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of tbe
lanivereiti? of Mieconein
1
' \
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
.^iiMiiiitHiitiiiiiTmriitHHiiiimiiiitiiiiiitiiiHiiiiwiitiMintiiiiiiiiiiiHiiigwpiMiiiiin^^
jkis Qrmo'JiillBock & ln&
PUDLISMCRS OF fiOOKS FOR^
Coal Age '*' Electric Railway Journal
Electrical ^rld v Engineering News-Record
American Machinist v Ingenieria Intemacional
Engineering 8 Mining Journal ^ Po we r
Chemical 6 Metallurgical Engineering
Electrical Merchandising
PLUMBEES' HANDBOOK
BY
SAMUEL EDWARD DIBBLE
• • •
HEAD OF HEATING, VENTILATINQ AND SANITATION DEPARTMENT, CAB-
NBOIE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGT; SBCBBTART, CONNECTICUT
MABTBB FLUMBBBS' ASSOCIATION, 1910; MBMBEB, AMEBIC AN
BOCIBTT OF HEATING AND VENTILATING ENOINBBBS;
AUTHOB, "elements OF PLUMBZNO"; ASSOCIATE
EDITOB, HOOL AND JOHNSON, "HANDBOOK
OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION"
First Edition
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc.
NEW YORK: 370 SEVENTH AVENUE
LONDON: 0 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. G. 4
1922
Copyright, 1922, by the
McGbaw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
THS MAPXiS rXSBB XOXX PA
254272 r,
^ PREFACE
The author has undertaken to prepare a handbook which will
be of permanent value to the Plumbing and Heating Dealer,
the Architect, the Engineer, the Estimator, as well as to the
Building Contractor and Sheet Metal Worker. It aims to
present information designed to perfect installations. The
book is so indexed and arranged with cross references that all
sections are focused on the Plumbing and Heating industry.
Valuable assistance has been received from the following:
The Standard Sanitary Mfg. Co., American Radiator Co.,
Thos. Maddock's Sons Co., The Eastern Clay Products Associa-
tion, The American Gas Association, The National Trade
Extension Bureau, and the author takes this opportunity to
express to them his appreciation and thanks for their interest.
S. E. Dibble.
P1TT8BUROH, Pa.,
Februaru, 1922.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Metallurgy and Chemistry
Robert B. Leighou, M.S.
Professor of Chemistry, College of Industries, Carnegie
Institute of Technology.
Pumps
R. B. Abibrose, B.S., M.E.
Assistant Professor Power Plant Operation and
Management, College of Industries, Carnegie
Institute of Technology.
Glossary of Plumbing Terms
Harrt R. Graham
Instructor in Plumbing, College of Industries, Carnegie
Institute of Technology.
Pipe Standards and Pipe Dies
F. N. Speller
Metallurgical Engineer, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Sheet Metal Work
O. W. KOTHE
Principal of- St. Louis Technical Institute, St.
Louis, Mo.
Mathematics
H. S. LiGHTCAP
Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Carnegie Insti-
tute of Technology.
Heating
Alphonse a. Adler, B.S., M.E.
Consulting Engineer, New York, N. Y.
Heat
Allen H. Blaisdell
Assistant Professor Mechanical Engineering, College
of Science and Engineering, Carnegie Institute of
Technology.
Vitrified Clay Sewer Pipe
Eastern Clay Products Association, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Gas and Gas Fitting
American Gas Association, New York, N. Y.
Business Methods
National Trade Extension Bureau, Evansville, Ind.
vu
CONTENTS
Paqb
Preface v
Suction
I. Heat 1
II. Pumps 20
III. OXYACBTYLBNB WeLDING 48
IV. General Plumbing Section. 62
V. Fittings 121
VI. Pipe Standards and Pipe Dies 168
VII. Vitrified Clay Sewer Pipe 215
VIII. Gas Fitting 222
IX. Plumbing Fixtures 250
X. Metallurgy and Chemistry 285
XI. Sheet-metal Work 376
XII. Heating 464
XIII. Mathematics 508
XIV. Codes 540
XV. Glossary of Plumbing Terms 556
XVI. Business Methods 559
Appendix Plumbing Code 602
Index 623
IX
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
SECTION 1
HEAT'
When a body is touched by the hands, two distinct sensations
are experienced, one a feeling of pressure and the other of
warmth or coldness. The latter effect results when a hot steam
pipe is touched. The words hot and cold simply refer to the
condition of the body as judged by one's sense of heat. By
means of this sense, we say that one body is hot and that
another is cold. For instance, we can by the sense of heat alone
arrange several pieces of the same substance in such order that
each will be hotter than all that precede it. We are thus led to
the idea of temperature as measured by means of the mercury
thermometer.
Temperature. — Imagine three tanks of water A, B, C,
(Fig. 1), each containing a different quantity of water. If A
7?^
Fig. 1.
and B are placed side by side in contact, and we observe by
means of a mercury thermometer placed first in A and then in
B that the temperature of the water in B increases while that
in A drops, we say that A has given up heat to B, Put C
in contact with B; if B thereby loses heat, be it ever so little,
heat has passed to C, and C is said to be at a lower temperature
than B.
It 18 evident that in general when one body is placed in contact
with another, the difference in temperature between the bodies is
that which determines which way the hecU will flow. That is,
whether heat flows from A to B or the reverse, depends not at
1 See "Heating Systems," page 464. See also
Supply/* page 107.
1
Domestic Hot Water
2 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
all upon the size of the tanks, but upon their difference of
temperature.
Effects of Heat. — One of the most general effects with change
of temperature in any body is change of bulk, or as it is called
expansion. The size or bulk of any body is found to increase
continuously with its hotness. Thus the metal rails of a
railroad track are not laid with their ends in contact, but with
a short space between to allow for expansion in summer (see
section on "Expansion of Pipes," page 88).
Another general effect of heat is a change in the physical
state or form of matter; that is, by sufficiently increasing the
temperature, solids are changed to liquids, and liquids into
vapors. This is well illustrated by the melting of ice to water
and the boiling away of water into steam.
Thermometers. — Since heat itself is invisible and can be
perceived only through its effects upon bodies, we are forced to
employ some one of these effects for the measurement of heat.
For ordinary purposes, the universal choice has been change in
size, which always accompanies a change in temperature.
For various reasons, mercury appears to be very well adapted
to temperature measurements. The indications of temperature
which are given by the mercurial thermometer hinge upon the
fact that mercury expands with rise of temperature more
rapidly than glass. If, therefore, a glass tube having a bulb
blown in one end be partially filled with mercury and inserted
in water at a higher temperature than its own, the mercury will
rise in the tube. K the instrument is inserted in water of lower
temperature, heat will flow from the mercury to the colder
water, and the column of mercury will contract or grow shorter.
The steps in the manufacture of a thermometer are as follows:
1. The selection of a piece of thick-walled capillary tubing
of uniform bore.
2. A bulb is blown in one end of this tube.
3. The bulb is filled with mercury, heated and sealed off.
4. The tube of the thermometer is graduated.
This last step is of great importance. It so happens that
there are two temperatures which can be easily produced; one
of them, the melting point of ice, the other, the boiling point of
water. Hence, these two temperatures, the melting point
of ice and the boiling point of water, are called 32 degrees and
212 degrees respectively on the Fahrenheit thermometer, and
are fixed points. The interval between these two fixed points
HEAT 3
is divided into 180 steps, or degrees. The zero point on the
thermometer tube is located by marking off 32 divisions below
the 32-degree point and calling this last mark zero.
Quantity of Heat. — Temperature is merely a condition
determining the direction of flow of heat, very much as pressure
is a condition governing the direction of flow when two tanks of
compressed air are connected. Just as we need a means of
measuring the amount of air which escapes from either of the
two tanks into the other, so we need a method of estimating
the quantity of heat which passes from one body to another of
different temperature, ^hen they are brought into contact.
We measure water in gallons and cubic feet; eggs by the
dozen or by weight in pounds. That is, some suitable unit is
always selected when measuring the quantity of various sub-
stances. In the case of heat the unit chosen is that quantity
of heat which raises the temperature of 1 Jb, of water 1®F., and is
called the British Thermal Unit (B.t.u.). For instance, if we
heat 1 lb. of water, raising its temperature from 60 to 100® F.,
we have added 40 B.t.u. of heat to the water over and above
what it possessed at 60**F.
Transfer of Heat. — Heat is transferred from one body to
another or is diffused throughout a liquid by three general
methods, viz: (1) Conduction, (2) Convection, and (3) Radiation.
1. Conduction. — If one end of an iron rod is placed in a hot
fire while the other is held
in the hand, the end held in
the hand soon commences
to get warm and finally
may become unbearably
hot. The process by which
the heat is transferred from
the heated end of the rod
to the cold end is called Fjq^ 2.
** conduction." The same
rod, when used with ice, may become quite cold. In this
case heat has been transferred by conduction from that end
of the rod held in the hand, to the end immersed in the ice
water.
The rate at which different substances conduct heat varies
between wide limits. For instance, in Fig. 2 are shown an iron
rod A and a copper rod B, both resting on pedestals. Both
rods are of the same length, 1 ft., and of the same cross-section.
4 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Each has one end in the same gas flame, C. If matches are now
placed at equal distances from the flame of each rod, those on
the copper will bum earlier than those on the iron rod.
2. Convection. — The hot air of a chinmey rises, mixes with
the outside air, and gives some of its heat to the outside air.
The hot air rises because its weight is less than that of cold
air. This process of carrying the hot air up the chimney is
called convection. Again, a can of water (Fig. 3) to which
a gas flame is applied on one
side, becomes equally heated
throughout.* First of all, the water
just over the flame becomes hot by
conduction through the walls of the
can. Then, by convection, the hot
water just over the flame is dis-
placed by the colder water which
is heavier, and therefore sinks to
the bottom, as indicated by the
arrows. This cold water, in turn,
becomes heated by conduction
through the bottom of the can.
3. Radiation. — When the hand
is held some inches from the side of, or underneath, an incan-
descent electric bulb, the sensation of heat is distinctly recog-
nized. We hold our hands before an open-grate fire to warm
them. How does the heat pass from the fire to the hands?
Certainly not by conduction, since air is one of the very poorest
conductors of heat known. It can readily be shown that con-
duction o.r convection have nothing whatever to do with the
conveyance of this heat, for even in the case of the incan-
descent bulb, the air has been almost entirely exhausted from
the bulb, yet heat is delivered from the filament to outside
objects. There is every reason for believing that the space
which separates us from the sun is more nearly a perfect vacuum
than any other known; yet across this vast and empty region
the earth daily receives enormous quantities of heat and the
heat so received is called radiant heat.
Fig. 3.
EFFECTS OF HEAT ON WATER
Pressure and Temperature. — In the first place, a glass of
water as long as it contains ice and is stirred does not become
either hotter or colder on standing. The ice may melt away,
HEAT 5
but as long as there is any ice left, the water will remain ap-
proximately at what we call "the temperature of melting ice."
Secondly, the temperature of melting ice can be changed by
placing the ice under pressure.
In like manner, however much you boil the water in a tea-
kettle, its temperature does not change after boiling has once
begim". But if the pressure on the surface of the water in the
tea-kettle is changed, then the temperature of the boiling water
will also be changed. This is most easily proved by boiling
in a kettle of water a bottle partly filled with water. K this
bottle be corked while still boiling, and then removed from the
water in the kettle, the steam over the surface of the water in
the bottle is partly condensed, thus reducing the pressure on
the water. Under these circumstances, the water in the bottle
will continue to boil long after it has reached a temperature
not uncomfortable to the hand. We can thus say that the
boiling temperature of water increases with the pressure on
the surface of the water. When the water surface is exposed
to the atmosphere, the pressure on it will be that of atmosphere,
and the boiling temperature will be 212**F. Any reduction of
pressure below that of the atmosphere will reduce the boiling
temperature below 212°, while any increase of pressure above
that due to the atmosphere will raise the boiling temperature
above 212**. The relation between the external pressure and
the temperature at which boiling takes place is not a simple
one. For the sake of accuracy and convenience, it is custom-
ary to refer to the colunms of a steam table for its determina-
tion. The data found in the steam tables has been derived
from experiments many times repeated.
Volume and Temperature. — If account be taken of the vol-
ume of steam produced during the evaporation of the water in
a closed vessel, it will be found in each case that a definite
volume has always been developed by the time that 1 lb. of
water has been entirely evaporated. This volume is called the
specific volume of saturated steam. It, too, will be found to
have different volumes under different conditions as to pressure
and temperature; but imder the same conditions it is always
the same.
Superheat and Saturation. — If the heating of 1 lb. of water
in a closed vessel be continued after all of the water is evapo-
rated, it will be found that the temperature again begins to
rise, and this time it will continue to rise as long as heat be
6 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
added to it. Just at the point where evaporation is complete
and the final rise in temperature begins, the steam is known
as dry saturated steam. At any temperature above that it
is known as superheated steam. At any point between the
beginning of boiling and complete saturation, when the original
1 lb. is partly water and partly steam, the steam is known as
wet saturated steam. In other words, steam in contact with
water is always saturated steam and miist always have a definite
temperaiure and a definite volume when under a given pressure.
If heat be added to saturated steam, it will become super-
heated; if heat be abstracted from it, it will condense. If the
pressure be released from wet steam, more steam will be formed;
if the pressure upon it be increased, some will condense.
The total number of B.t.u. taken up by 1 lb. of water in
changing from water at 32*'F. into dry, saturated steam at any
higher temperature consists largely of two parts.
1. The heat units absorbed in increoMng the temperature of the
water, or the activity (speed or velocity) of the molecules.
That is, we imagine the pound of water to be made up of vast
number of small particles, or molecules. The individual mole-
cules are supposed to be separated by distances very great in
comparison with their diameter, and in a gaseous matter (like
steam) these distances of separation have been likened to those
of the solar system in comparison with the planets composing it.
This heat is called "temperature heat*' or "sensible heat,*'
or "heat of liquid." It is represented by the letter q in the
steam tables (Column 5, Table 1).
2. 77i6 heat units absorbed during vaporization (change of
water into steam) in separating the water molecules one from
another against forces of attraction. That is, during the process
of steam making, the water molecules are shot off from the
water surface into the steam space, where the distances between
the molecules is tremendously greater than in the water itself.
This heat is known as the "heat of vaporization" or "latent
heat," and is represented in the steam tables by the letter e
(Column 6).
Total Heat. — The "total heat" of the steam, or the quantity
of heat in B.t.u. required to change 1 lb. of water at 32**F. into
steam at some other temperature, is the sum of the "heat of
the liquid" and the "heat of vaporization."
Total heat Q = (q -{- e) B.t.u.
The values of Q will be found in Column 7 of the steam tables.
HEAT
Table 1. — Steam Table Saturated Steam
Pressure,
Tem-
pounds
perature,
Specific
Weight
Latent
per
degrees
volume
in pounds
Heat of
heat of
Total
square
Fahren-
cubic foot
per
of
vapor-
heat of
inch
heit
per pound
cubic foot
liquid
isation
steam
gage
t
V
w
q
e
Q
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0
212
26.8
.0373
180
970
1.150
1
215
25.3
.0394
183
968
1.150
2
219
24.0
.0424
187
966
1,153
3
222
22.3
.0447
190
964
1,154
1 4
224
21.5
.0464
192
963
1,155
1 ^
227
20.4
.0498
195
961
1,156
6
230
19.4
.0516
198
959
1,157
7
233
18.5
.0540
201
957
1,158
8
235
17.8
.0562
203
955
1,158
9
237
17.2
.0582
205
954
1.159
10
239
16.5
.0620
208
952
1.160
11
242
15.8
.0630
210
951
1,161
12
244
15.3
.0650
212
949
1,161
13
246
14.7
.0670
214
948
1.162
14
248
14.3
.0700
216
946
1.162
' 15
250
13.9
.0720
218
945
1.163
Table 2. — Allowable Combustion Rates^
Coal per square
foot, per hour,
pounds
Remarks
6 sq. ft. or less (small). .
6 to 10 sq. ft. (medium)
10 sq. ft. (large) ....
A variation of 10 per cent
up or down from these
rates is perfectly safe.
The higher value for full
sized chimneys with lined
flues and the lower for un-
lined flues.
tO;
Oli
* Taken from " Heating A Ventilating," by Harding and WiUard.
Problems
1. How much heat is required to change 1 lb. of water at 32°F.
into steam at a pressure of 10 lb. gage?
To raise the temperature of the water from 32°F. to its boiling
temperature (at the pressure of 10 lb. gage) requires 208 B.t.u.
8 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
(see Column 6). To vaporize this water then requires 952 B.t.u.
(see Column 6).
Therefore,
Q = g + e = 208 + 952 = 1,160 B.t.u.
2. How much heat is required to change 1 lb. of water, at 60° F.
into steam at 10 lb. gage?
It is evident that the pound of water already contains a certain
amount of heat aboVe that at 32°F. That is, it contains the extra
B.t.u. of (60 — 32) X specific heat X weight of water. The specific
heat is the quantity of heat, in B.t.u., necessary to raise the tem-
perature of 1 lb. of water 1°F. Ordinarily this can be taken as one.
The weight of the water in this case is 1 and the change of tempera-
ture (60 — 32) degrees. Hence, the excess heat already in water is
g' = (60 - 32) X 1 X 1 = 28 B.t.u.
Therefore,
jy = (g - g') + e = (208 - 28) + 952 = 1,132 B.t.u.
We can easily see then that the higher the temperature of the water
(above 32°F.) to begin with, the less heat has to be added when
changing this water into steam.
3. How much heat is required to change 1,000 lb. of water at
60°F. into dry steam at 10 lb. gage?
For 1 lb., from Problem 2,
H = 1,132.7 B.t.u.
For 1,000 lb. per hour we must supply
1,000 X H « 1,132,600 B.t.u.
HOT WATER HEATERS
Capacity. — In fixing upon the capacity of heater best suited
to heating water for domestic purposes, it is necessary to con-
sider (1) the amount of water to be heated, (2) the rate at which
it must be heated, (3) the range in temperature through which
the water must be raised, and (4) the heating medium, such
as hot gas.
Amount of Water. — In domestic service, the amount of hot
water required is customarily based on the number of plumbing
fixtures or occupants to be supplied. In government buildings,
a storage tank allowance per day of 20 gal. for each shower, 10
gal. for each sink, and 5 gal. for each lavatory, is made. In
the case of hospital service, an allowance of from 20 to 40
gal. of hot water per patient, per day, is usually made.
Rate of Water Supply. — If all the water is used in 1 hr., a
much larger heater is required than would be needed if the same
amount were used in 4 or 5 hr., at the temperature of the supply.
HEAT 9
Because of this condition, it is customary to provide a storage
tank from which the hot water supply is drawn. The capacity
of this tank is greater than the hourly capacity of the heater,
which can be of small size, since it operates on the storage tank
during the periods when no hot water is being withdrawn.
Heating Medium. — The average gas water heater of the
non-automatic type will bum from 35 to 40 cu. ft. of artificial
gas per hour, and will raise about 50 gal. of water from 65 to
100**F., in the same time, with an eflBciency of 65 per cent.
Ordinarily it is best to figure on from 50 to 80 cu. ft. of artificial
gas per hour.
Heater Capacity. — The capacity of gas water heaters is
usually stated in gallons per minute of water raised from 50 to
150*'F. For a given case the heater capacity can be computed
from
CXH XE
SHX {h - h)
where G = capacity of heater in gallons per minute.
H — heat value of gas in B.t.u. per cubic foot. (600 B.t.u.
for artificial gas. 1,000 B.t.u. for natural gas.)
E = efficiency of heater = 0.60 to 0.70.
C = total cubic feet gas burned per minute. (2 to 3
cu. ft. of artificial gas per gallon of water heated.)
niustratiye Problem. — Required to supply a gas fired heater
to an apartment house occupied by 12 families. The water is
to be heated from 60 to 140°F. The gas used will be artificial.
It will be assumed that each family uses the same amount of
hot water. ,
For each family, we will figure on one lavatory, one tub, and
two sinks. The amount of hot water used in these will depend
on circumstances, such as the time of day when in use, etc.
The quantity of water used by each one, per minute, can be
taken from Table 3 below, which is published in "Ruud's
Service Book.'' The number of times used and the number of
minutes in use for each time is a matter of guess work, but can
be roughly estimated. Hence, the fixtures for one family can
be listed as shown in Table 4.
The total for the apartment will then be
12 X 353^ = 426 gal.
which represents the heaviest hourly- demand that can be
expected. Reduced to gallons per minute, this becomes 426 -t-
60 « 7 about.
10
Table 3.-
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
-Flow in Gallons per Minute Delivered by
Ordinary Plumbing Fixtures
Fixtures
Fair
flow
Good
flow
Excellent
flow
Kitohen-eink bibbs
Pantry sink — high goose-neck bibbs
Pantry sink — large plain bibbs
V^^table-sink bibbs
Laundry — tray bibbs
Slop-sink bibbs
Lavatory-basin bibbs
Bath-tub bibbs
Shampoo spray
Liver spray
Shower baths:
5-in. rain heads
6>^-in. rain heads
8-in. rain heads
8-in. tubular heads
Needle baths
Manicure table
2
2
4
2
4
3
2
3
H
1
2
2
4
6
20
1
4
2
6
4
6
4
3
4
1
2
3
3
6
8
30
m
6
3
8
6
8
6
4
6
2
3
4
5
8
to
40
2
Table 4. — Number of Times Fixtures Are Used
Fixtures
Gallons
per
minute
Times
used
Minutes
per use
Total
gallons
Lavatory
3
4
3
3
4
1
1
1
1
4
H
2
12
Tub
!6
Sink
m
Sink •
6
Total hour's demand
35V^
To check this estimate, we can utilize the formula given
above.
CHE
(2 X 7) X 600 X .70
(? =
8H X (140 - 60)
ti ti
= 8.7 gal. per minute
This is a fairly close check, and to be on the safe side we will use
this figure as representing the maximum probable demand per
minute.
HEAT 11
Now the heater need not have a capacity large enough to
take care of this demand. In most cases a storage tank will
be used whose capacity will be about equal to the full demand.
In other words, a heater whose capacity is about equal to Ji
XG = 2.2 gal. per minute, would undoubtedly meet the re-
quirements of this problem.
The heating surface (coils in heater) for a heater of this
capacity (2.2 gal. per minute), can be computed from
K. X \tg — tvi)
where A — square feet of heating surface.
K = B.t.u. transmitted to water per hour per 1° differ-
ence in temperature between water and gas,
= about 2.
tg = average temperature of gas.
^ H X sum of gas temperature entering and gas
temperature leaving,
= about 1,500**F.
ty, = average temperature of water,
= J^ X sum of water temperature entering and water
temperature leaving,
« (140 -f 60) ^ 2 = 100.
Q^ = B.t.u. to be supplied per hour by heater.
Therefore
. !^ H X [426 X SH X (140 - 60)] ^ 72,594 ^
2 X (1,500 - 100) 2,800 ^'
ft. about.
This value is only approximate, but affords a rough idea of
what heating surface is required in the heater. In most cases,
the hourly capacity of the heater is much less than the capacity
of the tank, so that the hot water demand on the latter must
not be constant, but must permit of periods when the heater
can "catch up" by working on the tank alone. In case the hot
water demand is practically constant, a much larger heater,
suitable for continuous service, must be installed, although the
constant rate of supply may be no greater than the intermittent
rate provided for above.
^ Carefully note that Q is figured on the assumption that only about one-
fourth the total gallons of water required per hour should equal the heater
capacity. Hence,
0 - J-i X O X 8H X (140 - 60) - 72.594 B.t.u.
in above problem.
12
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
CHIMNEYS'
In order to cause the necessary amount of air to flow through
the fuel bed and force the products of combustion through
the gas passages of a boiler, a difference in pressure between the
ashpit and the breeching is required. This difference in
pressure is known as draft and is due to the difference in weight
of the hot gases in the chimney and the cold air without. In
Fig. 4 are shown two chimneys of equal height and cross-section
area, side by side, and connected at the bottom by passage C.
If we locate a steam radiator at the base of stack B and let
Ojyert'hAir"^
Fia. 4.
Fig. 5.
steam into the radiator, there will immediately result an up-
ward movement of air in B, and at the same time a downward
flow of cold air through A ; that is, as the air in B is heated, it
expands, and its weight per cubic foot becomes less than that of
the air in A ; hence, the column of cold air in A being heavier
than the hot air in B, the latter is forced up and out of B by
the colder air of A. In effect, this is precisely what occurs
in the case of an actual chimney, although in that case there is
not a duplicate chimney.
The intensity of this draft, or the difference in pressure
between the hot gases in the chimney and the outside air, can
be determined by means of the arrangement shown in Fig. 5.
A bent piece of }^-in. pipe is inserted into flue at point /. On
the other end is attached a piece of rubber tubing, d, and this in
1 See "Sheet Metal" section, page 403.
HEAT
13
turn is connected to the end of a glass U-tube, h. Between the
legs of the U-tube is a scale, c, marked off in inches and tenths
of an inch. The U-tube and scale can be mounted on a piece
of board,a, and the whole fastened in any convenient place
in close proximity to the flue. K water is poured into the
U-tube, it will be observed that the level of the water in the
right-hand leg will be higher than that in the left-hand leg.
This is due to the difference in pressure between the flowing
gases in the flue and the outside air. The difference, /iw,
between the two levels increases with the intensity of the draft.
The draft at the rear of the boiler where connection is made to
the flue, may be 0.5 in. of water, while in the furnace, directly
over the fire, it may not exceed 0.1 to 0.15 in. of water, the differ-
Fio. 6.
ence being the draft required to overcome the resistance offered
to the flow of the gases through the various passages of the boiler.
In order to secure sufficient draft to maintain satisfactory
burning of the fuel, it is necessary that the chimney shall have
the proper height {JS. in Fig. 6). B. can be calculated from
formula be)ow.
F« ^(460 + y
^ "" 64.4'^ iK-U
H = effective height of chimney measured in feet from furnace
grate to top of chimney (see Fig. 6).
V = velocity of flow of hot gases up chimney in feet per
second (see Table 5).
th = temperature of hot gases in chimney in degrees Fahrenheit.
tc = temperature of outside air in degrees Fahrenheit.
14
PLUMBERS* HANDBOOK
Table 6. — Draft Pressures and Corresponding Velocities
Height of
Velocity, feet
Height of
Velocity, feet
water, inches
per second
water, inches
per second
h^
V
h^
V .
.1
15
.6
36
.2
21
.7
40
.3
26
.8
42
.4
30
.9 •
45
.5
33
1.0
47
In using Formula (1)^ it is assumed that the chimney is tight; if
there are any leaks, the filtering in of the cold, outside air will
reduce the temperature of the hot gas flowing through the
chimney and reduce the draft. The temperature tk will be
greatest at the base of the chimney and least at the top. For
most purposes it will be satisfactory to assume average tem-
perature of the gases inside of the chimney as 250^F. If a
thermometer is handy which reads up to 400*'F,, then the tem-
perature of the gases leaving the furnaces or boiler can be
determined by inserting the thermometer through a small hole
in the breeching, into the path of the flowing gases. The
average temperature t can then be figured from
. temperature at base of chimney + outside temperature
tH = 2
Example. — ^Let temperature of gases leaving boiler = 400**F.,
and teinperature of outside air be 60*'F. Then
400 + 60
tk^
= 230**^
If it is possible to determine the intensity, hy,j of the draft
at the base of a chimney, in inches of the water, then the cor-
responding value of V can be taken from Table 6, which ap-
plies to chimneys for residences only.
A simple rule for checking the height of a chimney for a
giveh size of cast-iron heating boiler is that used by the U. S.
Treasury Department, which is
(075) « X A 2
i/ =
S^
where S is area of chimney flue in square feet, and A is the area
of the boiler grate in square feet.
It is doubtful if any chimney under 40 ft. in height will give
HEAT
15
a satisfactory draft. On some days the draft will be good, on
other days poor; and this variation is more likely due to the
kind and quality of the fuel being burned than to the direction
of velocity of the wind. In burning soft coal, that known as
"run of mine" offers considerable resistance to the flow of air
up through the fuel bed, and an intense draft is required to
maintain combustion. The same fact applies to '^caking''
coals and to ''pea" and ''buckwheat" varieties of hard coal.
The intensity of the draft determines the velocity of flow
through the boiler and chinmey, but the crossHsectional area
of the chimney must be sufficient to pass the volume of gases
resulting from the combustion in the boiler furnace, else,
regardless of the pull of the chimney, it will be impossible to
maintain efficient combustion in the boiler furnace. In
general there will be required about 18 to 24 lb. of air for each
pound of coal burned on the grate. Table 2 gives allowable
combustion rates, upon which can be based calculations of the
probable amount of gas which a given size boiler may be ex-
pected to deliver to chimney in 1 hr.
Knowing the size of grate area in square feet, the probable
coal consumption per square foot of grate area per hour from
Table 2, and the amount of air required for the burning of 1 lb.
of fuel, it is possible to calculate the cubic feet of hot gas which
must be delivered by the chimney in 1 sec.
Table 6. — Air Densities
Temperature
of air
Weight in
pounds per
cubic foot
200
.059
220
.058
240
.056
260
.054
280
.053
300
.052
320
.050
340
.049
360
.048
380
.047
400
.046
Illustrative Problem. — Suppose the intensity of the draft in a
given chimney is hy, ^ 0.5 in. of water (hy, being measured
16
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
between the boiler and the base of the chimney). Let the
grate area be 6 sq. ft. If the temperature of the hot gas at the
bottom of the chimney is 400**F., the density of this gas or
weight per cubic foot will be 0.046 (see Table 6).
Coal burned per hour = 6 X 6 = 30 lb.
Assuming 20 lb. of air per pound of coal burned we have,
Air per hour = 30 X 20 = 600 lb.
Air per hour in cubic feet = 600 ^ 0.046 = 13,043.
Air per second m cubic feet = 13,043 -^ 3600 = 3.62.
Therefore area of chimney in square feet ='3.62 -r- V =
3.62 -^ 33 = 0.109.
Area of flue in square inches = 0.109 X 144 = 16. Hence,
to allow for dead-air spaces, friction, etc. use a 6 by 6 in. flue.
No chimney flue shmUd be less than 6 by Q in, inside, and a
better size is S by S in. If the flue is rectangular, the largest
dimension should not be more than double the smaUest dimension.
Chimney Construction. — We have seen that in order to
secure satisfactory operation of a heating boiler, it is quite
necessary to have a chimney of proper height and cross-section
area. There are certain construction features, however, which
must be considered in addition to the above requirements.
Location of Chimney. — The chimney should be so located
with respect to adjacent roofs or higher buildings that wind
Y'Z'crffeasi-
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
currents will not form eddy currents directed down into the
chimney and thus kill the draft. Thus in Fig. 7, the top of
the chimney is lower than the ridgepole of the roof, and as a
consequence wind blowing over the roof spills over the ridgepole
down into the chimney. In this case, the trouble can be
remedied by adding to the height of the chimney as indicated
HEAT
17
by the broken lines. This added height may consist of a
circular galvanized-iron pipe, but if such is utilized, care must
be taken to see that its area is the same as that of the chimney,
or at least as near to it as possible. In Fig. 8 is shown a some-
what similar condition due to the formation of eddy currents,
which may at times direct themselves down the chimney.
Capstones. — If capstones are used on the top of the chimney,
the edges should be so shaped as to prevent any tendency of the
local air currents to flow down the flue. Good designs are
shown in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10. A poorly designed capstone is
shown in Fig. 11.
}.\\
i^ <^
H
^^
J
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
Flues. — An ideal flue should run straight from base to top
outlet. If here are any bends or offsets, they will reduce the
capacity of the chimney. This fundamental rule is violated
by a form of construction such as shown in Fig. 12. Here the
chimney is inclined to an abrupt angle in order that it may pro-
ject from the center of the roof.
The flue should have no other openings into it but the boiler
smoke or breeching pipe. Partition walls between two flues
in the same chimney should be carried the full length of the
chimney, and by no means should any opening be left in this
partition wall which will allow a short-circuiting of the flowing
gases from one flue into the other.
The smoke pipe must not project into (or beyond the inside
surface of) the flue, since this results in a reduction of the
effective flue area, and cuts down the draft. The joints where
this pipe enters the chimney should be made tight with asbestos
cement or some other suitable material in order to prevent
leakage of air into the base ofthe flue. If there is a soot pocket
2
18 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
in the flue below the smoke pipe opening, the cleanout door
should always be closed tightly.
If the flue is made of tile, it is important that the joints
between the tile be well cemeat«d, and all space between the
tile and brickwork filled in as tightly as possible. In an old
Fio. 12. FiQ. 13a. Fio. 136,
chimney the mortar will crumble away from between the bricks,
allowing air to leak in and destroy the draft. It frequently
happens, in the case of chimney flues lined with tile, that a
section of the tile will loosen, and falling over, obstruct the flue
passage (see Fig. 13a). Mortar may also drop from time to
time and fill up the base of the flue, completely filling up the
breech pipe opening into the chimney. To determine whether
a chimney flue is clear, insert a handmirror, through the smolce
pipe opening, into the flue and hold at an angle. Flue shaft
will be clearly shown in the mirror, and any obstructions readily
HEAT 19
located. A heavy weight can be lowered into the chimney
and used to force a clear opening (Fig. 136).
Figures 14 and 15 illustrate constructions that are sometimes
employed which are detrimental to good chimney operation.
In the case of Fig. 14, a masonry foundation wall projects into
the lower end of the flue, making this portion of the flue very
irregular, and consequently the draft is hindered. The dotted
line indicates how this condition can be remedied by use of a
curved pipe connecting smoke pipe with straight portion of
the flue. Figure 15 shows how the flue passage is diminished
in cross-section when floor beams are carried into the flue.
SECTION 2
PUMPS
HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN PUMPING
MACHINERY
Atmospheric Pressure. — Hydraulics is the science of liquids,
particularly water, when in motion. In order to understand
the action of a pump in handling liquids, and water in par-
ticular, it is important that a clear understanding be had of
atmospheric pressure. Air extends above the earth's surface
about 60 miles and exerts a pressure at sea level of about 14.7
lb. per square inch. This pressure varies with different alti-
tudes and with different weather conditions, but for most
practical purposes it is sufficient to recognize it as 14.7.
If a standpipe be placed in a vessel of water as shown in Fig.
16, with upper end open, the water level will stand at level a,
but if a suction or vacuum is appHed at 6, a lower pressure than
14.7 lb. per square inch will be exerted at surface o, and the
water will rise in the tube or standpipe to level c. When the
water stops rising, the level c will be at such a height above a,
that the pressure exerted at c, plus the pressure due to the height
of water oc, will equal the atmospheric pressure at d. Pump
suction creates a partial vacuum in the suction line and lifts
water with the aid of the atmospheric pressure in this manner.
It is evident that with an absolute vacuum at 6, the surface c
would continue to rise until the column of water ac, would itself
equal the pressure of the atmosphere at d. A column of water
2.3 ft. high exerts a pressure of 1 lb. per square inch; therefore,
the maximum theoretical height to which water may be lifted
by a vacuum is equal to 2.3 times 14.7 or 33.8 ft. A perfect
vacuum is not attainable, and in practice 25 ft. is rarely
exceeded.
Lifting Hot Water. — Water at 32°F. has a vapor or steam
pressure on its surface of 0.0886 lb. per square inch, while at
180°F., 7.51 lb. per square inch is exerted. If an open stand-
pipe as in Fig. 16 is placed in water at 180°F., the level of the
water in the pipe will stand at a, as with cold water. If a
pump suction be applied at 6, the level c will rise to a height
20
PUMPS
21
which is limited by the vapor pressure of 7.51 lb. exerted by the
hot water. No matter how fast we may drive the pump, it is
not practicable to remove the vapor faster than it is formed, and
(14.7 — 7.51) X 2.3 = 16.5 ft. is the maximum theoretical
height to which water at 180°F. temperature may be lifted. It
Afmosphen'c Pressure
f. ^
a —
^
Vacuum
Sttrnel Pipe
Aimospheric Pressure
Fig. 16.
is not a practical possibility to lift hot water any distance, and
when it must be pumped, the supply should be above the pump
so that the water will be forced by gravity into the pump
cylinder.
Discharge Pressure or Head. — Water pressure is frequently
spoken of as head because height of water and pounds per
22 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
square inch pressure exerted by this height bear a very close
relation to each other, effected in a very slight degree by tem-
perature.. For all ordinary pump calculations it is sufficiently
accurate to consider that 1 ft. of water is equivalent to 0.434
lb. per square inch, and that 1 lb. per square inch is equivalent
to 2.3 ft. of water.
The lifted height of water is limited, but the discharge height
is limited only by the strength of the container and the power of
the pump. Thus if the pressure on the surface of the water at
df Fig. 16, be increased to 200 lb. per square inch, the standpipe
now becomes the discharge, and the level c, will stand to a
height of 200 X 2.3 = 460 ft., or if this pressure were increased
to 600 lb. per square inch the water would stand at a level of
1,150 ft.
¥nit Pressure and Total Pressure. — It requires no more
power to pump a given amount of water into the bottom of a
standpipe 100 ft. high and 6 ft. in diameter than it does to
pump the same amount into the bottom of a standpipe of the
same height and 6 in. in diameter. The 6-ft. standpipe would
have a total pressure on its bottom of 177,000 lb. while the 6-
in. pipe would have only 1,230 lb. total pressure. The unit
pressure would be the same in each case, 43.4 lb. per square inch.
Resistance to Flow; Equivalent Head. — When water is
discharged from a pump through a pipe line, a certain resistance
is offered to its flow by virtue of its velocity. This resistance
expressed in feet head must be added to the elevation to which
the water is pumped in order to obtain the total head pumped
against. Rough pipe, restricted openings, and sharp bends
increase this resistance rapidly, and wherever there is an ap-
preciable velocity of flow it is important that the pipes be
smooth and the bends be few and of large radius. In Tables
7 and 8 are given the resistances offered by clean iron pipe and
sharp bends of various sizes. The resistance shown in this
table is expressed in feet of water, which is sometimes called
equivalent head.
Pump Duty. — A great many ways have been devised for
expressing the duty of a pump, such as cubic feet, gallons,
pounds or tons of water pumped per pound of coal, per 1,000
lb. of steam, or per dollar. There are a great number of such
combinations, and on account of the difficidty of making in-
telligent comparisons from so many ways of making duty
tests, a committee of the American Society of Mechanical
PUMPS 23
Engineers in 1891 recommended computing the duty of a pump
on the basis of 1,000,000 B.t.u. Duty on such basis is the
number of foot-pounds of work done by the water end of the
pump per 1,000,000 B.t.u. consumed by the power end, thus:
Duty = foot-pounds of work done
total number of B.t.u. consumed
One million B.t.u. has a mechanical equivalent of 778,000,000
ft.-lb, so that this figure represents the maximum theoretical
duty that any pump can attain. In practice, we find duties
from 5,000,000 to 150,000,000 ft.-lb. per 1,000,000 B.t.u. for
steam-driven pumps, and 600,000,000 ft.-lb. per 1,000,000
B.t.u. for electric driven. This latter duty is computed from
watts input to the motor, to foot-pounds output of the pump.
If calculations start with the prime mover which generates the
current driving the motor, the duty is very much lower.
Problems
1. A steam-driven pump delivers 160 gal. of water per minute
against a head of 200 ft., and in doing so uses 800 lb. of steam per
hour. Each pound of steam contains 1,043 B.t.u. chargeable to
the pump cylinder. What is the duty?
160 X 8.33 (weight of 1 gal.) X 200 = foot-pounds per
minute delivered = 267,000.
(800 X 1,043) divided by 60 » B.t.u. consumed per
minute by the pump cylinder = 13,900.
267,000
"131100" ^ 1.000,000 = 19,200,000 ft.-lb. per 1,000,000 B.
t.u. Duty.
S. A motor-driven pump delivers 160 gal. of water per minute
against a head of 200 ft., and the motor consumes 10 kw. per hour.
What is the duty, computing from motor to pump?
160 X 8.33 X 200 = 267,000 ft.-lb. delivered per minute.
10 X 3,413
QQ « 569 B.t.u. equivalent per minute of 10 kw.
267,000
^g X 1,000,000 = 470,000,000 ft.-lb. per 1,000,000
B.t.u. Duty.
PUMP CLASSIFICATION
Pumps for general utility purposes may be divided into four
classes as follows:
1. Piston pumps.
2. Centrifugal pumps.
3. Rotary pumps,
4. Jet pumps.
24 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Piston Pumps. — The piston pump consists of a cylinder in
which a pistoa or plvmger reciprocat«s, drawing in and pushing
out the liquid to be pumped. Valves are usually of the disc
type as shown in Fig. 17, and control the inlet and outlet of the
water or other fluid automatically. The pump shown in Fig.
17 ia the water end of the pump shown in Pig. 18. It is a
PUMPS
25
steam-driven pump, and is known as a duplex, direct-acting
pump; duplex because there are two steam cylinders and two
water cylinders, and direct-acting because the steam and water
pistons are directly connected to each other by the piston rod,
with no fljrwheel or crankshaft. Steam valves of one cylinder
are operated by the piston rod of the other cylinder, as shown
Fig. 19.
in Fig. 18. This arrangement eliminates the possibility of stop-
ping on dead center, and since the water end is double acting,
a very steady and continuous flow is maintained.
Some direct-acting pumps are single-cylinder types and must
have some special device for operating the steam valves. They
26 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
are slightly moie complicated than the duplex and in general
less reliable, but frequently more economical. When economy
in st«am-plunger pumps ia desired, a flywheel pump must be
used, and the steam used expansively. Such pumpB are fre-
quently made in very large sizes and find extensive use in city
waterworks, and for elevator service.
Pumps of the plunger type are frequently elec trie-driven.
Figure 19 shows a section of a pump of this type which is made
up in three cylinders and is called a triplex pump.
Referring to the figure, B and A represent the suc-
tion and discharge valves respectively. C is the
suction passage, and when the plunger E rises, the
C valves B are forced open by the pressure in C, and
water enters the cylinder. On the downward stroke
of plunger E, the valves, B, close, and the discharge
valves, A, are forced open, discharging the water into ■
f passage D. Air chamber F ia provided to prevent
water hammer in the discharge pipe and to insure a
more steady flow. Gear wheel G meshea with driving
pinion H to which the power is applied, on this par-
ticular pump, by an electric motor. Soft packing at
/ prevents leakage past the pump plunger. In Table
12 are shown dimensions, displacement, and horse-
power requirements for this pump.
Another type of plunger pump is shown in Fig. 20.
This is used mainly for deep-well work, and consists
of a long brass tube, into the lower end of which is
g screwed a ball check valve, B, of suitable size. The
plunger C is also provided with a ball check valve,
I which opens on the downward stroke and closes on
F 20 *''^ upward stroke. The lower stationary valve
closes on the downward stroke and opens on the up-
ward stroke. This pump is essentially a lifting pump and
single-acting, although it can force water on the upward stroke.
The plunger, C, is packed with leather crimps, and its lower
end, D, ia threaded to fit upper part of lower valve at E.
Thus it is possible by turning plunger hard to the right with
plunger all the way down, to pick up the lower valve and lift
entire contents of pump out for repairs. In Table 9 are shown
various sizes, displacement per stroke, and usual displacement
per minute of such deep-well pumps as indicated in "Gould's
Bulletin No. 108."
PUMPS
27
Centrifugal Pumps. — The centrifugal pump is usually used
where large volumes of water are to be forced against low
heads, and in particular where much solid matter must be
handled with the water. Sewage pumping and dredging are
examples of the latter condition, and although for such low
pressure and large-volume pumping the centrifugal pump is
almost without a peer, it is also true that the present-day
centrifugal pump has been developed to such an extent that
it can successfully compete in many classes of high-pressure
pumping.
Successful centrifugal pumps of today may be divided into
two general classes:
1. Volute pump.
2. Turbine pump.
Fig. 21.
Fig. 22.
Fig. 23.
In Fig. 21 is shown an ordinary centrifugal pump without
volute. This is neither a volute pump nor turbine pump, and
is not mentioned in the above classification because it is used
in small sizes and mostly for small circulating work. In
Fig. 22 is shown the volute pump which gains greater efficiency
than the pump shown in Fig. 21 by virtue of the volute or
spiral casing, as shown. This volute pump may under some
conditions be further improved in economy by extending the
rotating element to form a whirlpool chamber, B, Fig. 23.
This chamber, rotating at high speed, assists the volute in more
complete transformation of velocity head to pressure head.
Still further transformation may be secured by the expanding
discharge. Fig. 25. At the best the impellers of a centrifugal
pump produce high velocity heads, and by such constructions
as the volute, whirlpool chamber and expanding discharge, the
water, which is traveling at high speed, is permitted to slow
28
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
down by other means than friction. Velocity head is then
said to be changed into pressure head, and the pump gains in
efficiency thereby.
For high -pressure work, the turbine pump (Fig. 26) in which
the impeller discharges into stationary expanding nozzles, has
found great favor and has given efficiencies exceeding 80 per
cent. The expanding nozzles, or diffusion vanes as they are
sometimes called, are for the purpose of changing velocity head
into pressure head, part of which is accomplished by the ex-
panding action of the vanes, and part by giving a more tangen-
tial direction to the discharging streams of water as they enter
the casing. Such pumps are frequently arranged in several
units placed side by side on the same shaft. The suction of
Fig. 24.
Fig. 26.
Fig. 26.
one unit is the discharge of the other, and the whole is called a
multi-stage centrifugal pump. Such pumps have been built
for very high pressures, and they are at present being used quite
generally for boiler feeding.
For sewage and sump pumping, a vertical-shaft centrifugal
pump offers many advantages. In Fig. 24 is shown a section
of such a pump. The suction is on the lower side and may or
may not be submerged. These pumps are frequently made in
very large sizes, operated by specially designed engines, for
handhng large quantities of sewage. When used as a sump
pump and electrically driven, the installation may be made
entirely automatic. The starting and stopping of the motor is
controlled by the level of the water or sewage in the sump pit,
through a float-governed mechanism, as shown in Fig. 35.
The method of handling sewage or water by means of a
centrifugal pump, from the very nature of the action of the
pump precludes all possibility of creating a suction unless the
PUMPS 39
pump impeller is filled with water or liquid to be pumped.
This type of pump ther^ore canoot lift water without first
being primed, tuid when installed above the water level should
be provided with a foot valve as shown at A, Fig. 24. In Table
11, ia shown horsepower, speeds, and discharge heads for various
gises of single-stage, single-suction, Gould centrifugal pumps.
Rotary Pumps. — As a medium between the high-speed, non-
aelf-priming, centrifugal and the positive-displacement, self-
priming, reciprocating or piston pump, many designs have beeu
produced of more or less positive-displacement pumps which
are neither centrifugal nor reciprocating in action. They are
commonly called rotary pumps, and are used for pumping all
Fio. 27. Fia. 28.
kinds of gases and liquids and for producing both pressure and
vacuum. Four types of such pumps are shown in Figs. 27,
28, 29, 30. Figure 27 shows the Root Cycloidal Rotary Pump,
in which there are two cycloidal elements, A and B, rotating in
opposite directions and held constantly in close relation to
each other by external gears. The clearance between the
cycloidal dements and the casing and between the elements
themselves must be very small to prevent leakage. The direc-
tion of rotation and the direction of passage of water or air
being pumped is clearly shown by arrows in Fig. 27. The
space between each tooth acta as a carrier of the wa1«r or air
from inlet to outlet, around the perimeter of the casing. As
this tooth or lobe lA the cycloidal element returns from the
outlet side to the inlet side of the pump through the center of
the casing, the concave surface of one element comes in contact
30
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
with the convex surface of the other element, and the discharge
is completed.
Operating on exactly the same principle is the gear pump of
Fig. 28. Instead of having two lobes or teeth as in the cycloidal
pump, this pump consists of a casing in which rotate two gears
of any number of teeth closely meshed and running with close
clearance with the casing. The direction of rotation of the
FiQ. 29.
gears and the direction of passage of the water or air is exactly
similar to that of the cycloidal pump and is clearly shown in
Fig. 28. This pump is used for circulation work with oil and
water where demands are not heavy and where simplicity of
construction is paramount.
Another type of pump similar to the gear pump but with
differently shaped teeth as shown in Fig. 33, is built by the
Gould Manufacturing Co., and is used for pumping liquids
PUMPS 31
of all kinds, and for various pumping service. It is most fre-
quently electric driven, but belted power or geared power from
other sources may be used. In Table 13 is given the speed,
capacity and head for various sizes of this pump. The dis-
charge pipe used on these pumps is the same as the pump size
number, with the exception of No. 1, which has IJ^-in. discharge,
and No. 3, which has 2J^-in. discharge.
Fio. 30.
For pulling vacuum on heating systems, on condensing
systems and other similar work, the Rotrex Vacuum Pump,
the Nash Vacuum Pump and Thompson Vacuum Pump are
representative types, and are shown in Figs. 29 and 30 respec-
tively. In the Rotrex pump, an eccentric, rotating element,
A, is closely fitted to the casing on the sides and at B. It
rotates in direction as shown, and is linked to a rider which
carries a close clearance at all times at C and F. Suction is at
32
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
D and the discharge at E through a light-spring discharge valve.
This pump is manufactured by the C. H. Wheeler Mfg. Co. of
Philadelphia, and high vacuums are claimed for it.
In Fig. 30 is shown the Nash Hydro Turbine Pump, which is
described in their Bulletin as follows:
"A rotor in hydraulic balance, revolves freely with large
clearances in an elliptical casing filled with water. The water
turning with the rotor and constrained to follow the casing by
Oischctr^
Fig. 31.
centrifugal force, alternately recedes from and is forced back
into the casing twice in a revolution. As the water recedes
from the rotor, it draws air in through the inlet ports, A, When
the water is forced back into the rotor by the converging casing,
the air is first compressed and then discharged through the
outlet ports, B.
"Most of the water stays in the pump at the level of the
outlet ports, B. A small amount of water constantly supplied
from the returns is carried over with the air as it is delivered.
PUMPS 33
The wftter ig removed by a eeparatoT and returned to the heatiag
Bystem."
In Fig. 31 is shown the Thompson Vacuum Air-line Pump,
which is designed especially for heating Byatems. The cylinder
impeller is mounted on a crankshaft fitted with ball bearings,
as shown. It is fitted with very close clearance with the side
plates and the inside of the air cylinder. A seal is maintained
in a simple manner between the suction and discharge by means
of a link connecting an extension of the impeller and a similar
link from the lower part of the casing as shown in the ^ure.
Fio. 32.
This link also maintains a close clearance with the eide plates,
and as the impeller rotates in the direction of the arrow, air ie
drawn from suction to discharge. In Table 14 is shown the
capacity, horsepower and the radiation ratings of this pump.
Jet Pumps. — Steam, water or air forced through a nozzle at
high velocity, may be used to pump water or air; and such a
device finds a large use in handling large quantities of water or
sewage, in a temporary installation where simpUcity and low
cost are important items. Steam is an excellent agent for jet-
pump work in handling water, and can be used aucoessfully
34
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
against considerable head. Water can be used to lift and dis-
charge water, and if sprayed at high velocity, is useful in pulling
considerable vacuum. Air will handle air, and under Umited
conditions may be used to throw water; but on account of its
being non-condensable, it lacks the effectiveness of steam in.
this respect.
Fig. 33.
Figure 34 shows the principle underlying all jet pumps.
Such a device may be made up of pipe fittings, as shown, for
pumping water or air by means of water jet. This will not
give high efficiencies; in fact it is very inefficient as a pump, but
is simple and effective for a great many conditions. Where
steam is used for pumping against pressure, the discharge tube
Fia. 34.
is somewhat modified, with provision for the escape of water
and steam until the proper velocity is obtained for entering
the main discharge against pressure.
Direct Use of Compressed Air for Water Supply. — ^The use of
compressed air to furnish fresh water for residences and small
PUMPS
35
Motor
industrial establishments has been developed by the United
Pump and Power Co. of Milwaukee, and is called the National
Fresh Water Pumping System. Figures 32 A and B, show the
principle of operation. The well or source of water supply is
shown at 6, into
which the pumping
unit, c, is lowered
until completely im-
mersed in the water.
Three pipes lead
above the water sur-
face, a for supplying
the compressed air, d
for exhausting the air
after being used for
pumping, and e for
delivery of the water
to the air chamber /
and to the system.
Valves g and h are
automatically c o n -
trolled by a float
mechanism, not
shown, so that when
the water surface
reaches a certain level,
valve h closes and
valve g opens. Thus
compressed air is let
into the pump unit c,
and its pressure on
the water surfaces
forces the contents
out through the de-
livery pipe 6. When
the water level falls
so that float again op-
erates, opening valve h
and closing valve g, a check valve in line c prevents return of
discharged water, air is exhausted through d and the pump
element is filled through valve i. This action is repeated over
and over again, and a system of this kind will continue to
Fia. 36.
36 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
pump water as long as compressed air is supplied. It may be
made entirely automatic by the use of an electric compressor.
Piston-pump Capacities. — The amount of water which can
be discharged per minute or per any unit time in gallons, pounds
or cubic feet, is termed the capacity of the pump. A usual
expression is gallons per minute, which may be calculated, if
the bore, stroke, strokes per minute and slip are known. A
certain bore and stroke with certain strokes per minute will
represent a definite volume of displacement every minute.
The actual amount of water delivered will never equal this
displacement, on account of valve and piston leakage. The
amount of this leakage divided by the pump displacement for
the same unit time, is- called the slip. For one single-acting
cylinder, the pump capacity may be calculated by the following
formula:
Capacity in U. S. gallons per minute = .0.0034B*LJV/S.
where B = bore in inches.
L — stroke in inches.
N = strokes per minute.
>S = 1 minus slip.
To facilitate this calculation and to enable the size of pump
to be determined for a given capacity, a chart. Fig. 36, has been
constructed. The operation of this chart is shown by the
following example :
Water to be pumped 700 gal. per minute.
Assumed slip, 10 per cent.
Assumed strokes per minutelGO.
What size single-cylinder, single-acting pump will be
necessary?
Referring to Fig. 36, under pump capacity, scale 20, will
be found 700 gal. per minute, halfway between 600 and 800.
Follow horizontal line from 700 until it intersects the 10 per
cent slip diagonal, then vertically upward until it intersects
the 160 strokes per minute diagonal, and horizontally to a bore
diagonal. The bore diagonal which may be selected for this
latter intersection, is dependent on the stroke corresponding,
or the bore and stroke ratio. The stroke may be obtained by
reading on horizontal scale immediately below the intersection
with the bore diagonal, and the bore and stroke ratio may be
roughly determined by inspection. In this example, the dotted
line has been carried to the 8-in. bore diagonal, and immediately
below is read the stroke, 22. 5 in, Itwill be noticed that the
capacities are arranged in four scales numbered 20, 6, 4, 1; that
the stroke scale is arranged in two, numbered 1 and 6; and that
the bore scale is arranged in two, numbered 1 and 4. These
numbera have been so selected that the product of any scale
38 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
number of the* stroke scale and any scale number of the bore
scale will equal the required number of scale from which gallons
per minute will be read. Thus if we have a pump whose bore
is 6 in. and whose stroke is 10 in., the product of the scale
numbers from which these are read is 20, and we must read
capacities in scale 20; or if we have a capacity of 450 gal. per
minute shown on scale 5, we must read the pump stroke on
stroke scale 5, and the bore on bore scale 1.
Since our capacity of 700 gal. per minute of the above prob-
lem is found in scale 20, we must read the stroke in scale 5 and
the bore in scale 4. The answer is: a single-cylinder pump
whose dimensions are 8 by 22.5 in.
Had this pump been a single-acting triplex, the capacity for
one cylinder would be K of 700, or 233. This would fall on
the capacity scale 5, which carried through in the same manner,
would give size of each cyclinder as 4.25 by 5 or 4.5 by 4.75.
By calculation with one single-acting cylinder 8 by 22.5, the
capacity becomes:
U. S. gallons per minute =
0.7854 X 82 X 22.5 X 160 X 0.90 .^^
231 = ^^^'
which checks with the above solution on the chart.
Pump Horsepower. — The power required to Hft a certain
amount of water depends upon the pressure or head pumped
against, and with the rapidity with which it is being pumped.
It is expressed thus:
8.33 XGX2Z1XH
Horsepower = 33,000 X E
Where G = gallons per minute being pumped.
H = head pumped against in pounds per square inch.
E = efficiency of pumping unit.
To facilitate the solution of problems involving horsepower
of pumps, a chart (Fig. 37) was constructed. The ordinate rep-
resents gallons per minute, abscissa represents head in pounds
per square inch, the diagonals represent pump efficiency,
and the hyperbola curves indicate the horsepower.
The operation of the chart is illustrated by the following
problem:
Water to be pumped = 30 gal. per minute.
Head pumped against = 20 lb. per square inch.
Assumed pump efficiency = 60 per cent.
What is the required horsepower?
Start at point on the chart where the vertical 20 line inter-
sects the homontal 30 line. Run homontally from this point
to the 60 per cent diagonal, then vertically lo 100 per cent
diagonal, and horizontally to the original vertical 20 line. The
point ia now at the intereeotion of the 30 gal. per minute line
40 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
and the 20 lb. per square inch line. It lies nearest the 0.6
horsepower hyperbola, and 0.6 is the horsepower required to force
50 gal. per minute against 20 lb. per square inch at 100 per cent
eflBciency; or it is the horsepower required to force 30 gal. per
minute against the same pressure and 60 per cent efficiency.
By calculation this would be:
„ 30 X 8.33 X 20 X 2.31 _ „
Horsepower = 33,000 X 0.60 ^^'^'
Resistance to Flow of Water in Clean Iron Pipe. — The loss of
head by friction, due to the velocity of water through pipe is
called the friction head. A formula for the calculation of
friction head for clean iron pipe was developed by Weisbach,
and is as follows :
Friction head, pounds per square inch =
/^^... . 0.01716\LF« 0.433
Where V = velocity of water in feet per second.
L = length of pipe in feet.
d = diameter of pipe in inches.
In the American Machinist^ Dec. 28, 1893, William Cox gives
a somewhat simpler formula which checks very closely with
that of Weisbach. Cox's formula is as follows:
Friction head, pounds per square inch =
/L47^ + 57-2\
\d 1,200 /"-^SS.
While the latter formula is more simple than the first, they
are both cumbersome in their calculation. The following table
has been used extensively in trade publications, and checks
very closely with both formulas, at low rates of flow; and in-
creases the friction head at high rates of flow to about 20 per
cent more than shown by calculation with either of the above
methods. This fact regarding the table rather enhances its
practical value, because pipes in service are always more or
less dirty and not smooth, and the friction head would naturally
increase.
PUMPS
41
Table 7. — Showing Friction Head in Pounds per Square
Inch, Iron Pipe
Gal-
lons
Pipe si sea
per -
min-
ute
H
1
m
IH
2
2H
3
3H
4
5
6
5
3.3
.8
A .31
.12
.04
.02
10
13.0
3.1
6 1.05
.47
.12
.04
.02
15
28.7
6.9
8 2.38
.97
.25
.08
.04
.02
20
50.4
12.3
4.07
1.66
.42
.14
.06
.03
25
78.0
19.0
1 6.40
2.62
.62
.21
.10
.04
.02
30
27.5
9.15
3.75
.91
.30
.13
.06
.03
35
37.0
12.4
5.05
1.22
.40
.17
.09
.05
.02
40
48.0
1 16.1
6.52
1.60
.53
.23
.11
.06
.02
45
• • • •
. 20.2
8.15
1.99
.66
.28
.14
.07
.03
50
• • • •
. 24.9
10.0
2.44
.81
.35
.17
.09
04
60
• • • •
. 36.0
14.0
3.50
1.17
.50
.24
.13
.05
.02
70
• • • •
. 48.0
20.0
4.80
1.50
.60
.38
.19
.07
.03
80
• • • •
. 64.0
25.0
6.30
2.00
.90
.41
.23
.08
.03
90
• • • •
. 80.0
32.0
7.80
2.58
1.10
.54
.26
.09
.04
100
• • • •
39.0
9.46
3.20
1.31
.64
.33
.12
.05
125
• • • •
14.90
4.89
1.99
.96
.49
.17
.07
150
■ • • •
21.20
7.00
2.85
1.35
.69
.25
.10
175
• • • ■
28.10
9.46
3.85
1.82
.93
.34
.13
200
• • • •
37.50
12.47
5.02
2.38
1.22
.42
.17
42
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Tablb 8. — Showing Friction Head for One 90-deg. Elbow,
Pounds per Square Inch
Based on Weisbach's formula for very short bends
Gal-
lons
Pipe sizes — inside diameter
per
min-
ute
H
1
m
IH
2
2H
3
3H
4
5
6
5
.07
.027
.008
.005
.002
10
.279
.0937
.031
.018
.006
.003
15
.628
.212
.688
.0399
.014
.005
20
1.115
.375
.123
.0688
.025
.012
.005
25
1.735
.581
.193
.108
.038
.020
.008
30
.841
.277
.157
.055
.028
.011
35
1.148
.379
.214
.076
.037
.015
.009
40
1.491
.494
.277
.0975
.0488
.020
.011
.007
45
• • • • •
1.892
.623
.352
.1246
.0618
.026
.015
.009
50
.769
1.105
.428
.618
.1525
.219
.0799
.1117
.032
.044
.017
.026
.010
.015
.006
60
3.36
.003
70
4.59
1.515
.858
.303
.148
.0598
.035
.021
.009
.004
75
5.27
1.732
.975
.349
.171
.0718
.040
.024
.010
.005
80
5.98
1.975
1.108
.390
.195
.0799
.044
.027
.012
.005
90
7.57
2.491
1.407
.498
.247
.1035
.0598
.035
.014
.007
100
3.07
1.71
2.71
3.91
5.31
6.86
.61
.%5
1.385
1.88
2.43
3.84
5.54
.319
.479
.683
.931
1.275
1.900
2./35
.128
.1995
.285
.388
.51
.798
1.135
.0678
.1115
.159
.217
.271
.445
.639
.043
.067
.0958
.131
.171
.267
.382
.017
.027
.039
.053
.0678
.1085
.155
.008
125
.013
150
.019-
175
.026
200
.032
250
.052
300
.076
PUMPS
43
Table 9. — Showing Bore and Stroke, Displacement per
Stroke and Usual Strokes per Minute op Gould
Deep-well Pumps as Illustrated in Fig. 20
Inside
diameter,
inches
Stroke,
inches
Displacement
per stroke,
gallons
Usual speed,
strokes per
minute
Gallons per
minute at
the usual
speed
Wa
10
.104
35
3.6
\H
12
.125
30
3.7
m
16
.170
30
5.1
m
20
.208
30
6.2
m
24
.249
25
6.2
2H
10
.172
35
6.0
2H
12
.206
30
6.1
2H
16
.275
30
8.2
2H
20
.344
30
10.3
2H
24
.413
25
10.3
2H
10
.257
35
8.9
2H
12
.309
30
9.2
2H
14
.360
30
10.8
2H
16
.411
30
12.3
2H
20
.514
30
15.4
2H
24
.617
25
15.4
3H
10
.359
35
12.5
3H
12
.431
30
12.9
3H
14
.503
30
15.0
3H
16
.575
30
17.2
3H
20
.718
25
17.9
3H
24
.862
25
21.5
3%
10
.478
35
16.7
3%
12
.574
30
17.2
3%
14
.669
30
20.0
3^4
16
.765
30
22.9
3%
20
.956
25
23.9
3%
24
1.147
25
28.6
4H
10
.614
35
21.5
AH
16
.982
30
29.4
4H
24
1.473
25
36.8
m
10
.767
35
26.8
4%
16
1.227
30
36.8
m
24
1.841
25
46.0
5H
10
1.124
35
39.3
5%
16
1.798
30
53.9
5%
24
2.6%
25
67.4
6%
16
2.479
30
74.3
6%
24
3.716
25
92.7
794
16
3.267
30
98.0
7%
24
4.900
25
122.5
8^
16
4.164
30
124.5
8^
24
6.247
25
156.1
44 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table 10. — Definitions and Equivalents
1 Foot-pound » work done in lifting 1 lb. through a distance of 1 ft. against
gravity.
1 Horsepower » 33,000 ft.-lb. per minute.
1 British thermal unit (B.t.u.) ^ amount of heat required to increase the
temperature of 1 lb. of water from SS^'F. to 54<>F. (see " Heat," page 3).
1 Horsepower » 746 watts.
1 Horsepower » 2,546 B.t.u. per hour.
1 Watt = 3.413 B.t.u. per hour.
1 Kilowatt > 1,000 watts - 3,413 B.t.u. per hour.
X Imperial gallon > 10 lb. of water at 62^F. « 277.274 cu. in. - 0.16046
cu. ft.
1 U. S. gallon > 8.3356 lb. of water at 62^F. * 231.0 cu. in. - 0.133 ou. ft.
1 Cubic foot of water at 32^F. weighs 62.418 lb., and at 62<*F., 62.356 lb.
1 Pound per square inch pressure » 2.31 ft. head.
1 Foot head » 0.433 lb. per square inch.
PUMPS
45
I
3
S
8
8
!
•rt
g
cs
a
1
n
e
es
«
III!
o
3
.§11
a . -S
o fe 3
o a
g^*^ S« 2*? g*^ §•=? 2*=? 2®. ^^. S .
S= ^2 nS S;^ ^? <»^5^ «SJ ^R ^i5
g;; Id s5 1^. g^ §-. §2 SI S--
«N «<%
l<s — •-
S^. S?2 8«: S*n S'^. S* 8® S^® ?® S<=> JQ^-
g- 2:*^ ^-^ 2**^ 5*^ •n: *S '^P? *JJ? ^8 "^2
So P^ 9«o eeo fi«A So Qo *Qo <2o ^ao ^o
'i— '^.pi T.*^ C>* 0»»0 *^— «l<s ^H •Ag *•« ^f^N
ss::: j98 go Svo So go :^^ t::*^ So £o s
5 • ;2—* 3<^ *«^ ^"n* ®o^ ^2 "^r^ ^p* ^5 *
JR
S3 S^^ S>0 ^O 8<^ ^(^O S<N ^.n So J9o So
5 ' I-- 5«^ SJ^ «v >©«• s^ i?ij^ *^ *^ p?j_-
S:P^ Sti^ 8<s S>A 8« 8«N Si^ J9o So So S^o
5 • 5^- ^ 9^ *^rf{ ^t-:. '^o "^^ ^^- ^31; «*^5*
B=^ §^ 1= §5 S5 S2
J*5«n So
•n • ^ •
2^ So »o
"•"-J "^rt f^iJ
?; ^ ^
§^ g^
i^ S>o So K)«n 80 So S^ iQo 80
L-; K_- S^ ^^ «^ *^- ^j^ f^jjj ^^
*
a
•
a
a
•
a
•
a
•
a
•
a
•
a
•
a
•
a
•
a
ad
dd
^i
h.4
dd
uJ3
dd
dd
dd
ftd
— «N «S
»n ""T »A
— «s ««%«<% "^ m
«N m
S S 8
f^ !^
s
i
•— «N fO
46
PLUMBERS* HANDBOOK
Table 12. — Dimensions, Displacement and Horsepowbr
OP Gould Triplex-plunger Pump Shown in Fig. 19
FOR 130 Lb. per Square Inch Head
Gallons
per
minute
Bore,
inches
Stroke,
inches
Horse-
power
Diameter
suction,
inches
Diameter
discharge,
inches
Revolu-
tions
per
minute
30
4
4
3.16
2
46
40
4
4
4.04
2
62
40
4
6
3.94
2
^
41
50
4
6
4.85
2
52
60
4
6
5.75
2
62
80
5
6
7.38
3
53
100
5
8
9.13
3
49
125
5
8
11.10
3
62
125
5H
8
11.35
4
51
150
5H
8
13.35
4
61
150
6H
8
13.50
4
4
44
175
6H
8
15.56
4
51
200
6H
8
17.80
4
59
200
8
8
18.22
6
39
250
8
8
22.20
6
48
250
8H
8
22.80
6
45
300
8
10
27.40
6
46
300
m
10
28.00
6
44
350
8
to
31.10
6
54
350
8K
10
32.00
6
51
400
9
10
35.50
6
49
PUMPS
47
Table 13. — Speed and Capacity Ratings of Rotary Pump
OP Fig. 33
u.
9^
Pressure pounds per square inch discharge
00
Pump
No.
GsUoi
minu
30
r.p.m.
40
r.p.m.
60
r.p.m.
60
r.p.m.
70
r.p.m.
80
r.p.m.
90
r.p.m.
100
r.p.m.
1
25
130
135
141
147
152
155
157
160
60
288
296
303
307
314
318
327
330
2
50
145
147
150
154
157
160
162
170
100
276
280
285
289
291
293
296
305
3
75
97
97
97
98
98
100
100
101
175
226
226
226
228
231
231
233
236
4
150
99
101
101
101
103
104
104
104
260
165
168
168
168
169
170
170
172
5
175
79
79
79
80
81
82
83
83
.300
132
136
136
137
139
140
142
143
6
275
68
68
68
68
68
68
69
69
450
111
111
112
112
113
113
114
114
Table 14. — Thompson Vacuum AirtLinb Pump, Capacity
AND Ratings, Fig. 31
Sise
No.
Radia-
tion,
square
feet
Cubic feet
displace- ^
ment of
pump per
minute
Pump
Motor
revolu-
revolu-
Motor
tions
tions
horse-
per
per
power
minute
minute
Size
suction
and
discharge,
inches
101
102
103
104
4.7
10.6
17.6
32.
400
1.750
.5
375
1.750
1.0
335
1,750
1.5
300
1.750
3.
2
3
3W
SECTION 3
OXYACETYLENE WELDING
Oxyacetylene welding is the process of uniting metals
through fusion by means of high-temperature flame of combined
oxygen and acetylene^ without resorting to pressure or hammer-
ing. This welding process differs from soldering or brazing.
Welding makes a joint with the parts in one homogeneous piece.
The oxyacetylene flame consists of two parts, a small inner
cone flame bluish-white in color and a large, non-luminous
enveloping flame. The tempera-
ture of the inner cone is 6,300*'F.
Acetylene is generated by the
addition of calcium carbide to
water (see Fig. 49). Carbide
is made from coke and lime.
They are melted in an electric furnace, and when cool, the
product is crushed, screened to uniform size, and shipped in
moisture-proof cans. Acetylene gas forms when calcium car-
bide comes in contact with water. One pound of small crushed
carbide will yield 4 cu. ft. of gas. Acetylene gas cannot be sub-
X
.'30^^.
*
Fia. 38.
Fig. 39.
jected to a pressure of more than 30 lb. per square inch without
the possibility of an explosion; therefore, to sell acetylene gas,
the following method is used :
Storage tanks are filled with a mixture of asbestos, charcoal
and kieselguhr, which makes a finely divided porous filling.
48
OXY ACETYLENE WELDING 49
This filling is then soaked with acetone. Acetylene gas is then
forced into the tank where it is absorbed by the acetone. One
cubic foot of acetone will absorb 24 cu. ft. of gas for every 15
lb. pressure per square inch.
Rate of Discharge. — The gas
in the storage tanks should not
be drawn off at a greater rate
than one-seventh of its capacity
per hour. Acetylene is sold in
tanks holding about 200 cu. ft.
and under a pressure of about Fiq. 40.
250 lb. per square inch.
Oxygen for welding is sold in tanks holding 100, 150 and 200
cu. ft., imder a pressure of 2,000 lb. per square inch. The
three most common methods of producing pure oxygen are:
1. Electrolysis of water.
2. Fractional distillation of liquid air.
3. Chlorate of potash process.
PrecavMon should be taken never to use oil, grease, or soap
of any kind around oxygen under pressure. Oxygen supports
combusion, but will not bum of itself.
To use oxygen and acetylene from the storage tanks, the
valve on the top of tanks is provided with a thread onto which
can be attached a regulator and gage (see Fig. 45). The
regulator is arranged to reduce the pressure, and the gage indi-
cates the pressure. Some regulators are equipped with two
gages one each side of the regulator, or pressure reducing
valve. Figure 42 shows arrangement of tanks, regulators,
hose and torch. Regulators must be well taken care of.
Sudden pressures should not be turned on. Tanks should be
securely fastened in position to avoid falling. From regulators
a rubber hose is used to carry gases to the torch. Torches are
of two types: those in which the gases mix in the head (see
Fig. 48), and those in which the gases mix in the handle.
Figure 47 shows handle mixing torch.
Assembling Equipment. — When starting to assemble equip-
ment, it is well to follow the operations noted below, and in the
order named.
1. Remove valve cap from oxygen cylinder and open valve
slowly until oxygen discharges a little. This will blow out any
accumulation of dust or dirt.
2. Attach oxygen regulator to tank.
4
50 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
3. Turn oiygen-reKulator adjusting screw to the left.
4. Slowly open oxygen cylinder valve wide until no further move-
meat is poasiblei thus preventing leaks around valve stem.
5. Attach red oiygen hose to oxygen regulator outlet- nipple.
6. Turn regulator adjusting screw to the right for aa iuBtant. and
blow accumulated dust out of hose.
7. Close torch valves, and attach red bose Ut oxygen inlet on
torch (identified by word "oxygen" on valve handle).
8. Attach acetylene welding regulator to the acetylene cylinder,
and the black hose to acetylene regulator and torch: proceed in the
same manner, except that the luetj/lene cylinder valve ehotild lirUter
no condition be opened more than ont turn.
FiQ. 41.
B. Select tip of proper size to accomplish the work at band.
Inspect tip seat before placing tip in torch to be sure that no dirt
baa collected.
10. Adjust oxygen and acetylene pressures by small low pressure
gage by turning regulator adjusting screws to the right.
11. Open acetylene valve on torch wide, and adjust acetylene
regulator with the gas flow.
12. Light torch with a torch lighter.
13. Open oxygen valve on torch wide, and adjust regulator with
gas flow.
14. Adjust torch valves to secure neutral flame.
OXYACETYLENE WELDING
51
15. For a temporary stop, close the torch acetylene valve first,
and then the oxygen valve. To stop for a longer period, close the
valves in the following order. The torch acetylene valve, the
torch oxygen valve, the acetylene valve, the oxygen cylinder valve.
Then open the torch valves again to draw the gases from regulators
and relieve the pressure on the diaphragms. Close torch valves.
Xum adjusting regulator's screw to the left until it turns freely.
Fig. 42.
Torches are supplied with tips of various sizes; that is the
orifice through the tip is made large or small, allowing only a
certain amount of gas to discharge. The amoimt of gas which
will pass through a given sized tip is always furnished by the
manufacturer of torches. On Page 61 is given a table showing
the thickness of metal that can be welded with a given sized tip.
52
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Welding Flame. — The flame necessary to produce the 6,300°
of heat is called the neutral flame. Figure 41 illustrates the
stages of the flame, and clearly shows the neutral flame. When
too much acetylene is used, the flame is called a "carbonizing
flame." When too much oxygen is used, the flame is called an
'^oxidizing flame." These flames are not good welding flames,
as the excess gas in each case enters the molten metal and
weakens the weld.
To light the torch, turn on the acetylene and Ught. The
acetylene should be of such pressure that the flame when jBxst
Ughted will stand away from the tip of the torch a small frac-
tion of an inch. The oxygen is then turned on full, pressure
having been adjusted according to size of tip. If the flame is an
oxidizing one, more acetylene is turned on, or oxygen is turned
off. If a carbonizing flame, then acetylene is shut off, or the
oxygen turned on. The neutral flame is bluish-white in color
and about 34 in. long with round end. This part of the flame
is the part that does all the work, and should, therefore, be
kept neutral during the entire operation.
Welding Steel.— Steel }4 in- thick can be welded without the
addition of any welding metal. Thicker metal should be
bevelled or chamfered (see Figs. 38-39) and will therefore
require additional metal. The welding rod, or the material
to be added, must not be appUed until after the sides of the
bevel have been melted and run together. At this point, the
rod can be added in
lI'T'llim such a way that the
molten rod will not
drop through space
to reach the molten
sides. Welding rods
are of special grade,
such as soft Swedish
Iron, as free from
carbon as possible. As the weld continues, the welding rod
should be kept in the molten metal, fusing with sides of weld
imtil the space bevelled out has been filled. Borax is used as
a flux. It is added by dipping the hot welding rod into the
can of flux, enough adhering to the rod for use. The flame
should not be held steady, but moved in a zig-zag across the
weld. After the weld has been made in any one spot, do not
remelt. Figure 38 shows how bevel should be made. In
Fig. 43.
OXYACETYUINE WELDING 53
welding long seams in tanks or pipes, the edges are vety apt
to overlap as the welding progresses. This creeping is due to
the increased expansion of the edges being welded. If this
expansion is not taken care of, the result will be as shown in Fig.
39 in straight work, or as shown in Fig. 40 in "Pipe Work."
To overcome this lapping, allowance should be made for expan-
sion by separating the opposite end of the sheet from the weld a
distance equivalent to 2}4 per cent of the total length of the
seam. When welding pipe seams, the seam can be spread
apart by the use of two small pry bars, and these moved along
with the weld. Welding should always progress away from
the operator.
Fio. 44.
Welding Cast Iron. — la welding cast iron, a flux must be
used, and the welding rod must contain a tiigb percentage of
silicon. C^t-iron pieces which are welded should be pre-
heated and re-heated, and allowed to cool slowly, which avoids
unequal expansion and contraction. The edges of welds on
metal j^ in. thick should be beveled. The operation of welding
is the same as with steel, except that cast-iron is puddled, and
this giveeblowholesanddirtanopportunity to get into the weld.
These must be worked out by using the welding rod and flux.
Castings can be pre-heated over a fire of charcoal, gas, oil,
or coke, covering the casting with firebrick. When the casting
has reached a dull-red heat, the brick can be taken away and
the piece welded, after which the brick can be put back, and
the fire underneath made gradually less intense until the fire
is out and the casting cool. Special pre-heating ovens can be
purchased (see page 285, "Cast Iron"}. Bosses can be built
54
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
up and missing pieces of iron supplied by iron from the welding
rod. This is done by torch manipulation. Carbon blocks
cut to outhne the part to be added will save time and gas, and
make a better job.
Copper may be welded, but it is difl&cult. The same kind of
flame that is used with steel can be used, but a much larger
■j«5a^« -- -T.
'4-Li>,ft£S^j..
Fig. 45.
tip is necessary. The heat conductivity of copper is very
high, and heat is carried off rapidly. Pre-heating is necessary
when a large piece of copper is to be welded. Parts should be
beveled. Welding rod or adding material should be electro-
lytic copper containing about 1 per cent phosphorus. Flux
is used to cleanse the copper and protect the molten copper
Fig. 46.
from the action of gases in the flame. The neutral flame should
be kept out of molten copper. A weld on copper is, in effect,
cast copper and comparatively weak. Hammering at a dull-
red heat improves the strength and ductility.
Welding Aluminum. — Aluminum is difl&cult to weld for a
welder who has only tried to weld it a few times. After one
OXYACETYLENE WELDING 55
becomes familiar with this metal when it is in a plastic and
fluid state, it is simple to make welds. The flame used is
a carbonizing flame, one with excess acetylene. The inner
cone should be about 1 J^ in. long. Pre-heating large aluminum
pieces until beads of sweat show or until J^-M solder can be
melted upon it, is advised. Aluminum oxidizes very rapidly,
and if a film of oxide is permitted to accumulate in the weld,
it will be weakened to a considerable extent; therefore, a
flattened steel rod or spatula is used to puddle the aluminum
and to scrape away the oxide which forms. It will be noticed
that when aluminum is melted at the point of weld that it
does not run together; it miist be "puddled *' as explained above.
A flux can be used on a flat seam, but great care must be taken
not to allow any flux to be covered with molten metal. When
building up bosses, flux must be used. Until one becomes
expert, it is advisable to back pieces to be welded with fireclay
or carbon blocks. When the aluminum is molten, it should
be quickly puddled, and the weld completed.
Brass and bronze, can be welded, but there is danger that
the tin or zinc will pass off in fumes. Manganese bronze or
Tobin bronze should be used for adding material, and should
be applied with flux just before the surface of the parts begins
to bubble. When white fumes are created, the flame should be
withdrawn, as this indicates that too much heat is being applied.
Pre-heat large pieces as in the case of other metal castings.
Copper can be welded to steel by first bringing the steel to a
white heat and then putting the copper into contact.
Cutting or burning a kerf in wrought iron, steel, steel cast-
ings, and cast iron can be done with the oxyacetylene torch.
The cutting torch differs from the welding torch in that it has
two or more flames, in the center of which is an orifice for high-
pressure oxygen. For the cutting of rivet holes, a two flame
tip is used, other cuts require more. The process of cutting
steel consists of heating a spot of the metal to be cut to a red
heat and projecting upon it a jet of pure oxygen, which causes
the metal to bum away. As soon as the oxygen is turned on,
the torch should be moved along in the direction that cut is to
be made. The speed of cutting will depend somewhat upon
the cutter; if he has a steady hand and good eye, his speed
will be very rapid. If much cutting is to be done, it is well to
arrange a brick pit over which the pieces to be cut can be
placed; the sparks then will fall into the pit and do no harm.
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
111
OXYACETYLENE WELDING
57
Cutting cast iron is new. Prior to the summer of 1920,
cast iron was considered impossible to cut with the cutting
torch. Much credit for giving out information and demonstrat-
ing cast-iron cutting should be given the Air Reduction Sales
Company, Pittsburgh, Pa., branch. A. S. Kinsey, consulting
engineer for this company, comments on cast-iron cutting as
follows: ''The torch used in cutting cast iron need not be
different from the regular cutting torch for steel, provided it
will give a long, carbonizing flame. The tip should be made
of a metal able to withstand imusually high temperatures, and
be designed so that its orifices would not be choked by fire in
the kerf as the cut runs deep. The torch should be held so
that the tip is tilted sUghtly backward for soft gray iron, and
more so for the harder irons. The cutter may easily determine
the correct angle. The ignition spot on the iron must be big-
ger and hotter than that for steel. The variableness of the
hardness of the iron in most castings^ and also blowholes, will
affect the cutting, sometimes 'putting out the fire.' A little
spiral motion of the tip, usually will overcome the trouble.
Such a motion will widen the kerf, thereby increasing the gas
consumption. The pre-heating flame should be adj usted with an
excess of acetylene in order to give a carbonizing jet from 1 to 2
in. long when the oxygen high-pressure is snapped on. The most
important part of the whole cutting operation is to maintain the
proper gas pressures. These are higher than for cutting steel.
Table 15. — Cast Iron Cutting Pressures
Oxygen
Acetylene
Size of special
Thickness of
pressure,
pressure.
tip
•metal, inches
pounds per
square inch
pounds per
square inch
No. 1.
1
50
15
Regulate the
No. 1.
No. 1.
No. 2.
No. 2.
No. 2.
No. 2.
2
4
6
8
10
12
70
85
105
115
150
175
15
15
20
20
25
25
pressure so
as to make a
carbonizing
flame from
1 to 2 in. long
increasing
with thick-
ness of metal.
No. 3.
Over 12
"These pressures vary somewhat with the hardness of the
metaL The cutter should make certain that the oxygen supply
58
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
is maintained at constant pressure. It is liable to drop, due
to rapid consumption, and thereby shorten the carbonizing jet
"Clock Motor
Oiaphrarn
Pressure
Regulator
Fil ling Plug
r
Holofer*
Regulcrfvr
Service
^P;pe
BhvHfff
Cock
fiffn-Ffashback
Wafer Levef
Slue/go
Cock
Fig. 49.
and stop the cutting. The casting will not need to be pre-
heated except by the pre-heating flames of the torch. The
OXY ACETYLENE WELDING
59
xygen does not need to be pre-heated. The cutter will find
b necessary to protect his flesh, shoes, and clothing from the
leat and flying sparks. Cutting cast iron is hotter work than
utting steel. The cutting of cast iron by gas torch produces a
arge amount of heat and quite a little smoke, as compared
viih cutting steel. There is a liberal deposit of slag and molten
netal from the cast iron. The kerf is three or four times wider
^han that of steel, and its surfaces are rougher. There usually
ire signs of molten metal on the surfaces, also some pitting,
ind the upper part of the kerf is blackened as if carburized,
aot sooty. The lower faces of the kerf usually have a heavy
3xide scale over them, but a hammer blow will shatter and
remove this. There will be some decarbonizing of the surface
of the casting, due to the burning, but no important increase
in the hardness of the surfaces of the kerf. It is apparent
that very little of the graphitic carbon changes' to combined
carbon, which probably is due to the protection afforded the
surface by the oxide scale. It insulates the hot metal from the
cold air, and allows it to cool slowly, which leaves the graphitic
carbon undisturbed." Tables below give comparative cost of
steel and cast-iron cutting.
Table 16. — To Cut by Hand Torch 100 Sq. In. op Cast Iron
AND StEBL with OxYGBN AND ACBTYLENB
Consumption
Cost
Material
Time,
min-
utes
Oxygen,
cubic
feet
Acety-
lene,
cubic
feet
Time
Oxygen
Acety-
lene
Total
Cast iron. .
Steel
15.
3.5
123
25
21
2
S.22
.06
SI. 84
.37
$.56
.05
S2.62
.48
Table 17. — Comparattve Cost op Cutting 100 Sq. In. op
Metal
Mbtal cut
Steel
Cast iron
Cast iron
Mbthod usbd
By oxyacetylene torch
By oxyacetylene torch
By machinery
Cost per 100 sq. in.
$0.48
2.62
6.00
60
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table 18. — Approximate Acettlenb and Oxygen
Pressures
Acetylene
Oxygen
Thickness
Acetylene
Oxygen
con-
con-
Tip
of metal,
pressure,
pressure,
sumption
sumption
No.
inches
pounds
pounds
per hour,
cubic feet
per hour,
cubic feet
00
(Very)
1
1
0.6
0.8
0
(Light)
1
2
1.
1.3
1
H2-H6
1
2
3.21
3.65
2
H6-H2
2
4
4.84
5.50
3
H2-H
3
6
8.14
9.28
4
H-^ie
4
8
12.50
14.27
5
V4.-M6
5
10
17.81
21.32
6
Me-H
6
12
24.97
28.46
7
Me-V^
6
14
33.24
37.90
8
W-H
6
16
41.99
47.87
9
H-^i
6
18
57.85
65.95
10
H-Vp
6
20
82.50
94.05
11
(Extra)
8
22
88.78
101.21
12
(Heavy)
8
24
114.50
130.50
OXYACETYLENE WELDING
61
Table 19. — Hourly Consumption op Tips
Acetylene
Oxygen
Tip
Thickness
Acetylene
Oxygen
con-
con-
No.
of metal,
pressure,
pressure,
sumption
sumption
inches
pounds
pounds
per hour,
cubic feet
per hour,
cubic feet
1
H
3
10
12.22
42
1
Me
3
15
12.22
48
1
J4
3
20
12.22
55
1
Me
3
20
12.22
55
2
H
3
10
12.22
62
2
\^
3
20
12.22
84
2
H
3
30
. 12.22
106
2
1
3
35
12.22
116
3
1
4
30
19.67
142
3
IH
4
40
19.67
172
3
2
4
50
19.67
202
3
3
4
60
19.67
232
4
3
5
60
30.60.
316
4
4
5
70
30.60
356
4
5
5
85
30.60
416
4
6
5
100
30.60
476
5
6
6
90
30.60
600
5
7
6
100
30.60
668
5
8
6
125
30.60
838
5
10
8
150
30.60
1,008
SECTION 4
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
WATER SUPPLY FOR BUILDINGS
Buildings are supplied with water, either by a community
water distributing system or by means of an individual tank.
Water Supply. — All water supply should be metered. In
cities where 10 per cent of all taps are metered, the consump-
tion is 153 gal. per day per capita; where 50 per cent of the
taps are metered, the consumption is 62 gal. per capita; where
75 per cent of the taps are metered, the consumption is 54
gal. per capita; where 94 per cent of the taps are metered, the
consumption falls to 36 gal. per capita per day. A review of
water-company reports from various cities gives informations
as above noted. This proves beyond doubt that metered
service reduces the amount of water consumption. This
reduction of water consumption does not render plumbing
fixtures less sanitary, but does eUminate waste through faulty
plumbing fixtures. Table 22 shows the water waste through
small openings.
The building service pipe connection with the community
service main should be made as shown in Fig. 52 and laid below
the frost line. As a rule, the plumber digs and refills the trench
and lays all pipe from building up to the main pipe. The tap-
ping of this pipe under pressure is done by the water company
with a special tapping machine. The size of water service
pipe must be based upon the amount of water that is to be
consumed in the building. When this has been determined
(see section on "Pipe Standards," page 168), turn to Table
42^4, page 188. This table will give the flow of water in cubic
feet. To change cubic feet to gallons, multiply by 7.48. (One
cubic foot equals 7.48 gal.)
Example. — What sized house-service pipe will be required to
deliver 100 gal. of water per minute, pressure of water being 60 lb.
and the length of main being 100 ft.?
Solution, — See Table 42 A, page 188.
62
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
63
Opposite 60 lb. in 100 ft. section, and under 1 J^-in. pipe, is found
14.71 cu. ft., which multiplied by 7.48 gal. gives 110 gal. per
minute. Therefore, the size of pipe to deliver water as stated in
tlie above example is 1^ in.
f4ih. Floor
^
o»
/?//?.
im ,
9i
lOttt.
9i
9ih
7th
&ih n I
5fh.^
4fh
3nl n
2rul. » J
Isf.n
%
^
Ba^.%
DOWN FEED
UP FEED
m^,-
l6Lb3.
mh.
.4Lhs.
?7Lbs,
-l2Lb^
3ILb&.
6th. n Y 24Lb3.^
-28Lbs,
33lbs. -
JlAbi^
SOMLbx^
59Lbs.-^
35Lbs^
-mkj.
ULbs.-
S3Lb&.
-mbi.
€UbA-
.4S£bs.
TOlilbs.-
-S4.70t.bs.
-mbi.
-33hlbs.
-49Lbs.
\7^t^
-GGLbs.
Fig. 50.
PRESSUR5 sr^
TANKS >\JQ
Fig. 51.
-ISLbs.
Laying Service Pipe. — The lead connection, as shown in
Fig. 52, should be made of XX strong lead pipe (see sizes of
lead pipe, page 186), at least 3 ft. long. This length allows for
required U-shaped bend. The curb box should be set as
shown in Fig. 53. The value of this box is that it provides a
space for a long key to reach down to the curb cock. The box
should be set directly over the cock and held in an upright posi-
tion. The base should be covered with tarred paper, to keep
out sand. Stone is piled around the base of the box until it is
firmly held in place. The refilling and tamping should be
done equally on all sides (see section on "Trenches*'). Pipe
that is laid in the ground is subjected to the chemical action of
surrounding earth. . It is necessary when pipe is laid in moist
ground to protect it from external corrosion. For detailed
64
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
information as to how this corrosion takes place and how to
avoid it, see section on "Pipe Standards," page 178; also on
"Metallurgy," page 300.
/» S+reef _a/r^ |
Corporcrhon
teaef Connection
-Wafer Main
/
'^ Bufidtng
Curbdox ^
g
Shpanef
A/\hsfe Cock
eroundj^:
p»^
Curb
Cock
Fig. 63.
Water from Pumps. — When buildings are supplied with water
from pumps, the water is first pumped into an open tank in the
attic or a closed tank in the basement. From tank in attiCf
the fixtures are supplied by gravity, and the pressures at
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
65
various floors will be as shown in Figs. 50 and 51. When the
tank is placed in the attic, its capacity should be large enough
to hold 3 days' supply. Extra support must be provided to
hold the tank in place.
Example.-^Wh&t sized tank must be provided to furnish 3 days'
supply of water to a family of five people? How much will the
water in the tank weigh?
SoltUion. — Allowing 80 gal. per day per person.
80 gal. X 5 persons = 400 gal. per day.
400 gal. X 3 days = 1,200 gal. for 3 days.
1,200 -s- 7.48 gal. « 160 cu. ft. in tank.
Assume as length of tank 10 ft.; then 160 cu. ft. -^ 10 ft. = 16 sq.
ft.
As square feet must have two dimensions, extract the square
fOot of 16, which equals 4 ft.; therefore, the ends of the tank will be
4 by 4 ft. and the length will be 10 ft.
When a dosed tank in basement is used, the tank should first
have air pumped into it until lO-lb. gage pressure is reached;
then water should be forced into the tank until desired pressure
is reached. The 10-lb. air pressure is trapped in the top of
the tank, and compresses as the water is forced in. When
water is drawn from the tank, the entire contents can be drawn,
because of the first 10 lb. of air pressure. Automatic control of
pump can be regulated to operate at 10-lb. pressure and stop
at 50 lb., or any desired pressure. On large systems which
require large quantities of water, separate tanks can be used,
one for water and another for air (see section on" Pumps, " page
20).
Table 20. — Proportions op Air and Water in Tanks
Amount of water
Atmoaphere at
start, lb.
10 lb. pressure
at start, lb.
V4 full of water
5
15
22
29
45
18
i4 full of water
34
% full of water
47
<Wi full of water
58
^i full of water
83
All pipe connections with the tank must be at the bottom, so
that water can escape but air cannot. This arrangement keeps
air trapped in the upper part of tank, and as a faucet is opened,
5
66
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
the compressed air in the upper part of tank forces the water out
through lower tank connection. Figure 32 shows arrangement
for a closed tank or pneumatic water system.
Piping. — The water pipe in a building should run on inside
partition walls. If necessary to run on outside walls, the
COLD
To Fixtures
HOT
To Fixturoj^
Fig. 65.
pipe should be covered with 2 in. of hair felt with a covering of
canvas sewed on. Space around pipe should be free from any
drafts. Pipes should be supported by hangers placed every
10 ft. (see section on "Hangers," page 112, Figs. 109 to 119).
As far as possible, pipes should be exposed or in walls fitted
with panel. Pipes should never run in cinder fill under floors.
HO T
£/IS T -3A 7H - f^OOM
2 di^, FLOOR
Fig. 56.
Under bath-room tile floors, water pipes should be protected
with an inverted V-shaped trough, or where funds will allow,
placed inside of a larger pipe. Plenty of space must be allowed
for expansion of pipe.
Fittings used on water pipe are described under section on
"Fittings," page 121. The main feed pipe should be brought
to a central location in the building, and from this point branch
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION 67
pipes should extend to each group of fixtures or isolated fixture.
Figures 54 and 55B show header and branch connections.
Each branch is provided with a stop and waste cock. A tag,
as shown in Fig. 56, should be wired onto every valve. Writing
on tag should be in india ink, and should state exact fixtures
that valve controls.
Valves that are placed on water lines should be provided with
a waste tube, which allows water left in pipe after pressure has
been shut off to drain out. This is a necessary precaution in
cold cUmates (see section on "Purification of Water," page 364).
Waste of Water. — The waste of water through the defective
valves on the plumbing system amounts to a large number of
gallons each month. Constant attention by someone who
knows how to adjust valves should be given to the plumbing
equipment occasionally. For example, a water closet that can
be flushed on 4 gal. of water should not be using 5 gal. Auto-
matic tanks and valves should be shut off at night when
fixtures are not used. Saving in water means lower water
bills, smaller filtering plants, and less expense in operating; also
less work for sewage disposal plant to handle. Water should
not be allowed to run at a fixture to prevent freezing, but should
be shut off and water drained from the pipe.
Water kept constantly running soon wastes a large number of
gallons, as shown in Table 22. An opening the size of lead in
a pencil will discharge, at 60-lb. pressure, about 10 gal. an
hour, 240 gal. per day, or 7,200 gal. per month.
The amount of water consumed per day per person is given
as 80 to 100 gal. for all cities. From recent investigations, one
person does not use over 30 gal. of water each day for all kinds
of use except lawn sprinkling. If more than this amount is
used, it is extravagance on part of the user or wastefulness on
part of the plumbing equipment.
Friction in Pipes. — Piping should be run as directly as pos-
sible, and with few bends. All ends of pipe that extend into
fittings should be reamed. Figures 57 and 58 show clearly the
effect of reamed and unreamed pipe on the flow of water
through a fil^ting. The loss in head is five times as great in an
unreamed pipe as in a reamed pipe. The frictional resistance
of fittings and valves is given in Tables 24 and 25. The fol-
lowing example shows how tables of friction are used:
Example. — Given a straight 2-in. pipe 200 ft. long, how many
gallons of water will it deliver per minute under a pressure of 43 lb.
68 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Solution. — Change pounds pressure to feet head by dividing
43 lb. byO.434, which oqunls in round numbers, 100 tt. As the head
in feat equals one half the length in feet, look in column }^L, of
Table 23, opposite 2 in. diameter, irhere 141.4 gal. per minute is
given as the sotutioD of the problem.
Now auppoae in the above example, that in this 200 ft. of 2-in.
pipe, there were eight 90-deg. elbows and one globe valve.
What would be the number of gallons dischai^ed per minute?
SotuHon. — Length of pipe 200 ft.
Equivalent length of eight-2-in, ells
(Table 24) 40 ft.
Equivalent length of one globe valve
(Table 25) 60 ft.
Total equivalent length 300 ft.
As the head now equab ^"Jioo or !^ the length, look under
}iL, Table 23, aitd opposite 2 in. diameter; and 115.4 gal. per
minute is given as the answer to the problem. Therefore, the
eight ells and one globe valve would make a difference of 26
gal. of water less discharged by the pipe, under the above
conditions.
Repairs b; Means of Freezing. — To shut ot! water in a supply
pipe when there is no shut ofi valve provided, expose the pipe
at least 16 in. in length and 8 in. around. If the pipe is already
exposed, build a box around the pipe allowing a space 15 in.
long and 8 in. around the pipe. The lead pipe should be
mashed together, stopping the flow of water between freesing
point and house. A stop cock should be inserted in the pipe
line within 18 in. of the point of freezing. Everything, there*
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
69
fore, should be in readiness to make required joints. Then
pack around the pipe in space provided, about 50 lb. of crushed
ice, mixed with a bucket full of coarse salt. This mixture will
freeze the water in the pipe and the flow of water will be
stopped. To determine when the pipe is frozen, tap a small
hole in the pipe with a knife; if water squirts out, poimd the
hole shut and continue freezing. When the water has frozen,
cut out the mashed part of pipe and raise pipe up about 2 in.
Insert prepared stop cock and wipe joints quickly. Remove
ice and thaw out by applying heat. Other freezing mixtures
are listed below.
Freezing Mixtures
Mixtures
Mercury drops from
ordinary temperature to
2 parts of crushed ice and 1 part of salt
5 parts of crushed ice, 2 parts of salt, 1 part of
ammonium chloride
24 parts of crushed ice, 10 parts of salt, 5 parts of
ammonium chloride, 5 parts of potassium
nitrate
12 parts crushed ice, 5 parts salt, 5 parts ammo-
nium chloride
5 degrees below sero
12 degrees below zero
18 degrees below aero
25 degrees below zero
Table 21. — IjEnqth of Service of Hose
Sise of
Sise of
jet, inches
100 ft.
150 ft.
200 ft.
pipe, inches
u. s
. gallons per mi
nute
H
H
299.40
253.92
224.48
H
H
420.66
372.50
337.69
H
H
522.27
485.87
456.16
. 1
H
536.43
528.04
518.71
m
H
142.74
136.83
131.61
H
H
151.53
148.99
146.37
H
H
155.11
153.95
153.03
1
H
156.76
156.50
156.21
H
M«
39.06
38.93
38.86
H
M«
39.23
39.18
39.09
H
Me
39.29
39.27
39.25
H
Ha
11.02
11.02
11.02
H
}i2
11.02
11.02
11.02
70
PLUMBER'S HANDBOOK
Table 22. — How Water May be Wasted
Gallons discharged per hour through various sized orifices
under stated pressures
Head
•
Pres-
H
H
^i
H
H
H
1
IK
IH
2
feet
sure
in.
m.
in.
m.
in.
m.
in.
m.
m.
in.
20
8.66
75
300
720
1.260
1.920
2.760
4,920
7.380
11 100
19.740
40
17.32
112
450
960
1.800
2.760
3.960
6.720
10.920
15.720
27.960
60
25.99
135
540
1.200
2.160
3.480
4.800
8.580
13.380
19.200
34.260
80
34.65
155
620
1.380
2.460
3.840
5.580
9.840
15.480
22,260
39.540
100
43.31
172
690
1.560
2.760
4.320
6.240
11,040
17.280
24.900
H280
120
51.98
195
780
1.680
3,000
4.740
6.840
12.120
18.960
27,240
48.480
140
60.64
204
816
1,860
3.300
5.100
7.320
13.020
28.160
29.460
52.320
150
64.97
210
840
1.920
3.420
5.280
7.620
13.560
21.180
30.480
54.120
175
75.80
225
900
2.040
3.660
5.700
8.220
14,640
22,800
32.880
58.560
200
86.63
240
960
2.220
3,900
6.120
8.760
15.600
25.020
35,880
62.580
235
101.79
270
1.080
2.460
4.320
8.280
11.160
17.100
26.760
38.520
68.460
An orifice the size of the lead in an ordinary pencil will under 60-lb. pres-
sure discharge about 10 gal. an hour. 240 gal. a day, or 7.200 gal. a month —
which is more than will be legitimately used by a family of five people.
Table 23. — Gallons per Minute
H = head of water, L = length of pipe
aS-9
1-^
a
a
s
s
s
^
S
S
fl
ii
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
n
5::
in
&:
in
in
5::
Ji:
&5
in
155
II
'A
•H
H
1
m
2
2H
3
4
19.8
34.5
54.4
111.8
195.2
308.
632.2
1104.
1745.
3581.
18.7
32.7
51.7
106.
185.2
292.1
599.7
1048.
1631.
3397.
17.7
30.1
48.7
100.
174.6
275.4
566.4
987.8
1560.
3203.
16.5
28.9
45.6
93.5
163.3
257.6
538.9
924.
1460.
29%.
15.3
20.5
42.2
86.6
151.2
238.5
488.1
855.4
1351.
2774.
14.
24.4
38.5
79.
138.
217.7
447.
780.9
1234.
2532.
12.5
21.8
34.4
70.7
123.4
194.8
399.8
698.5
1103.
2265.
10.8
18.9
29.8
61.2
106.9
168.7
346.3
604.9
955.5
1%2.
8.6
15.4
24.3
50.
87.3
137.7
282.7
493.9
780.2
1602.
8.3
14.4
22.8
46.8
81.6
128.8
264.4
482.
728.8
14%.
7.7
13.4
21.2
43.2
75.6
119.3
248.8
427.7
674.8
1385.
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
71
►^
§
^
::*:
^
:«
:3^
^
;«
e
H
n
H
n
n
n
R
II
II
H
H
H
tQ
&s
tQ
HJ
tQ
&:
155
&3
tQ
&S
5::
&S
7.
6.3
5.4
4.4
3.6
3.1
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.1
2.
12.2
10.9
9.5
7.7
6.3
5.5
4.8
4.4
4.1
3.9
3.6
3.5
19.3
17.2
14.9
12.2
9.9
8.6
7.7
7.0
6.5
6.1
5.7
5.1
39.5
35.3
30.1
25.
20.4
17.7
15.8
14.4
13.4
12.5
11.8
11.2
69.
61.8
53.5
42.7
35.6
30.9
27.6
25.2
23.3
21.8
20.6
19.5
106.9
97.4
84.3
68.7
. 56.2
48.7
43.9
39.8
36.8
34.4
32.5
30.8
223.5
199.9
173.1
141.4
115.4
100.
89.4
81.6
75.6
70.7
66.6
63.2
390.4
349.2
302.4
246.9
201.6
174.6
156.2
142.6
132.0
123.6
116.4
110.4
615.9
555.5
477.1
390.1
317.6
275.8
246.7
225.2
208.5
195.1
183.9
174.5
1264.
1133.
979.3
800.8
653.8
566.2
506.5
463.2
428.0
399.9
377.5
358.1
Pounds pressure is changed to head in feet by dividing pressure by 0.434.
Table 24. — Friction in 90-deg. Pipe Bends
Diameter of bend
in inches
Friction in the bend is
equal to the friction in
number of feet of
straight pipe listed
Number of diameters to
be added to length of
pipe
5
4
3
2
\H
1
20 ft. of straight pipe
15 ft. of straight pipe
9 ft. of straight pipe
5 ft. of straight pipe
3 ft. of straight pipe
2 ft. of straight pipe
1 ft. of straight pipe
48 diameters of fitting
45 diameters of fitting
36 diameters of fitting
30 diameters of fitting
26 diameters of fitting
24 diameters of fitting
18 diameters of fitting
Table 25. — Friction of Fittinqs
Kind of fitting
Number of 90-deg. bends it is equal to in
frictional resistance
Coupling
Ho of 90-des bend.
45-deff. elbow
M the friction of a 90-defc bend.
Ooen-return bend
Same as 90-deK. bend.
T-fitting
Eoual friction of two 90-des. bends.
Gate valve
^4 the friction of a 90-deff. bend.
Globe valve
Equal friction of twelve 90-deg. bends.
72 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
DRAINS
The velocity of sewage through horizontal drains should be
at the rate of 260 ft. per minute, which means a fall of about 34
in. to the foot when using 4^in. pipe. With a velocity less
that this, the soUds in sewage will not be carried along, but will
sink to the bottom of pipe and remain there; if the velocity is
much greater the water will run away from the solids and leave
them in the pipe. To procure the proper grade that will allow
the correct velocity, use the following formula:
r
F =
10/>
When F = fall of pipe line in feet.
L = length of pipe line in feet.
D = diameter of pipe in inches.
Example. — What fall should there be in a 60-ft. drain pipe 6 in.
in diameter, to procure the best rate of flow, 260 ft. per minute?
Solviion. —
L = 60 ft. . , . jj, 60 60 , ..
D = 6 in. therefore, F = ^^-^ = -^ = 1 ft.
The size of drains should be large enough to carry off all
sewage without being too large to be self scouring.
When storm waters discharge into house drains, the rate of
precipitation determines the size of pipe, in small buildings.
Large buildings where the rainfall discharges into the house
sewer and a large volume of sewage also is discharged, the rain-
fall must be added to the sewage to get correct size of pipe (see
table showing "Intensity of Rainfall"). To find the diameter
of drain necessary to carry off rainfall waters the following
formula can be used.
D = 12 J
AP
212 X 60
D = diameter of pipe in inches.
A = square feet of area to be drained.
P = maximum rate of precipitation in feet per hour (Table 26).
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
73
*Table 26. — Intensity of Rainfall
State
Maximum
rate in feet
ger hour for
ve minutes
Maximum
rate in inches
per hour for
five minutes
Arisona
Alabama
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota^
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
New Mexico
New Jersey
Oklahoma
Ohio
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee, Chattanooga
Tennessee, Memphis. . . .
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washin^on
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
I
.20
1.44
.48
.25
.33
.27
.30
.41
.45
.35
.29
.33
.74
.29
.22
.48
.25
.29
.22
.42
.34
.29
.76
.35
.50
.35
.20
.32
.43
.31
.50
.45
.38
.27
.25
.38
.23
.34
.36
.25
.55
.31
.10
.29
.36
.25
.26
.41
.11
-2.40
17.28
5.76
3.00
3.%
3.24
3.60
4.92
5.40
4.20
3.48
3.%
8.88
3.48
2.64
5.76
3.00
3.48
2.84
5.04
4.06
3.48
21.12
4.20
t:%
2.40
3.84
5.16
3.82
6.00
5.40
4.56
3.24
3.00
4.56
2.76
4.08
4.22
3.00
6.60
3.72
1.20
3.48
4.22
3.00
3.12
4.92
1.32
* Compiled from report of Chief of Weather Bureau, 1920.
74
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
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GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
75
In determining the gallons of sewage to be carried by drains,
it is necessary first to determine the amount of water consump-
tion. Roughly the water consumption for a building can be
arrived at by taking the per capita consumption for the City in
which building is located, and multiplying that by the number
of occupants in the building. It is, however, more accurate to
treat each building separately.
Recent investigations state that the average number of gal-
lons of water used per person in a dweUing is 30 gal. per day.
Gutter,
Leacfer
Pipe
Over Hanginq
Gutter ^
.onnectton
'Wiped Joint
<5rass Nipple
<rCouplir^
rLead
Expansion
Connection
/em/fe
Box Gutter with
Screw Pipe
Connection
Fia. 59.
Cast Iron. Pipe
Connecti'on
witti Gutter
This amount of water does not allow for tub baths each day, as
the large majority of persons do not indulge in bathing daily.
Storm waters are drained from a building by use of gutters,
built in or overhanging the eaves. From the gutter to the
sewer a leader pipe is run either inside or outside the building.
Leaders are run inside to be protected from frost, and the
material of pipe must be galvanized iron or cast iron not less
than 4 in. in diameter. Inside leaders must be subjected to the
regular test that is given all plumbing pipes. Outside leaders
are generally made of galvanized sheet iron or copper (see
"Sheet Metal" section, also Fig. 59).
Leader pipes are trapped at the base below the frost line.
When leader pipes have been tested, and the roof connection is
at least 15 ft. from any window, the trap at the base is sometimes
76 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
omitted, making uae of the leader pipe for & vent. For leader
and roof connections see Fig. 59. The size of leader pipes is
determined by the number of square feet to be drained, 1 sq. in.
of sectional area of pipe for 250 sq. ft. of surface to be drained.
Pipes should be placed not more than 40 ft. apart.
Sub-aoil drains (Fig. 60) are placed at foundation footings, to
carry oft all subsoil waters, from building site. Terra cotta
pipe can be used, laid open joint. All open joints should be so
Fia. 60.
covered to keep out sand. Subsoil drain should terminate in
house sewer. The broken stone and porous material above
pipe as shown allows all water to quickly flow to the pipe.
Aces drains are drains placed to take off storm waters that
may fall or wash into area ways. The drain should terminate
into a fitting or casting strainer attached and e^ctending to the
surface level. Area drains should be trapped, and the trap
should be located inside building to protect it from frost. Area
drains should never be less than 2 in. in diameter, and should be
fitted with a deep seal trap.
Yard drains are placed in yards to drain off surface water,
which otherwise would drain into the basement of the building.
When surface is large, or considerable amount of water is
drained toward the yard drain, a catch basin is used, otherwise
a strainer placed on a fitting or iron cesspool is used.
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION 77
A substantial catch basin should be used wherever heavy
duty is required such as driveway drains, or drains for sur-
faces, where a light strainer would be upset after the first
frost left the ground. The outlet for this heavy type should
be at the bottom to completely drain the basin. Yard drains
can discharge into rain leader traps, or into a trap placed inside
building to avoid action of frost. Size of yard drains and roof
drains is estimated according to (1) square feet of surface to
be drained, (2) maximum amount of rain fall, (3) pitch.
Tennis Courts. — To properly drain a group of tennis courts,
the following method has proved successful. Blind drains with
open joints are laid around each court and through the center
under the net. The trench in which pipe is laid, as well as the
entire court, should be underlaid with broken stone.
Athletic Fields. — Trenches with coarse filling laid above, tile
pipe should run under the field. The pipe is laid with open
joints, and slight pitch laterals are connected into mains on
the sides of field, which carry off accumulated water. The
covering of coarse filling can be sod or sand, as required by
nature of the field. No surface drains should be used.
TESTING
The four methods of testing plumbing systems are the (1)
air pressure, (2) hydrostatic, (3) peppermint, and (4) smoke.
Air pressure test is applied to the piping system before fix-
tures are connected. All openings are stopped. Screw plugs
are fitted into threaded openings. Lead openings are stopped
by pinching lead together and then soldering. Outlets in
cast-iron pipe are stopped by the use of testing plugs (a heavy
band of rubber placed between two iron plates and drawn
together by use of a thumb screw forcing the rubber band
against the walls of the pipe). One outlet in the system is left
with a connection for the air pump which can be attached
together with a pressure gage. The pump is operated until
15 lb. is indicated on the gage; this will give the same pressure
on every part of the system. The lowering of the pressure
gage indicates a leak. Soap applied with a brush, or the noise
of escaping air, will give the location of the leak. If the leak
is caused by a cfjacked fitting or piece of pipe, this defective
material should be replaced. All pipe should be left exposed
during the test.
78 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Hydrostatic Test. — With the exception of openings above
roof, all outlets In the plumbing system should be closed as
noted in the air test. The entire system is then filled with
water from a water connection provided in a testing plug placed
at the foot of system faee Fig. 61). Any lowering of the water
in the stack above the roof or any presence of water on the
Fio. 61.
outside of pipe in the building indicates a teak. The system
of piping should be filled at the rate of 2 ft. at a time, and any
leaks that develop should be repaired before filling another 2 ft.
This test cannot be applied on high buildings, unless the system
is divided into small sections. Where systems are in tall build-
ings or in cold climates, it is advisable not to use the water test.
The peppermint test is used for a final test, after all fixtures
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION 79
are set, or for testine an old job or extension. The S3rstem is
arranged with all openings closed except top openings above
roof. Four ounces of oil of peppermint are poured into every
50-ft,, 4r-in. stack followed at once by 2 gal. of boiling water.
This is poured in stack through the roof openings. The top
openings are closed and the fumes are allowed to circulate
through the entire system; these fumes are so penetrating that
they will enter the building through any defect in the piping.
The leaks can be found by tracing the odor. The mechanic
who handles the oil of peppermint should not enter the build-
ing. When applying this test, the traps under all fixtures
should be filled with crude oil. Smoke test is used in very cold
climates, or when making extensions to old systems. The
piping system is arranged with all openings closed except top
openings above roof, which are left open until smoke has
started to come out; at this time they should be closed. A
al^ht pressure, not over 1 in. of water, is allowable when apply-
ing this test with the fixture traps in place. The seal of trap
is 1^ in. of water; therefore, if the pressure, l}^ in. of water,
was appUed, it would blow through seal of trap and render test
of no value. If there are any leaks in the system, they can
easily be detected by the presence of smoke. To generate
smoke and slight pressure, burn tarred paper or oily waste in a
smoke machine as illustrated in Fig. 92.
DRIHIUNG WATER
Water for drinking purposes requires a separate system of
water piping. To insure cool water at each fountain head the
80
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
water is pumped very slowly around the system, and through el
cooling coil.
The fountain should be trapped, and discharged into an open
sink, which is properly trapped and vented. Fountain heads
should be so made that it is impossible for drinker to touch, or
for waste water to touch, the orifice of stream.
SEPTIC TANKS
Figures 63, 64 and 65 show a septic tank made of concrete.
It is simple in design and effective in operation. Sewage
enters the first tank where liquification takes place. When
Venf-
«V!
*»»
Iff
%fnleT
.LIQUEFYINGTAHK>
^ 'I
I -I
I •■'
J v;
<Stff;vi:>^.'^tvwy^ir. {■»;.!;'
4^^;
1ef
Fig. 63.
this tank overflows, it discharges into the dousing chamber
which discharges at intervals, whenever it is full. The siphon
controls the discharging time. The operation of the siphon
is automatic and is dependent upon the weight of water for
its complete action, which is as follows :
uHet
Fig. 64.
The water as it enters the dousing chamber rises above the
lower rim of siphon bell. The lower trap is first filled with
water. As the water rises in the dousing chamber, it traps the
air in the upper part of the siphon bell. This trapped air,
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION 81
graduaOy forces the air out of the long leg, A, of traps (see
Fig. 66), until a point ia reached when the air finds its way
around the lower bend of trap and escapes up through the
water in the short leg, C, of trap. At this point the water head,
B, is equal to water head D. As the air eacapes up through C,
a little water is carried out of the trap, causing, the water in
the trap to be overbalanced by head of water D. The equi-
librium being destroyed, the water in the dousing chamber
ruahes into the trap and flows out through B, and the siphon
82 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
is in full action until chamber is emptied. To secure perfect
operation of this siphon, the outlet must be enlarged, to give
the discharged water unrestricted passage.
Sewage should stay in this septic tank about 48 hr. The
discharge from septic tanks should take place intermittently
rather than continuously. A system of piping should be laid
to spread the discharge over considerable area, or over a bed
of stone to aerate it thoroughly.
VALVES I
Gates. — So named from wedge-shaped gate which is raised
and lowered by operation of handle. Gate seats on two sur-
faces generally. When the seat is only on one side of the gate,
the seat side should be screwed on pipe toward the pressure.
These valves give fvU water-way opening. They are manu-
factured for pressures of 125, 150, 175, and 250 lb. for steam,
and 150, 175, 225, and 350 lb. for water.
Gate valves are used for stops in lines requiring no throttling.
If a valve is to be used as a throttle at all then a globe valve
should be used.
Globe Valves. — The tightness of this type of valve is depen-
dent upon compression seats, metal to metal, or fiber to metal.
The valve has inlet and outlet ends, and is put on the pipe so as
to close against the pressure. It should not be used upon a
horizontal line unless stem of valve is placed in a horizontal
position.
The globe valve offers considerable resistance to flow of water
in pipe. The globe valve of angle-valve pattern does not offer
the same resistance, as it is combined with a 90-deg. angle.
Check valves are used to allow the water or steam in pipe to
travel in one direction only. There are three types of check
valves: horizontal check, vertical check, and angle check.
These types can be had in swinging or lift pattern for the hori-
zontal and angle, and in the Uft pattern for the vertical.
Care of Valves. — Pipe-joint cement, when put on the female
end of thread, works its way into valve seat. For this reason,
cement should always be applied to the male end of thread.
All chips and scale should be removed from the interior of the
pipe before attaching valve. Pipe thread should not screw in
the valve beyond the standard length of thread; otherwise the
end of the pipe may strike against the interior of valve and
I See " Valve Brass." page 332.
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION 83
strain it. The pipe wrench should always be used on the end
of valve that is being screwed on pipe. No strain should be
allowed on brass valves, as they cannot stand the continued
strain as well as pipe and fittings. Wrenches with square
jaws only should be used.
Ground-key work is used mostly for gas work, to stop flow.
No packing is required to make a seat tight. The interior of
the valve body is bored, and a finished surface is made to fit a
finished surface of a wedge-shaped plug. The plug is drawn
tight against body of the valve, making a friction joint, by
means of a nut on the under side of plug. The plug has a slot
cut in it to correspond with the bore of pipe^ so that one-quarter
turn either opens or closes the stop. Ground-key work is also
used on water as a stop and waste cock, special types being
made for curb cocks, which have the wedge-shaped plug inverted.
Needle valves are used for gas or oil stops or on water where
only a very small amount of water is required. The needle
enters outlet, clears the passage, and assists in the fiow of oil
or water.
TRENCHES
Sand. — When sinking a trench for water or sewer pipes over
4 ft. deep in sandy earth the sides and ends of trench should be
sheathed with planks 2 in. thick and 10 or 12 in. wide, supported
with stringers and braces at top and bottom. As the trench
is lowered the planks are driven down between the stringer and
bank of trench. A wood mall is used for driving plank. The
planks are withdrawn after the trench is partly refilled. A shoe
or chain and a long lever are used.
Gravel. — Trenches dug in gravel require only sheathing about
every 2 ft. This corduroy is supported with stringers and
braces (see Fig. 67).
Rock. — Where shale is encountered good sharp picks will
do the work. SoUd work will require blasting and should be
done by some one who thoroughly understands the handling of
powder.
As a rule the trench for sewer is lower than the trench for
water or gas. The bottom of trench should not be dug deeper
than level upon which the pipe is to lay. This will allow the
pipe to rest on virgin ground, and prevent settling. To save
digging it is possible to lay the sewer and water pipes as shown
in Fig. 68. After the sewer pipe is laid and the trench refilled
84
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
to level on which the water pipe is to be laid, the side of the
trench can be broken away for 2 ft. and the shelf thus made will
provide room for the water pipe.
v.. • :
, « « • ■
"V* •■- .-.1.
I
V
End View
P/^/7>r ''
"• • •."..*'•-
Oravi^I
» ' • - ;
•••-' •••• •
Side View
Fia. 67,
Refill. — The refill of trench should be made by returning
about 6 in. of dirt then tamping, adding again 6 in. and tamp-
ing, repeating this process until the trench is filled. Water
can be played into the trench while it is being refilled and the
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION 85
dirt will be well settled. All the dirt taken out should be
returned into the trench except that amount which is replaced
by the pipe.
When digging to lay long lines of pipe in sandy ground or
gravel, it is necessary to dig only about two-thirds of the dis-
tance as 15 ft. can be dug and 10 ft tunnelled, etc.,' until the
distance is covered.
Shel^dugoutafftr
Sewer Trench has
httn rrfilM
PIPE HEASUREHEHTS
Strait |»pe meaBurements are always given from end to
end of pipe. When a fitting is used on one end of the pipe,
the measurement reads end of pipe to center of fitting (Fig.
69). If a fitting on each end is used, the measurement reads
center to center {Fig. 70).
- EndtoCsnfsrs — -w
^
When 46-deg. fittings or other degree fittings are used,
measurements are rather difficult to get. Some pipe fitters
add 5 in. for each toot the line is offset with 45-deg. fittings, A
Wt. offset (Fig. 71) would mean 8 ft. X 6 in. = 30 in. This
86 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
added to 6 ft. =8 ft. 6 in., center to center. From this must
be deducted the fittings, leaving the exact length of pipe from
end to end. This is a rough way to get this measurement.
Table 28 gives a constant for each degree fitting used in
pipe work. In using the table in the above problem, note
(Fig. 73) a triangle, upon which the measurement we want
corresponds with C. Then on the line with 45-deg. fittings
-CenferfoCenfer-fOFt ->|
FiQ. 70.
and imder C, Column 4, is the constant 1.4142. This con-
stant, it will be noted, is for use when the offset is 1. The
offset in this problem is 6; therefore, 1.4142 X 6 = 8.485 ft.,
which for practical use would have to be called 8K ft., which is
the measurement wanted.
If 60-deg. fittings were used in the above example, the
measurement, C, would then be 1.1647 (Column 4 opposite 60
deg.) X 6 = 6.9282 ft. •
Fig. 71.
If 22>^-deg. fittings were used, then measurement C, would
be 2.6131 (Column 4 opposite 223^ deg.) X 6 = 15.6786 ft.
From measurement C, in each case must be deducted the
distance from the end of pipe to the center of the fitting. These
measurements differ with different makes of fittings; therefore
the exact measurements of fittings should be taken for each
case.i This table can be used to great advantage to determine
the proper place for cutting holes in ceilings, walls or floors when
^See Section on "Drainage Fittings" for exact measurements of fittings
made by The Kelley and Jones Company.
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
87
degree fittings are to be used. For example Fig. 72 shows a
pipe extending up along side of door, which breaks over and
goes through the floor above. The pipe is brought up say to
within 1 ft. of the ceiling. If it is desired to use a 46-deg.
fitting, refer to Table 28, and the constant opposite 45-deg. and
under A (Column 3) is 1; then 1 X 1 ft. (distance from ceiling)
= 1 ft. or distance A. If 60-deg. fittings are used, opposite 60
(Column 1) under A (Column 3) is the constant 1.732 X 1 ft.
= 1.732 ft. = distance A,
/P/pe
«4.A.!I-.11H.I.! J^U.».ll.H..lJ.i..kl. |1L.. til J ■-■■■■ ■■>■■■■ imji If Hi^i^
?
Floor^
r 4
^
Pipe-
H iinni.^
'"■'■"*"
/A
r
?
/ M
o'x
J
/
•
•
i. .
V
Fig. 72.
Example, — A 4-in. pipe running up along side of a column breaks
over on account of an open room above. Pipe must extend within
10 in. of ceiling. Where will the hole be left in the reinforced
concrete to provide pipe space if 67^-deg. fittings are used?
Solution. — Referring to Table 28 the measurement asked for is
Ay as indicated in the small triangle at top of table. Opposite
67^-deg. (Column 1) and under A (Column 3) is found the con-
stant 2.414 (when B is 1). In this problem B is 10 in. therefore
10 X 2.414 = 24.14 distance A. The hole in ceiling then must be
cut 24.14 in. away from the center of upright pipe.
Very often it is necessary to extend pipe through an upright
wall as indicated in Fig. 73, with the use of different degree
fittings. With the use of Table 28, the center of hole to be cut
for the pipe can be determined if the distance, A, can be meas-
ured. Using the above example, A equals 24.14 in. The
measurement required is B. As 67J^-deg. fittings were used,
look opposite 67J^-deg. fitting (Colunm 1) and under B (Column
2), and the constant 0.4142 is given for B, when A is 1. In
this example A is 24.14 in. therefore, B would equal 24.14 in.
X 0.4142 = 9.99 in. which would have to be called 10 in., the
measurement given in the above example.
88
PLUMBERS* HANDBOOK
Table 28. — To Find Pipe Measurement When Angle ani>
One Side are Known
To find center of pole and length of pipe — center to center —
when angle of fitting is known (Col. 1) and one side or offset.
Fitting used,
Length of B
Length of A
Length of C
deg.
when A = 1
when B = 1
when oflfset = 1
67^
.4142
2.414
1.0824
60
.5773
1.732
1.1547
45
1.
1.
1.4142
30
1.732
.5773
2.
22^
2.414
.4142
2.6131
1U4
5.027
.1989
5.1258
5H
10.168
.0983
10.217
Prepared by S. E. Dibble, Dec, 1920.
Expansion of Pipes. — Illustrations show various ways of
arranging pipes and fittings to accept the expansion and con-
traction of pipe. Page 285 of section on "Metals" clearly
gives correct information concerning the expansion of metals.
Attention is called to that section, in which it will be found that
wrought iron expands, when heated 1°, 0.00000686 of its length.
The necessary information to have when it is desired to find the
amount a certain length of pipe will expand, is the total length
of pipe, coefficient of expansion^ and the difference in temperature.
(If the pipe is 32° at time of installation, and the temperature
of water running through it when completed is 190°, then the
difference in temperature will be 190 — 32 = 158**.)
Example. — What expansion allowance must be made in a line of
pipe 60 ft. long having a rise in temperature of 125**? Pipe material
is wrought iron.
Solution. — Expansion « length X rise in temperature X coeffi-
cient of expansion.
Expansion = 60 X 125 X 0.00000686 = 0.05145 ft. or
Expansion = 0.6174 in.
This formula can be used for any pipe, regardless of material,
by changing the coefficient of expansion, which can be found by
referring to Table 29.
Table 29 gives the expansion of wrought iron, steel, cast iron,
copper, brass, in lengths of 25, 50, and 100 ft., and difference in
temperature of 100, 150, 200, 225, 260, 300, 326, 360*.
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
89
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90
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
The following example shows use of the table.
Example. — How much expansion will occur in a line of pipe
100 ft. long? Pipe was installed during weather temperature of
30^, and the maximum hot- water temperature is 180®. Pipe
material is brass.
SoltUion by Table 29. — Under heading brass in the third
column 100 ft. and down the cohimn to temperature difference of
150® is found figures 1.8666 in., which is the amount of expansion
for the above pii>e.
In the above example if the pipe was 400 ft. long then the expan-
sion would be 1.8666 X 4 X 7.4664.
Any length and any temperature range of 25 can be worked out
by this table.
FiQ. 74.
Fig. 76.
FiQ. 76.
Bzpansion Joints. — The type of joint shown in Fig. 74,
should be used on a line of pipe where a small amount of expan-
sion occurs. In this joint, the arm, Aj should extend under the
floor about 4 or 5 ft.
Figures 75 and 76 show expansion swing joints, which are
made on the job by means of five and six fittings respectively.
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
91
These joints will allow for more expansion than that shown in
Fig. 74. Figure 77 shows joint made of fittings for lines
running horizontally. Figure 78 shows what is known as a
U-bend, and should be anchored at A, The expansion in
this bend is absorbed by the straight arms and relieved by the
Anchor
Fig. 77.
curves. The radius of curves for standard bends should be 6
times the diameter of pipe. The U-expansion joint is generally
made of pipe 3 in. in diameter or larger, and has proved the
most satisfactory of all expansion joints.
The slip expansion joint gives excellent service when placed in
an open line, and easily accessible for repairs. It is not always
•Anchor
Ffcfnge^
Fio. 78.
possible to have expansion joints placed in accessible places, it is,
therefore, necessary to use the types f oimd in Figs. 74, 75, and 76.
Wherever pipes pass through walls, floors or ceilings, it is ad-
visable first to insert a tube which is larger than the pipe. The
tube acts as a sleeve for the pipe, allowing free expansion.
This will save the cracking of plastered walls and ceilings.
92
PLUMBER'S HANDBOOK
When expansion joints are used, the pipe must be anchored at
points that will force the expansion of the pipe toward the joint
provided to absorb the expansion. Figure 77 show correct
places for anchor. The anchors should consist of hangers or
hooks securely clamped to the pipe as well as to the building
material, and must be of sufficient strength to hold the pipe
securely at this point.
FLASHINGS
To keep the rain and snow from entering building around
vent pipe and leader pipes, where they pass through the roof
and roofing material, flashings must be made tight, and must
also be of a construction that will allow for expansion and con-
Copper
rVenf'F/be
CWrou^hi- Iron}
Fig. 79.
traction, and for settling of the building or pipe. When the
flashings are made of weather resisting material such as copper
or lead, in which all the above qualities are combined, the ideal
flashing is obtained. Copper or lead flashings can be formed
around any sized pipe and flashed onto any roof material.
These flashing can be made on the job to fit any conditions.
Several methods for flashing construction are shown in Figs.
79, 80, 81, and 82. Sixteen-ounce copper or 8-lb. lead should
be used for this work. Manufactured flashings can be pur-
chased and adjusted to fit any slope roof. It should always be
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
93
Leac/or^>
Copper
'M?ce3s^ Caup/m^
Jrbof
Verrf-'pipe
(Wrought Iran)
FiQ. 80.
Cap-Flashing --^ \
Lead or
Copper
Veni-'Pipe
(Wrought Iron)
FiQ. 81.
94
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
the rule that the flashing used on any roof should be of such
material and construction that it will have as long life as the
roofing material. Figure 83 shows a good flashing for heavily-
constructed flat roofs. This is known as the Holt vent-pipe
flange. The flange aroimd pipe flashings should extend at
Copper
Lecfcf
f Oakum
Roof
Verrf-Ripe
fCofsf iron)
Fig. 82.
f/fbofCbverir^
I 3 ^i IV mum fbr
^Roof Strucfurf
\
Slioft'r^iock Cofhr
Fig. 83.
least 12 in. beyond each side of the pipe. Toward the peak of
the roof, the flange should extend up in under the roof-covering
material, and toward the gutter the flange should extend wer
the roof-covering material.
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
95
Siphonic Action. — Most of the plumbing fixtures are operated
by means of syphonic action. Detrimental results of siphonic
actions occur when traps are unsealed, and closed storage tanks
collapse. The syphon is a bent tube with unequal length arms,
which when filled with hquid will draw liquid up and out of
one vessel into another lower vessel. Figure 84 illustrates.
When the short arm of the syphon is submerged in water of
receptacle A, and the long arm is filled with water, the water
will flow out of the long arm and receptacle A until level of
Shorf^rm--*:
X
Long Arm
y
Fig. 84.
water has been lowered to the end of the short arm. The flow
of water up the short arm can be stopped by the admission
of air at the top of bend as shown at B. The short arm must
not be over 34 ft. in length, in practice much less.
Traps are bent pieces of pipe or assembled fittings, made to
hold water and shaped so that an unobstrticted passage is pro-
vided for the flow of sewage, without materially affecting its
flow; also to prevent the passage of drain air into the rooms.
The points that a trap should possess to make it sanitary are,
as follows:
1. Sufficient water to withstand evaporation.
2. Sufficient depth of seal to withstand syphonic action.
3. Should be self scouring, with each flush.
4. Should be provided with cleanout.
5. No interior wires or obstructions.
96
PLUMBERS^ HANDBOOK
Sjrphon Traps. — The type of traps that can be syphoned out
under ordinary conditions when not vented are called syphon
traps. The standard S-trap, as shown in Fig. 85, is the simplest
form of syphon trap. This trap has all the advantages as
described above, but must be vented to hold its seal. It is
made in full "S," >^ "S," % "S,'' and running, as shown in
Fig. 85. The running trap offers the least resistance against
the back pressure of drain air.
^
Fig. 85.
Trap Seal. — The seal of a syphon trap is that section shown in
Fig. 85 at A. This seal can be broken in a number of different
ways: self-syphonage, aspiration, evaporation, capillary attrac-
tion, momentum.
Loss of Trap Seal. — A trap can lose its seal by adf-syphonage
when a full S- or a % S-trap is used. Conditions of a
long arm of syphon do not exist when the J^ S-trap or running
trap is used. Figure 86 shows clearly the action of self syphon-
age when the water discharged completely fills trap and arm,
or branch leading to stack, which forms a true syphon and
unseals the trap.
Aspiration. — When a trap is placed on a stack, and a larger
trap is placed above it on the same stack, then the lower trap
will be unsealed when the upper trap discharges (see Fig. 94).
The upper trap will discharge water into the stack, completely
filling the bore of the stack; thus making a solid plug of water.
This plug of water drops down the stack and acts exactly as a
pump plunger reversed, and creates a partial vacuum directly
back of the plug of water. Therefore, as this plug passes the
opening of lower trap, the water in the seal of the trap rushes
out to fill the vacuum created by the rush of the plug of water
down the stack. This action causes the lower trap to lose its
seal.
The resistance offered by the fvll S-trap against syphonage
when the seal is l3^^ in. deep, is as follows:
Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 lb. per square inch. If a
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
97
Trap Losing
Seat
Fia. 86.
from abvv&
4
Plug of Woff^r
Prviwmg Trap Seal
Fia. 87.
98
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
vacuum is caused on the sewer side of trap, the atmospheric
pressure will force down on the surface of water at the rate of
14.7 lb. per square inch. To offset this pressure, the seal of
trap offers a resistance of 1 3^ in. seal, or column of water,
which in oimoes equals, 0.867 oz. per square inch, figured as
follows.
A column of water 1 in. square and 1 ft. high — 0.434 lb.
1 m. of water = 0.434 -r- 12 = 0.03616 lb.
13^ in. of water (or seal) = 0.03616 X IJ^ = 0.867 oz.
Momentum. — It is possible imder the right conditions to
break the seal of a trap by momentum. However, a condition
hardly exists today that could cause this. The trap must be
placed underneath the outlet of fixtyre a sufficient distance for
the water discharged to gather enough momentum to pass en-
tirely through and beyond the trap. Present practice demands
that a trap be placed directly under the fixture, also almost
every fixture has a strainer which prevents the outlet pipe from
being completely filled with water.
FiQ. 88.
Capillary Attraction. — This means by which a trap loses its
seal, is of no fault of the trap or piping for trap, but is due to the
user's carelessness. Lint, hair, and soap accumulate over the
crown of the trap, and with one end in the water and the other
extending down the outlet pipe act as a wick, drawing the
water out of the trap and dropping it on the other side of the
crown into the discharge pipe. A trap may thus be unsealed
over night by a piece of lint, etc., as big as a pencil.
Non-syphon traps differ from syphon traps in that the seal
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION 99
will not be entirely destroyed by syphonic action, when placed
properly on a plumbing system (see Figs. 89, 90, 91 and 92).
The drum trap is a sample. When conditions occur that
usually break the seal of a syphon trap, the water in the seal of
a drum trap is only partly drawn out. Enough always remains
in the trap to seal it. The drum trap has a large body of
water in it and does not thoroughly scour its self at each flush;
this feature makes it an objectionable trap to use imder most
conditions (see Fig. 89).
Mechanically sealed traps are dependent upon some form of
mechanism to seal them and prevent entrance of sewer air.
These traps perform their function properly until such time
that the mechanism becomes destroyed and renders the trap
Fio. 89. Fig. 90. Fio. 91. Fio. 92.
useless (see Fig. 90). Traps having interior wiers should not be
accepted as ideal traps, as there is always the possibility of the
wire being a poor casting with a crack or sand hole in it; or it
may be destroyed by usage. This would allow the water in the
seal of the trap to discharge out into drain hne, and the seal
would be broken. If it were possible to see the level of water in
the trap at all times, it would then be possible to rectify any
defect in the trap that develops. Glass traps are sometimes
used.
Grease Traps. — Are used to receive the discharge from all
large sinks in hotels, restaurants, and large dwellings. The
object of these traps is to intercept the grease, which is in a
molten state, before it gets into the sewerage system. To
accomplish this object a large trap is installed of sufficient size
to receive twice the capacity of the fixture discharging into it;
thus giving one discharge time to cool and allow the grease to
rise to the top of the trap, where it can be taken out by means of
a cleanout placed on the top of trap.
The better type of these traps is made with a water-jacket or
water-chamber partition (see Fig. 93). All water used in the
kitchen is first run through the water chamber in the trap,
100
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
effecting a cooling jacket which readily congeals the grease in
the trap. It is always well to locate these traps outside of the
building, for the offensive odor given off during the process of
cleaning is objectionable when the trap is located in the house.
ColdVAsrterOuflof
V/Pipe
Cold Wafer ihlv^
c- x5/
Fig. 93.
A brick pit can be built just outside the kitchen, in which the
traps can be placed at a level below frost line. Grease traps
should be vented.
VENTS
Vents must be provided on plumbing systems to allow the free
passage of waste from fixtures. Without vents, the plumbing
system would become air bound, similiar to a small-necked
bottle filled with water and inverted. The water in the bottle
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
101
will not run out unless it is with violent commotion, noise, and
considerable time. If a hole the size of the bottle neck were
made in the bottom of the bottle, the water would escape when
inverted without commotion or noise, and with sufficient
velocity to empty the bottle quickly. For this reason it is
necessary to vent the plumbing at the proper place and with
the proper size pipe. This process also insures best of sanitary
conditions. Vents necessary to furnish the above con-
ditions are the ventilation pipe, trap vents, and fresh-air inlet.
street ^""-''y^
Fig. 94.
These pipes as the Drawing 94 shows, allow a free parage of
fresh air throughout the plumbing system (see dotted arrow
lines). When a fixture as A, (Fig. 94) is discharged, the air is
driven out of the pipes by the rush of water, the air finding
an outlet as shown by heavy straight-line arrows. The water
not being held back by air pressure in front or by lack of air to
replace it, finds its way with maximum velocity to the sewer.
Size of Vents. — The vent pipes from a fixture trap should be
of equal size with the outlet in fixture, but never less than 1 J^
in. When a number of vents are attached to one main vent
pipe, the main vent pipe should be of such size as the total area
of fixture outlets.
Material of Vent Pipes. — Pipe and fittings used to vent a trap
or line of pipe should be made of galvanized iron or steel, lead,
or cast iron. Black iron or steel pipe should never be used.
102
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Fittings should be of galvanized iron, steam pattern. Bends of
90 deg. should be avoided when installing vent pipes; 45-deg.
and crooked threads may be used.
Ventilation pipe is the pipe that extends from the highest
fixture up to and through the roof. It should be carried up full
size, and never less that 4 in. in cold cUmates, as hoar frost soon
fills the pipe that is extended above the roof, if 2 in. pipe is used.
-Future.
Connection
J-^ Brtd Floor
Outlet
Fig. 05 A.
Crown venting.
Roof
u
tst.Floor
\r
rVeni-
Pltchy/porfdot
=^5)0
y
¥ih9re HyM^Toek^^iemoff^ - ■
Waste
Pig. 96 C.
Good practice and a saving on
installation cost, but allowed
only in a few states.
Basement
9U.
Fig. 05 B.
Continuous vent.
JThr^4ffh Roof
ftrl rC^^^^t^^H^
Through
Roof
3'Wnt
1
^F
Fig. 05 D.— Unit venting.
:: 5\iibsh^
FiQ. 96.
Jo House Dnr in oi^Jn
^ House Orai'n
Fig. 05 E. — Circuit venting.
'l^t
Figure 95 A illustrates "crown venting." Figure 95B shows
the type of venting known as "continuous venting.'' It is
the simplest system now in use, and does not require re-
venting when trap is some distance from the stack as indicated
in Fig. 960. Simplified plumbing known as "imit venting"
can be used when conditions allow fixtures to be placed close to
the stack, as shown in Fig. 95D,
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
103
When a number of toilets are on one line, the venting as
shown in Fig. 95^ can be used; note the circuit vent taken off
between the last two closet connections. In some states, each
closet fixture connection must be vented as shown in Fig. 96F;
where this system is used; it is called separate venting.
Table 31. — Pipe Wrenches
Size of wrench, inches. . .
6
8
10
14
18
24
36
48
Length when open, inches
6
8
10
M
18
24
36
48
Takes pipe from, inches.
Hto
Hto
Hto
1
Mto
1H
Mto
2
Mto
2^6
Hto
3H
1 to5
Pipe wrenches and tongs are used for screwing pipe and
fittings together. Sizes from 6 to 48 in. (see Table 31) are
used. The correct sized wrench should be used on a given
sized pipe. If a wrench too small is used, it will be strained
and soon be of no value; if one that is too large is used, the
leverage will be so great that fittings will be cracked or pipe
crushed.
Chain tongs are used for large pipe. The chains are either
round or flat link. Table 32 gives sizes and capacities.
Table 32. — Chain Tongs
Length of handle, inches. .
27
36
Me
48
60
72
84
Sise of chain, inches. :
Me
^8
H
H
H
Size of pipe, inches
1 to 2
lMto4
2 to 6
2Hto8
4 to 10
4 to 16
Hydraulic ram, as shown in Fig. 96, is used to raise water
from a stream to storage tank. The ram is a combined pump
and motor. The ram is set down at a point that will allow the
drain pipe, C, to rise about 3 ft. Water rushing down the
drain pip6, C, is suddenly stopped by the closing of check valve
A, The water will flow through valve B into the air chamber
E. The rebound caused by the sudden closing of valve A, and
the compressibility of air in chamber Ej will cause valve B to
104
^
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
close and valve A to open. This cycle is continuous as long
as water flows down the drain pipe C
i
sa^^
Fig. 96.
Table 33. — Hydraulic Ram Discharge
Diam-
eter of
drive
pipe
Gallons
per min-
ute, flow
of stream
Fall of power,
water in feet
Mini-
mum
Maxi-
mum
Diam-
eter of
dis-
charge
pipe
Will
elevate
for
each
foot
of fall
Limit
of
dis-
charge
net,
in feet
Weight
>4
1
2
3
4
6
>ito2
3
40
H
30
300
2to4
3
40
^
35
400
Stoll
3
40
M
35
400
8 to 18
3
40
1
35
400
10 to 25
2
40
1
35
400.
20 to 40
2
40
U^
35
400
35 to 75
W^
40
2
30
300
100 to 200
U1»
30
3
35
300
35
50
1^
292
400
500
779
1.600
Right and left couplings are made tight in the following
manner. A right-hand thread is cut on one piece of the pipe
that is to be joined, and a left-hand thread on the other. The
coupling is screwed up tight on the right thread; it is then taken
off, and the required number of turns are counted. The
coupling is then screwed up on the left thread, and necessary
turns counted when it is taken off. If the required turns on the
left thread were 6 and on the right thread were 4J^, then to
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION 105
make the coupling tight, the left thread must be started first
with IJ^ turns; then 4J^ more turns will make both threads
tight.
Water Hammer. — The sudden closing of a valve, or faucet
causes the flowing water to rebound against the sides of pipe
and valve. This rebound produces a severe impulse, that is
heard throughout the entire piping system. A loose or soft
packing may produce a similar rebound of water, but in this
case it is a series of shocks, and sounds like a severe rattling
of pipes. This noise is called water hammer. Water in the
pipes will not absorb this hammering, as water is incompressible.
An air chamber placed near quick closing valves will stop all
water hammer. The air in chamber will compress with each
shock of water hammer, absorbing the strain that would
otherwise exert itself against the sides of pipe.
Self closing faucets should never be installed without an air
chamber attached to supply.
The pressure resulting from water hammer is estimated by
experiment, to be three times that of the initial pressure.
When a system is provided with air chambers, the pressure due
to water hammer, does not exceed twice the initial pressure
(see "Hydraulic Ram")*
Storm and Sanitary Drains.^Drawings 97, 98, 99, 100, 101
and 102 illustrate six methods of, connecting storm and sanitary
drains. Figure 97 shows the two back leaders entering the
house drain, and the two front leaders entering the house sewer.
Storm waters will clean, and flush the sanitary drains, when this
connection is iused. '
In a community where a sewage disposal plant is used, the
storm waters should not discharge into the sanitary drains.
In Fig. OS the- two back leaders enter the house sewer, but
run inside of building. The two front leaders enter the house
sewer and run outside of building.
In Fig. 99 all leaders extend inside of building, one trap is
\ised for illl four. Connection is made with house sewer. In
Fig. 100 all leaders run outside of building, and connect with
house sewer,
A sump is used in Fig. 101; all sewage and a little storm watei'
enters sump, from where it is pumped up to sufficient height so
that it will flow by gravity to main sewer.
When one building is set in the rear of another -building, "&
connection similar to the one shown- in -Fig.- 102- is made.- 'Tkb
106
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
drain for rear house is properly dropped and then extended
through front building and connected with the house sewer.
Principle of hot-water circulation in a domestic hot-water
storage tank is shown in Fig. 103. The small cut (Fig. 107)
illustrates a glass tube filled with water. Heat is applied on one
ry'K^
Fig. 97.
Fig. 98.
Fig. 99.
Fig. 100.
Fig. 101.
Fig. 102.
side A. The water in A rises, and in B it drops, causing thereby
a circulation which continues as long as heat is applied at A.
Domestic hot-water piping systems are arranged on this princi-
ple of circulation, as will be noted in Fig. 103. Over this sketch
of a storage tank and heater, has been placed Qight lines) the
glass tube and heat, and the circulation is clearly shown.
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
107
Fixture connecHon must be
Hakeh from this Pipe
•ii
Al
L.
£ i ~
II r
B
\
Gbss Tube arid
Flpme showing
Circulation
Tarfi
O'rculaHon F/'pe -^
Fig. 103.
M
Tank
r-T,
.•t==
5mk
n
ii
il
i!
^
I
ll
II
II
II
II
II
ll
II
V
'I
I
II
'Shuf-off
t
Vkrher Sack
E^
OraW'Off
Haf
^r^
•Cold Suppi^
Fia. 104.
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
109
1^en water is not being drawn and heater is operating, a cir-
culation will be created through the storage tank as shown by-
arrows. There will also be a circulation through pipe C and the
circulation pipe, provided a fixture connection is taken from
pipe C to carry oflp the occasional accumulation of air.
Figures 104, 105, 106, 107, and 108 show various methods of
connecting storage tank with heaters.
Co/cf
Gas
W7fer
Heaier
Laundrjj
lank Heater,
\
I
Hase Connection
y'Dmw-off
FiQ. 107.
Water backs are installed in kitchen ranges and are made of
cast iron. About 110 sq. in. are exposed to the fire, which will
heat about 118 gal. of water per hour. The amoupt of water
heated can easily be figured.
One square foot of cast iron will transmit 1.55 heat units per
degree per hour; there are 110 sq. in. in water back. Then there
will be transmitted 1.18 B.t.u. per 110 sq. in., per degree per hour.
1 B.t.u. raises 1 lb. water 1® per hour.
1.18 B.t.u. will raise 1.18 lb. water 1° per hour.
110 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
W»tor ia EeneTaUy raised ftom 35 lo ISST. The ni
GalloDH heated -
K difference in temperBture
Oallons heated — -
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
111
The efficiency of the ordinary heater is not over SO per cent,
when conuderfttion is given to the ash that is generally against
the water back, poor firing, etc. Consequently, the above
water back would be rated to heat only 118 gal. per houi, or
about 35 gal. every 20 min.
Hydbostatic Table
1 CuUc toot of wftMr minlu 02.6 lb.
I Cubic inoh ol wmter wdahi 0.03S17 lb.
A eoliunD of VBtcr 1 ia. ■Qiur«, 1 ft. high wsiAha 0.434 Ib-
I Cable iDoh of water equali 0.00SS17 iil.
I aiUaa of nter equal S,33S lb.
1 OtHoa of water aqiula 231 cu. in.
1 Cubis toot of wster equala 7.47 sal.
1 Pound of water equalg 27.7 cu. in.
The eipaniion of water from 32°F. (fTseiini) to 212° (bmlini) it 1 0^
in sBoh 23 of spproiimately Hi per cent. In figurine uxwU of water ita
bulk or quantity ia oonaidBred. In deUrminina jrreuun. th* bdabt ot ita
column ia flcured, 0.434 lb. for each loot of heiiht.
r
HangefB should be placed not more than 10 ft. apart when
supportJQg wroughUron pipe, every 5 ft. and at each joint when
aupporting cast>-iron pipe. Lead pipe should be supported its
entire length.
A chalk line should be used to provide a atrsight line for
hangers.
Figures 109, 110, and HI show methods ot supporting pipe
from brick and concrete walla. Figure 112 shows method of
hanging one or more from ceiling.
Figure 113 ahows the use of an iron beam clamp and band-
iron hanger used on structural steel. Figure 114 shows a lag
screw fitted to split hanger for use on wooden joist. Figures
112 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Galv nffing
joool
FiQ. lis. Fio, 116. Pio. 117.
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
113
115, 116, and 117 show use of spike hook, pipe strap, and wire
hanger. Figures 118 and 119 show use of toggle bolt and
method of securing hangers and supports to terra-cotta.
Fig. 118.
I
I
t^
y-K
4^7erra-
v:.
■^y->:^;fijr
, ■ ' * * ' * - ■
y/;^<^'
^'^^>^.9*::*
Nut and
)f/a&her
-^
«^=Ljtiii.£^.>.
»r
\
Fig. 119.
PIPING SYSTEM
A plumbing system with names and location of pipes in
relation to other pipes is shown in Fig. 91.
The house sewer extends from the street sewer to foundation
wall of building. The material of pipe can be extra heavy cast
iron or terra-cotta. The depth of this pipe determines the
depth of the house drain. It should be laid with a fall of
about J^ in. per foot.
The house trap, main trap, intercepting trap (names used
synonymously) intercepts the house drain and house sewer.
It should be set level, have a deep seal, and have two cleanout
holes. The size of trap should be one size larger than the
house drain. Material is cast iron or terra-cotta.
The house drain extends from the intercepting trap under
building and receives the discharge from all stacks. The
material of this pipe is extra heavy cast iron, or terra-cotta
when imder ground. Galvanized wrought iron can be used
when above ground. Cleanouts should be placed at every
change in direction of drain, and at least every 30 ft. -For
size of this drain see page 72.
The fresh-air inlet (see detail connection, Fig. 120), as shown
in Fig. 94, is placed on all plumbing systems where a main or
8
114
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
house trap is used. The function of the fresh-air inlet is to
provide fresh air to the plumbing system of pipes at its lowest
point. The fresh-air inlet should connect directly with the
house side of main trap or within 1 ft. of same; it should then
extend to the outer air as far away from nearest window or
house opening as the building site or building design will allow.
The opening of outlet Which is located outside of building
ftrkshttf
^ FmuhFft
=5=»5=5i
Aufomaf-i'c
Fresh Air Cap
TOHOUiB
i
FiQ. 120.
should be sufficiently high above the ground level to avoid being
stopped with leaves, rubbish or snow. On account of the snow
in cold climates, the level of outlet would have to be higher
above ground than in warmer chmates. When street sewers
are well laid out and ventilated, the main house trap and fresh-
air inlet may be done away with. When this system is adopted,
plumbing systems should receive an inspection and test peri-
odically at least every 6 years.
The soil pipe receives the discharge from water closets, and
for one water closet can be 3 in. in diameter (where ordinance
does not require 4 in. as smallest size). Material for soil pipe
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
115
can be cast iron, lead, or wrought iron. Thid pipe connects
with the house drain and terminates in the ventilation pipe.
The ventilation pipe extends from the top fixture up through
and 2 ft. above the roof. It is never used as a waste pipe.
The waste pipe is any pipe that receives the discharge from
any fixture other than a water closet. It connects with house
drain and terminates in the ventilation pipe, and is never used
as a ventilation pipe.
A vent pipe extends from the sewer side of a trap, near the
waste pipe, to the ventilation pipe. It is never used as a waste
pipe.
METERS
Registers are furnished on all sizes and types, circular or
straight reading, indicating in gallons, cubic feet, liters, or any
rcfKi
50«naxfmum
M[v«r»MrMin.
A
Inchts
B
Inches
C
Miches
0
1nch«»
K
Inches
Vlfeigihf Pounds
Cubic
Gallons
Net
Soxed
1
3V3
8%
65
9
10^
878
5
8^
1^
Z
z%
9b
21
13
Fig. 121.
other unit. It is economical to select the unit upon which the
charge for water is based. The gallon is the proper unit if
the rates are based on a certain charge per 1,000 gal.; the cubic
foot if upon a certain charge per 100 cu. ft. The ease in read-
ing the straight-reading register appeals to the popular mind,
116
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
but experienced metfer readers prefer the circular register.
Mechanically, the circular register with its simple train of gears
in constant mesh, is superior to the straight reader, with its
mutilated gears in intermittent mesh; in actual service, there
is little difference. Mistakes in reading are more frequent with
the latter type, since partly discolored or dirty figures cannot
be identified as on the circular register by the location of the
register hand. Figure 121 gives exact measurements which
are necessary to have, on large work, before installing pipe.
MOLE
SKt N
1
! /
1
1
_j
t^
"1
I I X_J
r
. t 1
I 5 I
r-' — I
I I
L.-I U I
JOINT WIPING
Solder used for wiping joints is commonly of 60 per cent lead
and 40 per cent tin; this solder melts at 400^F. This solder is
very easily spoiled by foreign matters getting into it. The
following precautions should be taken:
1. Do not drop molten solder on floor or dirty bench and then
put it back into the pot.
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
117
2. Solder should never be heated red hot.
3. Avoid getting lead chips into solder.
4. Clean dross from solder occasionally.
5. Learn to distinguish solder from lead by the solder's hardness.
6. Have different shaped pots for solder and lead.
7. Brass should not be tinned by dipping into a pot of molten
solder.
8. Do not put cold ladle into molten solder.
1
1
-
/
2
3
1
1
I
1
1
1
— — — —
1
1
1 —
r"
1 l_
1 — ^
1 ,
1
r — •
1
1
1 1
1
4
1
1
1-^
1 1
1 1
1 h--
! 1
6
1
1
1
1
1
— ,
1
1
1
L_±_J
1 1 1
1 1
1 J 1
1 "*
1
1 1
■ .
1
1
1
l-~
1
1
— ^
1
1
] 1
1 i
1 1
V-\
1 1
L_J
7
1
1
L_.
■
Fig.
123.
To recognize good wiping solder, * pour onto an ordinary red
brick, a piece of solder about the size of a half dollar. When
cool turn this piece over. There should be five or six bright
spots around the outer edge on the under side. If these spots
do not appear, more tin^hould be added. K the entire under
surface is bright, more lead should be added. Wiping cloths
are made of herring bone ticking or moleskin.
The imfolded piece of cloth should be folded as showi^ in
Figs. 122 and 123, making 16 thicknesses of ticking. The
1 See Plumbers' Solder, page 327.
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
GENERAL PLUMBING SECTION
119
^sfe ab&i^eancf Shave
fMow fhis^ tine
*/^jj?j/??^j?^j^/jj^/j
^
Q221ZL
>y>x>x»»^y/>>/yyy/y>>
\
U/////^/////i///^////f//////?//??//////jjyjj>jjj^j,>?/,????j?,,jj?„„??^
FlQ. 127.
4 1
Joint-
WipectJoint.
■WipecfJomf-
Fig. 128.
120
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
moleskin cloth is folded to make only eight thicknesses.
Every fold should be well pressed with a hot iron. The last
fold should be sewed together at the comers.
Table 33 A. — Size op Wiping Cloth Made op Ticking
Size of finished cloth
Size of unfolded
ticking, inches
Moleskin,
inches
Wiping edge
Length
1^^
3
6 by 12
6by6
IH
3
7 by 12
7 by 6
2
2
8by8
aby4
2
3
8 by 12
8by6
2M
3
9byl2
9by5
2M
2M
10 by 10
10 by 5
2}i
3
10 by 12
10 by 6
3
3
12by12
12by6
3
3^4
12 by 14
12 by 7
3H
3^
13 by 13
13by6H
3>^
3
14 by 12
14 by 6
^^i
3^^
14byl4
14 by 7
A
4
16 by 16
16 by 8
To break in a ticking wiping cloth, a little oil, about 4 drops,
is put on the wiping surface. The actual wiping of joints re-
quires the use of one or two cloths. The pipe that is to be
wiped should be prepared as shown in Figs. 124, 125, 126,
127, and 128.
SECTION 5
FITTINGS
All fittings are known by the size of pipe onto which they fit.
A ?i-in. pipe takes a ?i-in. fitting. The inside bore of pipe
measures ^ in., while the inside bore of a ^^-in. fitting measures
about 1 in. When ordering a T- or Y-fitting, the size of run
must be read first, then the branch thus:
K_L_?i which reads M X M X Ji T.
Fittings for gas, water, waste, etc., are made slightly different,
and imder the following listing will be found the correct fitting
to use for each kind of work. Fittings with threads on the
outside are known as male fittings. Those with threads on the
inside are known as female fittings. The following cross-sec-
*
tions show difference of the bore in various fittings.
Water Piping Fittings. — Water piping should have fittings
corresponding in material with the material of pipe. Brass
fittings for brass-pipe work on water lines are made in the
following patterns:
1. Brass steam pattern, iron pipe size, plain or tin finish.
2. Standard brass fittings, 125-lb. working pressure, J^ to
Sin.
3. Heavy brass-malleable fittings, 150-lb. working pressure,
M to 6 in.
4. Extra heavy steam pattern, 250-lb. working pressure,
with rough, tinned, or polish finish.
For brass water piping in large buildings, the brass steam
pattern fitting should be used. Brass fittings, steam pattern
tinned lined, are uied for drinking-wate-r systems. For ordi-
nary water piping, use brass-malleable pattern. Brass fittings
are purchased by the piece in small quantities, and by the
pound in large quantities.
When making up brass fittings on pipe, regardless of the
finish, wrenches should be used that will leave no mark and
that will not roughen the surface. Generally, to make up a
fitting, a piece of pipe is screwed by hand ihto the branch outlet,
121
122
PLUMBERS* HANDBOOK
and by use of this leverage, the fittmg can be made tight
without a wrench. Wrench marks are inexcusable and indicate
poor workmanship. For brass work a strap wrench should be
used; also a strap vise. Brass fittings stretch and should,
therefore, not be made up tight except once.
Malleable-iron fittings of standard weight are made in both
flat and round bead, and are used on work requiring 150-lb.
pressure. These fittings are purchased by the pound and
generally in barrel lots. The number of fittings in a barrel is
given in Table 31. Extra heavy malleable-iron fittings are
made for use when pressures are greater than 150 lb. and not
over 250 lb.
For gas piping, galvanized malleabl6-iron fittings are used,
of the plain type without band. Plain back fittings, IJ^ in.
and larger, are used (see section on "Gas and Gas Fitting").
Drainage fittings are made of cast iron and are tapped to fit
wrought-iron pipe threads. (For complete list with measure-
ments see Table 35.) Drainage fit-
tings are made with an interior
shoulder and with the same inside
capacity as the inside diameter of
the pipe (see Fig. 129), thereby
securing an unobstructed interior.
Owing to this shoulder, the fittings
are tapped the required number of threads to make the pipe
screw in tight against the shoulder, and make a continuous
sized passage. Unless otherwise ordered, the fittings will be
furnished black. All 90-deg. fittings are tapped to give pipe a
FiQ. 129.
Table 30. — Weight op Lead and Oakum for Caulked
Joints
Size of pipe, inches
Pounds of lead
Feet of oakum
2
U^
3
3
2M
4>4
4
3
5
5
3M
6V4
6
4V6
7>i
7
5M
M
8
6
9}i
10
7^
12
FITTINGS
123
grade of Ji in. to the foot. It is very necessary in laying out
screw-pipe drainage work to be very accurate, especially on
steel structures; therefore, the following measurements will
be found of great value. The cleanouts necessary in some of
these fittings should be fitted with brass plugs.
Cast-iron soU-pipe fittings are made in two weights, stand-
ard and extra heavy. Extra heavy weight should be used for
drainage work. The fittings come in sizes 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10,
12, and 15 in. All fittings used are made in sizes from 2 to 6 in.
inclusive. Above 6 in. only the most common fittings used are
made. Any sized fitting can be had upon special order. Fit-
f^furn 69n«f
Fio. 130.
tings are made with a hub on one end and straight on the other.
For special work, hubs can be had on both ends, and in the case
of T*s the hubs generally come on two ends, but they can be
had with hubs on three ends. To determine the right- or
left-hand inlet or outlet in fittings, place the fitting with the
bell of the hub end pointing towards you and with the spigot
end pointing down. In the case of traps, place in regular
position with the hub end nearest you. When caulking oakum
and lead in the joint of fittings, care must be taken not to strike
too heavy a blow, or the fitting will crack.
124
PLUMBERS* HANDBOOK
Bends for this type of work have special names. What is
known as an ''ell'' in malleable fittings and as a ''90-deg.
fitting'' in drainage work, is called a quarter bend in soil-pipe
work. The circle shown in Fig. 130 gives the various degrees
which each bend represents. Figure 131 shows various kinds
of fittings made of cast iron with bell and spigot end. Table
30 gives the amount of lead and oakum required for caulked
joints.
American Standard Sprinkler Fittings. — These fittings are
made of best quality cast iron. For sizes smaller than 2 in.,
the standard cast-iron steam fitting is used. In sizes from 2J^
x^ ^ ^ ^
9
Quarter Bend FIffhBend Sixth Bend D^+Berwl Sixteenth Bend
^
Double Hub
Quorter &end
Double Hub
Eight Bend
Double Hut>
Sixteenth Send
Double
Quarfer Bend
^ x^ x5. ^
QuonierBend
with Side Inlet
Quarter Bend
with High Heel
Quarter Bend
Low Heel
<a ^
•Y' Branch
"Y'Branch
with Side Outlet
■Y'Branch
with Side Outtef
Trap Screw
Fig. 13*1.
Sanitar^y^ Sanitari) T
Branch Left Hand
Side Inlet
Cross Sanitary Cro»s
to 6 in., specially designed fittings are required. Cast-iron
steam fittings are used for steam and hot-water heating.
Sizes and combinations in which they are made are listed below.
Measurements of these fittings are required when close work is
necessary in largensized pipe.
Railing fittings are malleable iron, galvanized or black.
Brass is also used to make these fittings. These fittings are
FITTINGS 125
tapped with B risht-hand thread unless otherwise ordered.
Stock aiaea of these fittings ate H, %, 1, \}4,\\4, 2, 2]4, and
3 in. Figure 132 shows angles and shapes of these fittJi^.
When erecting a railing, care should be taken to have dies set
correctly so that even and atraight threads will be cut on the
pipe. All threads should be screwed into fitting; therefore, a
short, deep thread will have to be cut. These fittings are also
made adjustable to aooommodate any ai^le encount«red.
Pio. 132.
When ordering reducmg railing fittings, a detailed sketch should
be made showing which openings are to be reduced, and which
threads are to be left.
Union Connections. — There are three kinds of fittings used
to join two pieces of pipe which are in such a position that they
cannot be turned. These fittings are called unions, flanges,
and right and left couplings.
A union is made in three pieces; two of the pieces fit one,
each end of the pipe to be joined, while the third piece is a
126 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
collar which draws the other two pieces together and makes
a water-tight joint with a packing or by means of a ground
joint between the two pieces. F^re 133 shows a ground
Right and left couplings (see Fig. 134) are similar to ordinary
couplings, except that only one thread ia right, the one on the
opposite end being left. Thia connection requires that one
piece of pipe that is to be joined must have a left thread.
These fittings are distinguished by the heavy ribs built length-
wise upon the fitting.
A pair of flanges (see P^g. 135) is necessary to join two pieces
of pipe; one flange is screwed upon the end of each pipe, and
the flanges are drawn together by the use of at least four bolts.
Packing is used between the flanges to make water-tight joints.
These fittings are seldom used on water pipe, but are used to
considerable extent on steam lines and hot-water heating
lines. Flanges are made of cast iron, or malleable iron, for
working pressures up to 125 lb. Above thia pressure, extra
heavy flanges should be used, and if the pipe is a steam line
with joints peaned, then the flange should be cast steel.
Union connections should be made between every pipe and
equipment it connects; also on the house side (not pressure
side) of every valve. They should be placed occasionally in
long runs of pipe, and always in convenient places. Long
screws are used sometimes to make connection between pipes,
but it depends for tightness upon a packing which is not strong
enough for water or waste line; therefore it can only be used on
vent lines, and should be ruled against there.
FITTINGS
127
Table 34. — ^Approximatb Number and Weight op
Standard Screwed Fittings Contained in
One Barrel
CaSBt^iron elbows
Cast-iron 45-<leg.
elbows
Cast-iron T's
Sise.
in.
Pieces
in
Ibbl.
Net
weight
of Ibbl.
Sise.
in.
Pieces
in
Ibbl.
Net
weight
of Ibbl.
Sise.
in.
Pieces
in
1 bbl.
Net
weight
of 1 bbl.
m
2V4
3
3H
5.100
3.500
2.000
1.150
650
375
275
160
95
55
40
35
850
840
839
729
669
589
564
519
519
469
390
447
H
vl
1
2H
3
4
• • • • •
1.400
750
450
350
190
105
60
45
• ■ ■
• • •
• ■ •
• • •
754
714
611 .
589
570
519
464
404
• • •
M
1
1H
m
2H
3
1.265
750
425
250
200
125
65
35
30
25
724
669
619
529
530
519
466
364
375
404
Malleable iron
elbows, bd.
Malleable iron 45-deg.
elbows, bd.
Malleable iron st.
elbows, bd.
Sise,
in.
Pieces
in
Ibbl.
Net
weight
of Ibbl.
Sise.
in.
Pieces
in
Ibbl.
Net
weight
of Ibbl.
Sise,
in.
Pieces
in
Ibbl.
Net
weight
of Ibbl.
H
\l
.'*
Hi
\H
2
2H
3
3H
4
5,565
3.615
2.250
1.350
742
420
282
175
87
54
32
34
679
629
600
574
475
454
394
479
343
319
259
377
,s
2
4
5.607
4.380
2.500
1.565
983
541
356
225
118
62
32
729
679
619
579
485
519
416
400
379
354
• • •
281
1
5H
• • • • •
3.760
2.300
1.160
718
423
266
151
76
44
> ■ . • •
• • •
609
634
559
509
474
429
374
349
319
• • •
• • •
Malleable iron T*s
Malleable iron unions
Sise.
in.
Pieces in
Ibbl.
Net weight
of 1 bbi.
Sise,
in.
Pieces in
Ibbl.
Net weight
of 1 bbl.
1
m
3.900
2.543
1.453
917
496
340
219
116
57
33
624
534
494
500
400
424
350
344
320
300
1.500
900
625
375
285
160
90
60
668
566
540
523
458
452
397
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Table 36. — Complete List with Measurements op Cast-
iron Drainage Fittings (ConHniied)
CAST-IRON DRAINAGB FITTINGS
Uff •Mtrn
MISNT IMilT*
IIWNVIMICV
Closet T with inlets on both Closet T with inlets on both
sides. sides and top.
Long-turn 90deg. Y branches with auxiliary inlets
(Closet T's)
3 in., 4 in., 5X4 in., 6X4 in., with
2-in. inlet on right side only, black
2-in. inlet on right side only, galvanised
2-in. inlet on left side only, black
2-in. inlet on left side only, galvanised
2-in. inlet on both sides, black
2-in. inlet on both sides, galvanised
2-in. inlet on right side and 2-in. top inlet, black
2-in. inlet on right side and 2-in. top inlet, galvanised
2-in. inlet on left side and 2-in. top inlet, black
2-in. inlet on left side and 2-in. top inlet, galvanised
2-in. inlet on both sides and 2-in. top inlet, black
2-in. inlet on both sides and 2-in. top inlet, galvanised
For dimensions of above fittings see dimensions of 90-deg. long turn Y
branches, T pattern.
The 90-deg. inlets on closet T's are tapped graded H-in. to the foot unless
otherwise ordered.
152
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SECTION 6
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
INTRODUCTION
This article includes a brief summary of practical information
and data relating to pipe. Much has been done to standardize
and improve pipe material during recent years. When steel
pipe was first introduced, about 30 years ago, considerable
difficulty was found in threading, which has been practically
eliminated by cooperation on the part of die manufacturers
and by standardization of the quality of the steel. Not so
very long ago a light weight steel pipe was generally sold under
the name of "Merchant Weight." This has been eliminated
so that all pipe is now made to the standards given in the tables
which follow.
On the matter of threading, it would probably pay master
plumbers having considerable business, to study the section of
this article on this subject, and install a small electric-driven
grinding outfit to enable them to keep their dies in reasonably
good shape. The average plumber is, rather careless of his
cutting tools. A little thought will soon prove the economic
loss which results from this lack of attention.
The influence of various factors on the durability of pipe is a
matter about which the plumber should be informed, as he is
frequently asked to explain these troubles and to recommend a
remedy. It is only during the last few years that the true cause
of the interior corrosion of water pipes has been understood.
The reader should try to forget his preconceived ideas and
prejudices (most men who do things have some), so as to benefit
as much as possible from the facts which have been established
relating to this important subject.
The production of wrought iron and steel pipe alone now
exceeds 2,500,000 tons per annum (over 90 per cent of which is
steel), so this is now a very important branch of the iron and
steel industry, and in consequence receives much more attention
on the part of manufacturers than heretofore.
168
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES 169
WROUGHT mON AND STEEL PIPE
For nearly 100 years pipe has been made by welding the
edges of a rolled strip of wrought iron together, either by lapping
the edges over (known as lap-welding), or by butting the edges
and welding at the same time (known as hutt-wdding).
For some time the only metal available for welding was
wrought iron made from pig iron in puddling furnaces. By
this operation, the impurities (carbon, silicon, manganese, and
some of the sulphur) are oxidized and removed in the slag,
while the iron remains in the form of globules intermixed with
the slag. The operator gathers this pasty mass of slag and iron
into a ball weighing about 250 lb., which is squeezed and rolled
into bars about 1 in. thick. These bars are repiled, brought to
a welding heat, and rolled into a strip of the right thickness and
width known as skelp. Wrought iron so made carries about 2
per cent of cinder in the form of strings or narrow strips irregu-
larly scattered through the mass of iron. It is impossible to
make wrought iron without a considerable amount of this
cinder. Various benefits are claimed from the presence of
cinder in iron. A certain fibrous appearance, found when iron
is nicked and broken, is due to this cinder; but as Professor
Sauveur, of Harvard University, an authority on the structure
of metals points out, "the ferrite of which wrought iron is
composed does not assume a fibrous structure, the slag alone
being drawn into fibers. Wrought iron, therefore, should not
be described as fibrous; for aside from the presence of slag, it is
as distinctly crystalline as steel." Wrought iron has been
cheapened in manufacture by the introduction of mechanical
puddling machines and by the use of steel scrap.
In the manufacture of steel the pig iron is kept in a molten
condition and the impurities oxidized at a high temperature so
that the iron when separated from these foreign materials is
still in the molten condition. Iron so made is known as steel;
although when made for welded pipe, it is much purer than
wrought iron. The following are typical analyses of these
materials :
Wrought Pipe
Iron Steel
Carbon, under .06 .07
Manganese, under .15 .33
Phosphorous .18 .10
Sulphur .02 .05
Slag and oxides 2.20 .15
Iron, about 96.4 99.30
170 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Relative Corrosion of Pipe. — Much has been written and
many opinions expressed on this question, the authors being
equally positive in coming to opposite conclusions. This
variance in opinion is probably based on a one-sided view,
and can be easily accounted for if the reader will take into
consideration the true cause of corrosion of water pipes and
the large part which factors such as temperature, volume of
flow, and the quality of the water, play in this action on
pipe. To get a comparison, it is evidently most important
that both kinds of pipe be compared under the same conditions
of service, and in order to comply with such requirements
strictly, it is obviously preferable to have the two materials
in the same line so that the rate of flow, water, and tempera-
ture have the same influence on both materials. Fortunately
we now have such comparisons made by well-known inde-
pendent engineers. A few of these are listed below, all being
direct comparisons on hot water supply lines.
(A) Tests made by Pittsburgh Testing Laboratory, in
Pittsburgh; 1916, 1918, 1919; Jour, A. S. H, & V. Engra.y page 97,
January, 1920; page 276, March, 1920; Tr. A, S. H, & V. Engrs.,
1917, page 132.
(B) New York City Tests; 1917; Reported Jan.-March, 1917,
(C) Brown University Tests; 1918; Reported June 7, 1918.
(D) Harvard University Tests; 1919; Jour. New England
Water Works Asan.j March, 1920, page 43.
These and several other tests are summarized in detail in
Table below.
In all these tests the conclusions reached were that no
practical difference in durability could be seen between the
wrought iron and steel.
The harmony of these conclusions could not be closer, and as
they agree with previous observations by other equally reputa-
ble observers, it is evident that whatever the relative durability
of wrought iron and steel may have been 20 years ago, there
seems to be no ground for discrimination against steel made by
experienced and reputable manufacturers today. Some manu-
facturers, who formerly made wrought iron, have spent much
time and money in practical research work toward improving
their product and towards a true understanding of the control
of corrosion, apparently with success. A brief account of what
has been learned regarding the cause and prevention of corro-
sion of pipe during the past 15 years will be given, and will,
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES 171
we believe, be found of considerable practical interest. The
plumber who clearly understands the principles underlying
this important subject will be in a position to render his
customers better service and thus elevate his reputation and
advance his business.
CAUSE AND PREVENTION OF CORROSION^
Rust is recognized as hydrated oxide of iron. The source of
the oxygen required to form rust is the atmosphere, which
contains about 21 per cent by volume of this gas. Oxygen
does not attack iron directly but through solution in water in
which this gas is sUghtly soluble. Iron, like nearly everything
in nature, is slightly soluble in water, but if the water carries no
dissolved oxygen, the solution of iron soon stops and no further
damage is done. Evidence of this is seen in hoU-wder heating
lines in which little corrosion is found provided the water is
not changed. All natural waters are saturated with oxygen by
contact with the atmosphere, and in flowing through pipes this
oxygen combines with the iron. The iron which the water has
taken up as above described forms hydrated oxide of iron, or
rust. This opens the way for more iron to enter into solution,
and consequently rusting continues until all the dissolved oxygen
is used up. As a rule when this occurs no further rusting is
possible.
For example, in hot-water supply lines, the new water coming
in through the heater brings into the system more dissolved
oxygen, which is used up at the expense of the material of the
heater and piping. It is not surprising under these conditions
that the life of the heater and pipe is often only a few years
whereas the same pipe used in hot- water heating plants will last
indefinitely if the water is not changed.
Temperature is another important factor. The difference
between the life of hot- and cold-water lines is well known and
has been observed to be about three to one in favor of the cold-
water pipes. Therefore, cold-water lines should not touch, nor
be placed very near, hot-water lines. Recently some measure-
ments of corrosion at various temperatures were made with all
factors constant which indicate that at 135°F. pipe lasts twice
as long as when the water is heated to 180°F., and the same is
probably true of the heaters. The quality of the water is
^ See section on "Corrosion of Iron and Steel," page 300.
172
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table 35^4. — Summary of Results op Investigations
IN Hot Water
Date
Where test was made
Length of time
pipe lines
were installed
Authority and references
1919
Irene Kaufmann Settle-
ment, Pittsburgh, Fa.
2 yrs., 7 days
1919
Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass.
1919
Irene Kaufmann Settle-
ment (2d Test), Pitts-
burgh, Pa.
1918
Brown University,
Providence, R. I.
3 yrs.
I yr., 2 mos.
1 1 moB.
Jas. O. Handy, Technical
Director, Pittsburgh
Testing Laboratory,
Report made to Resi-
dent Director Teller,'
Jan. 22, 1920; p. 97,
Jan., 1920, A. S. H. & V.
Engrs.; p. 276, Mar.,
1920, A.S.^. & V. Engrs.
Melville C. Whipple Inst.
in San Chem., Harvard
University. Jrn'l New
England Water Wks.
Asso., p. 42, Mar., 1920.
Jas. O. Handy, Technical
Director, Pittsburgh
Testing Laboratory. Re-
port by Pittsburgh Test-
ing Laboratory. April 10,
I9I8, p. 217, 1918 Trans
A.S.H. & V. Engrs.
Wm. F. Kenerson, Pro-
fessor of Mechanical
Engineering, Brown
University. Report
made June 7, 1918.
Bulletin 2 — "Corrosion
of Hot Water Piping."
National Tube Co.
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
173
OP THE Corrosion op Wrought Iron and Steel Pipe
Supply Service
Number of caaes on
record
Average of deepest
pits, inches
Wrought
iron
Steel
Conclusions
Fifteen lengths of
steel, 15 lengths of
wrought iron ar-
ranged alternately.
Two sections each of
scale-free (steel ) ;
galvanised steel,
copper steel and
wrought iron pipe
Six sections each of
steel and wrought
iron pipe.
Two sections each of
black and copper
steel and wrought
iron; one section
each of galvanised
and copper steel,
galvanized.
0.1144
0.073
0.131
0.0674
0.1095
Scale Free
0.045
Copper Steel
0.068
Galvanized
0.078
0.122
Black Steel
0.0544
Copper Steel
0.0639
Galvanized
0.0547
Copper Steel
Gal.
0.0938
"These figures show that
no marked distinction is
possible between the rate
of corrosion of the steel
and the iron pipe."
"Judging from the depths
of pitting and the general
appearance of the inside
ot the pipe, it was evident
that, so far as the condi-
tions , of this particular
experiment with the Cam-
bridge hot water service
were concerned, scale-
free pipe had suffered less
real damage than anv of
the others after three
years' exposure."
" This test and other similar
tests have shown beyond
question that in the
Pittsburgh district
wrought iron and steel
pipes in hot water lines
are rapidly corroded by
Fitting and that the
aminated or fibrous
structure of wrought iron
{>roduced by the included
ayers of slag, does not
give any added durability
to wrought iron, as com-
pared with steel pipe."
"There is evidently no
marked superiority of
either the wrought iron or
steel for the test condi-
tions described.^ . .The
wrought iron failed first
by developing the deepest
pits. The steel develop-
ed a greater number of
shallower ones."
174
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table Z6A. — Summabt op Results op Investigations
IN Hot Water Supplt
liength of time
Date
Where test was made
pipe lines
Authority and references
were installed
1917
This test was conducted
in four different places
as follows:
(A) West 41st St. Bath,
2 3rrs., 9} mos.
James S. Mawegor, In-
structor in Civil Engi-
New York
(B) East 76th St. Bath.
2 3rrs., 5 mos.
neering, Columbia Uni-
New York
versity. Report made
(C) East 109th St. Bath.
2 yrs., 6 mos.
Jan.-March, 1917. Bull-
New York
etin 2 — '* Corrosion of
(D) Cherry and Oliver
2 srrs., 6 mos.
Hot Water Piping."
Sts. Bath, New York
National Tube Co.
1916
Irene Kaufmann Settle-
11 mos.
Jas. 0. Handy, Technical
Director, Pittsburgh
ment, Pittsburgh. Pa.
Testing Laboratory.
Report made December
6, 1916. P. 125. 1917
Trans, of A. S. H. ft V.
Engrs.
1916
Irene Kaufmann Settle-
10 mos.
Jas. 0. Handy, Tech-
ment. Pittsburgh, Pa.
nical Director, Pitts-
burgh Testing Labora-
tory. Report made
October 31, 1916. P.
125, 1917 Trans, of
A.S.H. A V. Engrs.
Note: — Table from paper on "Preventing Corrosion in Iron and Steel
1009. By F. N. Speller.
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
175
OF THB Corrosion op Wrought Iron and Steel Pipe
Service (Continued)
Number of cases on
record
Average of deepest
pits, inches
Wrought
iron
Steel
Conclusions
(A) 3 sections each of
wrought iron and
steel pipe. (B) 4
sections of steel and
two of wrought iron
(C) Same as test B.
(D) One section
each of steel and
copper steel.
Two sections of steel.
one of galvanised
steel and one of
wrought iron pipe
protected by ae-
oxidiser; 2 sections
each of steel and
wrought iron pipe
not so protected.
Seven sections- of
steel and 4 of
wrought iron pipe.
rA)0.057
B)0.075
too. 035
Protected
0.045
Unprotec
0.121
0.116
0.052
0.070
0.035
(D) Steel
0.021
Copper Steel
0.022
by Deoxidieer
(Galvanised)
0.040
(Black)
0.016
ted by Deoxid-
idiser
0.123
0.110
Taking the total averages
of steel (which includes
scale-free and copper
steel, as well as ordinary
black) pdpe as against
those for iron in the four
tests we find the latter to
have pitted deeper by
0.025 in., which indicates
in favor of steel pipe in
these particular tests.
This test had as its chief
aim a study of the protec-
tion of pipe by use of a
deoxidiser, and the author
does not draw direct
conclusions on the com-
parative corrosion of the
iron and the steel pipe.
The^ figures on deptn of
pitting, however, stand in
favor of steel pipe.
The author states that a
certain sample of wrought
iron showed the most
general corrosion, while a
steel section showed the
greatest number of sepa-
rate pits. No direct ref-
erence to comparative
corrosion is made.
Under Water" Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, June 8, 1921. Page
176 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
another controlling factor. Hard water, euch oa that from the
Great Lakes, attacks pipe very slowly while the pure, soft
waters in New England and New York City, tor example, are
very active on pipe of all kinds and give rise to what has been
termed the "Red Water Plague," which appears to be almost
entirely due to the action of the dissolved oxygen in these very
pure waters in promoting rapid corrosion of heaters and piping.
In the case of "hard" waters, there is a sUght precipitation of
Bcale which has a protective effect on the metal.
Corrosion Prevention. — The conclusion reached by investiga-
tions and research on the problem of corrosion at the Research
Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and
by the National Tube Company,' is that corrosion is propor-
tional to the free oxygen in water and is therefore reduced in
direct ratio to the amount of this gas which ia removed from
FiQ. 136. Fio. 137.
Two-inch wrought iron (Byers) pipe. Pitted piece in aervica 2
yesTH — canyiog untreated water. Uiipittcd piece in service in
same building over 3 yoara — carrying deactivated water.
the water. Water containing free oxygen has, therefore, been
termed "active" in distinction to water free from dissolved
oxygen, which is inactive. Water is said to be "deactivated"
by removal of this oxygen. Deactivation may be brought
about by passing the heated water through a large mass of
expanded steel sheets suitably formed and placed in a storage
tank, after which the water should be filtered when used for
domestic purposes. The air may also be driven out by heating
the water nearly to the boihng point and passing over batBes
in a vented tank or with the use of a vacuum. The tempera-
ture may be reduced before use, if desired, by passing through
a heat exchanger by which some of the heat is taken up by the
incoming cold water. Water treated in this way has been used
for several years with hardly any corrosion in the pipes, as
' Thie subject is tieatcd fully in b. psper on "PtbcUcbI nifaoi for preveat-
in« Corrosion" by F. N. SpeUer. Tiani. Am. Else, Chsm. Son., 1631.
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES 177
illustrated in the photograph from a test of this treatment
under working conditions, reproduced below (Fig. 137).
Protective Coatings. — From the above it will be clear that if
water can be kept from contact with the metal of which the
pipe is made, no rusting is possible. For this purpose various
protective coatings have been devised. Only those com-
mercially tried and available for use will be described. More
detail on this subject will be found in the complete report of
the Committee on Service Pipe of the N. E. W. W. Association
(see their Journal of September, 1917).
PROTECTION AGAINST INTERNAL CORROSION
Galvanizing. — The most common method of protection is
hot galvanizing, which may be appUed equally well to wrought
iron or steel. In applying the zinc, the surface of the pipe,
inside and outside, must be cleaned of all foreign matter and
heated. A suitable flux is used, and the pipe is dipped into a
bath of molten zinc. When withdrawn, the surplus zinc is
allowed to drain off, but the pipe should not be wiped
smooth.
The weight of zinc added amounts to about 2 oz. per square
foot. Zinc dissolves in water more readily than iron, and this
affords protection to the iron as long as there are no uncovered
spaces of considerable area. Zinc will protect iron as far as
one-eighth inch from the line of contact between these metals.
Galvanized pipes in hot-water service have been found to last
about twice as long as plain black pipe. Zinc is sometimes
applied by "electroplating" or " Sherardizing " (see "Chemis-
try" section, page 311). Such pipe has not been found
suitable for plumbing purposes, but is much used as electric
conduit.
Lead-lined pipe is sometimes used, the lead being cemented
to the surface of the steel by some suitable alloy. Special
couplings must be used and care taken to see that the joints
are properly protected inside when made up, which is provided
for in the manufacture of the couplings used with this pipe.
Lead-lined pipe, when properly manufactured and installed,
affords most of the durability of lead with the strength of steel
pipe. However if the coating is imperfect or the iron becomes
exposed rapid corrosion must be expected due to galvanic
action between these two metals.
12
178 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Cement-lined pipe has been used extensively for some years
for cold-water service lines in New England. By means of
special appliances which are on the market, a lining of ^ in. of
neat cement may be applied. Several municipalities in New-
England line all their pipe in this way and find it highly satis-
factory. Cement lined pipe is not on the market, as it is more
costly to ship, and the coating is liable to injury in transit; but
for cold-water service where strength and durability are needed
and where the soil conditions are fairly good, this coating is to
be recommended but not for hot water service.
Protection Against Outside Corrosion. — Where soil condi-
tions are bad, the exterior of the pipe may be protected by first
applying to the dry and clean surface a thin priming coat of
coal tar or asphalt paint. This may be made by dissolving
coal tar in benzol. When this coat is dry, but still fresh and
'Hacky/' a thick coat of hot asphalt or coal tar is laid on, and
should adhere to the pipe without difficulty. Where extra
protection is required, the pipe thus coated may be wrapped
spirally with heavy muslin and then given another coat of coal
tar. Pipe should not be laid in cinder. Where cinder is un-
avoidable, the ditch should be filled in with clay for 6 or 8 in.
around the pipe. In very bad locations where the pipe is
liable to be attacked by brackish or acid water, the pipe may be
protected by boxing in and filling for at least 2 in. around the
pipe with well mixed concrete or hot ceal tar pitch, or asphalt.
Corrosion of Pipe Other Than Iron or Steel. — For hot-water
service lines in small installations, especially when it would not
be economical to use other means, brass or copper pipe may be
used, and when properly made, will give better service than
galvanized pipe under these conditions. Nothing but the best
material should be used, as some grades of brass are rapidly
disintegrated by hot water so that the service is not much better
than with galvanized iron. This is due to the zinc being
leached out, leaving a porous copper shell which is easily
broken.
For cold-water lines, a good grade of galvanized-iron or steel
pipe will usually last as long as the building, but it is important,
as said before, to keep these lines away from hot-water or
steam pipe.
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
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PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
183
Table 38. — Standard Weights and Dimensions of Welded
Steel Pipe*
"Standard" pipe
"&xtra strong" pipe
Siie
(nominal
inside
diameter),
inches
Outside
diam-
eter,
inches
Number
of
threads
per
inch
Thick-
ness,
inches
Weight of
pipe per
linear
foot,
threaded
and with
Thick-
ness,
inches
Weight of
pipe per
linear
foot,
plain ends,
couplings,
pounds
pounds
H
.405
27
.068
.25
.095
.31
H
.540
18
.088
.43
.119
.54
H
.675
18
.091
.57
.126
.74
H
.840
14
.109
.85
.147
1.09
H
1.050
14
.113
1.13
.154
1.47
1
1.315
11H
.133
1.68
.179
2.17
IH
1.660
UH
.140
2.28
.191
3.00
m
1.900
im
.145
2.73
.200
3.63
2
2.375
IIW ■
.154
3.68
.218
5.02
2H
2.875
8
.203
5.82
.276
7.66
3
3.500
8
.216
7.62
.300
10.25
3V4
4.
8
.226
9.20
.318
12.51
4
4.500
8
.237
10.89
.337
14.98
4H
5.
8
.247
12.64
.355
17.61
5
5.563
8
.258
14.81
.375
20.78
6
6.625
8
.280
19.19
.432
28.57
7
7.625
8
.301
23.77
.500
38.05
•8
8.625
8
.277
25.
8
8.625
8
.322
28.81
.500
43.39
9
9.625
8
.342
34.19
.500
48.73
•10
10.750
8
.279
32.
•10
10.750
8
.307
35.
10
10.750
8
.365
41.13
.500
54.74
11
11.750
8
.375
46.25
.500
60.08
•12
12.750
8
.330
45.
12
12.750
8
.375
50.71
.500
65.42
* Unless specifically stated on the order the lighter weights will not be
furnished. Weights given in the table are for pipes up to and including 12
in. in nominal inside diameter, with threaded ends and couplings; sises
larger than shown in the table are measured by the outside diameter and
usually have plain ends; for such sizes it will be necessary to accept manu-
facturer's weights or calculate the weights on the basis of 1 cu. in. of iron ot
steel weighing 0.2833 lb.
I Wrought iron weights are 2 per cent lighter.
184
PLUMBERS* HANDBOOK
Table 39. — Seamless, Brass and Copper Tubes
Weight of Regular Iron Pipe Sizes
Diameter, inches
Pounds per foot
Iron pipe,
siie
Outside
Inside
Brass
Copper
H'
.405
.281
.246
.259
H
.540
.375
.437
.459
H
.675
.494
.612
.644
H
.840
.625
.911
.958
H
1.050
.822
1.235
1.298
1
1.315
1.062
1.740
1.829
IH
1.660
1.368
2.557
2.689
m
1.900
1.600
3.037
3.193
2
2.375
2.062
4.017
4.224
2H
2.875
2.500
5.830
6.130
3
3.500
3.062
8.314
8.741
3H
4.
3.500
10.85
11.41
4
4.500
4.
12.29
12.93
4H
5.
4.500
13.74
14.44
5
5.563
5.062
15.40
16.19
6
6.625
6.125
18.44
19.39
7
7.625
7.062
23.92
25.15
8
8.625
8.
30.05
31.60
9
9.625
8.937
36.94
38.84
10
10.750
10.019
43.91
46.17
From American Brass Company "Price Lists and Tables of Weights for
Seamless, Brass and Copper Tubes," issued Feb. 1, 1919.
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
185
Table 40. — Seamless, Brass and Copper Tubes
Weight of Extra Heavy Iron Pipe Sizes
Diameter, inches
Pounds per foot
Iron pipe,'
size
Outside
Inside
Brass
Copper
H
.405
.205
.353
.371
M
.540
.294
.593
.624
H
.675
.421
.805
.847
H
.840
.542
1.191
1.253
H
1.050
.736
1.622
1.706
1
1.315
.951
2.386
2.509
IH
1.660
1.272
3.291
3.460
m
1.900
1.494
3.986
4.191
2.375
1.933
5.508
5.791
2}i
2.875
2.315
8.407
8.839
3.500
2.892
11.24
11.82
3V^
4.
3.358
13.66
14.37
4.500
3.818
16.41
17.25
4H
5.
4.250
20.07
21.10
5.563
4.813
22.51
23.67
6.625
5750
31.32
32.93
7.625
6.625
41.22
43.34
8
8.625
7.625
47.
49.42
From American Brass Company "Price Lists and Tables of Weights for
Seamless, Brass and Copper Tubes," issued Feb. 1, 1919.
Table 41. — Seamless, Brass and Copper Tubes
Weight of Plumbers' Sizes
Diameter, inches
Pounds
per foot
Size,
outside
diameter
Outside
Insidp
Brass
Copper
H
.654
.521
.452
.475
H
.768
.631
.554
.583
%
.875
.728
.682
.717
1
1.
.836
.871
.916
\H
1.245
1.060
1.233
1.297
\H
1.508
1.311
1.606
1.689
m
1.756
1.564
1.844
1.939
2
2.007
1.815
2.123
2.232
From American Brass Company "Price Lists and Tables of Weights for
Seamless, Brass and Copper Tubes," issued Feb. 1, 1919.
186
PLUMBERS^ HANDBOOK
A
<
m
o
OD
o
M
o
o
60
d
o
31b.
3 lb. 8 oz.
41b.
5 lb. 8 oz.
61b. 12 oz.
91b.
10 lb.
!
lb8oi
31b.
31b.8oz.
41b. 12 oz.
61b.
7 lb. 8 oz.
91b.
1
1^
1 lb. 4 oz.
21b.
2 lb. 4 oz.
31b.4oz.
31b. 12oz.
51b.
71b.
h5
lib.
lib. l2oz.
21b.
2 lb. 8 oz.
31b.
41b.
51b.
-•*
1
1^
12 oz.
llb.4oz.
1 lb. 8 oz.
21b.
2 lb. 8 oz.
3 lb. 8 oz.
4 lb.
■8
1
<
o 2 ^ . cs m m
" a
Size,
inaide
diameter
•» "i" ^ ^1
OB
V
a
08
a
o
o
d
08
1^
a
o
u
a
•a
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
187
Tablb 42. — Weights of Lead Pipe {Continued)
Per Foot
^^in.
He in.
^in.
Ke in.
Waste
thick.
thick,
thick.
thick.
weight
Inches
weight
weight
weight
weight
per
per foot,
per foot,
per foot,
per foot,
foot.
poundH
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
2H
17
14
11
8
4
3
20
16
13
9
5
3Vi
23
19
15
11
5
4
26
21
17
12
5db6
4Vi
29
24
19
13
5db8
5
32
26
21
15
10
6
38
31
25
18
12
Taken from Bailey-Farrel Manufacturing Ck>mpany Tables.
188
Table 424.-
PLUMBER8' HANDBOOK
-Flow of Watee m HoosE-aBEvicB Pipes
(Thomson Meter Company)
Condition
of dbehuge
P
«und.'
Diachsrie in cubic feet per mjnute
inoh
»|«
5i
,|»
'
'
'
Throiiah 3S
Ice pipe, no
Inok pr«t-
Throuih 100
ft, of Berv-
iee pipe, no
buk pr«-
Throa«h 100
ft. of Mrv-
ioe pipe and
0*1 rlw.
Through 100
ft. of serv-
ice pipe. nd
nl rise.
1
40
SO
75
100
130
50
60
7S
lOO
30
40
50
60
75
50
60
75
ICO
0.44
1.6:
.84
.77
i.2e
1.47
1.74
2-02
7
!S
2
17
lO
«
iS
9
2
).4G
.79
2,32
2.7i
7.92
9.70
12.77
3.78
4,M
5.34
5.97
7.66
3.72
4.24
3.32
2.50
3.69
4.15
4.77
5.65
6. 55
16.58
21.40
23.44
26.21
30.27
io.«a
13.43
14.71
16.45
IB, 99
8.57
[1,67
12.94
14.54
17.10
10.16
11.45
15.58
18,07
36.50
43.04
47.15
52.71
27.50
30,12
33,68
38,69
20,95
23,87
26,48
29,%
35,
40,23
14.11
17,79
23,47
31,95
68,16
101,60
M3,B2
124.66
139,39
75.13
82.30
92,01
65.18
72,28
81,79
95,55
09,82
46,68
56.98
64,22
87,38
173.S3
200. J5
224.44
245,87
274,99
361,91
136.41
I5i,5r
167,06
186, i
) 16,01
32,20
65.90
76,54
98,98
15.67
30,59
49,99
77.67
206.04
444.63
513.42
574.02
628.81
703.03
925.58
317.23
346.30
409.54
446.63
501.58
260.56
54.49
393.13
444.85
19.71
II. H
166.59
12.08
51.73
103.98
78.55
54.96
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
189
Table 43. — Contents in Cubic Feet and United States
Gallons op Pipes and Cylinders op Various Inside
Diameters and 1 Ft. in Length
(1 gal. = 231 cu. in. 1 cu. ft. = 7.4805 gal.)
For 1 ft. in length
For 1 ft. in length
For 1 ft. in length
Diam-
Cubic
Cubic
Cubic
eter
feet
feet
feet
in
also
U.S.
Diam-
also
U.S.
gallons
Diam-
also
U.S.
gallons
inches
area
in
gallons
eter in
inches
area
in
eter in
inches
area
in
square
feet
square
square
feet
feet
H
.0003
.0025
6H
.2485
1.859
19
l.%9
14.73
Me
.0005
.0040
7
.2673
1.999
19H
2.074
15.51
^8
.0006
.0057
7H
.2867
2.145
20
2.182
16.32
Me
.0010
.0078
7H
.3068
2.295
20^^
2.292
17.15
H
.0014
.0102
7H
.3276
2.450
21
2.405
17.99
Me
.0017
.0129
8
.3491
2.611
21^^
2.521
18.86
H
.0021
.0159
8H
.3712
2.777
22
2.640
19.75
^Me
.0026
.0193
8H
.3941
2.948
22^^
2.761
20.66
H
.0031
.0230
SH
.4176
3.125
23
2.885
21.58
HU
.0036
.0269
9
.4418
3.305
23^i
3.812
22.53
H
.0042
.0312
9H
.4667
3.491
24
3.142
23.50
^Me
.0048
.0359
9H
.4922
3.682
25
3.409
25.50
1
.tK)55
.0408
9H
.5185
3.879
26
3.687
27.58
IH
.0085
.0638
10
.5454
4.080
27
3.976
29.74
m
.0123
.0918
lOH
.5730
4.286
28
4.276
31.99
m
.0167
.1249
lOH
.6013
4.498
29
4.587
34.31
2
.0218
.1632
\0H
.6303
4.715
30
4.909
36.72
2H
.0276
.2066
11
.6600
4.937
31
5.241
39.21
2H
.0341
.2550
IIH
.6903
5.164
32
5.585
41.78
2M
.0412
.3085
UH
.7213
5.396
33
5.940
44.43
3
.0491
.3672
]\H
.7530
5.633
34
6.305
47.16
3H
.0576
.4309
12
.7854
5.875
35
6.681
49.98
3H
.0668
.4998
I2H
.8522
6.375
36
7.069
52.88
3H
.0767
.5738
13
.9218
6.895
37
7.467
55.86
4
.0873
.6528
13H
.9940
7.436
38
7.876
58.92
4H
.0985
.7369
14
1.069
7.997
39
8.2%
62.06
4H
.1104
.8263
\4H
1.147
8.578
40
8.727
65.28
4M
.1231
.9206
15
1.227
9.180
41
9.168
68.58
5
.1364
1.020
15H
1.310
9.801
42
9.621
71.97
5H
.1503
1.125
16
1.3%
10.44
43
10.085
75.44
5H
.1650
1.234
\6H
1.485
11.11
44
10.559
78.99
594
.1803
1.349
17
1.576
11.79
45
11.045
82.62
6
.1963
1.469
\7H
1.670
12.49
46
11.541
86.33
6M
.2131
1.594
18
1.767
13.22
47
12.048
90.13
6H
.2304
1.724
18H
1.867
13.%
48
12.566
94.00
To find the weight of water in any of the given sizes, multiply the capacity
in cubic feet by 62H, or the capacity in gallons by 8>^, or, if a more accurate
result is required, by the weight of a cubic foot of water at the actual tem-
perature in the pipe. Given the dimensions of a cylinder in inches, to find
Its capacity in U. S. gallons: Square the diameter, multiply by the length
and by 0.0034. If d = diameter, I = length, gallons = ^* ^ ^o^l^ ^ ^ *"
0.0034dsl. If D and L are in feet, gallons - 5.S75D*L.
From National Tube Company "Book of Standards," page 301.
190
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table 44. — Relative Dtscharging Capacities
OF
Pipe
Actual internal
diameter.. ....
.269
.364
.493
.622
.824
1.049
1.380
1.610
Nominal internal
diameter
H
H
H
H
H
1
\H
m
H
1
H
2.1
1
H
4.5
2.1
1
W
8
3.8
1.8
1
H
16
8
3.6
2
1
1
30
14
6.6
3.7
1.8
1
m
60
28
13
7
3.6
2
1
m
88
41
19
11
5.3
2.9
1.5
1
2
164
77
36
20
10
5.5
2.7
1.9
2H
255
120
56
31
16
8
4.3
2.9
3
439
206
97
54
27
15
7
5
3V4
632
297
139
78
38
21
11
7
4
867
407
191
107
53
29
15
10
4^
1,148
539
253
141
70
38
19
13
5
1.525
716
335
188
93
51
26
17
6
2.414
1,133
531
297
147
80
40
28
7
3.483
1,635
766
428
212
116
58
40
8
4.795
2.251
1,054
590
292
160
80
55
9
6.369
2.990
1.401
783
388
212
107
73
10
8.468
3.976
1.862
1,042
516
282
142
97
11
10.693
5,020
2,352
1,315
651
356
179
122
12
13.292
6.240
2,923
. 1,635
809
443
223
152
13
17.028
7.994
3,745
2,094
1,037
567
286
194
14
20,425
9,589
4,492
2,512
1,244
680
343
233
15
24,199
11,361
5,322
2,976
1.474
806
406
276
18 0. D.
31.750
14,906
6,982
3,905
1.933
1,057
533
362
20O. D.
41.928
19,685
9,221
5,157
2,553
1,3%
703
478
22 0.D.
53.848
25,281
11.842
6,623
3,279
1,793
903
614
24 0. D.
67,599
31,737
14.866
8,315
4,116
2,251
1,134
771
26 0. D.
83.267
39,093
18.312
10,242
5,070
2,773
1,397
950
28 0.D.
100.932
47,387
22.197
12,415
6,146
3,361
1.693
1,152
30 0. D.
120.675
56,655
26,539
14,843
7,348
4,018
2,024
1,377
Nominal internal
diameter
H
H
H
H
H
1
IH
m
Actual internal
diameter
.269
.364
.493
.622
.824
1.049
1.380
1.610
From National Tube Company "Book of Standards," pages 300 and 307.
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
191
Table 44. — Relative Dibchabging Capacities op Pipe
(Continued)
Actual internal
diameter
2.067
2.469
3.068
3.548
4.026
4.506
5.047
6.065
Nominal internal
diameter
2
'iH
3
3^
4
4Vi
5
6
H
H
Calculations based on the inside diameters
H
H
of standard pipe.
Formula
1
Relative discharge capacity »
^
m
/inside diameter"*
iH
1
2
2H
1.6
1
3
2.7
1.7
1
m
3.9
2.5
1.4
1
4
5.3
3.4
2
1.4
1
4^
7
4.5
2.6
1.8 .
1.3
1
5
9
6
3.5
2.4
1.8
1.3
1
6
15
9
5.5
3.8
2.8
2.1
1.6
1
7
21
14
8
5.5
4
3
2.3
1.4
8
29
19
10.9
7.6
5.5
4.2
3.1
2
9
39
25
14
10
7.3
5.5
4.2
2.6
10
52
33
19
13
10
7.4
5.6
3.5
11
65
42
24
17
12
9.3
7
4.4
12
81
52
30
21
15
12
8.7
5.5
13
104
67
39
27
20
15
11
7
14
125
80
46
32
24
18
13
8.5
15
148
95
55
38
28
21
16
10
18 0. D.
194
124
72
50
37
28
21
13
20O. D.
256
164
95
66
48
37
27
17
22 0.D.
329
211
123
85
62
47
35
22
24 0. D.
413
265
154
107
78
59
44
28
26 0.D.
509
326
190
132
%
73
55
34
28 0.D.
617
395
230
160
116
88
66
42
30 0. D.
737
473
275
191
139
105
79
50
Nominal internal
diameter
2
2H
3
3H
4
4^
5
6
Actual internal
diameter
2.067
2.469
3.068
3.548
4.026
4.506
5.047
6.065
From National Tube Company " Book of Standards" pages 306 and 307 «
192 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
CORRECT PIPE-THREADING PRINCIPLES
Certain fundamental principles govern the results obtained
in threading pipe which should interest, and do concern, practi-
cally everyone who has anything to do with the threading of
pipe.
Whether pipe is threaded by power machines or by hand-
operated tools, when trouble is experienced the cause can
usually be attributed to dull or blunt dies, improperly designed
dies, or poor lubrication.
Failure to study the fundamental principles of pipe threading
sometimes results in placing the blame for poor threads on the
material in the pipe, when the trouble can often be traced to
the use of dies that have not been kept in working condition,
or to dies of antiquated design.
It frequently happens that an individual or firm possesses
an equipment of dies of improperly designed type, which are
not giving satisfaction, and can not economically or con-
veniently be discarded.
The following points are set forth for the benefit of pipe
fitters engaged in commercial practice, using either hand-
operated tools or power machines to thread pipe, as
distinguished from pipe manufacturers engaged in mill practice
where all sizes of pipe up to 20-in. are threaded on power
machines under the most ideal conditions.
COMMERCIAL PRACTICE
To secure good threaded joints, it is necessary to have clean,
smoothly cut threads of the proper taper and pitch, and to
secure such threads it is necessary to have threading dies made
with full consideration for the following points:
Lip.
Chip space.
Clearance.
Lead.
Oil.
Number of chasers, in the case of power machines.
These points are taken up and explained separately.
Lip. — To illustrate clearly what is meant by lip on a chaser,
two photographs are shown. One of them (Fig. 138) shows an
old type of chaser which has no lip, and the other (Fig. 139)
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES 193
shows a modem type of power-machine chaser which has a lip
miUed or ground in the cutting face. As will be seen, the lip
forma a slanted cutting edge on the chaaer, which allows the
chips to curl oS clean and leave a smooth thread. It also givea
an easy cutting action to the chaser similar to that of a properly
ground lathe tool instead of the pushing effect caused by chasere
having no lip, and also permits increasing cutting speed
considerably.
The angle to which the lip should be ground on a chaser
depends upon the kind of material to be threaded and the style
Fio. 13S. Fio. 139.
and condition of the chasers and chaaer holder. For ordinary
steel pipe this angle should be from 15 to 20 deg., but chasers
intended to cut open-hearth-steel pipe should have a long, easy
lip on account of the soft character of the material; for open-
hearth steel the lip angle should be at least 25 deg. In all cases
the back of the lip should be rounded to eliminate square
comers or shoulders in which chips may catch and pack up.
The different angles of lip for cutting different materials are
shown in Figs. 140 and 141, while Fig. 142 shows how a chaser
with practically no lip pushes the metal from the pipe in the
form of crumbling chips.
There are many undesirable consequences of using dies
without proper lip. The extra power required to force them
has a tendency to break out the teeth of the chasers, which will
18
194
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
then pick up '^stickers/' tearing the tops from the threads and
creating unnecessary friction.
While it is understood that all chasers should be ground to
this principle of lip, yet it is found that there are still some
At Least 3S^
Fig. 140.
Fig. 141.
Fig. 142.
threading dies which are at variance with it. Cooperative
measures between pipe manufacturers and the manufacturers
of threading machinery and dies have resulted in considerable
progress being made toward standardizing the principles
^^^H'^AAAAAAAAA
I
B
Fig. 143.
outlined herein. The advisable thing to do when dies are
found to be lacking in these essentials is to send them to the die
manufacturer for the purpose of having a lip ground or ma-
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES 195
chined on them, or to turn them over to an experienced tool-
maker, or to others making a specialty of this kind of work.
The lip should be ground uniformly across the cutting face
of the chaser (see Fig. 143) in order to obtain a full lip at all
points.
"Lip" is also commonly known aa "Hook" or "Rake."
The effect of lip is sometimes obtained by inclinii^ the chasers
in lelation to the radial line of the pipe, as in Fig. 165, and in this
instance the die is known as a "rake" die.
Chip space is the space required in the die holder in front of
the chasers to prevent the accumulation or packing up of chips.
The importance of this feature can not be too strongly em-
phasized, for, if sufficient chip space is not allowed, the chips
will rapidly pack in front of the chaser, causing rough, torn
threads and creating a tendency on the part of the chaser to
pick up stickers.
Where no chip space is cut in the die ring, the chaser should
project at least ^ in. beyond the ring; otherwise a clc^ging
effect will be experienced. The best design for this chip space
is shown in Figs. 146 and 147, where an even curve is provided
for the chip to follow, while the back of each chaser ia well
supported.
Fig. 144.
This chip space is a particularly important consideration in
dies used for cutting open-hearth-steel pipe, as ample space is
needed to care for the long, tough chip produced in threading
this material (see Figs. 162 and 163). Absence of this featurein
threading dies will cause difficulty in threading either Bessemer
or open-heartb-steel pipe. If proper consideration is given to
lip and chip space, threading is done with less power and less
friction, a better thread is obtained, broken teeth are prevented,
and the life of the die and its production increased.
196
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Clearance is the space between the threads of the chasers
and the threads on the pipe. This clearance is secured by die
manufacturers in various ways, and may be determined by-
certain effects produced by normal operation of the die. For
example, the effect of ideal clearance in the threads of a chaser
is shown in Fig. 144, which is a photograph of a chaser which
has been used for some time. When this chaser was first set
in the holder, the sides of the threads were uniformly dark in
color, just as they were left after being hardened and tempered.
When the chaser had been in use for some time, the sides of the
^^ChtTnmoff
Fig. 145.
threads became polished, brighter at the cutting edge, and
gradually shading almost to their original color at the back.
The chaser of a die which shows this condition will work freely,
cut clean (as shown by the chips in Fig. 139), will not tear the
thread, and will be durable. When the chasers of a die show a
polish from the cutting edge to the back, there is a lack of
clearance, causing the cutting edge to work hard, heat, and
make rough, torn threads (as shown by the chips in Fig. 138).
Figure 146 shows a die in which the chasers are set so that
the cutting edge and the front of the chaser are both on a radial
line from the center of the die or pipe. A simple method used
by die manufacturers for getting clearance in this type of die,
known as "cutting-edge-on-center" or "center cut," is shown
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
197
in Fig. 14^, in whicji the chasers in the machining position are
set out larger in diameter than when adjusted for cutting
threads. Thus, in making a properly designed chaser for a
6-in. die, the chasers should be machined to about Jfe ^^'
greater diameter. For a 4-in. die, % in., for a 2-in. die, Ji in.,
Fig. 146.
and for a 1-in. die, ^{^ in. greater diameter; other sizes in the
same proportion.
The effect of this is shown in exaggerated manner in Fig. 145
where it can be seen how the thread on the chaser, being cut to
a slightly larger radius, gradually recedes from the thread on
the pipe.
198
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Figure 147 shows a die in which the chasers are set so that
the cutting edge and front of the chaser cut ahead of the center,
with the result that the center line of the die or pipe runs
through or near the center of the chaser. Clearance may be
obtained on this type of chaser by machining or grinding it in
Fig. 147.
the same manner as a "cutting-edge-on-center'' type of chaser,
providing the center line of chaser is positioned slightly above
the center line of cutting or grinding wheel when machining in
the horizontal position (see Fig. 155). Proper clearance
having been obtained, part of the "heel" can be ground off
the back edge of the chaser. It is necessary to do this to
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
199
prevent tearing the thread if the die must be backed off without
opening.
Of course it is easy to go to extremes in these matters. If
too much clearance is allowed, the result will be a wavy thread.
Chasers with too much clearance and no heel usually cause
chattering and its attendant troubles. Dies with these faults
are more susceptible to breakage than dies which have been
made with due consideration for the points mentioned.
POSITION OF
CHASER WHEN
THREADING PIPE
THREAD
POSITION OP
CHASER WHEN
BEINQ MACHINED
Fig. 148.
The position in which the chaser shall be machined is
determined by the position in which it is intended to work in
relation to the pipe.
Lead or Throat. — Lead is the angle which is machined or
ground on the first three threads (more or less) of each chaser
to enable the die to start on the pipe, and also to distribute the
work of making the first cut over a number of threads. The
lead may be machined on, or, as is more frequent, it may be
ground on after the chasers are tempered. The proper amount
of lead is about three threads. As the heaviest cutting is done
200 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
by the lead, it should have slightly greater clearaDce angle thaa
the rest of the threads on the chaser, but care must be used to
Bee that this angle ia not excessive. Too much clearance here
will cause the die to lead too fast, and the hall threads cut by
the lead are conaequently damaged by the full teeth of the
chaaers.
Figure 149 ehows the position in which a lipped chaser should
be held when grinding the lead. An adjustable flat rest on
the emery wheel stand is required, in order to position the
chaser at the proper height to obtain the amount of clearance
required.
Figure 150 showa the position in which a chaser of the "rake"
type (see also Fig. 165) should be held when grindit^ the lead
Fia, 149. Fig. 150.
or throat. Ao adjustable flat-top rest on the emery wheel
stand is also required when grinding this type of chaser — which,
it will be noted, is ground at a higher position in relation to the
horizontal center line of the wheel thac is the lip type of chaser.
The reason for this ia that the teeth of the rake chaser are milled
at a greater angle (higher at back of chaser) than on a lipped
chaser, as the chaser must be set with "rake" (slanted) in the
die instead of being set in alignment with the radial center line
of the pipe. When set in the die with proper rake, the clearance
in this type of chaser is substantially the same as in a lipped die,
but the point at the cutting edge of teeth or lead is much sharper
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES 201
than the point of an ordinary die before the latter is lipped; in
view of this condition, care should be used in grinding the lead
of a rake die to see that an excesBive amount of clearance is not
obtained, as such a condition would tend to weaken the chaser
at the point where the heaviest cutting is done. The same
apphes to a hp chaser, especially if it has been lipped for cutting
open-hearth -steel pipe (the aagle of lip being at least 25 deg., as
compared to 15 to 20 deg. on chasers used for cuttii^ Besaemer
Fio. 162.
In Fig. 151 is shown a set of tapered chasera with properly
ground lead or throat. These are arranged in sequence, the first
chaser being at the right. It will be noticed how the first or
lead thread gradually increases in size until from, being a mere
scratch on No. I, it extends fully across chaser No. 6. This
set of chasers will cut smoothly, each one doing its share of the
wort, and the chips will come off cleanly and evenly. Figure
152 shows a set of chasers with the lead or throat incorrectly
ground, for, as will be seen, the lead thread on one chaser does
not correspond to those preceding or following.
202
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
The effect of this would be to distribute the work unevenly,
causing the chasers which do the most work to become dull;
and making it difficult for the die to take hold when starting to
cut a thread. It is this improperly ground lead which also
makes a die let go after being fairly well started, spoiling the
thread and dulling the chaser.
A perfectly good set of dies can be ruined by improperly
regrinding the lead. Figure 163 shows the proper and improper
methods of regrinding the lead. Note carefully that the proper
method is to regrind parallel to the original lead, as shown by
IHPROrat aftlNDIN6
OF LCAO
yf
AAAA;?^^^^^^^^-^
CORRECT ANOLE FOR
6RINDING LEAD
/
ANALE OP
ORMINAL LKAO
Fig. 153. — Showing correct angle for regrinding Lead of Chasers.
the two parallel dotted lines. Care should be taken to see that
all chasers are ground at the same angle. The improper
methods cQjnmonly used, are shown by other dotted lines in the
same drawing.
Number of Chasers. — To get good results in threading at
one cut, experience shows that a die should have a suitable
number of chasers, the approximate number being determined
by the size of the die. Experience shows that dies up to 1^ in.
should have at least four chasers; 1 3^ to 4 in. should have at
least six; 4)^ to 8 in. should have at least eight; and 9 to
12 in. should have at least 12 chasers. The number of chasers
necessarily depends upon the design, size, and operative princi-
ple of the die; hence no exact rule can be laid down for universal
acceptance. When an insufficient number of chasers is used,
the die will chatter and cut a rough thread.
Oil.' — Care should be taken in the quality of oil used, as the
best die made will not produce good results with poor or insuffi-
cient oil.
iSee Section on "Fatty Oils," page 352.
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
203
For use on hand tools or wh^re the flow is intermittent, No. 1
Lard Oil can be used with success, as cottonseed oils have a
tendency to gum up if not used in a constant flow.
Experience shows that the very best lard oil is the best
lubricant. Cheap lubricant is destructive to dies, and more
power is required to perform work when it is used.
A mixture particularly adapted to power machines where
there is a steady flow of lubricant, which will give good results,
and is comparatively inexpensive, is composed of 50 per cent
cottonseed oil and 50 per cent Ught neutral oil.
There are a number of cutting oils on the market at the
present time which are giving satisfactory results and are recom-
mended to those who have experienced difficulty in securing
their accustomed lubricants or have found the preparation of
special mixtures unprofitable or inconvenient.
CARE AND REPAIR OF DIES
To get the best results with the dies now made, the plumber
and steam fitter should bear in mind certain rules established
by the die manufacturer.
Where a die of two or more chasers is used, care should be
used to see that the letter and number of each chaser cor-
responds, as all chasers in a die set have both the same letter
b c
FiQ. 154.
Two sets of chasers (o and b) Improperly arranged sets of
properly arranged in pairs, ac- Chasers. The Serial Numbers
cording to Serial Number and show that the Chasers belong to
Letter. three different sets of dies,
CB360, W360 and K360.
and ntunber; for instance, W360 or CB360. A chaser marked
W360 would not operate satisfactorily with a chaser from an-
other die set marked CB360. By using chasers from two or
more separate sets in one die, the lead threads may not follow
204
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
in proper order, and the troubles, mentioned in connection with
Fig. 152, will be experienced. In many cases it has been found
that only the number of a chaser has been noted and no attention
has been paid to the serial letter j and as a consequence the pipe
and die have both been condemned, first, the pipe for being hard
cut, and second, the did for being defective. Diagrams a, 6, c,
d, Fig. 154, show correct and incorrect combinations of chasers.
When chasers are placed in holder, care should be taken to have
them set at equal distances from center of holder. Chasers
set "out of center" will generally cut an imperfect thread.
Proper Grinding of Chasers. — Manufacturers of dies find
that dies received from customers as defective or to be reground
show signs of having been abused and carelessly ground. Much
of this trouble could have been eliminated if the users of dies
had returned them to the manufacturers for regrinding in the
first place or had observed the following simple rules:
1. Be careful not to bum the dies in grinding.
2. Do not grind too much at one time.
3. Be careful where you grind and how you grind.
SIZE OF PIPE
TO BE THREADED
^512 E OF
GRINDIN6 VmEEL
CENTER LINE
OF CHASER
CENTER UNE OF
GRINDING WHEEL
FiQ. 155. — Proper method of grinding Chasers to secure clear-
ange in Lead or Throat. The Chaser is raised or lowered accord-
ingly as the design of the die requires. C indicates the amount of
clearance which will be obtained. See also Figs. 149 and 150.
Some types of old dies can often be improved by grinding a
lip with proper cutting angle, and otherwise altering the chasers
to make them as close as possible in design to the type shown
in Fig. 139.
Proper clearance on lead or throat is very important. Care
should be taken to have just sufficient clearance in the throat to
have a good cutting edge, as too much clearance will weaken the
die at the point where the heaviest duty is required of the
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
205
chaser. Figure 165 shows the approximately correct position
for grinding a ^' stock-on-center'' chaser to secure proper
clearance on lead. The chaser in this case should be held in a
perfectly horizontal position, the back of the chaser being a
little below the center of the grinding wheel, which, for purpose
of illustration, is shown as about the same diameter as that of
the pipe. Greater clearance may be obtained by slightly
raising the rest. When a grinding wheel somewhat larger than
the diameter of the pipe is used, the center of the chaser should
be slightly above the center of the wheel. The clearance may
be reduced by lowering the rest, but the chaser should always
be held perfectly horizontal unless a specially designed jig or
fixture is used to hold the chaser at correct grinding angle.
If precaution is not taken to hold the chaser firmly on the
rest or in a suitable jig, or to see that the metal does not become
overheated, the result is likely to be a burnt tool with the cut-
ting edge rounded off or having no temper (see diagram a, Fig.
156).
Diagram h (Fig. 156) shows the result of grinding the lead at
too low a point on the wheel (assuming that the chaser has
Fig. 156. — (o) Cutting edge rounded off. No clearance in Lead.
Result of careless grinding and lack of temper in steel of Chaser.
(6) No clearance in Throat or Lead, (c) Too much clearance in
Throat or I^ad. (d) Correct Throat or Lead.
been held horizontally); this die has no clearance on throat or
lead and is subject to excessive friction when working, which the
best lubricant can not overcome.
Diagram c (Fig. 156) shows the opposite extreme — the result
of grinding the chaser at too high a position in relation to the
center of the grinding wheel. This leaves too much clearance
in the lead, and as a consequence the lip is weakened at that
point and the die will chatter, causing a rough, wavering thread,
if not in fact stripping short pieces from the threads, or breaking
the chaser.
Diagram d (Fig. 156) shows a chaser ground with proper lead
clearance. A careful study of all four diagrams in Fig. 156 will
206
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
reveal wherein d is the correct form for cutting good strong
threads. (These diagrams are shown simply for comparison,
and do not represent exact measurements to be used as a work-
ing basis.)
Care should also be taken to see that the chasers are not set
too deep in the stock. That is, the diameter between oppositely
disposed chasers at the greatest permissible cutting depth of
'VVWVV^^ —
CHASERS
SET AT
CD. OF PIPE
-- AftZtS^^Sew. J
^?47*70S'*='-
CHASERS SET
AT LESS THAN
aD. OF PIPE
yylww.__J|
Fig. 157. — Showing proper and improper depth of Chasers
as set in die stock.
Fig. 158. — Heel removed to Fio. 159. — Dotted line shows
prevent tearing of threads when ordinary cutting. Black line
backing off the die from pipe. shows proper angle or rate of
die ; dies so ground will cut pipe
threads with less effort than
those which have not been so
angled.
chaser threads should not be less than the outside diameter of
the pipe. Pipe fitters are quite apt to be satisfied that the
chasers are properly set so long as the lead is sufficient to allow
easy starting of the die, but it frequently happens that the
chaser is set too deep, and the die is literally forced on the pipe
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
207
after passing the first two or three threads of the chaser.
This results in stripping the top ofif the threads, (sometimes the
whole thread), overheating and ruining the die, especially when
a tough material is threaded. If any discrimination is to be
Fig. 160. — 1. Lead or throat too flat; cutting edge rounded off
by careless grinding. 2. Proper clearance in lead and threads of
chaser. 3. Too much clearance in lead. 4. No chip space; note
sharp corner where chips may pile up and break threads. 5.
Proper lead and chip space but insufficient cutting angle of lip.
6. Lead too high on cutting edge and back due to careless grinding;
chaser should be held rigid and perfectly horizontal while grinding.
7. Lip incorrectly ground ; cutting edge too thin and sharp, has too
large angle and will quickly overheat or break off. 8. Too much
of heel removed; chaser ground thus will give incorrect wavering
thread. Chip space in die head correct in all cases except in
front of chaser 4.
made, it should be on the side of a light, clean cut rather than
a deep cut that is forced (see Fig. 157).
A careful study of Figs. 158, 159, and 160 will be of value.
The illustrations with their appended data are self-explanatory.
208 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
In "backing off" a solid die, where a common hand stock is
used, care should be taken to aee that the chaser does not jump
the thread cbanael, causing cross threading or stripping. This
is particularly apt to happen when backing the die off the last
few threads (the first threads cut on the pipe).
Regrindlng Broken Teeth o£ Dies. — It is always better to
grind out of a chaser, with a thin emery wheel, a tooth which
has become broken, as the rough portion, if allowed to remain,
is likely to pick up a sticker and tear the thread on the pipe.
If the die picks up a sticker, it is very important that the
Fig. 161.
broken tooth which caused the trouble be ground out. U the
sticker is removed by digging and the broken tooth is not
ground out, the trouble will occur again at the same spot.
When a die picks up a sticker on an important occasion such as
a break-down job, or on a pipe that has been cut after b^i^
bent, the consequences are particularly disagreeable and costly.
It is surprising how many teeth may be ground out of a set
of chasers without impairing its usefulness. Figure 161 shows
an extreme example. This set of chasers was removed from a
die in a machine and was producing first-lass work, and later
returned to the same machine where they continued to do good
work. Grinding out the teeth of chasers to this extent is not
recommended as good practice, but these examples serve to
illustrate the increased life and service that may be obtained
by careful treatment of dies.
Old chasers with dull and rusted threads may be resharpened
with emery and oil. If too dull, they may be rehobbed.
Receding types of dies may be rehobbed and lead reground to
cut next larger size of pipe.
Proper Threading Principles as Affecting Receding TTpe of
Threading Dies. — The principles of correct lip, chipspace, clear-
ance, lead or throat, etc., apply in equal measure to both that
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
209
type of die which consists of a number of chaaera beld stationary
in the die, and to that type wherein the chasers are movable and
padually recede from the pipe as the thread is cut. It will be
readily aeen why these principles apply in both cases when it is
considered that the principal difference in the design of the
chasers is that those which are held stationary are tapered to
correspond to the taper of the thread to be cut on the pipe,
while the receding type are practically straight and cut the
thread to required taper by gradually moving backward, remov-
^^u]
i ■■■^'
«l
"1
Fia. 162.— From a photo- Fio. 163.— From a photo-
graph; showing character and graph; showing character and
typo of chipa thrown off by type of chips thrown off by
chaser of an old type. properly designed chaser.
ing less and less stock as the cutting of the thread progresses.
The principles of lip, chip space, clearance, etc., are therefore
seen to be principles which affect the cutting action of chasers
regardless of the operative principle of the particular dies of
which they form a part. A receding die would push the metal
off instead of cutting it, in the same manner as a solid die of
poor design, if its chasers wore not properly tipped and other
proper threading principles were ignored. Happily, the
modem type of receding die is not designed with the principle
of pushing the metal off, but is in reality a lathe tool.
That the chasers of the modem receding type of die are
designed on the principle of a lathe tool (being narrower than
the "sohd" or tapered type of chaser), is additional reason why
210 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
proper clearance and lip or rake should be maintained and the
best of lubricant used.
Dies of this type which have become damaged or dulled in
use, should be returned to the die manufacturer for repairs,
unless the attention of expert toolmakers or other specialists in
this work can be given them. The efficiency of this type of
die is well indicated by the fact that it is frequently used to
thread pipe by hand up to 12-in. diameter.
MILL PRACTICE
That pipe up to 20-in. diameter is threaded at the mill with
power machines, whereas the merchant fitter employs both
hand-operated tools and power machines for threading pipe
}^ in. to 6 in. and, on certain occasions, pipe up to 12 in. in
diameter, indicates that there is not a pronounced difference
between commercial and mill practice.
The chief difference lies in the fact that the manufacturer of
pipe has better facilities than the average plumber for keeping
dies in working condition or for altering their design slightly
for certain purposes — ^for instance, increasing the lip angle for
cutting open-hearth steel, regrinding lead of chasers which have
become dull through use, and making other minor changes.
Cutting speeds of power machines affect the quality of
threads and the life and efficiency of the chaser. If the speed is
too great, the metal is torn away instead of being cut, the die
is overheated, and a ragged thread results. To attain high
cutting speed, it is necessary to have an ample continuous flow
of lubricant to wash away the cuttings and to keep the dies
clean and sufficiently cold to do the work properly.
The special factors of good pipe threading, such as lip, chip
space, clearance, etc., of chasers, apply equally to mill practice
and commercial practice. The information regarding the number
of chasers listed on page 202 is supplemented by the following:
Dies up to 1 ^ in. should have at least 4 chasers
1^ to 4 in. should have at least 6 chasers
4^ to 8 in. should have at least 8 chasers
9 to 12 in. should have at least 12 chasers
13 to 16 in. should have at least 14 chasers
17 to 20 in. should have at least 16 chasers
This information is based on experiences of National Tube
Company.
SUMMARY
A die which^ is made with due regard to all the points enum-
ited, will thread pipe of any uniform material with good
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES 211
results i steel pipe ia naturally soft and tough, and consequently
Bomewbat more difficult to thread with the old form of die
Fio. 164. — At right, set of chasers of type usually furnished with
threading maohinee. Flat cutting edge obstnicta ready cutting
of material, and no groove is provided for chips to follow. At left,
sat of chasers of same type with lip ground to allow chips to cut off
clean and leave smooth thread, also giving easy cutting action on
chaser and removes puatiing effect of flat chasers without a lip.
Clearance obtained in these chasers by same method used for other
dies of "alock-on-cBnter" type. (See Figs. 148 and 149.)
Fio. IflS.-T-Thia shows a type of die known as "rate" die. The
cutting edge is obtained by inclining chaeor instead of by cutting a
lip, effect being same as secured with lipped chaser. Clearance is
obtained in this type by machining cbaaers at alightly greater
angle than position in which they are to work. Clearance may be
obtained in this type chaser by using regular segment bolder and
machining die on smaller diameter than that of pipe to be threaded.
shown in Fig. 138. This die pushes the metal off or tears it up.
A good shape is shown in Fig. 139 which has sufhcLent rake
212 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
and clearance to cut the metal with a clean finish without waste
of power or unnecessary friction, similar to the working of a
lathe tool, which latter principle is embodied in some of the
modem threading tools.
The importance and value of the characteristic principles
of properly designed threading dies, particularly those of lip,
chip space and clearance, cannot be over estimated. Unless
these are correct, it will be found difficult to obtain satis-
factory threading results. Practical experience, careful study,
and e;q)eriment have established these principles.
Applying these principles to hand dies, it is possible for one
man to do the work of two. In a paper by T. N. Thompson,
read before The American Society of Heating and Ventilating
Engineers, are described certain tests on the power required to
thread pipe with hand dies of the common pattern^ and with
the same type of dies correctly made. The author says:
"It shows that the power required to thread mild steel pipe
with the new die is not much more than that required to thread
wrought iron with the same die, and much less than the power
required to thread wrought-iron pipe with the common die."
BRIGGS' STANDARD*
The nominal sizes of pipe 10 in. and under, and the pitches
of the threads, were for the most part established in the British
tube (called "pipe" in America) trade between 1820 and 1840.
The sizes are designated roughly, according to their internal
diameters.
Robert Briggs, about 1862, while Superintendent of the
Pascal Iron Works, formulated the nominal dimensions of pipe
up to and including 10 in. These dimensions have been broadly
spread and are widely known as "Briggs' Standard." They
are as follows:
The nominal and outside diameters and pitch of thread, for
sizes 10 in. and under, are given in the table of Standard Pipe.
The thread has an angle of 60 deg. and is slightly rounded off
0.8
at top and bottom so that the total height (depth), H =» -— >
where n is the number of threads per inch.
The pitch of the threads (-) increases roughly with the
diameter.
* Full width — non-receding.
'Book of Standards, National Tube Company.
PIPE STANDARDS AND PIPE DIES
213
The conically threaded ends of pipe are cut at a taper of ^
in. diameter per foot of length (i.e., 1 in 32 to the axis of the
pipe) (see Fig. 166).
The thread is perfect for a distance (L) from the end of the
A u ^i. 1 r 0.8Z>H-4.8
pipe, expressed by the rule, L = —
n
where D =
outside diameter in inches. Then come two threads, perfect
at the root or bottom, but imperfect at the top, and then come
three or four threads imperfect at both top and bottom.
These last do not enter into the joint at all, but are incident
to the process of cutting the threads.
W
30«4THneA0S
iMPcnrccT
aTMHCAOS
AT ROOT
PCnrCCT TMNKAD -f
IMPKIIFECT 4
ATTor *^**1^ *
T>r>OOI7«O'fO0M
Fig. 166.
The thickness of the pipe under the root of the thread at the
end of the pipe equals T = 0.0175D + 0.025 in.
The above notes on Briggs' Standard were taken from
Paper No. 1842, "American Practice in Warming Buildings
by Steam," presented before the British Institute of Civil
Engineers by Robert Briggs, member of the Institute. It is
contained in the Institute Proceedings^ VoL LXXI, Session
1882-83, Part I. The substance of that paper is quoted quite
fully in the report of the Committee on Standard Pipe and
Pipe Threads to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
at the seventh annual meeting and is published in Vol . VIII,
Paper No. 226, of their Proceedings, The report was accepted
by the American Society, Dec. 29, 1886.
Briggs' Standard was adopted by the manufacturers of
wrought-iron pipe and boiler tubes, Oct. 27, 1886, and indorsed
by the Manufacturers' Association of Brass and Iron, Steam,
Gas and Water Works, Dec. 8, 1886; except that the outside
diameter of 9-in. pipe was changed to 9.625 in. (see Fig. 166).
214
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
By trade usage, the above rules have been extended to take
in sizes up to 20 in. inclusive, except that the standard thickness
is 0.375 in., has been adopted for the 14 in. O.D., 15 in. CD.
and 16 in. O.D. sizes, and 0.393 for the 17 in. O.D. size, and
0.409 for the 18 in. O.D. and 20 in. sizes. Pipe larger than
12 in., nominal size, is known by the outside diameter.
The following table gives the depth of different pipe and
casing threads :
8 threads per inch 00 in.
10 threads per inch 080 in.
11 J^ threads per inch 0696 in.
14 threads per inch 0571 in.
18 threads per inch 0444 in.
27 threads per inch .0296 in.
The following table is a compilation of the results obtained
by using the formula, L = — '—, as given above.
Table 45
Nominal
Nominal
Pipe
Number of
total
Pipe
Number of
total
threads
length of
threads
length of
per inch
thread on
pipe
S1Z6
per inch
thread on
pipe
M
27
•H
5
8
l^Ms
M
18
^U
6
8
1H
H
18
9i«
7
8
2
^^
14
94
8
8
2He
M
14
94
9
8
2M«
\
111^
iM«
10
8
2^6
\M
WVi
1^6
11
8
2H
1^
111^
I
12
8
2H
2
IIH
1H
14 O.D.
8
2H
2\^
8
m
15 O.D.
8
2H
3
8
\^fi
16 O.D.
8
2iM«
3V^
8
1H
17 O.D.
8
2»M«
4
8
I^He
18 O.D.
8
>
4)^
8
Wx
20 O.D.
8
^M
SECTION 7
VITRIFIED CLAY SEWER PIPE
DEFINITIONS
House Sewer. — The term "house sewer" is applied to the
vitrified-salt-glazed pipe sewer, which should be not less than
6 in. internal diameter, and which begins outside of the wall of
a building and connects the house drain with the public sewer
in the street or alley.
House Drain. — The term "house drain" (see Fig. 91) is
applied to the vitrified pipe within any building which receives
the total discharge from any fixture or set of fixtures (and may
or may not include rain water), and which conducts or carries
the same to the house sewer. The house drain, when rain
water is allowed to discharge into it, should be not less than
6 in. internal diameter.
Subsoil Drains. — The term "subsoil drain" (see Fig. 57B)
is applied to the vitrified pipe laid alongside of the footings of
the building foundation to drain the groundwater out of the
soil and deliver it to the public sewer. Subsoil drains may be
laid either on the outside or inside of the footing or both , but
when only a single line is to be laid, a line of tile around the
outside is the more effective. Subsoil drains may be con-
structed of vitrifiednsalt-glazed drain tile, or vitrified-salt-
glazed sewer pipe laid with uncemented joints.
INSTALLATION
Pipe. — Clay pipe is manufactured from clay, fireclay or shale,
or a combination of these materials. These materials should
possess such physical and chemical properties that when molded
into pipes and subjected to a vitrifying temperature, the
resulting product will be strong, durable, and serviceable.
The pipe should be thoroughly vitrified throughout its
thickness and finished with a continuous layer of bright or
semibright, glass-like glaze, over the inner and outer surfaces.
215
216
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Pipes should be substantially free from fractures, large or deep
cracks, and blisters, laminations and surface roughness. If
present, such blisters or pimples should not project more than
3^ in. above the surrounding surface.
All pipe should be of the hub and spigot pattern, and pipes
intended to be straight must not have variation in align-
ment of more than J^ in. per foot of length. Each pipe
should be substantially \miform in thickness and cylindrical
in cross-section.
Table 46. — Weights and Dimensions of Vitrified Sewer
Pipe for House Sewers and House Drains
Taken from the American Society of Testing Materials
Standard Specifications, 1920
Internal
diameter,
inches
Laying
length,
feet
Diameter
at inside
of socket,
inches
Depth of
socket,
inches
Thickness
of barrel,
inches
Weight
per foot
in pounds
4
6
8
10
12
2
6
IV^
H
2
8K
2
H
2. m, 3
mi
2H
H
2, 2H, 3
13
2V4
H
2, 2',4. 3
15H
2\i
1
9
15
23
35
45
Trenches. — See "Trenches," page 83. Trenches should be
only of sufficient width to provide a free working space on each
side of the pipe, to make it possible to secure tight joints, and
thoroughly to ram the backfilling around the pipe. Trenches
should be kept free from water until the material in the
joints and masonry has sufficiently hardened. To protect
pipe lines from unusual stresses, all work should preferably
done in open trenches.
Pipe lines should be placed at a sufficient depth below the
surface of the ground to avoid dangerous pressure or impact.
When this is not possible, special reinforcement should be
provided.
Foundation. — The foundations in the trench should be
formed to prevent any subsequent settling and thereby
prevent an excessive pressure and consequent rupture of
the pipes.
I
VITRIFIED CLAY SEWER PIPE 217 |
I
If the foundation is good, firm earth, the earth should be
pared or molded to give a full support to the lower third of I
each pipe and, if necessary, to secure a proper bearing for the |
pipe, a layer of concrete, fine gravel or other suitable material
should be placed. The same means f securing a firm founda-
tion should be adopted in case the excavation has been made
deeper than necessary.
If there is not good natural foundation, the pipes should be
laid in a concrete cradle or supported on a masonry foundation
carried to a soil of satisfactory bearing power.
If the foundation is rock, an equalizing bed of concrete or
sand well compacted should be placed upon the rock. The
thickness of these beds should be not less than 4 in. Pipes
should be laid in these beds so that at least the lower third of
each pipe is supported its entire length.
Pipe Laying. — The laying of pipes in finished trenches should .
be commenced at the lower point, so that the spigot ends point
in the direction of flow. All pipes should be laid with ends
abutting and true to line and grade. They should be fitted
and matched so that when laid in the work, they will form a
sewer with a smooth and uniform invert.
Sockets should be carefully cleaned before pipes are lowered
into trenches. The pipes should be so lowered as to avoid
unnecessary handling in the trench. The sockets should be
laid in depressions formed in the foundation so that the weight
of backfilling will be carried by the entire length of the pipe
and not concentrated at the socket as would be the case if the
foundation were left flat.
Joints. — All joints and connections should be gas- and water-
tight. J^ closely twisted hemp or oakum gasket of suitable
diameter, in no case less than 14 in., and in one piece of sufb-
cient length to pass around the pipe and lap at the top, should
be solidly rammed into the annular spaces between the pipes
with a suitable calking tool. (See page 370.)
Cement Joints. — When cement joints are used, the gasket
should first be saturated with neat cement grout, made to the
consistency of cream. The remainder of the space should then
be completely filled with the jointing materials.
Hand-troweled Joints. — For hand-troweled joints, thor-
oughly dry mix equal parts of portland cement and clean,
sharp sand; add suflicient water to make a stiff mortar that
can be forced by the fingers or a trowel into every part of the
218 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
annular space, using care to fill the lower part of the space.
Finish ofif with a broad bevelled collar encircling the pipe at
the mouth of the socket.
Poured Joints. — Poured joints are recommended in prefer-
ence to the hand-troweled joints. If made with cement, the
mortar should be made of equal parts of portland cement and
clean, sharp sand, mixed dry. Add water to make to the con-
sistency of cream. Use the flex form runner or its equal.
Pour in until the gate of the runner is full; tamping the mixture
at the gate head will insure a full joint. Forms should be
left in position and the pipe undisturbed for 24 hr. until the
cement has taken its initial set. All poured-cement joints
should set 48 hr. before testing with a head of water or air
test.
Asphalt or Bituminous Joints. — Asphaltum or bituminous
jointing material make an ideal joint for vitrified-clay pipe.
First calk a gasket of dry jute or hemp free from oil or grease,
into the annular space. Dip the flex form or snake runner into
thick mud or grout to prevent its sticking and to permit its ready
removal when the joint is cooled. After the runner is in place,
pour the heated compound into the mold until the gate is full.
The runner may be removed and the work tested as soon as the
joint is cold. (See page 373.)
Grade. — House sewers and drains of vitrifled-salt-glazed
clay pipe should be laid on a uniform slope or grade of not less
than ^i in. per foot. A minimum grade of Ji in. per foot is
recommended when it can be secured.
Alignment. — House sewers and drains of vitrifiednsalt-glazed
clay pipe should be carefully laid and secured in a straight
alignment, and changes of direction should be made by the
use of proper specials such as Y's or T's and branches, quarter
and eighth bends or curves; changes in sizes should be made by
the use of increasers or reducers.
Backfilling. — All trenches and excavations should be back-
filled immediately after the pipes are laid and the work in-
spected, unless other protection of the pipe line is directed.
The backfilling material should be selected and deposited with
special reference to the future safety of the pipes. Clean
earth, sand or rock dust should be soUdly tamped about the
pipes up to a level at least 1 ft. above the top of the pipes.
This material should be carefully deposited in uniform layers.
TJnless otherwise permitted, each layer should be carefully
VITRIFIED CLAY SEWER PIPE 219
and solidly tamped or rammed with proper tools so as not to
injure or disturb the pipe line.
Puddling or water flooding for consolidating the backfilling
is recommended only for sandy and gravelly materials. If
this method is used, the first flooding should be applied after
the backfilling has been compacted by tamping up to 1 ft.
above the top of the pipes, and the second flooding during or
after the subsequent filling of the trench. An excess of water
should be avoided, in order to prevent disturbance of the earth
under and around the pipes. Walking or working on the
completed sewer, except as may be necessary in tamping or
backfilling, should not be permitted until the trench has been
backfilled to a height of at least 2 ft., over the top of the pipes.
The filling of the trench should be carried on simultaneously on
both sides of the pipes in such a manner that injurious side
pressures do not occur.
The House Drain. — Where the grade permits, the house
drain should be brought into the building at least 1 ft. below
the level of the basement, cellar or ground floor.^
Relieving Arches. — When the house drain passes under or
through the building walls, the line of pipe should be placed
under an opening, and in addition the pipe opening should be
provided with a relieving arch or lintel.
Cleanout Openings. — Cleanout openings are desirable at
frequent intervals. These may be made with full-sized Y-
branches, the branch or cleanout opening being closed with a
vitrified-pipe stopper, well cemented in place. Cleanout
openings should be provided in the house-sewer line adjacent
to the main sewer, and if the house sewer is of considerable
length, an opening should be provided every 50 ft. Cleanout
and test openings should also be provided on the house drain
just inside the foundation wall near the house-sewer connection,
and at the beginning of each horizontal run, and at the base of
all vertical lines of soil and waste pipes.
Roof Leaders. — Roof leaders or down spout wastes and
surface and ground water drains should, whenever possible, be
carried outside the building and connected independently to
the storm water sewer. Storm water should not be discharged
into a main sewer intended as a carrier of sanitary sewage
only (see Fig. 98).
If, however, the main-sewer system is constructed as a com-
bined system to care for both sanitary and storm sewage, then
220 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
the storm-water system from the building may connect into
the house sewer outside the building and discharge through this
house sewer into the main sewer in the street or alley (see
Fig. 97).
Where the building design is such that roof-water downspouts
must be carried down within the buildings, the roof-water
leaders may be connected to the storm-water sewer or house
drain within the building; in such cases a suitable silt or gravel
basin should be placed on the drain close to the foot of the down-
spout riser to intercept the wash from the roof.
Gas and Oil Traps. — In automobile garages, oil and gas
intercepters should be installed on all drains carrying the dis-
charge from floor drains and washer. These basins are to
prevent the carrying over into the sewer of washed-down oils,
greases, and gasoline. They should be vented to permit the
discharge of explosive gases. Vent pipe should be same size
as waste pipes.
Acid or Chemical Wastes. — The wastes from chemical labora-
tories, soda works, print works, cleaning and dye works, plating
works, ice cream and butter factories, printing offices, garages,
bottling works, battery-charging stations, and many other
industries, are particularly severe and destructive; and in such
instances, the house sewer and house drains should in all cases
be constructed of vitrified-salt-glazed clay sewer pipe, because
of its certain resistance to acid or alkaline reaction. The joints
should always be made with acid-proof compound and not
with cement mortar.
TESTING
Testing the House Drain. — In lieu of officially prescribed
tests, the following may be depended upon to reveal faulty
workmanship. The material, equipment and labor for making
the tests to be furnished by the plumber.
The test may be made with either air, smoke or water. The
water test should subject the drain to a 2 ft. head of water.
It is applied by inserting test plugs in the cleanout openings
and filling the system with water to a height of 2 ft. above the
highest point of the vitrified-pipe house drain. This pressure
should be maintained for 15 min. If there is no appreciable
loss, the system may be considered acceptably tested.
VITRIFIED CLAY SEWER PIPE
221
Table 47. — Approximate Weights, Dimensions, Etc.
Standard Sewer Pipe
Caliber,
inches
Thickness,
inches
Weight
per foot,
pounds
Depth
of sockets,
inches
Annular
space,
inches
3
H
7
m
H
4
H
9
m
H
5
H
12
m
H
6
H
15
V4
H
8
H
23
2
H
9
m^
23
2
H
10
li
35
2M
H
12
1
45
2H
H
15
m
60
2V^
H
18
U4
85
2M
H
20
iH
100
3
^6
21
1H
120
3
>6
22
1H
130
3
H
24
m
150
3H
H
27
2
224
4
^4
30
2H
252
4
fi
33
2H
310
5
IH
36
2H
350
5
IM
SECTION 8
GAS FITTING
Artificial gas from the distillation of coal is the most con-
venient, reliable, and flexible medium known to modem science
for lighting, heating and fuel purposes, and the demand for it
and for appliances which use it may be regarded as universal.
Because of the reliability of the supply, its cleanliness, ease
and exactness of control, its space, labor and operating
economy, its portability and insurance advantages, it is pre-
eminent as a fuel for all purposes.
The demand for gas appliances is becoming so enormous that
plumbers should be interested in their exploitation. With the
introduction of electricity for lighting, plumbers ceased to be
active in advocating gas piping, but in view of the rapidly
increasing demand for gas for water heaters, cooking, lighting
and house heating in the home, and for all fuel purposes in the
work shop and factory, the opportunity to the plumbers for
profit in exploiting, selling, and installing gas piping and gas
appliances, presents vast possibilities.
The following rules are intended to apply to the installation
of gas piping in buildings and the use of city gas in and about
buildings. They do not apply to large underground gas-dis-
tribution systems leading up to the building and such parts of a
gas system as the manufacturing plants, etc., which are the
properties of gas companies.
PIPING BUILDINGS FOR GAS EQUIPMENT
Size of Pipe.^No pipe smaller than standard ?^-in. size
should be used in any concealed gas piping installations; and
no pipe smaller than standard K-in. size should be used for
concealed horizontal piping.
All supply lines, branches, drops, and other parts of any
piping installation should be made up of pipe of a size suited to
the length required and the number and character of the outlets
to be supplied. It is recommended that the minimum size for
any pipe be as indicated in the following tabulation.
If any outlet is larger than J^-in., it must be counted as more
than one, according to the following table:
222
GAS FITTING
223
Sue of outlet, inches H Mi H 1 m IH 2 2^ 3 4
Value in outlets 1 2 6 11 20 32 66 115 181 372
Table
48.—
-Table
OF S
[Z
ES
Size of pipe in inches
No. of H-
in. outlets
H
}^
H 1
m
m
2 2\^
3
4
Length of pipe in feet
I
20
30
2
27
3
12
4
50
5
33
6
24
7
18 7
0
8
13 5
0
9
4
4
10
3
5
100
11
3
0
90
12
2
5
75
13
2
1
60
150
14
1
8
53
130
15
6
45
115
16
4
41
100
17
2
36
90
18
32
80
19
29
73
20
27
65
21
24
58
■
22
22
53
23
20
49
:
SOO
24
18
45
1
90
25
17
42
1
75
30
12
30
1
20 300
35
22
90 270
40
17
70 210
45
13
55 165
400
50
45 135
330
65
27 80
200
75
20 60
150
600
100
33
80
360
125
22
50
230
150
15
35
160
175
28
120
200
21
90
250
14
59
300
• • •
39
350
• • •
29
400
■ • •
22
500
• • •
14
224 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Quality and Inspection of Material. — Pipe used should be
standard) full weight, of the best quaUty wrought iron or steel,
and free from defects. All fittings (except stop cocks or
valves) should be of best quality malleable iron.
Material delivered to any job should be carefully inspected
as soon as possible by the gas fitter in charge of the work, and
any part of it which is defective or which has been repaired with
cement, lead, or other material, or by calking, rusting, or any-
other methods, except by welding, should not be used.
Pipe, fittings, cocks, valves, or accessories removed from any
installation should not be again used until they have been
thoroughly cleaned, inspected, and ascertained to be the equiva-
lent of new material.
ACCESSIBILITY OF PIPING
Vertical Pipe. — Vertical pipe when concealed in partitions
should be located in hollow, rather than in solid partitions, and
so located as not to be in contact with plaster more than is
necessary.
In Plastered Ceilings. — When ceilings are to be plastered,
piping should be parallel to the joists or beams when practicable,
and should cross them only when necessary. Such piping
should be placed so as to be as accessible as possible. Pipes
may be left exposed beneath ceilings, or may be concealed
back of moldings or cornices; they may be placed above hanging
or false ceilings, but should not be embedded in plaster.
Chimneys or flues should not be used for pipe chases.
PIPING EXPOSED TO CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE OR
TO MOISTURE
Exposure. — All pipes should be so placed as to avoid exposure
to extreme heat, cold, or moisture in so far as is practicable.
Supply lines and other piping should not be located in or on
outside walls or walls of vestibules ; they should be at least 3 ft.
from the outside walls when practicable.
Stoppages. — When piping must be so located that it may be
exposed to low temperatures, special care should be taken to
prevent stoppages. This may be done by covering the pipe
by use of larger size than otherwise necessary, or by other
approved means.
Enlarging. — When piping is exposed through areaways or
other similar locations, the pipe should be increased in size
GAS FITTING 225
sufficiently to prevent stoppages due to freezing by the use of
eccentric fittings which should be set to permit drainage of the
enlarged section. The enlarged section should extend through
the wall at each side of the areaway. In the case of outside
gas lamps, the pipe should be increased by an ordinary con-
centric enlarging fitting just inside of the point where it passes
through the wall.
PIPING IN CONCRETE, MASONRY,^ ETC.
Piping in Chases. — When piping is to be placed in concrete,
cement, masonry, etc., it should, if possible, be laid in a conduit
pipe or in a chase or channel left in the solid work. All conduit
pipes, pipe channels, and chases must be carefully graded and
drained to prevent the accumulation of water about the pipe;
and it is recommended that the walls of such pipe chases or
channels be coated with asphalt, pitch, or moisture-resisting
paint before the pipe is placed. Piping installed in such loca-
tions should be galvanized on the exterior, or be painted with
two coats of a pure red-lead paint, with a bituminous paint or
equivalent protective coating, or be both galvanized and
painted. All exposed threads or tool marks on galvanized
piping should be painted with protective coating.
Piping Embedded in Structural Material. — When necessary
to embed a pipe in direct contact with neat cement or concrete,
black-iron pipe may be used.
If cinders, salt, sea water, or other substance which has a
corrosive action on the piping is to be used in the fabrication of
the cement or concrete, or if the concrete or cement in which the
pipe is laid is to be exposed to brine, acid pickling bath liquor,
or other liquids of corrosive nature, or if the pipe is to be in
contact with composition flooring or similar structural material,
the piping should be made up of pipe and fittings galvanized on
the outside, and painted with two coats of a pure red-lead
paint, a bituminous paint, or an equivalent protective coating.
It is preferable that it also be wrapped or coated with an ap-
proved material for protection against corrosion.
No pipes should be embedded in the required protection of
columns or other structural members in buildings of fire-resist-
ive construction.
Supply Lines for Gas Engines or Other Large Appliances. —
The pipe to supply gas to a gas engine or other appliance of
1 " See " Action of Cinders." page 306.
15
226 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
large consumption or high momentary demand should, in
every case, be carried back far enough independent of other
piping, or other provision be made, to ensure that the pressure
at the other appliances is not disturbed by the operation of this
appliance. Before the installation of the pipe for a gas engine
is begun, consultation with the gas company is recommended.
Relation to Electric Wiring. — Piping should not be installed
closer than 5 in. to any electric wiring which carries current at
more than 25 volts above ground, unless such wiring is enclosed
in a proper metal conduit or armored cable, or where not en-
closed is separated from the pipe by some continuous and firmly
fixed non-conductor; and no piping should be run closer than 3
ft. to any electric cutout box, fuse box, or meter.
Electric wiring from circuits of over 25 volts should not be
grounded on gas house piping.
Whenever gas piping is run near or in contact with the con-
duit or metallic cable covering for wires carrying current of
more than 25 volts above ground, the piping should be placed
in substantial permanent electrical contact with such conduit
or cable covering.
Interconnection of Piping Systems. — Any interconnection of
piping systems which are supplied through separate service
meters should be avoided.
COCKS AND VALVES
Special Shut-off Required. — Separate valves or cocks are
required on every supply line or branch, if the operation or
maintenance of the appliance supplied requires that gas be
shut ofif from the line or branch from time to time; unless gas
can be otherwise shut off when . necessary with equal safety
and convenience. Such separate valves or cocks should be
provided on any branch or supply line which is of 2 in. or more
in diameter, or which is rated to supply more than 200 cu. ft.
of gas per hour, or which supplies an appliance used for heating
inflammable materials, or materials which give off combustible
vapors or gases.
Separate Cocks Recommended. — It is recommended that
separate valves or cocks be installed on any pipe which supplies
gas to six or more separate appliances of a similar nature, such
as pressing irons, at the inlet of any secondary meter; and in
multiple burner installations the nature of which makes master
control advisable.
GAS FITTING
227
Location of Line Cocks. — Cocks or valves should be placed
near enough to the appliance controlled, and in such location,
as to be readily accessible at all times, and the handle of the
cock or valve should be easy to reach and to operate.^
When a cock is placed on an independent supply line to cut off
gas from that line, it is recommended that no branch be taken
from this supply line between the meter and the cock. This
precaution ensures that the line cock will control the gas to the
whole line. If a branch is taken off between the meter and the
cock, this new branch should generally be controlled by a
separate shut-off. On circulating systems of piping, care
should be taken to provide cocks to cut off the supply from both
directions wherever this may be necessary.
CUTTING, THREADING AND JOINTING
All pipe must be cut square with its length, and the exact
dimensions as given on the piping plans should be followed.
Pipe must be threaded with clean-cut threads, and all burrs or
other obstructions removed from the pipe.
Nominal, ordinary, iron pipe sizes and Briggs^ Standard are
understood in these regulations for all pipes and threads where
not otherwise specified (see "Pipe Standards" section, page
192). The following table specifies the number of threads to
be cut and the length of section to be threaded for each size of
pipe, based on Briggs' Standard:
Approximate length
Approximate number
Size of pipe, inches
of threaded
of threads
portion in inches
to be cut
H
%t
10
H
H
10
H
H
10
\
H
10
m
1
11
m
1
11
2
1
11
2H
m
12
3
m
12
4
m
13
iThis rule requires that the shut-o£F shall be placed near the appliance, but
it should not be so close to the appliance that, should an accident occur, it
will be impossible to operate it.
228 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Pipe with threads stripped, chipped, or damaged or which has
crooked threads must not be used, or if the weld opens during
the operation of cutting or threading, that portion of the pipe
must not be used.
When an approved jointing compound is used, it should
always be applied sparingly, and only to the male thread of
the joint. SeaUng wax or any material or compound known as
"Gas Fitter's Cement" should not be used in the making up of
joints in piping systems.
Branching. — All branches should be taken from the top
or side of horizontal piping and not from the bottom.
When ceiling outlets are taken from horizontal piping,
the branch should be taken from the side of the piping
and carried in a horizontal direction, preferably not less
than 6 in.
Bending. — Bending pipe to form outlets or for other purposes,
when approved by the gas company, will be permitted. In
bending pipe, care must be taken that it does not kink. Pii>e
excessively flattened or bent to less than the radii given below,
will not be permitted :
Size of Pipe,
Minimum Radius op Bend,
Inches
Inches
H
3
\^
4
M
6
1
8
\M
12
\\^
15
2
18
After pipe has been bent, it should be examined to make sure
that the weld has not opened and that it has not kinked or
become otherwise constricted.
SUPPORTING PIPE
Piping Not Under Strain. — Piping shall be installed so that
it is subjected to no unnecessary strain. Where ceiling fixtures
are hung from drops, the outlet fittings should be securely and
rigidly fastened. Piping should not be laid to support any
weight (except fixtures) or be subjected to any extra strain.
Number of Supports. — The following is the maximum spac-
GAS FITTING 229
ing of supports which should be used in continuous piping
installations :
M-in. or J^-in. pipe 6 ft.
^4-in. or 1-in. pipe 8 ft.
l>i-in. or larger (horizontal) 10 ft.
l>i-in. or larger (vertical) every floor level
When the length of pipe is shorter than that given in the
above table, it should be adequately supported. Wherever
there is a change of direction of 45 deg. or more, or a branched
fitting is used, support should be provided on at least one side
of the bend or fitting, preferably within 6 in. of this point, unless
other supports render this unnecessary.
Fastening Pipe. — Only such metal pipe straps, iron hooks,
hook plates, or hangers suitable for the size of pipe to be secured,
and of standard strength and quality, should be used for sup-
porting piping. Pipe straps or iron hooks should not be used
for fastening pipe of a size over 2 in. Beyond this size,
when the pipe is horizontal and is to be fastened to the flqpr
joists or beams, pipe hangers should be used; when the pipe is
horizontal and is to be fastened to the wall, hook plates should
be used. In the case of a vertical pipe over 2 in. in size, a
strap made of band iron fashioned on the job, or a standard
form of prepared band strap, securely fastened to the wall
should be employed.
Cutting Timbers. — When, in running pipe, it is necessary
to cross-wood joints or beams, they should be notched as little
as possible, but never to a depth of more than one-fifth of the
depth of the timber. This notching shall be as close as possible
to a point of support of the timber, and should in no case be
further from a support than one-sixth of the total unsupported
span of the timber. Where feasible, the piping should be run
so that only timbers having the shortest spans shall be cut.
GRADING PIPING, ETC.
All piping should be graded, preferably not less than J^ in.
in 16 ft., to prevent traps, and also to prevent level runs as far
as practicable. All horizontal pipes should grade to vertical
pipes. In each case where no practicable method for avoiding a
trap in a piping system is known to the gas fitter, the gas com-
pany should be consulted and advice secured as to the best
method of avoiding the diMculty.
230 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Safeguarding Trapped Piping. — If no practicable method for
avoiding a trap in piping is found, a T with a proper length
nipple and cap should be provided at the lowest point on the
trapped portion to facilitate removal of any condensed Uquid.
Such drips should be installed only in such locations that the
outlet of the drip will be readily accessible to permit cleaning
or emptying. The size of any drip used should be determined
by the capacity and the exposure of the piping which drains
to it.
Passing Offsets in Walls. — When the thickness of a wall has
been increased, and it is necessary to offset a vertical pipe, the
ofifset should not be made around the projection by the use of
right-angle fittings, but should be made with 45-deg. fittings
in order to reduce the likelihood of stoppage.
When the point of ofifset is accessible, as in the case of a
foundation wall, the upper fitting should be a 45-deg. ell and
the lower a 45-deg. Y-bend. The branch of the Y should be
vertical, and the lower **run" opening should be plugged.
When the ofifset is not accessible, or when there is a change of
direction necessitating a plugged T with a short distance below
the lower ofifset fitting, two 45-deg. fittings should be used.
Painting or Coveiing. — Piping exposed on the outside of
buildings or in a damp location must be carefully cleaned after
installation, and painted with two coats of a pure red-lead
paint or covered with other material equally efifective in pre-
venting corrosion of the metal. Pipe should not be coated or
painted until after the first inspection.
PROTECTION AGAINST STRAINS
Passing through Walls. — Where piping passes through con-
crete, masonry, brick, or tile walls, it should be encased, with
the pipe resting on the bottom of the casing pipe to provide at
least J^-in. clearance above it. The space above the pipe
should be packed with mineral wool or other incombustible
material to afiford a fire stop, but care should be taken to avoid
packing above the pipe in such a way that settling of the wall
will produce excessive strain.
Basement Piping. — Pipe should not be run in coal bins or in
other parts of a basement where wood, lumber, or other material
is likely to be stored against it or to subject it to strain. Pipe
which is run in a cellar should be hung from the ceiling and not
supported on the walls.
GAS FITTING 231
PROHIBITED FITTINGS
Unions may not be used on concealed piping. When neces-
sary to reconnect piping, the connection should be made with a
right and left coupling or with a running thread with suitable
lock nut.
The use of bushings is not recommended. When necessary
to connect two sizes of pipe, a reducing fitting is preferable, but
a hexagonal head bushing may be employed if necessary.
Swing joints on concealed house piping which are made by the
use of combination of fittings should not be used.
Location of Meter. — The meter end of the main supply line
should be so located that the meter can be installed in a stand-
ard manner.
Fitting at Lower End of Vertical Supply Line. — The lower end
of a vertical supply line, if accessible, should be equipped with a
T (or cross) having a full-sized, plugged opening looking down
to permit access for removing stoppages.
Objectionable Locations for Outlets. — Outlets must not be
placed back of swinging doors or close to window or door frames,
or any other place where good practice forbids. This rule
is intended to prevent the installation of light brackets or other
fixtures in locations where curtains or draperies may be ignited.
Minimum Size of Outlets. — When an outlet is placed on a
supply pipe before it is known what size of pipe will be con-
nected to it, the outlet should be of the same size as the line
which supplies it, or, if other lines are also supplied through the
same fitting, at least as large as the smallest of the other lines
suppHed.
Size of Outlets for Public Buildings and Display Windows. —
Ceiling outlets in churches, stores, theaters, or other places of
assembly, or in rooms where ceilings are 20 ft. in height or over,
or in display or show windows, should not be less than J^-in.
This rule is necessary to provide adequate support for large
fixtures which may be used in such locations.
Over-size Outlets Recommended. — In determining the size
of outlet to allow, any anticipated increase in the consumption
of gas should be taken into account.
Projection of Outlets. — Outlets on concealed piping should
project beyond the finished wall or ceiling (or in a suitable
recess in the case of recessed fittings), so that all of the threads
required are clear and available for use, and there is sufficient
wrench space on the unthreaded portion of the pipe; and the
232 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
pipe should be run far enough from floor and walls to permit
the use of a suitable size wrench without straining or bending
the pipe. ,
When the type of appliance to be secured to the drop requires
a longer projection, allowance should be made for such equip-
ment at the time of the installation of the piping. Where
combination fixtures or recessed baseboard fittings are used,
the threads on the piping should be clear of the back plate of
the outlet box.
Outlet Fittings. — Outlets on concealed piping for drops and
brackets, and such short outlets as cannot give the wrench space
described in paragraph (a), should be made by the use of drop
ells or by fittings which provide the means for rigidly securing
them in place; or the pipe may be bent.
Fastening Outlets. — In every case outlets should be so
installed that they cannot become displaced in the wall or
ceiling. When an outlet is to be placed between joists, beams
or studs, the outlet fitting should be secured to a strut fastened
between the joists or studs, in order to prevent the fixture
from swinging and straining the joint.
Closing Outlets. — Each outlet should be securely closed gas-
tight with a threaded iron plug or cap immediately after instal-
lation. In no case should the outlet be closed with lead caps
or plugs. When an appliance is removed from an outlet, and
the outlet is not to be used again immediately, it should be
securely closed gas-tight with a threaded iron plug or cap.
Installations for Stores and Places of Assembly. — The gas
company and proper administrative authority should be con-
sulted in advance on all details of installations which di£Per
from the ordinary house-lighting practice in volume of gas
required or any special features.
Leaks and Emergency Repairs. — In case of leaks or emer-
gency repairs, keep all sources of ignition away and notify the
gas company and proper administrative authority as quickly as
possible.
WHEN GAS MAY BE TURNED ON
Meter or Line Cock to be Used. — A gas fitter who is not in
the employ of the gas company should not turn the gas on
except at the meter cock or a line cock, unless special permission
is granted to him by the gas company. A gas fitter should not
turn the gas on at any meter cock without specific permission
GAS FITTING 233
from the gas company or the proper administrative authority
if any of the following conditions prevail:
1. If the piping, appliances, or meter supplied through the
cock are known to leak or to be defective.
2. If the piping or appliances supplied are required to be
inspected and have not been inspected.
3. If the proper administrative authority or the gas company
have requested that the gas be left turned off.
4. If the meter cock is found shut off, unless the gas fitter has
himself shut it off, or knows that it was shut off by the customer
to prevent leakage, and the cause of the leakage has been
repaired by the gas fitter. If the gas is found turned off for
other cause or for some reason not known to the gas fitter, then
he should secure permission from the gas company before
turning on the gas.
When Gas Fitter Should Not Turn Gas on at Line Cock. — A
gas fitter should not turn the gas on at any line cock if any of
the conditions described in 1, 2 or 3 in paragraph above, prevail.
However, if a line cock is found closed, he may at the request
of the customer again turn gas on at such cock if proper
precautions are taken to prevent leakage and if no unsafe
conditions are thereby established.
Gas should not be turned on at either a line cock or meter
cock unless a gas-burning appliance is connected to the piping
system supplied.
PROCEDURE WHEN TURNING GAS ON
When turning gas into any line or piping system a gas fitter
shall exercise the greatest care, and shall observe every precau-
tion indicated in this section :
Gas Fitter to do Work Himself. — A gas fitter, when turning
gas on, should personally observe the precautions indicated;
no helper or other person should be directed or allowed to turn
gas on unless his work is closely supervised by the gas fitter
who should be personally on the job at the time when the work
is done.
Procedure when Gas Is Turned On. — A gas fitter should
observe the following procedure when gas is turned on at any
meter cock:
Determine by actual inspection in every part of the buildings
supplied through this cock that all appliances, including pilot
flames, have been turned off and that no outlets on the piping
234 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
are open. If impossible to enter all rooms personally to do this,
the occupants should be consulted to determine whether any
persons are asleep in the building. If it is not possible to
determine with certainty that no one is in the rooms which
cannot be visited to examine appliances, and that there is no
burner open in the room, the gas should not be turned on until
this is possible.
Notice of Shut- off to Proper Administrative Authority and to
Gas Company. — In case a gas fitter shuts the- gas off, he should
immediately notify the gas company and the proper administra-
tive authority of the character and the cause of the action
taken^ in order that they may not inadvertently restore service
without elimination of the hazards noted.
When Gas Shall be Shut Off. — A gas fitter should turn the
gas off from any appliance, pipe, or piping system, and, re-
gardless of the wishes of the user thereof, should leave the
gas turned off, until the cause for interrupting the supply has
been removed in any one of the following cases:
1. If ordered to do so by the proper administrative authority.
2. If leakage of gas is noted which appears to be sufi&cient to
cause danger of fire, explosion, or asphyxiation.
3. If he finds an installation of some gas appliance such as to
cause a serious personal or property hazard because of incom-
plete combustion, of fire, or of air in piping.^
Procedure When Turning Gas Off. — When necessary to turn
gas off, a gas fitter should use the meter cock, or a line cock
which affects only part of the piping of a single customer; he
should not turn the gas off at the service cock or curb cock unless
authorized to do so by the gas company or in the event of an
emergency.
Customer to be Warned Before Gas is Shut Off. — Before gas
is shut off from any line or piping, all customers or their respon-
sible representatives whose service is affected should (except in
emergencies) be advised that the gas is to be shut off and told
to shut off all appliance cocks. They should be warned not to
open any appliance cocks until again notified the service has
been restored. Customers should be particularly warned not
to attempt to turn the gas on at the meter cock or line cock
which for any cause has been closed by the gas fitter.
1 This is a most serious consideration, and requires thought and judgment
on the part of the gas fitter. If in doubt, he should turn the gas off for safety
and consult the proper administrative authority or the gae company at onoe.
GAS FITTING 235
Procedure. — When, to permit gas JStting or appliance work
to be done, gas is to be turned off from any piping system, the
following procedure should be observed, except in case of an
emergency which requires immediate shutting off of supply:
1. Identify the cock or meter through which the gas is
supplied by noting whether any tag or mark indicates which
piping system or part thereof is supplied through it. (If
more than one piping system is supplied from a single service,
or if only a part of a system is to be shut off, great care should
be exercised to make certain that the correct valve or cock is
closed.)
2. Light a burner connected to the line from which it is
desired to shut off the gas.
3. Close the cock or valve.
4. Note that the gas has actually gone out at the burner and
that no gas is flowing from the burner; then shut off this burner.
5. If g£is continues to flow through this burner, either the
wrong cock or valve has been closed or there is a leak in the
cock or valve. If the wrong cock or valve has been closed,
service should be restored on that line or system of piping,
only after observing all the requirements listed under the
heading, "Procedure When Turning on Gas."
If the valve or cock passes gas when it is apparently closed, a
cock or valve preceding it in the supply line must be closed and
the defective cock or valve repaired. However, if the defective
cock or valve is the meter cock, then the gas fitter should notify
the gas company of the defect; a gas fitter not in the employ
of the gas company should not attempt to repair the meter
cock. Until the defective cock or valve has been repaired, no
opening should be made in the piping system.
Testing for Tightness. — When piping is to be tested for
tightness by the application of air pressure, an air pump and
mercury gage may be used. The gage must be adequate in
length for the pressure required, and be of such design that the
height of the column of mercury can be measured with accuracy.
The tube or tubes must be of uniform size, with all passages
full-^ize and unobstructed. The pump and gage should be so
attached to the piping that the gage can be watched during the
raising of the pressure. All line cocks or valves on the system
tested should be open, and all obstructions removed from the
pipes, so that pressure may be applied during the test up to all
outlets.
236 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
If the column of mercury does not fall by a sufficient amount
to be detectable during the test period, the piping is satis-
factory; but if the column of mercury falls by a sufficient
amount to be detectable during the test period, a leak is
indicated.
Searching for Leaks. — If a piping system is leaking, the
exact location of the leak may in every case be determined by
the use of one or more of the following methods:
If air has been used.
1. By listening for the hissing sound of escaping air,
2. By passing the hand over and around the piping.
3. By applying a solution of soap and water to the exterior of
the system. Leaks will be indicated by the appearance of
bubbles of air, these continuing to form until the liquid dries.
(This is the most sensitive and desirable procedure.)
If gas has been used :
1. By applying a solution of soap and water as described in
the preceding paragraph.
2. By the sense of smell.
In no case should a flame be used when searching for a leak.
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
Work with Gas Off. — Gas-fitting, appliance installation, and
repair work must be done with the gas turned off, so that the
danger from leakage during the work will be a minimum, except
as provided in the following paragraph.
Working on Pipes Filled with Gas. — Work which involves
removal of an appliance of unscrewing of a cap, plug or pipe
which will open an outlet and permit the escape of gas, should
never be done without shutting the gas off, except in emergency
cases where interruption of the service is impracticable, and
unless the work can be done without danger to life and property
with the gas on.
It is suggested that when working on pipes filled with gas,
outlets larger than %-in. size, and pressures in excess of 10 in.
of water, be not handled except by a specialist. In any event
the following precautions must be observed :
1. Determine the location of the meter cock or line cock by
which the gas supply to the proposed opening is controlled and
see that it is in working order.
2. Make sure that no fire or flame or spark-emitting device
GAS FITTING 237
of any kind is near enough to set fire to the gas which may
escape.
3. Determine that even the slight escape of gas expected will
not be injurious to persons, especially invalids or small children.
4. Examine the threads to be used, to make sure the opening
can be quickly and tightly closed.
5. Have at hand a plug of rubber or other suitable material
to fit snugly into the opening.
6. Make sure that no lighted burners or pilots lights supplied
from the line to be opened are turned so low that they may go
out or flash back because of the sudden drop m pressure in the
pipe when it is opened.
7. After the work has been completed, all appliances shall
be examined and any pilot lights and burners which may have
been extinguished relighted or turned off.
One Man Shall Not Work Alone. — In any one of the follow-
ing conditions, there should be more than one man present, one
of whom should be in such location that he is not exposed to
any possible asphyxiating influence from the escaping gas:
1. When necessary to make installations, repairs, or do other
work on piping filled with live gas.
2. When work is done in a gassy atmosphere.
3. When work is done in any confined space where gas may
accumulate, or in any space not readily accessible, e.g.j where
the gas fitter must lie down or assume a cramped position.
Safety Lights to be Provided. — Every gas fitter should be
provided with an approved electric flash lamp or safety lamp,
which is adequately protected to prevent explosion or fire if
used in a gassy atmosphere. No other type of lamp should be
used in such atmosphere, when searching for a leak, or when
working on piping filled with live gas.
GAS APPLIANCES, DOMESTIC
Gas appliances usual for domestic use include, hot plates,
ranges, water heaters, garbage incinerators, gas iron, space
heaters, mangles; and portables such as chafing dishes, perco-
lators, egg boilers, cake griddles, toasters, and nursery burners.
In all gas ranges, the cooking operations are carried out with
the maximum of economy and efficiency, and in a manner most
satisfactory from the standpoint of cleanliness, ease and
culinary satisfaction. The following are types of hot plates
and ranges:
238 PLUMBEHS' HANDBOOK
The Hot Plate (Fig. 167). — An appliance having one, two,
three or more t«p burners on which boihng or frying can be
The Cooker (Fig. 168).— An appliance having several top
burners and one oven containing two bumeis; one for roasting
and baking, and one for broiling.
The Double-oven Range.— (Fig. 169), An appliance having
at least four top burners and two ovens below the cooking
'op; one for roasting and baking, and one for broiling.
GAS FITTING
240 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
The Cabinet Rai^e {Fig. 170). — An appliance having at
least four top burners and separate broiling and roasting ovens.
Made in many sizes and styles, with oven right- or left-hand,
and with or without additional warming closet.'
The following are types of water heaters:
1. The Circulating -water Heater (Fig. 171). — An appliance
containing a burner and e, beating medium which may be a
coil of copper or a cast metal section. The heater ie attached
to the kitchen boiler and is made in various sizes.
2. The Automatic Combination Boiler and Water Heater
{Fig. 172). — An appliance consisting of boiler and circulating-
water heater in one. The heater is controlled automatically
by a thermostat to keep water in the insulated boiler at a desired
temperature. Bumere operate only when water falls below
'he desired temperature. They are made in various eizea.
GAS FITTING 241
3. The Instantaneous Water Beater (Fig. 173).— An appli-
ance ftttaohed to the house hot-water system containing copper
heating coils and burners, and having automatic control.
This heater is automatically turned on by the opening of any
hot-water outlet on the system, delivering hot water instantane-
ously. Closing the water tap ahnts the burner off. A thermo-
stat is provided to control the maximum temperature of the
water delivered. Made in various sizes.
Fto. 173.
Tbe Antoniatic Instantaneous Storage Heater (Fig. 174).
An appliance combining the advantages of the instantaneous
beater and the automatic heater and supplied with storage
capacity. Made in various sizes.
The Automatic Hqt-water Storage System with Tubular
Gas Boiler (Fig. 175). — An appliance for heating tbe water by
direct circulation to a storage tank; automatically and thermo-
statically controlled. Made in various sizes.
IS
242 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
GAS FITTING 243
HOUSE HEATING
A great demand has been made in recent years for gaa for
house and apace heating, and because of its many distinct
advantages, the demand will increase from year to year.
Fio. 177.
Among the great variety of gas room heaters, two, representing
distinct types, are shown:
The Tubular Gas Boiler (Fig. 176). — An appliance
intended for a central house-heating system for heating all
244 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
types and sizes of buildings. They are flexible, because it is
possible to enlarge their capacity to meet any increased require-
ments. They require no attention when equipped with thermo-
static control; by means of this arrangement, the temperature
in a room may be maintained at any point as long as desired
and lowered or raised at any predetermined time by means of
the clock attachment. The boiler can be obtained for either
hot water, vapor, or steam heat. It is installed in the cellar,
and is connected to the existing house piping for any of the
systems.
The Radiant Heater (Fig. 177). — An appliance admirable
for room heating. It is instantaneous in action, the radiants
becoming immediately incandescent and throwing out a flood
of radiant heat.
GAS APPLIANCES: INDUSTRIAL
Largely because of the coal situation, the attention of the
manufacturing world has been directed in recent years to the
uses of artificial gas for all industrial purposes. Manufacturers
are rapidly realizing the vast superiority of gas for manufactur-
ing purposes over all other fuels, and the demand for gas-burn-
ing appliances and gas systems adequate for their purposes is
assuming huge proportions. The superiority of gas for indus-
trial purposes is manifested by its perfect heat control, which
is not practicable with other fuel, its space economy, reliability
of supply, and its wonderful flexibility. The uses of gas in the
business world are many and manifold. To recount the uses
to which gas has been put would necessitate the reciting of
every well known manufacturing process. One illustration of
the great advances that have been made since the use of gas
has attracted manufacturers, is in the process of metal melting.
This formerly was done by solid or liquid fuel. Today, practi-
cally all metal melting is done by gas, and its superiority is
made evident by the greater and more rapid output which can
be secured, because of the perfect heat control of the gas, and
the absolute assurance of its continuity of quality and quantity
of supply. The following are a few of the many appliances used
in the industrial field :
The Gas Premiz Burner (Pig. 178). — An appliance con-
sisting of a motor-driven blower with means of proportioning
the air and gas supplied at the inlet of the blower. The air
and gas are mechanically mixed within the blower, and the
GAS FITTING 245
mixture ia driven through the nozzle, where complete comoustion
is secured. The appliance combines certain principles, well
established by scienti&c research, for obtaining complete com-
bustion at the nozzle where the heat ia required within the
furnace. It ia specially designed so that its several types or
Fw. 178.
siaes may be efficiently applied to any of the various pattfima
and sizes of furnaces and ovens.
The Application of a Premiz Burner to a Direct-fired Bake
Oven (Fig. 179). — Exterior view showing method of installing
motor fan set, on front wall of oven.
Gas-flred Automatic Steam Boiler (Fig. 180). — An appli-
ance consisting of a central drum or steam pipe, 5 in, or more
246 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
GAS FITTING
248 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
in diameter, of heavy boiler steel. The drum is capped with
a heavy steel casting from which extends three arms which
support the boiler in the boiler casing. The coils are made of a
special grade of steel pipe. They are coiled at a pitch of 1^^
in., giving rapid circulation and preventing clogging. This
boiler has been installed in almost every industry with wonder-
ful results.
A Muffle Furnace or Oven (Fig. 181).— One of the many
uses of gas in the industrial field.
Hotel Gas-flred Kitchen Range (Fig. 1S2). — These
appliances, on account of their vast superiority, are rapidly
replacing coal ranges in hotels and restaurant kitchens. They
can be made up in batteries consisting of any number of sec-
tions. Used with ranges, are gaa broilers, salamanders,
griddles, warming tables; in fact all the larger hotels are using
exclusively gas burning appliances in flie kitchen.
Flo. 183. Fio. IM.
LIGHTING FIXTURES
In recent years the development of fixtures and units, using
the incandescent mantle, has been so wide that now a unit or
fixture may be secured suitable for any purpose. The home,
the factory, the store, even the street may be illuminated with
gas in as correct a manner as with any other illuminant, and
with far greater economic and hygienic results. Four of the
many types are shown.
GAS FITTING 249
SmaU Hanae Unit Suitable for the Home (Fig. IS3).—
Can be secured with a wide variety of glass ware or silk shades.
Semi -indirect Unit (Fig. 184). — Can be secured in many
sizes, fisishee and designs. It is the ideal light for the home,
giving a soft, well-diffused illuminatJop, absolutely free from
eye strain.
Portable Lamp (Fig. 185). — Can be had in a great variety
of sizes, from the large floor standard down to the small boudoir
Large Huifl« Unit (Fig. 186). — Suitable for shops,
factories, foundries, and all mercantile establishments. Can
be equipped with many types of reflectors and shades according
to the requirements of the installation.
PLUHBING FIXTURES
WATER CLOSETS
Closet BowU. — Bowls tor water closets are made of non-
absorbent material, glazed inside of the trap as well aa inside
of the bowl. There should be no fouling space. The back
edge of seat opening should be directly over standing water
in the bowl. Holes in the flushing rim are so arranged that
Fia. 187.
Htreams of water will thoroughly wash all inside parts of the
bowl. When the flushing process starts, the surface of the
water in the bowl should recede and not rise. Bowls are
made of enamelled iron or vitreous material. Accurate meas-
urements can always be had so that the rough work for waste
and water supply can be run to the correct points. The outlet
end of bowl can be made tight to waste pipe by means of a brass
flange and rubber or asbestos gasket. PvUy jointe should never
250
PLUMBING FIXTURES
251
be made. The latest type of bowl is made without the extended
lip on the outlet; therefore a connection similar to that in
Fig. 188 must be used to make a tight joint. Figure 189 shows
pipe connections.
To meet sanitary requirements, the closet bowl should be
made of non-absorbent material with glazed finish, and free
from any kind of mechanical obstruction. It must have no
fouling surfaces that may come in contact with excremental
matter. It must hold sufficient water to cover entirely any
excremental matter that is deposited. It must be supplied
WipcdJdinta
6ra»s Ferrule
Ca5+ Iron
Ex+en+ion
Solder N ipple
Wiped Joint
^m^^j^^^^^^i
Wrought Iron
Extent! on
Fig. 189.
with suflBcient volume and velocity of water so that its entire
contents are removed and the bowl refilled with clean water.
Bowls. — There are three kinds of water-closet bowls:
1. Syphon jet.
2. Syphon action.
3. Hoppers.
1. Syphon jets have the most positive action when flushed.
They are so called from the small jet of water that is discharged
from the bottom of the bowl trap into the discharge arm of
trap. Two jets are sometimes provided. The outlet of the
bowl is so constructed with bends in the outlet that the water
is held back sufficiently long to fill completely the outlet arm
and start syphonic action; this action, together with the force
of the jet, makes the action of this bowl positive. Flush
connection can be either on the top, side, or back. It can be
flushed with a low or high tank or direct-flush valve. From
3 to 6 gal. are required for each flush, to cleanse thoroughly
and refill the trap and bowl. See drawing 187 for cross-section
of closet bowl.
2. Syphon-action bowls are so named from the action of
the discharge, which is syphonic. Water discharged into the
bowl through the rim completely fills the outlet arm, and
252
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
syphonic action is started and bowl emptied of contents.
Trap is then resealed by clean water.
3. Hopper bowls are funnel shaped, and set on a trap. This
type of bowl has a flushing rim; and contents of the trap under-
neath the bowl are discharged by the rush of water at each
flush.
Flushing Tanks and Valves. — Water-closet bowls are flushed
with clean water by the use of a tank or specially constructed
valve. Individual-closet bowls, when flushed by the use of a
high tank, should be provided with a flush pipe of at least 1 J^
in. for syphon action and syphon jet. The flush should be 1 J^
in. inside diameter. When a low-down tank is used, the flush
pipe should be 2 in. inside diameter. Slip joints are used on
flush pipes.
Over^ouk^
r^
Direct
Flush
Operafma
Lever
\m.
F
Fig. 190.
Flush -pipe material is brass tubing, plain, nickle plated, white
enamelled, or lead. Tanks for flushing purposes are made of
wood copper lined, or of cast or sheet steel, enamelled. Capac-
ity of these tanks should be from 5 to 8 gal. Tank outlet or
discharge is by means of a large way valve. City buildings
require less water to flush each water closet and carry the dis-
charge to the sewer than country buildings or large estates
require. Where the discharge from a water closet has to be
carried a long distance before it encounters water from other
fixtures, as in the case of country buildings, more water is
required than where a short run is available.
Tanks and Flushing Devices. — Flush tanks for water closets
and urinals, are constructed of enamelled or vitreous iron.
These materials are water-proof, strong, and sanitary. Each
PLUMBING FIXTURES
253
tank is provided with a water-supply inlet valve and a flush
outlet valve (see Fig. 190). Operation of tank is by means of
chain pull, push button, lift handle, or seat action. Water
inlet valve is controlled by copper float ball. Each tank should
be provided with an overflow. The supply valve, when on
high pressure, should be of the type that utilizes the water
pressure to keep valve closed.
Flush tanks are discharged by syphonic action (see Fig. 191)
or by the use of slow closing valves (see Fig. 190). The latter
are better for syphon-jet hoioh. A tank should discharge sufli-
cient water to carry out the contents of the bowl to which it is
Tank
Cha/h
Pa// -'-
Fig. 191.
attached; also to refill the bowl with clean water. The capacity
of a flush tank is determined by noting the number of gallons
held in the closet bowl and adding to that the number of gallons,
necessary to flush the bowl completely, which is about 2 gal.
Flush tanks can be hung in the room with the bowl (see Fig.
195) ; or directly in back of the bowl on the opposite side of a
partition is a space provided for them (see Fig. 198), and the
flush pipe can extend through wall and attach to bowl. This
arrangement is very good practice, as it keeps away from
the mechanical parts all meddlers, and provides at the same
time easy access for the mechanic. Provision should be made
in the building material for walls upon which the tank are to be
hung to hold the tank securely in place. Wood strips the width
of the tank should be built in plastered walls. Screws ai*e used
254 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
to hold tank to plastered walls. Toggle bolts or bolt« with
nuts are used on terra-cotta walls. ExpaiiBion bolts are used
on brick, tUe, or cement walls (see "Hangera," Figs. 118 and
119).
Tanks are supplied with water through ball cocks. The
ball float automatically regulates the level of the water in the
tank. Valves which utilize the water pressure to asHiat in
closing them, should be installed where high pressures are
used.
Fio. 194.
Flush Valves. — Closet bowls can be flushed by the use of
direct-connected valves (see Fig. 196) designed for this special
use. These valves require large sized pipe to furnish volume
rather than pressure of water, to operate them properly.
About 100-lb. pressure with a ?i-in. supply is not as good as
60-lb. with l!^-in. supply. These valves can be regulated to
pass from 3 to 10 gal. of water at each operation. Discharge
lasts 9 to 15 sec. These valves can also be used on slop sinks
and urinals. A separate system of supply should be installed
for two or moce direct flush valves. To proportion the siie pipe
PLUMBING FIXTURES
256 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
necessary for a number of valves, each valve should be figured as
equivalent to l-in. pipe.
ExampU.—'WbB.t, size main pipe should be nin to supply fifteen
l-io. direot^oonnected flush valves?
Solution.— Reter to Table 44, "Relative DiBcharginB Capacities
of Pipes." In the vertical column under 1 in. and at the intersection
of horisontal line of 3 in., will be found 15, which means that 3-in.
pipe will supply Rfteeu I'in. pipes.
BATH TUBS
Bath tubs are manufactured In three distinct types:
1. Built-in-bath.
2. Bath-on-baBe.
3. Bath-on-leg8.
These three patterns are each manufactured in various com
binations, making them, therefore, flexible tor inBtallation i
any kind of building or shaped room. (See page 345.)
PLUMBING FIXTURES 257
Bailt-in-bath, as shown in Figs. 199 and 227, is manufactured
to fit in a comer, sgainet a flat wall or in a, recess. The line
drawings, Figs. 200 and 228, show these various combinations
of placement, waste, and supply position. These tubs are
enamelled inside and outside, and are made in one piece with
^ ^ ^ 1^
^ ^ '^ ^
1^ ^J ^3
^ ^ ^ ^
Fia. 200.
all unfinished edges flanged, and extended somewhat to fit in
beyond the finished surface of the walls of the room. Exact
measurements must be obtained from manufacturer for the
particular tub that is to be installed (for sizes of tub see Fig.
202J.
258 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Waste. — This tub can be fitted with any one of the following
styles of waste and overflow. The ideal waste is one that has
the least amount of fouhng surface on the fixture side of the
trap. The plug and chain waste and connected overflow can
be used. To lieep the waste stopper and chain clean, is entirely
in the hands of the user. The pop-up waste and connected
overflow presents the least amount of fouhng surface, and can
be arranged with a remote control, leaving the tube free from
any brass work. The bi-transit or hft waste, is used to some
extent, but its use is not recommended. This type of waste
and overflow is insanitary, having a large fouling surface which
cannot be cleaned.
Supplies.— The bell supply is a desirable one, aa it requires no
abrupt brass work inside the tub. A brass disk with slot in the
Fio. 201.
bottom is all that is fitted into the tub. The controlling valvea
and handles either extend through the rim, extend up outside
the rim, or through the finished wall above the tub.
The top nozzle supply is used when a shampoo attachment is
desired. This fitting is also convenient when necessary to draw
water from the bath Into a receptacle.
The combination bath cock, (see Fig. 201) fitted with "fuller"
or "compression" stops, is a much cheaper supply, but requires
about 3 in. of space inside the tub.
BaUt-on-base is shown in Fig. 201. The base on the tub
prevents the accumulation of dust and dirt under the tub. The
exterior finish of these tubs is generally paint and enamel
applied at the factory. Roughing-in for these tubs is shown
in Fig. 202. The tub can be fitted with plug and chain waste.
PLUMBING FIXTURES
pop-up waate, or the bi-transit waste. The last two can be
arranged to extend through the rim or outside the rim.
The bell supply, nozzle supply,
be used for supplies.
' combination cocks can
260 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Bath-on-legs is shown in Pig. 203. This type of tub is a
much cheaper tub than the above mentioned ooes. The
material in the tub is no cheaper, but the type and set up
permits it to be sold at a lower price. The exterior finish,
waste, and suppUee are the same as those used with the bath
with base.
SINKS
Sinks for kitchen use should be made of material that is
non-absorbent and hna a smooth finish. This material must
be of such character that it will withstand hot and cold water.
The materials in common use for sinks are enamelled iron,
earthenware, cast iron, slate, soapstone, and copper.
PiQ. 204.
Sinks for kitchen use are provided with drain boards and
splash back. The height at which the top of sink should be
placed above the floor is 30, 32, 34, or 36 in. Figures 204 and
206 show, two enamelled iron sinks built in one piece. The
necessary measurements for roughing-in sinks are given in
Figs. 205 and 207. These measurements, with the necessary
change of number of particular sink to be installed, should be
given to the mechanic who is to install the fixture before he
starts work. Figure 229 shows a solid porcelain sink. Sinks
are supported by legs and brackets, which should be adjustable.
PLUMBING FIXTURES
giving a range of 2 to 3 in. for raising or lowering sink to fit
rough work.
The waste outlet for einks should be brass pipe, iron-pipe
size; thus making a threaded-joint connection between sink
trap and waste pipe line. The joint between sink and trap
262
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
should be with a lock nut and gasket. Slip joints on ihe sewer
side of the trap should never he used. Figure 208 shows the
combinations possible for corner use. Sink bibbs should be
^
IC
I
— o
CO
:7
I5''-H
^
mm
CM
nKi I ill «»
'is
■ >■■■■■■■■ »l
t
-ST*
S>N
I6>2«
isiia
I8>24
IB>30
I8i36
2O>20
*20d4
20>30
20O6
20>4O
'72t3(i*22i3e
22i42
o
8"
»'
<•
9'
9*
19-
10"
10-
10'
10'
lli 11*
II'
L
H'
16"
24'
30-
36*
20-
24'
30-
36'
40*
30' 36
42"
W
16'
16'
1«'
18-
18-
20-
20-
20'
20'
20*
22' 22-
22-
C«i4*NtohinMM8iMkNtfMR.MMni|M Kim lr«n kp d ria It tailMD d I
Fig. 207.
©
®
Fig. 208.
placed over the outlet of the sink. Plain cast-iron sinks are
used for ice-box drips, cellar sinks, and for factories. Slate
and soapstone sinks are used in places where grease will not
PLUMBING FIXTURES
1
■sr
.
L
o
1
c
"
•
T
«.L-J
nm
m
w
»
«!■
7i'
■.'
*
..r ..!■
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
■t^
^
^
m
. ,
r
L
1
1)
V
n
;:
|ife,ut..a»nc«t,|;iil
FlO. 212.
PLUMBING FIXTURES 265
1
— TT
i
1
CI
^
J
--tf^
.^
~1
■
■-T
r'
1
1
f
!)
'
>MjW
r"
"Z
c
"T
S >',
,'..!
■",
•r
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PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
^
^5^'
^:^\^
\ r"-
in-
.. 1
n -
fc^r
^
PLUMBING FIXTURES
=^
266 PLUMBEBB' HANDBOOK
^
^^1
PLUMBING FIXTURES 267
be used. In chemical and photographic laboratories, theae Ednks
can be used to advantage.
Pantry Sinks. — Copper sinks should be used tor pantries.
Pantry sinks are fitted with a standing waste and overflow
which is recessed in the back or one end. Water supply is
through long, goose-neck faucets.
Vegetable sinks ot solid porcelain are about 36 in. by 24 in.
by 9 in. deep, and they have an arrangement for drip,
Fia. 217.
recess waste, and pan which holds water for washing the
vegetables. Faucets are the same as in the ordinary kitchen
sink. The weight ot one sink ia about 350 lb.
Lavatories .^The word "lavatory" has two meanings;
(1) to identify a room in which are located wash bowls, bath
tubs or showers; (2) to identify a fixture used for washing
hands.
Lavatory fixtures may be divided in two classes: (1) types
which have backs and are supported from the wall (see Figs.
213, 215 and 217), and (2) those without backs, which are
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
PLUMBING FIXTURES
269
Bupported from the floor with a pedestal (see Figs. 209, 211, 218
and 219). There are numerous styles made to fit and accommo-
date the general scheme of toilet rooms. Pedestal lavatoriea
are held in position by a rod which extends up through the
erfkiw Hirj/r
Fig. 221.
floor and pedestal to the under side of the lavatory top, clamp-
ing them all securely together. These lavatories are used to
better advantage in large bath rooms having tiled walls and
floors. RougtuDg-in measurements are shown in Figs. 210 and
212. Most of the pedestal lavatories can be fitted with 1^
270 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
ia place of pedestal. When tbia is done, the top will need
further support from the wall (see Fig. 218). The wall aup-
porled lavatory presents the largest variety of shapes and dses of
lavatories. The flat' back, recess, and comer (as shown io
Figs. 213, 215 and 217) lavatories, are made in numerous
styles and sizes. They can be had with 6-, 8-, and 10-in. backs,
with or without aprons, oval or D-shaped bowls. Roughing-in
Fig. 222.
measurements are shown in Figs. 214 and 216. Figure 220
shows cross-section of bowl with overflow and cleansing-stream
opening.
Drinalsmade to meet sanitary conditions are the (1) pedestal,
Fig. 223, (2) flat back, Fig. 225 and (3) one-piece stall urinal.
Figs. 221 and 222. Trough urinals are used in places that are
more or less exposed to outside air, making odors less objection-
able. Urinals should be made of non-absorbent material and
of shape and size to catch all spatterings of urine. All surfaces
PLUMBING FIXTURES 271
exposed to urine should be washed with clean water at each
flush.
The stall niinal with fan-ehaped flush inlet is recommended
as the most sanitary. The fan-inlet device for water Bush
Fra. 224.
should be so set that streams of water will completely wash
the inside surface of fixture. The stall urinals are of heavy
vitreous or earthenware construction, with base 4 in. thick.
This floor base must set below floor level to provide drainage
of the surrounding floor into urinal outlet. Flooring material
272 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
should be reinforced under urinal to offset the necessary cuttiii|
away of material to accommodate the base. This cutting away
of the flooring material becomes a very important item when a
battery of urinals is eet. Stall urinals are made without a
trap. It is, therefore, necessary for the waste pipe <A each
fixture to extend directly through the floor, and that connection
be there made with trap and drain (see Fig. 226 for roughing-in
Fig. 225.
Traps for urinals should be exposed andi
provided with a brass cleanout plug.
Pedestal urinals are similar to a water-closet bowl except <
that the pedestal is higher {see Fig. 223). The back of thJ8|
urinal is built up higher than the front. The trap, which iai
cast in the pedestal, is connected with the waste pipes in the
same manner as in the water-closet bowl. The receiving bowl
is provided with a flushing rim. Pedestal-type bowls have
been, made with an extended lip for use in toilet rooms for
women. Pedestal urinals are set io three-sided compartments, ,
PLUMBING FIXTURES
A
B
C
O
E
F
9
1 18"
wide Urmal
«lt
IB
9
4h-
|a4"
Wide Urmai
vik
^■k
16
IZ
274
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
with partitions between pedestals 12 in. above floor and 4 ft.
high.
Wall urinals (Fig. 225) are made with trap cast in the lower
part of the fixture, with the outlet extending through the side
wall upon which the fixture is hung. The fixture is held in
place by means of two screws on top and two at the bottom.
The bottom screws are placed one on each side of the outlet,
and are used to draw the fixture close against the packing of
waste pipe to make a water-tight joint.
Flusliing Devices for Urinals. — A 3-gal. tank is sufficiently
large for a urinal flush. Tanks are flushed automatically or
by means of a chain pull. The automatic flush is the most
sanitary, and if plenty of water is available, it should be used.
\ [Left Hand i
^ Corner
r
f^ht&rtamf\ \
Corner
•\
y//u//niu//u////o.
BecQss
\
f/y^/fU/iii/M//f/^.
^
h
/?ec&ss
^\
Fig. 228.
The tank automatic device can be shut off at night. One tank
can be arranged to flush more than one urinal (see Fig. 222).
When this arrangement is made, each urinal-flush pipe should
be fitted with a shut off. In case one fixture is stopped up,
it can be shut off, and the balance in the battery continue in
use. Direct connected flush valves are also used on urinals,
Fig. 221, but as they require operation by hand, they are
unsanitary. These valves can be arranged to operate with a
foot treadle.
LAUNDRY TRAYS
"Tray" is the same word as "trough," differently written,
and is used to designate the trough in domestic use, applied
particularly to the fixture used in the laundry. Laundry trays
are made of a non-absorbent material and of such finish that
it will not be destroyed or harmed by the use of soap, or washing
compounds. A wringer should be attached to the trays by
using a piece of hard wood securely bolted or clamped onto
PLUMBING FIXTURES
276
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
trays, the wringer being attached to the wood. Three part
trays are the most sanitary, allowing a tray for washing and
two for rinsing.
Figure 232 shows a typical set of two part trays, with faucets,
soap dish, wringer support, legs, and trap. Trays are as a rule
manufactured in separate units or multiples to accommodate
Fig. 230A.
[
ro
CM
i=^
^^
<>
^W)
^^
V
I
^23?
2I|
u
kt
•^
-50
2i| — JRr
V.
OulM in floor •
FiQ. 231.
large or small laundries. Tray bibbs are made as short as
possible, with handles on the side, so that they will occupy
little room. A combination of sink and tray, shown in Fig.
230, is for use in small apartment kitchens. In this case the
cover for the tray is used as a drain board for the sink. Figure
234 shows three units together. This set is without back.
Bibbs and soap dish are placed below the rim and occupy
considerable space inside the working space of the tray. Con-
PLUMBING FIXTURES 277
278 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
nection for waBt« between each unit is made by the use ot
bioBB pipe diacharKing into a single trap. Heavy brass bands,
upon which are wringer standards, bold the tray together.
Roughing-in measure men tfi as shown in FigH. 231, 233 and 235,
should be in the hands of workman before installation is started.
Figure 236 shows solid porcelain trays in battery of three units.
M-UMBING FIXTURES 279
Shower Baths. — Showers are divided into three groups:
1. Receptor.
2. StaU.
3. Tub.
The shower receptor is set flush with or on top of the floor,
aod receives the shower spray; a curtain around the spray
confines the water to the receptor. The receptor is connected
to the waste pipes in the same manner as the bath tub.
The stall shower is constructed with marble or slate sides,
and about 3 or 4 ft. square. The sprays can \>e over head or
rain showers; needle sprays or body showers. The floor for
the stall should be of cement or tile made water proof by a lead
The tub shower is a set of sprays arranged over the tub with
the tub acting as a receptor.
To regulate the temperature of water flowing from shower
heads, a mixing valveoperated thermostatically or by graduated
seats, is used. Where one or two showers are installed, a storage
tank for hot water will supply the demand. When a number
of showers are installed, an instantaaeous steam heater is the
most satisfactory. Instantaneous gas heaters can also be
used, one heater taking care of three or four showers.
SWIMMING POOLS
Swimming pools for indoor use can be made to accommodate .
any number of persons, as this is merely a matter of space.
The temperature of the water in a pool should be about 70°,
and sufficient water at high temperature is constantly added
280 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
to replace the heat that is lost through the walls of pool. The
pool should be constructed of heavy reenforced concrete with
white-tile finish. There should be no equipment inside the
pool. The only breaks in the walls should be the inlet water
connection, outlet connection, the waste pipe, and the overflow.
The bottom should be graded to provide water depth of 3
to 8 ft. Shower baths must be provided so that every person
using pool can be cleansed before entering pool.^
Heating water for the pool is accomplished in two ways: (1)
allowing the water to circulate through a coal or gas heater; (2)
circulating the water through a steam-coil heater. Water
for pools should be filtered. The following example gives
method of figuring size of equipment necessary in each of the
above arrangements to heat the water.
Example. — What size grate surface in square feet is required
to warm the water in a pool 60 ft. long 30 ft. wide and 7 ft.
mean depth— water to be raised from 40° to 80° in 24 hr. ?
Solution. — Contents of pool = 60 X 30 X 7 = 12,600 cu. ft.
in 24 hr.
Water to be heated per hour = 12,600 -5- 24 = 525 cu. ft.
Pounds water to be heated per hour = 525 X 62.42 = 32,760 lb.
Rise of temperature of water in pool = 40° to 80 ° = 40**.
B.t.u. transmitted to water per hour = 32,760 X 40 = l,310,40a
Coal necessary 8,333 B.t.u. per pound = 1,310,400 -^ 8,333 =
157.251 lb. 8 lb. coal per square foot of grate = 157.30 -i- 8 =
19.65 lb.
The answer, then, to the first part of the problem would be,
19.6 sq. ft. of grate. Chart 52 on page 283 can be used to ob-
tain the pounds of coal required to heat a given quantity of
water. In the above example, 12,600 cu. ft. X 7.48 gal. =
94,248.00 gal. contents of pool. Chart 52 is based on using
anthracite coal, each pound of which when burned will average
8,333 B.t.u., or 8.6 lb. of water will be evaporated. Eight
pounds of coal is allowed as the consumption per square foot
of grate per hour.
1 "Where a large number of .bathers bathe simultaneously in swimming
pools, it is best to have fresh water flowing into the pool continuously, and
not arrange the warm water supply on the circulation system. Stagnation
of water in a pool renders it less inviting, and is certain to create, ultimately,
insanitary conditions. In open river and sea bathing, water b continuously
changed owing to the motion of the water (currents, tides, waves), and
in artificial tanks a like change of water must be provided to guard against
the dangers of propagation of skin or eye diseases." — Gerhard.
PLUMBING FIXTURES
281
Table 50. — Square Feet of Surface per Lineal Foot
OF Pipe
On all lengths over 1 ft., fractions less than tenths are added
to or dropped.
Length
of pipe
Size of pipe
H
275
1
.346
1H
.434
.494
2
2H
3
4
5
6
7
8
I'
.622
.753
.916
1.175
1.455
1.739
1.996
2.257
2
.5
.7
.9
1.
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.4
2.9
3.5
4.
4.5
3
.8
1.
1.3
1.5
1.9
2.3
2.7
3.5
4.4
5.2
6.
6.8
4
I.I
1.4
1.7
2.
2.5
3.
3.6
4.7
5.8
7.
8.
9.
5
1.4
1.7
2.2
2.4
3.1
3.8
4.6
5.8
7.3
7.7
10.
11.3
6
1.6
2.1
2.6
2.9
3.7
4.5
5.5
7.
8.7
10.5
12.
13.5
7
1.9
2.4
3.
3.4
4.4
5.3
6.4
8.2
10.2
12.1
14.
15.8
8
2.2
2.8
3.5
3.9
5.
6.
7.3
9.4
11.6
13.9
16.
18.
9
2.5
3.1
3.9
4.4
5.6
6.8
8.2
10.6
13.1
15.7
18.
20.3
10
2.7
3.5
4.3
4.9
6.2
7.5
9.1
11.8
14.6
17.4
20.
22.6
11
3.
3.8
4.8
5.4
6.8
8.3
10.
12.9
16.
19.1
22.
24.9
12
3.3
4.1
5.2
5.9
7.5
9.
11.
14.1
17.4
20.9
24.
27.1
13
3.6
4.5
5.6
6.4
8.1
9.8
11.9
15.3
18.9
22.6
26.
29.4
14
3.8
4.8
6.1
6.9
8.7
10.5
12.8
16.5
20.3
24.3
28.
31.6
15
4.1
5.2
6.5
7.4
9.3
11.3
13.7
17.6
21.8
26.1
30.
33.9
16
4.4
5.5
6.9
7.9
10.
12.
14.6
18.8
23.2
27.8
32.
36.1
17
4.7
5.9
7.4
8.4
10.6
12.8
15.5
20.
24.7
29.5
34.
38.4
18
5.
6.2
7.8
8.9
11.2
13.5
16.5
21.2
26.2
31.3
36.
40.6
19
5.2
6.6
8.3
9.4
11.8
14.3
17.4
22.3
27.6
33.1
38.
42.9
20
5.5
6.9
8.7
9.9
12.5
15.
18.3
23.5
29.1
34.8
40.
45.2
21
5.8
7.3
9.1
10.4
13.
15.8
19.2
24.7
30.5
36.5
42.
47.4
22
6.
7.6
9.6
10.9
13.7
16.5
20.2
25.9
32.
38.3
44.
49.7
23
6.3
8.
10.
11.3
14.3
17.3
21.1
27.
33.5
40.
46.
52.
24
6.6
8.3
10.4
II.9
14.9
18.
22.
28.2
34.9
41.7
48.
54.2
25
6.9
8.6
10.9
12.3
15.6
18.8
22.9
29.3
36.3
43.5
50.
56.4
26
7.1
9.
11.3
12.8
16.2
19.5
23.8
30.5
37.8
45.2
52.
58.6
27
7.4
9.4
11.7
13.3
16.8
20.3
24.7
31.7
39.3
47.
54.
61.
28
7.7
9.7
12.2
13.8
17.4
21.
25.6
32.9
40.7
48.7
56.
63.2
29
8.
10.
12.6
14.3
18.
21.8
26.6
34.1
42.2
50.4
58.
65.5
30
8.3
10.4
13.
14.8
18.7
22.5
27.5
35.3
43.6
52.1
60.
67.7
31
8.5
10.7
13.5
15.3
19.3
23.3
28.4
36.4
45.1
53.9
62.
70.
32
8.8
11.1
13.9
15.8
19.9
24.1
29.3
37.6
46.5
55.6
64.
72.2
33
9.1
11.4
14.3
16.3
20.5
24.8
30.2
38.8
48.
47.4
66.
74.4
34
9.4
11.7
14.7
16.8
21.2
25.6
31.1
40.
49.5
59.1
68.
76.7
35
9.6
12.1
15.2
17.3
21.8
26.3
32.
41.1
50.9
60.8
70.
79.
36
9.9
12.5
15.6
17.8
22.4
27.
33.
42.3
52.4
62.6
72.
81.3
37
10.2
12.8
16.1
18.3
23.
27.8
33.9
43.5
53.8
64.3
74.
83.5
38
10.5
13.2
16.5
18.8
23.7
28.5
34.8
44.6
55.2
66.
76.
85.8
39
10.7
13.5
16.9
19.3
24.3
29.3
35.7
45.8
56.7
67.8
78.
88.
40
II.
13.8
17.4
19.8
24.9
30.1
36.6
47.
58.2
69.5
80.
90.2
41
11.3
14.2
17.8
20.3
25.2
30.8
37.6
48.2
59.6
71.3
82.
92.5
42
11.5
14.5
18.2
20.8
26.1
31.6
38.5
49.4
61.1
73.
84.
94.8
43
11.8
14.9
18.7
21.3
26.8
32.3
39.4
50.6
62.5
74.8
86.
97.
44
12.1
15.2
19.1
21.8
27.4
33.1
40.3
51.7
64.
76.5
88.
99.3
45
12.4
15.6
19.5
22.2
28.
33.8
41.2
52.9
65.5
78.2
90.
101.6
46
12.7
15.9
20.
22.7
28.6
34.6
42.2
54.
67.
80.
92.
103.8
47
12.9
16.3
20.4
23.2
29.2
35.3
43.
55.2
68.4
81.7
94.
106.
48
13.2
16.6
20.8
23.7
29.9
36.1
43.9
56.4
69.8
83.5
96.
108.4
49
13.5
17.
21.3
24.2
30.5
36.8
44.8
57.6
71.2
85.1
98.
110.5
50
13.8
17.3
21.7
24.7
31.1
37.6
45.8
58.7
72.7
87.
100.
112.8
NoTB — Above information is quoted from standard authorities.
Not guaranteed.
282 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
The horizontal lines on chart represent water in U. S. gallons,
which may be increased by suitable multiplier, provided the
coal and steam required are increased in tike proportioa. The
figures at the bottom of the vertical tines show the coal required,
each line representing 10 lb., and those at the top, the steam
generated by the consumption ot the quantity of coal on the
same vertical Une — each line representing 86 lb. oF steam. The
diagonal lines represent the rise or increase in temperature of
the water per hour in Falirenheit degrees.
TabijE 51. — Heatinq Power of Brass and Iron Pipe fob
For use with low-pressure steam, up to 10 lb. by gage.
" factor of safely " ot 50 per cent is included, to allow
fouling of pipe
Temperature difference in Fahrenheit degrees between steam
in coil and mean or average temperature of water in tank.
PLUMBING FIXTURES
283
SUOHDOS'n "! JS+D/VS
284 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Solviion of Above Example. — Refer to chart. It is found that
the horizontal line marked 1,000 gal. intersects the 40** diagonal
line at the 40-lb. vertical line, showing that 40 lb. of coal are
required to add 40° to 1,000 gal. of water. Then 94,000 gal.
will require 94 times as much coal, or 3,760 lb. Following the
same procedure, the balance, or 248 gal., will require about 10
lb., which is added to the 3,760 lb., making in all 3,770 lb. of
coal to be burned.
Having 24 hr. in which to heat the pool, divide 3,770 by 24,
and it is found that 157.08 lb. of coal must be burned per hour
for 24 hr. As 8 lb. of coal are burned per hour on 1 sq. ft. of
grate, divide 157.08 lb. by 8 lb. which shows that heaters con-
taining 19.63 sq. ft. of grate must be provided.
Heating Pool by Steam-coil Heater. — If the same pool under
like conditions is to be heated by steam through coils, and the
temperature of the steam is 220°, the mean temperature of the
water is 40 plus 80 divided by 2, which equals 60°; and 220
minus 60 equals 160° temperature difference between steam
and water.
Turn to the Chart 51, page 282, and note that with this
difference in temperature, 160°, 1 sq. ft. of iron pipe will con-
dense about 36 lb. of steam per hour, and as noted in above
example, 157 lb. of coal will be burned per hour. Find by
interpolation in Chart 52 that 157 lb. of coal will evaporate
1,370 lb. of steam, which divided by 36, will give 38 + sq. ft.;
the amount of condensing pipe required. Thirty-eight square
feet of pipe is equal to 88 lin. ft. of 1 J^-in. pipe, 78 ft. of 1 J^-
in. pipe, or 62 ft. of 2-in. pipe (see Table 50). If but 12 hr.
can be allowed for the work, double the hourly consumption
of coal and steam, and furnish heaters of double capacity
required for 24 hr. For the 12-hr. period, there will be just
double the quantity of steam to condense, requiring 76 sq. ft.
of condensing coil.
SECTION 10
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY
CAST IRONi
Cast iron is an alloy of iron and carbon obtained by the
reduction of iron ores in a blast furnace with coke or charcoal.
The direct product of the blast furnace is commonly designated
as pig iron; but there is essentially no difference between this
and cast iron, the latter term being employed after the iron has
been cast in some form other than pigs. The carbon is derived
from the fuel, being taken up by the iron as it is reduced.
The amount carried by the iron depends somewhat upon
conditions, but it is usually from 3 to 4 per cent by weight.
The Condition of the Carbon. White and Gray Iron. — ^The
most important factor in determining the characteristics of
the iron is the condition of the carbon, whether it is in the
combined state as iron carbide, Fe^C, or in the free state as
graphite.
White Cast Iron. — Iron carbide, called also cementite, is a
white, extremely hard and brittle substance, and if present in
large amount, it confers these properties upon the cast iron.
The carbide is roughly one-fifteenth carbon by weight. If we
assume that the cast iron contains 3.5 per cent of carbon, all in
the combined form, it will be almost half made up of iron
carbide, which will cause it to be hard and brittle. This
variety is known as white cast iron because of the appearance
of its fracture, which is caused largely by the silvery-white
color of the iron carbide. White cast iron is readily shattered
by hammer blows and can be machined and drilled only with
difi&culty. Because of these characteristics, its uses are
relatively few. However, it has a high abrasion resistance
and wears well.
Gray Cast Iron. — On the other hand, if we should consider
the 3.5 per cent of carbon to be in the free state as graphite,
there would be present also a great deal more free iron than
1 See section on "Welding with Gas Flame," page 53.
285
286 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
when iron and carbon are combined as in the white cast iron.
The term Jerrite is employed to designate this free iron. Fer-
rite, or pure iron, is soft and tough, greatly resembling copper in
respect to these properties; but like cementite, it is silvery-
white in color. The graphite occurs in the iron in the form of
soft, thin flakes that may vary in size from particles just
visible with the microscope to others J^ sq. in. in area. These
flakes are composite, or laminated, being formed of other
flakes in a manner similar to mica. Because the laminations
have but little coherence between them, cast iron containing
a large amount of graphite is not strong. When iron of this
sort is broken, the fracture develops by a separation of the
laminations of the composite graphite flakes. Therefore,
on the face of the fracture much graphite is exposed, and on
this account the iron is known as gray cast iron. The gray
color is the resultant of the mixture of silvery-white ferrite
and black graphite.
Because both graphite and ferrite are soft, gray cast iron is
also relatively soft. It is partly on this account that gray
iron is used in making the large majority of castings, since
most castings require some machining. Another reason is, of
course, that it is much less brittle than white cast iron. The
chief defect of gray cast iron is its weakness. It has consider-
ably less transverse and tensile strength than the white variety.
This is due to the fact that the ferrite in it, which otherwise
would contribute much strength, is so effectually cut up by the
loosely coherent graphite flakes. This is more readily com-
prehended when the volume of the graphite is considered.
Graphite has a rather low specific gravity, being only 2.25 as
compared with pure iron, which has a specific gravity of 7.86.
Consequently, an iron that contains 3.5 per cent by weight
contains by volume over 12 per cent of graphite.
The cast irons that possess the greatest combined strength
and toughness are those that have a fine-grained, gray structure.
In these, the carbon, the total of which may amount to 3 or
4 per cent, is neither wholly graphitic, nor wholly combined.
Effect of the Cooling Rate. — The condition of the carbon is
to a considerable extent determined by the rate of cooling
when the iron is solidifying from the molten state. When the
iron is molten, the carbon may be considered to be practically
all in the combined state. During solidification the carbon
tends to separate as graphite. Other things being equal, the
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 287
slower the cooling the greater will be the amount of graphite.
With very slow cooling, the flakes will be large, and the iron will
be coarse-grained and weak. Rapid cooling tends to keep
the carbon combined.
Effect of Impurities. — Because of impurities in the ore and
fuel employed in the blast furnace, commercial cast irons
contain varying amounts of other elements beside iron and
carbon. Although these elements are practically always
present in the commercial irons, they are characterized as
impurities. The impurities are silicon, sulfur, phosphorus,
manganese, and less commonly titanium, copper, etc. The
amounts present vary according to the grade of the iron, and
the percentages of some of them can to a certain extent be
controlled by the manner in which the blast furnace is operated.
This is true of the siUcon and sulfur, but is not true of phos-
phorus, for all of this present in the ore and fuel, will later
appear in the iron.
The following table will serve to illustrate the composition
of cast iron of medium grade.
Per Cent
Carbon 3 . 60
Silicon 2 .
Sulfur. .05
Phosphorus 75
Manganese 75
Iron (by diflference) 92 . 95
Silicon. — The amount of silicon in cast iron may range from
0.5 to 3.5 per cent. It is a very important element in the
iron because of its marked tendency to cause the cementite
to decompose into ferrite and graphite, thus increasing softness
and lessening brittleness. It aids in securing sound castings
by the fact that it lengthens the time of fluidity of the molten
iron, thus allowing the gases a greater chance to escape. It
acts also as a deoxidizer, increasing the strength of the iron by
the reduction of the metaUc oxides.
Sulfur. — In gray cast iron of good quality, the sulfur may
range from 0.03 to 0.10 per cent. It is the most active of the
impurities in its effect upon the condition of the carbon. It
opposes silicon, keeping the carbon combined. It is generally
considered that one part of sulfur will neutralize the effect of
15 times as much silicon in this action on the carbon.
Sulfur makes the molten iron sluggish, thus aiding in the
288 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
formation of gas flaws or " blow holes. '* It increases the shrink-
age, hardness, and depth of "chill." Some of the sulfur occurs
in the iron in the form of an iron compound, ferrous sulfide,
which has a low melting point. Sulfur is said to cause ''red
shortness" in iron, because when red-hot iron is put under
strain, the ferrous sulfide being molten, allows the iron to be
parted where the sulfide exists.
Phosphorus. — In ordinary cast iron, the amount of phos-
phorus usually does not exceed 1.00 per cent, but it may vary
from about 0.2 to 1.25 per cent. One of its most important
effects is that it allows iron to remain fluid at lower tempera-
tiu*es, thus increasing the time of fluidity. In this way it helps
siUcon to throw out graphite by lengthening the time during
which silicon can act. However, the direct effect of phosphorus
itself is to keep carbon combined. Then, in brief, it may be
said that high phosphorus will tend to harden iron if siUcon is
low, and tend to soften it if silicon is high. Phosphorus causes
iron to be "cold short," that is, causes it to be easily broken
by shock or vibratory stresses.
As phosphorus increases the time of fluidity, irons high in
phosphorus are selected for making thin castings, which natu-
rally cool quickly, and if phosphorus were absent might solidify
before the iron had completely filled the mold. Because of
the brittleness produced by phosphorus, thin castings, which
are necessarily high in phosphorus, are quite brittle.
Manganese. — The amount of manganese in cast iron may
vary between 0.10 and 2.00 per cent, but it should not exceed
1.00 per cent as a rule. It exists in the iron in combination
with either sulfur or carbon. Primarily it combines with the
sulfur, but if there is an excess above that required to convert
the sulfur into manganese sulfide, the remainder unites with
carbon, forming manganese carbide. Then, whether man-
ganese softens or hardens iron, depends upon the amount of
sulfur present. When sulfur remains in compoimd with iron
as ferrous sulfide, it is exceedingly active in keeping carbon
combined, thus making the iron hard; but when sulfur is in
compound with manganese as manganous sulfide, it is far less
effective in this manner. Manganese is able to remove the
sulfur from the iron compound; that is, it transposes ferrous
sulfide into manganous sulfide, which is in its final effect a
softening action.
If the amount of sulfur in the iron is low, manganese unites
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 289
chiefly with carbon, forming manganese carbide, which hardens
the iron.
Manganese aids in preventing gas flaws or ''blow holes" in
iron castings. The manganous sulfide, formed as previously
mentioned, is largely taken up by the slag, so that the sulfur is
to a considerable extent actually removed from the iron. Thus
the sluggishness that sulfur produces is lessened and the gases
can more readily escape, with the result that sounder castings
are produced.
Chilled Cast Lron. — For some purposes, castings are desired
that have one or more surfaces very hard so that they may resist
wear, without the castings at the same time having the brittle-
ness that all-white castings possess. This combination is
secured by producing castings with an outside layer rich in
cementite, and an interior of normal gray iron. In iron for
castings of this sort, the silicon must be rather low, about LOO
per cent, and the sulfur rather high, about 0.07 per cent. Then,
if cooled rapidly, the carbon will remain combined. For the
surfaces that are to be hard, the walls of the mold are formed of
iron plates. When the molten iron is poured, that which Ues
against these plates is very rapidly cooled, or chilled, and the
carbon stays largely in the combined form as cementite. The
iron of the interior and the other surfaces that lie against the
sand are cooled more slowly, and the cementite decomposes
into ferrite and graphite.
MALLEABLE CAST IRON
Malleable cast iron is a cast iron in which the carbon has been
set free in a finely divided, non-crystalUne condition. Although
called malleable, it is not really malleable in the sense that it can
be forged under a hammer or rolled like wrought iron or steel,
but it can be bent or twisted to a slight degree. It has much
greater strength than ordinary cast iron because the carbon,
although free, is not in the form of crystalline flakes, and so
does not so largely destroy the continuity of the ferrite. This
free carbon has been given the name temper carbon and may be
compared to particles of soot in the iron.
The making of malleable castings consists of two operations.
The casting is first made of white cast iron containing the
ordinary impurities, but within well defined Hmits. This
hard, brittle casting is then cleaned and made malleable by
19
290 PLUMBERS* HANDBOOK
prolonged annealing. During the annealing, the cementite
of the white cast iron decomposes into ferrite and temper
carbon. Malleable castings cannot be made from gray cast
iron. For the annealing process, the castings are generally
packed in iron ore, mill scale, lime or sand, to prevent warping
while hot. By carefully placing the castings, the packing
material may be omitted. Iron ore and mill scale possess
oxidizing properties, and if they are used as a packing, or if an
oxidizing flame is employed in the annealing oven in those cases
where no packing is used, the carbon will be entirely burnt out
from the surface layer of the casting, leaving ferrite that is
carbon-free. Because ferrite is silvery-white, the casting
thus acquires a white skin. Because the interior of the casting
contains the finely divided carbon and, therefore, appears
relatively dark, it is called "black heart malleable." It has
long been believed that this white layer added much to the
strength of the casting, but the evidence does not seem to
support this beUef.
Properties and Uses of Malleable Cast Iron. — Malleable cast
iron is particularly serviceable where the casting is required to
withstand shock,. Also, it is especially suitable for making
small castings. Small castings made of ordinary cast iron are
very brittle (see page 288). It is difficult to make steel castings
of small size, because the pouring temperature must be very
high and then the sand of the mold fuses to the casting, making
a surface that is extremely difficult to clean. As an example,
pipe unions are made of malleable cast iron.
WROUGHT IRON
Wrought iron, unlike cast iron and steel, is not produced in
the molten state, and is, therefore, not cast. During the
process of manufacture, it is very intimately mixed with the
slag by puddling, and then being removed from the furnace
while in a pasty state, it contains considerable slag. Its con-
tent of slag constitutes one of its main distinguishing features.
Wrought iron is defined as slag-bearing, malleable iron that
does not harden materially when suddenly cooled. It consists
essentially of ferrite (see page 286), and is, therefore, quite
soft, but it is very tough, malleable and ductile.
Manufacture. — Wrought iron is made by melting pig iron in
contact with a slag consisting essentially of iron oxide, which
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 291
may be either iron ore or mill scale, in a furnace lined with iron
oxide. Also, an oxidizing flame is caused to play upon the
charge. The charge is thoroughly stirred or puddled to expose
all parts to the oxidizing slag and flame, and in this way most
of the carbon, siUcon, manganese, and much of the phosphorus
are burned out. As the iron is purified, its melting point rises
so that the temperature of the furnace is unable to keep it
molten, and it becomes pasty. It is now removed from the
furnace, compressed in a squeezer and rolled to eliminate as
much of the slag as possible, but it is never completely removed
by this treatment.
Comparison of Wrought Iron and Low-carbon Steel. — Dis-
regarding the slag, wrought iron and steel may have identically
the same chemical composition. There is, of course, more slag
in wrought iron, usually about 2 per cent, while in steel there
is less than 0.5 per cent. If the contents of the puddUng furnace
were kept molten to the end, the slag would separate out, and the
product would be called steel. However, as a rule, normal
wrought iron contains but little manganese, while openhearth
and bessemer steel generally contain 0.3 per cent or more.
Also, wrought iron usually contains more than 0.1 per cent of
phosphorus, while steel as a rule, does not.
By those who use these products, wrought iron is sometimes
considered more desirable than steel. The claim for supe-
riority is based on several factors:
First, on the slag content. The slag causes the wrought iron
to have a somewhat fibrous character, and this is said to increase its
resistance to breaking when bent or subjected to sudden shock.
Second, upon the more uniform distribution of impurities other
than slag, which causes them to detract less from the strength and
toughness of the iron. Because of having been stirred during
solidification, it is probably true that the segregation of impurities
will be less in puddled wrought iron than in steel that is allowed to
solidify quietly. In the majority of mixtures that solidify quietly
from a state of fusion, there is a tendency for the higher -melting-
p>oint constituents to crystallize first and reject the lower-melting-
pKjint constituents, which may then become segregated or gathered
together in spots.
Third, that wrought iron will resist corrosion better than steel.
This is a point upon which there is a very great difference of opinion.
But, since it is well established that corrosion of iron and steel
results from electrochemical action between dissimilar parts of the
same piece, which act like the electrodes in a simple primary cell
292 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
(see page 300), it is apparent that the greater the non-uniformity,
or segregation, the greater will be the tendency to corrode.
Wrought Iron of Inferior Grade. — In connection with the
paragraph just preceding, it must be noted that all wrought iron
is not of equal quality. All that which is sold under the name
wrought' iron is not puddled iron. Perhaps half the American
product is made by "bushelling" scrap. This consists of
piling and wiring the scrap together, then heating to a welding
heat and rolling. Since the scrap is usually indiscriminately
collected, is of non-uniform composition, and beside, often
contains intermingled steel scrap, the resultant product cannot
be homogeneous. The chance for electrochemical action
between the different portions is very great; that is to say, it
would be very likely to corrode readily. This, no doubt,
accounts for the wide divergence in reports on laboratory and
service tests concerning the relative corrodibihty of wrought
iron and steel. Badly segregated steel (for example, there is
greater chance for segregation in steel that is cast in large
ingots for rolling than in steel cast in small ones, other things
being equal) will likely corrode more than puddled wrought
iron, and wrought iron made by "bushelling" scrap will Ukely
corrode more than uniform steel. It is an observed fact that
the greater the uniformity in iron and steel, the less is the tend-
ency to corrode.
To Distinguish Between Wrought Iron and Steel. — Since
puddled wrought iron costs more than low-carbon steel, it
sometimes happens that steel is substituted where wrought iron
is specified. It is desirable, therefore, to be able to distinguish
between the two. The distinction cannot be made on the
basis of an ordinary chemical analysis, because the percentages
of elements determined may fall within the same hmits in both
iron and steel. The best method is to identify the slag lines.
Specimens should be cut longitudinally from the material, and
the surface of the longitudinal cut should be polished and
examined under a microscope. If the characteristic slag lines
can be identified, wrought iron is indicated.
If a transverse section were taken, the slag would appear as
irregular patches and the identification would be imcertain,
since steel also may contain nodules or bunches of slag, the
cross-sections of which cannot with certainty be distinguished
from the cross-sections of the slag lines in iron.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY' 293
CARBON STEEL
General Discussion. — The ordinary, or so-called carbon
steels, like cast iron, are alloys of iron and carbon. In fact,
considered chemically, they are merely purified cast iron.
They contain more iron, and less carbon and silicon, and
generally less sulfur and phosphorus than cast iron, while
the manganese varies within practically the same limits as it
does in the iron. The following percentages^ will serve to fur-
nish an idea of the chemical composition of carbon steels:
carbon, from 0.05 to 1.75 per cent, depending upon the degree
of hardness it is desired that the steel may be capable of; silicon,
between 0.05 and 0.30 per cent usually, but sometimes, as in
cast steel, it may be as high as 0.60 per cent; sulfur, generally
between 0.01 and 0.05 per cent; phosphorus should not exceed
0.10 per cent. Manganese varies greatly, but is usually
between 0.20 and 1.00 per cent.
The main distinguishing features of carbon steel are indicated
by the statement that it is malleable when cast. Having been
cast, that is, taken from the furnace in a molten state and
allowed to solidify quietly, it is relatively free from slag, which
distinguishes it from wrought iron.* Being malleable, dis-
tinguishes it from cast iron, and being malleable when cast
distinguishes it from malleable cast iron which is made malleable
by subsequent treatment.
Manufacture. — There are several processes by which steel
may be made, but they are all based on the purification of the
metal, largely by the oxidation of the elements it is desired to
remove. Since the properties of the steel are in a considerable
measure dependent upon the method of manufacture, the
more widely used processes will be briefly described.
The Open-hearth Process. — ^The furnace employed in this
process is constructed with a comparatively shallow, basin-
like hearth, its name being derived from the fact that the hearth
lies open, or exposed to the flame, so that the charge is subjected
to the direct action of the burning gases. To secure the
necessary temperature, the furnace is also regenerative, which
means that the air blast and fuel gas are heated before entering
the furnace by passing through a checker work of hot brick.
^ For comparison with cast iron, see page 287.
* Exception to this statement must be made in the case of cementation
or blister steel, which may be made from wrought iron without remelting .
294 " PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
The brick work is previously heated by passing through it the
hot products of combustion from the furnace on their way to
the stack. Thus, the brickwork alternately stores up heat
and in turn deUvers it to the incoming gases. There are two
major modifications of the furnace, known as the acid and
basic, depending upon the nature of the heat-resistant lining.
In chemical terminology, the oxides of metals are known as
basic, and the oxides of non-metals, as acid materials. If,
for example, the furnace is lined with magnesia, which is the
oxide of magnesium, it is called a basic furnace; if lined with
silica, or sand, which is the oxide of the non-metal, silicon, it is
called an acid furnace. Whether an acid or basic lining is
used, depends upon the nature of the slag employed. If the
slag is basic, the lining must be basic, since a basic slag would
react with, and destroy an acid lining, and vice versa. The
character of the slag needed depends upon the amount of sulfur
and phosphorus in the charge. If the amount of these elements
present is sufl&ciently low that none need be removed, an acid
slag is sufl&cient, but if they must be removed with the other
impurities, a basic slag is required. The slag is made basic
with either limestone or dolomite, the latter being a mixture of
calcium and magnesium carbonates.
The Acid Open-hearth Process. — In making steel by this
process, silicon, manganese, and carbon are removed from the
charge, which ordinarily consists of pig iron and scrap, the scrap
being generally the greater part. The materials of the charge
should contain less phosphorus and sulfur than is to appear
in the finished steel, since none is removed, and some may be
taken up from the ore that is thrown in to serve as an oxidizing
agent in burning out the silicon, manganese and carbon.
During the oxidation of the impurities, some of the iron also
is oxidized to ferrous oxide, and this must be eliminated, since it
would cause the steel to be brittle if allowed to remain. To
reduce the ferrous oxide, manganese is employed. It is used in
the form of an alloy of iron and manganese, which is generally
introduced into the furnace just prior to tapping, or may be
thrown into the molten steel as it is poured from the furnace
into the ladle. Either of two alloys may be employed: ferro-
manganese, containing about 80 per cent, or speigeleisen,
containing about 20 per cent of manganese. Both alloys
contain considerable carbon, from 6 to 7 per cent. Thus, in
addition to reducing the ferrous oxide, the alloy serves to
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 295
bring the carbon up to the desired point. When the steel has
the right composition, which is judged by the melter and
confirmed by analysis, and is also at the right temperature, it is
run into a ladle and then poured into ingot moulds.
Since the material available that is sufficiently low in phos-
phorus for this process is not plentiful, the amount of steel
made in the acid furnace is not great. In 1918, only 4.5 per
cent of the total steel made in the United States was made by
the acid open-hearth process.
The Basic Open-hearth Process. — In this process the same
elements are removed from the charge as in the acid process,
and in addition, most of the phosphorus is eliminated. Con-
sequently, the materials of the charge are not restricted to a
low phosphorus content as in the acid process. The sulfur in
the initial charge should be as low as possible, since its elimina-
tion is much less certain.
The oxidation of the impurities is secured by the same agents
as in the acid process, namely, iron ore and an oxidizing flame.
The actual removal of the oxidized phosphorus is brought about
by the slag, which has been made basic chiefly with Ume, this
being introduced into the furnace in the form of hmestone,
although it is sometimes burned to lime beforehand. As the
phosphorus in the metal is oxidized, it unites with the lime to
form a phosphate that becomes a part of the slag.
In removing the ferrous oxide at the end of the process (see
acid open-hearth process), the ferro-manganese, or other reduc-
ing agent, cannot be added in the presence of the slag. If this
were done, the deoxidizer would reduce the oxidized phosphorus
in the slag and cause it to pass again into the steel. Conse-
quently, the deoxidizer is not added to the steel while it is still
in the furnace, but is thrown in while the molten steel is flowing
from the furnace into the ladle, that is, after it has been
separated from the slag.
Because the phosphorus is more difiicult to remove from the
charge than the silicon, manganese and carbon, the time
required is about 6 hr. for the basic as compared to about 4 hr.
for the acid process. Thus, having been longer under the
influence of the oxidizing conditions, more of the steel itself
will be burned; that is, there will be more ferrous oxide in it.
Therefore, a larger quantity of deoxidizer will be required for
the basic steel. Also, because the deoxidizer is added only
after the steel has left the furnace in the basic process, the time
296 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
of action is less than in the acid, and the chance for uniform
mixing with the steel is lessened.
Because of the much larger quantity of material suitable for
conversion into steel by the basic process, the amount of basic
open-hearth steel produced is far in excess of that produced by
the acid process. According to "Mineral Resources," 73 per
cent of the steel manufactured in the United States in 1918 was
basic open-hearth steel.
The Bessemer Process. — In this process molten pig iron is
converted into steel by blowing cold air through it. The besse-
mer converter is an egg-shaped steel receptacle lined with
refractory material. In the United States only acid-lined
{q.v, acid-lined open-hearth) converters are used. The air is
introduced through numerous openings in the bottom, and in
passing through the molten iron it bums out the siHcon, man-
ganese and carbon. Much heat is produced by this oxidation,
and sometimes it becomes necessary to introduce a cooling
agent, as cold iron or steam. As in the acid open-hearth process,
phosphorus and sulfur are not removed, and since steel should
not ordinarily contain above 0.1 per cent, of either, the per-
centages of sulfur and phosphorus in the pig iron used must be
hmited to this amoimt. Because of the scarcity of iron ore
capable of producing pig iron of this quality, the production of
bessemer steel has been greatly lessened within recent years.
The basic open-hearth product is taking its place.
At the instant that the silicon, manganese and carbon have
been burned out, the blowing is stopped (to prevent excessive
burning of iron). Then carbon and manganese are introduced,
as in the open-hearth process, to reduce the ferrous oxide
unavoidably formed, and to bring the manganese and carbon
up to the desired point. The ferrous oxide must be removed
in order that the steel may be tough.
The bessemer process is the cheapest way for converting iron
into steel, and accordingly a great deal of the steel for pipes and
tubes was formerly made in this manner. In 1906, more than
half of all the steel produced in the United States was made
in bessemer converters, while in 1918 the bessemer product
amounted to 21.1 per cent of the total.
The Crucible Process. — This is essentially a refining process,
the purification consisting largely of the removal from the
charge of slag and gases. There is very little purification by
oxidation, as in the preceding processes.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 297
The material employed consists usually of wrought iron or
steel scrap which is cut into small pieces and melted in covered
crucibles made of a mixture of graphite and fireclay capable of
holding about 100 lb. Charcoal or some other form of carbon
is usually added to the charge, and occasionally other materials
are added. Bottle glass is employed to form a neutral slag
that will help to seal the contents of the crucible from the gases
of the furnace. The cruibles are allowed to stand in the furnace
with their contents molten until the gases are evolved and
the slag separates and rises to the top. When the melt lies
quiet in the crucible, it is poiu'ed into ingots.
Because it has been freed from dissolved gases, entangled
slag and oxides, crucible steel is very excellent. It is used
chiefly for tools, frequently being designated by the term cast
steel. Only a relatively small quantity of crucible steel is
produced. In 1919, the amount made in the United States
was about 0.25 per cent of the total.
The Electric-furnace Process. — Although both pig iron and
steel are manufactured in the electric furnace, particularly
where power may be had cheaply, the process is generally used
only for the finer grades of steel, or as a process for the final
purification or super-refining of steel made by other processes.
There are various types of furnaces employed, but in all of
them the current serves merely as a source of heat, the actions
that take place being due to the heat only, or at most the direct
effect of the current on the refining process is a negligible quan-
tity. The furnaces are usually of the open-hearth style, are
generally basic-lined and carry a very basic slag, although
acid-Uned furnaces are sometimes employed. Because of the
extremely high temperature that can be secured, and because
of the reducing conditions that may be maintained as desired,
the removal of oxides, dissolved gases, and entangled particles
of slag can be made almost complete. Since the use of fuel is
not necessary, the usual impurities carried in by fuels are
avoided. Also, there is a more nearly complete exclusion of
air from the steel than in the other methods, except in the case
of the crucible process.
The quantity of electric-furnace steel produced in the United
States has been gradually increasing within recent years. In
1909, when this steel was first reported separately by " Mineral
Resources,'^ 13,762 tons were produced. In 1918 there were
511,364 tons, this being 1.15 per cent of the total of all kinds.
298 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
COMPARISON OF STEELS
The several kinds of steel usually show certain differences in
properties that depend upon the process of manufacture.
These peculiarities are apparent even when the steels compared
possess the same composition, that is, contain the same per-
centages of silicon, sulfur, phosphorus, manganese and carbon.
Open-hearth, Crucible and Electric-furnace Steel. — Crucible
steel is the most expensive of the steels, costing more than
electric furnace steel and about three times as much as acid-
open-hearth steel. Also, it is quite generally conceded to be
the best quality steel, although there is a difference of opinion
on this point, it being believed by some that electric-furnace
steel is superior to crucible steel. The disadvantage of the
crucible process is that the output is relatively very small.
When the process of manufacture of crucible steel is con-
sidered, it is obvious that this steel should be of excellent
quality. It is made in a covered container which excludes air
and products of combustion, and so contains less oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen and other gases. Also, since the deoxidizer
is added in the beginning of the process, the deoxidation is
more complete, and the steel more uniform because of the
greater time allowed for thorough mixing. It is scarcely
possible to obtain in the open-hearth a melt as free from gases;
consequently, the open-hearth steel will likely contain more
gas flaws or "blow holes," in the ingot, which result in seams
in the steel when rolled. When the steel is poured into the
ingot mold, it begins to solidify on the outside first. In this
way, the impurities, which have lower melting points, are
forced toward the interior, since that is still in the molten
state, and so are eventually found gathered together in spots.
This non-uniformity is designated as segregation, and is greater
in the larger ingots. The ingots poured in the crucible works
are very small compared to those made in open-hearth plants,
and there is consequently less chance for segregation in crucible
steel.
Acid and Basic Open-heartfa Steel. — In the basic open-
hearth process, the operation is longer than in the acid process,
since in the latter, only siUcon, manganese and carbon are
removed from the melt. In the basic process, a large part of
the sulfur and phosphorus, in addition to the preceding ele-
ments, are removed. Since the removal of sulfur and phos-
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 299
phorus is more difficult to accomplish, the basic process requires
more time than the acid. On this account, the basic steel is
for a longer time exposed to the oxidizing conditions of the
furnace, and it is more likely to contain oxides and occluded
gases at the end of the process. Hence there is more trouble
from blow holes in the ingot. These blow holes roll out into
longitudinal flaws, and are considered as responsible for the
starting of cracks. It is because of its relative freedom from
blow holes, that acid, and not basic steel, is used for the making
of steel castings.
Another point in favor of the acid steel is that it is likely to
be more uniform, since there is a better chance for a thorough
mixing of the deoxidizer and recarburizer with the steel. In
the acid process the deoxidizer may be added while the steel
is in the furnace, and may be thoroughly stirred in with a
steel rod, but in the basic process it cannot be added until after
the steel has been separated from the slag, since if the deoxidizer
came into contact with the slag, it would reduce the phosphorus
in it, which would pass again into the steel. On this account, in
the basic process, the deoxidizer is added to the steel in the ladle.
The ingot is cast by pouring from this ladle, and thorough
mixing is not so certain.
The phosphorus and sulfur are likely to be lower in the basic
than in the acid process, but this fact seems to be more than
off-set by the defects caused by the gases and oxides and the
non-uniformity produced by the method of deoxidizing.
Because of the more expensive material for Uning and slag,
and because more fuel is consumed on account of the longer
period, the basic open-hearth process is more expensive than
the acid. But because of the cheaper stock used in the charge,
basic steel is cheaper than that made by the acid process.
Open-heartfa and Bessemer Steels. — It is believed that open-
hearth steel will generally be superior to bessemer steel, since
the latter will likely contain more oxygen, nitrogen and other
gases because of the fact that air is very intimately mixed
with it during manufacture. This is especially true if the
process is continued a little too long. As in the basic open-
hearth process, the final addition (for deoxidizing and recarbur-
izing) is generally added to the steel as it is being poured into
the ladle, although it may be added in the converter just prior
to tapping.
300 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
CORROSION OF IRON AND STEEL i
Corrosion may be defined as the slow conversion of a metal
into some compound form, usually by natural agencies. The
compounds that are formed are as a rule insoluble in water, and
consequently remain as a layer or incrustation on the metal.
Typical compounds formed in this way are oxides, hydroxides,
carbonates, sulfides, etc., produced by a combination of the
metal with elements that occur in air and water.
The product formed by the corrosion of iron is usually the
hydrated red oxide, commonly called iron rust. The amount
of combined water varies according to conditions, being three
molecules or less, the formula being expressed as Fe208 x H2O.
If the oxide is considered as being united with three molecules
of water, the weight of the rust is nearly twice (1.91 times)
that of the iron from which it was formed. The increase in
bulk is considerably greater, varying according to different
writers, from 5 to 10 times the bulk of the iron. Because
of the volume increase, iron when corroding manifests a rending
force comparable to that of water during freezing.
The Electrolytic Theory of Corrosion. — ^This is the most
generally accepted theory of corrosion. It assumes that only
water and oxygen are necessary, but it should be understood
that the water must be present in the liquid form. Moisture-
laden air cannot bring about corrosion if the moisture does not
condense upon the metal. The electrolytic theory is explained
by comparison with the action in a simple, primary electric cell.
In a primary electric cell two elements are used as electrodes,
one having a high, and the other a low solution pressure. The
solution pressure of a metal is that force that tends to drive
ions^ of the metal into solution when it is placed, for example, in
water, a water-solution of a salt, acid or other electrolyte.
. Thus, if zinc is placed in dilute sulfuric acid, zinc ions pass
into solution in a positively charged condition, leaving negative
charges on the metallic zinc. As they enter solution, the zinc
ions replace the hydrogen ions of the sulfuric acid, forming
zinc sulfate, as:
Zn + H2SO4 -^ ZnS04 + H2
If the zinc is pure, or if the surface has a uniform composition,
the action will soon cease because of the accumulated negative
1 See section on "Pipe Standards," page 170.
' An ion may be described as an electrically charged particle, atom or
group of atoms, existing in solution.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 301
charges on the metal. However, if we should now insert a piece
of copper in the acid, and connect the outer ends of the metals
with a wire as shown in Fig. 237, the zinc will continue to dis-
solve. The solution pressure of copper is very low compared to
zinc, the pressure of the zinc being several million times as
great as that of copper. Because of its low solution pressure,
copper in sulfuric acid has a very low tendency to accumulate
negative charges. Then the negative charges that have
become concentrated on the zinc, flow
into the copper when the connection
has been made by the wire. (The
direction of the flow of the negative
charges, or dectronSy is opposite to that
which is known as the direction of flow
of the current of dectricUy.) The posi-
tively charged hydrogen ions from the
sulfuric acid migrate to the copper,
receive therefrom negative charges, -pia. 237.
and become discharged atoms of hydro-
gen. In this way gaseous hydrogen is formed, which may
be seen collecting on the copper in the form of bubbles.
In a cell of this sort, the surfaces of the metals in the solution
are called the electrodes. The electrode which hcus the high-
solution pressure and which dissolves in the electrolyte is called
the anode. The low-pressure metal, at the surface of which
the hydrogen ions discharge, is called the kathode.
In order that electrochemical action, of the sort just de-
scribed, may take place, it is not necessary that two separate
pieces of metal be employed. It may take place between
different parts of the same piece. For example, in ordinary
zinc there are great numbers of anode and kathode spots in
each square inch of surface. Certain impurities occur in
commercial zinc, such as iron, lead, cadmium, etc., the^ total
amounting to about 1.00 per cent or less. These metals have
lower solution pressures than zinc, so the zinc dissolves at those
points where the metal is more nearly pure, and the hydrogen
ions discharge at the relatively impure spots. Such action is
known as "local action." According to the electrolytic theory,
iron Corrosion is a case of ** local action." From this standpoint,
all iron and steel must be thought of as a composite structure,
as though it were made up of strands and patches of more or
less unlike material. It was shown in the discussion of ''Iron"
302 PLUMBERS^ HANDBOOK
and "Steel" that the iron carbide, iron sulfide, iron phosphide,
etc., were more or less non-uniformly distributed, or were
segregated. The impurities have lower solution pressures than
the iron itself, hence when the surface becomes wet, the electro-
chemical action is set up. Thus, it appears that if the iron were
pure, or if the impurities were uniformly distributed, it would
not corrode. Although it is probable that perfectly uniform
iron or steel has never been produced, observations of the
material in service show that the more nearly this condition is
approached, the less it corrodes. Moreover, observation shows
another fact that lends support to the theory. The corrosion
does not begin or take place evenly; some spots are more liable
to attack than others, although as the corrosion proceeds,
layers having a different composition are exposed so that
the position of the anode and kathode spots may change, and
eventually the whole of the surface may become corroded.
However, in any case, the iron dissolves only at those spots
that are, for the time being, anode spots; and this leads to the
formation of hollows which is described as pitting. Corrosion
of this sort is very destructive, for the article may be entirely
rusted through at some point and its value totally destroyed,
as in the case of a boiler tube or pipe, while the larger part of
the metal may be but little affected.
Essential Chemical Reactions. — The chemical reactions that
occur during the corrosion of iron may be summed up in the
following manner: The iron ions enter the water at the anode
points on the metal, react with the water and produce ferrous
hydroxide, thus:
Fe + 2H0H -► Fe(OH), -f H2
Ferrous hydroxide is not rust, but it is converted into rust by
the action of oxygen and more water, as:
4Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 -> 4Fe(0H)s or 2Fe208-3H20
Consequently, both water and oxygen are essential to rust
formation. If either is absent, rusting cannot take place.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF CORROSION
Contact with Other Materials. — Corrosion is stimulated
when the metal is in contact with some material that assumes
the kathode relationship to it. For example, when a brass
faucet is fitted to an iron pipe, the brass acts as the kathode,
and the iron becomes the anode, because the brass has a lower
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 303
solution pressure than iron. The hydrogen ions from the water
in contact with the metals migrate to the brass kathode, remove
from the kathode the negative charges or electrons that have
passed from the iron anode through the metal to this point
thus allowing more negative charges to flow from the anode to
the kathode, which in turn, allows the iron anode to send more
ions into solution. If the negative electrons are not removed
from the anode, the number eventually becomes so great that
the combined force of their attraction is equal to the solution
pressure of the metal. In other words, equiUbrium is estab-
lished, and corrosion ceases. It is the discharge of the negative
electrons at the kathode spots that prevents the equilibrium
from being reached, and so the corrosion continues.
Similar action occurs through contact with other metals.
Iron railings fitted into stone copings by means of lead are most
rapidly corroded where the iron joins the lead, because lead is
kathodic to iron. It would be better to use spelter (zinc) for
this purpose, since with this combination, zinc is the anode and
iron is the kathode, zinc having a higher solution pressure than
iron. It is worthy of mention at this point, that of all the
metals commonly used in the industries, zinc is the only one
that assumes the anode relationship to iron. Because iron
is the kathode in the zinc-iron combination, it does not dissolve
or corrode. In this way zinc protects iron, however, at the
expense of its own destruction.
Other cases of corrosion accelerated by contact action occur
where malleable cast-iron couplings and T's are used to join
wrought iron or steel pipes, or about soft rivets in steel structures.
The different kinds of material assume the anode-kathode
relationship to each other. This relationship exists also
between strained and unstrained portions of the metal. Cor-
rosion in the neighborhood of punched holes is greater than in the
neighborhood of drilled holes. Scratches and indentations made
by tools are almost always anodic to the surrounding areas.
The effect of "mill scale'' is important in this connection.
Mill scale is an iron oxide, Fe304, produced by the oxidation of
iron under heat. If a imiform layer of it could be kept on the
metal, it would form an excellent protective coating, because it
has a very low tendency to dissolve. But because it is very
brittle, it is practically always cracked or flaked off in spots.
Then where iron is not covered by the scale, corrosion is much
accelerated because the scale on adjacent parts acts as a kath-
304 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
ode to it. On this account it is generally good practice to
remove the scale completely. With boiler tubes, the interiors
are generally reamed out with this object in view.
Rust itself assumes the kathode relationship to iron. It has
been noticed that the rate of corrosion during the second year
is about twice as fast as during the first, this being due to the
action of the accumulated rust. Railroad rails in use where
vibration constantly detaches the rust, do not rust so rapidly
as those on unused switches. In addition to its kathodic action,
the rust is porous and retains moisture, which helps the corrosion.
The Effect of Acids and Alkalies. — Iron corrosion is a slow
process in the presence of comparatively pure water, because
there are but few hydrogen ions present. Now acids are sub-
stances that dissociate in water with the production of hydrogen
ions; consequently, when water is acidified, the number of
hydrogen ions in the liquid is greatly increased. On this
account the negative charges or electrons can be removed from
the kathode spots more readily, and the iron can pass into solu-
tion at the anode more rapidly (see page 301). In other words
corrosion is accelerated. In this connection it should be
pointed out that carbon dioxide gas in water forms an acid, as:
CO2 + HaO-^HaCOs
Carbon dioxide is always present in the atmosphere. In
ordinary air, the amount is about 0.04 per cent, but since it is
a product of the burning of carbon, it may be much more than
this amount in the neighborhood of furnaces, etc. Although
carbonic acid is only a weak acid, it dissociates sufficiently to
produce enough free hydrogen ions to accelerate corrosion quite
noticeably.
On the other hand, if suitable amoimts of alkaline substances
are introduced into water, corrosion is retarded. An alkali
may be defined as a substance that dissociates in water with
the production of hydroxyl (OH) ions. Examples of alkalies
are caustic soda, NaOH, caustic potash, KOH, and slaked lime, or
lime water, Ca(0H)2. Because of the large number of hydroxyl
ions introduced by the alkalies, it is much less easy for the
hydrogen ions to remain free, because hydroxyl ions unite with
hydrogen ions to form molecules of water, HOH(HaO). Due
to the lack of hydrogen ions, the negative charges cannot be
removed from the kathode spots, and corrosion cannot go on
(see page 301).
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 305
The Action of Dissolved Oxygen. ^ — In the discussion of the
''Essential Chemical Reactions'' on page 302 it was shown that
oxygen plays an important part in the corrosion process. By
its action, the ferrous hydroxide, Fe(0H)2, is converted into
the ferric hydroxide, Fe(0H)8, or' iron rust. The ferrous hy-
droxide is relatively soluble in water, while the ferric hydroxide
is practically insoluble, so passes into the solid condition. If
the iron compoimd were not removed from solution, the water
would eventually become saturated with it, and iron would
cease to dissolve, that is, corrosion would stop.
Oxygen helps to continue the corrosion process in another
way. When the hydrogen ions discharge at the kathode surface
the hydrogen gas that results has a tendency to stick to the
kathode as a layer of bubbles. This hydrogen layer acts as
an insulator, thus preventing more hydrogen ions from dis-
charging. In this way corrosion would be checked, if it were
not for the dissolved oxygen which oxidizes the hydrogen to
water. The gas layer being removed, corrosion continues.
Because of this action of oxygen, when iron is immersed in
water, the more deeply it is immersed, the less rapidly it will
corrode, other things being equal. The lower strata of water
are not so well supplied with dissolved oxygen, because when
the supply is used up, a further supply is obtained only as the
gas slowly diffuses in from the surface exposed to the air. Tanks
pipes and other containers, in which the water is frequently
changed, corrode more rapidly than those in which the water
is allowed to stand. It should be remembered that the same
conditions that allow a fresh supply of oxygen to be readily
obtained, also allow carbon dioxide to enter more readily,
which, as has been shown, hastens corrosion by forming an
acid. Rain water is very highly corrosive to iron, because
during its passage through the air it becomes saturated with
gases.
Removal of the Dissolved Oxygen. — Water that has been
recently boiled, or boiled water that has been kept from contact
with the air after boiling, is less corrosive than natural water.
Gases are less soluble in hot water than in cold, and the larger
part of the dissolved gases can be eliminated by boiling. As
has been shown, the presence of oxygen is necessary for con-
tinued corrosion.
1 See section on "Pipe Standards," page 176, "Cause and Preventing
Corrosion."
20
306 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
The dissolved oxygen may be removed from water by heating
it and passing it through a closed tank in contact with steel
plates, which by their rusting use up the free oxygen. Then,
when this water is passed into a boiler or heating system, the
system is not corroded by it. Water treated in this way is
sometimes referred to as "deactivated" water.
The fact that the rusting of the steel plates uses up the oxygen
and thus renders the water practically non-corrosive thereafter,
explains why the heater in an ordinary hot-water system is more
rapidly destroyed by corrosion than the remainder of the system.
The parts of the heater being the first to come into contact with
the hot water, fulfil the same function as the steel plates in the
"deactivating" process.
The addition of tannin extract to water is also good practice,
since tannin is a good oxygen absorbent.
Because fresh charcoal has a high power for absorbing gases,
it has been found that when blocks of it are put into water, or
when floated in the powdered form on the surface of water in
which iron is immersed, the corrosion is very materially lessened.
Effect of Heat on Corrosion. — Other things being equal, iron
corrodes more rapidly in hot water than in cold. Rusting
being a chemical reaction, it is accelerated by heat, within
certain hmits, just as are chemical reactions in general. The
maximum is reached at .about 180 to 190°F. (80 to SS'^C.)!
The separation of the dissolved air, which adheres to the metal
in the form of bubbles, seems to interfere then. Also, the
separation of the dissolved air, which is about twice as rich in
oxygen as ordinary atmospheric air, helps to retard corrosion
for the two reasons explained in the preceding discussion of
"The Action of the Dissolved Oxygen." In brief, corrosion
is accelerated by heat up to the point at which the dissolved
gases are largely driven out of the water.
Partial Immersion. — Iron that is partly immersed corrodes
more rapidly at the surface of the water, for at this point there
is a plentiful supply of both water and gases. The action is
hastened by the slightly higher temperature here than at
lower levels, and probably also by the actinic rays of light.
For similar reasons, iron that is alternately wet and dry corrodes
more rapidly than that which is permanently wet.
The Action of Cinders. — Cinders are found to be very corro-
sive in their action on iron, as well as on other metals buried
1 Eng. News, Dec. 3, 1910, p. 360.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 307
in them. Even lead is quite rapidly acted upon. Cinders are
porous and contain gases, the two that are most ^.ctive being
sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. The former is generated by
the burning of the iron pjrrite, FeS2, or ferrous sulfide, FeS,
contained as an impurity in the coal or coke, and the latter by
the burning of the carbon of the fuel itself. Both of these
gases form acids with water, and so accelerate corrosion (see
page 304). This corroding effect should be remembered in
laying pipe lines through cinders, as through railroad embank-
ments, etc. The metal must be encased in some way, as with
tar or pitch, so that it will be kept free from contact with the
acidified water that percolates through the cinders. If pos-
sible, it would be better to substitute entirely some fiber or
wooden pipe or conduit.
The Effect of Soot. — ^Accumulations of soot in flues, etc.
have a very decided accelerative action on the corrosion of the
metal. Soot contains a large proportion of carbon, which is
very kathodic to iron, and hastens corrosion on this account as
explained under "Contact With Other Materials," which see.
Beside, an analysis shows that the soot contains a note-worthy
amount of sulfuric acid, which is derived from the oxidation of
sulfur-bearing compounds that exist as impurities in the fuel.
Also sulfurous and carbonic acids are present to some extent.
These acids have a highly accelerative effect on corrosion as
explained on page 304.
Electrolysis an Aid to Corrosion. — Of those factors that
stimulate corrosion, the most active is the electric current. In
explaining the corrosion process, it was shown that positively
charged metallic ions pass into solution at the anode, while posi-
tively charged hydrogen ions in the solution pass to the kathode
where they discharge the negative electrons that flow through
the metal to this spot. When an electrical pressure from an
outside source is applied to the system, the speed of the reaction
is enormously increased. The metallic ions pass into solution
more rapidly and hydrogen ions in much greater numbers are
caused to move to the kathode. Corrosion by electrolysis
occurs wherever a current, for example, a stray current from
some electric system, passes from a metal, such as iron, through
moisture in contact with it, to some other conductor. It may
occur in the seams of boilers, about rivets or bolts in metal, in
the joints in pipe Unes, between the pipe and the ground, be-
tween metal and moist wood or masonry, or in any similar
308 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
location. Great care should be exercised to prevent currents
from passing through such systems.
The Relative Corrodibility of Wrought Iron and Steel. —
According to the best authorities who have studied the subject,
the wide divergence of opinion as to the relative resistances of
wrought iron and steel to corrosion has arisen not because of
inherent differences between these materials as dasaeSy but
because of the comparison of different grades of materials of the
two classes. There are, of course, good and bad grades of
both steel and wrought iron, and it is obvious that good quality
material of either class will, under test, prove to be superior to
poorly made material of the other class. Steel that contains a
considerable amount of metallic oxides, entrained slag and
occluded gases, or steel in which the normal impurities, such
as the iron and manganese sulfides, iron phosphide, silicide,
etc., are badly segregated, as they may be in steel rolled from
large, slowly-cooled ingots, will corrode more rapidly than
uniform material of either class. On the other hand, wrought
iron containing an excessive amount of slag, or wrought iron
made by "bushelling" scrap without remel ting (see page 292),
or wrought iron that is non-uniform for any cause, will rust
more rapidly than well-made material of either kind. Corro-
sion in all cases is accelerated by non-uniformity because of the
anode and kathode spots that are thus produced (see page 302).
In brief, it is now generally accepted that the quality of the
material is a much greater factor in determining its corrodibility
than is the class to which it belongs.
As regards the resistance of cast iron to corrosion as compared
to wrought iron and steel, results seem to show that if the skin
on the casting produced by the sand of the mold is allowed to
remain, it will resist corrosion better than the other forms, but
that if the skin is removed it will corrode more rapidly than
wrought iron or steel. The more rapid corrosion in the latter
case is probably due to the fact that cast iron is somewhat
porous, which allows the entrance of water and air to points
beneath the surface. Also, the graphite in it may act as a
kathode to the iron.
PROTECTION OF IRON AND STEEL FROM CORROSION
The methods employed for protecting iron and steel from
corrosion may be classed under three heads: (1) the application
of an extraneous material as a coating, which either simply
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 309
adheres to the metal as a distinct layer as in the case of a paint,
lacquer or enamel, or may form an alloy as in the case of some
of the metaUic coatings, (2) the treatment of the surface of the
metal either to develop a definite layer of iron oxide, as in the
case of "black sheet iron," or to render the iron passive, which
may or may not be due to the formation of an oxide, and (3)
the introduction of an element or elements into the metal
while in the molten state, forming a solution or alloy that is
resistant.
1. Extraneous Coatings. — The most widely-used materials
of this class are the paints and lacquers. A paint may be
defined as a fluid preparation, consisting essentially of a mineral
pigment ground in oil, designed to be appUed as a surface
coating for the purpose of protection or decoration or both.
The oil used must be of such character that when exposed to
the air in a thin layer, it will oxidize and harden either spon-
taneously or by the aid of driers, and form an elastic film.
However, films produced in this way from oil alone are more or
less porous and permeable to water, and lack wearing qualities.
It is to remedy these defects that the mineral pigment is in-
corporated, it being the function of the pigment to close the
pores and to supply hardness and strength to the film. Al-
though Unseed oil is the most widely used paint oil, there are
several others that may be employed, as Chinese wood (tung),
soya bean and menhaden fish oil.
Aside from the general protective value of the paint coating
due to its ability to exclude air and moisture, it has been found
that the pigments themselves may contribute a distinct effect.
Some of them exhibit a definite retarding action on corrosion,
while others accelerate it, although there are many, the value
of which in this respect seems to be indeterminate.
A few examples will be given. Basic carbonate of lead (white
lead) has a weakly alkahne character, and is believed to retard
corrosion for this cause (see "Effect of AlkaUes," page 304).
Others, like the chromates, seem to have the abihty to cause the
iron to assume the passive state (see " Iron in the Passive State,"
page 314). Zinc chromate is especially beneficial in this way,
and it is recommended that 2 per cent of this pigment be added
to all paints to be applied to iron or steel. ^ Lead chromate
(chrome yellow), also has a retarding action. On the other
1 Bulletins of the Scientific Section of the Paint Manufacturers Association
of the United States.
310 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
hand, pigments that dissolve in water slightly and ionize,
giving an acid reaction to the solution, hasten corrosion. An
example of this sort is gypsum, which is a form of calcium
sulfate.
A lacquer is essentially a spirit varnish consisting generally
of a resin, as shellac, or a resin-Hke substance, as nitrated cotton,
(collodion) dissolved in a solvent as alcohol, amyl acetate,
acetone, etc, which are themselves water-white, volatile liquids.
Upon application, the solvent evaporates, leaving the dissolved
material in the form of a film. To furnish an idea of the charac-
ter of collodion, it may be mentioned that the base of the
"liquid court plaster" now on the market consists in the main
of this substance. Because the film is more nearly imper-
meable, lacquers furnish better protection as a rule than ordi-
nary paints.
When the lacquer has been baked after drying, the article is
said to be japanned. Baking renders the coating harder and
more durable.
A black japan, sometimes called an enamel, consists of
asphaltum dissolved in Unseed or similar oil and thinned with
petroleum naphtha. Black japans may or may not be baked.
The black japan is appUed to hardware, conduits for electric
wiring, etc.
Metallic paints, known as gilt, bronze or aluminum paints,
such as are applied to radiators, for example, consist of lacquers
in which have been incorporated thin flakes of metal. Metals
or alloys, as brass, bronze, aluminum or aluminum-bronze are
beaten into leaf and then converted into flakes by forcing
through a wire screen with a brush. The liquid or medium
(lacquer) used in preparing the paint, consists generally of
about a 3 per cent solution of resin of nitrated cotton (and in
some cases a small proportion of a drying oil) dissolved in amyl
acetate. The solution or mixture is often referred to as "ban-
ana oil" because the amyl acetate has an odor resembling that
of bananas. Upon application^ the solvent evaporates leaving
the resinous material in the form of a film that acts as a binder
for the metal flakes. A coating that is sometimes employed for
water pipes is known as the Angus Smith solution. It consists
generally of a mixture of coal tar and pitch oil in about the
proportion of two to one. This mixture is heated nearly to the
boiling point, and then the carefully cleaned pipes are dipped
into it and allowed to remain until they acquire the temperature
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 311
of the bath. Upon being removed and allowed to cool, the
coating solidifies. It has a very excellent protective value.
Silicate or vitreous enamels are coatings consisting essenti-
ally of a specially prepared glass. The glass is first prepared,
and while in the molten state is run into cold water to shred or
"frit" it, after which it is converted into a cream-Uke product
by grinding it with clay in water. This cream-like preparation
is then applied to the metal by dipping, brushing or spraying,
after which it is dried and fired until fused, thus producing the
glazed coating. The glaze may also be applied in a finely-
ground, dry condition by sifting it upon the hot article being
enamelled. Two or more coats are usually applied (see "Sani-
tary Ware," page 345).
Metallic coatings may be applied in a variety of ways: by
dipping the iron or steel article in a molten bath of the metal to
be appUed, by electrolytic deposition, by the metal-spray
method, etc. In all cases the article to be coated must be care-
fully cleaned beforehand, this being generally done by "pickUng"
(acid treatment). The methods of applying zinc coatings,
called galvanizing may in the main be classified under three
heads: (1) the hot-dip process (hot galvanizing or pot galvaniz-
ing), (2) the electrolytic or electroplating proces, (3) the
Sherardizing or dry-dust process. In the hot-dip process the
carefully cleaned article is dipped into a bath of molten zinc.
This method is much used for water pipes, and is always used
for sheets. The markings or spangles on the surface of the
galvanized sheets are due to the crystalUzation of the zinc, the
size being dependent upon the rate of coohng. In the electro-
plating process, the metal is deposited from a water solution
of a zinc salt or salts. In the Sherardizing process,^ the cleaned
article is heated in a revolving drum with zinc dust. The zinc
particles of the zinc dust are in a peculiar physical condition
that causes them to vaporize readily. Being in the vapor state,
the zinc readily finds its way into contact with all the irregu-
larities of the surface of the metal being galvanized. As in the
hot-dip process, the zinc appears to form a true alloy with the
iron. The Sherardizing process does not, however, tend to
modify the conformation as does the hot-dip process, e.g.y
threaded pipes can be galvanized by this process without
destroying the usefulness of the threads. Further, the threads
are galvanized more uniformly than by the electro-galvanizing
1 See section on "Protection Against Internal Corrosion," page 177.
312 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
process. As usually manufactured, the thickest coatings are
generally produced by the hot galvanizing method, with
Sherardizing and electro-galvanizing following in the order
named. Since zinc protects iron at the expense of its own
destruction, the life of the coating is a f imction of its thickness.
The argument for thin coatings is that they are less likely to
be cracked and flaked off by bending than are the thicker
coatings. But because iron that is exposed by a crack in the
zinc coating is kathodic to zinc, the zinc will protect iron that
it does not actually cover (see pages 301 and 313). On this
account, cracks in the zinc coating may be less detrimental than
the thinness of the coating.
Tin plate is manufactured by a modification of the hot-dip
process. The cleaned-iron or steel sheets are passed through
pots of molten tin between driven pairs of rolls, the last pair
squeezing off the surplus tin. Teme plate is made in the same
way as tin plate, except that the bath consists of an alloy
containing usually about 70 per cent tin and the remainder
lead.
Nickel plating and copper plating are usually done by the elec-
trolytic method. Copper may be deposited upon iron and steel
(also upon lead and tin and their alloys) from an acidified solu-
tion of a copper salt by a purely chemical reaction, by merely
immersing the cleaned article in the solution, or by applying
the solution with a brush. A substitution reaction occurs in
which the copper is thrown out of the dissolved salt and an
equivalent amount of iron passes into solution. The copper
coating produced in this manner is not substantial, is easily
rubbed off, and has very Uttle protective value. A somewhat
improved coating is obtained by placing the articles to be
coated in a tumbling barrel with sawdust saturated witli the
copper salt solution. The burnishing action of the sawdust
improves the coating, but the protective value is not high.
Metallic Coatings Compared. — It has been shown in the
preceding paragraph that iron is able to replace copper in
solution, causing the copper to assume the metalhc state.
This is due to the fact that iron has a higher solution pressure
than copper. If these two metals are brought suitably into
contact in the presence of ordinary water, the iron acts as an
anode and dissolves, while the copper acts as the kathode and
furnishes a surface on which the hydrogen ions from the water
may discharge (explained on page 301). In a similar manner ,
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 313
nickel, lead, and tin act as kathodes to iron, but zinc acts as
an anode. In other words, zinc will dissolve in preference to
iron, while iron will dissolve in preference to nickel, lead, tin
and copper. Then, when zinc is employed as a coating for
iron, if the coating becomes scratched or broken so that iron
is laid bare, zinc will nevertheless continue to protect the iron,
because as the corroding agents of the atmosphere find their
way to this point, zinc and not iron compounds will be formed.
The hydrogen ions from the water migrate to the iron to dis-
charge, and under these conditions the iron does not dissolve.
On the other hand, when nickel, lead, tin or copper coatings
on iron are scratched so that the iron is exposed, the action is
just the reverse. The iron becomes the dissolving anode, while
the coating becomes the kathode. Thus the coating actually
stimulates the corrosion of the exposed iron. As long as the
nickel, lead, tin and copper coatings are unbroken, they have
excellent protective values, and last almost indefinitely. Be-
cause of their low solution pressures, they do not readily dis-
solve in the presence of the natural corroding agents. In this
respect they are superior to zinc, for zinc protects iron at the
expense of its own destruction, and the zinc coating gradually
retreats from the point where the original break occurred.
When tools are used on coated articles, or if they are sub-
jected to any sort of rough usage, they are practically certain
to be scratched, and beside, small "pin holes" exist even in the
original coating. Under these conditions, a coating of zinc is
superior to the coatings of the other metals, as long as the
supply of the metallic zinc lasts.
2. Iron Oxide Coatings. — Articles that have been given a
coating of the black, or magnetic oxide (iron scale, Fe304) are
designated by the term black iron, for example the black sheet
iron used for stove piping. As a result of the efforts to produce
a less brittle and more adherent coating, numerous ways have
been devised for developing this oxide on the iron. The oxide
that results from merely heating the iron to a high temperature
is very brittle and is easily flaked off. Examples of commercial
products having the oxide coating are blued iron, Bower
Barff iron, Russia iron, etc. The coating is an excellent pro-
tecting agent as long as it is continuous, but when cracked or
flaked off in spots, it causes the bared iron to corrode very
rapidly. The scale then acts as a kathode to iron, and stimu-
lates corrosion in the same manner as tin and copper.
314 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Spellerizing is a process devised especially for treating the
steel for the manufacture of pipes and tubes. The skelp, from
which the tube is made, is alternately rolled between rolls
having regular shaped projections on their working surfaces
and other rolls with smooth surfaces. The object is to knead or
work the surface of the skelp in order to produce a more closely-
adherent oxide. The kneading also helps to correct segrega-
tion to a certain extent, thus producing a more uniform steel
on the surface, which will be better able to resist corrosion,
especially in the form of pitting (see page 302).
Iron in the Passive State. — When iron is immersed in certain
oxidizing agents, as solutions of nitric acid, chromic acid or potas-
sium dichromate of suitable concentration, its solubiUty in
acids is for the time being destroyed, and it will remain free
from a tendency to corrode for a long time. It is then said to
be in the passive state. When in this state, no change can be
detected in the surface of the metal even with a powerful micro-
scope, and it is not known to just what cause the change is
due, although various theories have been advanced to explain
it. The inactivity may be removed by scratching the surface,
or by touching it with an active substance, or by making it the
kathode with the passage of an electric current of suitable
intensity, and in other ways. The change from the active to
the passive state is not necessarily abrupt, but may be gradual,
so that it is possible to have different degrees of passivity.
3. Effect on Corrosion of Elements Dissolved in or Alloyed
with Iron and Steel.' — Some of the elements that normally
occur in iron and steel seem to accelerate, and others to retard
corrosion. Beside, certain elements that are not normally
present, are added because of their beneficial influence in
lessening the corrodibility of the metal.
Tiemann says that under 0.20 per cent, carbon has Uttle
influence on corrosion, but that from this amount up to about
0.90 per cent, there is a gradual increase in the corrosion rate
with additional ' carbon. From about 0.90 per cent up to
1.25 per cent the corrodibiUty gradually decreases. Sulfur
causes the corrosion rate to increase directly with the amount
present, particularly if the iron or steel is at the same time
approximately free from copper. Opinion is divided as to the
effect of manganese, the beUef being held by some that it
1 The discussion of this topic has been derived largely from Tiemann's
"Iron and Steel."
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 315
increases, and by others that it slightly lowers the corrosion
rate. Phosphorus has little or no direct influence on corrosion.
However, if the iron phosphide, in which form the phosphorus
occurs in the metal, is gathered together in spots (segregated)
as it frequently is, corrosion is stimulated because the phosphide
acts as a kathode (see page 302). Silicon, in the amounts
normally present in open-hearth and bessemer steel, has no
effect on corrosion.
Copper, even when introduced into the molten steel in very
small quantities, seems to lower the corrosion of the steel very
noticeably. It offsets the corrosion influence of the sulfur.
The layer of rust that is formed gradually becomes closely
adherent and protective, rather than stimulative, as is the case
with rust ordinarily. Nickel, also, has a marked influence in
rendering iron and steel less corrodible, but larger amounts are
necessary to produce the desired effect than are required with
copper. With 30 per cent nickel, the alloy is practically non-
corrodible. This steel has been found very serviceable for
boiler tubes. Chromium has a tendency to lessen corrosion,
especially if present in excess of about 6 per cent. That which
is known as stainless steel contains about 10 to 15 per cent.
NON-FERROUS METALS'
Aluminum. — This is a silvery-white metal, melting at 659°C.
(1,218''F.),. It boils at about 1,800°C. (3,272°F.). When
strongly heated in the air it oxidizes readily. Thin pieces bum
in air with a brilliant light resembling magnesium. The spe-
cific gravity is about 2.56 when cast, and about 2.68 when
wrought, which is about one-third that of iron. The hardness
is about equal to that of silver, but for commercial purposes its
hardness is much increased by alloying with it small amounts of
copper. It is malleable between 100°C. (212°F.) and 150°C.
(302''F.). Above 200°C. (392**F.), it is quite brittle. Its tensile
strength when cast is about 14,000 to 15,000 lb. per square inch,
but this may be more than doubled when drawn into wire.
The heat conductivity is 31.33 (silver = 100). Its electrical
conductivity is 58 (silver = 100). When pure it does not cast
well, since it absorbs gases in the molten state that are expelled
again upon cooling, thus causing ''blow holes." The usual
impurities are silicon and iron, in the neighborhood of about
0.2 per cent each.
* See section on "Welding," page 154.
316 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Upon exposure to the air at ordinary temperatures, it corrodes
very little, a thin film of oxide being formed that is closely
adherent and protective. If it were not for this protecting
film, aluminum would be readily acted upon by air and water.
It is not affected by hydrogen sulfide gas, but is rapidly corroded
by salt water. It dissolves readily in hydrochloric acid, but
is very little affected by nitric acid, either dilute or concen-
trated. It is practically imaffected by cold sulfuric acid. In
solutions of the alkalies, sodium hydroxide (soda lye) and potas-
sium hydroxide (potash lye), it dissolves readily with the evolu-
tion of great heat. Sodium and potassium aluminates are
formed, which remain in solution, hydrogen gas being given off.
When amalgamated with mercury, which may be accomplished
by putting it into a solution of mercuric chloride, aluminum
is acted upon by air and water, producing hydrogen and alumi-
num hydroxide. In warm, moist air, the aluminum hydroxide
grows out from the metal in a form like moss, reaching a length
of nearly J^ in. in a very short time. The amalgamation does
not increase the activity of the aluminum, but prevents the
formation of the protective film that usually interferes with its
activity.
Antimony. — This is a silvery-white metal, melting at eSO^C.
(1,166°F.). It volatilizes at about 1,500°C. (2,700**F.).
When heated in air, it bums readily. Its specific gravity is
6.71. It is highly crystalline, and is neither malleable nor
ductile, but is so brittle that it may be readily crushed to a
powder imder the hammer. It expands slightly on cooling
from the liquid to the solid state, and many of its uses depend
upon this property. It is a very poor conductor of electricity.
It tarnishes very little when exposed to the atmosphere. It is
insoluble in dilute acids, but it dissolves slowly in concentrated
hydrochloric acid. Nitric acid converts it into the oxide,and
sulfuric acid is almost without action upon it.
Bismuth. — ^Like antimony, bismuth is highly crystaUine and
brittle, and therefore is not malleable or ductile. It may be
distinguished from antimony by a reddish sheen on the faces
of its crystals, the surface of the antimony crystals being gray.
It melts at 271°C. (520°F.). Its boiUng point is about 1,450°C.
(2,632°F.). Its specific gravity is 9.82. It expands upon
solidifying, increasing over 2 per cent in volume. When
heated in the air above its melting point, it burns readily,
considerable loss being encountered in making alloys. It is
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 317
only slightly attacked by hydrochloric acid. Nitric and hot
sulfuric acids act more readily.
Cadmium. — This is a silvery-white metal with a bluish tinge,
between tin and zinc in hardness. Is quite malleable and duc-
tile even at ordinary temperatures. It melts at 321°C. (610**F.)
and boils at about 778°C. (1,432**F.), so can be separated from
zinc, tin and lead by volatiUzation. Its specific gravity is 8.6
when cast.
It is quite stable in air, although it does not long retain a
bright surface, because of the formation of a thin, closely-
adherent layer of oxide. It bums easily when molten, forming
the brown oxide, CdO; consequently, when making alloys
much of it may be lost, unless considerable care is exercised.
It is noted for its low-melting-point alloys. It is quite readily
soluble in nitric acid, but less so in hydrochloric and sulfuric.
It is thrown out of solution by zinc.
Copper. — This is the only reddish-colored metal. It melts at
1,083**C. (1,981.5°F.). It is sufficiently volatile to color a
bunsen flame green, but loss on melting is not noticeable. It
boils at about 2,350*'C. (4,262°F). If copper is heated to a
red heat and cooled slowly, it becomes brittle; but if cooled
quickly, it is soft, malleable and ductile. The brittleness is due
to a coarsely-crystalline structure that develops during slow
cooling. Just below its melting point, it becomes so brittle
it may be pulverized. At a red heat it may be welded. The
specific gravity of electrolytic copper is 8.945, of hammered,
8.95. Its tensile strength is about 67,500 lb. per square inch.
It is one of the best conductors of both heat and electricity.
Like aluminum, pure copper does not cast well, absorbing gases
when molten that are given off during solidification.
Copper is not rapidly corroded when exposed to ordinary
atmosphere. It becomes coated with a green basic carbonate,
which is closely adherent and protective. When heated in air,
it becomes coated with a layer of the black cupric oxide, CuO,
beneath which, next the metal, a layer of the red, cuprous oxide,
CU2O, is formed. Copper is very soluble in nitric acid, both
dilute and concentrated. Cold hydrochloric and sulfuric
acids act rather feebly on copper, but both attack it quite
rapidly when hot and concentrated. Also, both of them are
much more active in the presence of air. Upon long contact,
weak organic acids, such as are found in foods, act consider-
ably on copper, especially in contact with air. All copper
318 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
compounds are quite poisonous when absorbed into the
system. Ammonia water slowly dissolves copper in the
presence of air.
Lead. — ^A bluish-gray metal. It has bright luster when
freshly cut, but rapidly tarnishes and grows dull due to the
formation of a film of the basic carbonate by the action of the
moisture and carbon dioxide of the air. It is very malleable
but not ductile. It is the softest and least tenacious of the
common metals, its tensile strength being about 2,000 lb. per
square inch. Just before it melts it becomes brittle, but at
sUghtly lower temperatures it is so malleable that it may be
squeezed or squirted into tubes, rods and wire. It is so soft
that it may be scratched with the finger nail or worn off by
friction against paper.
It melts at 327°C. (621°F.), and boils at about 1,525*'C.
(2,777°F.) but volatilization is noticeable at much lower tempera-
tures. Under a pressure of 29,000 lb. per square inch, filings
and shavings of it may be pressed into a solid block. With a
pressure of about 75,000 lb. per square inch, it appears to
liquify at ordinary temperatures.^ If cooled quickly from the
molten state, lead solidifies in the ordinary amorphous condi-
tion, but if cooled very slowly it forms lustrous, octahedral
crystals. The crystalline form may also be prepared by electro-
deposition of the metal. Its specific gravity varies according
to the mechanical treatment to which it has been subjected,
ranging from 11.25 to 11.4.
Lead is not much affected by cold hydrochloric or sulfuric
acids, being especially indifferent to the latter. The lead salts
of these acids are insoluble, and some protection is afforded
the metal by them as soon as the acid has attacked the lead
slightly. A hot solution of hydrochloric acts much more
rapidly because lead chloride is soluble in hot water, thus allowing
the metal to be continually exposed to the acid. Lead is quite
readily soluble in nitric acid, and acetic acid (found in vinegar)
has considerable action upon it also. Many of the relatively
weak organic acids, such as are found in food products, have a
noticeable action on lead; consequently it should not be allowed
to remain in contact with foods or beverages. All lead salts
are poisonous, and the action is distinctly accumulative; that
is, small amounts taken daily seem to be stored within the
system, and when a quantity sufficiently great has accumulated,
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 319
it causes serious trouble. Very pure water dissolves lead suffi-
ciently to render it dangerous for continuous use. When in
contact with hard water, an insoluble coating of lead carbonate
and sulfate is formed on the metal, and this prevents the water
from being contaminated. With pure water, as rain water for
example, the lead hydroxide is formed, and this is noticeably
soluble. Consequently, lead pipes can safely be used to convey
drinking water only when the water is somewhat hard. If
much free carbonic acid (carbon dioxide gas dissolved in
water) is present, the soluble acid carbonate will likely be
formed, and this will cause trouble. Lead is not much affected
by the alkalies, as caustic soda and potash.
Lead oxidizes quite considerably when molten, the monoxide
(litharge) being formed. It is quite resistant to corrosion
under the conditions of ordinary atmospheric exposure, but
under certain conditions, for example when buried in cinders, it is
quite rapidly acted upon. In this case, a white incrustation of
the basic carbonate and sulfate is produced. Lead is turned
black by atmospheric hydrogen sulfide.
Nickel. — ^A silver-white, lustrous metal. It is quite hard,
ductile, and malleable. The tensile strength of the annealed
wrought metal is about 95,000 lb. per square inch. It melts
at 1,452°C. (2,646*^.). Its specific gravity when cast is 8.35,
when wrought, from 8.6 to 8.9. At temperatures below 350°C.
(662°F.) it is magnetic. It is very stable upon exposure to the
air, and on this account is much used to coat other metals. It
is not rapidly acted upon by any acid except nitric, in which it
dissolves quite readily.
Tin. — This is the only metal of commercial importance that
is not found to any extent in the United States. The ordinary
commercial form is quite pure, being rarely below 99.9 per cent.
Traces of lead, iron, copper, and antimony may be present.
The specific gravity of the pure metal when cast is 7.287, when
rolled, 7.3. Of the commercial form it is somewhat higher,
about 7.5. It melts at 232°C. (449°F.) and boils at 2,275°C.
(4,127°F.). It is soft and readily worked. It is harder than
lead, but not so hard as zinc. It is malleable at ordinary tem-
peratures, but is most malleable at about 100°C. (212°F.). It
may be rolled into foil J^ooo in. thick. The tensile strength of
very pure bars is 2,420 lb. per square inch, of the hammered
form, 2,540 lb. per square inch, of the commercial variety,
about 4,600 lb. per square inch, of the foil, about 5,980 lb. per
320 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
square inch.^ Tin is ductile, but because of its low tensile
strength, it is not readily drawn into wire.
Tin occurs in three modifications, or allotropic forms. The
ordinary malleiEible form occurs, and is stable at temperatures
between 18°C. (64.4°F.) and 170°C. (338°F.). When tin is
cooled below 18°C., it has a tendency to change into a gray,
granular powder. However, the change takes place very
slowly, and the ordinary malleable form persists at ordinary low
atmospheric temperatures, although it is in a metastable con-
dition. The change takes place most rapidly at — 48°C.
(-54.4°F.), but it is quite noticeable at even -15°C. (S^F.).
Consequently, block tin (pure tin) pipes will fall to a powder
if kept at low temperatures for a long time. The change has
been noted in cold storage warehouses. The transformation is
hastened by '' inoculation;'' that is, the presence of some of the
transformed variety accelerates the change; consequently, if
once started, it spreads rapidly. It is commonly designated as
the "tin pest."
The ordinary malleable form of tin is crystalline, but above
170°C. it gradually changes into a different crystalline form
known aa "brittle tin." At 200°C. (392°F.) it is extremely
brittle and can be readily converted into a powder. When
bars of the malleable form of tin are bent, a peculiar crackling
noise known as the "tin cry" is noticeable. This is due to the
friction of the crystals as they move over one another.
Tin does not ordinarily corrode or tarnish much when exposed
to the atmosphere, and on this account is much used to coat
other metals (see page 312). Above its melting point, it
oxidizes readily to stannic oxide, SnOs, commonly known as
putty powder. When heated to about 1,550°C. (2,822°F.), it
takes fire and bums with a white flame.
Tin is slowly soluble in cold, dilute sulfuric acid, somewhat
more rapidly in hydrochloric. Nitric acid, when dilute, acts
slowly with the formation of stannous nitrate, which is soluble.
The moderately concentrated nitric converts it into the white,
insoluble, hydrated stannic oxide, known as metastannic acid.
Very concentrated nitric acid is without noticeable action,
converting the tin into the passive form (see passive form of
iron, page 314). Hot solutions of alkalies dissolve tin readily,
the cold solutions more slowly. Soluble compounds known as
stannates are formed; for example, sodium hydroxide (caustic
1 Liddell, "Metallurgists and Chemists' Handbook."
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 321
soda) forms sodium stamiate. On this account, alkaline solu-
tions should not be allowed to stand in vessels made of tin-
plated metals.
Zinc. — ^A bluish-white metal. Specific gravity when cast,
6.861 to 7.149; rolled, 7.2 to 7.3. It melts at 420°C. (787*^.)
and boils at 918°C. (1,684°F.) at atmospheric pressure. Be-
cause of its low boiling point, it can be separated from many
other metals by distillation. Also in making certain alloys of
zinc, a considerable amount of it may be lost through vaporiza-
tion. When zinc is cooled suddenly from the molten state, it
solidifies in an amorphous (non-crystalline) condition and then
is quite malleable. But if allowed to cool slowly, it becomes
highly crystalline, being then hard and brittle. The ordinary
commercial form is partly crystaUine and partly amorphous,
and at atmospheric temperatures is quite brittle, especially if
impure. If it is heated to between 100° (212°F.) and 150°C.
(302°F.), it becomes malleable and ductile, and may be rolled
into sheets or drawn into wire. Moreover, it remains malleable
and ductile when allowed to cool. When heated to somewhat
above 200°C. (392*^.), it becomes brittle again and may be
powdered under the hammer. In hardness, zinc ranks between
copper and tin. Its tensile strength varies from 2,700 lb.
per square inch for cast zinc, to 17,700 for annealed rod.
Commercial zinc is commonly known as spelter. In Ameri-
can spelter, the common impurities are lead, iron and cadmium,
but small amoimts of arsenic, antimony, copper, aluminum,
sulfur, carbon and oxygen may be present also. The lead may
occur in quantities from a few tenths of 1 per cent to about 1.50
per cent or more. A small quantity of lead increases the mal-
leability and ductility of zinc, but over 1.50 per cent is injuri-
ous. Up to 0.02 per cent of iron does not seem to be injurious,
but over this amount makes the zinc hard and brittle. Cad-
mium, which may occur from 0.05 to 0.75 per cent, seems
to have no objectionable effect on the physical properties.
Arsenic causes the zinc to be hard and brittle and difficult to
melt. Also, it is very objectionable in zinc that is to be dis-
solved in acid in the generation of hydrogen for the oxy-hydro-
gen flame. Arsine (arseniuretted hydrogen, AsHs) is formed,
which is poisonous. During the burning of the hydrogen, the
arsine is oxidized to arsenious oxide (white arsenic, AszOs),
which escapes in the form of a fume, and this also is poisonous
(see page 339).
21
322 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Zinc bums in air at about 500°C. (932*^.) with a greenish
flame, producing clouds of a fluffy white oxide (philosopher's
wool). When exposed to moist air, it tarnishes readily, form-
ing a film of the basic carbonate which adheres closely and tends
to protect the metal from further corrosion. Ordinary spelter
(impure zinc) dissolves readily in the mineral acids, but the
solubiUty decreases as the purity increases. Pure zinc will not
dissolve in any of the acids except nitric (see page 300). Zinc
is soluble in hot solutions of the caustic alkalies, with the
evolution of hydrogen and the formation of a soluble zincate.
For example, with sodium hydroxide (caustic soda, NaOH),
sodium zincate (NaO)2Zn is produced.
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
An alloy is a coherent, metallic mass produced by the intimate
association of two or more metals or metaUic substances.
Although other methods may be employed, alloys are usually
formed by thoroughly mixing the constituents while in the
molten state, and then allowing the mixture to solidify. In
the molten state, the constituents are generally more or less
soluble in each other, but it often happens that they are practi-
cally insoluble in each other in the soUd state, so that during
sohdification a separation must take place. In this case, the
alloy becomes a mass of intimately mixed crystals of the
constituents, smd is generally known as a mechanical mixture.
In some cases the constituents of the alloy do not separate at all,
but remain dissolved even in the soUd state, thus forming a
type of alloy known as a solid solution. In other cases the
constituents may combine chemically and soUdify as a chemical
compound. Most of the common alloys are either mechanical
mixtures or solid solutions.
During the "freezing" of those alloys that solidify as mechan-
ical mixtures, the crystallization is generally selective, certain
portions of the constituents crystallizing first, thus leaving
a low-melting-point constituent known as a eviectiCy which is the
last to solidify, and which does so at a fixed and definite tem-
perature. Before proceding further with the discussion of
alloys, it will be necessary to explain more fully the nature
of both eutectics and solid solutions.
Eutectic Formation. — The manner in which eutectics are
formed can be more easily explained if we consider the more
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY
323
familiar case of the freezing of a water solution of sodium
chloride or common salt. With this solution, the crystalliza-
tion is very similar to that which . takes place in alloys, for
as has been said, the common alloys in the molten state
may be considered to be solutions of the constituents in each
other.
When pure water is cooled, the temperature falls regularly
until the freezing point, 0°C. (32°F.) is reached, and then the
temperature remains constant until all the water is frozen.
10 eo 23.6 30
Percentage of Salt in Water
Fig. 238.
When a certain amount of salt is dissolved in the water, the
freezing does not begin until some temperature below 0*^0. is
reached. This is shown graphically in Fig. 238, where the
line AB indicates the temperature at which the solutions
containing different percentages of salt begin to freeze. And
unlike pure water, when the freezing of a salt solution begins,
it does not all take place at the same temperatiure. Instead,
it freezes selectively. At first, crystals of nearly pure ice
separate out, and since this amounts to the removal of water,
the remaining solution becomes richer in salt. Because it is
richer in salt, its freezing point is lower as the line AB shows,
and before more ice crystals form, the solution must be further
cooled. With a constantly falling temperature, the separation
324 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
of ice crystals takes place gradually until a certain quantity
of concentrated solution (which will be small in amount if the
percentage of salt in the original solution was small) is produced
that will contain 23.6 per cent of salt as shown at B, With
this concentration, the temperature will have fallen to — 22**C.
(— 7.6°F.), and it will remain constant at this point until the
Qonpentrated residual solution is completely frozen. A solu-
tion containing 23.6 per cent of salt has the lowest freezing
point of all the solutions of salt in water that can be made.
If more salt were added, the freezing point would be raised.
Because it has the lowest freezing point, it has also the lowest
melting point, since the freezing and melting of any substance
takes place at the same temperature. Therefore, that portion
of the solution which was the last to freeze will be also the first
to melt with a rising temperature, and on this account is called
the eutectic. The term is derived from the Greek and means
"easy-melting." With any solution that contains less than
23.6 per cent of salt in water, the freezing will take place in the
manner that has been described.
If the percentage of salt in the original solution is exactly
23.6 per cent, no solidification of any sort will take place until
the solution has been cooled to — 22°C. ( — 7.6°F.), at which
temperature the entire solution freezes. In this case, the
whole of the solution has the eutectic composition.
If more than 23.6 per cent of salt is present in the original
solution, then instead of crystals of ice, crystals of salt will be
the first to separate out, and the solution will grow less con-
centrated, the composition following the line CB, until in this
case also, the final solution will contain 23.6 per cent of salt,
and will freeze at -22°C. (-7.6°F.). Thus it is seen, that
regardless of whether the amount of salt is above or below
23.6 per cent, a certain quantity of eutectic, containing exactly
this percentage of salt will be formed before final soUdification
has occurred. The solidification begins at the ice line or the
salt line as the case may be, but it is completed at the eutectic
line, which is represented by the line DE,
Solid Solutions. — When a liquid solution in passing into the
solid state (freezing) retains its essential characteristics, it is
described as a solid solution. The essential featues of a liquid
solution are two:
First, the constituents are completely merged. The union is
much more intimate than mere mixture, being in fact so inti-
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 325
mate that the separate existence of the constituents cannot be
determined by any physical means, such as, for example, by
examination with a microscope even with the greatest magni-
fication. The constituents of a mixture can always be detected
by microscopic examination. The constituents of a solution
lose their identity in much the same manner as they do in a
chemical compound. For example, in the chemical compound,
copper sulfate (blue vitriol), although copper is present, the
compound exhibits none of the physical properties of that
metal.
Second, although the solution is like a chemical compound
in respect to the intimacy of the association of its parts, it is
unlike it in that the proportions are not fixed. In a chemical
compound, the constituents are always present in the same
proportions, while in a solution, the proportions may vary
through a rather wide range. A solid solution is like a liquid
solution in all respects except that it exists in the solid stale.
It should be understood that there is a difference between
a solid solution and a solidified solution. Frozen salt water is
a solidified solution, but as was shown, it is a mechanical
mixture of crystals of ice and salt. A solid solution appears
like a simple, uniform body.
THE LEAD-TIN ALLOYS
Solder. — ^In the molten state, lead and tin are soluble in each
other in all proportions. The behavior of their solutions during
solidification is shown in Fig. 239. As is indicated by the
limited extent of the line DE, not all the lead-tin alloys form
eutectics. Those that contain no more than 4 per cent of tin
or no more than 2 per cent of lead, crystallize as solid solutions.
The others form eutectics as shown in the figure, the eutectic
containing approximately 69 per cent of tin and 31 per cent of
lead.
Formation of the Eutectic. — ^Just as is the case with the water
solution of salt previously discussed, if there is an excess of
either metal present in the alloy, that is, more than 69 per cent
of tin or more than 31 per cent of lead, the excess crystallizes
first during solidification, so that eventually the elements in the
molten remainder exist in the eutectic ratio. For example, in
plumber's solder, which contains approximately 63 per cent of
lead and 37 per cent of tin, there is about twice as much lead
326 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
as the eutectic ratio demands. If we start with this alloy at e,
temperature of STS'C. (527°F.) which will be at the point m in
Fig. 239, it will cool without change until a temperature of
about 235°C. (435°F.) is reached, which will be a point on the
line AB. This is the lowest temperature to which the eolution
can cool and contain 63 per cent of lead in solution. When
cooled further, lead crystals form in the molten alloy; that is,
the lead begins to freeze. The alloy now consists of lead
crystals mixed with a molten medium, its structure being
comparable to that of a paint, which consists of solid mineral
particles in a fluid medium. The lead crystals spoken of here
are not in reality pure lead, but contain some tin in solid solu-
tion. However, the tin in the lead crystals will never exceed
4 per cent, and it is usually considerably less than this.
As the cooling continues, the solubility of the lead in the melt
becomes still less, and more lead crystals separate out. This
process continues until the point B is reached, when the rela-
tively small amount that still remains molten — the eutectic —
will contain 31 per cent of lead and 69 per cent of tin. So
every point on the line AB represents the maximum amount of
lead that can remain in solution at that temperative; also it
may be said to mark the temperatures at which the alloys that
contain more than the eutectic amount of lead begin to freeze.
If, on the other hand, instead of containing an excess of lead,
the alloy should contain an excess of tin (above 69 per cent), then
tin crystals will be the first to form. For example, an alloy
containing 80 per cent of tin at a temperature of 250°C. (4S2''F.)
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 327
which would be at the point n in the figure, will cool without
change until the line BC is reached. In cooling through the
range between BC and BEj a sufficient amount of tin will
crystallize, so that when the line BE is reached, that portion
which still remains molten will have the eutectic composition.
Thus, it is seen that regardless of the composition of the
alloy with which we start, if it contains other than 69 per cent of
tin and 31 per cent of lead, a sufficient quantity of the excess
constituent will be thrown out of solution, so that finally a
certain amount of solution or melt will be formed that contains
the metals in the 69 to 31 ratio. It is understood that this
statement does not apply to those alloys containing less than
4 per cent of tin and less than 2 per cent of lead, since these
solidify as solid solutions.
Solidification of the Eutectic. — As has been said, when the
lead-tin alloys, excepting those that solidify as solid solutions,
have cooled to ISO^C. (356°F.), they will consist of a mass of
crystals of either tin or lead with the space between them filled
with molten eutectic. As the temperature falls below 180°C.
(356°F.), the eutectic solidifies, crystallizing about the first-
formed (primary) crystals and binding them together in the
manner of a cement. The eutectic does not solidify as a solid
soluHoriy but becomes a mass of fine, intimately mixed crystals
of its constituents. It was pointed out in the previous discus-
sion, that when the temperature crossed the line ABj lead crys-
tals were formed, and when it crossed the line CBj tin crystals
appeared. With the eutectic composition, in crossing the
point B, both lines are crossed. Consequently, in solidifying,
the eutectic separates into distinct crystals of lead and tin.
The crystals of the eutectic are smaller than the primary
crystals, because the crystalUzation of the eutectic takes place
rather sharply, at a definite temperature. With rapid solidifica-
tion, the tendency is always to produce small-sized crystals.
The primary crystals that separate in passing through the
solidifying range, have a chance to grow by additions from the
melt in which they are carried.
The Plasticity of Plumber's Solder. — ^As plumber^s solder
cools through the solidifying range, as shown in Fig. 239, the
proportion of lead crystals gradually increases, while the pro-
portion of melt gradually decreases, so that at a certain stage
the alloy acquires a plastic condition in which it has about the
consistency of baker's dough. While in this state, it may be
328 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
molded into shape in the so-called wiping of joints. Solders
may be used in this way that contain from about 60 to 67 per
cent of lead. The 60 per cent alloy begins to assume the plastic
state at about 235°C. (455°F.), and the 67 per cent alloy at
about 243°C. (469°F.). The final solidification of both takes
place at 180°C. (356°F.), so there is a range of about 50°C.
(122*^.) during which they are plastic. The plasticity is due
to the presence of the lead crystals, which increase the consist-
ency of the fluid portion in much the same manner as additions
of sand increase the consistency of a thin mortar. It is these
lead crystals also that give to the wiped joint its frosted appear-
ance, and they are responsible for the frosted appearance of
solder when poured into an open mold and allowed to solidify.
Care of Solder. — When using solder, it is highly essential
that it be kept as free as possible froin oxides and foreign
material of every kind. It is bad practice to gather scraps and
droppings from the floor and put them back into the melting
pot, since foreign metals are likely to be introduced in this way.
More than ordinary care must be exercised when soldering
upon galvanized iron or brass, since when solder is brought into
contact with zinc or zinc-bearing alloys, it is almost certain to
take up a small quantity of zinc. When lead is added to the
solder by the consumer, foreign metals are likely to be intro-
duced. Lead is very likely to contain at least small quantities
of such elements as arsenic, antimony, zinc, etc. In the manu-
facture of solder, care is taken to remove these impurities.
Effect of Foreign Elements in Solder. — Arsenic, antimony,
copper, iron, sulfur and zinc all have detrimental effects on the
properties of solder. Users of solder object especially to the
presence of zinc, saying that even if a trace of it be present, it
can be detected in the working properties of the alloy.
Arsenic causes the solder to be hard and brittle. Fortu-
nately, it oxidizes very readily, and but little of it remains
very long. The presence of arsenic can be detected by its
garlic-like odor as it oxidizes.
Antimony has an effect similar to that of arsenic, but it is
not so easily removed. When as much as 2 per cent is present,
small, bright crystal faces appear on the surface of the solder
when it is poured into an open mold and allowed to sohdify.
Copper finds its way into solder more frequently, perhaps,
than any other foreign metal. This results from the practice
of filing or scraping brass, or other copper alloys where the
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 329
filings may become mixed with the solder scrap which is then
introduced into the molten solder. Copper causes the molten
solder to be viscous and to flow less freely. When poured in an
open mold, its presence is indicated by a slight iridescence, or
pale-blue color where the solder comes into contact with the
wall of the mold. It is diflficult to remove copper from solder
because of the readiness with which it alloys with tin, and
because of the fact that it does not readily oxidize.
Iron, even in amounts less than 1 per cent, causes the solder
to have a noticeably higher melting point and to be sluggish
when molten. When solder containing iron is poured in an
open mold, its surface will have readily perceptible dark
streaks upon it. Iron in solder is diflficult to remove.
Zinc is usually found more objectionable to the users of
solder than any other of the elements mentioned. Like copper
and iron, it causes the molten solder to flow sluggishly. Also,
small lumps occur in the solder and the work appears rough.
Because of its objectionable qualities, an effort is usually made
to remove the zinc.
Removal of Zinc— Zinc boils at 918°C. (1,684°F.), while lead
boils at about 1,525°C. (2,777°F.), and tin at about 2,275°C.
(4,127°F.). If the solder be heated to somewhat above the
boiling point of the zinc, say about 1,100°C. (2,012°F.),
the zinc may be vaporized. For seciu-ing this temperature, the
ordinary solder-melting device is insufficient, but the nec-
essary heat may easily be obtained in any good, blast type of
gas-fired crucible furnace. The crucible employed should be
of graphite, fireclay, or similar refractory material. The
ordinary cast-iron solder-melting pot should not be used, since
the eutectic in cast iron melts at 1,130°C. (2,066°F.). Beside,
at this temperature, the tin of the solder would readily form
an alloy with the iron of the pot. The solder should be held at
the temperature indicated for some time, depending upon the
amount of zinc present, and it should be stirred and ladled at
frequent intervals. If ladled so that the solder is well exposed
to the air, some of the zinc may be removed before its boiling
point is reached. The ordinary cast-iron solder ladle may be
used here, if it is not allowed to remain too long in the solder,
so that it becomes unduly hot.
After the heating operation, when the solder has cooled
considerably, a small amount of ammonium chloride (sal
ammoniac) should be thrown into the crucible, and the solder
330 PLUMBERS^ HANDBOOK
stirred again, so that the salt is intermingled as thoroughly bs
possible with the solder. About J^ oz. of the ammonium
chloride to 1 lb. of solder will be sufficient. The ammonium
chloride should not be stirred into the solder with the iron
ladle, since the salt acts as a flux, and will cause the solder to
alloy with the iron, thus causing iron to be introduced into the
solder. A stick of green wood or a solid carbon electrode,
such as is employed in the ordinary arc light, may be used.
As has been said, the ammonium chloride acts as a flux, and the
object in using it here is to gather up the oxides from the sur-
face of the melt, as well as those that are in it. If these
oxides were allowed to remain, they also would cause the solder
to be sluggish when molten, and beside, to be weak when solidi-
fied. After treating properly with the ammonium chloride, the
solder will be bright and free-flowing. Ammonium chloride is
easily volatilized, and a considerable amount of fume may be
produced on this account.
Fusible Alloys. — ^Low-melting-point alloys are found very
useful in a variety of ways. In the automatic sprinkling
device, the sprinkler is kept closed by a section of fusible metal.
Fireproof doors also may be kept open by fusible plugs which
automatically allow the doors to close in case of fire. They are
used in electrical connections, in fire alarms, in safety plugs in
boilers, and in many other ways. Many of these alloys melt
in warm water. For example, Rose's alloy, which contains
1 part of tin, 1 of lead and 2 parts of bismuth, melts at 94°C.
(201 °F.). Newton's alloy, containing 3 parts of tin, 5 of
lead and 8 of bismuth, melts at 94.5°C. (202°F.). Wood's
alloy, consisting of 1 part of tin, 1 part of cadmium, 2 parts of
lead and 4 of bismuth, melts at 60.5°C. (141°F.). Lipowitz's
alloy, which contains 4 parts of tin, 8 of lead, 3 of cadmium and
15 of bismuth, melts at 70°C. (158°F.). There are many other
similar alloys, and the melting points of those mentioned may be
changed by varying the proportions.
A similar alloy, although having a considerably higher melt-
ing point, is sometimes used by plumbers in joining articles
made of block tin, as when installing receptacles and conduc-
tors for distilled water, and for syrups and liquids charged
with carbon dioxide, where lead, brass, and iron pipes may not
be used. Plumber's solder begins to assume the pasty state
at about 240°C. (464°F.), while tin melts at 232°C. (449°F.),
so it is difficult to use the ordinary solder in this case. There-
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 331
f ore, an alloy containing 2 parts tin, 2 of lead and 1 part of
bismuth, which melts at 145°C. (293®F.), is often employed.
OTHER NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
Brass. — This is essentially an alloy of copper and zinc, but
commonly, in the industrial arts, the name brass is applied to
all alloys that are decidedly yellow, or have the yellowish tinge
characteristic of common brass. In commercial alloys, the
zinc may range from 5 to 60 per cent, but the more important
are those that do not contain above about 35 per cent of zinc.
Brass consists of a single, homogeneous solid solution, if the
zinc does not exceed 35 per cent but its structure is more com-
plex when the zinc exceeds this amount.
The tensile strength of brass is greatest when the amoimt of
zinc is about 45 per cent, but falls rapidly as the zinc increases
above this point. With 45 per cent of zinc, the brittleness is
also very high, or in other words, the ductility and toughness
are very low. DuctiUty reaches a maximum with about 30
per cent of zinc, and decreases rapidly with increase of zinc
beyond this amount. The most serviceable brass is that which
possesses the highest combined strength and toughness, this
being obtained in brass with about 35 per cent of zinc. There
are, to be sure, many brasses that contain more zinc than this,
toughness then being Sacrificed for other desirable properties,
as hardness for example. Those that are often included under
the name Muntz metal (sometimes called ''high" brass),
generally contain from 38 to 40 per cent zinc. These alloys are
harder and stronger, but also more brittle than the low-zinc
alloys. Brazing solder also contains a high amount of zinc,
from about 40 to 67 per cent, because the high-zinc alloys have
lower melting points.
Any brass containing 35 per cent of zinc is sufficiently mal-
leable and ductile to be converted into sheets and wire, but
usually these forms contain between 20 and 30 per cent. The
20 per cent alloy is sometimes called "low" brass. Cast brass
usually contains more zinc than that which is converted into
sheet and wire.
Yellow brass for plumber's use may consist of 2 parts of
copper (66.66 per cent), 1 part of zinc (33.34 per cent), with 4
per cent or less of lead added to this mixture. Lead prevents
the fouling of the tools, and increases the ease of fihng, etc.
332 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Lead also increases the softness, and is sometimes added to
brass that is to be worked. Valve brass (sometimes also called
bronze) contains 90 per cent of copper, 6 per cent of zinc and
4 per cent of lead. This alloy should be capable of being peened
or worked with a hammer. If much strength is demanded of
the brass, the lead must be kept low, not above about 2 per cent,
since lead causes brass to be brittle. Beside, lead in amounts
above about 3 or 4 per cent does not alloy well with brass. If
larger amounts are added, it has a tendency to separate out in
the form of globules, thus weakening the alloy. Large amounts
of lead are often added to cheapen the brass.
There are many other metals that are frequently employed
in brass. As much as 3 per cent of aluminum may be used.
The product has a deep golden color and is called aluminum
brass. A small quantity of tin is often introduced. As much
as 2 per cent noticeably hardens the alloy and increases the
tensile strength. Manganese in brass acts as a deoxidizer, and
thus toughens the alloy. It also increases the hardness and
strength. Antimony in brass is very objectionable. It makes
the alloy very brittle and is never intentionally added. The
action of bismuth is very similar. Arsenic acts in a like manner,
but its effect is not so pronounced.
Delta metal is essentially a brass containing a small quantity
of iron. It usually contains from 55 to 60 per cent of copper,
40 to 43 per cent of zinc, 1 to 2 per cent of iron, with a fraction
of a per cent of manganese or aluminum. It is very much
harder, stronger and tougher than ordinary brass, the tensile
strength being about two-fifths greater than a similar brass
without the iron.
German silver may be considered as a brass that by the ad-
dition of nickel has acquired a white color and a much increased
hardness. It also resists corrosion and the action of chemical
reagents much better than ordinary brass, and many of its
uses depend upon this property. It has been found that iron
further whitens and hardens the alloy, and most of the com-
mercial varieties contain some iron, generally from 1 to 3
per cent. The composition of german silver is not definite,
but usually varies within the following limits: 60 to 65 per
cent of copper, 19 to 30 per cent of zinc, 13 to 20 per cent of
nickel and 2 to 3 per cent of iron.
Solder for german silver consists of 45 per cent of copper,
46 per cent of zinc and 10 per cent of nickel.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 333
Bronze. — This is essentially an alloy of copper and tin,
although many other metals jBJce often introduced. The tensile
strength of bronze increases gradually with the amount of tin,
reaching a maximum with about 20 per cent of tin, falling off
rapidly as the tin is increased beyond this point. Bronze is
most ductile when it contains about 5 per cent of tin, but the
ductiUty gradually lessens and practically disappears with
about 20 per cent. Since ductility is coordinate with tough-
ness, these alloys are very brittle. They are also very hard.
The most useful of the bronzes are those that contain from 8 to
10 per cent of tin, since the maximum combined strength and
hardness is then secured. The tensile strength of bronze is in
general greater than that of brass. The tensile strength of
both bronze and brass is very much lessened when at a tem-
perature of about 200**C. (392**F.) or above.
As has been said, other metals are often added to bronze.
Zinc is added to decrease the tendency toward segregation.
It also increases the fluidity of the molten bronze so that
bronze castings containing zinc are somewhat more likely to
be sound. But if more than 2 per cent is added, the hardness
and tenacity are decreased. Color is said to be improved by
zinc. As much as 2 per cent of lead causes the strength and
ductility to be very noticeably lessened. Iron in bronze confers
great hardness and increases the whiteness.
Elements having a marked deoxidizing power, have a very
beneficial effect on bronze. In investigations carried out by
the U. S. Bureau of Standards on the alloy known as Govern-
ment bronze, which consists of 88 per cent of copper, 10 per
cent of tin and 2 per cent of zinc, it was found by a microscopic
examination of the fractured test specimens, that entangled
oxides were the most common source of weakness. Such oxides
were frequently found to be present on the face of the fracture,
the conclusion being that they were responsible for the break
occurring at that point. By reduction of these oxides by a
suitable reagent, the strength and other desirable properties
of the bronze were much increased. Such elements as phos-
phoruSf manganese^ silicon and aluminum are used for this
purpose.
Phosphor bronze is a name applied to any bronze to which
phosphorus has been added, although no phosphorus may be
present in the finished alloy. Frequently all of the phosphorus
is used up in reducing (removing oxygen from) the metallic
334 PLUMBERS' HANDBCX)K
oxides. The amount remaining in the alloy should in any case
be very little, generally less than 1 per cent. An excess causes
the bronze to be brittle. Treatment with phosphorus greatly
increases the tensile strength, elasticity, and power to resist
repeated stresses, such as pulls, twistings, bendings, etc.
Phosphor bronze of proper composition can be rolled, forged
and drawn cold. Its resistance to corrosion is much greater
than that of ordinary bronze, especially of sea water, and it is
much used where this property is required.
Silicon bronze is a bronze containing a fraction of a per cent
of silicon. like phosphorus, silicon acts as a deoxidizer. The
properties of silicon bronze, are in general similar to those of
phosphor bronze, only they are less pronounced It has a much
higher electrical conductivity than phosphor bronze, and is
much used where a high tensile strength and electrical con-
ductivity are demanded.
Manganese bronze contains about 4 per cent of manganese,
which also is active as a deoxidizer. It is very strong and has a
high corrosion resistance, being therefore considerably used for
valve parts.
Aluminum bronze is called a bronze, although it contains no
tin. The alloy contains between 5 and 11 per cent aluminum,
the remainder being copper. It is a very tough and useful
alloy, the aluminum acting as an excellent deoxidizer. The
tensile strength is high, increasing with the amount of aluminum
up to 11 per cent, but the tenacity grows less with increase of
aluminum beyond this point. An alloy containing 10.78 per
cent of aluminum, cast in sand, then reheated and quenched
from 800°C. (1,472°F.), was found to have a tensile strength of
112,000 lb. per square inch. It has a fine yellow color resem-
bling gold, and it resists corrosion very well. It may be heated
to a red heat in air for some time with but very little oxidation.
Corrosion-resistant Alloys. — The phosphor, silicon, manga-
nese and aluminum bronzes possess marked corrosion-resistant
properties. For discussion, see the preceding paragraphs.
For german silver which is also a corrosion-resistant alloy, see
under ** Brass." Others are discussed below.
Monel metal is an alloy containing approximatley 68 to 70
per cent nickel, 26 to 30 per cent copper and 2 to 3 per cent iron.
Its tensile strength when cast is about 80,000 lb. per square
inch. Its color is very similar to nickel, but it has a slightly
darker tinge. Its corrosion resistance is very high, and it is
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 335
much used for work demanding resistance to the action of sea
water.
Nickel steel may contain as much as 42 per cent of nickel
for special uses, but the ordinary variety generally contains
about 3.50 per cent. It has much greater hardness, tensile
strength and toughness than the ordinary steel. Even with
3.50 per cent nickel, it resists corrosion very well, but where this
property is especially desired, the amount of nickel is increased.
For example, in marine boiler tubes, steel containing 30 per
cent nickel may be employed.
" Stainless " steel is an alloy that is finding rapidly increas-
ing applications. It is an alloy containing from about 12 to
14 per cent chromium, and a little cobalt. A typical analysis
is said to be: 86.6 per cent iron, 12.7 per cent chromium,
0.45 per cent cobalt, 0.28 per cent carbon, 0.01 per cent silicon,
and 0.12 per cent manganese.
The silicon -iron alloys are resistant to ordinary corrosion,
but they are especially noted for their resistance to acid attack.
They are quite resistant to the action of nitric acid, and even
more so to sulfuric. However, they are considerably affected
by the action of hydrochloric acid. In the United States, these
alloys are marketed under the trade names of "Duriron,"
"Tantiron" and "Corrosiron." They are in some respects
similar to ordinary cast iron, although in cast iron the carbon
is in the neighborhood of 3.50 per cent, with silicon ranging
usually between 1.50 and 3.00 per cent, while in the silicon-
iron alloys the silicon is generally between 14 and 15 per cent,
with carbon about 1.00 per cent or less. The silicon-iron alloys
have a tensile strength of about 12,000 to 14,000 lb., while that
of cast iron ranges between about 18,000 and 35,000 lb. The
silicon-iron alloys are more brittle than ordinary gray cast iron.
ACIDSi
In a general way, an acid may be defined as a substance that
has a sour taste, turns blue Utmus red and contains hydrogen,
part or all of which can be displaced when the acid is treated
with a metal. Also, an acid may be said to be a substance
that when dissolved in water produces hydrogen ions.* Al-
though all acids contain hydrogen, not all substances that con-
» See "Chemical Plumbing," page 220.
' For definition of ion, see page 300 (Note).
336 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
tain hydrogen are acids. The hydrogen must be held in the
compound in a certain manner.
The properties of acids are in general opposite to those of
bases, and may be neutralized by the action of bases, such as
caustic soda and potash, ammonia water, Ume water and certain
other common substances, as lime, washing soda, etc.
The present discussion will deal only with the so-called
strong acids, that is, those that when dissolved in water are
largely dissociated into ions. The common examples of the
strong acids are sulfuric, hydrochloric and nitric.
Sulfuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol). H2SO4. — Concentrated com-
mercial sulfuric acid has a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.84 (64 to
66°B6.), and contains 94 per cent of acid, the remainder being
water. It is a thick, oily liquid, and frequently is of a brown-
ish color because of the presence of organic matter.
When sulfuric acid is diluted with water, a great amount of
heat is evolved. In mixing the water and acid, the acid shmdd
always he poured into the water. If the water is poured into the
acid, since the water is considerably lighter than the acid, it
tends to remain on top, and so much heat may be developed at
one point that some of the water may be suddenly converted
into steam, causing the acid to spatter. When the acid is
poured into the water, it is disseminated more 6asily, and the
heat is distributed. The mixture should always be stirred as
the acid is poured in.
Concentrated sulfuric acid is very hygroscopic, and if allowed
to stand exposed, rapidly absorbs water from the atmosphere.
It may easily absorb so much water in this way that the con-
tainer will overflow.
The acid is also able to extract water from organic matter,
such as wood, paper, cotton, etc., causing them to appear
charred. On this account it is very destructive to clothing,
although less so to woolen than to cotton. The concentrated
acid should not be allowed to come into contact with the skin,
since it has a decided bUstering effect.
The cold, concentrated sulfuric acid does not perceptibly
attack copper, tin, lead, antimony, mercury or silver, and has
very Uttle action on iron, cadmium and manganese, but these
metals are all attacked by the hot, concentrated acid. The
cold, diluted acid dissolves zinc, iron, cadmium and manganese,
forming a sulfate of the metal, and liberating hydrogen. All
the salts of sulfuric acid are called suKates.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 337
Hydrochloric Acid (MuriaMc Add) , HCl. Used as a Soldering
Flux. — This acid is a solution of hydrogen chloride gas in
water. The gas is very soluble in water, one volume of water
at 15°C. (59**F.) being able to dissolve about 475 volumes of
gas. This solution contains 42.9 per cent acid by weight.
The ordinary concentrated form contains about 37 per cent by
weight, and has a specific gravity of 1.19. Hydrochloric acid
fumes strongly in the air, due to the fact that the gas which
escapes from the acid forms a solution with the moisture of the
air which condenses in the form of fog. The acid is manu-
factured by distilling sodium chloride (common salt) with
sulfuric acid, and is. in reality a by-product of the manufacture
of sodium carbonate (soda ash, washing soda).
Cold hydrochloric acid, both dilute and concentrated, readily
dissolves zinc, iron, aluminum and tin, although with the latter,
the action is only moderately rapid. In all cases the action
is much accelerated by heat. Copper and lead are not dissolved
by the cold dilute acid unless exposed to the air, and then the
action is slow. These two metals are only slowly attacked by
the hot concentrated acid. When the metals dissolve, chlorides
are formed, and hydrogen is set free. Most chlorides are
soluble in water. Hydrochloric acid is considerably more
active (stronger) than suKuric acid of equivalent concentration.
The pure form of the water solution of hydrochloric acid is
colorless, but the crude form used chiefly for industrial purposes
is yellowish or straw-colored, this being due to the presence of
iron (ferric) chloride.
Nitric Acid (Aqtia Fortis) . HNO3. — Pure nitric acid is a color-
less liquid having a specific gravity of 1.53 at 15°C. (59°F.).
The ordinary concentrated commercial variety has a specific
gravity of 1.42, and contains approximately 70 per cent nitric
acid by weight, the remainder being water. The concentrated
acid decomposes, especially under the influence of light, into
oxygen, water and the oxides of nitrogen, which latter color
the acid yellow. The diluted acid is much more stable. Nitric
acid is made by distilling Chili salt peter (sodium nitrate),
NaNOa, with sulfuric acid. It is also prepared by other
methods.
Nitric acid is considerably stronger than sulfuric, and is a
powerful oxidizing agent. If the strong acid is poured upon
sawdust, the mass often bursts into flame. The concentrated
acid is very destructive to the skin and causes painful sores.
22
338 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Even the diluted acid stains the skin yellow or brown and
causes it to peel off after a time.
The ordinary commercial form dissolves most of the cominon
metals, including several that are not much attacked by sul-
furic and hydrochloric, for example, copper, mercury and silver.
It is the best solvent for brass, bronze and other copper alloys.
Its salts are called nitrates, but nitrates are not always formed
by its action on the metals. With tin, metastannic acid is
formed, this being a white, insoluble substance. If the acid
is very dilute, hydrogen will be given off during the action of
nitric acid on most of the metals, but with the more concen-
trated form, various nitrogen compounds are liberated in
place of hydrogen. Its action varies according to the metal,
the concentration of the acid and the temperature. In some
instances, the metal is turned into the "passive state," thus
being rendered insoluble (see page 314). Because of the vigor
of its action on the metals, nitric acid was formerly called aqua
fortis, meaning strong water.
PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN FOR LEAD BURNING,
ETC.
At the present time, large quantities of hydrogen are used in
a great variety of industrial processes, and it has become a
common article of commerce. It is supplied to the trade in
steel cylinders, under a pressure of 100 to 150 atmospheres
(1 atmosphere = 14.7 lb.), which constitute a very convenient
source of supply.
If desired, hydrogen may be prepared for use in lead burning
by the action of dilute sulfuric acid on zinc or scrap iron.
Although iron is cheaper, it reacts rather slowly, and zinc is the
metal that is more commonly used. The apparatus employed
for the generation and collection of the gas is usually lead-
lined, since lead is practically unaffected by sulfuric acid.
Acid of the proper concentration for use may be prepared by
pouring one part of concentrated acid (1.84 sp. gr., 66° B4.)
into 9 parts of water (both by volume), observing the precau-
tions given under "Sulfuric Acid," page 336, for mixing the
acid with water. The dilute solution thus prepared will
have a specific gravity of approximately 1.12 (15.4**B€.), and
will contain about 17 per cent acid by weight.
Purification of Hydrogen. — Hydrogen prepared by the action
of sulfuric acid on zinc will contain several objectionable
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 339
impurities, such as hydrogen sulfide, H2S; stibine or antimony
hydride, SbHs; and arsine or arsenuretted hydrogen, AsHs.
All of these gases are poisonous when inhaled, the latter two
being exceptionally so. Their presence in the hydrogen is due
to the presence of small quantities of sulfur, antimony and
arsenic, or compounds of these elements, in the zinc employed.
The arsine is the most objectionable of the gases mentioned,
when the hydrogen is burned. Its oxidation product is arseni-
ous oxide, AS2O3, known as "white arsenic." If arsine is
present in the hydrogen, the arsenious oxide will be evolved
from the flame in the form of a fume, perhaps in a quantity so
small as to be invisible, but sufficient to be poisonous when
inhaled. Hydrogen prepared by the action of acid on zinc
should therefore be purified.
Sufficient purification for use in lead burning, etc., may be
secured by passing the gas through a trap containing a solution
made by dissolving 5 g. of potassium permanganate, KMnOi,
and 10 g. of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda, NaOH) in water
and diluting to 100 c.c. (A solution of approximately equiva-
lent concentration may be prepared by dissolving 2 oz. of
potassium permanganate and 4 oz. of caustic soda in 1 -qt. of
water). Or also, about a 15 per cent solution of copper sulfate
(blue vitriol, CUSO4) in water may be employed (5 oz. of copper
sulfate in 1 qt. of water).
The use of the trap also prevents the "snapping back "of
the flame to the hydrogen generator and causing an explosion,
which it is likely to do if the hydrogen is lighted after recharging,
before the air has been sufficiently swept from the generator
by the issuing gas.
BASES ANa> ALKALIES
Bases. — It is rather difficult to give an exact definition of the
term fea«e, since it is used in chemistry with somewhat different
meanings. However, in inorganic chemistry it is usually
employed to mean a metallic hydroxide, which is a compound
that may be formed by causing the oxide of a metal to unite
with water. For example, lime, which is the oxide of the metal
calcium, by combining with water produces calcium hydroxide,
Ca(OH)2. The solution produced by dissolving this hydroxide
in water is called Ume water. The oxides from which bases
of this sort are derived, are known as basic oxides. A base
340 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
is sometimes defined as a substance that ionizes in water with
the production of hydroxyl (OH) ions (for ion, see page 300).
In general, the properties of bases are opposite to those of acids.
Bases and acids react readily with each other, producing a salt
and water. By the reaction, the properties of both are de-
stroyed and they are said to have neutraUzed each other.
Alkalies. — The very soluble hydroxides, having marked basic
properties, are termed alkahes. The alkalies are also called
strong bases, meaning that when dissolved in water, they are
in a large measure dissociated into ions. The alkalies that
will be considered here are sodium hydroxide, NaOH; potas-
sium hydroxide, KOH; and ammonium hydroxide, NH4OH.
In the last named compound, the group or radical, NH4,
although not a metal, acts as such, and is therefore included
in this group.
Sodium Hydroxide {Caustic Soda, Soda Lye). NaOH. —
This is a white, crystalUne solid. It is very easily melted and
is frequently cast in stick form for convenience in use. It
rapidly absorbs water and carbon dioxide from the air, and
unless kept in a tightly-stoppered container will in a very short
time absorb enough water to dissolve itself entirely. By the
action of carbon dioxide, CO2, it is converted into sodium car-
bonate, Na2C03, or washing soda. Therefore, if the properties
of sodium hydroxide are to be retained, it must not be allowed
to remain long exposed to the atmosphere.
A solution of sodium hydroxide rapidly dissolves aluminum,
with the evolution of great heat. It is also quite active on zinc
and tin; consequently it must not be kept in galvanized or tin-
plated vessels. It has practically no effect on iron, and on this
account commonly appears on the market in iron cans or
drums. It is practically without action on copper, lead and
cadmium.
It is quite destructive to the skin and flesh, decomposing it
and converting it into a slimy mass. On this accoimt it is
said to have a "soapy" feel. It is also. from this property
that the name caustic soda is derived. It has an active solvent
effect on wool, but cotton is much more resistant. It converts
the fatty oils into soaps.
Potassium Hydroxide {Caustic Potash, Potash Lye). KOH.
The properties of potassium hydroxide, including its action
on the metals, are practically the same as those of sodium
hydroxide, which see.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 341
Ammonium Hydroxide (Ammonia Water). NH4OH. —
Although included here among the strong bases, ammonium
hydroxide is relatively weak compared to sodium and potassium
hydroxides. In solutions of such concentration that the sodium
and potassium hydroxides are ionized to the extent of about 91
per cent, ammonium hydroxide is in a solution of equivalent
concentration ionized to only 4.07 per cent.^
Ammonium hydroxide is made by dissolving ammonia gas
in water, with which it reacts, as:
NH3 + H20-^NH40H
The solubility of the gas in water is very great. One volume of
water at room temperature takes up about 700 volumes of the
gas, and it is much more soluble at lower temperatures. Not
all of the gas absorbed reacts with the water according to the
preceding equation. Probably only about 30 per cent of it
combines, the remainder being merely dissolved by the water.
The ordinary solution of commerce, known as "concentrated
ammonia,"^ contains about 28 per cent by weight of ammonia
gas, and has a specific gravity of 0.90. The so-called "house-
hold ammonia" has a concentration of from one- third to one-
half this amount. Although its action is milder, Uke the sodium
and potassium hydroxides, it is able to convert the fatty oils
into soaps, and on this account is much used as a cleansing
agent. Because of the fact that no residue is left when the
solution is evaporated, ammonia water was formerly called
'* volatile alkaU," to distinguish it from the solid alkalies,
sodium and potassium hydroxides, which were called "fixed
alkalies."
Ammonium hydroxide acts upon copper with the formation of
a blue solution. It attacks brass and some other copper alloys
in a similar manner.
THE ACTION OF FLUXES IN SOLDERING*
The value of a flux in soldering depends upon its ability to
remove the oxide or other adherent matter from the surface
of the metal, and to stay in place and keep awa^ the air, so
1 Byers, Inorganic Chemistryi page 175.
^ The water solution of ammonia must not be confused with the Uquid
ammonia employed in refrigerating machines. The latter is a colorless,
liquified gas, obtained by compression and cooUng, and may be entirely
water-free. The liquified gas is also a common article of commerce, being
sold in strong steel cylinders.
> See section on "Soldering," page 376.
342 PLUMBERS^ HANDBOOK
that further oxidation cannot take place before the molten
solder can be brought into contact with the cleaned surface
and form an alloy with it. Probably in the great majority of
cases, the flux cleans the metal by reacting chemically either
with the oxide, or with the underlying surface of the metal so
that the superficial layer is removed. In some instances, the
flux may remove the undesirable material by dissolving it
directly. In either case, the action is accelerated by heat.
The speed of chemical reactions, and the solubiUty of substances
in their solvents, as a general rule, is greater at the higher
temperatures. If the metal were cleaned mechanically only,
as with a file, a film of oxide, imperceptible to the eye, would
form on the metal before the solder could be applied. Solder
does not form an alloy with metallic oxides.
For use in the so-called softnsoldering process, zinc chloride
is a very serviceable flux for practically all the conunon indus-
trial metals and alloys including iron and steel. It does not
serve for aluminum, however, since the oxide on aluminum
forms so readily and adheres so tenaciously that some special
methodj such as later described, must be used. Zinc chloride
may be employed in the form of a solution, as a paste made of
the salt slightly moistened with water, or as a paste made by
thoroughly stirring the more or less dry zinc chloride^ into
vaseline.
Instead of using vaseline for making the paste, a mixture of
oils and fats, as for example, olive oil and tallow, either with or
without rosin, may be employed. The fats and rosin are first
melted together, and then the zinc chloride is stirred in. Some-
times ammonium chloride is used to replace a part of the zinc
chloride in these mixtures.
If the solution of zinc chloride is used, it is prepared most
cheaply by diluting commercial hydrochloric (muriatic) acid
with water, and then neutraUzing it with zinc in excess. If the
acid is not sufficiently diluted, it will not all be neutralized,
since after the zinc ions in solution have reached a certain con-
centration, more are prevented from entering. After the action
has ceased, the solution may be tested for neutralization by
diluting a sample of it with about half its volume of water and
dropping in a piece of zinc. If effervescence occurs, the whole
1 Zinc chloride is a very hygroscopic salt, and absorbs water from the
atmosphere so readily that it is very difficult to keep it in a really dry
condition.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 343
of the stock solution should be diluted a httle and allowed
to stand longer with the zinc.
Although hydrochloric acid is often used as a flux by itself, it
is not recommended. It etches the metal and leaves it pitted.
The dissolved salts in these pits are then sealed in when the
solder is apphed, The numerous pockets thus formed are
equivalent to minute, primary electric cells,, and the electro-
chemical action in time weakens the joint. A similar condition,
although much less pronounced, may occur when salts, such as
the zinc and ammonium chlorides above mentioned, are em-
ployed, particularly when the work is exposed to the weather.
To obivate all chance of this occurring, rosin, used alone, is often
employed as a flux. However, it is a less active fluxing agent
than the chlorides mentioned. It should be noted here that
when the zinc chloride is used in the paste form with vasehne or
fats, the chance of the pitting action occurring is practically
eliminated.
For soldering aluminum, the Litot fluxes and solders sold by
the Aluminum Company of America are probably the best
obtainable. The aluminum is first cleaned with about a 20
per cent solution of hydrofluoric acid, HF, after which it is
thoroughly washed to remove the dissolved salts. The parts
to be soldered are then coated evenly with the flux, and heated
carefully until the solder will melt when a stick of it is rubbed
on. A soldering iron may be used for light work. After the
solder has run well over the surfaces to be joined, they are held
pressed firmly together until the joint has cooled. There are
two forms of the solder, a soft and hard variety. The former
melts at about 380°C. (715°F.) and the latter at about 455°C.
(850°F.). With the hard solder, the use of the flux is not rec-
ommended, especially for outside work.
For the hard soldering of metals other than aluminum, that
is, in the so-called brazing process, borax, either with or without
a little ammonium chloride, is used as a flux.
CLEANING METALS AND ALLOYS
Grease, old lacquer, paint, and varnish may be removed by
boiling in about a 10 per cent solution of caustic soda. As water
evaporates, more should be added to keep the concentration
from increasing unduly. Aluminum articles should never be
treated in this way, and tin and zinc should be allowed to
344 PLUMBERS' HANDBCX)K
remain in the bath only a very short time. These three metals
are attacked by strong alkalies, aluminum very actively. The
caustic soda removes the grease, lacquer, etc., because it con-
verts the oils and resins that may be present in the lacquers,
varnishes, etc. into soaps. Although mineral oils cannot be
converted into soaps, they are removed because the alkaline
solution forms an emulsion with them.
After removing the article from the solution, it must be
washed thoroughly, preferably in running water, and then
immersed in boiling water until the metal has been fully heated
to the temperature of the water. Then it should be removed
from the hot water, dried as much as possible with a clean
cloth, or most of the adherent water may be removed by shak-
ing, after which it should be suspended in a warm place until
drying is complete. Since the metal is hot, the water will
evaporate quickly. Rapid drying is necessary in the case of
iron articles to prevent corrosion.
Another method for removing grease consists of dipping in
benzol or petroleum spirit. A succession of at least three
baths should be used, since if only one is employed, the removal
of the grease will never be complete. A film of the solvent,
which will be contaminated with grease, will be left on the article
when it is removed from the bath, and as the solvent evaporates,
the grease will remain.
If the article is too large to be immersed, the solvent may be
applied by sponging.
Removal of Incrustations Produced by Corrosion. — Oxide
layers and salts produced by corrosion may be removed by
immersion in suitable acid baths. This process is known as
"pickling."
Rust and scale may be removed from iron articles by immer-
sion in about a 25 per cent solution of either hydrochloric or sul-
furic acid. The black scale is not soluble in the acid, but is
removed by acid treatment because the underlying layer of iron
is dissolved. To prepare a pickle that will leave the iron bright,
pour 2 qt. of concentrated sulfuric acid into 25 qt. of water
(not the water into the acid) with stirring, and dissolve 5 oz.
of zinc in the mixture. Then add 1^ qt. of concentrated
nitric acid.
After removal from any of the acid baths, the article should
be washed, and then placed in about a 10 per cent solution of
washing soda (soda ash) until any remaining acid is neutralized.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 345
When removed from this bath, it should be washed and dried
according to the method given as the final treatment under the
removal of grease and lacquer, which see.
Copper, brass, bronze and german silver may be cleaned by
dipping in the following: water 40 parts, commercial con-
centrated sulfuric acid 40 parts, concentrated nitric acid 20
parts, and concentrated hydrochloric acid 1 part. Treatment
in this solution must be followed by washing as outlined in the
preceding paragraph.
SANITARY W ARE 1
Sanitary ware may be divided into two main classes: (1)
that produced by the application of a glaze to a clay-product
body; and (2) that produced by enamelling articles made of
cast-iron and steel.
In both cases it is essential that the coating applied have
the same coefficient of expansion as the material composing the
body. This, of course, is presumably taken care of by the manu-
facturer, but sometimes within only certain ranges of tempera^
ture. Hence, cracking of the enamel may result from contact
with boiling water, when atmospheric changes of temperature
would have no effect.
None of the ordinary glazes or enamels of sanitary ware are
able to withstand the action of the strong acids, such as nitric,
hydrochloric and sulfuric, since they were not made with this
end in view. The composition of the enamel is too high in
basic oxides, especially of the heavy metals, and too low in
silica. However, glazes and enamels can be made that are
proof against at least the weaker acids, such as found in foods,
etc., by suitably adjusting the composition.
That class of ware produced by the application of a glaze to a
clay-product body is known as vitreous ware.
Vitreous Ware. — The body of the ware is made of a mixture of
English and American clay, ground flint and feldspar. Since
this mixture has a yellowish tint, a certain small amount of
cobaltic oxide is added. During the firing of the ware, the
cobaltic oxide reacts with silica in the mixture, producing blue
cobaltic silicate, which changes the yellowish-white of the mix-
ture to a bluish- white. After the mixture is made, it is worked
up in water to a cream-like fluid, called "slip" and strained to
remove coarse particles. The water is then removed from the
1 See section on Plumbing Fixtures, page 250.
346 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
slip by a filter press, and the resultant clay putty is stored in
cellars to be "aged/' The ageing increases the plastic charac-
ter of the clay. After ageing, the clay is compressed in a
pugging mill to remove air bubbles. From the clay thus pre-
pared, the articles are made by various methods, as by the use of
a potter's wheel, by pressing in a mold or by casting. In many
instances, the article is made in sections, the various pieces
being then stuck together by means of a little slip and soft
clay, the joints being smoothed to as perfect a seam as possible.
For example, in a syphon-jet water closet, there may be as
many as 16 pieces.
A process that is used for making small articles is known as
the "dust" process. For this process, the clay is dried and
ground to a fine dust, and then is pressed into shape in steel
dies. The buttons used as index plates on faucets are thus
made, the words "hot" and "cold" being stamped upon the
button after the first firing.
Before the ware made by any process can be fired, it must be
thoroughly dried, an operation that in some instance requires
several weeks. When dried, the ware is placed in rough clay
boxes or cases, called "saggers," which are sealed with clay
wadding. This is done to prevent the flame in the kiln from
coming into direct contact with the ware, since if this should
happen the ware would be discolored. During the first 26
hr., the temperature of the kiln is raised to about 815°C. (1,500"-
F.), and then is quickly brought up to a temperature ranging
from about 1,100°C. (2,012°F.) to 1,425°C. (2,597°F.). When
fired, the ware is called "biscuit." The biscuit is now ground
to remove any roughness of surface.
Printing. — If it desired to have the ware show any printing,
it is placed upon it while in the biscuit condition. A clay
paste containing an ingredient that will burn to the desired
color is prepared and spread upon an engraved plate. The
excess clay is then removed, leaving only that which Ues in the
lines of the engraving. Tissue paper is now spread upon
the copper plate with even pressure, and when withdrawn, the
clay adheres to the paper. The paper carrying the colored-
clay design is laid upon the ware and rubbed with a hard brush,
which causes the design to be transferred to the ware. After-
ward the paper is washed off.
Glazing. — The mixture for the glaze contains a variety of
substances, such as feldspar, flint, kaolin, boric acid and certain
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 347
metallic oxides, as those of zinc, tin and lead, and is so propor-
tioned that its fusing point is lower than that of the body of the
ware or biscuit. The mixture is fused to a glass, ground in
water to a cream-like consistency, and the biscuit is dipped into
it. After drying, the ware is fired in a so-called "glost" kiln.
This kiln is not so hot as that in which the biscuit was first
fired, but it brings the glaze to its fusing point, so that it fills the
pores of the ware, and the glaze and body become practically
a single mass.
Water closets, tanks, lavatories, drinking fountains, etc.
are made in this manner.
Enamelled Cast-iron and Steel Ware. — If the sanitary ware
is made by enameUing a metaUic body, cast iron is the metal
that is usually employed, although steel is used to some extent.
If steel is employed, it is used in the form of sheets, which are
pressed or stamped into shape.
Preparation of the Cast-iron Body. — For making the casting,
the iron must be of special composition. Grunwald^ says that
cast iron of the following composition is generally used:
Per cent
Carbon 3. 60
Silicon 2 .
PhoflphoruB 1 . 4 to 1 . 8
Manganese 5 to .7
The very high phosphorus content is essential to the produc-
tion of the thin sections of the castings, since phosphorus con-
fers much increased fluidity upon the molten iron, and lessens
its shrinkage.
The shape of the casting is important. It must be free from
heavy spots and sharp edges. When poured, the iron must
not be too hot, since scale or sand fused into the casting will
make it impossible to produce a smooth enamelled surface.
The castings are not machined before enameUing, since this
produces a surface that is too close grained. If it is necessary
to do any finishing, they are pickled, and sand blasted. If
they become rusted during storage before enamelling, all
traces of rust must be removed, since the enamel would be
stained otherwise.
Preparation of Steel for Enamelling. — After pressing or
stamping into shape, the grease and oil are removed from the
1 "Theory and Practice of Enamelling on Iron and Steel."
348 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
forms either by burning them off in a furnace, or by immersion
in an acid "pickling" bath. If the piece is to be burned, it is
usually first sprinkled with hydrochloric acid and is then held
in the furnace until red hot. If treated in a pickling bath,
it is afterward rinsed in water and then sponged by hand to
remove the carbon film left by the action of the acid. Next it
is passed into a neutraUzing tank containing a solution of soda
ash and caustic soda. It is then placed in a drying room, which
is heated to about 120°C. (248°F.), and allowed to remain until
dry.
Preparation of the Enamel. — ^The enamel applied to the iron
or steel article is in some respects a glass, but it is not an ordi-
nary glass. It consists fundamentally of the following: silica,
derived from quartz, flint or sand; alumina, obtained by the
use of feldspar and clay; and lime from fluorspar or calcite.
In addition to these substances, cryoUte, NasAlFe, is introduced
as an aid in imparting a water-white color and making the
enamel non-transparent. About 3 per cent of tin oxide, SnOj,
is also added for its whitening effect. Borax is used to intro-
duce the boric anhydride, B2O8, which among other desirable
features makes the enamel more ductile and elastic. Soda ash
and pearl ash are used as fluxes. Sodium and potassium ni-
trates are used as oxidizing agents. If the enamel being made
is designed for a ground coat, it almost always contains a
certain amount of cobaltic oxide, which seems to possess a
great power of causing the enamel to stick to the metal. The
reason is not well understood. Because of the use of cobaltic
oxide, the ground coat is usually colored blue, but color is no
object in the ground coat. After the mixtmre is made and
fused to a glass, it is cooled and then is finely ground.
Application of the Enamel. — After the metaUic article, for
example, a bath tub casting, has been made, cleaned and
smoothed, a first coating of enamel is applied in the wet form.
As has been said, this is of such composition that it possesses
the quality of sticking very well to the iron. It is then able to
form a strong bond between the iron and the white enamel that
is later appUed. After the wet or slush coat has dried, the
article is placed in a furnace heated to a temperature of about
925°C. (I,697°F.), and the enamel is fused. When the first
coat hjis been properly melted, the article is withdrawn from
the furnace, and the first coat of white enamel is sifted on in the
form of a powder. The article is then quickly returned to the
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 349
furnace and re-heated until the freshly deposited enamel has
melted and combined with the first. After this, a second, or
more coatings, of the powdered enamel are appUed in a like
manner. After the last coating has been appUed, the article
is withdrawn from the furnace and allowed to cool in an atmos-
phere free from dust.
Bath tubs, sinks, lavatories, tanks, etc. are made of
enameled cast iron.
THE FATTY OILS^
Under the head of fatty oils are included both the liquid and the
solid fats. There is really no sharp Une of distinction between the
two. The liquid fats or oils become soUd at low temperatures,
while even the hardest fats become fluid at about 50*'C. (112°F.)
Solubility. — The fatty oils are almost completely insoluble in
acetone and cold alcohol, but they are more soluble in hot
alcohol. They dissolve very readily in ether, chloroform,
carbon tetrachloride ("carbona"), carbon bisulfide, benzole,
parafiine oils and petroleum naphtha or gasoline. In respect
to its solubiUty, castor oil is a distinct exception to the others.
It is quite soluble in cold alcohol, but is only very sUghtly
soluble in gasoline, and petroleum oils.
Composition. — The fatty oils do not consist of single sub-
stances, but are made up of mixtures of compounds, known as
triglycerides. The triglycerides contain the common radical
or group, glyceryl, CsHs, which is united with different acid
radicals, thereby forming the various fatty substances. The
more common of these compounds are:
Triglyceryl palznitate, or palmatin C3H5(Ci6H8i02)3
Triglyceryl stearate or stearin C3H6(Ci8H3602)3
Triglyceryl oleate or olein C8H6(Ci8H3302)3
Triglyceryl linoleate or linolein C8H5(Ci8H8i02)8
Triglyceryl linolenate or linolenin C3H6(C]8H2902)8
The first two of these compounds are soUd at room temperature,
while the latter three are fluid. Tallow and lard, which are
soUd fats; contain a considerable proportion of palmatin and
stearin, and some olein. Fluid oils, such as neatsfoot and
olive oils, consist chiefly of olein but contain also some palmatin
and stearin. Tallow oil and lard oil are largely olein, having
been made from the corresponding natural fats by cooUng
^ See section on "Pipe Threading," page 192.
350 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
them to a certain temperature and squeezing out the olein in a
filter press.
Lard oil is much used as a lubricant in thread cutting. It
has an advantage over the mineral lubricating oils in that its
viscosity is lowered to a less degree by increase of temperature.
The Drying and Non-drying Oils. — Some fatty oils, when
exposed to the atmosphere in a thin layer, are converted into a
tough, elastic film. Such oils are known as drying oils. The
change is not due to the evaporation of a volatile constituent,
but to oxidation. The oil actually increases considerably in
weight, although at the same time certain oxidation products
are lost. The best known example of this type is Unseed oil,
but there are several others, such as Chinese-wood oil, soya-
bean oil, walnut oil, etc.
The drying properties of these oils is due especially to the
presence in them of the latter two compounds given in the
preceding table, that is Hnolein and linolenin, although olein
has the drying property to a slight degree. Linseed oil is made
up of about 85 per cent of olein, linolein and Unolenin, and about
15 per cent of solid fats.
The drying oils are used for pamts and varnishes, and the
non-drying for lubrication. There are some oils that possess
the drying propertj^ to a mild degree, and are known as semi-
drying oils, for example, cottouseed and corn oils. It should
be noted that since the drying oils are rather readily oxidized by
the air they may take fire spontaneously under certain condi-
tions (see "Spontaneous Combustion," page 353).
The Action of the Caustic Alkalies (Lye) on the Fatty Oils.—
Saponification. — The sodium, potassium and ammonium
hydroxides (see ''Bases and Alkalies," page 339) act on the
triglycerides of the fatty oils (see "Composition of the Fatty
Oils," page 349) and convert them into soaps. As an example,
the action of caustic soda on stearin^ one of the major constitu-
ents of tallow, is shown in the following equation:
BNaOH -h C8H5(Ci8H8602)8-^3Na(Ci8H8502) + C8H5(OH)a
Caustic Stearin Soap Glycerin
Soda
This represents the common method of soap manufacture, and
is called saponification. Both the soap and the glycerine
formed are soluble in water, and use is often made of this
reaction to remove accumulations of fats from drains, etc.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 351
PETROLEUM OIL PRODUCTS
By a process of refining, which is essentially fractional distil-
lation, there is obtained from crude petroleum oil a great
variety of products. In this discussion, there will be considered
briefly gasoUne, kerosene and the mineral lubricating oils.
Composition of Crude Petroleum Oil. — The composition of
crude oil varies according to the "field" from which it comes,
although all are hydrocarbon oils and are in no sense like the
fatty oils described on page 349. For example, the oil from the
Appalachian field (Pennsylvania Oil) is made up largely of
the parafiine series of hydrocarbons. This series begins with
methane, CH4, the chief constituent of natural gas, and each
member of the series increases by CH2 as follows: CjHe, CsHa,
C4H10, CsHij, CbHm, C7H16, to about C86H72, a solid wax
(paraffin). In this series the number of hydrogen atoms in
any compound is always two more than twice the number of
carbon atoms, as, CnH2„+2.
Gasoline. — Under this name is included the light, volatile
liquids derived from crude petroleum that broadly include the
hydrocarbons from about C6H12 to about C10H22. They are
also known by such names as petroleum spirit, petroleum
naphtha, benzine, etc. The name benzine must not be con-
fused with benzene (benzol), which is a liquid with entirely
different properties obtained from coal tar.
Gasolines are generally marketed according to their density or
Baum6 hydrometer reading, as 68°, 60°, etc. The Baum6
scale for liquids lighter than water begins at 10°. The instru-
ment sinks to this point when it is floated in pure water at a
temperature of 60°F. The larger numbers are at the top of the
scale and represent the lighter liquids. To some extent the
Baum^ readings indicate the ease with which the gasoUne will
evaporate. For example, a 70°B^. gasoline will be more volatile
than one with a 60° reading. The Baum^ readings are not a
thoroughly reliable guide to volatility, since many gasolines
are "blended," or made by mixing a very light volatile hquid
with a heavy one. Much more accurate information is obtained
by determining the temperature at which it distils, particularly
the temperature at which the last portion distils, this being
known as the "end point."
Gasoline is a good solvent for all the mineral oils, for many
pitches, waxes, tars, etc., and for all the fatty oils excepting
castor oil.
352 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Kerosene. — That portion of the paraffine hydrocarbon series
including the compounds from about C11H24 to about C14H30 is
generally known as lamp oil, kerosene or illuminating oil. The
grades are designated according to their fire t-est. The fire
test is that temperature at which the oil will give off vapor
rapidly enough to support a steady flame. There are usually
four grades, 110°F., 120°F., 150°F. and 300°F. These grades
are each divided into sub-grades according to color; that is
whether "water white," straw-colored, etc. The 150°F.
fire-test oil is the grade usually required to be used by city
ordinances in the United States. The 300° grade is used
largely in switch lamps. The other grades are largely exported.
Mineral Lubricating Oils. — After the gasolines and kerosenes
have been distilled from the crude oil, the next inaportant
division constitutes the lubricating oils. They consist approxi-
mately of the hydrocarbons C1&H82 to C24H60. These are
divided into light, medium and heavy grades, and are generally
designated as the mineral lubricating oils to distinguish them
from the fatty oils.
In all lubrication, the lubricating layer should adhere to the
metallic surfaces, with a consequent shearing of the lubricant
itself. It is therefore important to know the ease with which
the particles of oil or grease will slide over one another. In an
oil that flows sluggishly, there is considerable friction between
the particles, and the oil is said to be viscous or to have a high
viscosity. For any lubrication, the least viscous oil that will
stay in place and do the work should be used. It must, of
course, have sufficient viscosity so that it will not be squeezed
out by the maximum load that will be placed on the bearing,
but if it possess greater viscosity than this, power is wasted in
shearing the oil. Bearings operating at high speeds require
oils that are less viscous than those operating at slow speeds,
other things being equal.
As a safety factor, the determination of the flash point is
important. The flash point is that temperature at which the
oil will give off sufficient vapor to support only a momentary
flame. It is approximately 50°F. below the fire test.
Other requirements of a good lubricant are that it must not
"gum" upon exposure or while in use, must contain no acid,
and must be able to withstand reasonably low temperatures
without solidifying or becoming unduly viscous.
— ^^1
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 353
PRINCIPLES OF COMBUSTION*
Ignition Temperature. — In the ordinary sense, the terms
combustion and burning are synonymous, both indicating the
rapid union of oxygen with a combustible substance, a process
that is accompanied by the evolution of heat and generally
by the production of light. Although heat is practically
always produced by the 'union of oxygen with another sub-
stance, there are many instances in which oxidation takes
place with no noticeable rise in temperature. This occurs
when the process is so slow that the heat produced is conducted
away as fast as it is formed. When the heat is produced more
rapidly than it is disseminated, the temperature of the sub-
stance rises, and the speed of the reaction is increased. The
speed of chemical reactions is practically always increased by
raising the temperature. The increased speed of the reaction,
in turn, causes the heat to be produced more rapidly, which
increases the speed of the reaction still more, until finally the
ignition or kindling point is reached and the substance bursts
into flame. The ignition or kindling point is defined as that
temperature at which burning begins, or conversely, as that
temperature below which it cannot take place. Even when a
substance is burning vigorously, if it is cooled to a temperature
below its kindling point it will be extinguished. For example,
a candle flame may be extinguished by surrounding it by a coil
of copper wire, or a gas flame may be put out by inserting in it a
mass of cold silver or copper. These metals are good heat
conductors and readily chill the flame. Also flames may be
extinguished by a blast of air, the moving air current carrying
away so much heat that the temperature falls to below the kin-
dling point of the burning substance.
Spontaneous Combustion. — When the heat produced by slow
oxidation is retained sufficiently so that the kindling temperature
is reached and burning begins, as explained in the preceding
paragraphs, it is said that spontaneous combustion has occuiv
red. As an example, we will consider the case of linseed oil,
and certain other oils used in paints and varnishes, that when
exposed to the air unite rather rapidly with oxygen (see " Dry-
ing and Non-drying Oils," page 350). However, even when
exposed to the air in a thin layer, as in a paint or varnish, these
oils do not unite rapidly enough with oxygen so that the heat
1 See section on "Flue and Chimney," page 17
23
354 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
produced will cause the action to be very noticeably accelerated.
The heat is conducted away about as fast as it is generated
But if cotton waste be moistened with linseed oil, the surface
of the oil exposed to the air is much increased, £ind the oxidation
goes on much more rapidly. Beside, the cotton waste is a
poor conductor of heat. Under these conditions, spontaneous
combustion is very likely to take place. This should be borne
in mind when using cotton waste or similar material as an
absorbent for the drying oils or preparations containing them,
as paints and varnishes.
The mineral oils (see page 351), such as are commonly used
for lubrication, are less likely to ignite spontaneously, but the
danger even in this case is not absent, and care should alwa^'s
be exercised to dispose properly of oily waste of any kind.
Spontaneous combustion will occur also in coal, especially
if finely divided. Experiments have shown that coal powdered
so fine that 95 per cent will pass through a 100-mesh sieve will
ignite spontaneously in 48 hr.
Other combustible substances act in a similar manner.
Spontaneous combustion is more likely to occur if the substance
is finely divided, has a low kindling temperature and is a poor
conductor of heat.
Explosion of Gases. — As gases are ordinarily burned, the
speed of burning is determined by the rate of flow of gas from
the burner, and this, in turn, is determined by the pressure
under which it is kept in the gas holders, mains, etc., and the
size of the opening through which it passes. If air or oxygen
is mixed with the gas in suitable proportion prior to the time it
is ignited, the rate of burning is not controlled by the rate of
transportation of the gas, and the "flame wave" will pass
through the mixture at very high velocity. Thus a large
volume of gas may be burned almost instaneously. When
this takes place an explosion is said to have occurred. There
is a certain maximum speed at which the flame or explosion
wave travels, depending upon the nature of the gas, the propor-
tions of the mixture, etc. In a mixture of 2 parts hydrogen
and 1 part oxygen by volume, the explosion wave travels at
the rate of nearly 1 J^ miles per second, which is about six and
one-half times the speed of the sound wave in this mixture.
Although the wave travels less rapidly than this through ex-
plosive mixtures of the ordinary fuel gases and air, it is apparent
*hat the time required for it to travel through such a mixture
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY
355
contained in the room of a building, for example, would be
practically negligible. Because of the large volume of gas
that can be burned in this way in a very short time, and the
greatly expanded condition of the products of the explosion
due to the heat of the reaction (and in some instances to an
actual increase in volume), a violent rending force is manifested.
Not all proportions of combustible gases mixed with air are
explosive. If the amoimt of gas is above or below certain limits,
an explosion will not occur, even though a proper source of
ignition be supplied. The explosive limits for various gases
are approximately as follows:^
Gas
Lower
explosive
limit,
per ceDt
of gas
Upper
explosive
limit,
per cent
of gas
Explosive
range,
per cent
of gas
Carbon monoxide
Hydrogen
Water gas
Acetylene
Coal gas
Methane
16.5
9.5
12.5
3.
8.
6.
75
66
67
52
19
13
58.5
57.5
55.5
48.
11.
7.
The Safety Lamp. — When a fine-mesh wire gauze is held in a
horizontal position above the tip of a gas burner, and the gas is
lighted above the gauze, the flame burns on that side but does
not pass to the lower side. Or if the gas is lighted and the
gauze is then pressed down upon the flame, the flame does not
pass through to the upper side, unless the gauze is held in
place imtil it becomes red hot. This shows that although the
gauze is not a gas screen, it is a flame screen. The reason is
that as the burning gas attempts to pass through the gauze, it
conducts the heat away from the flame so rapidly that the
temperature is lowered to below the kindling point. Upon this
principle, the safety lamp has been devised. It consists
essentially of an oil lamp with a tightly fitting chimney of
wire gauze, and is intended for use in atmospheres where it is
suspected that there may be explosive mixtures of gas and air.
The flame from the lamp is not communicated to the explosive
1 From table quoted by Mellor, " Modern Inorganic Chemistry," page
742.
356 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
mixture outside for the reason explained, although the explosive
mixture may pass through the gauze and bum inside the lamp,
or cause small, harmless explosions there. An occurrence of
this sort serves as a warning of the presence of dangerous
gases.
Flame. — The term flame is generally used to describe the
phenomena accompanying the rapid interaction of two or
more gases, whereby considerable heat and more or less light
are evolved. In most cases, one gas passes in the form of a
stream into a larger volume of the other, and the reaction takes
place at the surface of contact of the two. In the more familiar
flames, some gas such as hydrogen, coal gas, natural gas, or
other gas ordinarily spoken of as combustible, reacts with
oxygen of the air, and it is generally considered that it is the
gas that is burned. However, the air takes an equal part in
the reaction, and if a stream of it be passed into an atmosphere
of so-called combustible gas with suitable ignition, the familiar
flame form will appear, and the air can in the same sense be
spoken of as burning. Nevertheless, in the present discussion,
a flame will be considered to be produced bj' burning a fuel gas
in free contact with air.
Although many solids bum with a flame, the flame is not pro-
duced by the burning of the solid directly. A flame is always
a gas burning. In a candle flame, for example, a combustible
gas is continuously manufactured by the heat of the flame
from the melted wax that ascends the wick. In a similar
manner a combustible gas is manufactured when such sub-
stances as paper, wood, coal, etc. bum with a flame.
Structure of Flames. — When a stream of gas issues from a
tube into air, the general shape of the flame is a hollow cone.
The cone formation is due to the fact that the central part of
the gas stream must rise higher than the outside before it can
cQme into contact with air. The interior of the flame con-
sists of unbumt gases. If the end of a narrow tube be held in
the central part of the flame, gases may be conducted away
and burned elsewhere. This is true not only of the ordinary
gas flame, but of the flames produced by burning soUds, as the
candle flame, wood flame, etc. In the lower part of the flame,
it is only the outer shell that is relatively hot. This may be
demonstrated by holding a wire gauze in this section of the
flame. It will be heated only in the form of a ring. A match
head may be held in the interior of the flame without being
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 357
ignited, although the stick will be burned where it passes
through the outer layer of the flame. Between the surface
of the relatively cold interior cone and the outer margin of the
flame proper, the actual burning place takes. Depending upon
the nature of the reactions that take place during burning,
flames are divided into two classes, luminous and non-luminous.
Luminous Flames. — A candle flame will be considered as a
typical example of the luminous flames. It consits of four
parts :
1. The dark inner cone, which is common to both luminous
and non-luminous flames, has just been described under * 'Flame."
2. Surrounding the dark cone is a blue-colored mantle that is
best seen at the base of the flame, but which extends under the
luminous part, and encases the dark cone completely. In this
layer or zone, the hydrocarbons (compounds of hydrogen and
carbon) are in part oxidized to carbdn monoxide and hydrogen,
as:
C2H4 + O2 -> 2C0 + 2H2
It is important to note the fact that carbon monoxide and
hydrogen are produced here, since during imperfect combustion,
as when the flame is chilled by striking a cold object, some of
these gases may escape unburned. Carbon monoxide is a
very poisonous gas (see page 362).
3. Outside the blue layer is the light-giving portion, the
luminosity being due, in part at least, to the presence of incan-
descent solid matter. The way in which incandescent solid
matter produces luminosity may be illustrated by means of the
hydrogen flame. The ordinary hydrogen flame is almost
invisible, but if some infusible, non-volatile matter, as powdered
charcoal or quicklime be introduced, the particles are heated to
incandescence and the flame becomes luminous. A mixture of
99 per cent thorium oxide and 1 per cent cerium oxide has very
high light producing properties when sufficiently heated, and
this is used in making the Welsbach mantle employed in gas
lighting.
In the ordinary luminous flame, such as is produced by burn-
ing hydrocarbons, the luminosity is largely due to the presence
of highly heated carbon particles. Just why these carbon
particles appear in some flames and not in others is not cer-
tainly known, there being several factors that are influential.
Investigations have shown that the free carbon is accompanied
358 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK >
by free hydrogen, and the most satisfactory view is that the
heat of the flame causes a part of the heavy hydrocarbons to
break down into hydrogen and acetylene, which latter is ii
turn dissociated as follows:
C2H2 -f- heat-^2C -\- Hj
Acetylene is a compound that absorbs a great deal of heat when
it forms; consequently when it breaks up, this heat is again
Hberated and the temperature of the carbon particles is raised
even above that of the rest of the flame. The freed-carbon
particles glow as they gradually move forward through the
flame until they come into contact with the air, and are burned
to invisible carbon dioxide.
4. CJovering the luminous zone, is a faint non-luminous
mantle, which is best seen when the light from the luminous
portion is suitably obstructed. In this mantle the combustion
is completed, the carbon being burned as previously indicated,
and the hydrogen being burned to water.
Non-luminous Flames. — The non-luminous, or bunsen
flame, has only three parts, the luminous zone being absent.
Luminosity is prevented by mixing air with the gas before it
issues from the burner. Just why the admission of air causes
non-luminosity is not easy to explain, and space cannot be
given to it here. It does not seem to be due alone to improved
oxidation, since the introduction of nitrogen and other inert
gases produce a like effect.^
With the same amount of gas being burned in the same time
the flame is smaller when non-luminous than when luminous.
Thus, the non-luminous flame being more concentrated, has
a greater intensity or is hotter than the luminous flame,
although the heat quantity produced by both is the same. If
both were burned in the open air of a room, the temperature of
the air would be increased as much by one as by the other, but
if it were desired to heat an object locally, the non-luminous
flame would be the more efficient.
Temperature of Flames. — The temperature obtainable by
heating a small body in a bunsen flame is said to range from
1,100°C. (2,012°F.) to 1,350°C. (2,462°F.); in a gasoline blow-
torch flame, from 1,500'»C. (2,732'»F.) to 1,600°C. (2,912°F.);
in the oxyhydrogen flame, about 2,000°C. (3,602'*F.); in the
^ For a complete explanation of the various factors that have to do with
luminosity and non-luminosity, see Mellor, " Modern Inorganic Chemistry,**
pages 746 to 750.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 359
oxy acetylene flame, about 2,400**C. (4,353°F.); and in the
electric arc, about 3,500*'C. (6,332°F.).^
Heat Radiated by Flames. — Non-luminous flames do not
heat much by radiation, since gases are poor radiators. The
bunsen flame is said to radiate only about 12 per cent of its
heat into space, while the luminous flame radiates about 30
per cent. Because of this, when heating a room by means of a
gas grate for example, material such as flre-clay forms, asbestos
matting or asbestos wool is used. Although these substances
become no hotter than the flame, they are better radiators, and
more heat is thrown off into the room, with a correspondingly
less quantity passing into the flue with the products of combus-
tion. Incandescent carbon is a good radiator; hence a lumin-
ous flame radiates heat to a greater extent than a non-luminous
one.
Oxidizing and Reducing Flames. — In the outer mantle of
flames, especially at the tip, oxidation is completed and the
temperature is very high. This portion is known as the oxidiz-
ing flame because of its ability to give up oxygen to substances
that are capable of being oxidized. Metals are converted into
their oxides by this flame. The inner part of the flame is
called the reducing flame because that portion is seeking oxygen.
It does not cause oxygen to combine with metals, being able,
in fact, to remove oxygen from metallic oxides, which are
thereby reduced to the metallic state. The difference in this
respect between the outer and inner portions of a flame may be
investigated by holding a copper wire across different parts of
the flame.
Conditions Necessary for Complete Combustion. — In order
that combustion may be complete, two conditions must be
fulfilled : there must be an excess of air, and the temperature of
the fuel must be sufficiently high. Although an excess of air
is desirable, this excess must not be too great, for the air in
passing through the zone of combustion carries away heat and
thus may retard burning by cooUng the fuel. In a similar way
a cold object placed in a flame will interfere with combustion
in its immediate neighborhood because of its absorption of
heat. As long as the object is cold, the flame cannot touch it.
There will be a clear space between the two. As the object
grows hotter, this space will lessen, and when the object is as
hot as the flame, the flame will come into actual contact with it.
^ Mellor, "Modern Inorganic Chemistry," page 7C0.
360 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Ordinarily, when water is boiled in an open vessel, its tem-
perature does not rise above lOCC. (212°F.). Since the ten>
peiature of an ordinary flame is considerably above 1,000°C.
(1,832°F.), it is evident that the flame cannot be in contact
with the bottom of the vessel. In the bunsen flame, the hottest
part is just above the tip of the inner cone. Objects can be
most advantageously heated by placing them at this point.
If placed higher in the flame, they will be heated less rapidly,
and if placed lower, will cause incomplete combustion by
cooling the blue-colored inner mantle in which the carbon mon-
oxide and hydrogen are being produced.^
Under suitable conditions, the carbon monoxide and hydro-
gen formed in the inner mantle are oxidized to carbon dioxide
and water in the outer mantle, but if the flame is chilled too
quickly, as with a cold object, there may be insuflficient time
for the oxidation to take place, and some of these gases may
escape unburned. As has been indicated, the air itself has a
chilling effect on the flame, and if the gas issues from the burner
jet under excessive pressure, there may not be time enough to
oxidize completely all the constituents of the flame before it is
cooled to below the ignition point.
Relative Volumes of Gases Produced by Combustion. —
When carbon burns completely, the volume of carbon dioxide
produced is the same as the volume of oxygen used, as:
2C -h 2O2 -► 2CO2
When combustion is imperfect and carbon monoxide is formed,
two volumes of gaseous product are made from one volume of
oxygen, thus:
2C + O2 -* 2C0
Two volumes of hydrogen with one volume of oxygen form two
volumes of water vapor, as:
2H2 + O2 -► 2H2O
There is then a diminution of one-third, even when the water
is in the form of vapor. When the vapor condenses to hquid
water, the volume of the water is approximately jt/q^ of the
volume of the vapor that was formed.
In the complete burning of a hydrocarbon, both carbon
dioxide and water are formed. The first of the following
equations represents the burning of methane, of which natural
iFor reactions taking place in this mantle, see page 357.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 361
gas largely consiste, and the second equation represents the
burning of a constituent of gasoline.
CH4 + 2O2 — CO2 + 2H2O
C7H16 + IIO2 -* 7CO2 + 8H2O
In the first equation, one volume of methane gas and two
volumes of oxygen produce one volume of carbon dioxide and
two volumes of water vapor, the total volumes being the same
before and after burning. In the second equation, one volume
of the gasoline vapor and eleven volumes of oxygen produce
seven volumes of carbon dioxide and eight volumes of water
vapor, a total increase of three volumes. In all the volume
relations stated, it is understood that the temperature and
pressure after burning have been reduced to the same as before
burning.
Physiological Effects of the Products of Combustion. —
Since the chief combustible constituents of ordinary fuels are
composed of the elements carbon and hydrogen, the chief
products of complete combustion are carbon dioxide and water.
With incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide may be pro-
duced in addition.
Small amounts of both carbon dioxide and water vapor are
always present in the air. In the air of the open country, the
amount of carbon dioxide varies from 0.03 to 0.04 per cent
(3 to 4 parts in 10,000); in the air of cities, from 0.035 to 0.045
per cent (3.5 to 4.5 parts in 10,000); and in badly ventilated
rooms it may run up to 0.5 per cent (50 parts in 10,000) or
even higher. The gas is not particularly poisonous, but when
present in sufficient quantity, it has* a suffocating effect. Five
or six per cent in air causes a marked panting and increases the
beating of the pulse. Large quantities produce death by merely
excluding oxygen; in other words, death is due to "drowning"
in practically the same sense as it is caused by water. How-
ever, the presence of 2 or 3 per cent is not particularly harmful.
An excessive amount of water vapor is objectionable. The
amount of water vapor carried by the air depends upon the
temperature. Thus, at 18°C. (64.4°F.), air at the pressure of
one atmosphere is able to carry about 2 per cent by volume of
water vapor. If this air is cooled to 0°C. (32°F.), it could
retain only a small part of the moisture previously held. The
remainder would condense as a fog or rain. The amount of
moisture in the air is usually designated in terms of relative
362 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
humidity. When the air is saturated with water vapor, the
relative humidity is said to be 100 per cent. Atmospheric air
is rarely saturated, the relative humidity being roughly about
66 per cent; that is, it generally contains about two-thirds of
the amount possible for it to contain at a given temperature.
Since the carrying capacity of the atmosphere for water vapor
increases with the increase of temperature, if the amount of
moisture in a given atmosphere remains fixed, while the tempera-
ture of the air is raised, the relative humidity becomes pro-
portionately less. It is difficult for air having a high relative
humidity to take up more moisture unless the temperature is
increased.
Warm air that has also a high relative humidity has a depress-
ing or dispiriting effect upon the human system. When the
body becomes unduly warm, it may be restored to normal
temperature in three ways: by evaporation of moisture, by
radiation and by convection. But if the air is warm, the rela-
tive humidity high and convection currents more or less
lacking, it is difficult tor the body to be cooled.
Since fuel gases are generally quite rich in hydrogen, con-
siderable water vapor is formed when such gases are burned.
If gas stoves or grates are used in a closed room without suit-
able flue connections, the amount of water vapor in the air may
become very objectionable. The presence of a number of
people in a closed room produces a similar effect to the open
stove or grate because of the water evaporated from the skin as
well as that thrown off by the lungs. The circulation of air,
such as caused by an electric fan, although it may bring in no
fresh air, aids in the evaporation process, since when the air
is stationary, the layer next the skin soon becomes saturated
and unable to take up more moisture.
In this connection it might not be out of place to mention that
in winter, when the cold and therefore relatively dry air is
brought into a room from the outside and heated, it has a high
capacity for absorbing moisture, and may produce discomfort
by cooling the body too much by means of the excessive evap-
oration that results.
Carbon monoxide, which is produced by incomplete combus-
tion, is an active poison. Less than 1 i>er cent in air causes
death when breathed for about 10 min. The gas acts as a
poison by forming a stable compound with the haemoglobin of
the red blood corpuscles, which prevents the blood from carry-
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 363
ing oxygen to the tissues from the lungs. Even 0.05 per cent
will, if breathed for about ^ hr., cause dizziness upon exertion,
and 0.1 per cent will produce inability to walk, while 0.2 per
cent will in the same length of time cause loss of consciousness.
Carbon monoxide is odorless and gives no warning of its pres-
ence. Fatal accidents have occurred when its presence was
not suspected. It is formed when a gas flame (Strikes against a
cold surface, as in some types of water heaters, or by slow com-
bustion in coal or charcoal flres. It is present in the exhaust
gases from internal combustion engines. Also it is one of the
major constituents of certain fuel gases, as producer gas and
water gas. Consequently, leaks from pipes and mains carrying
such gases should be carefully guarded against.
First aid treatment for carbon-monoxide poisoning is arti-
ficial respiration accompanied by the use of oxygen for about
10 min. A person seriously affected should be kept warm and
should not exert himself by walking.
PURIFICATION OF WATER i
Impurities in Natural Water. — In a chemical sense, all
natural waters are to some degree impure. Even rain water,
which is the purest form, contains sohd matter that has been
obtained by washing out soot and wind-raised dust from the
air. All waters obtained from the earth, whether from the
surface or lower depths, contain dissolved substances taken up
from the rocks and soils with which they have been in contact.
Water from very low levels, as from deeply-bored wells, is
likely to contain more dissolved substance than surface water,
because of the great mass of rock through which it has perco-
lated. In general, water from regions of granite, sandstone and
clay formations contains less dissolved mineral substance than
that from limestone regions. Further, water from rocky
regions is purer than that from regions where the rock has beeQ
disintegrated to form soil, since rocks are generally less soluble
than soils. Mountain waters are relatively pure because they
usually come into contact with but little soil. Beside the
dissolved substances, wat«r may carry a great deal of suspended
matter, as sand, clay, organic matter, etc. In addition, bac-
teria of many kinds are practically always present. This is
especially true of surface water, as from rivers and other
streams.
* See section on "Water Supply," page 62,
364 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
General Purification of Water. — For city-water supply, the
removal of disease-producing bacteria, turbidity or ''muddi-
ness," odor, taste and iron compounds is the most important.
This is usually accomplished by allowing the water to stand in
settling basins, followed by slow filtration through sand, or by
rapid filtration through sand if it has been treated with a
**coagulum" in the settling basin. The coagulum is a starch-
like, gelatinous precipitate produced by the use of alum or
ferrous sulfate, either with or without the addition of an alkali,
depending upon the amount of alkaline substances naturally
present in the water. As the gelatinous precipitate settles, it
sweeps from the water a great deal of the suspended matter, as
mud, etc.
Disinfection by means of copper sulfate, or by the use of
chlorine derived from bleaching powder, sodium hypochlorite,
or by the use of chlorine gas itself, is rather common practice.
This method is used in connection with filtration, or is resorted
to as a precautionary measure when an imtreated water supply
is suspected of being contaminated.
If the water supply is satisfactory in all respects except that
it contains iron, the iron may be removed by aeration, as by
spraying in air, by trickling over rocks, or in some similar man-
ner. In this way the carbon dioxide is evolved and the iron
is oxidized, under which conditions it becomes insoluble and
can be removed by filtration.
Undesirable tastes and odors due to dissolved gases are
removed in the same way.
Hard Water. — Water that contains dissolved calcium,
magnesium, and iron compounds, generally in the form of bicar-
bonates, sulfates and chlorides, is known as hard water. This
term is used because of the difficulty of obtaining a soap lather
with such water. Ordinary soap is a compound of sodium
with a fatty acid (see "The Action of the Caustic AlkaUes on
Fatty Oils," page 350). Soap reacts with the calcium, mag-
nesium and iron compounds forming sticky, insoluble, curdy
soaps of these metals. For example, the reaction of ordinary
sodium soap with calcium sulfate is as follows:
2Na(Ci8H3502) + CaS04-^Ca(Ci8H8602)2 + NajSO*
Sodium Calcium Calcium Sodium
Soap Sulfate Soap Sulfate
The soap continues to react with the calcium, magnesium and
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 365
iron compounds in this manner until they have all been thrown
out of solution, and not until this has been accompUshed, can
the soap form a lather.
The hardness of water is generally recognized as being of two
kinds. That which is removable by boiling is said to be "tem-
porary," and that which persists after boihng is said to be
"permanent."
Temporary hardness is caused by the bicarbonates of the
metals previously mentioned. Their normal carbonates are
practically insoluble in water alone, but in water containing
carbon dioxide gas, they are converted into the corresponding
bicarbonates, and these are a great deal more soluble.
Permanent hardness is caused by the sulfates and chlorides
of calcium, magnesium and iron. These compounds are not
removed by boiUng, although calcium sulfate is less soluble in
boiling water than in water at room temperature.
Production of Boiler Scale. — During the conversion of the
water into steam, there is deposited within the boiler both
the dissolved and suspended matter that the water carried. The
deposit may be in the form of a loose sediment, sludge or hard
scale, depending upon the substance carried by the water, the
temperature and pressure within the boiler and other factors.
The deposition is due to the concentration brought about by
the evaporation of the water, to a lessening of the solubility
of the dissolved substances by the increased heat and pressure,
or to reactions that produce insoluble substances from others
previously soluble. For example in the case of the calcium
bicarbonate, the heat drives the carbon dioxide out of the water,
since gases are less soluble in hot water than in cold, and this
causes the soluble bicarbonate to revert to the insoluble normal
form, as follows:
Ca(HC03)2 + heat-^CaCOs + HjO + CO2
The insoluble carbonate then precipitates in the form of scale
and the water is to a certain extent purified.^
^ In this connection, it might be noted that the purification of water by
heating accounts for the fact that when water pipes freeze during cold
weather, it is the line carrying water from the boiler that is the more likely
to freeze. Water containing dissolved substances has a lower freezing point
than pure water, that is to say, is more difficult to freeze. This is explained
in the discussion of Fig. 238 on page 323. In some instances the tem-
perature falls sufficiently to reach the freezing point of the water that has
been to a certain extent purified by heating, but not low enough to freeze
the natural water containing all its dissolved substances.
366 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Physical Character of Scales. — The physical character of the
scale depends upon various factors, but it is determined chiefly
by its composition. If the calcium sulfate and magnesium
compounds in the water is of small quantity, or if the anaount of
suspended matter is high, the scale will be soft and loose, so
that it may be removed from the boiler in the form of a sludge.
But if the water is clear, having but Uttle suspended matter,
and if the amount of calcium sulfate and magnesium compK>unds
is high, the scale will be hard, dense and difficult to remove.
The location in the boiler has much to do with the comi>osi-
tion of the scale at that point. Near the feed pipe, the car-
bonates are found, because the water gives up its carbon
dioxide rather readily, and as this gas is driven out, carbonates
are precipitated. The calcium sulfate remains dissolved until
it reaches the hottest part of the boiler.
Effects of the Boiler Scale. — The substances deposited from
the water collect on the flues, in the tubes and other parts of
the boiler, and act as heat insulators, so that heat that would
otherwise be available, cannot pass into the water. The degree
to which the deposit interferes with the transmission of heat
depends upon whether it is in the form of a loose sediment or a
hard, compact scale. The latter form is the most objection-
able. Collet^ gives the following figures to show the relative
heat conductivity of iron and certain other substances, the
latter two of which, or substances of the same composition,
contribute to the formation of boiler scale. The resistance of
wrought iron being taken as 1, that of copper is 0.4; of slate,
9.5; of brick, 16; of chalk, 17; and of calcium sulfate, 48. Be-
cause of the poor transmission when the metal is coated with
scale, it becomes over heated, and in the case of a hard scale,
the metal may even become red hot, so that it is soft and sub-
ject to deformation. Beside, the rate at which the metal and
scale expand and contract with changes of temperature is dif-
ferent. K the water in the boiler becomes low and the metal
becomes overheated, the layer of scale may separate from the
metal. Then, if cold water is run into the boiler, the scale cools
quickly, contracts, and cracks. The water pours through the
cracks upon the hot metal, a large volume of steam is formed,
and the sudden pressure may be great enough to burst the
boiler.
In addition to the actual insulating effect, the scale is objec-
^ Water Softening, page 17.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 367
tionable in other ways. As the tubes become clogged, the area
of water exposed to the heat is lessened, and the heating effi-
ciency falls. Also the boilers must be cleaned, which is an
expensive process, especially if the scale is closely adherent.
Water Softening. — The scale-forming tendencies of water
may be overcome by suitable treatment. The suspended
matter may, of course, be removed by filtration or sedimenta-
tion. For removing the dissolved matter, chemical reagents
are employed. There are two processes, known as cold-water
softening and hot-water softening.
Cold-water Softening. — In this process the temporary
hardness is removed by converting the soluble bicarbonates into
the insoluble normal carbonates by the use of lime, while the
permanent hardness is taken care of by converting the sulfates
and chlorides into the normal carbonate by the use of soda ash
(sodium carbonate). In order that the bicarbonates may be
converted into the normal form, it is necessary to neutralize
the carbonic acid present, both that which is free and that
which is combined in the bicarbonate. The essential reactions
are as follows :
CaO + H2O — Ca(0H)2
Lime Water Calcium hydroxide
H2CO8 + Ca(0H)2 -> CaCOs + 2H2O
Free Car- Calcium Insoluble Water
bonic Acid Hydroxide Calcium Car-
bonate
Ca(HC08)2 + Ca(0H)2 -> CaCO, + 2H2O
Calcium Calcium Insoluble Water
Bicarbonate Hydroxide Calcium
Carbonate
The bicarbonates of magnesium and iron are acted upon in a
similar manner.
For permanent hardness, the reaction is as follows:
CaS04 + NaaCOa -^ CaCOa + Na2S04
Calcium Sodium Insoluble Sodium
Sulfate Carbonate Calcium Sulfate
Carbonate
In the same way, the other sulfates and the chlorides are con-
verted into insoluble carbonates with the formation of the
corresponding sodium salt. The normal carbonates being insol-
uble, as indicated, it is only necessary to let the water stand
for a time and they will settle out. As they settle, suspended
matter, as sand, clay and organic matter, is carried down with
them. The clear water is then drawn off and used. Or the
368 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
process may be hastened by rapid filtration through thin beds
of excelsior, coke or similar material. The sodium salts,
formed by the reaction with sodium carbonate, being soluble,
remain in the water, and although they do not contribute to the
formation of scale, they may be objectionable because of their
tendency to cause foaming. If the amount of permanent hard-
ness is very great, it is sometimes not practicable to neutralize
all of it, because of the large amounts of sodium salts that would
be left in the water.
In using calcium hydroxide (lime water) to remove the
bicarbonates, an excess must not be used, since this also will
cause hardness, and by secondary reactions will cause scale.
Purification by "Pennutit." — When hard water is filtered
slowly through a bed of artificial zeolite, NaAlSi04-3H20
known by the trade name of "permutit," all the calcium,
magnesium and iron compounds are absorbed by the zeolite,
and corresponding sodium compounds are given off to the
water. The zeolite is made by fusing together feldspar, China
clay and soda ash, the resulting glass being cooled and crushed.
A very advantageous feature is that when the zeolite has been
exhausted by use, it may be reactivated by allowing a solution
of common salt (sodium chloride) to stand in contact with it.
It then replenishes its sodium content, and the absorbed cal-
cium magnesium and iron compounds are given off as
chlorides.
Hot-water Softening. — The process of hot-water softening is
carried out in feed-water heaters. Feed-water heaters are
boiler accessories designed to save heat that would be wasted
otherwise. Although the saving of heat is their most impor-
tant function, they bring about considerable softening of the
water because the heating decomposes the bicarbonates. In
many cases, the heater is designed to take advantage of the
softening effect. Although the bicarbonates are to a large
extent removed by pre-heating, the sulfates are not much
affected. Since the sulfates tend to produce hard scale, and
the carbonates soft scale, water that has been merely preheated
will produce harder scale than raw water, although the amount
of it will not be so great.
In order that the sulfates may be removed from the water, it
is necessary to treat it with sodium carbonate in much the
same way as in the cold process, but because of the heat, the
sulfates are converted into their corresponding carbonates more
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 369
readily. After the precipitates have formed the water is
filtered.
**Boiler Compounds." — ^These are substances put either into
the boiler direct, or into the water just as it enters the boiler, so
that any softening action that is produced takes within the
boiler itself. Although the process of treating water while
i?vithin the boiler is much used, it is not to be recommended.
Much more satisfactory results are produced by the use of a
separate purifying apparatus. Boiler compounds can in no
manner lessen the amount of scale-forming ingredients; in
fact, they may increase it. The only function they can have is
to convert the scale-producing substances in the water into
some form that will produce a less objectionable deposit.
For example, soda ash converts calcium sulfate into calcium
carbonate which forms a soft deposit, whereas the sulfate
would have formed a hard deposit. Sodium phosphate acts in
a like manner. Beside its use as a precipitant of calcium
carbonate, soda ash neutrahzes free acids, and this aids in
lessening the corrosion of the boiler. On the other hand, it
increases the tendency of the water to foam.
There is another large class of materials used in boilers,
the action of which is entirely different from any previously
described. Materials of this class do not serve to throw dis-
solved soUds out of solution, but are effective because they
prevent the soUds, after they have been precipitated, from mass-
ing together and forming a hard scale. Their mere presence
seems te prevent the soUd matter from crystaUizing, and since
they do not enter into any reaction, they are not used up, and so
remain effective for a long period. Examples of such
substances are tannin from tan bark and spent tan hquors,
glue, starches, sugars, graphite, lampblack, soapstone, oils,
fats and many other substances.
Effect of Grease in Boilers. — Although oils may be able to
prevent the formation of a hard scale, they should not be
introduced into boilers for this purpose.^ This is especially
true of the heavy mineral oils and animal fats. The reason is
that they have a high heat insulating effect. A film of grease
on the heating surface of a boiler is far worse than many times
its thickness of scale. Booth says,* a mere film of grease will
cause overheating and collapse.
1 Christie, "Purification of Water," pages 165 and 172.
2 "Water Softening and Treatment," Page 33.
24
370 PLUMBER'S HANDBOOK
PLASTER OF PARIS
Plaster of Paris is made by heating gypsum, CaS04-2HjO,
to a temperature ranging between 110°C. (230°F.) and 132°C.
(269°F.). During this heating, three-fourths of the combined
water is given off from the gypsum, as follows:
CaS04-2H20 + heat->CaS04KH20 + IJ^HjO
When the resultant plaster is mixed with water, it readily
unites again with an amount of water equal to that given up,
and reverts to a hydrated form that is chemically equivalent to
gypsum. The equation for the reaction is as follows:
CaS04-3^H20 + water-^CaS04-2H20
The hardening is due to the formation of crystals of the
hydrated sulfate.
PORTLAND CEMENT
Manufacture. — ^Portland cement is made by fusing together
two materials, one rich in Kme, as limestone, marl or chalk,
and one rich in silica and alumina, as clay, shale, slate or blast-
furnace slag. Most of the cement in the United States is made
by the so-called dry process. In this method, the materials
are very finely ground and are then heated in a rotary kiln
until they begin to fuse, the product leaving the kiln in the form
of small lumps known as *' clinker." When cooled, the clinker
is hard, glassy and of a blackish color. It is then ground suffi-
ciently fine that at least 90 per cent will pass through a 100-mesh
sieve. Since ground cHnker alone would set too quickly, it is
necessary to add a retarding agent. This may consist of
gypsum, plaster of Paris, or other form of calcium sulfate,
about 2 or 3 per cent being used.
Composition. — As given by Meade,* the cements of good
quality usually fall within the following limits of composition:
Limits, Avsbagb,
peb csnt pkb cbnt
Lime, CaO 60-64.5 62.
Silica, SiOa 20-24. 22.
Alumina, AljOj 5-9. 7.6
Magnesia, MgO 1- 4 . 2.6
Iron oxide, FesOa 2-4. 2.6
Sulfur trioxide, SOa 1- 1 . 75 1.6
^ Rogers and Aubert, " Industrial Chemistry," page 260.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 371
Constituents. — The oxides shown in the preceding table do
not exist free in the cement, but are combined with each other
in the form of more complex compounds. Lime is united with
both sihca and alumina, forming at least two silicates and
two aluminates. These are dicalcium sihcate, (CaO)2'Si02y
tricalcium silicate, (CaO)8-Si02, dicalcium aluminate, (CaO)2*
AI2OS and tricalcium aluminate, (CaO)8'Al208. The dicalcium
silicate is the chief constituent.
The Reaction of the Cement Compounds with Water. — The
aluminates react with water (become hydrated) in a manner
very similar to plaster of Paris. For example, the tricalcium
aluminate reacts as follows:
(CaO)8Al208 + water-»(CaO)8Al208l2H20
Since the tricalcium sihcate is more active than the other com-
pounds in the cement, it is generally considered that upon its
hydration and hardening the initial setting of the cement
depends. The tricalcium silicate reacts next, splitting up
into a pasty, hydrated monocalcium silicate and hydrated
lime, as follows:
(CaO)8-Si02 + water-<:5aO-Si02-2>iH20 + 2Ca(OH)2
To the reaction represented by this equation is ascribed the
hardening that takes place during about the first week. The
dicalcium silicate, which makes up more than half of the cement,
is the least reactive compound. It begins to hydrate after
about 7 to 28 days, and the action may not be completed
for several months.
The Hardening Process. — The hydrated products that
result from the reaction with water are not hard, but possess a
.soft, jelly-hke character, being very similar to waternsoaked
glue or gelatine. The reaction with water can, of course, take
place only on the surfaces of the cement particles, and each
grain of cement, therefore, becomes coated with a jelly-hke
layer. This layer does not allow water to pass through it very
readily, and as a result, although the grains are very fine, their
centers are not reached by the water. It has been shown that
even when a cement has been properly treated with water and
has hardened, only about half of the material of the grains has
been hydrated. Due to their gelatinous coatings, the grains
stick together and form a consohdated mass. When the
372 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
jelly-like material dries out, it becomes hard, and after it has
become hard, it can not be again softened by absorbing water.
It is possible for the coatings on the grains to dry out and harden
even when the cement is kept under water. This is due to the
fact that water from the outside layer is extracted and used up
by the unhydrated centers of the grains in hydrating more
material in the interior. Water that has entered into chemical
union is no longer able to manifest itself as water, and the
cement becomes dry and hard.
Factors that Affect the Setting Rate. — A thin mixture with
water sets more slowly than a stiff mixture. The greater
amount of water does not retard the hydration, but does delay
the setting because it lessens the cohesion between the hydrated
particles.
The temperature of the water also has a modifying effect.
Cold water delays, and warm water hastens the setting and also
increases the ultimate hardness. Hence, it would appear that
cements that set in warm weather would develop greater
hardness than those which set in cold weather.
Effect of Freezing During Setting. — If freezing occurs before
the cement has hardened, the chemical reaction of hydration
practically ceases. Since it is possible for ice to pass into the
vapor state directly, without having first become liquid, the
frozen cement dries out by evaporation. Then when the tem-
perature rises, so that it is possible for hydration to proceed,
there is insufficient water present to complete the process.
The effect of the drying out is, of course, most noticeable on the
surface, and is very similar to the effect produced by using
cement mortar on a dry, porous brick. Further detriment
results from the expansion that attends the freezing of the
uncombined water. The expansion forces the grains apart,
and even though the hydration should continue after thawing,
tlie consolidation would be imperfect and the structure lacking
in strength.
Action of Destructive Agents. — Heat. — Cement and concrete
begin to disintegrate when a temperature of about 300°C.
(572°F.) is reached, because the combined water is expelled.
But in a concrete that is made of proper aggregate and is suit-
ably proportioned, the conductivity is so low that this disinteg-
ration is likely to occur only in a thin surface layer.
In reinforced concrete, the coefficient of expansion of the
concrete is practically the same as that of steel, and the value of
METALLURGY AND CHEMI&TRY 373
reinforced concrete in fire resistance is due largely to this fact.
But the heat conductivity of the steel is much greater than that
of the concrete. Consequently, if the steel is covered with only
a thin layer of concrete at any point, in case of fire, it will
become heated more rapidly, expand at a greater rate, and so
set up internal stresses that may be disastrous.
Frost. — If cracks or voids due to improper proportioning
exist in the cement or concrete, frost may prove destructive.
The enormous expansive force manifested by the water freez-
ing in these openings causes disintegration.
Carbon Dioxide. — A water solution of carbon dioxide (car-
bonic acid) exerts a destructive action on cement structures
because the soluble bicarbonate of calcium is formed from the
constituents of the cement. Marsh waters and sewage are
destructive in this way.
Action of Sea Water. — If not well made, concrete structures
are destroyed by sea water; however, the action is more mechan-
ical than chemical. It generally occurs when a porous concrete
is alternately exposed to the water and then to the air by
tides. Crystallization of the dissolved salts in the pores is
brought about by the evaporation of the water, and the expan-
sion that results from such crystallization is very similar to that
produced by the freezing of water. Porous brick, stone and
other substances are affected in the same way. Therefore, if
it is required to withstand sea water, it is very essential that the
concrete be dense.
LUTES AND MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS'
Waterproof. — (1) For this purpose a natural asphalt, or an
asphaltic material, such as the heavy residuum left in the still
after the refining of petroleum oils, mixed with silica flour,
kieselguhr or diatomaceous earth as a filler, and thinned with a
heavy petroleum naphtha or gasohne, may be used. Naphtha
or gasoline is a solvent for the petroleum residues, but does not
completely dissolve natural asphalt, although it thins it suffi-
ciently for the purpose. Benzol is a better solvent, but is more
expensive. There are several natural asphalts that may be
^ Many of the methods for making the preparations discussed under this
head are taken from a paper on this subject by S. S. Sadtler, Chem. and
Met. Eng., 14, 197, Feb. 15, 1916. A greater variety of preparations of
this sort may be obtained by consulting this reference.
374 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
used, as gilsonite or Utah asphalt, California asphalt, or the
Trinidad and Bermudez varieties. It is generally advanta-
geous to use a small proportion of petroleum asphalt with
the natural asphalts, since it imparts flexibility. Or a small
proportion of boiled Unseed oil may be used for this purpose.
2. Lutes of boiled linseed oil, properly thickened with clay,
asbestar, red lead, white lead, or similar material ar^ water-
proof.
3. Flaxseed meal made into a stiff paste with water is used
for steam connections.
Oilproof. — (1) A mixture of glycerine and Utharge forms a
well known lute. According to Sadtler, the best proportions
are as follows:
Glycerine 90 parts by volume
Water 10 parts by volume
To be made into a stiflF putty with
Litharge 90 parts by weight
Red lead 10 parts by weight
This requires about a day to set, but when thoroughly set, is
both oilproof and waterproof.
Acidproof. — (1) The asphaltic mixtures referred to under
waterproof preparations are largely acidproof.
2. There are many acidproof mixtures that may be made by
using a solution of silicate of soda (water glass). The usual
commercial heavy solution of sihcate of soda should be slightly
diluted with water so that its density will be approximately
30°B^. This may then be mixed with about equal parts of
sihca flour and ground asbesto3 until as thick as desired. Or
ground glass, china clay and barium sulfate (barytes) may be
used. Although silicate of soda is acted upon by acids, the
surface layer attacked is converted into gelatinous silica,
which also has cementing qualities and is very resistant to
acids.
If a little finely powdered casein is first thoroughly incorpor-
ated with the sihcate of soda, as with a mortar and pestle, until
a smooth mixture is obtained, the cement will be improved. If
fresh milk curd (casein) is used, the incorporation with the
silicate of soda will be more easily accomplished. In this
case, allowance must be made for the water contained in
the curd.
METALLURGY AND CHEMISTRY 375
Iron Cement. — The method for preparing this cement is
^ven by Sadtler as follows:
Iron filings 40 parts
Manganese dioxide, or flowers of sulfur 10 parts
Portland cement 20 to 40 parts
Sal ammoniac 1 part
Water to form a paste.
The Portland cement serves to lessen the expansion.
For General Purposes. — ^A very strong and serviceable
cement suitable for a variety of uses is made by mixing a glue
solution with plaster of Paris. This is oilproof and gasproof,
l^ut cannot withstand the action of water and acids.
SECTION 11
SHEET-METAL WORK
SOLDERING'
Soldering Flux. — Metal of all kinds must be cleaned before
solder will adhere. This is generally done with hydrochloric
acid, ^ commercially known as muriatic acid, which does the work
easily, quickly and efifectively.
For soldering galvanized iron, use only muriatic acid. Zinc
should be added to the acid to "cut" or "reduce" it, and the
acid should be "cut" weaker as the gage of the iron becomes
heavier. Raw acid dries too quickly to be of value on heavy
work.
For soldering copper, old tin, new zinc, german sUver, brass
or pewter, use only cut add. Old copper and old brass as well
as every old metal that is corroded should be scraped very
clean and washed with raw acid, using a stiff brush. When
the surface is bright, cut acid is applied.
For soldering new tin, rosin should be used as the flux.
Rosin can be powdered and saturated with gasoline and bottled.
The liquid can be applied with a brush. Cvi acid shovld never
he used on new tin because the acid fumes will lodge in the
seams and will cause rust spots which will later ruin the work.
For soldering pure tin pipe or sheet lead, use tallow candle
or rosin. Tallow is preferable, as it keeps the air from the
bright surface.
Soldering Coppers. — Soldering coppers, or as they are
sometimes called, soldering irons, are made of copper with
their points faced and tinned. Soldering
^^l^^^^^;:::;:^ coppers become blunt and rough with
"JP'''^''^'^" w wear and continual re-heating (see Fig.
FiQ. 240. 240), and are imfit for use when in this
condition. They should be heated cherry
red and forged as shown in Fig. 241. The point of the
copper should be filed bright (see Fig. 242), then heated and
cleaned with sal ammoniac and coated with solder. This
process is called tinning (see Fig. 243).
^ See page 341, Section 10, on "Acids" for chemical actions of fluz.
> See page 337.
376
SHEET-METAL WORK
377
Figure 244 showB the correct position of holding a soldering
copper over a grooved seam. The solder is sweated into the
seams by the heat in the back of the copper. Alao be sure the
copper is sufficiently hot, because cold coppers will not melt
the solder or cause it to adhere to the tin or galvanising.
Fio, 24S.
Fio. 24G.
Figure 245 shows the correct position for holding a copper
while skimming a seam. It does not matter if it is rivetted,
locked, lapped or butted together; all that is necessary is to
have the proper heat in the copper.
Figure 246 shows method of applying rosin to a seam. A
funnel-shaped receptacle can be used, for rosining seams.
This is a long, tapering cone with a small hole in the apex,
which is filled with roain. By inserting a soldering copper, the
rosin will melt and flow along the seam as the iron is drawn
backward.
378 H-UMBERS' HANDBOOK
Soldering Methods. — Figiite 247 shows an end piece to be
soldered into a gutter. Often this gutter is kept too far from
the fire pot, compelling the workman to make several stefB
each time he must have a hot iron. This cai
keeping the work together and having all tools within
FiQ. 247.
The acid tray is made of metal with little compartmente
for setting in cut off bottles, cups, or ink bottles, to be used
as acid containers. In the center, a piece of sal ammonioc
can be carried with several acid brushes on the side. This
always permits having both raw and cut acid on the job; also
the dip pot, which should be an earthen jar is fillled with water
aad a few small pieces of sal ammoniac in solution. Dipping
the hot copper into this water, cleans it of all smoke, ashes
and acid collections. These dip pots, if made of metal, will
be eaten through in a very short time.
Figure 243, shows another improper practice: keeping the
dip pot and solder out of reach. This often necessitates
working over handed, and is a great handicap to efficient
work. The idea is that all work F<hould be together; it only
takes an instant to gather up materials and place them
conveniently.
Referring to drawings in Fig. 249, it is found serviceable and
efficient to place the acid bnish between the second and third
'■nger, as shown. In this way, a joint can be fluxed without
SHEET-METAL WORK
laying the soldering copper down. Id like n
should be held conveniently close.
Figure 250, ii
Btripping work.
EDother drawing showing the process of
Not« that the &cid brush can be brought
380
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
at any time to flux the joint and in the same backward move-
ment, the soldering copper can be applied. The block beneath
this work is usually marble slab. Such stripping work should
not be attempted on wood boards, because they warp and will
deform the work.
SCALE OF PITCHES AND DEGREES
The steel square, and a knowledge of its possibilities, relating
to angles, pitches, etc., will be of service.
Scale of Pitches
Figure 251 shows a scale of pitches the use of which is very
necessary in all work where metal must be placed on an incline.
To use the steel square, place the 12-in. mark, or the tongue.
SHEET-METAL WORK 381
as the base. The blade as the upright, is considered as being
divided into 24 parts. For 34-pi*^ch line, find 3^ of 24, which
is 6, then a line drawn from 6 on the upright to 12 on the base
will be on a Ji pitch. If }4 pitch is required, then J^ of 24
equals 8; and 8 on the upright to 12 on the base is J^ pitch.
In like manner, 12 to 12 would be K pitch, and 18 to 12 would
be % pitch. In this way, any desired pitch for a skylight,
tin roof or pitch cover or any other object can be found.
Figure 252 shows the reason for using the blade of square : the
24-in. run fits between gable, while the rise is 8 in. Wood
structural work is measured in this way, using the span of
rafter as the base.
The protractor, Fig. 253, an instrument used for laying off
and measuring angles, is made of steel, brass, horn or paper.
The outer edge is divided into degrees and tenths of degrees.
To lay out any desired degree, take a straight edge, a steel
square in this case, and place it on the center of X, and incline
it so as to lie across the desired degree marked, which in the
case shown in 60 deg. Observe that the numbers start from
both ends and graduate towards the opposite end. These
degree marks, divided into 60 spaces give minutes, and minutes,
further divided into 60 equal spaces, give seconds.
The scale of 'pitches and the scale of degrees should not be
confused. The scale of roof pitches has to do with straight
lines, while the scale of degrees has to do with curves,
TIN ROOF WORK
Ladder, Scaffold and Gin Poll. — In order to reach and execute
work, it is often necessary to use scaffolding, and the ladder
scaffold shown in Fig. 254 is generally used. The ladders are
stretched up high enough to reach the work; the hooks are set
in place on the rounds; after which a plank is carried up, and
placed as shown. This system is used a great deal for gutter
work, patching siding and scores of other purposes. Great
care must be taken that the ladders are firm, and not rotted by
acid as is often the case. The hooks that hold the plank may
be made or can be purchased from hardware jobbers.
Figure 255 is a gin pole. It consists of a long pole with
a httle block of wood nailed across the top, encircled with a
rope. To this rope, guy lines and also a block and tackle are
attached. This gin pole is used for raising smokestacks on
382 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
high chimneys, and for other work that requires more tlui
human streDgth to adjust it in place. A ladder may be used
in place of a gin pole. The gin pole must be well guyed to be
held in place.
Fio. 254. Fia. 265.
natlock Roofing Details. — ^Figure 256 shows method of
repairing flatlock tin roofing. A roof scraper, as at Q, is
serviceable in cleaning the old tin. Where paint is heavy and
much repair work is required, a blow torch is used to blister
the paint, and aUo» its easy removal. If no blow torch is
available, then a charcoal pan having a bottom perforated with
SHEET-METAL WORK
383
holes may be used. Soldering old seams should not be at-
tempted. The only way to remedy a broken seam is to put a
Vnshaped tin saddle over, as shown in Fig. 256. Both sides of
the saddle are soldered, and it permits expansion and contrac-
tion, thus preventing further leaks.
Very often spots on a tin roof are so rusty they cannot be
scraped bright. In such cases, bury the rusty spots in muriatic
acid together with a small scrap of zinc, and immediately apply a
good hot iron and solder. Rub the soldering copper back
Correct '^
Soldering
Scraper
Pa+ching
Tfn Roofs
^
NB<I
no.
and forth, and the rust spots will become tinned. Sometimes
two or more apphcations are necessary; but it does not matter
how rusty a piece of metal is, it can be soldered in that way.
At other times, parts of a tin roof are so far gone it is best to
put in large patches, as shown in sketch Fig. 257. In such
cases first mark out the patch and scrape it perfectly clean
along the edges about 2 in. wide. Then cut out the old tin
with a chisel or snips, after which fill in the new tin, starting
from the bottom, and seaming it as shown. At the top, a
standing seam is made as at 6, which is hammered over as at /.
All seams are soldered securely with a weak cut acid. Lock
edges should always be made as at P, where a full }4 in. is
given for lock. Seven-sixteenth inch will do^ but smaller edges
are not permitted.
384 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Building Paper Beneath a Tin Roof. — The National Associa-
tion of Sheet Metal Architects and Builders recommends that a
good building paper be used beneath a tin roof.^ In no case
use tar paper ^ or other papers that are saturated with destructive
chemicals in their manufacture. Such chemicals soon corrode
the tin and destroy it.
Painting Tin Roofs. ^^ — The National Association of Sheet
Metal Contractors have adopted for roofing tin and all outside
metal work pure metallic brown, iron oxide, or Venetian red,
mixed with ptire linseed oil.
Before laying new tiUj it is generally painted one heavy coat
on the under side. The upper surface of the tin roof should be
carefully cleaned after it is laid, of all rosin, dirt, etc., without
scratching the tin. This surface should be immediately painted
with any of the above pigments. No drier or turpentine should
be used. All coats of paint should be applied with a hand
brush and well rubbed in.
A second coat should be applied 2 weeks after the first. A
third coat should be applied 1 year later. A fourth coat should
be added about 2 years after the third coat. After this there
is a suflficiently heavy skin coating of paint on the tin, so that
the intervals of painting may be increased to once every 4 or 5
years. After the roof has stood for 30 or 40 years, it is painted
only at intervals of from 6 to 8 years.
Pure red lead and pure linseed oil are also highly recom-
mended. This compound contains 90 per cent red lead and
10 per cent litharge. The U. S. Government uses red lead
on almost all its metal work. Red lead makes a perfect cover;
being elastic, it expands and contracts with the sheet. It is the
most costly of roof paints, but tin roofs that have been on 40
or 50 years and have been painted with red lead, are today
just as bright and new looking as when the roof was first put on.
Pitch or tar paint should never be used; for when they are
exposed to the weather where the air and moisture can react
with the asphalt, sulphur, and other bituminous substances,
and with the coal smoke in the atmosphere, a corrosion takes
place, and "pin holes" the metal in a very short time.
Graphite paints should never be used as a first or second coat
on a metal roof. Smooth tin and smooth graphite permit
brushing out only a thin film of paint. The moisture in
^ See page 309, "Protection of Iron and Steel from Corrosion."
^ See page 309, "Protection of Iron and Steel from Corrosion."
SHEET-METAL WORK 385
the atmosphere, rain and snow, reacting with the carbon in the
graphite and the tin and lead on the baseplate, produce a
galvanic action. It is this combined action that pin holes the
tin.
Paint will not adhere to a new galvanized iron sheet. Its
tendency is to peel ofiF. New galvanized iron work should be
allowed to weather imtil it has developed a "tooth'', or rough
surface; then it should be cleaned with a wire brush. Quite
often this cannot be done, so the galvanized surface is treated
with a chemical solution. This solution is made by dissolving
in 1 gal. of soft water, 2 oz, each of copper chloride, copper nitrate
and sal ammoniac, and then adding 2 oz. of crude hydrochloric
acid. This mixture is made in an earthen or glass vessel. A
wide, flat brush is used to apply the solution. When it has
thoroughly dried, the paint can be applied in such a manner as
to form a uniform coat over the entire surface of the metal.
Standing-seam Roofing. — Next in popularity to flat-lock
roofing comes the standing lock-seam type. This is an admir-
able way of construction, and warrants a secure job providing
the roof has a sufficient pitch. Such a surface is not practical
on a shallow-pitched roof; the snow will settle in between the
standing seams and will cause leaks. For all-around good
service, a roof with a standing lock seam should have at least
15-deg. pitch. The process of preparing tin for this type of
roofing is as follows:
The roofing sheets are first notched a trifle on the folded
comers. This aids in double seaming. Having all sheets
notched, fold them on the long ends. Shops that have an
assembling machine are able to section these sheets together in
rolls. If such a machine is not available, the tin is laid on a
bench having a straight edge nailed on the back to keep the
tin straight. The seams are hammered down with a mallet.
For standing-seam roofs of less than 15-deg. pitch, the seams
should be very securely soldered, while on a roof having a
greater pitch, the seams can be just skimmed with a thin film of
solder.
All full lengths for the roof are cut at one time, and edged up
with a roofing tong, one edge standing 1^ in. high and the
other IK i^ high. Roofing tongs have teeth which act as a
gage. On steep roofs, a chicken ladder should be used. This
enables a person to walk up and down without slipping. When
laying the sheets, the cross seams should not meet, but break
25
386
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
or stagger, as at a-b in sketch B, Fig. 258. Observe the cleat
C which is put over the small 1 J^-in. edge and nailed with 1-in.
barbed nail. These cleats should be placed every 18 in.,
and where possible the tin stubs should be turned back on the
nail head. In laying the folded tin, be sure the seams are
placed so the water will run over them as the arrows indicate.
The hip and the valley pieces are laid in place and measured,
and then cut ofif at the correct angle The piece left over is
used on another side of valley NaiU should never he driven
through the outside of tin, because the sun and the frost will
draw the nail up, regardless of the amount of solder that is
piled on top.
Fig. 269.
Finished ButH
Fio. 258.
Sketch, Fig. 259, shows a different process of turning the
double seam. Observe the open seam at D with the cleat in
place. First turn the upper edge over the second edge as at E.
This is done with the hand seamer / imless the workman has a
regular foot or power seamer. In turning these edges, great
care must be taken that the edges do not unhook. The single
edge is now turned over a second time as at F, making the
double seam shown at the butt end. The hand seamer / has
two different widths of faces; the one is for turning the edge E
and the other is for turning the edge F. On long runs, it is
best to double-seam the joints at close intervals to save them
from unhooking.
Attention is called to the way the lower edge is turned down
at Bj and soldered at the joints shown. Much difficulty can
be saved by first cutting the turned down edge as in sketch
jB, Fig. 259. Some prefer laying down the butt end similiarly
to the top; only the double seam is left on top at the ridge
and turned downward at the bottom of the eave. This practice
SHEET-METAL WORK
387
always permita dust and moisture to accumulate, which will
rust out the metal. It is best to turn the lower butt ends as
at O or f}- The one in G can be easily turned with a pair of
pliers on the dotted line c, and then hammered over with a
stake and mallet. These must of course be soldered.
.Is
Attaching Cormgated Iron to Wood Work.— Figure 260
ehowB a sketch of the comer of a building on to which corru-
gated iron is properly attached. First, it is well to know that
corrugated iron can be obtained in various dimensions, in
width wd length as well as distance between corrugations
388 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
which in this case measure 2 in. Corrugations vary from
% to 3 or 4 in. (see Table 65). Attention is also called to
the method of lapping one sheet over another. At F is the
incorrect way of laying sheets. Observe how the water will
run off from the high ridge beneath the edge a, and follow the
valley B to the eaves. This valley will always be moist and
will shortly rust through. Drawing X shows where the sheets
are reversed so the water will run over the edge.
The corner post A is bent in the way shown to give the
effect as though a wood board was placed over the corrugated
iron. The pocket is used to nail the comer; also to insert the
corrugated siding. This is further continued in the detail
B, which offers a pocket for the corrugated siding and also a
standing seam for the roofing on top. To close up the lower
eaves, a piece of metal is bent as at C with a pocket as shown.
The ridge D may be bent with a pocket, and must be laid
before placing the roofing or gable ends. Very often the gable
finishings are made similar to the section E which permits
lapping the corrugated roofing over the corrugations the same
as the roofing itself (see Table, page 461, for various sizes).
La3ring the Roof. — The roofing sheets are laid so that the
joints are broken, and the nails are driven in the top rib of
corrugation. A galvanized-iron nail with a lead washer /
should be used. A gutter can be attached to the eave, supported
with band-iron hangers which are bolted to top rib of corruga-
tion. Corrugated siding is attached to supporting wood or
steel driving nails, or bolts through the upper ribs. This helps
to draw the metal close to the building.
Where valleys and inside comers are met with, a straight
piece of metal, as at G, is formed on the cornice brake, and the
roofing sheets are lapped over as shown. They should not be
nailed into the valleys. Inside-comer posts can be made as
at F having pockets the same as the outsi de-comer post A.
Workmen very often bend a sheet of corrugated iron, as shown
to the right of Fj for an inside comer. This is all right where
no artistic effect is striven for. The same is true at a gable
mold and the eave drip.
Chimneys are flashed as at «7. A saddle and an extra plate
should be made and put in place, after which the corrugated
roofing is laid on top. This is the best method; any attempt
to flash a chimney out of the corrugated, metal is a difficult
task, and almost impossible to make watertight. Factory-
SHEET-METAL WORK 389
made flashings may be used, and in such cases a ridge as at ^f
should be fitted, instead of the one at D.
PATTERN DRAFTING
The sheet-metal worker has to do only with shell surfaces.
The work forms hollow objects, and not solids as are generally
met with where rules of solid geometry are taught. Pattern
drafting requires the knowledge and use of descriptive
geometry.
The tremendous growth in the sheet-metal industry and the
adding of many himdreds of complicated geometrical figures
and fittings for development, has brought the trade to a higher
plane of technical skill. The day is past when a man having
a knowledge of 25 or 50 patterns can claim full title as a sheet-
metal worker. Five to six hundred different pattern problems
are today considered common knowledge of the expert sheet-
metal worker.
By this we do not mean closely allied patterns, but patterns
requiring a change in geometrical adjustment or combination.
Space permits treating only a selected number of problems, and
then only as met with in a combination shop doing plumbing
and sheet-metal work.
Scale-rule Reading. — ^There are two types of scale rules; one
a flat box rule and the other a triangular one. Either is
satisfactory, provided common scales corresponding to the
drawings are marked on rules. By. inspecting the box scale,
four different scales will be found; the ^is-in,, the Ji-in., the
J^-in. and the 1-in. This means }i in. equals 1 ft., and this
^ in. is divided into divisions of 12 spaces to represent inches,
the middle line representing 6 in. and the lines between stand-
ing for 3 in. and 9 in., while the others lead up to these numbers
as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.
In like manner the K'ii^* scale is divided in the same divisions
and represents the same dimensions, only ^-in. equals 1 ft.,
and each single line represents 1 in. which makes this scale
exactly twice the size of the J^-in. scale. That is why they are
placed on the same side of the rule. The K-ii^* scale is similar^
and equals }4 ii^- ^ ^^^ ^oot. This space is divided into 24
equal spaces, which show the K-in. and the 1-in. marks for
dimension purposes.
In placing this rule over the drawing across the pipe, the
width will measure exactly 2 ft. 63^ in. in diameter, full size.
390
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Caxe must be taken that the scale rule is exactly at 90 deg. to
the outlines of work.
The 1-in. scale equals 1 in. to the foot. It is divided into 48
spaces, thus permitting the use of the 1-in., J^-in. and ^'^.
marks. This enlarged scale enables the draftsman to produce
working drawings of greater accuracy, it being larger and easier
to work from. It will be observed that the thickness of a lead
pencil with the H~u^* scale can readily take up a whole inch of
dimension.
The triangular scale rule lias more scale dimension because it
has six sides. One side is used for straight measurements, and
divided up into Ke ^^' spaces. The scales printed on the
other sides of each end are: %2, Ke, M; H. Hy Hy^j IM and
3 in. to the foot. This is called an architect's scale, and is
used the same as the flat scale.
Fig. 261.
Patterns for Funnel. — Funnels, as shown in Fig. 261, are
made in a great variety of sizes and designs. This problem is
considered the same as a pitched cover or the development of
the frustum of a cone. The upper story is a straight rim, while
the second piece and the nipple are both frustums of cones.
To lay out a working drawing for a funnel, as in Fig. 261, only
a half elevation is necessary, as both halves are alike. First,
SHEET-METAL WORK 391
an indefinite center line is drawn as Z-Y, Z-A represents half
the diameter. Draw the height of rim ^-B to any measure-
ment desired. The funnel part S must also be made to suit
measurement, but it should be steep enough to permit the
substance to flow downward freely The nipple T may also
be made any length. With this understanding, we draw the
slant line B-C and C-D. The handle C7 may be sketched free-
handed as shown.
To set out the patterns for the various pieces, the upper rim
R is made equal to the width A-B^ and equal in circumference
to suit the diameter. This can be best measured by figuring
the circumference and measuring with a rule. Allowance for
wire edges and seaming edges must be allowed outside of the
net pattern. To the left of this pattern is the diagram showing
how much allowance should be added to suit the thickness of
the wire or rod. Dividers are set to equal 2J^ diameters of
wire or rod, and this is added for a wire edge. This encloses
it as in the section M,
To set out the pattern for the middle piece &y extend the
slant line B-C to center line X, Using X-B and X-C as radius,
strike the aics in pattern using any place, as X'y as center.
Draw line as X'-B', Measure the circumference, which in this
case is OJ^e in., on a metal strip, and bend it around the curve,
establishing point B", Draw line B"-X', and where it cuts
the small arc C", it proportions this arc to conform in length
to the large arc. This saves spacing off the lower arc. Allow
edges for seaming and also for double seaming the top of
taper to the rim as in section iV. These edges should not be
made too large; otherwise much difiiculty is had in seaming.
Small edges hold just as well and are much more easily made.
Next lay out the pattern for nipple T. Extend the side line
C-D to terminate in the center Une at F. Using Y as center
and Y-C as radius, strike the arc indefinitely. Use a narrow
metal strip or else a paper strip to bend around the arc C'-C"
in pattern 5", and transfer this length on the arc C'-C" in
pattern T", Then draw lines to center Y, Next strike the
arc D''D'\ Laps must be allowed on this nipple for over-
lapping the other pattern as in section O. When this nipple
is formed, it is best to kink-in on opposite sides as shown in
Fig. 261, to permit air to escape and act as a vent.
The handle U is merely a tapering strip of metal as shown by
pattern "C7". The back view of handle shows the width of the
392
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
top and bottom. The edges can be single-hemmed, double-
hemmed or wired, as desired. To obtain the stretchout for
the handle, bend a narrow strip of metal to conform with the
curvature of elevation C/, and then straighten out and lay off in
pattern. Add your widths for laps and the pattern is finished.
The metal strip mentioned for measuring circumferences may
be used in a multitude of daily problems, and is a great saver of
time and accuracy.
Liquid Measures. — Measures as in Fig. 262 are used for
milk cans, oil cans, oil measures, automobile purposes, etc.
FiQ. 262.
According to law, a mea^sure must hold a gwen quantity, and
must be sealed and approved by town and city officials and
failure to do so is punishable by law. Below is a table of
dimensions as recommended by the U. S. Government, and all
liquid measures should conform to these measurements. The
diameter of the bottom is generally taken as two-thirds the
vertical height, and the diameter of the upper base about
two-thirds that of the lower. On this basis of proportion
the following schedule has been prepared by Government
authorities:
SHEET-METAL WORK
393
Table 53. — Dimensions for Liquid Measures
Diameter of
Diameter of
Sise
Height, inches
lower base
upper base
in inches
in inches
1 gal.
9.80
6.53
4.35
y2gal.
7.78
5.18
3.45
1 qt.
6.17
4.11
2.74
1 pt.
4.90
3.27
2.18
>6pt.
3.89
2.59
1.73
1 gill
3.09
2.06
1.37
Development — The radial line method rmist be iised. First,
draw an indefinite center line as X-Y, On each side of this
mark off the elevation to suit measurements of those in Fig. 262.
The flare of the Up is laid out to an angle of 45 deg. in this case,
taking care that both sides are equal; otherwise it is made to
suit the proportion of the measure.
To lay out the pattern for the body, extend the side lines of
taper until they meet in the apex X. Then use the side line
as radius, describing the pattern, in this case from X\ The
stretchout can be measured along the arc, or it can be trans-
ferred from the half section. The half section is not needed
except that it is shown in connection with the development of
the hp.
The side lines of lip are extended to meet the center line in
apex 4. With this radius 4-7, describe the inner arc in the
pattern. Draw the center line 4'-A, and from point 7 step off
or measure the half circumference on each side. This estab-
lishes points 1 and 1'. Draw lines to point 4'. Now pick the
space 1-B' in pattern. Next pick the front of Up 7-A and set it
as 7-A in pattern. Draw line B'-A and bisect in the center C.
Square out Une from C to the center line 4'-A in point D.
With this new center, D and A, as radius, strike the other arcs.
This finishes patterns for the Up and the body. Laps for
seaming and wiring must be aUowed extra. The pattern for
the bottom is merely a round disc with double edges aUowed
as shown for double seaming.
The next step is to describe the handle and to develop the
grip or boss inside the handle. For this, draw a line 1-a, with
a 30-deg. triangle and made it equal in length to one-third the
diameter of upper base. The line orb is drawn with a 60-deg.
394 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
triangle and is made equal to the diameter of the upper base.
From these points the arcs are described which give the handle
a uniform appearance. Often on account of the slant line of
elevation the dividers must be shifted a trifle in order to des-
cribe the larger arc tangent with the smaller one and still
tangent with the elevation. In such cases the point &, is only
an approximate center.
Next, parallel with the grip draw the section through grip
as shown. This is straight and must be laid out by the parallel-
line method. Divide the section through grip into equal
spaces and draw lines parallel to the edge of grip thus cutting
the arc of handle in the points shown. The stretchout is then
picked from the section and set off at right angles to its ele-
vation. From this the pattern is developed. This is the
geometrical development for grip; the shop method will simplify
it as follows: Develop the handle and bend it to its right
design to suit elevation. Next, take handle and lay over a
piece of metal marking to suit the curve, and then reversing
as shown by the dotted position of handle, the pattern is
marked out as at M, The space between the parallel lines is
that distance which would be bent on a half round or elipse,
as in this section through grip. This is then cut out and is in
every respect as serviceable as the former pattern.
Attention is called to the sectional seams, the way the
measure is assembled at 0, where a wire is enclosed at the top
of lip, and how the measure laps over the lip at P. Also how
the bottom is double seamed on as at Q. All these points
must be worked out and actually tried out to appreciate their
full value.
FURNACE FITTINGS
Taper Pipes on Center and off Center. — Cylindrical pipes,
as Fig. 263, that have a pronounced change of diameters in
opposite bases, are called taper joints, also reducers. They
are merely frustums of cones, and require the radical-line
method to lay out. Workmen doing furnace heating, or en-
gaged in the making of all forms of smoke pipes will meet with
many kinds of fittings. A few of the more general fittings
and their development are taken up here.
Measurements are always given for such work, as the length,
large and short diameters. In this case the taper is 18 in.
SHEET-METAL WORK 395
long, 20 in. on the large end and 14 in. on the small end. Only
B. half elevation need be drawn.
First draw the center A-B, and measure A-C as the length.
Square up lines at right angles to A-B and make A-D equal to
10 in. and C-E equal to 7 in. Join D-E with a line and extend
it on the same slant until it intersects the center line as in
point B. This gives the true slant length.
Set trammel points (trammel points are large extension
dividers) to S as center, and D, as radius, and describe arc.
Readjust trammels to radius B-E and sweep arc I-J. Figure
396 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
the circumference for either the large or small end, say large
end in this case, is
3.14 X 20 = 62.80 or 621^6 girth.
Measure this girth off on a metal or paper strip, or with a
zigzag rule mark the points G and H and draw line to center
apex B. This process regulates the girth for small end as I-J
and saves figuring and measuring. Some workmen prefer to
allow the full rivet lap on one edge as (?-/ and the rivet lap as
at H-J. It does not matter which method is used as long as
the true girth is maintained. The circumference rivet lines
are measured in say ^ in. from the edge in this ease, and
described from center B. Step off the rivets holes with
dividers by trials until spaces become equal.
Taper off Center. — In Fig. 264 is another form of taper that
is straight on one side. It is used on all work where a pipe
line must be laid level and even on the bottom side. This is
especially true where heavy substances as emery dust, etc.,
must be taken care of.
As the pipe is straight on one side, draw line X-1-7 at right
angles and measure 1-7 as the diameter of large end. Next
measure 1-1" as the height of taper and square out small
diameter l"-7". Join 7-7" with a line, extending it to intersect
side line in point X. Now develop a half-plan view of this
taper, and it will be found that the point X merges in point 1.
So describe a half circle to suit diameter 1-7, and divide in 6
equal parts. Now using point 1 as center, sweep these points
into base line as 2-2'; 3-3'; 4-4'; etc. From these points draw
lines to the apex X which gives the true length of lines.
At diagram A is shown a rapid method for spacing a circle
in 12 equal parts. Strike circle from center and draw quarterly
lines through the center. With the same radius use a as
center, mark point 3-11; then use h as center, mark 2-6; next
c as center mark 5-9 and last use d as center, mark 8-12 as
shown. Observe that this is the principle of the radius making
a hexagon, only here we double over, thereby producing twice
the number of spaces.
This same method is used throughout this section, and it
provides rapid means of dividing a circle into any number of
spaces. For ordinary work it is also accurate. Great care
must be taken to use exact radius of circle and also to use the
quarterly lines exactly on center, and to have the pencil points
SHEET-METAL WORK 397
sharp. Slight irregularities often throw the points out con-
siderably, so it is always best to average them.
To continue the development, set trammel points to X as
center, and each point as l-2'-3'-4'-5'-6'-7' as radius strike
arcs indefinitely. With dividers set to equal one of the six
equal spaces in the plan, start with one of the arcs and walk
from one arc to the other until the full girth has been stepped
off. If you wish to place the seams on the side, then start
dividers on arc 4' as point 4 in pattern. Then walk from one
arc to the other following the numbers as shown. This
establishes the lower miter cut.
From each intersecting point in miter cut, draw radial lines to
apex Xy or at least past the top of taper. Then from each
point in top base l"-7" sweep arcs cutting lines of similar
number in pattern. This gives the top miter cut. Rivet holes
can then be spaced as shown, which completes the pattern.
On particular work it is best to draw the circumference rivet
Unes and space the rivet holes separately with dividers.
Elbows and Angles. — Where there are three or more pieces
in an angle or elbow. Fig. 265, it is necessary to apply a method
to establish the miter line. The diagram illustrates the prin-
ciple for equally dividing an arc to give each piece the same rise
of miter line. The right angle B-A-C is exactly 90 deg. The
quarter arc 1-8 is described from the comer A, and at any
desired radius. The next operation is to divide this.
Observe that all middle pieces have two spaces, a miter line
on each end, while the end pieces would also have two spaces
if the two dotted miter ends were added. These are omitted
and not used, thus leaving only one space for each butt end.
If these dotted half ends were not omitted, then it would leave
a slant butt end when connecting the other pieces.
Always remember and follow this rule: Multiply the desired
number of pieces the elbow is to have by two, and then subtract two
from the product; the remainder will be the number of spaces into
which the arc muM be divided, to produce the required elbow pieces.
For example, the diagram shows a five-piece elbow.
Five pieces times two spaces equals ten spaces.
Ten spaces minus two spaces gives eight spaces.
This gives the miter line. This rule is applied to all elbows or
angles, no matter how large or how many the number of pieces
required.
398
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Apply this rule to Fig. 265 which is a four-piece elbow. In
the upper comer is the working drawing. First draw the right
angle, and then describe the quarter circle in the heel, center or
throat; either is satisfactory. In this case, use the heel arc.
We desire a four-piece elbow, so 4 X 2 equals 8, minus 2 gives
us 6 spaces. Draw the first miter Une as a-A, and every other
one after that. The elevation B-C-D is unnecessary to layout
pattern ^^A*\ but it is well to draw it, taking care that the heel
DlagranT ^-* — j
4-Pieced Round Elbow
FIG. 265
and throat are parallel with each piece, and that the vertices of
heel as 7-a-&-c do not finish in the arc, but square up from points
1 and 7, which estabUshes point e and a. With the 30- and
60-deg. triangle, the side lines c-b-a can be drawn from a four-
pieced elbow. Draw a quarter circle in heel and throat. This
aids in drawing the elevation.
In the developing process where a fitting is true, having the
same shape all around, only a half section, N, is necessary.
Continue from here the development of the pattern as was
applied with the angle until finished.
In practical work the butt-«nd pieces are made somewhat
longer than the net space 1-e of elevation. That is why the
SHEET-METAL WORK 399
lo'wer line to pattern A is added. Cut this pattern A out very
carefully and accurately. Measure the heel on both ends as
a'-6' and reverse pattern A, thus making the curve fc'-6" as pat-
tern "B". This makes e-d of elevation to correspond in length
to throat of pattern. Next set the throat e-d as h'-d^ and V-d",
and again reverse pattern "-A" and you have pattern "C". The
line I'-l" can be drawn any distance up from d"-l", usually to
suit the edge of sheet; and this finishes pattern ^^iy\ Laps for
seaming or riveting must be allowed extra. Where an elbow
must be made to suit a given size, the edges must also be allowed
for the miter cuts to make up for the lock or peened edge.
Three-piece Angle. — In all forms of pipe work, the workman
meets with problems as shown in Fig. 266. A bevel is used
to find the required angle, as G-I-H. Now the nature of the
substance flowing in the pipe requires a round turn, in this case
a three-piece angle to suit the heel line, G-I-H, The idea is to
establish the miter line. Set dividers to vertex 7, and mark
points e-€' to suit any radius. Square out a line from both e
and e' at right angles to I-H and I-G until they meet in point J,
This can also be done by striking arcs as shown. Use J as
center, and strike the arc e-e'; then measure diameter as e-/ and
strike arc for throat. From here on space the heel arc to
establish the miter line. Our rule says four spaces for a three-
piece angle or elbow. After this develop the patterns the same
as before.
Furnace. Canopy and Collars. — In sketch for canopy, Fig.
267, the body is just like a taper joint or frustum of a cone.
Only a half elevation is required as a working drawing. First,
draw a center line indefinitely, as A-B. Measure A-C equal
to one-half the diameter of top furnace ring. Then make A-E
1 or 2 in. higher than the largest warm-air duct; usually 14 or
15 in. Next make E-D any desired length, just so C-D will
have a nice taper. This taper acts as a deflector, and also
inclines the collars, to facilitate connecting leaders to suit their
rise. Next draw the inverted cover line D-F. The distance
E-F is the rise or drop of cover and acts as a deflector in helping
to diffuse the air into the pipes.
The side line C-D is now extended to meet in the center line as
in point B. The pattern is then described to suit the, width of
galvanized sheet. To describe a full half pattern for a large
canopy causes too much waste. Therefore, the pattern is
described across the width of a 28- or 30-in. sheet. So let
400
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
(p^Mi-d represent a part of a sheet of metal. Set compass to
radius R-C and locate the radius point B' to suit the sheet of
metal, from which describe the part pattern as shown. This
pattern can be used for all sized canopies; enough sections are
cut out to make the circumference. It is better to rivet the
seams than groove them. It is also good practice to make the
circumference of the ring to a fraction larger, and then crimp
the bottom of the canopy, which makes a straight edge and a
close fit.
The pattern for the inverted cone is set out by using F-D as
radius and any point as F' as center. Strike an arc indefinitely;
FiQ. 267.
measure off the half circumference on a metal strip and bend
around the arc, thus establishing points £)'-£)". Laps for
seaming must be allowed extra. It is best to double seam the
cover on the body of canopy, similar to the section M.
Some furnace men get out the cover this way, while others
rivet enough pieces of sheet iron together to make a full cover.
They then strike out the full pattern, allow for double seaming
edges and then cut out on the arc. The edge is then turned up
in the burring machine for double seaming as at M. After
this it is slit in on a line to the center, and laid over the tapering
body, and pushed down in the center until the burred edge
firmly locks on the edge of taper. The cut out line is then
SHEET-METAL WORK 401
marked, after which enough lap is allowed for riveting; the
rest is cut out, and the cover is riveted on this line. The latter
method is the safest for accuracy, and is just as eflficient when
making only one or two hoods. Otherwise we would recommend
the first method.
The collars that are tapped into this hood should always be
placed as near as possible to the top so no warm-air pockets are
formed. The workman must never run some of the warm-air
ducts out of the side of canopy and others out of the top.
[Either run them all out of the sides, or else all out at the top;
failure to do so will cause those running out of the top to rob
those running out of the side. There is no objection in taking
the pipes out of the top where a basement has ample depth.
Again looking at the half section of hood or half elevation,
draw the side view of collar on the line D-C to the desired
diameter, keeping quite close to the top. Then bisect, finding
the center /, and set compass to the radius e-/; and using any
point, as e', for a center, strike the arc /', indefinitely. Next
draw the plan of collar on this arc to suit any desired position,
on center, or off center as in this case. Describe the half
section 0 and divide into any number of equal spaces, six in
this case. From these points drop lines cutting the arc /'.
Now set the stretchout for the collar off as 4-4 and space into
twice as many divisions as there are in half section 0. Drop
stretchout line from these points, and from each point in the
arc /' project over horizontal lines, cutting lines in stretchout
having the same number as in points 4'-3'-2' etc. This gives
the pattern. Note, the pattern is started with Une 4 of plan,
and so places the seam on the side of the collar.
In this way all collars may be laid off. It does not matter to
what inclination they point in a side direction, but in the eleva-
tion they must be at right angles, otherwise a different method
of developing must be applied. This method is not geometri-
cally accurate, but is near enough for all practical purposes.
In most cases the collar is sprung one way or another a trifle.
It is the best practice to rivet a narrow strip of metal on the
inside for clinching to the hood. In this way the workman can
always give and take a little, which is very necessary in this
field work.
In marking out the opening in the canopy where the collar
is tapped in, care must be taken that the collar points in as
near a straight line to the register box or wall stack as possible.
26
402
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
In this position it is marked with a lead pencil, and cut out,
taking care to cut it closely. Quite often collars must be cut
to fit on the job, in which case they are notched in and dove-
tailed so that one lug is on the outside and the other on the
inside of canopy.
When the canopy is set up on the job, the concaved cover
should be filled with sand. This is for holding it down and also
holding the heat in. On large canopies, an extra strip is
clamped around on top so more sand can be piled on to prevent
too much heat escaping in the basement.
Patterns for Right Angle T of Different Diameter. — Figure
268 shows a T which is used a great deal for smoke pipe work.
Rat+ern for Tee
e 9
Z /
Right Angle Toe
Sani« Diamelvrs
Pattern f6rOp«ning
Right Angle Te«
Having Different Diameters
FiQ. 268.
Observing that this problem is one of the parallel line method,
first describe the semi-circle A to represent the large pipe,
and from the center a, erect a vertical line and draw the top
of T 4-4. Describe the half section B and divide into equal
spaces. Drop lines from each of these points to intersect the
large circle A as in points l'-2'-3'-4'.
To set out the pattern, extend the line 4-4 as 1-1, and measure
the circumference for T. Transfer the divisional spaces on
SHEET-METAL WORK 403
this line so as to have 12, and drop stretchout lines indefinitely.
From each point where the Unes from section B intersect the
circle A, as l'-2'-3'-4' etc., project over lines into stretchout,
cutting those lines of similar number, as in points l'-2'-3' etc.
Trace a freehand curve through these points, and the pattern is
finished.
To lay out the opening in the large main pipe, no side ele-
vation need be drawn. Observe in the end elevation how the
T fits on the main pipe A as from 4'-l'-4". This is the exact
space that must be cut out of the main pipe to fit the T. Pick
the spaces as 4'-3'-2'-l' from end elevation and set them below
as from 4 to 4. Draw stretchout lines, and from each point
as l'-2'-3'-4' in A, drop points onto stretchout lines of similar
number. Trace the oval through points thus established, and
the pattern is finished. A small edge is allowed on the inside
of this opening for turning outward into the T.
At M" we have an end view of a right angle T intersecting a
pipe of the same diameter. Observe the same treatment can
be followed. The girth can be picked from either the dotted
section or the spaces in the main pipe, as they are all alike.
In assembling these T's, lugs can be allowed as in Fig. 268, or a
strip is riveted in as in detail Z>.
Chimney Extensions.^ — It is well to mention that smoke
pipes should he taken down every sprinQj the reason being that
the moisture in the basement, together with the soot and
ashes, proves very injurious to the steel. In this way many
perfectly good smoke pipes will be completely eaten up by
rust in the fall. The constant fall and winter firing is not
nearly as injurious to a smoke pipe as to have it lie packed with
soot and ashes and saturated with moisture.
Furnace heaters of steel construction, as well as cast-iron
heaters with steel radiators, are also liable to rust rapidly
during the summer months. To overcome this, first clean
the heater free from all soot and ashes on the inside with a
stiff brush or broom. Then on the grates lay a few fair sized
pieces of unslacked limey which takes up the moisture and aids
in preserving the heater.
When the masonry work of chimneys is not built high enough,
down-draft and air pockets or eddies caused by the air circulat-
ing around enclosed courts, causes no end of worries to the
fumacemen and the tenants (see "Chimney" section, p. 12).
1 See Section, "Effect of Soot," page 307.
404
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
To overcome this, galvanized-steel chimney extensions are
made, as in Fig. 269. Various kinds of bases are used, some of
cast iron and others of tile, but for the sheet-metal man, the
one shown on this plate is of the most interest. For small
chimneys, the one in Fig. 269 is all right; but for larger bases it
is not recommended, because the base sets over the brickwork;
and this permits air pockets to form, which cools and retards
the draft. This is overcome by first making a pan as in Sketch
_ Half Circumference j
^•^ Half Wtternftr Rase
,mv^s^ SSS^
1/
PcattiemfbrTop
In One Piece
M
N
"€*' to cover the brickwork, and placing the transition piece
upon it. Others make the bases as at Z>, turning out a flange
and riveting a strip on the inside. The base is set in place,
and the top is covered with cement to make it water- and air-
tight. Where the brickwork is poor, the arrangement of base
and pan at C is recommended.
On these extensions various designs of hoods are used. The
one shown in Fig. 269, having the T-branch arrangement, is the
most successful. It is claimed this combination of T-branch
will cause a chinmey to draw when all the others have faUed.
It is called the "Burte** chimney top, possibly named after the
man who first designed it. Conical hoods are used a great
deal, and are more for preventing the rain and down-draft.
SHEET-METAL WORK 4t)5
Too often this hood is placed down too far, which cuts off the
effective area; they should be raised to a height equal to the
diameter of pipe. The hood shown at F is very serviceable
and also simply made.
To set out the pattern for this hood, let M-N be the cir-
cumference of pipe, and M-P and N-0 be the width of sheet.
Bisect the center, R, and erect a vertical line R-Q. Make the
distance R-Q equal to R-Sj as the quarter circle testifies.
Then again, bisect the distance R-S and measure about 1^ in.
on each side of center to make the side about 3 in. wide as
shown. Set dividers to center R and strike a semi-circle, and
then set to the comer S and strike the quarter circle. These
are cut out as in Sketch F. Form the pattern up as an ordinary
joint of pipe, and then double over the top and rivet as shown in
sketch. This can be made any size; the larger the diameter,
the wider the side 3-in. pieces are made.
Base. — In the upper left-hand comer of the drawing, the
chimney base is laid out by the steel-square method. This is
sufficiently accurate for all this class of work, and is a little
quicker than triangulation. Let A-B-C-D represent a sheet of
galvanized iron, say from 24 to 30 in. wide. Measure the
distance A-E about 4 in. for the base, using steel square in
position 1. Reverse square to position 2, and mark line as
you go along to position 3. Measure the distance E-F some-
what greater than one-half the width of the base. Make
F~F' equal to the long side of the base. Measure the center
Gj and square up a line by using the steel square in position 4.
Next measure over one-fourth the circumference on each
side of center line with square, as in position 5. Then the
distance /-/ will be one-half the circumference. It is best to
make this stretchout /-/ about J^ or J^ in. smaller, on account
of the steep taper of the base, so the straight pipe will fit on
nicely. Next place steel square in position 6, measuring the
distance F'-J equal to half the width of base. While in this
position, drop the square to position 7 to add the 4-in. apron
or turn down. Then shift steel square to position 8 and mark
the miter cut at F and F\ Allow lap for seaming, and the
pattern is finished.
This half pattem is cut out and reversed on the same sheet,
thereby making the two patterns from one sheet. The tri-
angular pieces which fall off as E-B-I and I-D-C are seamed
together and worked up into a joint of pipe to save waste.
406 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
The upper curve I-H-I is best cut out after the base has been
assembled unless the workman is very familiar with this work.
In most cases, this curve is cut too deep and will have to be
trimmed later on anyway.
In assembling, put a rivet in the lower apron and the top
seam so they will not unhook while shaping up. The fint
joint of pipe should be flanged about % in. by running it
through the thick edge machine. The pipe is then set on base,
placing a heavy weight on top of the pipe to make the connec-
tion between the round and base fit up closely. Tack this
joint with solder in three or four places, and then take on a stake
and rivet.
The top and bottom bases are cut off level for appearance:
this is similar to cutting the miter Une for an elbow.
Patterns for Smokestack Vent Collar and Flange. — On
mining and manufacturing plants where tall smokestacks
project out of an inclined roof, some form of connection between
the roof and stack must be made. Figure 270 is a design that
is commonly used. It is made in two pieces and clamped and
bolted on the sides so it can be put up or taken down after the
stacks are up. Generally 16 or 18 gage galvanized iron is used
for these vents; therefore, rivets must be used.
Glancing at the working drawing or elevation, A-B equals the
pitch of roof. Fire Insurance Underwriters say wood must be
kept 18 in. from the stacks, as indicated by the distance H
So draw the center line C-D, and from it detail the stack and
collar and hood as shown. Observe in the Diagram M^ how
the clamped standing seams are made for collar and hood. Also
notice the collar is laid out just like the gore for an elbow in two
pieces. The hood is laid out the same as a funnel or other
conical fitting. Metal angles to make the single edge of stand-
ing seam are riveted on where shown, and will appear as in
detail Af .
The pattern for roof flange is laid out similar to openings for
T's of different diameters, and at right angles. Observe as the
collar fits on the roof line, it covers the space l'-7'; so pick these
spaces l'-2'-3'-4' etc., and step them off on line 1-7 below eleva-
tion. From the points in half section, drop lines cutting those
in stretchout for opening of similar number as in points 6'-5'-4'-
3'-2'. Trace a line through these points, and the pattern for
the flange is finished.
Attention is called to the assembling joint V" which arranges '
SHEET-METAL WORK 407
th.e rivet limes in tiie stem pattern for throat and heel, and eJao
in opening. In actual work two aheete of iron are overlapped
about 4 in. and the opening laid out on top of them. This
assures a good lap for shedding the rain, and also makes the
correct allowance when assembling the throat and heel to these
^-11,
flanges. Usually 1 in. is turned up on the inside. This is best
done with a monkey wrench, by turning the edge as far as it
will go. After this, hammer it in position with a mallet and
iron stake. The rivet course should be ^ in. up, which will
Eud to shed the water and also in riveting. I>ay out the holes in
408
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
the patterns for throat and heel, every 2 to 2J^ in. between
rivets. When all the work is shaped, the holes are marked in
the flange from the collar. Inexperienced workmen find this
the easiest way. However, the idea is to lay off the same
number of holes in the flange as there are in the collar; then
by turning up the edges, the metal will shape so the holes will
correspond. If the edges are not flanged evenly, then the
metal will stretch and shrink, which will throw the holes out
The same holds good for the hood and collar for hood.
When erecting this fitting, always set the heel in place first;
and before fastening it securely, set the throat. When all k
square and on center, then nail down securely. In placing the
hood, be sure it is raised high enough to enable ample venti-
lation. Also see that rain or snow will not blow in.
Furnace Boots. — The round leader should never enter the
rectangle stack at a more blunt angle than 45 deg. This angle
Folder
"foredgcV
Shop Method
Pattern
Fig. 271.
forms a nice transition. In Fig. 271, the side elevation gives
the rise of miter line Orb, The stretchout is laid off for the
round pipe as C-D in pattern. In this case the stretchout
is equal for the round pipe and the wall stack, as shown in the
sectional views above the side elevation. Set off the distances
o-Im:, and draw a line making D-&' equal to half the length of
SHEET-METAL WORK 409
stack, and the distance o-d as the width. Then mark the miter
line as shown, and allow the laps. To fold the edge e, a metal
former is made as shown in the sketch, by which the edge e is
bent over. Form up the pattern as though it was a round
pipe, and then place it on a stake and straighten the heel and
throat, thus making the comer square, and then double-seam
the corners, as in the wall stack section shown above the side
elevation. It is well to place a rivet in the miter, which pre-
vents the metal from bulging and makes a better job. Tin
S-hooks are bent and hooked over the side as in sketch Fig. 271.
Should it be necessary that the circumference for the round
pipe be smaller than the stretchout for the rectangle pipe, then
draw the tapering lines on both ends as F-C. This can be done
with the steel square, and will take up the sweep caused by the
taper. It should be understood that this is merely a jump rule
for making a boot and is not strictly geometric ; its accuracy will
vary with the sizes and taper of pipe. However, it is a good
fitting for rapid assembling and application.
Trunk-Line Installation. — Trunk-line heating is the most
serviceable where long runs of pipe are required. If the heater
were placed near to the rear or front of basement, then a trunk
line could be easily designed, and would work effectively.*
Such cases come up when the heater cannot be placed in the
position shown. The mechanical end of getting out and erect-
ing a trunk line is as simple as the separate pipe to each room
system. In fact each system presents its own peculiarities,
and must be dealt with that way. As a whole, trunk-line
systems require the same points to be observed and avoided
which must be taken into account with the separate pipe system.
1. The size of warm-air register, leader pipe, wall stacks,
size of heater, cold-air ducts, and the location of registers would
be identical with those of the individual pipe system.
2. Set the heater in the most satisfactory place; then plan a
simple trunk line, as in Fig. 272. Always run the branch pipes
from the register or wall stacks in the shortest line to trunk line,
taking care that the air will continue in an upward direction.
Having approximate points where the branch pipes would
intersect the main trunk, start from the far end and proportion
the main trunk. Always increase the main pipe in cross-
sectional area to be equal to the additional area of each branch
pipe entering the main trunk. It is better to make the area a
410
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
fraction larger all along, so the heat volume will put itsdf
under pressure. This assures positive action, and it takes care
of all the branch pipes so that when one register draws abnor-
mally, it will not rob the registers further on of their heat.
o
3. Provide connections between the main trunk and the
branch pipes so the angle is not greater than 45 deg. This
permits the air to separate and branch out with the least
friction. Observe at M and N how the main trunk is reduced,
as the branch pipes are inserted. Also from the side elevation
note that the branch pipes are taken out close to the bottom
SHEET-METAL WORK 411
4
of the main pipe. The reason for this is that the warm air
travels closest to the room or top of duct. If the branch pipes
entered the main trunk near the top, then the nearer branches
would rob the further ones; therefore, they are placed close to
the bottom.
The depth of basement will dictate the depth and width of
the main trunk line. The furnace canopy will also have some
bearing, as it is seldom over 15 in. high. This permits the
duct to be only about 14 in. deep.
4. The manner in which the workman must get out the work
in the shop is very simple. If the trunk line is to be rectangular,
list on a sheet of paper the number of Uneal feet of duct required
between each connection. Include elbows, angles, T's, boots,
and register boxes.
Make up the fittings separately, making their length of cross
seams to work out conveniently from the metal sheet. The
Pittsburgh lock. A, can be worked in on many seams to advant-
age. If bright tin is used, then enough sheets are locked
together to make the fitting, keeping an eye to save material
and labor in assembling. Each fitting must be well reinforced
with stays or angle iron to prevent bulging or caving inward.
Subtract the length of each fitting from the linear feet of
duct, and thereby derive the exact length each section of pipe
must be to fill in between. This holds especially true with the
main trunk. The tapers and T-connections are made separate,
and the straight part in between is filled in. It is optional
which joint is used, the standing seam, C, or the cap strip
connection, B\ either is practical. The size of duct will dictate
the weight of angle iron reinforcement. On light I. 0. coke
tin, the reinforcement should not be further apart than from
24 to 30 in. The angle iron is run all around the duct. If the
standing seam is used, then each seam acts as a reinforcement,
and no other is required for 20 or 30 in. Keep the top of duct
straight so no pockets or obstructions are formed, which are
liable to retard the flow of air.
Quite often the main trunk line is made rectangular as in plan,
while the branch pipes are made round. This is a very practical
application. However, the T-connection should be a square
to round transition piece, instead of tapping the round pipe,
direct to the side of main trunk.
If the trunk-line system is to be all round pipe, as to the
left of furnace, then the same procedure would be followed as
412 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
shown in plan, and explained for the square ducts. Quite
often, baffles as at /^ are placed in the Y-branches to aid in
equalizing the air for both prongs; otherwise the one pipe line
may have a greater drawing power, which would rob the other
pipe line. The workmen must experiment to note just how far
these baffles should be inserted. The construction of the house
and climatic conditions have much to do with this.
Each building offers its own peculiarities in hanging or erects
ing the piping. The method at ^ is used a great deal. Some-
times band iron straps are bolted to the sides of the duct and
nailed to the joist. At other times when the floor is of concrete,
holes are drilled through the floors, and a rod is run through
with an anchor on the upper end and a long thread and nut
on the lower end. This permits attaching the rod to the ends
of the top angle iron for holding in place, as well as raising and
lowering to keep level. At other times it is best to use expan-
sion bolts in the concrete for holding the hangers. All this is a
matter of the workman's own judgment. He should, therefore,
keep in close touch with trade papers and furnace dealers'
catalogs.
Ornamental Conductor Head with Flanges. — Conductor
heads, as in Fig. 273, that are about square, can be developed
the same as a square gutter miter. By glancing at the front
elevation, we have the full width of the front, which is also the
pattern for the back. The back is flat, with the edges cut to
suit the profile of the sides. That part of the leader head above
the line C-B represents the side view. From this it will be
observed that the pattern can be projected the same as a square
miter.
First draw the elevation, detailing the section or side Unes as
shown, and divide each curved line into equal spaces, numbering
each point and bend. With dividers, pick the girth, and set it
off on line 5-17. Draw stretchout lines, and from each point
in the front elevation project lines cutting those in stretchout
of similar number. This gives the points for drawing the
miter cut line. Laps must be allowed on one side, or both sides
of front. By drawing a line D-E, we also have the pattern
for the sides, as indicated by that part above the line D-E.
Observe the conductor pipe extends through the conductor
head, thus making the conductor head a mere ornament. Quite
often the top of the conductor head is left open, and a tube is
soldered in the lower end, which acts as a box and vent, and
SHEET-METAL WORK
413
prevents sewer gases from gomg up through the gutter and
rusting out the tube. Where a conductor head is highly oma-
mented with mouldings, it is best to develop it by the change
of profile method. Architects at times place the house owners'
initial on the conductor head. This would be marked off fuU
size and Btripped with a, !^-in. strip.
With the conductor heads, pipe flanges are used, as shown by
A and C. Observe the plan view A ; also the front view. The
conductor pipe is held in place by iron pegs driven in the wall
with a spout band, which is clamped around and bolted to the
peg. The flange is placed over the spout band to hide it and
to ornament the pipe, as well as to break the monotony of a
long, continuous, straight hue. The clover-leaf ends are
already a pattern, only the inside is cut out and sunk in equal to
the width of B. This panel effect is carried around the pipe as
shown in the front view. These flanges are held in place by
first chiseling out the mortar between the joints of stone or
brick and then driving in wooden wedges. A nail is soldered
414 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
in a half ball as shown and driven in place, thus holding the
flange firmly to the wall. The top edge of the flange is also
soldered to the pipe.
Very often these flanges are very simple, as at C The work-
man can lay out a straight strip and bend the edges a.s at Z> in
the cornice brake, and then crimp in that part that must fit
around the spout. This enables shrinking, and if handled
properly would be made a fairly good job. The comers pro-
duced by the right angle are filled in with another piece of
metal and soldered. On such flanges, little square caps are
placed. These can be laid out so as to give about }^-in. raise.
A nail is then soldered in the center, which is nailed through
the flange and the wood wedge.
Patterns for Round Ventilator with Square Base. — Figure
274a is a round ventilator head and stem fitting on a square
base, supposedly on a gable skylight. The round head is
treated separately, while the base is treated as another fitting.
For a working drawing, first draw a vertical center line X-4".
At a convenient place draw the stem, measuring over half the
diameter from the center line. Then proportion the flange S,
hood R'Xf and the wind guard T with the brace in place.
While making the working drawing, also draw the quarter plan,
letting 4'-(i'-4" be the half length of sides of the square base.
The quarter circle is described to suit the radius of the stem.
Draw the diagonal line X'-d', and divide the }i circle in equal
spaces as 1 to 4.
The chamfered comer of base in sketch is on a 45-deg. angle,
so draw the line a-h on a 45-deg. angle, which we shall call the
miter line. Notice that points 1-2-3-4 of plan are erected
to this miter Une a-6, and from it the 3^ pattern for stem is
developed. The girth 1 to 4 is picked from the arc of the plan.
Next lay out the girth for the stem as A-B, Divide up as
shown; cut this }i pattern out of light metal, and place this
pattern in position 1 and mark the curve. Then reverse to
position 2; then to 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. This gives the full
pattern for the stem. Bolt holes are laid out as shown.
The patterns for the hood, flange and wind guard are laid out
the same as many previous problems on pitched covers, etc.,
and need no further comment.
To lay out the base, drop the miter line Orb to the position
c-d to avoid confusion. Where the lines erected from plan
intersect this miter line c-dj set the compass to comer d and
SHEET-METAL WORK
415
a-weep these points to the vertical line g-d, as in points r-2'-
3'-4'. Observe this is merely straightening the miter line
c-d in a vertical portion with all its points. Now, pick the
1 projected over from arc as 4'-3'-2'-l'-d' from Uie plan,
and transfer them on each aide of the center line as 4-3-2-1-4'.
From each of these points erect lines, and from each point in the
line g-d, square lines over crossing the vertical ones in points
4"-3"-2"-l", which gives the miter cuts. The apron and drop
can be allowed to suit the section c-d-e-J, as we may call it,
which finishes the pattern for the base. On two of these ^e
416 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
pattemSi the roof pitch must be cut to suit the angle of sky-
light or roof, as pattern U, This can be done in the shop or oc
the job.
Proportion of Ventilator. — Ventilators of this kind must b*
designed to take care of the ventilating they are expected to do.
The left half of the sectional elevation shows its propK>rtioD
Where:
m is made to J^ or J^ or J^ the diameter of stem.
n is made at pleasure or H the diameter of stem.
o is made to }4 the diameter of stem.
The above is for normal conditions. For dusty, steam-laden or
foul air, the distance m should be at least J^ or J^ the diameter
of the stem. In such cases, all dimensions must be enlarged to
suit. The width of wind guard is made so no snow or rain will
blow in. Otherwise it is made as shown.
Repairing Tubular Radiators. — The matter of repairing
radiators is receiving considerable comment by the trade, and
many tradesmen prefer to make it their specialty work. It is
as though a new set of mechanics are being broken in, who can
only fix radiators and do nothing else — ^that is, if we are to
accept the statements of numerous men in this line.
No tradesman should narrow himself down so much as to
be able only to do radiator repair work. That field has alto-
gether too small a scope for him to pin his entire future life to
it even though there are a great quantity of radiators to repair
in country towns as well as in cities. Any man of average
mechanical ability can learn to do this in a month or 6 weeks if
he can work at a variety of radiators.
There is no objection to workmen becoming specialty auto-
mobile repair men — ^that is, being well able to repair and make
anything and everything of sheet steel required on any auto-
mobile. There are good opportunities for such men.
Figure 275 shows a round tubular radiator. These tubes are
generally five rows deep in width. They become damaged by
freezing, by accident, by hard usage on rough roads, and
through old age. The water passes from the bottom of the
radiator into the engine, becomes heated, and is discharged
again into the top of the radiator. As the cool water is drawn
off at the bottom, the hot water at the top gradually settles
downward in the tubes. During this settling process it cools,
SHEET-METAL WORK 417
o 1c»y the time it reaches the bottom it is quite cool and ready
or the engine again.
The space in between the tubes is to permit the air to cir-
culate and thereby expedite the cooling process. The fin-plates
tcross the radiator are for diffusing the air between tubes, and
lIso to keep the thin tubes from warping or twisting out of
3l:ia.pe. These tubes join the upper and lower tanks, and are
soldered on the inside. The fins are also tacked in position
with solder; otherwise they would all settle to the bottom,
leaving the upper tubes bare. .
Some repair men advocate the dismantling of a radiator
and replacing the old tubes by new ones, but we doubt if this is
good practice. It is one of the biggest jobs a fellow ever
tackled — especially to loosen all the fins without damaging the
tubes further. If this must be done, then take the upper tank
off, or cut a hole in on the bottom tank directly beneath the
faulty tube with a small-flamed blow torch; play the flame up
and down along the tube to melt the solder from the fins and
tube. Then catch hold of tube with a long-nose pliers, give a
firm jerk, and if all is clear, the old tube will come out. In
this way, as many faulty tubes as desired are taken out. All
new tubes, or old tubes taken from old radiators, should be
tested before putting in place. Solder the tube at the bottom
through the hole in the lower tank. To solder the upper tube,
if the top tank is not removed, cut a hold on the back side
of the tank on a Une with the tube. Clean the metal and
solder well.
Generally, only the front tube is damaged, as at a in Fig. 275.
In such cases, pry the fins apart with a screw driver, scrape and
solder the tube, straighten the fins in place again, tack with
solder, and the job is done. If a long slit occurs, as at &, then
cut the fins directly over the center of the damaged tube; bend
these fin ends aside and then repair the slit or crack. Then
carefully replace the fins, seeing that they are straight, tack with
solder where necessary, and the job is done.
Leaks that occur where the tubes join the upper or lower
tank should never be soldered from the outside. It is hard to
make a good joint, and often the fins are stretched to a point
where they never will have a good appearance again. The
better method is to cut a hole on the back side of the radiator
tank directly opposite the leaky tube, as at c. This enables
you to solder the end of the tube securely, after which a patch
27
418
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
is soldered over the tank hole in c. In this way, all repairiof
should be done from the back side of the radiator when possibic
Quite often several inches of a tube ar« damaged beyoni
repair. At other times, one of the inner tubes is damaged.
|g|SS|||||S||
Ranol FtaundlUM Hadiotor
»ill«lll«i
naeJT N
SIvKh Shooing Hm^bto'B
and it is difficult to get at it. In such cases proceed as in
sketch, Fig. 275. First clear the fins away to the necessary
depth and length — always on the back side of the radiator.
Cutting the fins away from the damaged tubes is no small
job, and often a person will damage a ueighboring tube if
SHEET-METAL WORK 419
extreme care is not taken. Always cut and bend the fins
deep enough to allow ample working room. Many a joint is
improperly soldered because of a httle hindrance of fins while
soldering.
Next cut out the faulty tube indicated by e. Round the
ends out perfectly, and with a strip of emery cloth or paper
clean the ends of tube until bright. Immediately tin them
with solder, so the solder flows freely all around. Now make
some new tube lengths over a wire or rod, using nothing heavier
than 10-oz. copper. Often old tubes from other radiators
can be used. Tin the ends well and then make ferrules to slip
snugly over each end, making them not more than |^ or 1 in.
wide. Tin these ferrules well, both inside and outside. The
one ferrule can be left loose so as to telescope as at A, which
aids in setting the tube, and can be sweated with solder.
Plenty of cut acid should be used, and the solder sweated around
the tube several times to insure a perfect joint.
Observe by this method the whole area of the tube is main-
tained throughout, and it insures a strong joint. All fins
should be replaced. If a hole is cut on the outside fins, it is
often necessary to build in little metal strips, soldering them
wherever possible. Some repair men advocate slitting in the
old tube as at B. Others use the ferrule on the inside of
tube as at C Neither of these methods should be used,
because they cut down the area of the tube, and the least
obstruction that gets in the tube will clog it. This will cause
the tube to freeze in winter. Some other repair men cut the
tube at the bottom and top, solder up the ends, and let it go
at that. Often we find radiators with six or more tubes cut
out of service in this way. It is argued that one tube more or
less will not matter any way. But the point is: if all the
tubes were not needed, they never would have been put there
in the first place.
In Fig. 276 is the plan view of another tubular type of
radiator. Here the tubes are oblong, and from the outside
have the same appearance as shown in Fig. 275, only another
style of fin is used, as shown in sketch. Fig. 277. Along the
center of the longitudinal way, a bead is run to prevent the
sides of the tube from closing and shutting off the area. The
fins between tubes are to prevent the tubes from bending, and
to diffuse the air along the sides of tubes.
When this type of radiator leaks, it is much easier to repair.
420 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
All that is required is to cut the fins away from the dama^
tube, shape a soldering copper as at Z) and then solder the
hole or crack. All the work should be done from the back
side of the radiator. If the fins must be cut in the front d
radiator, Jhen metal strips can be formed to suit the desigi
of the fin and tacked in place with solder.
Soldering coppers must always be forged out to suit the
position where soldering must be done. This requires many
different positions and shapes, governed only by the mechanical
abihty of the workman.
Patching comers and stud pads and pipe connections also
form important repair work. All places where joints have been
once soldered, and spring leaks, soon are coated with lime and
other foreign matter. Merely to swab a Uttle raw acid over
and then some cut acid and expect a well-soldered joint, is
silly. The adjoining parts of metal must be scraped or filed
and be well tinned. Corners that spring open or crack, as at
E, should have a patch placed on the unseen side. It does do
good to pile the solder up % in. thick if the lap joint is not
sweated. If a lap joint cannot be sweated, then the next thing
is a patch. These are required in all shops on various radiators,
and should always be tinned on the inside before soldering.
Gas blow torches, as at F, come in very handy for soldering
radiator work. They can be used to advantage in a multitude
of places. The flame point must be adjusted to suit the work,
but usually a small, fine flame is used.
The re-soldering of broken stud-bolt pads, pipe connections,
etc., causes much trouble. In Fig. 278, we have a practical way
to repair stud-bolt pads. These pads are riveted on the inside
of tank, and the only way to get at them would be to cut out a
large hole in the back side, take off the pad, clean the metals,
tin the surfaces thoroughly and then replace. In most cases
the stud bolt can be screwed out. A washer of good large
flange is well threaded and tinned, as is also the metal of the
tank. Use a white-lead compound on the thread of stud, screw
the washer on tight, and then insert the pad again and screw
up tight. Next, with a hot and heavy soldering copper, sweat
the solder well all around the washer.
Where the washer will not make a tight job because of leak-
age around the threads, it is best to have the machinist turn
out a new stud with washer in one piece, as at G. This will
make a good job when well soldered in place. In this way
SHEET-METAL WORK 421
XLultitudes of little practical ideas can be put into use by the
workman. It is also well to visit other shops now and then to
see how they do their work."
Repairing Cell-tube Radiators. — Radiators are made in
numerous different designs, but the five different types of these
Last drawings serve as a basis with which to know how to
liandle the others. The workman should make it his duty to
examine the construction feature of every radiator with which
lie meets. This is very necessary, because without knowing
the design, or just where the water runs, a person may putter
around all day or several days and still not repair the leak.
In Fig. 279 we have what is called a square-celled tubular
radiator. The plan view shows the tubes to be very thin,
taking in the full width of the radiator. In sketch A we see the
tubes are rectangular, and run straight from top to bottom.
The cross partitions are joined to the side of tubes, and only
act as reinforcements to the tube and help diffuse the air.
When a leak occurs, it can only be in the sides or widths of the
tubing, as at a or 6. The partitions, of course, place it in one of
the cells. For this a cell soldering iron must be forged to fit
nicely on the inside of the cell. At the top of the plate, such
an iron is shown made of steel, as steel stays hot longer, and a
person is not so liable to bum the tinning off. A soldering
iron made of copper is too small to retain the heat and heats up
and bums the iron before a person knows it. Of course, a
regular 2-lb. soldering copper can be forged down to a long
square shank, and will give good results. Always clean the
cell to be soldered very thoroughly; then tin it first with the cell
iron, and with another heating fill the hole with solder. In
this work great care must be taken not to melt the solder on the
adjoining tube. When all leaks visible have been soldered up,
place a stopper in all pipe connections and fill the radiator with
water. Tap with a mallet here and there, which often causes
sediments to fall out of place and leaks to show up. Pipe-
connection stoppers, as at X, are very serviceable where either
water or air is used for testing purposes. If air S& used, not over
5- or 10-lb. pressure should be used, as over that will often
deform the tubes, causing them to bulge outward. Gas
should not be used to test for leaks as it is dangerous.
At sketch B we have another square-cell type. It is con-
siderably harder to repair. The one vertical wall of tube also
forms the cross partitions. Observe the arrows and note how
422
PLUMBERS* HANDBOOK
the water runs. If this type leaks, it may be ia ODe of \ii'
partitions, aa at c, and then in most cases the opposite side i
also punctured, and must be carefully examined. Other tinier
the side walte are punctured ae at d. Then by the eTpanakt
and coDtraction they may crack as at / and g. These crocks
require the cell to be soldered the full width, and places m (
would be Boldered on both sldee, as the break may extend fur-
ther underneath and not be mended. BadiatOTB of this type
SHEET-METAL WORK 423
require very careful repairing that the solder be not melted from
other joints. Small hook scrapers should be made from old
files, to clean the metal bright.
Figure 280 is called a honeycomb radiator. This is by far
the hardest to repair. The sectional sketch view C shows how
the tubing is formed in little half-round elements. The brass
lining in between the tubes is crimped and perforated, thereby
bending one edge up, the other down, etc. If a leak occurs
they must be examined well in the bend between the half
round. A scratch awl or other long, slender tool is used for
prying the brass lining upward from the half-round element.
The leak is then mended with the cell iron.
In this radiator, the finished ends are drawn together and
soldered, thus reshaping the design into a hexagon, as in Fig. 53.
Very often a blow torch, as at F, can be used to great advantage.
To prevent the flame overheating the adjoining cells, a common
oiler is filled with cut acid, diluted with water, then while using
the torch the oiler is used to squirt out acid on all neighboring
cell walls, which prevents the solder from melting elsewhere.
This method can also be used on all the above types as well.
In Fig. 281 is another type of radiator; the tubes run in a
zigzag fashion, thus making the cells square, but placing them
in a diagonal position. Cells of this kind are repaired similar to
the others, but if a puncture occurs, as at ft, the other side of the
cell must be examined also. This diagonal-cell type is also
modified in many radiators by expanding or bulging outward the
inner walls between the cells. This permits a greater quantity
of water to pass through the radiator.
The workman has noticed that in none of our instructions
did we advise plugging up a single cell. This should be forbid-
den. This is the first thought of an unskilled workman. We
have seen radiators where some workman has filled the cells of
one comer with lead for 10 in. each way, and still they
leaked. Unless the comers of a cell are securely soldered, it will
never be tight.
Many radiator partitions are just tacked on each end for
1 in., as in sketch B, If a cell is stopped up, the water will creep
from one cell to the other until it can run off. Therefore, the
leak in each cell should be repaired. The cell can be readily
cleaned with a strip of emery paper bent around a small square
tool to permit free working in the cell.
It does happen where a radiator has been in a wreck, that a
424 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
portion is broken through, thus making a hole several inches
square; this is one of the worst jobs with which the workman will
ever meet. As such a radiator is permanently damaged and full
efficiency could not be expected from it, the bruised parts could
be cut away and the tube thoroughly cleaned and soldered up.
and another piece of radiator, cut from an old discarded radiator
of the same design, filled in the hole to match up as best you can.
This will keep the outsicje effect nicely as a blind.
It is, however, better to solder up the tube ends of the
bottom, and cut a hole on the back side of the upper tank for
soldering the holes right at the top. This will keep the upper
stub tubes from freezing in the winter, while the lower stubs
can be filled with water, but will drain, although they will not
circulate. Often it is necessary to stop these stub tubes at
both the upper and lower tanks. The workman is urged never
to cut cells out of a radiator unless compelled to. The best
way to appreciate the above instructions is to cut some cells
out of an old discarded radiator and experiment and understand
the great difficulty met with in making a workmanlike job out
of it. In fact, it is well to purchase some old radiators from
junk shops and experiment on them as the above instructions
guide you.
Always finish up the radiator to leave a good appearance.
Keep all outside brass and nickle free from solder when repairing
tubes, fins, cells or tanks, etc.; always have some black paint,
lamp black, and turpentine on hand to cover up the bruises.
Do not alone paint over the little dab of solder, but paint over
the entire fins of radiator face, if its former color was black.
Outside appearance goes a long way, and many a man's woik
has won favor because it was neater than that done by his
competitors.
For soldering cells, tubes and other close places, the wire
solder is preferable. If cut acid is too strong, then dilute it
with soft water, sometimes up to half acid and half soft water,
meaning rain water or boiled water.
METALS USED IN SHEETS
Copper is a mineral mined out of the earth. It is smelted,
refined, and cast into ingots which are rolled into bars, wire, and
sheets. Sheet copper is used to resist the elements, because its
properties are such that chemical influences do not deteriorate
it as fast as iron or steel (see Tables 56 and 67).
SHEET-METAL WORK 425
Sheet copper is spoken of in terms of ounces or pounds.
The thickness governs its weight; hence "16-oz. copper" means
that 1 sq. ft. of the sheet metal weighs 16 oz. Weights heavier
than 64 oz. per square foot are spoken of in terms of pounds;
thus 64-oz. copper weighs 60 lb. per sheet 30 in. wide and 60 in.
long. Sheet copper can be obtained in standard sizes varying
from a few inches to several feet in width, with lengths to
correspond. Copper melts at 1,943°F.
Hot-rolled Sheet Copper. — This process consists of heating
the ingots to a certain temperature and rolling them into
sheets. Heat causes the pores of the metal to expand, and this
produces a very soft, pliable metal. It is used mainly for
roofing, flashings, valleys, plumbers' flush tanks, and for many
manufacturing purposes.
Cold -rolled Copper. — After the metal is refined, it is rolled
w^hile cold, into bars or sheets. Rolling it in the cold state
causes the pores of the metal to close, and therefore hardens it.
Cold-rolled copper, therefore, is stiffer and tougher than the
hot-rolled product. It is used for a multitude of fixtures on
huildings such as gutters, cornices, skylights, and exterior
ornaments.
Planished Copper. — This name is given to cold-rolled sheet
copper which has one side polished, and the other generally
tinned, though it can be had with or without tinning. It is
used mainly in the manufacture of cooking utensils, boilers, etc.
Sheet Steel. — There are two kinds of baseplate used today :
one is made of steel, and the other of iron. The former is the
more popular because it is lower priced. The difference in cost
is due to the bessemer process of making steel. When the
steel ingots are rolled into sheets, the product is stiff, springy at
times, and occasionally so brittle that the metal breaks with the
first bend. Mills which make a pure-iron baseplate must go
through much more work in the treatment of the metal than is
required in the bessemer process; but pure-iron sheets are softer,
more pliable, and not so readily attacked by rust as are the steel
sheets.
These sheets may be readily tested in the laboratory by
cutting a narrow strip from both the steel and iron products,
and immersing them in acid. No matter whether they are
black or galvanized, the steel strip will be eaten away some time
before the other.
Iron melts at 2,737°F.
426 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Black Sheet (see Table 62). — This type of sheet is so called
because of its color. It has never been "treated," but is
sheared and packed in bundles exactly as it comes from the
rolls. Another type of black sheet is planished; that is, it
is more lightly finished, and goes through a special process.
Planished plate also has a steel base, and is largely used for
stove pipe, engine covering, and locomotive covering.
The old-time Russia Iron comes under this head, but this
metal is used but rarely even for locomotive coverings owing
to its expensiveness and limited supply.
Under the black sheet, there are also several different finishes,
as the plain black; the wood refined, blue steel, and planished
steel. All of these are made from the iron or steel ingot and
rolled out into sheets.
Galvanized Sheet. — The baseplate of this sheet is the same
as the black sheet, only this sheet is treated in a pickling bath
and is then run through a vat of molten zinc, called spelter.
When the sheet comes out of the galvanizing vat and cools,
nature paints starry-spangles on the surface. Pure ingot-iron
sheets are coated in this way as well as the steel sheets. Gal-
vanized sheet iron is used for gutters, spouting, roofing, heating
and ventilating piping, blow piping, cornices, and tanks,
buckets and multitudes of other articles. Its main purpose is
to resist the action of the weather (see Table 63 for weights and
sizes).
Tin Plate. — Tin plate also has a steel or pure-iron baseplate;
its only difference is the coating placed on the plate. Hoofing
tin has a coating of lead, giving it a dull finish; hence the term
Terne Plate. This tin is known by the thickness of the coating,
as 20-lb. plate, 32-lb. plate, etc. Terne Plate is used largely
for roofing purposes, inlaid gutters, and of recent years as
automobile plate, from which the body, fenders, oil pans, etc.,
are made (see Table 64 for weights and sizes).
Charcoal Tin Plate. — This is also the common baseplate of
iron or steel, which by special treatment is coated with pure tin.
The thickness of coating governs its term as IX, IXX, IXXX,
etc., and as the coating is made heavier, the baseplate is also
thickened. This type of tin sheet is largely used for house-
hold utensils, dairy products, also many other purposes (see
Table 64 for weights and sizes).
Coke Tin Plate. — I. C. coke tin gets its name from its process
of manufacture by means of coke instead of charcoal. It is a
SHEET-METAL WORK 427
cheaper process, and the coating is generally very light. This tin
is mainly used in furnace heater-pipe construction. The bright
tin aids in the reflection of heat and its diffusion. This tin
is also used for very inexpensive household utensils (see Table 64
for weights and sizes).
Corrugated-iron Sheets. — By means of heavy corrugated
rolls, a plain black or galvanized sheet can be given corruga-
tions. For different work, different widths of corrugations
are used. Corrugated metal is used for roofing, siding, culverts,
floor, ceiling, domes, and as concrete forms, garages, etc. (see
Table 66 for weights and sizes)
Sheet Zinc. — Zinc is a soft and pliable metal, and is rolled
into sheets much the same as steel. The grain nms with the
roll, so that the workman must always look for the grain before
marking out his work and bending it. When zinc is bent
sharply across the grain, it is liable to break, while with the
grain it will bend nicely. Sheet zinc becomes soft with slight
heating, and in cold weather it hardens, becoming springy and
brittle. For sharp bends, the sheet zinc should be heated
slightly, although great care must be taken, as it melts and
even bums very easily (see Table 59 for weights and sizes).
Sheet zinc is used in Iming refrigerators, sink Unings, for
caskets, and many other purposes. In Europe, zinc is exten-
sively used for eave troughs, conductor pipes, roofing, etc.
But in this country the trade is a little timid about using it for
extemal building purposes.
Sheet Brass. — Brass is an alloy of about 72 parts copper and
28 parts zinc, and makes a harder, stiffer plate than either
copper or zinc. This mixture makes a very malleable sheet,
but the more zinc used, the more brittle the brass becomes.
Brass is used for engine trimmings, muscial instruments, various
vessels which are usually tinned on the inside and nickled on
the outside (see Table 67 for weights).
428
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
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432
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table 56. — Table of Weights op Sheet Copper per Squai.'
Foot, and Thickness per Stubbs Gaqb
Rolled Copper has specific gravity of 8.90. One cubic foot
weighs 658.125 lb.
0)
1
Thickness in
decimal parts
of 1 in.
Weight per
square foot in
ounces
Weight of sheet
14 by 48 in.
in pounds
Weight of sheet
24 by 48 in.
in pounds
Weight of sheet
30 by 60 in.
in pounds
Weight of sheet
36 by 72 in.
in pounds
Weight of sheet
48 by 72 in.
lit ItOiltltlM
35
.00537
4
1.16
2
3.12
4.50
1
6
33
.00806
6
1.75
3
4.68
6.75
9
31
.0107
8
2.33
4
6.25
9.
12
28
.0134
10
2.91
5
7.81
11.25
15
27
.0161
12
3.50
6
9.37
13.50
18
26
.0188
14
4.08
7
10.93
15.75
21
25
.0215
16
4.66
8
12.50
18.
24
24
.0242
18
5.25
9
14.06
20.25
27
22
.0269
20
5.83
10
15.62
22.50
30
21
.0322
24
7.
12
18.75
27.
36
19
.0430
32
9.33
16
25
36
48
18
.0538
40
11.66
20
31.25
45
60
16
.0645
48
14.
24
37.50
54
72
15
.0754
56
16.33
28
43.75
63
84
14
.0860
64
18.66
32
50
72
96
13
.095
70
35
55
79
105
12
.109
81
40^
63
91
122
11
.120
89
44H
70
100
134
10
.134
100
50
78
112
150
9
.148
no
55
86
124
165
8
.165
123
61
%
138
184
7
.180
134
67
105
151
201
6
.203
151
75^i
118
170
227
5
.220
164
82
128
184
246
4
.238
177
mi
138
199
266
3
.259
193
%
151
217
289
2
.284
211
105^^
165
238
317
1
.300
223
wm
174
251
335
0
.340
253
\26^i
198
285
380
SHEET-METAL WORK
433
^SLB 67.-
-Weight of
Copper, Brass and Aluminttm Sheets
Weight of sheets, pounds
Rrown &
Decimal
per square foot
Sharpe
thickness,
inches
gage
Copper
Brass
Aluminum
1
.289
13.10
12.38
3.94
2
.258
11.67
11.03
3.52
3
.229
10.39
9.82
3.14
4
.204
9.25
8.74
2.78
5
.182
8.24
7.79
2.48
6
.162
7.34
6.93
2.21
7
.144
6.54
6.18
1.97
8
.128
5.82
5.50
1.75
9
.114
5.18
4.90
1.56
10
.102
4.62
4.36
1.39
11
.091
4.11
3.88
1.24
12
.0808
3.66
3.46
1.11
13
.0720
3.26
3.08
.985
14
.0641
2.90
2.74
.875
15
.0571
2.59
2.44
.784
16
.0508
2.30
2.18
.694
17
.0453
2.05
1.94
.620
18
.0403
1.83
1.72
.552
19
.0359
1.63
1.54
.492
20
.0320
1.45
1.37
.437
21
.0285
1.29
1.22
.39Q
22
.0253
1.15
1.08
.347
23
.0226
1.02
.966
.308
24
.0201
.911
.860
.276
25
.0179
.811
.766
.245
26
.0159
.722
.682
.218
27
.0142
.643
.608
.194
28
.0126
.573
.541
.173
29
.0113
.510
.482
.154
30
.0100
.454
.429
.137
31
.0089
.404
.382
.122
32
.0080
.360
.340
.109
33
.0071
.321
.303
.097
.34
.0063
.286
.270
.087
35
.0056
.254
.240
.077
36
.0050
.226
.214
.068
37
.0045
.202
.191
.061
38
.0040
.180
.170
.054
39
.0035
.160
.151
.048
40
.0031
.142
.135
.043
28
434
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table 68. — Approximate Weight op Sheet Copper
Square Foot in Fractional Parts of an Inch
in.
in.
in.
in.
thick 3
thick 6
thick 12
thick 24
He
H
H
H
1 in. thick 46^^ lb. to the square foot
lb. to the square foot
lb. to the square foot
lb. to the square foot
lb. to the square foot
PEI
To Ascertain the Weioht of Copper. — Find the number of cubic inches :
the piece, multiply by 0.3214, and the product will be the weight in ponncs
Or, multiply the length and breadth (in feet) and that by the pounds per
square foot.
These weights are theoretically correct, but variations must be expected
in practice.
Table 59. — Sheet Zinc
Zinc
Stubbs
Weight per .
Dec. thickness
gage
gage
sq. ft., OB.
in inches
4
33
4.8
.006
5
31
5.92
.010
6
30
7.2
.012
7
28
8.32
.014
8
27
9.6
.016
9
26
10.72
.018
10
25
12.
.020
11
23
14.4
.024
12
22
16.8
.028
13
21
19.2
.032
M
20
21.6
.036
15
19 Lt.
24.
.040
16
19
26.88
.045
17
18
29.92
.050
18
17
32.%
.055
19
16
36.
.060
20
15
41.92
.070
21
14
48.
.080
22
13
53.92
.090
23
12
60.
.100
24
II
75.20
.125
SHEET-METAL WORK
435
Table 60. — Sheet Metal and Wike Gages
(In inches)
■
^
a
0
A
1
11
OQ a
o
1
Sad
"6^
IP
^1
•as
ooooooo
• • • •
.490
.500
.500
000000
.5866'"
• • • •
.460
.464
.46875
00000
.5165
• • • •
.430
.432
« • • • •
.4375
0000
.4600
.454
.3938
.400
.454
.40625
000
.40%
.425
.3625
.372
.425
.375
00
.3648
.380
.3310
.348
.38
.34375
0
.3249
.340
.3065
.324
.34
.3125
1
.2893
.300
.2830
.300
.3
.28125
2
.2576
.284
.2625
.276
.284
.265625
3
.2294
.259
.2437
.252
.259
.25 ,
4
.2043
.238
.2253
.232
.238
.234375
5
.1819
.220
.2070
.212
.22
.21875
6
.1620
.203
.1920
.192
.203
.203125
7
.1443
.180
.1770
.176
.18
.1875
8
.1285
.165
.1620
.160.
.165
.171875
9
.1144
.148
.1483
.144
.148
.15625
10
.1019
.134
.1350
.128
.134
.140625
11
.09074
.120
.1205
.116
.12
.125
12
.08081
.109
.1055
.104
.109
.109375
13
.071%
.095
.0915
.092
.095
.09375
14
.06406
.083
.0800
.080
.083
.078125
15
.05707
.072
.0720
.072
.072
.0703125
16
.05062
.065
.0625
.064
.065
.0625
17
.04526
.058
.0540
.056
.058
.05625
18
.04030
.049
.0475
.043
.049
.05
19
.03589
.042
.0410
.040
.040
.04375
20
.031%
.035
.0348
.036
.035
.0375
21
.02846
.032
.03175
.032
.0315
.034375
22
.02535
.028
.0286
.028
.0295
.03125
23
.02257
.025
.0258
.024
.027
.028125
24
.02010
.022
.0230
.022
.025
.025
25
.01790
.020
.0204
.020
.023
.021875
26
.01594
.018
.0181
.018
.0205
.01875
27
.01420
.016
.0173
.0164
.0187
.0171875
28
.01264
.014
.0162
.0148
.0165
.015625
29
.01126
.013
.0150
.0136
.0155
.0140625
30
.01003
.012
.0140
.0124
.01372
.0125
31
.008928
.010
.0132
.0116
.0122
.0109375
32
.007950
.009
.0128
.0108
.0112
.01015625
33
.007060
.008
.0118
.0100
.0102
.009375
34
.006305
.007
.0104
.0092
.0095
.00859375
35
.005615
.005
.0095
.0084
.009
.0078125
36
.005000
.004
.0090
.0076
.0075
.00703125
37
.004453
• • • •
.0085
.0068
.0065
.006640625
38
.003%5
• • • •
.008
.0060
.0057
.00625
39
.003531
• • • •
.0075
.0052
.005
.005859375
40
.003145
• • • •
.007
.0048
.0045
.00546875 .
41
.002800
• • • •
.0044
.0052734375
42
.002494
• • • •
.004
.005078125
43
.002221
• • • •
.0036
.0048828125
44
.001978
• • • •
.0032
.0046875
45
.001761
• • • •
.0028
46
.001568
• • • •
.0024
47
.001397
• • • •
.002
48
.001244
• • • •
.0016
49
.001018
• • • •
.0012
50
.0009863
• • • •
.001
436
Table 61.
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
-Weight op Aluminum Sheets, Square
Round Bars (Kent)
AXB
Thickness or
diameter,
inches
Sheets per
square foot,
pounds
•
Round bars
per foot,
pounds
Square bars
per foot,
pounds
1
He
0.876
0.004
0.005
H
1.751
0.014
0.018
H
3.503
0.057
0.073
H
5.254
0.129
0.164
^i
. 7.006
0.229
0.292
H
8.757
0.358
0.456
H
10.508
0.516
0.657
54
12.260
0.702
0.894
1
14.011
0.917
1.168
\y*
17.514
1.433
1.824
\H
21.017
2.063
2.627
2
28.022
3.668
4.671
(Specific gravity 2.68: 1 cu. in. = 0.0973 lb.)
438
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
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Table 64. — Weights and Gages op Tin Plates
As a general rule, tin plates are packed in boxes, the unit
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Appboximatb Weight peb
GAGE No. BASE BOX, LB.
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36 65
35 70
34 75
33 80
32 85
31 90
31 95
30>^ 100
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29 118
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03
SECTION 12
HEATING
GENERAL METHODS IN ITSE
Firepot. — One of the earliest forms of heating apparatus
consisted of a firepot located in the center of the room. It was
used both for heating and cooking. The chief objection to
this method was the fact that the products of combustion of the
fuel remained in the room. While practically obsolete, the
system is still in use in some countries.
Stoves. — Because they eliminate the products of combustion,
stoves are an improvement over the firepot. The stove is
connected with a suitable chimney through which the products
of combustion are disposed of into the atmosphere. The stove
may be used for cooking as well as for heating.
Oil and Gas Stoves and Radiators. — Where coal is unavail-
able or inconvenient to get for any reason, oil and gas are used
when obtainable. They may either discharge their products
of combustion into the room or into the atmosphere; in the
latter case by means of a chimney.
Hot-air Furnaces. — The hot-air furnace is quite a common
type of heating device in small houses. The stove, heated by
some kind of fuel, is located in the basement and inclosed in a
suitable sheet-steel casing. Pipes from this inclosure are led
to registers in the various rooms. The air passes over the stove
and, due to its lesser density when heated, is forced into the rooms
by the atmospheric pressure. The fresh air is usually taken
from outdoors. Another form, usually known as the "Pipe-
less Furnace," discharges the air into some "central part of the
house from which it has access to all rooms. The cool air is
taken from the house instead of from outdoors as in the usual
hot-air-fumace system.
Electric Heating. — Electricity is too expensive for general
heating, and is therefore used only in certain special cases where
its cost may be justified.
Steam. — A very common form of heating system is the one
which uses steam as a heating agent. It will be described in
some detail subsequently.
Hot Water. — Water is also a popular agent for heating of
464
HEATING 465
homes as well as groups of buildings. Further reference to this
type wiU be made in what follows. (See page 1.)
Combined Heating and Ventilating Systems. — Where large
numbers of persons congregate in buildings, systems using
heated air, humidified to the proper degree, are common.
Such systems involve considerable expense and are used only
in cases where the advantages justify this expense. For the
details of such systems the reader is referred to the usual text-
books on this subject.
In what follows, the systems and devices described, are
suitable for homes and small buildings. The larger buildings
require, in general, more extended apparatus for the control
of heat. For such treatment, the regular textbooks should be
consulted.
USUAL TEMPERATURES
The temperature to which buildings should be heated depends
upon the uses to which they are put. The following tables^
give those for spaces to be heated and those unheated in
degrees Fahrenheit. For heated spaces these are:
Table 66. — Inside Temperatures
Residences 70
Lecture rooms and auditoriums 65
Factories for light work 65
Factories for heavy work 60
Offices and schools 68 to 70
Stores 65
Prisons 66
Bathrooms 72
Gymnasiums 55 to 60
Hot houses 78
Steam baths 110
Warm air baths 120
For unheated spaces the temperature is a matter of con-
jecture, but for purposes of computation, the following may be
assumed:
Table 67. — Unheated Spaces in Heated Buildings in
Zero Weather
Cellars and closed -ofiF rooms 32
Vestibules frequently opened to the outside 32
Attics under a roof with sheathing paper and metal or slate
covering 25
Attics under a roof with proper sheathing and tile covering. 32
Attics under a roof with composition covering 40
» Allen & Walker: "Heating and Ventilation." McGraw-Hill.
30
466
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
For other temperatures of unheated spaces a rough rule is
to assume that the temperature is midway between inside
and outside temperatures.
Table 68. — Outside Temperatubbs
state
City
Lowest
Average
Ala
MobUe
Montgomery
Flagstaff
Phoenix
Fort Smith
Little Rock
San Diego
Independence
Denver
Grand Junction
Southington
Washington
Jupiter
Jacksonville
Savannah
Atlanta
Boise
Lewiston
Chicago
Springfield
Indianapolis
Evansville
Sioux City
Keokuk
Dodge City
Wichita
Louisville
New Orleans
Shreveport
Eastport
Portland
Baltimore
Boston
Alpena
Detroit
Duluth
Minneapolis
Meriden
Vicksburg
Hannibal
Springfield
Havre
Helena
- 1
5
-21
22
-15
-12
32
10
-29
-16
-19
-15
24
10
8
- 8
-28
-18
-23
-22
-25
-15
-31
-26
-26
-22
-20
7
- 5
-21
-17
- 7
-13
-27
-24
-41
-33
- 6
- I
-20
-29
-55
-42
57.7
Aril
56.1
34.8
Ark
56.9
49.5
Cal
52.0
57.2
Colo
48.7
38.4
Conn
39.2
36.3
D. C
42.9
Fla
69.8
Ga
60.9
57.2
Idaho
51.4
39.6
Ill
42.5
35.9
Ind
39.0
40.4
Iowa
44.1
32.1
Kan
37.6
Ky
42.9
45.0
La
60.5
Maine
55.7
31.1
Md
33.5
43.3
Mass
37.2
Mich
29.1
Minn
35.3
25.5
Miss
28.4
53.9
Mo
56.0
39.7
Mont
43.0
27.7
30.9
HEATING
467
Outside Temperatures. — ^The lowest recorded temperatures
for different localities in the United States are given in Table
Tablb OS. — (Continued)
State
City
Lowest .
Average
Neb
North Platte
Lincoln
Carson City
Winnemuoca
Concord
Atlantic City
Saranac Lake
New York City
Roswell
Santa Fe
Hatteras
Charlotte
Devil's TAke
Bismark
Toledo
Columbus
Oklahoma
Baker City
Portland
Pittsburgh
Philadelphia
Providence
Rook Island
Charleston
Columbia
Huron
Yankton
Knozville
Memphis
Corpus Christi
Fort Worth
Salt Lake City
Northfield
Cape Henry
Lynchburg
Seattle
Spokane
Parkersburg
Elkins
La Crosse
Milwaukee
Cheyenne
Lander
-35
-29
-22
-28
-35
- 7
-38
- 6
-14
-13
8
- 5
-51
-44
-16
-20
-17
-20
- 2
-20
- 6
- 9
- 4
7
2
-43
-32
-16
- 9
II
- 8
20
32
5
- 5
3
-30
-27
-21
-43
-25
-38
-36
34.6
Nev
35.8
N. H
37.9
33.1
N. J
41.6
N. Y
34.1
N. M
40.1
48.9
N. C..»
38.0
53.3
N. D
49.8
18.9
23.5
36.8
Okla
39.8
47.1
Ore
34.1
Pa
45.4
40.8
R. I
41.8
37.5
s. C
39.7
56.9
S. D
53.5
25.9
Tenn
31.2
47.0
Tex
50.7
62.7
Utah
Vt
49.5
39.7
27.8
Va
48.6
Wash
45.2
44.3
W. Ya
Wis
37.0
41.9
38.8
31.2
Wyo.
32.4
33.7
29.0
468 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
68.^ The average temperature given in the table is taken from
October 1 to May 1. All are stated in Fahrenheit degrees
and are compiled from U. S. Weather Bureau records.
Temperature Range Assumed in Design. — It is frequently
the practice to install heating systems to maintain the required
inside temperature for all outside temperatures up to within
10° of the lowest recorded temperature of the given locality.
This is done for reasons of economy. The extreme tempera-
tures do not last for many days at a time and usually only for a
part of the time in a given day. Hence, the heat stored in the
building and its contents prevents the sudden variations of
inside with outside temperatures. For example, in Milwaukee
the lowest recorded temperature is given as —25**. If the
room temperature is to be 70°, the lowest design temperature
is to be taken as — 15° according to this rule so that the tem-
perature difference between inside and outside will be 70-
(-15) or 85°.
Where economy of fuel is a factor, it may be possible to
shut off part of the radiation in such rooms as may be dispensed
with for the time being and heat only the remaining rooms.
HEAT LOSSES FROM BUILDINGS
The values given in Table 69 have been obtained from
various sources and cover the usual constructions. For
special cases, the reader is referred to the standard textbooks
on the subject. In all cases, the values are given in B.t.u. per
square foot of surface per degree difference in temperature per
hour. They must be considered average values in moderate
winds. Where conditions are liable to be extreme, proper
allowance must be made.
Table 69. — Heat Losses through Various Building
Materials
B.T.U.
Single windows or skylights 1. 00
Double windows or skylights 0. 67
Tar or gravel roof 0. 29
Mill construction tongue and groove 0. 21
Concrete with cinder fill 0. 43
Slate sheathed 0. 37
Tin sheathed 0. 31
Shingle sheathed 0. 20
1 Harding & Willard: "Heating and Ventilation."
HEATING
469
Table 70. — Heat Losses through Brick Wat.t.8
Thickness of
Plain
Plastered
Furred and
wall, inches
plastered, B.t.u.
BH
.59
.50
.41
13
.39
.34
.30
I7H
.29
.26
.23
22
.23
.21
.20
26y2
.19..
.17
.16
Table 71. — Heat Losses
THROUGH Concrete
Walls
Thickness of
Heat loss,
wall, inches
B.t.u.
4
1.07
6
.72
8
.53
12
.36
16
.26
For frame buildings, lathed and plastered on the inside, with
outside finish as given in Table 72, the heat losses are:
Table 72. — Heat Losses through Frame Walls
B.T.U.
Ordinary clapboards 47
Ordinary clapboards paper lined 34
Ordinary clapboards sheathed 30
Ordinary clapboards sheathed and paper lined 26
Ordinary clapboards sheathed and back plastered 21
For partitions, floors, or ceilings, separating heated from
unheated spaces, the heat losses are as follows:
Table 73. — Heat Losses through Partitions, Floors and
Ceilings
B.T.U.
Partitions, lath and plaster, one side 60
Partitions, lath and plaster, two sides 30
Floors, single wood flooring 30
Floors, single wood flooring with plaster below 20
Ceilings, lath and plaster 60
Ceilings, lath and plaster floor above 45
470 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Heat Required for VentiUttioii. — Where special provision is
made to ventilate as well as heat a room, it is necessary to find
out what heat must be added to the incoming air in order to
maintain the desired room temperature. In residences and
small buildings, it is not customary to install ventilating equip-
ment. When such provision is to be made, the reader is
referred to the standard works on the subject.
Without any special provision, a certain amount of air will
always leak into or out of a room, causing air changes. These ■.
must be provided for in estimating the heat requirements.
While the magnitude of these changes depends upon the build-
ing construction, a fair assumption for good construction is
given in Table 74.
Table 74. — ^Air Changbs to bb Pbovidbd fob
Pkb Hovb
CRAJttQMB
Factories, large lofts H to 1\^
Living rooms with doors usually open 1)4
Living rooms 1
Living rooms, open fire places 2
Bed rooms 1
Entrance halls 3
Offices 1
The heat required to raise 1 cu. ft. of air 1** is about 0.0178
B.t.u. The exact method of computing this will not be given
here.
Additional Heat Losses for Special Conditions. — ^For rooms
having north and west exposures, add 10 per cent to the total
heat loss as computed from the foregoing when heated con-
tinuously. For rooms heated in the daytime only, an allow-
ance of 15 per cent should be made above the usual loss. For
buildings heated at long intervals, as churches, allow 25 per
cent in addition. For ceilings over 12 ft. in height, add 2
per cent for each additional foot in height.
Heat Gained by Occupancy. — ^The heat given ofiF by persons
or processes like cooking, etc., must be considered if a reason-
ably correct estimate of the heat requirements is desired. For
instance, in crowded auditoriums this heat may be so great
as to obviate the need of any additional heat from the radi-
ators. The ventilation, however, becomes correspondingly
more important.
HEATING 471
Table 75^ given below shows what allowances are commonly
made.
Table 75. — Heat Given off by Occupants of Room
B.T.U. PKB HOUB
Adults at rest 380
Adults at work 450
Adults at violent exercise 600
Children 240
Infants 63
Heat Losses from Buildings. — When the interior of a building
is heated to a temperature above the temperature outside, a
flow of heat from the building results, tending to lower the
temperature of the interior. If heat is being supplied to
the building, an equilibrium of temperature is reached when the
rate of supply of heat to the building is equal to the rate of
dissipation. If heat is supplied at a greater rate, the tempera-
ture will rise to such a point that a new and higher rate of
dissipation will just balance the new condition, and conversely,
a lower rate of heat supply will result in the maintenance of a
lower interior temperature.
FACTORS AFFECTING HEATING REQXnREMENTS
Loss Due to Radiation. — This is an important loss in heating
buildings, particularly at high temperatures, and is usually
considered directly proportional to the difference between
inside and outside temperatures. It is affected by the nature
of construction and the color of outside walls.
Loss Due to Conduction. — This loss is due to the passage
of heat from particle to particle in the materials of construction.
It is, therefore, influenced by the nature of the building mate-
rials and the form of construction.
Loss Due to Convection. — This is due to the movement of
air currents both in the interior and on the exterior walls.
It is very largely affected by winds, but even if these are not
present, there always exists a convection current due to the
difference in density of air in contact with the building. Thus,
as this air is heated, it expands, and its density is decreased.
The cooler outside air will cause an upward current displacing
the heated air which rises on the surface of the building walls,
and so maintains a continuous circulation.
1 Allen & Walker.
472
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Loss Due to Infiltration. — Particularly in high winds, air is
forced into the buildings or removed from them because of the
difference in pressure between the inside and outside air.
This will cause a change m the air, which represents a loss.
Leaky or open windows should, therefore, be provided for in
apportioning radiation or in the heat supply.
Gain of Heat Due to Sunshine. — Sunshine contributes heat
to a building, particularly if there is considerable glass area.
While the heat thus obtained need not be supplied by the
heating plant, nevertheless sufficient radiation must be provided
for cloudy days when such gain of heat cannot be relied upon.
Gain of Heat from Other Sources. — Heat is added to build-
ings by occupancy, cooking and hghting apparatus, and perhaps
other sources. This heat is usually ignored in laying out
heating systems, since it is of such a variable character^ For
m o ^ f ^ large meeting rooms, occupancy
^.-—^W/T^oyj has an important bearing on
Wf^Z^^Sm^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^ supplied,
I ; I n All I and should therefore be consid-
West I ^' ^i|p!)"»i ^'yrmaSO"^ ®'®^' ' ^^^ example, suppose
^ \ Temp.70^ \ \ ^^ assembly hall is to be used
i/*(C«7//w j \ beginning at a certain time.
j^^!w^^Wt^^[70^ '^® occupants arrive, perhaps,
M chilled, and would therefore
Fig. 282. desire the hall to be warm. Af-
ter a certain period, the temperature of the room will rise
because of the heat given off by the occupants. The surplus
heat might then be lost by provision for ventilation, or the
heat supply to the radiator might be suspended.
Calculation of Heat Losses from a Room. — Assume a room of
the size given in the plan with windows as shown in Fig. 282.
Let the outside temperature be zero and surrounding tempera-
tures be as indicated.
Assume ceiling height to be 14 ft., windows 3 by 5 ft., doors
3 by 7 ft. Let walls be of brick 17H in- thick and plastered
on the inside. Assume that the space underneath is heated to
70® and that the attic above has a ceiling which is constructed
of lath and plaster. The attic temperature is assumed to be
25°.
The gross outside wall area is, therefore (12 +14) X14 ■> 364 sq. ft.
The window area = 4 X 3 X 6 = 60 sq. ft.
Net wall area » 364 - 60 "304 sq. ft.
HEATING
473
Ceiling area - 12 X 14 « 168 sq. ft.
Door area =3X7 » 21 sq. ft.
Partition area less door area — 14 X 14 — 3 X 7
Cubic contents » 12 X 14 X 14 » 2,352 ou. ft.
175 sq. ft.
From the foregoing assume the following factor for heat
losses:
Through brick walls 26
Through glass 1 . 00
Through ceiling 60
Through door 1 . 00
Through partition 30
One air change per hour.
Ten per cent extra for north and west exposure.
Heat loss through walls
Heat loss through glass
Heat loss through ceiling
Heat loss through door
Heat loss through partition
Heat loss through air changes
Heat loss due to extra height
304 X (70 - 0) X .26
60 X (70 - 0) X 1.0
168 X (70 - 26) X .6
21 X (70 - 60) X 1.0
175 X (70 - 60) X .6
2.352 X (70 - 0) X .0178
(14 - 12) X 2 % X 5,533
Heat loss due to north and west exposure @ 10 % of above
B.T.U.
> 6,533
' 4,200
» 7,560
' 420
: 2,100
■■ 2.931
' 221
■■ 2,297
25,262
Heat Emitted by Radiators. — ^The heat given to the room
depends upon the difference in temperature between radiator
and room. For the conditions of steam at 210° (which is practi-
cally steam at atmospheric pressure) and room temperature at
70°, the temperature difference is 140°. The radiators under
these conditions emit heat at rates given in the following
table:
Table 76.
-B.T.U. Emitted by Cast-ibon Dibect Radiatobs
(Unpainted)
45 in.
38 in.
32 in.
26 in.
22 in.
1 column
1.87
1.93
1.96
1.99
2.03
2 column
1.72
1.79
1.84
1.88
1.93
3 column
1.58
1.65
1.72
1.77
1.82
4 column
1.50
1.56
1.60
1.66
1.72
474 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
The heat transmission of the cast-iron wall radiation is:
Table 77. — B.t.u. Emitted by Cast-iron Direct Wall
Radiators (Unpainted)
Cast-iron wall radiators placed on side 2.07
Cast-iron wall radiators placed on end 2 . 00
For other temperature ranges, the B.t.u. transmitted per
degree per square foot per hour varies as follows: For every
degree above the 140° range of temperature between radiator
and room, add 0.2 per cent, and for every degree below, sub-
tract 0.2 per cent. Thus consider the four-column floor
radiator. According to the table, it transmits 1.50 B.t.u.
per degree per square foot per hour when the radiator is at
210° and the room temperature is 70° (i.e., 140° range of tem-
perature). Suppose now that the room temperature is 50°
instead of 70°, the radiator temperature remaining the same.
The range now is 160° or 20° more than before. The new heat
transmission is therefore 20 X 0.2 = 4 per cent more or 1.50 X
1.04 = 1.56 B.t.u. per square foot per degree per hour.
Table 78. — Effect of Painting on Radiators*
Kind of paint
Relative transmission
Bare iron surface
1.000
CoDoer bronse
.760
Aluminum hron?p. ..,..,-,
.752
Snow white enamel
1.010
No luster ttreen enamel
.956
Terra-cotta
1.038
White lead r>aint. .
.987
White sine naint
1.010
Maroon glass Japan
.997
When, for reasons of appearance, radiators are to be rendered
less conspicuous, the effect on the heating surface is as given
in Table 79.* The calculated direct radiation is to be increased,
or decreased by the amounts given.
1 Allen & Walker. "Heating and Ventilation."
' For further details as to dimensions see Harding & Williard.
HEATING 475
Table 14. — Effect of Radiator Enclosures
(a) DecreAAe radiAtion froi
W Increue
radiation
torn
Sto
12 per
lent
upor
heii
t ndi
tor.
The
tvaer
vd
e for
the
high
radUtor.
hatbt of ihelf varie* froi
(d) Inc
reue t>d>>tion
from
20 to
2i per cent.
The
hither
value to be
used
with the hl«h rHdiatoi
(() Increase radiation
from
2S to
35 per cent.
The
hicher
viJuea lor the high
476 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Location of Radiators. — In the ideal case, radiators should
be located at all points where heat loss occurs and be of a size
in direct proportion to such loss. In the room shown in Fig. 282,
the radiation would form a net work over the entire wall and
window area. Since this is unsightly and defeats the object
sought in tr3dng to beautify homes, a compromise must be
sought. It is customary, therefore, to concentrate the radia-
tion at points which wiU give the required heat and still mini-
mize the apparent objections due to the size of the radiators.
In Fig. 282, two solutions offer themselves for direct radiation:
(1) to use four radiators, one under each window or (2) to use
two radiators, one at each outside wall between the windows.
Assume that the latter is the case and it is desired tp find the
required size of radiators.
Taking the data of the previous problem, the heat loss equals
25,262 B.t.u. per hour and room temperature is 70° for zero
weather with 38 in. floor radiators of the two-column type.
This corresponds to an emission 140° range in temperature, of
140 X 1.79 = 250 B.t.u. per square foot per hour. For this
rate of emission there would be required '^^ =110 sq. ft. of
direct radiation if no allowance is made for cooling the water
of condensation or the heat given the room by the piping of the
heating system.
It is customary practice to add 10 per cent more radiation
in installations having a heating plant and 20 per cent more in
houses heated by steam from outside supply. The eflfect of
piping in a building adds about 20 per cent or more to the radia-
tion as computed from the radiating surface installed.
Assume, then, that the boiler is in the building and a 10
per cent excess radiation is installed, neglecting for this room
the effect of connected piping. This calls for radiation of 121
sq. ft. From a radiator manufacturer's catalog it is found
that a 38-in. section has 4 sq. ft. of heating surface per section,
121
and therefore the number of sections will be —r-, or about 30
sections in all. This should now be apportioned about in
accordance with the heat loss. A satisfactory arrangement
would be 18 sections along the 14-ft. wall and 12 sections along
the 12-ft. wall.
If the space occupied by these radiators is considered too
great, either higher radiators should be chosen or radiators of
HEATING 477
the three- or even four-column type. The calculation for these
is substantially the same as the example, but for the necessary
change in the quantities.
There is one advantage in favor of locating radiators under
windows. It will be found that in cold weather there is a
decided down-draft along the windows when radiators are
located elsewhere. A radiator here counteracts this down-
draft with its attendant objections. However, if curtains
are hung, a radiator here has a tendency to carry the dust of the
convection currents and deposit it on them. In some cases
metal shields are used to prevent the current of heated air from
striking the walls or curtains and thus depositing the dust which
is contained in the current. The use of shields decreases the
effectiveness of the radiator by a somewhat less extent than that
shown in Table 79 for a flat shelf above the radiator.
STEAM HEATING
Principle of Operation. — When water is heated in a steam
boiler by means of the combustion of some form of fuel, the
water is evaporated in the form of steam. By adjustment of
the rate of heat generation, any pressure may be maintained in
a closed vessel provided that such vessel is able to withstand
the pressure. For ordinary small buildings, the pressures are
very low; sometimes only a few ounces per square inch under
maximum load.
The pressure of the steam generated overcomes the friction
in the piping and in the radiators, is condensed in them, and
tends to form a vacuum. In every system a certain pressure
difference is required in order to cause sufficient steam to flow
to accomplish the desired heating. The water of condensation
is returned to the boiler by gravity or by means of a pump. In
small installations, the gravity return is almost universal.
This latter system alone will be considered here.
The customary installation consists of a boiler, radiators,
damper regulator, gage glass, steam gage, air valve, water
feeder, and the necessary pipe, fittings, and valves for their
proper connection and control.
Boiler. — For small installations, the boilers are usually
made of cast iron, in sections so that the size of the boiler is
variable, and several sizes may be made from the same pattern.
The firepot for coal is made of a capacity from about 8-hr.
478 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
supply and upward depending upon the frequency of firing.
The boiler is connected in the usual way to a chimney, and
has an air-inlet damper, a check-draft damper, and sometimes a
flue damper.
A gage glass is provided to show the water level in the boiler.
Sometimes a water feeder is included to maintain the water
level automatically. A pressure gage as well as a safety valve
should be provided on all boilers.
Magazine-feed boilers are also obtainable. A filling of the
magazine gives several days supply of coal, which is fed auto-
matically as it is consumed.
Wfien selecting boilers from manufacturers* rating, the boiler
should be selected from 60 to 100 per cent larger than catcUoged.
The damper regulators used on boilers are of a variety of
kinds. Two forms will be described later.
Radiators. — Radiators are usually made of iron and cast in
sections to make up the required heating surface. For one-
pipe work, the radiator sections are sometimes connected only
at the bottom. For two-pipe work, where the inlet valve
supphes steam at the top, the radiator sections are connected
at both top and bottom. Such radiators are always used for
hot-water installations, but are considered desirable by some
for steam-heating systems.
The forms usually used in residence work for direct steam
heating are the floor type and the vxdl type. In the floor type
the weight of the radiator is supported on legs cast int^ral
with the radiator. In the wall type the radiator is supported
by means of special hooks made fast to the walls of the building.
The latter have the advantage of leaving the floor more easily
accessible for cleaning, and especially for the smaller sizes,
appear neater.
In direct-indirect radiators the air which passes over the
radiator is taken from outdoors, and special radiators of a flue
type must be provided. Indirect radiators are concealed
frequently in between the floors and differ from those described.
With these the air is taken from outdoors, and after passing
over the radiators, the heated air enters the rooms through
registers much the same as those used for furnace heating.
Air Valves. — Water nearly alwa3rs contains air which is
carried to the radiators by means of the steam. Air removal
from the radiators must be provided in order to obtain the
highest efficiency of the radiating surface and thus insure con-
HEATING 479
tact of the steam with the radiating surface. This is best
accomplished by means of automatic air valves, which should
be placed on every radiator in systems in which the air is not
returned and at such places in the piping where air is likely to
collect, but always above the water line in the boiler.
Since air is heavier than water vapor, it settles to the bottom
of the radiator. The danger of flooding the air valve with water
argues against its location at the bottom of the radiator, but
it should be placed as near this as possible. It is common
practice to locate the valve on the side opposite the steam
connection about two-thirds down from the top of the radiator.
The manufacturers usually provide a suitable tapping at this
point for the purpose. In school rooms an additional means is
provided to keep the air valve in a vertical position by means
of a strap. This must be specifically called for when ordering
radiators, as in common residence work, there seems to be no
need for this extra precaution.
TYPES OF STEAM-HEATING SYSTEMS
There are several types of steam-heating systems suitable for
various conditions. For the small buildings here considered the
gravity drculcUing systems to be described are almost standard
practice.
One-pipe Steam Distribution. — ^For small building or resi-
dence work, the one-pipe system recommends itself on account
of the simphcity of installation and low initial cost. In Figs . 283
and 284. are shown diagrammatically the dry-return and wet-
return respectively. In the dry-return, the steam main rises as
close as possible to the ceiling and pitches downward until the
last radiator is served. The dry-return then pitches back to
the boiler above the water line and crosses it at right angles
near the boiler. This is done to prevent surging of the water
in the dry-return, thus eliminating water hammer. The
height of the lowest point of the dry-return main before it
drops below the water line must be such that the pressure due
to the static height of the water column is greater than the
total pressure drop in the S3n3tem. For the pipe sizes here
used, a pressure drop of 1 oz. per 100 ft. of pipe is used. Thus,
if the total length to the farthest radiator is 200 ft., the pressure
drop will be 2 oz. plus about ^ oz. for friction of fittings and
return of water, A column of water at steam temperature
480
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
weighs about 0.416 lb. per foot of height, or about 6% oz.
Hence for a 23^ oz. total drop, the minimum height is
2.5
6.67
12 = 4.5 in. As the height of the water L'ne in the boiler is
likely to vary, this should be increased to from 12 to 18 in. if
' — «r
I'A'
30
[=1
•VV
. 60 i
i5^
U80
Itf
40 J
fll — ll
40 I
iV
\Yl
|J60
iZZl
t-^tj 3ni.Floor
T^
li;
50
fgncLFIoor
i7^
Refum ^
I
^HEATER
Fig. 283.
Isfr. Floor
Bcisemenf
40
60
W
30 I,
IV*"
80
! — If
1'^'
40 1,
nil
w.«
I'/i'
Itf
i^-juT .50
itf
Itf
iA«
r/a'
itf
60
IZZl
75
I — iff3ttl.Fteor
W
itf
50
end-FboT
l'/4'
I St. Floor
> — -JArH EATER Boscment
Fig. 284.
possible. Any extra height will in no way effect the operation,
but it is usually the case that large amounts of headroom are
seldom met with, and the lay out, therefore, is largely affected
by the headroom available. The remaining details are easily
seen in the diagrams.
HEATING 481
Pipe Sizes for One-pipe Steam Systems. — In the one-pipe
systems the water of condensation must flow in a contrary
direction to that of the steam supply. In order to avoid ob-
jectionable accumulations of water under these conditions,
the mains, risers, and radiator connections should be large
enough to keep the heating system in operative condition at
the heaviest loads; i.e., when the outside temperature is lowest
or when starting up a cold system.
These precautions have been kept in mind, and Donnelly^ has
computed the necessary pipe sizes to meet the conditions with
a pressure drop due to friction of 1 oz. per 100 ft. of pipe when
carrying amounts of radiation given in Table 80. The appli-
cation will now be shown.
Assmne the layout shown in Fig. 283. The pipe sizes to be
used are taken from Table 80, which sizes are appended to the
drawing. It should be noticed that radiator connections are .
sometimes sized larger than the riser which feeds them. This
is due to the fact that the drainage is better in vertical pipes
than in the radiator connections. The difference in size is
more noticable on the top floor radiators. For the risers,
consult Table 80, column marked up-feed risers. Reference
to down-feed risers is made later.
On one-pipe systems in particular, globe valves, when used,
should have their stems horizontal, since when vertical, they
hold up water due to the peculiar construction of the valve.
This is not true for gate valves. As a general rule, the stems
should not point vertically downward, since when the packing
of the valves is worn or not tight for any reason they will drip
water. The valves indicated in the diagrams are angle valves,
and for one-pipe systems are the more common type.
Partictdar attention should be directed to the drips on the
middle risers. These are very important to separate the water
from the steam at every opportunity offered in the layout.
At times the one-pipe system is modified by making a down-feed
system in order to affect a more complete separation of the
steam and water. In this system a riser goes to the top of the
building and there feeds the main. From this main, down-feed
risers are used to distribute the steam to the radiators, being
dripped at the bottom to either a dry or a wet return. Systems
of this character are more expensive to install, and are therefore
met with less frequently.
1 Trans., National District Heating Association, 1915.
31
482
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Temperature Control. — ^The common practice to obtain a
comparatively uniform room temperature with simple one-pipe
systems is slightly to overheat the room by regulating the
damper, then permitting the room to cool below normal, and
repeating the process. This gives an average temperature
between extreme variations, the variation being as close to
normal as the care of the operator wishes to give. Thermo-
static control either at the boiler or at each individual radiator
Typical ArrmiifciiBMit of Fmctioaal
Vapor Regulator On Op«-Pipo
Stoam-Hoatiiif Sytteins.
ocTAiL OF OAnnt
Fig. 285.
may also be installed. However, the control of room tem-
perature by automatically controlling each radiator is expensive
and usually not installed in connection with one-pipe systems.
Special One-pipe Systems. — In Fig. 285 is shown a typical
arrangement of a regulator used for automatic control of the
boiler as made by the Donnelly S3rstems Co. The special
features consist of a regulator which may be set to generate a
predetermined amount of steam, and weight controlled vacuum
air valves to permit the radiator to operate at pressures below
atmosphere.
HEATING 483
The regulator provides for the control of the draft in the
following manner: The water of condensation flows through the
piping A and drops into the cup B in the body of the regulator.
This cup is provided, near the bottom, with an orifice C through
which the water passes into the body of the regulator D from
which it is permitted to flow back to the boiler by means of the
pipe E, The cup is supported on an arm which is pivoted at
the point F, the spindle of which passes through the stuffing
box to the outside of the tank where it is provided with the
lever G which is attached to the dampers by means of chains
as shown. In operation, the water drops into the cup and
builds up a certain head. This head varies in proportion to
the amount of water entering from the pipe A and that leaving
through the orifice C, and becomes steady when the outflow is
at the same rate as the inflow. Suppose that a certain outside
temperature exists — say 25**, the weight K is set on the 25°
notch on the lever G. This will just balance a given head of
water in the cup B correspondmg to a genera-
tion of an amount of a steam proportional to
the heat loss from the building. Should the
water return faster than desired, the head will
rise in the cup, overbalance the weight K, and
shut off the draft /, thus causing less air to
pass through the fire and so cut down the rate
of combustion. If the reverse takes place, the
ashpit damper / is opened, and permits a higher
rate of combustion.
The check draft damper L opens only when
the damper / is completely shut, and functions
only at the very lightest loads corresponding v5l2S25ffvifc''
to high outside temperatures. The vacuum air pj^ 286.
valve is shown in Fig. 286. It consists of an
ordinary air valve with a vacuum cap shown in section. When
air is discharged from the air valve, it raises the weight valve
in the cap, but is not permitted to return into the system be-
cause of the seating of the valve in case the pressure in the radi-
ator is below atmosphere. The valve is weighted differently
for the different radiators to permit the discharge of air ac-
cording to the needs. For example, since the pressure drop to
the farthest radiator is greatest, the weight is therefore least
in the vacuum cap, and the radiators nearest the boiler are
weighted to compensate for the pressure drop.
484 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
The system may operate at pressures above or below atmos-
phere. On the pressure S3^tem the weight on the r^ulator
previously described is set for the rate of burning desired,
pressure is then raised in the boiler and the adjustment of the
air valves permits the uniform heating of all the radiators.
When all the air is expelled the air valve closes automatically
and prevents the escape of steam.
When operating on a vacuum in mild weather the dampers
are set for full opening until all the air is expelled. The weight
is then adjusted for the desired rate of burning and the pressure
is permitted to fall below atmosphere. Under these conditions,
the steam temperature is below 212^ and will heat the entire
radiator to a lower temperature to obtain the proper heat
emission from the radiators. As the air gradually leaks back
into the system interfering with the proper distribution of
steam to each radiator, the pressure is again raised above atmos-
phere and the process is repeated.
As shown in Fig. 285, all the condensation need not be returned
through the regulator. It must, however, be attached to a
typical section which is fairly representative of the entire
system. Drips and water due to boiler priming should not be
made to pass through the regulator. The piping, as shown in
Fig. 285, indicates how this is returned to the boiler.
The two weights J and H are used to balance the cup and
chains and are set permanently. The weight K alone adjusts
for the varying rates of combustion. Other details of installa-
tion are included in Fig. 285.
Two-pipe Gravity System. — Two-pipe gravity systems are
arranged to discharge air either at each radiator or as in the
air-return system at the end of dry-return mains before they
drop to the wet return. The latter method appears the more
popular in so far as it eliminates the air valves from rooms and
the temptation of tampering with them.
There are two general systems used, (a) dry^etum, and (6)
wetrretum. There may also be combinations of dry- and wet-
return when necessary. In general the dry-return is used
when it is desirable to keep the return pipes sufficiently high
to pass under them or over doors or other openings. Where
these conditions do not prevail, the wet-return is used. The
wet-return is in most respects the better of the two.
Figure 287 shows a two-pipe modified dry-return system.
The steam main pitches down from the highest point until the
HEATING
485
last radiator is served. It then returns above the water line in
the boiler until close to the boiler when it drops below the water
line. In all cases this crossing of the water line should be at
right angles to prevent the water from backing up in the dry
return and causing water hammer. The end of the dry retiun
should be sufficiently above the water line so that the hydro-
static head above the water line in the vertical pipe is in excess
of the combined pressure drop in the steam and dry return
mains. This has been considered previously in connection
with a one-pipe system.
•J U
Basfment
Theater
Fig. 287.
For radiator connections, vertical steam risers supply the
radiators as shown, being connected by valves preferably at
the top of the radiator. The return mains enter the dry return
through loop seals, the hydrostatic head below the water line
being greater than the pressure drop in the particular system
of risers. Thus, only water is discharged into the dry return,
from which it returns to the boiler. In two-pipe work, two
valves are alwaj^ used, one for the supply and one for the
return. The supply valve is frequently made of the modulat-
ing Xy^ to permit fractional regulation by hand at each radia-
tor. The return valves are either ordinary angle valves or
special valves of the syphon or impulse type. These are
necessary to prevent heating from the return and water from
backing up into the radiator when the supply valve is shut and
a vacuum is temporarily formed in the radiator. The water
486
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
which so backs up may lower the water line in the boiler to an
extent which will endanger the boiler because of low water.
The sudden return of this water due to admission of air through
the air valve may temporarily flood the boiler and mains, which
is also objectionable.
The steam mains and risers are shown by the full lines, and
the returns are shown by the dotted lines. Air valves are
shown on all the radiators the same as in one-pipe systems.
A wet-return system is shown in Fig. 288. Here each return
riser is sealed separately into a common wet return. The hy-
!">♦.
♦0^;
1^
50
%
I — rr
60» -
il80
en
T?-
Wf
A
f1*0l
I 1
'ti
k-
i"
a
I
I
_1
lis:
i'4
tf
I
! .""
!«'
I
50 111
ik
f
:=f
IS
IZH
%
■ ■ ■■ ■ ■
60
cm
ri
Iff
S
J 40
JZZL
40 »
I I 40 1- 1,-t 50 \*\ ij 50 .1 {f 40 « I
3ninoor
\%
50
CZl
ZndFloor
11^
»'4'
1st. Root
I $1 1 VMerbne in toiler , ,,
lAI—
t « w
j£ Bosemenf
Fig. 288.
drostatic head, represented by the height of a column of water
in the returns above the water line in the boiler, is equal to the
pressure drop in the S3rstem. The lowest point of the steam
main must always be above this Une. The calculation is much
the same as given before in the one-pipe system.
A two-pipe air-return system is shown in Fig. 289. It will
be seen that the radiator returns discharge to an overhead
return, and drop to a wet return at some convenient place,
here shown near the boiler. An air valve is located as shown.
Since air is heavier than steam, it will be discharged with the
condensation from the bottom of the radiator. The air valves
in all cases should be above the water Une a sufficient distance
to prevent flooding with water. If the overhead return is
sufficiently high to prevent flooding, a slight increase above
this height will answer for the location of the air valve.
HEATING
487
In general) the two-pipe air-return system is superior to any
of the systems previously described. However, this improve-
ment is attainable only at an increase in the cost of installation.
Pipe Sizes for Two-pipe Steam Systems. — There is a differ-
ence in the sizes of pipe for the cases where the air is returned,
and when it is not returned, but discharged by means of air
valves on each individual radiator. Table 81 should be used;
the application to Figs. 287 and 288 is marked thereon. The
reader will be able to check up the sizes without further explana-
tion. It might be noted that where returns enter the boiler, the
Snd.Ffoor
2nd. Floor
^— .3ii [j- o fi i/i. J
— . HEATE/?-^ C Basement
Fig. 289.
pipe sizes are sometimes chosen somewhat larger to allow for the
possible clogging due to scale and other impurities. Also
due to the possibihty of bending the small pipes, some fitters
use larger sizes for returns where this possibility exists. For
air-return systems. Table 82 should be used. The pipe sizes
marked on Fig. 289 are taken from this table and might easily
be checked by comparison with the table.
Special Two-pipe Air-return Systems. — In Fig. 290 is shown
the general arrangement of the Donnelly system^ of two-pipe
air-return gravity circulation. The regulator for. the boiler
has previously been described under the one-pipe system. In
two-pipe systems the air valves are omitted on the radiators
but installed on the dry-return main in the basement as shown.
The special feature in this system is the introduction of orifice
1 Adler db Donnelly, Trans. Am. Soc. Heating & Ventilating Eng'rs., 1921.
488 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
control on the inlet valve, which, when onoe set, i
same pressure drop from the boiler into each radiator. Thus,
the sum of the pressure drops due lo pipe friction and to orifice
friction is constant for each radiator and the amount of steam
apportioned to each radiator. When only a fraction of the
amount of steam is to be generated, as in mild weather, the
correct distributioii of steam to each radiator is insured &t all
Fig. 290.
The orifice control on the valve is not shown by a cut, but
consists of an opening in each half of the union which may be
rotated relative to the other to get any openii^; from the mini-
mum to the m
VAPOR HEATinG STSTBH
In this Byetem, the control of the heat in each radiator is
dependent upon two factors: First, the keeping of the steam
or vapor pressure absolutely constant; and second, providing
each radiator with a valve, whose maximum opening will be
just sufficient to supply enough steam to the radiator to which
it IB connected, with steam at the pressure as fixed by the r^a-
later. Tlierefore, with a fixed opening of the radiator vsItc,
and a definite preisure in tlie steam line behind this valve, a
pTedet«rmined quantity of steam will be passed through into
the radiater during each unit of time.
Figure291 shows a typical drawingotthisaystem. Thesteam
is taken from a header at the boiler through the st«ftm mains,
which pitch downward in the direction of the flow of steam;
a return line pitching in the opposite direction carrying back
Fia. 201.
direct to the r^ulator the condensation and air from the radia-
tors. The condensation in the steam main may be returned
to the boiler either through a wet drip, as shown on the l^t
of Fig. 292, or through a drip loop into the dry return, as shown
on the r^ht side of the same figure. In either case the condensa-
tion and air from the radiators pass through a dry-return main
into the regulator; at this point the air passes out throi^h the
air vent as shown, and the water of condensation drops through
the return line from the bottom of the regulator back into the
boiler where it is connected below the water line. When using
the drip loop, it is ordinarily made about 2 ft. long, which is
more than sufficient to hold the head of vapor in the main, as
this seldom is as high as 3 oz. Also, the high point on the
return side of the loop must be a httle lower than the low point
490
PLUMBERS* HANDBOOK
on the supply side, so that the condensation will drain by
gravity into the return main. When the wet drip is used, the
dry-return main bears no relation to the supply main, and may
be run without any regard to it; however, it is advisable to
install a sediment pocket at the end of the steam main, above
the water line, as shown.
Figure 292 shows a crossHsection of the regulator, as it would
appear when in operation. This consists of three chambers:
DryReprn
fivnifiKffino
System
Open Vent,
%rAir .«-
Mjlve
Pressure Pipe
t?. Return to BoUer
Fig. 292.
a pressure chamber, a water chamber, and an atmospheric
chamber, the last containing a cast-iron bucket float suspended
by a Unk to an arm on a spindle which passes out through a
stuffing box to an outside arm bearing a counter weight. The
atmospheric chamber is so named because it is open to the
atmosphere through a vent valve, which is normally open.
The pressure chamber is under the same pressure as the vapor
in the boiler, toeing connected to it by the pressure pipe. Con-
densation returning from the systems falls into the bucket float,
overflowing the sides, and filling the water chamber up to the
overflow point in the pressure chamber. With no pressure
on this system, the water level in the pressure chamber and
atmospheric chamber will be the same, but upon generating
pressure within the boiler, the pressure in the pressure chamber
becomes higher than that in the atmospheric chamber. Under
these conditions, these three chambers behave as a U-tube,
and the pressure tends to depress the water in the pressure
"^.hamber and causes it to rise in the atmosph^ic chamber;
HEATING 491
however, since more coniiensation is constantly falling into
the float and from thence on through the regulator, the level
of the water in the pressure chamber will remain at the overflow
point and the level of the water in the atmospheric chamber
will remain at a point above that in the pressure chamber
corresponding to the pressure head in this system. We have,
therefore, made a U-tube in which the level of water on one
side remains constant, the variation all taking place on the
other side.
The counter weight on the outer arm is set at such a point
that the bucket float will be maintained about half out of the
water. This is done by placing the weight at a point such
that when depressed, it will rise again with about the same
force that it will drop after being lifted. This attachment is
made with the chains connected to the dampers, as this will
be a part of the weight to be handled. The adjustment of the
pressure to be carried is effected by shortening or lengthening
the chains from this arm to the dampers, so that they will close
sooner or later, as the case may require.
At the top of the atmospheric chamber is a ball float, which
is connected to the vent valve. Under normal conditions the
vent remains open so that the air from the system may pass
out. If, however, the pressure within the S3^tem should rise
abnormally high, and the atmospheric chamber consequently
fills up, the ball float will rise and shut the vent valve, thus
protecting the boiler from the loss of water through the vent.
Under such conditions, the system will run temporarily as a
steam job, further protection being afforded by the regular
safety valve. When the pressure again falls to the normal,
the float will drop and the vent valve will open again.
The supply valve at the radiator is provided with quick-
rising stem, which opens completely with a half turn of the
handle. An arm is provided on this handle which engages an
adjustable stop by which the maximum opening of the valve
may be fixed for any given size of radiator.
The return valve is a choke device with a comparatively- small
opening for the passage of water, condensation, and air. The
top is removable for cleaning and also for convenience in setting
the supply valve.
When setting the supply valves on the job, pressure is raised
to a point which is sufficient to heat throughout the largest
radiator, or the one most remote from the boiler, or whichever
radiator is the one most difficult to heat. Then the cap on each
492
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
return valve is removed and the supply valves turned down to
just such a point that a little steam is seen issuing from each
return valve. By this means, we may be sure that each radia-
tor is receiving just the quantity of steam which it requires and
no more. The stops on the various supply valves are then
locked, and the system is ready for use.
Table 80. — Standard Pipe Sizes for One-pipe Steam
Systems — Capacity in Square Feet op Radiation
Steam
Radiator
main and
Up-feed
connec-
Wet-drip
Dry-drip
Size, inches
down-feed
risers
risers
tions and
valves
main
main
1
40
40
24
1.600
75
\H
75
75
60
3,000
150
\H
150
125
100
6.000
300
2
300
280
200
12,000
500
2^
500
460
• • •
20,000
1.500
3
900
670
36.000
2,800
3V^
1,500
900
60.000
6.000
4
2.000
1,200
80.000
13.000
4Vi
2,800
1,500
18,000
5
3.600
1,860
23.000
6
6.000
2.700
37.000
7
9.000
55.000
8
13,000
•
78.000
9
18,000
10
23.000
12
37.000
14
55,000
16
78.000
■
Table 80 (Continued)
Drips to
Steam
riser,
inches
Drips to
Steam riser,
inches
Wet
returns,
inches
Dry
returns,
inches
Wet
returns,
inches
Dry
returns,
inches
1
1W
2
2yi
3
H
H
H
1
1
1
H
H
1
1
m
3W
4
4W
5
6
m
IH
\H
2
2
2^i
HEATING
493
fc O
A S
^ S
S w
a
OS
s
s t
3
<S
is "Z
M
if
08
a
I-
hi OS
^ a
o.
a "" 5 «
ft 0 ^
QQ
N
&
'A
a^sss;
«RS§II
«— r<i >o
«n
«s cA >o
■o o
•-<S>O«\00cQ.|>«A00
C<% lA !>•
•- «\ >o
l^J^^^SS
^^^SSISI
^(Sr<icf%>00«<<\aorQr>iAao
<<\ tn IS,
>^ >«*••>*« >«« «*» >c«
»— — — cs r«i
00 o^ o <s ^ >o
494
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table 81 (Continued)
Drips to
Steam
riser,
inches
Drips to
Steam riser,
inches
Wet
returns,
inches
Dry
returns,
inches
Wet
returns,
inches
Dry
returns,
inches
1
2
3
1
I
1
H
1
1
3^
4
4W
5
6
1W
2
2
2W
HEATING
495
PS
<
QQ
QD
PS
O
PS
P
S5
O
a tf
PS
o
00
H
a
»
Q
PS
555
<
S3
oc
5
•Co
P.S
OS
>
a
CD
Pi
OQ
s
o
•;3
CD
d
o
o
o
^
s
AS
QQ
S-3 g
« o 3
P5 ^ ^
b es
*4
*d^ *d^ «N
v^\ ^^\ i'^ ^^N
S8§i
sss
»- f*% m
^ a
CD
^
eS
II
d CO
« d o
OS T3
00
V
■3 s
V
Q. 2
S
-''♦'^SSPiftSS
§§§§§
-■"••sasss
8?RSg||§
— fscsifr\^oa»fHooj*5^«noo
"~ ^ CN €♦% *n 1^
«)fv flS» ^^ •■^ "^^ •^ •^
(n^or^ao9«or4^>e
496
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
HOT-WATER HEATING
Principle of Operation. — When water is heated, it expands
so that a cubic foot of water, at say 55^, with a weight of 62.4
lbs. becomes 60 lb. per cubic foot at 200**. Thus, there is a
decrease in the density as the temperature increases. Consider
a layout of heater and radiators connected aa shown in Fig. 293.
With a fire in the heater, the water is warmer and, therefore,
fVeni-
Rooft/
o
ozeL
5:
Expansion Tank
^ ^^'6qg^ Glass
e-^
I
SINKOR.
WASTE
s
I
t
's^AffeasfJ'O
m
Union Ellfow fMja1pr\Aalve
Ti. yfitmunton
3rd. Floor
I*'
I
C
i
i
m
i
70
en
m;
7,m
PI
1^ i"
2nd.noor
1st". Roor
HEATER
Basemen-I-
FiQ. 293.
becomes less dense. It will rise in the flow risers, become cooled
in piping and radiators, and the water which leaves the boiler
is replaced by that coming back from the return risers. The dif-
ference in the weight of water in the flow and return risers fur-
nishes the motive force to maintain circulation. The greater
the difference in temperature between the flow and return risers,
the greater the quantity of water circulated.
In general, in any gravity circulating system it is necessary
HEATING 497
first to establish a difference in temperature, which in turn pro-
duces a difference in density, and therefore, a difference in
pressure, which pressure may be used to accelerate the flow of
water, and so produce motion even in opposition to the friction
in the circulating system which is always present. In forced
circulation systems, the motive force due to the difference in
temperature is augmented by a pump of some kind thus
increasing the rate of flow. This permits the use of smaller
piping and therefore permits savings in initial cost. However,
the forced circulation is only profitable in the larger installations
and is seldom used in the kind of building here considered.
Apparatus Used in Gravity Circulating Systems. — For gravity
work, the installation consists of a heater, radiators, expansion
tank, valves, pet-cocks on radiators, and draining points,
damper regulator, altitude gage, and the necessary piping to
connect into a circulating system.
Hot-water Heater. — The heater is similar in many respects
to the steam boiler. In fact, many makers use the same pat-
terns for both with such changes as make them function prop-
erly for steam or water. In the heater, the water is raised in
temperature and leaves as water, whereas in steam heating,
the water is evaporated into steam. Coal is the usual fuel used,
but wood, gas, or oil are sometimes used where conditions are
in their favor.
The usual temperature of the water leaving the boiler rarely
exceeds 190° where the heater is working under its maximmn
duty, i.e. the lowest outside temperature. Some special sys-
tems permit the use of higher temperature, but they will not
be discussed here.
Where coal is used, a suitable chimney is to be provided to
carry away the products of combustion. Other details attached
to the boiler include a damper regulator to vary the draft for
the desired temperature of the water. An altitude gage is
frequently installed at the boiler to indicate the height of water
in the system. The size of the heater is determined by the
heating surface. Manufacturers will supply, under guarantee
of satisfactory performance, the size of boiler for any given
amount of radiation. For methods of checking the manufac-
turers* size of boiler, the reader is referred to the standard text-
books on the subject.
Radiators are usually made of iron, cast in sections, and
built up to give the surface required for the emission of the
32
498 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
necessary amount of heat. The sections are connected top
and bottom by nipples to permit the water to pass with the
least possible resistance. A pet-cock is placed on the last sec-
tion at the highest point to permit discharge of air that occa^
sionally acciunulates in the system.
Valves and Pet-cocks. — The hot-water radiator valves are
much the same as those used for steam systems, but they differ
in that they have a leakage opening to permit a slight circulation
of the water through the radiator when the valve is shut off
completely. This is done to prevent the freezing of the
radiator.
Pet-cocks, as already noted, are applied to the radiators
for the removal of air. They are also used on low points of the
system to drain that water which cannot be drained by the
valve on the boiler when it is necessary to drain the syBtem for
repairs or laying up of the plant for indefinite periods.
Damper Regulator. — To avoid the necessity of close attention
to the boiler in ordinary operation, an automatic damper
control is used to perform this function. It is usually some
form of thermostat which regulates the draft to maintain a
predetermined temperature of hot water.
Altitude Gage. — Usually the gage glass on the expansion tank
is located at a point inconvenient to the attendant at the heater.
A gage similar to a pressure gage with two hands is installed
at the boiler; one, the red hand is set at that pressure which
indicates the correct height of water in the gage glass on the
expansion tank. When the black hand, which is operated by
the pressure in the system, falls below the required pressure,
water is added to the system to make up that which is lost by
leakage or evaporation.
Types of Systems in Use. — There are two general types of
hot-water systems in use; (a) gravity circulaiion, (b) forced
circvJaMon. In the gravity circulation, the difference in the
density of the water in the flow and return mains furnishes the
motive power to establish and maintain circulation. In
forced circulating systems, the movement of the water is due
principally to the use of a pump, usually of the centrifugal type,
which forces the water through the mains. The general field
for the gravity system is that of small installations, while
the field for the forced systems comprises plants involving
groups of buildings. Experience shows that the additional
complication of a pump is unwarranted in the smaller
HEATING 499
installations. In what follows, only gravity circulating systems
are considered.
Gravity systems may be up-feed or down-feed. The up-feed
may have either one-pipe or two-pipe basement mains with
risers leading up to the various radiators. The two-pipe may
have either a direct or a reversed return main. In the direct
main the flow and return mains are parallel, and the flow of
water in both mains is the same. In the reversed return, the
flow main makes a loop around the basement in either direction,
and the return main makes the circuit in the same direction.
In other words the water in both pipes travels in the same direc-
tion. This permits, of better equalization of flow, since the
length of the circuit through each radiator is more nearly
the same as that for any other radiator.
In the down-feed system, the risers may be single or double.
In the single riser system, the flow and return connections are
made into the same pipe i.6., the flow connection is taken near
the top of the radiator and the return is delivered into the same
rise near the bottom. In the double-riser system, a separate
return riser is used, which returns the water to a main in the
basement.
One-pipe Up-feed System. — As shown in Fig. 203, the system
consists of a heater and radiators piped in a way to make it a
one-pipe system. This is shown in the basement with the flow
main indicated in full line while the return is shown dotted.
The risers are shown connecting to the tops of the radiators by
means of union elbows. The return connection is made by
means of a special hot water radiator valve, which when closed,
leaves a sufficiently large leak opening to permit a slight circu-
lation of water to prevent freezing.
The expansion tank is shown near the roof. The pipe sizes
should vary from about ^ for the small house installation to
13^ in. for large installations. The overflow is led to a sink
where convenient to warn the attendant to look after the water
level. This water level may also be observed by a suitable
altitude gage on the boiler.
It should be observed that the actual installation should
include provision for expansion as described elsewhere. More-
over, the flow connections should be taken from the top of the
riser or by means of a 45-deg. upward slope of T on the main
with a 45-deg. L to bring in horizontal, and finally with a 90-
deg. L to turn upward in line with the rise. The return should
500
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
come in at the side of the pipe, or enter below through a 45-deg.
L to a T turned downward at an angle of 45 deg.
Two-pipe Up-feed System. — Figure 294 shows in diagram
the layout of a two-pipe up-feed system with a reversed return.
If the mains loop around the basement, it is an easy matter to
install the reversed return without adding any extra piping.
Attention is called to the method of connecting the expansion
Verrhand
Owrflow^
w
-Expansion Tank
Oage 6 lass
^J^leasi-S'-C"
Roof^
3ni. Roor
t
% i
i
70
I
1 t
f
120
\\ \\
F
2ncl. Floor
i
Up
Ist Floov
HEATER
I
I
^ I
' — ■
►">*■
Basemerri-
FiG. 294.
tank and the upward pitch of the flow main to the first rise to
prevent trapping of air in the basement main.
Double -rise Down-feed System. — The down-feed system is
shown in Fig. 295. Here the expansion tank should be located
to discharge the air of the system. The return risers are shown
dotted with the reversed return main to equalize the resistance,
and therefore, the proper flow to each radiator.
Expansion Tank. — The size of the expansion tank depends
upon the total volume of water contained in the boiler piping
HEATING
501
and radiators. Thus, suppose the water in the system origi-
nally is at 60®, at which temperature water weighs 62.4 lbs. per
cubic foot. When this water is brought to a temperature of
200**, its weight per cubic foot decreases to 60.0 lbs. per cubic
foot. Therefore, the difference of 62.4 — 60.0 = 2.4 lbs. per
2.4
cubic foot for this range of temperature or -;^ = .04 = 4 per
60
Roof
I
SINK
t
£xpcmsion Tank
'^'ogeOJass ^^
Ik* ^
\\
2"
\
60
I — I
V
80
i
cnJi
i
\ \
AHic
B
90
t?
3rdl. Floor
120
I — I
F_
lie
2nd. Roor
1
Ist. Floor
^ PVf
fi^Tf/?
Bascmenf
Fig. 295.
cent. Hence, given the total volume of water in the system as
500 cu. ft., the expansion tank will have a minimiun capacity of
500 X .04 — 20 cu. ft. But since a gage glass is usually
desirable, a tank of double this is required. A rough rule
given by Allen & Walker makes the capacity of the expansion
tank in gallons equal to one-fortieth of the square feet of
installed radiation.
502 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
All expansion tanks should have an overflow and a vent to
atmosphere, the latter in case no '^ special'' system is used for
heating. The tank should be located not less than 3 ft. above
the highest radiator, and be fitted with a gage glass or other
means for indicating the water level. When located in an attic
or other exposed place, a circulating pipe should be installed to
keep the water from freezing. The general arrangements -are
given in Figs. 293, 294 and 296. They are usually constructed
of galvanized steel and made cylindrical, although rectangular
open tanks are sometimes used. Since it is inconvenient in
general to observe the gage glass on the expansion tank, the
water level may be judged at the heater by providing an altitude
gage so as to indicate the hydrostatic head on the heater.
Where more than one heater is used and a valve is installed,
the connection to the expansion tank should be made between
the valve and the heater. Moreover, the connection to the
tank' should be made above the water line in the tank to prevent
the syphoning of the water from the entire system should it be
necessary to drain one of the boilers.
Heat Emission of Hot-water Radiators. — Since the operating
conditions of hot-water heating installations is such that .the
desired room temperature is obtained by means of controlling
the emission of heat, by varying the average temperature of the
radiator, a common assumption is that the drop in temperature
of the water passing through is 20°. Thus, if water enters at
180° and leaves at 160°, the mean temperature of the radiator
is taken as 170°.
It was shown in steam heating that for a radiator at 210"*
and room temperature of 70° the heat emission is a certain
amount for this 140° difference. Attention was called to the
fact that this coefficient of transmission varied with a difference
in temperature range approximately 2 per cent for each 10°
each way i.6., an increase for a greater difference and a decrease
for a lesser difference in temperature.
For example, suppose a 32-in. four-c61\min cast-iron radiator
is considered. Its coefficient for 140° temperature difference
is given as 1.60 B.t.u. per square foot per degree per hour. In
a hot-water radiator where the mean temperature of the radiator
is taken at 170° and the room temperature is 70°, the tempera-
ture difference is 100°. Applying the rule for variation, t.e.,
2 per cent for each 10° difference, there results for this (140° —
100°) » 40° or 8 per cent. Since the temperature difference is
HEATING
503
lower for the hot-water radiator, this decreases the coefficient
of transmission so that it is only 92 per cent of the 1.60 B.t.u.
or 1.47 B.t.u. The calculation of the required amount of
radiation, therefore, consists in computing the heat loss from
the room as before and dividing this by 1.47, giving the required
radiation in square feet. The radiation is divided into suitable
sections and located where it is most effective.
Pipe Sizes for Hot-water Systems. — For large installations,
careful calculations for pressure drop should be made in order
to insure proper supply of water to each radiator. A rough
rule in such cases provides approximately the same length of
pipe from boiler through radiator and back again to the boiler
for each radiator in the system. Where this cannot be done,
the pipe sizes are changed to provide for the varying friction,
or some method of control such as lock-shield valves or orifice
unions is used. For extended calculations, the reader should
consult the standard textbooks on this subject.
For the small installations such as are considered here, the
following tables^ may be used
Tablb 83. — Size of Radiator Tappings for Various
Floor Locations
Square feet
in radiator
Size of pipe,
inches
First floor
Second floor
Third floor
Fourth floor
H
40
50
60
70
1
70
80
90
100
IH
no
120
135
150
\H
180
195
210
230
2
300
350
400
500
Table 84. — Equalization Table for the Determination
OF Risers and Mains
Size of pipe in inches
2
H
5
1
10
201
30
2
2H
3
175
260
4
380
5
650
6
Equivalent carrying capacity
60
MO
1,050
504 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
The use of the tables will be given by means of the following
example : Consider the layout given in Fig. 294. The size of
radiator tappings is taken directly from Table 83 with due
regard to floor location.
A ^ H D^IH
B = IJi E =^ IH
C = l?i F = l}i
These values give also the size riser if only one radiator
is on the circuit. When several radiators are supplied from
the same riser, the following procedure is taken: To size the
riser nearest the boiler, start at the bottom. The pipe between
C and ^ is 1 in., the same as the tapping Between C and A the
size of riser is from the equalization table
^ = 1 in. =10
C - 1 in. =J0
20 = iK-in. pipe
The riser between A and the attic main is
E + C = 20
A = % in. = J^
22 = IJi-in. pipe
From this it will be seen that a IH in. is very large and may
be used, but if economy is of importance the IJi-in. pipe may
be risked.
The same process for the next riser gives the following:
F - IK = 20
D = IH = 20
40 = 1 J^-in. pipe
The l}i in. pipe is short by 10 and the 2 in. pipe would be in
excess by 20 therefore for economy the 1}^ in. pipe is chosen.
Between D and B
F 4- Z> = 40
B =J^
50 == 2-in. pipe
The 2->in. pipe is chosen to offset the shortage in the previous
choice. This is also the size of that part of the attic main.
HEATING 505
The vertical flow riser supplying all radiators is obtained
as shown
A = 2
B = 10
C = 10
D = 20
^ = 10
F = 20
72 = 2 in.
Again the value 72 lies between a 2- and a 2^-in. pipe, but being
nearer to the 2-in. pipe, it is chosen.
The return risers are found in the same way and are marked
on the figure. Their checking is left to the reader. Where
the flow riser has been chosen, imdersize compensation may be
made in the selection of the return riser.
For another example, take the layout shown in Fig. 295.
The radiator tappings are found from Table 83 in the same
manner. For sake * of comparison, the same radiation is
also taken. The radiator tappings are therefore the same as
before i,e,
A = K in. Z> = IK in.
B = 1 in. ^ = 1 in.
C - 1 in. F = IK in.
The risei^ from the basement mains are a«ain determined as
follows : For the first riser
A =K in.
= 2
C = 1 in.
= 10
12 =
IK-in. pipe
^ - 1 in.
= 10
22 =
iK-in. pipe
B = 1
= 10
D^IH
= 20
30 =
iK-in. pipe
F^IH
= 20
50 =
2-in. pipe
It might be remarked that in this particular case the cost of
installation for the latter plant is less than that of the former.
506
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Expansion of Piping. — All pipe expands with increase m
temperature and contracts with decrease in temperature.
Provision must be made in all successful installations to pro-
vide for this. In steel pipe, the coefficient of expansion per
degree Fahrenheit is 0.0000059 of its length. See Page 89.
Suppose 100-ft. length of pipe is installed in zero weather. At
a temperature of 210*^, the average temperature of a steam-
Fig. 296.
heating system, the new length of pipe is 0.0000059 X 100 X
210 = 0.1239 ft. or 0.1239 X 12 = nearly IH in. Since in
general the piping is installed at higher temperatures than this,
some fitters use the rough rule of allowing 1 in. expansion for
100 ft. of pipe.
To arrange for expansion on two-pipe systems, the details
shown in Fig. 296 are common. Where buildings are more than
10 stories in height, the arrangement shown in Fig. 297 is used.
Where of necessity radiator connections must be short, these
expansion joints should be used on buildings of lesser height.
Slip expansion joints are to be avoided on account of the possi-
biUty of leakage and the habifity of neglect in operation.
HEATING
507
Other Piping Details. — Drip connections are shown in Fig.
298. These should be installed at the foot of each riser and at
every opportunity offered in the layout. The importance of
drips is to be emphasized, as they are one of the chief causes of
failure in otherwise well designed heating systems.
.■.iiiii'
"
Anchor
7ht5 distance
must l7e greater
ihcm desired —
expansion., -l
Anchor
depending upon .
awounfarexpansion
FiQ. 297.
Mam
RehjrnMain
Nipple and Cap
Fio. 208a.
FiQ. 2986.
Loop seals are constructed as shown in Fig. 208a. The nipple
and cap construction should be used in preference to plugs,
since rusting makes it difficult, if not impossible, to remove
plugs. The depth of loop seals below the water Une depends
upon the pressure difference required to insure circulation under
all conditions of operation. On small work 4-ft. seals are com-
mon. The general method of determining the minimum height
has been shown previously.
SECTION 13
MATHEMATICS
LOGARITHMS
This section begins with a brief discussion of logarithms,
since they can be used to advantage in practically all the work
that follows.
Definition. — ^The logarithm of a given number is the exponent
of the power to which a fixed number, called the base, must be
raised in order to equal the given number.
The common base ten (10) will be used.
Thus, since 10< » 1,000, the logarithm of 1,000 is 3.
Characteristic. — ^A logarithm is composed of two parts,—
the mantissa and the characteristic. The mantissa is obtained
from the table of logarithms (Table 85), and the character-
istic is obtained from rules one and two which follow:
Rule 1. If a number is greater than one the characteristic
is positive, and is one less than the number of figures to the left
of the decimal point.
Example. — The characteristic of 314. is 2, and the mantissa is
4,969; therefore the logarithm is 2.4969.
Example. — The characteristic of 31.4 is 1, and the mantissa is
4,969; therefore the logarithm is 1.4969.
Note that the decimal point affects the value of the char-
acteristic, but does not affect the value of the mantissa.
Rule 2. — ^If a number is less than one, the characteristic is
negative, and the number representing the negative character-
istic is one greater than the number of zeros between the deci-
mal point and the first significant figure.
Example. — The characteristic of 0.000314 is (—4), which is
written as 6 — 10, and the mantissa is 4,969; therefore the
logarithm is 6.4969 - 10.
Example. — The characteristic of 0.492 is 9 — 10, and the man-
tissa is 6,920; therefore the logarithm is 9.6920 — 10.
Antilogarithm. — To find the number, called the antilogarithm
which corresponds to a given logarithm, the two following rules
are used:
508
MATHEMATICS 509
Rule 3. — ^If fhe characteristic is positive, the number is
greater than one, and the number of figures to the left of the
decimal point is one more than the positive characteristic.
Examjde, — Find the antilogarithm of 1.4843. From the
table, the mantissa 4843 corresponds to 305. Therefore the
required number is 30.5. If the logarithm were 4.4843, the
corresponding number would be 30,500. Here it is noted that
the characteristic of a logarithm affects only the location of the
decimal point in the antilogarithm.
Rule 4. — ^If the character is negative, the number is less
than one, and the number of zeros between the decimal point
and the first significant figure is one less than the number
representing the negative characteristic.
Example,— The antilogarithm of 6.4843 - 10 is 0.000305.
Example.— The antilogarithm of 9.9936 - 10 is 0.985 4-.
The use of logarithms as a labor-saving device is very help-
ful in all calculations involving multiplication, division, raising
to powers, or extracting roots. They are not used in addition
or subtraction.
The four applications are stated as follows:
1. The logarithm of the product of two or more numbers
equals the sum of the logarithms of the numbers.
2. The logarithm of a fraction is equal to the logarithm of
the numerator minus the logarithm of the denominator.
3. The logarithm of a power of a number is equal to the
logarithm of the number multiplied by the exponent of the
power.
4. The logarithm of a root of a number is equal to the
logarithm of the number divided by the index of the root.
Example—Find ^Mi^^^M! by logarithms.
log 21.2 = 1.3263
log 1.62 = 0.2095
add 1.5358
multiply by 2 3.0716
log 14.9 = 1.1732
subtract 1.8984
divide by 3 0.6328
Antilog = 4.29 +
510 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Example. — Find ,
a/0.0641
log 134 = 2.1271
^ log 2.46 = 0.5863
add 2.7134 =12.7134 - 10 (1!
log 0.0641 = 8.8069 - 10
= 18.8069 - 20
H log 0.0641 = 9.4034 - 10 (2
Subtract (2) from (1); 12.7134 - 10
9.4034 - 10
3.3100
Antilog = 2,040. -f
SQUARE ROOT
To extract the square root of a number, begin at the units
digit and point off periods of two places each. If there are
decimals, begin at the decimal point and point off periods to the
right, of two places each, supplying zeros if needed.
Find the greatest integer whose square is equal to, or less
than the left hand period, and write this integer as the first
digit of the root.
Square the first digit of the root and subtract this square
from the first period, and add the second period to the
remainder.
Double the part of the root already found for a trial divisor,
divide it into the remainder, omitting from the latter the right
hand digit, and write the quotient as the second digit of the
root.
Add the digit just found to the right of the trial divisor to
make the complete divisor; multiply this complete divisor by
the second root digit, subtract the result from the dividend, and
add to the remainder the next period for a new dividend.
Double the part of the root already found for a new trial
divisor and proceed as before until the root is obtained to the
desired number of places.
MATHEMATICS 511
Example. — Extract the square root of 244.9225
2'44.92'25' 1 15.65
1
25
144
125
306
3125
1992
1836
15625
15625
CUBE ROOT
To extract the cube root of a number, begin at the unite
digit and point off periods of three figures each to the left.
Point off decimals in periods of three figures each to the right,
beginning with the decimal point.
Find the greatest integer whose cube is equal to, or less than,
the left-hand period, and write this integer as the first digit of
the root.
Cube the first digit of the root, and subtract this cube from
the first period, and add the second period to the remainder.
Square the first digit of the root; multiply by 300, and divide
the product into the remainder as a trial divisor, and write the
quotient as the trial second digit of the root.
Complete the divisor by adding 30 times the product of the
first and second digits, and the square of the second digit.
Multiply this divisor by the second root digit, and subtract
the product from the remainder. Should the product be
greater than the remainder, the trial second root digit and
corresponding complete divisor are too large. In this case
substitute for the second root digit the next smaller digit, and
correct the trial divisor accordingly.
Add the next period to the remainder, and proceed as before
to find the third digit of the root.
If at any time the trial divisor is greater than the dividend,
bring down another period of three figures, place 0 in the root
and proceed.
512
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Ex. — Find the cube root of 4,065,356.736
4,^5/356.7361159.6
1
300 X 1* =300
30 X 1 X 5 =150
5« = 25
3,065
475
300 X 15« = 67,500
30 X 15 X 9 = 4,050
9» = 81
2,375
71,631
300 X 159« = 7,584,300
30 X 159 X 6 = 28,620
6« = 36
690,356
644,679
7,612,956
4,5677,736
4,5677,736
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
In any right triangle :
The sine (sin) of either acute angle is the ratio of the opposite
side to the hypotenuse.
The cosine (cos) is the ratio of the adjacent side to the
hypotenuse.
The tangent (tan) is the ratio of the opposite side to the
adjacent side.
The cotangent (cot) is the ratio of the adjacent side to the
opposite side.
The secant (sec) is the ratio of the hypotenuse to the adjacent
side.
The cosecant (esc) is the ratio of the hypotenuse to the
opposite side.
The versed sine of any angle is one minus the cosine of the
angle.
The coversed sine of any angle is one minus the sine of the angle.
The eight ratios defined above are called the trigonometric
functions of the angle.
Table 86 gives the values of the sine, cosine, tangent, and
cotangent, also their logarithmic values, for every half degree.
MATHEMATICS
513
Given: A = 30**, 4.B = 10 inches.
To find BC
BC
Solution : -t-b = tan 30°
BC = AJ3 X tan 30°
= 10 X .6774
= 5.774 or 5% in.
Functions of 46°
sin 45° = ^ = 1^2
cos 45° « —7= = -a/2
V2 2^^
tan 45° = 1
1
0.7071, cot 45*
0.7071, sec 45*
= 1.0000, esc 45° = Xi? = 1.4142
1
1
V2
1
V2
1.0000
1.4142
Functions of 30° and 60°
sin 30° = cos 60° = ^ =
cos 30° = sin 60° = :^ =
2 .
tan 30° = cot 60° = -V = - Vs
cot 30° == tan 60° = \/3
sec 30° = CSC 60° = -^ = - Vs
CSC 30° = sec 60° = j
= 0.5000
= 0.8660
= 0.5774
= 1.7321
= 1 . 1547
« 2.0000
33
514
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
MENSURATION
Plane Surfaces
THE CIRCLE
Circumference = 2irr or irX diameter (x = 3.1416)
Area
— nr* or
A few important constants are:
- =.31831; log - =9.5029-10
IT X
^ = 57.296; log ^ = 1.7581
K- rf-.-
X
X
X
X
—^ = 0.01745; log j^ = 8.2419 - 10
22
Approximation for x = -=- log 3.1416 = .4971
Diameter in inches = 13.5406 \/area in square feet.
Area in square feet = (diam. in inches)* X 0.0054542
Areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their radii
or diameters.
Example. — Water -enters a tank by three pipes 2 in., 3 in.,
and 4 in. in diameter. What must be the diameter of a pipe
which will empty the tank in the same time- that the three
pipes running together will fill it?
Let X = diameter of required pipe
Then
xx"
= -!- + f -h^= i(2« + 3«-h4«)
Dividing by ^, x« = 29
and X = 5.385 in. = bH in. diameter.
Example, — What will be the diameter of a pipe which must be
equivalent to five pipes 2 in. in diameter and three pipes 3 in.
in diameter?
X* = 5(22) + 3(32) = 20 + 27 = 47
X = 6.856 in. or 6% in. diameter.
Circular ring
Area = ^(R* - r«)
= x(D« - d«)
D and d being diameters of larger and
smaller circles respectively.
MATHEMATICS
515
Sectors and Segments
Given chord AB and radius Rj to find area
of sector AOBC.
The area of the sector has the same ratio to
the area of the circle as the angle AOB has to
360». /-=---« H^B>
(sin H AOB = ^)
Example. — Find the area of a sector if R = 12 in. and
AB ^S in.
sin M AOB = ^ = 3^ = 0.3333
K AOB = 19° 30'
AOB = 39** 00'
22
Area of circle = irR^ = -^ X 144 = 453 sq. in.
39
Area of sector = o^t; X 453 = 49.0 sq. in.
The area of the segment ABC is equal to the area of the sector
AOBC minus the area of the triangle AOB.
Area A AOB = HAB X OD
OD = 12 cos 19° 30'
= 12 X .9426
= 11.31 in.
Area AOB = 4 X 11.31 = 45.24 sq. in.
Therefore area of segment = 49.0 — 45.24 = 3.76 sq. in.
Rule for use of accompanying table of segments: (Table 68)
Divide the height or rise of segment by the diameter. Find
the nearest corresponding value in column one. Multiply the
area in column two by the square of the diameter.
In the example worked, the rise equals 0.69 in., and the
diameter equals 24 in.
rise
Therefore
= 0.029
diameter
Corresponding value in column two is 0.00653
Therefore area of segment = 576 X 0.00653 = 3.76 sq. in.
SQUARE
d« =
d =
Area =
2a«
1.4142a
516
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Side of square X 1 . 4142
Side of square X 4.4428
Side of square X 1 . 1284
Side of square X 3 . 5449
diameter of circumscribed circle
circumference of circumscribed
circle
diameter of equal circle
circumference of equal circle
RECTANGLE AND PARALLELOGRAM
Area s= hh
Diagonal of rectangle = -y/52 _|. ^2
L-^i^J
TRAPEZOID
Area = J^A(a + h)
The line CZ> joining the mid-points
of the non-parallel sides = H(oH-6)
Therefore area = CD X h
TRAPEZIUM
Area =
(H + h)a -^bh +cH
or the figure may be divided into
two triangles as shown and the
area of each triangle found separ-
ately. (See triangle.)
TRIANGLE
Formulas apply to both
figures.
Area of a triangle
(1) Hhh; or
(2) Multiply the product of two sides by the sine of the in-
cluded angle; or
(3) From half the sum of the three sides, subtract each side
in turn. Multiply together the half sum and the three remain-
ders and extract the square root of the product.
MATHEMATICS
517
Example. — If the sides of a triangle are 7, 12 and 15, find the
area.
K(7 -h 12 -f 15) = 17
17 - 7-10
17 - 12 = 6
17 - 15 = 2
Area = \/l7 X 10 X 5 X 2 = 10 y/V? = 41.23
Area
REGULAR POLYGONS
= number of sides
=76* cot
4 n
n „, . 360**
= rt it* sin
2 n
= nr^ tan
180*
Area
Triangle
Square
Pentagon
Hexagon
Heptagon
Octagon
Nonagon
Decagon
Undecagon
Dodecagon
n
3 sides
4 sides
5 sides
6 sides
7 sides
8 sides
9 sides
10 sides
11 sides
12 sides
U-^-J
.4336*
1.0006«
1 . 720b«
2 . 5986*
3.6346*
4 . 8286^
6.1825*
7.694b*
9 . 3666*
11.1965*
5.196r*
4.000r*
3.633r*
3 . 464r*
3.371r«
3.314r*
3 . 276r*
3 . 249r*
3 . 230r*
3.215r«
ELLIPSE
Area = iro5 = 3.1416 ah
64
Ti ' 2. / 1 i\ \o+P/ Approxi-
Penmeter=ir(o+6) 7;ii:5\l mately
64
-Hmi
H-a-'>i
Example. — a = 5 in., 6 = 3 in.
Area = 3 X 5 X 3.1416 = 47.12 sq. in.
64
Perimeter « 3.1416 (5 -f 3)
= 3.1416 X 8 X
64
16381
16128
.5 -1-3;
= 25.53 in.
518
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
TO FIND THE AREA OF AN IRREGULAR FIGURE
Method: Simpson's Rule. — Divide the length of the figure
into any even number of equal parts at a common distance h
apart, and draw ordinates from these points to the curve. Add
the first and last ordinates and call the sum A, Add the even
numbered ordinates and call the sum B, Add the odd
numbered ordinates, except the first and last, and call the sum
C. Then the area between the base line and the curve is
approximately 5 (A -f- 4B -|- 2C).
Example. — Suppose in the figure below that the value of A is
3^ in. By measurement the ordinates are respectively yi =
0, 2/2 = 0.6, 2/8 = 1.3, 2/4 = 1.6, 2/6 = 1.6, 2/6 = 1.6, Vt = 1.3,
2/8 = 0.9, 2/9 ^ 0.6, measurements all in inches.
/I
3)
^
^
lA
3>
£
-4
l'-
^ ^ ^
....
— >
Ok
Then by Simpson's Rule:
Area ^ [(0 + 0.6) -f 4(0.6 + 1.6+1.6-1-0.9) -|-2(1.3-|-1.6 +
1 27 4
1.3)] = ^ (-6 -h 18.4 -h 8.4) = -^ = 4.57 sq. in. (approxi-
mately.)
VOLUMES AND SURFACES OF SOLIDS
Sphere
Surface = 4irr« = 12 . 566r«
Surface = ird« = 3 . 1416d«
Volume = ^7rr2 - 4.189r»
Volume = H^d8 = 0.524d»
6
Cylinder
Lateral surface — 2wrh = 6.283rA
I......H J
; Each base = nr*
- ^ Total surface = 2irr« + 2vrh
= 2irr(r -f h).
Volume « irr*h
Volume =• 0.7854d»A
MATHEMATICS
619
Cone
S = slant height.
Lateral surface = rrrs
Lateral surface = irr\/r* -|- h*
Base = nr*
Total surface = irr(r + -\/r* -^ h^)
Volume = Hirrh^ = im7r%
Volume = H2d^h = 0.262d«^
Frustum of Cone
Bi = area of large base, Bt = area of small base
R' =" 2^» '* = 2' '^ ~ slant height.
ttS
Lateral surface = -^ (D + d)
Bi = irR^
Bi = Trr^
Total surface ^7r[R^-\-r^-^S (R+r)]
irh.
Volume = 3- (i?* + fir -h r*)
Trh
12
h
Volume = — (D« + M -h d^)
Volume = ^ (Bi + B2 + VBi-Bz)
Example. — Find volume of solid shown in sketch.
IT 3
Vol. of cylinder = ^(6) = ^'tcu. ft.
Vol. of frustum -= j^ (ZQ + Q -^ 1)
.-. Vol. of solid = (21 K - IKV
= 20ir
= 62.83 cu. ft.
>1 l<-6"
c.j!o^4t-iVd
Pyramid
The lateral surface of a regular pyramid
equals the perimeter of its base times
half the slant height. To this add the
area of the base if the total surface is
wanted.
520 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
The volume of a pyramid equals one-third the product of the
area of the base times the altitude.
The lateral surface of the frustum of a regular pyramid equals
half the product of the slant height by the sum of the jjeri meters
of the two bases.
To this add the areas of the bases if the total surface is
wanted.
The volume of the frustum of a pyramid equals one-third the
product of the altitude by the sum of the upper base plus the
lower base, plus the mean proportional between the t-wo bases.
That is if ^ = altitude, Bi = area of lower base, and Bj =
area of upper base:
Vol. = |(Bi + B2 + VB^^)
TRADE DISCOUNT
Discount is an allowance made upon the catalogue or list
price.
Example, — What is the net price of a bill of goods, listed at
$460, and subject to a discount of 20 per cent?
$460 gross selling price.
20 per cent of $460 = 20/100 X 460 = 92 discount.
$368 net selling price.
Example. — If the net selling price of a bill of goods, subject
to a discount of 5 per cent is $314.64, what is the list price?
100 per cent — 5 per cent = 95 per cent
$314.64 net selling price.
$314.64 -5- 95 per cent = 100/95 X 314.64 = $331.20 list price.
Example. — What per cent above cost must goods be listed
in order to allow a discount of 20 per cent, and still make a
profit of 15 per cent?
100 per cent cost
15 per cent profit •
115 per cent net selling
price
115 4- (100 - 20) = 100/80 X 115 = 143?^ per cent gross
selhng price
100 per cent cost
43,^ per cent marked
above cost.
MATHEMATICS 521
A chain or compound discount is a series of discounts, as 30
and 20 per cent; or 25, 10, and 5 per cent. The first rate,
called the primary discount, denotes a discount off the list
price. The second rate, called the secondary discount, denotes
a discount off the remainder, and so on. (See Table 96.)
Example. — What is the net price of a bill of hardware, listed
at $800, and subject to a discount of 30, 20, and 10 per cent?
100 per cent = gross price
30 per cent = first discount
70 per cent = first remainder
20/100 X 70 = 14 per cent = second discount
56 per cent = second remainder
10/100 X 56 = 5.6 per cent = third discount
50.4 per cent = the remainder
60.4/100 X 800 = $403.20 = net price.
522
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table 85. — Four-place Logarithm TabIjX:
8
0
• ■ • •
0000
3010
4771
6021
6990
1
0000
0414
0792
1139
1461
1761
2
3010
3222
.3424
3617
3802
3979
3
4771
4914
5051
5185
5315
5441
4
6021
6128
6232
6335
6435
6532
5
6990
7076
7160
7243
7324
7404
6
7782
7853
7924
7993
8062
8129
7
8451
8513
8573
8633
8692
8751
8
9031
9085
9138
9191
9243
9294
9
9542
9590
9638
9685
9731
9777
10
0000
0043
0066
0128
0170
0212
11
0414
0453
0492
0531
0569
0607
12
0792
0828
0664
0699
0934
0969
13
1139
1173
1206
1239
1271
1303
14
1461
1492
1523
1553
1584
1614
15
1761
1790
1818
1847
1875
1903
16
2041
2068
2095
2122
2148
2175
17
2304
2330
2355
2380
2405
2430
18
2553
2577
2601
2625
2648
2672
19
2788
2810
2833
2856
2878
2900
20
3010
3032
3054
3075
3096
3118
21
3222
3243
3263
3284
3304
3324
22
3424
3444
3464
3483
3502
3522
23
3617
3636
3655
3674
3692
3711
24
3802
3820
3838
3856
3874
3892
25
3979
3997
4014
4031
4048
4065
26
4150
4166
4183
4200
4216
4232
27
4314
4330
4346
4362
4378
4393
28
4472
4487
4502
4518
4533
4548
29
4624
4639
4654
4669
4683
4698
30
4771
4786
4800
4814
4829
4843
31
4914
4928
4942
4955
4969
4983
32
5051
5065
5079
5092
5105
5119
33
5185
5198
5211
5224
5237
5250
34
5315
5328
5340
5353
5366
5378
35
5441
5453
5465
5478
5490
5502
36
5563
5575
5587
5599
5611
5623
37
5682
5694
5705
5717
5729
5740
38
5798
5809
5821
5832
5843
5855
39
5911
5922
5933
5944
5955
5966
40
6021
6031
6042
6053
6064
6075
41
6128
6138
6149
6160
6170
6180
42
6232
6243
6253
6263
6274
6284
43
6335
6345
6355
6365
6375
6385
44
6435
6444
6454
6464
6474
6484
45
6532
6542
6551
6561
6571
6580
46
6628
6637
6646
6656
6665
6675
47
6721
6730
6739
6749
6758
6767
48
6812
6821
6830
6839
6848
6857
49
6902
6911
6920
6928
6937
6946
7782
2041
4150
5563
6628
7482
8195
8808
9345
9823
0253
0645
1004
1335
1644
1931
220I
2455
2695
2923
3139
3345
3541
3729
3909
4082
4249
4409
4564
4713
4857
4997
5132
5263
5391
5514
5635
5752
5866
5977
6085
6191
6294
6395
6493
6590
6684
6776
6866
6955
8451
2304
4314
5682
6721
7559
8261
8865
9395
9868
0294
0682
1038
1367
1673
1959
2227
2480
2718
2945
3160
3365
3560
3747
3927
4099
4265
4425
4579
4728
4871
5011
5145
5276
5403
5527
5647
5763
5877
5988
6096
9031
2553
4472
5798
6812
7634
8325
8921
9445
9912
0334
Q7I9
1072
1399
1703
1967
2253
2504
2742
2967
3181
3385
3579
3766
3945
4116
4281
4440
4594
4742
4886
5024
5159
5289
3416
5539
5658
5775
5888
5999
6107
9542
2788
4624
591)
6902
7709
83«
8976
9494
9956
0374
0755
1106
1430
1732
2014
2279
2529
2765
TOM
3201
3404
3598
3784
3%2
4133
4296
4456
4609
4757
4900
5038
5172
5302
5428
5551
3670
5786
5899
6010
6117
6201
6212
6222
6304
6314
6325
6405
6415
6425
6503
6513
6522
6599
6609
6618
6693
6702
6712
6785
6794
6803
6875
6884
6893
6964
6972
6981
7
8
9
MATHEMATICS
523
Tablb 85. — {Continued)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
• 7
8
9
50
6990
6998
7007
7016
7024
7033
7042
7050
7059
7067
51
7076
7084
7093
7101
7110
7116
7126
7135
7143
7152
52
7160
7168
7177
7185
7193
7202
7210
7216
7226
7235
53
7243
7251
7259
7267
7275
7384
7292
7300
7306
7316
54
7324
7332
7340
7348
7356
7364
7372
7380
7388
7396
55
7404
7412
7419
7427
7435
7443
7451
7459
7466
7474
56
7482
7490
7497
7505
7513
7520
7528
7536
7543
7551
57
7559
7566
7574
7562
7589
7597
7604
7612
7619
7627
58
7634
7642
7649
7657
7664
7672
7679
7686
7694
7701
59
7709
7716
7723
7731
7738
7745
7752
7760
7767
7774
60
7782
7789
77%
7803
7610
7818
7825
7832
7839
7846
61
7853
7860
7866
7875
7882
7889
7896
7903
7910
7917
62
7924
7931
7938
7945
7952
7959
7966
7973
7980
7987
63
7993
8000
8007
8014
8021
8028
8035
6041
8048
8055
64
8062
8069
6075
8082
8089
8096
8102
8109
6116
6122
65
8129
8136
6142
8149
6156
8162
8169
8176
6182
6189
66
8195
8202
8209
8215
8222
8228
8235
8241
8246
8254
67
8261
8267
8274
8280
8287
8293
8299
8306
8312
8319
68
8325
8331
6336
8344
8351
6357
6363
8370
8376
8382
69
8388
8395
6401
8407
8414
8420
8426
8432
8439
8445
70
8451
8457
8463
8470
8476
8482
6486
8494
8500
8506
71
8513
8519
8525
8531
6537
8543
6549
8555
9561
8567
72
8573
8579
6585
8591
8597
8603
8609
8615
8621
8627
73
8633
8639
8645
8651
8657
8663
8669
8675
8661
8686
74
8692
8698
6704
8710
8716
8722
8727
8733
6739
8745
75
8751
8756
6762
8768
6774
8779
8785
8791
8797
8802
76
8806
8814
6820
8825
8831
8837
8642
8848
8854
8859
77
8865
6871
6876
8882
8887
8693
8899
8904
8910
8915
78
8921
8927
6932
8938
8943
8949
8954
8960
8965
8971
79
8976
8982
8987
8993
8998
9004
9009
9015
9020
9025
80
9031
9036
9042
9047
9053
9058
9063
9069
9074
9079
81
9085
9090
9096
9101
9106
9112
9117
9122
9128
9133
82
9138
9143
9149
9154
9159
9165
9170
9175
9180
9186
83
9191
9196
9201
9206
9212'
9217
9222
9227
9232
9238
84
9243
9246
9253
9258
9263
9269
9274
9279
9284
9289
85
9294
9299
9304
9309
9315
9320
9325
9330
9335
9340
86
9345
9350
9355
9360
9365
9370
9375
9380
9385
9390
87
9395
9400
9405
9410
9415
9420
9425
4930
9435
9440
88
9445
9450
9455
9460
9465
9469
9474
9479
9484
9489
89
9494
9499
9504
9509
9513
9518
9523
9528
9533
9536
90
9542
9547
9552
9557
9562
9566
9571
9576
9581
9586
91
9590
9595
9600
9605
9609
9614
9619
%24
9628
9633
92
9638
9643
9647
9652
%57
9661
%66
%71
9675
9680
93
9685
9689
%94
9699
9703
9708
9713
9717
9722
9727
94
9731
9736
9741
9745
9750
9754
9759
9763
9768
9773
95
9777
9762
9786
9791
9795
9800
9805
9809
9814
9616
%
9823
9827
9832
9836
9841
9845
9850
9854
9859
9863
97
9668
9872
9877
9681
9886
9890
9894
9899
9903
9908
98
9912
9917
9921
9926
9930
9934
9939
9943
9948
9952
99
9956
9%1
9%5
9969
9974
9976
9983
9987
9991
9996
.0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
524
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table 86. — Four-place Trigonometric Functions
Angle
Sine
Nat. Log.
Cosine
Nat. Log.
Tangent
Nat. Log.
Cotangent
Nat. Log.
Angle
0 00
30
1 00
30
2 00
30
3 00
30
4 00
30
5 00
30
6 00
30
7 00
30
8 00
30
9 00
30
10 00
30
11 00
30
12 00
30
13 00
30
14 00
30
15 00
30
16 00
30
17 00
30
18 00
30
19 00
30
20 00
30
1 00
30
22 00
30
.0000
.0087
.0175
.0262
7.9408
8.2419
8.4179
1.0000
1.0000
.9998
.9997
.0000
.0000
9.9999
9.9999
.0000
.0087
.0175
.0262
.0349
.0436
.0523
.0610
8.5428
8.6397
8.7188
8.7857
.9994
.9990
.9986
.9981
9.9997
9.9996
9.9994
9.9992
.0349
.0437
.0524
.0612
.0698
.0785
.0872
.0958
8.8436
8.8946
8.9403
8.9816
.9976
.9%2
.9954
9.9989
9.9987
9.9983
9.9980
.0699
.0787
.0875
.0963
.1045
.1132
.1219
.1305
9.0192
9.0539
9.0859
9.1157
.9945
.9936
.9925
.9914
9.9976
9.9972
9.9968
9.9963
.1051
.1139
.1278
.1317
.1392
.1478
.1564
.1650
9.1436
9.1697
9.1943
9.2176
.9903
.9890
.9877
.9863
9.9958
9.9952
9.9940
9.9940
.1405
.1495
.1584
.1673
.1736
.1822
.1906
.1994
9.2397
9.2606
9.2806
9.2997
.9833
.9816
.9799
9.9934
9.9927
9.9919
9.9912
.1763
.1853
.1944
.2035
.2079
.2164
.2250
.2334
9.3179
9.3353
9.3521
9.3682
.9781
.9763
.9744
.9724
9.9904
9.9896
9.9887
9.9878
.2126
.2217
.2309
.2401
.2419
.2504
.2588
.2672
9.3837
9.3986
9.4130
9.4269
.9703
.9681
.%59
.%36
9.9869
9.9859
9.9849
9.9839
.2493
.2586
.2679
.2773
.2756
.2840
.2924
.3007
9.4403
9.4533
9.4659
9.4781
.%13
.9588
.9563
.9537
9.9828
9.9817
9.9806
9.9794
.2867
.2962
.3057
.3153
.3090
.3173
.3256
.3338
9.4900
9.5015
9.5126
9.5235
.9511
.9483
.9455
.9426
9.9782
9.9770
9.9757
9.9743
.3249
.3346
.3443
.3541
.3420
.3502
.3584
.3665
9.5341
9.5443
9.5543
9.5641
.9397
.9367
.9336
.9304
9.9730
9.9716
9.9702
9.9687
.3640
.3739
.3839
.3939
.3746
.3287
9.5736
9.5828
.9272
.9239
9.%72
9.9656
.4040
.4142
7.9409
8.2419
8.4181
8.5431
8.6401
8.7194
8.7865
0.8446
8.8960
8.9420
8.9836
9.0216
9.0567
9.0891
9.1194
9.1478
9.1745
9.1997
9.2236
9.2463
9.2680
9.2887
9.3085
9.3275
9.3458
9.3634
9.3804
9.3968
9.4127
9.4281
9.4430
9.4575
9.4716
9.4853
9.4987
9.5118
9.5245
9.5370
9.5491
9.5611
9.5727
9.5842
9.5954
9.6064
9.6172
00
114.59
57.290
38.188
28.636
22.904
19.081
16.350
14.301
12.706
11.430
10.385
9.5144
8.7769
8.1443
7.5958
7.1154
6.6912
6.3138
5.9758
5.6713
5.3955
5.1446
4.9152
4.7046
4.5107
4.3315
4.1653
4.0106
3.8667
3.7321
3.6059
3.4874
3.3759
3.2709
3.1716
3.0777
2.9887
2.9042
2.8239
2.7475
2.6746
2.6051
2.5386
2.4751
2.4142
2.0591
1.7581
1.5819
1.4569
1.3599
1.2806
1.2135
1.1554
1.1040
1.0580
1.0164
.9784
.9433
.9109
.8806
.8522
.8255
.8003
.7764
.7537
.7320
.7113
.6915
.6725
.6542
.6366
.6196
.6032
.5873
.5719
.5570
.5425
.5284
.5147
.5013
.4882
.4775
.4630
.4509
.4389
.4273
.4158
.4046
.3936
.3828
90 00
30
89 00
30
88 00
30
87 00
30
86 00
30
85 00
30
84 00
30
83 00
30
82 00
30
81 00
30
80 00
30
79 00
30
78 00
30
77 00
30
76 00
30
75 00
30
"21
73 00
30
72 00
30
71 00
70 00
30
69 00
30
68 00
67 30
Angle
Nat. Log.
Cosine
Nat.
Sine
Log.
Nat. Log.
Cotangent
Nat. Log
Tangent
Angle
MATHEMATICS
525
Table 86. — Four-place Tmqonometric Functions. — {Con-
tinued)
Angle
Sine
Nat. Log.
Cosine
Nat. Log.
Tangent
Nat. Log.
Cotangent
Nat. Log.
Angle
23 00
30
24 00
30
25 00
30
26 00
30
27 00
30
28 00
30
29 00
30
30 00
30
31 00
30
32 00
30
33 00
30
34 00
30
35 00
30
36 00
30
37 00
30
38 00
30
39 00
30
40 00
30
41 00
30
42 00
30
43 00
30
44 00
30
45 00
.3907
.3987
.4067
.4147
.4226
.4305
.4384
.4462
.4540
.4617
.4695
.4772
.4848
.4924
.5000
.5075
.5150
.5225
.5299
.5373
.5446
.5519
.5592
.5664
.5736
.5807
.5878
.5948
.6018
.6088
.6157
.6225
.6293
.6361
.6428
.6494
.6561
.6626
.6691
.6756
.6820
.6884
.6947
.7009
.7071
9.5919
9.6007
9.6093
9.6177
.9205
.9171
.9135
.9100
9.9640
9.9624
9.9607
9.9590
9.6259
9.6340
9.6418
9.6495
.9063
.9026
.8988
9.9573
9.9555
9.9537
9.9518
9.6570
9.6644
9.6716
9.6787
.8910
.8870
.8829
.8788
9.9499
9.9479
9.9459
9.9439
9.6856
9.6923
9.6990
9.7055
.8746
.8704
.8660
.8616
9.9418
9.9397
9.9375
9.9353
9.7118
9.7181
9.7242
9.7302
.8572
.8526
.8480
.8434
9.9331
9.9308
9.9284
9.9260
9.7361
9.7419
9.7476
9.7531
.8387
.8339
.8290
.8241
9.9236
9.9211
9.9186
9.9160
9.7586
9.7640
9.7692
9.7744
.8192
.8141
.8090
.8039
9.9134
9.9107
9.9080
9.9052
9.7795
9.7844
9.7893
9.7941
.7986
.7934
.7880
.7826
9.9023
9.8995
9.8965
9.8935
9.7989
9.8035
9.8081
9.8125
.7771
.7716
.7660
.7604
9.8905
9.8874
9.8843
9.8810
9.8169
9.8213
9.8255
9.8297
.7547
.7490
.7431
.7373
9.8778
9.8745
9.8711
9.8676
9.8338
9.8378
9.8418
9.8457
.7314
.7254
.7193
.7133
9.8641
9.8606
9.8569
9.8532
9.8495
.7071
9.8459
.4245
.4348
.4452
.4557
.4663
.4770
.4877
.4986
.5095
.5206
.5317
.5430
.5543
.5658
.5774
.5890
.6009
.6128
.6249
.6371
.6494
.6619
.6745
.6873
.7002
.7133
.7265
.7400
.7536
.7673
.7813
.7954
.8098
.8243
.8391
.8541
.8693
.8847
.9004
.9163
.9325
.9490
.%57
.9827
1.0000
9.6279
9.6383
9.6486
9.6587
2.3559
2.2998
2.2460
2.1943
9.6687
9.6785
9.6882
9.6977
2.1445
2.0965
2.0503
2.0057
9.7072
9.7165
9.7257
9.7348
l.%26
1.9210
1.8807
1.8418
9.7438
9.7526
9.7614
9.7701
1.8040
1.7675
1.7321
1.6977
9.7788
9.7873
9.7958
9.8042
1.6643
1.6319
1.6003
1.5697
9.8125
9.8208
9.8290
9.8371
1.5339
1.5108
1.4826
1.4550
9.8452
9.8533
9.8613
9.8692
1.4281
1.4019
1.3764
1.3514
9.8771
9.8850
9.8928
9.9006
1.3270
1.3032
1.2799
1.2572
9.9084
9.9161
9.9238
9.9315
1.2349
1.2131
1.1918
1.1708
9.9392
9.9468
9.9544
9.%21
1.1505
1.1303
1.1106
1.0913
9.9697
9.9772
9.9848
9.9924
1.0724
1.0538
1.0355
1.0176
.0000
1.0000
.3721
.3617
.3514
.3413
.3313
.3215
.3118
.3023
.2928
.2835
.2743
.2652
.2562
.2474
.2386
.2299
.2212
.2127
.2042
.1958
.1875
.1792
.1710
.1629
.1548
.1467
.1387
.1308
.1229
.1150
.1072
.0994
.0916
.0839
.0762
.0685
.0608
.0532
.0456
.0379
.0303
.0228
.0152
.0076
.0000
67 0
30
66 00
30
65 00
30
64 00
30
63 00
30
62 00
30
61 00
30
60 00
30
59 00
30
58 00
30
57 00
30
56 00
30
55 00
30
54 00
30
53 00
30
52 00
30
51 00
30
50 00
30
49 00
30
48 00
30
47 00
30
46 00
30
45 00
Angle
Nat. Log.
Cosine
Nat.' Log.
Sine
Nat. Log.
Cotangent
Nat. Log.
Tangent
Angle
526
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table 87. — Table of Segments
Rise
Rise
Rise
Rise
Rise
-4-
Area
-f-
Area
-7-
Area
•
-r-
Area
-f-
Area
diam-
diam-
diam-
diam-
diazn-
eter
eter
eter
eter
eter
.001
.00004
.054
.01646
.107
.04514
.16
.08111
.213
.12235
.002
.00012
.055
.01691
.108
.04576
.161
.08185
.214
.12317
.003
.00022
.056
.01737
.109
.04638
.162
.08258
.215
.12399
.004
.00034
.057
.01783
.11
.04701
.163
.08332
.216
.12481
.005
.00047
.058
.01830
.111
.04763
.164
.08406
.217
.12563
.006
.00062
.059
.01877
.112
.04826
.165
.08480
.218
.12646
.007
.00078
.06
.01924
.113
.04889
.166
.08554
.219
.12729
.008
.00095
.061
.01972
.114
.04953
.167
.08629
.22
.12811
.009
.00113
.062
.02020
.115
.05016
.168
.08704
.221
.12894
.01
.00133
.063
.02068
.116
.05080
.169
.08779
.222
.12977
.Oil
.00153
.064
.02117
.117
.05145
.17
.08854
.223
.13060
.012
.00175
.065
.02166
.118
.05209
.171
.06929
.224
.13144
.013
.00197
.066
.02215
.119
.05274
.172
.09004
.225
.13227
.014
.0022
.067
.02265
.12
.05338
.173
.09080
.226
.13311
.015
.00244
.068
.02315
.121
.05404
.174
.09155
.227
.13395
.016
.00268
.069
.02366
.122
.05469
.175
.09231
.228
.13478
.017
.00294
.07
.02417
.123
.05535
.176
.09307
.229
.13562
.018
.0032
.071
.02468
.124
.05600
.177
.09384
.23
.13646
.019
.00347
.072
.02520
.125
.05666
.178
.09460
.231
.13731
.02
.00375
.073
.02571
.126
.05733
.179
.09537
.232
.13815
.021
.00403
.074
.02624
.127
.05799
.18
.09613
.233
.13900
.022
.00432
.075
.02676
.128
.05866
.181
.0%90
.234
.13964
.023
.00462
.076
.02729
.129
.05933
.182
.09767
.235
.14069
.024
.00492
.077
.02782
.13
.06000
.183
.09845
.236
.14154
.025
.00523
.078
.02836
.131
.06067
.184
.09922
.237
.14239
.026
.00555
.079
.02889
.132
.06135
.185
.10000
.238
.14324
.027
.00587
.08
.02943
.133
.06203
.186
.10077
.239
.14409
.028
.00619
.081
.02998
.134
.06271
.187
.10155
.24
.14494
.029
.00653
.082
.03053
.135
.06339
.188
.10233
.241
.14580
.03
.00687
.083
.03108
.136
.06407
.189
.10312
.242
.14666
.031
.00721
.084
.03163
.137
.06476
.19
.10390
.243
.14751
.032
.00756
.085
.03219
.138
.06545
.191
.10469
.244
.14837
.033
.00791
.086
.03275
.139
.06614
.192
.10547
.245
.14923
.034
.00827
.087
.03331
.14
.06683
.193
.10626
.246
.15009
.035
.00864
.088
.03387
.141
.06753
.194
.10705
.247
.15095
.036
.00901
.089
.03444
.142
.06822
.195
.10784
.248
.15182
.037
.00938
.09
.03501 .
.143
.06892
.1%
.10864
.249
.15268
.038
.00976
.091
.03559
.144
.06%3
.197
.10943
.25
. 15355
.039
.01015
.092
.03616
.145
.07033
.198
.11023
.251
.15441
.04
.01054
.093
.03674
.146
.07103
.199
.11102
.252
.15528
.041
.01093
.094
.03732
.147
.07174
.2
.11182
.253
.15615
.042
.01133
.095
.03791
.148
.07245
.201
.11262
.254
.15702
.043
.01173
.096
.03850
.149
.07316
.202
.11343
.255
.15789
.044
.01214
.097
.03909
.15
.07387
.203
.11423
.256
.15876
.045
.01255
.098
.03968
.151
.07459
.204
.11504
.257
.15964
.046
.01297
.099
.04028
.152
.07531
.205
.11584
.258
.16051
.047
.01339
.1
.04087
.153
.07603
.206
.11665
.259
.16139
.048
.01382
.101
.04148
.154
.07675
.207
.11746
.26
.16226
.049
.01425
.102
.04206
.155
.07747
.208
.11827
.261
.16314
.05
.01468
.103
.04269
.156
.07819
.209
.11906
.262
.16402
.051
.01512
.104
.04330
.157
.07892
.21
.11990
.263
.16490
.052
.01556
.105
.04391
.158
.07%5
.211
.12071
.264
.16578
.053
.01601
.106
.04452
.159
.08038
.212
.12153
.265
.16666
MATHEMATICS
627
Table 87.
— ^Tablb of
Segments {C
'Hontinw
Bd)
Rise
Rise
Rise
Rise
Rise
•
Area
-^
Area
•
Area
■i-
Area
-h
Area
diam-
diam-
diam-
diam-
diam-
eter
eter
eter
eter
eter
.266
.16755
.313
.21015
.36
.25455
.407
.30024
.454
.34676
.267
.16843
.314
.21108
.361
.25551
.408
.30122
.455
.34776
.268
.16932
.315
.21201
.362
.25647
.409
.30220
.456
.34876
.269
.17020
.316
.21294
.363
.25743
.41
.30319
.457
.34975
.27
.17109
.317
.21387
.364
.25839
.411
.30417
.458
.35075
.271
.17198
.318
.21480
.365
.25936
.412
.30516
.459
.35175
.771
.17287
.319
.21573
.366
.26032
.413
.30614
.46
.35274
.273
.17376
.32
.21667
.367
.26128
.414
.30712
.461
.35374
.274
.17465
.321
.21760
.368
.26225
.415
.30811
.462
.35474
.275
.17554
.322
.21853
.369
.26321
.416
.30910
.463
.35573
.276
.17644
.323
.21947
.37
.26418
.417
.31008
.464
.35673
.277
.17733
.324
.22040
.371
.26514
.418
.31107
.465
.35773
.278
.17823
.325
.22134
.372
.26611
.419
.31205
.466
.35873
.279
.17912
.326
.22228
.373
.26708
.42
.31304
.467
.35972
.28
.18002
.327
.22322
.374
.26805
.421
.31403
.468
.36072
.281
.18092
.328
.22415
.375
.26901
.422
.31502
.469
.36172
.282
.18182
.329
.22509
.376
.26998
.423
.31600
.47
.36272
.283
.18272
.33
.22603
.377
.27095
.424
.31699
.471
.36372
.284
.16362
.331
.22697
.378
.27192
.425
.31798
.472
.36471
.285
.18452
.332
.22792
.379
.27289
.426
.31897
.473
.36571
.286
.18542
.333
.22886
.38
.27386
.427
.319%
.474
.36671
.287
.18633
.334
.22980
.381
.27483
.428
.32095
.475
.36771
.288
.18723
.335
.23074
.382
.27580
.429
.32194
.476
.36871
.289
.18814
.336
.23169
.383
.27678
.43
.32293
.477
.36971
.29
.18905
.337
.23263
.384
.27775
.431
.32392
.478
.37071
.291
.189%
.338
.23358
.385
.27872
.432
.32491
.479
.37171
.292
.19086
.339
.23453
.386
.27969
.433
.32590
.48
.37270
.293
.19177
.34
.23547
.387
.28067
.434
.32689
.481
.37370
.294
.19268
.341
. 23642
.388
.28164
.435
.32788
.482
.37470
.295
.19360
.342
.23737
.389
.28262
.436
.32887
.483
.37570
.296
.19451
.343
.23832
.39
.28359
.437
.32987
.484
.37670
.297
.19542
.344
.23927
.391
.28457
.438
.33086
.485
.37770
.298
.1%34
.345
.24022
.392
.28554
.439
.33185
.486
.37870
.299
.19725
.346
.24117
.393
.28652
.44
.33284
.487
.37970
.3
.19817
.347
.24212
.394
.28750
.441
.33384
.488
.38070
.301
.19908
.348
.24307
.395
.28848
.442
.33483
.489
.38170
.302
.20000
.349
.24403
.396
.28945
.443
.33582
.49
.38270
.303
.20092
.35
.24498
.397
.29043
.444
.33682
.491
.38370
.304
.20184
.351
.24593
.398
.29141
.445
.33781
.492
.38470
.305
.20276
.352
.24689
.399
.29239
.446
.33880
.493
.38570
.306
.20368
.353
.24784
.4
.29337
.447
.33980
.494
.38670
.307
.20460
.354
.24880
.401
.29435
.44o
.34079
.495
.38770
.308
.20553
.355
.24976
.402
.29533
.449
.34179
.496
.38870
.309
.20645
.356
.25071
.403
.29631
.45
.34278
.497
.38970
.31
.20738
.357
.25167
.404
.29729
.451
.34378
.498
.39070
.311
.20830
.358
.25263
.405
.29827
.452
.34477
.499
.39170
.312
.20923
.359
.25359
.406
.29926
.453
.34577
.5
.39270
528 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table 88. — Measures
Linear Measurb
12 inches = 1 foot.
3 feet = 1 yard.
6.5 yards, or 16.6 feet = 1 rod, pole, or percli.
40 rods, or 220 yards = 1 furlong.
8 furlongs, or 1,760 yards, or 6,280 feet. = 1 mile.
Metric Measure
10 millimeters (mm.) — 1 centimeter (cm.).
10 centimeters = 1 decimeter (dm.).
10 decimeters = 1 meter (m.).
10 meters = 1 decameter (Dm.).
10 decameters = 1 hectometer (Hm.).
10 hectometers = 1 kilometer (Km.).
Equivalent Linear Measures
French British and U. S.
1 meter = 39.37 inches, or 3.281 feet, or 1.094 yards.
.3048 meters = 1 foot.
1 centimeter = .3937 inch.
2.64 centimeters = 1 inch.
1 millimeter = .03937 inch, or }'it inch approx.
26.4 millimeters — 1 inch.
1 kilometer = 1093.61 yards, or .62137 mile.
Square Measure
144 square inches = 1 square foot.
9 square feet = 1 square yard.
30 H square yards, or 272>^ square feet = 1 square rod.
160 square rods, or 43,660 square feet = 1 acre.
640 acres — 1 square mile.
Cubic Measure
1,728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot.
27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard.
Liquid Measure
4 gills = 1 pint.
2 pints = 1 quart.
4 quarts = 1 gallon.
SlH gallons = 1 barrel.
2 barrels, or 63 gallons = 1 hogshead.
1 gallon (U. S.) =231 cubic inches.
1 gallon (British) = 277.274 cubic inches.
1 cubic foot = 7.4806 gallons (U. S.).
1 liter ( = 1 cubic decimeter) = 61.023 cubic inches.
MATHEMATICS 529
Tablb 89. — Weights and Measures
Avoirdupois
437 . 5 grains = 1 ounce.
16 ounces, or 7,000 grains « 1 pound.
100 pounds B 1 hundredweight (cwt.).
20 cwt. or 2,000 pounds » i ton.
2,240 pounds <« 1 long ton.
Trot
24 grains = 1 'penny weight (pwt.).
20 pwt., or 480 grains « 1 ounce.
12 ounces, or 5,760 grains — 1 pound.
NoTK. — The grain is the same in Avoirdupois and Troy weights.
Metric System
10 milligrams (mg.) « 1 centigram (eg.).
10 centigrams = 1 decigram (dg.).
10 decigrams » i gram (g.).
10 grams « 1 decagram (Dg.).
10 decagrams » 1 hectogram (Hg.).
10 hectograms = 1 kilogram (Kg.).
1,000 kilograms » 1 ton (T.).
Note. — The gram is the weight of 1 cubic centimeter of distilled water
at a temperature of 39.2°F. The kilogram is th6 weight of 1 liter of water.
The ton is the weight of 1 cubic meter of water.
Equivalent Weights
1 gram (Metric) » 15.432 grains (Avoir.).
.0648 gram (Metric) = i grain (Avoir.).
28.35 grams (Metric) » 1 ounce (Avoir.).
1 kilogram (Metric) « 2.2046 pounds (Avoir.).
.4536 kilograms (Metric) » 1 pound (Avoir.).
1 ton (Metric) » 2,205 pounds (Avoir.).
34
530
PLUMBERS'
HANDBOOK
Tablk 90.— CiRcnuTERBNCBs AND Areas
OF ClBCLE
Advaocing by Eighths ^4 to 33
Cir-
Cir-
Cir-
Area
DiHm-
Area
Diam-
Ara
eter
enee
enM
"S^
^i~
04W>
00019
^
7 4613
4.4301
6 H
19 242
29. M
ii'i
30. <^
H*
ilflj.
:i»i73
SS4(
9087
31. 9;^
.19635
.00307
050:
5
1572
M
.2MS;
.00690
2461
i
41 P9
H
Z0!8I3
M.C.
H
M
2r.206
an
M%
4
21.598
37. i;
«.
.saws
.02761
2126
1
21.9*1
!ls
.68722
.IB758
1.
m*
\
S!
M
2Z.384
Ji'.!r
41.11
M
.78M0
H
23!l6i9
42. ;i'
**"
.MISJ
:06213
3
4248
0686
»
Z3.562
.»8175
.07670
9
62
3662
M
4S.V-
.07W
1
a
1
6699
24'347
fl.ir
H
,1781
7
JS
24.740
«.Te
'M.
: 2962
25.t33
50.2^
^^0
. 5033
6179
M
25. SIS
'|4»
.4726
. 7257
in
I
799
1
S
»
26^311
5i(»
H
.5706
'w
996
^
26.704
56.7<;
1
.6690
. M.
19
M
.7671
M
388
321
H
g.OW
io:ii:
.865)
11
58
1C
680
M
27.882
61. ac
H
.96JS
H
78
045
28.274
63. ii:
'11,
.0617
•M.
977
M
M.667
6SW
JM»
,1598
.37122
793
.2580
.40574
1
12
177
69:01'
>j
5*6
70. h;
;4
.1562
.44179
H
301238
72.71(
'*=>
*
959
^4
30,631
74.W
151.
;5525
:5I849
^0
1
15
772
!*
31.023
»fSj
.6507
.55914
H
1
35
H
186
w'
31.416
78:s«
Ji
.7<89
.60132
Wo
I
607
31.809
80. lie
>H=
:X'
H
32.201
«2.tl>
:94S2
i.
15
466
«
32.594
84. HI
•M°
.(MM
.7)708
1
137
IS
904
14
32.987
86. H<
Mt
I
314
349
88.664
.7854
M
1
530
M
33^772
90.763
'U
:3379
.8866
'M«
1
726
257
34-165
92.»
if.
.5W3
.■?!19
y.
1
92)
17
721
34.558
.7)06
119
If
190
H
97:2K
K
Ji'
i
99.4IU
w.
•li.
1!
35:736
1016:
»
«.jr97
s
708
19
635
M
36.128
103.0
a*
4.5160
Ma
1
904
20
129
36.521
4.7124
.767
1
101
2(
H
4ta
4.9087
.917
1
Ji
M
5.1051
.0739
!4
1
113:10
5.30H
.2)6
|i
690
2!
H
1IS.«
«'
5,4978
.MS
1
886
2;
691
M
•?1.
;f«
1
082
221
\x.a
>*
5^8905
!761
'(4
H
6.0868
,948
301
5i
39:663
671
24
850
M
40.055
6.2812
3.1416
Hf.
1
868
25
406
40.448
4.4795
3.3410
1
064
2!
967
13^
l«
3.5466
'Mo
1
261
U
,Ii
1
457
109
u
4i:&26
7:068«
1
23
688
H
42.019
140:30
51.
7.2649
4.2000
*
1
850
21
174
M
42.412
MATHEMATICS
Table 90. — {Conttnued)
Cii-
Cir-
Cir-
Dism-
Diun-
-""
fw-
Bter
fer-
.u.
™«
13 H
12. HH
145.80
21 Ji
68 722
375.83
30M
94.640
712 76
H
4:
97
\li
49
69
115
13
9S
033
7ia
69
n
9»
20
508
38-
46
i
9!
42
72.
64
962
n
9O0
3»
82
M
75
156
70
7C
M
9t
i
68
l«
M
7
686
5i
96
30
7
079
W.
04
6
96
99
748
69
49
31
97
38
754
77
6
946
16!
J*
7
864
97
K
97
87
H
«
36
17C
87
",
7
157
7M
1'^
78
7
00
i
14
7
56
M
31
H
517
I7S
67
7
13
51
47
909
m
65
827
73
4t
220
43«
J*
100
I8f
44!
01
32
100
531
804
25
191
75
M
100
m
34
i
194
83
J9«
39
86
197
791
457
101
709
201
4*1
86
H
102
102
58
i
65B
204
21
64
M
102
494
97
$
D5I
203
39
7
969
»
101
887
i
5
444
77
362
26
;t
t
77
W
481
33
iro
i73
^i
129
217
78
48i
98
W
104
065
622
22t
35
78
87
N
104
t5»
31
zi
65
78
^i
104
K
n'
407
22t
79
500
i
BOO
79
50!
71
M
105
636
888
XI
H
54
71
80
71
M
106
029
894
H
M
10
BO
J*
106
121
901
H
24C
80
907
84
M
107
20:
763
243
45
)3
H
107
600
156
25C
95
82
H
107
9«
06
IB'
47
82
467
W
«
H
941
U
860
546
941
232
551
5S
109
948
57
727
26!
76
J*
109
563
9S5
»
ii
5f
80
84
35
956
962
H
m
84
430
a
348
00
905
823
572
56
J*
298
21',
81
ST!
87
690
283
53
85
H
52:
989
80
M
27
86
m
5S
}»
86
394
593
«
86B
291
86
m
599
37
Ji
W
261
298
65
87
604
81
'*W
)97
1017
H
654
302
49
87
27
1025
H
046
yx
35
87
11
1032
6
88
621
26
2o'''
88
626
80
!■*
31!
10
89
632
M
1 5
061
1053
322
89
63!
?i
1 5
454
1060
7
010
32t
89
■il&
,/'
846
11)68
)
(S
403
90
321
6«
18
^«
64
795
334
90
654
M
1 6
632
1082
5i
«!
338
91
M
1 7
02<
1089
J6
5BI
91
bbt
?6
41J
892
67F
66
366
284
677
71
202
H
66
759
56
W
1 8
596
H
67
9
6ffi
30
118
988
1 26
a
»
9
462
38
381
67
937
367
18
855
98
ii
68
330
371
54
706
86
632
PLUMBERS'
HANDBOOK
Table '
91. — Decimals of a Foot fob Inches ani> Fbac-
TioNS OF AN Inch
Inch
0
in.
1
in.
2
in.
3
in.
4
in.
5
in.
6
in.
7
in.
8
in.
9
in.
10
in.
1
11
in.
0
0
.0833
.1667
.2500
.3333
.4167
.5000
.5833
.6667
.7500
.8333 .9167
M2
.0026
.0859
.1693
.2526
.3359
.4193
.5026
.5859
.6693
.7526
.8359 .9193
Me
.0052
.0885
.1719
.2552
.3385
.4219
.5052
.5885
.6719
.7552
.8385 .92:^
Hi
.0078
.0911
.1745
.2578
.3411
.4245
.5078
.5911
.6745
.7578
.8411
.9243
H
.0104
.0937
.1771
.2604
.3437
.4271
.5104
.5937
.6771
.7604
.8437
.927!
Hi
.0130
.0964
.1797
.2630
.3464
.4297
.5130
.5964
.6797
.7630
.8464
.9297
He
.0156
.0990
.1823
.2656
.3490
.4323
.5156
.5990
.6823
.7656
.8490
.932>
H2
.0182
.1016
.1849
.2682
.3516
.4349
.5182
.6016
.6849
.7682
.8516
.934?
H
.0208
.1042
.1875
.2708
.3542
.4375
.5208
.6042
.6875
.7708
.8542
.9375"
H2
.0234
.1068
.1901
.2734
.3568
.4401
.5234
.6068
.6901
.7734
.8568
.9«
Me
.0260
.1094
.1927
.2760
.3594
.4427
.5260
.6094
.6927
.7760
.8594
.9427
m2
.0286
.1120
.1953
.2786
.3620
.4453
.5286
.6120
.6953
.7786
.8620
.9453
H
.0312
.1146
.1979
.2812
.3646
.4479
.5312
.6146
.6979
.7812
.0040
.9479
^2
.0339
.1172
.2005
.2839
.3672
.4505
.5339
.6172
.7005
.7839
.8672
.9505
Me
.0365
.1198
.2031
.2865
.3698
.4531
.5365
.6198
.7031
.7865
.8698
.9531
m2
.0391
.1224
.2057
.2891
.3724
.4557
.5391
.6224
.7057
.7891
.8724
.9557
H
.0417
.1250
.2083
.2917
.3750
.4583
.5417
.6250
.7083
.7917
.8750
.9583
1^2
.0443
.1276
.2109
.2943
.3776
.4609
.5443
.6276
.7109
.7943
.8776
.9609
Me
.0469
.1302
.2135
.2969
.3802
.4635
.5469
.6302
.7135
.7969
.8802
.9635
1^3
.0495
.1328
.2161
.2995
.3828
.4661
.5495
.6328
.7161
.7995
.8828
.966'
5i
.0521
.1354
.2188
.3021
.3854
.4688
.5521
.6354
.7188
.8021
.8854
.96aB
2^2
.0547
.1380
.2214
.3047
.3880
.4714
.5547
.6380
.7214
.8047
.8880
.9714
iHe
.0573
.1406
.2240
.3073
.3906
.4740
.5573
.6406
.7240
.8073
.8906
.974D
2^2
.0599
.1432
.2266
.3099
.3932
.4766
.5599
.6432
.7266
.8099
.8932 .9766
^4
.0625
.1458
.2292
.3125
.3958
.4792
.5625
.6458
.7292
.8125
.8958 .979:
a^^2
.0651
.1484
.2318
.3151
.3984
.4818
.5651
.6484
.7318
.8151
.8984
.981!
iMe
.0677
.1510
.2344
.3177
.4010
.4844
.5677
.6510
.7344
.8177
.9010
.984*
3J^2
.0703
.1536
.2370
.3203
.4036
.4870
.5703
.6536
.7370
.8703
.9036
.987t
Ji
.0729
.1562
.23%
.3229
.4062
.48%
.5729
.6562
.73%
.8229
.9062
.9fl9D
a%2
.0755
.1589
.2422
.3255
.4089
.4922
.5755
.6589
.7422
.8255
.9089
.9922
iMe
.0781
.1615
.2448
.3281
.4115
AXiAA
.5781
.6615
.7448
.8281
.9115
QQiJt
«J^2
.0807
.1641
.2474
.3307
.4141
.4974
.5807
.6641
.7474
.8307
.9141
.9974
I
i.oonp
MATHEMATICS
533
Table 92. — Squares, Cubes, Square Roots and Cube
Roots of Numbers from 1 to 99
>To. 1
Square
Cube
Square
root
Cube
root
No.
Square
Cube
Square
root
Cube
root
.1
.01
.001
.3162
.4642
3.1
9.61
29.791
1.761
1.458
.15
.0225
.0034
.3873
.5313
.2
10.24
32.768
1.789
1.474
.2
.04
.008
.4472
.5848
.3
10.89
35.937
1.817
1.489
.25
.0625
.0156
.500
.6300
.4
11.56
39.304
1.844
1.504
.3
.09
.027
.5477
.6694
.5
12.25
42.875
1.871
1.518
.35
.1225
.0429
.5916
.7047
.6
12.96
46.656
1.897
1.533
.4
.16
.064
.6325
.7368
.7
13.69
50.653
1.924
1.547
.45
.2025
.0911
.6708
.7663
.8
14.44
54.872
1.949
1.560
.5
.25
.125
.7071
.7937
.9
15.21
59.319
1.975
1.574
.55
.3025
.1664
.7416
.8193
4.
16.
64.
2.
1.5874
.6
.36
.216
.7746
.8434
.1
16.81
68.921
2.025
1.601
.65
.4225
.2746
.8062
.8662
.2
17.64
74.088
2.049
I.6I3
.7
.49
.343
.8367
.8879
.3
18.49
79.507
2.074
1.626
.75
.5625
.4219
.8660
.9086
.4
19.36
85.184
2.098
1.639
.8
.64
.512
QAAA
.9283
.5
20.25
91.125
2.121
1.651
.85
.7225
.6141
.9219
.9473
.6
21.16
97.336
2.145
1.663
.9
.81
.729
.9487
.%55
.7
22.09
103.823
2.168
1.675
.95
.9025
.8574
.9747
.9830
.8
23.04
110.592
2.191
1.687
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
.9
24.01
117.649
2.214
1.696
1.05
1.1025
1.158
1.025
1.016
5.
25.
125.
2.2361
1.7100
I.I
1.21
1.331
1.049
1.032
.1
26.01
132.651
2.258
1.721
1.15
1.3225
1.521
1.072
1.048
.2
27.04
140.608
2.280
1.732
1.2
1.44
1.728
1.095
1.063
.3
28.09
148.877
2.302
1.744
1.25
1.5625
1.953
1 . 1 18
1.077
.4
29.16
157.464
2.324
1.754
1.3
1.69
2.197
1.140
1.091
.5
30.25
166.375
2.345
1.765
1.35
1.8225
2.460
1.162
1.105
.6
31.36
175.616
2.366
1.776
1.4
1.96
2.744
1.183
1.119
.7
32.49
185.193
2.387
1.786
1.45
2.1025
3.049
1.204
1.132
.8
33.64
195.112
2.408
1.797
1.5
2.25
3.375
1.2247
1.1447
.9
34.81
205.379
2.429
1.807
1.55
2.4025
3.724
1.245
1.157
6.
36.
216.
2.4495
1.8171
1.6
2.56
4.096
1.265
1.170
.1
37.21
226.981
2.470
1.827
1.65
2.7225
4.492
1.285
1.182
.2
38.44
238.328
2.490
1.837
1.7
2.89
4.913
1.304
1.193
.3
39.69
250.047
2.510
1.847
1.75
3.0625
5.359
1.323
1.205
.4
40.%
262.144
2.530
1.857
1.8
3.24
5.832
1.342
1.216
.5
42.25
274.625
2.550
1.866
1.85
3.4225
6.332
1.360
1.228
.6
43.56
287.4%
2.569
1.876
1.9
3.61
6.859
1.378
1.239
.7
44.89
300.763
2.588
1.885
1.95
3.8025
7.415
1.3%
1.249
.8
46.24
314.432
2.608
1.895
2.
4.
8.
1.4142
1.2599
.9
47.61
328.509
2.627
1.904
.1
4.41
9.261
1.449
1.281
7.
49.
343.
2.6458
1.9129
.2
4.84
10.648
1.483
1.301
.1
50.41
357.911
2.665
1.922
.3
5.29
12.167
1.517
1.320
.2
51.84
373.248
2.683
1.931
.4
5.76
13.824
1.549
1.339
.3
53.29
389.017
2.702
1.940
.5
6.25
15.625
1.581
1.357
.4
54.76
405.224
2.720
1.949
.6
6.76
17.576
1.612
1.375
.5
56.25
421.875
2.739
1.957
.7
7.29
19.683
1.643
1.392
.6
57.76
438.976
2.757
1.966
.8
7.84
21.952
1.673
1.409
.7
59.29
456.533
2.775
1.975
.9
8.41
24.389
1.703
1.426
.8
60.84
474.552
2.793
1.983
3.
9.
27.
1.7321
1.4422
.9
62.41
493.039
2.811
1.992
534
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table 92. — {Continued)
No.
Square
Cube
Square
root
Cube
root
No.
Square
Cube
Square' Ci.
root
roo
8.
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
9.
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
64.
65.61
67.24
68.89
70.56
72.25
73.%
75.69
77.44
79.21
81.
82.81
84.64
86.49
88.36
90.25
92.16
94.09
%.04
98.01
100
121
144
169
196
225
256
289
324
361
400
441
484
529
576
625
676
729
784
841
900
961
1024
1089
1156
1225
12%
1369
1444
1521
1600
1681
1764
1849
1936
512.
531.441
551.368
571.787
592.704
614.125
636.056
658.503
681.472
704.969
729.
753.571
778.688
804.357
830.584
857.375
884.736
912.673
941.192
970.299
1000
1331
1728
2197
2744
3375
40%
4913
5832
6859
8000
9261
10648
12167
13824
15625
17576
19683
21952
24389
27000
29791
32768
35937
39304
42875
46656
50653
54872
59319
64000
68921
74088
79507
85184
2.8284
2.
45
.2025
2.846
2.006
46
2116
2.864
2.017
47
2209
2.881
2.025
48
2304
2.898
2.033
49
2401
2.915
2.041
50
2500
2.933
2.049
51
2601
2.950
2.057
52
2704
2.966
2.065
53
2809
2.983
2.072
54
2916
3.
2.0801
55
3025
3.017
2.068
56
3136
3.033
2.095
57
3249
3.050
2.103
58
3364
3.066
2.110
59
3481
3.062
2.118
60
3600
3.098
2.125
61
3721
3.114
2.133
62
3844
3.130
2.140
63
3fVf
3.146
2.147
64
40%
3.1623
2.1544
65
4225
3.3166
2.2240
66
4356
3.4641
2.2894
67
3.6056
2.3513
68
4624
3.7417
2.4101
69
4761
3.8730
2.4662
70
4900
4.
2.5198
71
5041
4.1231
2.5713
72
5184
4.2426
2.6207
73
5329
4.3589
2.6684
74
5476
4.4721
2.7144
75
5625
4.5826
2.7589
76
5776
4.6904
2.8020
77
5929
4.7958
2.8439
78
6064
4.8990
2.8845
79
6241
5.
2.9240
80
6400
5.0990
2.9625
81
6561
5.1%2
3.
82
6724
5.2915
3.0366
83
6889
5.3852
3.0723
84
7056
5.4772
3.1072
85
7225
5.5678
3.1414
86
73%
5.6569
3.1748
87
7569
5.7446
3.2075
88
7744
5.8310
3.23%
89
7921
5.9161
3.2711
90
8100
6.
3.3019
91
8281
6.0828
3.3322
92
8464
6.1644
3.3620
93
8649
6.2450
3.3912
94
6836
6.3246
3.4200
95
9025
6.4031
3.4482
96
9216
6.4807
3.4760
97
9409
6.5574
3.$034
3.5303
98
9604
6.6332
99
9801
91125
97336
103823
1 10592
117649
125000
I3265I
140608
148877
157464
166375
175616
185193
195112
205379
216000
226981
238328
250047
262144
274625
2874%
300763
314432
328509
343000
357911
373246
369017
405224
421675
436976
456533
474552
493039
512000
531441
55i:
57i;
592704
614125
636056
656503
681472
704969
729000
753571
778686
804357
630564
857375
684736
912673
941192
970299
6.7082 13.33!
6.7823 ,3.5e
6.8557 3.al
6.9282 '3.<L^
7. !3.t5*
7.0711 3.eM
7.I4I4 (3 7H
7.2III ,3.r.
7.2801 i3.73r
7.3485 i3 7?
7.4162 '3.8P
7.4833 I3.«2r
7.5496 I3.84r
7.6158 |3 ST"
7.6811 !3.^v
7.7460 I3.0'
7.8102 3.35.
7.8740 '3.or«
7.9373 3 97
8. 14.
8.0623 I4.02'
8.1240 AM.
8.1854 kOt
8.2462 i4.0f
8.3066 I4.IC
8.3666
8.4261
8.4853
8.5440
8.6023
\r
I*
8.6603 14.21::
8.7178 |4.£^
8.7750 '4.25.
8.8318
8.8882
8.9443
9.
9.0554
9.1104
9.1652
9.2195
9.2736
9.3274
9.3606
9.4340
9.4666 4.48W
9.5394
9.5917
9.6437
4.27:
4.299
4.30F
4.32t'
4.34*
4.36:
4.379
4.3<W
4.41*
4.43*
4.44«
4.464'
4.W
4.5I«
4.53ff
9.6954 4.5M
9.7468 4.5629
9.7960 4.578»
9.8469 4.5947
9.8995 4.6101
9.9499 4.6261
MATHEMATICS
535
Table 93. — Decimal Equivalentb of Fbactionb of One
Inch
^4
.015625
1564
.265625
»%4
.515625
m*
.765625
^a
.03125
Ha '
.28125
ij^a
.53125
«Ha
.78125
H4,
.046875
1^4
.296875
»%4
.546875
»H4
.796875
M«
.0625
Me
.3125
M«
.5625
iM«
.8125
f€4
.078125
«^4
.328125
«%4
.578125
«^4
.828125
^2
.09375
iHa
.34375
^ia
.59375
^H2
.84375
^4,
.109375
m^
.359375
»%4
.609375
«fi4
.859375
H
.125
•
.375
H
.625
%
.875 •
%i.
.140625
8^4
.390625
*H4
.640625
»H4
.890625
^2
.15625
iHa
.40625
a^a
.65625
a^ia
.90625
1^4
.171875
«H4
.421875
*964
.671875
»W4
.921875
M«
.1875
M«
.4375
iH«
.6875
ifi«
.9375
1%4
.203125
»964
.453125
*5€4
.703125
•H4
.953125
H2
.21875
ifia
.46875
»5ia
.71875
»^a
.96875
i9€4
.234375
»H4
.484375
*J64
.734375
•W4
.984375
H
.25
H
.50
94
.75
1
I.
■»
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
MATHEMATICS
I A
= 1 i
I ^ I
I. e
538
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Table 95.-
-{Continued)
Primary Discount
Secondary
•
Discount
1
40
42^
45
47>i
50
52^4
55
57H
60 62'.
1
0
.60000 .57500
.55000
.52500
.50000
.47500 .45000 .42500 .40000 .373ff
2H
.585
.56063
.53625
.51188
.4875
.46313
.43875;. 41438
i.39
.365t:
5
.57
.54625
.5225
.49875
.475
.45125
.4275
.40375
.38
.356:
5 2H
.55575
.53259
.50944
.48628
.46313
.43997
.41681
.39366
» .3705
.343:-
55
.5415
.51894
.49638
.47381
.45125
.42869 .40613
.38356
.361
.338**
5 5 2H
.52796
.505%
.48397
.46194
.43997
.41797
.39597
.37397
.35198
.329*
7H
.555
.53188
.50875
.48563
.4625
.43938
.41625
.39313
.37
.346!"
7^2V4
.54113
.51858
.49603
.47348
.45094
.42839
.40584
.3833
.36075
.33a:
7^5
.52725
.50529
.48331
.46135
.43938
.41741
.39544
.373^
.3515
.3295«
10
.54
.5175
.495
.4725
.45
.4275
.405
.3825
.36
.3375
10 2V^
.5265
.50456
.48263
.46069
.43875
.41681
.37294
.351
.329(1
10 5
.513
.49163
.47025
.44888
.4275
.40613
.38475
.36338
.342
.32tt:
10 5 2^
.50018
.47933
.45849
.43765
.41681
.39597
.37513
.35429
.33345
.312^
10 7^
.4995 .47869
.45788 .43706
.41625
.39544
.37463
.35381
.333
.3I2I<
10 7H 5
.47453 .45476
.43499 .41521
.39544
.37567
.3559
.33612
.31635
.2965!
10 10
.486
.46575
.4455
.42525
.405
.38475
3645
.34425
.324
.30375
10 10 2H
.47385
.45411
.43436
.41462
.39488
.37514
.35539
.33564
.3159
.2%}t
10 10 5
.4617
.44246
.42323^.40399
.38475
.36551
.34628
.32704
.3078
.2885t
10 10 5 2H
.45016 .4314
.41264
.39389
.37513
.35637
.33762
.31886 .3001
.28135
10 10 10
.4374
.41918
.40095
.38273
3645
.34628
.32805
.30983 .2916
.2n3«
12^
.525
.50313
.48125 .45938
.4375
.41663
.39375
.37188
.35
.32BIJ
12H2^
.51188
.49055
.46922
.4479
.42656
.40622
.38391
.36258
.34125
.31W
12Vi5
.49875
.47797
.45719
.43641
.41563
.3958
.37406
,35329
.3325
.31 in
12H7H
.48563
.4654
.44516
.42493
40469
.38538
.36422
.34399
.32375
.30352
12^ 10
.4725
.45282
.43313
.41344
.39375
.37497
.35438
.33469
.315
.29532
12^ 10 5
•^^UOO
.43018
.41147
.39277
yiMib
.35622
.33666
.31796
.29925
.2805)
12V4 10 5 2L^
.43766
.41943
.40118
.38295
36471
.34732
.32824
.31001
.29177 .27334
12>^ 10 7H
.43706
.41886
.40065
.38243
'36422
.34685
.32780
.30959
.28139 .27317
12H 10 10
.42525
.40754
.38982
.37210
•35438
.33747
.31894
.30122
.2835 .USe^
15
.51
.48875
.4675
.44625
425
.40375
.3825
.36125
.34 ,31875
15 2H
.49725
.47653
.45582 .43510
.4144
.39366
.3730
.35222
.3315 .3IW7
20
.48
.46
.44 .42
.40
.38
.36
.34
.32 .30
i
•
MATHEMATICS
539
Table 95. — {Continued)
Primary DUcount
Secondary
Discount
65
66H
70
72H
75
TIM
80
85
87^
90
)
.35000
.33334
.30000
.27500
.25000
.22500
.20000
.15000
.12500
.10000
2H
.34125
.325
.2925
.26813
.24375
.21938
.195
.14625
.12188
.0975
S
.3325
.31667
.285
.26125
.2375
.21375
.19
.1425
.11875
.095
5 2H
.32419
.30875
.27788
.25472
.23156
.20841
.18525
.13894
.11578
.09263
5 5
.31588
.30083
.27075
.24819
.22563
.20306
.1805
.13538
.11281
.09025
5 5 2H
.30798
.29331
.26398
.24198
.21998
.19799
.17599
.13199
.10999
.08799
754
.32375
.30833
.2775
.25438
.23125
.20813
.165
.13875
.11563
.0925
7Vi 2H
.31566
.30063
.27056
.24802
.22547
.20292
.18038
.13528
.11273
.09019
7H5
.30756
.29292
.26363
.24166
.21969
.19772
.17575
.13181
.10984
.08788
10
.315
.30
.27
.2475
.225
.2025
.18
.135
.1125
.09
10 2H
.30713
.2925
.26325
.24131
.21938
.19744
.1755
.13163
.10969
.08775
10 5
.29925
.285
.2565
.23513
.21375
.19238
.171
.12825
.10688
.0855
10 5 2V4
.29177
.27788
.25009
.22925
.20841
.18757
.16673
.12504
.1042
.08336
I0 7V4
.29138
.2775
.24975
.22894
.20813
.18731
.1665
.12488
.10406
.08325
10 7H 5
.27681
.26363
.23726
.21749
.19772
.17795
.15818
.11864
.09886
.07909
10 10
.2835
.27
.243
.22275
.2025
.18225
.162
.1215
.10125
.081
10 10 2H
.27641
.26325
.23693
.21718
.19744
.17769
.15795
..11846
.09872
.07898
10 10 5
.26933
.2565
.23085
.21161
.19238
.17314
.1539
.11543
.0%19
.07695
10 10 5 2^
.26259
.25009
.22508
.20632
.18757
.16881
.15005
.11254
.09378
.07503
10 10 10
.25515
.243
.2187
.20048
.18225
.16403
.1458
.10935
.09113
.0729
12H
.30623
.29138
.2625
.24063
.21875
.19688
.175
.13125
.10938
.0875
12^4 2^
.29859
.2841
.25594
.23462
.21328
.191%
.17063
.12797
.10665
.08531
12}-i 5
.29094
.27681
.24938
.2286
.20781
.18704
.16625
.12469
.10391
.08313
121/^ 7^
.28328
.^6953
.24281
.22258
.20234
.18211
.16188
.12141
.10118
.08094
121^ 10
.27563
.26224
.23625
.21657
.19688
.17719
.1575
.11813
.09844
.07875
12H 10 5
.26185
.24913
.22444
.20574
.18704
.16833
.14963
.11222
.09352
.07481
12^ 10 52H
.2553
.2429
.21883
.2006
.18236
.14612
.14589
.10942
.09118
.07294
121.^ 10 7Vi
.254%
.24257
.21853
.20033
.18211
.1639
.14569
.10927
.09106
.07284
12H 10 10
.24807
.23602
.21263
.19491
.17719
.15947
.14175
.10632
.08860
.07088
15
.2975
.28333
.255
.23375
.2125
.19125
.17
.1275
.10625
.085
15 VA
.29007
.27625
.24863
.22791
.20719
.18647
.16575
.12432
.10360
.08288
20
.28
.26667
.24
.22
.20
.18
.16
.12
.10
.08
The table gives net amounts of $1.00 after deducting chain
discounts most frequently found in commercial calculations.
Example: To find the net amount of a bill of $258.00 dis-
counted at 25t10-10-5%, refer to the column for the primary-
discount of 25%; read down this column until opposite 10-10-5
in the column of secondary discounts at the left. The net
amount of $1.00 less 25-10-10-5 % is found to be 0.57713. Multi-
plying $258.00 by 0.57713 we find the net amount of the bill to
be $148.00.
SECTIONS 14
CODES
The following code is a fair sample of those in force in various
states throughout the union.
Naturally the differing conditions in various sections of tht
country demand varying requirements; however, the essentk
requirements are much the same in all parts of the country.
The plumber, contractor, and building owner should f amiliaria
himself with the code of his particular state.
ADMINISTRATION
The rules set forth in this standard shall apply to every
establishment within this State.
The owner of every estabUshment shall provide each estab-
lishment therein with water closets in accordance with the
provisions of the standards and with proper and sufBcient
water and plumbing pipes; a proper and sufficient supply of
water to enable the tenant or lessee thereof to comply with the
provisions of these standards.
As an alternative to providing water closets within each
establishment aforesaid, the owner may provide in the public
hallways or other parts of the premises used in common, where
they will be at all times ready and conveniently accessible to all
persons employed on the premises, separate water closets for
each sex and color of sufficient numbers to accommodate all
such persons. Such owner shall keep all water closets at
all times provided with proper fastenings and properly screened,
lighted, ventilated, clean, sanitary, and free from all obscene
writing or marking.
DEFINITIONS
For the application of these rules:
(a) The term Establishment shall mean any place within this
Commonwealth where work is done for compensation to whom-
ever payable, supervision over which has been given by statute
to the Department of Labor and Industry.
(h) The term Workroom shall mean any room in any build-
ing wherein labor is performed.
540
CODES 541
(c) The term Retiring Room shall jnean a room, separate
and apart from the workroom, wherein there is provision for a
sick or injured employe to secure rest and quiet.
(d) The term Dressing Room shall mean that room equipped
with lockers, hooks or other devices for the storage of articles
of clothing.
(e) The term Toilet Room shall mean any room with sohd
walls extending from floor to ceiling containing one or more
water closets or other toilet fixtures. (Toilets or water closets,
individual type, privy or chemical toilet, excepted.)
CO The term Water -Closet Compartment shall mean an
enclosure in a toilet room surrounding an individual water
closet, except those toilets or water closets of the individual
out-door privy and chemically treated type.
(g) The term Chemical Closet shall mean that form of
closet wherein the contents are brought in contact with
chemicals.
(h) The term Urinal shall mean the compartment wherein
urination may be performed.
(i) The term Privy shall mean the toilet-room facilities
which are located outside of buildings wherein persons are
employed.
(J) The term Wash Room shall mean a room equipped with
troughs, wash bowls, shower bath, or other facihties for personal
cleanUness.
(k) The term Shower Bath shall mean the facihties for
washing all the body under a spray of water.
(I) The term Wash Basin shall mean a basin or bowl where-
in personal cleanliness may be secured by washing.
(m) The term Sink shall mean a fixture used for general
cleaning.
(n) The term Trough shall mean a vessel greater in length
than in width or depth, wherein personal cleanUness may be
secured by washing.
(o) The term Existing Installation shall mean installed
prior to July 1, 1920.
(p) The term Hereinafter Installed shall mean installed on
or after July 1, 1920.
(g) The term Department of Health shall mean the State
Health Department.
(r) The term Department shall mean the state Department
of Labor and Industry.
542 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
(s) The term Board shall mean Industrial Board.
(t) The term Commissioner shall mean Commissioner of the
Department of Labor and Industry.
(u) The term Approved shall mean approved by the Indus-
trial Board.
GENERAL
(a) The owner of every establishment shall keep the entire
building well drained and the plumbing thereof in a clean and
sanitary condition, and shall keep the cellar, basement, yard,
areaways, vacant rooms and spaces, and all parts and place
used in common, in a clean, sanitary, and safe condition, and
shall keep such parts thereof as may reasonably be required by
the Department of Health, properly lighted at all hours or
times when said buildings are in use.
(&) Every part of an establishment and of the premises
thereof and the yards, courts, passages, areas or alleys con-
nected with or belonging to the same, shall be kept clean and
shall be kept free from any accumulation of dirt, filth, rubbish,
or garbage in or on the same. The roof, passages, stairs, halls,
basements, cellars, privies, water closets, cesspools, drains, and
all other parts of such buildings and the premises thereof shall
at all times be kept in a clean, sanitary, and safe condition.
(c) Every room in an establishment and the floors, walls,
ceilings, windows and every other part thereof and all fixtures
therein, shall at all times be kept in a clean and sanitary condi-
tion. The walls and ceilings of each room in an establishment
shall be lime-washed or painted, except when properly tiled or
covered with slate or marble with a finished surface. Such
lime wash or paint shall be renewed whenever necessary, as may
be required by the Department of Health.
(d) Every floor shall be kept free from protruding nails,
splinters, holes or loose boards. If any floor is so defective
or in such ill repair that it cannot be kept in a clean and sanitar}*
condition, it shall be replaced by a new floor.
(e) The floor of every workroom shall be maintained so far as
possible in a dry condition. Where wet processes are used, the
floor shall be drained free from liquids, or whenever it is
impracticable to keep it entirely free from liquids, platforms,
mats, or other dry standing places shall be provided, or the
employe shall wear rubber boots.
CODES 543
(/) No person shall expectorate upon the walls, floor or
stairs of any building. One (1) or more cuspidors shall be
provided in every toilet room used by males. In workrooms,
cuspidors shall also be provided whenever required by the
Commissioner. Every cuspidor shall be made of material with
smooth surface, which can be easily cleaned. Where work is
continuous during the twenty-four hours, all cuspidors, if
used, shall be cleaned both night and morning.
(g) Whenever a receptacle is used for waste or refuse which
is Uquid or consists of material liable to decay or have an offen-
sive odor, it shall be made of metal or earthenware or be metal-
Uned and shall not leak. It shall be kept covered, and shall
be washed out as often as is necessary to keep it in sanitary
condition. A covered receptacle shall be kept in the women's
toilet room.
(h) When the sweeping of floors, or the removal of waste or
refuse cannot be done outside of working hours, all sweepings,
waste or refuse shall be removed in such manner as to avoid
raising of dust or odors, as often as is necessary to maintain the
establishment in a clean and sanitary condition.
(t) In all workrooms separate covered receptacles for receiv-
ing papers, clippings or other refuse of that nature, shall be
provided. Such receptacles shall be emptied at least once a
day and oftener if necessary. The employer shall be respon-
sible for the general cleanUness of the shop, and the employes
shall cooperate in its maintenance in a clean and sanitary
condition.
(J) All plumbing fixtures shall be in strict accordance with
State laws and local ordinance.
(k) Connections from toilet fixtures may only be made to
municipal sewers from which sewage is discharged in accordance
with the terms of permits of the Department of Health.
(I) Connections from plumbing fixtures may only be made
to private sewers which were in use prior to April 22, 1905, and
the use of which has not been prohibited by the Department of
Health.
•
RETIRING ROOMS FOR USE OF FEMALES
(a) In every establishment where females are employed, not
less than one (1) retiring room for their exclusive use shall be
provided. Where more than five (5) and not more than ten
544 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
(10) females are employed, the floor space of such room
rooms shall be not less than sixty (60) square feet, and ir
each additional person not less than two (2) square feet S
added thereto.
(6) When a separate hospital or emergency room for the il-
of female employes who are sick or injured, is provided ar
maintained at all times, in addition to such retiring room, or z
case the floor area provided in toilet and wash rooms is mor
than the required amount, a proportionate reduction in flo:'
area of retiring rooms may be made by the Commissioner. .
(c) The walls or partitions of every retiring room shall be c:
solid construction, and shall be at least seven (7) feet high
Translucent glass may be inserted in such walls or partitiozi^
Every retiring room shall be so constructed and maintaiDe:
that privacy shall be secured at all times, and shall be providec
with locker or separate clothes hooks for every female employe
unless such faciUties are elsewhere provided.
(d) Every retiring room shall be enclosed by 'walls wbid
extend to the ceiling, unless provided with windows which have
an area opening directly to out-door air, not less than od€-
tenth (Ko) of the floor area, shall have exhaust ventilatioL
equal to not less than six (6) changes of air per hour at all
times when such rooms are in use. A skyUght shall be deemed
the equivalent of a window provided that it has fixed or movabk
louvres with opening of the net openable area prescribed for
such window. In any such room, enclosed by walls which do
not extend to the ceiling, the Health Department may require
such ventilation as may be necessary.
(e) Every retiring room shall have at least one (1) window
or skyUght opening directly to the out-door air or air shaft,
which shall be so constructed and maintained as to be easily
opened at least one-half {}4) of its required area, except that
in case a separate hospital or emergency room is provided and
maintained at all times for the exclusive use of females, an^
such room has a window or skyUght opening to the outdoor air,
the retiring room shall not be required to have such window or
skyUght.
(/) Every retiring room shall be heated to a temperature of
not less than 68 or 70 degrees Fahrenheit, and shall be so
Ughted that all parts of the room are easily accessible. U
dayUght is not sufiicient for this purpose, artificial illumination
shall be maintained at all times when the room is in use.
^
CODES 545
(g) At least one (1) couch or bed shall be provided in every
establishment for the use of females; where more than forty
(40) and less than one hundred (100) females ar6 employed,
two (2) shall be provided; where more than one hundred (100)
and less than two hundred and fifty (250) females are employed,
three (3) shall be provided, and thereafter at least one (1) for
every two hundred and fifty (250) employes. Unless a separate
hospital or emergency room is provided for the use of females, a
part of the retiring room shall be screened and the couch or
couches placed therein.
TOILET ROOMS
(a) All water-closet compartments, toilet rooms, wash and
dressing rooms, privies and the floors, walls, ceiUngs and surface
thereof, and all fixtures therein, and all water closets and
urinals, troughs and basins, shall at all times be kept and mainr
tained by the employer in good order and repair and in a clean,
odorless and sanitary condition.
(&) In each toilet room, water-closet compartment, or chem-
ical toilet, there shall be provided an adequate supply of
toilet paper, and it shall be of material which will not obstruct
fixtures or plumbing.
(c) The enclosures of all toilet rooms, dressing rooms, or
water-closet compartments and all fixtures shall be kept free
from all indecent writing or marking, and such defacement when
found, shall be at once removed by the employer.
(d) Every toilet room or compartment where adequate
natural Ught is not available, shall be artificially lighted in
accordance with the lighting standards of the Board during the
entire period the building is occupied, so that all parts of the
room are easily visible. The approach to all water closets
shall be kept well Ughted and free from obstructions at all
times.
(e) In all toilet rooms and water-closet compartments and
in all compartments containing urinals, there shall be dis-
played a sign asking the employes to cooperate with the em-
ployer and with each other in maintaining the conveniences
in a sanitary condition. Upon written request to the Health
Department, copies of the following sign will be furnished
without cost:
35
646 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
ATTENTION
These .conveniences have been installed for your
use, not your abuse.
Use wash basins freely, but leave them empty and
clean.
Flush toilets thoroughly after using.
Never throw rubbish into toilets. Put it in the places
provided for that purpose.
Do not attempt to make any adjustment to plumbing
or toilet fixtures.
Careless use of these conveniences causes discomfort
and endangers health.
Do not allow the indifference of yourself or others
to menace your health. Report any misuse or damage
to these accommodations to the proper authority at
once.
•
(/-I) During the period between April 1 and I>ecember 1
all windows in toilet rooms, water closets, urinals, and privies
shall have wire screens not coaser than fourteen (14) mesh
wire, and such screens shall be maintained in good repair.
(/-2) The door opening leading into toilet rooms shall be
similarity screened except where solid doors are provided, and
said screen doors shall open outwards and be fitted with an
effective self-closing device.
(g) There shall be provided separate water-closet compart-
ments or toilet rooms for each sex in every establishment where
both males and females are employed.
(h) These compartments and rooms shall be designated for
the use of males and females and shall be clearly marked " Men'
or ''Women" at the entrance to the toilet room.
(i) No persons of one sex shall be permitted to use the
water-closet compartment or toilet room assigned to the
opposite sex.
(j) Men or boys are not permitted to care for or be in charge
of water closets or toilet rooms which are designated for the
use of women, or vice versa^ but cleaning may be performed by
either sex either before or after the usual hours of employment.
(A;) All toilet facihties hereinafter installed, including ihox
provided to replace existing installations, shall be constructed.
installed, ventilated, lighted and maintained in accordance
with the following rules:
CODES 647
(I) All toilet facilities shall be located conveniently to and
easily accessible from all places where persons are employed.
(m) No toilet facility shall be located more than one floor
above or below the regular place or work of the person for
whose use they are provided except in such buildings as may be
specified by the Board and except in those buildings where
passenger elevators are provided in sufficient numbers and
their use permitted at all times to all employes to reach the
floor or floors on which are located the toilet-room facilities.
(n) No water closet, chemical closet, or urinal shall be main-
tained in any room or have direct connection with any room
in which food products are manufactured or in which unwrapped
food products are prepared, stored, handled, or sold, unless
such toilet fixtures are separated from said room by a vestibule
with doors. The doors of both the toilet room and the
vestibule shall be provided with effective self-closing devices.
(o) Every partition separating a toilet room provided for
males from a toilet room provided for females shall extend
from the floor to the ceiling, and there shall be no direct con-
nection between the toilet rooms either by door or other open-
ing. Existing installations of toilet rooms must be separated
by solid partitions extending from floor to ceiling; provided,
however, that in shops with high ceilings the toilet rooms shall
be ceiled over at least nine (9) feet clear of floor.
(p) The entrance to every toilet facility which opens direct-
into a workroom shall be screened from view by a vestibule
or by a stationary screen located not more than three and one-
half (3K) f66t from the door of the toilet room, extending to a
height of not less than six (6) feet above the floor and extending
not less then two (2) feet beyond each jamb of the entrance door.
(q) Where existing toilet facilities for males and females are
in adjoining toilet rooms and the entrance doors are within
ten (10) feet or less of each other, a stationary screen extending
to a height of not less than six (6) feet above the floor, and in
plan either T- or L-shape shall be built in front of the doors and if
the space permits shall extend not less than two (2) feet beyond
the further jamb of the door leading into said toilet room.
(r) Toilet facilities hereinafter installed shall be located in a
compartment in a toilet room, or the toilet room furnished with
a vestibule or screen as aforesaid.
(s) The outside partitions of all toilet rooms shall be of solid
construction, and made opaque or translucent, but not trans-
648 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
parent, and shall extend from floor to ceiling, or such rooc:
shall be independently ceiled over (except roof -truss constru ^
tion). All partitions separating toilet rooms provided for tl
different sexes, shall be at least two and one-half (2>^) incht
in thickness and constructed of such materials as are not trair
parent or translucent, and they shall be sound proof and z
openings in such partitions shall be permitted.
(0 Every water-closet compartment in toilet rooms used h;
females shall have a door fastened with a latch, lock or boll
Dwarf doors may be used, but shall not be less than forty-
eight (48) inches in height and the top of same shall not be
less than sixty (60) inches from the floor.
(u) The door of every toilet room shall be fitted with a:
effective self-closing device.
(v) The floors and sanitary base at least sixteen (16) inche
high of all toilet rooms shall be water-tight, smooth and con-
structed of a substance that shall be impervious to moisture.
(w) The walls of all toilet rooms shall be smooth and of a
substance that can be readily cleaned and kept clean.
(.t) The ceiUngs of all toilet rooms shall be smooth and of a
substance that can be readily cleaned and kept clean.
WATER CLOSETS
(o) The number of water closets to be provided for each sex,
shall in every case be based upon the maximum number of
persons of that sex employed at any one time on the given floor
or floors or in the given building for which such closets are
provided and according to the following ratio:
WATER CLOSETS
NUMBEB OF PBB80NS
Number of closets
Ratio
1 to 10
1
1 for 10
11 to 25
2
1 for 12H
26 to 50
3
1 for 169i
51 to 80
4
1 for 20
81 to 125
5
1 for 25
For each additional forty-five (45) employes, or fractional part
thereof, one additional water closet shall be provided. When-
ever urinal is supphed, one closet less than the required number
may be provided for males, when more than twenty (20) are
employed, except that the number of closets in such cases may
not be reduced to less than two-thirds the required number.
CODES 549
(&) Every water-closet compartment hereafter installed
shall either be located in a toilet room, or shall be built with a
vestibule and door to screen the interior from view, and the
entrance shall be remote from the entrance to a toilet for the
opposite sex.
(c) Approved sanitary toilets of a number equivalent to the
requirements estabUshed for manufacturing plants in this State,
shall be provided, so located as to be easily accessible to the
men employed on the various levels or stories. Chemical
sanitaries of portable type and durable construction, of such
make as are approved by the Department of Health, are
approved for this purpose. They shall be equipped with
approved agitators, and maintained with chemicals of ascer-
tained efficiency.
(d) Pan, plunger, washout, faucet and long-hopper water
closets shall not be permitted to be hereinafter installed.
Every such closet at present installed, if in foul or leaky condi-
tion, if not in working order, or if the bowl is cracked, shall be
replaced by new installation, provided, however, this prohibi-
tion shall not apply to approved forms of frost-proof closets.
(e) All earthenware traps must have heavy brass floor
plates, soldered to the lead bends and bolted to the trap flange
and the joint made permanently secure and gas-tight.
(/) Every water closet hereinafter installed shall have an
open-front seat made of substantial material; if absorbent
material be used the seat shall be finished with varnish or other
substance to make it impervious to moisture.
(g) No water closets, or urinals, except those with flush
meters, volumeters or similar devices, shall be supplied directly
from the supply pipes.
(h) All water closets must have flushing-rim bowls.
(i) Iron-trough water closets and trough urinals must be
porcelain enameled or galvanized cast iron.
(j) All water closets and other fixtures must be provided
with a sufficient supply of water for flushing, to keep them in a
proper and cleanly condition.
(A:) Water-closet flush pipes must not be less than one and
one-quarter inches, and urinal flush pipes one-half inch in
diameter.
(I) Water closets and urinals within buildings shall be
supplied with water from special tanks or cisterns, which shall
hold not less than six (6) gallons, when full to the level of the over-
550 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
flow pipe, for each closet supplied, excepting automatic r
siphon tanks, which shall hold not less than five (5) i^allons ic
each closet supplied. A group of closets may be flushed froc
one tank, but water closets on different floors must not br
flushed from the same tank, except flush meters, volumeter
or similar devices. The water in said tanks must not be use
for any other purpose.
(m) Flush valves or similar devices od sanitary fixtures muf
be provided with individual controlling stops and must be
connected to a water supply that will maintain a pressure c:
not less than five (5) pounds to the square inch at each device
when it is flushing. Such devices must be of simple constnio
tion which will result in the minimum practicable amount c:
wear and prevent water waste, must be so constructed tha*
they cannot be held open for continuous discharge, and mu>-
fulfill all of the conditions of this paragraph without requiniu
regulation if the static water pressure varies from five (5) t«
seventy-five (76) pounds to the square inch. The quantity c
water discharged by each device at each operation shall t^
within the following Umits:
Water closets and slop sinks 3 to 5 gallons
Pedestal or siphon-jet urinals 2 to 3. 5 gallons
Flush-rim or individual stall urinals 0. 75 to 2 gallons
(n) Two (2) feet of slab or trough urinal shall be consid-
ered equivalent to one individual urinal.
(o) Where less than thirty (30; males are employed, at leas*
one urinal shall be furnished; for between thirty (30) and
eighty (80), two lu-inals, and for each additional eighty (8(;
male employes or fraction thereof one additional urinal shai.
be furnished.
(p) For every urinal fixture or its equivalent, not less than
ninety (90) cubic feet of air space shall be provided whenever
a urinal is located in a compartment or toilet room.
iq) Every urinal hereinafter installed shall be composed c
smooth material that is impervious to moisture. Cast iron
galvanized iron, sheet metal or steel urinals are prohibitet.
. unless coated with vitreous enamel. Where slate is used, r
shall be such quality as to be impervious to moisture.
(r) The floor to a distance of not less than twenty-four (24
inches in front of all urinals shall be constructed of approved
material impervious to moisture, and whenever new wall or
vertical slab urinals are installed, the floor in front of the uriDal^
shall slope toward the urinal drain.
CODES 551
(s) All urinals except of the chemical-closet type shall be
connected by waste pipes to sewers or cess-pools, which sewers
or cess-pools shall be constructed in accordance with the laws,
rules, and regulations of this State and the municipal health
authorities of the locality in which they exist.
(t) Unless water runs continuously over the walls of a urinal,
each urinal shall be provided with an adequate water flush.
When individual tanks are used, the flushing shall be accom-
plished by pedal action or by an automatic device which will
flush the urinal at regular intervals.
(u) In foundries, rolling miUs, blast furnaces, smelting and
metal refining works and such other classes of establishment as
are specified by the Board, urinals need not be enclosed with
partitions provided that they are properly screened, and pro-
vided they are located in rooms which females are not allowed
to enter. For every urinal fixture or its equivalent, not less
than ninety (90) cubic feet of air space shall be provided when-
ever a urinal is located in a compartment or toilet room.
PRIVIES
(a) Privies will only be permitted on premises where there is
no lawful sewer accessible to the premises or obtainable by
construction at a reasonable cost at either public or private
expense, and further only where it is deemed practicable to con-
struct and maintain the privy without any danger of contaminat-
ing a source of drinking water.
(h) In cases where a privy is located on pervious soil and
where there is possibility that the percolation from the privy
endanger a source of drinking water supply, then such privy
shall be provided either with cans or with a tight concrete
vault to receive the excreta. In cases where a privy is located
on an impervious soil, or on a pervious soil, where there is no
danger of contamination of any source of drinking water, then
a pit may be used, provided, however, that the pit be sufficiently
sheathed or lined to prevent danger of the sides caving in.
(c) All privies shall be constructed and maintained so that
there will be no cracks or open joints in that portion of the
superstructure between the seat or floor and the pit, vault or
space where cans are kept. All ventilating openings shall be
provided with fly-tight screens. The doors should be self-
closing, and the lids over the seats so constructed that they fall
552 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
into a closed position when the seat is not occupied. The pi
vault, or space where the cans are kept, should be ventilated to m
outside air by means of a stack protected at its outlet end by fi;
tight screens.
(d) The privy shall be maintaind in a cleanly condition. J
proper receptacle, containing dry, clean earth or pulverize.
lime, shall be kept in the privy and provided with a scoop >
that the earth or lime may be sprinkled upon the excreta in tb
pit. Toilet paper shall be provided. The pit, vault or cat
shall be emptied and cleaned at sufficiently frequent interval
to positively insure against any danger of overflowing.
(e) The night soil removed from privies shall be dispiosed of l-
accordance with rules and regulations of the State Departmen
of Health.
(/) All privies shall be separate for the two sexes and marke:
"Men" and "Women."
(g) Every privy shall be ventilated by an unobstructed
opening to the outer air, other than the door, which has an ares
of at least one-hundred and forty-four (144) square inchft«.
Every privy shall be* provided with a door. Every window an<i
ventilating opening of a privy shall be protected by screens to I
prevent the entrance of flies, with a self-closing device to keep i:
closed.
CHEMICAL CLOSETS
(a) Upon premises where a sewer is not accessible so that
water-closet fixtures cannot be installed, and so-called chemical
closets are used, they shall be maintained as follows:
(b) The containers shall be charged with a proper strength
solution.
(c) After use the contents of the container shall be thorough-
ly agitated with proper devices provided for that purpose.
(d) When the container is not more than two-thirds full, the
contents shall be removed and disposed of as night soil in strict
accordance with the regulations of the Department of Health.
(e) The stacks connecting the seat with the container shall be
thoroughly cleaned at least every two weeks or more frequently
if necessary to maintain them in a sanitary condition.
VENTILATION
(a) All existing toilet rooms and water-closet compartments
and wash rooms not provided with windows that open easily
CODES 553
to the outside air shall be adequately ventilated by artificial
means.
(6) Every toilet room, water closet or urinal compartment,
or wash room hereafter installed shall if possible have a window
opening directly to the outside air or be provided with artifi-
cial ventilation as aforesaid. No such window shall have an
area of less than four (4) square feet, measured between stop
heads, for each water closet or urinal. A skylight shall be
deemed the equivalent of a window, provided that it has
fixed or movable louvres with openings of the net openable
area prescribed for such window.
(c) All exhaust fans shall discharge to the outside air at
such point as not to cause offense to the occupants of the build-
ing or create any nuisance in the neighborhood. Whenever
any air shaft used for ventilating toilet rooms is covered by a
skylight, the net area of openings in the skyUght shall be equal
to at least the required area of the airshaft.
WASHING FACILITIES
(a) Washing facilities for the use of factory employes shall
be furnished according to the following table:
Maximum number
OF
PBR80N8
Feet
OF
TBOUQH
Ratio
8
2
2 for 8
16
4
2 for 8
30
3
2 for 10
44
4
2 for 11
65
5
2 for 13
For each additional twenty-five (25) employes or fractional
part thereof, at least two (2) additional feet of trough shall be
supplied. Each two (^2) feet of trough shall either be equipped
with a spray pipe so arranged that it will supply water of the
proper temperature or two (2) faucets supplying hot and cold
water. The trough shall not be equipped with a plug or other
stopper. In lieu of the trough wash basins will be accepted in
the proportion of one (1) wash basin with faucets supplying
hot and cold water for each two (2) feet of trough.
(6) For the use of oflSce employes, wash basins with two
(2) faucets supplying hot and cold water, shall be furnished
according to the following table:
For Males; one (1) wash basin for each twenty-five (25).
For Females; one (1) wash basin for each thirty-five (35).
554 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
It shall be the duty of all employes to cooperate in the maii
tenance of the washing facilities in a clean and sajiitary cond
tion.
(c) When separate wash rooms are provided, the enclosii.
walls shall be of solid construction. In wash rooms used '
females, such walls shall be not less than seven (7) feethigi
except that when wash rooms used by males and female
adjoin the wall separating such rooms shall be carried to tb
ceiling. Where males only are employed, clear glass may N
used in the walls of such rooms, but in rooms used by female?
the glass, if used, shall be of approved translucency.
(d) Unless the general washing facilities are on the sacH
floor and in proximity to the toilet room, at least one (1) wsl
basin shall be provided in such room or adjacent thereto.
(e) AH basins and sinks shall be so illuminated that all par-
are easily visible at all times during working hours. If dayligh*
is not sufiicient for this purpose, artificial illumination shall K
maintained.
(/) The use of any towel or towels in common is prohibited.
(g) If paper towels are supplied, receptacles for used towel?
shall be provided.
(h) The Industrial Board has ruled that in the application of
the Women's law in mercantile establishments employing more
than fifteen (15) females, Section 9 of that law relative to
wash rooms, dressing rooms, and water closets, shall be inter-
preted as requiring such toilet accommodations for employe^
alone, apart from those provided for the general public.
SHOWER BATHS
In all industries (except those industries wherein a code
already provides for a larger installation), wherein the worker i>
exposed to heat, to humidity, to odors and to dust, there shaU be
provided for each fifty (50) workers or fractional part thereof,
one shower bath with an ample supply of hot and cold water.
For each additional fift}'^ (50) workers, or fractional part
thereof, at least one additional shower bath shall be provided.
DRESSING FACILITIES
Each worker shall be provided with a clean place in which to
change from street clothes to working clothing. A pipe rail
equipped with clothes hangers, and fastened high enough from
CODES 555
h.e floor so as to prevent the clothes from dragging, will be
ccepted by the Department excepting when the workers are:
Proviso: (a) Engaged in handling poisonous materials.
(b) Exposed to injurious dust or fumes.
(c) Excessive heat, humidity, or. fatigue from
physical exertion.
(a) Clear, cool, potable water of a quality approved by the
^tate Department of Health shall be supplied at all times in
Dlaces accessible to employes.
(6) The common drinking cup for public use is prohibited
by State law and by rules and regulations of the State Depart-
ment of Health. Either individual drinking vessels or bubbling
fountains shall be used for the distribution of drinking water.
(c) If bubbling fountains are used, they shall be so con-
structed that it is impossible for the user to place his lips upon
the orifice. It is recommended that the type adopted be such
that the user drinks from an incUned jet of water.
id) BubbUng drinking fountains shall be maintained in a
cleanly condition.
(e) If individual paper drinking cups are used, a suitable
container shall be provided for the discharged cups.
SECTIONS 15
GLOSSARY OF PLUMBING TERMS
Air Chamber. — An extension of the water piping beyond the
branch to fixtures terminating with a cap. The com-
pressed air in this portion of piping prevents any shock a'
vibration of pipe if faucet is closed suddenly.
Air Test. — Test applied to plumbing work after the entire jot
is completed. Only an ounce or so of pressure is necessan*.
This is a very rigid t.est and seldom used except on fine
residence work.
Akron Pipe. — See terra-cotta pipe.
After-fill Tube. — See refill tube.
Angle Valve. — A globe valve whose openings or tappings are
at an angle of 90 deg.
Anneal. — Process of removing the temper or hardness of metal
by heat.
B
Back-water Traps. — A trap with a check or flapper valve
which prevents sewage from entering house during a heavy
storm.
Base Fitting. — A fitting with a pedestal or support used at the
bottom of soil or waste stack.
Basin Wrench. — A wrench which has the jaws at right angles
to the handle. Used to connect basin cock couplings.
Bell Trap. — A trap formed by an inverted cup extending
into a circular trough or ring of water. Used for yard or
cellar drains.
Bending Pin. — Tool used by plumbers to swedge out opening in
lead pipe made by tap borer.
Block Tin. — Tin in its pure state. Used in making soft solder.
When a strip is bent, it give off a crackling sound.
Bossing Stick. — A wooden tool used to shape up sheet lead for
tank lining.
Bi-transit Waste. — Sometimes called standing overflow.
Used on bath and lavatory wastes.
556
GLOSSARY OF PLUMBING TERMS 557
Ball-cock. — Supply valve in tank, operated by a copper ball or
float.
Bibb. — Generally called faucet. It has either a hose end or
plain.
Boiler Tube. — A tube extending from the cold-water inlet of
range boiler to within 6 in. of the bottom of boiler. It
prevents the entering cold water mixing with the hot water
which accumulates at the top of boiler.
Briggs' Standard. — Standard pipe thread as used on screw pipe
in the United States.
Bushing. — A reducing fitting with a male and a female thread.
By-pass. — (1) Independent connection around a large valve.
Also refers to connections made by incompetent workmen
whereby sewer gas may enter the house.
(2) As applied to plumbing work, it is a faulty connection
between waste and vent pipe which allows a direct
connection with sewer, through which sewer gas may enter
building.
Bunsen Burner. — Type of burner in which air is mixed with the
gas, giving it a blue flame and more heat than a yellow
flame.
Ball Joint. — A connection consisting of a ball within a shell,
which allows freedom of swing in all directions.
Bonnet. — The top part of a valve or bibb, the removal of which
is necessary to renew packing.
Bull-headed Tee. — A tee having a branch of larger diameter
than the run.
Crown Vent. — Type of vent which is connected directly to the
crown of trap.
Continuous Vent. — Type of vent which makes the vent practi-
cally a continuation of waste or soil pipe.
Cellar Drainer. — A device by which the discharge from sinks
and lavatories or a floor drain located below the sewer
level may be raised to a point where it will flow into sewer.
It is operated by the city water pressure which is turned
on automatically when water in pit reaches a certain
height.
Cap. — Fitting with female thread used to seal end of pipe.
Chain Tongs. — A wrench used by pipe fitters in which the
upper jaw of wrench is replaced by a chain.
558 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Chase. — ^A recess in wall in which soil, vent and waste 8tacb|
or similar piping is installed.
Check Valve. — An automatic valve which allows the flow
steam water or air only in one direction.
Cleanout Screw. — A device placed on the house drain or wasttl
pipe to allow the use of a wire or cable to remove a stoppar
in piping.
Close Nipple. — A short piece of pipe on which the thread-
abut each other.
Coupling. — A threaded sleeve for connecting two lengths c:
pipe, sometimes called a socket.
Cross. — A four-way tee, or a tee with back outlet.
Cross-over or Saddle Fitting. — ^Used on screw-pipe w^ork wher-
two pipes cross.
Cross-over T. — A combination of a T and a cross over fitting
Cup Joint. — A joint used on lead pipe, made by op>e]iing enc
of pipe enough to receive the tapered end of anothe-
piece. The joint is made with J^ plus J^ solder and s
soldering iron, using rosin as a flux.
Closet Screw. — A long brass screw with detachable head, used
to fasten closet bowl to wood floor.
Closet Bolt. — A brass bolt with nickel plated nut, used to secure
a closet bowl to brass flange, which is soldered to closet
bend.
Corporation Cock. — A stop cock screwed into the street water
main onto which the house service is connected.
Curb -cock. — A T-handled stop cock placed in water main at
the curb and operated with a long key.
Centrifugal Trap. — A trap so constructed as to give the water
when passing through it, a whirling motion, thereby
making the trap self cleaning.
Circulation Pipe. — A return hot-water pipe from a fixture
located considerable distance from the boiler. It insures
hot water immediately when opening the faucet.
Compression Bibb. — This type of bibb requires several turns of
a T-handle to open or close.
Chipping Knife. — Knife used by lead workers for cutting sheet
lead.
Cowl. — Hood on the soil or vent stack.
Curb Box. — A cyUndrical cast-iron box which permits turning
off water or gas at the curb line with a long key.
Caliber. — The internal diameter or bore of a pipe or fitting.
GLOSSARY OF PLUMBING TERMS 559
Caulking. — The process of packing oakum and lead in the hub
of cast-iron pipe.
C.I.F. — Refers to cost, insurance and freight.
Cock. — See stop cock.
Cess -pool. — An underground receptacle for receiving the dis-
charge of waste water from building.
D
Dutchman. — When a lead trap or piece of lead pipe is a trifle
short, say from 3^ to 1 in. a piece, the desired length is
placed so it will come under a wiped joint. This piece is
called a Dutchman.
Dead End. — The end of any line of pipe which has been
extended beyond the last branch, leaving a space for foul
air or water to accumulate.
Dip Pipe. — See boiler tube.
Drifted. — The operation of driving a wooden plug through
lead pipe of corresponding size to remove dents.
Dope. — A trade term given to pipe compound used on screw
pipe.
Drain Air. — Sometimes referred to as sewer air or sewer gas.
It is the air in the sewer above the liquid contents.
Die. — Tool used for threading steel or wrought-iron pipe.
Drainage Fitting. — A fitting used on screw pipe drainage work,
having a shoulder which pipe strikes when screwed into
fitting, and forms a continuous wall with the inside of the
pipe.
Dresser. — A tool used by lead workers to straighten lead pipe
and sheet lead. It is generally made of boxwood.
Drift Plugi — A hard-wood plug which is driven through lead
pipe after it has been straightened, to remove all dents
and kinks.
Drop Ell. — A 90-deg. Ell with lugs on sides by which it may be
screwed to wall or ceiling.
Drop T. — A "T" having lugs on sides by which it may be
screwed to wall or ceiling.
Drum Trap. — A barrel-shaped trap usually made of 4-in. lead
pipe with IJ^-in. inlet and outlet.
Durham Fitting. — See Drainage fitting.
E
Eccentric Fitting. — A fitting whose openings are off center,
allowing all liquids to flow freely from piping.
560 PLUMBERS* HANDBOOK
Elbow. — ^A fitting which changes the direction of pipe, geneif|
90 deg., unless otherwise specified.
EU.— See Elbow.
Escutcheon. — A spun-brass flange used on nickeled pipe
cover opening around pipe at floor or wall.
Electrolysis. — Corrosion of pipe by electricity.
Flush Valve. — ^A valve used for flushing plumbing fixture
generally located in a tank.
Fresh-air Inlet. — A pipe extending from the house side of tb'
main trap to the outside of building, the end of which ^
left open.
Ferrule. — As used in plumbing work, it is a brass sleeve whi;.
is mixed on to the lead pipe and then caulked into the hi:
of cast iron pipe.
Flange Union. — A pair of flanges, threaded to receive scre»
pipe, which can be bolted together with a gasket between
and made air tight. Used on large pipe in place ci
ordinary union.
Flush Bushing. — Bushing having no shoulder, so as to allow ::
to screw into fitting and leave surface flush.
Furnace. — Term applied to plumbers' gasoline or kerosene
firepot.
Flux. — A flux may be in Hquid, paste or powdered form, and
is used in soldering to prevent the heat of the soldering
iron from oxidizing material to be soldered.
Fuller Bibb. — This type of bibb is opened full by one-half-
tum of a lever handle, which operates stem by means of w
eccentric.
Frost-proof Closet. — A closet whose trap and supply valve l<
located in a pit below closet. It is flushed by direct
pressure, the lowering of seat opening supply valve by
means of a chain.
Follower. — An attachment for threading devices, which insures
the cutting of a straight thread.
Galvanizing. — A coating of zinc applied to pipe or sheet iron to
prevent corrosion.
Gasket. — Washer or packing either of metal or rubber compo-
sition used in union or coupling.
GLOSSARY OF PLUMBING TERMS 561
rate Valve. — ^A valve which has a double seat in the form of a
V. When valve is closed, a metal wedge is forced into
the V-eeat closing the passage. It is practically the only
valve opening to the full bore of the pipe.
rlobe Valve. — A globularnshaped valve operating similar to a
compression bibb.
>oose-neck. — A return of 180-deg. bend generally of small
tubing, having one long end.
[>rotind Joint. — A tapered or beveled joint, generally of brass
or copper, which requires no gasket or packing.
[>rease Trap. — Special form of trap used under sink, so con-
structed as to prevent grease from entering sewer.
Ouide. — See follower.
House Drain. — That part of the main horizontal drainage
located within the foundation wall.
House Sewer. — That part of the main horizontal drain located
outside the foundation wall to the point where it connects
with cesspool or street sewer.
Hard Solder. — Generally known as spelter and used in brazing.
An alloy of copper and zinc. Melting point about 1,700**F.
Hub. — The large or receiving end of cast-iron pipe.
Hydrant. — An opening in water main, generally placed out of
doors, for supplying water to stock or watering the town.
It is supplied with a drain which allows all the water in
stand pipe to exhaust automatically to a point below the
frost line.
Hydrostatic Test. — Test applied to "rough work" before build-
ing is plastered, the entire system being filled with water
untU it overflows highest stock.
Hydraulic Ram. — A device by which water may be deUvered
from a distant spring to storage tank in house. Power
for operating the ram is derived from the floor of water at
spring.
Half Y. — Fitting used in drainage work whose branch is at an
angle of 30 deg. to the run. .
J
Joint Runner. — Asbestos rope used for pouring molten lead in
horizontal joints of cast iron pipe.
36
562 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Leeching Cesspool. — ^A cesspool having open joints which al
sewage to seep into the surrounding earth.
Lead. — Oxide of lead mixed with boiled linseed oil. Used'
plumbers for screw joints.
Lock-nut. — A thin hexagonal nut generally used with loJ
screw nipples.
Long Screws. — A nipple 6 in. in length which has one of :
threads several times the length of an ordinary thread.
Lead Wool. — ^Lead in a shredded form used to caulk cast-ip
pipe where the moisture prevents the use of molten lead
Lap Weld. — Method of making steel or wrought-iron pipe :
which the edges of the sheet are beveled and lapped befo:
welding.
Latrine. — A trough form of water closet arranged to accomm
date several persons at a time.
Lock-bibb. — A bibb or faucet so constructed as to allow the u«
of a padlock to prevent it being opened.
Lock-stop. — A stop cock so constructed as to allow the use od
padlock to keep it opened.
Local Vent. — A sheet-metal pipe extending from closet bo^ ft*
urinal to a warm-air flue.
Lead Burning. — The art of uniting lead by welding.
Lead Tacks. — Small pieces of lead which may be soldered to
lead pipe to fasten it to wall or ceiling.
M
Muffer. — A brass sieve or strainer inserted in the inlet of s
supply valve to ehminate the noise of rushing water wheL
valve is opened.
Mercury Gage. — Gage containing a column of mercury. Used
for testing gas work.
Male and Female. — A term used by pipe fitters in referring t*
outside (male) and inside (female) threads.
N
Needle Valve. — A valve whose stem terminates with a metallic
needle point. Used on gas and oil appliances.
Nipple. — A short piece of pipe threaded on both ends.
Nipple Chuck. — A device for holding a nipple while thread i^
being cut on the other end.
GLOSSARY OF PLUMBING TERMS 563
Oaktim. — Old rope pulled into loose hemp and saturated with
oil, making it impervious to moisture.
Open-tank System. — Method of supplying water to the home
by gravity.
One-quarter Bend. — Elbow changing direction of pipe 90 deg.
One-sixth Bend. — Elbow changing direction of pipe 60 deg.
One-fifth Bend. — Elbow changing direction of pipe 72 deg.
One-eighth Bend. — Elbow changing direction of pipe 45 deg.
One-sixteenth Bend. — Elbow changing direction of pipe 22}i
deg.
Pet Cock. — Small cock used for draining various appliances
such as pumps, radiator cylinders, etc.
Pilot Light. — A small flame in automatic gas appliances which
is always burning and ignites gas when fixture is used.
Pop Valve. — A safety valve controlled by a spring, which can be
adjusted to various pressures.
Pipe Cutter. — A tool with knife-edge wheels used to cut steel
or iron pipe.
Peppermint Test. — Test applied to plumbing system using oil
of peppermint and hot water. After all openings are
sealed, peppermint and hot water is introduced through
stack on the roof.
Pneumatic Water Supply. — Method of supplying water to
country home. Water and air is pumped into a closed
tank in the basement and from there deUvered to various
fixtures.
Plunger. — A cup-shaped device of rubber for forcing stoppage
in waste pipe.
Plumber's Soil. — A mixture of lamp black and glue used by
bead workers.
P-trap. — A trap whose diameter is uniform throughout, the
outlet being at right angles to the inlet.
Plumbing. — All work installed inside of building which has to do
with the water supply and the removal of sewage.
Plug Cock. — A stop consisting of a tapered plug, which .fits
accurately into the shell or body of cock. One-quarter
turn of lever handle completely closes passage. Used
on water, air, or gas.
564 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Rain Leader. — Any pipe which conducts rain -wsLter fromtk^
roof.
Rust Joint. — A joint made on cast-iron pipe. The hub is filk
with a paste consisting of Sal Ammoniac 1 oz., iron filing
5 lb., and sulphur 1 oz.
Range Closeti — Type of closet generally used in factories *
mills. The closet bowls are not provided with individni
traps, but all empty into a trough which is flushed by &-
automatic flushing tank.
Receptor. — A shallow fixture of porcelain or iron enamel, use-
with a shower bath.
Refill Tube. — A small brass tube in closet tank which discharge
water through the overflow, thereby insuring closet tr£'
being sealed after flushing.
Return Bend.— A bend which reverses the direction of pipe er
changes its course 180 deg.
Sewer Air or Gas. — The air in sewers caused by the decom-
position of waste matter.
Sewage. — ^The liquid and solid matter which flows through tk
sewer.
Sewerage. — ^The system of public sewers including pumpinc
stations, purification works, etc.
Soft Solder. — An alloy of varying proportions of tin and lead
melting at from 376°F., to 440°F., according to proix>rtioD^
of tin and lead.
Solder. — An alloy of two or more metals which fuse at a lower
temperature than the metal which is to be soldered.
Sweating. — A term used when the piping in a building i*
covered with moisture caused by cold water passing
through pipes which are located in a warm room.
Sweat Joint. — A joint made by means of a flame, instead of
soldering iron.
Sweep Fitting. — Any fitting having a long, easy turn.
Swing Joint. — A connection in screw-pipe work to take care of
• expansion.
Soil Stack. — The vertical line of pipe 4 in. or over, which
receives the discharge of water closets.
Stop Cock. — A device made of cast brass or iron, by which the
GLOSSARY OF PLUMBING TERMS 565
flow of water, gas, or air is controlled. It consists of a
tapered plug or core fitted accurately into a casting, both
of which have a hole through them to correspond to the
diameter of pipe. One-quarter turn of handle entirely
closes passage.
Stop and Waste Cock. — A device similar to the stop cock in
. action and purpose, but which allows all the water on the
house side to stop to drain through a waste outlet in the
side of cock.
Sanitary Sewage. — Foul waste of human or animal origin from
residences or stables, 99 per cent of which is water.
Storm Sewage. — Storm water which flows through the city
streets during and after a storm.
Safe Waste. — Drip pipe from tray or safe under fixture to
drip in basement.
Safe. — Lead lining under the old-style closed-in bath tubs,
closets, or lavatories. Its purpose was to prevent any
leaks around fixture damaging ceiling below.
Smoke Test. — Test applied to new or old plumbing work to
locate any defective fixtures or workmanship. Smoke from
burning oily waste is pumped into plumbing system after
all openings have been sealed.
Service T. — A T having male thread on one end, the other end
and the branch having female threads.
Service Ell. — An elbow of 45 or 90 deg. having male thread on
one end and female on the other.
Sheradizing. — Method of applying galvanizing in the form of a
zinc vapor. Known as the "dry process" of galvanizing.
Shoulder Nipple. — A nipple having a space of J^ to J^ in.
between threads.
Shrunk Joint. — A joint made by placing a heated circular piece
of metal, as a piece of pipe, over a cool piece, the cooling of
which causes it to shrink onto the cooler piece.
Siamese Connection. — A "Y" or fork connection used princi-
pally on firelines, whereby two lines of hose may be
attached to one valve or standpipe.
Skelp. — The name given to the flat strip of metal before it is
formed into a length of screw pipe.
Soil Pipes. — This term is frequently used in referring to cast-iron
pipe, but applies only to such pipe when it receives the
discharge of one or more water closets.
Socket. — A British term for coupling (see couphng).
566 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Spellerizing. — The process of toughing wroughtHsteel pipe by
running the skelp through corrugated rolls.
Spigott. — See bibb.
Sweep. — Name applied to a fitting haying a long turn.
Socket Plug. — A plug having a square socket or recess. A
special wrench is inserted into socket to tighten plug.
Stock. — A threading tool which holds the dies.
Slip Joint. — A connection generally used on nickel waste tubing.
Candle wicking saturated in tallow, or a rubber ring, is
used for packing.
Sub -soil Drain. — A porous-tile drain just outside the founda-
tion wall to prevent seepage of surface water into the
basement.
Septic Tank. — A large tank used for the disposal of sewage in
country homes. It receives the sewage from the house and
automatically discharges it into porous-tile drains through
which it seeps and irrigates the surrounding soil.
Syphon. — The action caused by a vacuum on one side of a trap
and the atmosphere on the other.
Sill Cock. — ^A compression type of hose bibb located on the
outside of building to which a hose may be attached.
Syphon-jet Closet Bowl. — The better type of closet bowl
having a small hole, at the bottom of trap, through which
a jet of water is discharged into trap thereby assisting in
the syphonic action of bowl.
Syphon Washdown. — Popular type of closet bowl having no jet,
but depends on the volume of water to create syphonic
action.
Shave Hook. — ^A small scraper used by lead workers to scrape
lead pipes previous to soldering.
Spelter. — An alloy of copper and zinc used for brazing.
Sump. — A large tank which receives the discharge of all plumb-
ing fixtures below the sewer level. Contents are raised to
sewer by compressed air, or pump.
Sanitary Engineer. — One who lays out the sewerage system and
water supply of a city.
Saddle Fitting. — A hub having a curved flange which may be
bolted to cast-iron pipe over an opening and serve as a
branch.
Service Box. — See curb box.
Street Washer. — A form of hydrant to which a hose may be
attached for sprinkling lawn or street.
GLOSSARY OF PLUMBING TERMS 567
Sitz-bath. — A special form of tub for the immersion of the hips
only.
Slop Sink. — A deep sink generally installed in hotels and public
buildings for disposing of large quantities of water used in
mopping and general cleaning.
T
Trap. — A device holding water which prevents the passage of air
in either direction but will allow a free passage of all
various liquids.
Thermostat. — An automatic device operated by the expansion
and contraction of metal or liquid, and used to close
types of valves at desired temperatures.
Tap. — A tool used for cutting female threads, as in fitting,
valves, etc.
Tin Lined Pipe. — Pipe of brass, iron or lead, with a layer of
block tin on the inside making it non-corrosive.
Tubing. — ^Light-weight pipe, generally of brass or copper, used
in bath rooms for waste connections under fixtures.
Tail-piece. — That part of a coupling over which the loose nut is
placed.
Terra-cotta Pipe. — A glazed clay pipe used for underground
drains.
Tile Pipe. — See terra-cotta pipe.
Tucker Fitting. — A galvanized cast-iron fitting, one end of
which is threaded to receive screw pipe, the other end
being a hub for cast-iron pipe.
Tap Border. — Tool used by plumbers to make opening in lead
pipe for branch joint.
T-Y. — A fitting used in drainage work, whose branch is 90
deg. to the run.
Tapped T. — A cast-iron fitting with hub, having a branch
tapped for screw pipe.
Tight Cesspool. — One having tight joints, which retains all
sewage. This type requires pumping out when full.
Tubing. — Light-weight pipe, generally of brass or copper.
Measured on the outside.
U
Urinal. — A toilet-room fixture intended for men's use. Flushed
by tank or direct city pressure.
Urinette. — A fixture similar to the urinal, but intended for
women's use.
568 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Vent Stack. — ^A vertical line of pipe which extends through •
roof and receives the branch vents of all fixtures.
Valve. — A device placed in pipe line or wherever desire:
control the flow of Uquids, air, or gas. It is operated
several turns of a wheel handle.
Vacuum. — A space devoid of all matter.
Vitreous Ware. — Earthem ware dipped in molten glass ll
subjected to intense heat in kilns.
W
Waste Stack. — The vertical line of pipe 2 in. or over wt
receives the discharge of all fixtures other than W3
closets.
Water Hammer. — The shock caused by the sudden closing o:
bibb or cock. It is overcome by the use of an air cham'*'^
Wiped Joint. — A solder joint made by plumbers or ca'
splicers with the use of a wiping cloth. Solder used
60 per cent lead and 40 per cent tin.
Wiping Cloth. — A pad made of herring-bone ticking or mc;-
skin cloth. Material is folded so as to make a pad of 1
thicknesses.
Water-back Coupling. — A ground-joint connection in pipings
the range which allows water back to be removed witho.
cutting pipe.
Weir. — Name given to a notch cut in a tank or resent-
through which water may flow and be measured.
Washout Bowl. — This type of closet bowl is practical!;
obsolete and is very insanitary, having a large foulii-
surface and depending on the force of the water to cleans
it.
Wye. — A fitting used in drainage work whose branch is at a:
angle of 45 deg. to the run.
Yoke. — A name given to the collar by which lead trap is securfi
to the sink.
SECTION 16
BUSINESS METHODS
Telephone Memorandum Pad. — The name of every person
with whom you converse over the telephone, is jotted down.
Directly under the name, notes should be entered of any
promises made or of any orders taken. After the proper records
have been made, the memorandum on the pad should be crossed
off.
Order Book. Fly Sheet. — Figure 300 illustrates the first step
in this bookkeeping system. The Workman's Order Blank
and Day Book are in pads of 50 sheets each, and each of these
pads has two fly sheets as its first pages. When an order is
received at the shop, a record of it is made on the fly sheet, as
illustrated in Fig. 300.
The date of the job is entered in column 1. In column 2 the
hour is entered. The name and address are entered in column
4. The name of the party against whom the charge is to be
made is entered in column 5. A condensed description of the
work is entered in column 6. If a promise has been made as to
the date the work will be done, such a date is entered in column
7. Any order for material or labor other than a cash
transaction is also entered upon this sheet.
Workman's Order. — The form illustrated in Figs. 301 and
301A has been devised from the many forms submitted. The
entries on the form in Figs. 301 and 301A are carried out in the
following way. Assign the job herein illustrated to ,
a journeymen. Turn to the fly sheet and select job and enter
the Workman's Order number in column 3 on the fly sheet to
indicate that the job has been assigned. The information
contained on your fly sheet regarding this job is now transferred
to the Workman's Order. The information called for opposite
the various headings at the top of this sheet are all filled in.
The name of the journeyman assigned to the job is placed in
the proper space, and the date of starting the work is also filled
in. This form you will note is in dupUcate, and when making
out the Workman's Order, a carbon is inserted between the
Workman's Order and the yellow sheet (Fig. 301B) which
569
570
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
becomes the permanent Job Record Sheet or Day Book >
Fig. 300).
These tickets are entered on the back of the respect'
''Job Record Sheets" (Day Book) on file in the office under t:
TELEPHONE MEMORANDUM PAD
Date j£f^£J3I0
Hour
^
f30
II
Name
?ru.
atScctfJUf
THuJ/mUfu
J^M
^aUccL TTlAy.
W€dmj£6dcLu^
Ok^nuMdtfo J^ 4ntv
Address
tiy
U<^Cb
/mcLcCo
^ ^n^Sorci^cJb
Mfctt
Phone
4S0O
(^m.
I234R
Aid
/mr
J
Keep a pad of these on the desk beside fhepho/fe.
Enter every business conversation on the sheet
as indicated. Draw a fine to separate each entry.
Cross off each entry when attended to.
Fia. 299.
column headed ''Material Taken'' (see Fig. 301C). If the
bookkeeper is busy when the slip is made out, he simply entei?
the number of the material ticket in the column headed "Onk:
No" (see Fig. 301 B). If any additional tools are called for
BUSINESS METHODS 571
they aire listed on the bottom of the Material Ticket These aie
likewise entered by the workman on the "Workman's Order"
under the tools originally listed, Tlie receipted "Materia!"
ORDER FLY SHEET
sga:
Nome end Address Chorqt to |Oe5CripH(in<ifWork {^JJ^
F 1 =
Blips are filed away for future reference when the entry has been
completed, or may be destroyed, as the tissue copy is always on
file. Every week the tieaue-paper carbons in the original pad
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
BUSINESS METHODS 573
Bn charged. A cloae atudy of this form will show its impor-
nt function in connection with the system outlined. It is
nrays used when giving orders for material to traveling men or
pply houses whether for jobs or for stock.
Retura Material. — When the job has been finished, the fore-
a.n, boss, or stockman checks up the returned material and
d-icatea on the back of the " Workman's Order," opposite the
original charge in the column marked "R," the number of
each article returned (Bee Fig. 301A). Or, in the event that the
journeyman has made no record of the material on his Work-
man's Order, then the return material is credited in column
"R".on the right-hand aide of the material ticket (see Fig.
303) upon which the material was originally issued.
It, however, the workman has left this material on the job
for the truck to collect or baa lost all of the above forms, he
makes out a " Cail Slip " (Fig. 304; giving the list of the articles
574 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
&nd where they can be found, also being careful to put the/ y
number in the space provided. The number of this "C^
Slip" is placed in the upper left-hand comer of the "W(m-
man's Order" in column headed "Returned Material." Wh^
this material is brought in by the truck, it is checked agaiu.-
the "Call Slip" to see that nothing has been overlooked. Alu-
Fiu. 301C.
being signed by the one receiving the material in the span
marked "Checked By," the slip is turned over to thebooli-
keeper. This form can also be used as a credit memo by tiK
contractor.
The object of using the carbon is this. When a Workman '^
Order is made out, a permanent record is automatically msdt
in the Day Book, and no charge can be overlooked, forgbttcc.
or misplaced. Before the carbon is taken out, a pencil Doart
is made through the column at the left-hand side of the sh«el
marked "Time." This indicates the time the order was given
out and the hour when the labor charge begins. A straigbi
BUSINESS METHODS
575
PLEASE SHIP VIA mN.H.^H.R.R.
NOTICE
PLEASE ACKN0WLED6E
fROKPTLV. ALL ORDERS
rOR WHICH WE WILL BE
RESTONSIftLEWIUBC
«IVEN ON THIS FORM
PUT THIS NUMBCR
ON YOUR mVOKC
Hnunoroarnief
€Db OTtOO
THE BUILOl/iG SfiNtTflT/ON CO.
NEW H/IV£N' COMft,
GRAND fIVE
DATE
f/fS/zt
ORDERED BY
PHOMESISS
fXX
qLlQUAH.pgin&'n'
TTTE:
/
s
s
3
3
/
/
/
ARTICLES
JJlont SIa6€t 7ant6
WAiZodcaZd
mc WXSO dUnt
m
ffi&vc 4t^f€^ M^ti/i, jpi9CaZi9rL /Z//4/W
I
JOB NUMBER
//ZO
UST
MS
AMOUNT
137 $0
St SO
m$o
ZS330
37100
szso
/ZSOO
4060
Fia. 302.
Taken
MATERIAL
OR
DELIVERY TICKET
Delivered to W^A sn^iar,
Street OAxtaiacudtL
Workman ^yfeAzLf
Ng y.f/?
JobNQ_iZ__
Dttte 9j(/Fn
l/t^STU
4x3 (Sz.^.Acm. y.
Z^'ki^i.
>fy^£4rid
^.4' -' '^J^MJ^lOcpe
20
L
5.
«!:&jms:g^^
ref^o^dco
I
Received \i^j[cLMai£AA.
Fig. 303.
576 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
line through the hour indicates the starting time, and a ere-
mark indicates the hour the work was finished.
If material and tools are to be sent out on this job and tr-
quantities are known, the carbon is reversed between the U
sheets, and we enter this material on the back of the Job Recor
Sheet (Fig. 301 C). The carbon having been reversed register
No. MS Job Na^2£.
CREDIT MEMO
AND
RETURNED MATERIAL
Returned from_22a£_fi&2
fxerurnea Trnm ^ryyx '^'^9^
Address OA/y/rfnr. cS/
M.
rr
4^
4' Vs '* ~^
4j(IOO^^''^
99
^> OAzkoum
(F/yt » TAM/nacc */Z
'5f/aAo£e/nc (Sjg/n ^8
Returned by jbiffljifaz^ Checked b^ df/?^ 2^/Uvi.,4 j
Fig. 304.
the material on the back of the Workman's Order (Fig. 301i .
A list of tools is entered in the same manner under ''Tools
Taken."
The Workman's Order, which is a yellow sheet, is now torn
from the book at the perforated line and given to the workman
The job Record Sheet is of white paper and is permanenth
bound and remains in the pad. The job is now "in work*
and in the hands of the shop or working force.
BUSINESS METHODS 577
Material Order. — ^If additional material or tools are needed
n the job, the journeyman phones in the order for them, giving
tie job number on which he is working, which number appears
n the Workman's Order. The person receiving the order
pom the journeyman makes out the order on a "Material or
delivery Ticket" (Fig. 303), being careful to put the job num-
►er in space provided in the upper right-hand comer.
This form is in triplicate; the two perforated shps, pink and
>lue, are taken from the pad and given to the one who has
charge of giving out material. The tissue-paper carbon is
)ound in the pad and remains a permanent record in the office.
The stockman then turns the tickets over to the truck driver
ifter the material has been loaded on the truck. One of these
jlips is left with the one who receives the material, and the
3ther one is signed and returned to the office to show that the
Daaterial has been deUvered to the workman and not merely
dumped on the ground.
Checking Workman's Order. — The workman next checks off
each of the items listed in the right-hand column of the Work-
man's Order; these are ordinarily overlooked, and for that
reason become overhead expense. If two trips of the truck
were made, he simply marks two (2). If he has worked more
than one day, starting we will say at 8 o'clock on the 3d of the
month, then he indicates in the left-hand column under the
heading "Labor:" 3d, 8 hours, etc. We will suppose he finishes
the job at 4 o'clock on the 1 9th. He makes an X mark through 4
in the "Time" column and enters 19th, 7 hours, then adds
them all together (see Fig. 301). Under the "Time" colunm
directly under the item "Total Hours," if he is a plumber, he
enters in column "P" 111. If he had a helper or laborer with
him on the job, he would enter in "H" or "L, " as the case
might be, the exact number of hours such helper or laborer
worked with him on the job. The only other note he would
then need to make would be some added description to the
'* Nature of Work" if the job has involved more work than was
originally outUned, or he would turn in his signed order from
the architect or owner.
It will be noted on the Workman's Order form that instruc-
tions are positively given to all workmen not to do any work
on the job other than that described under the heading " Nature
of Work." The workman is instructed to get additional orders
from the office in the event anyone on the job tells him to do
37
578
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
additional work, unless he secures a signed ordi^r from v-
architect or owner. This will very often prevent misunder-
standing and save many unpleasant controversies between tl-
owner and the contractor. It will eliminate the possibilfr
CHARGE MATERIAL USED OH CHARGE TICKET
WORKMAN
DATE 19—
DAILY REPORT OF WORKMAN
Hour
8
15
30
45
15
Ncime and Location of Job
JobNa
Kind of Wbrk
15
30
45
THIS TICKET MUST BE TURNED IN DAILY
EITHER IN PERSON OR OTHERWISE
Make list of material ^ou will need tomorrow
on reverse side also any remark&make note of
any material or tools left on Job if completed.
Materia) ordered at night will be delivered the
next morning and materiol ordered in the
morning wilibe delivered in the afternoon.
riSmta
Fig. 305.
of tenants ordering additional work without the knowledge of
the landlord and contractor.
Daily Time Ticket.— Figure 305 illustrates the Daily Time
Ticket. Every workman should be in touch with the office by
some means, at least once every day. The bookkeeper should
BUSINESS METHODS 579
be furnished with time slips from the workman every day so
that he can keep his work up to date.
The form illustrated in Fig. 305 is made on postal card stock
for the reason that it can be mailed to the shop every evening,
in the event that the journeyman does not return to the shop
or has no other means of sending it in. The time set out on
this card is then entered u|K)n the Job Record sheet (Day Book)
in the extreme left-hand column, and the time indicated on the
card is also entered upon the weekly time sheet. The journey-
man is credited with the postage money on the Pay Roll in the
event that he spends his own money, and this is included with
his wages at the end of the week.
Job Record Sheet or Day Book. — All work has now been
completed on the job. The Workman's Order has been turned
in, as well as a]l slips and time tickets, etc. This information
has all been entered daily upon the Job Record Sheet (see Fig.
301) and a complete, readable report of the job is in your books
and ready to be figured out.
In working up this sheet, the first step is to charge all addi-
tional material that has been sent out on the job, as indicated
on the Material Slips. All tools are charged in a like manner
under their respective columns. The time, as indicated on the
Workman's Daily Time Ticket, has been charged daily (see
Fig. 301B).
When the job is completed and the material returned, such
material is credited by figures only, under the column marked
"R" (Fig. 30lO. This eliminates a great volume of writing.
There is now a complete record of the job showing every .
piece of material, every minute of time, and every tool that
was taken to the job and returned. This record can be shown
to the customer in the case of a dispute. The completeness
of the record will unquestionably convince the customer as to the
accuracy of record of charge and the excellent manner in which
the business is conducted. The next step is to figure the selling
price and costs.
Charging Labor. — The next step would be to total the hours
of labor as indicated, and this is entered on the Job Record
Sheet (Day Book) at list price.
Truck Charge. — Assume that it required three trips of the
truck to deliver the material to this job. Assume that the
estimated cost is 50 c. per trip for operating the truck. This
is then carried out at list on the Job Record Sheet at $3.00.
580 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Total Charge. — Our complete charges have now been m'l
at list price, which is illustrated in Fig. 301 B, representiM.
total list of $967.18. Assume that business is done allowiM.
25 per cent discount from this list. This discount dedue:?
from the list price leaves a net of $725.39. Note that this j
although a contract, is figured the same way it 'would have be:
if it had been a day job or a "Time and Material Job." >-
records of all classes of work are kept in exactly the ssl-
manner.
Keeping Costs. — ^The next step is to ascertain the cost
this job. Referring to the left-hand side of Fig. SOIB, ta/
up the different items listed under the column headed "Recap
in the Actual Cost section.
Directly opposite the first item, "Merchandise," carry oi
the cost of the merchandise. Next enter the cost of Permit
if any, then incidental expenses, association dues or boni
foreman, etc., down the Une. These are separated so that the
can be readily referred to when posting these accounts in tl>
various books later described.
The total of the above is then made, and is known as tb
"Direct Cost." Next add overhead, then the truck charg*'
and this makes the total cost.
The next step is to enter the selling price, from which >
deducted the total cost as indicated above, and this gives tht
net gain or loss.
Tabulation of Contact. — Directly below this is a spa^-
provided for the tabulation of contracts. Note that this girfr
a complete story of the contract without referring back t
previous entries. As the work progresses and as new sheet?
are made out, these figures are transferred to the new sheet,
and the new sheet number is posted below the tabulation a^
indicated in Fig. 30 IB.
The charge is now complete in every respect, and following
the above procedure always guards against the possibility o:
errors in charging, for the reason that the cost on every job t
figured out before the bill is made out.
Closing up the Month's Business. — Every charge should be
closed out at the end of the month whether the job is completed
or not, and a new Workman's Order sheet issued to the journey-
man. In this way your work is kept right up to date. Cloee
study of the various forms shown will illustrate the closing up
of the work at the end of the month in every detail.
BUSINESS METHODS
581
Sales Journal. — Every-
thing is now ready to
make the entries on the
books First take the
Sales Journal. Before
proceeding to show how
this book is to be kept,
a few words as to the
many advantages of it
will be timely.
This is the most impor-
tant of all the books in
the set. It has been well
named the "Spy Glass"
or "Big Ben Alarm
Clock'' of the business.
If it is kept as it should
be, it will enable the con-
tractor to see at all times
what his business is doing.
It will point out the jobs
upon which no profit has
been made and those on
which sufficient profit
has not been made.
The columns " Gain " and
"Loss" will tell whether
you are making money
or not, and if the fig-
ures in them are not
what they ought to be,
an analysis of the other
columns will soon tell
where the trouble lies.
The closest attention
should be paid to this
book both by the book-
keeper when making
entries in it and by the
proprietor in inspecting
it frequently to see the
results shown by it (see
Fig. 306).
SALES JOURNAL
PLUMBING
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682 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Take the Job Record Sheet, first enter the Job numb^, d
the date the job was billed out to the customer, then
customer's name and address.
The balance of this book is divided into four sections accord-
ing to the class of work. (1) Jobbing, or work done on a time
and material basis, headed "Plumbmg Jobbinn" (see Fip-
BUSINESS METHODS
583
106 A, 306B, 306C, and
(06D). (2) Plumbing work
>n which a contract price
>T estimate has been
^ven, which is headed
' Plumbing Contracts."
;3) Store Sales, Counter
3r Shop Sales, which takes
3are of straight sales made
bo customers on which no
labor is involved and is
headed '' Store Sales.'' (4)
A section for Heating
which can be added by
inserting a second cut leaf.
This was devised so that
plumbing contractors who
did no heating business
would not have to be bur-
dened with it. Should
heating be added at any
time, the books will take
care of the addition by
using cut leaves and insert-
ing them following the cut
leaf headed "Plumbing."
The first entry is the
amount of the invoice or
charge against the cus-
tomer. This is the amount
shown on "Workman's
Order" just before deduct-
ing the cash discount.
Now turn to the "Recap"
on the left-hand side of the
Job Record sheet, and post
to the Sales Journal the
amounts shown there under
their respective headings.
Note they appear in the
same order in both places.
Each entry made must
FOR THE MONTH OF
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584
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
prove out; that is, the total of all amounts begiimmg «it:
the " Cash Discount" and ending with "Gain" must equal \h
amount in "Amount Charged."
This method is based on the assumption that a certah
amount of money is given to do a job with and make a profe*
Using Fig. 301 B as an example. The amount charged in tt^
instance is $725.39. Out of this amount we si>end $398.84 k
material, $83.25 for labor, $1.50 for truck. Overhead b j
$120.52, and gain is $121.28. Each of these is entered under ■
the respective heading in the Sales Journal- This same trans-
action is carried out for every job done during the month.
I ^jt^m J/ml/A
tfrfit. ?/7. i9l9 ,
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Fig. 307.
13^
This form has one Carbon Copy exactly like original to be detached
Invoicing. — ^As soon as these amounts have been posted from
the Job Record book to the Sales Journal, the invoice should be
immediately mailed out to the customer. Too much care
cannot be taken by the contractor in speeding up his invoices.
The quicker a bill is mailed out, the better off is the business,
for prompt invoicing will do a great deal to secure prompt
settlement.
The contractor can use any form he desires for this purpose.
The form recommended will be found in Fig. 307. It is further
recommended that this invoice be made out in duplicate, the
carbon copy to be on plain yellow paper, which can be filed
away and used as a tickler, for any reference desired.
If used as a tickler, the carbon copy of the invoice can be
filed in an upright file, under various dates due. The contrac-
tor, bookkeeper, or stenographer can then compose a circular
letter to be sent ouc to the customer a day or two in advance
of the day which the invoice falls due and in this way call the
BUSINESS METHODS
585
customer's attention to the cash discount to which the invoice is
subject.
The next step is to prove the correctness of entries in the
Sales Journal. First take adding machine and add up each
column, and put the totals in lead pencil. Then, using the
adding machine, add the totals of the various columns in each
section except the sales column. The sum of these totals should
equal the total of the first colunm, '^Customer Accounts." If
each entry balances as outlined in a preceding paragraph, then
the totals of all entries must balance.
Customer's Ledger. — As soon as possible after the orders
Iiave been entered on the Sales Journal, the amounts in '^ Cus-
CUSTOMERS ACXOUNTS
Name
Fig. 308.
tomer's Accounts" colunm should be posted to the debit side
of the customer's account or page in the Customer's Ledger.
This posting should be kept up to date, so when a customer
comes in to pay his account, there will be no delay in finding
what he owes. Also in making settlement, no charge will be
overlooked. In posting, be sure to enter the date under which
the entry appears on the Sales Journal as well as the "Work-
man's Order" number. This is done so that in case there is a
dispute of the charge by the customer you can immediately
refer to the Job Record sheet, and have complete informa-
tion when talking about the matter.
Note that each line in the Sales Journal is numbered to
correspond with the numbers on the Job Record sheets. Thus
every line in this book represents a charge or entry in the Job
Record book, and the line in the Sales Journal corresponding
586
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
with the number in the Job Record book remains open or
unused until the job has been finished and properly charged
You can therefore appreciate how easily an overlooked or
forgotten charge can be detected by simply glancing at the Saks
Journal.
The amounts charged to each job, finished and unfinished
jobs, are posted in the same way to the Customer's Ledger, and
a bill sent the customer for the completed portion of the con-
tract. This Ledger is of the loose leaf type, and a sample copy
of the Ledger sheet appears (Fig. 308).
General Ledger. — Everything is now ready to transfer the
totals of the various colunms to the General Ledger. Each
GENERAL LEDGER
Name
Address
Date
Details
folio D
ebit
Date
Details
Eblia Cre<
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Fig. 309.
column except ''Sales'' represents an account in this Ledger,
and the total of each column is posted to its respective account
The first column '* Customer's Accounts" is posted to Cus-
tomer's Ledger Controlling Account in the General Ledger
Section, because it is the total of all the postings to the debit
side of the customers' accounts combined.
The totals of the other columns are posted to the credit side
of their respective accounts, because the amounts shown
represent money which has been gotten back from the customers
for money originally spent by contractor.
For instance a check for $20 was given to the City clerk for
permits. On the same Smith job, we made the entry for it in
the Accounts Payable Record, when we charged $20 to Permits.
In making up the estimate on the job, we included $20 for
permits; so credit Permits with $20 to offset the amount
previously charged.
BUSINESS METHODS
587
The total of the column
headed "Overhead" is
posted to a corresponding
sheet in the Ledger, and
represents the amounts we
have gotten back from our
jobs at the percentage figured
on. This is a very im-
portant matter, and we
have arranged it so that
you can tell whether or not
in figuring on jobs you are
using a per cent high
enough to cover all your
Overhead Expense.
The accounts arranged in
your ledger are in the same
order they appear on the
Sales Journal. No accounts
are on pages for the columns
headed "Sales/' as these
columns are put in only that
the total sales each month
for each branch of your
business may be seen.
Understand, of course, that
there is only one account for
each of the different columns;
that is, the total of the
' * Permit " column under
Plumbing and Plumbing
Contracts and Heating all
go to the same account in
the Ledger.
Purchase Journal. — ^As
sales are distributed in the
Sales Journal book, so dis-
tribute all the expenses in
this book. Not only all
transactions on a credit
basis but all cash transac-
tions as well, must appear
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588 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
on this book. They are all Accounts Payable at some 6me.
For inatance you tell John Smith to haul some freight torjaa
As soon as this is done, you have created an account you hsv^
to pay, and it should go on this book as soon as the amounl L-
known. You may not know this until Mr. Smith brings his bH]
in to get his check. When he does this, enter the bill on j-ou:
Purchase Journal. First enter the dat« the bill is receivei.
Fia.3IOB
next in a few words what the bill is for, followed by the
amount under the column headed "Accounts Payable." The
amount of the bill is then put itt the proper column covering
whatever the bi!! was for, which in this case was "Freight En-
press Drayage." A check is then written and entered in the
Cash Book. Details regarding this entry will be given under
" Cash Book."
When you receive a biU or invoice for anything purchased,
the same thing is to be done. Suppose an invoice is received
from the supply house for a shipment. This invoice allows
the freight to your city. First enter the dat« and uamei
BUSINESS METHODS
589
:,lien under, "For," Invoice
>-12. In the next column
put the net amount of the
Lnvoice; that is, the final
etmount shown.
In the next column put
'the amount of freight
cLllowed. The total of this
column will be credited to
* ' Freight Express Dray-
stge/' which is the same
account you charged the
Freight to when it was
paid to the Drayman. The
object of this is to see that
all freight paid out is got-
ten back.
Most of the goods
bought are sold "deliv-
ered," that is, the price
includes freight to station,
and to offset the freight to
be paid, an allowance is
made on the invoice.
The Pay Roll should be
entered in the Purchase
Journal also enter the date,
then the words "Pay
Roll" under "Name," fol-
lowed by "Week Ending
&-21-19 or whatever the
date is; the total amount
under "Accounts Paya-
ble;" and the amounts so
chargeable in the various
columns " Productive
Labor," "Office Salaries,"
etc.
If a Credit Memo is
received from the supply
house for an allowance or
correction of any kind, it
69a PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
will be entered in the same manner that your invoice is, k
in red ink. The reason for using red ink: instead of bUc>
is because the transaction is just the opposite of the one k
an invoice.
When entering the invoice, credit Accounts Payable to sho^
that something is owed. The Credit Memo shows something
due to you, so debit Accounts Payable.
In bookkeeping, red is always the reverse or opposite c:
black. When footing any column that has both red and black
figures, the total of the red figures should be subtracted fron
the total black figures, or if the red is greater, reverse tk
operation, and show the net total in red figures.
As soon as possible after bills have been entered, the amount'
in the first column should be posted in the Ledger, to the credit
of the individual Accounts Payable, which will be found in the
corresponding section of the Ledger. An account must be
opened for every firm or name entered in the Accounts Payable
Record, not only firms and individuals, but also accounts with
Pay Roll, Petty Cash, bank, and any one else with inrhom trans-
actions have been carried on. Later on will be shown how these
accounts give details regarding business affairs.
At the end of the month be sure that all bills for the month
have been entered, regardless of whether they are paid or not.
After all bills and invoices for the month are entered, take
the adding machine and foot each column, putting the totals in
small pencil figures right under the last entry.
Still using your adding machine, first add together the first,
second and fourth columns which you will note are headed
** Credits." Leaving your slip in the machine, add the totals
of all the rest of the columns together. These are the ones
headed "Debits." The two totals should agree. If they do
not, you have either failed to extend into the proper "Debit
Column" some bill entered, or else have extended it incor-
rectly. The same principle applies to balancing this book as
does to the Sales Journal. If your figures are correct enter
the totals in ink and draw a single red Une above the totals and
a double red Une below. Post the totals of each column to the
corresponding account in the General Ledger on either Debit or
Credit side, as shown at the top of the column in the Sales
Journal or Purchase Journal.
Cash Book. — The Cash Book is divided into two sections,
the Receipts on the left-hand side of the book, and the Dis-
BUSINESS METHODS
591
CASH RECEIPTS
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592 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
bursements or Payments on the right-hand side. It is best
follow the practice of depositing in the bank, aJl money reoei^e^i
Under "Petty Cash," is shown how small payments like pos-
age, etc., are taken care of. This will do away with the practi:*
of holding out money, for change, from cash received.
As soon as a check or money is received from a customer
turn to the Cash Book, and in the first column under "Ca?i
Receipts" enter the amount received. If a discount for cash
is allowed, enter the amount of such discount in the ner
column. Next enter the date and the name of the customE!
and the dates of the invoices he is paying, or "On Account,'
"Account in Full" or some explanation as to what the paymen*
covers. In the column headed "Customer's Accounts" entc
the total of the first two columns. This is the amount he is ti>
be credited with. Do not enter in the "Cash Discount
column anything but discount allowed for prompt payment.
All special allowances are to be handled through the Purchase
Journal as "Customer's Allowances." Should any be received,
from other sources than in payment of customers' invoice,
enter the amount received in the "cash" column, and also the
next column to "Customer's Accounts" headed "General
Ledger." In doing this, note in the explanation colunm what
account in the General Ledger is to have credit.
Post the amounts in the Customer's Account column to the
individual accounts in that section of the Ledger, known as the
Customer's Ledger, as soon as possible after entering. Do this
so that by looking at the ledger at any time it wiD show just
how any customer stands.
Add up and prove each page by seeing that the totals of the
two columns on the left-hand side equal the totals of the two
columns on the right-hand side.
At the end of the month, the total of each column is posted
its respective ledger account on the debit or credit side as
indicated at the top of the column in the Cash Book.
In the larger shops there will be a separate Customers'
Ledger, General Ledger, and Accounts Payable Ledger, h
smaller shops, one binder will account for all.
Disbursements. — The right-hand page of this book is Dis-
bursements or Payments, which are to be made entirely by
check. Enter the amount of the check in the first colunm. In
the next column enter any cash discount deducted when pa3riog
invoices. Then follows the date of the check, the name of the
BUSINESS METHODS
593
party to whom payable, and a short notation as to what the
check is for, such as "Invoice 9-6-19," "On Account," etc.
The number of the check is entered in the proper column. The
amount of the invoice or payment is entered in the next column
which is the one headed, "Accounts Payable." The amount
entered in this column must equal the sum of the first two
colunms "Checks" and "Discount Earned." All checks
should be entered in this book before they leave the office.
The amounts in Accounts Payable column should be posted
as soon as possible to the debit of the individual accounts in
that section of the Ledger. By doing this, one can tell at any
time exactly how the account stands with any of his supply
houses or other creditors.
ACCOUNTS PAYABLE
Name
Address
Date
Details
fblio C
»ebit
Date
Details
Folio Or
edit
L. -...I
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Fig. 312.
After all checks written on the last day of the month have
been entered, each column should be footed and the work
proved by seeing that the sum of all debit totals equals the sum
of all credit totals. The adding machine can be used for this in
the manner outlined for the other books. The totals are then
put in ink and the ruling made in red ink as in the other
books.
The next step is to post the totals of the various columns in
the Cash Book to the respective accounts in the Ledger.
Provmg your Cash Account with Bank Balance. — First
take the cancelled checks returned by the bank, and check the
amounts as shown on the bank's adding machine list or state-
ment. Then arrange checks according to numbers, putting the
lowest numbers on top and the highest on the bottom. Next
turn to Cash Book and, using red ink, make a mark to the
right of the amount shown in the column headed "Checks,"
38
594 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
of each check returned. In doing this, compare the amount
the check with the amount entered in the book to see that t>
agree. When this has been done, take a piece of scratch pap^
and going over the amounts checked off, Ust those which h^-
not been checked. These will be the checks which have i
been paid by the bank, and are usually known as ''OutstaDdi:::
Checks.'' In listing, put the check number opposite e&.
amount.
When these amounts have been added, turn to the ca:
account in the Ledger and add up both debit and credit side*
putting the figures in pencil right under the last amount. Ner
take the difference between the two sides, and add to '
the total of "Outstanding Checks." The sum of these tr
amounts should be the balance as shown by bank deposit b(x.i
or statement. This record should be copied on the right-haDc
side of the last page for the month in your Cash Book, and t:-
look like the following:
OUTSTANDING CHECK
No. 123 $20.00
No. 127 3.00
No. 129 10.00
No. 130 13.45
$ 46.45
Balance as per Ledger 243.25
Balance as per Bank Book $289. 70
It is very important that this be done every month and tiut &
record be made of it. Then the amount in the bank is correctly
known all the time, and the danger of overdrawing account s
removed.
Petty Cash Fund. — First draw a check payable to cash for
whatever amount it is wished to carry in this fund, $10., $15..
$25. or more as the case may be, and get it cashed. Buy a
tin cash box with a lock on it, and place this box in charge of
some person, giving him the key. Every time a payment is
made out of this fund, a ticket (see Fig. 315), or the receipted
bill is put in the box showing the amount paid out and for
what purpose. When the fund runs low, add up the ticket^
and bills in the box and draw a check for the exact amounioj
them. Enter this check first in your Purchase Journal &.<
"Petty Cash," using the Accounts Payable colunm, and dis-
tributing the amount to the various other columns, according
BUSINESS METHODS 595
to what the money was spent for, as shown by the tickets
and bills. Then enter it in the Disbursement side of Cash
Book the same as any other check. Open an account in the
Accounts Payable section of Ledger with Petty Cash, and post
the entries to this account. The debit and credit entries will
always be the same. This account tells how much is being
spent in this way, and if necessary to look up any item at any
time on check with which it was paid, will give correct indica-
tion.
Put all the tickets and bills for each check in a separate
envelope labeling it with the date and check number paying
them.
Add up tickets, count the cash left in the box. The two
amounts should equal the original amount of ** Petty Cash'*
fund.
When entering the original "Petty Cash*' check in Purchase
Journal, enter the amount first in the Accounts Payable column,
then in the Debit column under General Ledger. Open an
account in the General Ledger section and post the amount
to it. This account will not change as long as you keep this
fund, and the account will show that this amount has been
taken to be used for the purpose indicated. This method
of handling paymens that are too small to draw checks for
is far better than holding out from the bank deposit cash
received. Its adoption by every ofiice no matter how small, is
recommended.
Keeping Track of Daily Bank Balance. — Aft«r correcting
Bank Account as outlined previously, put the amount "Bal-
ance as per Ledger" in the upper left-hand corner of the Receipt
side of Cash Book. To find Bank Balance at any time during
the month, add up the column "Cash Received," and then add
to it the Balance at the top of the page. Then add up the
Check column, which is the first one on the right-hand page,
and deduct that total from the total of receipts and balance;
the difference is the amount in the bank against which you
can draw checks.
Ledger. — The Ledger is divided into three general sections
separated by division sheets with Tabs, as follows:
Customers' Accounts
Accounts Payable
General Ledger Accounts; or as stated before, large shops may
require a separate Ledger for each.
696 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Customer's Accounts. — This section contains a sepas '
account with each one of the customers. Among the As
accounts in the General Ledger is one, " Customer's Lee
Controlling Account." This represents the total of aD ■>
accounts in this "Customers' Accounts" section.
While the debits and credits to each customer are por^
individually, the total of the Customers' Accounts coluinK:
the Sales Journal and Cash Book are posted to the Controlin:
Account, and it is used as a proof or check on the individ-
accounts. The total of all balances due from customers wJ
therefore equal the balance shown in the Controlling Aecooi'
otherwise there have been errors made in the entries to tit
individual Customers' Accounts. This proof should be tiis
every month when taken, off a Trial Balance.
Accounts Payable. — This section contains an account vi-
every one to which money is owed. It includes all the supp^
houses and also such accounts as Pay Roll, Petty Cash, sj^i
accounts which are paid as soon as entered. The Pay Ro'-
account, although always in balance, enables one to tell ^•
any time how much the Pay Roll is, and is useful when figuring
the Workmen's Compensation Premium. The Petty Ca?n
account has been detailed previously. Other accounts alway?
in balance, frequently contain information that is helpfui
For instance, if it is necessary to know how much is paid yoc
drayman on some certain day, turn to this account, and (K
the debit side is found each payment itemized with date aixi
check number. This makes it easier to secure the desireil
information, than to look over all checks for several weeks or
months.
Among the liabilities in the General Ledger accounts, there
is also a Controlling Account for this "Accounts Payable'
section. This is handled just Uke the Customers' Ledger
Controlling Account, and should be proved up in the same way.
General Ledger Accounts. — This section or book takes in aif
accounts concerning the business. First, assets; next, liabili-
ties; then accounts covering amounts that are spent for eaflj
job, such as Material, Productive Labor, Permits, etc. Follow-
ing this, comes the Overhead Accounts such as Office Salane^.
Interest, Rent, etc., and Loss and Gain accounts for the various
divisions of the business. Each account should have a separate
page.
The accounts chargeable to jobs, and overhead accounts, are
BUSINESS METHODS 697
arranged in the Ledger in the same order they appear on the
Sales Journal and Purchase Journal for convenience in posting.
Note an account with Overhead showing credit entries.
This account represents the amount of overhead figured on
jobs and should always equal at least the amount shown in the
Purchase Journal in "Total Overhead" column. K it does
not, it shows your percentage of overhead used in estimating
should be increased.
Monthly Trial Balance. — It is best to have this a permanent
record; therefore a blank form on a sheet that will fit in the
Binder, is shown. The names of the General Ledger accounts
have been printed in, with blank lines for any additional accounts
Note that columns sufficient to run for 12 months have been
suppUed, so that the names need not be rewritten every month.
In taking a Trial Balance, put the difference between the
two sides of the account in the column corresponding to the
side (Debit or Credit) which is greater. For instance, "Cash
in Bank" account shows total debits of $1,522.50 total credits
of $1,122.50, the difference $400 would go in the left-hand or
debit column of Trial Balance on the "Cash in Bank" Une and
so on down for each account (see Fig. 313). This is better than
putting in the total posting of each side of the account as some
do, because the balance in each account has some story to tell.
For instance, look at the Customers' Ledger Controlhng Ac-
count, and note the balance for this month is considerably
greater than the preceding month. Looking up the total
charges in the first column of the Sales Journal it is found that
the sales for the month have not been any greater than the
month before. That means a falling down on collections.
After drawing off all balances on to the Trial Balance add
both columns on the adding machine. If both columns total
the same, the Ledger is in balance.
Premise Report Card. — Return now to the Workman's,
Order or Job Ticket. Before the order was given the workman
a Premise Report Card as illustrated in Fig. 314 was attached
to the Workman's Order. This ticket is perforated near the
edge and has a gummed edge so that it can be readily attached
to the Workman's Order.
The journeyman is instructed to fill this card out on every
old job that he works on. That is he states the condition of
the bath tub, if one is installed, and so on. He also fills in the
heating report on the reverse side.
598
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
CO
CO
o
BUSINESS METHODS
599
When this report card is turned in to the oflfice, it is filed in
alphabetical order. Later the stenographer or some other
person in the office goes through this file and makes up a sheet
for each of the items listed on the card. Then the record is
transferred from the Premise Report Card to this sheet.
As an example, take the Premise Report Card illustrated in
Fig. 314. Note that Mr. Jones has no shower bath, therefore
on the tickler sheet, as it is called, for shower baths, Mr. Jones'
PREMISE REPORT CARD
WotJM to Fmplnfw
The moMM o( tki« dtpmdt oa yoo.
U yvn Mvpwiy iU> out thto tlckat It «rin «Im m a
liMoallMnMdtofwirciiitoiMr. If w* MlTthUB. it
>«rarkforyoii. Ut't pull tagrthw.
Na
StraMNo
KIND or nXTURCS NOW IN USE
Bath ~
ShewMT
Lsvatoiy.
Claact.
Sink
Laandiy
KiadofHcatlnc
Method of Hotinc Water.
Bath Room AcocHorics. .. .
VacnMa CIcaMt
Udmtd
Signed.
HEATING REPOBT 1
KIb4 Now la Um |
Hctlinf Boiler
CeaOif
Heal Regulator
Temp. Refulator
Kind of Heat
Ra4iaior Sbielda
Radiator Valves
Air Valvea
Pipe Covering
Heattag
Auiematic Water Heater
Fig. 314.
name and address is entered as a prospective customer for such
appliance. Then on the closet sheet of prospects his name is
also entered, as the report shows that his closet is in bad condi-
tion.
By this method within a short time will be compiled a very
complete mailing list and an exceptionally effective mailing
list. In fact every letter sent out will go to a prospective
customer instead of being mailed out to an uncertain list.
This list can also be turned ovfer to manufacturers or jobbers
who can help you circularize the list and in this way build bigger
business.
600
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
PSTTY CASH TICKET
Aooomit to Charge
Received fayacnt
Fig. 315.
Yoo ere huAy ocdered 4o aiefce the feOowii^ cfaeages in.
or edditioos to.
worfc now being done by contred, et
: of
•Che seme to be changed aeperetdy et cxtee week.
NOTBt-WoHaBta wfll U ImU iiriftly
nnlMt uadar order.
IOC WOCK
Fig. 316.
BUSINESS METHODS 601
In some shops where this method is used, the contractor pays
the journeyman 25 cts. for every complete report he brings in.
This represents an excellent investment.
The Pay Envelope is recommended as a very eflficient method
and very advantagenous in handling the Pay Roll and reducing
the liability of error. It also has an advantage that each man
upon receiving his envelope with the amount plainly recorded
knows at once how much is inside. If he wishes to dispute the
amount, he must do so immediately. The form is self explana-
tory without further comment.
Figure 316 illustrates a very useful form known as the
Customer's Order Slip, and is a safe guard for extras on con-
tracts. It avoids the dispute on bills at the completion of a
contract as it indicates without any argument that the work
has been authorized. These forms are carried by the man in
charge of the contract work and when a change is ordered by
the architect or owner, he is asked to specify the work on the
form and his signature is affixed as a matter of course. This
system is a protection to the customer as much as to the con-
tractor and is appreciated accordingly.
APPENDIX
PLUMBING CODE
APPLICATION
All and every person or persons, engaged or engaging in
the business or work of plumbing and house draina.ge in cities,
shall apply in writing to the said director of the department of
public safety, department or board or bureau of health, for
such certificate or license; and if, after proper examination
made by the department or board or bureau of health of cities,
such person or persons so applying shall be found competent, the
same shall be certified to the director of the department of
public safety, department or board or bureau of health, who
shall thereupon issue a certificate or license to such person or
persons, which shall, for the period of one calendar year or
fractional part thereof next ensuing the date of such exami-
nation, entitle him or them to engage in or work at the business
of plumbing and house drainage. The mayor of cities is hereby
authorized to appoint a board of examiners, to consist of the
health oflBcer or superintendent of the department or board or
bureau of health, one plumbing inspector, and two competent
plumbers in no wise connected with the city government, who
shall examine all applicants for Ucense under the provisions of
this act. The said board shall make all reasonable rules,
regulations and examinations, which shall be approved by the
said director of the department or board or bureau of health.
An examination of any one member of a firm or corporation,
or of the superintendent or foreman thereof, shall be deemed
sufficient. Said person or persons, firm or corporation, engaged
or engaging in the business of plumbing or house drainage, shall
pay for each examination the sum of five dollars, and each
journeyman or person engaged in the work shall pay the sum
of fifty cents, which sum shall be paid into the city treasur}-,
for the use of said cities. The proper officers of said cities are
hereby authorized to pay to the plumbers acting on said board
the sum of five dollars per day, for each day or session thus
actually employed.
602
APPENDIX 603
PLACE OF BUSINESS
Every registered master plumber shall have a bona fide place
of business, and shall display on the front of his or their place of
business a sign "Registered Plumber," bearing the name or
names of the person, firm, or corporation, in letters not less than
three inches high.
REGISTRATION
No persons other than a registered master plumber shall be
allowed to carry on or engage in the business; nor shall any per-
son or persons expose the sign of plumbing or house drainage, or
any advertisement pertaining thereto, unless he or they have
first secured a Ucense or certificate and have been registered in
the office of the board or bureau of health of such cities; nor shall
any person or persons other than a registered master plumber, —
or person in his or their employ, or under his or their super-
vision,— ^be allowed to alter, repair, or make any connection
with, any drain, soil, waste, or vent pipe, or any pipe connected
therewith.
Every registered master plumber, firm, or corporation shall
give immediate notice of any change in his, their, or its place of
business; and upon his, their, or its retirement from business
shall surrender his, their, or its certificate of registry to the
board or bureau of health. Every person, firm, corporation,
or representative thereof, in registering, shall give the full
name or names of the person, firm, or officers' names of the
corporation, for which he or they shall register.
EXPIRATION OF LICENSES
At the expiration of each calendar year said certificate or
license shall be null and void. A licensed master or journey-
man plumber desiring to continue in, or work at, the business
of plumbing and house drainage for the ensuing year shall,
between the first and thirty-first days of December of each
and every year, surrender the said certificate of license for the
current year to the department or board or bureau of health,
and re-register his, their, or its name or names, and business or
home address, upon such form or forms as may, from time to
time, be furnished by said department or board of bureau of
health.
604 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
RE-REGISTRATION
A re-examination will not be necessary for re-registration,
unless the licensed master or journeyman plumber should have
failed to make application for re-registration at the specified
time. The sum of one dollar shall be paid by master plumbers,
firms, or corporations, and the sum of twenty-five cents by
journeymen plumbers, for re-registration, which sum shall be
paid into the city treasury, for the use of said cities. A register
of all such applicants and the license or certificates issued shall
be kept in said department, board, or bureau of hea1th,which
said register shall be open to the inspection of aU persons,
interested therein.
WORK IN ANY OTHER CITY
Any person, firm, or corporation holding a license or certifi-
cate, granted by any first, second, or third class city of this
Commonwealth, to engage in or work at the business of plumb-
ing and house drainage, desiring to do plumbing and drainage
work in any other city than the one in which said license or
certificate was granted, shall, without examination, be regis-
tered before entering upon such work: Provided, however.
That such registration shall be restricted and limited to such
plumbing and drainage work as he, they, or it shall have con-
tracted for at the time of registry. On the completion of
such contract or contracts the registration of such person, firm,
or corporation shall be null and void, and no further permit
shall be issued to such person, firm, or corporation until he, they,
or it shall have first registered his or its name or their names
and address, as hereinbefore provided.
INSTALLATION
From and after the passage of this act, the construction of
plumbing, house drainage and cess-pools shall be conducted
only under and in accordance with the following rules, regu-
lations and requirements, namely:
Plans and Specifications. — There shall be a separate plan for
each building, public or private, or any addition thereto, or
alterations thereof, accompanied by specifications showing the
location, size and kind of pipe, traps, closets and fixtures to
be used, which plans and specifications shall be filed with the
board or bureau of health. The said plans and specifications
APPENDIX 605
shall be furnished by the architect, plumber, or owner, and
filed by the plumber. All applications for change in plans
must be made in writing.
Filing Plans and Specifications. — Plumbers before commenc-
ing the contruction of plumbing work in any building in the
said cities (except in case of repairs, which are here defined to
relate to the mending of leaks in soil, vent or waste-pipes,
faucets, valves and water-supply pipes, and shall not be con-
strued to admit of the replacing of any fixture, such as water
closets, bath tubs, wash stands, sinks, et cetera, or the respective
traps for such fixtures), shall submit to the board or bureau of
health, plans and specifications, legibly drawn in ink, on blanks
to be furnished by said board or bureau. Where two or more
buildings are located together and on the same street, and the
plumbing work is identical in each, one plan will be sufiicient.
Plans will be approved or rejected within twenty-four hours
after their receipt.
Duty of Owners and Plumbers in Constructing Drains,
etc. — It shall be the duty of every person constructing or own-
ing any drain, soil-pipe, passage or connection, between a sewer
and any ground, building, erection or place of business, and
in Ipce manner the duty of the owners of all grounds, buildings,
erections, and all parties interested therein or thereat, to cause
and require that such drain, soil pipe, passage or connections,
shall be adequate for its purpose, and shall at all times allow
to pass freely all material that enters or should enter the same,
and no change of drainage, sewerage or the sewer connection
of any house shall be permitted unless notice thereof shall have
been given the board or bureau of health, and assent thereto
obtained in writing.
Inspection and Approval. — Drainage, sewerage or plumbing
work must not be covered or concealed in any manner until
after it is inspected and approved by the board or bureau of
health. Notice must be given said board or bureau, upon
blanks to be furnished by it, when the work is sufficiently
advanced for such inspection; when it shall be the duty of the
proper officers to inspect the same within three days after
receipt of said notice.
Material of House Drains. — The main drainage system of
every house or building shall be separately and independently
connected with the street sewer, where such sewer exists,
except where two houses are built together on a lot with a
606
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
frontage of thirty feet or less, when one connection with main
sewer will be allowed; but there shall be a separate house drain
for each house, connected by a Y-connection in the front of such
houses, at the property line, with main house sewer; or, where
one building exists or is erected in the rear of another, (Hi an
interior lot, of single ownership, and no private sewer is avail-
able, or can be made for the rear building through an adjoin-
ing alley, courtyard or driveway, the house drain from the
front building may be extended to the rear building, and the
whole will be considered as one house drain. Where it is neces-
sary to construct a private sewer to connect with sewer on
adjacent street, such plans may be used as may be approved by
the department or board or bureau of health, but in no case
shall joint drains be laid in cellars, parallel with the street or
alley.
House drains or soil pipes laid beneath floor must be extra
heavy cast-iron pipe (see weights of cast-iron soil pifie), with
leaded and caulked joints, and carried five feet outside cellar
wall. All drains or soil pipes connected with main drain where
it is above the cellar floor shall be of extra heavy cast-iron pipe,
with leaded and caulked joints, or of heavy wrought-iron pipe,
with screw joints properly secured, and carried five feet outside
cellar wall, and all arrangements of soil or waste-pipes shall be
as direct as possible. Wrought-iron pipes shall be galvanized.
Changes of direction on pipes shall be made with Y-branches,
both above and below the ground, and where such pipes pass
through a new foundation wall a relieving arch shall be built
over it, with two-inch space on either side of main pipe.
The size of the main house drain shall be determined by the
total area of the buildings and paved surfaces to be drained,
according to the following table,' if iron pipe is used. If the
pipe is terra cotta, the diameter shall be one size larger for the
same amount of area drainage.
Diameter,
inches
Fall yi in. per foot
Fall yi in. per foot
4
5
6
8
10
1,800 sq. ft. drainage area
3,000 sq. ft. drainage area
5,000 sq. ft. drainage area
9,100 sq. ft. drainage area
1 4,000 sq. ft. drainage area
2,500 sq. ft. drainage area
4,500 sq. ft. drainage area
7,500 sq. ft. drainage area
1 3,600 sq. ft. drainage area
20,000 sq. ft. drainage area
APPENDIX 607
The main house drains may be decreased in diameter beyond
a rain-water conductor or surface inlet by permission of the
department or board or bureau of health, when the plans show
that conditions are such as to warrant such decrease; but in no
ase shall the main house drain be less than four inches in
diameter.
Location of Main Trap. — ^The house drain must be provided
with a horizontal trap, placed immediately inside the cellar wall.
The trap must be provided with a hand-hole, for convenience in
cleaning, the cover of which must be properly fitted and made
gas and air tight, with heavy brass screw-cap ferrule, caulked
in. This class of traps shall be subject to the approval of the
board or bureau of health.
Fresh-air Inlet. — ^A fresh-air inlet must be connected with
the house drain just inside the house trap. Where under-
ground, it must be of extra heavy cast iron. Said inlet must
lead into the outer air, and finish with an automatic device,
approved by the board or bureau of health, at a point just
outside the front wall of building. The fresh air inlet must be
of same size as the drain, up to four inches. For five- and six-
inch drains it must not be less than four inches in diameter;
for seven- and eight-inch drains, not less than sfx inches in
diameter, or its equivalent; and for larger drains, not less than
eight inches in diameter, or its equivalent.
Laying of House Sewers and Drains. — House sewers and
house drains must, where possible, be given an even grade to
the main sewer of not less than one-quarter of an inch per foot.
Location of House Sewers. — When main sewer is not located
on street, house sewers must be constructed on outside of
buildings, and branch into each house separately, and in no
case will the sewer from one house to another be permitted to
run through cellars.
Drains Outside of Buildings. — Where the ground is of suffi-
cient solidity for a proper foundation, cylindrical terra-cotta
pipe of the best quaUty, free from flaws, splits or cracks, per-
fectly burned, and well glazed over the entire inner and outer
surfaces, may be used if laid on smooth bottom, with a special
groove cut in the bottom of the trench for each hub, in order to
give the pipe a solid bearing on its entire length, and the soil
well rammed on each side of the pipe. The spigot and hub ends
shall be connected. The space between the hub and pipe must
be thoroughly filled with cement mortar, made of equal parts of
608 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
the best American natural cement and bar sand, thorou^y
mixed dry, and enough water afterwards added to give proper
consistency. The mortar must be mixed in small quantities,
and used as soon as made. The joints must be carefully wipec
out and pointed, and all mortar that may be left inside removed
and the pipe left clean and smooth throughout, for whicii
purpose a swab may be used. It must not be laid closer than
five feet to an exterior wall of any building, or be less than tJiree
and one-half feet below the surface of the ground, or when tk
sewer passes near a well, nor will it be allowed in bad or made
ground.
Material of Sewers Between Buildings. — Where a sewer is
laid between buildings in a passageway, alley or court yard, at a
less distance than five feet from the buildings, it must be con-
structed of extra heavy cast-iron pipe for a distance correspond-
ing to the length of the foundation of said buUdings.
Floor Drains. — Floor or other drains will only be permitted
when it can be shown to the satisfaction of the board or bureau
of health that their use is absolutely necessary, and arrange-
ments made to maintain a permanent water-seal in the traps,
and be provided with check or back-water valves.
Weight and Thickness of Cast-iron Soil Pipe. — All cast-iroo
pipes must be sound, free from holes, and of a uniform thick-
ness, known as "extra heavy" pipe, and corresponding fittings
will be required. The pipe must be tested to fifty pounds
water pressure and marked with the maker's name.
Pipes shall weigh as follows, namely:
Two-inch pipe, five and one-half pounds per lineal foot.
Three-inch pipe, nine and one-half pounds per lineal foot
Four-inch pipe, thirteen pounds per lineal foot.
Five-inch pipe, seventeen pounds per lineal foot.
Six-inch pipe, twenty-pounds per lineal foot.
Seven-inch pipe, twenty-seven pounds per lineal foot.
Eight-inch pipe, thirty-three and one-half pounds per lineal
foot.
Ten-inch pipe, forty-five pounds per lineal foot.
Twelve-inch pipe, fifty-four pounds per Uneal foot.
Subsoil Drains. — Subsoil drains must discharge into a sump
or receiving tank, the contents of which must be lifted and dis-
charged into the drainage system above the cellar floor by some
approved method. Where directly sewer-connected, they
must be cut off from the rest of the plumbing system by a brass
APPENDIX 609
lap-valve on the inlet to the catch-basin, and the trap on the
irain from the catch basin must be water-supplied, as required
^or cellar drains.
Yard and Area Drains. — All yards, areas and courts must be
drained, Tenement houses and lodging houses must have the
yards, areas and courts drained into the sewer. These drains,
when sewer-connected, must have connection not less than
four inches in diameter. They should be controlled by one
trap — the leader trap, if possible.
Use of Old House Drains and Sewers. — Old house drains
and sewers may be used, in connection w th new buildings or
plumbing, only when they are found, on examination by the
board or bureau of health, to conform in all respects to the
requirements governing new sewers and drains. All extensions
to old house drains must be of extra heavy cast-iron pipe.
Leader Pipes. — All buildings shall be kept provided with
proper metalUc leaders for conducting water from the roofs in
such manner as shall protect the walls and foundations of said
building from injury. In no case shall the water from said
leaders be allowed to flow upon the sidewalk, but the same shall
be conducted by a pipe or pipes to the sewer. If there be no
sewer in the street upon which such building fronts, then the
water from said leaders shall be conducted, by proper pipe or
pipes below the surface of the side walk, to the street gutter.
Materials for Inside and Outside Leaders. — Inside leaders
must be constructed of cast iron, wrought iron, or steel, with
roof connections made gas- and water-tight by means of heavy
copper-drawn tubing slipped into the pipe. The tubing must
extend at least seven inches into iron leader pipe. Outside
leaders may be sheet metal, but they must connect with house
drain by means of a cast-iron pipe extending vertically five
feet above grade level, where the building is located along
public driveways or sidewalks. Where the building is located
off building line, and not liable to be damaged, the connection
shall be made with iron pipe extending at least one foot above
grade level.
Trapping of Leaders. — All leaders must be trapped with cast-
iron running traps, so placed as to prevent freezing.
Rain-water leaders must not be used as soil, waste or vent
pipes, nor small such pipes be used as leaders.
Exhaust from Steam Pipes, etc. — No steam exhaust, blow-
off or drip pipe shall connect with a sewer or house drain, leader,
39
610
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
soil pipe, waste or vent pipe. Such pipes must discharge into a
tank or condenser, from which suitable outlet to the sewer shall
be made. Such condenser shall be water supplied, to help
condensation and protect the sewer, and shall also be supplied
with relief vent to carry off dry steam.
Diameter of Soil Pipe. — The smallest diameter of any 8<n1
pipe permitted to be used shall be four-inch. The nze of soil-
pipes must not be les than those set forth in the followisg
tables:
Maximum Nubibbr of Fixtures Connbctbd To
Soil and waste combined
Soil pipe alone
Size o
inc
Branch
Main
Branch
Main
4
5
6
48 fixtures
% fixtures
268 fixtures
% fixtures
192 fixtures
336 fixtures
8 water closets
16 water closets
34 water closets
16 water closets
32 water dosets
68 water closets
If the building is six, and less than twelve stories in height,
the diameter shall be not less than five inches; if more than
twelve stories, it shall be six inches in diameter. A building
six or more stories in height, with fixtures located below the
sixth floor, soil-pipe four inches in diameter will be aUowed to
extend through the roof; provided the number of fixtures does
not exceed the number given in the table.
All soil pipes must extend at least two feet above the highest
window, and must not be reduced in size. Traps will not be
permitted on main, vertical, soil or waste Unes. E^h house
must have a separate line of soil and vent pipes. No soil or
waste line shall be constructed on the outside of a building.
Fixtures with —
One and one-quarter inch traps, count as one fixture;
One and one-half inch traps, count as one fixture;
Two-inch traps, count as two fixtures;
Two and one-half inch traps, count as three fixtures;
Three-inch traps (water closets), count as four fixtures;
Four-inch traps, count as five fixtures.
Change in Direction. — All sewer, soil and waste pipes must
be as direct as possible. Changes in directions must be made
APPENDIX 611
with Y or half Y-branches, or one-eighth bends. Offsets in soil
or waste pipes will not be permitted when they can be avoided;
nor, in any case unless suitable provision is made to prevent
accumulation of rust or other obstruction. Offsets shall be
made with forty-five degree bends or similar fittings. The use
of T Ys (sanitary Ts) will be permitted on upright lines only.
Joints for Soil and Waste Pipes. — Joints in cast-iron pipes
and soil and waste pipes must be so filled with o£ikum and lead,
and hand-caulked as to make them gas tight. Connections of
lead and cast-iron pipes must be made with brass sleeve or
ferrule, of the same size as the lead pipe inserted in the hub
of the iron pipe, and caulked with lead. The lead pipe must be
attached to the ferrule by wiped joint. Joints between lead
and wrought-iron pipes must be made with brass nipple, of
same size as lead pipe. The lead pipe must be attached to the
nipple by wiped joints. All connections of lead waste pipe
must be made by means of wiped joints.
Traps for Bath Tubs, Water Closets, Etc. — Every sink,
bath tub, basin, water closet, slophopper, or fixtures having a
waste pipe, must be furnished with a trap, which shall be placed
as close as practicable to the fixture that it serves, and in no
case shall they be more than one foot from said fixture. The
waste pipe from the bath tub or other fixtures must not be
connected with a water-closet trap.
Size op Horizontal and Vertical Waste-pipe Traps and
Branches
Horizontal and vertical, inches
Number of small fixtures
2
2H
3
1
2
3 to 8
9 to 20
21 to 44
If building is ten or more stories in height, the vertical
wa^te pipe shall not be less than three inches in diameter.
The use of wrought-iron pipe for waste pipe two inches or less
in diameter is prohibited.
The size of traps and waste branches, for a given fixture, shall
be as follows:
612
PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
Size in inches
Kind of fixtures
Water closet
Slop sink with trap combined
Slop sink ordinary
Pedestal urinal
Floor drain or wash
Yard drain or catch basin
Urinal trough
Laundry trays (2 or 5)
Combination sink and tray (for each fixture)
Kitchen sinks (small), for dwellings
Kitchen sinks (large), hotels, restaurants, grease trap
Pantry sinks
Wash basin, one only
Bath tubs 4 by 10 in., drum trap
Shower baths
Shower baths (floor)
Sitz baths
Drinking fountains
Overflow Pipes. — Overflow pipes from fixtures must in aU
cases be connected on the inlet side of traps.
Sediment Pipes. — Sediment pipes from kitchen boilers must
not be connected on the outlet side of traps.
Setting of Traps and Traps Without Re-vent. — ^AIl trafs
must be well supported, and set true with respect to their
water levels. All bath tubs shall be suppUed with drum-
traps, with trap-screw on floor Une. In case where an addi-
tional fixture is required in a building, and it is impossible to
get re-vent pipe for the trap, the board or bureau of health
shall designate the kind of trap to be used. This shall not be
construed to allow traps without re-vents, in a new building.
Safe and Refrigerator Waste Pipes. — Safe waste pipes must
not connect directly with any part of the plumbing system-
Safe wafite pipes must discharge over an open, water-supplied,
publicly placed, ordinary used sink, placed not more than three
and one-half feet above the cellar floor. The safe waste from
a refrigerator must be trapped at the bottom of the line only,
and must not discharge upon the ground floor, but over an
ordinary portable pan, or some properly trapped, water sup-
plied sink, as above. In no case shall the refrigerator waste-
APPENDIX
613
pipe discharge over a sink located in a room used for living
purposes.
The branches on vertical lines must be made by Y-fittings,
and be carried to the safe with as much pitch as possible.
Where there is an offset on a refrigerator waste pipe in cellar,
there must be cleanouts to control the horizontal part of the
pipe.
In tenement and lodging houses the refrigerator waste pipes
must extend above the roof, and not be larger than one and one-
half inches, nor the branches less than one and one-quarter
inches. Refrigerator waste pipes, except in tenement houses,
and all safe waste pipes, must have brass flap-valves at their
lower ends. Lead safes must be graded and neatly turned over
beveled strips at their edges.
Material for Vent Pipes. — All vent pipes must either be of
lead, brass-loricated-porcelain, enameled-iron, or galvanized-
iron pipe.
Ventilation of Traps and Soil Lines. — ^Traps shall be pro-
tected from siphonage or air pressure by special vent pipes of a
size not less than the following tables:
Size of pipe
Maximum developed
length in feet
Number of traps vented
Mains
Brancli
Main vertical
l>i-in. vent
IH-in. vent
2 -in. vent
lyi-in. vent
3 -in. vent
20
40
65
100
10 or more stories
1
2 or less
10 or less
20 or less
60 or less
20 or less
40 or less
1 00 or less
The branch vent pipes shall be not less than the following
sizes :
One and one-fourth inches in diameter, for one and one-fourth-
inch traps.
One and one-half inches in diameter, for one and one-half
inch to two and one-half -inch traps.
Two inches in diameter, for three-inch to four-inch traps.
One-half their diameter, for traps five inches and over.
Where two or more water closets are placed side by side.
614 PLUMBERS^ HANDBOOK
on a horizontal branch, the branch line shall have a rdief
extended as a loop vent. A pipe two inches in diameter wj.
be sufficient as a loop vent for two closets. A pii)e thwe
inches in diameter shall be used as a relief for three or four
closets; and where more than four closets are located oo
the same branch the relief shall not be less than four inches
in diameter. All house drains and soil lines on which a water
closet is located must have a four-inch main vent line. When
an additional closet is located in the cellar or basement, aoi
within ten feet of main soil or vent line no reUef vent will be
required for said closet; but where it is more than ten feet, i
two-inch vent line will be required. ReUef vent pipes for
water closets must not be less than two inches in diamete,
for a length of forty feet, and not less than three inches ic
diameter, for more than forty feet.
No revent from traps under bell trap will be required.
Any building having a sewer connection with a public or
private sewer used for bell-trap connections or floor drainage
only, a two-inch relief line must be extended to the roof of
building from rear end of main drain. House drains, con-
structed for roof drainage only, will not require a relief vent.
A floor-trap for a shower shall be vented, unless located in
cellar or ground floor, the paving of which renders the trap inac-
cessible. If the number of those fixtures on a branch is two
or more, the waste line shall be extended as a loop vent, instead i
of back venting the separate traps; and when located in base- 1
ment floor they shall be provided with a removable strainer or|
cleanout.
Back vent pipes, from traps above the floor, must either be,
connected with crown of trap with ground in brass coupling, or,|
if connected solidly to trap, must have a ground in brass
coupling at wall.
Horizontal Vent Pipes. — Where rows of fixtures are placed
in a line, fittings of not less than forty-five degrees to the
horizontal must be used on vent Unes to prevent filling wit
rust or condensation; except on brick or tile walls, where it
necessary to channel same for pipes ninety degrees-fittin
will be allowed. Trapped vent pipes are strictly prohibited.' u
No vent-pipe from house side of any trap shall connect witb s
ventilation pipe, or with sewer, soil, or waste pipe. ' a
Vent pipes from several traps may be connected together]
or may be carried into the main vent line above the highesti t
APPENDIX 615
fixture. Where one vertical vent line connects with another, a
Y-fitting must be used. Branch vent pipes must be connected
as near to crown of trap as possible.
Offset on Vent Lines. — All offsets on vent lines must be
made at an angle of not less than forty-five degrees to the
horizontal, and all lines must be connected at the bottom with a
soil or waste pipe, or the drain, in such manner as to prevent
the accumulation of rust, scale or condensation.
Connection for Closet Vents. — Rubber connections for back
vents will not be permitted, without double coupling and
thimble inside.
Ventilators Prohibited. — No brick, sheet metal, or earthen-
ware flue, or chimney flue, shall be used as a sewer ventilator,
or to ventilate any trap, drain, soil, or wEtste pipe.
Soldering Nipples. — Soldering nipples must be extra heavy
brass, or brass pipe, iron pipe size.
Brass Cleanouts. — ^Brass screw-caps for cleanouts must be
extra heavy, not less than one-eighth of an inch thick. The
screw-cap must have a soUd, square or hexagonal nut not less
than one inch high. The body of cleanout ferrule must, at
least, equal in weight and thickness the caulking ferrule, for
the same size pipe.
Diameter and Weight of Ferrules. — Brass ferrules must be
of best quaUty, bell shaped, extra heavy cast brass; not less than
four inches long, and two and one-quarter inches, three and
one-half inches, and four and one-half inches in diameter, and
not less than the following weights:
Diameter, two and one-fourth inches; weight one pound.
Diameter, three and one-half inches; weight, one pound
twelve ounces.
Diameter, four and one-half inches; weight, two pounds
eight ounces.
Setting of Fixtures. — ^The closet and all other fixtures must
be set open and free from all inclosing wood or other work.
Where water closets will not support a rim seat, the seat must
be supported on galvanized iron legs and a drip tray must be
used, which tray must be porcelain, enameled on both sides
and secured in place. In tenement houses and lodging houses,
sinks must be entirely open, set on iron legs or brackets, without
any inclosing wood or other work.
Closets Prohibited. — Pan, plunger or hopper closets will
not be permitted in any building. No range closet, either
616 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
wet or dry, nor any evaporating system of closets, shall be
constructed or allowed inside of any building.
A separate building, constructed especially for the purpose,
must be provided in which such range closets shall be set.
Water-closet Connection with Soil Pipe. — All earthenware
traps must have heavy brass floor plates, soldered to the
lead bends and bolted to the trap flange, and the joint made
permanently secure and gastight.
Water Closets, Where Located. — Water closets must not be
located in sleeping apartments, nor in any room or compart-
ment which has not direct communication with external air,
either by window or air shaft of at least four square feet.
Water Closets, How Supplied. — No water closets except those
placed in yards, and flush meters, volumeters or similar devices,
shall be supplied directly from the supply pipes. All water
closets must have flushing rim-bowls.
Water Closets to be Supplied From Flushing Tanks.—
Water closets within buildings shall be supplied with water
from special tanks or cisterns, which shall hold not less than six
gallons, when full to the level of the overflow pipe, for each
closet supplied, excepting automatic or siphon tanks, which
shall hold not less than five gallons for each closet suppHed. A
group of closets may be flushed from one tank, but water closets
on different floors must not be flushed from the same tank,
except flushimeters, volumeters or similar devices. The water
in said tanks must not be used for any other purpose.
Water Closets for Tenement Houses. — In no case will the
water-closet system of tenement or lodging houses be permitted
in cellars, basements or under sidewalks.
Number of Closets Required. — In all sewer-connected, occu-
pied buildings there must be at least one water closet, and there
must be additional closets so as there will never be more than
fifteen persons per closet. In lodging houses, where there are
more than fifteen persons on any floor, there must be an addi-
tional water closet on that floor for every fifteen additional
persons, or fraction thereof.
Water-closet Apartments. — In tenement houses, lodging
houses, factories, work-shops, and all public buildings, the
entire water-closet apartments and side-walls, to a height of
sixteen inches from the floor, except at the door, must be made
waterproof with asphalt, cement, tile or other waterproof
material, as approved by the board or bureau of health. In
APPENDIX 617
tenement houses and lodging houses, the water-closet and
urinal apartments must have a window or windows opening
into the outer air, of sufficient size, all of which shall be shown
on plans, and shall be subject to the approval of the board or
bureau of health. Except that tenement or lodging houses
three stories or less in height may have such window opening
on a ventilating shaft, not less than ten square feet in area.
In all buildings, the outer partition of such apartments must
extend to the ceiling, or be independently ceiled over, and
these partitions must be airtight. The outside partitions must
include a window opening to outer air on the lot whereon the
building is situated; or some other approved means of venti-
lation must be provided. When necessary to properly light
such apartments, the upper part of the partitions must be of
glass. The interior partition of such apartments must be
dwarfed partitions.
Construction of Urinals. — All urinals must be constructed of
materials impervious to moisture and that will not corrode
under the action of urine. The floor and walls of urinal apart-
ments must be lined with similar non-absorbent and
non-corrosive material.
URINAL PLATFORMS
The platforms or treads of urinal stalls must not be connected
independently to the plumbing system, nor can they be
connected to any safe waste pipe.
Iron trough water closets and trough urinals must be porce-
lain covered, enameled or galvanized cast iron.
All water closets and other fixtures must be provided with a
sufficient supply of water for flushing to keep them in-a proper
and cleanly condition.
Flush Pipes. — Water-closet flush pipes must not be less than
one ane one-quarter inches, and urinal flush pipes one-half
inch in diameter.
Lining for Closet and Urinal Cisterns. — The copper lining of
water-closet and urinal cisterns must not be lighter than twelve-
ounce copper, and weight must be stamped on lining with
maker's name. Where lead is used for lining it must not weigh
less than four pounds to the square foot. All other materials
are prohibited.
Fixtures Prohibited. — Wooden wash-trays, sinks, or bath
618 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
tubs are prohibited inside of buildings. Such fixtures must be
constructed of non-absorbent material. Cement or artificial
stone tubs will not be permitted, unless approved by the board
or bureau of health.
Yard Water Closets. — Water closets when located in yard
must be so arranged as to be conveniently and adequately
flushed, and the water-supply pipes and traps protected from
freezing by being placed in a hopper-pit at least four feet below
the surface of the ground, the walls of which pit shall be con-
structed of hard burned brick or stone, laid in cement mortar,
or of concrete. The walls for pit, where one closet is installed,
may be four inches in thickness; or salt-glazed sewer pipe,
thirty-six inches in diameter, may be used.
Where pit is for more than one closet, the walls shall be
nine inches in thickness. The soil pipe and traps used
inside pit must be extra heavy cast iron, and the trap to have
hand-hole for cleanout purposes, with cleanout caulked in.
If the closet is located in the rear of a soil or vent pipe, the drain
on which it is located shall be vented with a four-inch pipe,
carried above roof of closet, away from any opening or window.
All outside closets shall be of the tank pattern. The water to
be supplied to tank through an automatic seat-action valve.
The waste from valve may be permitted to discharge on cement
floor of pit, which shall be provided with four-inch trap and
strainer. The enclosure of yard water closets shall be venti-
lated by slatted openings, and there shall be a trap door of
sufficient size to permit of convenient access to the hopper-pit.
Cess -pools and Privy Vaults. — No privy vault, or cess-pool
for sewerage, shall hereafter be constructed in any part of the city,
where a sewer is at all accessible, which shall be determined by
the department or board or bureau of health; nor shall it be
lawful to continue a privy vault or cess-pool on any lot, piece,
or parcel of ground abutting on or contiguous to any public
sewer, within the city limits. The department or board or
bureau of health shall have the power to issue, notice, giving
at least three months' time to discontinue the use of any cess-
pool and have it cleaned and filled up. No connection for any
cess-pool or privy vault shall be made with any sewer; nor shall
any water-closet or house drain empty into a cess-pool or privy
vault.
In Districts Where No Sewer Exists. — In rural districts, or
districts where no sewer exists, privy vaults shall not be located
APPENDIX 619
within two feet of party or street line, nor within twenty feet
of any building. Before any privy vault shall be constructed,
application for permission therefor shall be made to the depart-
ment or board or bureau of health; and such privy vault shall
have nine-inch walls, constructed of hard burned brick, or
stone, laid in cement mortar, or of concrete, with bottom and
sides cemented so as to be water-tight; size to be not less than
four feet in diameter and six feet deep.
Material and Workmanship. — All material used in the work
of plumbing and drainage must be of good quality and free
from defects. The work must be executed in a thorough and
workmanhke manner.
No Person to Allow Name to be Used. — No person, firm or
corporation, carrying on the business of plumbing and house
drainage, shall allow his or their name to be used by any person,
directly or indirectly, either to obtain a permit or permits or to
do any work under his or their license.
Terms Used. — The term "private sewer" is applied to main
sewers that are not constructed by and under the supervision of
the Department of Pubhc Works.
The term "house sewer" is applied to that part of the main
extending drain or sewer from a point five feet outside of the
sewer, wall of a building, vault or area to its connection with
public outer private sewer or cess-pool.
The term "house drain" is applied to that part of the main
horizontal drain and its branches inside the walls of the building,
vault or area, and extending to and connecting with the house
sewer.
The term "soil pipe** is applied to any vertical line of pipe ex-
tending through the roof, receiving the discharge of one or more
water closets, with or without other fixtures.
The term "waste pipe" is applied to any pipe extending
through roof receiving the discharge from any fixtures except
water closets.
The term "vent pipe" is applied to any special pipe provided
to ventilate the system of piping, and to prevent trap siphonage
and back pressure.
Defective Plumbing. — Whenever it shall come to the know-
ledge of the department or board or bureau of health, or com-
plaint in writing shall be made by any citizen, that the plumbing
or drainage in any building has become a nuisance or is
contrary to the provisions and requirements of this act or the
620 PLUMBERS' HANDBOOK
ordinances of the city, or is of faulty construction and liable
to breed disease or endanger the health of the occupants, or
upon the request of any owner or occupant, of any building
fitted with plumbing or drainage prior to the passage of this
act, then the department or board or bureau of health shall
direct the proper oflBcer to examine the plumbing or drainage
in any such building, and the said officer shall make a iirawing
of the plan of said plumbing, drainage, and sewer and ventilat-
ing shaft connections. He shall report his findings in writing,
to the department or board or bureau of health, and suggest
such changes as are necessary to make the same conform to the
rules governing such matters.
The department or board or bureau of health shall thereupon
notify the owner or agent of any such building of the changes
which are necessary to be made in said plumbing or drainage.
Said changes shall be made within the time fixed by the depart-
ment or board or bureau of health; and, upon refusal or neglect
to obey such orders, the department or board or bureau of
health shall institute legal proceedings to have such changes
made and said nuisance abated, by action before a justice of
the peace or court of record; in which said action the owner or
agent of said building may show in defense, that the plumbing
or drainage was not a nuisance, or was not of faulty construction
or out of repair, and, in case of a building constructed subse-
quent to the passage of this act, said plumbing or drainage was
not contrary to the provisions and requirements of this act or
the ordinances of the city.
First Inspection. — When drain, soil, waste, vent and other
pipes in the building, connected or to be connected with the
sewer, have been placed in position, a preliminary water or air
test of the same shall be applied, in presence of an officer of the
board or bureau of health.
Final Test. — When the work has been completed, a final
notice shall be filed with the board or bureau of health, when
a final air or peppermint test shall be made, in presence of said
officer; when, if found satisfactory, a certificate of approval of
the work will be issued; but no such plumbing or drainage work
or system shall be used until said test has been made and
certificate issued.
When work is ready for inspection the plumbing contractor
shall make such arrangements as will enable the proper officer to
reach all parts of the building easily and readily, and also have
APPENDIX 621
present the proper apparatus and appliances as may be neces-
sary to a proper application of the same.
In case of any dispute or difference of opinion existing be-
tween the department or board or bureau of health and any
person, firm or corporation, as aforesaid, regarding the con-
struction of plumbing, house drainage or cess-pools, the same
shall be submitted by either party to the director of the depart-
ment of public safety, or the presiding officer of the department
or board or bureau of health, who shall pass upon the same,
and whose findings therein, after hearing, shall be final and
conclusive upon all parties.
Violations. — Any person or persons who shall fail to comply
with any of the provisions of this act, regarding the procuring
of a license or certificate to engage in or work at the business
of plumbing or house drainage, shall be liable to a fine of not
less than ten dollars ($10.00), nor exceeding fifty dollars
($60.00), for each and every day he or they shall engage in or
work at said business, without first having obtained said certi-
ficate or Ucense; and any person or persons who shall violate
any of the rules, regulations or requirements set forth in this
act, regarding the construction, reconstruction or testing of
plumbing, house drainage, or cess-pools, shall be liable, for
every such offense, to a fine of not less than ten dollars ($10.00),
nor more than fifty dollars ($50.00).
INDEX
B
Acetylene gaa, 48
generator, 58
Acid drains, 220
as flux, 343, 379
effect of, on corrosion, 304
hydrochloric, 337
muriatic, 337
nitric. 337
sulfuric, 336
Acid-proof castings, 335
Air-compressed for water supply, 35
changes, 470
AlkaUes. 339, 340
action on oils, 351
effect of, on corrosion, 304
Alloys, corrosion-resistant, 334, 335
definition of, 322
fusible, 330
lead-tin, 325
Lipowits's, 330
Newtons, 330
non-ferrous, 322
Rose's, 330
silicon-iron, 335
Wood's, 330
Aluminum sheets, 433, 436, 315, 332
flux for soldering, 343
weights, 436
Ammonia water, 341
Ammonium chloride as flux, 330,
342
hydroxide, 341
Amyl acetate, 310
Angus Smith's solution, 310
Anode, definition of, 301
Antimony, 316
in brass, 332
in solder, 328
Aqua fortis, 337
Arsenic in brass, 332
in solder, 328
Atmospheric pressure, 20
Auto, radiator repairs, 416
"Banana" oil, 310
Bases, 339
Basic openhearth steel, 295
Bath tubs, 256, 273
roughing-in, 259
shower, 279
supply, 259
waste, 258
Benzine, 351
Bessemer steel, 296
Bidet. 254
Bismuth, 316, 332
Boiler compounds, 369
effect of grease in, 369
scale, 365, 366, 171
water, treatment of, 367, 171
Brass, 427, 337, 332. 185
cleaning of, 345
valve, 332
weights of, 433
Brasing solder, 331
Briggs stondard, 212, 214
Brine, freesing, 323
British thermal unit, B.t.u., 3, 109
Bronze. 333, 334
cleaning, 345
Bronzing liquid, 310
Brown A Sharpe gage, 435
Business methods, 569
cash book, 501
ledger, 586
purchase Journal, 587
sales journal, 581
trial balance, 507
Cadmium, 317
Carbon dioxide in air, 362
monoxide, 362
Cast iron, 285 {see Iron).
Capacity of pipes, 189, 100
Caulked joints, 122
623
624
INDEX
Caustic soda and potash, 340
Cell, primary electric, 300
Cement, acid proof, 374
action of destructive agents on,
371
effect of freezing, 372
iron, 375
oilproof , 374
Portland, 370
waterproof, 373
Chimneys, 12
capstone, 17
construction of, 16
extentions, 403
heights of, 13
location of, 16
size of, 15
Cinders, corroding act on, 306
Circles, areas, etc., 529
Cleaning metal surfaces, 343
Coal consumed, steam condensed,
283
Codes, sanitation, 540
drinking fountains, 555
plumbing, 602
area drains, 609
exhaust pipes, 609
fresh air inlet, 607
house drain, 605
inspection, 620
sewers, 608
sub-soil, 608
refrigerator waste, 612
traps, 611
urinals, 617
vent pipes, 614
waste pipes, 611
water closets, 616
privies, 555
retiring rooms, 544
shower baths, 554
toilet rooms, 545
urinals, 550
ventilation, 552
washing facilities, 553
water closets, 548
Conductor heads, 412
Copper, 317
cleaning of, 345
in solder, 328
pipe, 184
plated iron, 312
Copper sheets, 425
soldering, 377
weights and aises, 432, 434
Combustion, 359
principles of, 353
rates of, 7
spontaneous, 353
Comparison of steels, 298
Conduction, 471, 3
Convection, 471, 4
Corrosion of iron and steel. 300, 308
chemical reactions in, 302
effect of cinders, 306
of dissolved oxygen on. 305
of electrolysis, 307
of heat, 306
of pipe, 170, 176
of soot, 307
pitting during, 302
protection against, 177, 308
removal of products of, 344
theory of. 300
Corrugated iron, 387, 427, 461
Couplings, right and left, 104
Crucible steel, 296
Cube root, 511, 532
Decimals of foot, 531
of inch, 534
Delta metal, 332
Dies, 193
Briggs standard of, 212
clearance of, 196
grinding, 200, 204
repair of, 203
Discharging capacity of pipes, 190
Discount, 520
chain, 537
Domestic hot water, 106
Draft, 14
Drains, 220, 72, 215
acid, 220
area, 76, 609
athletic field, 77
capacity of, 74
house, 113, 606
storm and sanitary, 105
sub-soil. 76, 215, 608
tennis courts, 77
yard, 76, 609
INDEX
625
E
G
dectrode, definition of, 301
Gnaznelled, cast iron, 347
steel, 347
ware, 345-349. 256-268
Enamels, 310
Equivalents, power and capacity,
44. 528, 529
Eutectic. definition of, 322-324
Expansion of pipes, 89, 506
joints, 90
tank, 500
Explosion of gases, 354
Fatty oils. 349
Ferrite. 286
Fire test, 352
Fittings, 121-124
drainage, 122-128
for expansion, 90
gas, 122
malleable iron, 122
measurements of, 128
number in barrel, 127
rail, 124
Fixtures, plumbing, 250
Flames, 356
luminous, 357
non-luminous, 358
oxidising and reducing, 359.
50-52
temperature of, 358
Flash point, definition of, 352
Flashings, 92, 94
Flow of water, resistance to, 22,
40
in pipes, 188, 41
of fixtures, 10
Flue, 18
Flush valves, 254, 274, 252
Flux, 330, 341-343, 376
Freezing of portland cement, 372
mixtures, 69
Fresh-air-inlet, 113, 607
Friction head, for ells, 42, 71
in pipes, 67
Fuels, principles of combustion of,
353
40
Gages, metal and wire, 435
iron sheets, 428
Galvanized sheets, 426
iron. 311
Gas fitting, 222
appliances, 237-245
for house heating, 243
lighting fixtures, 248
meter, 231
pipe size, 223
piping, 224-230
precautions, 236
turning on, 233
Gases, explosion of, 354, 48
relative volumes for combus-
tion, 360
Gasolene, 351
German silver, 332
Gilts, 310
Glossary of plumbing terms, 556
Grease, in boilers, 369
removal from metals, 343
H
Hangers, 111, 113
Hard waters, 364
Head, 21
Heat, 1
emitted by radiators, 473
gain of, 472, 470
given off by occupants, 471
loss, 468, 469
calculation of, 472
required for ventilation, 470
transfer of, 3
total, 6
Heaters, hot water, 8, 9
Heating, 464
by hot air, 464, 409
by hot water, 496-498
power of pipe, 282
steam, 477, 481, 492
Horsepower, 44, 38
Hot water, for domestic use, 106,
240
for pools, 280
heating, 496
Hydraulic ram, 104
Hydrogen, preparation of, 338
626
INDEX
Hydrogen, purification of, 338
Hydrostatic table, 111
Humidity, 362
Ignition, temperature of, 353
Imperial gage, 435
Infiltration, 472
Iron, black, 313, 43»-446. 428
cast, 285
composition of, 287
cooling rate, 286
cutting of, 57
enamelled, 347
welding of, 53
coatings for, 313, 308
corrosion of, 300
galvanised, 450-555, 311
in bronse, 333
in solder, 329
malleable cast, 289
sheets, 428
wrought, 290
distinguished from steel, 292
Linseed oil, 309, 350
Liquid measure, 393, 529
Logarithms, 508, 522
London gage, 435
Lubricating oils, 352
Lye, soda and potash. 340
M
Malleable iron, 289 (see Iron).
Manganese bronxe, 334
in brass, 332
in cast iron, 288
in steel, 294, 295
Measurers, linear, 525
cubic, 529
liquid, 529
metric, 528
square, 528
Metallurgy, 285
Meters, 115
Mineral lubricating oil, 352
Moisture in air, 361, 362
Monel metal, 334
Munts metal, 331
Japanning, 310
Joints, expansion, 90, 91, 507
sewer pipe, 217
wiped, 116-120
K
Kathode, definition of, 301
Kerosene, 352
KindUng point of fuels, 353
N
Naptha, 351
Nickel. 319
plated iron, 312
steel, 335
Nitric acid. 337
Non-ferrous alloys, 322
metals, 315
Non-syphon traps, 98
O
Lacquers, 310
Lamp, safety, 355
Laundry trays, 274
Lavatories, 267
Lead, 318
and oakum joints, 123
lined pipe, 177
pipe, 63, 186
white, 309
Leader pipes, 219
Linear measure. 528
Oakum. 122
Offsets in pipe, 88
Oil, action of caustics on, 350
banana, 310
Chinese wood. 309
linseed, 350
lubrication, 352
petroleum, 351
Openhearth steel, 293, 294
Oxyacetylene welding, 48
equipment, 49-56
flame. 50, 52
torcbeB, 51
INDEX
627
Oxyacetylene cast iron cutting,
67-59
gas consumption, 61
pressures, 60
steel cutting, 55
Oxygen, action of, in corrosion, 305
Paint for iron and steel, 309
for tin roofs, 384, 309
oils, 350
removers, 343
Passivity of iron, 314
Pattern drafting, 389
for elbow, 397
for funnel, 390
for liquid measure, 392
for smoke stack collar, 406
for tee, 402
for ventilators, 414
Permutit for water-softening, 368
Phosphor-bronze, 333
Phosphorus in cast iron, 288
Pickling baths for metals, 344
Pipe, lead, 63, 177, 186
areas, 503
brass, 184, 282
cement lined, 178
columns, 179
copper, 184
corrosion, 64, 170, 178
discharge capacity, 190
expansion, 89
for cold water service, 178
for hot water service, 178
galvanised, 177
lap and butt weld, 169
Jead-lined. 177
measurements, 85, 88
piping capacities, 188
sizes, steam, 493, 495
standards, 168. 183, 214, 227
steel, 169
threads, 192, 214, 227
vitrified, clay sewer, 215-218
water, 503
wrought iron, 169
Piping system of plumbing, 113
Pitches and degrees, 380
Plaster of Pans, 370
Pool, swimming, 279
Portland cement, 370
Potassium hydroxide, 340
Pressure, atmospheric, 20, 21
Pumps, 20
bore, 43
capacity of, 36
centrifugal, 27
classification, 23
deep-well, 43
duty of, 22, 45, 46, 47
high pressure, 28
horsepower, 38
jet, 33
piston, 24
rotary, 20
triplex, 46
vacuum, 31
Purification of water, 367
R
Radiation, 471, 4
Radiator, repair, auto, 416
efifect of painting, 474
enclosures, 475
heat transmission, 473
location of, 476
Rainfall, 73
Rainleaders, 75
Ram, hydraulic, 104
Refill, of trenches, 84
Removers of paints and varnishes,
343
Roofing, 381
Rosin, as a flux, 343, 376
Roughing-in for bath tub, 259
for laundry trays, 276-279
for lavatories, 263-269
for sinks, 261
for urinab, 273
Rust, 171
joint, 375
removal of, 344
Rusting of iron, 300
S
Sal ammoniac as flux, 330, 342, 378
Sanitary ware, 345
codes, 540
Scale in boilers, 365
removal from iron, 344
Segments, 527
628
INDEX
Septic tanks, 80-81
Sewage pumping, 27, 28
Sewer, house, 113
pipe, 215, 221
Sheet metal, 376-^425
Sherardising, 177, 311
Shower baths, 278
Silicon iron alloys, 334, 335
in cast iron, 287
Sinks. 260-275
Smoke pipe, 17
Soda, caustic, 340
Sodium hydroxide, 340
Softening of water, 367
Soil pipe, 114
Solder, aluminum, 340
brasing, 331
care of, 328, 116
composition and properties,
325, 329
foreign metals in, 328
lead-tin, 325
plumbers, plasticity of, 327
removal of sine from, 329
soft or tinners, 328
Soldering, 376, 341
Solid solution, 324
Soot, effect of, on corrosion, 307
Spellerising of steel, 314
Spheres. 536
Spontaneous combustion, 353
Square feet of surface, on pipe, 281
root. 510-532
Stainless steel, 315, 335
Steam, 5
heaters for water, 284
heating systems, 477, 481, 492
toble, 7
Steel, 293-299. 425-428
Bessemer, 296
carbon, 293
corrosion of, 300
crucible, 296
electrically-refined, 297
mckel, 335
openhearth, 293-296
protection from corrosion, 308
Stoves, gas, 239
Stubbs gage, 435
Sulfur in cast iron, 287
Swimming pools, 279
Syphon, 81. 95
Tanks for water closets. 253
for water supply, 65
Temperature. 1, 171, 352
and pressures, 4
and volumes, 5
Temperatures for buildings, 465
control, 482
for outside, 466
Terne plate, 312, 430, 456
Test for plumbing systems, 220. 77,
620
for gas piping, 235
Thermometers, 2
Threads for iron pipe, 192, 227
Tile pipe, 221, 215
Tin, 319. 321
in brass, 332
plate, 430, 456, 426
-plated iron, 312
roof, 381
painting, 384
Traps, 95, 97
grease, 99
house, 114
loss of seal, 96-08
seal. 96
Trasrs, laundry, 274, 277
Treatment of boiler water, 367, 171
Trenches, 216, 83
Trigonometric functions, 512, 524
U
United Stotes standard gage, 435
for liquid measures, 392
Urinals, 270-273, 617
Valves, 67, 82
air, 478, 498
flush, 264
Vapor heating, 488
Varnish remover, 343
Ventilation, air changes, 470
heat required, 470
pipe, 115, 613
Ventilator pattern. 414
Vents, 100, 102, 115, 614
Vitreous ware, 345
INDEX
629
Vitrified clay sewer pipe, 215-221
Vitriol, oil of. 336
Volumes, of spheres, 536
W
Washington A Moen, gage, 435
Waste pipes, 611
Water, hardness of, 364, 365
backs, 109
-closet bowls, 250
closets, 548, 616
consumption, 62
discharge from pipes in gallons,
70
effect of heat on, 4
flow of, 10
for drinking, 79
hammer, 105
heaters, 108, 109, 280, 241
lifting hot, 20
Water, piping, 66
purification of, 363, 364, 367
service pipe, 62, 188, 85
supply, 62
supply, compressed air for, 34
used per fixture, 10
waste of, 67, 70
Weights, tables of, 529
Wiped joints, 116-120
Wrenches, 103
Wrought iron, 290 (see Iron).
Z
Zinc. 321
alloys with copper, 331
chloride as flux, 342
-coated iron, 311
in bronse, 333
in solder, 329
sheets, 427
weights of, 434
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