

1 

He 

0.876 

0.004 

0.005 

H 

1.751 

0.014 

0.018 

H 

3.503 

0.057 

0.073 

H 

5.254 

0.129 

0.164 

^i 

.    7.006 

0.229 

0.292 

H 

8.757 

0.358 

0.456 

H 

10.508 

0.516 

0.657 

54 

12.260 

0.702 

0.894 

1 

14.011 

0.917 

1.168 

\y* 

17.514 

1.433 

1.824 

\H 

21.017 

2.063 

2.627 

2 

28.022 

3.668 

4.671 

(Specific  gravity  2.68:  1  cu.  in.  =  0.0973  lb.) 


438 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


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81.67 

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SHEET-METAL  WORK 


439 


16. 
17.33 
18.67 
20. 

24. 

16.83 
18.24 
19.64 
21.04 
25.25 

18. 

19.5 

21. 

22.5 

27. 

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63.13 
68.39 
73.65 
78.91 
94.69 

67.5 
73.13 
78.75 
84.38 
101.25 

75. 
81.25 
87.5 
93.75 
112.5 

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73.65 
79.78 
85.92 
92.06 
110.47 

78.75 
85.31 
91.88 
98.44 
118.13 

87.5 

94.79 

102.06 

109.38 

131.25 

S{::SS   : 

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84.17 

91.18 

98.19 

105.21 

126.25 

90. 

97.5 
105. 
112.5 
135. 

•         •         •         •         • 

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58222 

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24X101 
26X101 
28X101 
30X101 
36X101 

24X106 
26X106 
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Table  64. — Weights  and  Gages  op  Tin  Plates 

As  a  general  rule,  tin  plates  are  packed  in  boxes,  the  unit 
of  value  and  measurement  being  known  as  a  "base  box,"  which 

is  112  sheets  of  14  by  20  in.,  or  31,360  sq.  in.  of  any  size. 

Appboximatb  Weight  peb 

GAGE    No.  BASE  BOX,   LB. 

38  55 

37  60 

36  65 

35  70 

34  75 

33  80 

32  85 

31  90 

31  95 

30>^  100 

30     IC  107 

29  118 

28     IX  135 

IXL  128 

DC  13P 

27     2X  155 

2XL  148 

26     3X  175 

3XL  168 

DX  180 

25    4X  195 

4XL  188 

24     D2X  210 

23     D3X  240 

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03 


SECTION  12 

HEATING 
GENERAL  METHODS  IN  ITSE 

Firepot. — One  of  the  earliest  forms  of  heating  apparatus 
consisted  of  a  firepot  located  in  the  center  of  the  room.  It  was 
used  both  for  heating  and  cooking.  The  chief  objection  to 
this  method  was  the  fact  that  the  products  of  combustion  of  the 
fuel  remained  in  the  room.  While  practically  obsolete,  the 
system  is  still  in  use  in  some  countries. 

Stoves. — Because  they  eliminate  the  products  of  combustion, 
stoves  are  an  improvement  over  the  firepot.  The  stove  is 
connected  with  a  suitable  chimney  through  which  the  products 
of  combustion  are  disposed  of  into  the  atmosphere.  The  stove 
may  be  used  for  cooking  as  well  as  for  heating. 

Oil  and  Gas  Stoves  and  Radiators. — Where  coal  is  unavail- 
able or  inconvenient  to  get  for  any  reason,  oil  and  gas  are  used 
when  obtainable.  They  may  either  discharge  their  products 
of  combustion  into  the  room  or  into  the  atmosphere;  in  the 
latter  case  by  means  of  a  chimney. 

Hot-air  Furnaces. — The  hot-air  furnace  is  quite  a  common 
type  of  heating  device  in  small  houses.  The  stove,  heated  by 
some  kind  of  fuel,  is  located  in  the  basement  and  inclosed  in  a 
suitable  sheet-steel  casing.  Pipes  from  this  inclosure  are  led 
to  registers  in  the  various  rooms.  The  air  passes  over  the  stove 
and,  due  to  its  lesser  density  when  heated,  is  forced  into  the  rooms 
by  the  atmospheric  pressure.  The  fresh  air  is  usually  taken 
from  outdoors.  Another  form,  usually  known  as  the  "Pipe- 
less  Furnace,"  discharges  the  air  into  some  "central  part  of  the 
house  from  which  it  has  access  to  all  rooms.  The  cool  air  is 
taken  from  the  house  instead  of  from  outdoors  as  in  the  usual 
hot-air-fumace  system. 

Electric  Heating. — Electricity  is  too  expensive  for  general 
heating,  and  is  therefore  used  only  in  certain  special  cases  where 
its  cost  may  be  justified. 

Steam. — A  very  common  form  of  heating  system  is  the  one 
which  uses  steam  as  a  heating  agent.  It  will  be  described  in 
some  detail  subsequently. 

Hot  Water. — Water  is  also  a  popular  agent  for  heating  of 

464 


HEATING  465 

homes  as  well  as  groups  of  buildings.  Further  reference  to  this 
type  wiU  be  made  in  what  follows.     (See  page  1.) 

Combined  Heating  and  Ventilating  Systems. — Where  large 
numbers  of  persons  congregate  in  buildings,  systems  using 
heated  air,  humidified  to  the  proper  degree,  are  common. 
Such  systems  involve  considerable  expense  and  are  used  only 
in  cases  where  the  advantages  justify  this  expense.  For  the 
details  of  such  systems  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  usual  text- 
books on  this  subject. 

In  what  follows,  the  systems  and  devices  described,  are 
suitable  for  homes  and  small  buildings.  The  larger  buildings 
require,  in  general,  more  extended  apparatus  for  the  control 
of  heat.  For  such  treatment,  the  regular  textbooks  should  be 
consulted. 

USUAL  TEMPERATURES 

The  temperature  to  which  buildings  should  be  heated  depends 
upon  the  uses  to  which  they  are  put.  The  following  tables^ 
give  those  for  spaces  to  be  heated  and  those  unheated  in 
degrees  Fahrenheit.     For  heated  spaces  these  are: 

Table  66. — Inside  Temperatures 

Residences 70 

Lecture  rooms  and  auditoriums 65 

Factories  for  light  work 65 

Factories  for  heavy  work 60 

Offices  and  schools 68  to  70 

Stores 65 

Prisons 66 

Bathrooms 72 

Gymnasiums 55  to  60 

Hot  houses 78 

Steam  baths 110 

Warm  air  baths 120 

For  unheated  spaces  the  temperature  is  a  matter  of  con- 
jecture, but  for  purposes  of  computation,  the  following  may  be 
assumed: 

Table   67. — Unheated   Spaces   in   Heated  Buildings  in 

Zero  Weather 

Cellars  and  closed -ofiF  rooms 32 

Vestibules  frequently  opened  to  the  outside 32 

Attics  under  a  roof  with  sheathing  paper  and  metal  or  slate 

covering 25 

Attics  under  a  roof  with  proper  sheathing  and  tile  covering.  32 

Attics  under  a  roof  with  composition  covering 40 

»  Allen  &  Walker:  "Heating  and  Ventilation."     McGraw-Hill. 
30 


466 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


For  other  temperatures  of  unheated  spaces  a  rough  rule  is 
to  assume  that  the  temperature  is  midway  between  inside 
and  outside  temperatures. 

Table  68. — Outside  Temperatubbs 


state 

City 

Lowest 

Average 

Ala 

MobUe 

Montgomery 

Flagstaff 

Phoenix 

Fort  Smith 

Little  Rock 

San  Diego 

Independence 

Denver 

Grand  Junction 

Southington 

Washington 

Jupiter 

Jacksonville 

Savannah 

Atlanta 

Boise 

Lewiston 

Chicago 

Springfield 

Indianapolis 

Evansville 

Sioux  City 

Keokuk 

Dodge  City 

Wichita 

Louisville 

New  Orleans 

Shreveport 

Eastport 

Portland 

Baltimore 

Boston 

Alpena 

Detroit 

Duluth 

Minneapolis 

Meriden 

Vicksburg 

Hannibal 

Springfield 

Havre 

Helena 

-  1 
5 

-21 

22 

-15 

-12 

32 

10 

-29 

-16 

-19 

-15 

24 

10 

8 

-  8 
-28 
-18 
-23 
-22 
-25 
-15 
-31 
-26 
-26 
-22 
-20 

7 

-  5 
-21 
-17 

-  7 
-13 
-27 
-24 
-41 
-33 

-  6 

-  I 
-20 
-29 
-55 
-42 

57.7 

Aril 

56.1 
34.8 

Ark 

56.9 

49.5 

Cal 

52.0 
57.2 

Colo 

48.7 
38.4 

Conn 

39.2 
36.3 

D.  C 

42.9 

Fla 

69.8 

Ga 

60.9 
57.2 

Idaho 

51.4 
39.6 

Ill 

42.5 
35.9 

Ind 

39.0 
40.4 

Iowa 

44.1 
32.1 

Kan 

37.6 

Ky 

42.9 
45.0 

La 

60.5 

Maine 

55.7 
31.1 

Md 

33.5 
43.3 

Mass 

37.2 

Mich 

29.1 

Minn 

35.3 
25.5 

Miss 

28.4 
53.9 

Mo 

56.0 
39.7 

Mont 

43.0 
27.7 

30.9 

HEATING 


467 


Outside  Temperatures. — ^The  lowest  recorded  temperatures 
for  different  localities  in  the  United  States  are  given  in  Table 


Tablb  OS. — (Continued) 


State 

City 

Lowest    . 

Average 

Neb 

North  Platte 

Lincoln 

Carson  City 

Winnemuoca 

Concord 

Atlantic  City 

Saranac  Lake 

New  York  City 

Roswell 

Santa  Fe 

Hatteras 

Charlotte 

Devil's  TAke 

Bismark 

Toledo 

Columbus 

Oklahoma 

Baker  City 

Portland 

Pittsburgh 

Philadelphia 

Providence 

Rook  Island 

Charleston 

Columbia 

Huron 

Yankton 

Knozville 

Memphis 

Corpus  Christi 

Fort  Worth 

Salt  Lake  City 

Northfield 

Cape  Henry 

Lynchburg 

Seattle 

Spokane 

Parkersburg 

Elkins 

La  Crosse 

Milwaukee 

Cheyenne 

Lander 

-35 
-29 
-22 
-28 
-35 

-  7 
-38 

-  6 
-14 
-13 

8 

-  5 
-51 
-44 
-16 
-20 
-17 
-20 

-  2 
-20 

-  6 

-  9 

-  4 
7 
2 

-43 
-32 
-16 

-  9 
II 

-  8 
20 
32 

5 

-  5 
3 

-30 
-27 
-21 
-43 
-25 
-38 
-36 

34.6 

Nev 

35.8 

N.  H 

37.9 
33.1 

N.  J 

41.6 

N.  Y 

34.1 

N.  M 

40.1 
48.9 

N.  C..» 

38.0 
53.3 

N.  D 

49.8 
18.9 

23.5 
36.8 

Okla 

39.8 
47.1 

Ore 

34.1 

Pa 

45.4 
40.8 

R.  I 

41.8 
37.5 

s.  C 

39.7 
56.9 

S.  D 

53.5 
25.9 

Tenn 

31.2 
47.0 

Tex 

50.7 
62.7 

Utah 

Vt 

49.5 
39.7 
27.8 

Va 

48.6 

Wash 

45.2 
44.3 

W.  Ya 

Wis 

37.0 
41.9 
38.8 
31.2 

Wyo. 

32.4 
33.7 

29.0 

468  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

68.^  The  average  temperature  given  in  the  table  is  taken  from 
October  1  to  May  1.  All  are  stated  in  Fahrenheit  degrees 
and  are  compiled  from  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  records. 

Temperature  Range  Assumed  in  Design. — It  is  frequently 
the  practice  to  install  heating  systems  to  maintain  the  required 
inside  temperature  for  all  outside  temperatures  up  to  within 
10°  of  the  lowest  recorded  temperature  of  the  given  locality. 
This  is  done  for  reasons  of  economy.  The  extreme  tempera- 
tures do  not  last  for  many  days  at  a  time  and  usually  only  for  a 
part  of  the  time  in  a  given  day.  Hence,  the  heat  stored  in  the 
building  and  its  contents  prevents  the  sudden  variations  of 
inside  with  outside  temperatures.  For  example,  in  Milwaukee 
the  lowest  recorded  temperature  is  given  as  —25**.  If  the 
room  temperature  is  to  be  70°,  the  lowest  design  temperature 
is  to  be  taken  as  — 15°  according  to  this  rule  so  that  the  tem- 
perature difference  between  inside  and  outside  will  be  70- 
(-15)  or  85°. 

Where  economy  of  fuel  is  a  factor,  it  may  be  possible  to 
shut  off  part  of  the  radiation  in  such  rooms  as  may  be  dispensed 
with  for  the  time  being  and  heat  only  the  remaining  rooms. 

HEAT  LOSSES  FROM  BUILDINGS 

The  values  given  in  Table  69  have  been  obtained  from 
various  sources  and  cover  the  usual  constructions.  For 
special  cases,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  standard  textbooks 
on  the  subject.  In  all  cases,  the  values  are  given  in  B.t.u.  per 
square  foot  of  surface  per  degree  difference  in  temperature  per 
hour.  They  must  be  considered  average  values  in  moderate 
winds.  Where  conditions  are  liable  to  be  extreme,  proper 
allowance  must  be  made. 

Table  69. — Heat  Losses  through  Various  Building 

Materials 

B.T.U. 

Single  windows  or  skylights 1. 00 

Double  windows  or  skylights 0.  67 

Tar  or  gravel  roof 0.  29 

Mill  construction  tongue  and  groove 0.  21 

Concrete  with  cinder  fill 0. 43 

Slate  sheathed 0. 37 

Tin  sheathed 0. 31 

Shingle  sheathed 0. 20 

1  Harding  &  Willard:  "Heating  and  Ventilation." 


HEATING 


469 


Table  70. — Heat  Losses  through  Brick  Wat.t.8 

Thickness  of 

Plain 

Plastered 

Furred     and 

wall,  inches 

plastered,  B.t.u. 

BH 

.59 

.50 

.41 

13 

.39 

.34 

.30 

I7H 

.29 

.26 

.23 

22 

.23 

.21 

.20 

26y2 

.19.. 

.17 

.16 

Table  71. — Heat  Losses 

THROUGH  Concrete 

Walls 


Thickness  of 

Heat  loss, 

wall,    inches 

B.t.u. 

4 

1.07 

6 

.72 

8 

.53 

12 

.36 

16 

.26 

For  frame  buildings,  lathed  and  plastered  on  the  inside,  with 
outside  finish  as  given  in  Table  72,  the  heat  losses  are: 

Table  72. — Heat  Losses  through  Frame  Walls 

B.T.U. 

Ordinary  clapboards 47 

Ordinary  clapboards  paper  lined 34 

Ordinary  clapboards  sheathed 30 

Ordinary  clapboards  sheathed  and  paper  lined 26 

Ordinary  clapboards  sheathed  and  back  plastered 21 

For  partitions,  floors,  or  ceilings,  separating  heated  from 
unheated  spaces,  the  heat  losses  are  as  follows: 

Table  73. — Heat  Losses  through  Partitions,  Floors  and 

Ceilings 

B.T.U. 

Partitions,  lath  and  plaster,  one  side 60 

Partitions,  lath  and  plaster,  two  sides 30 

Floors,  single  wood  flooring 30 

Floors,  single  wood  flooring  with  plaster  below 20 

Ceilings,  lath  and  plaster 60 

Ceilings,  lath  and  plaster  floor  above 45 


470  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Heat  Required  for  VentiUttioii. — Where  special  provision  is 

made  to  ventilate  as  well  as  heat  a  room,  it  is  necessary  to  find 
out  what  heat  must  be  added  to  the  incoming  air  in  order  to 
maintain  the  desired  room  temperature.  In  residences  and 
small  buildings,  it  is  not  customary  to  install  ventilating  equip- 
ment. When  such  provision  is  to  be  made,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  standard  works  on  the  subject. 

Without  any  special  provision,  a  certain  amount  of  air  will 
always  leak  into  or  out  of  a  room,  causing  air  changes.  These  ■. 
must  be  provided  for  in  estimating  the  heat  requirements. 
While  the  magnitude  of  these  changes  depends  upon  the  build- 
ing construction,  a  fair  assumption  for  good  construction  is 
given  in  Table  74. 

Table  74. — ^Air  Changbs  to  bb  Pbovidbd  fob 

Pkb  Hovb 

CRAJttQMB 

Factories,  large  lofts H  to  1\^ 

Living  rooms  with  doors  usually  open 1)4 

Living  rooms 1 

Living  rooms,  open  fire  places 2 

Bed  rooms 1 

Entrance  halls 3 

Offices 1 

The  heat  required  to  raise  1  cu.  ft.  of  air  1**  is  about  0.0178 
B.t.u.  The  exact  method  of  computing  this  will  not  be  given 
here. 

Additional  Heat  Losses  for  Special  Conditions. — ^For  rooms 
having  north  and  west  exposures,  add  10  per  cent  to  the  total 
heat  loss  as  computed  from  the  foregoing  when  heated  con- 
tinuously. For  rooms  heated  in  the  daytime  only,  an  allow- 
ance of  15  per  cent  should  be  made  above  the  usual  loss.  For 
buildings  heated  at  long  intervals,  as  churches,  allow  25  per 
cent  in  addition.  For  ceilings  over  12  ft.  in  height,  add  2 
per  cent  for  each  additional  foot  in  height. 

Heat  Gained  by  Occupancy. — ^The  heat  given  ofiF  by  persons 
or  processes  like  cooking,  etc.,  must  be  considered  if  a  reason- 
ably correct  estimate  of  the  heat  requirements  is  desired.  For 
instance,  in  crowded  auditoriums  this  heat  may  be  so  great 
as  to  obviate  the  need  of  any  additional  heat  from  the  radi- 
ators. The  ventilation,  however,  becomes  correspondingly 
more  important. 


HEATING  471 

Table  75^  given  below  shows  what  allowances  are  commonly 
made. 

Table  75. — Heat  Given  off  by  Occupants  of  Room 

B.T.U.  PKB  HOUB 

Adults  at  rest 380 

Adults  at  work 450 

Adults  at  violent  exercise 600 

Children 240 

Infants 63 

Heat  Losses  from  Buildings. — When  the  interior  of  a  building 
is  heated  to  a  temperature  above  the  temperature  outside,  a 
flow  of  heat  from  the  building  results,  tending  to  lower  the 
temperature  of  the  interior.  If  heat  is  being  supplied  to 
the  building,  an  equilibrium  of  temperature  is  reached  when  the 
rate  of  supply  of  heat  to  the  building  is  equal  to  the  rate  of 
dissipation.  If  heat  is  supplied  at  a  greater  rate,  the  tempera- 
ture will  rise  to  such  a  point  that  a  new  and  higher  rate  of 
dissipation  will  just  balance  the  new  condition,  and  conversely, 
a  lower  rate  of  heat  supply  will  result  in  the  maintenance  of  a 
lower  interior  temperature. 

FACTORS  AFFECTING  HEATING  REQXnREMENTS 

Loss  Due  to  Radiation. — This  is  an  important  loss  in  heating 
buildings,  particularly  at  high  temperatures,  and  is  usually 
considered  directly  proportional  to  the  difference  between 
inside  and  outside  temperatures.  It  is  affected  by  the  nature 
of  construction  and  the  color  of  outside  walls. 

Loss  Due  to  Conduction. — This  loss  is  due  to  the  passage 
of  heat  from  particle  to  particle  in  the  materials  of  construction. 
It  is,  therefore,  influenced  by  the  nature  of  the  building  mate- 
rials and  the  form  of  construction. 

Loss  Due  to  Convection. — This  is  due  to  the  movement  of 
air  currents  both  in  the  interior  and  on  the  exterior  walls. 
It  is  very  largely  affected  by  winds,  but  even  if  these  are  not 
present,  there  always  exists  a  convection  current  due  to  the 
difference  in  density  of  air  in  contact  with  the  building.  Thus, 
as  this  air  is  heated,  it  expands,  and  its  density  is  decreased. 
The  cooler  outside  air  will  cause  an  upward  current  displacing 
the  heated  air  which  rises  on  the  surface  of  the  building  walls, 
and  so  maintains  a  continuous  circulation. 

1  Allen  &  Walker. 


472 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Loss  Due  to  Infiltration. — Particularly  in  high  winds,  air  is 

forced  into  the  buildings  or  removed  from  them  because  of  the 
difference  in  pressure  between  the  inside  and  outside  air. 
This  will  cause  a  change  m  the  air,  which  represents  a  loss. 
Leaky  or  open  windows  should,  therefore,  be  provided  for  in 
apportioning  radiation  or  in  the  heat  supply. 

Gain  of  Heat  Due  to  Sunshine. — Sunshine  contributes  heat 
to  a  building,  particularly  if  there  is  considerable  glass  area. 
While  the  heat  thus  obtained  need  not  be  supplied  by  the 
heating  plant,  nevertheless  sufficient  radiation  must  be  provided 
for  cloudy  days  when  such  gain  of  heat  cannot  be  relied  upon. 

Gain  of  Heat  from  Other  Sources. — Heat  is  added  to  build- 
ings by  occupancy,  cooking  and  hghting  apparatus,  and  perhaps 
other  sources.  This  heat  is  usually  ignored  in  laying  out 
heating  systems,  since  it  is  of  such  a  variable  character^     For 

m  o  ^  f  ^  large  meeting  rooms,  occupancy 

^.-—^W/T^oyj  has  an  important    bearing  on 

Wf^Z^^Sm^        ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^  ^  supplied, 
I  ;  I    n All    I       and  should  therefore  be  consid- 

West  I  ^' ^i|p!)"»i      ^'yrmaSO"^       ®'®^'   '  ^^^   example,    suppose 

^  \  Temp.70^  \  \       ^^  assembly  hall  is  to  be  used 

i/*(C«7//w     j  \       beginning  at    a    certain    time. 

j^^!w^^Wt^^[70^  '^®  occupants  arrive,  perhaps, 
M  chilled,    and    would    therefore 

Fig.  282.  desire  the  hall  to  be  warm.     Af- 

ter a  certain  period,  the  temperature  of  the  room  will  rise 
because  of  the  heat  given  off  by  the  occupants.  The  surplus 
heat  might  then  be  lost  by  provision  for  ventilation,  or  the 
heat  supply  to  the  radiator  might  be  suspended. 

Calculation  of  Heat  Losses  from  a  Room. — Assume  a  room  of 
the  size  given  in  the  plan  with  windows  as  shown  in  Fig.  282. 
Let  the  outside  temperature  be  zero  and  surrounding  tempera- 
tures be  as  indicated. 

Assume  ceiling  height  to  be  14  ft.,  windows  3  by  5  ft.,  doors 
3  by  7  ft.  Let  walls  be  of  brick  17H  in-  thick  and  plastered 
on  the  inside.  Assume  that  the  space  underneath  is  heated  to 
70®  and  that  the  attic  above  has  a  ceiling  which  is  constructed 
of  lath  and  plaster.  The  attic  temperature  is  assumed  to  be 
25°. 

The  gross  outside  wall  area  is,  therefore  (12  +14)  X14  ■>  364  sq.  ft. 
The  window  area  =  4  X  3  X  6  =  60    sq.  ft. 
Net  wall  area         »  364  -  60       "304  sq.  ft. 


HEATING 


473 


Ceiling  area  -  12  X  14       «  168  sq.  ft. 

Door  area  =3X7  »    21  sq.  ft. 

Partition  area  less  door  area  —  14  X  14  —  3  X  7 
Cubic  contents      »  12  X  14  X  14  »  2,352  ou.  ft. 


175  sq.  ft. 


From  the  foregoing  assume  the  following  factor  for  heat 
losses: 

Through  brick  walls 26 

Through  glass 1 .  00 

Through  ceiling 60 

Through  door 1 .  00 

Through  partition 30 

One  air  change  per  hour. 


Ten  per  cent  extra  for  north  and  west  exposure. 


Heat  loss  through  walls 
Heat  loss  through  glass 
Heat  loss  through  ceiling 
Heat  loss  through  door 
Heat  loss  through  partition 
Heat  loss  through  air  changes 
Heat  loss  due  to  extra  height 


304  X  (70  -    0)  X    .26 

60  X  (70  -    0)  X  1.0 

168  X  (70  -  26)  X    .6 

21  X  (70  -  60)  X  1.0 

175  X  (70  -  60)  X    .6 

2.352  X  (70  -    0)  X    .0178 

(14  -  12)  X  2  %  X  5,533 


Heat  loss  due  to  north  and  west  exposure  @  10  %  of  above 


B.T.U. 

>  6,533 

'  4,200 

»  7,560 

'  420 

:  2,100 

■■  2.931 

'  221 

■■  2,297 

25,262 


Heat  Emitted  by  Radiators. — ^The  heat  given  to  the  room 
depends  upon  the  difference  in  temperature  between  radiator 
and  room.  For  the  conditions  of  steam  at  210°  (which  is  practi- 
cally steam  at  atmospheric  pressure)  and  room  temperature  at 
70°,  the  temperature  difference  is  140°.  The  radiators  under 
these  conditions  emit  heat  at  rates  given  in  the  following 
table: 


Table  76. 


-B.T.U.  Emitted  by  Cast-ibon  Dibect  Radiatobs 

(Unpainted) 


45  in. 

38  in. 

32  in. 

26  in. 

22  in. 

1  column 

1.87 

1.93 

1.96 

1.99 

2.03 

2  column 

1.72 

1.79 

1.84 

1.88 

1.93 

3  column 

1.58 

1.65 

1.72 

1.77 

1.82 

4  column 

1.50 

1.56 

1.60 

1.66 

1.72 

474  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

The  heat  transmission  of  the  cast-iron  wall  radiation  is: 

Table   77. — B.t.u.    Emitted    by    Cast-iron   Direct    Wall 

Radiators  (Unpainted) 

Cast-iron  wall  radiators  placed  on  side 2.07 

Cast-iron  wall  radiators  placed  on  end 2 .  00 

For  other  temperature  ranges,  the  B.t.u.  transmitted  per 
degree  per  square  foot  per  hour  varies  as  follows:  For  every 
degree  above  the  140°  range  of  temperature  between  radiator 
and  room,  add  0.2  per  cent,  and  for  every  degree  below,  sub- 
tract 0.2  per  cent.  Thus  consider  the  four-column  floor 
radiator.  According  to  the  table,  it  transmits  1.50  B.t.u. 
per  degree  per  square  foot  per  hour  when  the  radiator  is  at 
210°  and  the  room  temperature  is  70°  (i.e.,  140°  range  of  tem- 
perature). Suppose  now  that  the  room  temperature  is  50° 
instead  of  70°,  the  radiator  temperature  remaining  the  same. 
The  range  now  is  160°  or  20°  more  than  before.  The  new  heat 
transmission  is  therefore  20  X  0.2  =  4  per  cent  more  or  1.50  X 
1.04  =  1.56  B.t.u.  per  square  foot  per  degree  per  hour. 

Table  78. — Effect   of   Painting   on  Radiators* 


Kind  of  paint 

Relative  transmission 

Bare  iron  surface 

1.000 

CoDoer  bronse 

.760 

Aluminum  hron?p. ..,..,-, 

.752 

Snow  white  enamel 

1.010 

No  luster  ttreen  enamel 

.956 

Terra-cotta 

1.038 

White  lead  r>aint.  . 

.987 

White  sine  naint 

1.010 

Maroon  glass  Japan 

.997 

When,  for  reasons  of  appearance,  radiators  are  to  be  rendered 
less  conspicuous,  the  effect  on  the  heating  surface  is  as  given 
in  Table  79.*  The  calculated  direct  radiation  is  to  be  increased, 
or  decreased  by  the  amounts  given. 

1  Allen  &  Walker.     "Heating  and  Ventilation." 

'  For  further  details  as  to  dimensions  see  Harding  &  Williard. 


HEATING  475 

Table  14. — Effect  of  Radiator  Enclosures 


(a)  DecreAAe  radiAtion  froi 


W  Increue 

radiation 

torn 

Sto 

12  per 

lent 

upor 

heii 

t  ndi 

tor. 

The 

tvaer 

vd 

e    for 

the 

high 

radUtor. 

hatbt  of  ihelf  varie*  froi 


(d)   Inc 

reue  t>d>>tion 

from 

20    to 

2i    per    cent. 

The 

hither 

value    to    be 

used 

with  the  hl«h  rHdiatoi 

(()    Increase  radiation 

from 

2S    to 

35   per    cent. 

The 

hicher 

viJuea  lor  the  high 

476  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Location  of  Radiators. — In  the  ideal  case,  radiators  should 
be  located  at  all  points  where  heat  loss  occurs  and  be  of  a  size 
in  direct  proportion  to  such  loss.  In  the  room  shown  in  Fig.  282, 
the  radiation  would  form  a  net  work  over  the  entire  wall  and 
window  area.  Since  this  is  unsightly  and  defeats  the  object 
sought  in  tr3dng  to  beautify  homes,  a  compromise  must  be 
sought.  It  is  customary,  therefore,  to  concentrate  the  radia- 
tion at  points  which  wiU  give  the  required  heat  and  still  mini- 
mize the  apparent  objections  due  to  the  size  of  the  radiators. 

In  Fig.  282,  two  solutions  offer  themselves  for  direct  radiation: 
(1)  to  use  four  radiators,  one  under  each  window  or  (2)  to  use 
two  radiators,  one  at  each  outside  wall  between  the  windows. 
Assume  that  the  latter  is  the  case  and  it  is  desired  tp  find  the 
required  size  of  radiators. 

Taking  the  data  of  the  previous  problem,  the  heat  loss  equals 
25,262  B.t.u.  per  hour  and  room  temperature  is  70°  for  zero 
weather  with  38  in.  floor  radiators  of  the  two-column  type. 
This  corresponds  to  an  emission  140°  range  in  temperature,  of 
140  X  1.79  =  250  B.t.u.  per  square  foot  per  hour.     For  this 

rate  of  emission  there  would  be  required      '^^     =110  sq.  ft.  of 

direct  radiation  if  no  allowance  is  made  for  cooling  the  water 
of  condensation  or  the  heat  given  the  room  by  the  piping  of  the 
heating  system. 

It  is  customary  practice  to  add  10  per  cent  more  radiation 
in  installations  having  a  heating  plant  and  20  per  cent  more  in 
houses  heated  by  steam  from  outside  supply.  The  eflfect  of 
piping  in  a  building  adds  about  20  per  cent  or  more  to  the  radia- 
tion as  computed  from  the  radiating  surface  installed. 

Assume,  then,  that  the  boiler  is  in  the  building  and  a  10 
per  cent  excess  radiation  is  installed,  neglecting  for  this  room 
the  effect  of  connected  piping.  This  calls  for  radiation  of  121 
sq.  ft.  From  a  radiator  manufacturer's  catalog  it  is  found 
that  a  38-in.  section  has  4  sq.  ft.  of  heating  surface  per  section, 

121 
and  therefore  the  number  of  sections  will  be  —r-,  or  about  30 

sections  in  all.  This  should  now  be  apportioned  about  in 
accordance  with  the  heat  loss.  A  satisfactory  arrangement 
would  be  18  sections  along  the  14-ft.  wall  and  12  sections  along 
the  12-ft.  wall. 

If  the  space  occupied  by  these  radiators  is  considered  too 
great,  either  higher  radiators  should  be  chosen  or  radiators  of 


HEATING  477 

the  three-  or  even  four-column  type.  The  calculation  for  these 
is  substantially  the  same  as  the  example,  but  for  the  necessary 
change  in  the  quantities. 

There  is  one  advantage  in  favor  of  locating  radiators  under 
windows.  It  will  be  found  that  in  cold  weather  there  is  a 
decided  down-draft  along  the  windows  when  radiators  are 
located  elsewhere.  A  radiator  here  counteracts  this  down- 
draft  with  its  attendant  objections.  However,  if  curtains 
are  hung,  a  radiator  here  has  a  tendency  to  carry  the  dust  of  the 
convection  currents  and  deposit  it  on  them.  In  some  cases 
metal  shields  are  used  to  prevent  the  current  of  heated  air  from 
striking  the  walls  or  curtains  and  thus  depositing  the  dust  which 
is  contained  in  the  current.  The  use  of  shields  decreases  the 
effectiveness  of  the  radiator  by  a  somewhat  less  extent  than  that 
shown  in  Table  79  for  a  flat  shelf  above  the  radiator. 

STEAM  HEATING 

Principle  of  Operation. — When  water  is  heated  in  a  steam 
boiler  by  means  of  the  combustion  of  some  form  of  fuel,  the 
water  is  evaporated  in  the  form  of  steam.  By  adjustment  of 
the  rate  of  heat  generation,  any  pressure  may  be  maintained  in 
a  closed  vessel  provided  that  such  vessel  is  able  to  withstand 
the  pressure.  For  ordinary  small  buildings,  the  pressures  are 
very  low;  sometimes  only  a  few  ounces  per  square  inch  under 
maximum  load. 

The  pressure  of  the  steam  generated  overcomes  the  friction 
in  the  piping  and  in  the  radiators,  is  condensed  in  them,  and 
tends  to  form  a  vacuum.  In  every  system  a  certain  pressure 
difference  is  required  in  order  to  cause  sufficient  steam  to  flow 
to  accomplish  the  desired  heating.  The  water  of  condensation 
is  returned  to  the  boiler  by  gravity  or  by  means  of  a  pump.  In 
small  installations,  the  gravity  return  is  almost  universal. 
This  latter  system  alone  will  be  considered  here. 

The  customary  installation  consists  of  a  boiler,  radiators, 
damper  regulator,  gage  glass,  steam  gage,  air  valve,  water 
feeder,  and  the  necessary  pipe,  fittings,  and  valves  for  their 
proper  connection  and  control. 

Boiler. — For  small  installations,  the  boilers  are  usually 
made  of  cast  iron,  in  sections  so  that  the  size  of  the  boiler  is 
variable,  and  several  sizes  may  be  made  from  the  same  pattern. 
The  firepot  for  coal  is  made  of  a  capacity  from  about  8-hr. 


478  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

supply  and  upward  depending  upon  the  frequency  of  firing. 
The  boiler  is  connected  in  the  usual  way  to  a  chimney,  and 
has  an  air-inlet  damper,  a  check-draft  damper,  and  sometimes  a 
flue  damper. 

A  gage  glass  is  provided  to  show  the  water  level  in  the  boiler. 
Sometimes  a  water  feeder  is  included  to  maintain  the  water 
level  automatically.  A  pressure  gage  as  well  as  a  safety  valve 
should  be  provided  on  all  boilers. 

Magazine-feed  boilers  are  also  obtainable.  A  filling  of  the 
magazine  gives  several  days  supply  of  coal,  which  is  fed  auto- 
matically as  it  is  consumed. 

Wfien  selecting  boilers  from  manufacturers*  rating,  the  boiler 
should  be  selected  from  60  to  100  per  cent  larger  than  catcUoged. 

The  damper  regulators  used  on  boilers  are  of  a  variety  of 
kinds.     Two  forms  will  be  described  later. 

Radiators. — Radiators  are  usually  made  of  iron  and  cast  in 
sections  to  make  up  the  required  heating  surface.  For  one- 
pipe  work,  the  radiator  sections  are  sometimes  connected  only 
at  the  bottom.  For  two-pipe  work,  where  the  inlet  valve 
supphes  steam  at  the  top,  the  radiator  sections  are  connected 
at  both  top  and  bottom.  Such  radiators  are  always  used  for 
hot-water  installations,  but  are  considered  desirable  by  some 
for  steam-heating  systems. 

The  forms  usually  used  in  residence  work  for  direct  steam 
heating  are  the  floor  type  and  the  vxdl  type.  In  the  floor  type 
the  weight  of  the  radiator  is  supported  on  legs  cast  int^ral 
with  the  radiator.  In  the  wall  type  the  radiator  is  supported 
by  means  of  special  hooks  made  fast  to  the  walls  of  the  building. 
The  latter  have  the  advantage  of  leaving  the  floor  more  easily 
accessible  for  cleaning,  and  especially  for  the  smaller  sizes, 
appear  neater. 

In  direct-indirect  radiators  the  air  which  passes  over  the 
radiator  is  taken  from  outdoors,  and  special  radiators  of  a  flue 
type  must  be  provided.  Indirect  radiators  are  concealed 
frequently  in  between  the  floors  and  differ  from  those  described. 
With  these  the  air  is  taken  from  outdoors,  and  after  passing 
over  the  radiators,  the  heated  air  enters  the  rooms  through 
registers  much  the  same  as  those  used  for  furnace  heating. 

Air  Valves. — Water  nearly  alwa3rs  contains  air  which  is 
carried  to  the  radiators  by  means  of  the  steam.  Air  removal 
from  the  radiators  must  be  provided  in  order  to  obtain  the 
highest  efficiency  of  the  radiating  surface  and  thus  insure  con- 


HEATING  479 

tact  of  the  steam  with  the  radiating  surface.  This  is  best 
accomplished  by  means  of  automatic  air  valves,  which  should 
be  placed  on  every  radiator  in  systems  in  which  the  air  is  not 
returned  and  at  such  places  in  the  piping  where  air  is  likely  to 
collect,  but  always  above  the  water  line  in  the  boiler. 

Since  air  is  heavier  than  water  vapor,  it  settles  to  the  bottom 
of  the  radiator.  The  danger  of  flooding  the  air  valve  with  water 
argues  against  its  location  at  the  bottom  of  the  radiator,  but 
it  should  be  placed  as  near  this  as  possible.  It  is  common 
practice  to  locate  the  valve  on  the  side  opposite  the  steam 
connection  about  two-thirds  down  from  the  top  of  the  radiator. 
The  manufacturers  usually  provide  a  suitable  tapping  at  this 
point  for  the  purpose.  In  school  rooms  an  additional  means  is 
provided  to  keep  the  air  valve  in  a  vertical  position  by  means 
of  a  strap.  This  must  be  specifically  called  for  when  ordering 
radiators,  as  in  common  residence  work,  there  seems  to  be  no 
need  for  this  extra  precaution. 

TYPES  OF  STEAM-HEATING  SYSTEMS 

There  are  several  types  of  steam-heating  systems  suitable  for 
various  conditions.  For  the  small  buildings  here  considered  the 
gravity  drculcUing  systems  to  be  described  are  almost  standard 
practice. 

One-pipe  Steam  Distribution. — ^For  small  building  or  resi- 
dence work,  the  one-pipe  system  recommends  itself  on  account 
of  the  simphcity  of  installation  and  low  initial  cost.  In  Figs .  283 
and  284.  are  shown  diagrammatically  the  dry-return  and  wet- 
return  respectively.  In  the  dry-return,  the  steam  main  rises  as 
close  as  possible  to  the  ceiling  and  pitches  downward  until  the 
last  radiator  is  served.  The  dry-return  then  pitches  back  to 
the  boiler  above  the  water  line  and  crosses  it  at  right  angles 
near  the  boiler.  This  is  done  to  prevent  surging  of  the  water 
in  the  dry-return,  thus  eliminating  water  hammer.  The 
height  of  the  lowest  point  of  the  dry-return  main  before  it 
drops  below  the  water  line  must  be  such  that  the  pressure  due 
to  the  static  height  of  the  water  column  is  greater  than  the 
total  pressure  drop  in  the  S3n3tem.  For  the  pipe  sizes  here 
used,  a  pressure  drop  of  1  oz.  per  100  ft.  of  pipe  is  used.  Thus, 
if  the  total  length  to  the  farthest  radiator  is  200  ft.,  the  pressure 
drop  will  be  2  oz.  plus  about  ^  oz.  for  friction  of  fittings  and 
return  of  water,     A  column  of  water  at  steam  temperature 


480 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


weighs  about  0.416  lb.  per  foot  of  height,  or  about  6%  oz. 
Hence  for  a  23^  oz.  total  drop,  the  minimum  height  is 


2.5 
6.67 


12  =  4.5  in.     As  the  height  of  the  water  L'ne  in  the  boiler  is 
likely  to  vary,  this  should  be  increased  to  from  12  to  18  in.  if 


' — «r 


I'A' 


30 

[=1 


•VV 


.  60  i 

i5^ 


U80 


Itf 


40  J 
fll — ll 


40   I 


iV 


\Yl 


|J60 
iZZl 


t-^tj  3ni.Floor 


T^ 


li; 


50 


fgncLFIoor 


i7^ 


Refum  ^ 


I 

^HEATER 


Fig.  283. 


Isfr.  Floor 


Bcisemenf 


40 


60 


W 


30  I, 


IV*" 


80 

! — If 


1'^' 


40  1, 

nil 


w.« 


I'/i' 


Itf 


i^-juT       .50 


itf 


Itf 


iA« 


r/a' 


itf 


60 

IZZl 


75 

I — iff3ttl.Fteor 


W 


itf 


50 


end-FboT 


l'/4' 


I  St.  Floor 


> — -JArH EATER      Boscment 


Fig.  284. 

possible.  Any  extra  height  will  in  no  way  effect  the  operation, 
but  it  is  usually  the  case  that  large  amounts  of  headroom  are 
seldom  met  with,  and  the  lay  out,  therefore,  is  largely  affected 
by  the  headroom  available.  The  remaining  details  are  easily 
seen  in  the  diagrams. 


HEATING  481 

Pipe  Sizes  for  One-pipe  Steam  Systems. — In  the  one-pipe 
systems  the  water  of  condensation  must  flow  in  a  contrary 
direction  to  that  of  the  steam  supply.  In  order  to  avoid  ob- 
jectionable accumulations  of  water  under  these  conditions, 
the  mains,  risers,  and  radiator  connections  should  be  large 
enough  to  keep  the  heating  system  in  operative  condition  at 
the  heaviest  loads;  i.e.,  when  the  outside  temperature  is  lowest 
or  when  starting  up  a  cold  system. 

These  precautions  have  been  kept  in  mind,  and  Donnelly^  has 
computed  the  necessary  pipe  sizes  to  meet  the  conditions  with 
a  pressure  drop  due  to  friction  of  1  oz.  per  100  ft.  of  pipe  when 
carrying  amounts  of  radiation  given  in  Table  80.  The  appli- 
cation will  now  be  shown. 

Assmne  the  layout  shown  in  Fig.  283.  The  pipe  sizes  to  be 
used  are  taken  from  Table  80,  which  sizes  are  appended  to  the 
drawing.  It  should  be  noticed  that  radiator  connections  are . 
sometimes  sized  larger  than  the  riser  which  feeds  them.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  drainage  is  better  in  vertical  pipes 
than  in  the  radiator  connections.  The  difference  in  size  is 
more  noticable  on  the  top  floor  radiators.  For  the  risers, 
consult  Table  80,  column  marked  up-feed  risers.  Reference 
to  down-feed  risers  is  made  later. 

On  one-pipe  systems  in  particular,  globe  valves,  when  used, 
should  have  their  stems  horizontal,  since  when  vertical,  they 
hold  up  water  due  to  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  valve. 
This  is  not  true  for  gate  valves.  As  a  general  rule,  the  stems 
should  not  point  vertically  downward,  since  when  the  packing 
of  the  valves  is  worn  or  not  tight  for  any  reason  they  will  drip 
water.  The  valves  indicated  in  the  diagrams  are  angle  valves, 
and  for  one-pipe  systems  are  the  more  common  type. 

Partictdar  attention  should  be  directed  to  the  drips  on  the 
middle  risers.  These  are  very  important  to  separate  the  water 
from  the  steam  at  every  opportunity  offered  in  the  layout. 
At  times  the  one-pipe  system  is  modified  by  making  a  down-feed 
system  in  order  to  affect  a  more  complete  separation  of  the 
steam  and  water.  In  this  system  a  riser  goes  to  the  top  of  the 
building  and  there  feeds  the  main.  From  this  main,  down-feed 
risers  are  used  to  distribute  the  steam  to  the  radiators,  being 
dripped  at  the  bottom  to  either  a  dry  or  a  wet  return.  Systems 
of  this  character  are  more  expensive  to  install,  and  are  therefore 
met  with  less  frequently. 

1  Trans.,  National  District  Heating  Association,  1915. 
31 


482 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Temperature  Control. — ^The  common  practice  to  obtain  a 
comparatively  uniform  room  temperature  with  simple  one-pipe 
systems  is  slightly  to  overheat  the  room  by  regulating  the 
damper,  then  permitting  the  room  to  cool  below  normal,  and 
repeating  the  process.  This  gives  an  average  temperature 
between  extreme  variations,  the  variation  being  as  close  to 
normal  as  the  care  of  the  operator  wishes  to  give.  Thermo- 
static control  either  at  the  boiler  or  at  each  individual  radiator 


Typical  ArrmiifciiBMit  of  Fmctioaal 

Vapor  Regulator  On  Op«-Pipo 

Stoam-Hoatiiif  Sytteins. 


ocTAiL  OF  OAnnt 

Fig.  285. 


may  also  be  installed.  However,  the  control  of  room  tem- 
perature by  automatically  controlling  each  radiator  is  expensive 
and  usually  not  installed  in  connection  with  one-pipe  systems. 
Special  One-pipe  Systems. — In  Fig.  285  is  shown  a  typical 
arrangement  of  a  regulator  used  for  automatic  control  of  the 
boiler  as  made  by  the  Donnelly  S3rstems  Co.  The  special 
features  consist  of  a  regulator  which  may  be  set  to  generate  a 
predetermined  amount  of  steam,  and  weight  controlled  vacuum 
air  valves  to  permit  the  radiator  to  operate  at  pressures  below 
atmosphere. 


HEATING  483 

The  regulator  provides  for  the  control  of  the  draft  in  the 
following  manner:  The  water  of  condensation  flows  through  the 
piping  A  and  drops  into  the  cup  B  in  the  body  of  the  regulator. 
This  cup  is  provided,  near  the  bottom,  with  an  orifice  C  through 
which  the  water  passes  into  the  body  of  the  regulator  D  from 
which  it  is  permitted  to  flow  back  to  the  boiler  by  means  of  the 
pipe  E,  The  cup  is  supported  on  an  arm  which  is  pivoted  at 
the  point  F,  the  spindle  of  which  passes  through  the  stuffing 
box  to  the  outside  of  the  tank  where  it  is  provided  with  the 
lever  G  which  is  attached  to  the  dampers  by  means  of  chains 
as  shown.  In  operation,  the  water  drops  into  the  cup  and 
builds  up  a  certain  head.  This  head  varies  in  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  water  entering  from  the  pipe  A  and  that  leaving 
through  the  orifice  C,  and  becomes  steady  when  the  outflow  is 
at  the  same  rate  as  the  inflow.  Suppose  that  a  certain  outside 
temperature  exists — say  25**,  the  weight  K  is  set  on  the  25° 
notch  on  the  lever  G.  This  will  just  balance  a  given  head  of 
water  in  the  cup  B  correspondmg  to  a  genera- 
tion of  an  amount  of  a  steam  proportional  to 
the  heat  loss  from  the  building.  Should  the 
water  return  faster  than  desired,  the  head  will 
rise  in  the  cup,  overbalance  the  weight  K,  and 
shut  off  the  draft  /,  thus  causing  less  air  to 
pass  through  the  fire  and  so  cut  down  the  rate 
of  combustion.  If  the  reverse  takes  place,  the 
ashpit  damper  /  is  opened,  and  permits  a  higher 
rate  of  combustion. 

The  check  draft  damper  L  opens  only  when 
the  damper  /  is  completely  shut,  and  functions 
only  at  the  very  lightest  loads  corresponding     v5l2S25ffvifc'' 
to  high  outside  temperatures.     The  vacuum  air         pj^   286. 
valve  is  shown  in  Fig.  286.     It  consists  of  an 
ordinary  air  valve  with  a  vacuum  cap  shown  in  section.    When 
air  is  discharged  from  the  air  valve,  it  raises  the  weight  valve 
in  the  cap,  but  is  not  permitted  to  return  into  the  system  be- 
cause of  the  seating  of  the  valve  in  case  the  pressure  in  the  radi- 
ator is  below  atmosphere.     The  valve  is  weighted  differently 
for  the  different  radiators  to  permit  the  discharge  of  air  ac- 
cording to  the  needs.      For  example,  since  the  pressure  drop  to 
the  farthest  radiator  is  greatest,  the  weight  is  therefore  least 
in  the  vacuum  cap,  and  the  radiators  nearest  the  boiler  are 
weighted  to  compensate  for  the  pressure  drop. 


484  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

The  system  may  operate  at  pressures  above  or  below  atmos- 
phere. On  the  pressure  S3^tem  the  weight  on  the  r^ulator 
previously  described  is  set  for  the  rate  of  burning  desired, 
pressure  is  then  raised  in  the  boiler  and  the  adjustment  of  the 
air  valves  permits  the  uniform  heating  of  all  the  radiators. 
When  all  the  air  is  expelled  the  air  valve  closes  automatically 
and  prevents  the  escape  of  steam. 

When  operating  on  a  vacuum  in  mild  weather  the  dampers 
are  set  for  full  opening  until  all  the  air  is  expelled.  The  weight 
is  then  adjusted  for  the  desired  rate  of  burning  and  the  pressure 
is  permitted  to  fall  below  atmosphere.  Under  these  conditions, 
the  steam  temperature  is  below  212^  and  will  heat  the  entire 
radiator  to  a  lower  temperature  to  obtain  the  proper  heat 
emission  from  the  radiators.  As  the  air  gradually  leaks  back 
into  the  system  interfering  with  the  proper  distribution  of 
steam  to  each  radiator,  the  pressure  is  again  raised  above  atmos- 
phere and  the  process  is  repeated. 

As  shown  in  Fig.  285,  all  the  condensation  need  not  be  returned 
through  the  regulator.  It  must,  however,  be  attached  to  a 
typical  section  which  is  fairly  representative  of  the  entire 
system.  Drips  and  water  due  to  boiler  priming  should  not  be 
made  to  pass  through  the  regulator.  The  piping,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  285,  indicates  how  this  is  returned  to  the  boiler. 

The  two  weights  J  and  H  are  used  to  balance  the  cup  and 
chains  and  are  set  permanently.  The  weight  K  alone  adjusts 
for  the  varying  rates  of  combustion.  Other  details  of  installa- 
tion are  included  in  Fig.  285. 

Two-pipe  Gravity  System. — Two-pipe  gravity  systems  are 
arranged  to  discharge  air  either  at  each  radiator  or  as  in  the 
air-return  system  at  the  end  of  dry-return  mains  before  they 
drop  to  the  wet  return.  The  latter  method  appears  the  more 
popular  in  so  far  as  it  eliminates  the  air  valves  from  rooms  and 
the  temptation  of  tampering  with  them. 

There  are  two  general  systems  used,  (a)  dry^etum,  and  (6) 
wetrretum.  There  may  also  be  combinations  of  dry-  and  wet- 
return  when  necessary.  In  general  the  dry-return  is  used 
when  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the  return  pipes  sufficiently  high 
to  pass  under  them  or  over  doors  or  other  openings.  Where 
these  conditions  do  not  prevail,  the  wet-return  is  used.  The 
wet-return  is  in  most  respects  the  better  of  the  two. 

Figure  287  shows  a  two-pipe  modified  dry-return  system. 
The  steam  main  pitches  down  from  the  highest  point  until  the 


HEATING 


485 


last  radiator  is  served.  It  then  returns  above  the  water  line  in 
the  boiler  until  close  to  the  boiler  when  it  drops  below  the  water 
line.  In  all  cases  this  crossing  of  the  water  line  should  be  at 
right  angles  to  prevent  the  water  from  backing  up  in  the  dry 
return  and  causing  water  hammer.  The  end  of  the  dry  retiun 
should  be  sufficiently  above  the  water  line  so  that  the  hydro- 
static head  above  the  water  line  in  the  vertical  pipe  is  in  excess 
of  the  combined  pressure  drop  in  the  steam  and  dry  return 
mains.  This  has  been  considered  previously  in  connection 
with  a  one-pipe  system. 


•J  U 

Basfment 


Theater 


Fig.  287. 


For  radiator  connections,  vertical  steam  risers  supply  the 
radiators  as  shown,  being  connected  by  valves  preferably  at 
the  top  of  the  radiator.  The  return  mains  enter  the  dry  return 
through  loop  seals,  the  hydrostatic  head  below  the  water  line 
being  greater  than  the  pressure  drop  in  the  particular  system 
of  risers.  Thus,  only  water  is  discharged  into  the  dry  return, 
from  which  it  returns  to  the  boiler.  In  two-pipe  work,  two 
valves  are  alwaj^  used,  one  for  the  supply  and  one  for  the 
return.  The  supply  valve  is  frequently  made  of  the  modulat- 
ing Xy^  to  permit  fractional  regulation  by  hand  at  each  radia- 
tor. The  return  valves  are  either  ordinary  angle  valves  or 
special  valves  of  the  syphon  or  impulse  type.  These  are 
necessary  to  prevent  heating  from  the  return  and  water  from 
backing  up  into  the  radiator  when  the  supply  valve  is  shut  and 
a  vacuum  is  temporarily  formed  in  the  radiator.    The  water 


486 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


which  so  backs  up  may  lower  the  water  line  in  the  boiler  to  an 
extent  which  will  endanger  the  boiler  because  of  low  water. 
The  sudden  return  of  this  water  due  to  admission  of  air  through 
the  air  valve  may  temporarily  flood  the  boiler  and  mains,  which 
is  also  objectionable. 

The  steam  mains  and  risers  are  shown  by  the  full  lines,  and 
the  returns  are  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  Air  valves  are 
shown  on  all  the  radiators  the  same  as  in  one-pipe  systems. 

A  wet-return  system  is  shown  in  Fig.  288.  Here  each  return 
riser  is  sealed  separately  into  a  common  wet  return.     The  hy- 


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t  «  w 

j£ Bosemenf 


Fig.  288. 


drostatic  head,  represented  by  the  height  of  a  column  of  water 
in  the  returns  above  the  water  line  in  the  boiler,  is  equal  to  the 
pressure  drop  in  the  S3rstem.  The  lowest  point  of  the  steam 
main  must  always  be  above  this  Une.  The  calculation  is  much 
the  same  as  given  before  in  the  one-pipe  system. 

A  two-pipe  air-return  system  is  shown  in  Fig.  289.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  radiator  returns  discharge  to  an  overhead 
return,  and  drop  to  a  wet  return  at  some  convenient  place, 
here  shown  near  the  boiler.  An  air  valve  is  located  as  shown. 
Since  air  is  heavier  than  steam,  it  will  be  discharged  with  the 
condensation  from  the  bottom  of  the  radiator.  The  air  valves 
in  all  cases  should  be  above  the  water  Une  a  sufficient  distance 
to  prevent  flooding  with  water.  If  the  overhead  return  is 
sufficiently  high  to  prevent  flooding,  a  slight  increase  above 
this  height  will  answer  for  the  location  of  the  air  valve. 


HEATING 


487 


In  general)  the  two-pipe  air-return  system  is  superior  to  any 
of  the  systems  previously  described.  However,  this  improve- 
ment is  attainable  only  at  an  increase  in  the  cost  of  installation. 

Pipe  Sizes  for  Two-pipe  Steam  Systems. — There  is  a  differ- 
ence in  the  sizes  of  pipe  for  the  cases  where  the  air  is  returned, 
and  when  it  is  not  returned,  but  discharged  by  means  of  air 
valves  on  each  individual  radiator.  Table  81  should  be  used; 
the  application  to  Figs.  287  and  288  is  marked  thereon.  The 
reader  will  be  able  to  check  up  the  sizes  without  further  explana- 
tion.    It  might  be  noted  that  where  returns  enter  the  boiler,  the 

Snd.Ffoor 


2nd.  Floor 


^— .3ii [j- o  fi  i/i. J 

— . HEATE/?-^ C       Basement 


Fig.  289. 


pipe  sizes  are  sometimes  chosen  somewhat  larger  to  allow  for  the 
possible  clogging  due  to  scale  and  other  impurities.  Also 
due  to  the  possibihty  of  bending  the  small  pipes,  some  fitters 
use  larger  sizes  for  returns  where  this  possibility  exists.  For 
air-return  systems.  Table  82  should  be  used.  The  pipe  sizes 
marked  on  Fig.  289  are  taken  from  this  table  and  might  easily 
be  checked  by  comparison  with  the  table. 

Special  Two-pipe  Air-return  Systems. — In  Fig.  290  is  shown 
the  general  arrangement  of  the  Donnelly  system^  of  two-pipe 
air-return  gravity  circulation.  The  regulator  for.  the  boiler 
has  previously  been  described  under  the  one-pipe  system.  In 
two-pipe  systems  the  air  valves  are  omitted  on  the  radiators 
but  installed  on  the  dry-return  main  in  the  basement  as  shown. 
The  special  feature  in  this  system  is  the  introduction  of  orifice 

1  Adler  db  Donnelly,  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  Heating  &  Ventilating  Eng'rs.,  1921. 


488  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

control  on  the  inlet  valve,  which,  when  onoe  set,  i 
same  pressure  drop  from  the  boiler  into  each  radiator.  Thus, 
the  sum  of  the  pressure  drops  due  lo  pipe  friction  and  to  orifice 
friction  is  constant  for  each  radiator  and  the  amount  of  steam 
apportioned  to  each  radiator.  When  only  a  fraction  of  the 
amount  of  steam  is  to  be  generated,  as  in  mild  weather,  the 
correct  distributioii  of  steam  to  each  radiator  is  insured  &t  all 


Fig.  290. 
The  orifice  control  on  the  valve  is  not  shown  by  a  cut,  but 
consists  of  an  opening  in  each  half  of  the  union  which  may  be 
rotated  relative  to  the  other  to  get  any  openii^;  from  the  mini- 
mum to  the  m 


VAPOR  HEATinG  STSTBH 
In  this  Byetem,  the  control  of  the  heat  in  each  radiator  is 
dependent  upon  two  factors:  First,  the  keeping  of  the  steam 
or  vapor  pressure  absolutely  constant;  and  second,  providing 
each  radiator  with  a  valve,  whose  maximum  opening  will  be 
just  sufficient  to  supply  enough  steam  to  the  radiator  to  which 
it  IB  connected,  with  steam  at  the  pressure  as  fixed  by  the  r^a- 


later.  Tlierefore,  with  a  fixed  opening  of  the  radiator  vsItc, 
and  a  definite  preisure  in  tlie  steam  line  behind  this  valve,  a 
pTedet«rmined  quantity  of  steam  will  be  passed  through  into 
the  radiater  during  each  unit  of  time. 

Figure291  shows  a  typical  drawingotthisaystem.  Thesteam 
is  taken  from  a  header  at  the  boiler  through  the  st«ftm  mains, 
which  pitch  downward  in  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  steam; 
a  return  line  pitching  in  the  opposite  direction  carrying  back 


Fia.  201. 
direct  to  the  r^ulator  the  condensation  and  air  from  the  radia- 
tors. The  condensation  in  the  steam  main  may  be  returned 
to  the  boiler  either  through  a  wet  drip,  as  shown  on  the  l^t 
of  Fig.  292,  or  through  a  drip  loop  into  the  dry  return,  as  shown 
on  the  r^ht  side  of  the  same  figure.  In  either  case  the  condensa- 
tion and  air  from  the  radiators  pass  through  a  dry-return  main 
into  the  regulator;  at  this  point  the  air  passes  out  throi^h  the 
air  vent  as  shown,  and  the  water  of  condensation  drops  through 
the  return  line  from  the  bottom  of  the  regulator  back  into  the 
boiler  where  it  is  connected  below  the  water  line.  When  using 
the  drip  loop,  it  is  ordinarily  made  about  2  ft.  long,  which  is 
more  than  sufficient  to  hold  the  head  of  vapor  in  the  main,  as 
this  seldom  is  as  high  as  3  oz.  Also,  the  high  point  on  the 
return  side  of  the  loop  must  be  a  httle  lower  than  the  low  point 


490 


PLUMBERS*  HANDBOOK 


on  the  supply  side,  so  that  the  condensation  will  drain  by 
gravity  into  the  return  main.  When  the  wet  drip  is  used,  the 
dry-return  main  bears  no  relation  to  the  supply  main,  and  may 
be  run  without  any  regard  to  it;  however,  it  is  advisable  to 
install  a  sediment  pocket  at  the  end  of  the  steam  main,  above 
the  water  line,  as  shown. 

Figure  292  shows  a  crossHsection  of  the  regulator,  as  it  would 
appear  when  in  operation.     This  consists  of  three  chambers: 


DryReprn 
fivnifiKffino 
System 


Open  Vent, 
%rAir   .«- 


Mjlve 


Pressure  Pipe 


t?.  Return  to  BoUer 


Fig.  292. 


a  pressure  chamber,  a  water  chamber,  and  an  atmospheric 
chamber,  the  last  containing  a  cast-iron  bucket  float  suspended 
by  a  Unk  to  an  arm  on  a  spindle  which  passes  out  through  a 
stuffing  box  to  an  outside  arm  bearing  a  counter  weight.  The 
atmospheric  chamber  is  so  named  because  it  is  open  to  the 
atmosphere  through  a  vent  valve,  which  is  normally  open. 
The  pressure  chamber  is  under  the  same  pressure  as  the  vapor 
in  the  boiler,  toeing  connected  to  it  by  the  pressure  pipe.  Con- 
densation returning  from  the  systems  falls  into  the  bucket  float, 
overflowing  the  sides,  and  filling  the  water  chamber  up  to  the 
overflow  point  in  the  pressure  chamber.  With  no  pressure 
on  this  system,  the  water  level  in  the  pressure  chamber  and 
atmospheric  chamber  will  be  the  same,  but  upon  generating 
pressure  within  the  boiler,  the  pressure  in  the  pressure  chamber 
becomes  higher  than  that  in  the  atmospheric  chamber.  Under 
these  conditions,  these  three  chambers  behave  as  a  U-tube, 
and  the  pressure  tends  to  depress  the  water  in  the  pressure 
"^.hamber  and  causes  it  to  rise  in  the  atmosph^ic  chamber; 


HEATING  491 

however,  since  more  coniiensation  is  constantly  falling  into 
the  float  and  from  thence  on  through  the  regulator,  the  level 
of  the  water  in  the  pressure  chamber  will  remain  at  the  overflow 
point  and  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  atmospheric  chamber 
will  remain  at  a  point  above  that  in  the  pressure  chamber 
corresponding  to  the  pressure  head  in  this  system.  We  have, 
therefore,  made  a  U-tube  in  which  the  level  of  water  on  one 
side  remains  constant,  the  variation  all  taking  place  on  the 
other  side. 

The  counter  weight  on  the  outer  arm  is  set  at  such  a  point 
that  the  bucket  float  will  be  maintained  about  half  out  of  the 
water.  This  is  done  by  placing  the  weight  at  a  point  such 
that  when  depressed,  it  will  rise  again  with  about  the  same 
force  that  it  will  drop  after  being  lifted.  This  attachment  is 
made  with  the  chains  connected  to  the  dampers,  as  this  will 
be  a  part  of  the  weight  to  be  handled.  The  adjustment  of  the 
pressure  to  be  carried  is  effected  by  shortening  or  lengthening 
the  chains  from  this  arm  to  the  dampers,  so  that  they  will  close 
sooner  or  later,  as  the  case  may  require. 

At  the  top  of  the  atmospheric  chamber  is  a  ball  float,  which 
is  connected  to  the  vent  valve.  Under  normal  conditions  the 
vent  remains  open  so  that  the  air  from  the  system  may  pass 
out.  If,  however,  the  pressure  within  the  S3^tem  should  rise 
abnormally  high,  and  the  atmospheric  chamber  consequently 
fills  up,  the  ball  float  will  rise  and  shut  the  vent  valve,  thus 
protecting  the  boiler  from  the  loss  of  water  through  the  vent. 
Under  such  conditions,  the  system  will  run  temporarily  as  a 
steam  job,  further  protection  being  afforded  by  the  regular 
safety  valve.  When  the  pressure  again  falls  to  the  normal, 
the  float  will  drop  and  the  vent  valve  will  open  again. 

The  supply  valve  at  the  radiator  is  provided  with  quick- 
rising  stem,  which  opens  completely  with  a  half  turn  of  the 
handle.  An  arm  is  provided  on  this  handle  which  engages  an 
adjustable  stop  by  which  the  maximum  opening  of  the  valve 
may  be  fixed  for  any  given  size  of  radiator. 

The  return  valve  is  a  choke  device  with  a  comparatively-  small 
opening  for  the  passage  of  water,  condensation,  and  air.  The 
top  is  removable  for  cleaning  and  also  for  convenience  in  setting 
the  supply  valve. 

When  setting  the  supply  valves  on  the  job,  pressure  is  raised 
to  a  point  which  is  sufficient  to  heat  throughout  the  largest 
radiator,  or  the  one  most  remote  from  the  boiler,  or  whichever 
radiator  is  the  one  most  difficult  to  heat.    Then  the  cap  on  each 


492 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


return  valve  is  removed  and  the  supply  valves  turned  down  to 
just  such  a  point  that  a  little  steam  is  seen  issuing  from  each 
return  valve.  By  this  means,  we  may  be  sure  that  each  radia- 
tor is  receiving  just  the  quantity  of  steam  which  it  requires  and 
no  more.  The  stops  on  the  various  supply  valves  are  then 
locked,  and  the  system  is  ready  for  use. 

Table  80. — Standard  Pipe  Sizes  for  One-pipe  Steam 
Systems — Capacity  in  Square  Feet  op  Radiation 


Steam 

Radiator 

main  and 

Up-feed 

connec- 

Wet-drip 

Dry-drip 

Size,  inches 

down-feed 
risers 

risers 

tions  and 
valves 

main 

main 

1 

40 

40 

24 

1.600 

75 

\H 

75 

75 

60 

3,000 

150 

\H 

150 

125 

100 

6.000 

300 

2 

300 

280 

200 

12,000 

500 

2^ 

500 

460 

•  •  • 

20,000 

1.500 

3 

900 

670 

36.000 

2,800 

3V^ 

1,500 

900 

60.000 

6.000 

4 

2.000 

1,200 

80.000 

13.000 

4Vi 

2,800 

1,500 

18,000 

5 

3.600 

1,860 

23.000 

6 

6.000 

2.700 

37.000 

7 

9.000 

55.000 

8 

13,000 

• 

78.000 

9 

18,000 

10 

23.000 

12 

37.000 

14 

55,000 

16 

78.000 

■ 

Table  80  (Continued) 


Drips  to 

Steam 
riser, 
inches 

Drips  to 

Steam  riser, 
inches 

Wet 

returns, 

inches 

Dry 

returns, 

inches 

Wet 

returns, 

inches 

Dry 

returns, 

inches 

1 
1W 

2 

2yi 

3 

H 
H 
H 
1 

1 
1 

H 
H 

1 
1 

m 

3W 

4 

4W 

5 

6 

m 

IH 

\H 

2 

2 

2^i 

HEATING 


493 


fc  O 

A  S 

^  S 

S  w 


a 

OS 

s 


s  t 
3 


<S 


is  "Z 

M 


if 


08 


a 

I- 

hi   OS 

^  a 


o. 


a  ""  5  « 

ft    0  ^ 
QQ 


N 

& 

'A 


a^sss; 


«RS§II 


«—  r<i  >o 


«n 


«s  cA  >o 


■o  o 


•-<S>O«\00cQ.|>«A00 


C<%  lA  !>• 


•-  «\  >o 


l^J^^^SS 


^^^SSISI 


^(Sr<icf%>00«<<\aorQr>iAao 


<<\   tn    IS, 


>^        >«*••>*«        >««         «*»        >c« 


»—  —  —  cs  r«i 


00  o^  o  <s  ^  >o 


494 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Table  81  (Continued) 


Drips  to 

Steam 
riser, 
inches 

Drips  to 

Steam  riser, 
inches 

Wet 

returns, 

inches 

Dry 

returns, 

inches 

Wet 

returns, 

inches 

Dry 

returns, 

inches 

1 

2 
3 

1 
I 
1 

H 
1 
1 

3^ 
4 

4W 
5 

6 

1W 

2 
2 

2W 

HEATING 


495 


PS 

< 


QQ 


QD 


PS 

O 

PS 
P 


S5 
O 


a  tf 


PS 

o 

00 
H 

a 

» 


Q 
PS 

555 

< 


S3 

oc 

5 


•Co 

P.S 


OS 

> 


a 

CD 
Pi 


OQ 


s 

o 
•;3 

CD 

d 
o 
o 

o 


^ 

s 


AS 


QQ 


S-3  g 

«  o  3 
P5  ^  ^ 


b    es 

*4 


*d^  *d^  «N 


v^\    ^^\    i'^    ^^N 


S8§i 


sss 


»-  f*%  m 


^  a 

CD 


^ 


eS 


II 


d  CO 
«  d  o 

OS  T3 


00 


V 


■3  s 


V 


Q.   2 


S 


-''♦'^SSPiftSS 


§§§§§ 


-■"••sasss 


8?RSg||§ 


—  fscsifr\^oa»fHooj*5^«noo 

"~    ^    CN    €♦%   *n    1^ 


«)fv  flS»  ^^   •■^  "^^  •^  •^ 


(n^or^ao9«or4^>e 


496 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


HOT-WATER  HEATING 

Principle  of  Operation. — When  water  is  heated,  it  expands 
so  that  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  at  say  55^,  with  a  weight  of  62.4 
lbs.  becomes  60  lb.  per  cubic  foot  at  200**.  Thus,  there  is  a 
decrease  in  the  density  as  the  temperature  increases.  Consider 
a  layout  of  heater  and  radiators  connected  aa  shown  in  Fig.  293. 
With  a  fire  in  the  heater,  the  water  is  warmer  and,  therefore, 


fVeni- 


Rooft/ 


o 


ozeL 


5: 


Expansion  Tank 
^  ^^'6qg^  Glass 


e-^ 


I 


SINKOR. 
WASTE 


s 

I 


t 


's^AffeasfJ'O 


m 


Union  Ellfow       fMja1pr\Aalve 
Ti.  yfitmunton 

3rd. Floor 


I*' 


I 

C 


i 


i 


m 


i 


70 

en 


m; 


7,m 


PI 


1^  i" 


2nd.noor 


1st".  Roor 


HEATER 


Basemen-I- 


FiQ.  293. 


becomes  less  dense.  It  will  rise  in  the  flow  risers,  become  cooled 
in  piping  and  radiators,  and  the  water  which  leaves  the  boiler 
is  replaced  by  that  coming  back  from  the  return  risers.  The  dif- 
ference in  the  weight  of  water  in  the  flow  and  return  risers  fur- 
nishes the  motive  force  to  maintain  circulation.  The  greater 
the  difference  in  temperature  between  the  flow  and  return  risers, 
the  greater  the  quantity  of  water  circulated. 

In  general,  in  any  gravity  circulating  system  it  is  necessary 


HEATING  497 

first  to  establish  a  difference  in  temperature,  which  in  turn  pro- 
duces a  difference  in  density,  and  therefore,  a  difference  in 
pressure,  which  pressure  may  be  used  to  accelerate  the  flow  of 
water,  and  so  produce  motion  even  in  opposition  to  the  friction 
in  the  circulating  system  which  is  always  present.  In  forced 
circulation  systems,  the  motive  force  due  to  the  difference  in 
temperature  is  augmented  by  a  pump  of  some  kind  thus 
increasing  the  rate  of  flow.  This  permits  the  use  of  smaller 
piping  and  therefore  permits  savings  in  initial  cost.  However, 
the  forced  circulation  is  only  profitable  in  the  larger  installations 
and  is  seldom  used  in  the  kind  of  building  here  considered. 

Apparatus  Used  in  Gravity  Circulating  Systems. — For  gravity 
work,  the  installation  consists  of  a  heater,  radiators,  expansion 
tank,  valves,  pet-cocks  on  radiators,  and  draining  points, 
damper  regulator,  altitude  gage,  and  the  necessary  piping  to 
connect  into  a  circulating  system. 

Hot-water  Heater. — The  heater  is  similar  in  many  respects 
to  the  steam  boiler.  In  fact,  many  makers  use  the  same  pat- 
terns for  both  with  such  changes  as  make  them  function  prop- 
erly for  steam  or  water.  In  the  heater,  the  water  is  raised  in 
temperature  and  leaves  as  water,  whereas  in  steam  heating, 
the  water  is  evaporated  into  steam.  Coal  is  the  usual  fuel  used, 
but  wood,  gas,  or  oil  are  sometimes  used  where  conditions  are 
in  their  favor. 

The  usual  temperature  of  the  water  leaving  the  boiler  rarely 
exceeds  190°  where  the  heater  is  working  under  its  maximmn 
duty,  i.e.  the  lowest  outside  temperature.  Some  special  sys- 
tems permit  the  use  of  higher  temperature,  but  they  will  not 
be  discussed  here. 

Where  coal  is  used,  a  suitable  chimney  is  to  be  provided  to 
carry  away  the  products  of  combustion.  Other  details  attached 
to  the  boiler  include  a  damper  regulator  to  vary  the  draft  for 
the  desired  temperature  of  the  water.  An  altitude  gage  is 
frequently  installed  at  the  boiler  to  indicate  the  height  of  water 
in  the  system.  The  size  of  the  heater  is  determined  by  the 
heating  surface.  Manufacturers  will  supply,  under  guarantee 
of  satisfactory  performance,  the  size  of  boiler  for  any  given 
amount  of  radiation.  For  methods  of  checking  the  manufac- 
turers* size  of  boiler,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  standard  text- 
books on  the  subject. 

Radiators  are  usually  made  of  iron,  cast  in  sections,  and 
built  up  to  give  the  surface  required  for  the  emission  of  the 
32 


498  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

necessary  amount  of  heat.  The  sections  are  connected  top 
and  bottom  by  nipples  to  permit  the  water  to  pass  with  the 
least  possible  resistance.  A  pet-cock  is  placed  on  the  last  sec- 
tion at  the  highest  point  to  permit  discharge  of  air  that  occa^ 
sionally  acciunulates  in  the  system. 

Valves  and  Pet-cocks. — The  hot-water  radiator  valves  are 
much  the  same  as  those  used  for  steam  systems,  but  they  differ 
in  that  they  have  a  leakage  opening  to  permit  a  slight  circulation 
of  the  water  through  the  radiator  when  the  valve  is  shut  off 
completely.  This  is  done  to  prevent  the  freezing  of  the 
radiator. 

Pet-cocks,  as  already  noted,  are  applied  to  the  radiators 
for  the  removal  of  air.  They  are  also  used  on  low  points  of  the 
system  to  drain  that  water  which  cannot  be  drained  by  the 
valve  on  the  boiler  when  it  is  necessary  to  drain  the  syBtem  for 
repairs  or  laying  up  of  the  plant  for  indefinite  periods. 

Damper  Regulator. — To  avoid  the  necessity  of  close  attention 
to  the  boiler  in  ordinary  operation,  an  automatic  damper 
control  is  used  to  perform  this  function.  It  is  usually  some 
form  of  thermostat  which  regulates  the  draft  to  maintain  a 
predetermined  temperature  of  hot  water. 

Altitude  Gage. — Usually  the  gage  glass  on  the  expansion  tank 
is  located  at  a  point  inconvenient  to  the  attendant  at  the  heater. 
A  gage  similar  to  a  pressure  gage  with  two  hands  is  installed 
at  the  boiler;  one,  the  red  hand  is  set  at  that  pressure  which 
indicates  the  correct  height  of  water  in  the  gage  glass  on  the 
expansion  tank.  When  the  black  hand,  which  is  operated  by 
the  pressure  in  the  system,  falls  below  the  required  pressure, 
water  is  added  to  the  system  to  make  up  that  which  is  lost  by 
leakage  or  evaporation. 

Types  of  Systems  in  Use. — There  are  two  general  types  of 
hot-water  systems  in  use;  (a)  gravity  circulaiion,  (b)  forced 
circvJaMon.  In  the  gravity  circulation,  the  difference  in  the 
density  of  the  water  in  the  flow  and  return  mains  furnishes  the 
motive  power  to  establish  and  maintain  circulation.  In 
forced  circulating  systems,  the  movement  of  the  water  is  due 
principally  to  the  use  of  a  pump,  usually  of  the  centrifugal  type, 
which  forces  the  water  through  the  mains.  The  general  field 
for  the  gravity  system  is  that  of  small  installations,  while 
the  field  for  the  forced  systems  comprises  plants  involving 
groups  of  buildings.  Experience  shows  that  the  additional 
complication    of    a    pump    is    unwarranted    in   the   smaller 


HEATING  499 

installations.  In  what  follows,  only  gravity  circulating  systems 
are  considered. 

Gravity  systems  may  be  up-feed  or  down-feed.  The  up-feed 
may  have  either  one-pipe  or  two-pipe  basement  mains  with 
risers  leading  up  to  the  various  radiators.  The  two-pipe  may 
have  either  a  direct  or  a  reversed  return  main.  In  the  direct 
main  the  flow  and  return  mains  are  parallel,  and  the  flow  of 
water  in  both  mains  is  the  same.  In  the  reversed  return,  the 
flow  main  makes  a  loop  around  the  basement  in  either  direction, 
and  the  return  main  makes  the  circuit  in  the  same  direction. 
In  other  words  the  water  in  both  pipes  travels  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. This  permits,  of  better  equalization  of  flow,  since  the 
length  of  the  circuit  through  each  radiator  is  more  nearly 
the  same  as  that  for  any  other  radiator. 

In  the  down-feed  system,  the  risers  may  be  single  or  double. 
In  the  single  riser  system,  the  flow  and  return  connections  are 
made  into  the  same  pipe  i.6.,  the  flow  connection  is  taken  near 
the  top  of  the  radiator  and  the  return  is  delivered  into  the  same 
rise  near  the  bottom.  In  the  double-riser  system,  a  separate 
return  riser  is  used,  which  returns  the  water  to  a  main  in  the 
basement. 

One-pipe  Up-feed  System. — As  shown  in  Fig.  203,  the  system 
consists  of  a  heater  and  radiators  piped  in  a  way  to  make  it  a 
one-pipe  system.  This  is  shown  in  the  basement  with  the  flow 
main  indicated  in  full  line  while  the  return  is  shown  dotted. 
The  risers  are  shown  connecting  to  the  tops  of  the  radiators  by 
means  of  union  elbows.  The  return  connection  is  made  by 
means  of  a  special  hot  water  radiator  valve,  which  when  closed, 
leaves  a  sufficiently  large  leak  opening  to  permit  a  slight  circu- 
lation of  water  to  prevent  freezing. 

The  expansion  tank  is  shown  near  the  roof.  The  pipe  sizes 
should  vary  from  about  ^  for  the  small  house  installation  to 
13^  in.  for  large  installations.  The  overflow  is  led  to  a  sink 
where  convenient  to  warn  the  attendant  to  look  after  the  water 
level.  This  water  level  may  also  be  observed  by  a  suitable 
altitude  gage  on  the  boiler. 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  actual  installation  should 
include  provision  for  expansion  as  described  elsewhere.  More- 
over, the  flow  connections  should  be  taken  from  the  top  of  the 
riser  or  by  means  of  a  45-deg.  upward  slope  of  T  on  the  main 
with  a  45-deg.  L  to  bring  in  horizontal,  and  finally  with  a  90- 
deg.  L  to  turn  upward  in  line  with  the  rise.     The  return  should 


500 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


come  in  at  the  side  of  the  pipe,  or  enter  below  through  a  45-deg. 
L  to  a  T  turned  downward  at  an  angle  of  45  deg. 

Two-pipe  Up-feed  System. — Figure  294  shows  in  diagram 
the  layout  of  a  two-pipe  up-feed  system  with  a  reversed  return. 
If  the  mains  loop  around  the  basement,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to 
install  the  reversed  return  without  adding  any  extra  piping. 
Attention  is  called  to  the  method  of  connecting  the  expansion 


Verrhand 
Owrflow^ 


w 


-Expansion  Tank 
Oage  6 lass 

^J^leasi-S'-C" 


Roof^ 


3ni.  Roor 


t 


%  i 


i 


70 


I 


1    t 


f 


120 


\\        \\ 

F 


2ncl.  Floor 


i 


Up 


Ist  Floov 


HEATER 


I 
I 

^  I 

' — ■ 


►">*■ 


Basemerri- 


FiG.  294. 

tank  and  the  upward  pitch  of  the  flow  main  to  the  first  rise  to 
prevent  trapping  of  air  in  the  basement  main. 

Double -rise  Down-feed  System. — The  down-feed  system  is 
shown  in  Fig.  295.  Here  the  expansion  tank  should  be  located 
to  discharge  the  air  of  the  system.  The  return  risers  are  shown 
dotted  with  the  reversed  return  main  to  equalize  the  resistance, 
and  therefore,  the  proper  flow  to  each  radiator. 

Expansion  Tank. — The  size  of  the  expansion  tank  depends 
upon  the  total  volume  of  water  contained  in  the  boiler  piping 


HEATING 


501 


and  radiators.  Thus,  suppose  the  water  in  the  system  origi- 
nally is  at  60®,  at  which  temperature  water  weighs  62.4  lbs.  per 
cubic  foot.  When  this  water  is  brought  to  a  temperature  of 
200**,  its  weight  per  cubic  foot  decreases  to  60.0  lbs.  per  cubic 
foot.     Therefore,  the  difference  of  62.4  —  60.0  =  2.4  lbs.  per 

2.4 
cubic  foot  for  this  range  of  temperature  or  -;^  =  .04  =  4  per 


60 


Roof 


I 


SINK 


t 


£xpcmsion  Tank 
'^'ogeOJass     ^^ 

Ik*  ^ 


\\ 


2" 


\ 


60 

I — I 


V 


80 


i 


cnJi 


i 


\     \ 


AHic 


B 


90 


t? 


3rdl.  Floor 


120 
I — I 


F_ 

lie 


2nd.  Roor 


1 


Ist.  Floor 


^  PVf 


fi^Tf/? 


Bascmenf 


Fig.  295. 

cent.  Hence,  given  the  total  volume  of  water  in  the  system  as 
500  cu.  ft.,  the  expansion  tank  will  have  a  minimiun  capacity  of 
500  X  .04  —  20  cu.  ft.  But  since  a  gage  glass  is  usually 
desirable,  a  tank  of  double  this  is  required.  A  rough  rule 
given  by  Allen  &  Walker  makes  the  capacity  of  the  expansion 
tank  in  gallons  equal  to  one-fortieth  of  the  square  feet  of 
installed  radiation. 


502  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

All  expansion  tanks  should  have  an  overflow  and  a  vent  to 
atmosphere,  the  latter  in  case  no  '^ special''  system  is  used  for 
heating.  The  tank  should  be  located  not  less  than  3  ft.  above 
the  highest  radiator,  and  be  fitted  with  a  gage  glass  or  other 
means  for  indicating  the  water  level.  When  located  in  an  attic 
or  other  exposed  place,  a  circulating  pipe  should  be  installed  to 
keep  the  water  from  freezing.  The  general  arrangements  -are 
given  in  Figs.  293,  294  and  296.  They  are  usually  constructed 
of  galvanized  steel  and  made  cylindrical,  although  rectangular 
open  tanks  are  sometimes  used.  Since  it  is  inconvenient  in 
general  to  observe  the  gage  glass  on  the  expansion  tank,  the 
water  level  may  be  judged  at  the  heater  by  providing  an  altitude 
gage  so  as  to  indicate  the  hydrostatic  head  on  the  heater. 

Where  more  than  one  heater  is  used  and  a  valve  is  installed, 
the  connection  to  the  expansion  tank  should  be  made  between 
the  valve  and  the  heater.  Moreover,  the  connection  to  the 
tank' should  be  made  above  the  water  line  in  the  tank  to  prevent 
the  syphoning  of  the  water  from  the  entire  system  should  it  be 
necessary  to  drain  one  of  the  boilers. 

Heat  Emission  of  Hot-water  Radiators. — Since  the  operating 
conditions  of  hot-water  heating  installations  is  such  that  .the 
desired  room  temperature  is  obtained  by  means  of  controlling 
the  emission  of  heat,  by  varying  the  average  temperature  of  the 
radiator,  a  common  assumption  is  that  the  drop  in  temperature 
of  the  water  passing  through  is  20°.  Thus,  if  water  enters  at 
180°  and  leaves  at  160°,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  radiator 
is  taken  as  170°. 

It  was  shown  in  steam  heating  that  for  a  radiator  at  210"* 
and  room  temperature  of  70°  the  heat  emission  is  a  certain 
amount  for  this  140°  difference.  Attention  was  called  to  the 
fact  that  this  coefficient  of  transmission  varied  with  a  difference 
in  temperature  range  approximately  2  per  cent  for  each  10° 
each  way  i.6.,  an  increase  for  a  greater  difference  and  a  decrease 
for  a  lesser  difference  in  temperature. 

For  example,  suppose  a  32-in.  four-c61\min  cast-iron  radiator 
is  considered.  Its  coefficient  for  140°  temperature  difference 
is  given  as  1.60  B.t.u.  per  square  foot  per  degree  per  hour.  In 
a  hot-water  radiator  where  the  mean  temperature  of  the  radiator 
is  taken  at  170°  and  the  room  temperature  is  70°,  the  tempera- 
ture difference  is  100°.  Applying  the  rule  for  variation,  t.e., 
2  per  cent  for  each  10°  difference,  there  results  for  this  (140°  — 
100°)  »  40°  or  8  per  cent.     Since  the  temperature  difference  is 


HEATING 


503 


lower  for  the  hot-water  radiator,  this  decreases  the  coefficient 
of  transmission  so  that  it  is  only  92  per  cent  of  the  1.60  B.t.u. 
or  1.47  B.t.u.  The  calculation  of  the  required  amount  of 
radiation,  therefore,  consists  in  computing  the  heat  loss  from 
the  room  as  before  and  dividing  this  by  1.47,  giving  the  required 
radiation  in  square  feet.  The  radiation  is  divided  into  suitable 
sections  and  located  where  it  is  most  effective. 

Pipe  Sizes  for  Hot-water  Systems. — For  large  installations, 
careful  calculations  for  pressure  drop  should  be  made  in  order 
to  insure  proper  supply  of  water  to  each  radiator.  A  rough 
rule  in  such  cases  provides  approximately  the  same  length  of 
pipe  from  boiler  through  radiator  and  back  again  to  the  boiler 
for  each  radiator  in  the  system.  Where  this  cannot  be  done, 
the  pipe  sizes  are  changed  to  provide  for  the  varying  friction, 
or  some  method  of  control  such  as  lock-shield  valves  or  orifice 
unions  is  used.  For  extended  calculations,  the  reader  should 
consult  the  standard  textbooks  on  this  subject. 

For  the  small  installations  such  as  are  considered  here,  the 
following  tables^  may  be  used 

Tablb  83. — Size  of  Radiator  Tappings  for  Various 

Floor  Locations 


Square  feet 

in  radiator 

Size  of  pipe, 

inches 

First  floor 

Second  floor 

Third  floor 

Fourth  floor 

H 

40 

50 

60 

70 

1 

70 

80 

90 

100 

IH 

no 

120 

135 

150 

\H 

180 

195 

210 

230 

2 

300 

350 

400 

500 

Table  84. — Equalization  Table  for  the  Determination 

OF  Risers  and  Mains 


Size  of  pipe  in  inches 

2 

H 
5 

1 
10 

201 

30 

2 

2H 

3 
175 

260 

4 
380 

5 

650 

6 

Equivalent  carrying  capacity 

60 

MO 

1,050 

504  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

The  use  of  the  tables  will  be  given  by  means  of  the  following 
example :  Consider  the  layout  given  in  Fig.  294.  The  size  of 
radiator  tappings  is  taken  directly  from  Table  83  with  due 
regard  to  floor  location. 

A  ^    H  D^IH 

B  =  IJi  E  =^  IH 

C  =  l?i  F  =  l}i 

These  values  give  also  the  size  riser  if  only  one  radiator 
is  on  the  circuit.  When  several  radiators  are  supplied  from 
the  same  riser,  the  following  procedure  is  taken:  To  size  the 
riser  nearest  the  boiler,  start  at  the  bottom.  The  pipe  between 
C  and  ^  is  1  in.,  the  same  as  the  tapping  Between  C  and  A  the 
size  of  riser  is  from  the  equalization  table 

^  =  1  in.   =10 
C  -  1  in.    =J0 

20  =  iK-in.  pipe 

The  riser  between  A  and  the  attic  main  is 

E  +  C  =  20 
A  =  %  in.  =  J^ 

22  =  IJi-in.  pipe 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  a  IH  in.  is  very  large  and  may 
be  used,  but  if  economy  is  of  importance  the  IJi-in.  pipe  may 
be  risked. 

The  same  process  for  the  next  riser  gives  the  following: 

F  -  IK  =  20 
D  =  IH  =  20 

40  =  1  J^-in.  pipe 

The  l}i  in.  pipe  is  short  by  10  and  the  2  in.  pipe  would  be  in 
excess  by  20  therefore  for  economy  the  1}^  in.  pipe  is  chosen. 
Between  D  and  B 

F  4-  Z>  =  40 
B  =J^ 

50  ==  2-in.  pipe 

The  2->in.  pipe  is  chosen  to  offset  the  shortage  in  the  previous 
choice.     This  is  also  the  size  of  that  part  of  the  attic  main. 


HEATING  505 

The  vertical  flow  riser  supplying  all  radiators  is  obtained 
as  shown 

A  =  2 
B  =  10 
C  =  10 
D  =  20 
^  =  10 
F  =  20 

72  =  2  in. 

Again  the  value  72  lies  between  a  2-  and  a  2^-in.  pipe,  but  being 
nearer  to  the  2-in.  pipe,  it  is  chosen. 

The  return  risers  are  found  in  the  same  way  and  are  marked 
on  the  figure.  Their  checking  is  left  to  the  reader.  Where 
the  flow  riser  has  been  chosen,  imdersize  compensation  may  be 
made  in  the  selection  of  the  return  riser. 

For  another  example,  take  the  layout  shown  in  Fig.  295. 
The  radiator  tappings  are  found  from  Table  83  in  the  same 
manner.  For  sake  *  of  comparison,  the  same  radiation  is 
also  taken.  The  radiator  tappings  are  therefore  the  same  as 
before  i,e, 

A  =  K  in.  Z>  =  IK  in. 

B  =  1  in.  ^  =  1  in. 

C  -  1  in.  F  =  IK  in. 

The  risei^  from  the  basement  mains  are  a«ain  determined  as 
follows :  For  the  first  riser 


A  =K  in. 

=    2 

C  =   1  in. 

=  10 

12  = 

IK-in.  pipe 

^  -   1  in. 

=  10 

22  = 

iK-in.  pipe 

B  =  1 

=  10 

D^IH 

=  20 

30  = 

iK-in.  pipe 

F^IH 

=  20 

50  = 

2-in.  pipe 

It  might  be  remarked  that  in  this  particular  case  the  cost  of 
installation  for  the  latter  plant  is  less  than  that  of  the  former. 


506 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Expansion  of  Piping. — All  pipe  expands  with  increase  m 
temperature  and  contracts  with  decrease  in  temperature. 
Provision  must  be  made  in  all  successful  installations  to  pro- 
vide for  this.  In  steel  pipe,  the  coefficient  of  expansion  per 
degree  Fahrenheit  is  0.0000059  of  its  length.  See  Page  89. 
Suppose  100-ft.  length  of  pipe  is  installed  in  zero  weather.  At 
a  temperature  of  210*^,  the  average  temperature  of  a  steam- 


Fig.  296. 


heating  system,  the  new  length  of  pipe  is  0.0000059  X  100  X 
210  =  0.1239  ft.  or  0.1239  X  12  =  nearly  IH  in.  Since  in 
general  the  piping  is  installed  at  higher  temperatures  than  this, 
some  fitters  use  the  rough  rule  of  allowing  1  in.  expansion  for 
100  ft.  of  pipe. 

To  arrange  for  expansion  on  two-pipe  systems,  the  details 
shown  in  Fig.  296  are  common.  Where  buildings  are  more  than 
10  stories  in  height,  the  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  297  is  used. 
Where  of  necessity  radiator  connections  must  be  short,  these 
expansion  joints  should  be  used  on  buildings  of  lesser  height. 
Slip  expansion  joints  are  to  be  avoided  on  account  of  the  possi- 
biUty  of  leakage  and  the  habifity  of  neglect  in  operation. 


HEATING 


507 


Other  Piping  Details. — Drip  connections  are  shown  in  Fig. 
298.  These  should  be  installed  at  the  foot  of  each  riser  and  at 
every  opportunity  offered  in  the  layout.  The  importance  of 
drips  is  to  be  emphasized,  as  they  are  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
failure  in  otherwise  well  designed  heating  systems. 


.■.iiiii' 


" 


Anchor 


7ht5  distance 
must  l7e  greater 
ihcm  desired — 
expansion.,  -l 


Anchor 


depending  upon . 
awounfarexpansion 

FiQ.  297. 


Mam 


RehjrnMain 


Nipple  and  Cap 


Fio.  208a. 


FiQ.  2986. 


Loop  seals  are  constructed  as  shown  in  Fig.  208a.  The  nipple 
and  cap  construction  should  be  used  in  preference  to  plugs, 
since  rusting  makes  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  remove 
plugs.  The  depth  of  loop  seals  below  the  water  Une  depends 
upon  the  pressure  difference  required  to  insure  circulation  under 
all  conditions  of  operation.  On  small  work  4-ft.  seals  are  com- 
mon. The  general  method  of  determining  the  minimum  height 
has  been  shown  previously. 


SECTION  13 
MATHEMATICS 

LOGARITHMS 

This  section  begins  with  a  brief  discussion  of  logarithms, 
since  they  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  practically  all  the  work 
that    follows. 

Definition. — ^The  logarithm  of  a  given  number  is  the  exponent 
of  the  power  to  which  a  fixed  number,  called  the  base,  must  be 
raised  in  order  to  equal  the  given  number. 

The  common  base  ten  (10)  will  be  used. 

Thus,  since  10<  »  1,000,  the  logarithm  of  1,000  is  3. 

Characteristic. — ^A  logarithm  is  composed  of  two  parts,— 
the  mantissa  and  the  characteristic.  The  mantissa  is  obtained 
from  the  table  of  logarithms  (Table  85),  and  the  character- 
istic is  obtained  from  rules  one  and  two  which  follow: 

Rule  1.  If  a  number  is  greater  than  one  the  characteristic 
is  positive,  and  is  one  less  than  the  number  of  figures  to  the  left 
of  the  decimal  point. 

Example. — The  characteristic  of  314.  is  2,  and  the  mantissa  is 
4,969;  therefore  the  logarithm  is  2.4969. 

Example. — The  characteristic  of  31.4  is  1,  and  the  mantissa  is 
4,969;  therefore  the  logarithm  is  1.4969. 

Note  that  the  decimal  point  affects  the  value  of  the  char- 
acteristic, but  does  not  affect  the  value  of  the  mantissa. 

Rule  2. — ^If  a  number  is  less  than  one,  the  characteristic  is 
negative,  and  the  number  representing  the  negative  character- 
istic is  one  greater  than  the  number  of  zeros  between  the  deci- 
mal point  and  the  first  significant  figure. 

Example. — The  characteristic  of  0.000314  is  (—4),  which  is 
written  as  6  —  10,  and  the  mantissa  is  4,969;  therefore  the 
logarithm  is  6.4969  -  10. 

Example. — The  characteristic  of  0.492  is  9  —  10,  and  the  man- 
tissa is  6,920;  therefore  the  logarithm  is  9.6920  —  10. 

Antilogarithm. — To  find  the  number,  called  the  antilogarithm 
which  corresponds  to  a  given  logarithm,  the  two  following  rules 
are  used: 

508 


MATHEMATICS  509 

Rule  3. — ^If  fhe  characteristic  is  positive,  the  number  is 
greater  than  one,  and  the  number  of  figures  to  the  left  of  the 
decimal  point  is  one  more  than  the  positive  characteristic. 

Examjde, — Find  the  antilogarithm  of  1.4843.  From  the 
table,  the  mantissa  4843  corresponds  to  305.  Therefore  the 
required  number  is  30.5.  If  the  logarithm  were  4.4843,  the 
corresponding  number  would  be  30,500.  Here  it  is  noted  that 
the  characteristic  of  a  logarithm  affects  only  the  location  of  the 
decimal  point  in  the  antilogarithm. 

Rule  4. — ^If  the  character  is  negative,  the  number  is  less 
than  one,  and  the  number  of  zeros  between  the  decimal  point 
and  the  first  significant  figure  is  one  less  than  the  number 
representing  the  negative  characteristic. 

Example,— The  antilogarithm  of  6.4843  -  10  is  0.000305. 

Example.— The  antilogarithm  of  9.9936  -  10  is  0.985  4-. 

The  use  of  logarithms  as  a  labor-saving  device  is  very  help- 
ful in  all  calculations  involving  multiplication,  division,  raising 
to  powers,  or  extracting  roots.  They  are  not  used  in  addition 
or  subtraction. 

The  four  applications  are  stated  as  follows: 

1.  The  logarithm  of  the  product  of  two  or  more  numbers 
equals  the  sum  of  the  logarithms  of  the  numbers. 

2.  The  logarithm  of  a  fraction  is  equal  to  the  logarithm  of 
the  numerator  minus  the  logarithm  of  the  denominator. 

3.  The  logarithm  of  a  power  of  a  number  is  equal  to  the 
logarithm  of  the  number  multiplied  by  the  exponent  of  the 
power. 

4.  The  logarithm  of  a  root  of  a  number  is  equal  to  the 
logarithm  of  the  number  divided  by  the  index  of  the  root. 

Example—Find  ^Mi^^^M!    by  logarithms. 

log    21.2  =  1.3263 
log    1.62  =  0.2095 


add  1.5358 

multiply  by  2       3.0716 
log  14.9  =  1.1732 


subtract  1.8984 

divide  by  3  0.6328 

Antilog  =  4.29  + 


510  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Example. — Find , 

a/0.0641 

log  134  =  2.1271 
^  log  2.46  =  0.5863 


add  2.7134  =12.7134  -  10  (1! 

log  0.0641  =    8.8069  -  10 
=  18.8069  -  20 
H  log  0.0641  =    9.4034  -  10  (2 

Subtract  (2)  from  (1);  12.7134  -  10 

9.4034  -  10 


3.3100 
Antilog  =  2,040.  -f 

SQUARE  ROOT 

To  extract  the  square  root  of  a  number,  begin  at  the  units 
digit  and  point  off  periods  of  two  places  each.  If  there  are 
decimals,  begin  at  the  decimal  point  and  point  off  periods  to  the 
right,  of  two  places  each,  supplying  zeros  if  needed. 

Find  the  greatest  integer  whose  square  is  equal  to,  or  less 
than  the  left  hand  period,  and  write  this  integer  as  the  first 
digit  of  the  root. 

Square  the  first  digit  of  the  root  and  subtract  this  square 
from  the  first  period,  and  add  the  second  period  to  the 
remainder. 

Double  the  part  of  the  root  already  found  for  a  trial  divisor, 
divide  it  into  the  remainder,  omitting  from  the  latter  the  right 
hand  digit,  and  write  the  quotient  as  the  second  digit  of  the 
root. 

Add  the  digit  just  found  to  the  right  of  the  trial  divisor  to 
make  the  complete  divisor;  multiply  this  complete  divisor  by 
the  second  root  digit,  subtract  the  result  from  the  dividend,  and 
add  to  the  remainder  the  next  period  for  a  new  dividend. 

Double  the  part  of  the  root  already  found  for  a  new  trial 
divisor  and  proceed  as  before  until  the  root  is  obtained  to  the 
desired  number  of  places. 


MATHEMATICS  511 

Example. — Extract  the  square  root  of  244.9225 

2'44.92'25'     1 15.65 
1 

25 


144 
125 


306 
3125 


1992 
1836 


15625 
15625 


CUBE  ROOT 

To  extract  the  cube  root  of  a  number,  begin  at  the  unite 
digit  and  point  off  periods  of  three  figures  each  to  the  left. 
Point  off  decimals  in  periods  of  three  figures  each  to  the  right, 
beginning  with  the  decimal  point. 

Find  the  greatest  integer  whose  cube  is  equal  to,  or  less  than, 
the  left-hand  period,  and  write  this  integer  as  the  first  digit  of 
the  root. 

Cube  the  first  digit  of  the  root,  and  subtract  this  cube  from 
the  first  period,  and  add  the  second  period  to  the  remainder. 

Square  the  first  digit  of  the  root;  multiply  by  300,  and  divide 
the  product  into  the  remainder  as  a  trial  divisor,  and  write  the 
quotient  as  the  trial  second  digit  of  the  root. 

Complete  the  divisor  by  adding  30  times  the  product  of  the 
first  and  second  digits,  and  the  square  of  the  second  digit. 

Multiply  this  divisor  by  the  second  root  digit,  and  subtract 
the  product  from  the  remainder.  Should  the  product  be 
greater  than  the  remainder,  the  trial  second  root  digit  and 
corresponding  complete  divisor  are  too  large.  In  this  case 
substitute  for  the  second  root  digit  the  next  smaller  digit,  and 
correct  the  trial  divisor  accordingly. 

Add  the  next  period  to  the  remainder,  and  proceed  as  before 
to  find  the  third  digit  of  the  root. 

If  at  any  time  the  trial  divisor  is  greater  than  the  dividend, 
bring  down  another  period  of  three  figures,  place  0  in  the  root 
and  proceed. 


512 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Ex. — Find  the  cube  root  of  4,065,356.736 

4,^5/356.7361159.6 

1 

300  X  1*  =300 

30    X  1  X  5    =150 

5«  =    25 


3,065 


475 

300  X  15«  =  67,500 
30  X  15  X  9  =    4,050 
9»  =       81 


2,375 


71,631 
300  X  159«  =  7,584,300 
30  X  159  X  6  =  28,620 
6«  =      36 


690,356 


644,679 


7,612,956 


4,5677,736 


4,5677,736 


TRIGONOMETRIC  FUNCTIONS 


In  any  right  triangle : 

The  sine  (sin)  of  either  acute  angle  is  the  ratio  of  the  opposite 
side  to  the  hypotenuse. 

The  cosine  (cos)  is  the  ratio  of  the  adjacent  side  to   the 
hypotenuse. 

The  tangent  (tan)  is  the  ratio  of  the  opposite  side  to  the 
adjacent  side. 

The  cotangent  (cot)  is  the  ratio  of  the  adjacent  side  to  the 
opposite  side. 

The  secant  (sec)  is  the  ratio  of  the  hypotenuse  to  the  adjacent 
side. 

The  cosecant  (esc)  is  the  ratio  of  the  hypotenuse  to  the 
opposite  side. 

The  versed  sine  of  any  angle  is  one  minus  the  cosine  of  the 
angle. 

The  coversed  sine  of  any  angle  is  one  minus  the  sine  of  the  angle. 

The  eight  ratios  defined  above  are  called  the  trigonometric 
functions  of  the  angle. 

Table  86  gives  the  values  of  the  sine,  cosine,  tangent,  and 
cotangent,  also  their  logarithmic  values,  for  every  half  degree. 


MATHEMATICS 


513 


Given:      A  =  30**,  4.B  =  10  inches. 
To  find     BC 

BC 
Solution :  -t-b  =  tan  30° 

BC  =  AJ3  X  tan  30° 
=  10  X  .6774 
=  5.774  or  5%  in. 


Functions  of  46° 
sin  45°  =  ^  =  1^2 

cos  45°  «  —7=  =  -a/2 
V2       2^^ 

tan  45°  =  1 
1 


0.7071,  cot  45* 
0.7071,  sec  45* 


=  1.0000,  esc  45°  =  Xi?  =  1.4142 


1 
1 

V2 
1 

V2 


1.0000 
1.4142 


Functions  of  30°  and  60° 

sin  30°  =  cos  60°  =  ^       = 

cos  30°  =  sin  60°  =  :^  = 

2     . 

tan  30°  =  cot  60°  =  -V   =  -  Vs 

cot  30°  ==  tan  60°  =  \/3 

sec  30°  =  CSC  60°  =  -^    =  -  Vs 

CSC  30°  =  sec  60°  =  j 


=  0.5000 

=  0.8660 

=  0.5774 

=  1.7321 

=  1 . 1547 

«  2.0000 


33 


514 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


MENSURATION 
Plane  Surfaces 

THE  CIRCLE 

Circumference  =  2irr  or  irX  diameter  (x  =  3.1416) 


Area 


—  nr*  or 


A  few  important  constants  are: 

-       =.31831;    log    -      =9.5029-10 

IT  X 

^  =  57.296;    log  ^  =  1.7581 


K- rf-.- 


X 

X 


X 
X 


—^  =  0.01745;  log  j^  =  8.2419  -  10 

22 
Approximation   for  x  =  -=-  log  3.1416  =  .4971 

Diameter  in  inches  =  13.5406  \/area  in  square  feet. 

Area  in  square  feet  =  (diam.  in  inches)*  X  0.0054542 

Areas  of  circles  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their  radii 
or  diameters. 

Example. — Water  -enters  a  tank  by  three  pipes  2  in.,  3  in., 
and  4  in.  in  diameter.  What  must  be  the  diameter  of  a  pipe 
which  will  empty  the  tank  in  the  same  time-  that  the  three 
pipes  running  together  will  fill  it? 

Let  X  =  diameter  of  required  pipe 


Then 


xx" 


=  -!-  +  f  -h^=  i(2«  +  3«-h4«) 


Dividing  by  ^,  x«  =  29 

and  X  =  5.385  in.  =  bH  in.  diameter. 
Example, — What  will  be  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  which  must  be 
equivalent  to  five  pipes  2  in.  in  diameter  and  three  pipes  3  in. 
in  diameter? 

X*  =  5(22)  +  3(32)  =  20  +  27  =  47 
X    =  6.856  in.  or  6%  in.  diameter. 

Circular  ring 

Area  =  ^(R*  -  r«) 

=  x(D«  -  d«) 

D   and   d  being   diameters   of   larger   and 
smaller  circles  respectively. 


MATHEMATICS 


515 


Sectors  and  Segments 

Given  chord  AB  and  radius  Rj  to  find  area 
of  sector  AOBC. 

The  area  of  the  sector  has  the  same  ratio  to 
the  area  of  the  circle  as  the  angle  AOB  has  to 
360».      /-=---«       H^B> 


(sin  H  AOB  =  ^) 


Example. — Find  the  area  of  a  sector  if  R  =  12  in.  and 
AB  ^S  in. 

sin  M  AOB  =  ^  =  3^  =  0.3333 

K  AOB  =  19°  30' 
AOB  =  39**  00' 

22 
Area  of  circle  =  irR^  =  -^   X  144  =  453  sq.  in. 

39 
Area  of  sector  =  o^t;  X  453  =  49.0  sq.  in. 

The  area  of  the  segment  ABC  is  equal  to  the  area  of  the  sector 
AOBC  minus  the  area  of  the  triangle  AOB. 

Area  A  AOB  =  HAB  X  OD 
OD  =  12  cos  19°  30' 
=  12  X  .9426 
=  11.31  in. 
Area       AOB  =  4  X  11.31  =  45.24  sq.  in. 
Therefore  area  of  segment  =  49.0  —  45.24  =  3.76  sq.  in. 

Rule  for  use  of  accompanying  table  of  segments:  (Table  68) 
Divide  the  height  or  rise  of  segment  by  the  diameter.     Find 

the  nearest  corresponding  value  in  column  one.     Multiply  the 

area  in  column  two  by  the  square  of  the  diameter. 

In  the  example  worked,  the  rise  equals  0.69  in.,  and  the 

diameter  equals  24  in. 

rise 


Therefore 


=  0.029 


diameter 

Corresponding  value  in  column  two  is  0.00653 
Therefore  area  of  segment  =  576  X  0.00653  =  3.76  sq.  in. 


SQUARE 

d«  = 
d    = 

Area  = 


2a« 
1.4142a 


516 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Side  of  square  X  1 .  4142 
Side  of  square  X  4.4428 

Side  of  square  X  1 .  1284 
Side  of  square  X  3 .  5449 


diameter  of  circumscribed  circle 
circumference  of  circumscribed 

circle 
diameter  of  equal  circle 
circumference  of  equal  circle 


RECTANGLE  AND  PARALLELOGRAM 
Area  s=  hh 

Diagonal  of  rectangle  =  -y/52  _|.  ^2 


L-^i^J 


TRAPEZOID 

Area  =  J^A(a  +  h) 

The  line  CZ>  joining  the  mid-points 
of  the  non-parallel  sides  =  H(oH-6) 

Therefore  area  =  CD  X  h 
TRAPEZIUM 


Area  = 


(H  +  h)a  -^bh  +cH 


or  the  figure  may  be  divided  into 
two  triangles  as  shown  and  the 
area  of  each  triangle  found  separ- 
ately.   (See  triangle.) 

TRIANGLE 

Formulas    apply    to    both 
figures. 
Area  of  a  triangle 
(1)  Hhh;  or 

(2)  Multiply  the  product  of  two  sides  by  the  sine  of  the  in- 
cluded angle;  or 

(3)  From  half  the  sum  of  the  three  sides,  subtract  each  side 
in  turn.  Multiply  together  the  half  sum  and  the  three  remain- 
ders and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  product. 


MATHEMATICS 


517 


Example. — If  the  sides  of  a  triangle  are  7,  12  and  15,  find  the 
area. 

K(7  -h  12  -f  15)  =  17 
17  -  7-10 
17  -  12  =    6 

17  -  15  =    2 

Area  =  \/l7  X  10  X  5  X  2  =  10  y/V?  =  41.23 


Area 


REGULAR  POLYGONS 


=  number  of  sides 

=76*  cot  

4  n 

n  „,    .     360** 

=  rt  it*  sin 

2  n 


=  nr^  tan 


180* 


Area 


Triangle 

Square 

Pentagon 

Hexagon 

Heptagon 

Octagon 

Nonagon 

Decagon 

Undecagon 

Dodecagon 


n 

3  sides 

4  sides 

5  sides 

6  sides 

7  sides 

8  sides 

9  sides 

10  sides 

11  sides 

12  sides 


U-^-J 


.4336* 
1.0006« 
1 . 720b« 
2 . 5986* 
3.6346* 
4 .  8286^ 
6.1825* 
7.694b* 
9 . 3666* 
11.1965* 


5.196r* 
4.000r* 
3.633r* 
3 .  464r* 
3.371r« 
3.314r* 
3 .  276r* 
3 .  249r* 
3 .  230r* 
3.215r« 


ELLIPSE 
Area  =  iro5  =  3.1416  ah 

64 


Ti    '      2.  /    1  i\         \o+P/  Approxi- 

Penmeter=ir(o+6) 7;ii:5\l  mately 


64 


-Hmi 


H-a-'>i 


Example. — a  =  5  in.,  6  =  3  in. 

Area  =  3  X  5  X  3.1416  =  47.12  sq.  in. 


64 


Perimeter  «  3.1416  (5  -f  3) 


=  3.1416  X  8  X 


64 

16381 
16128 


.5  -1-3; 
=  25.53  in. 


518 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


TO  FIND  THE  AREA  OF  AN  IRREGULAR  FIGURE 

Method:  Simpson's  Rule. — Divide  the  length  of  the  figure 
into  any  even  number  of  equal  parts  at  a  common  distance  h 
apart,  and  draw  ordinates  from  these  points  to  the  curve.  Add 
the  first  and  last  ordinates  and  call  the  sum  A,  Add  the  even 
numbered  ordinates  and  call  the  sum  B,  Add  the  odd 
numbered  ordinates,  except  the  first  and  last,  and  call  the  sum 
C.     Then  the  area  between  the  base  line  and  the  curve  is 

approximately  5  (A  -f-  4B  -|-  2C). 

Example. — Suppose  in  the  figure  below  that  the  value  of  A  is 
3^  in.  By  measurement  the  ordinates  are  respectively  yi  = 
0,  2/2  =  0.6,  2/8  =  1.3,  2/4  =  1.6,  2/6  =  1.6,  2/6  =  1.6,  Vt  =  1.3, 
2/8  =  0.9,  2/9  ^  0.6,  measurements  all  in  inches. 


/I 

3) 

^ 

^ 

lA 
3> 

£ 



-4 

l'- 

^  ^  ^ 

.... 

— > 

Ok 


Then  by  Simpson's  Rule: 

Area  ^  [(0  +  0.6)  -f  4(0.6  +  1.6+1.6-1-0.9) -|-2(1.3-|-1.6  + 

1  27  4 

1.3)]  =  ^  (-6    -h    18.4    -h   8.4)  =  -^  =  4.57  sq.  in.  (approxi- 
mately.) 

VOLUMES  AND  SURFACES  OF  SOLIDS 

Sphere 

Surface  =  4irr«     =  12 .  566r« 
Surface  =    ird«    =    3 .  1416d« 

Volume  =  ^7rr2  -    4.189r» 

Volume  =  H^d8  =    0.524d» 
6 

Cylinder 

Lateral  surface  —  2wrh  =  6.283rA 


I......H J 


;    Each  base  =  nr* 

-  ^  Total  surface     =  2irr«  +  2vrh 

=  2irr(r  -f  h). 
Volume  « irr*h 

Volume  =•  0.7854d»A 


MATHEMATICS 


619 


Cone 

S  =  slant  height. 

Lateral  surface  =  rrrs 
Lateral  surface  =  irr\/r*  -|-  h* 
Base  =  nr* 

Total  surface     =  irr(r  +  -\/r*  -^  h^) 
Volume  =  Hirrh^  =  im7r% 

Volume  =  H2d^h  =  0.262d«^ 

Frustum  of  Cone 
Bi  =  area  of  large  base,    Bt  =  area  of  small  base 

R'  ="  2^»  '*  =  2'  '^  ~  slant  height. 

ttS 

Lateral  surface  =  -^  (D  +  d) 

Bi  =  irR^ 

Bi  =  Trr^ 

Total  surface  ^7r[R^-\-r^-^S  (R+r)] 

irh. 


Volume  =  3-  (i?*  +  fir  -h  r*) 

Trh 

12 
h 


Volume  =  —  (D«  +  M  -h  d^) 

Volume  =  ^  (Bi  +  B2  +  VBi-Bz) 
Example. — Find  volume  of  solid  shown  in  sketch. 


IT  3 

Vol.  of  cylinder  =  ^(6)  =  ^'tcu.  ft. 
Vol.  of  frustum  -=  j^  (ZQ  +  Q  -^  1) 

.-.  Vol.  of  solid   =  (21 K  -  IKV 

=  20ir 
=  62.83  cu.  ft. 


>1  l<-6" 


c.j!o^4t-iVd 


Pyramid 

The  lateral  surface  of  a  regular  pyramid 
equals  the  perimeter  of  its  base  times 
half  the  slant  height.  To  this  add  the 
area  of  the  base  if  the  total  surface  is 
wanted. 


520  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

The  volume  of  a  pyramid  equals  one-third  the  product  of  the 
area  of  the  base  times  the  altitude. 

The  lateral  surface  of  the  frustum  of  a  regular  pyramid  equals 
half  the  product  of  the  slant  height  by  the  sum  of  the  jjeri meters 
of  the  two  bases. 

To  this  add  the  areas  of  the  bases  if  the  total  surface  is 
wanted. 

The  volume  of  the  frustum  of  a  pyramid  equals  one-third  the 
product  of  the  altitude  by  the  sum  of  the  upper  base  plus  the 
lower  base,  plus  the  mean  proportional  between  the  t-wo  bases. 
That  is  if  ^  =  altitude,  Bi  =  area  of  lower  base,  and  Bj  = 
area  of  upper  base: 

Vol.  =  |(Bi  +  B2  +  VB^^) 

TRADE  DISCOUNT 

Discount  is  an  allowance  made  upon  the  catalogue  or  list 
price. 

Example, — What  is  the  net  price  of  a  bill  of  goods,  listed  at 
$460,  and  subject  to  a  discount  of  20  per  cent? 

$460  gross  selling  price. 
20  per  cent  of  $460  =  20/100  X  460  =      92  discount. 


$368  net  selling  price. 
Example. — If  the  net  selling  price  of  a  bill  of  goods,  subject 
to  a  discount  of  5  per  cent  is  $314.64,  what  is  the  list  price? 
100  per  cent  —  5  per  cent  =  95  per  cent 
$314.64  net  selling  price. 

$314.64  -5-  95  per  cent  =  100/95  X  314.64  =  $331.20  list  price. 
Example. — What  per  cent  above  cost  must  goods  be  listed 
in  order  to  allow  a  discount  of  20  per  cent,  and  still  make  a 
profit  of  15  per  cent? 

100  per  cent  cost 
15  per  cent  profit  • 


115  per  cent  net  selling 
price 
115  4-  (100  -  20)  =  100/80  X  115  =  143?^  per     cent     gross 

selhng    price 
100      per  cent  cost 


43,^  per   cent  marked 
above  cost. 


MATHEMATICS  521 

A  chain  or  compound  discount  is  a  series  of  discounts,  as  30 
and  20  per  cent;  or  25,  10,  and  5  per  cent.  The  first  rate, 
called  the  primary  discount,  denotes  a  discount  off  the  list 
price.  The  second  rate,  called  the  secondary  discount,  denotes 
a  discount  off  the  remainder,  and  so  on.     (See  Table  96.) 

Example. — What  is  the  net  price  of  a  bill  of  hardware,  listed 
at  $800,  and  subject  to  a  discount  of  30,  20,  and  10  per  cent? 

100  per  cent     =  gross  price 
30  per  cent     =  first  discount 


70  per  cent     =  first  remainder 
20/100  X  70  =    14  per  cent      =  second  discount 


56  per  cent     =  second  remainder 
10/100  X  56  =  5.6  per  cent  =  third  discount 

50.4  per  cent  =   the  remainder 

60.4/100  X  800  =  $403.20  =  net  price. 


522 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Table  85. — Four-place  Logarithm  TabIjX: 


8 


0 

•  ■  •  • 

0000 

3010 

4771 

6021 

6990 

1 

0000 

0414 

0792 

1139 

1461 

1761 

2 

3010 

3222 

.3424 

3617 

3802 

3979 

3 

4771 

4914 

5051 

5185 

5315 

5441 

4 

6021 

6128 

6232 

6335 

6435 

6532 

5 

6990 

7076 

7160 

7243 

7324 

7404 

6 

7782 

7853 

7924 

7993 

8062 

8129 

7 

8451 

8513 

8573 

8633 

8692 

8751 

8 

9031 

9085 

9138 

9191 

9243 

9294 

9 

9542 

9590 

9638 

9685 

9731 

9777 

10 

0000 

0043 

0066 

0128 

0170 

0212 

11 

0414 

0453 

0492 

0531 

0569 

0607 

12 

0792 

0828 

0664 

0699 

0934 

0969 

13 

1139 

1173 

1206 

1239 

1271 

1303 

14 

1461 

1492 

1523 

1553 

1584 

1614 

15 

1761 

1790 

1818 

1847 

1875 

1903 

16 

2041 

2068 

2095 

2122 

2148 

2175 

17 

2304 

2330 

2355 

2380 

2405 

2430 

18 

2553 

2577 

2601 

2625 

2648 

2672 

19 

2788 

2810 

2833 

2856 

2878 

2900 

20 

3010 

3032 

3054 

3075 

3096 

3118 

21 

3222 

3243 

3263 

3284 

3304 

3324 

22 

3424 

3444 

3464 

3483 

3502 

3522 

23 

3617 

3636 

3655 

3674 

3692 

3711 

24 

3802 

3820 

3838 

3856 

3874 

3892 

25 

3979 

3997 

4014 

4031 

4048 

4065 

26 

4150 

4166 

4183 

4200 

4216 

4232 

27 

4314 

4330 

4346 

4362 

4378 

4393 

28 

4472 

4487 

4502 

4518 

4533 

4548 

29 

4624 

4639 

4654 

4669 

4683 

4698 

30 

4771 

4786 

4800 

4814 

4829 

4843 

31 

4914 

4928 

4942 

4955 

4969 

4983 

32 

5051 

5065 

5079 

5092 

5105 

5119 

33 

5185 

5198 

5211 

5224 

5237 

5250 

34 

5315 

5328 

5340 

5353 

5366 

5378 

35 

5441 

5453 

5465 

5478 

5490 

5502 

36 

5563 

5575 

5587 

5599 

5611 

5623 

37 

5682 

5694 

5705 

5717 

5729 

5740 

38 

5798 

5809 

5821 

5832 

5843 

5855 

39 

5911 

5922 

5933 

5944 

5955 

5966 

40 

6021 

6031 

6042 

6053 

6064 

6075 

41 

6128 

6138 

6149 

6160 

6170 

6180 

42 

6232 

6243 

6253 

6263 

6274 

6284 

43 

6335 

6345 

6355 

6365 

6375 

6385 

44 

6435 

6444 

6454 

6464 

6474 

6484 

45 

6532 

6542 

6551 

6561 

6571 

6580 

46 

6628 

6637 

6646 

6656 

6665 

6675 

47 

6721 

6730 

6739 

6749 

6758 

6767 

48 

6812 

6821 

6830 

6839 

6848 

6857 

49 

6902 

6911 

6920 

6928 

6937 

6946 

7782 
2041 
4150 
5563 
6628 

7482 
8195 
8808 
9345 
9823 

0253 
0645 
1004 
1335 

1644 

1931 
220I 
2455 
2695 
2923 

3139 
3345 
3541 
3729 
3909 

4082 
4249 
4409 
4564 
4713 

4857 
4997 
5132 
5263 
5391 

5514 
5635 
5752 
5866 
5977 

6085 
6191 
6294 
6395 
6493 

6590 
6684 
6776 
6866 
6955 


8451 
2304 
4314 
5682 
6721 

7559 
8261 
8865 
9395 
9868 

0294 
0682 
1038 
1367 
1673 

1959 
2227 
2480 
2718 
2945 

3160 
3365 
3560 
3747 
3927 

4099 
4265 
4425 
4579 
4728 

4871 
5011 
5145 
5276 
5403 

5527 
5647 
5763 
5877 
5988 

6096 


9031 
2553 
4472 
5798 
6812 

7634 
8325 
8921 
9445 
9912 

0334 
Q7I9 
1072 
1399 
1703 

1967 
2253 
2504 
2742 
2967 

3181 
3385 
3579 
3766 
3945 

4116 
4281 
4440 
4594 
4742 

4886 
5024 
5159 
5289 
3416 

5539 
5658 
5775 
5888 

5999 

6107 


9542 
2788 
4624 
591) 
6902 

7709 
83« 
8976 
9494 
9956 

0374 
0755 
1106 
1430 
1732 

2014 
2279 
2529 
2765 

TOM 

3201 
3404 
3598 
3784 
3%2 

4133 
4296 
4456 
4609 
4757 

4900 
5038 
5172 
5302 
5428 

5551 
3670 
5786 
5899 
6010 

6117 


6201 

6212 

6222 

6304 

6314 

6325 

6405 

6415 

6425 

6503 

6513 

6522 

6599 

6609 

6618 

6693 

6702 

6712 

6785 

6794 

6803 

6875 

6884 

6893 

6964 

6972 

6981 

7 

8 

9 

MATHEMATICS 


523 


Tablb  85. — {Continued) 


0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

•  7 

8 

9 

50 

6990 

6998 

7007 

7016 

7024 

7033 

7042 

7050 

7059 

7067 

51 

7076 

7084 

7093 

7101 

7110 

7116 

7126 

7135 

7143 

7152 

52 

7160 

7168 

7177 

7185 

7193 

7202 

7210 

7216 

7226 

7235 

53 

7243 

7251 

7259 

7267 

7275 

7384 

7292 

7300 

7306 

7316 

54 

7324 

7332 

7340 

7348 

7356 

7364 

7372 

7380 

7388 

7396 

55 

7404 

7412 

7419 

7427 

7435 

7443 

7451 

7459 

7466 

7474 

56 

7482 

7490 

7497 

7505 

7513 

7520 

7528 

7536 

7543 

7551 

57 

7559 

7566 

7574 

7562 

7589 

7597 

7604 

7612 

7619 

7627 

58 

7634 

7642 

7649 

7657 

7664 

7672 

7679 

7686 

7694 

7701 

59 

7709 

7716 

7723 

7731 

7738 

7745 

7752 

7760 

7767 

7774 

60 

7782 

7789 

77% 

7803 

7610 

7818 

7825 

7832 

7839 

7846 

61 

7853 

7860 

7866 

7875 

7882 

7889 

7896 

7903 

7910 

7917 

62 

7924 

7931 

7938 

7945 

7952 

7959 

7966 

7973 

7980 

7987 

63 

7993 

8000 

8007 

8014 

8021 

8028 

8035 

6041 

8048 

8055 

64 

8062 

8069 

6075 

8082 

8089 

8096 

8102 

8109 

6116 

6122 

65 

8129 

8136 

6142 

8149 

6156 

8162 

8169 

8176 

6182 

6189 

66 

8195 

8202 

8209 

8215 

8222 

8228 

8235 

8241 

8246 

8254 

67 

8261 

8267 

8274 

8280 

8287 

8293 

8299 

8306 

8312 

8319 

68 

8325 

8331 

6336 

8344 

8351 

6357 

6363 

8370 

8376 

8382 

69 

8388 

8395 

6401 

8407 

8414 

8420 

8426 

8432 

8439 

8445 

70 

8451 

8457 

8463 

8470 

8476 

8482 

6486 

8494 

8500 

8506 

71 

8513 

8519 

8525 

8531 

6537 

8543 

6549 

8555 

9561 

8567 

72 

8573 

8579 

6585 

8591 

8597 

8603 

8609 

8615 

8621 

8627 

73 

8633 

8639 

8645 

8651 

8657 

8663 

8669 

8675 

8661 

8686 

74 

8692 

8698 

6704 

8710 

8716 

8722 

8727 

8733 

6739 

8745 

75 

8751 

8756 

6762 

8768 

6774 

8779 

8785 

8791 

8797 

8802 

76 

8806 

8814 

6820 

8825 

8831 

8837 

8642 

8848 

8854 

8859 

77 

8865 

6871 

6876 

8882 

8887 

8693 

8899 

8904 

8910 

8915 

78 

8921 

8927 

6932 

8938 

8943 

8949 

8954 

8960 

8965 

8971 

79 

8976 

8982 

8987 

8993 

8998 

9004 

9009 

9015 

9020 

9025 

80 

9031 

9036 

9042 

9047 

9053 

9058 

9063 

9069 

9074 

9079 

81 

9085 

9090 

9096 

9101 

9106 

9112 

9117 

9122 

9128 

9133 

82 

9138 

9143 

9149 

9154 

9159 

9165 

9170 

9175 

9180 

9186 

83 

9191 

9196 

9201 

9206 

9212' 

9217 

9222 

9227 

9232 

9238 

84 

9243 

9246 

9253 

9258 

9263 

9269 

9274 

9279 

9284 

9289 

85 

9294 

9299 

9304 

9309 

9315 

9320 

9325 

9330 

9335 

9340 

86 

9345 

9350 

9355 

9360 

9365 

9370 

9375 

9380 

9385 

9390 

87 

9395 

9400 

9405 

9410 

9415 

9420 

9425 

4930 

9435 

9440 

88 

9445 

9450 

9455 

9460 

9465 

9469 

9474 

9479 

9484 

9489 

89 

9494 

9499 

9504 

9509 

9513 

9518 

9523 

9528 

9533 

9536 

90 

9542 

9547 

9552 

9557 

9562 

9566 

9571 

9576 

9581 

9586 

91 

9590 

9595 

9600 

9605 

9609 

9614 

9619 

%24 

9628 

9633 

92 

9638 

9643 

9647 

9652 

%57 

9661 

%66 

%71 

9675 

9680 

93 

9685 

9689 

%94 

9699 

9703 

9708 

9713 

9717 

9722 

9727 

94 

9731 

9736 

9741 

9745 

9750 

9754 

9759 

9763 

9768 

9773 

95 

9777 

9762 

9786 

9791 

9795 

9800 

9805 

9809 

9814 

9616 

% 

9823 

9827 

9832 

9836 

9841 

9845 

9850 

9854 

9859 

9863 

97 

9668 

9872 

9877 

9681 

9886 

9890 

9894 

9899 

9903 

9908 

98 

9912 

9917 

9921 

9926 

9930 

9934 

9939 

9943 

9948 

9952 

99 

9956 

9%1 

9%5 

9969 

9974 

9976 

9983 

9987 

9991 

9996 

.0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

524 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Table  86. — Four-place  Trigonometric  Functions 


Angle 


Sine 
Nat.      Log. 


Cosine 
Nat.     Log. 


Tangent 
Nat.     Log. 


Cotangent 
Nat.        Log. 


Angle 


0  00 
30 

1  00 
30 

2  00 
30 

3  00 
30 

4  00 
30 

5  00 
30 

6  00 
30 

7  00 
30 

8  00 
30 

9  00 
30 

10  00 
30 

11  00 
30 

12  00 
30 

13  00 
30 

14  00 
30 

15  00 
30 

16  00 
30 

17  00 
30 

18  00 
30 

19  00 
30 

20  00 
30 

1   00 
30 

22  00 
30 


.0000 
.0087 
.0175 
.0262 

7.9408 
8.2419 
8.4179 

1.0000 

1.0000 

.9998 

.9997 

.0000 

.0000 

9.9999 

9.9999 

.0000 
.0087 
.0175 
.0262 

.0349 
.0436 
.0523 
.0610 

8.5428 
8.6397 
8.7188 
8.7857 

.9994 
.9990 
.9986 
.9981 

9.9997 
9.9996 
9.9994 
9.9992 

.0349 
.0437 
.0524 
.0612 

.0698 
.0785 
.0872 
.0958 

8.8436 
8.8946 
8.9403 
8.9816 

.9976 

.9%2 
.9954 

9.9989 
9.9987 
9.9983 
9.9980 

.0699 
.0787 
.0875 
.0963 

.1045 
.1132 
.1219 
.1305 

9.0192 
9.0539 
9.0859 
9.1157 

.9945 
.9936 
.9925 
.9914 

9.9976 
9.9972 
9.9968 
9.9963 

.1051 
.1139 
.1278 
.1317 

.1392 
.1478 
.1564 
.1650 

9.1436 
9.1697 
9.1943 
9.2176 

.9903 
.9890 
.9877 
.9863 

9.9958 
9.9952 
9.9940 
9.9940 

.1405 
.1495 
.1584 
.1673 

.1736 
.1822 
.1906 
.1994 

9.2397 
9.2606 
9.2806 
9.2997 

.9833 
.9816 
.9799 

9.9934 
9.9927 
9.9919 
9.9912 

.1763 
.1853 
.1944 
.2035 

.2079 
.2164 
.2250 
.2334 

9.3179 
9.3353 
9.3521 
9.3682 

.9781 
.9763 
.9744 
.9724 

9.9904 
9.9896 
9.9887 
9.9878 

.2126 
.2217 
.2309 
.2401 

.2419 
.2504 
.2588 
.2672 

9.3837 
9.3986 
9.4130 
9.4269 

.9703 
.9681 
.%59 
.%36 

9.9869 
9.9859 
9.9849 
9.9839 

.2493 
.2586 
.2679 
.2773 

.2756 
.2840 
.2924 
.3007 

9.4403 
9.4533 
9.4659 
9.4781 

.%13 
.9588 
.9563 
.9537 

9.9828 
9.9817 
9.9806 
9.9794 

.2867 
.2962 
.3057 
.3153 

.3090 
.3173 
.3256 
.3338 

9.4900 
9.5015 
9.5126 
9.5235 

.9511 
.9483 
.9455 
.9426 

9.9782 
9.9770 
9.9757 
9.9743 

.3249 
.3346 
.3443 
.3541 

.3420 
.3502 
.3584 
.3665 

9.5341 
9.5443 
9.5543 
9.5641 

.9397 
.9367 
.9336 
.9304 

9.9730 
9.9716 
9.9702 
9.9687 

.3640 
.3739 
.3839 
.3939 

.3746 
.3287 

9.5736 
9.5828 

.9272 
.9239 

9.%72 
9.9656 

.4040 
.4142 

7.9409 
8.2419 
8.4181 

8.5431 
8.6401 
8.7194 
8.7865 

0.8446 
8.8960 
8.9420 
8.9836 

9.0216 
9.0567 
9.0891 
9.1194 

9.1478 
9.1745 
9.1997 
9.2236 

9.2463 
9.2680 
9.2887 
9.3085 

9.3275 
9.3458 
9.3634 
9.3804 

9.3968 
9.4127 
9.4281 
9.4430 

9.4575 
9.4716 
9.4853 
9.4987 

9.5118 
9.5245 
9.5370 
9.5491 

9.5611 
9.5727 
9.5842 
9.5954 

9.6064 
9.6172 


00 

114.59 
57.290 
38.188 

28.636 
22.904 
19.081 
16.350 

14.301 
12.706 
11.430 
10.385 

9.5144 
8.7769 
8.1443 
7.5958 

7.1154 
6.6912 
6.3138 
5.9758 

5.6713 
5.3955 
5.1446 
4.9152 

4.7046 
4.5107 
4.3315 
4.1653 

4.0106 
3.8667 
3.7321 
3.6059 

3.4874 
3.3759 
3.2709 
3.1716 

3.0777 
2.9887 
2.9042 
2.8239 

2.7475 
2.6746 
2.6051 
2.5386 

2.4751 
2.4142 


2.0591 
1.7581 
1.5819 

1.4569 
1.3599 
1.2806 
1.2135 

1.1554 
1.1040 
1.0580 
1.0164 

.9784 
.9433 
.9109 
.8806 

.8522 
.8255 
.8003 
.7764 

.7537 
.7320 
.7113 
.6915 

.6725 
.6542 
.6366 
.6196 

.6032 
.5873 
.5719 
.5570 

.5425 
.5284 
.5147 
.5013 

.4882 
.4775 
.4630 
.4509 

.4389 
.4273 
.4158 
.4046 

.3936 
.3828 


90    00 

30 

89    00 

30 

88  00 
30 

87  00 
30 

86  00 
30 

85  00 
30 

84  00 
30 

83  00 
30 

82  00 
30 

81  00 
30 

80  00 
30 

79  00 
30 

78  00 
30 
77    00 

30 

76  00 
30 
75    00 

30 

"21 

73    00 

30 

72    00 

30 

71     00 


70  00 
30 

69  00 
30 

68    00 
67    30 


Angle 


Nat.       Log. 
Cosine 


Nat. 
Sine 


Log. 


Nat.     Log. 
Cotangent 


Nat.         Log 
Tangent 


Angle 


MATHEMATICS 


525 


Table   86. — Four-place  Tmqonometric    Functions. — {Con- 
tinued) 


Angle 


Sine 
Nat.      Log. 


Cosine 
Nat.         Log. 


Tangent 
Nat.    Log. 


Cotangent 
Nat.       Log. 


Angle 


23  00 
30 

24  00 
30 

25  00 
30 

26  00 
30 

27  00 
30 

28  00 
30 

29  00 
30 

30  00 
30 

31  00 
30 

32  00 
30 

33  00 
30 

34  00 
30 

35  00 
30 

36  00 
30 

37  00 
30 

38  00 
30 

39  00 
30 

40  00 
30 

41  00 
30 

42  00 
30 

43  00 
30 

44  00 
30 

45  00 


.3907 
.3987 
.4067 
.4147 

.4226 
.4305 
.4384 
.4462 

.4540 
.4617 
.4695 
.4772 

.4848 
.4924 
.5000 
.5075 

.5150 
.5225 
.5299 
.5373 

.5446 
.5519 
.5592 
.5664 

.5736 
.5807 
.5878 
.5948 

.6018 
.6088 
.6157 
.6225 

.6293 
.6361 
.6428 
.6494 

.6561 
.6626 
.6691 
.6756 

.6820 
.6884 
.6947 
.7009 

.7071 


9.5919 
9.6007 
9.6093 
9.6177 

.9205 
.9171 
.9135 
.9100 

9.9640 
9.9624 
9.9607 
9.9590 

9.6259 
9.6340 
9.6418 
9.6495 

.9063 
.9026 
.8988 

9.9573 
9.9555 
9.9537 
9.9518 

9.6570 
9.6644 
9.6716 
9.6787 

.8910 
.8870 
.8829 
.8788 

9.9499 
9.9479 
9.9459 
9.9439 

9.6856 
9.6923 
9.6990 
9.7055 

.8746 
.8704 
.8660 
.8616 

9.9418 
9.9397 
9.9375 
9.9353 

9.7118 
9.7181 
9.7242 
9.7302 

.8572 
.8526 
.8480 
.8434 

9.9331 
9.9308 
9.9284 
9.9260 

9.7361 
9.7419 
9.7476 
9.7531 

.8387 
.8339 
.8290 
.8241 

9.9236 
9.9211 
9.9186 
9.9160 

9.7586 
9.7640 
9.7692 
9.7744 

.8192 
.8141 
.8090 
.8039 

9.9134 
9.9107 
9.9080 
9.9052 

9.7795 
9.7844 
9.7893 
9.7941 

.7986 
.7934 
.7880 
.7826 

9.9023 
9.8995 
9.8965 
9.8935 

9.7989 
9.8035 
9.8081 
9.8125 

.7771 
.7716 
.7660 
.7604 

9.8905 
9.8874 
9.8843 
9.8810 

9.8169 
9.8213 
9.8255 
9.8297 

.7547 
.7490 
.7431 
.7373 

9.8778 
9.8745 
9.8711 
9.8676 

9.8338 
9.8378 
9.8418 
9.8457 

.7314 
.7254 
.7193 
.7133 

9.8641 
9.8606 
9.8569 
9.8532 

9.8495 

.7071 

9.8459 

.4245 
.4348 
.4452 
.4557 

.4663 
.4770 
.4877 
.4986 

.5095 
.5206 
.5317 
.5430 

.5543 
.5658 
.5774 
.5890 

.6009 
.6128 
.6249 
.6371 

.6494 
.6619 
.6745 
.6873 

.7002 
.7133 
.7265 
.7400 

.7536 
.7673 
.7813 
.7954 

.8098 
.8243 
.8391 
.8541 

.8693 
.8847 
.9004 
.9163 

.9325 
.9490 
.%57 
.9827 

1.0000 


9.6279 
9.6383 
9.6486 
9.6587 

2.3559 
2.2998 
2.2460 
2.1943 

9.6687 
9.6785 
9.6882 
9.6977 

2.1445 
2.0965 
2.0503 
2.0057 

9.7072 
9.7165 
9.7257 
9.7348 

l.%26 
1.9210 
1.8807 
1.8418 

9.7438 
9.7526 
9.7614 
9.7701 

1.8040 
1.7675 
1.7321 
1.6977 

9.7788 
9.7873 
9.7958 
9.8042 

1.6643 
1.6319 
1.6003 
1.5697 

9.8125 
9.8208 
9.8290 
9.8371 

1.5339 
1.5108 
1.4826 
1.4550 

9.8452 
9.8533 
9.8613 
9.8692 

1.4281 
1.4019 
1.3764 
1.3514 

9.8771 
9.8850 
9.8928 
9.9006 

1.3270 
1.3032 
1.2799 
1.2572 

9.9084 
9.9161 
9.9238 
9.9315 

1.2349 
1.2131 
1.1918 
1.1708 

9.9392 
9.9468 
9.9544 
9.%21 

1.1505 
1.1303 
1.1106 
1.0913 

9.9697 
9.9772 
9.9848 
9.9924 

1.0724 
1.0538 
1.0355 
1.0176 

.0000 

1.0000 

.3721 
.3617 
.3514 
.3413 

.3313 
.3215 
.3118 
.3023 

.2928 
.2835 
.2743 
.2652 

.2562 
.2474 
.2386 
.2299 

.2212 
.2127 
.2042 
.1958 

.1875 
.1792 
.1710 
.1629 

.1548 
.1467 
.1387 
.1308 

.1229 
.1150 
.1072 
.0994 

.0916 
.0839 
.0762 
.0685 

.0608 
.0532 
.0456 
.0379 

.0303 
.0228 
.0152 
.0076 

.0000 


67  0 
30 

66  00 
30 

65  00 
30 

64  00 
30 

63  00 
30 

62  00 
30 

61  00 
30 

60  00 
30 

59  00 
30 

58  00 
30 

57  00 
30 

56  00 
30 

55  00 
30 

54  00 
30 

53  00 
30 

52  00 
30 

51  00 
30 

50  00 
30 

49  00 
30 

48  00 
30 

47  00 
30 

46  00 
30 

45  00 


Angle 


Nat.   Log. 
Cosine 


Nat.'  Log. 
Sine 


Nat.  Log. 
Cotangent 


Nat.   Log. 
Tangent 


Angle 


526 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Table  87. — Table  of  Segments 


Rise 

Rise 

Rise 

Rise 

Rise 

-4- 

Area 

-f- 

Area 

-7- 

Area 

• 

-r- 

Area 

-f- 

Area 

diam- 

diam- 

diam- 

diam- 

diazn- 

eter 

eter 

eter 

eter 

eter 

.001 

.00004 

.054 

.01646 

.107 

.04514 

.16 

.08111 

.213 

.12235 

.002 

.00012 

.055 

.01691 

.108 

.04576 

.161 

.08185 

.214 

.12317 

.003 

.00022 

.056 

.01737 

.109 

.04638 

.162 

.08258 

.215 

.12399 

.004 

.00034 

.057 

.01783 

.11 

.04701 

.163 

.08332 

.216 

.12481 

.005 

.00047 

.058 

.01830 

.111 

.04763 

.164 

.08406 

.217 

.12563 

.006 

.00062 

.059 

.01877 

.112 

.04826 

.165 

.08480 

.218 

.12646 

.007 

.00078 

.06 

.01924 

.113 

.04889 

.166 

.08554 

.219 

.12729 

.008 

.00095 

.061 

.01972 

.114 

.04953 

.167 

.08629 

.22 

.12811 

.009 

.00113 

.062 

.02020 

.115 

.05016 

.168 

.08704 

.221 

.12894 

.01 

.00133 

.063 

.02068 

.116 

.05080 

.169 

.08779 

.222 

.12977 

.Oil 

.00153 

.064 

.02117 

.117 

.05145 

.17 

.08854 

.223 

.13060 

.012 

.00175 

.065 

.02166 

.118 

.05209 

.171 

.06929 

.224 

.13144 

.013 

.00197 

.066 

.02215 

.119 

.05274 

.172 

.09004 

.225 

.13227 

.014 

.0022 

.067 

.02265 

.12 

.05338 

.173 

.09080 

.226 

.13311 

.015 

.00244 

.068 

.02315 

.121 

.05404 

.174 

.09155 

.227 

.13395 

.016 

.00268 

.069 

.02366 

.122 

.05469 

.175 

.09231 

.228 

.13478 

.017 

.00294 

.07 

.02417 

.123 

.05535 

.176 

.09307 

.229 

.13562 

.018 

.0032 

.071 

.02468 

.124 

.05600 

.177 

.09384 

.23 

.13646 

.019 

.00347 

.072 

.02520 

.125 

.05666 

.178 

.09460 

.231 

.13731 

.02 

.00375 

.073 

.02571 

.126 

.05733 

.179 

.09537 

.232 

.13815 

.021 

.00403 

.074 

.02624 

.127 

.05799 

.18 

.09613 

.233 

.13900 

.022 

.00432 

.075 

.02676 

.128 

.05866 

.181 

.0%90 

.234 

.13964 

.023 

.00462 

.076 

.02729 

.129 

.05933 

.182 

.09767 

.235 

.14069 

.024 

.00492 

.077 

.02782 

.13 

.06000 

.183 

.09845 

.236 

.14154 

.025 

.00523 

.078 

.02836 

.131 

.06067 

.184 

.09922 

.237 

.14239 

.026 

.00555 

.079 

.02889 

.132 

.06135 

.185 

.10000 

.238 

.14324 

.027 

.00587 

.08 

.02943 

.133 

.06203 

.186 

.10077 

.239 

.14409 

.028 

.00619 

.081 

.02998 

.134 

.06271 

.187 

.10155 

.24 

.14494 

.029 

.00653 

.082 

.03053 

.135 

.06339 

.188 

.10233 

.241 

.14580 

.03 

.00687 

.083 

.03108 

.136 

.06407 

.189 

.10312 

.242 

.14666 

.031 

.00721 

.084 

.03163 

.137 

.06476 

.19 

.10390 

.243 

.14751 

.032 

.00756 

.085 

.03219 

.138 

.06545 

.191 

.10469 

.244 

.14837 

.033 

.00791 

.086 

.03275 

.139 

.06614 

.192 

.10547 

.245 

.14923 

.034 

.00827 

.087 

.03331 

.14 

.06683 

.193 

.10626 

.246 

.15009 

.035 

.00864 

.088 

.03387 

.141 

.06753 

.194 

.10705 

.247 

.15095 

.036 

.00901 

.089 

.03444 

.142 

.06822 

.195 

.10784 

.248 

.15182 

.037 

.00938 

.09 

.03501 . 

.143 

.06892 

.1% 

.10864 

.249 

.15268 

.038 

.00976 

.091 

.03559 

.144 

.06%3 

.197 

.10943 

.25 

. 15355 

.039 

.01015 

.092 

.03616 

.145 

.07033 

.198 

.11023 

.251 

.15441 

.04 

.01054 

.093 

.03674 

.146 

.07103 

.199 

.11102 

.252 

.15528 

.041 

.01093 

.094 

.03732 

.147 

.07174 

.2 

.11182 

.253 

.15615 

.042 

.01133 

.095 

.03791 

.148 

.07245 

.201 

.11262 

.254 

.15702 

.043 

.01173 

.096 

.03850 

.149 

.07316 

.202 

.11343 

.255 

.15789 

.044 

.01214 

.097 

.03909 

.15 

.07387 

.203 

.11423 

.256 

.15876 

.045 

.01255 

.098 

.03968 

.151 

.07459 

.204 

.11504 

.257 

.15964 

.046 

.01297 

.099 

.04028 

.152 

.07531 

.205 

.11584 

.258 

.16051 

.047 

.01339 

.1 

.04087 

.153 

.07603 

.206 

.11665 

.259 

.16139 

.048 

.01382 

.101 

.04148 

.154 

.07675 

.207 

.11746 

.26 

.16226 

.049 

.01425 

.102 

.04206 

.155 

.07747 

.208 

.11827 

.261 

.16314 

.05 

.01468 

.103 

.04269 

.156 

.07819 

.209 

.11906 

.262 

.16402 

.051 

.01512 

.104 

.04330 

.157 

.07892 

.21 

.11990 

.263 

.16490 

.052 

.01556 

.105 

.04391 

.158 

.07%5 

.211 

.12071 

.264 

.16578 

.053 

.01601 

.106 

.04452 

.159 

.08038 

.212 

.12153 

.265 

.16666 

MATHEMATICS 


627 


Table  87. 

— ^Tablb  of 

Segments  {C 

'Hontinw 

Bd) 

Rise 

Rise 

Rise 

Rise 

Rise 

• 

Area 

-^ 

Area 

• 

Area 

■i- 

Area 

-h 

Area 

diam- 

diam- 

diam- 

diam- 

diam- 

eter 

eter 

eter 

eter 

eter 

.266 

.16755 

.313 

.21015 

.36 

.25455 

.407 

.30024 

.454 

.34676 

.267 

.16843 

.314 

.21108 

.361 

.25551 

.408 

.30122 

.455 

.34776 

.268 

.16932 

.315 

.21201 

.362 

.25647 

.409 

.30220 

.456 

.34876 

.269 

.17020 

.316 

.21294 

.363 

.25743 

.41 

.30319 

.457 

.34975 

.27 

.17109 

.317 

.21387 

.364 

.25839 

.411 

.30417 

.458 

.35075 

.271 

.17198 

.318 

.21480 

.365 

.25936 

.412 

.30516 

.459 

.35175 

.771 

.17287 

.319 

.21573 

.366 

.26032 

.413 

.30614 

.46 

.35274 

.273 

.17376 

.32 

.21667 

.367 

.26128 

.414 

.30712 

.461 

.35374 

.274 

.17465 

.321 

.21760 

.368 

.26225 

.415 

.30811 

.462 

.35474 

.275 

.17554 

.322 

.21853 

.369 

.26321 

.416 

.30910 

.463 

.35573 

.276 

.17644 

.323 

.21947 

.37 

.26418 

.417 

.31008 

.464 

.35673 

.277 

.17733 

.324 

.22040 

.371 

.26514 

.418 

.31107 

.465 

.35773 

.278 

.17823 

.325 

.22134 

.372 

.26611 

.419 

.31205 

.466 

.35873 

.279 

.17912 

.326 

.22228 

.373 

.26708 

.42 

.31304 

.467 

.35972 

.28 

.18002 

.327 

.22322 

.374 

.26805 

.421 

.31403 

.468 

.36072 

.281 

.18092 

.328 

.22415 

.375 

.26901 

.422 

.31502 

.469 

.36172 

.282 

.18182 

.329 

.22509 

.376 

.26998 

.423 

.31600 

.47 

.36272 

.283 

.18272 

.33 

.22603 

.377 

.27095 

.424 

.31699 

.471 

.36372 

.284 

.16362 

.331 

.22697 

.378 

.27192 

.425 

.31798 

.472 

.36471 

.285 

.18452 

.332 

.22792 

.379 

.27289 

.426 

.31897 

.473 

.36571 

.286 

.18542 

.333 

.22886 

.38 

.27386 

.427 

.319% 

.474 

.36671 

.287 

.18633 

.334 

.22980 

.381 

.27483 

.428 

.32095 

.475 

.36771 

.288 

.18723 

.335 

.23074 

.382 

.27580 

.429 

.32194 

.476 

.36871 

.289 

.18814 

.336 

.23169 

.383 

.27678 

.43 

.32293 

.477 

.36971 

.29 

.18905 

.337 

.23263 

.384 

.27775 

.431 

.32392 

.478 

.37071 

.291 

.189% 

.338 

.23358 

.385 

.27872 

.432 

.32491 

.479 

.37171 

.292 

.19086 

.339 

.23453 

.386 

.27969 

.433 

.32590 

.48 

.37270 

.293 

.19177 

.34 

.23547 

.387 

.28067 

.434 

.32689 

.481 

.37370 

.294 

.19268 

.341 

.  23642 

.388 

.28164 

.435 

.32788 

.482 

.37470 

.295 

.19360 

.342 

.23737 

.389 

.28262 

.436 

.32887 

.483 

.37570 

.296 

.19451 

.343 

.23832 

.39 

.28359 

.437 

.32987 

.484 

.37670 

.297 

.19542 

.344 

.23927 

.391 

.28457 

.438 

.33086 

.485 

.37770 

.298 

.1%34 

.345 

.24022 

.392 

.28554 

.439 

.33185 

.486 

.37870 

.299 

.19725 

.346 

.24117 

.393 

.28652 

.44 

.33284 

.487 

.37970 

.3 

.19817 

.347 

.24212 

.394 

.28750 

.441 

.33384 

.488 

.38070 

.301 

.19908 

.348 

.24307 

.395 

.28848 

.442 

.33483 

.489 

.38170 

.302 

.20000 

.349 

.24403 

.396 

.28945 

.443 

.33582 

.49 

.38270 

.303 

.20092 

.35 

.24498 

.397 

.29043 

.444 

.33682 

.491 

.38370 

.304 

.20184 

.351 

.24593 

.398 

.29141 

.445 

.33781 

.492 

.38470 

.305 

.20276 

.352 

.24689 

.399 

.29239 

.446 

.33880 

.493 

.38570 

.306 

.20368 

.353 

.24784 

.4 

.29337 

.447 

.33980 

.494 

.38670 

.307 

.20460 

.354 

.24880 

.401 

.29435 

.44o 

.34079 

.495 

.38770 

.308 

.20553 

.355 

.24976 

.402 

.29533 

.449 

.34179 

.496 

.38870 

.309 

.20645 

.356 

.25071 

.403 

.29631 

.45 

.34278 

.497 

.38970 

.31 

.20738 

.357 

.25167 

.404 

.29729 

.451 

.34378 

.498 

.39070 

.311 

.20830 

.358 

.25263 

.405 

.29827 

.452 

.34477 

.499 

.39170 

.312 

.20923 

.359 

.25359 

.406 

.29926 

.453 

.34577 

.5 

.39270 

528  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Table  88. — Measures 

Linear  Measurb 
12      inches  =  1  foot. 

3      feet  =  1  yard. 

6.5  yards,  or  16.6  feet  =  1  rod,  pole,  or  percli. 

40      rods,  or  220  yards  =  1  furlong. 

8      furlongs,  or  1,760  yards,  or  6,280  feet.  =  1  mile. 

Metric  Measure 

10  millimeters  (mm.)  —  1  centimeter  (cm.). 

10  centimeters  =  1  decimeter  (dm.). 

10  decimeters  =  1  meter  (m.). 

10  meters  =  1  decameter  (Dm.). 

10  decameters  =  1  hectometer  (Hm.). 

10  hectometers  =  1  kilometer  (Km.). 

Equivalent  Linear  Measures 
French  British  and  U.  S. 

1  meter  =  39.37  inches,  or  3.281  feet,  or  1.094  yards. 

.3048  meters  =  1  foot. 

1  centimeter    =  .3937  inch. 
2.64  centimeters  =  1  inch. 

1  millimeter     =  .03937  inch,  or  }'it  inch  approx. 
26.4  millimeters  —  1  inch. 

1  kilometer      =  1093.61  yards,  or  .62137  mile. 

Square  Measure 
144      square  inches  =  1  square  foot. 

9      square  feet  =  1  square  yard. 

30  H  square  yards,  or  272>^  square  feet  =  1  square  rod. 
160      square  rods,  or  43,660  square  feet    =  1  acre. 
640      acres  —  1  square  mile. 

Cubic  Measure 

1,728  cubic  inches  =  1  cubic  foot. 
27  cubic  feet       =  1  cubic  yard. 

Liquid  Measure 

4      gills  =  1  pint. 

2  pints  =  1  quart. 
4      quarts                                         =  1  gallon. 

SlH  gallons  =  1  barrel. 

2      barrels,  or  63  gallons  =  1  hogshead. 

1      gallon  (U.  S.)  =231  cubic  inches. 

1      gallon  (British)  =  277.274  cubic  inches. 

1      cubic  foot  =  7.4806  gallons  (U.  S.). 

1      liter  (  =  1  cubic  decimeter)  =  61.023  cubic  inches. 


MATHEMATICS  529 

Tablb  89. — Weights  and  Measures 

Avoirdupois 

437 . 5  grains  =  1  ounce. 

16      ounces,  or  7,000  grains  «  1  pound. 
100      pounds  B  1  hundredweight  (cwt.). 

20      cwt.  or  2,000  pounds      »  i  ton. 
2,240  pounds  <«  1  long  ton. 

Trot 

24  grains  =  1 'penny weight  (pwt.). 

20  pwt.,  or  480  grains  «  1  ounce. 

12  ounces,  or  5,760  grains  —  1  pound. 
NoTK. — The  grain  is  the  same  in  Avoirdupois  and  Troy  weights. 

Metric  System 

10  milligrams  (mg.)  «  1  centigram  (eg.). 

10  centigrams  =  1  decigram  (dg.). 

10  decigrams  »  i  gram  (g.). 

10  grams  «  1  decagram  (Dg.). 

10  decagrams  »  1  hectogram  (Hg.). 

10  hectograms  =  1  kilogram  (Kg.). 

1,000  kilograms  »  1  ton  (T.). 

Note. — The  gram  is  the  weight  of  1  cubic  centimeter  of  distilled  water 
at  a  temperature  of  39.2°F.  The  kilogram  is  th6  weight  of  1  liter  of  water. 
The  ton  is  the  weight  of  1  cubic  meter  of  water. 

Equivalent  Weights 

1  gram  (Metric)  »   15.432  grains  (Avoir.). 

.0648  gram  (Metric)  =   i  grain  (Avoir.). 

28.35  grams  (Metric)  »   1  ounce  (Avoir.). 

1  kilogram  (Metric)  «  2.2046  pounds  (Avoir.). 

.4536  kilograms  (Metric)  »   1  pound  (Avoir.). 

1  ton  (Metric)  »  2,205  pounds  (Avoir.). 


34 


530 

PLUMBERS' 

HANDBOOK 

Tablk    90.— CiRcnuTERBNCBs    AND    Areas 

OF      ClBCLE 

Advaocing  by  Eighths  ^4  to  33 

Cir- 

Cir- 

Cir- 

Area 

DiHm- 

Area 

Diam- 

Ara 

eter 

enee 

enM 

"S^ 

^i~ 

04W> 

00019 

^ 

7  4613 

4.4301 

6  H 

19  242 

29. M 

ii'i 

30. <^ 

H* 

ilflj. 

:i»i73 

SS4( 

9087 

31. 9;^ 

.19635 

.00307 

050: 

5 

1572 

M 

.2MS; 

.00690 

2461 

i 

41 P9 

H 

Z0!8I3 

M.C. 

H 

M 

2r.206 

an 

M% 

4 

21.598 

37.  i; 

«. 

.saws 

.02761 

2126 

1 

21.9*1 

!ls 

.68722 

.IB758 

1. 

m* 

\ 

S! 

M 

2Z.384 

Ji'.!r 

41.11 

M 

.78M0 

H 

23!l6i9 

42.  ;i' 

**" 

.MISJ 

:06213 

3 

4248 

0686 

» 

Z3.562 

.»8175 

.07670 

9 

62 

3662 

M 

4S.V- 

.07W 

1 

a 

1 

6699 

24'347 

fl.ir 

H 

,1781 

7 

JS 

24.740 

«.Te 

'M. 

:  2962 

25.t33 

50.2^ 

^^0 

.  5033 

6179 

M 

25. SIS 

'|4» 

.4726 

.  7257 

in 

I 

799 

1 

S 

» 

26^311 

5i(» 

H 

.5706 

'w 

996 

^ 

26.704 

56.7<; 

1 

.6690 

.    M. 

19 

M 

.7671 

M 

388 

321 

H 

g.OW 

io:ii: 

.865) 

11 

58 

1C 

680 

M 

27.882 

61. ac 

H 

.96JS 

H 

78 

045 

28.274 

63. ii: 

'11, 

.0617 

•M. 

977 

M 

M.667 

6SW 

JM» 

,1598 

.37122 

793 

.2580 

.40574 

1 

12 

177 

69:01' 

>j 

5*6 

70. h; 

;4 

.1562 

.44179 

H 

301238 

72.71( 

'*=> 

* 

959 

^4 

30,631 

74.W 

151. 

;5525 

:5I849 

^0 

1 

15 

772 

!* 

31.023 

»fSj 

.6507 

.55914 

H 

1 

35 

H 

186 

w' 

31.416 

78:s« 

Ji 

.7<89 

.60132 

Wo 

I 

607 

31.809 

80.  lie 

>H= 

:X' 

H 

32.201 

«2.tl> 

:94S2 

i. 

15 

466 

« 

32.594 

84.  HI 

•M° 

.(MM 

.7)708 

1 

137 

IS 

904 

14 

32.987 

86.  H< 

Mt 

I 

314 

349 

88.664 

.7854 

M 

1 

530 

M 

33^772 

90.763 

'U 

:3379 

.8866 

'M« 

1 

726 

257 

34-165 

92.» 

if. 

.5W3 

.■?!19 

y. 

1 

92) 

17 

721 

34.558 

.7)06 

119 

If 

190 

H 

97:2K 

K 

Ji' 

i 

99.4IU 

w. 

•li. 

1! 

35:736 

1016: 

» 

«.jr97 

s 

708 

19 

635 

M 

36.128 

103.0 

a* 

4.5160 

Ma 

1 

904 

20 

129 

36.521 

4.7124 

.767 

1 

101 

2( 

H 

4ta 

4.9087 

.917 

1 

Ji 

M 

5.1051 

.0739 

!4 

1 

113:10 

5.30H 

.2)6 

|i 

690 

2! 

H 

1IS.« 

«' 

5,4978 

.MS 

1 

886 

2; 

691 

M 

•?1. 

;f« 

1 

082 

221 

\x.a 

>* 

5^8905 

!761 

'(4 

H 

6.0868 

,948 

301 

5i 

39:663 

671 

24 

850 

M 

40.055 

6.2812 

3.1416 

Hf. 

1 

868 

25 

406 

40.448 

4.4795 

3.3410 

1 

064 

2! 

967 

13^ 

l« 

3.5466 

'Mo 

1 

261 

U 

,Ii 

1 

457 

109 

u 

4i:&26 

7:068« 

1 

23 

688 

H 

42.019 

140:30 

51. 

7.2649 

4.2000 

* 

1 

850 

21 

174 

M 

42.412 

MATHEMATICS 
Table  90. — {Conttnued) 


Cii- 

Cir- 

Cir- 

Dism- 

Diun- 

-"" 

fw- 

Bter 

fer- 

.u. 

™« 

13  H 

12.  HH 

145.80 

21  Ji 

68  722 

375.83 

30M 

94.640 

712  76 

H 

4: 

97 

\li 

49 

69 

115 

13 

9S 

033 

7ia 

69 

n 

9» 

20 

508 

38- 

46 

i 

9! 

42 

72. 

64 

962 

n 

9O0 

3» 

82 

M 

75 

156 

70 

7C 

M 

9t 

i 

68 

l« 

M 

7 

686 

5i 

96 

30 

7 

079 

W. 

04 

6 

96 

99 

748 

69 

49 

31 

97 

38 

754 

77 

6 

946 

16! 

J* 

7 

864 

97 

K 

97 

87 

H 

« 

36 

17C 

87 

", 

7 

157 

7M 

1'^ 

78 

7 

00 

i 

14 

7 

56 

M 

31 

H 

517 

I7S 

67 

7 

13 

51 

47 

909 

m 

65 

827 

73 

4t 

220 

43« 

J* 

100 

I8f 

44! 

01 

32 

100 

531 

804 

25 

191 

75 

M 

100 

m 

34 

i 

194 

83 

J9« 

39 

86 

197 

791 

457 

101 

709 

201 

4*1 

86 

H 

102 

102 

58 

i 

65B 

204 

21 

64 

M 

102 

494 

97 

$ 

D5I 

203 

39 

7 

969 

» 

101 

887 

i 

5 

444 

77 

362 

26 

;t 

t 

77 

W 

481 

33 

iro 

i73 

^i 

129 

217 

78 

48i 

98 

W 

104 

065 

622 

22t 

35 

78 

87 

N 

104 

t5» 

31 

zi 

65 

78 

^i 

104 

K 

n' 

407 

22t 

79 

500 

i 

BOO 

79 

50! 

71 

M 

105 

636 

888 

XI 

H 

54 

71 

80 

71 

M 

106 

029 

894 

H 

M 

10 

BO 

J* 

106 

121 

901 

H 

24C 

80 

907 

84 

M 

107 

20: 

763 

243 

45 

)3 

H 

107 

600 

156 

25C 

95 

82 

H 

107 

9« 

06 

IB' 

47 

82 

467 

W 

« 

H 

941 

U 

860 

546 

941 

232 

551 

5S 

109 

948 

57 

727 

26! 

76 

J* 

109 

563 

9S5 

» 

ii 

5f 

80 

84 

35 

956 

962 

H 

m 

84 

430 

a 

348 

00 

905 

823 

572 

56 

J* 

298 

21', 

81 

ST! 

87 

690 

283 

53 

85 

H 

52: 

989 

80 

M 

27 

86 

m 

5S 

}» 

86 

394 

593 

« 

86B 

291 

86 

m 

599 

37 

Ji 

W 

261 

298 

65 

87 

604 

81 

'*W 

)97 

1017 

H 

654 

302 

49 

87 

27 

1025 

H 

046 

yx 

35 

87 

11 

1032 

6 

88 

621 

26 

2o''' 

88 

626 

80 

!■* 

31! 

10 

89 

632 

M 

1  5 

061 

1053 

322 

89 

63! 

?i 

1  5 

454 

1060 

7 

010 

32t 

89 

■il& 

,/' 

846 

11)68 

) 

(S 

403 

90 

321 

6« 

18 

^« 

64 

795 

334 

90 

654 

M 

1  6 

632 

1082 

5i 

«! 

338 

91 

M 

1  7 

02< 

1089 

J6 

5BI 

91 

bbt 

?6 

41J 

892 

67F 

66 

366 

284 

677 

71 

202 

H 

66 

759 

56 

W 

1  8 

596 

H 

67 

9 

6ffi 

30 

118 

988 

1  26 

a 

» 

9 

462 

38 

381 

67 

937 

367 

18 

855 

98 

ii 

68 

330 

371 

54 

706 

86 

632 

PLUMBERS' 

HANDBOOK 

Table  ' 

91. — Decimals  of  a  Foot  fob  Inches  ani>  Fbac- 

TioNS  OF  AN  Inch 

Inch 

0 

in. 

1 

in. 

2 

in. 

3 

in. 

4 
in. 

5 

in. 

6 
in. 

7 

in. 

8 
in. 

9 

in. 

10 
in. 

1 

11 
in. 

0 

0 

.0833 

.1667 

.2500 

.3333 

.4167 

.5000 

.5833 

.6667 

.7500 

.8333    .9167 

M2 

.0026 

.0859 

.1693 

.2526 

.3359 

.4193 

.5026 

.5859 

.6693 

.7526 

.8359    .9193 

Me 

.0052 

.0885 

.1719 

.2552 

.3385 

.4219 

.5052 

.5885 

.6719 

.7552 

.8385    .92:^ 

Hi 

.0078 

.0911 

.1745 

.2578 

.3411 

.4245 

.5078 

.5911 

.6745 

.7578 

.8411 

.9243 

H 

.0104 

.0937 

.1771 

.2604 

.3437 

.4271 

.5104 

.5937 

.6771 

.7604 

.8437 

.927! 

Hi 

.0130 

.0964 

.1797 

.2630 

.3464 

.4297 

.5130 

.5964 

.6797 

.7630 

.8464 

.9297 

He 

.0156 

.0990 

.1823 

.2656 

.3490 

.4323 

.5156 

.5990 

.6823 

.7656 

.8490 

.932> 

H2 

.0182 

.1016 

.1849 

.2682 

.3516 

.4349 

.5182 

.6016 

.6849 

.7682 

.8516 

.934? 

H 

.0208 

.1042 

.1875 

.2708 

.3542 

.4375 

.5208 

.6042 

.6875 

.7708 

.8542 

.9375" 

H2 

.0234 

.1068 

.1901 

.2734 

.3568 

.4401 

.5234 

.6068 

.6901 

.7734 

.8568 

.9« 

Me 

.0260 

.1094 

.1927 

.2760 

.3594 

.4427 

.5260 

.6094 

.6927 

.7760 

.8594 

.9427 

m2 

.0286 

.1120 

.1953 

.2786 

.3620 

.4453 

.5286 

.6120 

.6953 

.7786 

.8620 

.9453 

H 

.0312 

.1146 

.1979 

.2812 

.3646 

.4479 

.5312 

.6146 

.6979 

.7812 

.0040 

.9479 

^2 

.0339 

.1172 

.2005 

.2839 

.3672 

.4505 

.5339 

.6172 

.7005 

.7839 

.8672 

.9505 

Me 

.0365 

.1198 

.2031 

.2865 

.3698 

.4531 

.5365 

.6198 

.7031 

.7865 

.8698 

.9531 

m2 

.0391 

.1224 

.2057 

.2891 

.3724 

.4557 

.5391 

.6224 

.7057 

.7891 

.8724 

.9557 

H 

.0417 

.1250 

.2083 

.2917 

.3750 

.4583 

.5417 

.6250 

.7083 

.7917 

.8750 

.9583 

1^2 

.0443 

.1276 

.2109 

.2943 

.3776 

.4609 

.5443 

.6276 

.7109 

.7943 

.8776 

.9609 

Me 

.0469 

.1302 

.2135 

.2969 

.3802 

.4635 

.5469 

.6302 

.7135 

.7969 

.8802 

.9635 

1^3 

.0495 

.1328 

.2161 

.2995 

.3828 

.4661 

.5495 

.6328 

.7161 

.7995 

.8828 

.966' 

5i 

.0521 

.1354 

.2188 

.3021 

.3854 

.4688 

.5521 

.6354 

.7188 

.8021 

.8854 

.96aB 

2^2 

.0547 

.1380 

.2214 

.3047 

.3880 

.4714 

.5547 

.6380 

.7214 

.8047 

.8880 

.9714 

iHe 

.0573 

.1406 

.2240 

.3073 

.3906 

.4740 

.5573 

.6406 

.7240 

.8073 

.8906 

.974D 

2^2 

.0599 

.1432 

.2266 

.3099 

.3932 

.4766 

.5599 

.6432 

.7266 

.8099 

.8932    .9766 

^4 

.0625 

.1458 

.2292 

.3125 

.3958 

.4792 

.5625 

.6458 

.7292 

.8125 

.8958    .979: 

a^^2 

.0651 

.1484 

.2318 

.3151 

.3984 

.4818 

.5651 

.6484 

.7318 

.8151 

.8984 

.981! 

iMe 

.0677 

.1510 

.2344 

.3177 

.4010 

.4844 

.5677 

.6510 

.7344 

.8177 

.9010 

.984* 

3J^2 

.0703 

.1536 

.2370 

.3203 

.4036 

.4870 

.5703 

.6536 

.7370 

.8703 

.9036 

.987t 

Ji 

.0729 

.1562 

.23% 

.3229 

.4062 

.48% 

.5729 

.6562 

.73% 

.8229 

.9062 

.9fl9D 

a%2 

.0755 

.1589 

.2422 

.3255 

.4089 

.4922 

.5755 

.6589 

.7422 

.8255 

.9089 

.9922 

iMe 

.0781 

.1615 

.2448 

.3281 

.4115 

AXiAA 

.5781 

.6615 

.7448 

.8281 

.9115 

QQiJt 

«J^2 

.0807 

.1641 

.2474 

.3307 

.4141 

.4974 

.5807 

.6641 

.7474 

.8307 

.9141 

.9974 

I 

i.oonp 

MATHEMATICS 


533 


Table  92. — Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  and  Cube 
Roots  of  Numbers  from  1  to  99 


>To.    1 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

No. 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

.1 

.01 

.001 

.3162 

.4642 

3.1 

9.61 

29.791 

1.761 

1.458 

.15 

.0225 

.0034 

.3873 

.5313 

.2 

10.24 

32.768 

1.789 

1.474 

.2 

.04 

.008 

.4472 

.5848 

.3 

10.89 

35.937 

1.817 

1.489 

.25 

.0625 

.0156 

.500 

.6300 

.4 

11.56 

39.304 

1.844 

1.504 

.3 

.09 

.027 

.5477 

.6694 

.5 

12.25 

42.875 

1.871 

1.518 

.35 

.1225 

.0429 

.5916 

.7047 

.6 

12.96 

46.656 

1.897 

1.533 

.4 

.16 

.064 

.6325 

.7368 

.7 

13.69 

50.653 

1.924 

1.547 

.45 

.2025 

.0911 

.6708 

.7663 

.8 

14.44 

54.872 

1.949 

1.560 

.5 

.25 

.125 

.7071 

.7937 

.9 

15.21 

59.319 

1.975 

1.574 

.55 

.3025 

.1664 

.7416 

.8193 

4. 

16. 

64. 

2. 

1.5874 

.6 

.36 

.216 

.7746 

.8434 

.1 

16.81 

68.921 

2.025 

1.601 

.65 

.4225 

.2746 

.8062 

.8662 

.2 

17.64 

74.088 

2.049 

I.6I3 

.7 

.49 

.343 

.8367 

.8879 

.3 

18.49 

79.507 

2.074 

1.626 

.75 

.5625 

.4219 

.8660 

.9086 

.4 

19.36 

85.184 

2.098 

1.639 

.8 

.64 

.512 

QAAA 

.9283 

.5 

20.25 

91.125 

2.121 

1.651 

.85 

.7225 

.6141 

.9219 

.9473 

.6 

21.16 

97.336 

2.145 

1.663 

.9 

.81 

.729 

.9487 

.%55 

.7 

22.09 

103.823 

2.168 

1.675 

.95 

.9025 

.8574 

.9747 

.9830 

.8 

23.04 

110.592 

2.191 

1.687 

1. 

1. 

1. 

1. 

1. 

.9 

24.01 

117.649 

2.214 

1.696 

1.05 

1.1025 

1.158 

1.025 

1.016 

5. 

25. 

125. 

2.2361 

1.7100 

I.I 

1.21 

1.331 

1.049 

1.032 

.1 

26.01 

132.651 

2.258 

1.721 

1.15 

1.3225 

1.521 

1.072 

1.048 

.2 

27.04 

140.608 

2.280 

1.732 

1.2 

1.44 

1.728 

1.095 

1.063 

.3 

28.09 

148.877 

2.302 

1.744 

1.25 

1.5625 

1.953 

1 . 1 18 

1.077 

.4 

29.16 

157.464 

2.324 

1.754 

1.3 

1.69 

2.197 

1.140 

1.091 

.5 

30.25 

166.375 

2.345 

1.765 

1.35 

1.8225 

2.460 

1.162 

1.105 

.6 

31.36 

175.616 

2.366 

1.776 

1.4 

1.96 

2.744 

1.183 

1.119 

.7 

32.49 

185.193 

2.387 

1.786 

1.45 

2.1025 

3.049 

1.204 

1.132 

.8 

33.64 

195.112 

2.408 

1.797 

1.5 

2.25 

3.375 

1.2247 

1.1447 

.9 

34.81 

205.379 

2.429 

1.807 

1.55 

2.4025 

3.724 

1.245 

1.157 

6. 

36. 

216. 

2.4495 

1.8171 

1.6 

2.56 

4.096 

1.265 

1.170 

.1 

37.21 

226.981 

2.470 

1.827 

1.65 

2.7225 

4.492 

1.285 

1.182 

.2 

38.44 

238.328 

2.490 

1.837 

1.7 

2.89 

4.913 

1.304 

1.193 

.3 

39.69 

250.047 

2.510 

1.847 

1.75 

3.0625 

5.359 

1.323 

1.205 

.4 

40.% 

262.144 

2.530 

1.857 

1.8 

3.24 

5.832 

1.342 

1.216 

.5 

42.25 

274.625 

2.550 

1.866 

1.85 

3.4225 

6.332 

1.360 

1.228 

.6 

43.56 

287.4% 

2.569 

1.876 

1.9 

3.61 

6.859 

1.378 

1.239 

.7 

44.89 

300.763 

2.588 

1.885 

1.95 

3.8025 

7.415 

1.3% 

1.249 

.8 

46.24 

314.432 

2.608 

1.895 

2. 

4. 

8. 

1.4142 

1.2599 

.9 

47.61 

328.509 

2.627 

1.904 

.1 

4.41 

9.261 

1.449 

1.281 

7. 

49. 

343. 

2.6458 

1.9129 

.2 

4.84 

10.648 

1.483 

1.301 

.1 

50.41 

357.911 

2.665 

1.922 

.3 

5.29 

12.167 

1.517 

1.320 

.2 

51.84 

373.248 

2.683 

1.931 

.4 

5.76 

13.824 

1.549 

1.339 

.3 

53.29 

389.017 

2.702 

1.940 

.5 

6.25 

15.625 

1.581 

1.357 

.4 

54.76 

405.224 

2.720 

1.949 

.6 

6.76 

17.576 

1.612 

1.375 

.5 

56.25 

421.875 

2.739 

1.957 

.7 

7.29 

19.683 

1.643 

1.392 

.6 

57.76 

438.976 

2.757 

1.966 

.8 

7.84 

21.952 

1.673 

1.409 

.7 

59.29 

456.533 

2.775 

1.975 

.9 

8.41 

24.389 

1.703 

1.426 

.8 

60.84 

474.552 

2.793 

1.983 

3. 

9. 

27. 

1.7321 

1.4422 

.9 

62.41 

493.039 

2.811 

1.992 

534 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Table  92. — {Continued) 


No. 


Square 


Cube 


Square 
root 


Cube 
root 


No. 


Square 


Cube 


Square'  Ci. 


root 


roo 


8. 


.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 

.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 

9. 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 

.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 

15 
16 
17 
18 
19 

20 
21 
22 
23 
24 

25 
26 
27 
28 
29 

30 
31 
32 
33 
34 

35 
36 
37 
38 
39 

40 
41 
42 
43 
44 


64. 

65.61 

67.24 

68.89 

70.56 

72.25 
73.% 
75.69 
77.44 
79.21 

81. 

82.81 

84.64 

86.49 

88.36 

90.25 
92.16 
94.09 
%.04 
98.01 

100 
121 
144 
169 
196 

225 
256 
289 
324 
361 

400 
441 
484 
529 
576 

625 
676 
729 
784 
841 

900 

961 
1024 
1089 
1156 

1225 
12% 
1369 
1444 
1521 

1600 
1681 
1764 
1849 
1936 


512. 

531.441 

551.368 

571.787 

592.704 

614.125 
636.056 
658.503 
681.472 
704.969 

729. 

753.571 

778.688 

804.357 

830.584 

857.375 
884.736 
912.673 
941.192 
970.299 

1000 
1331 
1728 
2197 
2744 

3375 
40% 
4913 
5832 
6859 

8000 

9261 
10648 
12167 
13824 

15625 
17576 
19683 
21952 
24389 

27000 
29791 
32768 
35937 
39304 

42875 
46656 
50653 
54872 
59319 

64000 
68921 
74088 
79507 
85184 


2.8284 

2. 

45 

.2025 

2.846 

2.006 

46 

2116 

2.864 

2.017 

47 

2209 

2.881 

2.025 

48 

2304 

2.898 

2.033 

49 

2401 

2.915 

2.041 

50 

2500 

2.933 

2.049 

51 

2601 

2.950 

2.057 

52 

2704 

2.966 

2.065 

53 

2809 

2.983 

2.072 

54 

2916 

3. 

2.0801 

55 

3025 

3.017 

2.068 

56 

3136 

3.033 

2.095 

57 

3249 

3.050 

2.103 

58 

3364 

3.066 

2.110 

59 

3481 

3.062 

2.118 

60 

3600 

3.098 

2.125 

61 

3721 

3.114 

2.133 

62 

3844 

3.130 

2.140 

63 

3fVf 

3.146 

2.147 

64 

40% 

3.1623 

2.1544 

65 

4225 

3.3166 

2.2240 

66 

4356 

3.4641 

2.2894 

67 

3.6056 

2.3513 

68 

4624 

3.7417 

2.4101 

69 

4761 

3.8730 

2.4662 

70 

4900 

4. 

2.5198 

71 

5041 

4.1231 

2.5713 

72 

5184 

4.2426 

2.6207 

73 

5329 

4.3589 

2.6684 

74 

5476 

4.4721 

2.7144 

75 

5625 

4.5826 

2.7589 

76 

5776 

4.6904 

2.8020 

77 

5929 

4.7958 

2.8439 

78 

6064 

4.8990 

2.8845 

79 

6241 

5. 

2.9240 

80 

6400 

5.0990 

2.9625 

81 

6561 

5.1%2 

3. 

82 

6724 

5.2915 

3.0366 

83 

6889 

5.3852 

3.0723 

84 

7056 

5.4772 

3.1072 

85 

7225 

5.5678 

3.1414 

86 

73% 

5.6569 

3.1748 

87 

7569 

5.7446 

3.2075 

88 

7744 

5.8310 

3.23% 

89 

7921 

5.9161 

3.2711 

90 

8100 

6. 

3.3019 

91 

8281 

6.0828 

3.3322 

92 

8464 

6.1644 

3.3620 

93 

8649 

6.2450 

3.3912 

94 

6836 

6.3246 

3.4200 

95 

9025 

6.4031 

3.4482 

96 

9216 

6.4807 

3.4760 

97 

9409 

6.5574 

3.$034 
3.5303 

98 

9604 

6.6332 

99 

9801 

91125 

97336 

103823 

1 10592 

117649 

125000 
I3265I 
140608 
148877 
157464 

166375 
175616 
185193 
195112 
205379 

216000 
226981 
238328 
250047 
262144 

274625 
2874% 
300763 
314432 
328509 

343000 
357911 
373246 
369017 
405224 

421675 
436976 
456533 
474552 
493039 

512000 

531441 

55i: 

57i; 

592704 

614125 
636056 
656503 
681472 
704969 

729000 
753571 
778686 
804357 
630564 

857375 
684736 
912673 
941192 
970299 


6.7082  13.33! 
6.7823  ,3.5e 
6.8557  3.al 
6.9282  '3.<L^ 

7.  !3.t5* 

7.0711  3.eM 
7.I4I4  (3  7H 
7.2III  ,3.r. 
7.2801  i3.73r 
7.3485  i3  7? 

7.4162  '3.8P 

7.4833  I3.«2r 
7.5496  I3.84r 
7.6158  |3  ST" 
7.6811   !3.^v 

7.7460  I3.0' 
7.8102  3.35. 
7.8740  '3.or« 
7.9373    3  97 

8.  14. 

8.0623  I4.02' 
8.1240  AM. 
8.1854  kOt 
8.2462  i4.0f 
8.3066  I4.IC 


8.3666 
8.4261 
8.4853 
8.5440 
8.6023 


\r 
I* 


8.6603  14.21:: 
8.7178  |4.£^ 
8.7750  '4.25. 


8.8318 
8.8882 

8.9443 

9. 

9.0554 

9.1104 

9.1652 

9.2195 
9.2736 
9.3274 
9.3606 
9.4340 


9.4666  4.48W 


9.5394 
9.5917 
9.6437 


4.27: 
4.299 

4.30F 

4.32t' 
4.34* 
4.36: 
4.379 

4.3<W 

4.41* 
4.43* 
4.44« 

4.464' 


4.W 
4.5I« 
4.53ff 


9.6954  4.5M 

9.7468  4.5629 

9.7960  4.578» 

9.8469  4.5947 

9.8995  4.6101 

9.9499  4.6261 


MATHEMATICS 


535 


Table  93. — Decimal  Equivalentb  of  Fbactionb  of  One 

Inch 


^4 

.015625 

1564 

.265625 

»%4 

.515625 

m* 

.765625 

^a 

.03125 

Ha  ' 

.28125 

ij^a 

.53125 

«Ha 

.78125 

H4, 

.046875 

1^4 

.296875 

»%4 

.546875 

»H4 

.796875 

M« 

.0625 

Me 

.3125 

M« 

.5625 

iM« 

.8125 

f€4 

.078125 

«^4 

.328125 

«%4 

.578125 

«^4 

.828125 

^2 

.09375 

iHa 

.34375 

^ia 

.59375 

^H2 

.84375 

^4, 

.109375 

m^ 

.359375 

»%4 

.609375 

«fi4 

.859375 

H 

.125 

• 

.375 

H 

.625 

% 

.875  • 

%i. 

.140625 

8^4 

.390625 

*H4 

.640625 

»H4 

.890625 

^2 

.15625 

iHa 

.40625 

a^a 

.65625 

a^ia 

.90625 

1^4 

.171875 

«H4 

.421875 

*964 

.671875 

»W4 

.921875 

M« 

.1875 

M« 

.4375 

iH« 

.6875 

ifi« 

.9375 

1%4 

.203125 

»964 

.453125 

*5€4 

.703125 

•H4 

.953125 

H2 

.21875 

ifia 

.46875 

»5ia 

.71875 

»^a 

.96875 

i9€4 

.234375 

»H4 

.484375 

*J64 

.734375 

•W4 

.984375 

H 

.25 

H 

.50 

94 

.75 

1 

I. 

■» 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


MATHEMATICS 


I  A 

=  1  i 

I  ^  I 


I.  e 


538 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Table  95.- 

-{Continued) 

Primary  Discount 

Secondary 

• 

Discount 

1 

40 

42^ 

45 

47>i 

50 

52^4 

55 

57H 

60       62'. 

1 

0 

.60000  .57500 

.55000 

.52500 

.50000 

.47500  .45000  .42500  .40000  .373ff 

2H 

.585 

.56063 

.53625 

.51188 

.4875 

.46313 

.43875;. 41438 

i.39 

.365t: 

5 

.57 

.54625 

.5225 

.49875 

.475 

.45125 

.4275 

.40375 

.38 

.356: 

5  2H 

.55575 

.53259 

.50944 

.48628 

.46313 

.43997 

.41681 

.39366 

»  .3705 

.343:- 

55 

.5415 

.51894 

.49638 

.47381 

.45125 

.42869  .40613 

.38356 

.361 

.338** 

5  5  2H 

.52796 

.505% 

.48397 

.46194 

.43997 

.41797 

.39597 

.37397 

.35198 

.329* 

7H 

.555 

.53188 

.50875 

.48563 

.4625 

.43938 

.41625 

.39313 

.37 

.346!" 

7^2V4 

.54113 

.51858 

.49603 

.47348 

.45094 

.42839 

.40584 

.3833 

.36075 

.33a: 

7^5 

.52725 

.50529 

.48331 

.46135 

.43938 

.41741 

.39544 

.373^ 

.3515 

.3295« 

10 

.54 

.5175 

.495 

.4725 

.45 

.4275 

.405 

.3825 

.36 

.3375 

10  2V^ 

.5265 

.50456 

.48263 

.46069 

.43875 

.41681 

.37294 

.351 

.329(1 

10  5 

.513 

.49163 

.47025 

.44888 

.4275 

.40613 

.38475 

.36338 

.342 

.32tt: 

10  5  2^ 

.50018 

.47933 

.45849 

.43765 

.41681 

.39597 

.37513 

.35429 

.33345 

.312^ 

10  7^ 

.4995    .47869 

.45788  .43706 

.41625 

.39544 

.37463 

.35381 

.333 

.3I2I< 

10  7H  5 

.47453  .45476 

.43499  .41521 

.39544 

.37567 

.3559 

.33612 

.31635 

.2965! 

10  10 

.486 

.46575 

.4455 

.42525 

.405 

.38475 

3645 

.34425 

.324 

.30375 

10  10  2H 

.47385 

.45411 

.43436 

.41462 

.39488 

.37514 

.35539 

.33564 

.3159 

.2%}t 

10  10  5 

.4617 

.44246 

.42323^.40399 

.38475 

.36551 

.34628 

.32704 

.3078 

.2885t 

10  10  5  2H 

.45016  .4314 

.41264 

.39389 

.37513 

.35637 

.33762 

.31886  .3001 

.28135 

10  10  10 

.4374 

.41918 

.40095 

.38273 

3645 

.34628 

.32805 

.30983  .2916 

.2n3« 

12^ 

.525 

.50313 

.48125  .45938 

.4375 

.41663 

.39375 

.37188 

.35 

.32BIJ 

12H2^ 

.51188 

.49055 

.46922 

.4479 

.42656 

.40622 

.38391 

.36258 

.34125 

.31W 

12Vi5 

.49875 

.47797 

.45719 

.43641 

.41563 

.3958 

.37406 

,35329 

.3325 

.31  in 

12H7H 

.48563 

.4654 

.44516 

.42493 

40469 

.38538 

.36422 

.34399 

.32375 

.30352 

12^  10 

.4725 

.45282 

.43313 

.41344 

.39375 

.37497 

.35438 

.33469 

.315 

.29532 

12^  10  5 

•^^UOO 

.43018 

.41147 

.39277 

yiMib 

.35622 

.33666 

.31796 

.29925 

.2805) 

12V4  10  5  2L^ 

.43766 

.41943 

.40118 

.38295 

36471 

.34732 

.32824 

.31001 

.29177  .27334 

12>^  10  7H 

.43706 

.41886 

.40065 

.38243 

'36422 

.34685 

.32780 

.30959 

.28139  .27317 

12H  10  10 

.42525 

.40754 

.38982 

.37210 

•35438 

.33747 

.31894 

.30122 

.2835    .USe^ 

15 

.51 

.48875 

.4675 

.44625 

425 

.40375 

.3825 

.36125 

.34        ,31875 

15  2H 

.49725 

.47653 

.45582  .43510 

.4144 

.39366 

.3730 

.35222 

.3315     .3IW7 

20 

.48 

.46 

.44       .42 

.40 

.38 

.36 

.34 

.32        .30 

i 

• 

MATHEMATICS 


539 


Table  95. — {Continued) 


Primary  DUcount 

Secondary 

Discount 

65 

66H 

70 

72H 

75 

TIM 

80 

85 

87^ 

90 

) 

.35000 

.33334 

.30000 

.27500 

.25000 

.22500 

.20000 

.15000 

.12500 

.10000 

2H 

.34125 

.325 

.2925 

.26813 

.24375 

.21938 

.195 

.14625 

.12188 

.0975 

S 

.3325 

.31667 

.285 

.26125 

.2375 

.21375 

.19 

.1425 

.11875 

.095 

5  2H 

.32419 

.30875 

.27788 

.25472 

.23156 

.20841 

.18525 

.13894 

.11578 

.09263 

5  5 

.31588 

.30083 

.27075 

.24819 

.22563 

.20306 

.1805 

.13538 

.11281 

.09025 

5  5  2H 

.30798 

.29331 

.26398 

.24198 

.21998 

.19799 

.17599 

.13199 

.10999 

.08799 

754 

.32375 

.30833 

.2775 

.25438 

.23125 

.20813 

.165 

.13875 

.11563 

.0925 

7Vi  2H 

.31566 

.30063 

.27056 

.24802 

.22547 

.20292 

.18038 

.13528 

.11273 

.09019 

7H5 

.30756 

.29292 

.26363 

.24166 

.21969 

.19772 

.17575 

.13181 

.10984 

.08788 

10 

.315 

.30 

.27 

.2475 

.225 

.2025 

.18 

.135 

.1125 

.09 

10  2H 

.30713 

.2925 

.26325 

.24131 

.21938 

.19744 

.1755 

.13163 

.10969 

.08775 

10  5 

.29925 

.285 

.2565 

.23513 

.21375 

.19238 

.171 

.12825 

.10688 

.0855 

10  5  2V4 

.29177 

.27788 

.25009 

.22925 

.20841 

.18757 

.16673 

.12504 

.1042 

.08336 

I0  7V4 

.29138 

.2775 

.24975 

.22894 

.20813 

.18731 

.1665 

.12488 

.10406 

.08325 

10  7H  5 

.27681 

.26363 

.23726 

.21749 

.19772 

.17795 

.15818 

.11864 

.09886 

.07909 

10  10 

.2835 

.27 

.243 

.22275 

.2025 

.18225 

.162 

.1215 

.10125 

.081 

10  10  2H 

.27641 

.26325 

.23693 

.21718 

.19744 

.17769 

.15795 

..11846 

.09872 

.07898 

10  10  5 

.26933 

.2565 

.23085 

.21161 

.19238 

.17314 

.1539 

.11543 

.0%19 

.07695 

10  10  5  2^ 

.26259 

.25009 

.22508 

.20632 

.18757 

.16881 

.15005 

.11254 

.09378 

.07503 

10  10  10 

.25515 

.243 

.2187 

.20048 

.18225 

.16403 

.1458 

.10935 

.09113 

.0729 

12H 

.30623 

.29138 

.2625 

.24063 

.21875 

.19688 

.175 

.13125 

.10938 

.0875 

12^4  2^ 

.29859 

.2841 

.25594 

.23462 

.21328 

.191% 

.17063 

.12797 

.10665 

.08531 

12}-i  5 

.29094 

.27681 

.24938 

.2286 

.20781 

.18704 

.16625 

.12469 

.10391 

.08313 

121/^  7^ 

.28328 

.^6953 

.24281 

.22258 

.20234 

.18211 

.16188 

.12141 

.10118 

.08094 

121^  10 

.27563 

.26224 

.23625 

.21657 

.19688 

.17719 

.1575 

.11813 

.09844 

.07875 

12H  10  5 

.26185 

.24913 

.22444 

.20574 

.18704 

.16833 

.14963 

.11222 

.09352 

.07481 

12^  10  52H 

.2553 

.2429 

.21883 

.2006 

.18236 

.14612 

.14589 

.10942 

.09118 

.07294 

121.^  10  7Vi 

.254% 

.24257 

.21853 

.20033 

.18211 

.1639 

.14569 

.10927 

.09106 

.07284 

12H  10  10 

.24807 

.23602 

.21263 

.19491 

.17719 

.15947 

.14175 

.10632 

.08860 

.07088 

15 

.2975 

.28333 

.255 

.23375 

.2125 

.19125 

.17 

.1275 

.10625 

.085 

15  VA 

.29007 

.27625 

.24863 

.22791 

.20719 

.18647 

.16575 

.12432 

.10360 

.08288 

20 

.28 

.26667 

.24 

.22 

.20 

.18 

.16 

.12 

.10 

.08 

The  table  gives  net  amounts  of  $1.00  after  deducting  chain 
discounts  most  frequently  found  in  commercial  calculations. 

Example:  To  find  the  net  amount  of  a  bill  of  $258.00  dis- 
counted at  25t10-10-5%,  refer  to  the  column  for  the  primary- 
discount  of  25%;  read  down  this  column  until  opposite  10-10-5 
in  the  column  of  secondary  discounts  at  the  left.  The  net 
amount  of  $1.00  less  25-10-10-5  %  is  found  to  be  0.57713.  Multi- 
plying $258.00  by  0.57713  we  find  the  net  amount  of  the  bill  to 
be  $148.00. 


SECTIONS  14 
CODES 

The  following  code  is  a  fair  sample  of  those  in  force  in  various 
states  throughout  the  union. 

Naturally  the  differing  conditions  in  various  sections  of  tht 
country  demand  varying  requirements;  however,  the  essentk 
requirements  are  much  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
The  plumber,  contractor,  and  building  owner  should  f amiliaria 
himself  with  the  code  of  his  particular  state. 

ADMINISTRATION 

The  rules  set  forth  in  this  standard  shall  apply  to  every 
establishment  within  this  State. 

The  owner  of  every  estabUshment  shall  provide  each  estab- 
lishment therein  with  water  closets  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  the  standards  and  with  proper  and  sufBcient 
water  and  plumbing  pipes;  a  proper  and  sufficient  supply  of 
water  to  enable  the  tenant  or  lessee  thereof  to  comply  with  the 
provisions  of  these  standards. 

As  an  alternative  to  providing  water  closets  within  each 
establishment  aforesaid,  the  owner  may  provide  in  the  public 
hallways  or  other  parts  of  the  premises  used  in  common,  where 
they  will  be  at  all  times  ready  and  conveniently  accessible  to  all 
persons  employed  on  the  premises,  separate  water  closets  for 
each  sex  and  color  of  sufficient  numbers  to  accommodate  all 
such  persons.  Such  owner  shall  keep  all  water  closets  at 
all  times  provided  with  proper  fastenings  and  properly  screened, 
lighted,  ventilated,  clean,  sanitary,  and  free  from  all  obscene 
writing  or  marking. 

DEFINITIONS 

For  the  application  of  these  rules: 

(a)  The  term  Establishment  shall  mean  any  place  within  this 
Commonwealth  where  work  is  done  for  compensation  to  whom- 
ever payable,  supervision  over  which  has  been  given  by  statute 
to  the  Department  of  Labor  and  Industry. 

(h)  The  term  Workroom  shall  mean  any  room  in  any  build- 
ing wherein  labor  is  performed. 

540 


CODES  541 

(c)  The  term  Retiring  Room  shall  jnean  a  room,  separate 
and  apart  from  the  workroom,  wherein  there  is  provision  for  a 
sick  or  injured  employe  to  secure  rest  and  quiet. 

(d)  The  term  Dressing  Room  shall  mean  that  room  equipped 
with  lockers,  hooks  or  other  devices  for  the  storage  of  articles 
of  clothing. 

(e)  The  term  Toilet  Room  shall  mean  any  room  with  sohd 
walls  extending  from  floor  to  ceiling  containing  one  or  more 
water  closets  or  other  toilet  fixtures.  (Toilets  or  water  closets, 
individual  type,  privy  or  chemical  toilet,  excepted.) 

CO  The  term  Water -Closet  Compartment  shall  mean  an 
enclosure  in  a  toilet  room  surrounding  an  individual  water 
closet,  except  those  toilets  or  water  closets  of  the  individual 
out-door  privy  and  chemically  treated  type. 

(g)  The  term  Chemical  Closet  shall  mean  that  form  of 
closet  wherein  the  contents  are  brought  in  contact  with 
chemicals. 

(h)  The  term  Urinal  shall  mean  the  compartment  wherein 
urination  may  be  performed. 

(i)  The  term  Privy  shall  mean  the  toilet-room  facilities 
which  are  located  outside  of  buildings  wherein  persons  are 
employed. 

(J)  The  term  Wash  Room  shall  mean  a  room  equipped  with 
troughs,  wash  bowls,  shower  bath,  or  other  facihties  for  personal 
cleanUness. 

(k)  The  term  Shower  Bath  shall  mean  the  facihties  for 
washing  all  the  body  under  a  spray  of  water. 

(I)  The  term  Wash  Basin  shall  mean  a  basin  or  bowl  where- 
in personal  cleanliness  may  be  secured  by  washing. 

(m)  The  term  Sink  shall  mean  a  fixture  used  for  general 
cleaning. 

(n)  The  term  Trough  shall  mean  a  vessel  greater  in  length 
than  in  width  or  depth,  wherein  personal  cleanUness  may  be 
secured  by  washing. 

(o)  The  term  Existing  Installation  shall  mean  installed 
prior  to  July  1,  1920. 

(p)  The  term  Hereinafter  Installed  shall  mean  installed  on 
or  after  July  1,  1920. 

(g)  The  term  Department  of  Health  shall  mean  the  State 
Health  Department. 

(r)  The  term  Department  shall  mean  the  state  Department 
of  Labor  and  Industry. 


542  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

(s)  The  term  Board  shall  mean  Industrial  Board. 

(t)  The  term  Commissioner  shall  mean  Commissioner  of  the 
Department  of  Labor  and  Industry. 

(u)  The  term  Approved  shall  mean  approved  by  the  Indus- 
trial Board. 

GENERAL 

(a)  The  owner  of  every  establishment  shall  keep  the  entire 
building  well  drained  and  the  plumbing  thereof  in  a  clean  and 
sanitary  condition,  and  shall  keep  the  cellar,  basement,  yard, 
areaways,  vacant  rooms  and  spaces,  and  all  parts  and  place 
used  in  common,  in  a  clean,  sanitary,  and  safe  condition,  and 
shall  keep  such  parts  thereof  as  may  reasonably  be  required  by 
the  Department  of  Health,  properly  lighted  at  all  hours  or 
times  when  said  buildings  are  in  use. 

(&)  Every  part  of  an  establishment  and  of  the  premises 
thereof  and  the  yards,  courts,  passages,  areas  or  alleys  con- 
nected with  or  belonging  to  the  same,  shall  be  kept  clean  and 
shall  be  kept  free  from  any  accumulation  of  dirt,  filth,  rubbish, 
or  garbage  in  or  on  the  same.  The  roof,  passages,  stairs,  halls, 
basements,  cellars,  privies,  water  closets,  cesspools,  drains,  and 
all  other  parts  of  such  buildings  and  the  premises  thereof  shall 
at  all  times  be  kept  in  a  clean,  sanitary,  and  safe  condition. 

(c)  Every  room  in  an  establishment  and  the  floors,  walls, 
ceilings,  windows  and  every  other  part  thereof  and  all  fixtures 
therein,  shall  at  all  times  be  kept  in  a  clean  and  sanitary  condi- 
tion. The  walls  and  ceilings  of  each  room  in  an  establishment 
shall  be  lime-washed  or  painted,  except  when  properly  tiled  or 
covered  with  slate  or  marble  with  a  finished  surface.  Such 
lime  wash  or  paint  shall  be  renewed  whenever  necessary,  as  may 
be  required  by  the  Department  of  Health. 

(d)  Every  floor  shall  be  kept  free  from  protruding  nails, 
splinters,  holes  or  loose  boards.  If  any  floor  is  so  defective 
or  in  such  ill  repair  that  it  cannot  be  kept  in  a  clean  and  sanitar}* 
condition,  it  shall  be  replaced  by  a  new  floor. 

(e)  The  floor  of  every  workroom  shall  be  maintained  so  far  as 
possible  in  a  dry  condition.  Where  wet  processes  are  used,  the 
floor  shall  be  drained  free  from  liquids,  or  whenever  it  is 
impracticable  to  keep  it  entirely  free  from  liquids,  platforms, 
mats,  or  other  dry  standing  places  shall  be  provided,  or  the 
employe  shall  wear  rubber  boots. 


CODES  543 

(/)  No  person  shall  expectorate  upon  the  walls,  floor  or 
stairs  of  any  building.  One  (1)  or  more  cuspidors  shall  be 
provided  in  every  toilet  room  used  by  males.  In  workrooms, 
cuspidors  shall  also  be  provided  whenever  required  by  the 
Commissioner.  Every  cuspidor  shall  be  made  of  material  with 
smooth  surface,  which  can  be  easily  cleaned.  Where  work  is 
continuous  during  the  twenty-four  hours,  all  cuspidors,  if 
used,  shall  be  cleaned  both  night  and  morning. 

(g)  Whenever  a  receptacle  is  used  for  waste  or  refuse  which 
is  Uquid  or  consists  of  material  liable  to  decay  or  have  an  offen- 
sive odor,  it  shall  be  made  of  metal  or  earthenware  or  be  metal- 
Uned  and  shall  not  leak.  It  shall  be  kept  covered,  and  shall 
be  washed  out  as  often  as  is  necessary  to  keep  it  in  sanitary 
condition.  A  covered  receptacle  shall  be  kept  in  the  women's 
toilet  room. 

(h)  When  the  sweeping  of  floors,  or  the  removal  of  waste  or 
refuse  cannot  be  done  outside  of  working  hours,  all  sweepings, 
waste  or  refuse  shall  be  removed  in  such  manner  as  to  avoid 
raising  of  dust  or  odors,  as  often  as  is  necessary  to  maintain  the 
establishment  in  a  clean  and  sanitary  condition. 

(t)  In  all  workrooms  separate  covered  receptacles  for  receiv- 
ing papers,  clippings  or  other  refuse  of  that  nature,  shall  be 
provided.  Such  receptacles  shall  be  emptied  at  least  once  a 
day  and  oftener  if  necessary.  The  employer  shall  be  respon- 
sible for  the  general  cleanUness  of  the  shop,  and  the  employes 
shall  cooperate  in  its  maintenance  in  a  clean  and  sanitary 
condition. 

(J)  All  plumbing  fixtures  shall  be  in  strict  accordance  with 
State  laws  and  local  ordinance. 

(k)  Connections  from  toilet  fixtures  may  only  be  made  to 
municipal  sewers  from  which  sewage  is  discharged  in  accordance 
with  the  terms  of  permits  of  the  Department  of  Health. 

(I)  Connections  from  plumbing  fixtures  may  only  be  made 
to  private  sewers  which  were  in  use  prior  to  April  22,  1905,  and 
the  use  of  which  has  not  been  prohibited  by  the  Department  of 
Health. 

• 

RETIRING  ROOMS  FOR  USE  OF  FEMALES 

(a)  In  every  establishment  where  females  are  employed,  not 
less  than  one  (1)  retiring  room  for  their  exclusive  use  shall  be 
provided.     Where  more  than  five  (5)  and  not  more  than  ten 


544  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

(10)  females  are  employed,  the  floor  space  of  such  room 
rooms  shall  be  not  less  than  sixty  (60)  square  feet,  and  ir 
each  additional  person  not  less  than  two  (2)  square  feet  S 
added  thereto. 

(6)  When  a  separate  hospital  or  emergency  room  for  the  il- 
of  female  employes  who  are  sick  or  injured,  is  provided  ar 
maintained  at  all  times,  in  addition  to  such  retiring  room,  or  z 
case  the  floor  area  provided  in  toilet  and  wash  rooms  is  mor 
than  the  required  amount,  a  proportionate  reduction  in  flo:' 
area  of  retiring  rooms  may  be  made  by  the  Commissioner. . 

(c)  The  walls  or  partitions  of  every  retiring  room  shall  be  c: 
solid  construction,  and  shall  be  at  least  seven  (7)  feet  high 
Translucent  glass  may  be  inserted  in  such  walls  or  partitiozi^ 
Every  retiring  room  shall  be  so  constructed  and  maintaiDe: 
that  privacy  shall  be  secured  at  all  times,  and  shall  be  providec 
with  locker  or  separate  clothes  hooks  for  every  female  employe 
unless  such  faciUties  are  elsewhere  provided. 

(d)  Every  retiring  room  shall  be  enclosed  by  'walls  wbid 
extend  to  the  ceiling,  unless  provided  with  windows  which  have 
an  area  opening  directly  to  out-door  air,  not  less  than  od€- 
tenth  (Ko)  of  the  floor  area,  shall  have  exhaust  ventilatioL 
equal  to  not  less  than  six  (6)  changes  of  air  per  hour  at  all 
times  when  such  rooms  are  in  use.  A  skyUght  shall  be  deemed 
the  equivalent  of  a  window  provided  that  it  has  fixed  or  movabk 
louvres  with  opening  of  the  net  openable  area  prescribed  for 
such  window.  In  any  such  room,  enclosed  by  walls  which  do 
not  extend  to  the  ceiling,  the  Health  Department  may  require 
such  ventilation  as  may  be  necessary. 

(e)  Every  retiring  room  shall  have  at  least  one  (1)  window 
or  skyUght  opening  directly  to  the  out-door  air  or  air  shaft, 
which  shall  be  so  constructed  and  maintained  as  to  be  easily 
opened  at  least  one-half  {}4)  of  its  required  area,  except  that 
in  case  a  separate  hospital  or  emergency  room  is  provided  and 
maintained  at  all  times  for  the  exclusive  use  of  females,  an^ 
such  room  has  a  window  or  skyUght  opening  to  the  outdoor  air, 
the  retiring  room  shall  not  be  required  to  have  such  window  or 
skyUght. 

(/)  Every  retiring  room  shall  be  heated  to  a  temperature  of 
not  less  than  68  or  70  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  shall  be  so 
Ughted  that  all  parts  of  the  room  are  easily  accessible.  U 
dayUght  is  not  sufiicient  for  this  purpose,  artificial  illumination 
shall  be  maintained  at  all  times  when  the  room  is  in  use. 


^ 


CODES  545 

(g)  At  least  one  (1)  couch  or  bed  shall  be  provided  in  every 
establishment  for  the  use  of  females;  where  more  than  forty 
(40)  and  less  than  one  hundred  (100)  females  ar6  employed, 
two  (2)  shall  be  provided;  where  more  than  one  hundred  (100) 
and  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  (250)  females  are  employed, 
three  (3)  shall  be  provided,  and  thereafter  at  least  one  (1)  for 
every  two  hundred  and  fifty  (250)  employes.  Unless  a  separate 
hospital  or  emergency  room  is  provided  for  the  use  of  females,  a 
part  of  the  retiring  room  shall  be  screened  and  the  couch  or 
couches  placed  therein. 

TOILET  ROOMS 

(a)  All  water-closet  compartments,  toilet  rooms,  wash  and 
dressing  rooms,  privies  and  the  floors,  walls,  ceiUngs  and  surface 
thereof,  and  all  fixtures  therein,  and  all  water  closets  and 
urinals,  troughs  and  basins,  shall  at  all  times  be  kept  and  mainr 
tained  by  the  employer  in  good  order  and  repair  and  in  a  clean, 
odorless  and  sanitary  condition. 

(&)  In  each  toilet  room,  water-closet  compartment,  or  chem- 
ical toilet,  there  shall  be  provided  an  adequate  supply  of 
toilet  paper,  and  it  shall  be  of  material  which  will  not  obstruct 
fixtures  or  plumbing. 

(c)  The  enclosures  of  all  toilet  rooms,  dressing  rooms,  or 
water-closet  compartments  and  all  fixtures  shall  be  kept  free 
from  all  indecent  writing  or  marking,  and  such  defacement  when 
found,  shall  be  at  once  removed  by  the  employer. 

(d)  Every  toilet  room  or  compartment  where  adequate 
natural  Ught  is  not  available,  shall  be  artificially  lighted  in 
accordance  with  the  lighting  standards  of  the  Board  during  the 
entire  period  the  building  is  occupied,  so  that  all  parts  of  the 
room  are  easily  visible.  The  approach  to  all  water  closets 
shall  be  kept  well  Ughted  and  free  from  obstructions  at  all 
times. 

(e)  In  all  toilet  rooms  and  water-closet  compartments  and 
in  all  compartments  containing  urinals,  there  shall  be  dis- 
played a  sign  asking  the  employes  to  cooperate  with  the  em- 
ployer and  with  each  other  in  maintaining  the  conveniences 
in  a  sanitary  condition.  Upon  written  request  to  the  Health 
Department,  copies  of  the  following  sign  will  be  furnished 
without  cost: 


35 


646  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

ATTENTION 

These  .conveniences   have   been   installed   for    your 

use,  not  your  abuse. 

Use  wash  basins  freely,  but  leave  them  empty   and 

clean. 

Flush  toilets  thoroughly  after  using. 

Never  throw  rubbish  into  toilets.     Put  it  in  the  places 

provided  for  that  purpose. 

Do  not  attempt  to  make  any  adjustment  to  plumbing 

or  toilet  fixtures. 

Careless  use  of  these  conveniences  causes  discomfort 

and  endangers  health. 

Do  not  allow  the  indifference  of  yourself  or  others 

to  menace  your  health.     Report  any  misuse  or  damage 

to  these  accommodations  to  the  proper  authority  at 

once. 

• 

(/-I)  During  the  period  between  April  1  and  I>ecember  1 
all  windows  in  toilet  rooms,  water  closets,  urinals,  and  privies 
shall  have  wire  screens  not  coaser  than  fourteen  (14)  mesh 
wire,  and  such  screens  shall  be  maintained  in  good  repair. 

(/-2)  The  door  opening  leading  into  toilet  rooms  shall  be 
similarity  screened  except  where  solid  doors  are  provided,  and 
said  screen  doors  shall  open  outwards  and  be  fitted  with  an 
effective  self-closing  device. 

(g)  There  shall  be  provided  separate  water-closet  compart- 
ments or  toilet  rooms  for  each  sex  in  every  establishment  where 
both  males  and  females  are  employed. 

(h)  These  compartments  and  rooms  shall  be  designated  for 
the  use  of  males  and  females  and  shall  be  clearly  marked  "  Men' 
or  ''Women"  at  the  entrance  to  the  toilet  room. 

(i)  No  persons  of  one  sex  shall  be  permitted  to  use  the 
water-closet  compartment  or  toilet  room  assigned  to  the 
opposite  sex. 

(j)  Men  or  boys  are  not  permitted  to  care  for  or  be  in  charge 
of  water  closets  or  toilet  rooms  which  are  designated  for  the 
use  of  women,  or  vice  versa^  but  cleaning  may  be  performed  by 
either  sex  either  before  or  after  the  usual  hours  of  employment. 

(A;)  All  toilet  facihties  hereinafter  installed,  including  ihox 
provided  to  replace  existing  installations,  shall  be  constructed. 
installed,  ventilated,  lighted  and  maintained  in  accordance 
with  the  following  rules: 


CODES  647 

(I)  All  toilet  facilities  shall  be  located  conveniently  to  and 
easily  accessible  from  all  places  where  persons  are  employed. 

(m)  No  toilet  facility  shall  be  located  more  than  one  floor 
above  or  below  the  regular  place  or  work  of  the  person  for 
whose  use  they  are  provided  except  in  such  buildings  as  may  be 
specified  by  the  Board  and  except  in  those  buildings  where 
passenger  elevators  are  provided  in  sufficient  numbers  and 
their  use  permitted  at  all  times  to  all  employes  to  reach  the 
floor  or  floors  on  which  are  located  the  toilet-room  facilities. 

(n)  No  water  closet,  chemical  closet,  or  urinal  shall  be  main- 
tained in  any  room  or  have  direct  connection  with  any  room 
in  which  food  products  are  manufactured  or  in  which  unwrapped 
food  products  are  prepared,  stored,  handled,  or  sold,  unless 
such  toilet  fixtures  are  separated  from  said  room  by  a  vestibule 
with  doors.  The  doors  of  both  the  toilet  room  and  the 
vestibule  shall  be  provided  with  effective  self-closing  devices. 

(o)  Every  partition  separating  a  toilet  room  provided  for 
males  from  a  toilet  room  provided  for  females  shall  extend 
from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling,  and  there  shall  be  no  direct  con- 
nection between  the  toilet  rooms  either  by  door  or  other  open- 
ing. Existing  installations  of  toilet  rooms  must  be  separated 
by  solid  partitions  extending  from  floor  to  ceiling;  provided, 
however,  that  in  shops  with  high  ceilings  the  toilet  rooms  shall 
be  ceiled  over  at  least  nine  (9)  feet  clear  of  floor. 

(p)  The  entrance  to  every  toilet  facility  which  opens  direct- 
into  a  workroom  shall  be  screened  from  view  by  a  vestibule 
or  by  a  stationary  screen  located  not  more  than  three  and  one- 
half  (3K)  f66t  from  the  door  of  the  toilet  room,  extending  to  a 
height  of  not  less  than  six  (6)  feet  above  the  floor  and  extending 
not  less  then  two  (2)  feet  beyond  each  jamb  of  the  entrance  door. 

(q)  Where  existing  toilet  facilities  for  males  and  females  are 
in  adjoining  toilet  rooms  and  the  entrance  doors  are  within 
ten  (10)  feet  or  less  of  each  other,  a  stationary  screen  extending 
to  a  height  of  not  less  than  six  (6)  feet  above  the  floor,  and  in 
plan  either  T-  or  L-shape  shall  be  built  in  front  of  the  doors  and  if 
the  space  permits  shall  extend  not  less  than  two  (2)  feet  beyond 
the  further  jamb  of  the  door  leading  into  said  toilet  room. 

(r)  Toilet  facilities  hereinafter  installed  shall  be  located  in  a 
compartment  in  a  toilet  room,  or  the  toilet  room  furnished  with 
a  vestibule  or  screen  as  aforesaid. 

(s)  The  outside  partitions  of  all  toilet  rooms  shall  be  of  solid 
construction,  and  made  opaque  or  translucent,  but  not  trans- 


648  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

parent,  and  shall  extend  from  floor  to  ceiling,  or  such  rooc: 
shall  be  independently  ceiled  over  (except  roof -truss  constru  ^ 
tion).  All  partitions  separating  toilet  rooms  provided  for  tl 
different  sexes,  shall  be  at  least  two  and  one-half  (2>^)  incht 
in  thickness  and  constructed  of  such  materials  as  are  not  trair 
parent  or  translucent,  and  they  shall  be  sound  proof  and  z 
openings  in  such  partitions  shall  be  permitted. 

(0  Every  water-closet  compartment  in  toilet  rooms  used  h; 
females  shall  have  a  door  fastened  with  a  latch,  lock  or  boll 
Dwarf  doors  may  be  used,  but  shall  not  be  less  than  forty- 
eight  (48)  inches  in  height  and  the  top  of  same  shall  not  be 
less  than  sixty  (60)  inches  from  the  floor. 

(u)  The  door  of  every  toilet  room  shall  be  fitted  with  a: 
effective  self-closing  device. 

(v)  The  floors  and  sanitary  base  at  least  sixteen  (16)  inche 
high  of  all  toilet  rooms  shall  be  water-tight,  smooth  and  con- 
structed of  a  substance  that  shall  be  impervious  to  moisture. 

(w)  The  walls  of  all  toilet  rooms  shall  be  smooth  and  of  a 
substance  that  can  be  readily  cleaned  and  kept  clean. 

(.t)  The  ceiUngs  of  all  toilet  rooms  shall  be  smooth  and  of  a 
substance  that  can  be  readily  cleaned  and  kept  clean. 

WATER  CLOSETS 

(o)  The  number  of  water  closets  to  be  provided  for  each  sex, 
shall  in  every  case  be  based  upon  the  maximum  number  of 
persons  of  that  sex  employed  at  any  one  time  on  the  given  floor 
or  floors  or  in  the  given  building  for  which  such  closets  are 
provided  and  according  to  the  following  ratio: 

WATER  CLOSETS 


NUMBEB    OF   PBB80NS 

Number  of  closets 

Ratio 

1  to  10 

1 

1  for  10 

11  to  25 

2 

1  for  12H 

26  to  50 

3 

1  for  169i 

51  to  80 

4 

1  for  20 

81  to  125 

5 

1  for  25 

For  each  additional  forty-five  (45)  employes,  or  fractional  part 
thereof,  one  additional  water  closet  shall  be  provided.  When- 
ever urinal  is  supphed,  one  closet  less  than  the  required  number 
may  be  provided  for  males,  when  more  than  twenty  (20)  are 
employed,  except  that  the  number  of  closets  in  such  cases  may 
not  be  reduced  to  less  than  two-thirds  the  required  number. 


CODES  549 

(&)  Every  water-closet  compartment  hereafter  installed 
shall  either  be  located  in  a  toilet  room,  or  shall  be  built  with  a 
vestibule  and  door  to  screen  the  interior  from  view,  and  the 
entrance  shall  be  remote  from  the  entrance  to  a  toilet  for  the 
opposite  sex. 

(c)  Approved  sanitary  toilets  of  a  number  equivalent  to  the 
requirements  estabUshed  for  manufacturing  plants  in  this  State, 
shall  be  provided,  so  located  as  to  be  easily  accessible  to  the 
men  employed  on  the  various  levels  or  stories.  Chemical 
sanitaries  of  portable  type  and  durable  construction,  of  such 
make  as  are  approved  by  the  Department  of  Health,  are 
approved  for  this  purpose.  They  shall  be  equipped  with 
approved  agitators,  and  maintained  with  chemicals  of  ascer- 
tained efficiency. 

(d)  Pan,  plunger,  washout,  faucet  and  long-hopper  water 
closets  shall  not  be  permitted  to  be  hereinafter  installed. 
Every  such  closet  at  present  installed,  if  in  foul  or  leaky  condi- 
tion, if  not  in  working  order,  or  if  the  bowl  is  cracked,  shall  be 
replaced  by  new  installation,  provided,  however,  this  prohibi- 
tion shall  not  apply  to  approved  forms  of  frost-proof  closets. 

(e)  All  earthenware  traps  must  have  heavy  brass  floor 
plates,  soldered  to  the  lead  bends  and  bolted  to  the  trap  flange 
and  the  joint  made  permanently  secure  and  gas-tight. 

(/)  Every  water  closet  hereinafter  installed  shall  have  an 
open-front  seat  made  of  substantial  material;  if  absorbent 
material  be  used  the  seat  shall  be  finished  with  varnish  or  other 
substance  to  make  it  impervious  to  moisture. 

(g)  No  water  closets,  or  urinals,  except  those  with  flush 
meters,  volumeters  or  similar  devices,  shall  be  supplied  directly 
from  the  supply  pipes. 

(h)  All  water  closets  must  have  flushing-rim  bowls. 

(i)  Iron-trough  water  closets  and  trough  urinals  must  be 
porcelain  enameled  or  galvanized  cast  iron. 

(j)  All  water  closets  and  other  fixtures  must  be  provided 
with  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  for  flushing,  to  keep  them  in  a 
proper  and  cleanly  condition. 

(A:)  Water-closet  flush  pipes  must  not  be  less  than  one  and 
one-quarter  inches,  and  urinal  flush  pipes  one-half  inch  in 
diameter. 

(I)  Water  closets  and  urinals  within  buildings  shall  be 
supplied  with  water  from  special  tanks  or  cisterns,  which  shall 
hold  not  less  than  six  (6)  gallons,  when  full  to  the  level  of  the  over- 


550  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

flow  pipe,  for  each  closet  supplied,  excepting  automatic  r 
siphon  tanks,  which  shall  hold  not  less  than  five  (5)  i^allons  ic 
each  closet  supplied.  A  group  of  closets  may  be  flushed  froc 
one  tank,  but  water  closets  on  different  floors  must  not  br 
flushed  from  the  same  tank,  except  flush  meters,  volumeter 
or  similar  devices.  The  water  in  said  tanks  must  not  be  use 
for  any  other  purpose. 

(m)  Flush  valves  or  similar  devices  od  sanitary  fixtures  muf 
be  provided  with  individual  controlling  stops  and  must  be 
connected  to  a  water  supply  that  will  maintain  a  pressure  c: 
not  less  than  five  (5)  pounds  to  the  square  inch  at  each  device 
when  it  is  flushing.  Such  devices  must  be  of  simple  constnio 
tion  which  will  result  in  the  minimum  practicable  amount  c: 
wear  and  prevent  water  waste,  must  be  so  constructed  tha* 
they  cannot  be  held  open  for  continuous  discharge,  and  mu>- 
fulfill  all  of  the  conditions  of  this  paragraph  without  requiniu 
regulation  if  the  static  water  pressure  varies  from  five  (5)  t« 
seventy-five  (76)  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  The  quantity  c 
water  discharged  by  each  device  at  each  operation  shall  t^ 
within  the  following  Umits: 

Water  closets  and  slop  sinks 3        to  5      gallons 

Pedestal  or  siphon-jet  urinals 2        to  3. 5  gallons 

Flush-rim  or  individual  stall  urinals 0. 75  to  2      gallons 

(n)  Two  (2)  feet  of  slab  or  trough  urinal  shall  be  consid- 
ered equivalent  to  one  individual  urinal. 

(o)  Where  less  than  thirty  (30;  males  are  employed,  at  leas* 
one  urinal  shall  be  furnished;  for  between  thirty  (30)  and 
eighty  (80),  two  lu-inals,  and  for  each  additional  eighty  (8(; 
male  employes  or  fraction  thereof  one  additional  urinal  shai. 
be  furnished. 

(p)  For  every  urinal  fixture  or  its  equivalent,  not  less  than 
ninety  (90)  cubic  feet  of  air  space  shall  be  provided  whenever 
a  urinal  is  located  in  a  compartment  or  toilet  room. 

iq)  Every  urinal  hereinafter  installed  shall  be  composed  c 

smooth  material  that  is  impervious  to  moisture.     Cast  iron 

galvanized  iron,  sheet  metal  or  steel  urinals  are  prohibitet. 

.  unless  coated  with  vitreous  enamel.     Where  slate  is  used,  r 

shall  be  such  quality  as  to  be  impervious  to  moisture. 

(r)  The  floor  to  a  distance  of  not  less  than  twenty-four  (24 
inches  in  front  of  all  urinals  shall  be  constructed  of  approved 
material  impervious  to  moisture,  and  whenever  new  wall  or 
vertical  slab  urinals  are  installed,  the  floor  in  front  of  the  uriDal^ 
shall  slope  toward  the  urinal  drain. 


CODES  551 

(s)  All  urinals  except  of  the  chemical-closet  type  shall  be 
connected  by  waste  pipes  to  sewers  or  cess-pools,  which  sewers 
or  cess-pools  shall  be  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  laws, 
rules,  and  regulations  of  this  State  and  the  municipal  health 
authorities  of  the  locality  in  which  they  exist. 

(t)  Unless  water  runs  continuously  over  the  walls  of  a  urinal, 
each  urinal  shall  be  provided  with  an  adequate  water  flush. 
When  individual  tanks  are  used,  the  flushing  shall  be  accom- 
plished by  pedal  action  or  by  an  automatic  device  which  will 
flush  the  urinal  at  regular  intervals. 

(u)  In  foundries,  rolling  miUs,  blast  furnaces,  smelting  and 
metal  refining  works  and  such  other  classes  of  establishment  as 
are  specified  by  the  Board,  urinals  need  not  be  enclosed  with 
partitions  provided  that  they  are  properly  screened,  and  pro- 
vided they  are  located  in  rooms  which  females  are  not  allowed 
to  enter.  For  every  urinal  fixture  or  its  equivalent,  not  less 
than  ninety  (90)  cubic  feet  of  air  space  shall  be  provided  when- 
ever a  urinal  is  located  in  a  compartment  or  toilet  room. 

PRIVIES 

(a)  Privies  will  only  be  permitted  on  premises  where  there  is 
no  lawful  sewer  accessible  to  the  premises  or  obtainable  by 
construction  at  a  reasonable  cost  at  either  public  or  private 
expense,  and  further  only  where  it  is  deemed  practicable  to  con- 
struct and  maintain  the  privy  without  any  danger  of  contaminat- 
ing a  source  of  drinking  water. 

(h)  In  cases  where  a  privy  is  located  on  pervious  soil  and 
where  there  is  possibility  that  the  percolation  from  the  privy 
endanger  a  source  of  drinking  water  supply,  then  such  privy 
shall  be  provided  either  with  cans  or  with  a  tight  concrete 
vault  to  receive  the  excreta.  In  cases  where  a  privy  is  located 
on  an  impervious  soil,  or  on  a  pervious  soil,  where  there  is  no 
danger  of  contamination  of  any  source  of  drinking  water,  then 
a  pit  may  be  used,  provided,  however,  that  the  pit  be  sufficiently 
sheathed  or  lined  to  prevent  danger  of  the  sides  caving  in. 

(c)  All  privies  shall  be  constructed  and  maintained  so  that 
there  will  be  no  cracks  or  open  joints  in  that  portion  of  the 
superstructure  between  the  seat  or  floor  and  the  pit,  vault  or 
space  where  cans  are  kept.  All  ventilating  openings  shall  be 
provided  with  fly-tight  screens.  The  doors  should  be  self- 
closing,  and  the  lids  over  the  seats  so  constructed  that  they  fall 


552  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

into  a  closed  position  when  the  seat  is  not  occupied.  The  pi 
vault,  or  space  where  the  cans  are  kept,  should  be  ventilated  to  m 
outside  air  by  means  of  a  stack  protected  at  its  outlet  end  by  fi; 
tight  screens. 

(d)  The  privy  shall  be  maintaind  in  a  cleanly  condition.  J 
proper  receptacle,  containing  dry,  clean  earth  or  pulverize. 
lime,  shall  be  kept  in  the  privy  and  provided  with  a  scoop  > 
that  the  earth  or  lime  may  be  sprinkled  upon  the  excreta  in  tb 
pit.  Toilet  paper  shall  be  provided.  The  pit,  vault  or  cat 
shall  be  emptied  and  cleaned  at  sufficiently  frequent  interval 
to  positively  insure  against  any  danger  of  overflowing. 

(e)  The  night  soil  removed  from  privies  shall  be  dispiosed  of  l- 
accordance  with  rules  and  regulations  of  the  State  Departmen 
of    Health. 

(/)  All  privies  shall  be  separate  for  the  two  sexes  and  marke: 
"Men"  and  "Women." 

(g)  Every  privy  shall  be  ventilated  by  an  unobstructed 
opening  to  the  outer  air,  other  than  the  door,  which  has  an  ares 
of  at  least  one-hundred  and  forty-four  (144)  square  inchft«. 
Every  privy  shall  be*  provided  with  a  door.  Every  window  an<i 
ventilating  opening  of  a  privy  shall  be  protected  by  screens  to  I 
prevent  the  entrance  of  flies,  with  a  self-closing  device  to  keep  i: 
closed. 

CHEMICAL  CLOSETS 

(a)  Upon  premises  where  a  sewer  is  not  accessible  so  that 
water-closet  fixtures  cannot  be  installed,  and  so-called  chemical 
closets  are  used,  they  shall  be  maintained  as  follows: 

(b)  The  containers  shall  be  charged  with  a  proper  strength 
solution. 

(c)  After  use  the  contents  of  the  container  shall  be  thorough- 
ly agitated  with  proper  devices  provided  for  that  purpose. 

(d)  When  the  container  is  not  more  than  two-thirds  full,  the 
contents  shall  be  removed  and  disposed  of  as  night  soil  in  strict 
accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the  Department  of  Health. 

(e)  The  stacks  connecting  the  seat  with  the  container  shall  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  at  least  every  two  weeks  or  more  frequently 
if  necessary  to  maintain  them  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

VENTILATION 

(a)  All  existing  toilet  rooms  and  water-closet  compartments 
and  wash  rooms  not  provided  with  windows  that  open  easily 


CODES  553 

to  the  outside  air  shall  be  adequately  ventilated  by  artificial 
means. 

(6)  Every  toilet  room,  water  closet  or  urinal  compartment, 
or  wash  room  hereafter  installed  shall  if  possible  have  a  window 
opening  directly  to  the  outside  air  or  be  provided  with  artifi- 
cial ventilation  as  aforesaid.  No  such  window  shall  have  an 
area  of  less  than  four  (4)  square  feet,  measured  between  stop 
heads,  for  each  water  closet  or  urinal.  A  skylight  shall  be 
deemed  the  equivalent  of  a  window,  provided  that  it  has 
fixed  or  movable  louvres  with  openings  of  the  net  openable 
area  prescribed  for  such  window. 

(c)  All  exhaust  fans  shall  discharge  to  the  outside  air  at 
such  point  as  not  to  cause  offense  to  the  occupants  of  the  build- 
ing or  create  any  nuisance  in  the  neighborhood.  Whenever 
any  air  shaft  used  for  ventilating  toilet  rooms  is  covered  by  a 
skylight,  the  net  area  of  openings  in  the  skyUght  shall  be  equal 
to  at  least  the  required  area  of  the  airshaft. 

WASHING  FACILITIES 

(a)  Washing  facilities  for  the  use  of  factory  employes  shall 
be  furnished  according  to  the  following  table: 


Maximum    number 

OF 

PBR80N8 

Feet 

OF 

TBOUQH 

Ratio 

8 

2 

2  for  8 

16 

4 

2  for  8 

30 

3 

2  for  10 

44 

4 

2  for  11 

65 

5 

2  for  13 

For  each  additional  twenty-five  (25)  employes  or  fractional 
part  thereof,  at  least  two  (2)  additional  feet  of  trough  shall  be 
supplied.  Each  two  (^2)  feet  of  trough  shall  either  be  equipped 
with  a  spray  pipe  so  arranged  that  it  will  supply  water  of  the 
proper  temperature  or  two  (2)  faucets  supplying  hot  and  cold 
water.  The  trough  shall  not  be  equipped  with  a  plug  or  other 
stopper.  In  lieu  of  the  trough  wash  basins  will  be  accepted  in 
the  proportion  of  one  (1)  wash  basin  with  faucets  supplying 
hot  and  cold  water  for  each  two  (2)  feet  of  trough. 

(6)  For  the  use  of  oflSce  employes,  wash  basins  with  two 
(2)  faucets  supplying  hot  and  cold  water,  shall  be  furnished 
according  to  the  following  table: 

For  Males;  one  (1)  wash  basin  for  each  twenty-five  (25). 

For  Females;  one  (1)  wash  basin  for  each  thirty-five  (35). 


554  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  employes  to  cooperate  in  the  maii 
tenance  of  the  washing  facilities  in  a  clean  and  sajiitary  cond 
tion. 

(c)  When  separate  wash  rooms  are  provided,  the  enclosii. 
walls  shall  be  of  solid  construction.  In  wash  rooms  used  ' 
females,  such  walls  shall  be  not  less  than  seven  (7)  feethigi 
except  that  when  wash  rooms  used  by  males  and  female 
adjoin  the  wall  separating  such  rooms  shall  be  carried  to  tb 
ceiling.  Where  males  only  are  employed,  clear  glass  may  N 
used  in  the  walls  of  such  rooms,  but  in  rooms  used  by  female? 
the  glass,  if  used,  shall  be  of  approved  translucency. 

(d)  Unless  the  general  washing  facilities  are  on  the  sacH 
floor  and  in  proximity  to  the  toilet  room,  at  least  one  (1)  wsl 
basin  shall  be  provided  in  such  room  or  adjacent  thereto. 

(e)  AH  basins  and  sinks  shall  be  so  illuminated  that  all  par- 
are  easily  visible  at  all  times  during  working  hours.  If  dayligh* 
is  not  sufiicient  for  this  purpose,  artificial  illumination  shall  K 
maintained. 

(/)  The  use  of  any  towel  or  towels  in  common  is  prohibited. 

(g)  If  paper  towels  are  supplied,  receptacles  for  used  towel? 
shall  be  provided. 

(h)  The  Industrial  Board  has  ruled  that  in  the  application  of 
the  Women's  law  in  mercantile  establishments  employing  more 
than  fifteen  (15)  females,  Section  9  of  that  law  relative  to 
wash  rooms,  dressing  rooms,  and  water  closets,  shall  be  inter- 
preted as  requiring  such  toilet  accommodations  for  employe^ 
alone,  apart  from  those  provided  for  the  general  public. 

SHOWER  BATHS 

In  all  industries  (except  those  industries  wherein  a  code 
already  provides  for  a  larger  installation),  wherein  the  worker  i> 
exposed  to  heat,  to  humidity,  to  odors  and  to  dust,  there  shaU  be 
provided  for  each  fifty  (50)  workers  or  fractional  part  thereof, 
one  shower  bath  with  an  ample  supply  of  hot  and  cold  water. 
For  each  additional  fift}'^  (50)  workers,  or  fractional  part 
thereof,  at  least  one  additional  shower  bath  shall  be  provided. 

DRESSING  FACILITIES 

Each  worker  shall  be  provided  with  a  clean  place  in  which  to 
change  from  street  clothes  to  working  clothing.  A  pipe  rail 
equipped  with  clothes  hangers,  and  fastened  high  enough  from 


CODES  555 

h.e  floor  so  as  to  prevent  the  clothes  from  dragging,  will  be 
ccepted  by  the  Department  excepting  when  the  workers  are: 

Proviso:  (a)  Engaged  in  handling  poisonous  materials. 

(b)  Exposed  to  injurious  dust  or  fumes. 

(c)  Excessive    heat,    humidity,    or.  fatigue    from 
physical  exertion. 

(a)  Clear,  cool,  potable  water  of  a  quality  approved  by  the 
^tate  Department  of  Health  shall  be  supplied  at  all  times  in 
Dlaces  accessible  to  employes. 

(6)  The  common  drinking  cup  for  public  use  is  prohibited 
by  State  law  and  by  rules  and  regulations  of  the  State  Depart- 
ment of  Health.  Either  individual  drinking  vessels  or  bubbling 
fountains  shall  be  used  for  the  distribution  of  drinking  water. 

(c)  If  bubbling  fountains  are  used,  they  shall  be  so  con- 
structed that  it  is  impossible  for  the  user  to  place  his  lips  upon 
the  orifice.  It  is  recommended  that  the  type  adopted  be  such 
that  the  user  drinks  from  an  incUned  jet  of  water. 

id)  BubbUng  drinking  fountains  shall  be  maintained  in  a 
cleanly  condition. 

(e)  If  individual  paper  drinking  cups  are  used,  a  suitable 
container  shall  be  provided  for  the  discharged  cups. 


SECTIONS  15 
GLOSSARY  OF  PLUMBING  TERMS 


Air  Chamber. — An  extension  of  the  water  piping  beyond  the 
branch  to  fixtures  terminating  with  a  cap.  The  com- 
pressed air  in  this  portion  of  piping  prevents  any  shock  a' 
vibration  of  pipe  if  faucet  is  closed  suddenly. 

Air  Test. — Test  applied  to  plumbing  work  after  the  entire  jot 
is  completed.  Only  an  ounce  or  so  of  pressure  is  necessan*. 
This  is  a  very  rigid  t.est  and  seldom  used  except  on  fine 
residence  work. 

Akron  Pipe. — See  terra-cotta  pipe. 

After-fill  Tube. — See  refill  tube. 

Angle  Valve. — A  globe  valve  whose  openings  or  tappings  are 
at  an  angle  of  90  deg. 

Anneal. — Process  of  removing  the  temper  or  hardness  of  metal 
by  heat. 

B 

Back-water  Traps. — A  trap  with  a  check  or  flapper  valve 

which  prevents  sewage  from  entering  house  during  a  heavy 

storm. 
Base  Fitting. — A  fitting  with  a  pedestal  or  support  used  at  the 

bottom  of  soil  or  waste  stack. 
Basin  Wrench. — A  wrench  which  has  the  jaws  at  right  angles 

to  the  handle.     Used  to  connect  basin  cock  couplings. 
Bell    Trap. — A    trap    formed  by  an  inverted  cup  extending 

into  a  circular  trough  or  ring  of  water.     Used  for  yard  or 

cellar  drains. 
Bending  Pin. — Tool  used  by  plumbers  to  swedge  out  opening  in 

lead  pipe  made  by  tap  borer. 
Block  Tin. — Tin  in  its  pure  state.     Used  in  making  soft  solder. 

When  a  strip  is  bent,  it  give  off  a  crackling  sound. 
Bossing  Stick. — A  wooden  tool  used  to  shape  up  sheet  lead  for 

tank  lining. 
Bi-transit     Waste. — Sometimes     called     standing     overflow. 

Used  on  bath  and  lavatory  wastes. 

556 


GLOSSARY  OF  PLUMBING  TERMS  557 

Ball-cock. — Supply  valve  in  tank,  operated  by  a  copper  ball  or 

float. 
Bibb. — Generally  called  faucet.    It  has  either  a  hose  end  or 

plain. 
Boiler  Tube. — A  tube  extending  from  the  cold-water  inlet  of 

range  boiler  to  within  6  in.  of  the  bottom  of  boiler.    It 

prevents  the  entering  cold  water  mixing  with  the  hot  water 

which  accumulates  at  the  top  of  boiler. 
Briggs'  Standard. — Standard  pipe  thread  as  used  on  screw  pipe 

in  the  United  States. 
Bushing. — A  reducing  fitting  with  a  male  and  a  female  thread. 
By-pass. — (1)  Independent  connection  around  a  large  valve. 

Also  refers  to  connections  made  by  incompetent  workmen 

whereby  sewer  gas  may  enter  the  house. 

(2)  As  applied  to  plumbing  work,  it  is  a  faulty  connection 

between    waste    and    vent   pipe    which    allows  a  direct 

connection  with  sewer,  through  which  sewer  gas  may  enter 

building. 
Bunsen  Burner. — Type  of  burner  in  which  air  is  mixed  with  the 

gas,  giving  it  a  blue  flame  and  more  heat  than  a  yellow 

flame. 
Ball  Joint. — A  connection  consisting  of  a  ball  within  a  shell, 

which  allows  freedom  of  swing  in  all  directions. 
Bonnet. — The  top  part  of  a  valve  or  bibb,  the  removal  of  which 

is  necessary  to  renew  packing. 
Bull-headed  Tee. — A  tee  having  a  branch  of  larger  diameter 

than  the  run. 


Crown  Vent. — Type  of  vent  which  is  connected  directly  to  the 
crown  of  trap. 

Continuous  Vent. — Type  of  vent  which  makes  the  vent  practi- 
cally a  continuation  of  waste  or  soil  pipe. 

Cellar  Drainer. — A  device  by  which  the  discharge  from  sinks 
and  lavatories  or  a  floor  drain  located  below  the  sewer 
level  may  be  raised  to  a  point  where  it  will  flow  into  sewer. 
It  is  operated  by  the  city  water  pressure  which  is  turned 
on  automatically  when  water  in  pit  reaches  a  certain 
height. 

Cap. — Fitting  with  female  thread  used  to  seal  end  of  pipe. 

Chain  Tongs. — A  wrench  used  by  pipe  fitters  in  which  the 
upper  jaw  of  wrench  is  replaced  by  a  chain. 


558  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Chase. — ^A  recess  in  wall  in  which  soil,  vent  and  waste  8tacb| 

or  similar  piping  is  installed. 
Check  Valve. — An  automatic  valve  which  allows  the  flow 

steam  water  or  air  only  in  one  direction. 
Cleanout  Screw. — A  device  placed  on  the  house  drain  or  wasttl 

pipe  to  allow  the  use  of  a  wire  or  cable  to  remove  a  stoppar 

in  piping. 

Close  Nipple. — A  short  piece  of  pipe  on  which   the  thread- 
abut  each  other. 
Coupling. — A  threaded  sleeve  for  connecting  two  lengths  c: 

pipe,  sometimes  called  a  socket. 
Cross. — A  four-way  tee,  or  a  tee  with  back  outlet. 
Cross-over  or  Saddle  Fitting. — ^Used  on  screw-pipe  w^ork  wher- 

two  pipes  cross. 
Cross-over  T. — A  combination  of  a  T  and  a  cross  over  fitting 
Cup  Joint. — A  joint  used  on  lead  pipe,  made  by  op>e]iing  enc 

of  pipe  enough  to  receive  the   tapered   end  of  anothe- 

piece.     The  joint  is  made  with  J^  plus  J^  solder  and  s 

soldering  iron,  using  rosin  as  a  flux. 
Closet  Screw. — A  long  brass  screw  with  detachable  head,  used 

to  fasten  closet  bowl  to  wood  floor. 
Closet  Bolt. — A  brass  bolt  with  nickel  plated  nut,  used  to  secure 

a  closet  bowl  to  brass  flange,  which  is  soldered  to  closet 

bend. 
Corporation  Cock. — A  stop  cock  screwed  into  the  street  water 

main  onto  which  the  house  service  is  connected. 
Curb -cock. — A  T-handled  stop  cock  placed  in  water  main  at 

the  curb  and  operated  with  a  long  key. 
Centrifugal  Trap. — A  trap  so  constructed  as  to  give  the  water 

when   passing   through   it,   a   whirling   motion,    thereby 

making  the  trap  self  cleaning. 
Circulation   Pipe. — A   return   hot-water   pipe  from  a  fixture 

located  considerable  distance  from  the  boiler.     It  insures 

hot  water  immediately  when  opening  the  faucet. 
Compression  Bibb. — This  type  of  bibb  requires  several  turns  of 

a  T-handle  to  open  or  close. 
Chipping  Knife. — Knife  used  by  lead  workers  for  cutting  sheet 

lead. 
Cowl. — Hood  on  the  soil  or  vent  stack. 
Curb  Box. — A  cyUndrical  cast-iron  box  which  permits  turning 

off  water  or  gas  at  the  curb  line  with  a  long  key. 
Caliber. — The  internal  diameter  or  bore  of  a  pipe  or  fitting. 


GLOSSARY  OF  PLUMBING  TERMS  559 

Caulking. — The  process  of  packing  oakum  and  lead  in  the  hub 
of  cast-iron  pipe. 

C.I.F. — Refers  to  cost,  insurance  and  freight. 

Cock. — See  stop  cock. 

Cess -pool. — An  underground  receptacle  for  receiving  the  dis- 
charge of  waste  water  from  building. 

D 

Dutchman. — When  a  lead  trap  or  piece  of  lead  pipe  is  a  trifle 

short,  say  from  3^  to  1  in.  a  piece,  the  desired  length  is 

placed  so  it  will  come  under  a  wiped  joint.     This  piece  is 

called  a  Dutchman. 
Dead  End. — The   end  of  any  line  of  pipe  which  has  been 

extended  beyond  the  last  branch,  leaving  a  space  for  foul 

air  or  water  to  accumulate. 
Dip  Pipe. — See  boiler  tube. 
Drifted. — The    operation  of  driving  a  wooden  plug  through 

lead  pipe  of  corresponding  size  to  remove  dents. 
Dope. — A  trade  term  given  to  pipe  compound  used  on  screw 

pipe. 
Drain  Air. — Sometimes  referred  to  as  sewer  air  or  sewer  gas. 

It  is  the  air  in  the  sewer  above  the  liquid  contents. 
Die. — Tool   used  for   threading  steel   or  wrought-iron   pipe. 
Drainage  Fitting. — A  fitting  used  on  screw  pipe  drainage  work, 

having  a  shoulder  which  pipe  strikes  when  screwed  into 

fitting,  and  forms  a  continuous  wall  with  the  inside  of  the 

pipe. 
Dresser. — A  tool  used  by  lead  workers  to  straighten  lead  pipe 

and  sheet  lead.     It  is  generally  made  of  boxwood. 
Drift  Plugi — A  hard-wood  plug  which  is  driven  through  lead 

pipe  after  it  has  been  straightened,  to  remove  all  dents 

and  kinks. 
Drop  Ell. — A  90-deg.  Ell  with  lugs  on  sides  by  which  it  may  be 

screwed  to  wall  or  ceiling. 
Drop  T. — A  "T"  having  lugs  on  sides  by  which  it  may  be 

screwed  to  wall  or  ceiling. 
Drum  Trap. — A  barrel-shaped  trap  usually  made  of  4-in.  lead 

pipe  with  IJ^-in.  inlet  and  outlet. 
Durham  Fitting. — See  Drainage  fitting. 

E 

Eccentric    Fitting. — A   fitting  whose  openings  are  off  center, 
allowing  all  liquids  to  flow  freely  from  piping. 


560  PLUMBERS*  HANDBOOK 

Elbow. — ^A  fitting  which  changes  the  direction  of  pipe,  geneif| 

90  deg.,  unless  otherwise  specified. 
EU.— See  Elbow. 
Escutcheon. — A  spun-brass  flange  used  on  nickeled  pipe 

cover  opening  around  pipe  at  floor  or  wall. 
Electrolysis. — Corrosion  of  pipe  by  electricity. 


Flush  Valve. — ^A  valve  used  for  flushing  plumbing  fixture 

generally  located  in  a  tank. 
Fresh-air  Inlet. — A  pipe  extending  from  the  house  side  of  tb' 

main  trap  to  the  outside  of  building,  the  end  of  which  ^ 

left  open. 
Ferrule. — As  used  in  plumbing  work,  it  is  a  brass  sleeve  whi;. 

is  mixed  on  to  the  lead  pipe  and  then  caulked  into  the  hi: 

of  cast  iron  pipe. 
Flange  Union. — A  pair  of  flanges,  threaded  to  receive  scre» 

pipe,  which  can  be  bolted  together  with  a  gasket  between 

and  made   air  tight.     Used  on  large  pipe    in    place  ci 

ordinary  union. 
Flush  Bushing. — Bushing  having  no  shoulder,  so  as  to  allow :: 

to  screw  into  fitting  and  leave  surface  flush. 
Furnace. — Term  applied  to  plumbers'   gasoline    or   kerosene 

firepot. 
Flux. — A  flux  may  be  in  Hquid,  paste  or  powdered  form,  and 

is  used  in  soldering  to  prevent  the  heat  of  the  soldering 

iron  from  oxidizing  material  to  be  soldered. 
Fuller  Bibb. — This  type  of  bibb  is  opened  full  by   one-half- 

tum  of  a  lever  handle,  which  operates  stem  by  means  of  w 

eccentric. 
Frost-proof  Closet. — A  closet  whose  trap  and  supply  valve  l< 

located  in  a  pit  below  closet.     It  is  flushed    by    direct 

pressure,  the  lowering  of  seat  opening  supply  valve  by 

means  of  a  chain. 
Follower. — An  attachment  for  threading  devices,  which  insures 

the  cutting  of  a  straight  thread. 


Galvanizing. — A  coating  of  zinc  applied  to  pipe  or  sheet  iron  to 
prevent  corrosion. 

Gasket. — Washer  or  packing  either  of  metal  or  rubber  compo- 
sition used  in  union  or  coupling. 


GLOSSARY  OF  PLUMBING  TERMS  561 

rate  Valve. — ^A  valve  which  has  a  double  seat  in  the  form  of  a 
V.  When  valve  is  closed,  a  metal  wedge  is  forced  into 
the  V-eeat  closing  the  passage.  It  is  practically  the  only 
valve  opening  to  the  full  bore  of  the  pipe. 

rlobe  Valve. — A  globularnshaped  valve  operating  similar  to  a 
compression  bibb. 

>oose-neck. — A  return  of  180-deg.  bend  generally  of  small 
tubing,  having  one  long  end. 

[>rotind  Joint. — A  tapered  or  beveled  joint,  generally  of  brass 
or  copper,  which  requires  no  gasket  or  packing. 

[>rease  Trap. — Special  form  of  trap  used  under  sink,  so  con- 
structed as  to  prevent  grease  from  entering  sewer. 

Ouide. — See  follower. 


House  Drain. — That  part  of  the  main  horizontal  drainage 

located  within  the  foundation  wall. 
House  Sewer. — That  part  of  the  main  horizontal  drain  located 

outside  the  foundation  wall  to  the  point  where  it  connects 

with  cesspool  or  street  sewer. 
Hard  Solder. — Generally  known  as  spelter  and  used  in  brazing. 

An  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc.     Melting  point  about  1,700**F. 
Hub. — The  large  or  receiving  end  of  cast-iron  pipe. 
Hydrant. — An  opening  in  water  main,  generally  placed  out  of 

doors,  for  supplying  water  to  stock  or  watering  the  town. 

It  is  supplied  with  a  drain  which  allows  all  the  water  in 

stand  pipe  to  exhaust  automatically  to  a  point  below  the 

frost  line. 
Hydrostatic  Test. — Test  applied  to  "rough  work"  before  build- 
ing is  plastered,  the  entire  system  being  filled  with  water 

untU  it  overflows  highest  stock. 
Hydraulic  Ram. — A  device  by  which  water  may  be  deUvered 

from  a  distant  spring  to  storage  tank  in  house.     Power 

for  operating  the  ram  is  derived  from  the  floor  of  water  at 

spring. 
Half  Y. — Fitting  used  in  drainage  work  whose  branch  is  at  an 

angle  of  30  deg.  to  the  run.  . 

J 

Joint  Runner. — Asbestos  rope  used  for  pouring  molten  lead  in 
horizontal  joints  of  cast  iron  pipe. 
36 


562  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Leeching  Cesspool. — ^A  cesspool  having  open  joints  which  al 

sewage  to  seep  into  the  surrounding  earth. 
Lead. — Oxide  of  lead  mixed  with  boiled  linseed  oil.     Used' 

plumbers  for  screw  joints. 
Lock-nut. — A  thin  hexagonal  nut  generally    used  with  loJ 

screw  nipples. 
Long  Screws. — A  nipple  6  in.  in  length  which  has  one  of : 

threads  several  times  the  length  of  an  ordinary  thread. 
Lead  Wool. — ^Lead  in  a  shredded  form  used  to  caulk  cast-ip 

pipe  where  the  moisture  prevents  the  use  of  molten  lead 
Lap  Weld. — Method  of  making  steel  or  wrought-iron  pipe : 

which  the  edges  of  the  sheet  are  beveled  and  lapped  befo: 

welding. 
Latrine. — A  trough  form  of  water  closet  arranged  to  accomm 

date  several  persons  at  a  time. 
Lock-bibb. — A  bibb  or  faucet  so  constructed  as  to  allow  the  u« 

of  a  padlock  to  prevent  it  being  opened. 
Lock-stop. — A  stop  cock  so  constructed  as  to  allow  the  use  od 

padlock  to  keep  it  opened. 
Local  Vent. — A  sheet-metal  pipe  extending  from  closet  bo^  ft* 

urinal  to  a  warm-air  flue. 
Lead  Burning. — The  art  of  uniting  lead  by  welding. 
Lead  Tacks. — Small  pieces  of  lead  which  may  be  soldered  to 

lead  pipe  to  fasten  it  to  wall  or  ceiling. 

M 

Muffer. — A  brass  sieve  or  strainer  inserted  in  the  inlet  of  s 

supply  valve  to  ehminate  the  noise  of  rushing  water  wheL 

valve  is  opened. 
Mercury  Gage. — Gage  containing  a  column  of  mercury.     Used 

for  testing  gas  work. 
Male  and  Female. — A  term  used  by  pipe  fitters  in  referring  t* 

outside  (male)  and  inside  (female)  threads. 

N 

Needle  Valve. — A  valve  whose  stem  terminates  with  a  metallic 
needle  point.     Used  on  gas  and  oil  appliances. 

Nipple. — A  short  piece  of  pipe  threaded  on  both  ends. 

Nipple  Chuck. — A  device  for  holding  a  nipple  while  thread  i^ 
being  cut  on  the  other  end. 


GLOSSARY  OF  PLUMBING  TERMS  563 


Oaktim. — Old  rope  pulled  into  loose  hemp  and  saturated  with 

oil,  making  it  impervious  to  moisture. 
Open-tank  System. — Method  of  supplying  water  to  the  home 

by  gravity. 
One-quarter  Bend. — Elbow  changing  direction  of  pipe  90  deg. 
One-sixth  Bend. — Elbow  changing  direction  of  pipe  60  deg. 
One-fifth  Bend. — Elbow  changing  direction  of  pipe  72  deg. 
One-eighth  Bend. — Elbow  changing  direction  of  pipe  45  deg. 
One-sixteenth  Bend. — Elbow  changing  direction  of  pipe  22}i 

deg. 


Pet  Cock. — Small  cock  used  for  draining  various  appliances 

such  as  pumps,  radiator  cylinders,  etc. 
Pilot  Light. — A  small  flame  in  automatic  gas  appliances  which 

is  always  burning  and  ignites  gas  when  fixture  is  used. 
Pop  Valve. — A  safety  valve  controlled  by  a  spring,  which  can  be 

adjusted  to  various  pressures. 
Pipe  Cutter. — A  tool  with  knife-edge  wheels  used  to  cut  steel 

or  iron  pipe. 
Peppermint  Test. — Test  applied  to  plumbing  system  using  oil 

of  peppermint  and  hot  water.     After  all  openings    are 

sealed,  peppermint  and  hot  water  is  introduced  through 

stack  on  the  roof. 
Pneumatic   Water   Supply. — Method  of  supplying  water  to 

country  home.     Water  and  air  is  pumped  into  a  closed 

tank  in  the  basement  and  from  there  deUvered  to  various 

fixtures. 
Plunger. — A  cup-shaped  device  of  rubber  for  forcing  stoppage 

in  waste  pipe. 
Plumber's  Soil. — A  mixture  of  lamp  black  and  glue  used  by 

bead  workers. 
P-trap. — A  trap  whose  diameter  is  uniform  throughout,  the 

outlet  being  at  right  angles  to  the  inlet. 
Plumbing. — All  work  installed  inside  of  building  which  has  to  do 

with  the  water  supply  and  the  removal  of  sewage. 
Plug  Cock. — A  stop  consisting  of  a  tapered  plug,  which  .fits 

accurately  into  the  shell  or  body  of  cock.     One-quarter 

turn  of   lever   handle   completely   closes   passage.    Used 

on  water,  air,  or  gas. 


564  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Rain  Leader. — Any  pipe  which  conducts  rain  -wsLter  fromtk^ 

roof. 
Rust  Joint. — A  joint  made  on  cast-iron  pipe.      The  hub  is  filk 

with  a  paste  consisting  of  Sal  Ammoniac  1  oz.,  iron  filing 

5  lb.,  and  sulphur  1  oz. 
Range  Closeti — Type  of  closet  generally  used  in  factories  * 

mills.     The  closet  bowls  are  not  provided  with  individni 

traps,  but  all  empty  into  a  trough  which  is  flushed  by  &- 

automatic  flushing  tank. 
Receptor. — A  shallow  fixture  of  porcelain  or  iron  enamel,  use- 

with  a  shower  bath. 
Refill  Tube. — A  small  brass  tube  in  closet  tank  which  discharge 

water  through  the  overflow,  thereby  insuring  closet  tr£' 

being  sealed  after  flushing. 
Return  Bend.— A  bend  which  reverses  the  direction  of  pipe  er 

changes  its  course  180  deg. 


Sewer  Air  or  Gas. — The  air  in  sewers  caused  by  the  decom- 
position of  waste  matter. 
Sewage. — ^The  liquid  and  solid  matter  which  flows  through  tk 

sewer. 
Sewerage. — ^The  system  of  public  sewers  including  pumpinc 

stations,  purification  works,  etc. 
Soft  Solder. — An  alloy  of  varying  proportions  of  tin  and  lead 

melting  at  from  376°F.,  to  440°F.,  according  to  proix>rtioD^ 

of  tin  and  lead. 
Solder. — An  alloy  of  two  or  more  metals  which  fuse  at  a  lower 

temperature  than  the  metal  which  is  to  be  soldered. 
Sweating. — A  term  used  when  the  piping  in  a  building  i* 

covered   with    moisture    caused   by    cold   water   passing 

through  pipes  which  are  located  in  a  warm  room. 
Sweat  Joint. — A  joint  made  by  means  of  a  flame,  instead  of 

soldering  iron. 
Sweep  Fitting. — Any  fitting  having  a  long,  easy  turn. 
Swing  Joint. — A  connection  in  screw-pipe  work  to  take  care  of 

•  expansion. 
Soil  Stack. — The  vertical  line  of  pipe    4   in.    or   over,    which 

receives  the  discharge  of  water  closets. 
Stop  Cock. — A  device  made  of  cast  brass  or  iron,  by  which  the 


GLOSSARY  OF  PLUMBING  TERMS  565 

flow  of  water,  gas,  or  air  is  controlled.    It  consists  of  a 

tapered  plug  or  core  fitted  accurately  into  a  casting,  both 

of  which  have  a  hole  through  them  to  correspond  to  the 

diameter  of  pipe.     One-quarter  turn  of  handle  entirely 

closes  passage. 
Stop  and  Waste  Cock. — A  device  similar  to  the  stop  cock  in 
.  action  and  purpose,  but  which  allows  all  the  water  on  the 

house  side  to  stop  to  drain  through  a  waste  outlet  in  the 

side  of  cock. 
Sanitary  Sewage. — Foul  waste  of  human  or  animal  origin  from 

residences  or  stables,  99  per  cent  of  which  is  water. 
Storm   Sewage. — Storm   water  which   flows  through  the  city 

streets  during  and  after  a  storm. 
Safe  Waste. — Drip  pipe  from  tray  or  safe  under  fixture  to 

drip  in  basement. 
Safe. — Lead  lining  under  the  old-style  closed-in  bath  tubs, 

closets,  or  lavatories.     Its  purpose  was  to  prevent  any 

leaks  around  fixture  damaging  ceiling  below. 
Smoke  Test. — Test  applied  to  new  or  old  plumbing  work  to 

locate  any  defective  fixtures  or  workmanship.     Smoke  from 

burning  oily  waste  is  pumped  into  plumbing  system  after 

all  openings  have  been  sealed. 
Service  T. — A  T  having  male  thread  on  one  end,  the  other  end 

and  the  branch  having  female  threads. 
Service  Ell. — An  elbow  of  45  or  90  deg.  having  male  thread  on 

one  end  and  female  on  the  other. 
Sheradizing. — Method  of  applying  galvanizing  in  the  form  of  a 

zinc  vapor.     Known  as  the  "dry  process"  of  galvanizing. 
Shoulder  Nipple. — A  nipple  having  a  space  of  J^  to    J^  in. 

between  threads. 
Shrunk  Joint. — A  joint  made  by  placing  a  heated  circular  piece 

of  metal,  as  a  piece  of  pipe,  over  a  cool  piece,  the  cooling  of 

which  causes  it  to  shrink  onto  the  cooler  piece. 
Siamese  Connection. — A  "Y"  or  fork  connection  used  princi- 
pally on  firelines,    whereby  two    lines    of    hose  may  be 

attached  to  one  valve  or  standpipe. 
Skelp. — The  name  given  to  the  flat  strip  of  metal  before  it  is 

formed  into  a  length  of  screw  pipe. 
Soil  Pipes. — This  term  is  frequently  used  in  referring  to  cast-iron 

pipe,  but  applies  only  to  such  pipe  when  it  receives  the 

discharge  of  one  or  more  water  closets. 
Socket. — A  British  term  for  coupling  (see  couphng). 


566  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Spellerizing. — The  process  of  toughing  wroughtHsteel  pipe  by 
running  the  skelp  through  corrugated  rolls. 

Spigott. — See  bibb. 

Sweep. — Name  applied  to  a  fitting  haying  a  long  turn. 

Socket  Plug. — A  plug  having  a  square  socket  or  recess.  A 
special  wrench  is  inserted  into  socket  to  tighten  plug. 

Stock. — A  threading  tool  which  holds  the  dies. 

Slip  Joint. — A  connection  generally  used  on  nickel  waste  tubing. 
Candle  wicking  saturated  in  tallow,  or  a  rubber  ring,  is 
used  for  packing. 

Sub -soil  Drain. — A  porous-tile  drain  just  outside  the  founda- 
tion wall  to  prevent  seepage  of  surface  water  into  the 
basement. 

Septic  Tank. — A  large  tank  used  for  the  disposal  of  sewage  in 
country  homes.  It  receives  the  sewage  from  the  house  and 
automatically  discharges  it  into  porous-tile  drains  through 
which  it  seeps  and  irrigates  the  surrounding  soil. 

Syphon. — The  action  caused  by  a  vacuum  on  one  side  of  a  trap 
and  the  atmosphere  on  the  other. 

Sill  Cock. — ^A  compression  type  of  hose  bibb  located  on  the 
outside  of  building  to  which  a  hose  may  be  attached. 

Syphon-jet  Closet  Bowl. — The  better  type  of  closet  bowl 
having  a  small  hole,  at  the  bottom  of  trap,  through  which 
a  jet  of  water  is  discharged  into  trap  thereby  assisting  in 
the  syphonic  action  of  bowl. 

Syphon  Washdown. — Popular  type  of  closet  bowl  having  no  jet, 
but  depends  on  the  volume  of  water  to  create  syphonic 
action. 

Shave  Hook. — ^A  small  scraper  used  by  lead  workers  to  scrape 
lead  pipes  previous  to  soldering. 

Spelter. — An  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc  used  for  brazing. 

Sump. — A  large  tank  which  receives  the  discharge  of  all  plumb- 
ing fixtures  below  the  sewer  level.  Contents  are  raised  to 
sewer  by  compressed  air,  or  pump. 

Sanitary  Engineer. — One  who  lays  out  the  sewerage  system  and 
water  supply  of  a  city. 

Saddle  Fitting. — A  hub  having  a  curved  flange  which  may  be 
bolted  to  cast-iron  pipe  over  an  opening  and  serve  as  a 
branch. 

Service  Box. — See  curb  box. 

Street  Washer. — A  form  of  hydrant  to  which  a  hose  may  be 
attached  for  sprinkling  lawn  or  street. 


GLOSSARY  OF  PLUMBING  TERMS  567 

Sitz-bath. — A  special  form  of  tub  for  the  immersion  of  the  hips 

only. 
Slop  Sink. — A  deep  sink  generally  installed  in  hotels  and  public 

buildings  for  disposing  of  large  quantities  of  water  used  in 

mopping  and  general  cleaning. 

T 

Trap. — A  device  holding  water  which  prevents  the  passage  of  air 

in  either  direction  but  will  allow  a  free  passage  of  all 

various  liquids. 
Thermostat. — An  automatic  device  operated  by  the  expansion 

and    contraction    of    metal    or  liquid,  and  used  to  close 

types  of  valves  at  desired  temperatures. 
Tap. — A  tool  used  for  cutting  female  threads,  as  in  fitting, 

valves,  etc. 
Tin  Lined  Pipe. — Pipe  of  brass,  iron  or  lead,  with  a  layer  of 

block  tin  on  the  inside  making  it  non-corrosive. 
Tubing. — ^Light-weight  pipe,  generally  of  brass  or  copper,  used 

in  bath  rooms  for  waste  connections  under  fixtures. 
Tail-piece. — That  part  of  a  coupling  over  which  the  loose  nut  is 

placed. 
Terra-cotta  Pipe. — A  glazed  clay  pipe  used  for  underground 

drains. 
Tile  Pipe. — See  terra-cotta  pipe. 
Tucker  Fitting. — A  galvanized  cast-iron  fitting,  one  end    of 

which  is  threaded  to  receive  screw  pipe,  the  other  end 

being  a  hub  for  cast-iron  pipe. 
Tap  Border. — Tool  used  by  plumbers  to  make  opening  in  lead 

pipe  for  branch  joint. 
T-Y. — A  fitting  used  in  drainage  work,  whose  branch  is  90 

deg.  to  the  run. 
Tapped  T. — A  cast-iron  fitting  with  hub,  having  a  branch 

tapped  for  screw  pipe. 
Tight  Cesspool. — One  having  tight  joints,  which  retains  all 

sewage.     This  type  requires  pumping  out  when  full. 
Tubing. — Light-weight   pipe,    generally   of   brass   or   copper. 

Measured  on  the  outside. 

U 

Urinal. — A  toilet-room  fixture  intended  for  men's  use.     Flushed 

by  tank  or  direct  city  pressure. 
Urinette. — A  fixture  similar  to  the  urinal,   but  intended  for 

women's  use. 


568  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Vent  Stack. — ^A  vertical  line  of  pipe  which  extends  through  • 

roof  and  receives  the  branch  vents  of  all  fixtures. 
Valve. — A   device  placed  in  pipe  line  or  wherever  desire: 

control  the  flow  of  Uquids,  air,  or  gas.     It  is  operated 

several  turns  of  a  wheel  handle. 
Vacuum. — A  space  devoid  of  all  matter. 
Vitreous  Ware. — Earthem  ware  dipped  in  molten  glass  ll 

subjected  to  intense  heat  in  kilns. 

W 

Waste  Stack. — The  vertical  line  of  pipe  2  in.  or  over  wt 

receives  the  discharge  of  all  fixtures  other    than  W3 

closets. 
Water  Hammer. — The  shock  caused  by  the  sudden  closing  o: 

bibb  or  cock.     It  is  overcome  by  the  use  of  an  air  cham'*'^ 
Wiped  Joint. — A  solder   joint   made   by   plumbers    or  ca' 

splicers  with  the  use  of  a  wiping  cloth.     Solder  used 

60  per  cent  lead  and  40  per  cent  tin. 
Wiping  Cloth. — A  pad  made  of  herring-bone  ticking  or  mc;- 

skin  cloth.     Material  is  folded  so  as  to  make  a  pad  of  1 

thicknesses. 
Water-back  Coupling. — A  ground-joint  connection  in  pipings 

the  range  which  allows  water  back  to  be  removed  witho. 

cutting  pipe. 
Weir. — Name  given  to  a  notch  cut  in  a  tank  or  resent- 

through  which  water  may  flow  and  be  measured. 
Washout    Bowl. — This    type    of    closet   bowl   is    practical!; 

obsolete  and  is  very  insanitary,  having  a  large  foulii- 

surface  and  depending  on  the  force  of  the  water  to  cleans 

it. 
Wye. — A  fitting  used  in  drainage  work  whose  branch  is  at  a: 

angle  of  45  deg.  to  the  run. 


Yoke. — A  name  given  to  the  collar  by  which  lead  trap  is  securfi 
to  the  sink. 


SECTION  16 
BUSINESS  METHODS 

Telephone  Memorandum  Pad. — The  name  of  every  person 
with  whom  you  converse  over  the  telephone,  is  jotted  down. 
Directly  under  the  name,  notes  should  be  entered  of  any 
promises  made  or  of  any  orders  taken.  After  the  proper  records 
have  been  made,  the  memorandum  on  the  pad  should  be  crossed 
off. 

Order  Book.  Fly  Sheet. — Figure  300  illustrates  the  first  step 
in  this  bookkeeping  system.  The  Workman's  Order  Blank 
and  Day  Book  are  in  pads  of  50  sheets  each,  and  each  of  these 
pads  has  two  fly  sheets  as  its  first  pages.  When  an  order  is 
received  at  the  shop,  a  record  of  it  is  made  on  the  fly  sheet,  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  300. 

The  date  of  the  job  is  entered  in  column  1.  In  column  2  the 
hour  is  entered.  The  name  and  address  are  entered  in  column 
4.  The  name  of  the  party  against  whom  the  charge  is  to  be 
made  is  entered  in  column  5.  A  condensed  description  of  the 
work  is  entered  in  column  6.  If  a  promise  has  been  made  as  to 
the  date  the  work  will  be  done,  such  a  date  is  entered  in  column 
7.  Any  order  for  material  or  labor  other  than  a  cash 
transaction  is  also  entered  upon  this  sheet. 

Workman's  Order. — The  form  illustrated  in  Figs.  301  and 
301A  has  been  devised  from  the  many  forms  submitted.  The 
entries  on  the  form  in  Figs.  301  and  301A  are  carried  out  in  the 

following  way.     Assign  the  job  herein  illustrated  to , 

a  journeymen.  Turn  to  the  fly  sheet  and  select  job  and  enter 
the  Workman's  Order  number  in  column  3  on  the  fly  sheet  to 
indicate  that  the  job  has  been  assigned.  The  information 
contained  on  your  fly  sheet  regarding  this  job  is  now  transferred 
to  the  Workman's  Order.  The  information  called  for  opposite 
the  various  headings  at  the  top  of  this  sheet  are  all  filled  in. 
The  name  of  the  journeyman  assigned  to  the  job  is  placed  in 
the  proper  space,  and  the  date  of  starting  the  work  is  also  filled 
in.  This  form  you  will  note  is  in  dupUcate,  and  when  making 
out  the  Workman's  Order,  a  carbon  is  inserted  between  the 
Workman's  Order  and  the  yellow  sheet   (Fig.   301B)   which 

569 


570 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


becomes  the  permanent  Job  Record  Sheet  or  Day  Book  > 
Fig.  300). 

These  tickets  are  entered  on  the  back  of  the   respect' 
''Job  Record  Sheets"  (Day  Book)  on  file  in  the  office  under t: 


TELEPHONE  MEMORANDUM  PAD 

Date  j£f^£J3I0        


Hour 


^ 


f30 


II 


Name 


?ru. 


atScctfJUf 


THuJ/mUfu 


J^M 


^aUccL  TTlAy. 


W€dmj£6dcLu^ 


Ok^nuMdtfo  J^  4ntv 


Address 


tiy 


U<^Cb 


/mcLcCo 


^  ^n^Sorci^cJb 


Mfctt 


Phone 


4S0O 


(^m. 


I234R 


Aid 


/mr 


J 


Keep  a  pad  of  these  on  the  desk  beside  fhepho/fe. 
Enter  every  business  conversation  on  the  sheet 
as  indicated.  Draw  a  fine  to  separate  each  entry. 
Cross  off  each  entry  when  attended  to. 


Fia.  299. 

column  headed  ''Material  Taken''  (see  Fig.  301C).  If  the 
bookkeeper  is  busy  when  the  slip  is  made  out,  he  simply  entei? 
the  number  of  the  material  ticket  in  the  column  headed  "Onk: 
No"  (see  Fig.  301 B).     If  any  additional  tools  are  called  for 


BUSINESS  METHODS  571 

they  aire  listed  on  the  bottom  of  the  Material  Ticket  These  aie 
likewise  entered  by  the  workman  on  the  "Workman's  Order" 
under  the  tools  originally  listed,     Tlie  receipted  "Materia!" 


ORDER  FLY  SHEET 

sga: 

Nome  end  Address            Chorqt  to         |Oe5CripH(in<ifWork  {^JJ^ 

F 1 = 

Blips  are  filed  away  for  future  reference  when  the  entry  has  been 
completed,  or  may  be  destroyed,  as  the  tissue  copy  is  always  on 
file.    Every  week  the  tieaue-paper  carbons  in  the  original  pad 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


BUSINESS  METHODS  573 

Bn  charged.  A  cloae  atudy  of  this  form  will  show  its  impor- 
nt  function  in  connection  with  the  system  outlined.  It  is 
nrays  used  when  giving  orders  for  material  to  traveling  men  or 
pply  houses  whether  for  jobs  or  for  stock. 
Retura  Material. — When  the  job  has  been  finished,  the  fore- 
a.n,  boss,  or  stockman  checks  up  the  returned  material  and 
d-icatea  on  the  back  of  the  "  Workman's  Order,"  opposite  the 


original  charge  in  the  column  marked  "R,"  the  number  of 
each  article  returned  (Bee  Fig.  301A).  Or,  in  the  event  that  the 
journeyman  has  made  no  record  of  the  material  on  his  Work- 
man's Order,  then  the  return  material  is  credited  in  column 
"R".on  the  right-hand  aide  of  the  material  ticket  (see  Fig. 
303)  upon  which  the  material  was  originally  issued. 

It,  however,  the  workman  has  left  this  material  on  the  job 
for  the  truck  to  collect  or  baa  lost  all  of  the  above  forms,  he 
makes  out  a  "  Cail  Slip  "  (Fig.  304;  giving  the  list  of  the  articles 


574  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

&nd  where  they  can  be  found,  also  being  careful  to  put  the/  y 
number  in  the  space  provided.  The  number  of  this  "C^ 
Slip"  is  placed  in  the  upper  left-hand  comer  of  the  "W(m- 
man's  Order"  in  column  headed  "Returned  Material."  Wh^ 
this  material  is  brought  in  by  the  truck,  it  is  checked  agaiu.- 
the  "Call  Slip"  to  see  that  nothing  has  been  overlooked.    Alu- 


Fiu.  301C. 

being  signed  by  the  one  receiving  the  material  in  the  span 
marked  "Checked  By,"  the  slip  is  turned  over  to  thebooli- 
keeper.  This  form  can  also  be  used  as  a  credit  memo  by  tiK 
contractor. 

The  object  of  using  the  carbon  is  this.  When  a  Workman '^ 
Order  is  made  out,  a  permanent  record  is  automatically  msdt 
in  the  Day  Book,  and  no  charge  can  be  overlooked,  forgbttcc. 
or  misplaced.  Before  the  carbon  is  taken  out,  a  pencil  Doart 
is  made  through  the  column  at  the  left-hand  side  of  the  sh«el 
marked  "Time."  This  indicates  the  time  the  order  was  given 
out  and  the  hour  when  the  labor  charge  begins.     A  straigbi 


BUSINESS  METHODS 


575 


PLEASE  SHIP  VIA  mN.H.^H.R.R. 


NOTICE 

PLEASE  ACKN0WLED6E 
fROKPTLV.  ALL  ORDERS 
rOR  WHICH  WE  WILL  BE 
RESTONSIftLEWIUBC 
«IVEN  ON  THIS  FORM 


PUT  THIS  NUMBCR 
ON  YOUR  mVOKC 


Hnunoroarnief 


€Db  OTtOO 


THE  BUILOl/iG  SfiNtTflT/ON  CO. 
NEW  H/IV£N'  COMft, 


GRAND  fIVE 


DATE 

f/fS/zt 


ORDERED  BY 


PHOMESISS 


fXX 


qLlQUAH.pgin&'n' 

TTTE: 

/ 

s 
s 

3 
3 
/ 
/ 
/ 


ARTICLES 


JJlont  SIa6€t  7ant6 

WAiZodcaZd 
mc  WXSO  dUnt 


m 


ffi&vc  4t^f€^  M^ti/i,  jpi9CaZi9rL  /Z//4/W 


I 


JOB  NUMBER 
//ZO 


UST 


MS 


AMOUNT 


137  $0 
St  SO 

m$o 

ZS330 
37100 

szso 

/ZSOO 
4060 


Fia.  302. 


Taken 


MATERIAL 

OR 

DELIVERY  TICKET 

Delivered  to  W^A  sn^iar, 

Street  OAxtaiacudtL 

Workman  ^yfeAzLf 


Ng  y.f/? 


JobNQ_iZ__ 
Dttte     9j(/Fn 


l/t^STU 


4x3  (Sz.^.Acm.  y. 


Z^'ki^i. 


>fy^£4rid 


^.4'  -'    '^J^MJ^lOcpe 


20 


L 


5. 


«!:&jms:g^^ 


ref^o^dco 


I 


Received  \i^j[cLMai£AA. 


Fig.  303. 


576  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

line  through  the  hour  indicates  the  starting  time,  and  a  ere- 
mark  indicates  the  hour  the  work  was  finished. 

If  material  and  tools  are  to  be  sent  out  on  this  job  and  tr- 
quantities  are  known,  the  carbon  is  reversed  between  the  U 
sheets,  and  we  enter  this  material  on  the  back  of  the  Job  Recor 
Sheet  (Fig.  301 C).     The  carbon  having  been  reversed  register 


No.  MS  Job  Na^2£. 

CREDIT  MEMO 

AND 

RETURNED  MATERIAL 

Returned  from_22a£_fi&2 


fxerurnea  Trnm    ^ryyx  '^'^9^ 
Address OA/y/rfnr.   cS/ 


M. 


rr 


4^ 

4'  Vs     '*  ~^ 


4j(IOO^^''^ 


99 


^>  OAzkoum 


(F/yt »  TAM/nacc  */Z 


'5f/aAo£e/nc  (Sjg/n  ^8 


Returned  by  jbiffljifaz^  Checked  b^  df/?^  2^/Uvi.,4      j 


Fig.  304. 

the  material  on  the  back  of  the  Workman's  Order  (Fig.  301i  . 
A  list  of  tools  is  entered  in  the  same  manner  under  ''Tools 
Taken." 

The  Workman's  Order,  which  is  a  yellow  sheet,  is  now  torn 
from  the  book  at  the  perforated  line  and  given  to  the  workman 
The  job  Record  Sheet  is  of  white  paper  and  is  permanenth 
bound  and  remains  in  the  pad.     The  job  is  now  "in  work* 
and  in  the  hands  of  the  shop  or  working  force. 


BUSINESS  METHODS  577 

Material  Order. — ^If  additional  material  or  tools  are  needed 
n  the  job,  the  journeyman  phones  in  the  order  for  them,  giving 
tie  job  number  on  which  he  is  working,  which  number  appears 
n  the  Workman's  Order.  The  person  receiving  the  order 
pom  the  journeyman  makes  out  the  order  on  a  "Material  or 
delivery  Ticket"  (Fig.  303),  being  careful  to  put  the  job  num- 
►er  in  space  provided  in  the  upper  right-hand  comer. 

This  form  is  in  triplicate;  the  two  perforated  shps,  pink  and 
>lue,  are  taken  from  the  pad  and  given  to  the  one  who  has 
charge  of  giving  out  material.  The  tissue-paper  carbon  is 
)ound  in  the  pad  and  remains  a  permanent  record  in  the  office. 
The  stockman  then  turns  the  tickets  over  to  the  truck  driver 
ifter  the  material  has  been  loaded  on  the  truck.  One  of  these 
jlips  is  left  with  the  one  who  receives  the  material,  and  the 
3ther  one  is  signed  and  returned  to  the  office  to  show  that  the 
Daaterial  has  been  deUvered  to  the  workman  and  not  merely 
dumped  on  the  ground. 

Checking  Workman's  Order. — The  workman  next  checks  off 
each  of  the  items  listed  in  the  right-hand  column  of  the  Work- 
man's Order;  these  are  ordinarily  overlooked,  and  for  that 
reason  become  overhead  expense.     If  two  trips  of  the  truck 
were  made,  he  simply  marks  two  (2).     If  he  has  worked  more 
than  one  day,  starting  we  will  say  at  8  o'clock  on  the  3d  of  the 
month,  then  he  indicates  in  the  left-hand  column  under  the 
heading  "Labor:"  3d,  8  hours,  etc.     We  will  suppose  he  finishes 
the  job  at  4  o'clock  on  the  1 9th.     He  makes  an  X  mark  through  4 
in  the  "Time"  column  and  enters  19th,  7  hours,  then  adds 
them  all  together  (see  Fig.  301).     Under  the  "Time"  colunm 
directly  under  the  item  "Total  Hours,"  if  he  is  a  plumber,  he 
enters  in  column  "P"  111.     If  he  had  a  helper  or  laborer  with 
him  on  the  job,  he  would  enter  in  "H"  or  "L, "  as  the  case 
might  be,  the  exact  number  of  hours  such  helper  or  laborer 
worked  with  him  on  the  job.     The  only  other  note  he  would 
then  need  to  make  would  be  some  added  description  to  the 
'* Nature  of  Work"  if  the  job  has  involved  more  work  than  was 
originally  outUned,  or  he  would  turn  in  his  signed  order  from 
the  architect  or  owner. 

It  will  be  noted  on  the  Workman's  Order  form  that  instruc- 
tions are  positively  given  to  all  workmen  not  to  do  any  work 
on  the  job  other  than  that  described  under  the  heading  "  Nature 
of  Work."  The  workman  is  instructed  to  get  additional  orders 
from  the  office  in  the  event  anyone  on  the  job  tells  him  to  do 

37 


578 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


additional  work,  unless  he  secures  a  signed  ordi^r  from  v- 
architect  or  owner.  This  will  very  often  prevent  misunder- 
standing and  save  many  unpleasant  controversies  between  tl- 
owner  and  the  contractor.     It  will  eliminate   the  possibilfr 


CHARGE  MATERIAL  USED  OH  CHARGE  TICKET 
WORKMAN 


DATE 19— 

DAILY  REPORT  OF  WORKMAN 


Hour 


8 


15 
30 
45 

15 


Ncime  and  Location  of  Job 


JobNa 


Kind  of  Wbrk 


15 
30 

45 


THIS  TICKET  MUST  BE  TURNED  IN  DAILY 
EITHER  IN  PERSON  OR  OTHERWISE 

Make  list  of  material  ^ou  will  need  tomorrow 
on  reverse  side  also  any  remark&make  note  of 
any  material  or  tools  left  on  Job  if  completed. 
Materia)  ordered  at  night  will  be  delivered  the 
next  morning  and  materiol  ordered  in  the 
morning  wilibe  delivered  in  the  afternoon. 


riSmta 


Fig.  305. 

of  tenants  ordering  additional  work  without  the  knowledge  of 
the  landlord  and  contractor. 

Daily  Time  Ticket.— Figure  305  illustrates  the  Daily  Time 
Ticket.  Every  workman  should  be  in  touch  with  the  office  by 
some  means,  at  least  once  every  day.     The  bookkeeper  should 


BUSINESS  METHODS  579 

be  furnished  with  time  slips  from  the  workman  every  day  so 
that  he  can  keep  his  work  up  to  date. 

The  form  illustrated  in  Fig.  305  is  made  on  postal  card  stock 
for  the  reason  that  it  can  be  mailed  to  the  shop  every  evening, 
in  the  event  that  the  journeyman  does  not  return  to  the  shop 
or  has  no  other  means  of  sending  it  in.  The  time  set  out  on 
this  card  is  then  entered  u|K)n  the  Job  Record  sheet  (Day Book) 
in  the  extreme  left-hand  column,  and  the  time  indicated  on  the 
card  is  also  entered  upon  the  weekly  time  sheet.  The  journey- 
man is  credited  with  the  postage  money  on  the  Pay  Roll  in  the 
event  that  he  spends  his  own  money,  and  this  is  included  with 
his  wages  at  the  end  of  the  week. 

Job  Record  Sheet  or  Day  Book. — All  work  has  now  been 
completed  on  the  job.  The  Workman's  Order  has  been  turned 
in,  as  well  as  a]l  slips  and  time  tickets,  etc.  This  information 
has  all  been  entered  daily  upon  the  Job  Record  Sheet  (see  Fig. 
301)  and  a  complete,  readable  report  of  the  job  is  in  your  books 
and  ready  to  be  figured  out. 

In  working  up  this  sheet,  the  first  step  is  to  charge  all  addi- 
tional material  that  has  been  sent  out  on  the  job,  as  indicated 
on  the  Material  Slips.  All  tools  are  charged  in  a  like  manner 
under  their  respective  columns.  The  time,  as  indicated  on  the 
Workman's  Daily  Time  Ticket,  has  been  charged  daily  (see 
Fig.  301B). 

When  the  job  is  completed  and  the  material  returned,  such 
material  is  credited  by  figures  only,  under  the  column  marked 
"R"  (Fig.  30lO.  This  eliminates  a  great  volume  of  writing. 
There  is  now  a  complete  record  of  the  job  showing  every . 
piece  of  material,  every  minute  of  time,  and  every  tool  that 
was  taken  to  the  job  and  returned.  This  record  can  be  shown 
to  the  customer  in  the  case  of  a  dispute.  The  completeness 
of  the  record  will  unquestionably  convince  the  customer  as  to  the 
accuracy  of  record  of  charge  and  the  excellent  manner  in  which 
the  business  is  conducted.  The  next  step  is  to  figure  the  selling 
price  and  costs. 

Charging  Labor. — The  next  step  would  be  to  total  the  hours 
of  labor  as  indicated,  and  this  is  entered  on  the  Job  Record 
Sheet  (Day  Book)  at  list  price. 

Truck  Charge. — Assume  that  it  required  three  trips  of  the 
truck  to  deliver  the  material  to  this  job.  Assume  that  the 
estimated  cost  is  50  c.  per  trip  for  operating  the  truck.  This 
is  then  carried  out  at  list  on  the  Job  Record  Sheet  at  $3.00. 


580  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Total  Charge. — Our  complete  charges  have  now  been  m'l 
at  list  price,  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  301 B,  representiM. 
total  list  of  $967.18.     Assume  that  business  is  done  allowiM. 
25  per  cent  discount  from  this  list.     This  discount  dedue:? 
from  the  list  price  leaves  a  net  of  $725.39.      Note  that  this  j 
although  a  contract,  is  figured  the  same  way  it  'would  have  be: 
if  it  had  been  a  day  job  or  a  "Time  and  Material  Job."    >- 
records  of  all  classes  of  work  are  kept  in   exactly  the  ssl- 
manner. 

Keeping  Costs. — ^The  next  step  is  to  ascertain  the  cost 
this  job.     Referring  to  the  left-hand  side  of  Fig.  SOIB,  ta/ 
up  the  different  items  listed  under  the  column  headed  "Recap 
in  the  Actual  Cost  section. 

Directly  opposite  the  first  item,  "Merchandise,"  carry  oi 
the  cost  of  the  merchandise.  Next  enter  the  cost  of  Permit 
if  any,  then  incidental  expenses,  association  dues  or  boni 
foreman,  etc.,  down  the  Une.  These  are  separated  so  that  the 
can  be  readily  referred  to  when  posting  these  accounts  in  tl> 
various  books  later  described. 

The  total  of  the  above  is  then  made,  and  is  known  as  tb 
"Direct  Cost."  Next  add  overhead,  then  the  truck  charg*' 
and  this  makes  the  total  cost. 

The  next  step  is  to  enter  the  selling  price,  from  which  > 
deducted  the  total  cost  as  indicated  above,  and  this  gives  tht 
net  gain  or  loss. 

Tabulation  of  Contact. — Directly  below  this  is  a  spa^- 
provided  for  the  tabulation  of  contracts.  Note  that  this  girfr 
a  complete  story  of  the  contract  without  referring  back  t 
previous  entries.  As  the  work  progresses  and  as  new  sheet? 
are  made  out,  these  figures  are  transferred  to  the  new  sheet, 
and  the  new  sheet  number  is  posted  below  the  tabulation  a^ 
indicated  in  Fig.  30 IB. 

The  charge  is  now  complete  in  every  respect,  and  following 
the  above  procedure  always  guards  against  the  possibility  o: 
errors  in  charging,  for  the  reason  that  the  cost  on  every  job  t 
figured  out  before  the  bill  is  made  out. 

Closing  up  the  Month's  Business. — Every  charge  should  be 
closed  out  at  the  end  of  the  month  whether  the  job  is  completed 
or  not,  and  a  new  Workman's  Order  sheet  issued  to  the  journey- 
man. In  this  way  your  work  is  kept  right  up  to  date.  Cloee 
study  of  the  various  forms  shown  will  illustrate  the  closing  up 
of  the  work  at  the  end  of  the  month  in  every  detail. 


BUSINESS  METHODS 


581 


Sales  Journal. — Every- 
thing is  now  ready  to 
make  the  entries  on  the 
books  First  take  the 
Sales  Journal.  Before 
proceeding  to  show  how 
this  book  is  to  be  kept, 
a  few  words  as  to  the 
many  advantages  of  it 
will  be  timely. 

This  is  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all  the  books  in 
the  set.  It  has  been  well 
named  the  "Spy  Glass" 
or  "Big  Ben  Alarm 
Clock''  of  the  business. 
If  it  is  kept  as  it  should 
be,  it  will  enable  the  con- 
tractor to  see  at  all  times 
what  his  business  is  doing. 
It  will  point  out  the  jobs 
upon  which  no  profit  has 
been  made  and  those  on 
which  sufficient  profit 
has  not  been  made. 
The  columns  "  Gain  "  and 
"Loss"  will  tell  whether 
you  are  making  money 
or  not,  and  if  the  fig- 
ures in  them  are  not 
what  they  ought  to  be, 
an  analysis  of  the  other 
columns  will  soon  tell 
where  the  trouble  lies. 
The  closest  attention 
should  be  paid  to  this 
book  both  by  the  book- 
keeper when  making 
entries  in  it  and  by  the 
proprietor  in  inspecting 
it  frequently  to  see  the 
results  shown  by  it  (see 
Fig.  306). 


SALES  JOURNAL 

PLUMBING 

Ul 

o 

Productive 
Labor 

cs 

u 

v 

■♦- 
s 

- 

"■" 

Cash 
Discount 

— 

- 

-]■ 

»- 

CO 
UJ 

o 

Customers 
Accounts 

Ul 

a: 
o 
o 

UJ 

< 

ss. 

1 
1 

u: 

_i 

8 

^2 

«s 

=m 

,. 

1 

CO 

O 
CO 

d 


682  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Take  the  Job  Record  Sheet,  first  enter  the  Job  numb^,  d 
the  date  the  job  was  billed  out  to  the  customer,  then 
customer's  name  and  address. 


The  balance  of  this  book  is  divided  into  four  sections  accord- 
ing to  the  class  of  work.  (1)  Jobbing,  or  work  done  on  a  time 
and  material  basis,  headed  "Plumbmg  Jobbinn"  (see  Fip- 


BUSINESS  METHODS 


583 


106 A,  306B,  306C,  and 
(06D).  (2)  Plumbing  work 
>n  which  a  contract  price 
>T  estimate  has  been 
^ven,  which  is  headed 
'  Plumbing  Contracts." 
;3)  Store  Sales,  Counter 
3r  Shop  Sales,  which  takes 
3are  of  straight  sales  made 
bo  customers  on  which  no 
labor  is  involved  and  is 
headed ''  Store  Sales.''  (4) 
A  section  for  Heating 
which  can  be  added  by 
inserting  a  second  cut  leaf. 
This  was  devised  so  that 
plumbing  contractors  who 
did  no  heating  business 
would  not  have  to  be  bur- 
dened with  it.  Should 
heating  be  added  at  any 
time,  the  books  will  take 
care  of  the  addition  by 
using  cut  leaves  and  insert- 
ing them  following  the  cut 
leaf  headed  "Plumbing." 

The  first  entry  is  the 
amount  of  the  invoice  or 
charge  against  the  cus- 
tomer. This  is  the  amount 
shown  on  "Workman's 
Order"  just  before  deduct- 
ing the  cash  discount. 

Now  turn  to  the  "Recap" 
on  the  left-hand  side  of  the 
Job  Record  sheet,  and  post 
to  the  Sales  Journal  the 
amounts  shown  there  under 
their  respective  headings. 

Note  they  appear  in  the 
same  order  in  both  places. 
Each    entry    made   must 


FOR  THE  MONTH  OF 

to 

UJ 

< 

Ul 

to 

o 

< 
or 

1- 
z 

o 
u 

;n 

BO 

12 

CO 

' 

^ 

■" 

o 
u 

o 

1^ 

c 
*5 

1 

1 

=  =  ' 

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V) 

00 
UJ 

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(A 
0) 

3 

-V 

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UJ 

C 

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CO 


584 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


prove  out;  that  is,  the  total  of  all  amounts  begiimmg  «it: 
the  "  Cash  Discount"  and  ending  with  "Gain"  must  equal \h 
amount  in  "Amount  Charged." 

This  method  is  based  on  the  assumption   that  a  certah 
amount  of  money  is  given  to  do  a  job  with  and  make  a  profe* 
Using  Fig.  301 B  as  an  example.     The  amount  charged  in  tt^ 
instance  is  $725.39.    Out  of  this  amount  we  si>end  $398.84  k 
material,    $83.25   for   labor,    $1.50   for    truck.     Overhead  b  j 
$120.52,  and  gain  is  $121.28.     Each  of  these  is  entered  under  ■ 
the  respective  heading  in  the  Sales  Journal-     This  same  trans- 
action is  carried  out  for  every  job  done  during  the  month. 


I    ^jt^m    J/ml/A 


tfrfit.  ?/7.  i9l9 , 


^ 


IS 


gy  gg^/gy%  of9ZS.90) 


Fig.  307. 


13^ 


This  form  has  one  Carbon  Copy  exactly  like  original  to  be  detached 


Invoicing. — ^As  soon  as  these  amounts  have  been  posted  from 
the  Job  Record  book  to  the  Sales  Journal,  the  invoice  should  be 
immediately  mailed  out  to  the  customer.  Too  much  care 
cannot  be  taken  by  the  contractor  in  speeding  up  his  invoices. 
The  quicker  a  bill  is  mailed  out,  the  better  off  is  the  business, 
for  prompt  invoicing  will  do  a  great  deal  to  secure  prompt 
settlement. 

The  contractor  can  use  any  form  he  desires  for  this  purpose. 
The  form  recommended  will  be  found  in  Fig.  307.  It  is  further 
recommended  that  this  invoice  be  made  out  in  duplicate,  the 
carbon  copy  to  be  on  plain  yellow  paper,  which  can  be  filed 
away  and  used  as  a  tickler,  for  any  reference  desired. 

If  used  as  a  tickler,  the  carbon  copy  of  the  invoice  can  be 
filed  in  an  upright  file,  under  various  dates  due.  The  contrac- 
tor, bookkeeper,  or  stenographer  can  then  compose  a  circular 
letter  to  be  sent  ouc  to  the  customer  a  day  or  two  in  advance 
of  the  day  which  the  invoice  falls  due  and  in  this  way  call  the 


BUSINESS  METHODS 


585 


customer's  attention  to  the  cash  discount  to  which  the  invoice  is 
subject. 

The  next  step  is  to  prove  the  correctness  of  entries  in  the 
Sales  Journal.  First  take  adding  machine  and  add  up  each 
column,  and  put  the  totals  in  lead  pencil.  Then,  using  the 
adding  machine,  add  the  totals  of  the  various  columns  in  each 
section  except  the  sales  column.  The  sum  of  these  totals  should 
equal  the  total  of  the  first  colunm,  '^Customer  Accounts."  If 
each  entry  balances  as  outlined  in  a  preceding  paragraph,  then 
the  totals  of  all  entries  must  balance. 

Customer's  Ledger. — As  soon  as  possible  after  the  orders 
Iiave  been  entered  on  the  Sales  Journal,  the  amounts  in  '^  Cus- 


CUSTOMERS  ACXOUNTS 

Name  


Fig.  308. 


tomer's  Accounts"  colunm  should  be  posted  to  the  debit  side 
of  the  customer's  account  or  page  in  the  Customer's  Ledger. 
This  posting  should  be  kept  up  to  date,  so  when  a  customer 
comes  in  to  pay  his  account,  there  will  be  no  delay  in  finding 
what  he  owes.  Also  in  making  settlement,  no  charge  will  be 
overlooked.  In  posting,  be  sure  to  enter  the  date  under  which 
the  entry  appears  on  the  Sales  Journal  as  well  as  the  "Work- 
man's Order"  number.  This  is  done  so  that  in  case  there  is  a 
dispute  of  the  charge  by  the  customer  you  can  immediately 
refer  to  the  Job  Record  sheet,  and  have  complete  informa- 
tion when  talking  about  the  matter. 

Note  that  each  line  in  the  Sales  Journal  is  numbered  to 
correspond  with  the  numbers  on  the  Job  Record  sheets.  Thus 
every  line  in  this  book  represents  a  charge  or  entry  in  the  Job 
Record  book,  and  the  line  in  the  Sales  Journal  corresponding 


586 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


with  the  number  in  the  Job  Record  book  remains  open  or 
unused  until  the  job  has  been  finished  and  properly  charged 
You  can  therefore  appreciate  how  easily  an  overlooked  or 
forgotten  charge  can  be  detected  by  simply  glancing  at  the  Saks 
Journal. 

The  amounts  charged  to  each  job,  finished  and  unfinished 
jobs,  are  posted  in  the  same  way  to  the  Customer's  Ledger,  and 
a  bill  sent  the  customer  for  the  completed  portion  of  the  con- 
tract. This  Ledger  is  of  the  loose  leaf  type,  and  a  sample  copy 
of  the  Ledger  sheet  appears  (Fig.  308). 

General  Ledger. — Everything  is  now  ready  to  transfer  the 
totals  of  the  various  colunms  to  the  General  Ledger.     Each 


GENERAL  LEDGER 

Name 

Address 

Date 

Details 

folio    D 

ebit 

Date 

Details 

Eblia   Cre< 

iif 

l:=3 

[= 

r— 1  II 

1=1 

L- 

Fig.  309. 


column  except  ''Sales''  represents  an  account  in  this  Ledger, 
and  the  total  of  each  column  is  posted  to  its  respective  account 

The  first  column  '* Customer's  Accounts"  is  posted  to  Cus- 
tomer's Ledger  Controlling  Account  in  the  General  Ledger 
Section,  because  it  is  the  total  of  all  the  postings  to  the  debit 
side  of  the  customers'  accounts  combined. 

The  totals  of  the  other  columns  are  posted  to  the  credit  side 
of  their  respective  accounts,  because  the  amounts  shown 
represent  money  which  has  been  gotten  back  from  the  customers 
for  money  originally  spent  by  contractor. 

For  instance  a  check  for  $20  was  given  to  the  City  clerk  for 
permits.  On  the  same  Smith  job,  we  made  the  entry  for  it  in 
the  Accounts  Payable  Record,  when  we  charged  $20  to  Permits. 
In  making  up  the  estimate  on  the  job,  we  included  $20  for 
permits;  so  credit  Permits  with  $20  to  offset  the  amount 
previously  charged. 


BUSINESS  METHODS 


587 


The  total  of  the  column 
headed  "Overhead"  is 
posted  to  a  corresponding 
sheet  in  the  Ledger,  and 
represents  the  amounts  we 
have  gotten  back  from  our 
jobs  at  the  percentage  figured 
on.  This  is  a  very  im- 
portant matter,  and  we 
have  arranged  it  so  that 
you  can  tell  whether  or  not 
in  figuring  on  jobs  you  are 
using  a  per  cent  high 
enough  to  cover  all  your 
Overhead  Expense. 

The  accounts  arranged  in 
your  ledger  are  in  the  same 
order  they  appear  on  the 
Sales  Journal.  No  accounts 
are  on  pages  for  the  columns 
headed  "Sales/'  as  these 
columns  are  put  in  only  that 
the  total  sales  each  month 
for  each  branch  of  your 
business  may  be  seen. 
Understand,  of  course,  that 
there  is  only  one  account  for 
each  of  the  different  columns; 
that  is,  the  total  of  the 
'  *  Permit "  column  under 
Plumbing  and  Plumbing 
Contracts  and  Heating  all 
go  to  the  same  account  in 
the  Ledger. 

Purchase  Journal. — ^As 
sales  are  distributed  in  the 
Sales  Journal  book,  so  dis- 
tribute all  the  expenses  in 
this  book.  Not  only  all 
transactions  on  a  credit 
basis  but  all  cash  transac- 
tions as  well,  must  appear 


Ql 


UJ 
CO 


or: 


GL 


on 

UJ 
Ul 


on 

z 

UJ 


t 
o 

Ul 

o 


CD 
UJ 

o 


UJ 


UJ 

T 

< 


u: 


+- 

o 
o 


o 

CO 

. 


588  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

on  this  book.  They  are  all  Accounts  Payable  at  some  6me. 
For  inatance  you  tell  John  Smith  to  haul  some  freight  torjaa 
As  soon  as  this  is  done,  you  have  created  an  account  you  hsv^ 
to  pay,  and  it  should  go  on  this  book  as  soon  as  the  amounl  L- 
known.  You  may  not  know  this  until  Mr.  Smith  brings  his  bH] 
in  to  get  his  check.  When  he  does  this,  enter  the  bill  on  j-ou: 
Purchase  Journal.     First  enter  the  dat«  the  bill  is  receivei. 


Fia.3IOB 

next  in  a  few  words  what  the  bill  is  for,  followed  by  the 
amount  under  the  column  headed  "Accounts  Payable."  The 
amount  of  the  bill  is  then  put  itt  the  proper  column  covering 
whatever  the  bi!!  was  for,  which  in  this  case  was  "Freight  En- 
press  Drayage."  A  check  is  then  written  and  entered  in  the 
Cash  Book.  Details  regarding  this  entry  will  be  given  under 
"  Cash  Book." 

When  you  receive  a  biU  or  invoice  for  anything  purchased, 
the  same  thing  is  to  be  done.  Suppose  an  invoice  is  received 
from  the  supply  house  for  a  shipment.  This  invoice  allows 
the  freight  to  your  city.     First  enter  the  dat«  and  uamei 


BUSINESS  METHODS 


589 


:,lien under,  "For,"  Invoice 
>-12.  In  the  next  column 
put  the  net  amount  of  the 
Lnvoice;  that  is,  the  final 
etmount  shown. 

In  the  next  column  put 
'the     amount     of     freight 
cLllowed.     The  total  of  this 
column  will  be  credited  to 
* '  Freight    Express    Dray- 
stge/'    which  is  the  same 
account  you  charged  the 
Freight    to   when   it   was 
paid  to  the  Drayman.  The 
object  of  this  is  to  see  that 
all  freight  paid  out  is  got- 
ten back. 

Most  of  the  goods 
bought  are  sold  "deliv- 
ered," that  is,  the  price 
includes  freight  to  station, 
and  to  offset  the  freight  to 
be  paid,  an  allowance  is 
made  on  the  invoice. 

The  Pay  Roll  should  be 
entered    in    the   Purchase 
Journal  also  enter  the  date, 
then     the     words     "Pay 
Roll"  under  "Name,"  fol- 
lowed by  "Week  Ending 
&-21-19  or  whatever  the 
date  is;  the  total  amount 
under    "Accounts    Paya- 
ble;" and  the  amounts  so 
chargeable  in  the  various 
columns       "  Productive 
Labor,"  "Office  Salaries," 
etc. 

If  a  Credit  Memo  is 
received  from  the  supply 
house  for  an  allowance  or 
correction  of  any  kind,  it 


69a  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

will  be  entered  in  the  same  manner  that  your  invoice  is,  k 
in  red  ink.  The  reason  for  using  red  ink:  instead  of  bUc> 
is  because  the  transaction  is  just  the  opposite  of  the  one  k 
an  invoice. 

When  entering  the  invoice,  credit  Accounts  Payable  to  sho^ 
that  something  is  owed.  The  Credit  Memo  shows  something 
due  to  you,  so  debit  Accounts  Payable. 

In  bookkeeping,  red  is  always  the  reverse  or  opposite  c: 
black.  When  footing  any  column  that  has  both  red  and  black 
figures,  the  total  of  the  red  figures  should  be  subtracted  fron 
the  total  black  figures,  or  if  the  red  is  greater,  reverse  tk 
operation,  and  show  the  net  total  in  red  figures. 

As  soon  as  possible  after  bills  have  been  entered,  the  amount' 
in  the  first  column  should  be  posted  in  the  Ledger,  to  the  credit 
of  the  individual  Accounts  Payable,  which  will  be  found  in  the 
corresponding  section  of  the  Ledger.  An  account  must  be 
opened  for  every  firm  or  name  entered  in  the  Accounts  Payable 
Record,  not  only  firms  and  individuals,  but  also  accounts  with 
Pay  Roll,  Petty  Cash,  bank,  and  any  one  else  with  inrhom  trans- 
actions have  been  carried  on.  Later  on  will  be  shown  how  these 
accounts  give  details  regarding  business  affairs. 

At  the  end  of  the  month  be  sure  that  all  bills  for  the  month 
have  been  entered,  regardless  of  whether  they  are  paid  or  not. 

After  all  bills  and  invoices  for  the  month  are  entered,  take 
the  adding  machine  and  foot  each  column,  putting  the  totals  in 
small  pencil  figures  right  under  the  last  entry. 

Still  using  your  adding  machine,  first  add  together  the  first, 
second  and  fourth  columns  which  you  will  note  are  headed 
**  Credits."     Leaving  your  slip  in  the  machine,  add  the  totals 
of  all  the  rest  of  the  columns  together.     These  are  the  ones 
headed  "Debits."     The  two  totals  should  agree.     If  they  do 
not,  you  have  either  failed  to  extend  into  the  proper  "Debit 
Column"  some  bill  entered,  or  else  have  extended  it  incor- 
rectly.    The  same  principle  applies  to  balancing  this  book  as 
does  to  the  Sales  Journal.     If  your  figures  are   correct  enter 
the  totals  in  ink  and  draw  a  single  red  Une  above  the  totals  and 
a  double  red  Une  below.    Post  the  totals  of  each  column  to  the 
corresponding  account  in  the  General  Ledger  on  either  Debit  or 
Credit  side,  as  shown  at  the  top  of  the  column  in  the  Sales 
Journal  or  Purchase  Journal. 

Cash  Book. — The  Cash  Book  is  divided  into  two  sections, 
the  Receipts  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  book,  and  the  Dis- 


BUSINESS  METHODS 


591 


CASH  RECEIPTS 

1- 
5 

Ul 

s«- 

»5 

g  c  - 

3    U:    I 

■  ■"  "^ 

^  —  1 

' 

NAME                                  FOR 

^ 

Date 

(O 

S 

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o 

A 

•C  S 

w  o  ~ 
e  u  - 

1 

5|- 

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o 

15 
XV  - 

JjE 

■ 

CO 


592  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

bursements  or  Payments  on  the  right-hand  side.  It  is  best 
follow  the  practice  of  depositing  in  the  bank,  aJl  money  reoei^e^i 
Under  "Petty  Cash,"  is  shown  how  small  payments  like  pos- 
age,  etc.,  are  taken  care  of.  This  will  do  away  with  the  practi:* 
of  holding  out  money,  for  change,  from  cash  received. 

As  soon  as  a  check  or  money  is  received  from  a  customer 
turn  to  the  Cash  Book,  and  in  the  first  column  under  "Ca?i 
Receipts"  enter  the  amount  received.  If  a  discount  for  cash 
is  allowed,  enter  the  amount  of  such  discount  in  the  ner 
column.  Next  enter  the  date  and  the  name  of  the  customE! 
and  the  dates  of  the  invoices  he  is  paying,  or  "On  Account,' 
"Account  in  Full"  or  some  explanation  as  to  what  the  paymen* 
covers.  In  the  column  headed  "Customer's  Accounts"  entc 
the  total  of  the  first  two  columns.  This  is  the  amount  he  is  ti> 
be  credited  with.  Do  not  enter  in  the  "Cash  Discount 
column  anything  but  discount  allowed  for  prompt  payment. 
All  special  allowances  are  to  be  handled  through  the  Purchase 
Journal  as  "Customer's  Allowances."  Should  any  be  received, 
from  other  sources  than  in  payment  of  customers'  invoice, 
enter  the  amount  received  in  the  "cash"  column,  and  also  the 
next  column  to  "Customer's  Accounts"  headed  "General 
Ledger."  In  doing  this,  note  in  the  explanation  colunm  what 
account  in  the  General  Ledger  is  to  have  credit. 

Post  the  amounts  in  the  Customer's  Account  column  to  the 
individual  accounts  in  that  section  of  the  Ledger,  known  as  the 
Customer's  Ledger,  as  soon  as  possible  after  entering.  Do  this 
so  that  by  looking  at  the  ledger  at  any  time  it  wiD  show  just 
how  any  customer  stands. 

Add  up  and  prove  each  page  by  seeing  that  the  totals  of  the 
two  columns  on  the  left-hand  side  equal  the  totals  of  the  two 
columns  on  the  right-hand  side. 

At  the  end  of  the  month,  the  total  of  each  column  is  posted 
its  respective  ledger  account  on  the  debit  or  credit  side  as 
indicated  at  the  top  of  the  column  in  the  Cash  Book. 

In  the  larger  shops  there  will  be  a  separate  Customers' 
Ledger,  General  Ledger,  and  Accounts  Payable  Ledger,  h 
smaller  shops,  one  binder  will  account  for  all. 

Disbursements. — The  right-hand  page  of  this  book  is  Dis- 
bursements or  Payments,  which  are  to  be  made  entirely  by 
check.  Enter  the  amount  of  the  check  in  the  first  colunm.  In 
the  next  column  enter  any  cash  discount  deducted  when  pa3riog 
invoices.     Then  follows  the  date  of  the  check,  the  name  of  the 


BUSINESS  METHODS 


593 


party  to  whom  payable,  and  a  short  notation  as  to  what  the 
check  is  for,  such  as  "Invoice  9-6-19,"  "On  Account,"  etc. 
The  number  of  the  check  is  entered  in  the  proper  column.  The 
amount  of  the  invoice  or  payment  is  entered  in  the  next  column 
which  is  the  one  headed,  "Accounts  Payable."  The  amount 
entered  in  this  column  must  equal  the  sum  of  the  first  two 
colunms  "Checks"  and  "Discount  Earned."  All  checks 
should  be  entered  in  this  book  before  they  leave  the  office. 
The  amounts  in  Accounts  Payable  column  should  be  posted 
as  soon  as  possible  to  the  debit  of  the  individual  accounts  in 
that  section  of  the  Ledger.  By  doing  this,  one  can  tell  at  any 
time  exactly  how  the  account  stands  with  any  of  his  supply 
houses  or  other  creditors. 


ACCOUNTS  PAYABLE 

Name 

Address 

Date 

Details 

fblio    C 

»ebit 

Date 

Details 

Folio  Or 

edit 

L.          -...I 

— 1 

T-rr-i- 

Fig.  312. 

After  all  checks  written  on  the  last  day  of  the  month  have 
been  entered,  each  column  should  be  footed  and  the  work 
proved  by  seeing  that  the  sum  of  all  debit  totals  equals  the  sum 
of  all  credit  totals.  The  adding  machine  can  be  used  for  this  in 
the  manner  outlined  for  the  other  books.  The  totals  are  then 
put  in  ink  and  the  ruling  made  in  red  ink  as  in  the  other 
books. 

The  next  step  is  to  post  the  totals  of  the  various  columns  in 
the  Cash  Book  to  the  respective  accounts  in  the  Ledger. 

Provmg  your  Cash  Account  with  Bank  Balance. — First 
take  the  cancelled  checks  returned  by  the  bank,  and  check  the 
amounts  as  shown  on  the  bank's  adding  machine  list  or  state- 
ment. Then  arrange  checks  according  to  numbers,  putting  the 
lowest  numbers  on  top  and  the  highest  on  the  bottom.  Next 
turn  to  Cash  Book  and,  using  red  ink,  make  a  mark  to  the 
right  of  the  amount  shown  in  the  column  headed  "Checks," 
38 


594  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

of  each  check  returned.  In  doing  this,  compare  the  amount 
the  check  with  the  amount  entered  in  the  book  to  see  that  t> 
agree.  When  this  has  been  done,  take  a  piece  of  scratch  pap^ 
and  going  over  the  amounts  checked  off,  Ust  those  which  h^- 
not  been  checked.  These  will  be  the  checks  which  have  i 
been  paid  by  the  bank,  and  are  usually  known  as  ''OutstaDdi::: 
Checks.''  In  listing,  put  the  check  number  opposite  e&. 
amount. 

When  these  amounts  have  been  added,  turn  to  the  ca: 
account  in  the  Ledger  and  add  up  both  debit  and  credit  side* 
putting  the  figures  in  pencil  right  under  the  last  amount.  Ner 
take  the  difference  between  the  two  sides,  and  add  to  ' 
the  total  of  "Outstanding  Checks."  The  sum  of  these  tr 
amounts  should  be  the  balance  as  shown  by  bank  deposit  b(x.i 
or  statement.  This  record  should  be  copied  on  the  right-haDc 
side  of  the  last  page  for  the  month  in  your  Cash  Book,  and  t:- 
look  like  the  following: 

OUTSTANDING  CHECK 

No.  123 $20.00 

No.  127 3.00 

No.  129 10.00 

No.  130 13.45 

$  46.45 

Balance  as  per  Ledger 243.25 

Balance  as  per  Bank  Book $289. 70 

It  is  very  important  that  this  be  done  every  month  and  tiut  & 
record  be  made  of  it.  Then  the  amount  in  the  bank  is  correctly 
known  all  the  time,  and  the  danger  of  overdrawing  account  s 
removed. 

Petty  Cash  Fund. — First  draw  a  check  payable  to  cash  for 
whatever  amount  it  is  wished  to  carry  in  this  fund,  $10.,  $15.. 
$25.  or  more  as  the  case  may  be,  and  get  it  cashed.  Buy  a 
tin  cash  box  with  a  lock  on  it,  and  place  this  box  in  charge  of 
some  person,  giving  him  the  key.  Every  time  a  payment  is 
made  out  of  this  fund,  a  ticket  (see  Fig.  315),  or  the  receipted 
bill  is  put  in  the  box  showing  the  amount  paid  out  and  for 
what  purpose.  When  the  fund  runs  low,  add  up  the  ticket^ 
and  bills  in  the  box  and  draw  a  check  for  the  exact  amounioj 
them.  Enter  this  check  first  in  your  Purchase  Journal  &.< 
"Petty  Cash,"  using  the  Accounts  Payable  colunm,  and  dis- 
tributing the  amount  to  the  various  other  columns,  according 


BUSINESS  METHODS  595 

to  what  the  money  was  spent  for,  as  shown  by  the  tickets 
and  bills.  Then  enter  it  in  the  Disbursement  side  of  Cash 
Book  the  same  as  any  other  check.  Open  an  account  in  the 
Accounts  Payable  section  of  Ledger  with  Petty  Cash,  and  post 
the  entries  to  this  account.  The  debit  and  credit  entries  will 
always  be  the  same.  This  account  tells  how  much  is  being 
spent  in  this  way,  and  if  necessary  to  look  up  any  item  at  any 
time  on  check  with  which  it  was  paid,  will  give  correct  indica- 
tion. 

Put  all  the  tickets  and  bills  for  each  check  in  a  separate 
envelope  labeling  it  with  the  date  and  check  number  paying 
them. 

Add  up  tickets,  count  the  cash  left  in  the  box.  The  two 
amounts  should  equal  the  original  amount  of  ** Petty  Cash'* 
fund. 

When  entering  the  original  "Petty  Cash*'  check  in  Purchase 
Journal,  enter  the  amount  first  in  the  Accounts  Payable  column, 
then  in  the  Debit  column  under  General  Ledger.  Open  an 
account  in  the  General  Ledger  section  and  post  the  amount 
to  it.  This  account  will  not  change  as  long  as  you  keep  this 
fund,  and  the  account  will  show  that  this  amount  has  been 
taken  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  indicated.  This  method 
of  handling  paymens  that  are  too  small  to  draw  checks  for 
is  far  better  than  holding  out  from  the  bank  deposit  cash 
received.  Its  adoption  by  every  ofiice  no  matter  how  small,  is 
recommended. 

Keeping  Track  of  Daily  Bank  Balance. — Aft«r  correcting 
Bank  Account  as  outlined  previously,  put  the  amount  "Bal- 
ance as  per  Ledger"  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of  the  Receipt 
side  of  Cash  Book.  To  find  Bank  Balance  at  any  time  during 
the  month,  add  up  the  column  "Cash  Received,"  and  then  add 
to  it  the  Balance  at  the  top  of  the  page.  Then  add  up  the 
Check  column,  which  is  the  first  one  on  the  right-hand  page, 
and  deduct  that  total  from  the  total  of  receipts  and  balance; 
the  difference  is  the  amount  in  the  bank  against  which  you 
can  draw  checks. 

Ledger. — The  Ledger  is  divided  into  three  general  sections 
separated  by  division  sheets  with  Tabs,  as  follows: 

Customers'  Accounts 

Accounts  Payable 

General  Ledger  Accounts;  or  as  stated  before,  large  shops  may 
require  a  separate  Ledger  for  each. 


696  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

Customer's   Accounts. — This   section    contains   a  sepas  ' 
account  with  each  one  of  the  customers.     Among  the  As 
accounts  in  the  General  Ledger  is  one,  "  Customer's  Lee 
Controlling  Account."     This  represents  the   total  of  aD  ■> 
accounts  in  this  "Customers'  Accounts"  section. 

While  the  debits  and  credits  to  each  customer  are  por^ 
individually,  the  total  of  the  Customers'  Accounts  coluinK: 
the  Sales  Journal  and  Cash  Book  are  posted  to  the  Controlin: 
Account,  and  it  is  used  as  a  proof  or  check  on  the  individ- 
accounts.  The  total  of  all  balances  due  from  customers  wJ 
therefore  equal  the  balance  shown  in  the  Controlling  Aecooi' 
otherwise  there  have  been  errors  made  in  the  entries  to  tit 
individual  Customers'  Accounts.  This  proof  should  be  tiis 
every  month  when  taken,  off  a  Trial  Balance. 

Accounts  Payable. — This  section  contains  an  account  vi- 
every  one  to  which  money  is  owed.  It  includes  all  the  supp^ 
houses  and  also  such  accounts  as  Pay  Roll,  Petty  Cash,  sj^i 
accounts  which  are  paid  as  soon  as  entered.  The  Pay  Ro'- 
account,  although  always  in  balance,  enables  one  to  tell  ^• 
any  time  how  much  the  Pay  Roll  is,  and  is  useful  when  figuring 
the  Workmen's  Compensation  Premium.  The  Petty  Ca?n 
account  has  been  detailed  previously.  Other  accounts  alway? 
in  balance,  frequently  contain  information  that  is  helpfui 
For  instance,  if  it  is  necessary  to  know  how  much  is  paid  yoc 
drayman  on  some  certain  day,  turn  to  this  account,  and  (K 
the  debit  side  is  found  each  payment  itemized  with  date  aixi 
check  number.  This  makes  it  easier  to  secure  the  desireil 
information,  than  to  look  over  all  checks  for  several  weeks  or 
months. 

Among  the  liabilities  in  the  General  Ledger  accounts,  there 
is  also  a  Controlling  Account  for  this  "Accounts  Payable' 
section.  This  is  handled  just  Uke  the  Customers'  Ledger 
Controlling  Account,  and  should  be  proved  up  in  the  same  way. 

General  Ledger  Accounts. — This  section  or  book  takes  in  aif 
accounts  concerning  the  business.  First,  assets;  next,  liabili- 
ties; then  accounts  covering  amounts  that  are  spent  for  eaflj 
job,  such  as  Material,  Productive  Labor,  Permits,  etc.  Follow- 
ing this,  comes  the  Overhead  Accounts  such  as  Office  Salane^. 
Interest,  Rent,  etc.,  and  Loss  and  Gain  accounts  for  the  various 
divisions  of  the  business.  Each  account  should  have  a  separate 
page. 

The  accounts  chargeable  to  jobs,  and  overhead  accounts,  are 


BUSINESS  METHODS  697 

arranged  in  the  Ledger  in  the  same  order  they  appear  on  the 
Sales  Journal  and  Purchase  Journal  for  convenience  in  posting. 

Note  an  account  with  Overhead  showing  credit  entries. 
This  account  represents  the  amount  of  overhead  figured  on 
jobs  and  should  always  equal  at  least  the  amount  shown  in  the 
Purchase  Journal  in  "Total  Overhead"  column.  K  it  does 
not,  it  shows  your  percentage  of  overhead  used  in  estimating 
should  be  increased. 

Monthly  Trial  Balance. — It  is  best  to  have  this  a  permanent 
record;  therefore  a  blank  form  on  a  sheet  that  will  fit  in  the 
Binder,  is  shown.  The  names  of  the  General  Ledger  accounts 
have  been  printed  in,  with  blank  lines  for  any  additional  accounts 
Note  that  columns  sufficient  to  run  for  12  months  have  been 
suppUed,  so  that  the  names  need  not  be  rewritten  every  month. 

In  taking  a  Trial  Balance,  put  the  difference  between  the 
two  sides  of  the  account  in  the  column  corresponding  to  the 
side  (Debit  or  Credit)  which  is  greater.  For  instance,  "Cash 
in  Bank"  account  shows  total  debits  of  $1,522.50  total  credits 
of  $1,122.50,  the  difference  $400  would  go  in  the  left-hand  or 
debit  column  of  Trial  Balance  on  the  "Cash  in  Bank"  Une  and 
so  on  down  for  each  account  (see  Fig.  313).  This  is  better  than 
putting  in  the  total  posting  of  each  side  of  the  account  as  some 
do,  because  the  balance  in  each  account  has  some  story  to  tell. 
For  instance,  look  at  the  Customers'  Ledger  Controlhng  Ac- 
count, and  note  the  balance  for  this  month  is  considerably 
greater  than  the  preceding  month.  Looking  up  the  total 
charges  in  the  first  column  of  the  Sales  Journal  it  is  found  that 
the  sales  for  the  month  have  not  been  any  greater  than  the 
month  before.     That  means  a  falling  down  on  collections. 

After  drawing  off  all  balances  on  to  the  Trial  Balance  add 
both  columns  on  the  adding  machine.  If  both  columns  total 
the  same,  the  Ledger  is  in  balance. 

Premise  Report  Card. — Return  now  to  the  Workman's, 
Order  or  Job  Ticket.  Before  the  order  was  given  the  workman 
a  Premise  Report  Card  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  314  was  attached 
to  the  Workman's  Order.  This  ticket  is  perforated  near  the 
edge  and  has  a  gummed  edge  so  that  it  can  be  readily  attached 
to  the  Workman's  Order. 

The  journeyman  is  instructed  to  fill  this  card  out  on  every 
old  job  that  he  works  on.  That  is  he  states  the  condition  of 
the  bath  tub,  if  one  is  installed,  and  so  on.  He  also  fills  in  the 
heating  report  on  the  reverse  side. 


598 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


CO 

CO 

o 


BUSINESS  METHODS 


599 


When  this  report  card  is  turned  in  to  the  oflfice,  it  is  filed  in 
alphabetical  order.  Later  the  stenographer  or  some  other 
person  in  the  office  goes  through  this  file  and  makes  up  a  sheet 
for  each  of  the  items  listed  on  the  card.  Then  the  record  is 
transferred  from  the  Premise  Report  Card  to  this  sheet. 

As  an  example,  take  the  Premise  Report  Card  illustrated  in 
Fig.  314.  Note  that  Mr.  Jones  has  no  shower  bath,  therefore 
on  the  tickler  sheet,  as  it  is  called,  for  shower  baths,  Mr.  Jones' 


PREMISE  REPORT  CARD 

WotJM  to  Fmplnfw 

The  moMM  o(  tki«  dtpmdt  oa  yoo. 
U  yvn  Mvpwiy  iU>  out  thto  tlckat  It  «rin  «Im  m  a 
liMoallMnMdtofwirciiitoiMr.   If w* MlTthUB. it 


>«rarkforyoii.   Ut't  pull  tagrthw. 


Na 


StraMNo 

KIND  or  nXTURCS  NOW  IN  USE 


Bath ~ 

ShewMT 

Lsvatoiy. 

Claact. 

Sink 

Laandiy 

KiadofHcatlnc 

Method  of  Hotinc  Water. 
Bath  Room  AcocHorics. .. . 
VacnMa  CIcaMt 


Udmtd 


Signed. 


HEATING  REPOBT        1 

KIb4  Now  la  Um                      | 

Hctlinf  Boiler 

CeaOif 

Heal  Regulator 

Temp.  Refulator 

Kind  of  Heat 

Ra4iaior  Sbielda 

Radiator  Valves 

Air  Valvea 

Pipe  Covering 

Heattag 

Auiematic  Water  Heater 

Fig.  314. 


name  and  address  is  entered  as  a  prospective  customer  for  such 
appliance.  Then  on  the  closet  sheet  of  prospects  his  name  is 
also  entered,  as  the  report  shows  that  his  closet  is  in  bad  condi- 
tion. 

By  this  method  within  a  short  time  will  be  compiled  a  very 
complete  mailing  list  and  an  exceptionally  effective  mailing 
list.  In  fact  every  letter  sent  out  will  go  to  a  prospective 
customer  instead  of  being  mailed  out  to  an  uncertain  list. 

This  list  can  also  be  turned  ovfer  to  manufacturers  or  jobbers 
who  can  help  you  circularize  the  list  and  in  this  way  build  bigger 
business. 


600 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


PSTTY    CASH     TICKET 


Aooomit  to  Charge 
Received  fayacnt 


Fig.  315. 


Yoo  ere  huAy  ocdered  4o  aiefce  the  feOowii^  cfaeages  in. 


or  edditioos  to. 


worfc  now  being  done  by  contred,  et 
: of 


•Che  seme  to  be  changed  aeperetdy  et  cxtee  week. 


NOTBt-WoHaBta  wfll  U  ImU  iiriftly 
nnlMt  uadar  order. 


IOC  WOCK 


Fig.  316. 


BUSINESS  METHODS  601 

In  some  shops  where  this  method  is  used,  the  contractor  pays 
the  journeyman  25  cts.  for  every  complete  report  he  brings  in. 
This  represents  an  excellent  investment. 

The  Pay  Envelope  is  recommended  as  a  very  eflficient  method 
and  very  advantagenous  in  handling  the  Pay  Roll  and  reducing 
the  liability  of  error.  It  also  has  an  advantage  that  each  man 
upon  receiving  his  envelope  with  the  amount  plainly  recorded 
knows  at  once  how  much  is  inside.  If  he  wishes  to  dispute  the 
amount,  he  must  do  so  immediately.  The  form  is  self  explana- 
tory without  further  comment. 

Figure  316  illustrates  a  very  useful  form  known  as  the 
Customer's  Order  Slip,  and  is  a  safe  guard  for  extras  on  con- 
tracts. It  avoids  the  dispute  on  bills  at  the  completion  of  a 
contract  as  it  indicates  without  any  argument  that  the  work 
has  been  authorized.  These  forms  are  carried  by  the  man  in 
charge  of  the  contract  work  and  when  a  change  is  ordered  by 
the  architect  or  owner,  he  is  asked  to  specify  the  work  on  the 
form  and  his  signature  is  affixed  as  a  matter  of  course.  This 
system  is  a  protection  to  the  customer  as  much  as  to  the  con- 
tractor and  is  appreciated  accordingly. 


APPENDIX 
PLUMBING  CODE 

APPLICATION 

All  and  every  person  or  persons,  engaged  or  engaging  in 
the  business  or  work  of  plumbing  and  house  draina.ge  in  cities, 
shall  apply  in  writing  to  the  said  director  of  the  department  of 
public  safety,  department  or  board  or  bureau  of  health,  for 
such  certificate  or  license;  and  if,  after  proper  examination 
made  by  the  department  or  board  or  bureau  of  health  of  cities, 
such  person  or  persons  so  applying  shall  be  found  competent,  the 
same  shall  be  certified  to  the  director  of  the  department  of 
public  safety,  department  or  board  or  bureau  of  health,  who 
shall  thereupon  issue  a  certificate  or  license  to  such  person  or 
persons,  which  shall,  for  the  period  of  one  calendar  year  or 
fractional  part  thereof  next  ensuing  the  date  of  such  exami- 
nation, entitle  him  or  them  to  engage  in  or  work  at  the  business 
of  plumbing  and  house  drainage.  The  mayor  of  cities  is  hereby 
authorized  to  appoint  a  board  of  examiners,  to  consist  of  the 
health  oflBcer  or  superintendent  of  the  department  or  board  or 
bureau  of  health,  one  plumbing  inspector,  and  two  competent 
plumbers  in  no  wise  connected  with  the  city  government,  who 
shall  examine  all  applicants  for  Ucense  under  the  provisions  of 
this  act.  The  said  board  shall  make  all  reasonable  rules, 
regulations  and  examinations,  which  shall  be  approved  by  the 
said  director  of  the  department  or  board  or  bureau  of  health. 
An  examination  of  any  one  member  of  a  firm  or  corporation, 
or  of  the  superintendent  or  foreman  thereof,  shall  be  deemed 
sufficient.  Said  person  or  persons,  firm  or  corporation,  engaged 
or  engaging  in  the  business  of  plumbing  or  house  drainage,  shall 
pay  for  each  examination  the  sum  of  five  dollars,  and  each 
journeyman  or  person  engaged  in  the  work  shall  pay  the  sum 
of  fifty  cents,  which  sum  shall  be  paid  into  the  city  treasur}-, 
for  the  use  of  said  cities.  The  proper  officers  of  said  cities  are 
hereby  authorized  to  pay  to  the  plumbers  acting  on  said  board 
the  sum  of  five  dollars  per  day,  for  each  day  or  session  thus 
actually  employed. 

602 


APPENDIX  603 

PLACE  OF  BUSINESS 

Every  registered  master  plumber  shall  have  a  bona  fide  place 
of  business,  and  shall  display  on  the  front  of  his  or  their  place  of 
business  a  sign  "Registered  Plumber,"  bearing  the  name  or 
names  of  the  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  in  letters  not  less  than 
three  inches  high. 

REGISTRATION 

No  persons  other  than  a  registered  master  plumber  shall  be 
allowed  to  carry  on  or  engage  in  the  business;  nor  shall  any  per- 
son or  persons  expose  the  sign  of  plumbing  or  house  drainage,  or 
any  advertisement  pertaining  thereto,  unless  he  or  they  have 
first  secured  a  Ucense  or  certificate  and  have  been  registered  in 
the  office  of  the  board  or  bureau  of  health  of  such  cities;  nor  shall 
any  person  or  persons  other  than  a  registered  master  plumber, — 
or  person  in  his  or  their  employ,  or  under  his  or  their  super- 
vision,— ^be  allowed  to  alter,  repair,  or  make  any  connection 
with,  any  drain,  soil,  waste,  or  vent  pipe,  or  any  pipe  connected 
therewith. 

Every  registered  master  plumber,  firm,  or  corporation  shall 
give  immediate  notice  of  any  change  in  his,  their,  or  its  place  of 
business;  and  upon  his,  their,  or  its  retirement  from  business 
shall  surrender  his,  their,  or  its  certificate  of  registry  to  the 
board  or  bureau  of  health.  Every  person,  firm,  corporation, 
or  representative  thereof,  in  registering,  shall  give  the  full 
name  or  names  of  the  person,  firm,  or  officers'  names  of  the 
corporation,  for  which  he  or  they  shall  register. 

EXPIRATION  OF  LICENSES 

At  the  expiration  of  each  calendar  year  said  certificate  or 
license  shall  be  null  and  void.  A  licensed  master  or  journey- 
man plumber  desiring  to  continue  in,  or  work  at,  the  business 
of  plumbing  and  house  drainage  for  the  ensuing  year  shall, 
between  the  first  and  thirty-first  days  of  December  of  each 
and  every  year,  surrender  the  said  certificate  of  license  for  the 
current  year  to  the  department  or  board  or  bureau  of  health, 
and  re-register  his,  their,  or  its  name  or  names,  and  business  or 
home  address,  upon  such  form  or  forms  as  may,  from  time  to 
time,  be  furnished  by  said  department  or  board  of  bureau  of 
health. 


604  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

RE-REGISTRATION 

A  re-examination  will  not  be  necessary  for  re-registration, 
unless  the  licensed  master  or  journeyman  plumber  should  have 
failed  to  make  application  for  re-registration  at  the  specified 
time.  The  sum  of  one  dollar  shall  be  paid  by  master  plumbers, 
firms,  or  corporations,  and  the  sum  of  twenty-five  cents  by 
journeymen  plumbers,  for  re-registration,  which  sum  shall  be 
paid  into  the  city  treasury,  for  the  use  of  said  cities.  A  register 
of  all  such  applicants  and  the  license  or  certificates  issued  shall 
be  kept  in  said  department,  board,  or  bureau  of  hea1th,which 
said  register  shall  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  aU  persons, 
interested  therein. 

WORK  IN  ANY  OTHER  CITY 

Any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  holding  a  license  or  certifi- 
cate, granted  by  any  first,  second,  or  third  class  city  of  this 
Commonwealth,  to  engage  in  or  work  at  the  business  of  plumb- 
ing and  house  drainage,  desiring  to  do  plumbing  and  drainage 
work  in  any  other  city  than  the  one  in  which  said  license  or 
certificate  was  granted,  shall,  without  examination,  be  regis- 
tered before  entering  upon  such  work:  Provided,  however. 
That  such  registration  shall  be  restricted  and  limited  to  such 
plumbing  and  drainage  work  as  he,  they,  or  it  shall  have  con- 
tracted for  at  the  time  of  registry.  On  the  completion  of 
such  contract  or  contracts  the  registration  of  such  person,  firm, 
or  corporation  shall  be  null  and  void,  and  no  further  permit 
shall  be  issued  to  such  person,  firm,  or  corporation  until  he,  they, 
or  it  shall  have  first  registered  his  or  its  name  or  their  names 
and  address,  as  hereinbefore  provided. 

INSTALLATION 

From  and  after  the  passage  of  this  act,  the  construction  of 
plumbing,  house  drainage  and  cess-pools  shall  be  conducted 
only  under  and  in  accordance  with  the  following  rules,  regu- 
lations and  requirements,  namely: 

Plans  and  Specifications. — There  shall  be  a  separate  plan  for 
each  building,  public  or  private,  or  any  addition  thereto,  or 
alterations  thereof,  accompanied  by  specifications  showing  the 
location,  size  and  kind  of  pipe,  traps,  closets  and  fixtures  to 
be  used,  which  plans  and  specifications  shall  be  filed  with  the 
board  or  bureau  of  health.     The  said  plans  and  specifications 


APPENDIX  605 

shall  be  furnished  by  the  architect,  plumber,  or  owner,  and 
filed  by  the  plumber.  All  applications  for  change  in  plans 
must  be  made  in  writing. 

Filing  Plans  and  Specifications. — Plumbers  before  commenc- 
ing the  contruction  of  plumbing  work  in  any  building  in  the 
said  cities  (except  in  case  of  repairs,  which  are  here  defined  to 
relate  to  the  mending  of  leaks  in  soil,  vent  or  waste-pipes, 
faucets,  valves  and  water-supply  pipes,  and  shall  not  be  con- 
strued to  admit  of  the  replacing  of  any  fixture,  such  as  water 
closets,  bath  tubs,  wash  stands,  sinks,  et  cetera,  or  the  respective 
traps  for  such  fixtures),  shall  submit  to  the  board  or  bureau  of 
health,  plans  and  specifications,  legibly  drawn  in  ink,  on  blanks 
to  be  furnished  by  said  board  or  bureau.  Where  two  or  more 
buildings  are  located  together  and  on  the  same  street,  and  the 
plumbing  work  is  identical  in  each,  one  plan  will  be  sufiicient. 
Plans  will  be  approved  or  rejected  within  twenty-four  hours 
after  their  receipt. 

Duty  of  Owners  and  Plumbers  in  Constructing  Drains, 
etc. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  person  constructing  or  own- 
ing any  drain,  soil-pipe,  passage  or  connection,  between  a  sewer 
and  any  ground,  building,  erection  or  place  of  business,  and 
in  Ipce  manner  the  duty  of  the  owners  of  all  grounds,  buildings, 
erections,  and  all  parties  interested  therein  or  thereat,  to  cause 
and  require  that  such  drain,  soil  pipe,  passage  or  connections, 
shall  be  adequate  for  its  purpose,  and  shall  at  all  times  allow 
to  pass  freely  all  material  that  enters  or  should  enter  the  same, 
and  no  change  of  drainage,  sewerage  or  the  sewer  connection 
of  any  house  shall  be  permitted  unless  notice  thereof  shall  have 
been  given  the  board  or  bureau  of  health,  and  assent  thereto 
obtained  in  writing. 

Inspection  and  Approval. — Drainage,  sewerage  or  plumbing 
work  must  not  be  covered  or  concealed  in  any  manner  until 
after  it  is  inspected  and  approved  by  the  board  or  bureau  of 
health.  Notice  must  be  given  said  board  or  bureau,  upon 
blanks  to  be  furnished  by  it,  when  the  work  is  sufficiently 
advanced  for  such  inspection;  when  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
proper  officers  to  inspect  the  same  within  three  days  after 
receipt  of  said  notice. 

Material  of  House  Drains. — The  main  drainage  system  of 
every  house  or  building  shall  be  separately  and  independently 
connected  with  the  street  sewer,  where  such  sewer  exists, 
except  where  two  houses  are  built  together  on  a  lot  with  a 


606 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


frontage  of  thirty  feet  or  less,  when  one  connection  with  main 
sewer  will  be  allowed;  but  there  shall  be  a  separate  house  drain 
for  each  house,  connected  by  a  Y-connection  in  the  front  of  such 
houses,  at  the  property  line,  with  main  house  sewer;  or,  where 
one  building  exists  or  is  erected  in  the  rear  of  another,  (Hi  an 
interior  lot,  of  single  ownership,  and  no  private  sewer  is  avail- 
able, or  can  be  made  for  the  rear  building  through  an  adjoin- 
ing alley,  courtyard  or  driveway,  the  house  drain  from  the 
front  building  may  be  extended  to  the  rear  building,  and  the 
whole  will  be  considered  as  one  house  drain.  Where  it  is  neces- 
sary to  construct  a  private  sewer  to  connect  with  sewer  on 
adjacent  street,  such  plans  may  be  used  as  may  be  approved  by 
the  department  or  board  or  bureau  of  health,  but  in  no  case 
shall  joint  drains  be  laid  in  cellars,  parallel  with  the  street  or 
alley. 

House  drains  or  soil  pipes  laid  beneath  floor  must  be  extra 
heavy  cast-iron  pipe  (see  weights  of  cast-iron  soil  pifie),  with 
leaded  and  caulked  joints,  and  carried  five  feet  outside  cellar 
wall.  All  drains  or  soil  pipes  connected  with  main  drain  where 
it  is  above  the  cellar  floor  shall  be  of  extra  heavy  cast-iron  pipe, 
with  leaded  and  caulked  joints,  or  of  heavy  wrought-iron  pipe, 
with  screw  joints  properly  secured,  and  carried  five  feet  outside 
cellar  wall,  and  all  arrangements  of  soil  or  waste-pipes  shall  be 
as  direct  as  possible.  Wrought-iron  pipes  shall  be  galvanized. 
Changes  of  direction  on  pipes  shall  be  made  with  Y-branches, 
both  above  and  below  the  ground,  and  where  such  pipes  pass 
through  a  new  foundation  wall  a  relieving  arch  shall  be  built 
over  it,  with  two-inch  space  on  either  side  of  main  pipe. 

The  size  of  the  main  house  drain  shall  be  determined  by  the 
total  area  of  the  buildings  and  paved  surfaces  to  be  drained, 
according  to  the  following  table,'  if  iron  pipe  is  used.  If  the 
pipe  is  terra  cotta,  the  diameter  shall  be  one  size  larger  for  the 
same  amount  of  area  drainage. 


Diameter, 
inches 

Fall  yi  in.  per  foot 

Fall  yi  in.  per  foot 

4 
5 
6 
8 
10 

1,800  sq.  ft.  drainage  area 
3,000  sq.  ft.  drainage  area 
5,000  sq.  ft.  drainage  area 
9,100  sq.  ft.  drainage  area 
1 4,000  sq.  ft.  drainage  area 

2,500  sq.  ft.  drainage  area 

4,500  sq.  ft.  drainage  area 

7,500  sq.  ft.  drainage  area 

1 3,600  sq.  ft.  drainage  area 

20,000  sq.  ft.  drainage  area 

APPENDIX  607 

The  main  house  drains  may  be  decreased  in  diameter  beyond 
a  rain-water  conductor  or  surface  inlet  by  permission  of  the 
department  or  board  or  bureau  of  health,  when  the  plans  show 
that  conditions  are  such  as  to  warrant  such  decrease;  but  in  no 
ase  shall  the  main  house  drain  be  less  than  four  inches  in 
diameter. 

Location  of  Main  Trap. — ^The  house  drain  must  be  provided 
with  a  horizontal  trap,  placed  immediately  inside  the  cellar  wall. 
The  trap  must  be  provided  with  a  hand-hole,  for  convenience  in 
cleaning,  the  cover  of  which  must  be  properly  fitted  and  made 
gas  and  air  tight,  with  heavy  brass  screw-cap  ferrule,  caulked 
in.  This  class  of  traps  shall  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
board  or  bureau  of  health. 

Fresh-air  Inlet. — ^A  fresh-air  inlet  must  be  connected  with 
the  house  drain  just  inside  the  house  trap.  Where  under- 
ground, it  must  be  of  extra  heavy  cast  iron.  Said  inlet  must 
lead  into  the  outer  air,  and  finish  with  an  automatic  device, 
approved  by  the  board  or  bureau  of  health,  at  a  point  just 
outside  the  front  wall  of  building.  The  fresh  air  inlet  must  be 
of  same  size  as  the  drain,  up  to  four  inches.  For  five-  and  six- 
inch  drains  it  must  not  be  less  than  four  inches  in  diameter; 
for  seven-  and  eight-inch  drains,  not  less  than  sfx  inches  in 
diameter,  or  its  equivalent;  and  for  larger  drains,  not  less  than 
eight  inches  in  diameter,  or  its  equivalent. 

Laying  of  House  Sewers  and  Drains. — House  sewers  and 
house  drains  must,  where  possible,  be  given  an  even  grade  to 
the  main  sewer  of  not  less  than  one-quarter  of  an  inch  per  foot. 
Location  of  House  Sewers. — When  main  sewer  is  not  located 
on  street,  house  sewers  must  be  constructed  on  outside  of 
buildings,  and  branch  into  each  house  separately,  and  in  no 
case  will  the  sewer  from  one  house  to  another  be  permitted  to 
run  through  cellars. 

Drains  Outside  of  Buildings. — Where  the  ground  is  of  suffi- 
cient solidity  for  a  proper  foundation,  cylindrical  terra-cotta 
pipe  of  the  best  quaUty,  free  from  flaws,  splits  or  cracks,  per- 
fectly burned,  and  well  glazed  over  the  entire  inner  and  outer 
surfaces,  may  be  used  if  laid  on  smooth  bottom,  with  a  special 
groove  cut  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  for  each  hub,  in  order  to 
give  the  pipe  a  solid  bearing  on  its  entire  length,  and  the  soil 
well  rammed  on  each  side  of  the  pipe.  The  spigot  and  hub  ends 
shall  be  connected.  The  space  between  the  hub  and  pipe  must 
be  thoroughly  filled  with  cement  mortar,  made  of  equal  parts  of 


608  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

the  best  American  natural  cement  and  bar  sand,  thorou^y 
mixed  dry,  and  enough  water  afterwards  added  to  give  proper 
consistency.  The  mortar  must  be  mixed  in  small  quantities, 
and  used  as  soon  as  made.  The  joints  must  be  carefully  wipec 
out  and  pointed,  and  all  mortar  that  may  be  left  inside  removed 
and  the  pipe  left  clean  and  smooth  throughout,  for  whicii 
purpose  a  swab  may  be  used.  It  must  not  be  laid  closer  than 
five  feet  to  an  exterior  wall  of  any  building,  or  be  less  than  tJiree 
and  one-half  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  when  tk 
sewer  passes  near  a  well,  nor  will  it  be  allowed  in  bad  or  made 
ground. 

Material  of  Sewers  Between  Buildings. — Where  a  sewer  is 
laid  between  buildings  in  a  passageway,  alley  or  court  yard,  at  a 
less  distance  than  five  feet  from  the  buildings,  it  must  be  con- 
structed of  extra  heavy  cast-iron  pipe  for  a  distance  correspond- 
ing to  the  length  of  the  foundation  of  said  buUdings. 

Floor  Drains. — Floor  or  other  drains  will  only  be  permitted 
when  it  can  be  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  board  or  bureau 
of  health  that  their  use  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  arrange- 
ments made  to  maintain  a  permanent  water-seal  in  the  traps, 
and  be  provided  with  check  or  back-water  valves. 

Weight  and  Thickness  of  Cast-iron  Soil  Pipe. — All  cast-iroo 
pipes  must  be  sound,  free  from  holes,  and  of  a  uniform  thick- 
ness, known  as  "extra  heavy"  pipe,  and  corresponding  fittings 
will  be  required.  The  pipe  must  be  tested  to  fifty  pounds 
water  pressure  and  marked  with  the  maker's  name. 

Pipes  shall  weigh  as  follows,  namely: 

Two-inch  pipe,  five  and  one-half  pounds  per   lineal  foot. 

Three-inch  pipe,  nine  and  one-half  pounds  per  lineal  foot 

Four-inch  pipe,  thirteen  pounds  per  lineal  foot. 

Five-inch  pipe,  seventeen  pounds  per  lineal  foot. 

Six-inch  pipe,  twenty-pounds  per  lineal  foot. 

Seven-inch  pipe,  twenty-seven  pounds  per  lineal  foot. 

Eight-inch  pipe,  thirty-three  and  one-half  pounds  per  lineal 
foot. 

Ten-inch  pipe,  forty-five  pounds  per  lineal  foot. 

Twelve-inch  pipe,  fifty-four  pounds  per  Uneal  foot. 

Subsoil  Drains. — Subsoil  drains  must  discharge  into  a  sump 
or  receiving  tank,  the  contents  of  which  must  be  lifted  and  dis- 
charged into  the  drainage  system  above  the  cellar  floor  by  some 
approved  method.  Where  directly  sewer-connected,  they 
must  be  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  plumbing  system  by  a  brass 


APPENDIX  609 

lap-valve  on  the  inlet  to  the  catch-basin,  and  the  trap  on  the 
irain  from  the  catch  basin  must  be  water-supplied,  as  required 
^or  cellar  drains. 

Yard  and  Area  Drains. — All  yards,  areas  and  courts  must  be 
drained,  Tenement  houses  and  lodging  houses  must  have  the 
yards,  areas  and  courts  drained  into  the  sewer.  These  drains, 
when  sewer-connected,  must  have  connection  not  less  than 
four  inches  in  diameter.  They  should  be  controlled  by  one 
trap — the  leader  trap,  if  possible. 

Use  of  Old  House  Drains  and  Sewers. — Old  house  drains 
and  sewers  may  be  used,  in  connection  w  th  new  buildings  or 
plumbing,  only  when  they  are  found,  on  examination  by  the 
board  or  bureau  of  health,  to  conform  in  all  respects  to  the 
requirements  governing  new  sewers  and  drains.  All  extensions 
to  old  house  drains  must  be  of  extra  heavy  cast-iron  pipe. 

Leader  Pipes. — All  buildings  shall  be  kept  provided  with 
proper  metalUc  leaders  for  conducting  water  from  the  roofs  in 
such  manner  as  shall  protect  the  walls  and  foundations  of  said 
building  from  injury.  In  no  case  shall  the  water  from  said 
leaders  be  allowed  to  flow  upon  the  sidewalk,  but  the  same  shall 
be  conducted  by  a  pipe  or  pipes  to  the  sewer.  If  there  be  no 
sewer  in  the  street  upon  which  such  building  fronts,  then  the 
water  from  said  leaders  shall  be  conducted,  by  proper  pipe  or 
pipes  below  the  surface  of  the  side  walk,  to  the  street  gutter. 

Materials  for  Inside  and  Outside  Leaders. — Inside  leaders 
must  be  constructed  of  cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  or  steel,  with 
roof  connections  made  gas-  and  water-tight  by  means  of  heavy 
copper-drawn  tubing  slipped  into  the  pipe.  The  tubing  must 
extend  at  least  seven  inches  into  iron  leader  pipe.  Outside 
leaders  may  be  sheet  metal,  but  they  must  connect  with  house 
drain  by  means  of  a  cast-iron  pipe  extending  vertically  five 
feet  above  grade  level,  where  the  building  is  located  along 
public  driveways  or  sidewalks.  Where  the  building  is  located 
off  building  line,  and  not  liable  to  be  damaged,  the  connection 
shall  be  made  with  iron  pipe  extending  at  least  one  foot  above 
grade  level. 

Trapping  of  Leaders. — All  leaders  must  be  trapped  with  cast- 
iron  running  traps,  so  placed  as  to  prevent  freezing. 

Rain-water  leaders  must  not  be  used  as  soil,  waste  or  vent 
pipes,  nor  small  such  pipes  be  used  as  leaders. 

Exhaust  from  Steam  Pipes,  etc. — No  steam  exhaust,  blow- 
off  or  drip  pipe  shall  connect  with  a  sewer  or  house  drain,  leader, 

39 


610 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


soil  pipe,  waste  or  vent  pipe.  Such  pipes  must  discharge  into  a 
tank  or  condenser,  from  which  suitable  outlet  to  the  sewer  shall 
be  made.  Such  condenser  shall  be  water  supplied,  to  help 
condensation  and  protect  the  sewer,  and  shall  also  be  supplied 
with  relief  vent  to  carry  off  dry  steam. 

Diameter  of  Soil  Pipe. — The  smallest  diameter  of  any  8<n1 
pipe  permitted  to  be  used  shall  be  four-inch.  The  nze  of  soil- 
pipes  must  not  be  les  than  those  set  forth  in  the  followisg 
tables: 

Maximum  Nubibbr  of  Fixtures  Connbctbd  To 


Soil  and  waste  combined 

Soil  pipe  alone 

Size  o 
inc 

Branch 

Main 

Branch 

Main 

4 
5 
6 

48  fixtures 

%  fixtures 

268  fixtures 

%  fixtures 
192  fixtures 
336  fixtures 

8  water  closets 
16  water  closets 
34  water  closets 

16  water  closets 
32  water  dosets 
68  water  closets 

If  the  building  is  six,  and  less  than  twelve  stories  in  height, 
the  diameter  shall  be  not  less  than  five  inches;  if  more  than 
twelve  stories,  it  shall  be  six  inches  in  diameter.  A  building 
six  or  more  stories  in  height,  with  fixtures  located  below  the 
sixth  floor,  soil-pipe  four  inches  in  diameter  will  be  aUowed  to 
extend  through  the  roof;  provided  the  number  of  fixtures  does 
not  exceed  the  number  given  in  the  table. 

All  soil  pipes  must  extend  at  least  two  feet  above  the  highest 
window,  and  must  not  be  reduced  in  size.  Traps  will  not  be 
permitted  on  main,  vertical,  soil  or  waste  Unes.  E^h  house 
must  have  a  separate  line  of  soil  and  vent  pipes.  No  soil  or 
waste  line  shall  be  constructed  on  the  outside  of  a  building. 

Fixtures  with — 

One  and  one-quarter  inch  traps,  count  as  one  fixture; 

One  and  one-half  inch  traps,  count  as  one  fixture; 

Two-inch  traps,  count  as  two  fixtures; 

Two  and  one-half  inch  traps,  count  as  three  fixtures; 

Three-inch  traps  (water  closets),  count  as  four  fixtures; 

Four-inch  traps,  count  as  five  fixtures. 

Change  in  Direction. — All  sewer,  soil  and  waste  pipes  must 
be  as  direct  as  possible.     Changes  in  directions  must  be  made 


APPENDIX  611 

with  Y  or  half  Y-branches,  or  one-eighth  bends.  Offsets  in  soil 
or  waste  pipes  will  not  be  permitted  when  they  can  be  avoided; 
nor,  in  any  case  unless  suitable  provision  is  made  to  prevent 
accumulation  of  rust  or  other  obstruction.  Offsets  shall  be 
made  with  forty-five  degree  bends  or  similar  fittings.  The  use 
of  T  Ys  (sanitary  Ts)  will  be  permitted  on  upright  lines  only. 

Joints  for  Soil  and  Waste  Pipes. — Joints  in  cast-iron  pipes 
and  soil  and  waste  pipes  must  be  so  filled  with  o£ikum  and  lead, 
and  hand-caulked  as  to  make  them  gas  tight.  Connections  of 
lead  and  cast-iron  pipes  must  be  made  with  brass  sleeve  or 
ferrule,  of  the  same  size  as  the  lead  pipe  inserted  in  the  hub 
of  the  iron  pipe,  and  caulked  with  lead.  The  lead  pipe  must  be 
attached  to  the  ferrule  by  wiped  joint.  Joints  between  lead 
and  wrought-iron  pipes  must  be  made  with  brass  nipple,  of 
same  size  as  lead  pipe.  The  lead  pipe  must  be  attached  to  the 
nipple  by  wiped  joints.  All  connections  of  lead  waste  pipe 
must  be  made  by  means  of  wiped  joints. 

Traps  for  Bath  Tubs,  Water  Closets,  Etc. — Every  sink, 
bath  tub,  basin,  water  closet,  slophopper,  or  fixtures  having  a 
waste  pipe,  must  be  furnished  with  a  trap,  which  shall  be  placed 
as  close  as  practicable  to  the  fixture  that  it  serves,  and  in  no 
case  shall  they  be  more  than  one  foot  from  said  fixture.  The 
waste  pipe  from  the  bath  tub  or  other  fixtures  must  not  be 
connected  with  a  water-closet  trap. 

Size  op  Horizontal  and  Vertical  Waste-pipe  Traps  and 

Branches 


Horizontal  and  vertical,  inches 

Number  of  small  fixtures 

2 

2H 
3 

1 

2 
3  to    8 
9  to  20 
21  to  44 

If  building  is  ten  or  more  stories  in  height,  the  vertical 
wa^te  pipe  shall  not  be  less  than  three  inches  in  diameter. 
The  use  of  wrought-iron  pipe  for  waste  pipe  two  inches  or  less 
in  diameter  is  prohibited. 

The  size  of  traps  and  waste  branches,  for  a  given  fixture,  shall 
be  as  follows: 


612 


PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 


Size  in  inches 


Kind  of  fixtures 


Water  closet 

Slop  sink  with  trap  combined 

Slop  sink  ordinary 

Pedestal  urinal 

Floor  drain  or  wash 

Yard  drain  or  catch  basin 

Urinal  trough 

Laundry  trays  (2  or  5) 

Combination  sink  and  tray  (for  each  fixture) 

Kitchen  sinks  (small),  for  dwellings 

Kitchen  sinks  (large),  hotels,  restaurants,  grease  trap 

Pantry  sinks 

Wash  basin,  one  only 

Bath  tubs  4  by  10  in.,  drum  trap 

Shower  baths 

Shower  baths  (floor) 

Sitz  baths 

Drinking  fountains 


Overflow  Pipes. — Overflow  pipes  from  fixtures  must  in  aU 
cases  be  connected  on  the  inlet  side  of  traps. 

Sediment  Pipes. — Sediment  pipes  from  kitchen  boilers  must 
not  be  connected  on  the  outlet  side  of  traps. 

Setting  of  Traps  and  Traps  Without  Re-vent. — ^AIl  trafs 
must  be  well  supported,  and  set  true  with  respect  to  their 
water  levels.  All  bath  tubs  shall  be  suppUed  with  drum- 
traps,  with  trap-screw  on  floor  Une.  In  case  where  an  addi- 
tional fixture  is  required  in  a  building,  and  it  is  impossible  to 
get  re-vent  pipe  for  the  trap,  the  board  or  bureau  of  health 
shall  designate  the  kind  of  trap  to  be  used.  This  shall  not  be 
construed  to  allow  traps  without  re-vents,  in  a  new  building. 

Safe  and  Refrigerator  Waste  Pipes. — Safe  waste  pipes  must 
not  connect  directly  with  any  part  of  the  plumbing  system- 
Safe  wafite  pipes  must  discharge  over  an  open,  water-supplied, 
publicly  placed,  ordinary  used  sink,  placed  not  more  than  three 
and  one-half  feet  above  the  cellar  floor.  The  safe  waste  from 
a  refrigerator  must  be  trapped  at  the  bottom  of  the  line  only, 
and  must  not  discharge  upon  the  ground  floor,  but  over  an 
ordinary  portable  pan,  or  some  properly  trapped,  water  sup- 
plied sink,  as  above.     In  no  case  shall  the  refrigerator  waste- 


APPENDIX 


613 


pipe  discharge  over  a  sink  located  in  a  room  used  for  living 
purposes. 

The  branches  on  vertical  lines  must  be  made  by  Y-fittings, 
and  be  carried  to  the  safe  with  as  much  pitch  as  possible. 
Where  there  is  an  offset  on  a  refrigerator  waste  pipe  in  cellar, 
there  must  be  cleanouts  to  control  the  horizontal  part  of  the 
pipe. 

In  tenement  and  lodging  houses  the  refrigerator  waste  pipes 
must  extend  above  the  roof,  and  not  be  larger  than  one  and  one- 
half  inches,  nor  the  branches  less  than  one  and  one-quarter 
inches.  Refrigerator  waste  pipes,  except  in  tenement  houses, 
and  all  safe  waste  pipes,  must  have  brass  flap-valves  at  their 
lower  ends.  Lead  safes  must  be  graded  and  neatly  turned  over 
beveled  strips  at  their  edges. 

Material  for  Vent  Pipes. — All  vent  pipes  must  either  be  of 
lead,  brass-loricated-porcelain,  enameled-iron,  or  galvanized- 
iron  pipe. 

Ventilation  of  Traps  and  Soil  Lines. — ^Traps  shall  be  pro- 
tected from  siphonage  or  air  pressure  by  special  vent  pipes  of  a 
size  not  less  than  the  following  tables: 


Size  of  pipe 

Maximum  developed 
length  in  feet 

Number  of  traps  vented 

Mains 

Brancli 

Main  vertical 

l>i-in.  vent 
IH-in.  vent 

2  -in.  vent 
lyi-in.  vent 

3  -in.  vent 

20 

40 

65 

100 

10  or  more  stories 

1 

2  or  less 
10  or  less 
20  or  less 
60  or  less 

20  or  less 

40  or  less 

1 00  or  less 

The  branch  vent  pipes  shall  be  not  less  than  the  following 
sizes : 

One  and  one-fourth  inches  in  diameter,  for  one  and  one-fourth- 
inch  traps. 

One  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter,  for  one  and  one-half 
inch  to  two  and  one-half -inch  traps. 

Two  inches  in  diameter,  for  three-inch  to  four-inch  traps. 

One-half  their  diameter,  for  traps  five  inches  and  over. 

Where  two  or  more  water  closets  are  placed  side  by  side. 


614  PLUMBERS^  HANDBOOK 

on  a  horizontal  branch,  the  branch  line  shall  have  a  rdief 
extended  as  a  loop  vent.  A  pipe  two  inches  in  diameter  wj. 
be  sufficient  as  a  loop  vent  for  two  closets.  A  pii)e  thwe 
inches  in  diameter  shall  be  used  as  a  relief  for  three  or  four 
closets;  and  where  more  than  four  closets  are  located  oo 
the  same  branch  the  relief  shall  not  be  less  than  four  inches 
in  diameter.  All  house  drains  and  soil  lines  on  which  a  water 
closet  is  located  must  have  a  four-inch  main  vent  line.  When 
an  additional  closet  is  located  in  the  cellar  or  basement,  aoi 
within  ten  feet  of  main  soil  or  vent  line  no  reUef  vent  will  be 
required  for  said  closet;  but  where  it  is  more  than  ten  feet,  i 
two-inch  vent  line  will  be  required.  ReUef  vent  pipes  for 
water  closets  must  not  be  less  than  two  inches  in  diamete, 
for  a  length  of  forty  feet,  and  not  less  than  three  inches  ic 
diameter,  for  more  than  forty  feet. 

No  revent  from  traps  under  bell  trap  will  be  required. 

Any  building  having  a  sewer  connection  with  a  public  or 
private  sewer  used  for  bell-trap  connections  or  floor  drainage 
only,  a  two-inch  relief  line  must  be  extended  to  the  roof  of 
building  from  rear  end  of  main  drain.  House  drains,  con- 
structed for  roof  drainage  only,  will  not  require  a  relief  vent. 

A  floor-trap  for  a  shower  shall  be  vented,  unless  located  in 
cellar  or  ground  floor,  the  paving  of  which  renders  the  trap  inac- 
cessible.    If  the  number  of  those  fixtures  on  a  branch  is  two 
or  more,  the  waste  line  shall  be  extended  as  a  loop  vent,  instead  i 
of  back  venting  the  separate  traps;  and  when  located  in  base- 1 
ment  floor  they  shall  be  provided  with  a  removable  strainer  or| 
cleanout. 

Back  vent  pipes,  from  traps  above  the  floor,  must  either  be, 
connected  with  crown  of  trap  with  ground  in  brass  coupling,  or,| 
if  connected  solidly  to  trap,  must  have  a  ground  in  brass 
coupling  at  wall. 

Horizontal  Vent  Pipes. — Where  rows  of  fixtures  are  placed 
in   a  line,  fittings  of  not  less  than  forty-five  degrees  to  the 
horizontal  must  be  used  on  vent  Unes  to  prevent  filling  wit 
rust  or  condensation;  except  on  brick  or  tile  walls,  where  it 
necessary    to    channel  same  for  pipes  ninety   degrees-fittin 
will  be  allowed.     Trapped  vent  pipes  are  strictly  prohibited.'  u 
No  vent-pipe  from  house  side  of  any  trap  shall  connect  witb  s 
ventilation  pipe,  or  with  sewer,  soil,  or  waste  pipe.  '  a 

Vent  pipes  from  several  traps  may  be  connected  together] 
or  may  be  carried  into  the  main  vent  line  above  the  highesti  t 


APPENDIX  615 

fixture.  Where  one  vertical  vent  line  connects  with  another,  a 
Y-fitting  must  be  used.  Branch  vent  pipes  must  be  connected 
as  near  to  crown  of  trap  as  possible. 

Offset  on  Vent  Lines. — All  offsets  on  vent  lines  must  be 
made  at  an  angle  of  not  less  than  forty-five  degrees  to  the 
horizontal,  and  all  lines  must  be  connected  at  the  bottom  with  a 
soil  or  waste  pipe,  or  the  drain,  in  such  manner  as  to  prevent 
the  accumulation  of  rust,  scale  or  condensation. 

Connection  for  Closet  Vents. — Rubber  connections  for  back 
vents  will  not  be  permitted,  without  double  coupling  and 
thimble  inside. 

Ventilators  Prohibited. — No  brick,  sheet  metal,  or  earthen- 
ware flue,  or  chimney  flue,  shall  be  used  as  a  sewer  ventilator, 
or  to  ventilate  any  trap,  drain,  soil,  or  wEtste  pipe. 

Soldering  Nipples. — Soldering  nipples  must  be  extra  heavy 
brass,  or  brass  pipe,  iron  pipe  size. 

Brass  Cleanouts. — ^Brass  screw-caps  for  cleanouts  must  be 
extra  heavy,  not  less  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick.  The 
screw-cap  must  have  a  soUd,  square  or  hexagonal  nut  not  less 
than  one  inch  high.  The  body  of  cleanout  ferrule  must,  at 
least,  equal  in  weight  and  thickness  the  caulking  ferrule,  for 
the  same  size  pipe. 

Diameter  and  Weight  of  Ferrules. — Brass  ferrules  must  be 
of  best  quaUty,  bell  shaped,  extra  heavy  cast  brass;  not  less  than 
four  inches  long,  and  two  and  one-quarter  inches,  three  and 
one-half  inches,  and  four  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter,  and 
not  less  than  the  following  weights: 

Diameter,  two  and  one-fourth  inches;  weight  one  pound. 

Diameter,  three  and  one-half  inches;  weight,  one  pound 
twelve  ounces. 

Diameter,  four  and  one-half  inches;  weight,  two  pounds 
eight  ounces. 

Setting  of  Fixtures. — ^The  closet  and  all  other  fixtures  must 
be  set  open  and  free  from  all  inclosing  wood  or  other  work. 
Where  water  closets  will  not  support  a  rim  seat,  the  seat  must 
be  supported  on  galvanized  iron  legs  and  a  drip  tray  must  be 
used,  which  tray  must  be  porcelain,  enameled  on  both  sides 
and  secured  in  place.  In  tenement  houses  and  lodging  houses, 
sinks  must  be  entirely  open,  set  on  iron  legs  or  brackets,  without 
any  inclosing  wood  or  other  work. 

Closets  Prohibited. — Pan,  plunger  or  hopper  closets  will 
not  be  permitted  in  any  building.     No  range  closet,  either 


616  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

wet  or  dry,  nor  any  evaporating  system  of  closets,  shall  be 
constructed  or  allowed  inside  of  any  building. 

A  separate  building,  constructed  especially  for  the  purpose, 
must  be  provided  in  which  such  range  closets  shall  be  set. 

Water-closet  Connection  with  Soil  Pipe. — All  earthenware 
traps  must  have  heavy  brass  floor  plates,  soldered  to  the 
lead  bends  and  bolted  to  the  trap  flange,  and  the  joint  made 
permanently  secure  and  gastight. 

Water  Closets,  Where  Located. — Water  closets  must  not  be 
located  in  sleeping  apartments,  nor  in  any  room  or  compart- 
ment which  has  not  direct  communication  with  external  air, 
either  by  window  or  air  shaft  of  at  least  four  square  feet. 

Water  Closets,  How  Supplied. — No  water  closets  except  those 
placed  in  yards,  and  flush  meters,  volumeters  or  similar  devices, 
shall  be  supplied  directly  from  the  supply  pipes.  All  water 
closets  must  have  flushing  rim-bowls. 

Water  Closets  to  be  Supplied  From  Flushing  Tanks.— 
Water  closets  within  buildings  shall  be  supplied  with  water 
from  special  tanks  or  cisterns,  which  shall  hold  not  less  than  six 
gallons,  when  full  to  the  level  of  the  overflow  pipe,  for  each 
closet  supplied,  excepting  automatic  or  siphon  tanks,  which 
shall  hold  not  less  than  five  gallons  for  each  closet  suppHed.  A 
group  of  closets  may  be  flushed  from  one  tank,  but  water  closets 
on  different  floors  must  not  be  flushed  from  the  same  tank, 
except  flushimeters,  volumeters  or  similar  devices.  The  water 
in  said  tanks  must  not  be  used  for  any  other  purpose. 

Water  Closets  for  Tenement  Houses. — In  no  case  will  the 
water-closet  system  of  tenement  or  lodging  houses  be  permitted 
in  cellars,  basements  or  under  sidewalks. 

Number  of  Closets  Required. — In  all  sewer-connected,  occu- 
pied buildings  there  must  be  at  least  one  water  closet,  and  there 
must  be  additional  closets  so  as  there  will  never  be  more  than 
fifteen  persons  per  closet.  In  lodging  houses,  where  there  are 
more  than  fifteen  persons  on  any  floor,  there  must  be  an  addi- 
tional water  closet  on  that  floor  for  every  fifteen  additional 
persons,  or  fraction  thereof. 

Water-closet  Apartments. — In  tenement  houses,  lodging 
houses,  factories,  work-shops,  and  all  public  buildings,  the 
entire  water-closet  apartments  and  side-walls,  to  a  height  of 
sixteen  inches  from  the  floor,  except  at  the  door,  must  be  made 
waterproof  with  asphalt,  cement,  tile  or  other  waterproof 
material,  as  approved  by  the  board  or  bureau  of  health.     In 


APPENDIX  617 

tenement  houses  and  lodging  houses,  the  water-closet  and 
urinal  apartments  must  have  a  window  or  windows  opening 
into  the  outer  air,  of  sufficient  size,  all  of  which  shall  be  shown 
on  plans,  and  shall  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  board  or 
bureau  of  health.  Except  that  tenement  or  lodging  houses 
three  stories  or  less  in  height  may  have  such  window  opening 
on  a  ventilating  shaft,  not  less  than  ten  square  feet  in  area. 
In  all  buildings,  the  outer  partition  of  such  apartments  must 
extend  to  the  ceiling,  or  be  independently  ceiled  over,  and 
these  partitions  must  be  airtight.  The  outside  partitions  must 
include  a  window  opening  to  outer  air  on  the  lot  whereon  the 
building  is  situated;  or  some  other  approved  means  of  venti- 
lation must  be  provided.  When  necessary  to  properly  light 
such  apartments,  the  upper  part  of  the  partitions  must  be  of 
glass.  The  interior  partition  of  such  apartments  must  be 
dwarfed  partitions. 

Construction  of  Urinals. — All  urinals  must  be  constructed  of 
materials  impervious  to  moisture  and  that  will  not  corrode 
under  the  action  of  urine.  The  floor  and  walls  of  urinal  apart- 
ments must  be  lined  with  similar  non-absorbent  and 
non-corrosive  material. 

URINAL  PLATFORMS 

The  platforms  or  treads  of  urinal  stalls  must  not  be  connected 
independently  to  the  plumbing  system,  nor  can  they  be 
connected  to  any  safe  waste  pipe. 

Iron  trough  water  closets  and  trough  urinals  must  be  porce- 
lain covered,  enameled  or  galvanized  cast  iron. 

All  water  closets  and  other  fixtures  must  be  provided  with  a 
sufficient  supply  of  water  for  flushing  to  keep  them  in-a  proper 
and  cleanly  condition. 

Flush  Pipes. — Water-closet  flush  pipes  must  not  be  less  than 
one  ane  one-quarter  inches,  and  urinal  flush  pipes  one-half 
inch  in  diameter. 

Lining  for  Closet  and  Urinal  Cisterns. — The  copper  lining  of 
water-closet  and  urinal  cisterns  must  not  be  lighter  than  twelve- 
ounce  copper,  and  weight  must  be  stamped  on  lining  with 
maker's  name.  Where  lead  is  used  for  lining  it  must  not  weigh 
less  than  four  pounds  to  the  square  foot.  All  other  materials 
are  prohibited. 

Fixtures  Prohibited. — Wooden  wash-trays,  sinks,  or  bath 


618  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

tubs  are  prohibited  inside  of  buildings.  Such  fixtures  must  be 
constructed  of  non-absorbent  material.  Cement  or  artificial 
stone  tubs  will  not  be  permitted,  unless  approved  by  the  board 
or  bureau  of  health. 

Yard  Water  Closets. — Water  closets  when  located  in  yard 
must  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  conveniently  and  adequately 
flushed,  and  the  water-supply  pipes  and  traps  protected  from 
freezing  by  being  placed  in  a  hopper-pit  at  least  four  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  walls  of  which  pit  shall  be  con- 
structed of  hard  burned  brick  or  stone,  laid  in  cement  mortar, 
or  of  concrete.  The  walls  for  pit,  where  one  closet  is  installed, 
may  be  four  inches  in  thickness;  or  salt-glazed  sewer  pipe, 
thirty-six  inches  in  diameter,  may  be  used. 

Where  pit  is  for  more  than  one  closet,  the  walls  shall  be 
nine  inches  in  thickness.  The  soil  pipe  and  traps  used 
inside  pit  must  be  extra  heavy  cast  iron,  and  the  trap  to  have 
hand-hole  for  cleanout  purposes,  with  cleanout  caulked  in. 
If  the  closet  is  located  in  the  rear  of  a  soil  or  vent  pipe,  the  drain 
on  which  it  is  located  shall  be  vented  with  a  four-inch  pipe, 
carried  above  roof  of  closet,  away  from  any  opening  or  window. 
All  outside  closets  shall  be  of  the  tank  pattern.  The  water  to 
be  supplied  to  tank  through  an  automatic  seat-action  valve. 
The  waste  from  valve  may  be  permitted  to  discharge  on  cement 
floor  of  pit,  which  shall  be  provided  with  four-inch  trap  and 
strainer.  The  enclosure  of  yard  water  closets  shall  be  venti- 
lated by  slatted  openings,  and  there  shall  be  a  trap  door  of 
sufficient  size  to  permit  of  convenient  access  to  the  hopper-pit. 

Cess -pools  and  Privy  Vaults. — No  privy  vault,  or  cess-pool 
for  sewerage,  shall  hereafter  be  constructed  in  any  part  of  the  city, 
where  a  sewer  is  at  all  accessible,  which  shall  be  determined  by 
the  department  or  board  or  bureau  of  health;  nor  shall  it  be 
lawful  to  continue  a  privy  vault  or  cess-pool  on  any  lot,  piece, 
or  parcel  of  ground  abutting  on  or  contiguous  to  any  public 
sewer,  within  the  city  limits.  The  department  or  board  or 
bureau  of  health  shall  have  the  power  to  issue,  notice,  giving 
at  least  three  months'  time  to  discontinue  the  use  of  any  cess- 
pool and  have  it  cleaned  and  filled  up.  No  connection  for  any 
cess-pool  or  privy  vault  shall  be  made  with  any  sewer;  nor  shall 
any  water-closet  or  house  drain  empty  into  a  cess-pool  or  privy 
vault. 

In  Districts  Where  No  Sewer  Exists. — In  rural  districts,  or 
districts  where  no  sewer  exists,  privy  vaults  shall  not  be  located 


APPENDIX  619 

within  two  feet  of  party  or  street  line,  nor  within  twenty  feet 
of  any  building.  Before  any  privy  vault  shall  be  constructed, 
application  for  permission  therefor  shall  be  made  to  the  depart- 
ment or  board  or  bureau  of  health;  and  such  privy  vault  shall 
have  nine-inch  walls,  constructed  of  hard  burned  brick,  or 
stone,  laid  in  cement  mortar,  or  of  concrete,  with  bottom  and 
sides  cemented  so  as  to  be  water-tight;  size  to  be  not  less  than 
four  feet  in  diameter  and  six  feet  deep. 

Material  and  Workmanship. — All  material  used  in  the  work 
of  plumbing  and  drainage  must  be  of  good  quality  and  free 
from  defects.  The  work  must  be  executed  in  a  thorough  and 
workmanhke    manner. 

No  Person  to  Allow  Name  to  be  Used. — No  person,  firm  or 
corporation,  carrying  on  the  business  of  plumbing  and  house 
drainage,  shall  allow  his  or  their  name  to  be  used  by  any  person, 
directly  or  indirectly,  either  to  obtain  a  permit  or  permits  or  to 
do  any  work  under  his  or  their  license. 

Terms  Used. — The  term  "private  sewer"  is  applied  to  main 
sewers  that  are  not  constructed  by  and  under  the  supervision  of 
the  Department  of  Pubhc  Works. 

The  term  "house  sewer"  is  applied  to  that  part  of  the  main 
extending  drain  or  sewer  from  a  point  five  feet  outside  of  the 
sewer,  wall  of  a  building,  vault  or  area  to  its  connection  with 
public  outer  private  sewer  or  cess-pool. 

The  term  "house  drain"  is  applied  to  that  part  of  the  main 
horizontal  drain  and  its  branches  inside  the  walls  of  the  building, 
vault  or  area,  and  extending  to  and  connecting  with  the  house 
sewer. 

The  term  "soil  pipe**  is  applied  to  any  vertical  line  of  pipe  ex- 
tending through  the  roof,  receiving  the  discharge  of  one  or  more 
water  closets,  with  or  without  other  fixtures. 

The  term  "waste  pipe"  is  applied  to  any  pipe  extending 
through  roof  receiving  the  discharge  from  any  fixtures  except 
water  closets. 

The  term  "vent  pipe"  is  applied  to  any  special  pipe  provided 
to  ventilate  the  system  of  piping,  and  to  prevent  trap  siphonage 
and  back  pressure. 

Defective  Plumbing. — Whenever  it  shall  come  to  the  know- 
ledge of  the  department  or  board  or  bureau  of  health,  or  com- 
plaint in  writing  shall  be  made  by  any  citizen,  that  the  plumbing 
or  drainage  in  any  building  has  become  a  nuisance  or  is 
contrary  to  the  provisions  and  requirements  of  this  act  or  the 


620  PLUMBERS'  HANDBOOK 

ordinances  of  the  city,  or  is  of  faulty  construction  and  liable 
to  breed  disease  or  endanger  the  health  of  the  occupants,  or 
upon  the  request  of  any  owner  or  occupant,  of  any  building 
fitted  with  plumbing  or  drainage  prior  to  the  passage  of  this 
act,  then  the  department  or  board  or  bureau  of  health  shall 
direct  the  proper  oflBcer  to  examine  the  plumbing  or  drainage 
in  any  such  building,  and  the  said  officer  shall  make  a  iirawing 
of  the  plan  of  said  plumbing,  drainage,  and  sewer  and  ventilat- 
ing shaft  connections.  He  shall  report  his  findings  in  writing, 
to  the  department  or  board  or  bureau  of  health,  and  suggest 
such  changes  as  are  necessary  to  make  the  same  conform  to  the 
rules  governing  such  matters. 

The  department  or  board  or  bureau  of  health  shall  thereupon 
notify  the  owner  or  agent  of  any  such  building  of  the  changes 
which  are  necessary  to  be  made  in  said  plumbing  or  drainage. 
Said  changes  shall  be  made  within  the  time  fixed  by  the  depart- 
ment or  board  or  bureau  of  health;  and,  upon  refusal  or  neglect 
to  obey  such  orders,  the  department  or  board  or  bureau  of 
health  shall  institute  legal  proceedings  to  have  such  changes 
made  and  said  nuisance  abated,  by  action  before  a  justice  of 
the  peace  or  court  of  record;  in  which  said  action  the  owner  or 
agent  of  said  building  may  show  in  defense,  that  the  plumbing 
or  drainage  was  not  a  nuisance,  or  was  not  of  faulty  construction 
or  out  of  repair,  and,  in  case  of  a  building  constructed  subse- 
quent to  the  passage  of  this  act,  said  plumbing  or  drainage  was 
not  contrary  to  the  provisions  and  requirements  of  this  act  or 
the  ordinances  of  the  city. 

First  Inspection. — When  drain,  soil,  waste,  vent  and  other 
pipes  in  the  building,  connected  or  to  be  connected  with  the 
sewer,  have  been  placed  in  position,  a  preliminary  water  or  air 
test  of  the  same  shall  be  applied,  in  presence  of  an  officer  of  the 
board  or  bureau  of  health. 

Final  Test. — When  the  work  has  been  completed,  a  final 
notice  shall  be  filed  with  the  board  or  bureau  of  health,  when 
a  final  air  or  peppermint  test  shall  be  made,  in  presence  of  said 
officer;  when,  if  found  satisfactory,  a  certificate  of  approval  of 
the  work  will  be  issued;  but  no  such  plumbing  or  drainage  work 
or  system  shall  be  used  until  said  test  has  been  made  and 
certificate  issued. 

When  work  is  ready  for  inspection  the  plumbing  contractor 
shall  make  such  arrangements  as  will  enable  the  proper  officer  to 
reach  all  parts  of  the  building  easily  and  readily,  and  also  have 


APPENDIX  621 

present  the  proper  apparatus  and  appliances  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  a  proper  application  of  the  same. 

In  case  of  any  dispute  or  difference  of  opinion  existing  be- 
tween the  department  or  board  or  bureau  of  health  and  any 
person,  firm  or  corporation,  as  aforesaid,  regarding  the  con- 
struction of  plumbing,  house  drainage  or  cess-pools,  the  same 
shall  be  submitted  by  either  party  to  the  director  of  the  depart- 
ment of  public  safety,  or  the  presiding  officer  of  the  department 
or  board  or  bureau  of  health,  who  shall  pass  upon  the  same, 
and  whose  findings  therein,  after  hearing,  shall  be  final  and 
conclusive  upon  all  parties. 

Violations. — Any  person  or  persons  who  shall  fail  to  comply 
with  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act,  regarding  the  procuring 
of  a  license  or  certificate  to  engage  in  or  work  at  the  business 
of  plumbing  or  house  drainage,  shall  be  liable  to  a  fine  of  not 
less  than  ten  dollars  ($10.00),  nor  exceeding  fifty  dollars 
($60.00),  for  each  and  every  day  he  or  they  shall  engage  in  or 
work  at  said  business,  without  first  having  obtained  said  certi- 
ficate or  Ucense;  and  any  person  or  persons  who  shall  violate 
any  of  the  rules,  regulations  or  requirements  set  forth  in  this 
act,  regarding  the  construction,  reconstruction  or  testing  of 
plumbing,  house  drainage,  or  cess-pools,  shall  be  liable,  for 
every  such  offense,  to  a  fine  of  not  less  than  ten  dollars  ($10.00), 
nor  more  than  fifty  dollars  ($50.00). 


INDEX 


B 


Acetylene  gaa,  48 

generator,  58 
Acid  drains,  220 

as  flux,  343,  379 

effect  of,  on  corrosion,  304 

hydrochloric,  337 

muriatic,  337 

nitric.  337 

sulfuric,  336 
Acid-proof  castings,  335 
Air-compressed  for  water  supply,  35 

changes,  470 
AlkaUes.  339,  340 

action  on  oils,  351 

effect  of,  on  corrosion,  304 
Alloys,  corrosion-resistant,  334,  335 

definition  of,  322 

fusible,  330 

lead-tin,  325 

Lipowits's,  330 

Newtons,  330 

non-ferrous,  322 

Rose's,  330 

silicon-iron,  335 

Wood's,  330 
Aluminum  sheets,  433,  436,  315,  332 

flux  for  soldering,  343 

weights,  436 
Ammonia  water,  341 
Ammonium   chloride   as  flux,   330, 
342 

hydroxide,  341 
Amyl  acetate,  310 
Angus  Smith's  solution,  310 
Anode,  definition  of,  301 
Antimony,  316 

in  brass,  332 

in  solder,  328 
Aqua  fortis,  337 
Arsenic  in  brass,  332 

in  solder,  328 
Atmospheric  pressure,  20 
Auto,  radiator  repairs,  416 


"Banana"  oil,  310 
Bases,  339 

Basic  openhearth  steel,  295 
Bath  tubs,  256,  273 

roughing-in,  259 

shower,  279 

supply,  259 

waste,  258 
Benzine,  351 
Bessemer  steel,  296 
Bidet.  254 
Bismuth,  316,  332 
Boiler  compounds,  369 

effect  of  grease  in,  369 

scale,  365,  366,  171 

water,  treatment  of,  367,  171 
Brass,  427,  337,  332.  185 

cleaning  of,  345 

valve,  332 

weights  of,  433 
Brasing  solder,  331 
Briggs  stondard,  212,  214 
Brine,  freesing,  323 
British  thermal  unit,  B.t.u.,  3,  109 
Bronze.  333,  334 

cleaning,  345 
Bronzing  liquid,  310 
Brown  A  Sharpe  gage,  435 
Business  methods,  569 

cash  book,  501 

ledger,  586 

purchase  Journal,  587 

sales  journal,  581 

trial  balance,  507 


Cadmium,  317 

Carbon  dioxide  in  air,  362 

monoxide,  362 
Cast  iron,  285  {see  Iron). 
Capacity  of  pipes,  189,  100 
Caulked  joints,  122 


623 


624 


INDEX 


Caustic  soda  and  potash,  340 
Cell,  primary  electric,  300 
Cement,  acid  proof,  374 

action  of  destructive  agents  on, 

371 
effect  of  freezing,  372 
iron,  375 
oilproof ,  374 
Portland,  370 
waterproof,  373 
Chimneys,  12 
capstone,  17 
construction  of,  16 
extentions,  403 
heights  of,  13 
location  of,  16 
size  of,  15 
Cinders,  corroding  act  on,  306 
Circles,  areas,  etc.,  529 
Cleaning  metal  surfaces,  343 
Coal  consumed,   steam  condensed, 

283 
Codes,  sanitation,  540 

drinking  fountains,  555 
plumbing,  602 
area  drains,  609 
exhaust  pipes,  609 
fresh  air  inlet,  607 
house  drain,  605 
inspection,  620 
sewers,  608 
sub-soil,  608 
refrigerator  waste,  612 
traps,  611 
urinals,  617 
vent  pipes,  614 
waste  pipes,  611 
water  closets,  616 
privies,  555 
retiring  rooms,  544 
shower    baths,  554 
toilet  rooms,  545 
urinals,  550 
ventilation,  552 
washing  facilities,  553 
water  closets,  548 
Conductor  heads,  412 
Copper,  317 

cleaning  of,  345 
in  solder,  328 
pipe,  184 
plated  iron,  312 


Copper  sheets,  425 

soldering,  377 

weights  and  aises,  432,  434 
Combustion,  359 

principles  of,  353 

rates  of,  7 

spontaneous,  353 
Comparison  of  steels,  298 
Conduction,  471,  3 
Convection,  471,  4 
Corrosion  of  iron  and  steel.  300,  308 

chemical  reactions  in,  302 

effect  of  cinders,  306 

of  dissolved  oxygen  on.  305 

of  electrolysis,  307 

of  heat,  306 

of  pipe,  170,  176 

of  soot,  307 

pitting  during,  302 

protection  against,  177,  308 

removal  of  products  of,  344 

theory  of.  300 
Corrugated  iron,  387,  427,  461 
Couplings,  right  and  left,  104 
Crucible  steel,  296 
Cube  root,  511,  532 


Decimals  of  foot,  531 

of  inch,  534 
Delta  metal,  332 
Dies,  193 

Briggs  standard  of,  212 

clearance  of,  196 

grinding,  200,  204 

repair  of,  203 
Discharging  capacity  of  pipes,  190 
Discount,  520 

chain,  537 
Domestic  hot  water,  106 
Draft,  14 
Drains,  220,  72,  215 

acid,  220 

area,  76,  609 

athletic  field,  77 

capacity  of,  74 

house,  113,  606 

storm  and  sanitary,  105 

sub-soil.  76,  215,  608 

tennis  courts,  77 

yard,  76,  609 


INDEX 


625 


E 


G 


dectrode,  definition  of,  301 
Gnaznelled,  cast  iron,  347 
steel,  347 

ware,  345-349.  256-268 
Enamels,  310 
Equivalents,  power    and    capacity, 

44.  528,  529 
Eutectic.  definition  of,  322-324 
Expansion  of  pipes,  89,  506 
joints,  90 
tank,  500 
Explosion  of  gases,  354 


Fatty  oils.  349 
Ferrite.  286 
Fire  test,  352 
Fittings,  121-124 

drainage,  122-128 
for  expansion,  90 
gas,  122 

malleable  iron,  122 
measurements  of,  128 
number  in  barrel,  127 
rail,  124 
Fixtures,  plumbing,  250 
Flames,  356 

luminous,  357 

non-luminous,  358 

oxidising    and    reducing,    359. 

50-52 
temperature  of,  358 
Flash  point,  definition  of,  352 
Flashings,  92,  94 

Flow  of   water,   resistance   to,    22, 
40 
in  pipes,  188,  41 
of  fixtures,  10 
Flue,  18 

Flush  valves,  254,  274,  252 
Flux,  330,  341-343,  376 
Freezing  of  portland  cement,  372 

mixtures,  69 
Fresh-air-inlet,  113,  607 
Friction  head,  for  ells,  42,  71 

in  pipes,  67 
Fuels,  principles  of  combustion  of, 
353 
40 


Gages,  metal  and  wire,  435 

iron  sheets,  428 
Galvanized  sheets,  426 

iron.  311 
Gas  fitting,  222 

appliances,  237-245 

for  house  heating,  243 

lighting  fixtures,  248 

meter,  231 

pipe  size,  223 

piping,  224-230 

precautions,  236 

turning  on,  233 
Gases,  explosion  of,  354,  48 

relative   volumes   for   combus- 
tion, 360 
Gasolene,  351 
German  silver,  332 
Gilts,  310 

Glossary   of  plumbing    terms,    556 
Grease,  in  boilers,  369 

removal  from  metals,  343 


H 


Hangers,  111,  113 
Hard  waters,  364 
Head,  21 
Heat,  1 

emitted  by  radiators,  473 

gain  of,  472,  470 

given  off  by  occupants,  471 

loss,  468,  469 
calculation  of,  472 
required  for  ventilation,  470 

transfer  of,  3 

total,  6 
Heaters,  hot  water,  8,  9 
Heating,  464 

by  hot  air,  464,  409 

by  hot  water,  496-498 

power  of  pipe,  282 

steam,  477,  481,  492 
Horsepower,  44,  38 
Hot  water,  for  domestic    use,  106, 
240 

for  pools,  280 

heating,  496 
Hydraulic  ram,  104 
Hydrogen,  preparation  of,  338 


626 


INDEX 


Hydrogen,  purification  of,  338 
Hydrostatic  table,  111 
Humidity,  362 


Ignition,  temperature  of,  353 
Imperial  gage,  435 
Infiltration,  472 
Iron,  black,  313,  43»-446.  428 
cast,  285 
composition  of,  287 
cooling  rate,  286 
cutting  of,  57 
enamelled,  347 
welding  of,  53 
coatings  for,  313,  308 
corrosion  of,  300 
galvanised,  450-555,  311 
in  bronse,  333 
in  solder,  329 
malleable  cast,  289 
sheets,  428 
wrought,  290 
distinguished  from  steel,  292 


Linseed  oil,  309,  350 
Liquid  measure,  393,  529 
Logarithms,  508,  522 
London  gage,  435 
Lubricating  oils,  352 
Lye,  soda  and  potash.  340 

M 

Malleable  iron,  289  (see  Iron). 
Manganese  bronxe,  334 

in  brass,  332 

in  cast  iron,  288 

in  steel,  294,  295 
Measurers,  linear,  525 

cubic,  529 

liquid,  529 

metric,  528 

square,  528 
Metallurgy,  285 
Meters,  115 

Mineral  lubricating  oil,  352 
Moisture  in  air,  361,  362 
Monel  metal,  334 
Munts  metal,  331 


Japanning,  310 

Joints,  expansion,  90,  91,  507 

sewer  pipe,  217 

wiped,  116-120 

K 

Kathode,  definition  of,  301 

Kerosene,  352 

KindUng  point  of  fuels,  353 


N 

Naptha,  351 
Nickel.  319 

plated  iron,  312 

steel,  335 
Nitric  acid.  337 
Non-ferrous  alloys,  322 

metals,  315 
Non-syphon  traps,  98 

O 


Lacquers,  310 
Lamp,  safety,  355 
Laundry  trays,  274 
Lavatories,  267 
Lead,  318 

and  oakum  joints,  123 

lined  pipe,  177 

pipe,  63,  186 

white,  309 
Leader  pipes,  219 
Linear  measure.  528 


Oakum.  122 
Offsets  in  pipe,  88 
Oil,  action  of  caustics  on,  350 
banana,  310 
Chinese  wood.  309 
linseed,  350 
lubrication,  352 
petroleum,  351 
Openhearth  steel,  293,  294 
Oxyacetylene  welding,  48 
equipment,  49-56 
flame.  50,  52 
torcbeB,  51 


INDEX 


627 


Oxyacetylene    cast      iron    cutting, 
67-59 

gas  consumption,  61 

pressures,  60 

steel  cutting,  55 
Oxygen,  action  of,  in  corrosion,  305 


Paint  for  iron  and  steel,  309 
for  tin  roofs,  384,  309 
oils,  350 
removers,  343 

Passivity  of  iron,  314 

Pattern  drafting,  389 
for  elbow,  397 
for  funnel,  390 
for  liquid  measure,  392 
for  smoke  stack  collar,  406 
for  tee,  402 
for  ventilators,  414 

Permutit  for  water-softening,  368 

Phosphor-bronze,  333 

Phosphorus  in  cast  iron,  288 

Pickling  baths  for  metals,  344 

Pipe,  lead,  63,  177,  186 
areas,  503 
brass,  184,  282 
cement  lined,  178 
columns,  179 
copper,  184 
corrosion,  64,  170,  178 
discharge  capacity,  190 
expansion,  89 
for  cold  water  service,  178 
for  hot  water  service,  178 
galvanised,  177 
lap  and  butt  weld,  169 
Jead-lined.  177 
measurements,  85,  88 
piping  capacities,  188 
sizes,  steam,  493,  495 
standards,  168.  183,  214,  227 
steel,  169 

threads,  192,  214,  227 
vitrified,  clay  sewer,  215-218 

water,  503 
wrought  iron,  169 

Piping  system  of  plumbing,  113 

Pitches  and  degrees,  380 

Plaster  of  Pans,  370 
Pool,  swimming,  279 
Portland  cement,  370 


Potassium  hydroxide,  340 
Pressure,  atmospheric,  20,  21 
Pumps,  20 

bore,  43 

capacity  of,  36 

centrifugal,  27 

classification,  23 

deep-well,  43 

duty  of,  22,  45,  46,  47 

high  pressure,  28 

horsepower,  38 

jet,  33 

piston,  24 

rotary,  20 

triplex,  46 

vacuum,  31 
Purification  of  water,  367 


R 


Radiation,  471,  4 
Radiator,  repair,  auto,  416 

efifect  of  painting,  474 

enclosures,  475 

heat  transmission,  473 

location  of,  476 
Rainfall,  73 
Rainleaders,  75 
Ram,  hydraulic,  104 
Refill,  of  trenches,  84 
Removers  of  paints  and  varnishes, 

343 
Roofing,  381 

Rosin,  as  a  flux,  343,  376 
Roughing-in  for  bath  tub,  259 

for  laundry  trays,  276-279 

for  lavatories,  263-269 

for  sinks,  261 

for  urinab,  273 
Rust,  171 

joint,  375 

removal  of,  344 
Rusting  of  iron,  300 


S 


Sal  ammoniac  as  flux,  330,  342,  378 
Sanitary  ware,  345 

codes,  540 
Scale  in  boilers,  365 

removal  from  iron,  344 
Segments,  527 


628 


INDEX 


Septic  tanks,  80-81 
Sewage  pumping,  27,  28 
Sewer,  house,  113 

pipe,  215,  221 
Sheet  metal,  376-^425 
Sherardising,  177,  311 
Shower  baths,  278 
Silicon  iron  alloys,  334,  335 

in  cast  iron,  287 
Sinks.  260-275 
Smoke  pipe,  17 
Soda,  caustic,  340 
Sodium  hydroxide,  340 
Softening  of  water,  367 
Soil  pipe,  114 
Solder,  aluminum,  340 

brasing,  331 

care  of,  328,  116 

composition     and     properties, 
325,  329 

foreign  metals  in,  328 

lead-tin,  325 

plumbers,  plasticity  of,  327 

removal  of  sine  from,  329 

soft  or  tinners,  328 
Soldering,  376,  341 
Solid  solution,  324 
Soot,  effect  of,  on  corrosion,  307 
Spellerising  of  steel,  314 
Spheres.  536 

Spontaneous  combustion,  353 
Square  feet  of  surface,  on  pipe,  281 

root.  510-532 
Stainless  steel,  315,  335 
Steam,  5 

heaters  for  water,  284 

heating  systems,  477,  481,  492 

toble,  7 
Steel,  293-299.  425-428 

Bessemer,  296 

carbon,  293 

corrosion  of,  300 

crucible,  296 

electrically-refined,  297 

mckel,  335 

openhearth,  293-296 

protection  from  corrosion,  308 
Stoves,  gas,  239 
Stubbs  gage,  435 
Sulfur  in  cast  iron,  287 
Swimming  pools,  279 
Syphon,  81.  95 


Tanks  for  water  closets.  253 

for  water  supply,  65 
Temperature.  1,  171,  352 

and  pressures,  4 

and  volumes,  5 
Temperatures  for  buildings,  465 

control,  482 

for  outside,  466 
Terne  plate,  312,  430,  456 
Test  for  plumbing  systems,  220.  77, 
620 

for  gas  piping,  235 
Thermometers,  2 
Threads  for  iron  pipe,  192,  227 
Tile  pipe,  221,  215 
Tin,  319.  321 

in  brass,  332 

plate,  430,  456,  426 

-plated  iron,  312 

roof,  381 

painting,  384 
Traps,  95,  97 

grease,  99 

house,  114 

loss  of  seal,  96-08 

seal.  96 
Trasrs,  laundry,  274,  277 
Treatment  of  boiler  water,  367,  171 
Trenches,  216,  83 
Trigonometric  functions,  512,  524 


U 


United  Stotes  standard  gage,  435 

for  liquid  measures,  392 
Urinals,  270-273,  617 


Valves,  67,  82 

air,  478,  498 

flush,  264 
Vapor  heating,  488 
Varnish  remover,  343 
Ventilation,  air  changes,  470 

heat  required,  470 

pipe,  115,  613 
Ventilator  pattern.  414 
Vents,  100,  102,  115,  614 
Vitreous  ware,  345 


INDEX 


629 


Vitrified  clay  sewer  pipe,  215-221 
Vitriol,  oil  of.  336 
Volumes,  of  spheres,  536 


W 


Washington  A  Moen,  gage,  435 

Waste  pipes,  611 

Water,  hardness  of,  364,  365 

backs,  109 

-closet  bowls,  250 

closets,  548,  616 

consumption,  62 

discharge  from  pipes  in  gallons, 
70 

effect  of  heat  on,  4 

flow  of,  10 

for  drinking,  79 

hammer,  105 

heaters,  108,  109,  280,  241 

lifting  hot,  20 


Water,  piping,  66 

purification  of,  363,  364,  367 

service  pipe,  62,  188,  85 

supply,  62 

supply,  compressed  air  for,  34 

used  per  fixture,  10 

waste  of,  67,  70 
Weights,  tables  of,  529 
Wiped  joints,  116-120 
Wrenches,  103 
Wrought  iron,  290  (see  Iron). 

Z 

Zinc.  321 

alloys  with  copper,  331 
chloride  as  flux,  342 
-coated  iron,  311 
in  bronse,  333 
in  solder,  329 
sheets,  427 
weights  of,  434 


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